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Trade winds - wikipedia Trade winds Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the weather phenomenon . For other uses , see Tradewind . The westerlies ( blue arrows ) and trade winds ( yellow and brown arrows ) The trade winds are the prevailing pattern of easterly surface winds found in the tropics , within the lower portion of the Earth 's atmosphere , in the lower section of the troposphere near the Earth 's equator . The trade winds blow predominantly from the northeast in the Northern Hemisphere and from the southeast in the Southern Hemisphere , strengthening during the winter and when the Arctic oscillation is in its warm phase . Trade winds have been used by captains of sailing ships to cross the world 's oceans for centuries , and enabled European empire expansion into the Americas and trade routes to become established across the Atlantic and Pacific oceans . In meteorology , the trade winds act as the steering flow for tropical storms that form over the Atlantic , Pacific , and southern Indian Oceans and make landfall in North America , Southeast Asia , and Madagascar and eastern Africa , respectively . Trade winds also transport African dust westward across the Atlantic Ocean into the Caribbean Sea , as well as portions of southeastern North America . Shallow cumulus clouds are seen within trade wind regimes , and are capped from becoming taller by a trade wind inversion , which is caused by descending air aloft from within the subtropical ridge . The weaker the trade winds become , the more rainfall can be expected in the neighboring landmasses . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 2 Cause 3 Weather effects 4 See also 5 References History ( edit ) A Spanish galleon See also : Age of Discovery , Volta do Mar , and Age of sail The term trade winds originally derives from the early fourteenth century late Middle English word ' trade , ' meaning `` path '' or `` track . '' The Portuguese recognized the importance of the trade winds ( then the Volta do mar , meaning in Portuguese `` turn of the sea '' but also `` return from the sea '' ) in navigation in both the north and south Atlantic ocean as early as the 15th century . From West Africa , the Portuguese had to sail away from continental Portugal , that is , to west and northwest . They could then turn northeast , to the area around the Azores islands , and finally east to mainland Europe . They also learned that to reach South Africa , they needed to go far out in the ocean , head for Brazil , and around 30 ° S go east again . Following the African coast southbound means upwind in the Southern hemisphere . In the Pacific ocean , the full wind circulation , which included both the trade wind easterlies and higher - latitude Westerlies , was unknown to Europeans until Andres de Urdaneta 's voyage in 1565 . The captain of a sailing ship seeks a course along which the winds can be expected to blow in the direction of travel . During the Age of Sail , the pattern of prevailing winds made various points of the globe easy or difficult to access , and therefore had a direct effect on European empire - building and thus on modern political geography . For example , Manila galleons could not sail into the wind at all . By the 18th century the importance of the trade winds to England 's merchant fleet for crossing the Atlantic Ocean had led both the general public and etymologists to identify the name with a later meaning of ' trade ' , `` ( foreign ) commerce '' . Between 1847 and 1849 , Matthew Fontaine Maury collected enough information to create wind and current charts for the world 's oceans . Cause ( edit ) 3D map showing Hadley cells in relationship to trade winds on the surface . See also : Air mass , Hadley cell , Humidity , Intertropical Convergence Zone , Monsoon , Monsoon trough , Near - equatorial trough , and Prevailing winds As part of the Hadley cell circulation , surface air flows toward the equator while the flow aloft is towards the poles . A low - pressure area of calm , light variable winds near the equator is known as the doldrums , near - equatorial trough , intertropical front , or the Intertropical Convergence Zone . When located within a monsoon region , this zone of low pressure and wind convergence is also known as the monsoon trough . Around 30 ° in both hemispheres , air begins to descend toward the surface in subtropical high - pressure belts known as subtropical ridges . The subsident ( sinking ) air is relatively dry because as it descends , the temperature increases , but the absolute humidity remains constant , which lowers the relative humidity of the air mass . This warm , dry air is known as a superior air mass and normally resides above a maritime tropical ( warm and moist ) air mass . An increase of temperature with height is known as a temperature inversion . When it occurs within a trade wind regime , it is known as a trade wind inversion . The surface air that flows from these subtropical high - pressure belts toward the Equator is deflected toward the west in both hemispheres by the Coriolis effect . These winds blow predominantly from the northeast in the Northern Hemisphere and from the southeast in the Southern Hemisphere . Because winds are named for the direction from which the wind is blowing , these winds are called the northeasterly trade winds in the Northern Hemisphere and the southeasterly trade winds in the Southern Hemisphere . The trade winds of both hemispheres meet at the doldrums . As they blow across tropical regions , air masses heat up over lower latitudes due to more direct sunlight . Those that develop over land ( continental ) are drier and hotter than those that develop over oceans ( maritime ) , and travel northward on the western periphery of the subtropical ridge . Maritime tropical air masses are sometimes referred to as trade air masses . The one region of the Earth which has an absence of trade winds is the north Indian ocean . Weather effects ( edit ) Clouds which form above regions within trade wind regimes are typically composed of cumulus which extend no more than 4 kilometres ( 13,000 ft ) in height , and are capped from being taller by the trade wind inversion . Trade winds originate more from the direction of the poles ( northeast in the Northern Hemisphere , southeast in the Southern Hemisphere ) during the cold season , and are stronger in the winter than the summer . As an example , the windy season in the Guianas , which lie at low latitudes in South America , occurs between January and April . When the phase of the Arctic oscillation ( AO ) is warm , trade winds are stronger within the tropics . The cold phase of the AO leads to weaker trade winds . When the trade winds are weaker , more extensive areas of rain fall upon landmasses within the tropics , such as Central America . During mid-summer in the Northern Hemisphere ( July ) , the westward - moving trade winds south of the northward - moving subtropical ridge expand northwestward from the Caribbean sea into southeastern North America ( Florida and Gulf Coast ) . When dust from the Sahara moving around the southern periphery of the ridge travels over land , rainfall is suppressed and the sky changes from a blue to a white appearance which leads to an increase in red sunsets . Its presence negatively impacts air quality by adding to the count of airborne particulates . Although the Southeast USA has some of the cleanest air in North America , much of the African dust that reaches the United States affects Florida . Since 1970 , dust outbreaks have worsened due to periods of drought in Africa . There is a large variability in the dust transport to the Caribbean and Florida from year to year . Dust events have been linked to a decline in the health of coral reefs across the Caribbean and Florida , primarily since the 1970s . See also ( edit ) Intertropical Convergence Zone Winds in the Age of Sail Westerly wind burst Volta do mar References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Carol G. Braham ; Enid Pearsons ; Deborah M. Posner ; Georgia S. Maas & Richard Goodman ( 2001 ) . Random House Webster 's College Dictionary ( second ed . ) . Random House . p. 1385 . ISBN 0 - 375 - 42560 - 8 . Jump up ^ Hermann R. Muelder ( 2007 ) . Years of This Land - A Geographical History of the United States . Read Books . p. 38 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4067 - 7740 - 6 . Retrieved 2009 - 11 - 09 . ^ Jump up to : Derek Hayes ( 2001 ) . Historical atlas of the North Pacific Ocean : maps of discovery and scientific exploration , 1500 - 2000 . Douglas & McIntyre . p. 18 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 55054 - 865 - 5 . Retrieved 2009 - 11 - 08 . Jump up ^ Cyrus Cornelius Adams ( 1904 ) . A text - book of commercial geography . D. Appleton and company . p. 19 . Retrieved 2009 - 11 - 07 . Jump up ^ Oxford English Dictionary ( 2 ed . ) . p. 225 . Jump up ^ Derek Hayes ( 2001 ) . Historical atlas of the North Pacific Ocean : maps of discovery and scientific exploration , 1500 - 2000 . Douglas & McIntyre . p. 152 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 55054 - 865 - 5 . Retrieved 2009 - 11 - 08 . ^ Jump up to : Sverre Petterssen ( 1941 ) . Introduction to Meteorology . Mcgraw - Hill Book Company , Inc. p. 110 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4437 - 2300 - 8 . Retrieved 2009 - 11 - 09 . Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology ( June 2000 ) . `` Doldrums '' . American Meteorological Society . Retrieved 2009 - 11 - 09 . Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology ( June 2000 ) . `` Intertropical Convergence Zone '' . American Meteorological Society . Retrieved 2009 - 11 - 09 . Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology ( June 2000 ) . `` Monsoon Trough '' . American Meteorological Society . Archived from the original on 2009 - 06 - 17 . Retrieved 2009 - 11 - 09 . Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology ( June 2000 ) . `` Superior air '' . American Meteorological Society . Retrieved 2009 - 10 - 28 . Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology ( 2009 ) . `` trade winds '' . Glossary of Meteorology . American Meteorological Society . Archived from the original on 2008 - 12 - 11 . Retrieved 2008 - 09 - 08 . Jump up ^ Ralph Stockman Tarr and Frank Morton McMurry ( 1909 ). Advanced geography . W.W. Shannon , State Printing , pp. 246 . Retrieved on 2009 - 04 - 15 . Jump up ^ JetStream ( 2008 ) . `` How to read weather maps '' . National Weather Service . Retrieved 2007 - 05 - 16 . Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology ( June 2000 ) . `` Tropical air '' . American Meteorological Society . Retrieved 2009 - 10 - 28 . Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology ( June 2000 ) . `` Trade air '' . American Meteorological Society . Retrieved 2009 - 10 - 28 . Jump up ^ John E. Oliver ( 2005 ) . Encyclopedia of world climatology . Springer . p. 128 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4020 - 3264 - 6 . Retrieved 2009 - 11 - 09 . Jump up ^ Bob Rauber ( 2009 - 05 - 22 ) . `` Research - The Rain in Cumulus over the Ocean Campaign '' . Retrieved 2009 - 11 - 08 . Jump up ^ James P. Terry ( 2007 ) . Tropical cyclones : climatology and impacts in the South Pacific . Springer . p. 8 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 387 - 71542 - 1 . Retrieved 2009 - 11 - 08 . Jump up ^ G.E. Pieter & F. Augustinus . `` The influence of the trade winds on the coastal development of the Guianas at various scale levels : a synthesis '' . Marine Geology. 208 ( 2 - 4 ) : 145 -- 151 . Bibcode : 2004MGeol. 208 ... 145A . doi : 10.1016 / j. margeo. 2004.04. 007 . Jump up ^ Robert R. Steward ( 2005 ) . `` The Ocean 's Influence on North American Drought '' . Texas A&M University . Retrieved 2009 - 11 - 08 . Jump up ^ John E. Oliver ( 2005 ) . Encyclopedia of world climatology . Springer . p. 185 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4020 - 3264 - 6 . Retrieved 2009 - 11 - 08 . Jump up ^ Science Daily ( 1999 - 07 - 14 ) . African Dust Called A Major Factor Affecting Southeast U.S. Air Quality . Retrieved on 2007 - 06 - 10 . Jump up ^ Science Daily ( 2001 - 06 - 15 ) . Microbes And The Dust They Ride In On Pose Potential Health Risks . Retrieved on 2007 - 06 - 10 . Jump up ^ Usinfo.state.gov ( 2003 ) . Study Says African Dust Affects Climate in U.S. , Caribbean . Archived 2007 - 06 - 20 at the Wayback Machine . Retrieved on 2007 - 06 - 10 . Jump up ^ U.S. Geological Survey ( 2006 ) . Coral Mortality and African Dust . Retrieved on 2007 - 06 - 10 . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Trade_winds&oldid=817251427 '' Categories : Climate patterns Atmospheric dynamics Wind Age of Sail Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links Good articles Talk Contents About Wikipedia Azərbaycanca Bân - lâm - gú Беларуская Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Kreyòl ayisyen Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Limburgs Magyar മലയാളം Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 27 December 2017 , at 05 : 08 . 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what purpose did seasonal monsoon winds have on trade

enabled European empire expansion into the Americas and trade routes to become established across the Atlantic and Pacific oceans

strengthening during the winter and when the Arctic oscillation is in its warm phase

List of Nobel laureates in Physics - wikipedia List of Nobel laureates in Physics Jump to : navigation , search Front side ( obverse ) of the Nobel Prize Medal for Physics presented to Edward Victor Appleton in 1947 The Nobel Prize in Physics ( Swedish : Nobelpriset i fysik ) is awarded annually by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences to scientists in the various fields of physics . It is one of the five Nobel Prizes established by the 1895 will of Alfred Nobel ( who died in 1896 ) , awarded for outstanding contributions in physics . As dictated by Nobel 's will , the award is administered by the Nobel Foundation and awarded by a committee that consists of five members elected by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences . The award is presented in Stockholm at an annual ceremony on December 10 , the anniversary of Nobel 's death . Each recipient receives a medal , a diploma and a monetary award prize that has varied throughout the years . Contents ( hide ) 1 Statistics 2 Laureates 3 See also 4 References 4.1 Notes 4.2 Citations 4.3 Sources 5 External links Statistics ( edit ) The first Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded in 1901 to Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen , of Germany , who received 150,782 SEK , which is equal to 7,731,004 SEK in December 2007 . John Bardeen is the only laureate to win the prize twice -- in 1956 and 1972 . Maria Skłodowska - Curie also won two Nobel Prizes , for physics in 1903 and chemistry in 1911 . William Lawrence Bragg was , until October 2014 , the youngest ever Nobel laureate ; he won the prize in 1915 at the age of 25 . Two women have won the prize : Curie and Maria Goeppert - Mayer ( 1963 ) . As of 2017 , the prize has been awarded to 206 individuals . There have been six years in which the Nobel Prize in Physics was not awarded ( 1916 , 1931 , 1934 , 1940 -- 1942 ) . Laureates ( edit ) Year Laureate Country Rationale 1901 Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen Germany `` in recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered by the discovery of the remarkable rays subsequently named after him '' 1902 Hendrik Lorentz Netherlands `` in recognition of the extraordinary service they rendered by their researches into the influence of magnetism upon radiation phenomena '' Pieter Zeeman Netherlands 1903 Antoine Henri Becquerel France `` for his discovery of spontaneous radioactivity '' Pierre Curie France `` for their joint researches on the radiation phenomena discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel '' Maria Skłodowska - Curie Poland France 1904 Lord Rayleigh United Kingdom `` for his investigations of the densities of the most important gases and for his discovery of argon in connection with these studies '' 1905 Philipp Eduard Anton von Lenard Austria - Hungary Germany `` for his work on cathode rays '' 1906 Joseph John Thomson United Kingdom `` for his theoretical and experimental investigations on the conduction of electricity by gases '' 1907 Albert Abraham Michelson United States Poland `` for his optical precision instruments and the spectroscopic and metrological investigations carried out with their aid '' 1908 Gabriel Lippmann France `` for his method of reproducing colours photographically based on the phenomenon of interference '' 1909 Guglielmo Marconi Italy `` for their contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy '' Karl Ferdinand Braun Germany 1910 Johannes Diderik van der Waals Netherlands `` for his work on the equation of state for gases and liquids '' 1911 Wilhelm Wien Germany `` for his discoveries regarding the laws governing the radiation of heat '' 1912 Nils Gustaf Dalén Sweden `` for his invention of automatic valves designed to be used in combination with gas accumulators in lighthouses and buoys '' 1913 Heike Kamerlingh - Onnes Netherlands `` for his investigations on the properties of matter at low temperatures which led , inter alia , to the production of liquid helium '' 1914 Max von Laue Germany `` For his discovery of the diffraction of X-rays by crystals '' , an important step in the development of X-ray spectroscopy . 1915 William Henry Bragg United Kingdom `` For their services in the analysis of crystal structure by means of X-rays '' , an important step in the development of X-ray crystallography William Lawrence Bragg Australia United Kingdom 1916 Not awarded World War I 1917 Charles Glover Barkla United Kingdom `` For his discovery of the characteristic Röntgen radiation of the elements '' , another important step in the development of X-ray spectroscopy 1918 Max Planck Germany `` for the services he rendered to the advancement of physics by his discovery of energy quanta '' 1919 Johannes Stark Germany `` for his discovery of the Doppler effect in canal rays and the splitting of spectral lines in electric fields '' 1920 Charles Édouard Guillaume Switzerland `` for the service he has rendered to precision measurements in physics by his discovery of anomalies in nickel - steel alloys '' 1921 Albert Einstein Germany Switzerland `` for his services to theoretical physics , and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect '' 1922 Niels Bohr Denmark `` for his services in the investigation of the structure of atoms and of the radiation emanating from them '' 1923 Robert Andrews Millikan United States `` for his work on the elementary charge of electricity and on the photoelectric effect '' 1924 Manne Siegbahn Sweden `` for his discoveries and research in the field of X-ray spectroscopy '' 1925 James Franck Germany `` for their discovery of the laws governing the impact of an electron upon an atom '' Gustav Hertz Germany 1926 Jean Baptiste Perrin France `` for his work on the discontinuous structure of matter , and especially for his discovery of sedimentation equilibrium '' 1927 Arthur Holly Compton United States `` for his discovery of the effect named after him '' Charles Thomson Rees Wilson United Kingdom `` for his method of making the paths of electrically charged particles visible by condensation of vapour '' 1928 Owen Willans Richardson United Kingdom `` for his work on the thermionic phenomenon and especially for the discovery of the law named after him '' 1929 Louis Victor Pierre Raymond , 7th Duc de Broglie France `` for his discovery of the wave nature of electrons '' 1930 Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman India `` for his work on the scattering of light and for the discovery of the effect named after him '' 1931 Not awarded 1932 Werner Heisenberg Germany `` for the creation of quantum mechanics , the application of which has , inter alia , led to the discovery of the allotropic forms of hydrogen '' 1933 Erwin Schrödinger Austria `` for the discovery of new productive forms of atomic theory '' Paul Dirac United Kingdom 1934 Not awarded 1935 James Chadwick United Kingdom `` for the discovery of the neutron '' 1936 Victor Francis Hess Austria `` for his discovery of cosmic radiation '' Carl David Anderson United States `` for his discovery of the positron '' 1937 Clinton Joseph Davisson United States `` for their experimental discovery of the diffraction of electrons by crystals '' George Paget Thomson United Kingdom 1938 Enrico Fermi Italy `` for his demonstrations of the existence of new radioactive elements produced by neutron irradiation , and for his related discovery of nuclear reactions brought about by slow neutrons '' 1939 Ernest Lawrence United States `` for the invention and development of the cyclotron and for results obtained with it , especially with regard to artificial radioactive elements '' 1940 Not awarded World War II 1941 Not awarded World War II 1942 Not awarded World War II 1943 Otto Stern United States `` for his contribution to the development of the molecular ray method and his discovery of the magnetic moment of the proton '' 1944 Isidor Isaac Rabi United States Poland `` for his resonance method for recording the magnetic properties of atomic nuclei '' 1945 Wolfgang Pauli Austria `` for the discovery of the Exclusion Principle , also called the Pauli principle '' 1946 Percy Williams Bridgman United States `` for the invention of an apparatus to produce extremely high pressures , and for the discoveries he made there within the field of high pressure physics '' 1947 Edward Victor Appleton United Kingdom `` for his investigations of the physics of the upper atmosphere especially for the discovery of the so - called Appleton layer '' 1948 Patrick Maynard Stuart Blackett United Kingdom `` for his development of the Wilson cloud chamber method , and his discoveries therewith in the fields of nuclear physics and cosmic radiation '' 1949 Hideki Yukawa Japan `` for his prediction of the existence of mesons on the basis of theoretical work on nuclear forces '' 1950 Cecil Frank Powell United Kingdom `` for his development of the photographic method of studying nuclear processes and his discoveries regarding mesons made with this method '' 1951 John Douglas Cockcroft United Kingdom `` for their pioneer work on the transmutation of atomic nuclei by artificially accelerated atomic particles '' Ernest Thomas Sinton Walton Ireland 1952 Felix Bloch Switzerland United States `` for their development of new methods for nuclear magnetic precision measurements and discoveries in connection therewith '' Edward Mills Purcell United States 1953 Frits Zernike Netherlands `` for his demonstration of the phase contrast method , especially for his invention of the phase contrast microscope '' 1954 Max Born West Germany `` for his fundamental research in quantum mechanics , especially for his statistical interpretation of the wavefunction '' Walther Bothe West Germany `` for the coincidence method and his discoveries made therewith '' 1955 Willis Eugene Lamb United States `` for his discoveries concerning the fine structure of the hydrogen spectrum '' Polykarp Kusch United States Germany `` for his precision determination of the magnetic moment of the electron '' 1956 John Bardeen United States `` for their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect '' Walter Houser Brattain United States William Bradford Shockley United States 1957 Tsung - Dao Lee Republic of China `` for their penetrating investigation of the so - called parity laws which has led to important discoveries regarding the elementary particles '' Chen Ning Yang Republic of China 1958 Pavel Alekseyevich Cherenkov Soviet Union `` for the discovery and the interpretation of the Cherenkov effect '' Ilya Frank Soviet Union Igor Yevgenyevich Tamm Soviet Union 1959 Emilio Gino Segrè Italy United States `` for their discovery of the antiproton '' Owen Chamberlain United States 1960 Donald Arthur Glaser United States `` for the invention of the bubble chamber '' 1961 Robert Hofstadter United States `` for his pioneering studies of electron scattering in atomic nuclei and for his thereby achieved discoveries concerning the structure of the nucleons '' Rudolf Ludwig Mössbauer West Germany `` for his researches concerning the resonance absorption of gamma radiation and his discovery in this connection of the effect which bears his name '' 1962 Lev Davidovich Landau Soviet Union `` for his pioneering theories for condensed matter , especially liquid helium '' 1963 Eugene Paul Wigner Hungary United States `` for his contributions to the theory of the atomic nucleus and the elementary particles , particularly through the discovery and application of fundamental symmetry principles '' Maria Goeppert - Mayer United States `` for their discoveries concerning nuclear shell structure '' J. Hans D. Jensen West Germany 1964 Nicolay Gennadiyevich Basov Soviet Union `` for fundamental work in the field of quantum electronics , which has led to the construction of oscillators and amplifiers based on the maser -- laser principle '' Alexander Prokhorov Soviet Union Charles Hard Townes United States 1965 Richard Phillips Feynman United States `` for their fundamental work in quantum electrodynamics ( QED ) , with deep - ploughing consequences for the physics of elementary particles '' Julian Schwinger United States Shin'ichirō Tomonaga Japan 1966 Alfred Kastler France `` for the discovery and development of optical methods for studying Hertzian resonances in atoms '' 1967 Hans Albrecht Bethe United States `` for his contributions to the theory of nuclear reactions , especially his discoveries concerning the energy production in stars '' 1968 Luis Walter Alvarez United States `` for his decisive contributions to elementary particle physics , in particular the discovery of a large number of resonance states , made possible through his development of the technique of using hydrogen bubble chamber and data analysis '' 1969 Murray Gell - Mann United States `` for his contributions and discoveries concerning the classification of elementary particles and their interactions '' 1970 Hannes Olof Gösta Alfvén Sweden `` for fundamental work and discoveries in magneto - hydrodynamics with fruitful applications in different parts of plasma physics '' Louis Néel France `` for fundamental work and discoveries concerning antiferromagnetism and ferrimagnetism which have led to important applications in solid state physics '' 1971 Dennis Gabor Hungary United Kingdom `` for his invention and development of the holographic method '' 1972 John Bardeen United States `` for their jointly developed theory of superconductivity , usually called the BCS - theory '' Leon Neil Cooper United States John Robert Schrieffer United States 1973 Leo Esaki Japan `` for their experimental discoveries regarding tunneling phenomena in semiconductors and superconductors , respectively '' Ivar Giaever United States Norway Brian David Josephson United Kingdom `` for his theoretical predictions of the properties of a supercurrent through a tunnel barrier , in particular those phenomena which are generally known as the Josephson effect '' Martin Ryle United Kingdom `` for their pioneering research in radio astrophysics : Ryle for his observations and inventions , in particular of the aperture synthesis technique , and Hewish for his decisive role in the discovery of pulsars '' Antony Hewish United Kingdom Aage Bohr Denmark `` for the discovery of the connection between collective motion and particle motion in atomic nuclei and the development of the theory of the structure of the atomic nucleus based on this connection '' Ben Roy Mottelson Denmark Leo James Rainwater United States 1976 Burton Richter United States `` for their pioneering work in the discovery of a heavy elementary particle of a new kind '' Samuel Chao Chung Ting United States 1977 Philip Warren Anderson United States `` for their fundamental theoretical investigations of the electronic structure of magnetic and disordered systems '' Nevill Francis Mott United Kingdom John Hasbrouck Van Vleck United States 1978 Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa Soviet Union `` for his basic inventions and discoveries in the area of low - temperature physics '' Arno Allan Penzias United States `` for their discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation '' Robert Woodrow Wilson United States 1979 Sheldon Lee Glashow United States `` for their contributions to the theory of the unified weak and electromagnetic interaction between elementary particles , including , inter alia , the prediction of the weak neutral current '' Abdus Salam Pakistan Steven Weinberg United States 1980 James Watson Cronin United States `` for the discovery of violations of fundamental symmetry principles in the decay of neutral K - mesons '' Val Logsdon Fitch United States 1981 Nicolaas Bloembergen Netherlands United States `` for their contribution to the development of laser spectroscopy '' Arthur Leonard Schawlow United States Kai Manne Börje Siegbahn Sweden `` for his contribution to the development of high - resolution electron spectroscopy '' 1982 Kenneth G. Wilson United States `` for his theory for critical phenomena in connection with phase transitions '' Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar India United States `` for his theoretical studies of the physical processes of importance to the structure and evolution of the stars '' William Alfred Fowler United States `` for his theoretical and experimental studies of the nuclear reactions of importance in the formation of the chemical elements in the universe '' 1984 Carlo Rubbia Italy `` for their decisive contributions to the large project , which led to the discovery of the field particles W and Z , communicators of weak interaction '' Simon van der Meer Netherlands 1985 Klaus von Klitzing West Germany `` for the discovery of the quantized Hall effect '' 1986 Ernst Ruska West Germany `` for his fundamental work in electron optics , and for the design of the first electron microscope '' Gerd Binnig West Germany `` for their design of the scanning tunneling microscope '' Heinrich Rohrer Switzerland Johannes Georg Bednorz West Germany `` for their important break - through in the discovery of superconductivity in ceramic materials '' Karl Alexander Müller Switzerland 1988 Leon Max Lederman United States `` for the neutrino beam method and the demonstration of the doublet structure of the leptons through the discovery of the muon neutrino '' Melvin Schwartz United States Jack Steinberger United States 1989 Norman Foster Ramsey United States `` for the invention of the separated oscillatory fields method and its use in the hydrogen maser and other atomic clocks '' Hans Georg Dehmelt United States Germany `` for the development of the ion trap technique '' Wolfgang Paul West Germany 1990 Jerome I. Friedman United States `` for their pioneering investigations concerning deep inelastic scattering of electrons on protons and bound neutrons , which have been of essential importance for the development of the quark model in particle physics '' Henry Way Kendall United States Richard E. Taylor Canada 1991 Pierre - Gilles de Gennes France `` for discovering that methods developed for studying order phenomena in simple systems can be generalized to more complex forms of matter , in particular to liquid crystals and polymers '' 1992 Georges Charpak France Poland `` for his invention and development of particle detectors , in particular the multiwire proportional chamber '' 1993 Russell Alan Hulse United States `` for the discovery of a new type of pulsar , a discovery that has opened up new possibilities for the study of gravitation '' Joseph Hooton Taylor , Jr . United States 1994 Bertram Brockhouse Canada `` for the development of neutron spectroscopy '' and `` for pioneering contributions to the development of neutron scattering techniques for studies of condensed matter '' Clifford Glenwood Shull United States `` for the development of the neutron diffraction technique '' and `` for pioneering contributions to the development of neutron scattering techniques for studies of condensed matter '' 1995 Martin Lewis Perl United States `` for the discovery of the tau lepton '' and `` for pioneering experimental contributions to lepton physics '' Frederick Reines United States `` for the detection of the neutrino '' and `` for pioneering experimental contributions to lepton physics '' David Morris Lee United States `` for their discovery of superfluidity in helium - 3 '' Douglas D. Osheroff United States Robert Coleman Richardson United States 1997 Steven Chu United States `` for development of methods to cool and trap atoms with laser light . '' Claude Cohen - Tannoudji France William Daniel Phillips United States 1998 Robert B. Laughlin United States `` for their discovery of a new form of quantum fluid with fractionally charged excitations '' Horst Ludwig Störmer Germany Daniel Chee Tsui Republic of China United States 1999 Gerard ' t Hooft Netherlands `` for elucidating the quantum structure of electroweak interactions in physics '' Martinus J.G. Veltman Netherlands 2000 Zhores Ivanovich Alferov Russia `` for developing semiconductor heterostructures used in high - speed - and optoelectronics '' Herbert Kroemer Germany Jack St. Clair Kilby United States `` for his part in the invention of the integrated circuit '' 2001 Eric Allin Cornell United States `` for the achievement of Bose -- Einstein condensation in dilute gases of alkali atoms , and for early fundamental studies of the properties of the condensates '' Carl Edwin Wieman United States Wolfgang Ketterle Germany 2002 Raymond Davis , Jr . United States `` for pioneering contributions to astrophysics , in particular for the detection of cosmic neutrinos '' Masatoshi Koshiba Japan Riccardo Giacconi Italy United States `` for pioneering contributions to astrophysics , which have led to the discovery of cosmic X-ray sources '' 2003 Alexei Alexeyevich Abrikosov Russia United States `` for pioneering contributions to the theory of superconductors and superfluids '' Vitaly Lazarevich Ginzburg Russia Anthony James Leggett United Kingdom United States David J. Gross United States `` for the discovery of asymptotic freedom in the theory of the strong interaction '' Hugh David Politzer United States Frank Wilczek United States 2005 Roy J. Glauber United States `` for his contribution to the quantum theory of optical coherence '' John L. Hall United States `` for their contributions to the development of laser - based precision spectroscopy , including the optical frequency comb technique '' Theodor W. Hänsch Germany 2006 John C. Mather United States `` for their discovery of the blackbody form and anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background radiation '' George F. Smoot United States 2007 Albert Fert France `` for the discovery of giant magnetoresistance '' Peter Grünberg Germany 2008 Makoto Kobayashi Japan `` for the discovery of the origin of the broken symmetry which predicts the existence of at least three families of quarks in nature '' Toshihide Maskawa Japan Yoichiro Nambu Japan United States `` for the discovery of the mechanism of spontaneous broken symmetry in subatomic physics '' 2009 Charles K. Kao Hong Kong United Kingdom United States `` for groundbreaking achievements concerning the transmission of light in fibers for optical communication '' Willard S. Boyle Canada United States `` for the invention of an imaging semiconductor circuit -- the CCD sensor '' George E. Smith United States Andre Geim Russia United Kingdom Netherlands `` for groundbreaking experiments regarding the two - dimensional material graphene '' Konstantin Novoselov Russia United Kingdom 2011 Saul Perlmutter United States `` for the discovery of the accelerating expansion of the Universe through observations of distant supernovae '' Brian P. Schmidt Australia United States Adam G. Riess United States 2012 Serge Haroche France `` for ground - breaking experimental methods that enable measuring and manipulation of individual quantum systems . '' David J. Wineland United States 2013 François Englert Belgium `` for the theoretical discovery of a mechanism that contributes to our understanding of the origin of mass of subatomic particles , and which recently was confirmed through the discovery of the predicted fundamental particle , by the ATLAS and CMS experiments at CERN 's Large Hadron Collider '' Peter Higgs United Kingdom 2014 Isamu Akasaki Japan `` for the invention of efficient blue light - emitting diodes which has enabled bright and energy - saving white light sources '' Hiroshi Amano Japan Shuji Nakamura Japan United States 2015 Takaaki Kajita Japan `` for the discovery of neutrino oscillations , which shows that neutrinos have mass '' Arthur B. McDonald Canada 2016 David J. Thouless United Kingdom United States `` for theoretical discoveries of topological phase transitions and topological phases of matter '' F. Duncan M. Haldane United Kingdom United States John M. Kosterlitz United Kingdom United States 2017 Rainer Weiss Germany United States `` for decisive contributions to the LIGO detector and the observation of gravitational waves '' Kip Thorne United States Barry Barish United States See also ( edit ) List of Nobel laureates List of Nobel laureates by country List of physicists References ( edit ) Notes ( edit ) ^ A . The form and spelling of the names in the name column is according to nobelprize.org , the official website of the Nobel Foundation . Alternative spellings and name forms , where they exist , are given at the articles linked from this column . Where available , an image of each Nobel laureate is provided . For the official pictures provided by the Nobel Foundation , see the pages for each Nobel laureate at nobelprize.org . ^ B . The information in the country column is according to nobelprize.org , the official website of the Nobel Foundation . This information may not necessarily reflect the recipient 's birthplace or citizenship . ^ C. The citation for each award is quoted ( not always in full ) from nobelprize.org , the official website of the Nobel Foundation . The links in this column are to articles ( or sections of articles ) on the history and areas of physics for which the awards were presented . The links are intended only as a guide and explanation . For a full account of the work done by each Nobel laureate , please see the biography articles linked from the name column . Citations ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Alfred Nobel -- The Man Behind the Nobel Prize '' . Nobel Foundation . Retrieved 2008 - 10 - 29 . Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize Awarders '' . Nobel Foundation . Archived from the original on 2008 - 10 - 15 . Retrieved 2008 - 10 - 29 . Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize Award Ceremonies '' . Nobel Foundation . Archived from the original on 2008 - 08 - 22 . Retrieved 2008 - 10 - 29 . Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize '' . Nobel Foundation . Retrieved 2008 - 10 - 29 . Jump up ^ `` Nobel Laureates Facts '' . Nobel Foundation . Archived from the original on 2007 - 02 - 02 . Retrieved 2008 - 10 - 29 . Jump up ^ `` Women Nobel Laureates '' . Nobel Foundation . Retrieved 2008 - 10 - 29 . Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize in Physics 1901 '' . Nobel Foundation . Retrieved 2008 - 10 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize in Physics 1902 '' . Nobel Foundation . Retrieved 2008 - 10 - 09 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Nobel Prize in Physics 1903 '' . Nobel Foundation . Retrieved 2008 - 10 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize in Physics 1904 '' . Nobel Foundation . Retrieved 2008 - 10 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize in Physics 1905 '' . Nobel Foundation . Retrieved 2008 - 10 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize in Physics 1906 '' . Nobel Foundation . Retrieved 2008 - 10 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize in Physics 1907 '' . Nobel Foundation . Retrieved 2008 - 10 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize in Physics 1908 '' . Nobel Foundation . Retrieved 2008 - 10 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize in Physics 1909 '' . Nobel Foundation . Retrieved 2008 - 10 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize in Physics 1910 '' . Nobel Foundation . Retrieved 2008 - 10 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize in Physics 1911 '' . Nobel Foundation . Retrieved 2008 - 10 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize in Physics 1912 '' . Nobel Foundation . Retrieved 2008 - 10 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize in Physics 1913 '' . Nobel Foundation . Retrieved 2008 - 10 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize in Physics 1914 '' . Nobel Foundation . Retrieved 2008 - 10 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize in Physics 1915 '' . Nobel Foundation . Retrieved 2008 - 10 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize in Physics 1917 '' . Nobel Foundation . Retrieved 2008 - 10 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize in Physics 1918 '' . Nobel Foundation . Retrieved 2008 - 10 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize in Physics 1919 '' . Nobel Foundation . 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Nobel Foundation . Retrieved 2008 - 10 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize in Physics 1975 '' . Nobel Foundation . Retrieved 2008 - 10 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize in Physics 1976 '' . Nobel Foundation . Retrieved 2008 - 10 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize in Physics 1977 '' . Nobel Foundation . Retrieved 2008 - 10 - 09 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Nobel Prize in Physics 1978 '' . Nobel Foundation . Retrieved 2008 - 10 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize in Physics 1979 '' . Nobel Foundation . Retrieved 2008 - 10 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize in Physics 1980 '' . Nobel Foundation . Retrieved 2008 - 10 - 09 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Nobel Prize in Physics 1981 '' . Nobel Foundation . Retrieved 2008 - 10 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize in Physics 1982 '' . Nobel Foundation . Retrieved 2008 - 10 - 09 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Nobel Prize in Physics 1983 '' . Nobel Foundation . Retrieved 2008 - 10 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize in Physics 1984 '' . Nobel Foundation . 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Retrieved 2008 - 10 - 09 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Nobel Prize in Physics 2005 '' . Nobel Foundation . Retrieved 2008 - 10 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize in Physics 2006 '' . Nobel Foundation . Retrieved 2008 - 10 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize in Physics 2007 '' . Nobel Foundation . Archived from the original on 2011 - 08 - 10 . Retrieved 2008 - 10 - 09 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Nobel Prize in Physics 2008 '' . Nobel Foundation . Retrieved 2008 - 10 - 09 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Nobel Prize in Physics 2009 '' . Nobel Foundation . Retrieved 2009 - 10 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize in Physics 2010 '' . Nobel Foundation . Retrieved 2010 - 10 - 05 . Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize in Physics 2011 '' . Nobel Foundation . Retrieved 2011 - 10 - 04 . Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize in Physics 2012 '' . Nobel Foundation . Retrieved 9 October 2012 . Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize in Physics 2013 Press Release '' ( PDF ) . Nobel Foundation . Retrieved 2013 - 10 - 08 . Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize in Physics 2014 '' . Nobel Foundation . Retrieved 2014 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize in Physics 2015 '' . Nobel Foundation . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 05 . Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize in Physics 2016 '' . Nobel Foundation . Retrieved 2016 - 10 - 04 . Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize in Physics 2017 '' . Nobel Foundation . Retrieved 2017 - 10 - 03 . Sources ( edit ) `` All Nobel Laureates in Physics '' . Nobel Foundation . Retrieved 2008 - 10 - 08 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nobel laureates in Physics . Official website of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences Official website of the Nobel Foundation Laureates of the Nobel Prize in Physics 1901 -- 1925 1901 Röntgen 1902 Lorentz / Zeeman 1903 Becquerel / P. Curie / M. Curie 1904 Rayleigh 1905 Lenard 1906 J.J. Thomson 1907 Michelson 1908 Lippmann 1909 Marconi / Braun 1910 Van der Waals 1911 Wien 1912 Dalén 1913 Kamerlingh Onnes 1914 Laue 1915 W.L. Bragg / W.H. Bragg 1916 1917 Barkla 1918 Planck 1919 Stark 1920 Guillaume 1921 Einstein 1922 N. Bohr 1923 Millikan 1924 M. Siegbahn 1925 Franck / Hertz 1926 -- 1950 1926 Perrin 1927 Compton / C. Wilson 1928 O. Richardson 1929 De Broglie 1930 Raman 1931 1932 Heisenberg 1933 Schrödinger / Dirac 1934 1935 Chadwick 1936 Hess / C.D. Anderson 1937 Davisson / G.P. Thomson 1938 Fermi 1939 Lawrence 1940 1941 1942 1943 Stern 1944 Rabi 1945 Pauli 1946 Bridgman 1947 Appleton 1948 Blackett 1949 Yukawa 1950 Powell 1951 -- 1975 1951 Cockcroft / Walton 1952 Bloch / Purcell 1953 Zernike 1954 Born / Bothe 1955 Lamb / Kusch 1956 Shockley / Bardeen / Brattain 1957 C.N. Yang / T.D. Lee 1958 Cherenkov / Frank / Tamm 1959 Segrè / Chamberlain 1960 Glaser 1961 Hofstadter / Mössbauer 1962 Landau 1963 Wigner / Goeppert - Mayer / Jensen 1964 Townes / Basov / Prokhorov 1965 Tomonaga / Schwinger / Feynman 1966 Kastler 1967 Bethe 1968 Alvarez 1969 Gell - Mann 1970 Alfvén / Néel 1971 Gabor 1972 Bardeen / Cooper / Schrieffer 1973 Esaki / Giaever / Josephson 1974 Ryle / Hewish 1975 A. Bohr / Mottelson / Rainwater 1976 -- 2000 1976 Richter / Ting 1977 P.W. Anderson / Mott / Van Vleck 1978 Kapitsa / Penzias / R. Wilson 1979 Glashow / Salam / Weinberg 1980 Cronin / Fitch 1981 Bloembergen / Schawlow / K. Siegbahn 1982 K. Wilson 1983 Chandrasekhar / Fowler 1984 Rubbia / Van der Meer 1985 von Klitzing 1986 Ruska / Binnig / Rohrer 1987 Bednorz / Müller 1988 Lederman / Schwartz / Steinberger 1989 Ramsey / Dehmelt / Paul 1990 Friedman / Kendall / R. Taylor 1991 de Gennes 1992 Charpak 1993 Hulse / J. Taylor 1994 Brockhouse / Shull 1995 Perl / Reines 1996 D. Lee / Osheroff / R. Richardson 1997 Chu / Cohen - Tannoudji / Phillips 1998 Laughlin / Störmer / Tsui 1999 ' t Hooft / Veltman 2000 Alferov / Kroemer / Kilby 2001 -- present 2001 Cornell / Ketterle / Wieman 2002 Davis / Koshiba / Giacconi 2003 Abrikosov / Ginzburg / Leggett 2004 Gross / Politzer / Wilczek 2005 Glauber / Hall / Hänsch 2006 Mather / Smoot 2007 Fert / Grünberg 2008 Nambu / Kobayashi / Maskawa 2009 Kao / Boyle / Smith 2010 Geim / Novoselov 2011 Perlmutter / Riess / Schmidt 2012 Wineland / Haroche 2013 Englert / Higgs 2014 Akasaki / Amano / Nakamura 2015 Kajita / McDonald 2016 Thouless / Haldane / Kosterlitz 2017 Weiss / Barish / Thorne Nobel Prizes Lists of Nobel laureates Prizes Chemistry Economics Literature Peace Physics Physiology or Medicine Laureates by subject Chemistry Economics Literature Peace Physics Physiology or Medicine by criterion African Arab Asian Black Female Latino and Hispanic Jewish by country Argentine Australian Belgian Bengali Chinese Danish Hungarian Indian Israeli Italian Japanese Korean Liberian Polish Portuguese Romanian Russian Spanish Swedish Turkish Welsh by religion Christian Jewish Muslim Non-religious by year By year by university affiliation University affiliation by occupation Head of Government and State Committees and organisations Nobel Foundation Nobel Committees Chemistry Economics Physics Physiology or Medicine Norwegian Nobel Committee Nobel Assembly at Karolinska Institutet Related topics Controversies Other prizes Alfred Nobel Nobel Memorial Prize ( not one of the original Nobel Prizes ) . 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who got the first nobel prize in physics

Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, of Germany

Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen

Deadpool 2 - wikipedia Deadpool 2 Jump to : navigation , search Deadpool 2 Teaser poster Directed by David Leitch Produced by Simon Kinberg Ryan Reynolds Lauren Shuler Donner Written by Rhett Reese Paul Wernick Ryan Reynolds Based on Deadpool by Rob Liefeld Fabian Nicieza Starring Ryan Reynolds Josh Brolin Morena Baccarin Julian Dennison Zazie Beetz T.J. Miller Brianna Hildebrand Jack Kesy Stefan Kapičić Music by Tyler Bates Cinematography Jonathan Sela Edited by Craig Alpert Elísabet Ronaldsdóttir Production company Marvel Entertainment The Donners ' Company Genre Films Distributed by 20th Century Fox Release date May 18 , 2018 ( 2018 - 05 - 18 ) ( United States ) Country United States Language English Deadpool 2 is an upcoming American superhero film based on the Marvel Comics character Deadpool , distributed by 20th Century Fox . It is intended to be the eleventh installment in the X-Men film series , and a sequel to the 2016 film Deadpool . The film is directed by David Leitch from a script by Rhett Reese , Paul Wernick , and Ryan Reynolds , with Reynolds starring in the title role alongside Josh Brolin , Morena Baccarin , Julian Dennison , Zazie Beetz , T.J. Miller , Brianna Hildebrand , Jack Kesy , and Stefan Kapičić . In Deadpool 2 , Deadpool forms the team X-Force to protect a young mutant from Cable . Plans for a sequel to Deadpool began before that film 's release , and were confirmed in February 2016 . Though the original creative team of Reynolds , Reese , Wernick , and director Tim Miller were quickly set to return for the second film , Miller left the project in October 2016 due to creative differences with Reynolds , and was soon replaced by Leitch . An extensive casting search took place to fill the role of Cable , with Brolin ultimately cast ; the casting of Beetz as Domino was also noteworthy . Filming took place in British Columbia , Canada , from June to October 2017 . During filming , stunt woman Joi `` SJ '' Harris died in a motorcycle accident . Deadpool 2 is scheduled to be released in the United States on May 18 , 2018 . A sequel , Deadpool 3 , is in development . Contents ( hide ) 1 Premise 2 Cast 3 Production 3.1 Development 3.2 Pre-production 3.3 Filming 3.4 Post-production 4 Music 5 Release 5.1 Marketing 6 Box office projection 7 Sequel 8 References 9 External links Premise Deadpool forms a team of mutants called the X-Force to protect young mutant Russell from the time - traveling soldier Cable . Cast Ryan Reynolds as Wade Wilson / Deadpool : A wisecracking mercenary with accelerated healing but severe scarring over his body after undergoing an experimental regenerative mutation . He forms the X-Force , a team of mutants . Josh Brolin as Nathan Summers / Cable : A time travelling cybernetic mutant soldier , `` in many ways the opposite of Deadpool '' . Director David Leitch called the dynamic between Cable and Deadpool `` sort of classic buddy - cop fare '' , and compared them to the characters portrayed by Nick Nolte and Eddie Murphy , respectively , in 48 Hrs. ( 1982 ) . Brolin signed a four - film deal to play the character , and described his appearance here as just the introduction for the character , with `` three more movies to reveal more . '' Morena Baccarin as Vanessa : An escort and Wilson 's fiancée . Julian Dennison as Russell : A young mutant being hunted by Cable . Dennison was the only actor that the creative team considered for the role , with Russell `` sort of a tailor - made character '' for the actor . Zazie Beetz as Neena Thurman / Domino : A mercenary with the mutant ability to manipulate luck , who joins Deadpool 's X-Force team . Leitch described the film 's version of the character as Beetz ' own `` real fun interesting take '' . Beetz began `` doing strength conditioning , so that 's like working out everyday '' when she got the role , for which she has to `` be shooting guns , I fight and a lot of that movement is full body and physical . '' T.J. Miller as Weasel : Wilson 's best friend , the owner of a bar frequented by mercenaries . Brianna Hildebrand as Negasonic Teenage Warhead : A teenage X-Man with the mutant power to detonate atomic bursts from her body , she is now a `` new level of X-Men '' after being a trainee in the first film . Hildebrand felt that `` it 's cool that she 's grown and matured and she still has so much of this essence of a punk kid '' from the first film , and added that the character would have a `` cooler '' costume in the sequel . Jack Kesy as Black Tom Cassidy : A mutant who can manipulate energy through plants . Stefan Kapičić as the voice of Colossus : An X-Man with the mutant ability to transform his entire body into organic steel . Kapičić described Colossus as one of the most important characters in the film , requiring a more intense process for Kapičić during recording for the character . He explained that Colossus would continue to try make Deadpool a better person and potential X-Man after doing so in the first film . Leslie Uggams and Karan Soni return from the first film as Deadpool 's elderly roommate Blind Al and the taxi driver Dopinder , respectively . The X-Force team also includes Terry Crews as Bedlam , Lewis Tan as Shatterstar , and Rob Delaney as Peter . Shioli Kutsuna , Eddie Marsan , and Bill Skarsgård have been cast in undisclosed roles . Production Development Producer Simon Kinberg revealed in September 2015 that discussions had begun regarding ideas for a sequel to Deadpool , which was set to be released in February 2016 . One idea was for the film to introduce the character Cable , who had previously been looked at to appear in the first Deadpool , and X-Men : Days of Future Past before that . Cable 's inclusion in the potential sequel was confirmed by the character Deadpool , breaking the fourth wall , in the post-credit scene of the first film . Domino , a character with connections to Cable in the comics , was also believed to be featured in the sequel . By the first film 's release , 20th Century Fox had green - lit a sequel , with writers Rhett Reese and Paul Wernick returning to write the screenplay . Though director Tim Miller and producer / star Ryan Reynolds were not confirmed for the sequel at the time , Fox was `` intent on keeping the creative team together '' . Miller and Reynolds ' involvement was confirmed at the 2016 CinemaCon that April , though Miller had still not formally signed on to direct the sequel yet . He began work developing the script with the writers , while Reynolds had signed a new contract granting him `` casting approval and other creative controls '' . It has to tonally and stylistically be as fresh and original ( as the first film ) . That 's a big challenge especially because they had 10 years to gestate on the first movie and we do n't have that kind of time on the second movie . That 's the biggest mandate going ( into ) the second film ... we have to resist the temptation to make it bigger . -- Producer Simon Kinberg on approaching Deadpool 2 In June 2016 , Kinberg said that a completed draft from Wernick and Rheese was expected `` soon '' , and that they were looking to begin filming the sequel at the beginning of 2017 . By August , Kyle Chandler was believed to be in the running to portray Cable . Testing of actresses for Domino had also begun by October , with the shortlist of actresses under consideration including Lizzy Caplan , Mary Elizabeth Winstead , Sienna Miller , Sofia Boutella , Stephanie Sigman , Sylvia Hoeks , Mackenzie Davis , Ruby Rose , Eve Hewson , and Kelly Rohrbach . The producers were particularly interested in casting a black or Latina actress in the role . At the end of October , Miller left the film over `` mutual creative differences '' with Reynolds . The rift between the pair was reportedly based on several factors , including Reynolds ' expanded creative control over the sequel ; Miller 's wish for a more stylized follow - up than the first film , versus Reynolds ' focus `` on the raunchy comedy style that earned the first movie its R rating '' ; and Miller 's intention to cast Chandler as Cable , which Reynolds opposed . Fox ultimately backed `` its marketable star '' over Miller , who had made his directorial debut with the first film . Miller denied these reported reasons , while Reynolds said , `` All I can really add is that I 'm sad to see him off the film . Tim 's brilliant and nobody worked harder on Deadpool than he did . '' A week after Miller 's departure , Fox was looking at David Leitch , Drew Goddard , Magnus Martens , and Rupert Sanders as potential replacements for the director . Leitch was the `` strong frontrunner '' for the role , and signed on to direct a month later . Reynolds , a fan of Leitch 's John Wick , said the director `` really understands those Deadpool sensibilities and where we need to take the franchise from here . '' He added that Leitch `` can make a movie on an ultra tight minimal budget look like it was shot for 10 -- 15 times what it cost . '' Pre-production Reese and Wernick had completed multiple drafts of the script by January 2017 , saying , `` It 's taken different twists and turns , but it 's really coalescing '' ; the film was still on track to begin filming that year . The pair felt a responsibility to explore the team X-Force , which includes Deadpool , Cable , and Domino in the comics , with Reese saying the sequel 's purpose `` is not to set up X-Force ( but ) it will likely set up X-Force . '' He did clarify that though the film will be `` populated with a lot of characters ... it is still Deadpool 's movie '' . The pair confirmed that Stefan Kapičić 's Colossus , Brianna Hildebrand 's Negasonic Teenage Warhead , and Karan Soni 's Dopinder would be returning from the first film to `` make at least an appearance '' , and that the film would not be exploring the details of Cable 's convoluted comic origins . By the next month , it had been noted that there had been few announcements from Fox regarding the film , and that a release date had not yet been set which was seen as unusual for sequels to popular films ( often studios `` announce sequels far too soon and with no idea what will happen '' ) , with the issue deemed to be the film 's script . Reynolds , Reese , and Wernick had been `` bunkered down , working on the script together , trying to cross the finish line and create something everyone is excited to make '' . At that time , Goddard joined the project to consult on the script . By the beginning of March 2017 , Michael Shannon had been in the running to portray Cable , but no longer could due to a scheduling conflict . David Harbour had screen - tested for the role , and Pierce Brosnan was believed to be in negotiations for a part in the film , potentially Cable . Reynolds announced shortly after that Zazie Beetz had been cast as Domino . Later in the month , Shannon was in the running to portray Cable again , and was considered the frontrunner , with Fox also looking at a shortlist of other actors that included Harbour . Brad Pitt had also been considered for the role , and expressed interest in taking it , but had `` moved on '' . Leitch soon addressed the potential casting of these actors , saying Shannon `` would make an incredible Cable ... If that happens , I would be through the roof '' ; and on Pitt , `` We had a great meeting with Brad , he was incredibly interested in the property . Things did n't work out schedule-wise . He 's a fan , and we love him , and I think he would 've made an amazing Cable . '' At the end of March , Morena Baccarin confirmed her return from the first film as Vanessa , and expressed interest in exploring the character 's Copycat persona from the comics in the sequel . Josh Brolin emerged as a `` surprise contender '' to play Cable in April , ahead of Shannon and Harbour , and was officially cast in the role . Brolin also portrays the Marvel Comics character Thanos , in the Marvel Cinematic Universe . Leslie Uggams confirmed that she would be reprising her role of Blind Al from the first film , while Fox gave the sequel a June 1 , 2018 release date . Noting the release date , Leitch wanted to ensure that the film `` was worthy of a summer tentpole movie , and we knew we were going to be wedged in between some big films '' , specifically wanting to expand the action and make the general feeling of the film `` bigger '' than the first one . However , he wanted the film to have the same DNA as the original `` in terms of the tone , and the fun ... I love that challenge '' of combining that with the increased scope . The film uses Deadpool 's fourth wall - breaking to reference this release period , with Leitch calling these comments `` definitely fresh and timely when they come up . '' In May 2017 , Fox was reportedly looking to use a post-credits scene at the end of Deadpool 2 to introduce several other members of X-Force who would go on to star alongside Reynolds , Brolin , and Beetz in an X-Force film . Casting for the characters -- Sunspot , Feral , and Shatterstar -- would take place over the coming months , though Reese denied the accuracy of this report . Later , T.J. Miller confirmed that he would return from the first film as Weasel , and described the sequel as `` even more weaselicious '' than the first . He noted that Reynolds and the writers had `` really put the time in on the script '' to meet their own expectations for the sequel as well as those of fans . Jack Kesy also joined the cast , as Black Tom Cassidy . In June , Shioli Kutsuna was cast in a key role for the film . Filming Initial filming had begun by June 17 , 2017 , at Hatley Castle in Victoria , Canada , which is used to portray the X-Mansion in the X-Men films . Principal photography began in Vancouver on June 26 , under the working title Love Machine . Jonathan Sela served as cinematographer for the film . At the end of June , Reynolds revealed that Julian Dennison had been cast in the film . The next month , T.J. Miller said that he found the sequel to be funnier than the first film , and that `` it 's not going to be the same movie in a different location ( like The Hangover Part II ) . It 's got different stakes , different things happen , some pretty tragic , dark shit happens in the first part of the film , in the beginning , and the rest of the film is kind of dealing with that . '' By then , Kapičić had been working with Leitch on the set , and expected to continue contributing to Colossus through to April 2018 . On August 14 , stunt woman Joi `` SJ '' Harris died in a motorcycle accident after losing control and crashing into Shaw Tower . Harris , the first African - American female professional road racer , was working on the film as a stunt performer for the first time and had only joined the production a week before . Harris was not wearing a helmet because the character she was portraying , Domino , does not wear one in the scene , and there had not been time since she joined the film to create one for her to fit underneath the Domino wig . She had two full days of rehearsing the stunt as well as five more attempts on the day of the accident . Veteran stunt double Melissa Stubbs had been available and willing to do the stunt , but the inexperienced Harris was preferred due to her skin color being a match for Beetz . This decision was criticized by multiple stunt professionals , with many noting that Harris ' experiences racing motorcycles did not necessarily qualify her as an able stunt performer . Production on the film was shut down immediately after the incident , but resumed two days later . With this news also came reports that the film 's crew were `` enduring very long hours '' and were `` exhausted by the schedule '' , with a member of the studio confirming that some days had gone beyond the scheduled 12 -- 13 hours filming , up to 15 -- plus hours . Earlier in August , Reynolds revealed that Rob Delaney was at the film 's set , and Eddie Marsan revealed that he was also on set for a role in the film later in the month . Filming in Vancouver was expected to last until October 6 , with production on Deadpool 2 being officially completed on October 14 . Discussing the film 's action , having previously worked as a stunt coordinator , Leitch said that all stunts are `` variations on a theme '' with the same basic elements , but Deadpool allows you to `` subvert those basics , and there 's an expectation for a classic gag , but oops , maybe you get something else . '' He also felt that introducing Domino gave the film unique opportunities for action sequences taking advantage of her luck - based abilities , as well as focusing on Deadpool 's healing abilities and trying to use those to create interesting action . Post-production Fox revealed in November that the film was technically untitled at that point , and not officially known as Deadpool 2 as had been assumed ; the studio was temporarily referring to the film as The Untitled Deadpool Sequel . In January 2018 , the film 's release was moved up to May 18 , 2018 . A month later , Terry Crews was revealed to have a role in the film , the character Shatterstar was confirmed to be appearing , and the production returned to Vancouver for six days of reshoots under a new working title , Daisy . While some reports emerged by mid-March claiming that the reshoots were due to poor audience responses during test screenings of the film , and consisted of sweeping changes , the film was soon confirmed to be testing better than the original did , up to 98 out of 100 over three different tests ( compared to a maximum score of 91 during tests of the first film ) . Because of this , the reshoots were adding more of the elements that audiences responded positively to , including additional material featuring Cable and Domino . By the end of the month , two hours - worth of filming had taken place in Los Angeles for a then - secret cameo appearance , and the film 's first full trailer was released . Officially titling the film Deadpool 2 , the trailer also revealed that Crews was portraying Bedlam ; that Delaney was in the film , portraying Peter ; and that Bill Skarsgård also had a role . The film 's final trailer , released a month later , confirmed that Lewis Tan would portray Shatterstar , joining Domino , Bedlam , and Peter as members of the X-Force in the film . Music Deadpool composer Junkie XL chose not to return for the sequel due to Miller 's departure . In October 2017 , Tyler Bates was hired to write the score for the film . Release Deadpool 2 is set to be released in the United States on May 18 , 2018 . It was previously scheduled for release on June 1 of that year . Marketing For the Fox presentation at CineEurope 2017 in June , Reynolds made a video message featuring himself in costume as Deadpool from the film 's set . The first teaser poster , which pays homage to Norman Rockwell 's 1943 painting Freedom from Want , was released that November . Justin Carter of Comic Book Resources found it `` oddly appropriate for Deadpool 2 to co-opt ( this ) iconic work for a modern pop culture audience '' as it is `` true to Deadpool 's incredibly referential nature . '' Eric Diaz of Nerdist said , `` It strikes exactly the irreverent tone you 'd expect for the Deadpool sequel . '' The first footage from the film debuted the following week , at the end of a video where Reynolds ( in - character as Deadpool ) parodies Bob Ross and his television show The Joy of Painting . The video was described by The Hollywood Reporter 's Ryan Parker as `` completely out of left field '' and setting the tone perfectly for the film , though his colleague Graeme McMillan was less positive due to not knowing of Ross ( Deadpool co-creator Fabian Nicieza thought the fact that many in the audience would n't know of Ross made the video `` exactly the kind of quirky pop culture choice that works perfectly for Deadpool '' ) . Parker added , `` This trailer only showed a few seconds from the film , but fans will be talking about it all day '' because of the presentation , unlike `` any other trailer which would have shown so little of the product . '' Rather than pay for an expensive advertisement spot during Super Bowl LII , the film 's official Twitter account was used to `` live tweet '' the event with commentary as if the character Deadpool was watching it . A new trailer for the film was released later that week , focusing on introducing Cable . Parker felt that `` Reynolds and company have completely changed the trailer game . The formula of just showing some of the actual movie , but with a tiny story thrown in is such an incredible marketing idea . '' McMillan and their colleague Aaron Couch praised the trailer playing on the visual effects for Cable 's arm not being finished , noting it as a joke about the visual effects to remove Henry Cavill 's mustache from Justice League . The group collectively praised the overall marketing for the franchise , with McMillan suggesting that the campaign for the sequel may surpass that of the first Deadpool . A full trailer for the film , explaining its general plot , was released at the end of March . Forbes contributor Scott Mendelson called it `` pretty funny and mostly entertaining '' , but was disappointed in it being a `` conventional '' trailer compared to the more out - there videos previously released for the film . He explained that he thought the first film `` had a winning lead character and fine character - centric jokes , but a pretty generic origin story plot that eventually became the thing it was critiquing '' , and was concerned that the sequel would turn out to be `` a more standard ' superhero sequel ' sell '' . Mendelson also noted the inclusion of T.J. Miller in the trailer following the reveal of sexual misconduct allegations against the actor in late 2017 , calling it `` inevitable no matter how tarnished his reputation might be these days . '' The Hollywood Reporter group also noted the more traditional style of the trailer , but remained generally positive about the film and highlighted the supporting cast for the film as appearing in the trailer , including Brolin , Beetz , Kutsuna , and Crews . Also in March , a Twitter account was established for the character Peter and began to be regularly updated with `` tweets '' about his interests , including photos of the character beekeeping and preparing for his work as part of the X-Force team ( as seen in the film ) . A month later , Fox released the final trailer for the film , with Mendelson lamenting that it was as `` conventional '' as the previous trailer but finding it understandable that Fox not be seen to be hiding the film , and ultimately felt that the trailer indicated the film would be `` a pretty solid comic book sequel '' . The group at The Hollywood Reporter praised the final trailer as well , highlighting its references to X-Men Origins : Wolverine and the DC universe as well as its introduction of Peter . At the end of April , Leitch stated that alternate versions of jokes that had been cut from the film were included in the trailers , since `` only one can live in the movie , so we might have snuck a couple in sort of additional materials that people can discover . '' As part of a promotion for the film with beverage company Mike 's Harder , Sister Margaret 's School for Wayward Girls -- the fictional bar featured in the films -- will be emulated in pop - ups at the Alligator Lounge in New York from April 26 -- 28 and the Slipper Clutch in Los Angeles from May 10 -- 12 . The pop - ups will respectively serve pizza and chimichangas , traditionally Deadpool 's favorite food , as well as Deadpool - inspired Harder drinks . The campaign also includes the chance to win a trip to the film 's premiere through Harder , and the Los Angeles pop - up will benefit the nonprofit DTLA Film Festival . Box office projection Initial box office projections for the film in March 2018 expected it to gross $100 million over its opening weekend in the United States and Canada , with a final domestic total expected to be lower than that of the first film ( $363 million ) at around $242 million . On April 20 , 2018 , both Fandango and Regal Cinemas announced that Deadpool 2 was the best pre-selling R - rated film in their respective histories . By April 26 , opening weekend industry projections had reached upwards of $150 million . Sequel By November 2016 , with development underway on Deadpool 2 , Fox was also planning Deadpool 3 , which was said to include the team X-Force . With the confirmation that Leitch would direct Deadpool 2 , it was revealed that Fox was looking for a separate filmmaker to direct Deadpool 3 . In March 2017 , Reese clarified that though Deadpool 2 sets - up the X-Force team , a future film focused on the team would be separate from Deadpool 3 , `` so I think we 'll be able to take two paths . ( X-Force ) is where we 're launching something bigger , but then ( Deadpool 3 is ) where we 're contracting and staying personal and small . '' After the proposed acquisition of 21st Century Fox by Disney was announced in December 2017 , Disney CEO Bob Iger said that Deadpool would be integrated with the Marvel Cinematic Universe under Disney , and that the company would be willing to make future R - rated Deadpool films `` as long as we let the audiences know what 's coming '' . References ^ Jump up to : Anderton , Ethan ( March 22 , 2018 ) . `` ' Deadpool 2 ' Trailer Breakdown : What the F * cksicle Is This ? '' . / Film . Archived from the original on March 23 , 2018 . Retrieved March 23 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Booth , Kaitlyn ( April 15 , 2018 ) . `` New Deadpool 2 Footage Shown During the Various Walking Dead Shows '' . Bleeding Cool . Retrieved April 16 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Kit , Borys ( February 9 , 2016 ) . `` ' Deadpool ' Sequel Already in the Works '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on May 24 , 2017 . 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Jump up ^ Couch , Aaron ( April 16 , 2018 ) . `` ' Deadpool ' Pop - Up Bar Coming to New York and L.A. '' The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on April 17 , 2018 . Retrieved April 17 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Robbins , Shawn ( March 23 , 2018 ) . `` Long Range Tracking : ' Deadpool 2 , ' ' Book Club , ' & ' Show Dogs ' '' . BoxOffice . Retrieved March 23 , 2018 . Jump up ^ D'Alessandro , Anthony ( April 20 , 2018 ) . `` ' Deadpool 2 ' Advance Ticket Sales Records : Fandango 's Best R - Rated Preseller Ever In First 24 Hours '' . Deadline Hollywood . Penske Business Media . Retrieved April 20 , 2018 . Jump up ^ D'Alessandro , Anthony ( April 26 , 2018 ) . `` ' Deadpool 2 ' Tracking Suggests Raunchy Superhero Headed For $150 M+ Opening '' . Deadline Hollywood . Penske Business Media . Retrieved April 26 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Kit , Borys ( November 9 , 2016 ) . `` Fox 's X-Men Issues : Jennifer Lawrence Unsigned , ' Deadpool ' Defections , ' Gambit ' on Hold '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on May 24 , 2017 . Retrieved May 24 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Eisenberg , Eric ( March 21 , 2017 ) . `` Why Deadpool 3 And X-Force Will Be Very Different Projects '' . CinemaBlend . Archived from the original on May 24 , 2017 . Retrieved May 24 , 2017 . Jump up ^ White , Peter ; Hayes , Dade ( December 14 , 2017 ) . `` Disney - Fox Deal : Bob Iger Discusses Digital Future , James Murdoch , Hulu and $2 B Cost Savings '' . Deadline.com . Archived from the original on December 16 , 2017 . Retrieved December 16 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Couch , Aaron ( December 14 , 2017 ) . `` ' Deadpool ' Can Stay R - Rated at Disney , Says Bob Iger '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on December 16 , 2017 . Retrieved December 16 , 2017 . 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Fortnite - wikipedia Fortnite Jump to : navigation , search For the battle royale version of the game , see Fortnite Battle Royale . Fortnite European box art Developer ( s ) Epic Games People Can Fly Publisher ( s ) Epic Games Director ( s ) Darren Sugg Artist ( s ) Pete Ellis Composer ( s ) Rom Di Prisco Engine Unreal Engine 4 Platform ( s ) Microsoft Windows macOS PlayStation 4 Xbox One iOS Release 2018 Genre ( s ) Survival Mode ( s ) Single - player , multiplayer Fortnite is a co-op sandbox survival game developed by Epic Games and People Can Fly and published by Epic Games . The game was released as a paid - for early access title for Microsoft Windows , macOS , PlayStation 4 and Xbox One on July 25 , 2017 , with a full free - to - play release expected in 2018 . The retail versions of the game were published by Gearbox Publishing , while online distribution of the PC versions is handled by Epic 's launcher . Fortnite is set in contemporary Earth , where the sudden appearance of a worldwide storm causes 98 % of the world 's population to disappear , and zombie - like creatures rise to attack the remainder . Considered by Epic as a cross between Minecraft and Left 4 Dead , Fortnite has up to four players cooperating on various missions on randomly - generated maps to collect resources , build fortifications around defensive objectives that are meant to help fight the storm and protect survivors , and construct weapons and traps to engage in combat with waves of these creatures that attempt to destroy the objectives . Players gain rewards through these missions to improve their hero characters , support teams , and arsenal of weapon and trap schematics to be able to take on more difficult missions . The game is supported through microtransactions to purchase in - game currency that can be used towards these upgrades . A standalone mode , Fortnite Battle Royale , based on the battle royale game genre but based on the core Fortnite gameplay , was released for the same platforms in September 2017 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Synopsis 2 Gameplay 3 Development 3.1 History 3.2 Art and design 4 Reception 4.1 Sales 4.2 Accolades 5 References 6 External links Synopsis One day , 98 % of Earth 's population suddenly disappeared , and the remaining population found the skies covered in dense clouds , creating chaotic storms that dropped husks , humanoid zombie - like creatures , that attacked the living . The survivors found ways to construct `` storm shields '' , a field that cleared the storm clouds from immediately overhead and reduced the attacks from husks , and used these to set up survivor bases across the globe . The player is a commander of one of these bases , charged with going out of the storm shield to find resources , survivors , and other allies to help expand their storm shield and find a way to return Earth to its normal state . Gameplay Currently , the paid - for product Fortnite provides two distinct modes : access to Fortnite Battle Royale , ( which is also available as a separate free - to - play title ) and the cooperative player - versus - environment `` Save the World '' , which is unique to the main Fortnite game . The `` Save the World '' mode is described as a co-op sandbox survival game and is about exploration , scavenging items , crafting weapons , building fortified structures , and fighting waves of encroaching monsters . Tim Sweeney , Epic 's founder , described the game as `` Minecraft meets Left 4 Dead '' . The game cycles between managing one 's resources at a safe home base , and then going out on missions to complete quests as to collect resources and obtain rewards to advance the game 's story . In the meta - game , the player has an inventory of weapon and trap schematics , hero characters , defender characters , and support characters , along with collected resources . Schematics are used to construct weapons and traps when on the field . Hero characters represent characters from one of four classes that the player can use while on a mission , as well as used to undertake resource - gathering missions making them unavailable to use until they return from the mission . Defender characters can be summoned to help with defense but only if there are less than four players on a mission . Support characters are used to form various non-playable squads that provide passive bonuses to the player 's attack strength , building speed , armor , and health , with additional benefits if the player can match certain characterization attributes within a squad . The player can spend different types of experience points and resources earned as mission rewards , from loot boxes ( represented as llama pinatas ) , or other sources to level up and evolve schematics and characters . For weapons and traps , this generally boosts their effectiveness as well as unlocking additional attribute bonuses , while leveling up hero characters will unlock special skills the character has while in the field . Schematics and characters are generally assigned a rarity , which determines how much they can be leveled and evolved . A player 's inventory of schematics and characters is limited , but players can opt to slot anyone they do not need into a collection book to gain rewards when certain collection sets are completed ; use one or more of these schematics or characters to transform them into a new random item , or simply retire them to gain back experience points and other resources to free up the inventory slots . The player also can spend skill points , earned by completing missions , and technology points , earned over time , to unlock new skills and technologies in the game 's skill and technologies trees . These can improve a player 's base attributes , attributes that are shared with the other players while on missions , unlock higher levels of evolution for schematics and characters , open up new squad positions , or unlock general skills that players can use in the field . Collectively , the player 's progress on these skill and technology trees , their squad composition , and their selected hero character make up the player 's current `` power level '' which relates to what difficulty of missions the player should take and the game 's matchmaking services . Also , players can review their current story progress and quests , which can include daily , side , and event quests , which when completed provide in - game currency or resources . Mission is currently divided between four world locations , some available only after progressing far enough in the story , and special locations for timed events and for the Survive the Storm mode . Within a location are several possible mission areas that show the type of mission , the terrain it takes place on , its difficulty rating relative to the player 's current power level , and whether the mission is currently under special `` storm '' conditions that throw random effects , like buffed husks or mini-bosses , into the mission but have potentially better rewards if completed . The player optionally can select a special site that automatically matches them with players at a similar power level and story progression on a random mission for added rewards . Most missions take place on procedurally - generated landscapes . Most missions are based on locating site ( s ) representing the objectives on the map , build up fortifications around those locations , and then face off against several waves of husks that will try to destroy the objectives . During completion of these missions , players are generally given a `` storm forecast '' to know where husks will spawn in as to enhance fortification in that direction , though this direction can change in more difficult missions . Other missions are time - limited , requiring the players to locate and help a number of survivors , build out several radar towers , or clear out various encampment of husks scattered around the map before time runs out . These missions encourage the players to explore the map and farm for resources ( either by searching objects or destroying them with an axe ) used to build the fortifications , weapons , ammunition , and traps needed to defend or attack the husks . Players also frequently need to seek out bluglo , a special resource that does not carry over between maps to activate certain mission objectives . Some missions are considered a loss if the objective is destroyed or time runs out , while other missions allow the players to rework their fortifications and start their defense again if the objective is destroyed . Maps will frequently have optional objectives that are discovered through exploration , such as human survivors that need help . Completing these successfully earn immediate in - game rewards such as resources , weapons , and traps . Missions themselves may provide bonus objectives , such as by completing the mission within a certain in - game period , using a limited number of fortification pieces , or saving more survivors than the minimum necessary , which affects the qualify of rewards the players receive after the successful completion of the main mission . During missions , players can make their fortifications from one of three base materials ( wood , brick , and metal ) , and in a number of configurations , including floors / ceilings , walls , stairs , and ramps ; players have the ability to edit these for more configurations , such as adding a door or window to a wall . Each fortification part can be upgraded with more resources of the same type to improve their durability , and when they are damaged , can be repaired by spending additional resources . Traps , which have a limited number of activation before they fall apart , can be placed on floors , walls , and ceilings , and arranged in means to make them more lethal or effective against husks . Traps may also include beneficial resources for players , such as healing pads , defender posts , and launch pads . Similarly , players can use a range of weapons but these have limited durability that drops as they are used or as a penalty if the player should be downed by husks and need to respawn without the help of allies . Players can construct new weapons , ammo , and traps from gathered resources , or find these from searching containers across the map . During missions , the game progresses through an accelerated day - night cycle ; during the day , the husks are more passive and do not generally pose immediate threats , while during the night , bands of husks may spawn in and will aggressively seek out players . One unique mission type is Storm Shield Defense missions . In each of the four world locations , the player is allocated a map that remains persistent , representing the site where their base 's storm shield generator is placed , and in the storm mode , the player must return to this map to expand the storm shield , requiring them to add a new objective to defend successfully to continue the story . At any time , the player can enter this map without starting the defense mission , and use their carried - over resources to build out the fortification and traps , or add resources to a special storage area for this map . Fortnite is also able to offer themed - events with a unique progression line , new locations , and rewards based on those themes . The first such event was its Halloween event , `` Fortnitemares '' , that offered Halloween - themed heroes , characters , weapons , and traps ( usable outside of the event ) by completing numerous objectives . Development History Fortnite was first revealed at the 2011 Spike Video Game Awards ( VGA ) , with Epic 's former design director Cliff Bleszinski introducing a trailer for the game . Donald Mustard , creative lead at Epic , said in 2017 that this announcement was `` three weeks after we came up with the idea , before we even made the game '' . The title , which started out as an internal game jam project , represents a departure from the company 's previous work . As Bleszinski explained during the Spike event , Epic wanted to `` switch things up a little bit and do something different and fun '' with Fortnite , describing it as `` a world where you explore , you scavenge , you build and ultimately you survive . '' In an interview with Engadget , he also echoed these statements , claiming that the game would be different from the Gears of War series : `` There 's no dudebros in it ... Not that there 's anything wrong with that , right ? But creatively for the team , Gears has been amazing for us . But it 's fun to kind of stretch our wings and do something that 's a little different from the usual . '' Epic Games Vice President of Publishing Mike Fischer said in 2015 that Epic recognized that they `` announced this game too soon '' , and that its lengthy development period was due to `` very good reasons . '' As the game was at its very preliminary stages at the VGA reveal , the goal of this reveal was to seek public interest in the title and potential publishing partners as to decide on the game 's release platforms and timeframe . During the July 2012 San Diego Comic Con , Epic announced that Fortnite would be an exclusive personal computer title , and the first one to be developed by Epic using their new Unreal 4 game engine , with a planned release in 2013 . The game 's development was originally started in the Unreal 3 engine , but as they progressed , they had seen the opportunity to work in several of the new feature sets and scripting language offered by Unreal 4 for Fortnite , while still running on most personal computers at that time . They further opted for personal computer exclusivity to avoid the difficulty of having to go through console certification , and as they planned to be constantly monitoring and tweaking the game , acting as a dungeon master , the personal computer approach would allow them to do this without restrictions normally set by console manfuctures . Bleszinski later clarified that they would not rule out release on other platforms as they developed the title . Fortnite cosplayers at Gamescom 2017 Fortnite 's development was spread among several of Epic 's satellite studios , and was also co-developed by the Polish studio People Can Fly , which had worked with Epic previously on earlier games , and had been fully acquired by Epic sometime in 2012 . People Can Fly were briefly renamed Epic Games Poland in 2013 as to align with Epic 's other studios . By March 2014 , there were about 90 developers working on the game . People Can Fly later returned to being an independent studio and their own name in 2015 , but continued to help Epic with Fortnite 's development . During Fortnite 's development , Epic had seen the game industry shifting to games as a service model . To help with this transition , the company brought in Tencent who had several games operating under this model . As part of this agreement , Tencent bought a significant share of ownership in Epic Games through stock acquisition around June 2012 . The shifting of Epic 's approach through Tencent led to the departure of some high - level staff later that year , including Bleszinski . Fortnite was seen as the spearhead for Epic 's games - as - a-service model as they collaborated with Tencent . This caused some road bumps in the development of Fortnite , according to Mustard . Fortnite 's development was also slowed as it was used as the testing ground for the new features of the Unreal 4 engine . By November 2013 , Epic confirmed that Fortnite would not release that year , nor offered a target released date , though affirmed the game was still in development by several of its studios . Fortnite was a feature in the May 2014 issue of Game Informer , revealing that the title would be released as a free - to - play game . By 2014 , Fortnite was at a `` pretty functional prototype '' with most of the Unreal 4 engine elements smoothed out , according to Mustard . Epic anticipated it would still take about three more years to complete , not only in polishing and balancing the game , but setting in place the necessary backend elements for the games - as - a-service model . To help support development and get player feedback , Epic used a series of closed alpha test periods . The game 's first closed alpha , called Online Test 1 , ran from December 2 to 19 , 2014 , while Online Test 2 ran from March 24 to April 14 , 2015 . Epic said the first alpha was designed to help it `` make sure all of our basic systems are working '' and establish `` a baseline for how people play in order to make Fortnite better . '' After being demoed at WWDC 2015 on Mac , Fortnite entered closed beta testing in the fall of 2015 . Approximately 50,000 players participated in these periods . Fortnite was being developed alongside Paragon , which Epic announced on November 2015 . As Paragon seemed to take Epic 's focus , leaving little news about Fortnite , CEO Tim Sweeney said in March 2016 that they were still committed to Fortnite once Paragon was launched and established , given that much of the work on Fortnite would take time to get the right balance for gameplay . `` We figure we should start with one major successful launch and do one at a time . Fortnite will be next . '' By June 2017 , Epic Games announced that Fortnite was now set for a 2018 release across Windows , macOS , and the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One consoles . Leading up to this free - to - play release , the game was offered as a paid early access period starting on July 25 , 2017 for all platforms ; players who pre-ordered Founder 's Packs were granted access to the game on July 21 . The lengthy period since the game 's alpha phases was ascribed to developing Fortnite as a games - as - a-service model , according to creative lead Donald Mustard . While the game had been in a playable state for the two years before this , Epic wanted to be able to develop ongoing content to players to keep them interested in the title , such as planning timed events with unique rewards , following in the approach used by games like League of Legends and Warframe . Since the game had already been announced earlier in 2014 through Game Informer , Epic opted not to use their Electronic Entertainment Expo time or space in June 2017 to re-announce the game , fearing that coverage of it would be lost in the deluge of other gaming news coming out of the event . Instead , the Epic marketing team worked with Twitch and other game streamers to provide them early copies of the game to play and promote on their channels in the weeks leading up to their target release date of July 25 , 2017 . However , a few weeks before this date , Epic recognized that the game was still not ready for release ; it was playable but not content complete . Rather than prolonging it further , Epic decided to release the game into paid early access on July 25 , 2017 , which would also allow them to get active feedback on the game as they progressed in development . At the time of the start of early access , Gearbox Software helped distribute the game on physical media . With the popularity of Fortnite Battle Royale , which was first released in early access around September 2017 and gained considerable attention by early 2018 , Epic split off a separate development team to focus on improvements for this mode . Epic said that their attention to Fortnite was causing some of their other games to see lower player populations , leading them to reduce development efforts on these games , particularly Paragon . By the end of January 2018 , Epic announced it was shutting down Paragon by April of that year , providing refunds to all players . Players on a Fortnite - dedicated Reddit forum had expressed concerns that a similar fate could befall the Save the World mode of Fortnite , as externally , the Save the World mode has not received the same attention in providing updates and improvements compared to the Battle Royale mode since that mode 's release . Epic 's Ed Zobrist said that as of March 2018 that the retention rates for `` Save the World '' have been high , and have grown since the release of Fortnite Battle Royale , and the company has since improved communications with the player base , such as providing development road maps and known bug lists . Art and design In their initial prototypes of the game , Epic had used creepier and darker designs for the husks and other enemies . Bleszinski said that they found this to create an `` exhaustive environment '' that was too grim , and designed to take the design in a more cartoonish approach , while still remaining creepy , so that players would enjoy spending time in the game 's world , without competing with games like DayZ . They used works from Pixar , Tim Burton , and Looney Tunes as inspiration for the designs . Fortnite uses procedural generation to build out the maps for each mission . The game also includes an `` AI director '' that monitors how players are progressing , and alters the challenges of the monsters it sends out to the players based on that progression , easing off if players are having greater difficulty in surviving . At one point , the game had a team - based player versus player mode , where each side attempted to build up a base around a central target while trying to attack the opponent 's target after breaking through their base . This did not make it into the final game . Epic currently has cross-platform play between PC and PS4 and has stated plans to allow separate Fortnite cross-platform support for Xbox One and personal computer users , but cross-platform play between all three platforms has not been announced . However , for a few hours during one day in September 2017 , players found they could cross-play between all three platforms . Epic later corrected this , calling it a `` configuration error '' . Reception Sales On July 26 , 2017 , it was announced that Fortnite had sold over 500,000 digital pre-order copies . On August 18 , 2017 , Epic confirmed that Fortnite had surpassed over a million players . Accolades Eurogamer ranked the game 32nd on their list of the `` Top 50 Games of 2017 '' . It was also nominated for `` Best Co-op Game '' in PC Gamer 's 2017 Game of the Year Awards , and for `` Best Spectator Game '' in IGN 's Best of 2017 Awards . Year Award Result Ref . 2017 The Game Awards 2017 Best Multiplayer Nominated 2018 16th Visual Effects Society Awards Outstanding Visual Effects in a Real - Time Project ( A Hard Day 's Night ) Nominated D.I.C.E. Awards Outstanding Achievement in Online Gameplay Nominated SXSW Gaming Awards Excellence in Multiplayer Nominated Excellence in Gameplay Nominated 14th British Academy Games Awards Best Evolving Game Nominated Best Multiplayer Nominated 22nd Annual Webby Awards People 's Voice Award for Best Multiplayer / Competitive Game Won References ^ Jump up to : Gilyadov , Alex ( July 26 , 2017 ) . `` Fortnite Hits 500,000 Digital Pre-Orders '' . IGN . Archived from the original on July 27 , 2017 . Retrieved July 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Brown , Fraser ( December 10 , 2014 ) . `` Epic pulls back the curtain ( and flesh ) on Fortnite 's monster design '' . PCGamesN . Archived from the original on July 30 , 2017 . Retrieved July 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Greening , Chris ( October 22 , 2016 ) . `` Game Releases Calendar : 2016 Edition '' . Game Music Online . Archived from the original on September 30 , 2017 . Retrieved July 16 , 2017 . Jump up ^ McWhertor , Michael ( July 12 , 2012 ) . `` Epic Games ' ' Fortnite ' will be the developer 's first Unreal Engine 4 game '' . Polygon . Archived from the original on July 30 , 2017 . Retrieved August 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Makuch , Eddie ( July 12 , 2013 ) . `` Epic : Fortnite is `` Minecraft meets Left 4 Dead '' `` . GameSpot . Archived from the original on March 27 , 2015 . Retrieved March 25 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Lahit , Evan ( June 9 , 2015 ) . `` Hands - on with Fortnite co-op '' . PC Gamer . Archived from the original on June 9 , 2015 . Retrieved June 9 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Wallace , Kimberly ( June 8 , 2015 ) . `` Fortnite : Building A Fort To Withstand Chaos '' . Game Informer . Archived from the original on June 9 , 2015 . Retrieved June 9 , 2015 . 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Jump up ^ McGee , Maxwell ( July 13 , 2012 ) . `` Epic 's Cliff Bleszinski and Tanya Jessen Talk Up Fortnite '' . GameSpot . Archived from the original on February 6 , 2018 . Retrieved November 29 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Purchase , Robert ( September 1 , 2012 ) . `` Fortnite detailed at PAX Prime ; Minecraft meets DayZ '' . Eurogamer . Archived from the original on December 1 , 2017 . Retrieved November 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Sheridan , Connor ( November 1 , 2013 ) . `` People Can Fly working on Fortnite , renamed Epic Games Poland '' . GamesRadar . Archived from the original on December 2 , 2017 . Retrieved December 2 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Karmali , Luke ( August 12 , 2012 ) . `` Epic Games Buys Gears of War : Judgment Dev '' . IGN . Archived from the original on December 2 , 2017 . Retrieved July 19 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Sarkar , Samit ( November 1 , 2013 ) . `` People Can Fly now known as Epic Games Poland '' . Polygon . Archived from the original on November 2 , 2013 . Retrieved November 1 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Purchese , Robert ( June 24 , 2015 ) . `` Bulletstorm dev People Can Fly regains independence '' . Eurogamer . Archived from the original on June 23 , 2017 . Retrieved July 10 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Peel , Jeremy ( June 8 , 2017 ) . `` Why has Fortnite taken so long ? '' . PCGamesN . Archived from the original on December 1 , 2017 . Retrieved November 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Robinson , Martin ( August 11 , 2017 ) . `` The big Cliff Bleszinski interview '' . Eurogamer . Archived from the original on December 1 , 2017 . Retrieved November 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Makuch , Eddie ( November 1 , 2013 ) . `` Epic on Fortnite release -- `` It wo n't be this year '' `` . GameSpot . Archived from the original on December 1 , 2017 . Retrieved November 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Makuch , Eddie ( April 9 , 2014 ) . `` Gears of War dev 's PC - exclusive Fortnite has Diablo - like looting '' . GameSpot . Archived from the original on July 29 , 2017 . Retrieved July 23 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : McWhertor , Michael ( December 1 , 2014 ) . `` Epic Games kicks off Fortnite alpha on Dec. 2 '' . Polygon . Archived from the original on May 22 , 2015 . Retrieved May 3 , 2015 . Jump up ^ S. Good , Owen ( March 24 , 2015 ) . `` Fortnite kicks off second closed alpha with a livestream this afternoon '' . Polygon . Archived from the original on July 29 , 2017 . Retrieved July 23 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Tach , Dave ( June 8 , 2015 ) . `` Epic 's Fortnite coming to Mac , beta hits this fall '' . Polygon . Archived from the original on July 29 , 2017 . Retrieved July 10 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Pereira , Chris ( March 17 , 2016 ) . `` Epic 's Fortnite Still in Development , But Paragon Comes First '' . GameSpot . Archived from the original on December 1 , 2017 . Retrieved November 29 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Hall , Charlie ( June 8 , 2017 ) . `` Fortnite announces early access release , hands - on the unfinished game '' . Polygon . Archived from the original on November 23 , 2017 . Retrieved June 8 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Nunneley , Stephany ( July 21 , 2017 ) . `` Fortnite Early Access has started for those who pre-ordered Founder 's Packs '' . VG247 . Archived from the original on August 2 , 2017 . Retrieved July 29 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Valdes , Giancarlo ( March 22 , 2018 ) . `` The Story Behind ' Fortnite 's ' Less Popular Mode '' . Glixel . Archived from the original on March 22 , 2018 . Retrieved March 22 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Phillips , Tom ( June 21 , 2017 ) . `` Gearbox to publish Epic 's Fortnite on disc '' . Eurogamer . Archived from the original on June 21 , 2017 . Retrieved June 21 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Crecente , Brian ( January 15 , 2018 ) . `` ' Fortnite : Battle Royale ' : The Evolution of World 's Largest Battle Royale Game '' . Glixel . Archived from the original on January 27 , 2018 . Retrieved January 26 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Makuch , Eddie ( January 17 , 2018 ) . `` Fortnite 's Huge Success Means Its Studio 's Other Game Might Not Live On '' . GameSpot . Archived from the original on January 27 , 2018 . Retrieved January 26 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Schreier , Jason ( January 26 , 2018 ) . `` After Fortnite 's Massive Success , Epic Shuts Down Paragon '' . Kotaku . Archived from the original on January 26 , 2018 . Retrieved January 26 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Hastings , Dan ( February 16 , 2018 ) . `` Could Fortnite 's Save The World mode be next on Epic 's kill list ? '' . VG247 . Archived from the original on February 16 , 2018 . Retrieved February 16 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Winkie , Luke ( April 3 , 2018 ) . `` How Fortnite PvE fans feel about Battle Royale taking over the game they love '' . PC Gamer . Archived from the original on April 3 , 2018 . Retrieved April 3 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Arini , Tini ( September 12 , 2012 ) . `` The Evolution Of Fortnite To Something Less Creepy '' . Kotaku . Archived from the original on December 1 , 2017 . Retrieved November 29 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Good , Owen ( July 8 , 2014 ) . `` Epic 's free - to - play Fortnite delivers a suspense - filled finish '' . Polygon . Archived from the original on October 2 , 2017 . Retrieved November 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Orland , Kyle ( September 18 , 2017 ) . `` Fortnite devs inadvertently prove cross-console play is possible '' . Ars Technica . Archived from the original on September 18 , 2017 . Retrieved September 18 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Boyd , Jordan ( August 19 , 2017 ) . `` Fortnite Celebrates One Million Players ; New Survival Mode Announced '' . Dualshockers . Archived from the original on August 19 , 2017 . Retrieved August 19 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Eurogamer staff ( December 27 , 2017 ) . `` Eurogamer 's Top 50 Games of 2017 : 40 -- 31 '' . Eurogamer . Archived from the original on December 28 , 2017 . Retrieved December 30 , 2017 . Jump up ^ PC Gamer staff ( December 8 , 2017 ) . `` Games of the Year 2017 : The nominees '' . PC Gamer . Archived from the original on January 6 , 2018 . Retrieved January 22 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Best of 2017 Awards : Best Spectator Game '' . IGN . December 20 , 2017 . Archived from the original on December 26 , 2017 . Retrieved January 22 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Makuch , Eddie ( December 8 , 2017 ) . `` The Game Awards 2017 Winners Headlined By Zelda : Breath Of The Wild 's Game Of The Year '' . GameSpot . Archived from the original on December 9 , 2017 . Retrieved January 22 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Giardina , Carolyn ( January 16 , 2018 ) . `` Visual Effects Society Awards : ' Apes , ' ' Blade Runner 2049 ' Lead Feature Nominees '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on January 16 , 2018 . Retrieved January 22 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Giardina , Carolyn ( February 13 , 2018 ) . `` Visual Effects Society Awards : ' War for the Planet of the Apes ' Wins Big '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on February 14 , 2018 . Retrieved February 13 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Makuch , Eddie ( January 14 , 2018 ) . `` Game Of The Year Nominees Announced For DICE Awards '' . GameSpot . Archived from the original on January 17 , 2018 . Retrieved January 17 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Makuch , Eddie ( February 22 , 2018 ) . `` Legend Of Zelda : Breath Of The Wild Wins Game Of The Year At DICE Awards '' . GameSpot . Archived from the original on February 23 , 2018 . Retrieved February 23 , 2018 . Jump up ^ McNeill , Andrew ( January 31 , 2018 ) . `` Here Are Your 2018 SXSW Gaming Awards Finalists ! '' . SXSW . Archived from the original on February 1 , 2018 . Retrieved February 1 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` 2018 SXSW Gaming Awards Winners Revealed '' . IGN . March 17 , 2018 . Archived from the original on March 18 , 2018 . Retrieved March 18 , 2018 . Jump up ^ deAlessandri , Marie ( March 15 , 2018 ) . `` Hellblade : Senua 's Sacrifice at forefront of BAFTA Games Awards nominations '' . The Market for Computer & Video Games . Archived from the original on March 16 , 2018 . Retrieved March 16 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Makedonski , Brett ( April 12 , 2018 ) . `` BAFTA names What Remains of Edith Finch its best game of 2017 '' . Destructoid . Archived from the original on April 25 , 2018 . Retrieved April 13 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Kaufman , Gil ( April 24 , 2018 ) . `` JAY - Z , RuPaul , Lady Gaga , Katy Perry & Kourtney Kardashian Among 2018 Webby Award Winners : See the Full List '' . Billboard . Archived from the original on April 25 , 2018 . Retrieved April 24 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Retail versions published by Gearbox Publishing External links Official website ( hide ) Epic Games Games Jazz Jackrabbit series Jazz Jackrabbit Jazz Jackrabbit 2 Unreal series Unreal Tournament ( 1999 ) Tournament 2003 Championship Tournament 2004 Championship 2 : The Liandri Conflict Tournament 3 Tournament ( upcoming ) Gears of War series Gears of War Gears of War 2 Gears of War 3 Gears of War : Judgment Infinity Blade series Infinity Blade Infinity Blade II Infinity Blade III Other games ZZT Jill of the Jungle Kiloblaster Silverball Xargon Extreme Pinball 7th Legion Age of Wonders Shadow Complex Bulletstorm Robo Recall Paragon Fortnite ( Battle Royale ) Subsidiaries Current Chair Entertainment Former Safari Software Impossible Studios Titan Studios Pitbull Studio People Can Fly People Current Tim Sweeney Mark Rein Steve Polge Sjoerd De Jong Former Rod Fergusson Cliff Bleszinski Mike Capps Technology Unreal Engine Epic Citadel Related List of Unreal Engine games Make Something Unreal Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fortnite&oldid=838517375 '' Categories : Cooperative video games Early access video games Epic Games games Free - to - play video games MacOS games PlayStation 4 games Survival video games Unreal Engine games Upcoming video games scheduled for 2018 Video games developed in Poland Video games developed in the United States Video games with cross-platform play Windows games Xbox One games PlayStation 4 Pro enhanced games Hidden categories : Wikipedia pages semi-protected against vandalism Use mdy dates from April 2018 Articles using Infobox video game using locally defined parameters Articles using Wikidata infoboxes with locally defined images Talk View source Contents About Wikipedia Asturianu Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara Français Gaeilge Italiano Magyar Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Русский Scots Suomi Svenska Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 14 more Edit links This page was last edited on 27 April 2018 , at 14 : 38 . 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Shortwave radio - wikipedia Shortwave radio Jump to : navigation , search `` Shortwave '' redirects here . For other uses , see Shortwave ( disambiguation ) . Grundig Satellit 400 solid - state , digital shortwave receiver , circa 1986 Shortwave radio is radio transmission using shortwave radio frequencies . There is no official definition of the band , but the range always includes all of the high frequency band ( HF ) , and generally extends from 1.7 -- 30 MHz ( 176.3 -- 10.0 m ) ; from the high end of the medium frequency band ( MF ) just above the mediumwave AM broadcast band , to the end of the HF band . Radio waves in the shortwave band can be reflected or refracted from a layer of electrically charged atoms in the atmosphere called the ionosphere . Therefore , short waves directed at an angle into the sky can be reflected back to Earth at great distances , beyond the horizon . This is called skywave or `` skip '' propagation . Thus shortwave radio can be used for very long distance communication , in contrast to radio waves of higher frequency which travel in straight lines ( line - of - sight propagation ) and are limited by the visual horizon , about 40 miles ( 64 km ) . Shortwave radio is used for broadcasting of voice and music to shortwave listeners over very large areas ; sometimes entire continents or beyond . It is also used for military over-the - horizon radar , diplomatic communication , and two - way international communication by amateur radio enthusiasts for hobby , educational and emergency purposes , as well as for long distance aviation and marine communications . Contents ( hide ) 1 Frequency classifications 2 History 2.1 Development 2.2 Amateur use of shortwave propagation 3 Propagation characteristics 4 Types of modulation 5 Users 6 Shortwave broadcasting 6.1 Frequency allocations 6.2 Advantages 6.3 Disadvantages 7 Shortwave listening 8 Shortwave broadcasts and music 9 Shortwave 's future 10 See also 11 References 12 External links Frequency classifications ( edit ) The widest popular definition of the shortwave frequency interval is the ITU Region 1 ( EU + Africa + Russia ... ) definition , and is the span 1.6 -- 30 MHz , just above the medium wave band , which ends approximately at 1.6 MHz . There are also other definitions of the shortwave frequency interval : 1.71 to 30 MHz in ITU Region 2 ( North and South America ... ) 1.8 ( 160 meter radio amateur band start ) to 30 MHz 2.3 ( 120 meter band start ) to 30 MHz 2.3 ( 120 meter band start ) to 26.1 MHz ( 11 meter band end ) In Germany and perhaps Austria the ITU Region 1 shortwave radio frequency interval can be subdivided in : de : Grenzwelle ( `` border waves '' ) : 1.605 -- 3.8 MHz In Germany these shortwave radio frequency intervals have also been seen used : the above other definitions History ( edit ) Development ( edit ) Radio amateurs carried out the first shortwave transmissions over a long distance before Guglielmo Marconi The name `` shortwave '' originated during the early days of radio in the early 20th century , when the radio spectrum was considered divided into long wave ( LW ) , medium wave ( MW ) and short wave bands based on the wavelength of the radio waves . Shortwave radio received its name because the wavelengths in this band are relatively shorter than 200 m ( 1,500 kHz ) which marked the original upper limit of the medium frequency band first used for radio communications . The broadcast medium wave band now extends above the 200 m / 1,500 kHz limit , and the amateur radio 1.8 MHz -- 2.0 MHz band ( known as the `` top band '' ) is the lowest - frequency band considered to be ' shortwave ' . Early long distance radio telegraphy used long waves , below 300 kilohertz ( kHz ) . The drawbacks to this system included a very limited spectrum available for long distance communication , and the very expensive transmitters , receivers and gigantic antennas that were required . It was also difficult to beam the radio wave directionally with long wave , resulting in a major loss of power over long distances . Prior to the 1920s , the shortwave frequencies above 1.5 MHz were regarded as useless for long distance communication and were designated in many countries for amateur use . Guglielmo Marconi , pioneer of radio , commissioned his assistant Charles Samuel Franklin to carry out a large scale study into the transmission characteristics of short wavelength waves and to determine their suitability for long distance transmissions . Franklin rigged up a large antenna at Poldhu Wireless Station , Cornwall , running on 25 kW of power . In June and July 1923 , wireless transmissions were completed during nights on 97 meters from Poldhu to Marconi 's yacht Elettra in the Cape Verde Islands . In September 1924 , Marconi transmitted daytime and nighttime on 32 meters from Poldhu to his yacht in Beirut . Franklin went on to refine the directional transmission , by inventing the curtain array aerial system . In July 1924 , Marconi entered into contracts with the British General Post Office ( GPO ) to install high speed shortwave telegraphy circuits from London to Australia , India , South Africa and Canada as the main element of the Imperial Wireless Chain . The UK - to - Canada shortwave `` Beam Wireless Service '' went into commercial operation on 25 October 1926 . Beam Wireless Services from the UK to Australia , South Africa and India went into service in 1927 . Shortwave communications began to grow rapidly in the 1920s , similar to the internet in the late 20th century . By 1928 , more than half of long distance communications had moved from transoceanic cables and longwave wireless services to shortwave and the overall volume of transoceanic shortwave communications had vastly increased . Shortwave stations had cost and efficiency advantages over massive longwave wireless installations , however some commercial longwave communications stations remained in use until the 1960s . Long distance radio circuits also reduced the load on the existing transoceanic telegraph cables and hence the need for new cables , although the cables maintained their advantages of high security and a much more reliable and better quality signal than shortwave . The cable companies began to lose large sums of money in 1927 , and a serious financial crisis threatened the viability of cable companies that were vital to strategic British interests . The British government convened the Imperial Wireless and Cable Conference in 1928 `` to examine the situation that had arisen as a result of the competition of Beam Wireless with the Cable Services '' . It recommended and received Government approval for all overseas cable and wireless resources of the Empire to be merged into one system controlled by a newly formed company in 1929 , Imperial and International Communications Ltd . The name of the company was changed to Cable and Wireless Ltd. in 1934 . Long - distance cables had a resurgence beginning in 1956 with the laying of TAT - 1 across the Atlantic Ocean , the first voice frequency cable on this route . This provided 36 high quality telephone channels and was soon followed by even higher capacity cables all around the world . These sounded the death knell of shortwave radio for commercial communications . Amateur use of shortwave propagation ( edit ) Hallicrafters SX - 28 shortwave receiver analog tuning dial , circa 1944 Amateur radio operators also discovered that long - distance communication was possible on shortwave bands . Early long - distance services used surface wave propagation at very low frequencies , which are attenuated along the path at wavelengths shorter than 1,000 meters . Longer distances and higher frequencies using this method meant more signal loss . This , and the difficulties of generating and detecting higher frequencies , made discovery of shortwave propagation difficult for commercial services . Radio amateurs may have conducted the first successful transatlantic tests in December 1921 , operating in the 200 meter mediumwave band ( near 1,500 kHz in the modern AM broadcast band ) -- the shortest wavelength then available to amateurs . In 1922 hundreds of North American amateurs were heard in Europe on 200 meters and at least 20 North American amateurs heard amateur signals from Europe . The first two - way communications between North American and Hawaiian amateurs began in 1922 at 200 meters . Although operation on wavelengths shorter than 200 meters was technically illegal ( but tolerated as the authorities mistakenly believed at first that such frequencies were useless for commercial or military use ) , amateurs began to experiment with those wavelengths using newly available vacuum tubes shortly after World War I . Extreme interference at the longer edge of the 150 -- 200 meter band -- the official wavelengths allocated to amateurs by the Second National Radio Conference in 1923 -- forced amateurs to shift to shorter and shorter wavelengths ; however , amateurs were limited by regulation to wavelengths longer than 150 meters ( 2 MHz ) . A few fortunate amateurs who obtained special permission for experimental communications at wavelengths shorter than 150 meters completed hundreds of long distance two way contacts on 100 meters ( 3 MHz ) in 1923 including the first transatlantic two way contacts . By 1924 many additional specially licensed amateurs were routinely making transoceanic contacts at distances of 6,000 miles ( 9,600 km ) and more . On 21 September 1924 several amateurs in California completed two - way contacts with an amateur in New Zealand . On 19 October amateurs in New Zealand and England completed a 90 minute two - way contact nearly halfway around the world . On 10 October the Third National Radio Conference made three shortwave bands available to U.S. amateurs at 80 meters ( 3.75 MHz ) , 40 meters ( 7 MHz ) and 20 meters ( 14 MHz ) . These were allocated worldwide , while the 10 meter band ( 28 MHz ) was created by the Washington International Radiotelegraph Conference on 25 November 1927 . The 15 meter band ( 21 MHz ) was opened to amateurs in the United States on 1 May 1952 . Propagation characteristics ( edit ) Formation of a skip zone Shortwave radio frequency energy is capable of reaching any location on the Earth as it is influenced by ionospheric reflection back to the earth by the ionosphere , ( a phenomenon known as `` skywave propagation '' ) . A typical phenomenon of shortwave propagation is the occurrence of a skip zone where reception fails . With a fixed working frequency , large changes in ionospheric conditions may create skip zones at night . As a result of the multi-layer structure of the ionosphere , propagation often simultaneously occurs on different paths , scattered by the E or F region and with different numbers of hops , a phenomenon that may be disturbed for certain techniques . Particularly for lower frequencies of the shortwave band , absorption of radio frequency energy in the lowest ionospheric layer , the D layer , may impose a serious limit . This is due to collisions of electrons with neutral molecules , absorbing some of a radio frequency 's energy and converting it to heat . Predictions of skywave propagation depend on : The distance from the transmitter to the target receiver . Time of day . During the day , frequencies higher than approximately 12 MHz can travel longer distances than lower ones . At night , this property is reversed . With lower frequencies the dependence on the time of the day is mainly due to the lowest ionospheric layer , the D Layer , forming only during the day when photons from the sun break up atoms into ions and free electrons . Season . During the winter months of the Northern or Southern hemispheres , the AM / MW broadcast band tends to be more favorable because of longer hours of darkness . Solar flares produce a large increase in D region ionization so high , sometimes for periods of several minutes , all skywave propagation is nonexistent . Types of modulation ( edit ) Further information : Modulation National Panasonic R3000 analog shortwave receiver , circa 1965 Several different types of modulation are used to impress information on a short - wave transmission . Amplitude modulation is the simplest type and the most commonly used for shortwave broadcasting . The instantaneous amplitude of the carrier is controlled by the amplitude of the signal ( speech , or music , for example ) . At the receiver , a simple detector recovers the desired modulation signal from the carrier . Single sideband transmission is a form of amplitude modulation but in effect filters the result of modulation . An amplitude - modulated signal has frequency components both above and below the carrier frequency . If one set of these components is eliminated as well as the residual carrier , only the remaining set is transmitted . This reduces power in the transmission , as roughly 2 / 3 of the energy sent by an AM signal is unnecessary to recover the information contained on it . It also reduces `` bandwidth '' , enabling about one - half the carrier frequency spectrum width to be used . The drawback is the receiver is more complicated , since it must re-create the carrier to recover the signal . Small errors in the detection process greatly affect the pitch of the received signal . As a result , single sideband is not used for music or general broadcast . Single sideband is used for long - range voice communications by ships and aircraft , Citizen 's Band , and amateur radio operators . Lower sideband ( LSB ) is generally used below 9 MHz and USB ( upper sideband ) above 9 MHz . Vestigal sideband transmits the carrier and one complete sideband , but filters out the other sideband . It is a compromise between AM and SSB , enabing simple receivers to be used , but requires almost as much transmitter power as AM . One advantage is only half the bandwidth of an AM signal is used . It can be heard in the transmission of certain radio time signal stations . Vestigial sideband is used for over the air Television Broadcasts both analog and digital . Continuous wave ( CW ) is on - and - off keying of a carrier , used for Morse code communications and Hellschreiber facsimile - based teleprinter transmissions . Narrow - band frequency modulation ( NBFM ) is used typically above 20 MHz . Because of the larger bandwidth required , NBFM is commonly used for VHF communication . Regulations limit the bandwidth of a signal transmitted in the HF bands , and the advantages of frequency modulation are greatest if the FM signal has a wide bandwidth . NBFM is limited to short - range transmissions due to the multiphasic distortions created by the ionosphere . Digital Radio Mondiale ( DRM ) is a digital modulation for use on bands below 30 MHz . Radioteletype , fax , digital , slow - scan television and other systems use forms of frequency - shift keying or audio subcarriers on a shortwave carrier . These generally require special equipment to decode , such as software on a computer equipped with a sound card . Users ( edit ) Portable shortwave receiver 's digital display tuned to the 75 meter band Some established users of the shortwave radio bands may include : International broadcasting primarily by government - sponsored propaganda , international news ( for example , the BBC World Service ) or cultural stations to foreign audiences : the most common use of all . Domestic broadcasting : to widely dispersed populations with few longwave , mediumwave and FM stations serving them ; or for specialty political , religious and alternative media networks ; or of individual commercial and non-commercial paid broadcasts . Oceanic air traffic control uses the HF / shortwave band for long distance communication to aircraft over the oceans and poles , which are far beyond the range of traditional VHF frequencies . Modern systems also include satellite communications , such as ADS - C / CPDLC `` Utility '' stations transmitting messages not intended for the general public , such as merchant shipping , marine weather , and ship - to - shore stations ; for aviation weather and air - to - ground communications ; for military communications ; for long - distance governmental purposes , and for other non-broadcast communications . Amateur radio operators at the 80 / 75 , 60 , 40 , 30 , 20 , 17 , 15 , 12 , and 10 - meter bands . Licenses are granted by authorized government agencies . Time signal and radio clock stations : In North America , WWV radio and WWVH radio transmit at these frequencies : 2.5 MHz , 5 MHz , 10 MHz , and 15 MHz ; and WWV also transmits on 20 MHz . The CHU radio station in Canada transmits on the following frequencies : 3.33 MHz , 7.85 MHz , and 14.67 MHz . Other similar radio clock stations transmit on various shortwave and longwave frequencies around the world . The shortwave transmissions are primarily intended for human reception , while the longwave stations are generally used for automatic synchronization of watches and clocks . Sporadic or non-traditional users of the shortwave bands may include : Clandestine stations . These are stations that broadcast on behalf of various political movements such as rebel or insurrectionist forces . They may advocate civil war , insurrection , rebellion against the government - in - charge of the country to which they are directed . Clandestine broadcasts may emanate from transmitters located in rebel - controlled territory or from outside the country entirely , using another country 's transmission facilities . Numbers Stations . These stations regularly appear and disappear all over the shortwave radio band but are unlicensed and untraceable . It is believed that Numbers Stations are operated by government agencies and are used to communicate with clandestine operatives working within foreign countries . However , no definitive proof of such use has emerged . Because the vast majority of these broadcasts contain nothing but the recitation of blocks of numbers , in various languages , with occasional bursts of music , they have become known colloquially as `` Number Stations '' . Perhaps the most noted Number Station is the `` Lincolnshire Poacher '' , named after the 18th century English folk song , which is transmitted just before the sequences of numbers . Unlicensed two way radio activity by individuals such as taxi drivers , bus drivers and fishermen in various countries can be heard on various shortwave frequencies . Such unlicensed transmissions by `` pirate '' or `` bootleg '' two way radio operators can often cause signal interference to licensed stations . Pirate radio broadcasters who feature programming such as music , talk and other entertainment , can be heard sporadically and in various modes on the shortwave bands . Over-the - horizon radar : From 1976 to 1989 , the Soviet Union 's Russian Woodpecker over-the - horizon radar system blotted out numerous shortwave broadcasts daily . Ionospheric heaters used for scientific experimentation such as the High Frequency Active Auroral Research Program in Alaska , and the Sura ionospheric heating facility in Russia . Shortwave broadcasting ( edit ) See International broadcasting for details on the history and practice of broadcasting to foreign audiences . See Shortwave relay station for the actual kinds of integrated technologies used to bring high power signals to listeners . Frequency allocations ( edit ) Main article : Shortwave bands The World Radiocommunication Conference ( WRC ) , organized under the auspices of the International Telecommunication Union , allocates bands for various services in conferences every few years . The last WRC took place in 2007 . At WRC - 97 in 1997 , the following bands were allocated for international broadcasting . AM shortwave broadcasting channels are allocated with a 5 kHz separation for traditional analog audio broadcasting . Metre Band Frequency Range Remarks 120 m 2.3 -- 2.495 MHz tropical band 90 m 3.2 -- 3.4 MHz tropical band 75 m 3.9 -- 4 MHz shared with the North American amateur radio 80m band 60 m 4.75 -- 5.06 MHz tropical band 49 m 5.9 -- 6.2 MHz 41 m 7.2 -- 7.6 MHz shared with the amateur radio 40m band 31 m 9.4 -- 9.9 MHz currently the most heavily used band 25 m 11.6 -- 12.2 MHz 22 m 13.57 -- 13.87 MHz 19 m 15.1 -- 15.8 MHz 16 m 17.48 -- 17.9 MHz 15 m 18.9 -- 19.02 MHz almost unused , could become a DRM band 13 m 21.45 -- 21.85 MHz 11 m 25.6 -- 26.1 MHz may be used for local DRM broadcasting Although countries generally follow the table above , there may be small differences between countries or regions . For example , in the official bandplan of the Netherlands , the 49 m band starts at 5.95 MHz , the 41 m band ends at 7.45 MHz , the 11 m band starts at 25.67 MHz , and the 120 , 90 and 60 m bands are absent altogether . Additionally , international broadcasters sometimes operate outside the normal WRC - allocated bands or use off - channel frequencies . This is done for practical reasons , or to attract attention in crowded bands ( 60m , 49m , 40m , 41m , 31m , 25m ) . The new digital audio broadcasting format for shortwave DRM operates 10 kHz or 20 kHz channels . There are some ongoing discussions with respect to specific band allocation for DRM , as it mainly transmitted in 10 kHz format . The power used by shortwave transmitters ranges from less than one watt for some experimental and amateur radio transmissions to 500 kilowatts and higher for intercontinental broadcasters and over-the - horizon radar . Shortwave transmitting centers often use specialized antenna designs ( like the ALLISS antenna technology ) to concentrate radio energy at the target area . Advantages ( edit ) Soviet shortwave listener in Borisoglebsk , 1941 Shortwave does possess a number of advantages over newer technologies , including the following : Difficulty of censoring programming by authorities in restrictive countries : unlike their relative ease in monitoring the Internet , government authorities face technical difficulties monitoring which stations ( sites ) are being listened to ( accessed ) . For example , during the attempted coup against Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev , when his access to communications was limited ( e.g. his phones were cut off , etc . ) , Gorbachev was able to stay informed by means of the BBC World Service on shortwave . Low - cost shortwave radios are widely available in all but the most repressive countries in the world . Simple shortwave regenerative receivers can be easily built with a few parts . In many countries ( particularly in most developing nations and in the Eastern bloc during the Cold War era ) ownership of shortwave receivers has been and continues to be widespread ( in many of these countries some domestic stations also used shortwave ) . Many newer shortwave receivers are portable and can be battery - operated , making them useful in difficult circumstances . Newer technology includes hand - cranked radios which provide power without batteries . Shortwave radios can be used in situations where Internet or satellite communications service is temporarily or long - term unavailable ( or unaffordable ) . Shortwave radio travels much farther than broadcast FM ( 88 -- 108 MHz ) . Shortwave broadcasts can be easily transmitted over a distance of several thousands of kilometers , including from one continent to another . Particularly in tropical regions , SW is somewhat less prone to interference from thunderstorms than medium wave radio , and is able to cover a large geographic area with relatively low power ( and hence cost ) . Therefore , in many of these countries it is widely used for domestic broadcasting . Very little infrastructure is required for long - distance two - way communications using shortwave radio . All one needs is a pair of transceivers , each with an antenna , and a source of energy ( such as a battery , a portable generator , or the electrical grid ) . This makes shortwave radio one of the most robust means of communications , which can be disrupted only by interference or bad ionospheric conditions . Modern digital transmission modes such as MFSK and Olivia are even more robust , allowing successful reception of signals well below the noise floor of a conventional receiver . Disadvantages ( edit ) Shortwave radio 's benefits are sometimes regarded as being outweighed by its drawbacks , including : In most Western countries , shortwave radio ownership is usually limited to true enthusiasts , since most new standard radios do not receive the shortwave band . Therefore , Western audiences are limited . In the developed world , shortwave reception is very difficult in urban areas because of excessive noise from switched - mode power adapters , fluorescent or LED light sources , internet modems and routers , computers and many other sources of radio interference . Shortwave listening ( edit ) A pennant sent to overseas listeners by Radio Budapest in the late 1980s Main article : Shortwave listening The Asia - Pacific Telecommunity estimates that there are approximately 600 million shortwave broadcast - radio receivers in use in 2002 . WWCR claims that there are 1.5 billion shortwave receivers worldwide . Many hobbyists listen to shortwave broadcasters . In some cases , the goal is to hear as many stations from as many countries as possible ( DXing ) ; others listen to specialized shortwave utility , or `` ute '' , transmissions such as maritime , naval , aviation , or military signals . Others focus on intelligence signals from numbers stations , stations which transmit strange broadcast usually for intelligence operations , or the two way communications by amateur radio operators . Some short wave listeners behave analogously to `` lurkers '' on the Internet , in that they listen only and never make any attempt to send out their own signals . Other listeners participate in clubs , or actively send and receive QSL cards , or become involved with amateur radio and start transmitting on their own . Many listeners tune the shortwave bands for the programmes of stations broadcasting to a general audience ( such as Radio Taiwan International , China Radio International , Voice of America , Radio France Internationale , BBC World Service , Voice of Korea , Radio Free Sarawak etc . ) . Today , through the evolution of the Internet , the hobbyist can listen to shortwave signals via remotely controlled or web controlled shortwave receivers around the world , even without owning a shortwave radio . Many international broadcasters offer live streaming audio on their websites and a number have closed their shortwave service entirely , or severely curtailed it , in favour of internet transmission . Shortwave listeners , or SWLs , can obtain QSL cards from broadcasters , utility stations or amateur radio operators as trophies of the hobby . Some stations even give out special certificates , pennants , stickers and other tokens and promotional materials to shortwave listeners . Shortwave broadcasts and music ( edit ) Composer Karlheinz Stockhausen Some musicians have been attracted to the unique aural characteristics of shortwave radio which -- due to the nature of amplitude modulation , varying propagation conditions , and the presence of interference -- generally has lower fidelity than local broadcasts ( particularly via FM stations ) . Shortwave transmissions often have bursts of distortion , and `` hollow '' sounding loss of clarity at certain aural frequencies , altering the harmonics of natural sound and creating at times a strange `` spacey '' quality due to echoes and phase distortion . Evocations of shortwave reception distortions have been incorporated into rock and classical compositions , by means of delays or feedback loops , equalizers , or even playing shortwave radios as live instruments . Snippets of broadcasts have been mixed into electronic sound collages and live musical instruments , by means of analogue tape loops or digital samples . Sometimes the sounds of instruments and existing musical recordings are altered by remixing or equalizing , with various distortions added , to replicate the garbled effects of shortwave radio reception . The first attempts by serious composers to incorporate radio effects into music may be those of the Russian physicist and musician Léon Theremin , who perfected a form of radio oscillator as a musical instrument in 1928 ( regenerative circuits in radios of the time were prone to breaking into oscillation , adding various tonal harmonics to music and speech ) ; and in the same year , the development of a French instrument called the Ondes Martenot by its inventor Maurice Martenot , a French cellist and former wireless telegrapher . Karlheinz Stockhausen used shortwave radio and effects in works including Hymnen ( 1966 -- 67 ) , Kurzwellen ( 1968 ) -- adapted for the Beethoven Bicentennial in Opus 1970 with filtered and distorted snippets of Beethoven pieces -- Spiral ( 1968 ) , Pole , Expo ( both 1969 -- 70 ) , and Michaelion ( 1997 ) . Cypriot composer Yannis Kyriakides incorporated shortwave numbers station transmissions in his 1999 ConSPIracy cantata . Holger Czukay , a student of Stockhausen , was one of the first to use shortwave in a rock music context . In 1975 , German electronic music band Kraftwerk recorded a full length concept album around simulated radiowave and shortwave sounds , entitled Radio - Activity . The The 's Radio Cineola monthly broadcasts drew heavily on shortwave radio sound . Shortwave 's future ( edit ) PC spectrum display of a modern software defined shortwave receiver Further information : Shortwave listening § Future of shortwave listening The development of direct broadcasts from satellites has reduced the demand for shortwave receiver hardware , but there are still a great number of shortwave broadcasters . A new digital radio technology , Digital Radio Mondiale ( DRM ) , is expected to improve the quality of shortwave audio from very poor to standards comparable to the FM broadcast band . The future of shortwave radio is threatened by the rise of power line communication ( PLC ) , also known as Broadband over Power Lines ( BPL ) , which uses a data stream transmitted over unshielded power lines . As the BPL frequencies used overlap with shortwave bands , severe distortions can make listening to analog shortwave radio signals near power lines difficult or impossible . Experts disagree on the future of shortwave . According to Andy Sennitt , former editor of the World Radio TV Handbook , `` shortwave is a legacy technology , which is expensive and environmentally unfriendly . A few countries are hanging on to it , but most have faced up to the fact that the glory days of shortwave have gone . Religious broadcasters will still use it because they are not too concerned with listening figures '' . However Thomas Witherspoon , editor of shortwave news site SWLingPost.com wrote that `` shortwave remains the most accessible international communications medium that still provides listeners with the protection of complete anonymity '' . According to Nigel Fry , head of Distribution for the BBC World Service Group , `` I still see a place for shortwave in the 21st century , especially for reaching areas of the world that are prone to natural disasters that destroy local broadcasting and Internet infrastructure '' . See also ( edit ) ALLISS -- a very large rotatable antenna system used in international broadcasting Amateur radio -- also uses the shortwave bands , but with power levels under 2 kW International broadcasting List of American shortwave broadcasters List of shortwave radio broadcasters Long wave Medium wave Shortwave bands -- shortwave spectrum allocation shortwave relay station -- the fundamental way in which programmes are broadcast on shortwave SSB -- a method of radio signal modulation References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Grundig Satellit 400 international / professional ShortWaveRadio.ch Jump up ^ Inconsistent article : itwissen.info : KW ( Kurzwelle ) SW ( short wave ) Quote : `` ... Der KW - Frequenzbereich ( SW ) liegt zwischen 3 MHz und 30 MHz ( < - 1 . definition ) ... Kurzwelle ist auch eine sendetechnische Bezeichnung für Rundfunk im Frequenzbereich zwischen 2 , 3 MHz und 26 , 1 MHz ( < - 2 . definition ) ... '' Jump up ^ oldtimeradio.de : Kleines Radio - Lexikon Quote : `` ... Kurzwellen , Kurzwellenbereich ... Wellenbereich , der von den Rundfunksendern ( je nach geographischer Lage ) von 11 bis 120 m = 26.100 bis 2.300 kHz ... '' Jump up ^ darc.de : Amateurfunk Frequenzen Quote : `` ... Grenzwelle ( Kurzwelle ) ... '' , de : Grenzwelle Quote : `` ... Als Grenzwelle wird der Frequenzbereich zwischen 1605 kHz und 3800 kHz bezeichnet , weil er auf der `` Grenze '' zwischen Mittelwelle und Kurzwelle liegt ... '' Jump up ^ Grundig Satellit 1000 TR6002 , schematic See at the bottom of the schematic , just below the transformer . In the schematic it is written that the first shortwave band starts at 1.6 MHz ( just after the band end of MW / AM ) : `` KW1 - SW1 - OC1 1 , 6 ... 5 , 0 MHz '' Jump up ^ Nebeker , Frederik ( 6 May 2009 ) . Dawn of the Electronic Age : Electrical Technologies in the Shaping of the Modern World , 1914 to 1945 . John Wiley & Sons . pp. 157 -- . ISBN 978 - 0 - 470 - 40974 - 9 . ^ Jump up to : Bray , John ( 2002 ) . Innovation and the Communications Revolution : From the Victorian Pioneers to Broadband Internet . IET . pp. 73 -- 75 . ISBN 9780852962183 . Jump up ^ Beauchamp , K.G. ( 2001 ) . History of Telegraphy . IET . p. 234 . ISBN 0 - 85296 - 792 - 6 . Retrieved 2007 - 11 - 23 . Jump up ^ Burns , R.W. ( 1986 ) . British Television : The Formative Years . IET . p. 315 . ISBN 0 - 86341 - 079 - 0 . Retrieved 2007 - 11 - 23 . Jump up ^ `` Full text of `` Beyond the ionosphere : fifty years of satellite communication '' `` . Archive.org . Retrieved 2012 - 08 - 31 . Jump up ^ Peter J. Hugill ( 4 March 1999 ) . Global Communications Since 1844 : Geopolitics and Technology . JHU Press . pp. 129 -- . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8018 - 6074 - 4 . Jump up ^ Cable and Wireless Plc History Archived 2015 - 03 - 20 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Stormfax . Marconi Wireless on Cape Cod Jump up ^ `` 1921 -- Club Station 1BCG and the Transatlantic Tests '' . Radio Club of America . Retrieved 2009 - 09 - 05 . Jump up ^ `` Radio Service Bulletin No. 72 , pp. 9 -- 13 '' . Bureau of Navigation , Department of Commerce . 1923 - 04 - 02 . Retrieved 2009 - 09 - 05 . Jump up ^ ( 1 ) Archived November 30 , 2009 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ `` Recommendations for Regulation of Radio : October 6 -- 10 , 1924 '' . Earlyradiohistory.us . Retrieved 2012 - 08 - 31 . Jump up ^ http://www.twiar.org/aaarchives/WB008.txt Jump up ^ Karl Rawer : `` Wave Propagation in the Ionosphere '' . Kluwer , Dordrecht 1993 ISBN 0 - 7923 - 0775 - 5 Jump up ^ Panasonic / National ShortwaveRadio.ch Jump up ^ `` Feld Hell Club '' . Google Sites . Google . Retrieved 9 January 2017 . Jump up ^ Ian Robertson Sinclair , Audio and Hi - Fi Handbook , Newnes , 2000 ISBN 0 - 7506 - 4975 - 5 pp. 195 -- 196 Jump up ^ Christopher H. Sterling ( March 2004 ) . Encyclopedia of Radio 3 - Volume Set . Routledge . pp. 538 -- . ISBN 978 - 1 - 135 - 45649 - 8 . Jump up ^ Hearst Magazines ( January 1940 ) . Popular Mechanics . Hearst Magazines . pp. 62 -- . Jump up ^ `` IARU Monitoring System '' . iaru.org . International Amateur Radio Union ( IARU ) . Retrieved 28 November 2017 . Jump up ^ Andrew R. Yoder ( 2002 ) . Pirate Radio Stations : Tuning in to Underground Broadcasts in the Air and Online . McGraw Hill Professional . ISBN 978 - 0 - 07 - 137563 - 4 . Jump up ^ Vladimir Bychkov ; Gennady Golubkov ; Anatoly Nikitin ( 17 July 2010 ) . The Atmosphere and Ionosphere : Dynamics , Processes and Monitoring . Springer Science & Business Media . pp. 104 -- . ISBN 978 - 90 - 481 - 3212 - 6 . Jump up ^ Nationaal Frequentieplan Jump up ^ http://www.w4uvh.net/dxld7078.txt Jump up ^ Habrat , Marek . `` Odbiornik `` Roksana '' ( Radio constructor 's recollections ) `` . Retrieved 2008 - 08 - 05 . Jump up ^ ( 2 ) Archived February 10 , 2005 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Arlyn T. Anderson . `` Changes at the BBC World Service : Documenting the World Service 's Move From Shortwave to Web Radio in North America , Australia , and New Zealand '' , Journal of Radio Studies 2005 , Vol. 12 , No. 2 , Pages 286 -- 304 doi : 10.1207 / s15506843jrs1202_8 mentioned in ( 3 ) WWCR FAQ Jump up ^ Web - Controlled Radios DXing.com ^ Jump up to : Karl Heinrich Wörner ( 1973 ) . Stockhausen ; Life and Work . University of California Press . pp. 76 -- . ISBN 978 - 0 - 520 - 02143 - 3 . ^ Jump up to : David Sheppard ( 1 May 2009 ) . On Some Faraway Beach : The Life and Times of Brian Eno . Chicago Review Press . pp. 275 -- . ISBN 978 - 1 - 55652 - 107 - 2 . ^ Jump up to : The Wire. C. Parker . 2000 . Jump up ^ Laura Dolp ( 13 July 2017 ) . Arvo Pärt 's White Light . Cambridge University Press . pp. 83 -- . ISBN 978 - 1 - 107 - 18289 - 9 . Jump up ^ Tim Barr ( 31 August 2013 ) . Kraftwerk : from Dusseldorf to the Future With Love . Ebury Publishing . pp. 98 -- . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4481 - 7776 - 9 . Jump up ^ Radio Cineola www.thethe.com Archived December 18 , 2011 , at the Wayback Machine . ^ Jump up to : Careless , James . `` The Evolution of Shortwave Radio '' . Radio World . NewBay Media . Retrieved 16 February 2018 . Jump up ^ Halid Hrasnica ; Abdelfatteh Haidine ; Ralf Lehnert ( 14 January 2005 ) . Broadband Powerline Communications : Network Design . John Wiley & Sons . pp. 34 -- . ISBN 978 - 0 - 470 - 85742 - 7 . Ulrich L. Rohde , Jerry Whitaker `` Communications Receivers , Third Edition '' McGraw Hill , New York , NY , 2001 , ISBN 0 - 07 - 136121 - 9 . External links ( edit ) SWLing.com -- A beginner 's guide to shortwave radio listening . Glenn Hauser 's World of Radio website Space Weather and Radio Propagation Center View live and historical data and images of space weather and radio propagation . Short - wave radio , Snap and crackle goes pop , Life in the old wireless yet The Economist article describing pros and cons of short wave radio since the Cold War . `` Short - Wave Radio Telephone is Success in Tests '' Popular Mechanics , July 1931 , mid page experiments carried out for the French and British governments Que Escuchar en la Onda Corta en Español website Time signal stations Longwave BPC BPL BSF DCF77 JJY RBU RJH66 ( Beta ) RTZ MSF TDF WWVB Shortwave BPM BSF CHU HD2IOA HLA JN53DV RWM ROA WWV WWVH ( Hawaii , USA ) YVTO VHF / FM / UHF RDS CT Satellite GPS BeiDou Galileo GLONASS IRNSS QZSS Defunct HBG NAA WWVL OMA OLB5 VNG Y3S Analog and digital audio broadcasting Terrestrial Radio modulation AM FM COFDM Frequency allocations LW ( LF ) MW ( MF ) SW ( HF ) VHF ( low / mid / high ) L band ( UHF ) Digital systems CAM - D DAB / DAB+ DRM / DRM+ FMeXtra HD Radio CDR DVB - T2 Lite Satellite Frequency allocations C band K band L band S band Digital systems ADR DAB - S DVB - SH S - DMB SDR Commercial radio providers 1worldspace Sirius XM Holdings SiriusXM Canada Codecs AAC AMR - WB+ HDC HE - AAC MPEG - 1 Audio Layer II Subcarrier signals AMSS DirectBand PAD RDS / RBDS SCA / SCMO DARC Related topics Technical ( audio ) Audio data compression Audio signal processing Technical ( AM stereo formats ) Belar C - QUAM Harris Kahn - Hazeltine Magnavox Technical ( emission ) AM broadcasting AM expanded band Cable radio Digital radio Error detection and correction FM broadcast band FM broadcasting Multipath propagation Shortwave relay station Cultural History of radio International broadcasting Comparison of radio systems Radio spectrum ( ITU ) ELF 3 Hz / 100 Mm 30 Hz / 10 Mm SLF 30 Hz / 10 Mm 300 Hz / 1 Mm ULF 300 Hz / 1 Mm 3 kHz / 100 km VLF 3 kHz / 100 km 30 kHz / 10 km LF 30 kHz / 10 km 300 kHz / 1 km MF 300 kHz / 1 km 3 MHz / 100 m HF 3 MHz / 100 m 30 MHz / 10 m VHF 30 MHz / 10 m 300 MHz / 1 m UHF 300 MHz / 1 m 3 GHz / 100 mm SHF 3 GHz / 100 mm 30 GHz / 10 mm EHF 30 GHz / 10 mm 300 GHz / 1 mm THF 300 GHz / 1 mm 3 THz / 0.1 mm Electromagnetic spectrum Gamma rays X-rays Ultraviolet Visible Infrared Terahertz radiation Microwave Radio ← higher frequencies longer wavelengths → Visible ( optical ) Violet Blue Green Yellow Orange Red Microwaves W band V band Q band K band K band K band X band S band C band L band Radio EHF SHF UHF VHF HF MF LF VLF ULF SLF ELF Wavelength types Microwave Shortwave Medium wave Longwave Telecommunications History Beacon Broadcasting Cable protection system Cable TV Communications satellite Computer network Drums Electrical telegraph Fax Heliographs Hydraulic telegraph Internet Mass media Mobile phone Optical telecommunication Optical telegraphy Pager Photophone Prepay mobile phone Radio Radiotelephone Satellite communications Semaphore Smartphone Smoke signals Telecommunications history Telautograph Telegraphy Teleprinter ( teletype ) Telephone The Telephone Cases Television Timeline of communication technology Undersea telegraph line Videoconferencing Videophone Videotelephony Whistled language Pioneers Edwin Howard Armstrong John Logie Baird Paul Baran Alexander Graham Bell Tim Berners - Lee Jagadish Chandra Bose Vint Cerf Claude Chappe Donald Davies Lee de Forest Philo Farnsworth Reginald Fessenden Elisha Gray Erna Schneider Hoover Charles K. 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Geography of Nigeria - wikipedia Geography of Nigeria Jump to : navigation , search Location of Nigeria Nigeria map of Köppen climate classification . Satellite image of Nigeria Nigeria is a country in West Africa . Nigeria shares land borders with the Republic of Benin in the west , Chad and Cameroon in the east , and Niger in the north . Its coast lies on the Gulf of Guinea in the south and it borders Lake Chad to the northeast . Noted geographical features in Nigeria include the Adamawa highlands , Mambilla Plateau , Jos Plateau , Obudu Plateau , the Niger River , River Benue and Niger Delta . Nigeria is found in the Tropics , where the climate is seasonally damp and very humid . Nigeria is affected by four climate types ; these climate types are distinguishable , as one moves from the southern part of Nigeria to the northern part of Nigeria through Nigeria 's middle belt . Contents ( hide ) 1 Climate types found in Nigeria 2 Seasons 3 Trade winds 3.1 Tropical maritime airmass 3.2 Tropical continental airmass 3.2. 1 Effects of the tropical continental airmass 4 Temperature 5 Topography 6 Niger Delta 6.1 Vegetation of the Niger Delta 6.2 Human population in the Niger Delta 6.3 Rainfall in Niger Delta 7 Vegetation 8 Natural resources and land use 9 Extreme points 10 References Climate types found in Nigeria ( edit ) The tropical monsoon climate , designated by the Köppen climate classification as `` Am '' , is found in the southern part of the country . This climate is influenced by the monsoons originating from the South Atlantic ocean , which is brought into the country by the ( maritime tropical ) MT airmass , a warm moist sea to land seasonal wind . Its warmth and high humidity gives it a strong tendency to ascend and produce copious rainfall , which is a result of the condensation of water vapour in the rapidly rising air . The Tropical monsoon climate has a very small temperature range . Then temperature ranges are almost constant throughout the year , for example , Warri town in the southern part of Nigeria , records a maximum of 28 ° C ( 82.4 ° F ) for its hottest month while its lowest temperature is 26 ° C ( 78.8 ° F ) in its coldest month . The temperature difference of Warri town is not more than 2 ° C ( 5 ° F ) . The southern part of Nigeria experiences heavy and abundant rainfall . These storms are usually convectional in nature due to the regions proximity , to the equatorial belt . The annual rainfall received in this region is very high , usually above the 2,000 mm ( 78.7 in ) rainfall totals giving for tropical rainforest climates worldwide . Over 4,000 mm ( 157.5 in ) of rainfall is received in the coastal region of Nigeria around the Niger delta area . Bonny town found in the coastal region of the Niger delta area in southern Nigeria receives well over 4,000 mm ( 157.5 in ) of rainfall annually . The rest of the southeast receives between 2,000 and 3,000 mm ( 118.1 in ) of rain per year . The southern region of Nigeria experiences a double rainfall maxima characterised by two high rainfall peaks , with a short dry season and a longer dry season falling between and after each peaks . The first rainy season begins around March and last to the end of July with a peak in June , this rainy season is followed by a short dry break in August known as the August break which is a short dry season lasting for two to three weeks in August . This break is broken by the short rainy season starting around early September and lasting to Mid October with a peak period at the end of September . The ending of the short rainy season in October is followed by long dry season . This period starts from late October and lasts till early March with peak dry conditions between early December and late February . The tropical savanna climate or tropical wet and dry climate , is extensive in area and covers most of Western Nigeria to central Nigeria beginning from the Tropical rainforest climate boundary in southern Nigeria to the central part of Nigeria , where it exerts enormous influence on the region . This climate , the tropical savanna climate exhibits a well marked rainy season and a dry season with a single peak known as the summer maximum due to its distance from the equator . Temperatures are above 18 ° C ( 64 ° F ) throughout the year . Abuja , Nigeria 's capital city found in central Nigeria , has a temperature range of 18.45 ° C ( 65.21 ° F ) to 36.9 ° C ( 98.4 ° F ) , and an annual rainfall of about 1,500 mm ( 59.1 in ) with a single rainfall maxima in September . The single Dry season experienced in this climate , the tropical savanna climate in central Nigeria beginning from December to march , is hot and dry with the Harmattan wind , a continental tropical ( CT ) airmass laden with dust from the Sahara Desert prevailing throughout this period . With the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) swinging northward over West Africa from the Southern Hemisphere in April , heavy showers coming from pre-monsoonal convective clouds mainly in the form of squall lines also known as the north easterlies formed mainly as a result of the interactions of the two dominant airmasses in Nigeria known as the Maritime tropical ( south westerlies ) and the Continental tropical ( north easterlies ) , begins in central Nigeria while the Monsoons from the south atlantic ocean arrives in central Nigeria in July bringing with it high humidity , heavy cloud cover and heavy rainfall which can be daily occurrence lasting till September when the monsoons gradually begin retreating southward to the southern part of Nigeria. Rainfall totals in central Nigeria varies from 1,100 mm ( 43.3 in ) in the lowlands of the river Niger Benue trough to over 2,000 mm ( 78.7 in ) along the south western escarpment of the Jos Plateau . The Sahel climate or tropical dry climate , is the predominant climate type in the northern part of Nigeria . Annual rainfall totals are lower compared to the southern and central part of Nigeria . The rainy season in the northern part of Nigeria last for only three to four months ( June -- September ) . The rest of the year is hot and dry with temperatures climbing as high as 40 ° C ( 104.0 ° F ) . Alpine climate or highland climate or mountain climate are found on highlands regions in Nigeria . Highlands with the alpine climate in Nigeria , are well over 1,520 metres ( 4,987 ft ) above sea level . Due to their location in the tropics , this elevation is high enough to reach the temperate climate line in the tropics thereby giving the highlands , mountains and the plateau regions standing above this height , a cool mountain climate . Seasons ( edit ) Nigeria , like the rest of West Africa and other tropical lands , has only two seasons . These are the dry season and the rainy season . The dry season is accompanied by a dust laden airmass from the Sahara Desert , locally known as Harmattan , or by its main name , The Tropical Continental ( CT ) airmass , while the rainy season is heavily influenced by an airmass originating from the south atlantic ocean , locally known as the south west wind , or by its main name , The Tropical Maritime ( MT ) airmass . These two major wind systems in Nigeria are known as the trade winds . Trade winds ( edit ) Tropical Maritime airmass ( edit ) The tropical maritime airmass ( MT ) is responsible for Nigeria 's rainy season . This wind ( the tropical maritime airmass ) invades the country from February in the southern part of Nigeria while it takes longer for the wind to fully cover the whole of the country , reaching the northern part of Nigeria in June . Its invasion is as a result of the northward retreat , of the tropical continental airmass ( CT ) known as the harmattan . The northward retreat of the tropical continental airmass ( CT ) , is caused by the sun 's northward shift from the tropic of capricorn in the southern hemisphere to the tropic of cancer in the northern hemisphere . This shift begins from February and ends in June , when the sun is fully overhead , at the tropic of cancer in the northern hemisphere . During this northward migration of the sun as a result of the earth tilting along its axis , the sun crosses the equator ( around March ) , moving over west Africa at this time on its journey to the northern hemisphere . West Africa comes directly under the sun at this time . The sun is overhead throughout west Africa and over Nigeria during this period of the sun 's northward migration to the tropic of cancer in the northern hemisphere . The whole of West Africa is heated intensely as result of the increased insolation received from the sun being overhead over west Africa . Temperatures can climb as high as 35 ° C ( 95.0 ° F ) over west Africa during this time . Temperatures in the northern part of Nigeria can go as high as 48 ° C ( 118.4 ° F ) in cities like Maiduguri . The high temperatures coupled with an increase in insolation causes a region of low pressure to develop over west Africa and Nigeria ( between March to May ) . The Tropical continental airmass ( CT ) from the Sahara Desert in the northern part of West Africa , is weakened due to the overheating of the land surface in west Africa and Nigeria at this time . The Tropical continental airmass ( CT ) begins to retreat northwards to the Sahara Desert due to massive heating of the land which transfers heat in the form of convection into the Tropical continental airmass ( CT ) which constitutes the main layer of air above the land . This transfer of heat in the Tropical continental airmass ( CT ) in turn , causes the wind to expand and become lighter as this is the normal behaviour for winds moving above intensely heated grounds . The Tropical continental airmass ( CT ) loses its strength as a major airmass in the region of west Africa and over Nigeria at this time ( around February in the southern part of Nigeria to June in northern Nigeria ) and begins to retreat coupled with the rising of air in form of convection within this airmass ( Tropical continental airmass ( CT ) ) , further weakening the dominance of the wind over west Africa and Nigeria . The Tropical continental airmass ( CT ) finally retreats from most part of Nigeria , and the West African atmosphere around April to May , leaving an empty atmosphere over Nigeria . The sun 's rays enters into the atmosphere of Nigeria more intense than it does during the presence of the Tropical continental airmass , which contained dust ( in form of haze ) that reduced the intensity of the sun . The overheating of the west Africa land mass and Nigeria in particular creates a low pressure region over west Africa and Nigeria . This low pressure zone attracts the Tropical Maritime Airmass ( MT ) from the south Atlantic Ocean since areas of low pressures experiences inward blowing winds because winds are moving air blowing outwards from regions of high pressure to regions of low pressure . The Tropical Maritime Airmass is a warm humid and unstable trade wind due to its warmth . Convectional currents are easily set up within the airmass whenever there is little instability in the airmass as a result of a slight to a very high orographic uplift in mountainous regions like the obudu plateau or the heating of the land which can trigger the formation of cumulonimbus cloud leading to thunderstorms within the airmass . During the dominance of the Tropical Maritime Airmass ( MT ) in the rainy season of Nigeria , mornings are bright and sunny , the sun 's heating of the land in the mornings and afternoons sets up convectional currents , these currents rise vertically and cumulonimbus clouds are formed , by afternoons to evenings , torrential downpour follows . The Easterly wave or the African easterly waves is another major contributor of rainfall during the summer monsoons months of May to September in Nigeria . The nature of this waves changes at about the 15 degrees line . The waves that pass south of this line carry moisture and create convection that leads to rain clouds . Nigeria 's northern end is south of the 15 degrees line at about 14 degrees . Nigeria 's location in the wetter part of the easterly waves south of the 15 degree line creates wetter climatic conditions for Nigeria especially during the monsoons . Tropical continental airmass ( edit ) The Tropical Continental Airmass ( CT ) locally known as the harmattan , is a wind originating from North Africa which crosses the Sahara Desert into west Africa to Nigeria . This airmass dominates Nigeria 's climate during the dry season from December to March . The Tropical continental airmass is dusty and creates a haze within the atmosphere of west Africa and Nigeria when it predominates . The haze is as a result of the dust within the airmass limiting visibility and blocking much of the sun 's rays from reaching the earth . Effects of the tropical continental airmass ( edit ) The mass has no ability of forming rain due to low humidity within the airmass , since it crosses the Sahara Desert , it picks up dust instead of water thereby creating little chances for rainfall . The airmass makes life difficult as a result of low visibility which hampers transportation . The dust haze creates an almost desert conditions in the country during the dominance of the Tropical continental airmass ( the harmattan ) . But its coming brings some relief to farmers since the low humidity present in the air quickens the drying of their crops . Temperature ( edit ) Nigeria 's location in the tropics has given her a tropical hot climate . Temperatures in Nigeria vary according to the seasons of the year as with other lands found in the tropics . Nigeria 's seasons are determined by rainfall with rainy season and dry season being the major seasons in Nigeria . The rainy season of Nigeria brings in cooler weather to the country as a result of an increased cloud cover that acts as a blockage to the intense sunshine of the tropics by blocking much of the suns rays in the rainy season ; this in turn cools the land , and the winds above the ground remains cool thereby making for cooler temperatures during the rainy season . But afternoons in the rainy season can be hot and humid , a feature of tropical climates . In the rainy season it is damp , and the rainfalls are usually abundant . The dry season of Nigeria is a period of little cloud cover in the southern part of Nigeria to virtually no cloud cover in the northern part of Nigeria . The sun shines through the atmosphere with little obstructions from the clear skies making the dry season in Nigeria a period of warm weather conditions.In the middle of the dry season around December , a dusty wind from the Sahara Desert called the harmattan enters Nigeria from the northeastern part of the country blocking sun rays partially from shining and also creating haze in the atmosphere , this activities of the wind lowers temperatures considerably saving inhabitants for sometime , from the scorching heat that would have occurred as a result of clearer skies during the dry season . But with the withdrawal of this wind around March to April following the onset of the rainy season , temperatures can go as high as 44 ° C ( 111.2 ° F ) in some parts of Nigeria . Semi temperate weather conditions prevail on the highlands in central Nigeria above 1,200 metres ( 3,937 ft ) above sea level , namely the Jos Plateau . Temperatures on the Jos plateau ranges between 21 ° C to 25 ° C which are cool all year round . Temperate weather conditions occur on the highlands along the Nigeria Cameroon border , in the eastern part of Nigeria . Highlands in these region attain an average height of more than 1,524 m ( 5,000 ft ) to some standing above 2,000 metres ( 6,562 ft ) above sea level . The climate on these highlands is temperate all year round . The major highlands in this region are the Obudu Plateau above 1,584 m ( 5,197 ft ) , Mambilla Plateau above 1,524 m ( 5,000 ft ) and Mt Chappal Waddi above 2,000 m ( 6,562 ft ) . Topography ( edit ) Topography of Nigeria Nigeria 's most expansive topographical region is that of the valleys of the Niger and Benue River valleys ( which merge into each other and form a `` y '' shaped confluence at Lokoja ) . Plains rise to the north of the valleys . To the southwest of the Niger there is `` rugged '' highland , and to the southeast of the Benue hills and mountains are found all the way to the border with Cameroon . Coastal plains are found in both the southwest and the southeast . Niger Delta ( edit ) This section needs expansion . You can help by adding to it . ( January 2011 ) The Niger Delta is located in the southern part of Nigeria . It is one of the world 's largest arcuate fan - shaped river deltas . The riverine area of the Niger Delta is a coastal belt of swamps bordering the Atlantic ocean . The swamps are vegetated tidal flats formed by a reticulate pattern of interconnected meandering creeks and distributaries of the River Niger . Vegetation of the Niger Delta ( edit ) The vegetation of the Niger Delta consist mainly of forest swamps . The forest are of two types , nearest the sea is a belt of saline / brackish Mangrove swamp separated from the sea by sand beach ridges within the mangrove swamp . Numerous sandy islands occur with fresh water vegetation . Fresh water swamps gradually supersede the mangrove on the landward side . About 70 % of Nigeria 's crude oil and gas production is from the area . Human population in the Niger Delta ( edit ) This section needs expansion . You can help by adding to it . ( January 2011 ) The riverine area is home to a large population of people living mainly in small villages scattered along the banks of rivers and creeks . Rainfall in Niger Delta ( edit ) Rainfall in the coastal belt of the Niger Delta is heavy due to the closeness of the Delta region to the equator . Annual rainfall totals vary from 2400 to over 4000 millimeters . Niger Delta cities and their annually rainfall totals in millimeters : Warri -- 2,730 mm Forcados ( coastal town in the Niger Delta ) -- 4,870 mm Port Harcourt -- 2,400 mm Calabar ( coastal city ) -- 3,070 mm ( rainiest city with over one million people in Nigeria ) Bonny ( south of Port Harcourt ) -- 4,200 mm Vegetation ( edit ) Vegetation map of Nigeria . Nigeria is covered by three types of vegetation : forests ( where there is significant tree cover ) , savannahs ( insignificant tree cover , with grasses and flowers located between trees ) , and montane land . ( The latter is the least common , and is mainly found in the mountains near the Cameroon border . ) Both the forest zone and the savannah zone are divided into three parts . Some of the forest zone 's most southerly portion , especially around the Niger River and Cross River deltas , is mangrove swamp ( see Central African mangroves ) . North of this is fresh water swamp , containing different vegetation from the salt water mangrove swamps , and north of that is rain forest . The savannah zone 's three categories are divided into mm ' Guinean forest - savanna mosaic , made up of plains of tall grass which are interrupted by trees , the most common across the country ; Sudan savannah , similar but with shorter grasses and shorter trees ; and Sahel savannah patches of grass and sand , found in the northeast . Natural resources and land Use ( edit ) Nigeria 's natural resources include but are not limited to petroleum ( see petroleum in Nigeria ) , tin , columbite , iron ore , coal , limestone , lead , zinc , natural gas , hydropower , and arable land . Extreme points ( edit ) This is a list of the extreme points of Nigeria , the points that are farther north , south , east or west than any other location . Northernmost point -- unnamed location on the border with Niger immediately northwest of the town of Chadawa , Sokoto State . Easternmost point -- unnamed location on the border with Cameroon immediately east of the village of Munyego , Borno State . Southernmost point -- unnamed headland south of the town of Egeregere , Bayelsa State . Westernmost point -- unnamed location on the border with Benin Republic immediately east of the Beninoise town of Jabata , Oyo State . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/390302/monsoon Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on 2011 - 05 - 11 . Retrieved 2011 - 05 - 27 . Jump up ^ http://iahs.info/redbooks/a281/iahs_281_277.pdf Jump up ^ Adedoyin J.A. ( 1989 ) . `` Initiation of West African squall lines '' . Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics. 41 : 99 -- 103 . doi : 10.1007 / BF01043455 . Jump up ^ `` Jos Plateau forest - grassland mosaic '' . Terrestrial Ecoregions . World Wildlife Fund . Jump up ^ http://sunday.dailytrust.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=3565:maiduguri-residents-how-we-cope-under-harsh-48-degree-celsius&catid=41:latest-news&Itemid=26 Archived 2011 - 08 - 30 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ http://desertification.wordpress.com/2010/03/25/late-dust-storm-covers-nigeria-google-ap/ Jump up ^ College Park MD ( SPX ) ( Jun 11 , 2004 ) . `` EARTH OBSERVATION Researchers Seeing Double On African Monsoons '' . SPACE MEDIA NETWORK PROMOTIONS . Retrieved 27 May 2011 . Jump up ^ `` About the Country Nigeria '' . CANUK. 2011 . Archived from the original on 16 March 2011 . Retrieved 27 May 2011 . Jump up ^ http://www.nigeria-weather.com/ ^ Jump up to : `` Nigeria '' . Encarta . Microsoft . Archived from the original on 2009 - 11 - 01 . Retrieved 2007 - 07 - 19 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Human and Physical Characteristics of Nigeria '' . Geographical Alliance of Iowa . University of Northern Iowa . Archived from the original on 2010 - 03 - 28 . Retrieved 2007 - 08 - 13 . Nigeria articles History Kingdoms Empires Aro Benin Fulani Kanem - Bornu Nri Oyo Timeline Northern Nigeria Southern Nigeria Civil War Geography Adamawa Plateau Cities Ecoregions Environmental issues Islands Jos Plateau Mountains National parks Niger Delta Rivers Niger Benue Wildlife Politics Administrative divisions Cabinet Constitution Elections Federal Executive Council Foreign relations Human rights Law enforcement LGBT history Military National Assembly House of Representatives Senate Political parties PDP APC President Vice-President Supreme Court Economy Agriculture Central Bank Economic history Energy Mining Naira ( currency ) Petroleum Stock Exchange Telecommunications Tourism Transport Society Capital punishment Corruption Demographics Diaspora Education Ethnic groups MASSOB MOSOP Oodua Peoples Congress Health Languages Organized crime Poverty Rankings Refugees Water supply and sanitation Islamist insurgency Communal conflicts in Nigeria , Herder -- farmer conflicts in Nigeria Niger Delta conflict 2016 Biafra conflict Culture Anthem Cinema Nollywood Colonial era Golden Age Video film era New Wave Coat of arms Cuisine Demonyms Flag List of Nigerians Literature Media Newspapers Radio TV Music Public holidays Religion Smoking Sport Video gaming Outline Index Portal Geography of Africa Sovereign states Algeria Angola Benin Botswana Burkina Faso Burundi Cameroon Cape Verde ( Cabo Verde ) Central African Republic Chad Comoros Democratic Republic of the Congo Republic of the Congo Djibouti Egypt Equatorial Guinea Eritrea Ethiopia Gabon The Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea - Bissau Ivory Coast ( Côte d'Ivoire ) Kenya Lesotho Liberia Libya Madagascar Malawi Mali Mauritania Mauritius Morocco Mozambique Namibia Niger Nigeria Rwanda São Tomé and Príncipe Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Somalia South Africa South Sudan Sudan Swaziland Tanzania Togo Tunisia Uganda Zambia Zimbabwe States with limited recognition Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic Somaliland Dependencies and other territories Canary Islands / Ceuta / Melilla ( Spain ) Madeira ( Portugal ) Mayotte / Réunion ( France ) Saint Helena / Ascension Island / Tristan da Cunha ( United Kingdom ) Western Sahara Climate of Africa Sovereign states Algeria Angola Benin Botswana Burkina Faso Burundi Cameroon Cape Verde ( Cabo Verde ) Central African Republic Chad Comoros Democratic Republic of the Congo Republic of the Congo Djibouti Egypt Equatorial Guinea Eritrea Ethiopia Gabon The Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea - Bissau Ivory Coast ( Côte d'Ivoire ) Kenya Lesotho Liberia Libya Madagascar Malawi Mali Mauritania Mauritius Morocco Mozambique Namibia Niger Nigeria Rwanda São Tomé and Príncipe Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Somalia South Africa South Sudan Sudan Swaziland Tanzania Togo Tunisia Uganda Zambia Zimbabwe States with limited recognition Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic Somaliland Dependencies and other territories Canary Islands / Ceuta / Melilla ( Spain ) Madeira ( Portugal ) Mayotte / Réunion ( France ) Saint Helena / Ascension Island / Tristan da Cunha ( United Kingdom ) Western Sahara Coordinates : 10 ° 00 ′ N 8 ° 00 ′ E  /  10.00 ° N 8.00 ° E  / 10.00 ; 8.00 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geography_of_Nigeria&oldid=831059315 '' Categories : Geography of Nigeria Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links Articles to be expanded from January 2011 All articles to be expanded Articles using small message boxes Coordinates not on Wikidata Talk Contents About Wikipedia Languages Asturianu Български Español Français 한국어 Hausa Հայերեն Italiano עברית Polski Português Русский Shqip Українська Vèneto Yorùbá 中文 9 more Edit links This page was last edited on 18 March 2018 , at 14 : 23 . 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the south west wind blows across nigeria between

arrives in central Nigeria in July

wikipedia Geography of Nigeria

Health ( Gaming ) - wikipedia Health ( Gaming ) Jump to : navigation , search A health bar , a possible representation of the health of a character . Health or vitality is an attribute assigned to entities , such as the player character , enemies and objects within a role - playing or video game , that indicates its state in combat . Health is usually measured in hit points or health points , shortened to HP . When the HP of a player character reaches zero , the player may lose a life or their character might become incapacitated or die . When the HP of an enemy reaches zero , it may be defeated or die and the player is usually rewarded in some way . Any entity within a game could have a health value , including the player character , non-player characters and objects . Indestructible entities have no diminishable health value . Health might be displayed as a numeric value , such as `` 50 / 100 '' . Here , the first number indicates the current amount of HP an entity has and the second number indicates the entity 's maximum HP . In video games , health can also be displayed graphically , such as with a bar that empties itself when an entity loses health ( a health bar , typically red ) , icons that are `` chipped away '' , or in more novel ways . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 2 Usage 2.1 Regeneration 3 Display 4 References History ( edit ) Dungeons & Dragons co-creator Dave Arneson described the origin of hit points in a 2002 interview . When Arneson was adapting the medieval wargame Chainmail ( 1971 ) to a fantasy setting , a process that with Gary Gygax would lead to Dungeons & Dragons , he saw that the emphasis of the gameplay was moving from large armies to small groups of heroes and eventually to the identification of one player and one character that is essential to role - playing as it was originally conceived . Players became attached to their heroes and did not want them to die every time they lost a die roll . Players were thus given multiple hit points which were incrementally decreased as they took damage . Arneson took the concept , along with armor class , from a set of a naval American Civil War game 's rules . US Navy used similar concept in their tactical war games already in 1920s and 1930s . In their simulation each ship had Life parameter . The unit of Life of the ship was a number of `` equivalent penetrative 14 - inch shell hits '' . The Navy considered ie. that Kongō - class battlecruiser had 12 Life points and Nagato - class battleship had 18.8 . A visual power meter representing stamina was used in Nintendo 's 1983 arcade game Punch - Out ! ! and Data East 's 1981 DECO Cassette System arcade game Flash Boy . Usage ( edit ) In action video games as well as in role - playing games , health points can usually be depleted by attacking the entity . A defense attribute might reduce the amount of HP that is lost when a character is damaged . It is common in role - playing games for a character 's maximum health and defense attributes to be gradually raised as the character levels up . In game design , it is deemed important that a player is aware of it when they are losing health , each hit playing a clear sound effect . Author Scott Rogers states that `` health should deplete in an obvious manner , because with every hit , a player is closer to losing their life . '' The display of health also helps to dramatize the near - loss of a life . Regeneration ( edit ) Player characters can often restore their health points by consuming certain items , such as health potions , food or first - aid kits . Staying a night at an inn fully restores a character 's health in many role - playing video games . In general , the different methods of regenerating health has its uses in a particular genre . In action games , this method is very quick , whereas role - playing games feature slower paced methods to match the gameplay and realism . Some video games feature automatically regenerating health , where lost health points are regained over time . This can be useful to not `` cripple '' the player , making them still able to continue even after losing lots of health . However , automatically regenerating health may also cause a player to `` power through '' sections they might otherwise have had to approach cautiously , simply because there are no lasting consequences to losing a large amount of health . This mechanic initially appeared in action role - playing games , with early examples including the Hydlide series , the Ys series , and Woody Poco . In Woody Poco , the rate at which health recharges is based on food level . In Hydlide and Ys , the player character has to stand still for their health to automatically regenerate . This system was popularized in first - person shooters by Halo : Combat Evolved ( 2001 ) , though regenerating health in The Getaway ( 2002 ) has been cited to be more comparable to later use of the mechanic in first - person shooters . Display ( edit ) Heart - shaped icons can indicate the amount of health a player has left . The way health is displayed on the screen has an effect on the player . Many games only show the health of the player character , while keeping the health of enemies hidden . This is done in the Legend of Zelda series , Minecraft and Monster Hunter series to keep the player 's progress in defeating their enemy unclear and therefore exciting . In these games , the fact that the enemies are being damaged is indicated by their behavior . On the other hand , many fighting games , such as the Street Fighter series , use easy - to - read health bars to clearly indicate the progress the player is making with each hit . It is common in first - person shooters to indicate low health of the player character by blood spatters or by a distorted red hue on the screen , attempting to mimic the effects of wounding and trauma . These visual effects fade as health regenerates . References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Moore , Michael ( 2011 - 03 - 23 ) . Basics of Game Design . CRC Press . pp. 151 , 194 . ISBN 1439867763 . Retrieved 2014 - 12 - 09 . Jump up ^ Chris Antista . `` The 10 most creative life bars '' . GamesRadar. 2010 - 08 - 17 . p. 2 . Archived from the original on 2014 - 12 - 28 . ^ Jump up to : Rogers , Scott ( 2010 - 09 - 29 ) . Level Up ! : The Guide to Great Video Game Design . John Wiley & Sons . pp. 276 -- 277 . ISBN 0470970928 . Retrieved 2014 - 11 - 21 . Jump up ^ Allen Rausch ( 2004 - 08 - 19 ) . `` Dave Arneson Interview '' . GameSpy . Retrieved 2014 - 01 - 09 . Jump up ^ American Calculations of Battleline Strength , 1941 - 2 , Alan D. Zimm , The Northern Mariner / le marin du nord , XIX No. 3 , ( July 2009 ) , 291 - 317 Jump up ^ `` Glass Joe Boxes Clever '' . Computer + Video Games . Future Publishing : 47 . August 1984 . Retrieved 2015 - 01 - 02 . Jump up ^ John Szczepaniak , History of Japanese Video Games , Kinephanos , ISSN 1916 - 985X Jump up ^ Nickogibson ( 2012 - 09 - 12 ) . `` What is an RPG - Intro to RPG Games '' . Slideshare . Retrieved 2015 - 01 - 09 . ^ Jump up to : Fullerton , Tracy ( 2008 - 02 - 08 ) . Game Design Workshop : A Playcentric Approach to Creating Innovative Games . CRC Press . pp. 72 , 73 . ISBN 0240809742 . Retrieved 2014 - 12 - 19 . Jump up ^ Duggan , Michael ( 2011 ) . RPG Maker for Teens . Cengage Learning . pp. 109 , 141 . ISBN 1435459679 . Retrieved 2014 - 12 - 09 . Jump up ^ Jonathan Moriarty ( 2010 - 12 - 02 ) . `` Video Game Basics : The Health Bar '' . Baltimoregamer.com . Archived from the original on 28 April 2012 . Retrieved 2014 - 11 - 21 . ^ Jump up to : Dunn , Jeff ( 2012 - 11 - 15 ) . `` Stop , Drop , and Heal : The history of regenerating health '' . GamesRadar . Retrieved 2015 - 01 - 08 . Jump up ^ Sulliven , Lucas . `` Top 7 ... Games you did n't know did it first '' . GamesRadar . Retrieved 2015 - 01 - 08 . ^ Jump up to : John Szczepaniak ( 2016 ) . `` dB - SOFT Gaming 101 '' . The Untold History of Japanese Game Developers . 2 . Jump up ^ Szczepaniak , John ( 7 July 2011 ) . `` Falcom : Legacy of Ys '' . Games ( 111 ) : 152 -- 159 ( 153 ) . ( cf . Szczepaniak , John ( July 8 , 2011 ) . `` History of Ys interviews '' . Hardcore Gaming 101 . Retrieved 6 September 2011. ) Jump up ^ Jon Martindale ( 2012 - 10 - 03 ) . `` Let 's Kill off Health Bars '' . Kit Guru Gaming . Archived from the original on May 28 , 2015 . Retrieved 2014 - 11 - 21 . Jump up ^ Novak , Jeannie ( 2013 - 04 - 11 ) . The Official GameSalad Guide to Game Development . Cengage Learning . p. 31 . ISBN 1133605648 . Retrieved 2014 - 11 - 21 . Jump up ^ Voorhees , Gerald A. ; Call , Joshua ; Whitlock , Katie ( 2012 - 11 - 02 ) . `` Disposable Bodies : Cyborg Regeneration and FPS Mechanics '' . Guns , Grenades , and Grunts : First - Person Shooter Games ( Google eBook ) . Bloomsbury Publishing USA . ISBN 1441191445 . Retrieved 2014 - 11 - 21 . ( hide ) Concepts of video games Glossary of video game terms Attributes Health Life Experience point Magic Mechanics Item Power - up HUD Warp Fog of war Invisible wall Cutscene Mini-map Paper doll Destructible environment Loading screen Replay value Scripted sequence Password Line of sight Critical hit Level Permadeath Status effect Hitbox Movement techniques Rocket jumping Strafe - jumping Strafing Trickjump Modes Player type Single - player Multiplayer Cooperative Competitive gameplay eSports Speedrun Gameplay type Capture the flag ( CTF ) Deathmatch Last man standing Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Health_(gaming)&oldid=819315199 '' Categories : Role - playing game terminology Video game terminology Hidden categories : All articles lacking reliable references Articles lacking reliable references from September 2016 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch Español فارسی Français 한국어 Italiano עברית ქართული Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Русский Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 8 January 2018 , at 18 : 11 . 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what does hp mean in war and order

hit points or health points

shortened to HP

Cyrus Cylinder - wikipedia Cyrus Cylinder Jump to : navigation , search Cyrus Cylinder The Cyrus Cylinder , obverse and reverse sides Material Baked clay Size 22.5 centimetres ( 8.9 in ) x 10 centimetres ( 3.9 in ) ( maximum ) Writing Akkadian cuneiform script Created About 539 -- 538 BC Period / culture Achaemenid Empire Discovered Babylon , Mesopotamia by Hormuzd Rassam in March 1879 Present location Room 52 , British Museum , London Identification BM 90920 Registration 1880 , 0617.1941 The Cyrus Cylinder ( Persian : استوانه کوروش ‎ , translit . Ostovane - ye Kūrosh ) or Cyrus Charter ( منشور کوروش Manshūre Kūrosh ) is an ancient clay cylinder , now broken into several pieces , on which is written a declaration in Akkadian cuneiform script in the name of Persia 's Achaemenid king Cyrus the Great . It dates from the 6th century BC and was discovered in the ruins of Babylon in Mesopotamia ( modern Iraq ) in 1879 . It is currently in the possession of the British Museum , which sponsored the expedition that discovered the cylinder . It was created and used as a foundation deposit following the Persian conquest of Babylon in 539 BC , when the Neo-Babylonian Empire was invaded by Cyrus and incorporated into his Persian Empire . The text on the Cylinder praises Cyrus , sets out his genealogy and portrays him as a king from a line of kings . The Babylonian king Nabonidus , who was defeated and deposed by Cyrus , is denounced as an impious oppressor of the people of Babylonia and his low - born origins are implicitly contrasted to Cyrus ' kingly heritage . The victorious Cyrus is portrayed as having been chosen by the chief Babylonian god Marduk to restore peace and order to the Babylonians . The text states that Cyrus was welcomed by the people of Babylon as their new ruler and entered the city in peace . It appeals to Marduk to protect and help Cyrus and his son Cambyses . It extols Cyrus as a benefactor of the citizens of Babylonia who improved their lives , repatriated displaced people and restored temples and cult sanctuaries across Mesopotamia and elsewhere in the region . It concludes with a description of how Cyrus repaired the city wall of Babylon and found a similar inscription placed there by an earlier king . The Cylinder 's text has traditionally been seen by biblical scholars as corroborative evidence of Cyrus ' policy of the repatriation of the Jewish people following their Babylonian captivity ( an act that the Book of Ezra attributes to Cyrus ) , as the text refers to the restoration of cult sanctuaries and repatriation of deported peoples . This interpretation has been disputed , as the text identifies only Mesopotamian sanctuaries , and makes no mention of Jews , Jerusalem , or Judea . The Cylinder has also been referred to by Mohammad Reza Pahlavi , the last Shah of Iran as the first declaration of universal human rights , a view rejected by some historians as anachronistic and a misunderstanding of the Cylinder 's generic nature as a typical statement made by a new monarch at the beginning of his reign . Neil MacGregor , Director of the British Museum , has stated that the cylinder was `` the first attempt we know about running a society , a state with different nationalities and faiths -- a new kind of statecraft . '' It was adopted as a national symbol of Iran by the Imperial State which put it on display in Tehran in 1971 to commemorate 2,500 year celebration of the Persian Empire . On October 14 , the Mohammad Reza Shah 's sister , Princess Ashraf Pahlavi , presented the United Nations Secretary General U Thant with a replica of the Cylinder . The princess asserted that `` the heritage of Cyrus was the heritage of human understanding , tolerance , courage , compassion and , above all , human liberty '' . Contents ( hide ) 1 Discovery 2 Description 2.1 Text 2.2 Associated fragments 2.3 Relation to a Chinese bone inscription 3 Interpretations 3.1 Mesopotamian and Persian tradition and propaganda 3.1. 1 Similarities with other royal inscriptions 3.1. 2 Analysis of the Cylinder 's claims 3.2 Biblical interpretations 3.3 Human rights 3.3. 1 Pahlavi Iranian government 's view 3.3. 2 Reception in the Islamic Republic 3.3. 3 Scholarly views 4 Exhibition history 5 Freedom Sculpture 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 8.1 Books and journals 8.2 Media articles 8.3 Other sources 8.4 Editions and translations 9 External links Discovery ( edit ) Hormuzd Rassam in Mosul circa 1854 . The Cyrus Cylinder was discovered during Rassam 's excavations in Babylon in February -- March 1879 . The Assyro - British archaeologist Hormuzd Rassam discovered the Cyrus Cylinder in March 1879 during a lengthy programme of excavations in Mesopotamia carried out for the British Museum . It had been placed as a foundation deposit in the foundations of the Ésagila , the city 's main temple . Rassam 's expedition followed on from an earlier dig carried out in 1850 by the British archaeologist Austen Henry Layard , who excavated three mounds in the same area but found little of importance . In 1877 , Layard became Britain 's ambassador to the Ottoman Empire , which ruled Mesopotamia at the time . He helped Rassam , who had been his assistant in the 1850 dig , to obtain a firman ( decree ) from the Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II to continue the earlier excavations . The firman was only valid for a year but a second firman , with much more liberal terms , was issued in 1878 . It was granted for two years ( through to 15 October 1880 ) with the promise of an extension to 1882 if required . The Sultan 's decree authorised Rassam to `` pack and dispatch to England any antiquities ( he ) found ... provided , however , there were no duplicates . '' A representative of the Sultan was instructed to be present at the dig to examine the objects as they were uncovered . With permission secured , Rassam initiated a large - scale excavation at Babylon and other sites on behalf of the Trustees of the British Museum . He undertook the excavations in four distinct phases . In between each phase , he returned to England to bring back his finds and raise more funds for further work . The Cyrus Cylinder was found on the second of his four expeditions to Mesopotamia , which began with his departure from London on 8 October 1878 . He arrived in his home town of Mosul on 16 November and travelled down the Tigris to Baghdad , which he reached on 30 January 1879 . During February and March , he supervised excavations on a number of Babylonian sites , including Babylon itself . Map of the site of Babylon in 1829 . Hormuzd Rassam 's diggers found the Cyrus Cylinder in the mound of Tell Amran - ibn - Ali ( marked with an `` E '' at the centre of the map ) under which lay the ruined Esagila temple . He soon uncovered a number of important buildings including the Ésagila temple . This was a major shrine to the chief Babylonian god Marduk , although its identity was not fully confirmed until the German archaeologist Robert Koldewey 's excavation of 1900 . The excavators found a large number of business documents written on clay tablets buried in the temple 's foundations where they discovered the Cyrus Cylinder . Rassam gave conflicting accounts of where his discoveries were made . He wrote in his memoirs , Asshur and the land of Nimrod , that the Cylinder had been found in a mound at the southern end of Babylon near the village of Jumjuma or Jimjima . However , in a letter sent on 20 November 1879 to Samuel Birch , the Keeper of Oriental Antiquities at the British Museum , he wrote , `` The Cylinder of Cyrus was found at Omran ( Tell Amran - ibn - Ali ) with about six hundred pieces of inscribed terracottas before I left Baghdad . '' He left Baghdad on 2 April , returning to Mosul and departing from there on 2 May for a journey to London which lasted until 19 June . The discovery was announced to the public by Sir Henry Rawlinson , the President of the Royal Asiatic Society , at a meeting of the Society on 17 November 1879 . He described it as `` one of the most interesting historical records in the cuneiform character that has yet been brought to light , '' though he erroneously described it as coming from the ancient city of Borsippa rather than Babylon . Rawlinson 's `` Notes on a newly - discovered Clay Cylinder of Cyrus the Great '' were published in the society 's journal the following year , including the first partial translation of the text . Description ( edit ) The Cyrus Cylinder is a barrel - shaped cylinder of baked clay measuring 22.5 centimetres ( 8.9 in ) by 10 centimetres ( 3.9 in ) at its maximum diameter . It was created in several stages around a cone - shaped core of clay within which there are large grey stone inclusions . It was built up with extra layers of clay to give it a cylindrical shape before a fine surface slip of clay was added to the outer layer , on which the text is inscribed . It was excavated in several fragments , having apparently broken apart in antiquity . Today it exists in two main fragments , known as `` A '' and `` B '' , which were reunited in 1972 . The main body of the Cylinder , discovered by Rassam in 1879 , is fragment `` A '' . It underwent restoration in 1961 , when it was re-fired and plaster filling was added . The smaller fragment , `` B '' , is a section measuring 8.6 centimetres ( 3.4 in ) by 5.6 centimetres ( 2.2 in ) . The latter fragment was acquired by J.B. Nies of Yale University from an antiquities dealer . Nies published the text in 1920 . The fragment was apparently broken off the main body of the Cylinder during the original excavations in 1879 and was either removed from the excavations or was retrieved from one of Rassam 's waste dumps . It was not confirmed as part of the Cylinder until Paul - Richard Berger of the University of Münster definitively identified it in 1970 . Yale University lent the fragment to the British Museum temporarily ( but , in practice , indefinitely ) in exchange for `` a suitable cuneiform tablet '' from the British Museum collection . Although the Cylinder clearly post-dates Cyrus the Great 's conquest of Babylon in 539 BC , the date of its creation is unclear . It is commonly said to date to the early part of Cyrus 's reign over Babylon , some time after 539 BC . The British Museum puts the Cylinder 's date of origin at between 539 -- 530 BC . Text ( edit ) Wikisource has original text related to this article : Cyrus cylinder The surviving inscription on the Cyrus Cylinder consists of 45 lines of text written in Akkadian cuneiform script . The first 35 lines are on fragment `` A '' and the remainder are on fragment `` B . '' A number of lines at the start and end of the text are too badly damaged for more than a few words to be legible . The text is written in an extremely formulaic style that can be divided into six distinct parts : Extract from the Cyrus Cylinder ( lines 15 -- 21 ) , giving the genealogy of Cyrus and an account of his capture of Babylon in 539 BC . Lines 1 -- 19 : an introduction reviling Nabonidus , the previous king of Babylon , and associating Cyrus with the god Marduk ; Lines 20 -- 22 : detailing Cyrus 's royal titles and genealogy , and his peaceful entry to Babylon ; Lines 22 -- 34 : a commendation of Cyrus 's policy of restoring Babylon ; Lines 34 -- 35 : a prayer to Marduk on behalf of Cyrus and his son Cambyses ; Lines 36 -- 37 : a declaration that Cyrus has enabled the people to live in peace and has increased the offerings made to the gods ; Lines 38 -- 45 : details of the building activities ordered by Cyrus in Babylon . Sample detail image showing cuneiform script . The beginning of the text is partly broken ; the surviving content reprimands the character of the deposed Babylonian king Nabonidus . It lists his alleged crimes , charging him with the desecration of the temples of the gods and the imposition of forced labor upon the populace . According to the proclamation , as a result of these offenses , the god Marduk abandoned Babylon and sought a more righteous king . Marduk called forth Cyrus to enter Babylon and become its new ruler . In ( Nabonidus 's ) mind , reverential fear of Marduk , king of the gods , came to an end . He did yet more evil to his city every day ; ... his ( people ... ... ) , he brought ruin on them all by a yoke without relief ... ( Marduk ) inspected and checked all the countries , seeking for the upright king of his choice . He took the hand of Cyrus , king of the city of Anshan , and called him by his name , proclaiming him aloud for the kingship over all of everything . Midway through the text , the writer switches to a first - person narrative in the voice of Cyrus , addressing the reader directly . A list of his titles is given ( in a Mesopotamian rather than Persian style ) : `` I am Cyrus , king of the world , great king , powerful king , king of Babylon , king of Sumer and Akkad , king of the four quarters ( of the earth ) , son of Cambyses , great king , king of Anshan , descendent of Teispes , great king , king of Anshan , the perpetual seed of kingship , whose reign Bel ( Marduk ) and Nebo love , and with whose kingship , to their joy , they concern themselves . '' He describes the pious deeds he performed after his conquest : he restored peace to Babylon and the other cities sacred to Marduk , freeing their inhabitants from their `` yoke , '' and he `` brought relief to their dilapidated housing ( thus ) putting an end to their ( main ) complaints . '' He repaired the ruined temples in the cities he conquered , restored their cults , and returned their sacred images as well as their former inhabitants which Nabonidus had taken to Babylon . Near the end of the inscription Cyrus highlights his restoration of Babylon 's city wall , saying : `` I saw within it an inscription of Ashurbanipal , a king who preceded me . '' The remainder is missing but presumably describes Cyrus 's rededication of the gateway mentioned . A partial transcription by F.H. Weissbach in 1911 was supplanted by a much more complete transcription after the identification of the `` B '' fragment ; this is now available in German and in English . Several editions of the full text of the Cyrus Cylinder are available online , incorporating both `` A '' and `` B '' fragments . A false translation of the text -- affirming , among other things , the abolition of slavery and the right to self - determination , a minimum wage and asylum -- has been promoted on the Internet and elsewhere . As well as making claims that are not found on the real cylinder , it refers to the Zoroastrian divinity Ahura Mazda rather than the Mesopotamian god Marduk . The false translation has been widely circulated ; alluding to its claim that Cyrus supposedly has stated that `` Every country shall decide for itself whether or not it wants my leadership . '' Iranian Nobel Peace Prize winner Shirin Ebadi in her acceptance speech described Cyrus as `` the very emperor who proclaimed at the pinnacle of power 2,500 years ago that ... he would not reign over the people if they did not wish it '' . Similarly , in a 2006 speech , United States President George W. Bush referred to Cyrus , declaring that his people had `` the right to worship God in freedom '' -- a statement made nowhere in the text of the Cylinder . Associated fragments ( edit ) The British Museum announced in January 2010 that two inscribed clay fragments , which had been in the Museum 's collection since 1881 , had been identified as part of a cuneiform tablet that was inscribed with the same text as the Cyrus Cylinder . The fragments had come from the small site of Dailem near Babylon and the identification was made by Professor Wilfred Lambert , formerly of the University of Birmingham , and Irving Finkel , curator in charge of the Museum 's Department of the Middle East . Relation to a Chinese bone inscription ( edit ) In 1983 two fossilized horse bones inscribed with cuneiform signs surfaced in China which Professor Oliver Gurney at Oxford later identified as coming from the Cyrus Cylinder . The discovery of these objects aroused much discussion about possible connections between ancient Mesopotamia and China , although their authenticity was doubted by many scholars from the beginning and they are now generally regarded as forgeries . The history of the putative artifact goes back almost a century . The earliest record goes back to a Chinese doctor named Xue Shenwei , who sometime prior to 1928 was shown a photo of a rubbing of one of the bones by an antiquities dealer named Zhang Yi'an . Although not able to view the bones at that time , Xue Shenwei later acquired one of them from another antiquities dealer named Wang Dongting in 1935 and then the second via a personal connection named Ke Yanling around 1940 . While Xue did not recognize the script on the bones he guessed at its antiquity and buried the bones for safekeeping during the Cultural Revolution . Then , in 1983 Xue presented the bones to the Palace Museum in Beijing where Liu Jiuan and Wang Nanfang of the State Administration of Cultural Heritage undertook their study . These officials identified the script as cuneiform and asked the Assyriologists Chi Yang and Wu Yuhong to work on the inscriptions . Identification of the source text proceeded slowly until 1985 , when Wu Yuhong along with Oxford Assyriologist Stephanie Dalley and Oliver Gurney recognized the text in one bone as coming from the Cyrus Cylinder . One year later Wu Yuhong presented his findings at the 33rd Rencontre Assyriologique and published them in a journal article . After that the second bone inscription remained undeciphered until 2010 , when Irving Finkel worked on it . In that same year the British Museum held a conference dedicated to the artifacts . Based on the serious textual errors in the inscription , including the omission of a large number of signs from the Cyrus Cylinder , Wu Yuhong argued the inscriptions were most likely copied from the cylinder while housed in the British Museum or from an early modern publication based upon it . However he acknowledged the remote possibility it was copied in late antiquity . Irving Finkel disputed this conclusion based on the relative obscurity of the Cyrus Cylinder until recent decades and the mismatch in paleography between the bone inscriptions and the hand copies found in early editions from the 1880 's . Finally , after the workshop concluded , an 1884 edition of the Cyrus Cylinder by E.A. Wallis Budge came to Irving Finkel 's attention . This publication used an idiosyncratic typeface and featured a handcopy for only a section of the whole cylinder . However the typeface in that edition matched the paleography on the bone inscriptions and the extract of the cylinder published in the book matched that of the bone as well . This convinced Finkel that the bone inscriptions were early modern forgeries and that has remained the majority opinion since then . Interpretations ( edit ) Mesopotamian and Persian tradition and propaganda ( edit ) According to the British Museum , the Cyrus Cylinder reflects a long tradition in Mesopotamia where , from as early as the third millennium BC , kings began their reigns with declarations of reforms . Cyrus 's declaration stresses his legitimacy as the king , and is a conspicuous statement of his respect for the religious and political traditions of Babylon . The British Museum and scholars of the period describe it as an instrument of ancient Mesopotamian propaganda . The text is a royal building inscription , a genre which had no equivalent in Old Persian literature . It illustrates how Cyrus co-opted local traditions and symbols to legitimize his conquest and control of Babylon . Many elements of the text were drawn from long - standing Mesopotamian themes of legitimizing rule in Babylonia : the preceding king is reprimanded and he is proclaimed to have been abandoned by the gods for his wickedness ; the new king has gained power through the divine will of the gods ; the new king rights the wrongs of his predecessor , addressing the welfare of the people ; the sanctuaries of the gods are rebuilt or restored , offerings to the gods are made or increased and the blessings of the gods are sought ; and repairs are made to the whole city , in the manner of earlier rightful kings . Both continuity and discontinuity are emphasized in the text of the Cylinder . It asserts the virtue of Cyrus as a gods - fearing king of a traditional Mesopotamian type . On the other hand , it constantly discredits Nabonidus , reviling the deposed king 's deeds and even his ancestry and portraying him as an impious destroyer of his own people . As Fowler and Hekster note , this `` creates a problem for a monarch who chooses to buttress his claim to legitimacy by appropriating the ' symbolic capital ' of his predecessors . '' The Cylinder 's reprimand of Nabonidus also discredits Babylonian royal authority by association . It is perhaps for this reason that the Achaemenid rulers made greater use of Assyrian rather than Babylonian royal iconography and tradition in their declarations ; the Cylinder refers to the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal as `` my predecessor '' , rather than any native Babylonian ruler . The Cylinder itself is part of a continuous Mesopotamian tradition of depositing a wide variety of symbolic items , including animal sacrifices , stone tablets , terracotta cones , cylinders and figures . Newly crowned kings of Babylon would make public declarations of their own righteousness when beginning their reigns , often in the form of declarations that were deposited in the foundations of public buildings . Some contained messages , while others did not , and they had a number of purposes : elaboration of a building 's value , commemoration of the ruler or builder and the magical sanctification of the building , through the invocation of divine protection . The cylinder was not intended to be seen again after its burial , but the text inscribed on it would have been used for public purposes . Archive copies were kept of important inscriptions and the Cylinder 's text may likewise have been copied . In January 2010 , the British Museum announced that two cuneiform tablets in its collection had been found to be inscribed with the same text as that on the Cyrus Cylinder , which , according to the Museum , `` show that the text of the Cylinder was probably a proclamation that was widely distributed across the Persian Empire . '' A statue of the cylinder is now on exhibit in Los Angeles on avenue of the stars as a gift from the Persian people to the city of Los Angeles Similarities with other royal inscriptions ( edit ) The Nabonidus Cylinder The Cyrus Cylinder bears striking similarities to older Mesopotamian royal inscriptions . Two notable examples are the Cylinder of Marduk - apla - iddina II , who seized the Babylonian throne in 722 / 1 BC , and the annals of Sargon II of Assyria , who conquered Babylon twelve years later . As a conqueror , Marduk - apla - iddina faced many of the same problems of legitimacy that Cyrus did when he conquered Babylon . He declares himself to have been chosen personally by Marduk , who ensured his victory . When he took power , he performed the sacred rites and restored the sacred shrines . He states that he found a royal inscription placed in the temple foundations by an earlier Babylonian king , which he left undisturbed and honored . All of these claims also appear in Cyrus 's Cylinder . Twelve years later , the Assyrian king Sargon II defeated and exiled Marduk - apla - iddina , taking up the kingship of Babylonia . Sargon 's annals describe how he took on the duties of a Babylonian sovereign , honouring the gods , maintaining their temples and respecting and upholding the privileges of the urban elite . Again , Cyrus 's Cylinder makes exactly the same points . Nabonidus , Cyrus 's deposed predecessor as king of Babylon , commissioned foundation texts on clay cylinders -- such as the Cylinder of Nabonidus , also in the British Museum -- that follows the same basic formula . The text of the Cylinder thus indicates a strong continuity with centuries of Babylonian tradition , as part of an established rhetoric advanced by conquerors . As Kuhrt puts it : ( The Cylinder ) reflects the pressure that Babylonian citizens were able to bring to bear on the new royal claimant ... In this context , the reign of the defeated predecessor was automatically described as bad and against the divine will -- how else could he have been defeated ? By implication , of course , all his acts became , inevitably and retrospectively , tainted . The familiarity with long - established Babylonian tropes suggests that the Cylinder was authored by the Babylonian priests of Marduk , working at the behest of Cyrus . It can be compared with another work of around the same time , the Verse Account of Nabonidus , in which the former Babylonian ruler is excoriated as the enemy of the priests of Marduk and Cyrus is presented as the liberator of Babylon . Both works make a point of stressing Cyrus 's qualifications as a king from a line of kings , in contrast to the non-royal ancestry of Nabonidus , who is described by the Cylinder as merely maţû , `` insignificant '' . The Verse Account is so similar to the Cyrus Cylinder inscription that the two texts have been dubbed an example of `` literary dependence '' -- not the direct dependence of one upon the other , but mutual dependence upon a common source . This is characterised by the historian Morton Smith as `` the propaganda put out in Babylonia by Cyrus 's agents , shortly before Cyrus 's conquest , to prepare the way of their lord . '' This viewpoint has been disputed ; as Simon J. Sherwin of the University of Cambridge puts it , the Cyrus Cylinder and the Verse Account are `` after the event '' compositions which reuse existing Mesopotamian literary themes and do not need to be explained as the product of pre-conquest Persian propaganda . The German historian Hanspeter Schaudig has identified a line on the Cylinder ( `` He ( i.e. Marduk ) saved his city Babylon from its oppression '' ) with a line from tablet VI of the Babylonian `` Epic of Creation '' , Enûma Eliš , in which Marduk builds Babylon . Johannes Haubold suggests that reference represents Cyrus 's takeover as a moment of ultimate restoration not just of political and religious institutions , but of the cosmic order underpinning the universe . Analysis of the Cylinder 's claims ( edit ) Stele depicting Nabonidus praying to the moon , sun and the planet Venus . The Babylonian king 's religious practices were harshly condemned by the Cyrus Cylinder 's inscription . The Cyrus Cylinder 's vilification of Nabonidus is consistent with other Persian propaganda regarding the deposed king 's rule . In contrast to the Cylinder 's depiction of Nabonidus as an illegitimate ruler who ruined his country , the reign of Nabonidus was largely peaceful , he was recognised as a legitimate king and he undertook a variety of building projects and military campaigns commensurate with his claim to be `` the king of Babylon , the universe , and the four corners ( of the Earth ) . '' The Assyriologist Paul - Alain Beaulieu has interpreted Nabonidus 's exaltation of the moon god Sin as `` an outright usurpation of Marduk 's prerogatives by the moon god . '' Although the Babylonian king continued to make rich offerings to Marduk , his greater devotion to Sin was unacceptable to the Babylonian priestly elite . Nabonidus came from the unfashionable north of Babylonia , introduced foreign gods and went into a lengthy self - imposed exile which was said to have prevented the celebration of the vital New Year festival . Cyrus 's conquest of Babylonia was resisted by Nabonidus and his supporters , as the Battle of Opis demonstrated . Iranologist Pierre Briant comments that `` it is doubtful that even before the fall of ( Babylon ) Cyrus was impatiently awaited by a population desperate for a ' liberator ' . '' However , Cyrus 's takeover as king does appear to have been welcomed by some of the Babylonian population . The Judaic historian Lisbeth S. Fried says that there is little evidence that the high - ranking priests of Babylonia during the Achaemenid period were Persians and characterises them as Babylonian collaborators . The inscription goes on to describe Cyrus returning to their original sanctuaries the statues of the gods that Nabonidus had brought to the city before the Persian invasion . This restored the normal cultic order to the satisfaction of the priesthood . It alludes to temples being restored and deported groups being returned to their homelands but does not imply an empire - wide programme of restoration . Instead , it refers to specific areas in the border region between Babylonia and Persia , including sites that had been devastated by earlier Babylonian military campaigns . The Cylinder indicates that Cyrus sought to acquire the loyalty of the ravaged regions by funding reconstruction , the return of temple properties and the repatriation of the displaced populations . However , it is unclear how much actually changed on the ground ; there is no archaeological evidence for any rebuilding or repairing of Mesopotamian temples during Cyrus 's reign . The text presents Cyrus as entering Babylon peacefully and being welcomed by the population as a liberator . This presents an implicit contrast with previous conquerors , notably the Assyrian rulers Tukulti - Ninurta I , who invaded and plundered Babylon in the 12th century BC , and Sennacherib , who did the same thing 150 years before Cyrus conquered the region . The massacre and enslavement of conquered people was common practice and was explicitly highlighted by conquerors in victory statements . The Cyrus Cylinder presents a very different message ; Johannes Haubold notes that it portrays Cyrus 's takeover as a harmonious moment of convergence between Babylonian and Persian history , not a natural disaster but the salvation of Babylonia . However , the Cylinder 's account of Cyrus 's conquest clearly does not tell the whole story , as it suppresses any mention of the earlier conflict between the Persians and the Babylonians ; Max Mallowan describes it as a `` skilled work of tendentious history '' . The text omits the Battle of Opis , in which Cyrus 's forces defeated and apparently massacred Nabonidus 's army . Nor does it explain a two - week gap reported by the Nabonidus Chronicle between the Persian entry into Babylon and the surrender of the Esagila temple . Lisbeth S. Fried suggests that there may have been a siege or stand - off between the Persians and the temple 's defenders and priests , about whose fate the Cylinder and Chronicle makes no mention . She speculates that they were killed or expelled by the Persians and replaced by more pro-Persian members of the Babylonian priestly elite . As Walton and Hill put it , the claim of a wholly peaceful takeover acclaimed by the people is `` standard conqueror 's rhetoric and may obscure other facts . '' Describing the claim of one 's own armies being welcomed as liberators as `` one of the great imperial fantasies '' , Bruce Lincoln , Professor of Divinity at the University of Chicago , notes that the Babylonian population repeatedly revolted against Persian rule in 522 BC , 521 BC , 484 BC and 482 BC ( though not against Cyrus or his son Cambeses ) . The rebels sought to restore national independence and the line of native Babylonian kings -- perhaps an indication that they were not as favourably disposed towards the Persians as the Cylinder suggests . The Persians ' policy towards their subject people , as described by the Cylinder , was traditionally viewed as an expression of tolerance , moderation and generosity `` on a scale previously unknown . '' The policies of Cyrus toward subjugated nations have been contrasted to those of the Assyrians and Babylonians , who had treated subject peoples harshly ; he permitted the resettling of those who had been previously deported and sponsored the reconstruction of religious buildings . Cyrus was often depicted positively in Western tradition by sources such as the Old Testament of the Bible and the Greek writers Herodotus and Xenophon . The Cyropaedia of Xenophon was particularly influential during the Renaissance when Cyrus was romanticised as an exemplary model of a virtuous and successful ruler . Modern historians argue that while Cyrus 's behavior was indeed conciliatory , it was driven by the needs of the Persian Empire , and was not an expression of personal tolerance per se . The empire was too large to be centrally directed ; Cyrus followed a policy of using existing territorial units to implement a decentralized system of government . The magnanimity shown by Cyrus won him praise and gratitude from those he spared . The policy of toleration described by the Cylinder was thus , as biblical historian Rainer Albertz puts it , `` an expression of conservative support for local regions to serve the political interests of the whole ( empire ) . '' Another biblical historian , Alberto Soggin , comments that it was more `` a matter of practicality and economy ... ( as ) it was simpler , and indeed cost less , to obtain the spontaneous collaboration of their subjects at a local level than to have to impose their sovereignty by force . '' Biblical interpretations ( edit ) Main article : Cyrus in the Judeo - Christian tradition Further information : The Return to Zion Places in Mesopotamia mentioned by the Cyrus Cylinder . Most of the localities it mentions in connection with the restoration of temples were in eastern and northern Mesopotamia , in territories that had been ruled by the deposed Babylonian king Nabonidus ( excepting Susa ) . The Bible records that some Jews ( who were exiled by the Babylonians ) , returned to their homeland from Babylon , where they had been settled by Nebuchadnezzar , to rebuild the temple following an edict from Cyrus . The Book of Ezra ( 1 -- 4 : 5 ) provides a narrative account of the rebuilding project . Scholars have linked one particular passage from the Cylinder to the Old Testament account : From ( ? ) to Aššur and ( from ) Susa , Agade , Ešnunna , Zabban , Me - Turnu , Der , as far as the region of Gutium , the sacred centers on the other side of the Tigris , whose sanctuaries had been abandoned for a long time , I returned the images of the gods , who had resided there ( i.e. , in Babylon ) , to their places and I let them dwell in eternal abodes . I gathered all their inhabitants and returned to them their dwellings . This passage has often been interpreted as a reference to the benign policy instituted by Cyrus of allowing exiled peoples , such as the Jews , to return to their original homelands . The Cylinder 's inscription has been linked with the reproduction in the Book of Ezra of two texts that are claimed to be edicts issued by Cyrus concerning the repatriation of the Jews and the reconstruction of the Temple in Jerusalem . The two edicts ( one in Hebrew and one in Aramaic ) are substantially different in content and tone , leading some historians to argue that one or both may be a post hoc fabrication . The question of their authenticity remains unresolved , though it is widely believed that they do reflect some sort of Persian royal policy , albeit perhaps not one that was couched in the terms given in the text of the biblical edicts . The dispute over the authenticity of the biblical edicts has prompted interest in this passage from the Cyrus Cylinder , specifically concerning the question of whether it indicates that Cyrus had a general policy of repatriating subject peoples and restoring their sanctuaries . The text of the Cylinder is very specific , listing places in Mesopotamia and the neighboring regions . It does not describe any general release or return of exiled communities but focuses on the return of Babylonian deities to their own home cities . It emphasises the re-establishment of local religious norms , reversing the alleged neglect of Nabonidus -- a theme that Amélie Kuhrt describes as `` a literary device used to underline the piety of Cyrus as opposed to the blasphemy of Nabonidus . '' She suggests that Cyrus had simply adopted a policy used by earlier Assyrian rulers of giving privileges to cities in key strategic or politically sensitive regions and that there was no general policy as such . Lester L. Grabbe , a historian of early Judaism , has written that `` the religious policy of the Persians was not that different from the basic practice of the Assyrians and Babylonians before them '' in tolerating -- but not promoting -- local cults , other than their own gods . Cyrus may have seen Jerusalem , situated in a strategic location between Mesopotamia and Egypt , as worth patronising for political reasons . His Achaemenid successors generally supported indigenous cults in subject territories as an expression of their legitimacy as rulers , thereby currying favour with the cults ' devotees . Conversely , the Persian kings could , and did , destroy the shrines of peoples who had rebelled against them , as happened at Miletos in 494 BC following the Ionian Revolt . Historian Ernst Badian has noted regarding the Ionian revolt `` ( that ) Harpagus ' devastated ' all of lower Asia ( 1.177 ) is obviously an exaggeration , for the Ionians soon returned to their trading activities . '' The Persians evidently did give permission for its reconstruction , which would have been required given the circumstances of its destruction . However , the Cylinder 's text does not describe any general policy of a return of exiles or mention any sanctuary outside Babylonia ; the biblical historian Bob Becking concludes that `` it has nothing to do with Judeans , Jews or Jerusalem . '' Peter Ross Bedford argues that the Cylinder `` is thus not a manifesto for a general policy regarding indigenous cults and their worshippers throughout the empire . '' Kuhrt comments that `` the purely Babylonian context of the Cylinder provides no proof '' of the historicity of Cyrus 's return of the Jewish exiles and the rebuilding of the Temple in Jerusalem , though Becking links this with the lack of any references to the Jews in surviving Achaemenid texts -- an indication that the Persians seem not to have regarded them as being of any great importance . The German scholar Josef Wiesehöfer summarizes the widely held traditional view by noting that `` Many scholars have read into ( ... ) sentences ( from the text of Cylinder ) a confirmation of the Old Testament passages about the steps taken by Cyrus towards the erection of the Jerusalem temple and the repatriation of the Judaeans '' and this interpretation was , according to Wiesehöfer , for some scholars a strict belief `` that the instructions to this effect were actually provided in these very formulations of the Cyrus Cylinder . '' Human rights ( edit ) The Cylinder gained new prominence in the late 1960s when the last Shah of Iran called it `` the world 's first charter of human rights '' . The cylinder was a key symbol of the Shah 's political ideology and is still regarded by some commentators as a charter of human rights , despite the disagreement of some historians and scholars . Pahlavi Iranian government 's view ( edit ) Cyrus Cylinder at the center of the official emblem of 2,500 year celebration of the Persian Empire at Pahlavi Iranian imperial era The Cyrus Cylinder was dubbed the `` first declaration of human rights '' by the pre-Revolution Iranian government , a reading prominently advanced by Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi , in a 1967 book , The White Revolution of Iran . The Shah identified Cyrus as a key figure in government ideology and associated his government with the Achaemenids . He wrote that `` the history of our empire began with the famous declaration of Cyrus , which , for its advocacy of humane principles , justice and liberty , must be considered one of the most remarkable documents in the history of mankind . '' The Shah described Cyrus as the first ruler in history to give his subjects `` freedom of opinion and other basic rights '' . In 1968 , the Shah opened the first United Nations Conference on Human Rights in Tehran by saying that the Cyrus Cylinder was the precursor to the modern Universal Declaration of Human Rights . In his 1971 Nowruz ( New Year ) speech , the Shah declared that 1971 would be Cyrus the Great Year , during which a grand commemoration would be held to celebrate 2,500 years of Persian monarchy . It would serve as a showcase for a modern Iran in which the contributions that Iran had made to world civilization would be recognized . The main theme of the commemoration was the centrality of the monarchy within Iran 's political system , associating the Shah of Iran with the famous monarchs of Persia 's past , and with Cyrus in particular . The Shah looked to the Achaemenid period as `` a moment from the national past that could best serve as a model and a slogan for the imperial society he hoped to create . '' The Cyrus Cylinder was adopted as the symbol for the commemoration , and Iranian magazines and journals published numerous articles about ancient Persian history . The British Museum loaned the original Cylinder to the Iranian government for the duration of the festivities ; it was put on display at the Shahyad Monument ( now the Azadi Tower ) in Tehran . The 2,500 year celebrations commenced on October 12 , 1971 and culminated a week later with a spectacular parade at the tomb of Cyrus in Pasargadae . On October 14 , the shah 's sister , Princess Ashraf Pahlavi , presented the United Nations Secretary General U Thant with a replica of the Cylinder . The princess asserted that `` the heritage of Cyrus was the heritage of human understanding , tolerance , courage , compassion and , above all , human liberty '' . The Secretary General accepted the gift , linking the Cylinder with the efforts of the United Nations General Assembly to address `` the question of Respect for Human Rights in Armed Conflict '' . Since then the replica Cylinder has been kept at the United Nations Headquarters in New York City on the second floor hallway . The United Nations continues to promote the cylinder as `` an ancient declaration of human rights . '' Reception in the Islamic Republic ( edit ) In September 2010 , former Iranian president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad officially opened the Cyrus Cylinder exhibition at the National Museum of Iran . After the Pahlavi era , it was the second time the cylinder was brought to Iran . It was also its longest - running exhibition inside the country . Ahmadinejad considers the Cyrus Cylinder as the incarnation of human values and a cultural heritage for all humanity , and called it the `` First Charter of Human Rights '' . The British Museum had loaned the Cyrus Cylinder to the National Museum of Iran for four months . The Cylinder reads that everyone is entitled to freedom of thought and choice and all individuals should pay respect to one another . The historical charter also underscores the necessity of fighting oppression , defending the oppressed , respecting human dignity , and recognizing human rights . The Cyrus Cylinder bears testimony to the fact that the Iranian nation has always been the flag - bearer of justice , devotion and human values throughout history . -- Mahmoud Ahmadinejad during Cyrus Cylinder exhibition at National Museum of Iran , Some Iranian extremists , Islamists and rightist politicians such as MP Ali Motahari criticized Ahmadinejad for bringing the Cyrus Cylinder to Iran , although Tehran daily Kayhan , viewed as an ultra-conservative newspaper , had opined that the Islamic Republic should never have returned the Cyrus Cylinder to Britain : There is an important question : Does n't the cylinder belong to Iran ? And has n't the British government stolen ancient artifacts from our country ? If the answers to these questions are positive , then why should we return this stolen historical and valuable work to the thieves ? -- Kayhan newspaper during Cyrus Cylinder exhibition in Iran , At the time , the Curator of the National Museum of Iran , Azadeh Ardakani , reported approximately 48,000 visitors to the Cylinder exhibition , amongst whom over 2000 were foreigners , including foreign ambassadors . Scholarly views ( edit ) Monument to the Cyrus Cylinder in Balboa Park , San Diego , California erected by an Iranian émigré organisation , presenting a widely circulated false translation of the text that portrays Cyrus as a champion of human rights The interpretation of the Cylinder as a `` charter of human rights '' has been described by some historians as `` rather anachronistic '' and tendentious . It has been dismissed as a `` misunderstanding '' and characterized as political propaganda devised by the Pahlavi regime . The German historian Josef Wiesehöfer comments that the portrayal of Cyrus as a champion of human rights is as illusory as the image of the `` humane and enlightened Shah of Persia . '' D. Fairchild Ruggles and Helaine Silverman describe the Shah 's aim as being to legitimise the Iranian nation and his own regime , and to counter the growing influence of Islamic fundamentalism by creating an alternative narrative rooted in the ancient Persian past . Writing in the immediate aftermath of the Shah 's anniversary commemorations , the British Museum 's C.B.F. Walker comments that the `` essential character of the Cyrus Cylinder ( is not ) a general declaration of human rights or religious toleration but simply a building inscription , in the Babylonian and Assyrian tradition , commemorating Cyrus 's restoration of the city of Babylon and the worship of Marduk previously neglected by Nabonidus . '' Two professors specialising in the history of the ancient Near East , Bill T. Arnold and Piotr Michalowski , comment : `` Generically , it belongs with other foundation deposit inscriptions ; it is not an edict of any kind , nor does it provide any unusual human rights declaration as is sometimes claimed . '' Lloyd Llewellyn - Jones of the University of Edinburgh notes that `` there is nothing in the text '' that suggests the concept of human rights . Neil MacGregor comments : Comparison by scholars in the British Museum with other similar texts , however , showed that rulers in ancient Iraq had been making comparable declarations upon succeeding to the ( Babylonian ) throne for two millennia before Cyrus ( ... ) it is one of the museum 's tasks to resist the narrowing of the object 's meaning and its appropriation to one political agenda . He cautions that while the Cylinder is `` clearly linked with the history of Iran , '' it is `` in no real sense an Iranian document : it is part of a much larger history of the ancient Near East , of Mesopotamian kingship , and of the Jewish diaspora . '' Some historians , as well as writers on human rights , have supported the interpretation of the Cyrus Cylinder as a human rights charter . W.J. Talbott , an American philosopher , believes the concept of human rights is a 20th - century concept but describes Cyrus as `` perhaps the earliest known advocate of religious tolerance '' and suggests that `` ideas that led to the development of human rights are not limited to one cultural tradition . '' The Iranian lawyer Hirad Abtahi argues that viewing the Cylinder as merely `` an instrument of legitimizing royal rule '' is unjustified , as Cyrus issued the document and granted those rights when he was at the height of his power , with neither popular opposition nor visible external threat to force his hand . A former Iranian prime minister , Hassan Pirnia , writing in the early 20th century , characterizes the Cylinder as `` discuss ( ing ) human rights in a way unique for the era , dealing with ways to protect the honor , prestige , and religious beliefs of all the nations dependent to Iran in those days . '' Exhibition history ( edit ) The Cyrus Cylinder in Room 55 of the British Museum in London The Cyrus Cylinder has been displayed in the British Museum since its formal acquisition in 1880 . It has been loaned four times -- twice to Iran , between 7 -- 22 October 1971 in conjunction with the 2,500 year celebration of the Persian Empire and again from September -- December 2010 , once to Spain from March -- June 2006 , and once to the United States in a traveling exhibition from March -- October 2013 . Many replicas have been made . Some were distributed by the Shah following the 1971 commemorations , while the British Museum and National Museum of Iran have sold them commercially . The British Museum 's ownership of the Cyrus Cylinder has been the cause of some controversy in Iran , although the artifact was obtained legally and was not excavated on Iranian soil but on former Ottoman territory ( modern Iraq ) . When it was loaned in 1971 , the Iranian press campaigned for its transfer to Iranian ownership . The Cylinder was brought back to London without difficulty , but the British Museum 's Board of Trustees subsequently decided that it would be `` undesirable to make a further loan of the Cylinder to Iran . '' In 2005 -- 2006 the British Museum mounted a major exhibition on the Persian Empire , Forgotten Empire : the World of Ancient Persia . It was held in collaboration with the Iranian government , which loaned the British Museum a number of iconic artefacts in exchange for an undertaking that the Cyrus Cylinder would be loaned to the National Museum of Iran in return . The planned loan of the Cylinder was postponed in October 2009 following the June 2009 Iranian presidential election so that the British Museum could be `` assured that the situation in the country was suitable . '' In response , the Iranian government threatened to end cooperation with the British Museum if the Cylinder was not loaned within the following two months . This deadline was postponed despite appeals by the Iranian government but the Cylinder did eventually go on display in Tehran in September 2010 for a four - month period . The exhibition was very popular , attracting 48,000 people within the first ten days and about 500,000 people by the time it closed in January 2011 . However , at its opening , Iranian president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad mingled Islamic Republican and ancient Persian symbology which commentators inside and outside Iran criticised as an overt appeal to religious nationalism . On November 28 , 2012 , the BBC announced the first United States tour of the Cylinder . Under the headline `` British Museum lends ancient ' bill of rights ' cylinder to US '' , Museum director Neil MacGregor declared that `` The cylinder , often referred to as the first bill of human rights , ' must be shared as widely as possible ' '' . The British Museum itself announced the news in its press release , saying `` First declaration of human rights ' to tour five cities in the United States '' . According to the British Museum 's website for the Cylinder 's US exhibition `` CyrusCylinder2013.com '' , the tour started in March 2013 and included Washington DC 's Smithsonian 's Arthur M. Sackler Gallery , the Museum of Fine Arts in Houston , the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York , the Asian Art Museum in San Francisco and culminated at the J. Paul Getty Museum in Los Angeles , in October 2013 . The cylinder , along with thirty two other associated objects from the British Museum collection , including a pair of gold armlets from the Oxus Treasure and the Darius Seal , were part of an exhibition titled ' The Cyrus Cylinder and Ancient Persia -- A New Beginning ' at the Prince of Wales Museum in Mumbai , India , from December 21 , 2013 to February 25 , 2014 . It was organised by the British Museum and the Prince of Wales Museum in partnership with Sir Dorabji Tata Trust , Sir Ratan Tata Trust and Navajbai Ratan Tata Trust , all set up by luminaries from the Parsi community , who are descendants of Persian Zoroastrians , who hold Cyrus in great regard , as many scholars consider him as a follower of Zoroastrianism . Freedom Sculpture ( edit ) Main article : Freedom Sculpture The freedom sculpture The Freedom Sculpture ( Persian : تندیس آزادی ‎ ) is a gold and silver statue located on Santa Monica Boulevard in the Beverly Hills , California . The design of the Freedom Sculpture was created by artist and architect Cecil Balmond . It is themed on the Cyrus Cylinder from 2,500 years ago , which is sometimes considered the first declaration of human rights . It commemorates the declaration of Cyrus the Great , King of ancient Iran , granting individual and religious freedoms to those within his empire . See also ( edit ) Behistun inscriptions Persepolis Fortification Archive Cyrus 's edict Notes ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` The Cyrus Cylinder ( British Museum database ) '' . Retrieved 19 June 2010 . ^ Jump up to : Dandamayev , ( 2010 - 01 - 26 ) ^ Jump up to : Kuhrt ( 2007 ) , p. 70 , 72 ^ Jump up to : British Museum : The Cyrus Cylinder Jump up ^ Free & Vos ( 1992 ) , p. 204 ^ Jump up to : Becking , p. 8 ^ Jump up to : Janzen , p. 157 ^ Jump up to : Daniel , p. 39 ^ Jump up to : Mitchell , p. 83 ^ Jump up to : Arnold , pp. 426 -- 430 Jump up ^ `` The Cyrus Cylinder travels to the US '' . British Museum . 2012 . Retrieved 21 September 2013 . Jump up ^ Associated Press ( 10 September 2010 ) . `` Cyrus cylinder , world 's oldest human rights charter , returns to Iran on loan '' . The Guardian . Retrieved 21 September 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Oldest Known Charter of Human Rights Comes to San Francisco '' . 13 August 2013 . Retrieved 21 September 2013 . Jump up ^ Barbara Slavin ( 6 March 2013 ) . `` Cyrus Cylinder a Reminder of Persian Legacy of Tolerance '' . Al - Monitor . Retrieved 21 September 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Ansari , pp. 218 -- 19 . ^ Jump up to : United Nations Press Release 14 October 1971 ( SG / SM / 1553 / HQ263 ) Jump up ^ Finkel ( 2009 ) , p. 172 ^ Jump up to : Vos ( 1995 ) , p. 267 ^ Jump up to : Hilprecht ( 1903 ) , pp. 204 -- 05 Jump up ^ Rassam ( 1897 ) , p. 223 Jump up ^ Koldewey , p. vi Jump up ^ Rassam , p. 267 Jump up ^ Hilprecht ( 1903 ) , p. 264 ^ Jump up to : Walker , pp. 158 -- 159 Jump up ^ The Times ( 18 November 1879 ) Jump up ^ The Oriental Journal ( January 1880 ) Jump up ^ Rawlinson ( 1880 ) , pp. 70 -- 97 Jump up ^ Curtis , Tallis & André - Salvini , p. 59 Jump up ^ Nies & Keiser ( 1920 ) ^ Jump up to : Berger , pp. 155 -- 159 ^ Jump up to : Wiesehöfer ( 2001 ) , pp. 44 -- 45 . ^ Jump up to : Translation of the text on the Cyrus Cylinder . Finkel , Irving . ^ Jump up to : Pritchard ^ Jump up to : Kutsko , p. 123 Jump up ^ Weissbach , p. 2 Jump up ^ Schaudig , pp. 550 -- 556 Jump up ^ Hallo , p. 315 ^ Jump up to : Schulz ( 2008 - 07 - 15 ) Jump up ^ compare `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on 2013 - 06 - 15 . Retrieved 2013 - 04 - 12 . with the British Museum translation at ( 1 ) Jump up ^ Foucart ( 2007 - 08 - 19 ) Jump up ^ `` Shirin Ebadi 's 2003 Nobel Peace Prize lecture '' . Nobel Foundation . Retrieved 2011 - 03 - 19 . Jump up ^ The White House Archives ; https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2006/06/20060619-1.html Jump up ^ British Museum . `` Irving Finkel '' . Retrieved 14 December 2010 . Jump up ^ Cyrus Cylinder ( press release ) . British Museum , 20 January 2010 Jump up ^ Yang , Zhi ( 1987 ) . `` Brief Note on the Bone Cuneiform Inscriptions '' . Journal of Ancient Civilizations. 2 : 30 -- 33 . ^ Jump up to : Finkel , Irving , ed. ( 2013 ) . The Cyrus Cylinder : The King of Persia 's Proclamation from Ancient Babylon . I.B. Tauris . pp. 28 -- 34 . ISBN 1780760639 . Jump up ^ Wu , Yuhong ( 1986 ) . `` A Horse - Bone Inscription copied from the Cyrus Cylinder ( Line 18 - 21 ) in the Palace Museum in Beijing '' . Journal of Ancient Civilizations. 1 : 15 -- 20 . Jump up ^ Inscription in the British Museum , Room 55 ^ Jump up to : Kuhrt ( 1982 ) , p. 124 ^ Jump up to : Winn Leith , p. 285 ^ Jump up to : Fowler & Hekster , p. 33 Jump up ^ British Museum : The Cyrus Cylinder ; Kuhrt ( 1983 ) , pp. 83 -- 97 ; Dandamaev , pp. 52 -- 53 ; Beaulieu , p. 243 ; van der Spek , pp. 273 -- 285 ; Wiesehöfer ( 2001 ) , p. 82 ; Briant , p. 43 Jump up ^ Haubold , p. 52 fn. 24 Jump up ^ British Museum e-mail ( 2010 - 01 - 11 ) Jump up ^ British Museum statement ( 2010 - 01 - 20 ) ^ Jump up to : Kuhrt ( 2007 ) , pp. 174 -- 175 . Jump up ^ Dyck , pp. 91 -- 94 . Jump up ^ Grabbe ( 2004 ) , p. 267 Jump up ^ Dick , p. 10 Jump up ^ Smith , p. 78 Jump up ^ Sherwin , p. 122 . ^ Jump up to : Haubold , p. 51 Jump up ^ Haubold , p. 52 Jump up ^ Bidmead , p. 137 Jump up ^ Bidmead , p. 134 Jump up ^ Bidmead , p. 135 ^ Jump up to : Mallowan , pp. 409 -- 411 Jump up ^ Briant , p. 43 Jump up ^ Buchanan , pp. 12 -- 13 Jump up ^ Fried , p. 30 Jump up ^ Oppenheim , A. Leo , in Pritchard , James B. Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament . Princeton University Press , 1950 Jump up ^ Briant , p. 41 Jump up ^ Fried , p. 29 Jump up ^ Walton & Hill , p. 172 Jump up ^ Lincoln , p. 40 Jump up ^ Masroori , p. 13 - 15 Jump up ^ Dandamaev , pp. 52 -- 53 Jump up ^ Brown , pp. 7 -- 8 Jump up ^ Arberry , p. 8 Jump up ^ Stillman , p. 225 Jump up ^ Min , p. 94 Jump up ^ Evans , pp. 12 -- 13 Jump up ^ Albertz , pp. 115 -- 116 Jump up ^ Soggin , p. 295 Jump up ^ Hurowitz , pp. 581 -- 591 Jump up ^ Older translations used to give `` Nineveh . '' The relevant passage is fragmentary , but I. Finkel has recently concluded that it is impossible to interpret it as `` Nineveh '' . ( I. Finkel , `` No Nineveh in the Cyrus Cylinder '' , in NABU 1997 / 23 ( 2 ) ) Jump up ^ Cyrus Cylinder translation , adapted from Schaudig 2001 . Jump up ^ Dandamaev ( 2010 - 01 - 26 ) Jump up ^ Bedford , p. 113 Jump up ^ Bedford , p. 134 ^ Jump up to : Kuhrt ( 1983 ) , pp. 83 -- 97 Jump up ^ Grabbe ( 2006 ) , p. 542 ^ Jump up to : Bedford , pp. 138 -- 139 Jump up ^ Greaves , Alan M. Miletos : A History , p. 84 . Routledge , 2002 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 415 - 23846 - 5 Jump up ^ electricpulp.com . `` IONIAN REVOLT -- Encyclopaedia Iranica '' . iranicaonline.org . Retrieved 22 August 2016 . Jump up ^ Bedford , p. 137 ^ Jump up to : MacGregor Jump up ^ United Nations Note to Correspondents no . 3699 , 13 October 1971 ^ Jump up to : Wiesehöfer ( 1999 ) , pp. 55 -- 68 ^ Jump up to : Pahlavi , p. 9 Jump up ^ Robertson , p. 7 Jump up ^ Lincoln , p. 32 . Jump up ^ Housego ( 1971 - 10 - 15 ) Jump up ^ `` President opens Cyrus Cylinder exhibit . '' Mehr News Agency ( MNA ) . 2010 . HighBeam Research . ( August 22 , 2016 ) . https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-237021695.html ^ Jump up to : `` PRESIDENT HAILS CYRUS CYLINDER . '' States News Service . 2010 . HighBeam Research . ( August 22 , 2016 ) . https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-236988632.html Jump up ^ `` MP criticizes Ahmadinejad for praising Cyrus . '' Mehr News Agency ( MNA ) . 2010 . HighBeam Research . ( August 22 , 2016 ) . https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-269449085.html ^ Jump up to : `` Kayhan says : ' do n't return cylinder ' : prez offends right by nuzzling up to Cyrus. ( Culture : From then to now ) . '' Iran Times International ( Washington , DC ) . 2010 . HighBeam Research . ( August 22 , 2016 ) . https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-238653891.html Jump up ^ `` Cyrus Cylinder warmly welcomed at home . '' Mehr News Agency ( MNA ) . 2010 . HighBeam Research . ( August 22 , 2016 ) . https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-238049830.html Jump up ^ Briant , p. 47 ^ Jump up to : Llewellyn - Jones , p. 104 Jump up ^ Curtis , Tallis & Andre - Salvini , p. 59 Jump up ^ Silverman , Helaine ; Ruggles , D. Fairchild ( 2008 ) . Cultural Heritage and Human Rights . Springer . p. 11 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 387 - 76579 - 2 . Jump up ^ Craig A. Lockard , Societies , Networks , and Transitions : A Global History : To 1500 ( 2007 ) p. 147 ; Yunus Jaffery , editor , History of Persian literature ( 1981 ) , p. 121 ( author unknown ) ; Jump up ^ Damien Kingsbury , Human Rights in Asia : A Reassessment of the Asian Values Debate ( Macmillan , 2008 ) page 21 ; Sabine C. Carey , The Politics of Human Rights : The Quest for Dignity ( 2010 ) p 19 ; Paul Gordon Lauren , The Evolution of International Human Rights ( 2003 ) Page 11 ; Willem Adriaan Veenhoven , Case Studies on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms : A World Survey : Volume 1 ( 1975 ) Page 244 Jump up ^ Decolonisation , Globalisation : Language - in - Education Policy and Practice , Peter W. Martin , p. 99 Jump up ^ Talbott , W.J. Which Rights Should be Universal ? , p. 40 . Oxford University Press US , 2005 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 517347 - 5 Jump up ^ Abtahi , pp. 1 -- 38 . Jump up ^ Cited in Shabani , p. 21 Jump up ^ Jeffries ( 2005 - 10 - 22 ) ^ Jump up to : Sheikholeslami ( 2009 - 10 - 12 ) Jump up ^ Wilson ( 2010 - 01 - 24 ) Jump up ^ `` Iran severs cultural ties with British Museum over Persian treasure ( 2010 - 02 - 07 ) '' Jump up ^ Cyrus Cylinder , world 's oldest human rights charter , returns to Iran on loan , The Guardian ( 2010 - 09 - 10 ) Jump up ^ `` Cyrus Cylinder warmly welcomed at home '' . Tehran Times , September 26 , 2010 Jump up ^ https://www.economist.com/news/books-and-arts/21573955-show-tests-limits-cultural-politics-diplomatic-whirl The Cyrus cylinder : Diplomatic whirl Jump up ^ Esfandiari , Golnaz . Historic Cyrus Cylinder Called ' A Stranger In Its Own Home ' . `` Persian Letters '' , Radio Free Europe . September 14 , 2010 Jump up ^ BBC - `` British Museum lends ancient ' bill of rights ' cylinder to US '' , 28 November 2012 , http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-20508195 Jump up ^ The British Museum Press Release - `` The Cyrus Cylinder travels to the US , ' First declaration of human rights ' to tour five cities in the United States ' '' , https://www.britishmuseum.org/about_us/news_and_press/press_releases/2012/cyrus_cylinder_travels_to_us.aspx Jump up ^ Cyrus Cylinder US Tour 2013 , Tour Venues and Dates , http://cyruscylinder2013.com/venues/ Jump up ^ ' The Cyrus Cylinder and Ancient Persia -- A New Beginning ' , an exhibition in partnership with three Tata trusts , http://www.tata.co.in/company/releasesinside/The-Cyrus-Cylinder-and-Ancient-Persia-A-New-Beginning-an-exhibition-in-partnership-with-three-Tata-trusts Jump up ^ https://la.curbed.com/2017/7/5/15923494/la-freedom-sculpture-century-city-cylinder Jump up ^ http://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-freedom-sculpture-20170704-story.html References ( edit ) Books and journals ( edit ) Abtahi , Hirad ( 2006 ) . Abtahi , Hirad ; Boas , Gideon , eds . The Dynamics of International Criminal Justice : Essays in Honour of Sir Richard May . Leiden : Martinus Nijhoff Publishers . ISBN 90 - 04 - 14587 - 7 . Albertz , Rainer ( 2003 ) . Israel in Exile : The History and Literature of the Sixth Century B.C.E . Atlanta : Society of Biblical Literature . ISBN 1 - 58983 - 055 - 5 . Ansari , Ali ( 2007 ) . Modern Iran : The Pahlavis and After . Harlow : Longman . ISBN 1 - 4058 - 4084 - 6 . Arberry , A.J. ( 1953 ) . The Legacy of Persia . Oxford : Clarendon Press . OCLC 1283292 . Arnold , Bill T. ; Michalowski , Piotr ( 2006 ) . `` Achaemenid Period Historical Texts Concerning Mesopotamia '' . In Chavelas , Mark W . The Ancient Near East : Historical Sources in Translation . London : Blackwell . ISBN 0 - 631 - 23581 - 7 . Bedford , Peter Ross ( 2000 ) . Temple Restoration in Early Achaemenid Judah . Leiden : Brill . ISBN 90 - 04 - 11509 - 9 . Beaulieu , P. - A. ( Oct 1993 ) . `` An Episode in the Fall of Babylon to the Persians '' . Journal of Near Eastern Studies . Chicago : University of Chicago Press . 52 ( 4 ) . doi : 10.1086 / 373633 . Becking , Bob ( 2006 ) . `` '' We All Returned as One ! `` : Critical Notes on the Myth of the Mass Return '' . In Lipschitz , Oded ; Oeming , Manfred . Judah and the Judeans in the Persian period . Winona Lake , IN : Eisenbrauns . ISBN 978 - 1 - 57506 - 104 - 7 . Berger , P. - R. ( 1970 ) . `` Das Neujahrsfest nach den Königsinschriften des ausgehenden babylonischen Reiches '' . In Finet , A. Actes de la XVIIe Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale . Publications du Comité belge de recherches historiques , épigraphiques et archéologiques en Mésopotamie , nr. 1 ( in German ) . Ham - sur - Heure : Comité belge de recherches en Mésopotamie . Bidmead , Julye ( 2004 ) . The Akitu Festival : Religious Continuity And Royal Legitimation In Mesopotamia . Piscataway , NJ : Gorgias Press LLC . ISBN 1 - 59333 - 158 - 4 . Briant , Pierre ( 2006 ) . From Cyrus to Alexander : A History of the Persian Empire . Winona Lake , IN : Eisenbraun . ISBN 978 - 1 - 57506 - 120 - 7 . Brown , Dale ( 1996 ) . Persians : Masters of Empire . Alexandra , VA : Time - Life Books . ISBN 0 - 8094 - 9104 - 4 . Buchanan , G. ( 1964 ) . `` The Foundation and Extension of the Persian Empire '' . In Bury , J.B. ; Cook , S.A. ; Adcock , F.E. The Cambridge Ancient History : IV . The Persian Empire and the West . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . OCLC 57550495 . Curtis , John ; Tallis , Nigel ; André - Salvini , Béatrice ( 2005 ) . Forgotten Empire : The World of Ancient Persia . Berkeley : University of California Press . ISBN 0 - 520 - 24731 - 0 . Dandamaev , M.A. ( 1989 ) . A political history of the Achaemenid Empire . Leiden : Brill . ISBN 978 - 90 - 04 - 09172 - 6 . Daniel , Elton L. ( 2000 ) . The History of Iran . Westport , CT : Greenwood Publishing Group . ISBN 0 - 313 - 30731 - 8 . Dick , Michael B. ( 2004 ) . `` The `` History of David 's Rise to Power '' and the Neo-Babylonian Succession Apologies `` . In Batto , Bernard Frank ; Roberts , Kathryn L. ; McBee Roberts , Jimmy Jack . David and Zion : Biblical Studies in Honor of J.J.M. Roberts . Winona Lake , IN : Eisenbrauns . ISBN 1 - 57506 - 092 - 2 . Dyck , Jonathan E. ( 1998 ) . The Theocratic Ideology of the Chronicler . Leiden : Brill . ISBN 90 - 04 - 11146 - 8 . Evans , Malcolm ( 1997 ) . Religious Liberty and International Law in Europe . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 - 521 - 55021 - 1 . Finkel , I.L. ; Seymour , M.J. ( 2009 ) . Babylon . Oxford : Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 538540 - 3 . Fowler , Richard ; Hekster , Olivier ( 2005 ) . Imaginary kings : royal images in the ancient Near East , Greece and Rome . Stuttgart : Franz Steiner Verlag . ISBN 978 - 3 - 515 - 08765 - 0 . Free , Joseph P. ; Vos , Howard Frederic ( 1992 ) . Vos , Howard Frederic , ed . Archaeology and Bible history . Grand Rapids , MI : Zondervan . ISBN 978 - 0 - 310 - 47961 - 1 . Fried , Lisbeth S. ( 2004 ) . The priest and the great king : temple - palace relations in the Persian Empire . Winona Lake , IN : Eisenbrauns . ISBN 978 - 1 - 57506 - 090 - 3 . Grabbe , Lester L. ( 2004 ) . A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period : Yehud , the Persian Province of Judah . London : Continuum International Publishing Group . ISBN 0 - 567 - 08998 - 3 . Grabbe , Lester L. ( 2006 ) . `` The `` Persian Documents '' in the Book of Ezra : Are They Authentic ? `` . In Lipschitz , Oded ; Oeming , Manfred . Judah and the Judeans in the Persian period . Winona Lake , IN : Eisenbrauns . ISBN 978 - 1 - 57506 - 104 - 7 . Hallo , William ( 2002 ) . Hallo , William ; Younger , K. Lawson , eds . The Context of Scripture : Monumental inscriptions from the biblical world . 2 . Leiden : Brill . ISBN 978 - 90 - 04 - 10619 - 2 . Haubold , Johannes ( 2007 ) . `` Xerxes ' Homer '' . In Bridges , Emma ; Hall , Edith ; Rhodes , P.J. Cultural Responses to the Persian Wars : Antiquity to the Third Millennium . Oxford : Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 927967 - 8 . Hilprecht , Hermann Volrath ( 1903 ) . Explorations in Bible lands during the 19th century . Philadelphia : A.J. Molman and Company . Hurowitz , Victor Avigdor ( Jan -- Apr 2003 ) . `` Restoring the Temple : Why and when ? '' . The Jewish Quarterly Review . University of Pennsylvania Press . 93 ( 3 / 4 ) . Janzen , David ( 2002 ) . Witch - hunts , purity and social boundaries : the expulsion of the foreign women in Ezra 9 -- 10 . London : Sheffield Academic Press . ISBN 978 - 1 - 84127 - 292 - 4 . Koldewey , Robert ; Griffith Johns , Agnes Sophia ( 1914 ) . The excavations at Babylon . London : MacMillan & co . Kuhrt , Amélie ( 1982 ) . `` Babylonia from Cyrus to Xerxes '' . In Boardman , John . The Cambridge Ancient History : Vol IV -- Persia , Greece and the Western Mediterranean . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 - 521 - 22804 - 2 . Kuhrt , Amélie ( 1983 ) . `` The Cyrus Cylinder and Achaemenid imperial policy '' . Journal for the Study of the Old Testament . Sheffield : University of Sheffield . Dept. of Biblical Studies . 25 . ISSN 1476 - 6728 . Kuhrt , Amélie ( 2007 ) . The Persian Empire : A Corpus of Sources of the Achaemenid Period . London : Routledge . ISBN 0 - 415 - 43628 - 1 . Kuhrt , Amélie ( 2007 ) . `` Cyrus the Great of Persia : Images and Realities '' . In Heinz , Marlies ; Feldman , Marian H. Representations of Political Power : Case Histories from Times of Change and Dissolving Order in the Ancient Near East . Winona Lake , IN : Eisenbrauns . ISBN 1 - 57506 - 135 - X . Kutsko , John F. ( 2000 ) . Between Heaven and Earth : Divine Presence and Absence in the Book of Ezekiel . Winona Lake , IN : Eisenbrauns . ISBN 1 - 57506 - 041 - 8 . Lincoln , Bruce ( 1992 ) . Discourse and the Construction of Society : Comparative Studies of Myth , Ritual , and Classification . New York : Oxford University Press US . ISBN 0 - 19 - 507909 - 4 . Lincoln , Bruce ( 2007 ) . Religion , empire and torture : the case of Achaemenian Persia , with a postscript on Abu Ghraib . Chicago : University of Chicago Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 226 - 48196 - 8 . Llewellyn - Jones , Lloyd ( 2009 ) . `` The First Persian Empire 550 -- 330BC '' . In Harrison , Thomas . The Great Empires of the Ancient World . Getty Publications . p. 104 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 89236 - 987 - 4 . Mallowan , Max ( 1968 ) . `` Cyrus the Great ( 558 - 529 B.C. ) '' . In Frye , Richard Nelson ; Fisher , William Bayne . The Cambridge History of Iran . Vol. 2 , The Median and Achaemenian periods . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 - 521 - 20091 - 1 . OCLC 40820893 . Masroori , C. ( August 1999 ) . `` Cyrus II and the Political Utility of Religious Toleration '' . In Laursen , J.C. Religious Toleration : `` The Variety of Rites '' from Cyrus to Defoe . New York : St. Martin 's Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 312 - 22233 - 8 . Min , Kyung - Jin . The Levitical Authorship of Ezra - Nehemiah . London : Continuum International Publishing Group , 2004 . ISBN 0 - 567 - 08226 - 1 . Mitchell , T.C. ( 1988 ) . Biblical Archaeology : Documents from the British Museum . London : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 - 521 - 36867 - 7 . Nies , J.B. ; Keiser , C.E. ( 1920 ) . Babylonian Inscriptions in the Collection of J.B. Nies. II . Pahlavi , Mohammed Reza ( 1967 ) . The White Revolution of Iran . Imperial Pahlavi Library . Pritchard , James Bennett , ed. ( 1973 ) . The Ancient Near East , Volume I : An Anthology of Texts and Pictures . Princeton : Princeton University Press . OCLC 150577756 . Rassam , Hormuzd ( 1897 ) . Asshur and the land of Nimrod . London : Curts & Jennings . Rawlinson , H.C. ( 1880 ) . `` Notes on a newly - discovered clay Cylinder of Cyrus the Great '' . Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland . 12 . Robertson , Arthur Henry ; Merrills , J.G. ( 1996 ) . Human rights in the world : an introduction to the study of the international protection of human rights . Manchester : Manchester University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7190 - 4923 - 1 . Schaudig , Hanspeter ( 2001 ) . Die Inschriften Nabonids von Babylon und Kyros ' des Grossen samt den in ihrem Umfeld entstandenen Tendenzschriften : Textausgabe und Grammatik ( in German ) . Münster : Ugarit - Verlag . ISBN 3 - 927120 - 75 - 8 . Shabani , Reza ( 2005 ) . Iranian History at a Glance . Mahmood Farrokhpey ( trans . ) . London : Alhoda UK . ISBN 964 - 439 - 005 - 9 . Sherwin , Simon J. ( 2007 ) . `` Old Testament monotheism and Zoroastrian influence '' . In Gordon , Robert P . The God of Israel : Studies of an Inimitable Deity . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 - 521 - 87365 - 7 . Smith , Morton ( 1996 ) . Cohen , Shaye J.D. , ed . Studies in the cult of Yahweh , Volume 1 . Leiden : Brill . p. 78 . ISBN 978 - 90 - 04 - 10477 - 8 . Soggin , J. Alberto ( 1999 ) . An Introduction to the History of Israel and Judah . John Bowman ( trans . ) . London : SCM - Canterbury Press Ltd . ISBN 0 - 334 - 02788 - 8 . Stillman , Robert E. ( 2008 ) . Philip Sidney and the poetics of Renaissance cosmopolitanism . Aldershot : Ashgate Publishing . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7546 - 6369 - 0 . van der Spek , R.J. ( 1982 ) . `` Did Cyrus the Great introduce a new policy towards subdued nations ? Cyrus in Assyrian perspective '' . Persica . Leiden : Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Osten. 10 . OCLC 499757419 . Vos , Howard Frederic ( 1995 ) . `` Archaeology of Mesopotamia '' . In Bromiley , Geoffrey W . The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia . Grand Rapids , Mich. : Wm . B. Eerdmans Publishing . ISBN 0 - 8028 - 3781 - 6 . Walker , C.B.F. ( 1972 ) . `` A recently identified fragment of the Cyrus Cylinder '' . Iran : journal of the British Institute of Persian Studies ( 10 ) . ISSN 0578 - 6967 . Walton , John H. ; Hill , Andrew E. ( 2004 ) . Old Testament Today : A Journey from Original Meaning to Contemporary Significance . Grand Rapids , MI : Zondervan . ISBN 0 - 310 - 23826 - 9 . Wiesehöfer , Josef ( 1999 ) . `` Kyros , der Schah und 2500 Jahre Menschenrechte . Historische Mythenbildung zur Zeit der Pahlavi - Dynastie '' . In Conermann , Stephan . Mythen , Geschichte ( n ) , Identitäten . Der Kampf um die Vergangenheit ( in German ) . Schenefeld / Hamburg : EB - Verlag . ISBN 3 - 930826 - 52 - 6 . Wiesehöfer , Josef ( 2001 ) . Ancient Persia : From 550 BC to 650 AD . London : I.B. Tauris . ISBN 1 - 86064 - 675 - 1 . Weissbach , Franz Heinrich ( 1911 ) . Die Keilinschriften der Achämeniden . Vorderasiatische Bibliotek ( in German ) . Leipzig : J.C. Hinrichs . Winn Leith , Mary Joan ( 1998 ) . `` Israel among the Nations : The Persian Period '' . In Coogan , Michael David . The Oxford History of the Biblical World . Oxford : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 - 19 - 513937 - 2 . Farrokh , Kaveh ( 2007 ) . `` Cyrus the Great and early Achaemenids '' . Shadows in the Desert : Ancient Persia at War . Oxford : Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978 - 1 - 84603 - 108 - 3 . Lauren , Paul Gordon ( 2003 ) . `` Philosophical Visions : Human Nature , Natural Law , and Natural Rights '' . The Evolution of International Human Rights : Visions Seen . Philadelphia : University of Pennsylvania Press . ISBN 0 - 8122 - 1854 - X . Media articles ( edit ) `` Royal Asiatic Society '' . The Times . 18 November 1879 . `` A Monument of Cyrus the Great '' . The Oriental Journal . London . January 1880 . Housego , David ( 1971 - 10 - 15 ) . `` Pique and peacocks in Persepolis '' . The Times . Foucart , Stéphane ( 2007 - 08 - 19 ) . `` Cyrus le taiseux '' . Le Monde ( in French ) . Retrieved 2008 - 07 - 30 . Jeffries , Stuart ( 2005 - 10 - 22 ) . `` A private view '' . The Guardian . London . Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 19 . MacGregor , Neil ( 2004 - 07 - 24 ) . `` The whole world in our hands '' . The Guardian . London . Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 26 . Schulz , Matthias ( 15 July 2008 ) . `` Falling for Ancient Propaganda : UN Treasure Honors Persian Despot '' . Spiegel Online . Retrieved 25 November 2015 . Sheikholeslami , Ali ( 2009 - 10 - 12 ) . `` Iran Gives British Museum 2 - Month Deadline Over Cyrus Cylinder '' . Bloomberg News . Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 19 . Wilson , John ( 2010 - 01 - 24 ) . `` British Museum in battle with Iran over ancient ' charter of rights ' '' . The Observer . London . Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 24 . Staff ( 2010 - 02 - 07 ) . `` Iran severs cultural ties with British Museum over Persian treasure '' . Daily Telegraph . London . Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 20 . `` Iran seeks compensation from British Museum '' . Tehran Times . 2010 - 04 - 18 . `` Iran demands $300,000 from British Museum over Cyrus Cylinder delay '' . The Times . London . 2010 - 04 - 20 . Iran is demanding that the British Museum pay $300,000 ( £ 197,000 ) after it refused to hand over the Cyrus Cylinder -- a cuneiform tablet regarded as the first declaration of human rights . `` Cyrus Cylinder , world 's oldest human rights charter , returns to Iran on loan '' . The Guardian . London . 2010 - 09 - 10 . Retrieved 2010 - 09 - 10 . `` موزه بريتانيا : تبادل اشياء تاريخي با موزه ملي ايران براي ما مهم است ( British Museum : Exchange of historical objects with the National Museum of Iran is important to us ) '' . IRNA. 2010 - 09 - 10 . Archived from the original on 2011 - 09 - 27 . Retrieved 2010 - 09 - 10 . `` منشور حقوق بشر كوروش در موزه ملي ايران استقرار يافت ( The Human Rights Declaration of Cyrus was Installed at National Museum ) '' . IRNA. 2010 - 09 - 11 . Archived from the original on 2012 - 03 - 16 . Retrieved 2010 - 09 - 11 . `` Ahmadinejad hails Cyrus Cylinder '' . PressTV. 12 September 2010 . Other sources ( edit ) `` British Museum Highlights web page '' . Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 08 . `` British Museum collection database web page , with full translation of the Cylinder 's text '' . Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 19 . Nayeri , F. ( 2010 - 01 - 11 ) . `` British Museum Postpones Sending Artifact to Iran '' . Bloomberg . Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 25 . ' The agreement has been made with our colleagues in Iran that we 'll postpone the loan to investigate this exciting discovery with them , ' said Hannah Boulton , head of press and marketing at the British Museum . ' That 's the reason for the postponement . ' ( ... ) Boulton said the latest postponement had no link to recent events . The Cyrus Cylinder . Inscription in room 55 : British Museum . For almost 100 years the Cylinder was regarded as ancient Mesopotamian propaganda . This changed in 1971 when the Shah of Iran used it as a central image in his own propaganda celebrating 2500 years of Iranian monarchy . In Iran , the Cylinder has appeared on coins , banknotes and stamps . Despite being a Babylonian document it has become part of Iran 's cultural identity . The British Museum ( 2010 - 01 - 20 ) . `` Statements regarding the Cyrus Cylinder '' . British Museum . Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 01 . `` Note to Correspondents no . 3699 '' ( PDF ) . United Nations . 1971 - 10 - 13 . Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 08 . Lendering , Jona ( 2007 - 01 - 28 ) . `` The Cyrus Cylinder '' . livius.org . Retrieved 2008 - 07 - 30 . Dandamaev , M.A. ( 2010 - 01 - 26 ) . `` Cyrus II The Great '' . Encyclopædia Iranica . Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 08 . Dandamaev , M.A. ( 2010 - 01 - 26 ) . `` The Cyrus Cylinder '' . Encyclopædia Iranica . Retrieved 2010 - 09 - 13 . `` United Nations Press Release SG / SM / 1553 / HQ263 '' ( PDF ) . 1971 - 10 - 14 . Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 08 . `` Gift of Iran to the United Nations '' . United Nations . Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 10 . `` The First Global Statement of the Inherent Dignity and Equality '' . United Nations . Archived from the original on 2010 - 12 - 16 . Retrieved 2010 - 09 - 13 . Editions and translations ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cyrus cylinder . The latest edition of the Akkadian language text is : Hanspeter Schaudig , Die Inschriften Nabonids von Babylon und Kyros ' des Großen , samt den in ihrem Umfeld entstandenen Tendenzschriften . Textausgabe und Grammatik. ( 2001 Münster , Ugarit - Verlag ) ( online with English translation based on Cogan 2003 ) . Older translations and transliterations : Rawlinson , H.C. , & Th . G. Pinches , A Selection from the Miscellaneous Inscriptions of Assyria and Babylonia ( 1884 , 1909 London : fragment A only ) . Rogers , Robert William : Cuneiform Parallels to the Old Testament ( 1912 ) , New York , Eaton & Mains ( Online : fragment A only ) . Pritchard , James B. ( ed . ) : Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament ( ANET ) ( 1950 , 1955 , 1969 ) . Translation by A.L. Oppenheim . ( fragment A and B) . P. - R. Berger , `` Der Kyros - Zylinder mit dem Susatzfragment BIN II Nr. 32 und die akkidischen Personennamen im Danielbuch '' in Zeitschrift für Assyriologie 65 ( 1975 ) 192 -- 234 Mordechai Cogan 's translation , in W.H. Hallo and K.L. Younger , The Context of Scripture vol. II , Monumental Inscriptions from the Biblical World ( 2003 , Leiden and Boston ) ( online with Schaudig 's transliteration ) Brosius , Maria ( ed . ) : The Persian Empire from Cyrus II to Artaxerxes I ( 2000 , London Association of Classical Teachers ( LACT ) 16 , London . Irving Finkel 's translation at the British Museum website . This article is about an item held in the British Museum . The object reference is 1880 , 0617.1941 . External links ( edit ) Neil MacGregor , Director of the British Museum , traces 2600 years of Middle Eastern history through this single object . Cyrus the Great Teispids , Achaemenid Empire Family Cambyses I Mandane of Media Cassandane Amitis Children Cambyses II Bardiya Atossa Artystone Battles Persian Revolt Hyrba Persian Border Pasargadae Pteria Thymbra Sardis Opis Related `` Cyrus '' ( name ) Pasargadae Cyrus Cylinder Cyropaedia Tomb Cyrus in the Bible Cyrus 's edict Cyrus in the Quran Dhul - Qarnayn Kay Bahman Cyrus the Great Day Cyrus the Great ( screenplay ) Ciro riconosciuto Category The British Museum Building Great Court King 's Library Round Reading Room Departments and objects Africa , Oceania and Americas Akan Drum Aubin Codex Benin Bronzes Briggs Enigma Codex Kingsborough Double - headed serpent Hoa Hakananai'a Throne of Weapons Kayung totem pole Tree of Life Yaxchilan Lintel 24 Ancient Egypt and Sudan Colossal head of Amenhotep III Gebelein predynastic mummies Hunters Palette Rhind Mathematical Papyrus Rosetta Stone Sphinx of Taharqo Younger Memnon Asia Admonitions Scroll Bimaran casket Kanishka casket Mathura lion capital Percival David Foundation of Chinese Art Seated Buddha from Gandhara Statue of Tara The Great Wave off Kanagawa Greece and Rome Bassae Frieze Elgin Marbles Esquiline Treasure Farnese Diadumenos Harpy Tomb Jennings Dog Lion of Knidos Minoan Bull - leaper Nereid Monument Portland Vase Warren Cup Middle East Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III Burney Relief Cylinder of Nabonidus Cyrus Cylinder Flood tablet ( Gilgamesh ) Library of Ashurbanipal Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal Oxus Treasure Taylor Prism Lachish reliefs Babylonian Chronicles Kurkh Monoliths Prehistory and Europe Franks Casket Holy Thorn Reliquary Hoxne Hoard Lewis chessmen Lindow Man Mildenhall Treasure Ringlemere Cup Royal Gold Cup Sutton Hoo Sutton Hoo helmet Sutton Hoo purse - lid Swimming Reindeer Vindolanda Tablets Prints and Drawings Dürer 's Rhinoceros Epifania I Modi Isabella Brant The Ancient of Days The Disasters of War The Tale of the Flopsy Bunnies Triumphal Arch Other Coins and Medals Conservation and Scientific Research Libraries and Archives Portable Antiquities and Treasure A History of the World in 100 Objects Other British Museum Act 1902 British Museum Act 1963 Directors Films shot at the British Museum Friends Royal Commission on the British Museum Trustees Secretum Category Commons Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cyrus_Cylinder&oldid=836606627 '' Categories : 6th - century BC works 1879 archaeological discoveries Akkadian inscriptions Ancient Near and Middle East clay objects Archaeology of the Achaemenid Empire Art and cultural repatriation Cyrus the Great History of human rights History of Iran Middle Eastern objects in the British Museum Nabonidus Return to Zion Hidden categories : Pages using deprecated image syntax Articles containing Persian - language text CS1 German - language sources ( de ) CS1 : Julian -- Gregorian uncertainty CS1 French - language sources ( fr ) Good articles Talk Contents About Wikipedia Afrikaans বাংলা Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español Esperanto فارسی Français Frysk Galego Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Limburgs Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk پنجابی Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська 中文 33 more Edit links This page was last edited on 15 April 2018 , at 20 : 22 . 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who wrote the first declaration of human rights

Cyrus

Akkadian cuneiform

Governor - General of India - Wikipedia Governor - General of India Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the position of Governor - General of India . For individual Governor - Generals , see List of governors - general of India . Viceroy and Governor - General of India Standard of the Governor - General Louis Mountbatten , the last Viceroy of India & the first Governor - General during the dominion period Style His Excellency Residence Viceroy 's House Appointer East India Company ( to 1858 ) Monarch of India ( from 1858 ) Formation 20 October 1774 First holder Warren Hastings Final holder Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari Abolished 26 January 1950 The Governor - General of India ( or , from 1858 to 1947 , officially the Viceroy and Governor - General of India , commonly shortened to Viceroy of India ) was originally the head of the British administration in India and , later , after Indian independence in 1947 , the representative of the Indian head of state . The office was created in 1773 , with the title of Governor - General of the Presidency of Fort William . The officer had direct control only over Fort William , but supervised other British East India Company officials in India . Complete authority over all of British India was granted in 1833 , and the official came to be known as the `` Governor - General of India '' . In 1858 , the territories of the East India Company came under the direct control of the British government ; see British Raj . The governor - general ( now also the viceroy ) headed the central government of India , which administered the provinces of British India , including the Punjab , Bengal , Bombay , Madras , the United Provinces , and others . However , much of India was not ruled directly by the British government ; outside the provinces of British India , there were hundreds of nominally sovereign princely states or `` native states '' , whose relationship was not with the British government , but directly with the monarch . To reflect the governor - general 's role as the representative of the monarch to the feudal rulers of the princely states , from 1858 the term Viceroy and Governor - General of India ( known in short as the Viceroy of India ) was applied to him . The title of viceroy was abandoned when British India split into the two independent dominions of India and Pakistan , but the office of governor - general continued to exist in each country separately -- until they adopted republican constitutions in 1950 and 1956 , respectively . Until 1858 , the governor - general was selected by the Court of Directors of the East India Company , to whom he was responsible . Thereafter , he was appointed by the sovereign on the advice of the British government ; the Secretary of State for India , a member of the UK Cabinet , was responsible for instructing him on the exercise of his powers . After 1947 , the sovereign continued to appoint the governor - general , but did so on the advice of the Indian government . Governors - General served at the pleasure of the sovereign , though the practice was to have them serve five - year terms . Governors - General could have their commission rescinded ; and if one was removed , or left , a provisional governor - general was sometimes appointed until a new holder of the office could be chosen . The first Governor - General of British India was Warren Hastings , and the first Governor - General of independent India was Louis Mountbatten . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 2 Functions 3 Council 4 Style and title 5 Flag 6 Residence 7 Insignia 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading History ( edit ) Warren Hastings , the first Governor - General of Fort William from 1773 to 1785 . Many parts of the Indian subcontinent were governed by the East India Company , which nominally acted as the agent of the Mughal Emperor . In 1773 , motivated by corruption in the Company , the British government assumed partial control over the governance of India with the passage of the Regulating Act of 1773 . A Governor - General and Supreme Council of Bengal were appointed to rule over the Presidency of Fort William in Bengal . The first Governor - General and Council were named in the Act . The Charter Act 1833 replaced the Governor - General and Council of Fort William with the Governor - General and Council of India . The power to elect the Governor - General was retained by the Court of Directors , but the choice became subject to the Sovereign 's approval . After the Indian Rebellion of 1857 , the East India Company 's territories in India were put under the direct control of the Sovereign . The Government of India Act 1858 vested the power to appoint the Governor - General in the Sovereign . The Governor - General , in turn , had the power to appoint all lieutenant governors in India , subject to the Sovereign 's approval . India and Pakistan acquired independence in 1947 , but Governors - General continued to be appointed over each nation until republican constitutions were written . Louis Mountbatten , 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma remained Governor - General of India for some time after independence , but the two nations were otherwise headed by native Governors - General . India became a secular republic in 1950 ; Pakistan became an Islamic one in 1956 . Functions ( edit ) Lord Curzon in his robes as Viceroy of India , a post he held from 1899 to 1905 . Lord Mountbatten addressing the Chamber of Princes as Crown Representative in the 1940s The Governor - General originally had power only over the Presidency of Fort William in Bengal . The Regulating Act , however , granted them additional powers relating to foreign affairs and defence . The other Presidencies of the East India Company ( Madras , Bombay and Bencoolen ) were not allowed to declare war on or make peace with an Indian prince without receiving the prior approval of the Governor - General and Council of Fort William . The powers of the Governor - General , in respect of foreign affairs , were increased by the India Act 1784 . The Act provided that the other Governors under the East India Company could not declare war , make peace or conclude a treaty with an Indian prince unless expressly directed to do so by the Governor - General or by the Company 's Court of Directors . While the Governor - General thus became the controller of foreign policy in India , he was not the explicit head of British India . That status came only with the Charter Act 1833 , which granted him `` superintendence , direction and control of the whole civil and military Government '' of all of British India . The Act also granted legislative powers to the Governor - General and Council . After 1858 , the Governor - General ( now usually known as the Viceroy ) functioned as the chief administrator of India and as the Sovereign 's representative . India was divided into numerous provinces , each under the head of a Governor , Lieutenant Governor or Chief Commissioner or Administrator . Governors were appointed by the British Government , to whom they were directly responsible ; Lieutenant Governors , Chief Commissioners , and Administrators , however , were appointed by and were subordinate to the Viceroy . The Viceroy also oversaw the most powerful princely rulers : the Nizam of Hyderabad , the Maharaja of Mysore , the Maharaja ( Scindia ) of Gwalior , the Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir and the Gaekwad ( Gaekwar ) Maharaja of Baroda . The remaining princely rulers were overseen either by the Rajputana Agency and Central India Agency , which were headed by representatives of the Viceroy , or by provincial authorities . The Chamber of Princes was an institution established in 1920 by a Royal Proclamation of King - Emperor George V to provide a forum in which the princely rulers could voice their needs and aspirations to the government . The chamber usually met only once a year , with the Viceroy presiding , but it appointed a Standing Committee , which met more often . Upon independence in August 1947 , the title of Viceroy was abolished . The representative of the British Sovereign became known once again as the Governor - General . C. Rajagopalachari became the only Indian Governor - General . However , once India acquired independence , the Governor - General 's role became almost entirely ceremonial , with power being exercised on a day - to - day basis by the Indian cabinet . After the nation became a republic in 1950 , the President of India continued to perform the same functions . Council ( edit ) Main articles : Council of India and Viceroy 's Executive Council The Viceregal Lodge in Simla , built in 1888 , was the summer residence of the Viceroy of India Viceregal Lodge , Delhi , where Viceroy Lord Hardinge stayed ( 1912 -- 31 ) , now the main building of the University of Delhi The Governor - General was always advised by a Council on the exercise of his legislative and executive powers . The Governor - General , while exercising many functions , was referred to as the `` Governor - General in Council . '' The Regulating Act 1773 provided for the election of four counsellors by the East India Company 's Court of Directors . The Governor - General had a vote along with the counsellors , but he also had an additional vote to break ties . The decision of the Council was binding on the Governor - General . In 1784 , the Council was reduced to three members ; the Governor - General continued to have both an ordinary vote and a casting vote . In 1786 , the power of the Governor - General was increased even further , as Council decisions ceased to be binding . The Charter Act 1833 made further changes to the structure of the Council . The Act was the first law to distinguish between the executive and legislative responsibilities of the Governor - General . As provided under the Act , there were to be four members of the Council elected by the Court of Directors . The first three members were permitted to participate on all occasions , but the fourth member was only allowed to sit and vote when legislation was being debated . In 1858 , the Court of Directors ceased to have the power to elect members of the Council . Instead , the one member who had a vote only on legislative questions came to be appointed by the Sovereign , and the other three members by the Secretary of State for India . The Indian Councils Act 1861 made several changes to the Council 's composition . Three members were to be appointed by the Secretary of State for India , and two by the Sovereign . ( The power to appoint all five members passed to the Crown in 1869 ) . The Viceroy was empowered to appoint an additional six to twelve members ( changed to ten to sixteen in 1892 , and to sixty in 1909 ) . The five individuals appointed by the Sovereign or the Indian Secretary headed the executive departments , while those appointed by the Viceroy debated and voted on legislation . In 1919 , an Indian legislature , consisting of a Council of State and a Legislative Assembly , took over the legislative functions of the Viceroy 's Council . The Viceroy nonetheless retained significant power over legislation . He could authorise the expenditure of money without the Legislature 's consent for `` ecclesiastical , political ( and ) defense '' purposes , and for any purpose during `` emergencies . '' He was permitted to veto , or even stop debate on , any bill . If he recommended the passage of a bill , but only one chamber cooperated , he could declare the bill passed over the objections of the other chamber . The Legislature had no authority over foreign affairs and defence . The President of the Council of State was appointed by the Viceroy ; the Legislative Assembly elected its President , but the election required the Viceroy 's approval . Style and title ( edit ) Until 1833 , the title of the position was `` Governor - General of Bengal '' . The Government of India Act 1833 converted the title into `` Governor - General of India . '' The title `` Viceroy and Governor - General '' was first used in the queen 's proclamation appointing Viscount Canning in 1858 . It was never conferred by an act of parliament , but was used in warrants of precedence and in the statutes of knightly orders . In usage , `` viceroy '' is employed where the governor - general 's position as the monarch 's representative is in view . The viceregal title was not used when the sovereign was present in India . It was meant to indicate new responsibilities , especially ritualistic ones , but it conferred no new statutory authority . The governor - general regularly used the title in communications with the Imperial Legislative Council , but all legislation was made only in the name of the Governor - General - in - Council ( or the Government of India ) . The Governor - General was styled Excellency and enjoyed precedence over all other government officials in India . He was referred to as ' His Excellency ' and addressed as ' Your Excellency ' . From 1858 to 1947 , the Governor - General was known as the Viceroy of India ( from the French roi , meaning ' king ' ) , and wives of Viceroys were known as Vicereines ( from the French reine , meaning ' queen ' ) . The Vicereine was referred to as ' Her Excellency ' and was also addressed as ' Your Excellency ' . Neither title was employed while the Sovereign was in India . However , the only reigning British Sovereign to visit India during the period of British rule was King George V , who accompanied by his consort Queen Mary attended the Delhi Durbar in 1911 . When the Order of the Star of India was founded in 1861 , the Viceroy was made its Grand Master ex officio . The Viceroy was also made the ex officio Grand Master of the Order of the Indian Empire upon its foundation in 1877 . Most Governors - General and Viceroys were peers . Frequently , a Viceroy who was already a peer would be granted a peerage of higher rank , as with the granting of a marquessate to Lord Reading and an earldom and later a marquessate to Freeman Freeman - Thomas . Of those Viceroys who were not peers , Sir John Shore was a baronet , and Lord William Bentinck was entitled to the courtesy title ' Lord ' because he was the son of a Duke . Only the first and last Governors - General -- Warren Hastings and Chakravarti Rajagopalachari -- as well as some provisional Governors - General , had no honorific titles at all . Flag ( edit ) Flag of the Governor General of India ( 1947 -- 50 ) From around 1885 , the Viceroy of India was allowed to fly a Union Flag augmented in the centre with the ' Star of India ' surmounted by a Crown . This flag was not the Viceroy 's personal flag ; it was also used by Governors , Lieutenant Governors , Chief Commissioners and other British officers in India . When at sea , only the Viceroy flew the flag from the mainmast , while other officials flew it from the foremast . From 1947 to 1950 , the Governor - General of India used a dark blue flag bearing the royal crest ( a lion standing on the Crown ) , beneath which was the word ' India ' in gold majuscules . The same design is still used by many other Commonwealth Realm Governors - General . This last flag was the personal flag of the Governor - General only . Residence ( edit ) Government House served as the Governor - General 's residence during most of the nineteenth century . The Governor - General of Fort William resided in Belvedere House , Calcutta , until the early nineteenth century , when Government House was constructed . In 1854 , the Lieutenant Governor of Bengal took up residence there . Now , the Belvedere Estate houses the National Library of India . Lord Wellesley , who is reputed to have said that ' India should be governed from a palace , not from a country house ' , constructed a grand mansion , known as Government House , between 1799 and 1803 . The mansion remained in use until the capital moved from Calcutta to Delhi in 1912 . Thereafter , the Lieutenant Governor of Bengal , who had hitherto resided in Belvedere House , was upgraded to a full Governor and transferred to Government House . Now , it serves as the residence of the Governor of the Indian state of West Bengal , and is referred to by its Bengali name Raj Bhavan . After the capital moved from Calcutta to Delhi , the Viceroy occupied the newly built Viceroy 's House , designed by Sir Edwin Lutyens . Though construction began in 1912 , it did not conclude until 1929 ; the palace was not formally inaugurated until 1931 . The final cost exceeded £ 877,000 ( over £ 35,000,000 in modern terms ) -- more than twice the figure originally allocated . Today the residence , now known by the Hindi name of ' Rashtrapati Bhavan ' , is used by the President of India . Throughout the British administration , Governors - General retreated to the Viceregal Lodge ( Rashtrapati Niwas ) at Shimla each summer to escape the heat , and the government of India moved with them . The Viceregal Lodge now houses the Indian Institute of Advanced Study . Insignia ( edit ) See also : Star of India ( flag ) Badge of the Governor - General ( 1885 -- 1947 ) Standard of the Governor - General ( 1885 -- 1947 ) Standard of the Governor - General ( 1947 -- 50 ) See also ( edit ) India portal Pakistan portal United Kingdom portal Politics portal List of governors - general of India Commander - in - Chief , India British Empire Emperor of India Indian independence movement Council of India British Raj Secretary of State for India India Office Indian Civil Service Partition of India History of Bangladesh History of India History of Pakistan References ( edit ) Jump up ^ The term British India is mistakenly used to mean the same as the British Indian Empire , which included both the provinces and the Native States . Jump up ^ `` Imperial Impressions '' . Hindustan Times . 20 July 2011 . Archived from the original on 17 July 2012 . Jump up ^ Queen Victoria 's Proclamation Jump up ^ H. Verney Lovett , `` The Indian Governments , 1858 -- 1918 '' , The Cambridge History of the British Empire , Volume V : The Indian Empire , 1858 -- 1918 ( Cambridge University Press , 1932 ) , p. 226 . Jump up ^ Arnold P. Kaminsky , The India Office , 1880 -- 1910 ( Greenwood Press , 1986 ) , p. 126 . Association of Commonwealth Archivists and Record Managers ( 1999 ) `` Government Buildings -- India '' Forrest , G.W. , CIE , ( editor ) ( 1910 ) Selections from the State Papers of the Governors - General of India ; Warren Hastings ( 2 vols ) , Oxford : Blackwell 's Encyclopædia Britannica ( `` British Empire '' and `` Viceroy '' ) , London : Cambridge University Press , 1911 , 11th edition , James , Lawrence ( 1997 ) Raj : the Making and Unmaking of British India London : Little , Brown & Company ISBN 0 - 316 - 64072 - 7 Keith , A.B. ( editor ) ( 1922 ) Speeches and Documents on Indian Policy , 1750 -- 1921 , London : Oxford University Press Oldenburg , P. ( 2004 ) . `` India . '' Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia . ( Archived 2009 - 10 - 31 ) mountbattenofburma.com -- Tribute & Memorial website to Louis , 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma Further Reading ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Governors - General of India . Arnold , Sir Edwin ( 1865 ) . The Marquis of Dalhousie 's Administration of British India : Annexation of Pegu , Nagpor , and Oudh , and a general review of Lord Dalhousie 's rule in India . Dodwell H.H. , ed . The Cambridge History of India . Volume 6 : The Indian Empire 1858 - 1918 . With Chapters on the Development of Administration 1818 - 1858 ( 1932 ) 660pp online edition ; also published as vol 5 of the Cambridge History of the British Empire Moon , Penderel . The British Conquest and Dominion of India ( 2 vol. 1989 ) 1235pp ; the fullest scholarly history of political and military events from a British top - down perspective ; Rudhra , A.B. ( 1940 ) The Viceroy and Governor - General of India . London : H. Milford , Oxford University Press Spear , Percival ( 1990 ) ( First published 1965 ) , A History of India , Volume 2 , New Delhi and London : Penguin Books . Pp. 298 , ISBN 978 - 0 - 14 - 013836 - 8 . Governors - General of India Governors of the Presidency of Fort William ( 1774 -- 1833 ) Hastings Macpherson Cornwallis Shore Clarke Mornington Cornwallis Barlow Minto Moira Adam Amherst Bayley Bentinck ... Governors - General of India ( 1833 -- 1858 ) Bentinck Metcalfe Auckland Ellenborough Bird Hardinge Dalhousie Canning Governors - General and Viceroys of India ( 1858 -- 1947 ) Canning Elgin Napier Denison Lawrence Mayo Strachey Napier Northbrook Lytton Ripon Dufferin Lansdowne Elgin Curzon Minto Penshurst Chelmsford Reading Irwin Willingdon Wavell Mountbatten Governors - General of the Union of India ( 1947 -- 1950 ) Mountbatten Rajagopalachari Representatives of the monarch in Commonwealth realms and Dominions National Counsellors of State United Kingdom Governors - general Antigua and Barbuda Australia Bahamas Barbados Belize Canada Grenada Jamaica New Zealand Papua New Guinea Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Solomon Islands Tuvalu Sub-national Australia Governors New South Wales Queensland South Australia Tasmania Victoria Western Australia Administrator Northern Territory Canada Lieutenant governors Alberta British Columbia Manitoba New Brunswick Newfoundland Nova Scotia Ontario Prince Edward Island Quebec Saskatchewan Realm of New Zealand Governor - general Niue , New Zealand Queen 's Representative Cook Islands Administrator Tokelau United Kingdom Lords lieutenant England , Wales , Scotland , Northern Ireland ( list Former Governors general Ceylon ( now Sri Lanka ) Fiji The Gambia Ghana Guyana India Irish Free State ( now Ireland ) Kenya Malawi Malta Mauritius Nigeria Pakistan Sierra Leone Union of South Africa Tanganyika Trinidad and Tobago Uganda Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Governor-General_of_India&oldid=833230854 '' Categories : Governors - General of India India and the Commonwealth of Nations Westminster system Hidden categories : Use dmy dates from March 2013 Use Indian English from July 2016 All Wikipedia articles written in Indian English All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from April 2009 Articles with unsourced statements from October 2009 Talk Contents About Wikipedia বাংলা Български Deutsch Español فارسی Français 한국어 हिन्दी Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული मैथिली മലയാളം მარგალური Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Polski Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska தமிழ் తెలుగు Українська اردو 中文 22 more Edit links This page was last edited on 30 March 2018 , at 11 : 09 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

who was the governor general of india when country became independent

Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma

Louis Mountbatten

Reading FC - Wikipedia Reading FC Jump to : navigation , search Not to be confused with Reading F.C. Women . Reading Full name Reading Football Club Nickname ( s ) The Royals Founded 1871 ; 147 years ago ( 1871 ) Ground Madejski Stadium Ground Capacity 24,161 Owner Dai Yongge and Dai Xiuli ( majority ) Chairman Sir John Madejski Manager Jaap Stam League Championship 2016 -- 17 Championship , 3rd Website Club website Home colours Away colours Current season Reading Football Club ( / ˈrɛdɪŋ / ( listen ) RED - ing ) is a professional association football club based in Reading , Berkshire , England . The team play in the Championship , the second tier of English football . Reading are nicknamed The Royals , due to Reading 's location in the Royal County of Berkshire , though they were previously known as The Biscuitmen , due to the town 's association with Huntley and Palmers . Established in 1871 , the club is one of the oldest teams in England , but did not join The Football League until 1920 , and had never played in the top tier of English football league system before the 2006 -- 07 season . The club competed in the 2012 -- 13 Premier League season , having gained promotion at the end of the 2011 -- 12 season after winning the Championship , but were relegated after just one season back in the top flight . The club played at Elm Park for 102 years between 1896 and 1998 . In 1998 the club moved to the new Madejski Stadium , which is named after the club 's co-chairman Sir John Madejski . The club holds the record for the number of successive league wins at the start of a season , with a total of 13 wins at the start of the 1985 -- 86 Third Division campaign and also the record for the number of points gained in the professional league season with 106 points in the 2005 -- 06 Football League Championship campaign . Reading then finished eighth in the 2006 -- 07 Premier League , their first ever season as a top flight club . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 2 Crest and colours 3 Stadium 4 Support 4.1 Rivalries 5 Sponsorship 5.1 Additional kit sponsors 6 Ownership and finances 7 Players 7.1 First - team squad 7.2 Under - 23 squad 7.3 Under - 18 squad 7.4 Out on loan 8 Records and statistics 8.1 Notable players 8.2 Player of the season 8.3 International players 8.4 Former players 9 Club officials 10 Managers 11 Women 's team 12 Honours 12.1 Managerial 13 Affiliated clubs 14 References 15 Bibliography 16 External links History ( edit ) Main article : History of Reading F.C. See also : Thames Valley Royals proposal Reading were formed on 25 December 1871 , following a public meeting at the Bridge Street Rooms organised by the future club secretary Joseph Edward Sydenham . The early matches were played at Reading Recreation Ground , and later the club held fixtures at Reading Cricket Ground , Coley Park and Caversham Cricket Ground . The switch to professionalism in 1895 resulted in the need for a bigger ground and , to this end , the club moved again , to the purpose - built Elm Park on 5 September 1896 . In 1913 , Reading had a successful tour of Italy , prompting the leading sports newspaper Corriere della Sera to write `` without doubt , Reading FC are the finest foreign team seen in Italy '' . The team from the 1926 -- 27 season Reading were elected to the Football League Third Division South of the Football League in 1920 . Reading 's best performance in the FA Cup came in 1926 -- 27 when they lost to eventual winners Cardiff City at Wolverhampton in the semi-final , a placement the club would not match again until 2015 , when they lost to holders Arsenal in the semi-final . Reading lost their place in Division Two in May 1931 , and remained in Third Division South until the outbreak of World War II . The club won the Southern Section Cup , beating Bristol City in the two - legged final in 1938 , and when taking part in the regional London War League and Cup competitions , gained another honour by beating Brentford in the London War Cup Final of 1941 by 3 -- 2 at Stamford Bridge . When League football resumed after the war , Reading quickly came to prominence once again . The club 's record victory , 10 -- 2 versus Crystal Palace , was recorded in September 1946 , and Reading twice finished runners - up in the Third ( South ) , in 1948 -- 49 and 1951 -- 52 , but they were denied a return to Division Two as only the champions were promoted . The side 's moment of cup glory came in 1988 when they won the Simod Cup , beating a number of top flight sides en route to their Wembley win over Luton Town . Reading were promoted to the Second Division as champions in 1986 under the management of Ian Branfoot , but were relegated back to the Third Division in 1988 . The appointment of Mark McGhee as player - manager , shortly after the takeover by John Madejski , in 1991 saw Reading move forward . They were crowned champions of the new Division Two in 1994 . Thirty - five - year - old striker Jimmy Quinn was put in charge of the first team alongside midfielder Mick Gooding and guided Reading to runners - up in the final Division One table -- only to be denied automatic promotion because of the streamlining of the Premier League , from 22 teams to 20 . In 1995 , Reading had eased past Tranmere Rovers in the play - off semi-finals and looked to have booked their place in the Premier League only to lose against Bolton Wanderers in the final . Quinn and Gooding 's contracts were not renewed two years later after Reading had slid into the bottom half of Division One . Their successor , Terry Bullivant , lasted less than one season before being sacked in March 1998 . The last ever competitive match played at Elm Park between Reading and Norwich City in May 1998 The year 1998 also saw Reading move into the new 24,200 all - seater Madejski Stadium , named after Chairman John Madejski . Tommy Burns had taken over from Terry Bullivant but lasted just 18 months before being replaced by Alan Pardew , who had previously been reserve team manager before being released . The club finished third in 2000 -- 01 qualifying for the play - offs , losing 2 -- 3 in the final against Walsall at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff . Reading returned to Division One for 2002 -- 03 after finishing runners - up in Division Two . The following season , they finished fourth in Division One and qualified for the play - offs , where they lost in the semi-final to Wolverhampton Wanderers . Alan Pardew moved to West Ham United the following October and was replaced by Steve Coppell . Reading won the 2005 -- 06 Championship with a league record 106 points , scoring 99 goals and losing only twice . Reading were promoted to English football 's top division for the first time in their history . The 2006 -- 07 season saw Reading make their first appearance in the top flight of English football . Reading defied pre-season predictions of relegation to finish the season in eighth place with 55 points . Reading turned down the chance to play in the UEFA Intertoto Cup . In the run up to their second season in the Premier League , Reading took part in the 2007 Peace Cup in South Korea . This second season was less successful , however , and Reading were relegated back to the Championship . Reading started the 2008 -- 09 season with a 15 match unbeaten home run . They finished fourth and qualify for the play - offs , where they lost to Burnley in the semi-final . Manager Steve Coppell resigned just hours after the game , replaced by Brendan Rodgers . Rodgers left the club by mutual consent on 16 December 2009 and Brian McDermott made caretaker manager the same day . In the 2010 -- 11 FA Cup , Reading reached the quarter - final , where they lost 1 -- 0 to Manchester City at Etihad Stadium , Reading eventually finished fifth in the Championship to qualify for the division 's play - offs . After beating Cardiff City in the semi-finals , they lost 4 -- 2 to Swansea City in the final at Wembley . In the 2011 -- 12 season , a streak of good form in the second half of the season , ensured promotion to the Premier League on 17 April 2012 with 1 -- 0 home win against Nottingham Forest . McDermott led Reading to their first Premier League win of the 2012 -- 13 season on 17 November 2012 at their 11th attempt , defeating Everton 2 -- 1 at home . On 11 March 2013 , however , he left his position at Reading . Nigel Adkins was then appointed as manager , though he was unable to save them from relegation after drawing Queens Park Rangers 0 -- 0 on 28 April 2013 at Loftus Road . The following season back in the Championship saw Reading make two high - profile signings in Wayne Bridge and Royston Drenthe in hope of an immediate return to the Premier League . Reading , however , missed out on the playoffs because of a last minute winner from Brighton & Hove Albion 's Leonardo Ulloa , which meant they made the playoffs at Reading 's expense . The summer before the 2014 -- 15 season saw further arrivals of Jamie Mackie on loan , Oliver Norwood and the return of Simon Cox . The club was under a high threat of administration , causing departures of Sean Morrison and Adam le Fondre and a Thai consortium taking over the club . A good start to Nigel Adkins ' second season in charge was followed by a poor run of results that ended with his sacking after the 6 -- 1 away defeat to Birmingham City with Steve Clarke taking over the next day in the hope of a promotion push . However , a lack of goals and some poor form in the league meant the club faced some fears of relegation to League One , but luckily safety was secured with few games to spare . Nonetheless during that time , the club embarked on a successful FA Cup journey , reaching the semi-final where they were unlucky to lose to 2 -- 1 to Arsenal at Wembley . The 2015 -- 16 season saw the departures of long - serving players Adam Federici to AFC Bournemouth , Alex Pearce to Derby County and Jem Karacan to Galatasaray , but the arrivals Stephen Quinn and Paul McShane from Hull City , Orlando Sá from Legia Warsaw and Jonathan Bond from newly promoted Premier League side Watford . The summer spending continued , with goalkeeper Ali Al Habsi joining from recently relegated League 1 side Wigan Athletic , Paolo Hurtado from Paços de Ferreira and Andrew Taylor and Álex Fernández in on loan . The club then signed Lucas Piazon on a season - long loan deal from Chelsea just before the deadline day , as well as the signings of winger Ola John from Benfica and striker Matěj Vydra from Watford , both likewise season - long loan deals . The club would finish 17th that season . In the summer leading up to the 2016 -- 17 season the club announced the departure of Brian McDermott and eventually he was to be replaced by former Manchester United defender Jaap Stam . Under Stam , Reading achieved their highest finish since relegation back to the Championship by finishing third and reaching the play - offs , where they beat Fulham on aggregate before facing Huddersfield Town in the final at Wembley where they lost on penalties following 0 -- 0 draw after extra time . Crest and colours ( edit ) Reading F.C. crest ( 1987 -- 96 ) A change from 1965 to 1969 saw Reading run out in sky blue The first crest to appear on a Reading kit was in 1953 , it featured just the letter `` R '' . There was no crest seen again until 1981 when there was a crest featuring three trees and the rivers Thames and Kennet , this only lasted two seasons . From 1987 -- 96 the crest used the new kit colours of yellow , sky blue , royal blue and white . In 1995 chairman Sir John Madejski said , `` I know some traditionalists will say we should keep the old badge but they should bear in mind the need to move forward . '' This crest only lasted from 1996 -- 98 when the club moved to the new Madejski Stadium . The current crest was first seen on the kits for the 1998 -- 99 season . It is based on the club colours , blue and white , and includes a crown to represent the County of Berkshire and a Maiwand Lion to represent Reading . Stadium ( edit ) Main articles : Elm Park and Madejski Stadium The club played at Reading Recreation Ground until 1878 , before moving on to Reading Cricket Ground ( 1878 -- 1882 ) , Coley Park ( 1882 -- 1889 ) and Caversham Cricket Ground ( 1889 -- 1896 ) . Elm Park was Reading 's stadium for 102 years , pictured in 1981 In 1889 , Reading were unable to continue playing at Coley Park as WB Monck ( the local squire ) no longer allowed football due to `` rowdyism ( by ) the rougher elements '' . With club membership exceeding 300 by the time the club went professional in 1895 , Reading required a proper ground . A meeting the following year determined that funding would be difficult . £ 20 was donated by JC Fidler , on the proviso that `` no liquors were to be sold '' on site . The rest of the cost was financed through donations by wealthy supporters , as well as one large individual donation . A former gravel pit in West Reading was identified as the site . The first game at Elm Park was held on 5 September 1896 between Reading and A Roston Bourke 's XI . The visitors were a scratch team from Holloway College . £ 44 was taken on the gate , with an attendance of approximately 2,500 . In 1908 , the club 's annual general meeting proposed moving to a new ground near Reading railway station . A board meeting the following year decided that the move would not be possible , as `` there was no chance of a move to the ground near to the GWR railway stations due to the actions of the Great Western Railway '' . The Madejski Stadium has been Reading 's home ground since 1998 In 1994 , the Taylor Report made an all - seater stadium compulsory in the top two divisions ( the Premier League and the first division ) . Reading were champions of the second division in 1994 , and were promoted to the first division . Reading became subject to the Taylor requirements , though converting Elm Park to an all - seater stadium would have been impractical . Instead , a location in Smallmead ( to the south of the town ) was identified as the site for a new stadium . The former council landfill site was bought for £ 1 , with further conditions that the development of the stadium would include part - funding of the A33 relief road . Expansion of the club 's home would also allow alternative commercial ventures ( particularly leisure facilities ) and shared use with other teams ( such as rugby union clubs Richmond and London Irish ) . The last competitive match at Elm Park took place on 3 May 1998 against Norwich City , with Reading losing 1 -- 0 . Reading began the 1998 -- 99 season at the Madejski Stadium . It was opened on 22 August 1998 when Luton Town were beaten 3 -- 0 . The stadium cost more than £ 50 million to build . For the first time in its history , Reading Football Club participated in the Premier League in the 2006 -- 07 season . As a result of the sell - out crowds for their first few fixtures of the season , the club announced their intention , in October 2006 , to make a planning application to extend the ground to between 37,000 and 38,000 seats . The application was made on 24 January 2007 , proposing initially the extension of the East Stand with a further 6,000 seats ( raising capacity to around 30,000 ) and subsequently extension of the North and South Stands to reach the full proposed capacity . On 24 May 2007 , it was announced that planning permission had been granted to extend the stadium to a capacity of 36,900 . Reading have made plans for a new training ground at Bearwood Golf Club to replace Hogwood park their current training facility . On 5 July 2016 , at the end of Eamonn Dolan 's funeral , Reading announced that the North Stand would be renamed the `` Eamonn Dolan Stand '' . Support ( edit ) See also : Supporters ' Trust at Reading Supporters at a Reading match at Elm Park in 1913 In 2001 , Reading became the first football club to register their fans as an official member of their squad , giving the `` player '' registered with squad number 13 as ' Reading Fans ' . Rivalries ( edit ) Before going out of business in 1992 , Aldershot were Reading 's biggest rivals . There was a strong rift between the two sets of fans , with fighting between fans occurring on several occasions . Strong feelings remain between fans of Reading and fans of Aldershot Town , the refounded club in Aldershot . With Aldershot Town rejoining the league in 2008 , it remains to be seen whether this traditional rivalry will be re-established . Since Aldershot 's exile , Reading 's main local rivalries have been with Oxford United and Swindon Town . When the three teams had shared a division , their rivalry was referred to as the `` Didcot Triangle '' . However , the rivalry between Oxford and Swindon is stronger than between either of the two and Reading , largely due to them both spending their recent history in lower divisions than Reading , and spending their previous history in higher divisions than Reading . In 2012 , a small survey showed that Reading 's main rivals were Aldershot Town , followed by Swindon Town and Oxford United . Sponsorship ( edit ) Period Kit manufacturer Shirt sponsor 1976 -- 77 Umbro -- 1977 -- 81 Bukta 1981 -- 82 -- 1982 -- 83 Reading Chronicle 1983 -- 84 Umbro Radio 210 1984 -- 89 Patrick Courage 1989 -- 90 Matchwinner 1990 -- 92 HAT Painting 1992 -- 93 Brooks Auto Trader 1993 -- 96 Pelada 1996 -- 99 Mizuno 1999 -- 2001 Westcoast 2001 -- 04 Kit @ 2004 -- 05 Puma 2005 -- 08 Kyocera 2008 -- 15 Waitrose 2015 -- 16 Carabao Daeng ( home ) Thai Airways ( away ) 2016 -- 19 Carabao Daeng Additional kit sponsors ( edit ) During the 2013 -- 14 season and 2014 -- 15 season the Marussia F1 logo was on the back of the shirts as part of a sponsorship deal between former Russian owner Anton Zingarevich and Russian owned Marussia F1 . This deal continued until the team entered administration in October 2014 . The sponsorship deal ended despite the team surviving and racing in the 2015 Formula One season . During the 2015 -- 16 season , Waitrose was on the back of the home shirt whilst Euro Cake was on the back of the away shirt , meanwhile Legend Alliance sponsored the shorts for the season . Waitrose and Euro Cake sponsored the home and away kits respectively again for the 2016 -- 17 season . Cherwell Software took sponsorship of the back of the home shirt for the 2017 -- 18 season while Euro Cake sponsored the back of the away shirt again for the third consecutive season . Ownership and finances ( edit ) Reading Football Club ownership structure : 75 % Owned by Renhe Sports Management Ltd , 100 % owned by Xiu Li Dai and Yongge Dai . 25 % Owned by Narin Niruttinanon Reading F.C. Directors : Xiu Li Dai , Yongge Dai , Ronald Gourlay , Narin Niruttinanon , Nigel Howe Players ( edit ) As of 8 January 2018 First - team squad ( edit ) Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality . No . Position Player GK Vito Mannone DF Chris Gunter MF Joey van den Berg 5 DF Paul McShane ( captain ) 6 DF Liam Moore 7 MF Roy Beerens 8 MF George Evans 9 FW Joseph Mendes 10 MF John Swift 11 DF Jordan Obita 12 MF Garath McCleary 14 FW Sone Aluko 15 MF Callum Harriott 16 MF David Edwards 17 FW Modou Barrow 18 FW Yann Kermorgant 19 MF Leandro Bacuna No . Position Player 20 DF Tiago Ilori 21 MF Stephen Quinn 22 MF Pelle Clement 23 FW Jón Daði Böðvarsson 24 DF Tyler Blackett 25 MF Adrian Popa 30 DF Tennai Watson 31 GK Anssi Jaakkola 37 DF Axel Andrésson 38 MF Liam Kelly 41 MF Ryan East 42 MF Andy Rinomhota 43 GK George Legg 50 DF Omar Richards 51 MF Tyler Frost 55 FW Sam Smith 56 FW Danny Loader Under - 23 squad ( edit ) Main article : Reading F.C. Under - 23s and Academy Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality . No . Position Player 40 GK Liam Driscoll 45 FW Ben House 46 DF Teddy Howe 48 DF Ramarni Medford - Smith 49 DF Gabriel Osho 52 MF Joel Rollinson 54 MF Ade Shokunbi 57 DF Tom Holmes 58 MF Jordan Holsgrove 60 MF Andre Burley No . Position Player 61 MF Cameron Green 62 MF Jack Nolan 64 MF Jack Buchanan 65 GK Gabe Rosario 67 DF Akinwale Odimayo -- DF Harry Philby -- DF Thomas McIntyre -- MF Ethan Coleman -- MF Samuel Faniyan Under - 18 squad ( edit ) Main article : Reading F.C. Under - 18s and Academy Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality . No . Position Player -- GK James Hilson -- GK Adam Desbois -- DF Jamal Balogun -- DF Marcel Elva - Fountaine -- DF Emmanuel Obamakinwa -- DF Joseph Wilson -- DF Roberto Nditi -- MF Oli Pendlebury -- MF Khalid Simmo No . Position Player -- MF Thierry Nevers -- MF Kosta Sparta -- MF Charlie Lawrence -- MF Jacob Pemberton -- MF Terrance Saydee -- MF Jazz Wallace -- FW Josh Obioma -- FW Leon Okuboyejo Out on loan ( edit ) Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality . No . Position Player 28 DF Danzell Gravenberch ( at Roeselare on a season long loan ) 35 DF Jake Sheppard ( at Guiseley on a season long loan ) 39 MF Josh Barrett ( at Coventry City on a season long loan ) 59 FW Conor Davis ( at Gosport Borough ) -- GK Jonathan Bond ( at Peterborough United until end of 2017 / 18 season ) -- GK Luke Southwood ( at Bath City until end of 2017 / 18 season ) No . Position Player -- GK Lewis Ward ( at Aldershot Town until 4th March 2018 ) -- MF Sandro Wieser ( at Roeselare on a season long loan ) -- FW Yakou Méïte ( at Sochaux on a season long loan ) -- FW Deniss Rakels ( at Lech Poznań on a season long loan ) -- FW Andrija Novakovich ( at Telstar on a season long loan ) Records and statistics ( edit ) Main article : List of Reading F.C. records and statistics Reading 's progress through the English football league system from 1920 to present . Reading hold the record for the number of successive league wins at the start of a season , with a total of 13 wins at the start of the 1985 -- 86 Third Division campaign and also the record for the number of points gained in a professional league season with 106 points in the 2005 -- 06 Football League Championship campaign . Reading finished champions of their division on both of these occasions . The club 's largest win was a 10 -- 2 victory over Crystal Palace on 4 September 1946 in the Football League Third Division South . Reading 's heaviest loss was an 18 -- 0 defeat against Preston North End in the FA Cup 1st round on 27 January 1894 . Reading have lost the two highest - scoring matches in the history of the Premier League ; Portsmouth 7 -- 4 Reading on 29 September 2007 , and Tottenham Hotspur 6 -- 4 Reading on 29 December 2007 , as well as losing the highest - scoring League Cup game , Reading 5 -- 7 Arsenal on 30 October 2012 . The player with the most league appearances is Martin Hicks , with 500 from 1978 to 1991 . The most capped player is Kevin Doyle , who earned 26 for the Republic of Ireland whilst at the club . The most league goals in total and in a season are held by Ronnie Blackman with 158 from 1947 to 1954 and 39 in 1951 -- 52 respectively . The player with the most league goals in a game is Arthur Bacon with six against Stoke City in 1930 -- 31 . The first Reading - based player to play in the FIFA World Cup was Bobby Convey in 2006 with the United States . The record time for a goalkeeper not conceding a goal is held by Steve Death at 1,103 minutes in 1978 -- 79 , which is a former English league record in itself . Reading 's highest attendance at Elm Park was in 1927 , when 33,042 spectators watched Reading defeat Brentford 1 -- 0 . The highest attendance at the Madejski Stadium is 24,184 for the Premier League game with Everton on 17 November 2012 . The highest transfer fee received for a Reading player is the £ 6.6 million 1899 Hoffenheim paid for Gylfi Sigurðsson on 31 August 2010 . The most expensive player Reading have ever bought was Sone Aluko , who cost £ 7.5 million from Fulham on 29 August 2017 . Gylfi Sigurðsson will become the first player from the Reading FC academy to feature in a World Cup by being expected to participate with Iceland in the 2018 Russia World Cup . Notable players ( edit ) In 1999 , Reading commissioned a poll of the supporters ' `` Player of the Millennium '' to determine the club 's best ever player . Pos . Player Robin Friday Trevor Senior Steve Death Shaka Hislop 5 Phil Parkinson 6 Alf Messer 7 Jimmy Quinn 8 Michael Gilkes 9 Ronnie Blackman 10 Martin Hicks Player of the season ( edit ) Main article : Reading F.C. Player of the Season International players ( edit ) Main article : List of Reading F.C. internationals Former players ( edit ) Main article : List of Reading F.C. players Club officials ( edit ) Board of Directors & Senior Club Staff Chief Executive : Ron Gourlay Commercial Director : Adam Benson Club Secretary : Sue Hewett Financial Controller : Bryan Stabler Directors : Sir John Madejski ( Co Chairman ) , Sasima Srivikorn ( Co Chairwoman ) , Nigel Howe , Narin Niruttinanon , Sumrith Thanakarnjanasuth , Taweesuk Srisumrid and Theekharoj Piamphongsarn Management team Director of Football : Brian Tevreden First Team Manager : Jaap Stam Assistant Manager : Andries Ulderink & Said Bakkati First Team Coach : Michael Gilkes Goalkeeping Coach : Dave Beasant First Team Sports Scientist : Tristan Baker First Team Physio : Jon Urwin Academy Manager : Lee Herron Assistant Academy Manager : David Dodds Academy Loan Manager : Mikele Leigertwood Kit Manager : Stewart Bannister First Team Head Scout : Steve Shorey Masseur : Dan Buchanan Managers ( edit ) Main article : List of Reading F.C. managers Women 's team ( edit ) Main article : Reading F.C. Women In May 2006 , Reading launched the Reading FC Women 's team . They used to play in the FA Premier League Southern Division . From 2014 , Reading FC Women played in the FA Women 's Super League 2 until they won promotion to the FA Women 's Super League 1 in 2015 after winning the league . Honours ( edit ) For more details on this topic , see List of Reading F.C. records and statistics . English 2nd tier : Winners : ( 2 ) 2006 , 2012 Runners Up : ( 1 ) 1995 English 3rd tier : Winners : ( 3 ) 1926 , 1986 , 1994 Runners Up : ( 5 ) 1932 , 1935 , 1949 , 1952 , 2002 English 4th tier : Winners : ( 1 ) 1979 Full Members Cup : Winners : ( 1 ) 1988 London War Cup : Winners : ( 1 ) 1941 Football League Third Division South Cup : Winners : ( 1 ) 1938 FA Cup : Semi-finalists : 1927 , 2015 Quarter Finalists : 1901 , 2010 , 2011 , 2016 Football League Cup : Quarter - finalists : 1996 , 1998 U21 Premier League Cup Winners : ( 1 ) 2013 -- 14 Highest league finish : Premier League 2007 , 8th Place Managerial ( edit ) LMA Manager of the Year Steve Coppell 2005 -- 06 , 2006 -- 07 LMA Championship Manager of the Year Brian McDermott 2011 -- 12 Affiliated clubs ( edit ) Albion Hurricanes FC ( 2010 -- present ) Boreham Wood ( 2012 -- present ) Charlotte United FC ( 2007 -- present ) Ernakulam Eagles ( 2013 -- present ) Galatasaray ( 2013 -- present ) Ocean City Nor'easters ( 2008 -- present ) South Georgia United ( 2008 -- present ) References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Madejski Stadium information '' . readingfc.co.uk . 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Jump up ^ `` Didcot Triangle / Wallingford Quadrangle '' . Archived from the original on 24 October 2012 . Retrieved 22 February 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Didcot Triangle '' . Retrieved 19 June 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Rivalry Uncovered '' ( PDF ) . The Football Fans Census . p. 6 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 4 March 2009 . Retrieved 11 April 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Waitrose announces two - year extension of Reading FC sponsorship '' . waitrose.presscentre.com . Retrieved 18 April 2011 . Jump up ^ `` '' เรดดิ ง '' เซ็น `` คารา บา ว แดง '' ส ปอน เซอร์ คา ดอก เสื้อ `` . manager.co.th . Retrieved 23 June 2015 . Thai : ภาษา ไทย Jump up ^ `` Royals welcome Thai Airways on board '' . http://www.readingfc.co.uk/ . Reading FC. 29 June 2015 . Retrieved 29 June 2015 . External link in website = ( help ) Jump up ^ `` Reading FC sign Carabao as Principal Partner until 2019 '' . readingfc.co.uk . Reading FC. 17 June 2016 . Retrieved 17 June 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` Club Honours and Records '' . Reading F.C. 11 July 2012 . Retrieved 15 September 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Points record '' . The Football League . Archived from the original on 10 February 2012 . Retrieved 7 May 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Reading 2 -- 1 QPR '' . BBC Sport. 30 April 2006 . Retrieved 4 May 2006 . Jump up ^ `` Reading Internationals '' . Royals ' Record . Retrieved 6 May 2012 . Jump up ^ `` United stretch lead after Van der Sar record '' . CNN world sport . Cable News Network . 31 January 2009 . Retrieved 19 April 2012 . Jump up ^ van Eijden , Han ( 2011 ) . `` Elm Park Reading '' . Old Football Grounds . Archived from the original on 30 June 2009 . Retrieved 1 June 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Sigurdsson leaving in Club record deal '' . Reading Football Club . 31 August 2010 . Retrieved 6 May 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Fae joins for club record fee '' . 2 August 2007 . Archived from the original on 16 June 2007 . Retrieved 3 August 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Player of the Millennium vote '' . Reading F.C. 5 September 2008 . 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Retrieved on 17 July 2013 Jump up ^ `` Charlotte United F.C '' . charlotteunited.com . Jump up ^ Ernakulam Eagles sign MoU with Reading -- Times Of India . Articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com ( 29 April 2013 ) . Retrieved on 2013 - 07 - 17 . Jump up ^ Turkish partnership . Readingfc.co.uk ( 27 February 2013 ) . Retrieved on 17 July 2013 Jump up ^ unveils new name : Nor'easters Archived 26 March 2010 at the Wayback Machine ... Ocean City FC . Retrieved on 17 July 2013 . Jump up ^ HOW SOUTH GEORGIA UNITED BECAME A READING FC AFFILIATE CLUB . South Georgia United . Retrieved on 5 June 2014 . Bibliography ( edit ) Digby , Bob ( 2001 ) . It 's a World Thing . Oxford , Oxfordshire : Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 913428 - 1 . Retrieved 2 June 2011 . Yeo , Stephen ( 1976 ) . Religion and Voluntary Organisations in Crisis . Abingdon , Oxfordshire : Taylor & Francis . ISBN 978 - 0 - 85664 - 017 - 9 . Retrieved 1 June 2011 . 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who is the owner of reading football club

Dai Yongge

Dai Yongge and Dai Xiuli

Acute hemolytic transfusion reaction - wikipedia Acute hemolytic transfusion reaction Jump to : navigation , search This article may be too technical for most readers to understand . Please help improve it to make it understandable to non-experts , without removing the technical details . ( January 2018 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) An acute hemolytic transfusion reaction ( AHTR ) is a type of transfusion reaction that is associated with hemolysis . It occurs very soon after the transfusion , and within 24 hrs post-transfusion . It can occur quickly upon transfusing a few milliliters , or up to 1 -- 2 hours post-transfusion . It is also known as an `` immediate hemolytic transfusion reaction '' . This is a medical emergency as it results from rapid destruction of the donor red blood cells by host antibodies ( IgG , IgM ) . It is usually related to ABO blood group incompatibility - the most severe of which often involves group A red cells being given to a patient with group O type blood . Properdin then binds to complement C3 in the donor blood , facilitating the reaction through the alternate pathway cascade . The donor cells also become coated with IgG and are subsequently removed by macrophages in the reticuloendothelial system ( RES ) . Jaundice and disseminated intravascular coagulation ( DIC ) may also occur . The most common cause is clerical error ( i.e. the wrong unit of blood being given to the patient ) . Contents ( hide ) 1 Epidemiology 2 Types 2.1 Intravascular haemolysis 2.2 Extravascular haemolysis 3 Signs and symptoms 4 Pathophysiology 4.1 Immune mediated 4.2 Non-immune mediated 5 Diagnosis 5.1 Differential diagnoses 6 Management 7 Prognosis 8 Epidemiology 9 References Epidemiology ( edit ) In the USA in 2011 there were 48 episodes of acute hemolysis due to a mismatch in ABO blood type ( 1 in 495,207 blood components transfused ) and 168 episodes of hemolysis due to other causes ( 1 in 124,525 blood components transfused ) . In the UK in 2014 there were 18 episodes of hemolysis due to other causes ( 1 in 147,972 blood components transfused ) . Types ( edit ) Acute hemolytic transfusion reactions are divided into two types . Intravascular haemolysis ( edit ) The most common cause of this reaction is ABO blood groups incompatibility , secondary to human errors . In this process , the donor 's red blood cells are destroyed by recipient 's preformed antibodies through the activation of complement system . Thus , the donor 's red blood cells break open and releases haemoglobin into the blood . The haemoglobin is then excreted into urine , causes haemoglobinuria . Meanwhile , haemoglobin can also pass through the liver system and process into bilirubin , which accumulates under the skin , causing jaundice . The release of red blood cell debris and the activation of complement system causes uncontrolled clotting ( disseminated intravascular coagulation ) and circulatory shock . Extravascular haemolysis ( edit ) In this case , the donor 's red blood cells are recognised and bound to IgG antibodies . Macrophages then recognise these IgG antibodies and engulf these red blood cells , removing the red blood cells from the blood circulation into liver and spleen . These red blood cells are then destroyed by macrophages in these organs . Anti-Rh antibodies most commonly directed this type of reaction . This process is much more controlled when compared with intravascular haemolysis . Liver has adequate capacity in processing the bilirubin . Therefore , jaundice rarely occurs . Signs and symptoms ( edit ) Early signs are fever , low blood pressure , anxiety , and red - colored urine . Late signs are generalized bleeding , caused by disseminated intravascular coagulation , and low blood pressure . Laboratory assessment is based on a positive Direct Antiglobulin Test ( DAT ) , a decrease in serum haptoglobin , and an increase in blood levels of the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase and indirect bilirubin levels . Pathophysiology ( edit ) Immune mediated ( edit ) This may be caused by preformed IgM anti-A , anti-B or both . It may also be caused by other non-ABO IgG antibodies such as Rh , Kell , or Duffy . The former results in a severe intravascular hemolysis and the latter typically causes extravascular hemolysis . The reactions are mediated by cytokines like TNF , IL - 8 , monocyte chemoattractant protein , IL - 1 etc . Non-immune mediated ( edit ) These occur when RBCs are damaged before transfusion , resulting in hemoglobinemia and hemoglobinuria . Clinical symptoms are nil or milder . Diagnosis ( edit ) Differential diagnoses ( edit ) Disseminated intravascular coagulation Hemolytic anemia Pulmonary edema Septic shock Management ( edit ) In case of antibody - mediated acute hemolytic transfusion reactions , Immediately discontinue the transfusion while maintaining venous access for emergency management . Anticipate low blood pressure , kidney failure , and DIC . Prophylactic measures to reduce the risk of renal failure may include low - dose dopamine , vigorous hydration with intravenous crystalloid solutions ( e.g. , lactated Ringer 's solution or normal saline ) , and osmotic diuresis with mannitol . If DIC is documented and bleeding requires treatment , transfusions of frozen plasma , pooled cryoprecipitates for fibrinogen , and / or platelet concentrates may be indicated . In case of non-antibody mediated AHR This does not require rigorous management . Diuresis induced by an infusion of normal saline until the intense red color of hemoglobinuria ceases is usually adequate treatment . Prognosis ( edit ) The major complication is that the hemoglobin , released by the destruction of red blood cells , may cause acute kidney failure ( also known as the `` oliguric phase '' ) . About 20 deaths occur annually in the US due to AHTR . Epidemiology ( edit ) Acute hemolytic , immune mediated ( fatal ) - 1 per 250,000 - 600,000 Acute hemolytic , immune mediated ( nonfatal ) - 1 per 6000 - 33,000 Acute hemolytic , nonimmune - Infrequent References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Covin RB , Evans KS , Olshock R , Thompson HW ( 2001 ) . `` Acute hemolytic transfusion reaction caused by anti-Coa '' . Immunohematology. 17 ( 2 ) : 45 -- 9 . PMID 15373591 . Jump up ^ Hoffbrand , A.V. ; P.A.H. Moss ; J.E. Pettit ( 2006 ) . Essential Haematology : 5th Edition . Blackwell Publishing . ISBN 1 - 4051 - 3649 - 9 . Jump up ^ Molthan L , Matulewicz TJ , Bansal - Carver B , Benz EJ ( 1984 ) . `` An immediate hemolytic transfusion reaction due to anti-C and a delayed hemolytic transfusion reaction due to anti-Ce + e : hemoglobinemia , hemoglobinuria and transient impaired renal function '' . Vox Sang. 47 ( 5 ) : 348 -- 53 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1423 - 0410.1984. tb04138. x . PMID 6438912 . Jump up ^ `` The 2011 National Blood Collection and Utilization Survey Report '' ( PDF ) . Department of Health and Human Services . Retrieved 21 January 2016 . Jump up ^ Bolton - Maggs , PHB ; Poles , D ; et al . ( The Serious Hazards of Transfusion ( SHOT ) Steering Group ) ( 2015 ) . The 2014 Annual SHOT Report ( 2015 ) ( PDF ) . SHOT . ISBN 978 - 0 - 9558648 - 7 - 2 . ^ Jump up to : Laura , Dean ( 2005 ) . Blood Groups and Red Cell Antigens . Bethesda , United States : National Center for Biotechnology Information . Retrieved 4 October 2017 . Jump up ^ Harrison 's Principles of Internal Medicine ( 18th ed . ) . p. 954 . Jump up ^ `` Transfusion Reactions '' . Retrieved 19 November 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Complications of Transfusion : Transfusion Medicine : Merck Manual Professional '' . ( hide ) Complications of surgical and medical care ( T80 -- T88 , 996 -- 999 ) Transfusion reactions Transfusion hemosiderosis TRALI TACO TA - GvHD FNHTR Acute / Delayed hemolytic transfusion reaction Vaccine injury Eczema vaccinatum Other Serum sickness Malignant hyperthermia Herxheimer reaction Graft - versus - host disease Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Acute_hemolytic_transfusion_reaction&oldid=821817747 '' Categories : Transfusion reactions Complications of surgical and medical care Transfusion medicine Hidden categories : Wikipedia articles that are too technical from January 2018 All articles that are too technical Articles needing expert attention from January 2018 All articles needing expert attention Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 22 January 2018 , at 20 : 29 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . 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what happens to the rbc in acute hemolytic reaction

rapid destruction of the donor red blood cells by host antibodies

occurs very soon after the transfusion

Tuskegee Airmen - Wikipedia Tuskegee Airmen Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see Tuskegee Airmen ( disambiguation ) . Tuskegee Airmen ( unofficial ) Emblems of wing Active 1940 -- 1948 Country United States Branch United States Army Air Corps United States Army Air Forces United States Air Force Role trained for aerial combat Part of graduates assigned to the 332nd Fighter Group ( 99th Fighter Squadron , 100th Fighter Squadron , 301st Fighter Squadron , 302d Fighter Squadron ) , 477th Medium Bombardment Group ( 616th Bombardment Squadron , 617th Bombardment Squadron , 618th Bombardment Squadron , 619th Bombardment Squadron ) Nickname ( s ) Red Tails Red - Tail Angels Motto ( s ) Spit Fire Engagements World War II The Tuskegee Airmen / tʌsˈkiːɡiː / is the popular name of a group of African - American military pilots ( fighter and bomber ) who fought in World War II . They formed the 332nd Fighter Group and the 477th Bombardment Group of the United States Army Air Forces . The name also applies to the navigators , bombardiers , mechanics , instructors , crew chiefs , nurses , cooks and other support personnel . All black military pilots who trained in the United States trained at Moton Field , the Tuskegee Army Air Field , and were educated at Tuskegee University , located near Tuskegee , Alabama . The group included five Haitians from the Haitian Air Force , and one pilot from Trinidad. . It also included a Hispanic or Latino airman born in the Dominican Republic . Although the 477th Bombardment Group trained with North American B - 25 Mitchell bombers , they never served in combat . The 99th Pursuit Squadron ( later , 99th Fighter Squadron ) was the first black flying squadron , and the first to deploy overseas ( to North Africa in April 1943 , and later to Sicily and Italy ) . The 332nd Fighter Group , which originally included the 100th , 301st , and 302nd Fighter Squadrons , was the first black flying group . It deployed to Italy in early 1944 . In June 1944 , the 332nd Fighter Group began flying heavy bomber escort missions , and in July 1944 , with the addition of the 99th Fighter Squadron , it had four fighter squadrons . The 99th Fighter Squadron was initially equipped with Curtiss P - 40 Warhawk fighter - bomber aircraft . The 332nd Fighter Group and its 100th , 301st and 302nd Fighter Squadrons were equipped for initial combat missions with Bell P - 39 Airacobras ( March 1944 ) , later with Republic P - 47 Thunderbolts ( June -- July 1944 ) , and finally with the aircraft with which they became most commonly associated , the North American P - 51 Mustang ( July 1944 ) . When the pilots of the 332nd Fighter Group painted the tails of their P - 47s red , the nickname `` Red Tails '' was coined . The red markings that distinguished the Tuskegee Airmen included red bands on the noses of P - 51s as well as a red rudder ; the P - 51B and D Mustangs flew with similar color schemes , with red propeller spinners , yellow wing bands and all - red tail surfaces . The Tuskegee Airmen were the first African - American military aviators in the United States Armed Forces . During World War II , black Americans in many U.S. states were still subject to the Jim Crow laws and the American military was racially segregated , as was much of the federal government . The Tuskegee Airmen were subjected to discrimination , both within and outside the army . Contents ( hide ) 1 Origins 1.1 Background 1.2 Testing 1.3 The First Lady 's flight 2 Formation 3 Combat assignment 3.1 Active air units 4 Tuskegee Airmen bomber units 4.1 Formation 4.2 Command difficulties 5 War accomplishments 5.1 Controversy over escort record 6 Postwar 7 Legacy and honors 8 Artistic depictions of the Tuskegee Airmen 9 In popular culture 10 Squadron images 11 See also 12 Notes 13 Citations 14 Bibliography 15 External links Origins ( edit ) See also : Civilian Pilot Training Program Background ( edit ) The P - 51C Mustang flown by Commemorative Air Force in the colors and markings of Lieutenant Colonel Lee Archer Tuskegee Airman P - 51 Mustang taken at Airventure . This particular P - 51C is part of the Red Tail Project The Stearman Kaydet training aircraft used by the Tuskegee Airmen , bearing the name Spirit of Tuskegee Portrait of Tuskegee airman Edward M. Thomas by photographer Toni Frissell , March 1945 Before the Tuskegee Airmen , no African - American had been a U.S. military pilot . In 1917 , African - American men had tried to become aerial observers , but were rejected . African - American Eugene Bullard served in the French air service during World War I , because he was not allowed to serve in an American unit . Instead , Bullard returned to infantry duty with the French . The racially motivated rejections of World War I African - American recruits sparked more than two decades of advocacy by African - Americans who wished to enlist and train as military aviators . The effort was led by such prominent civil rights leaders as Walter White of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People , labor union leader A. Philip Randolph , and Judge William H. Hastie . Finally , on 3 April 1939 , Appropriations Bill Public Law 18 was passed by Congress containing an amendment by Senator Harry H. Schwartz , designating funds for training African - American pilots . The War Department managed to put the money into funds of civilian flight schools willing to train black Americans . War Department tradition and policy mandated the segregation of African - Americans into separate military units staffed by white officers , as had been done previously with the 9th Cavalry , 10th Cavalry , 24th Infantry Regiment and 25th Infantry Regiment . When the appropriation of funds for aviation training created opportunities for pilot cadets , their numbers diminished the rosters of these older units . In 1941 , the War Department and the Army Air Corps , under pressure -- three months before its transformation into the USAAF -- constituted the first all - black flying unit , the 99th Pursuit Squadron . Due to the restrictive nature of selection policies , the situation did not seem promising for African - Americans since , in 1940 , the U.S. Census Bureau reported there were only 124 African - American pilots in the nation . The exclusionary policies failed dramatically when the Air Corps received an abundance of applications from men who qualified , even under the restrictive requirements . Many of the applicants already had participated in the Civilian Pilot Training Program , unveiled in late December 1938 ( CPTP ) . Tuskegee University had participated since 1939 . Testing ( edit ) This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( January 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The U.S. Army Air Corps had established the Psychological Research Unit 1 at Maxwell Army Air Field , Montgomery , Alabama , and other units around the country for aviation cadet training , which included the identification , selection , education , and training of pilots , navigators , and bombardiers . Psychologists employed in these research studies and training programs used some of the first standardized tests to quantify IQ , dexterity and leadership qualities to select and train the best - suited personnel for the roles of bombardier , navigator , and pilot . The Air Corps determined that the existing programs would be used for all units , including all - black units . At Tuskegee , this effort continued with the selection and training of the Tuskegee Airmen . The War Department set up a system to accept only those with a level of flight experience or higher education which ensured that only the most able and intelligent African - American applicants were able to join . The first Lady 's flight ( edit ) The budding flight program at Tuskegee received a publicity boost when First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt inspected it in March 1941 , and flew with African - American chief civilian instructor C. Alfred `` Chief '' Anderson . Anderson , who had been flying since 1929 , and was responsible for training thousands of rookie pilots , took his prestigious passenger on a half - hour flight in a Piper J - 3 Cub . After landing , she cheerfully announced , `` Well , you can fly all right . '' The subsequent brouhaha over the First Lady 's flight had such an impact it is often mistakenly cited as the start of the CPTP at Tuskegee , even though the program was already five months old . Eleanor Roosevelt used her position as a trustee of the Julius Rosenwald Fund to arrange a loan of $175,000 to help finance the building of Moton Field . Formation ( edit ) Major James A. Ellison returns the salute of Mac Ross , as he reviews the first class of Tuskegee cadets ; flight line at U.S. Army Air Corps basic and advanced flying school , with Vultee BT - 13 trainers in the background , Tuskegee , Alabama , 1941 On 11 September 1941 , the 99th Pursuit Squadron was activated at Chanute Field in Rantoul , Illinois . A cadre of 271 enlisted men was trained in aircraft ground support trades at Chanute , beginning in July 1941 ; the skills being taught were so technical that setting up segregated classes was deemed impossible . This small number of enlisted men became the core of other black squadrons forming at Tuskegee and Maxwell Fields in Alabama . The Tuskegee program officially began June 1941 with the 99th Pursuit Squadron at Tuskegee University . The unit consisted of 47 officers and 429 enlisted men , and was backed by an entire service arm . After primary training at Moton Field , they were moved to the nearby Tuskegee Army Air Field , about 10 miles ( 16 km ) to the west for conversion training onto operational types . Consequently , Tuskegee Army Air Field became the only Army installation performing three phases of pilot training ( basic , advanced , and transition ) at a single location . Initial planning called for 500 personnel in residence at a time . By mid-1942 , over six times that many were stationed at Tuskegee , even though only two squadrons were training there . War poster featuring a Tuskegee Airman Tuskegee Army Airfield was similar to already - existing airfields reserved for training white pilots , such as Maxwell Field , only 40 miles ( 64 km ) distant . African - American contractor McKissack and McKissack , Inc. was in charge of the contract . The company 's 2,000 workmen , the Alabama Works Progress Administration , and the U.S. Army built the airfield in only six months . The construction was budgeted at $1,663,057 . The airmen were placed under the command of Captain Benjamin O. Davis , Jr. , one of only two black line officers then serving . During training , Tuskegee Army Air Field was commanded first by Major James Ellison . Ellison made great progress in organizing the construction of the facilities needed for the military program at Tuskegee . However , he was transferred on 12 January 1942 , reputedly because of his insistence that his African - American sentries and Military Police had police authority over local Caucasian civilians . His successor , Colonel Frederick von Kimble , then oversaw operations at the Tuskegee airfield . Contrary to new Army regulations , Kimble maintained segregation on the field in deference to local customs in the state of Alabama , a policy that was resented by the airmen . Later that year , the Air Corps replaced Kimble . His replacement had been the director of instruction at Tuskegee Army Airfield , Major Noel F. Parrish . Counter to the prevalent racism of the day , Parrish was fair and open - minded and petitioned Washington to allow the Tuskegee Airmen to serve in combat . Instrument certificate for Tuskegee Airman Robert M. Glass , signed by Parrish The strict racial segregation the U.S. Army required gave way in the face of the requirements for complex training in technical vocations . Typical of the process was the development of separate African - American flight surgeons to support the operations and training of the Tuskegee Airmen . Before the development of this unit , no U.S. Army flight surgeons had been black . Training of African - American men as aviation medical examiners was conducted through correspondence courses until 1943 , when two black physicians were admitted to the U.S. Army School of Aviation Medicine at Randolph Field , Texas . This was one of the earliest racially integrated courses in the U.S. Army . Seventeen flight surgeons served with the Tuskegee Airmen from 1941 - 49 . At that time , the typical tour of duty for a U.S. Army flight surgeon was four years . Six of these physicians lived under field conditions during operations in North Africa , Sicily , and Italy . The chief flight surgeon to the Tuskegee Airmen was Dr. Vance H. Marchbanks , Jr. , MD , a childhood friend of Benjamin Davis . The accumulation of washed - out cadets at Tuskegee and the propensity of other commands to `` dump '' African - American personnel on the post exacerbated the difficulties of administering Tuskegee . A shortage of jobs for them made these enlisted men a drag on Tuskegee 's housing and culinary departments . Trained officers were also left idle , as the plan to shift African - American officers into command slots stalled , and white officers not only continued to hold command , but were joined by additional white officers assigned to the post . One rationale behind the non-assignment of trained African - American officers was stated by the commanding officer of the Army Air Forces , General Henry `` Hap '' Arnold : `` Negro pilots can not be used in our present Air Corps units since this would result in Negro officers serving over white enlisted men creating an impossible social situation . '' Combat assignment ( edit ) Eight Tuskegee Airmen in front of a P - 40 fighter aircraft The 99th was finally considered ready for combat duty by April 1943 . It shipped out of Tuskegee on 2 April , bound for North Africa , where it would join the 33rd Fighter Group and its commander , Colonel William W. Momyer . Given little guidance from battle - experienced pilots , the 99th 's first combat mission was to attack the small strategic volcanic island of Pantelleria in the Mediterranean Sea to clear the sea lanes for the Allied invasion of Sicily in July 1943 . The air assault on the island began 30 May 1943 . The 99th flew its first combat mission on 2 June . The surrender of the garrison of 11,121 Italians and 78 Germans due to air attack was the first of its kind . The 99th then moved on to Sicily and received a Distinguished Unit Citation for its performance in combat . Col. Benjamin O. Davis , Jr. , commander of the Tuskegee Airmen 332nd Fighter Group , in front of his P - 47 Thunderbolt in Sicily By the end of February 1944 , more graduates were ready for combat , and the all - black 332nd Fighter Group had been sent overseas with three fighter squadrons : The 100th , 301st and 302nd . Under the command of Colonel Davis , the squadrons were moved to mainland Italy , where the 99th Fighter Squadron , assigned to the group on May 1 , 1944 , joined them on June 6 at Ramitelli Airfield , in the small city of Campomarino , on the Adriatic coast . From Ramitelli , the 332nd Fighter Group escorted Fifteenth Air Force heavy strategic bombing raids into Czechoslovakia , Austria , Hungary , Poland and Germany . Flying escort for heavy bombers , the 332nd earned an impressive combat record . The Allies called these airmen `` Red Tails '' or `` Red - Tail Angels , '' because of the distinctive crimson unit identification marking predominantly applied on the tail section of the unit 's aircraft . A B - 25 bomb group , the 477th Bombardment Group , was forming in the U.S. , but was not able to complete its training in time to see action . The 99th Fighter Squadron after its return to the United States became part of the 477th , redesignated the 477th Composite Group . Active Air units ( edit ) Pilots of the 332nd Fighter Group at Ramitelli Airfield , Italy ; from left to right , Lt. Dempsey W. Morgan , Lt. Carroll S. Woods , Lt. Robert H. Nelron , Jr. , Captain Andrew D. Turner , and Lt. Clarence P. Lester The only black air units that saw combat during the war were the 99th Pursuit Squadron and the 332nd Fighter Group . The dive - bombing and strafing missions under Lieutenant Colonel Davis , Jr. were considered to be highly successful . In May 1942 , the 99th Pursuit Squadron was renamed the 99th Fighter Squadron . It earned three Distinguished Unit Citations ( DUC ) during World War II . The DUCs were for operations over Sicily from 30 May -- 11 June 1943 , Monastery Hill near Cassino from 12 -- 14 May 1944 , and for successfully fighting off German jet aircraft on 24 March 1945 . The mission was the longest bomber escort mission of the Fifteenth Air Force throughout the war . The 332nd flew missions in Sicily , Anzio , Normandy , the Rhineland , the Po Valley and Rome - Arno and others . Pilots of the 99th once set a record for destroying five enemy aircraft in under four minutes . The Tuskegee Airmen shot down three German jets in a single day . On 24 March 1945 , 43 P - 51 Mustangs led by Colonel Benjamin O. Davis escorted B - 17 bombers over 1,600 miles ( 2,600 km ) into Germany and back . The bombers ' target , a massive Daimler - Benz tank factory in Berlin , was heavily defended by Luftwaffe aircraft , including propeller - driven Fw 190s , Me 163 `` Komet '' rocket - powered fighters , and 25 of the much more formidable Me 262s , history 's first operational jet fighter . Pilots Charles Brantley , Earl Lane and Roscoe Brown all shot down German jets over Berlin that day . For the mission , the 332nd Fighter Group earned a Distinguished Unit Citation . Pilots of the 332nd Fighter Group earned 96 Distinguished Flying Crosses . Their missions took them over Italy and enemy occupied parts of central and southern Europe . Their operational aircraft were , in succession : Curtiss P - 40 Warhawk , Bell P - 39 Airacobra , Republic P - 47 Thunderbolt and North American P - 51 Mustang fighter aircraft . Tuskegee Airmen bomber units ( edit ) Formation ( edit ) With African - American fighter pilots being trained successfully , the Army Air Force now came under political pressure from the NAACP and other civil rights organizations to organize a bomber unit . There could be no defensible argument that the quota of 100 African - American pilots in training at one time , or 200 per year out of a total of 60,000 American aviation cadets in annual training , represented the service potential of 13 million African - Americans . On 13 May 1943 , the 616th Bombardment Squadron was established as the initial subordinate squadron of the 477th Bombardment Group . The squadron was activated on 1 July 1943 , only to be inactivated on 15 August 1943 . By September 1943 , the number of washed - out cadets on base had surged to 286 , with few of them working . In January 1944 , the 477th Bombardment Group was reactivated . At the time , the usual training cycle for a bombardment group took three to four months . The 477th would eventually contain four medium bomber squadrons . Slated to comprise 1,200 officers and enlisted men , the unit would operate 60 North American B - 25 Mitchell bombers . The 477th would go on to encompass three more bomber squadrons -- the 617th Bombardment Squadron , the 618th Bombardment Squadron , and the 619th Bombardment Squadron . The 477th was anticipated to be ready for action in November 1944 . The home field for the 477th was Selfridge Field , located outside Detroit , however , other bases would be used for various types of training courses . Twin - engine pilot training began at Tuskegee while transition to multi-engine pilot training was at Mather Field , California . Some ground crews trained at Mather before rotating to Inglewood . Gunners learned to shoot at Eglin Field , Florida . Bombers - navigators learned their trades at Hondo Army Air Field and Midland Air Field , Texas or at Roswell , New Mexico . Training of the new African - American crewmen also took place at Sioux Falls , South Dakota , Lincoln , Nebraska , and Scott Field , Belleville , Illinois . Once trained , the air and ground crews would be spliced into a working unit at Selfridge . Command difficulties ( edit ) The new group 's first commanding officer was Colonel Robert Selway , who had also commanded the 332nd Fighter Group before it deployed for combat overseas . Like his ranking officer , Major General Frank O'Driscoll Hunter from Georgia , Selway was a racial segregationist . Hunter was blunt about it , saying such things as , `` ... racial friction will occur if colored and white pilots are trained together . '' He backed Selway 's violations of Army Regulation 210 - 10 , which forbade segregation of air base facilities . They segregated base facilities so thoroughly they even drew a line in the base theater and ordered separate seating by races . When the audience sat in random patterns as part of `` Operation Checkerboard '' , the movie was halted to make men return to segregated seating . African - American officers petitioned base Commanding Officer William Boyd for access to the only officer 's club on base . Lieutenant Milton Henry entered the club and personally demanded his club rights ; he was court - martialed for this , and discharged . Subsequently , Colonel Boyd denied club rights to African - Americans although General Hunter stepped in and promised a separate but equal club would be built for black airmen . The 477th was transferred to Godman Field , Kentucky before the club was built . They had spent five months at Selfridge but found themselves on a base a fraction of Selfridge 's size , with no air - to - ground gunnery range , and deteriorating runways that were too short for B - 25 landings . Colonel Selway took on the second role of commanding officer of Godman Field . In that capacity , he ceded Godman Field 's officer club to African - American airmen . Caucasian officers used the whites - only clubs at nearby Fort Knox , much to the displeasure of African - American officers . Another irritant was a professional one for African - American officers . They observed a steady flow of white officers through the command positions of the group and squadrons ; these officers stayed just long enough to be `` promotable '' before transferring out at their new rank . This seemed to take about four months . In an extreme example , 22 - year - old Robert Mattern was promoted to captain , transferred into squadron command in the 477th days later , and left a month later as a major . He was replaced by another Caucasian officer . Meanwhile , no Tuskegee Airmen held command . On 15 March 1945 , the 477th was transferred to Freeman Field , near Seymour , Indiana . The white population of Freeman Field was 250 officers and 600 enlisted men . Superimposed on it were 400 African - American officers and 2,500 enlisted men of the 477th and its associated units . Freeman Field had a firing range , usable runways , and other amenities useful for training . African - American airmen would work in proximity with white ones ; both would live in a public housing project adjacent to the base . Colonel Selway turned the non-commissioned officers out of their club and turned it into a second officers club . He then classified all white personnel as cadre , and all African - Americans as trainees . One officers club became the cadre 's club . The old Non-Commissioned Officers Club , promptly sarcastically dubbed `` Uncle Tom 's Cabin '' , became the trainee 's officers club . At least four of the trainees had flown combat in Europe as fighter pilots , and had about four years in service . Four others had completed training as pilots , bombardiers and navigators , and may have been the only triply qualified officers in the entire Air Corps . Several of the Tuskegee Airmen had logged over 900 flight hours by this time . Nevertheless , by Colonel Selway 's fiat , they were trainees . Off - base was no better ; many businesses in Seymour would not serve African - Americans . A local laundry would not wash their clothes , yet willingly laundered those of captured German soldiers . In early April 1945 , the 118th Base Unit transferred in from Godman Field ; its African - American personnel held orders that specified they were base cadre , not trainees . On 5 April , officers of the 477th peaceably tried to enter the whites - only Officer 's Club . Selway had been tipped off by a phone call , and had the assistant provost marshal and base billeting manager stationed at the door to refuse the 477th officers entry . The latter , a major , ordered them to leave , and took their names as a means of arresting them when they refused . It was the beginning of the Freeman Field Mutiny . In the wake of the Freeman Field Mutiny , the 616th and 619th were disbanded and the returned 99th Fighter Squadron assigned to the 477th on 22 June 1945 ; it was re-designated the 477th Composite Group as a result . On 1 July 1945 , Colonel Robert Selway was relieved of the Group 's command ; he was replaced by Colonel Benjamin O. Davis , Jr . A complete sweep of Selway 's white staff followed , with all vacated jobs filled by African - American officers . The war ended before the 477th Composite Group could get into action . The 618th Bombardment Squadron was disbanded on October 8 , 1945 . On 13 March 1946 , the two - squadron group , supported by the 602nd Engineer Squadron ( later renamed 602nd Air Engineer Squadron ) , the 118th Base Unit , and a band , moved to its final station , Lockbourne Field . The 617th Bombardment Squadron and the 99th Fighter Squadron disbanded on July 1 , 1947 , ending the 477th Composite Group . It would be reorganized as the 332nd Fighter Wing . War accomplishments ( edit ) Office of War Information poster In all , 992 pilots were trained in Tuskegee from 1941 - 46 . 355 were deployed overseas , and 84 lost their lives in accidents or combat . The toll included 68 pilots killed in action or accidents , 12 killed in training and non-combat missions and 32 captured as prisoners of war . The Tuskegee Airmen were credited by higher commands with the following accomplishments : 1578 combat missions , 1267 for the Twelfth Air Force ; 311 for the Fifteenth Air Force 179 bomber escort missions , with a good record of protection , losing bombers on only seven missions and a total of only 27 , compared to an average of 46 among other 15th Air Force P - 51 groups 112 enemy aircraft destroyed in the air , another 150 on the ground and 148 damaged 950 rail cars , trucks and other motor vehicles destroyed ( over 600 rail cars ) One destroyer put out of action . The ship concerned had been classified as a destroyer ( Giuseppe Missori ) by the Italian Navy , before being reclassified by the Germans as a torpedo boat , TA22 . It was attacked on 25 June 1944 . The German Navy decommissioned it on 8 November 1944 , and finally scuttled it on 5 February 1945 . 40 boats and barges destroyed Awards and decorations included : Three Distinguished Unit Citations 99th Pursuit Squadron : 30 May -- 11 June 1943 for actions over Sicily 99th Fighter Squadron : 12 -- 14 May 1944 : for successful air strikes against Monte Cassino , Italy 332nd Fighter Group ( and its 99th , 100th , and 301st Fighter Squadrons ) : March 24th 1945 : for a bomber escort mission to Berlin , during which pilots of the 100th FS shot down three enemy ME - 262 jets . The 302nd Fighter Squadron did not receive this award as it had been disbanded on March 6th 1945 . At least one Silver Star 96 Distinguished Flying Crosses to 95 Airmen ; Captain William A. Campbell was awarded two . 14 Bronze Stars 744 Air Medals 8 Purple Hearts Controversy over escort record ( edit ) Men of the 332nd Fighter Group attend a briefing in Italy in 1945 On 24 March 1945 , during the war , the Chicago Defender said that no bomber escorted by the Tuskegee Airmen had ever been lost to enemy fire , under the headline : `` 332nd Flies Its 200th Mission Without Loss '' ; the article was based on information supplied by the 15th Air Force . This statement was repeated for many years , and not publicly challenged , partly because the mission reports were classified for a number of years after the war . In 2004 , William Holton , who was serving as the historian of the Tuskegee Airmen Incorporated , conducted research into wartime action reports . Alan Gropman , a professor at the National Defense University , disputed the initial refutations of the no - loss myth , and said he researched more than 200 Tuskegee Airmen mission reports and found no bombers were lost to enemy fighters . Dr. Daniel Haulman of the Air Force Historical Research Agency conducted a reassessment of the history of the unit in 2006 and early 2007 . His subsequent report , based on after - mission reports filed by both the bomber units and Tuskegee fighter groups , as well as missing air crew records and witness testimony , documented 25 bombers shot down by enemy fighter aircraft while being escorted by the Tuskegee Airmen . In a subsequent article , `` The Tuskegee Airmen and the Never Lost a Bomber Myth , '' published in the Alabama Review and also by New South Books as an e-book , and included in a more comprehensive study regarding misconceptions about the Tuskegee Airmen released by AFHRA in July 2013 , Haulman documented 27 bombers shot down by enemy aircraft while those bombers were being escorted by the 332nd Fighter Group . This total included 15 B - 17s of the 483rd Bombardment Group shot down during a particularly savage air battle with an estimated 300 German fighters on 18 July 1944 that also resulted in nine kill credits and the award of five Distinguished Flying Crosses to members of the 332nd . Of the 179 bomber escort missions the 332nd Fighter Group flew for the Fifteenth Air Force , the group encountered enemy aircraft on 35 of those missions and lost bombers to enemy aircraft on only seven , and the total number of bombers lost was 27 . By comparison , the average number of bombers lost by the other P - 51 fighter groups of the Fifteenth Air Force during the same period was 46 . Tuskegee Airmen gathered at a U.S. base after a mission in the Mediterranean theater A number of examples of the fighter group 's losses exist in the historical record . A mission report states that on 26 July 1944 : `` 1 B - 24 seen spiraling out of formation in T / A ( target area ) after attack by E / A ( enemy aircraft ) . No chutes seen to open . '' The Distinguished Flying Cross citation awarded to Colonel Benjamin O. Davis for the mission on 9 June 1944 noted that he `` so skillfully disposed his squadrons that in spite of the large number of enemy fighters , the bomber formation suffered only a few losses . '' William Holloman was reported by the Times as saying his review of records confirmed bombers had been lost . Holloman was a member of Tuskegee Airmen Inc. , a group of surviving Tuskegee pilots and their supporters , who also taught Black Studies at the University of Washington and chaired the Airmen 's history committee . According to the 28 March 2007 Air Force report , some bombers under 332nd Fighter Group escort protection were even shot down on the day the Chicago Defender article was published . The mission reports , however , do credit the group for not losing a bomber on an escort mission for a six - month period between September 1944 and March 1945 , albeit when Luftwaffe contacts were far fewer than earlier . Postwar ( edit ) Several Tuskegee Airmen at Ramitelli , Italy , March 1945 Contrary to negative predictions from some quarters , Tuskegee Airmen were some of the best pilots in the U.S. Army Air Forces due to a combination of pre-war experience and the personal drive of those accepted for training . Nevertheless , the Tuskegee Airmen continued to have to fight racism . Their combat record did much to quiet those directly involved with the group , notably bomber crews who often requested them for escort , but other units continued to harass these airmen . In 1949 , the 332nd entered the annual U.S. Continental Gunnery Meet in Las Vegas , Nevada . The competition included shooting aerial targets , shooting targets on the ground and dropping bombs on targets . Flying the long range Republic P - 47N Thunderbolt ( built for the long range escort mission in the Pacific theatre of World War II ) , the 332nd Fighter Wing took first place in the conventional fighter class . The pilots were Capt . Alva Temple , Lts . Harry Stewart , James Harvey III and Herbert Alexander . Lt. Harvey said , `` We had a perfect score . Three missions , two bombs per plane . We did n't guess at anything , we were good . '' They received congratulations from the Governor of Ohio , and Air Force commanders across the nation . After segregation in the military was ended in 1948 by President Harry S. Truman with Executive Order 9981 , the veteran Tuskegee Airmen now found themselves in high demand throughout the newly formed United States Air Force . Some taught in civilian flight schools , such as the black - owned Columbia Air Center in Maryland . On 11 May 1949 , Air Force Letter 35.3 was published , which mandated that black Airmen be screened for reassignment to formerly all - white units according to qualifications . Tuskegee Airmen were instrumental in postwar developments in aviation . Edward A. Gibbs was a civilian flight instructor in the U.S. Aviation Cadet Program at Tuskegee during its inception . He later became the founder of Negro Airmen International , an association joined by many airmen . USAF General Daniel `` Chappie '' James Jr. ( then Lt . ) was an instructor of the 99th Pursuit Squadron , later a fighter pilot in Europe . In 1975 , he became the first African - American to reach the rank of four - star general . Post-war commander of the 99th Squadron Marion Rodgers went on to work in communications for NORAD and as a program developer for the Apollo 13 project . In 2005 , seven Tuskegee Airmen , including Lieutenant Colonel Herbert Carter , Colonel Charles McGee , group historian Ted Johnson , and Lieutenant Colonel Lee Archer , flew to Balad , Iraq , to speak to active duty airmen serving in the current incarnation of the 332nd , which was reactivated as the 332nd Air Expeditionary Group in 1998 and made part of the 332nd Air Expeditionary Wing . `` This group represents the linkage between the ' greatest generation ' of airmen and the ' latest generation ' of airmen , '' said Lt. Gen. Walter E. Buchanan III , commander of the Ninth Air Force and US Central Command Air Forces . No one knows how many of the original 996 pilots and about 16,000 ground personnel are still alive . Surviving members of the Tuskegee Airmen participate annually in the Tuskegee Airmen Convention , which is hosted by Tuskegee Airmen , Inc . Willie Rogers , the last surviving member of the original Tuskegee Airmen , died at the age of 101 on 18 November 2016 in St. Petersburg , Florida following a stroke . Rogers was drafted into the Army in 1942 and was part of the 100th Air Engineer Squad. Rogers also served with the Red Tail Angels . He was wounded in action , shot in the stomach and leg by German soldiers , during a mission in Italy in January 1943 . In 2007 , President George W. Bush awarded him the Congressional Gold Medal. Rev. Irby said Rogers was a `` passionate oral historian . '' Legacy and honors ( edit ) A tail signed by surviving Tuskegee Airmen located at the Palm Springs Air Museum , Palm Springs , California . The Hangar One Museum at the Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site at Moton Field , Tuskegee , Alabama . The Congressional Gold Medal was collectively presented to approximately 300 Tuskegee Airmen or their widows , at the U.S. Capitol rotunda in Washington , D.C. by President George W. Bush on 29 March 2007 Red Tails continue to fly in the 99th Flying Training Squadron at Randolph Air Force Base in honor of the Tuskegee Airmen The restored P - 51 Mustang associated with the Tuskegee Airmen , now flown by Red Tail Project as described in Red Tail Reborn The new redesigned Tuskegee Airmen Depot sticker . On 29 March 2007 , the Tuskegee Airmen were collectively awarded a Congressional Gold Medal at a ceremony in the U.S. Capitol rotunda . The medal is currently on display at the Smithsonian Institution . The airfield where the airmen trained is now the Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site . Thurgood Marshall , the future Supreme Court justice , got his start defending Tuskegee bomber trainees . The 477th Bombardment Group was formed in 1944 to extend the so - called `` Tuskegee experiment '' by allowing black aviators to serve on bomber crews . The aim was to send pilots -- many of them veterans of the original Tuskegee fighter group -- back to the States for training on B - 25 bombers . While in Indiana , some of the African - American officers were arrested and charged with mutiny after entering an all - white officers ' club . Marshall , then a young lawyer , represented the 100 black officers who had landed in jail as a result of the confrontation . The men were soon released ( although one was later convicted of violent conduct and fined ) . Other members of the Tuskegee Airmen have made contributions in the world of business . Eugene Winslow founded Afro - Am Publishing in Chicago , Illinois , which published Great Negroes Past and Present in 1963 . Daniel `` Chappie '' James Jr. started his career in the early 1940s at Tuskegee , joining the Army Air Corps in July 1943 . After the war ended , James stayed in what became the Air Force and flew missions in both Korea and Vietnam . In 1969 , James was put in command of Wheelus Air Base outside of Tripoli . Three Tuskegee airmen went on to become generals . For keeping his cool in the face of Qaddafi 's troops , James was appointed a brigadier general by President Nixon . However , he was not the only graduate of the `` Tuskegee experiment '' to make flag rank . James followed in the footsteps of Benjamin O. Davis Jr. , the original commander of the 332nd Fighter Group and the first black general in the U.S. Air Force . Another Tuskegee aviator , Lucius Theus , retired a major general after dedicating most of his 36 - year career in the Air Force to improving the military 's bureaucracy , helping to implement a direct deposit system for service members . In 2006 , California Congressman Adam Schiff and Missouri Congressman William Lacy Clay , Jr. , led the initiative to create a commemorative postage stamp to honor the Tuskegee Airmen . The 99th Flying Training Squadron flies T - 1A Jayhawks and , in honor of the Tuskegee Airmen , painted the tops of the tails of their aircraft red . On August 1 , 2008 , Camp Creek Parkway , a portion of State Route 6 in south Fulton County and in the City of East Point near Atlanta , Georgia , was officially renamed in honor of the Tuskegee Airmen . The road is a highway that serves as the main artery into Hartsfield - Jackson International Airport . The Heinz History Center in Pittsburgh presented an award to several Western Pennsylvania Tuskegee veterans , as well as suburban Sewickley , Pennsylvania dedicated a memorial to the seven from that municipality . An exhibit was established at Pittsburgh International Airport in Concourse A . On 9 December 2008 , the Tuskegee Airmen were invited to attend the inauguration of Barack Obama , the first African - American elected as President . Retired Lt. William Broadwater , 82 , of Upper Marlboro , Maryland , a Tuskegee Airman , summed up the feeling . `` The culmination of our efforts and others was this great prize we were given on Nov. 4 . Now we feel like we 've completed our mission . '' More than 180 airmen attended the 20 January 2009 inauguration . The Tuskegee Airmen Memorial was erected at Walterboro Army Airfield , South Carolina , in honor of the Tuskegee Airmen , their instructors , and ground support personnel who trained at the Walterboro Army Airfield during World War II . In the 2010 Rose Parade , the city of West Covina , California paid tribute to the `` service and commitment of the Tuskegee Airmen '' with a float , entitled `` Tuskegee Airmen -- A Cut Above '' , which featured a large bald eagle , two replica World War II `` Redtail '' fighter aircraft and historical images of some of the airmen who served . The float won the mayor 's trophy as the most outstanding city entry -- national or international . In June 1998 , the Ohio Army and Air National guard opened a jointly operated dining hall . They dedicated the new dining facility called the `` Red Tail Dining Facility '' to the Tuskegee Airmen . The facility is operated at the Rickenbacker ANG base outside of Columbus Ohio . In January 2012 , MTA Regional Bus Operations officially changed the name of its 100th Street depot in New York City to the Tuskegee Airmen Depot . In 2012 , George Lucas produced Red Tails , a film based on the experiences of the Tuskegee Airmen . In 2012 , Aldine Independent School District in Harris County , Texas named Benjamin O. Davis High School in honor of Benjamin O. Davis Jr . Artistic depictions of the Tuskegee Airmen ( edit ) Red Tails Escorting the B17s , a watercolor by Kay Smith is in the collections of the Pritzker Military Library . There is a mural depicting the Tuskegee Airmen and their contributions at 39th and Chestnut Streets in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . In popular culture ( edit ) Play media Tuskegee Airmen were featured in Wings for This Man ( 1945 ) Wings for This Man ( 1945 ) , a propaganda short about the Tuskegee Airmen , was produced by the First Motion Picture Unit of the Army Air Forces . The film was narrated by Ronald Reagan . `` Graveyard '' , an episode of Twelve O'Clock High ( 1966 ) , starring Ossie Davis , Jon Voight , Lloyd Haynes . The Tuskegee Airmen ( 1995 ) , a film starring Laurence Fishburne , was produced and aired by HBO . `` The Tuskegee Airmen '' , an episode of the documentary TV series Dogfights , was originally aired on the History Channel on 6 December 2007 . The Tuskegee Airmen ( 1997 ) are represented in the G.I. Joe action figure series . The Wild Blue : The Men and Boys who Flew the B - 24s over Germany ( 2001 ) , a book by Stephen Ambrose , describes the Tuskegee Airmen in a tribute to their achievements . Silver Wings & Civil Rights : The Fight to Fly ( 2004 ) is a documentary that was the first film to feature information regarding the `` Freeman Field Mutiny '' , the struggle of 101 African - American officers arrested for entering a white officer 's club . Red Tail Reborn is a documentary film about the restoration of an aircraft that was flown by the Tuskegee Airmen and its use as a flying memorial to them . Red Tails is a film about the Tuskegee Airmen by George Lucas released in January 2012 . The film was written by John Ridley and Aaron McGruder , and directed by Anthony Hemingway . Night at the Museum : Battle of the Smithsonian ( 2009 ) features the Tuskegee Airmen . One of the Airmen , played by Keith Powell , narrates the group 's activities in a stentorian voice ( `` The Tuskegee Airmen are on the march once again ! '' ) . Another one of the Airmen ( Craig Robinson ) says to Amelia Earhart ( Amy Adams ) , `` A lot of people did n't think we could fly , either ... thanks for clearing the runway for us . '' Black Angels Over Tuskegee ( 2015 ) , an Off - Broadway play about the Airmen written and directed by Layon Gray , currently performs in New York City . Squadron images ( edit ) Patch of the 99th Fighter Squadron Patch of the 100th Fighter Squadron Patch of the 301st Fighter Squadron Patch of the 302d Fighter Squadron See also ( edit ) United States Air Force portal 92nd Infantry Division 93rd Infantry Division 555th Parachute Infantry Battalion `` Triple Nicklel '' 761st Tank Battalion Bessie Coleman -- first African - American civil aviator Fly ( 2009 play about the Tuskegee Airmen ) List of African - American Medal of Honor recipients Military history of African - Americans Racial discrimination against African - Americans in the U.S. Military Red Ball Express Strategic bombing during World War II Port Chicago disaster Walterboro Army Airfield training site and memorial Willa Brown Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ U.S. state and local laws enacted between 1876 and 1965 that mandated de jure racial segregation in all public activities were collectively known as the `` Jim Crow laws '' ; the name derivation from a contemporary pejorative for Black Americans . Jump up ^ `` Pursuit '' being the U.S. term for `` fighter '' to May 1942 . Jump up ^ It may have been a lawsuit from a rejected candidate , that caused the USAAC to accept black applicants . Yancey Williams , an African American otherwise qualified for military pilot 's training , filed suit in the District Court in Washington , DC for admittance to training . He was backed by the National Association of for the Advancement of Colored People . Jump up ^ The Coffey School of Aeronautics in Chicago was also considered . Tuskegee 's already existent CPTP , ground school training facilities , availability of nearby Montgomery Field , and better flying weather certainly offered some advantages . Jump up ^ The physical requirements that made it possible to fit in a fighter 's cockpit with a height less than 70 inches , weight under 170 pounds , precluded many larger African - American men from eligibility . Jump up ^ Each B - 25 bomber cost $175,000 . Overall cost of the entire group was estimated at $20,000,000 . Citations ( edit ) Jump up ^ See `` Pronunciation of Tuskegee '' , thefreedictionary.com ; retrieved October 3 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Tuskegee Airmen Pilot Listing '' Archived 3 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine. , tuskegee.edu ; retrieved 13 May 2014 . Jump up ^ An Unknown Latino Tuskegee Airman Has Been Discovered Jump up ^ Woodward and McFeely ( 2001 ) , p. 6 . ^ Jump up to : Francis and Caso 1997 , pp. 38 -- 39 . Jump up ^ Lloyd 2000 , p. 176 . Jump up ^ Moye 2010 , p. 19 . Jump up ^ `` The Tuskegee Airmen '' . Jump up ^ Moye 2010 , p. 25 . Jump up ^ Benton 1999 , p. 43 . Jump up ^ `` Mrs. Roosevelt Goes for a Ride - Red Tail Squadron '' . Red Tail Squadron . ^ Jump up to : Moye 2010 , pp. 52 -- 54 . Jump up ^ Francis and Caso 1997 , p. 15 . Jump up ^ Moye 2010 , pp. 26 -- 37 . Jump up ^ Moye 2010 , p. 57 . Jump up ^ Thole 2002 , p. 48 . Jump up ^ Homan and Reilly 2001 , pp. 36 -- 37 . Jump up ^ Lambertson , Gilles . `` History of Flight : The Other Harlem . '' Air & Space Magazine , 1 March 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Fact sheet : Tuskegee Airmen '' Archived 19 October 2010 at the Wayback Machine. , National Museum of the United States Air Force website ; retrieved 22 October 2010 . Jump up ^ Moye 2010 , pp. 93 -- 94 . Jump up ^ Homan and Reilly , p. 68 . ^ Jump up to : Francis and Caso 1997 , p. 233 . Jump up ^ Homan and Reilly 2001 , pp. 31 -- 32 . Jump up ^ Francis and Caso 1997 , p. 56 . Jump up ^ Smith , Gene . `` Colonel Parrish 's Orders . '' American History , Volume 46 , Issue 3 , May / June 1995 . Jump up ^ Francis and Caso 1997 , p. 258 . ^ Jump up to : Jones , D.R. , L.P. Gross and R. Marchbanks - Robinson . `` United States Army Aeromedical Support to African Fliers , 1941 -- 1949 : The Tuskegee Flight Surgeons '' , SAM - FE - BR - TR - 2007 - 0001 : US Air Force School of Aerospace Medicine ( 2007 ) ; retrieved 20 March 2010 . ^ Jump up to : Francis and Caso 1997 , p. 214 . Jump up ^ Moye 2010 , pp. 93 -- 95 . Jump up ^ `` Davis Leads the 99th into Combat '' Archived 5 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine. , The National Museum of the United States Air Force ; retrieved 27 July 2012 . Jump up ^ Wolk , Herman S. `` Pantelleria , 1943 '' Archived 20 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine. , airforce-magazine.com , June 2002 ; retrieved 12 February 2012 . Jump up ^ Molony et al. 2004 , p. 49 . ^ Jump up to : `` 99th Flying Training Squadron History . '' United States Air Force ; retrieved 12 June 2011 . ^ Jump up to : `` 332d Fighter Squadron '' , everworld.com ; retrieved 9 July 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Rice , Markus . `` The Men and Their Airplanes : The Fighters '' , Tuskegee Airmen via logicalthinker2.tripod.com , 1 March 2000 . ^ Jump up to : `` Black Americans in Defense of Our Nation . '' Archived 7 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine . Sam Houston State University ; retrieved 11 June 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Celebrating African Americans in Aviation '' , San Diego Air & Space Museum ; retrieved 12 June 2011 . ^ Jump up to : `` Escort Excellence '' Archived 3 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine. , nationalmuseum.af.mil ; retrieved 12 June 2011 . ^ Jump up to : `` Escort Excellence '' Archived 9 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine. , nationalmuseum.af.mil ; retrieved 27 July 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Moye 2010 , p. 123 . Jump up ^ Francis and Caso 1997 , p. 219 . Jump up ^ Moye 2010 , pp. 94 , 124 . 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Jump up ^ `` Tuskegee Airmen suit up , head to Iraq . '' USA Today , 22 October 2005 ; retrieved 20 March 2010 . Jump up ^ Seelye , Katharine Q. `` Inauguration Is a Culmination for Black Airmen . '' The New York Times via nytimes.com , 12 October 2008 ; retrieved 20 March 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Latest Tuskegee Airmen News '' , tuskegeeairmen.org ; retrieved 20 March 2010 . Jump up ^ Times , Air Force . `` Willie Rogers , Tuskegee Airman , dies at 101 after stroke '' . Air Force Times . Retrieved 27 November 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Willie Rogers , Tuskegee Airman , dies at 101 in Florida '' . Fox News . 21 November 2016 . Retrieved 5 January 2017 . Jump up ^ Library of Congress . Resolved by the Senate ( the House of Representatives concurring ) , That the Rotunda of the Capitol is authorized to be used on 29 March 2007 , for a ceremony to award a Congressional ... ( Engrossed as Agreed to or Passed by Senate ) , 7 March 2007 . Jump up ^ Price , Deb . `` Nation to honor Tuskegee Airmen . '' The Detroit News , 29 March 2007 ; retrieved 5 January 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Tuskegee Airmen Gold Medal Bill Signed Into Law . '' Office of Congressman Charles B. Rangel ; retrieved 26 October 2006 . Jump up ^ Evans , Ben . `` Tuskegee Airmen awarded Congressional Gold Medal . '' , thetandd.com , 30 March 2007 ; retrieved 30 April 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site '' , nps.gov ; retrieved 20 March 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` History in the Headlines : The Tuskegee Airmen : 5 Fascinating Facts '' , History.com , 20 January 2012 ; retrieved 9 July 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Eugene Winslow , 81 : Tuskegee Airman , Pioneering Designer '' , Chicago Tribune , 11 July 2001 . Jump up ^ Oblack , Sean . `` Schiff Votes to Honor Tuskegee Airmen '' Archived 26 July 2007 at the Wayback Machine. , schiff.house.gov ; , retrieved 20 March 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Georgia General Assembly ( 2008 ) House Resolution 1023 Act 745 '' ( pdf ) . Georgia General Assembly Legislation . Georgia General Assembly . 14 May 2008 . Retrieved 31 January 2017 . Jump up ^ Majors , Dan . `` Real Tuskegee airman approves of new film about their service in WW II : One good tale '' , Pittsburgh Post-Gazette , 21 January 2012 ; retrieved 5 February 2012 . Jump up ^ Ove , Torsten . `` Tuskegee Airmen exhibit opens at airport '' , post-gazette.com , 13 September 2013 ; accessed 5 January 2017 . Jump up ^ Seelye , Katharine Q. `` Tuskegee Airmen Invited to Obama Inauguration . '' The New York Times , 9 December 2008 ; retrieved 20 March 2010 . Jump up ^ We 've Completed Our Mission . Washington Post , 13 December 2008 , p . B01 . Jump up ^ Longoria , R. Michael ( 20 January 2009 ) . `` Inauguration Brings Tuskegee Airmen to Bolling '' , U.S. Air Force website ; retrieved 5 April 2016 . Jump up ^ della Cava , Marco R. `` George Lucas ' ' Red Tails ' salutes Tuskegee Airmen '' , USA Today , 5 January 2012 . Jump up ^ `` First day comes with grade - school glitches '' . Houston Chronicle. 2012 - 08 - 12 . Retrieved 2017 - 02 - 16 . Jump up ^ Pritzker Military Library Dedicates Oral History Room With Painting Unveiling and Program About the Tuskegee Airmen , prweb.com ; accessed 5 January 2017 . Jump up ^ https://www.muralarts.org/artworks/tuskegee-airmen-they-met-the-challenge/ Jump up ^ Wings for This Man on IMDb Jump up ^ `` '' 12 O'Clock High '' Graveyard ( TV Episode 1966 ) `` . IMDb . Jump up ^ The Tuskegee Airmen on IMDb Jump up ^ `` 1997 G.I. Joe Classic Collection '' , mastercollector.com ; retrieved 20 March 2010 . Jump up ^ Ambrose 2001 , p. 27 Jump up ^ Silver Wings & Civil Rights : The Fight to Fly on IMDb Jump up ^ Silver Wings & Civil Rights : The Flight to Fly Archived 20 March 2005 at the Wayback Machine. , fight2fly.com ; retrieved 20 March 2010 . Bibliography ( edit ) Ambrose , Stephen Edward . The Wild Blue : The Men and Boys who Flew the B - 24s over Germany . New York : Simon & Schuster , 2001 ; ISBN 0 - 7432 - 0339 - 9 . Benton , Jeffrey C. `` Noel F. Parrish '' , They Served Here : Thirty - Three Maxwell Men . Maxwell AFB , Montgomery , Alabama : Air University Press , 1999 ; ISBN 978 - 1 - 58566 - 074 - 2 . Berry , Ben . Tuskegee Airmen : to the Moon , Mars and Beyond ( Secrets Revealed ) . CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform , 2011 ; ISBN 1460931076 OCLC 827831542 Broadnax , Samuel L. Blue Skies , Black Wings : African - American Pioneers of Aviation . Westport , Connecticut : Praeger Publishers , 2007 ; ISBN 0 - 275 - 99195 - 4 . Bucholtz , Chris and Jim Laurier . 332nd Fighter Group -- Tuskegee Airmen . Oxford , UK : Osprey Publishing , 2007 ; ISBN 1 - 84603 - 044 - 7 . Caldwell , Donald and Richard Muller . The Luftwaffe over Germany : Defense of the Reich . London : Greenhill Books , 2007 ; ISBN 978 - 1 - 85367 - 712 - 0 . Caver , Joseph , Jerome Ennels , and Daniel Haulman . The Tuskegee Airmen : An Illustrated History , 1939 -- 1949 . Montgomery , Alabama : New South Books , 2011 ; ISBN 1 - 58838 - 244 - 3 / ISBN 978 - 1 - 58838 - 244 - 3 . Cotter , Jarrod . `` Red Tail Project '' , Flypast No. 248 , March 2002 . Francis , Charles E. and Adolph Caso . The Tuskegee Airmen : The Men Who Changed a Nation . Boston : Branden Books , 1997 ; ISBN 0 - 8283 - 2029 - 2 . Gubert , Betty Kaplan , Miriam Sawyer and Caroline M. Fannine . Distinguished African - Americans in Aviation and Space Science . Westport , Connecticut : Greenwood Publishing Group , 2002 ; ISBN 978 - 1 - 57356 - 246 - 1 . Hill , Ezra M. Sr . The Black Red Tail Angels : A Story of the Tuskegee Airmen . Columbus , Ohio : SMF Haven of Hope , 2006 . Holway , John B. Red Tail , Black Wings : The Men of America 's Black Air Force . Las Cruces , New Mexico : Yuca Tree Press , 1997 ; ISBN 1 - 881325 - 21 - 0 . Haulman , Daniel L. Eleven Myths About the Tuskegee Airmen . Montgomery , Alabama : New South Books , 2012 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 60306 - 147 - 6 . Haulman , Daniel L. `` The Tuskegee Airmen and the Never Lost a Bomber Myth '' , The Alabama Review , Vol. 64 , No. 1 , January 2011 . Haulman , Daniel L. Misconceptions About the Tuskegee Airmen , Air Force Historical Research Agency ( USAF ) , 24 July 2013 . Haulman , Daniel L. Tuskegee Airmen Chronology , afnews.af.mil ; retrieved October 31 , 2013 . Homan , Lynn M. and Thomas Reilly . Black Knights : The Story of the Tuskegee Airmen . Gretna , Louisiana : Pelican Publishing , 2001 ; ISBN 978 - 1 - 56554 - 828 - 2 . Leuthner , Stuart and Olivier Jensen . High Honor : Recollections by Men and Women of World War II Aviation . Washington , D.C. : Smithsonian Institution Press , 1989 ; ISBN 0 - 87474 - 650 - 7 . Lloyd , Craig . Eugene Bullard , Black Expatriate in Jazz - Age Paris . Athens , Georgia : University of Georgia Press , 2000 ; ISBN 978 - 0 - 8203 - 2192 - 9 . McKissack , Patricia C. and Fredrick L. Red Tail Angels : The Story of the Tuskegee Airmen of World War II . New York : Walker Books for Young Readers , 1996 ; ISBN 0 - 8027 - 8292 - 2 . Molony , Brigadier C.J.C. ; Captain F.C. Flynn ( R.N. ) ; Major - General H.L. Davies and Group Captain T.P. Gleave . `` The Mediterranean and Middle East , Volume V : The Campaign in Sicily 1943 and The Campaign in Italy 3 September 1943 to 31 March 1944 '' , History of the Second World War ( United Kingdom Military Series ) . Uckfield , UK : Naval & Military Press , 2004 , First edition , 1973 ( HMSO ) ; ISBN 1 - 84574 - 069 - 6 . Moye , J. Todd . Freedom Flyers : The Tuskeegee Airmen of World War II . New York : Oxford University Press ( USA ) , 2010 ; ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 538655 - 4 . Percy , William A. `` Jim Crow and Uncle Sam : The Tuskegee Flying Units and the U.S. Army Air Forces in Europe during World War II '' , The Journal of Military History , 67 , July 2003 . Ross , Robert A. Lonely Eagles : The Story of America 's Black Air Force in World War II . Los Angeles : Tuskegee Airmen Inc. , Los Angeles Chapter , 1980 ; ISBN 0 - 917612 - 00 - 0 . Sandler , Stanley . Segregated Skies : All - Black Combat Squadrons of WWII . Washington , D.C. : Smithsonian Institution Press , 1992 ; ISBN 1 - 56098 - 154 - 7 . Tillman , Barrett . `` Tales of the Red Tails ; Inside the Tuskegee Legend : The men , the machines , the missions '' , Flight Journal , February 2012 . Thole , Lou . `` Segregated Skies . '' Flypast No , 248 , March 2002 . Tucker , Phillip Thomas . Father of the Tuskegee airmen , John C. Robinson . Washington , DC : Potomac Books , Inc. , 2012 ; ISBN 1597974870 , e-book ISBN 1597976067 OCLC 752678328 Woodward , C. Vann and William S. McFeely . The Strange Career of Jim Crow . New York : Oxford University Press ( USA ) , 2001 ; ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 514690 - 5 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tuskegee Airmen . Tuskegee Airmen at Tuskegee University Tuskegee Airmen Museum Double V : Civil Rights Struggle of the Tuskegee Airmen , an illustrated history book of the `` Red Tails '' by veteran Tuskegee Airmen ( Lawrence P. Scott , William M. Womack ) from Michigan , with photos from personal collections . Images of Tukegee airmen , photos , paintings etc . `` Red - Tail Angels '' : The Story of the Tuskegee Airmen of World War II The Tuskegee Airmen ( 1995 ) Funeral Program for Tuskegee Airman Cassius Harris African American Funeral Programs from the East Central Georgia Regional Library The Tuskegee Airmen at the 2012 BET Honors Awards Tuskegee Airmen , Inc . -- Official Web Site The Red Tail Project African Americans in the U.S. Army The Negro Pilot Training Program `` Tuskegee Airmen : Brett Gadsden Interviews J. Todd Moye '' , Southern Spaces 30 September 2010 . Interview with historian Todd Moye regarding the Tuskegee Airmen on `` New Books in History '' Contemporary newsreel about `` Negro Pilots '' -- YouTube The short film `` Henry Browne , Farmer ( 1942 ) '' is available for free download at the Internet Archive The short film `` Negro Pilots ( 1943 ) '' is available for free download at the Internet Archive The short film `` The Negro Soldier ( 1943 ) '' is available for free download at the Internet Archive The short film `` Wings for This Man ( 1945 ) '' is available for free download at the Internet Archive The short film `` Tuskegee Airman Tribute ( 1990 ) '' is available for free download at the Internet Archive The short film `` African Americans in World War II : Legacy of Patriotism and Valor ( 1997 ) '' is available for free download at the Internet Archive Works by or about United States Army Air Forces Fighter Group , 332nd in libraries ( WorldCat catalog ) Works by or about United States Army Air Forces Composite Group , 477th in libraries ( WorldCat catalog ) `` Tuskegee Airmen collected news and commentary '' . The New York Times . Official Tuskegee Airmen painting created with the Tuskegee Airmen Association Photographs and information about the Tuskegee Airmen from World Digital Library Interview with three Tuskegee Airmen : Robert Martin , Dr. Quentin P. Smith , and Shelby Westbrook at the Pritzker Military Museum & Library on October 2008 Citizen Soldier episode on Tuskegee Airmen recorded at the Pritzker Military Museum & Library on 12 September 2013 Tuskegee Airmen Collections University of California , Riverside Nine Myths About the Tuskegee Airmen Tuskegee Airmen Units 99th Fighter Squadron 100th Fighter Squadron 301st Fighter Squadron 302nd Fighter Squadron 332nd Fighter Group 477th Fighter Group Air fields Chanute Field Moton Army Air Field Tuskegee Army Air Field Pilots and crew Benjamin O. Davis Jr. ( C / O ) Lee Archer Henry Cabot Lodge Bohler George L. Brown Roscoe Brown William A. Campbell Herbert Carter Eugene Calvin Cheatham Jr . Milton Crenchaw Clarence Dart Alfonza W. Davis Gene Derricotte Charles Dryden Julius Freeman Joseph Gomer Oliver Goodall Arthur C. Harmon Raymond V. Haysbert Percy Heath Mitchell Higginbotham Daniel `` Chappie '' James Jr . Alexander Jefferson Herman A. Johnson James B. Knighten Charles William Ledbetter Hiram Mann Charles McGee John Mosley Fitzroy Newsum Wendell O. Pruitt Louis R. Purnell Sr . Lawrence E. Roberts Isaiah Edward Robinson Jr . Robert Searcy David Showell Wilmeth Sidat - Singh Eugene Smith Vernon Sport Lowell Steward Charles `` Chuck '' Stone Jr . Percy Sutton Roger Terry Robert B. Tresville Spann Watson Malvin `` Mal '' Whitfield Henry Wise Jr . Coleman Young Incidents Freeman Field Mutiny Aircraft Bell P - 39 Airacobra Curtiss P - 40 Warhawk North American P - 51 Mustang Republic P - 47 Thunderbolt Media Fictional films The Tuskegee Airmen ( 1995 ) Hart 's War ( 2002 ) Red Tails ( 2012 ) Documentaries Red Tail Reborn ( 2007 ) Flight of the Red Tail ( 2009 ) Other Henry Browne , Farmer Wings for This Man `` Wingmen '' Legacy Red Tail Squadron Tuskegee Airmen , Inc Tuskegee University Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site Other Maycie Herrington Buford A. Johnson Noel F. 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List of Scandal episodes - wikipedia List of Scandal episodes Jump to : navigation , search Scandal is an American political thriller television series created by Shonda Rhimes , which premiered on ABC on April 5 , 2012 . Kerry Washington stars as Olivia Pope , a former White House Communications Director who leaves to start her own crisis management firm , Pope and Associates , where she works to keep the secrets and protect the public images of the country 's most powerful and elite . On staff at the new firm are fresh - faced lawyer Quinn Perkins ( Katie Lowes ) ; smooth talking litigator Harrison Wright ( Columbus Short ) ; investigator Abby Whelan ( Darby Stanchfield ) ; and computer hacker with a CIA past Huck ( Guillermo Diaz ) . The show also focuses on President of the United States Fitzgerald Grant ( Tony Goldwyn ) ; First Lady Mellie Grant ( Bellamy Young ) ; White House Chief of Staff Cyrus Beene ( Jeff Perry ) ; Vice President and eventual presidential candidate Sally Langston ( Kate Burton ) ; U.S. Attorney David Rosen ( Joshua Malina ) ; Head of NSA , Jake Ballard ( Scott Foley ) ; chairwoman Elizabeth North ( Portia de Rossi ) ; activist Marcus Walker ( Cornelius Smith Jr . ) ; and head of B613 Eli Pope ( Joe Morton ) . As of January 18 , 2018 , 114 episodes of Scandal have aired , including one special . On February 10 , 2017 , the show was renewed for a seventh season consisting of 18 episodes . It was later announced it will be the final season . Contents ( hide ) 1 Series overview 2 Episodes 2.1 Season 1 ( 2012 ) 2.2 Season 2 ( 2012 -- 13 ) 2.3 Season 3 ( 2013 -- 14 ) 2.4 Season 4 ( 2014 -- 15 ) 2.5 Season 5 ( 2015 -- 16 ) 2.6 Season 6 ( 2017 ) 2.7 Season 7 ( 2017 -- 18 ) 3 Specials 4 Webisodes 4.1 Gladiator Wanted 5 References 6 External links Series overview ( edit ) Season Episodes Originally aired Nielsen ratings First aired Last aired Rank Viewers ( in millions ) 7 April 5 , 2012 ( 2012 - 04 - 05 ) May 17 , 2012 ( 2012 - 05 - 17 ) 62 8.21 22 September 27 , 2012 ( 2012 - 09 - 27 ) May 16 , 2013 ( 2013 - 05 - 16 ) 47 8.46 18 October 3 , 2013 ( 2013 - 10 - 03 ) April 17 , 2014 ( 2014 - 04 - 17 ) 13 12.00 22 September 25 , 2014 ( 2014 - 09 - 25 ) May 14 , 2015 ( 2015 - 05 - 14 ) 8 12.66 5 21 September 24 , 2015 ( 2015 - 09 - 24 ) May 12 , 2016 ( 2016 - 05 - 12 ) 16 10.68 6 16 January 26 , 2017 ( 2017 - 01 - 26 ) May 18 , 2017 ( 2017 - 05 - 18 ) 30 8.16 7 18 October 5 , 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 05 ) April 19 , 2018 ( 2018 - 04 - 19 ) N / A N / A Episodes ( edit ) Season 1 ( 2012 ) ( edit ) Main article : Scandal ( season 1 ) No . overall No. in season Title Directed by Written by Original air date Prod . code U.S. viewers ( millions ) `` Sweet Baby '' Paul McGuigan Shonda Rhimes April 5 , 2012 ( 2012 - 04 - 05 ) 101 7.33 `` Dirty Little Secrets '' Roxann Dawson Heather Mitchell April 12 , 2012 ( 2012 - 04 - 12 ) 102 7.28 `` Hell Hath No Fury '' Allison Liddi - Brown Matt Byrne April 19 , 2012 ( 2012 - 04 - 19 ) 103 7.21 `` Enemy of the State '' Michael Katleman Richard E. Robbins April 26 , 2012 ( 2012 - 04 - 26 ) 104 6.86 5 5 `` Crash and Burn '' Steve Robin Mark Wilding May 3 , 2012 ( 2012 - 05 - 03 ) 105 6.69 6 6 `` The Trail '' Tom Verica Jenna Bans May 10 , 2012 ( 2012 - 05 - 10 ) 106 6.43 7 7 `` Grant : For the People '' Roxann Dawson Shonda Rhimes May 17 , 2012 ( 2012 - 05 - 17 ) 107 7.33 Season 2 ( 2012 -- 13 ) ( edit ) Main article : Scandal ( season 2 ) No . overall No. in season Title Directed by Written by Original air date Prod . code U.S. viewers ( millions ) 8 `` White Hat 's Off '' Tom Verica Jenna Bans September 27 , 2012 ( 2012 - 09 - 27 ) 201 6.74 9 `` The Other Woman '' Stephen Cragg Heather Mitchell October 4 , 2012 ( 2012 - 10 - 04 ) 202 6.56 10 `` Hunting Season '' Ron Underwood Matt Byrne October 18 , 2012 ( 2012 - 10 - 18 ) 203 6.17 11 `` Beltway Unbuckled '' Mark Tinker Mark Fish October 25 , 2012 ( 2012 - 10 - 25 ) 204 6.11 12 5 `` All Roads Lead to Fitz '' Steve Robin Raamla Mohamed November 8 , 2012 ( 2012 - 11 - 08 ) 205 6.06 13 6 `` Spies Like Us '' Bethany Rooney Chris Van Dusen November 15 , 2012 ( 2012 - 11 - 15 ) 206 6.02 14 7 `` Defiance '' Tom Verica Peter Noah November 29 , 2012 ( 2012 - 11 - 29 ) 207 6.64 15 8 `` Happy Birthday , Mr. President '' Oliver Bokelberg Shonda Rhimes December 6 , 2012 ( 2012 - 12 - 06 ) 208 7.39 16 9 `` Blown Away '' Jessica Yu Mark Wilding December 13 , 2012 ( 2012 - 12 - 13 ) 209 7.14 17 10 `` One for the Dog '' Steve Robin Heather Mitchell January 10 , 2013 ( 2013 - 01 - 10 ) 210 8.37 18 11 `` A Criminal , a Whore , an Idiot and a Liar '' Stephen Cragg Mark Fish January 17 , 2013 ( 2013 - 01 - 17 ) 211 7.93 19 12 `` Truth or Consequences '' Jeannot Szwarc Peter Noah January 31 , 2013 ( 2013 - 01 - 31 ) 212 8.09 20 13 `` Nobody Likes Babies '' Tom Verica Mark Wilding February 7 , 2013 ( 2013 - 02 - 07 ) 213 8.14 21 14 `` Whiskey Tango Foxtrot '' Mark Tinker Matt Byrne February 14 , 2013 ( 2013 - 02 - 14 ) 214 8.02 22 15 `` Boom Goes the Dynamite '' Randy Zisk Jenna Bans February 21 , 2013 ( 2013 - 02 - 21 ) 215 7.68 23 16 `` Top of the Hour '' Steve Robin Heather Mitchell March 21 , 2013 ( 2013 - 03 - 21 ) 216 8.51 24 17 `` Snake in the Garden '' Ron Underwood Raamla Mohamed March 28 , 2013 ( 2013 - 03 - 28 ) 217 7.97 25 18 `` Molly , You in Danger , Girl '' Tom Verica Chris Van Dusen April 4 , 2013 ( 2013 - 04 - 04 ) 218 8.04 26 19 `` Seven Fifty - Two '' Allison Liddi - Brown Mark Fish April 25 , 2013 ( 2013 - 04 - 25 ) 219 7.90 27 20 `` A Woman Scorned '' Tony Goldwyn Zahir McGhee May 2 , 2013 ( 2013 - 05 - 02 ) 220 8.07 28 21 `` Any Questions ? '' Mark Tinker Matt Byrne May 9 , 2013 ( 2013 - 05 - 09 ) 221 8.87 29 22 `` White Hat 's Back On '' Tom Verica Shonda Rhimes May 16 , 2013 ( 2013 - 05 - 16 ) 222 9.12 Season 3 ( 2013 -- 14 ) ( edit ) Main article : Scandal ( season 3 ) No . overall No. in season Title Directed by Written by Original air date Prod . code U.S. viewers ( millions ) 30 `` It 's Handled '' Tom Verica Shonda Rhimes October 3 , 2013 ( 2013 - 10 - 03 ) 301 10.52 31 `` Guess Who 's Coming to Dinner '' Allison Liddi - Brown Heather Mitchell October 10 , 2013 ( 2013 - 10 - 10 ) 302 9.01 32 `` Mrs. Smith Goes to Washington '' Jeannot Szwarc Matt Byrne October 17 , 2013 ( 2013 - 10 - 17 ) 303 9.51 33 `` Say Hello to My Little Friend '' Oliver Bokelberg Mark Fish October 24 , 2013 ( 2013 - 10 - 24 ) 304 8.62 34 5 `` More Cattle , Less Bull '' Randy Zisk Jenna Bans October 31 , 2013 ( 2013 - 10 - 31 ) 305 9.18 35 6 `` Icarus '' Julie Anne Robinson Peter Noah November 7 , 2013 ( 2013 - 11 - 07 ) 306 8.66 36 7 `` Everything 's Coming Up Mellie '' Michael Katleman Peter Nowalk November 14 , 2013 ( 2013 - 11 - 14 ) 307 9.04 37 8 `` Vermont is for Lovers , Too '' Ava DuVernay Mark Wilding November 21 , 2013 ( 2013 - 11 - 21 ) 308 8.93 38 9 `` YOLO '' Oliver Bokelberg Chris Van Dusen December 5 , 2013 ( 2013 - 12 - 05 ) 309 8.27 39 10 `` A Door Marked Exit '' Tom Verica Zahir McGhee December 12 , 2013 ( 2013 - 12 - 12 ) 310 9.22 40 11 `` Ride , Sally , Ride '' Tom Verica Raamla Mohamed February 27 , 2014 ( 2014 - 02 - 27 ) 311 9.32 41 12 `` We Do Not Touch the First Ladies '' Oliver Bokelberg Heather Mitchell March 6 , 2014 ( 2014 - 03 - 06 ) 312 8.53 42 13 `` No Sun on the Horizon '' Randy Zisk Matt Byrne March 13 , 2014 ( 2014 - 03 - 13 ) 313 8.22 43 14 `` Kiss Kiss Bang Bang '' Paul McCrane Mark Fish March 20 , 2014 ( 2014 - 03 - 20 ) 314 9.08 44 15 `` Mama Said Knock You Out '' Tony Goldwyn Zahir McGhee March 27 , 2014 ( 2014 - 03 - 27 ) 315 9.01 45 16 `` The Fluffer '' Jeannot Szwarc Chris Van Dusen & Raamla Mohamed April 3 , 2014 ( 2014 - 04 - 03 ) 316 9.13 46 17 `` Flesh and Blood '' Debbie Allen Severiano Canales & Miguel Nolla April 10 , 2014 ( 2014 - 04 - 10 ) 317 9.23 47 18 `` The Price of Free and Fair Elections '' Tom Verica Shonda Rhimes & Mark Wilding April 17 , 2014 ( 2014 - 04 - 17 ) 318 10.57 Season 4 ( 2014 -- 15 ) ( edit ) Main article : Scandal ( season 4 ) No . overall No. in season Title Directed by Written by Original air date Prod . code U.S. viewers ( millions ) 48 `` Randy , Red , Superfreak and Julia '' Tom Verica Shonda Rhimes September 25 , 2014 ( 2014 - 09 - 25 ) 401 11.96 49 `` The State of the Union '' Allison Liddi - Brown Heather Mitchell October 2 , 2014 ( 2014 - 10 - 02 ) 402 10.34 50 `` Inside the Bubble '' Randy Zisk Matt Byrne October 9 , 2014 ( 2014 - 10 - 09 ) 403 9.52 51 `` Like Father , Like Daughter '' Paul McCrane Mark Fish October 16 , 2014 ( 2014 - 10 - 16 ) 404A 9.90 52 5 `` The Key '' Paul McCrane Chris Van Dusen October 23 , 2014 ( 2014 - 10 - 23 ) 404B 9.98 53 6 `` An Innocent Man '' Jeannot Szwarc Zahir McGhee October 30 , 2014 ( 2014 - 10 - 30 ) 405 9.32 54 7 `` Baby Made a Mess '' Oliver Bokelberg Jenna Bans November 6 , 2014 ( 2014 - 11 - 06 ) 406 9.82 55 8 `` The Last Supper '' Julie Anne Robinson Allan Heinberg November 13 , 2014 ( 2014 - 11 - 13 ) 407 10.05 56 9 `` Where the Sun Do n't Shine '' Tony Goldwyn Mark Wilding November 20 , 2014 ( 2014 - 11 - 20 ) 408 10.14 57 10 `` Run '' Tom Verica Shonda Rhimes January 29 , 2015 ( 2015 - 01 - 29 ) 409 10.48 58 11 `` Where 's the Black Lady ? '' Debbie Allen Raamla Mohamed February 5 , 2015 ( 2015 - 02 - 05 ) 410 9.58 59 12 `` Gladiators Do n't Run '' Randy Zisk Paul Willam Davies February 12 , 2015 ( 2015 - 02 - 12 ) 411A 9.32 60 13 `` No More Blood '' Randy Zisk Heather Mitchell February 19 , 2015 ( 2015 - 02 - 19 ) 411B 9.62 61 14 `` The Lawn Chair '' Tom Verica Zahir McGhee March 5 , 2015 ( 2015 - 03 - 05 ) 412 9.57 62 15 `` The Testimony of Diego Muñoz '' Allison Liddi - Brown Mark Fish March 12 , 2015 ( 2015 - 03 - 12 ) 413 8.24 63 16 `` It 's Good to Be Kink '' Paul McCrane Matt Byrne March 19 , 2015 ( 2015 - 03 - 19 ) 414 7.79 64 17 `` Put a Ring on It '' Regina King Chris Van Dusen March 26 , 2015 ( 2015 - 03 - 26 ) 415 8.06 65 18 `` Honor Thy Father '' Jeannot Szwarc Severiano Canales April 2 , 2015 ( 2015 - 04 - 02 ) 416 7.27 66 19 `` I 'm Just a Bill '' Debbie Allen Raamla Mohamed April 16 , 2015 ( 2015 - 04 - 16 ) 417 7.86 67 20 `` First Lady Sings the Blues '' David Rodriguez Paul William Davies April 23 , 2015 ( 2015 - 04 - 23 ) 418 7.79 68 21 `` A Few Good Women '' Oliver Bokelberg Severiano Canales & Jess Brownell May 7 , 2015 ( 2015 - 05 - 07 ) 419 7.44 69 22 `` You Ca n't Take Command '' Tom Verica Shonda Rhimes & Mark Wilding May 14 , 2015 ( 2015 - 05 - 14 ) 420 8.08 Season 5 ( 2015 -- 16 ) ( edit ) Main article : Scandal ( season 5 ) No . overall No. in season Title Directed by Written by Original air date Prod . code U.S. viewers ( millions ) 70 `` Heavy Is the Head '' Tom Verica Shonda Rhimes September 24 , 2015 ( 2015 - 09 - 24 ) 501 10.25 71 `` Yes '' Tony Goldwyn Heather Mitchell October 1 , 2015 ( 2015 - 10 - 01 ) 502 9.12 72 `` Paris is Burning '' Jann Turner Matt Byrne October 8 , 2015 ( 2015 - 10 - 08 ) 503 8.76 73 `` Dog - Whistle Politics '' Zetna Fuentes Mark Fish October 15 , 2015 ( 2015 - 10 - 15 ) 504 8.06 74 5 `` You Got Served '' Kevin Bray Zahir McGhee October 22 , 2015 ( 2015 - 10 - 22 ) 505 8.28 75 6 `` Get Out of Jail , Free '' Chandra Wilson Chris Van Dusen October 29 , 2015 ( 2015 - 10 - 29 ) 506 7.80 76 7 `` Even the Devil Deserves a Second Chance '' Oliver Bokelberg Raamla Mohamed November 5 , 2015 ( 2015 - 11 - 05 ) 507 8.03 77 8 `` Rasputin '' John Terlesky Paul William Davies November 12 , 2015 ( 2015 - 11 - 12 ) 508 7.70 78 9 `` Baby , It 's Cold Outside '' Tom Verica Mark Wilding November 19 , 2015 ( 2015 - 11 - 19 ) 509 8.13 79 10 `` It 's Hard Out Here for a General '' Tom Verica Severiano Canales February 11 , 2016 ( 2016 - 02 - 11 ) 510 6.96 80 11 `` The Candidate '' Allison Liddi - Brown Alison Schapker February 18 , 2016 ( 2016 - 02 - 18 ) 511A 6.09 81 12 `` Wild Card '' Allison Liddi - Brown & Tom Verica Mark Fish February 25 , 2016 ( 2016 - 02 - 25 ) 511B 5.85 82 13 `` The Fish Rots from the Head '' Sharat Raju Heather Mitchell March 10 , 2016 ( 2016 - 03 - 10 ) 512 5.97 83 14 `` I See You '' Paris Barclay Matt Byrne March 17 , 2016 ( 2016 - 03 - 17 ) 513 6.31 84 15 `` Pencils Down '' Regina King Chris Van Dusen March 24 , 2016 ( 2016 - 03 - 24 ) 514 6.15 85 16 `` The Miseducation of Susan Ross '' Scott Foley Raamla Mohamed March 31 , 2016 ( 2016 - 03 - 31 ) 516 6.44 86 17 `` Thwack ! '' Tony Goldwyn Zahir McGhee April 7 , 2016 ( 2016 - 04 - 07 ) 517 5.88 87 18 `` Till Death Do Us Part '' Steph Green Paul William Davies April 21 , 2016 ( 2016 - 04 - 21 ) 518 6.00 88 19 `` Buckle Up '' Oliver Bokelberg Michelle Lirtzman April 28 , 2016 ( 2016 - 04 - 28 ) 519 6.25 89 20 `` Trump Card '' Jann Turner Severiano Canales & Jess Brownell May 5 , 2016 ( 2016 - 05 - 05 ) 520 6.06 90 21 `` That 's My Girl '' Tom Verica Shonda Rhimes & Mark Wilding May 12 , 2016 ( 2016 - 05 - 12 ) 521 6.65 Season 6 ( 2017 ) ( edit ) Main article : Scandal ( season 6 ) No . overall No. in season Title Directed by Written by Original air date Prod . code U.S. viewers ( millions ) 91 `` Survival of the Fittest '' Tom Verica Shonda Rhimes January 26 , 2017 ( 2017 - 01 - 26 ) 601 7.62 92 `` Hardball '' Allison Liddi - Brown Matt Byrne February 2 , 2017 ( 2017 - 02 - 02 ) 602 6.54 93 `` Fates Worse Than Death '' Scott Foley Mark Fish February 9 , 2017 ( 2017 - 02 - 09 ) 603 6.22 94 `` The Belt '' Tom Verica Paul William Davies February 16 , 2017 ( 2017 - 02 - 16 ) 606 6.06 95 5 `` They All Bow Down '' Millicent Shelton Zahir McGhee March 9 , 2017 ( 2017 - 03 - 09 ) 604 5.26 96 6 `` Extinction '' Tony Goldwyn Chris Van Dusen March 16 , 2017 ( 2017 - 03 - 16 ) 605 5.63 97 7 `` A Traitor Among Us '' Tom Verica Alison Schapker March 23 , 2017 ( 2017 - 03 - 23 ) 607 5.40 98 8 `` A Stomach for Blood '' Oliver Bokelberg Severiano Canales March 30 , 2017 ( 2017 - 03 - 30 ) 608 6.57 99 9 `` Dead in the Water '' Nicole Rubio Michelle Lirtzman April 6 , 2017 ( 2017 - 04 - 06 ) 609 5.10 100 10 `` The Decision '' Sharat Raju Johanna Lee April 13 , 2017 ( 2017 - 04 - 13 ) 610 5.35 101 11 `` Trojan Horse '' Jann Turner Jess Brownell & Nicholas Nardini April 20 , 2017 ( 2017 - 04 - 20 ) 611 5.11 102 12 `` Mercy '' Nzingha Stewart Severiano Canales & Ameni Rozsa April 27 , 2017 ( 2017 - 04 - 27 ) 612 5.29 103 13 `` The Box '' Steph Green Raamla Mohamed & Austin Guzman May 4 , 2017 ( 2017 - 05 - 04 ) 613 5.15 104 14 `` Head Games '' Zetna Fuentes Chris Van Dusen & Juan Carlos Fernandez May 11 , 2017 ( 2017 - 05 - 11 ) 614 5.10 105 15 `` Tick Tock '' Salli Richardson - Whitfield Zahir McGhee & Michelle Lirtzman May 18 , 2017 ( 2017 - 05 - 18 ) 615 5.23 106 16 `` Transfer of Power '' Tony Goldwyn Matt Byrne & Mark Fish May 18 , 2017 ( 2017 - 05 - 18 ) 616 5.23 Season 7 ( 2017 -- 18 ) ( edit ) Main article : Scandal ( season 7 ) No . overall No. in season Title Directed by Written by Original air date Prod . code U.S. viewers ( millions ) 107 `` Watch Me '' Jann Turner Shonda Rhimes October 5 , 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 05 ) 701 5.52 108 `` Pressing the Flesh '' Tony Goldwyn Matt Byrne October 12 , 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 12 ) 702 5.00 109 `` Day 101 '' Scott Foley Zahir McGhee October 19 , 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 19 ) 703 4.70 110 `` Lost Girls '' Nicole Rubio Ameni Rozsa & Austin Guzman October 26 , 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 26 ) 704 4.88 111 5 `` Adventures in Babysitting '' Oliver Bokelberg Serveriano Canales & Tia Napolitano November 2 , 2017 ( 2017 - 11 - 02 ) 705 4.89 112 6 `` Vampires and Bloodsuckers '' Jann Turner Chris Van Dusen & Tia Napolitano November 9 , 2017 ( 2017 - 11 - 09 ) 706 5.00 113 7 `` Something Borrowed '' Sharat Raju Mark Fish November 16 , 2017 ( 2017 - 11 - 16 ) 707 4.97 114 8 `` Robin '' Daryn Okada Juan Carlos Fernandez January 18 , 2018 ( 2018 - 01 - 18 ) 709 5.17 115 9 `` Good People '' Nzingha Stewart Shonda Rhimes , Jess Brownell & Nicholas Nardini January 25 , 2018 ( 2018 - 01 - 25 ) 708 TBD 116 10 `` The People v. Olivia Pope '' TBA TBA February 1 , 2018 ( 2018 - 02 - 01 ) 710 TBD 117 11 `` Army of One '' TBA TBA February 8 , 2018 ( 2018 - 02 - 08 ) 711 TBD 118 12 TBA TBA TBA March 1 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 01 ) TBA TBD Specials ( edit ) No . Title Narrator Aired between Original air date U.S. viewers ( millions ) `` The Secret is Out '' Joshua Malina as David Rosen `` White Hat 's Back On '' ( season two ) `` It 's Handled '' ( season three ) October 3 , 2013 ( 2013 - 10 - 03 ) 5.75 Webisodes ( edit ) Gladiator wanted ( edit ) A web series debuted prior to the sixth - season premiere and features Guillermo Diaz as Huck , Katie Lowes as Quinn , Cornelius Smith Jr. as Marcus and George Newbern as Charlie . All of the episodes were directed by Darby Stanchfield , who portrays Abby in the show . No . overall No. in season Title Directed by Written by Original release date `` So You Want to Be a Gladiator in a Suit '' Darby Stanchfield Juan Carlos Fernandez January 19 , 2017 ( 2017 - 01 - 19 ) `` A Job to Kill For '' Darby Stanchfield Juan Carlos Fernandez January 19 , 2017 ( 2017 - 01 - 19 ) `` Induction '' Darby Stanchfield Juan Carlos Fernandez January 19 , 2017 ( 2017 - 01 - 19 ) `` Governments Fall '' Darby Stanchfield Juan Carlos Fernandez January 19 , 2017 ( 2017 - 01 - 19 ) 5 5 `` By Dawn 's Early Light '' Darby Stanchfield Juan Carlos Fernandez January 19 , 2017 ( 2017 - 01 - 19 ) 6 6 `` Exit Interview '' Darby Stanchfield Juan Carlos Fernandez January 19 , 2017 ( 2017 - 01 - 19 ) References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Molloy , Tim ( January 10 , 2012 ) . `` ' Scandal , ' ' Apartment 23 ' Get Premiere Dates , ' Cougar Town ' Does n't '' . The Wrap . Retrieved May 12 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Wagmeister , Elizabeth ( February 10 , 2017 ) . `` ABC Renews ' Grey 's Anatomy , ' ' Scandal ' and ' How To Get Away With Murder ' for New Seasons '' . Variety . Retrieved February 10 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Gorman , Bill ( May 24 , 2012 ) . `` Complete List Of 2011 -- 12 Season TV Show Viewership : ' Sunday Night Football ' Tops , Followed By ' American Idol , ' ' NCIS ' & ' Dancing With The Stars ' '' . TV by the Numbers . Zap2it . Retrieved November 5 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( May 29 , 2013 ) . `` Complete List Of 2012 - 13 Season TV Show Viewership : ' Sunday Night Football ' Tops , Followed By ' NCIS , ' ' The Big Bang Theory ' & ' NCIS : Los Angeles ' '' . TV by the Numbers . ZAP2it . Retrieved May 30 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Full 2013 - 2014 TV Season Series Rankings '' . Deadline . May 22 , 2014 . Retrieved October 1 , 2014 . Jump up ^ de Moraes , Lisa ( May 21 , 2014 ) . `` Full 2014 -- 15 TV Season Series Rankings : Football & ' Empire ' Ruled '' . Deadline.com . Archived from the original on May 22 , 2015 . Retrieved June 10 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Full 2015 - 2016 TV Season Series Rankings '' . Deadline . May 26 , 2016 . Retrieved May 27 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Final 2016 - 17 TV Rankings : ' Sunday Night Football ' Winning Streak Continues '' . Deadline Hollywood . May 26 , 2017 . Retrieved May 26 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Ausiello , Michael ( June 26 , 2017 ) . `` Scandal Farewell Update : Final Season Episode Count Revealed '' . TVLine . Retrieved July 28 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Gelman , Vlada ( January 8 , 2018 ) . `` Quantico Season 3 and Shondaland 's For the People Get ABC Premiere Dates '' . TVLine . Retrieved January 8 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( April 6 , 2012 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' Big Bang Theory ' , ' American Idol ' , ' Person of Interest ' , ' Missing ' , ' Up All Night ' Adjusted Up ; ' Scandal ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 7 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( April 13 , 2012 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The Office ' and ' American Idol ' Adjusted Up ; ' Scandal ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 13 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( April 20 , 2012 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' American Idol ' , ' Grey 's Anatomy ' , ' Awake ' & ' Missing ' Adjusted Up ; ' Scandal ' & ' Parks and Recreation ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 20 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( April 27 , 2012 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' Idol ' , ' Big Bang Theory ' , ' Grey 's ' , ' The Vampire Diaries ' , ' Mentalist ' & ' Missing ' Adjusted Up ; ' Scandal ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 27 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( May 4 , 2012 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The Big Bang Theory ' , ' American Idol ' , ' Vampire Diaries ' , ' Grey 's Anatomy ' Adjusted Up ; ' Secret Circle ' , ' The Mentalist ' , ' Scandal ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 5 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( May 11 , 2012 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' Big Bang Theory ' , ' Idol ' , ' Vampire Diaries ' , ' Office ' , ' Secret Circle ' , ' Grey 's ' Adjusted Up ; ' Touch ' , ' Scandal ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 11 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( May 18 , 2012 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' American Idol ' , ' Grey 's Anatomy ' , ' 30 Rock ' Adjusted Up ; ' Touch ' , ' Scandal ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 18 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( September 28 , 2012 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' Big Bang Theory ' , ' Grey 's Anatomy ' , Adjusted Up ; ' Parks & Rec ' , ' Up All Night ' , ' SNL : Weekend Update ' , ' The Office ' , ' Glee ' , ' Scandal ' , ' Rock Center ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Zap2it . Retrieved September 28 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( October 5 , 2012 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The X Factor ' , ' Last Resort ' , ' 30 Rock ' , ' Grey 's Anatomy ' , ' The Office ' Adjusted Up ; Two and a Half Men ' , ' Person of Interest ' , ' Scandal ' , ' Elementary ' ' Rock Center ' & ' The Next ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 6 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( October 19 , 2012 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The Vampire Diaries ' , ' The Big Bang Theory ' , ' Grey 's Anatomy ' & ' The Ofifice ' Adjusted Up ; ' 30 Rock ' , ' Up All Night ' & ' Scandal ' Adjusted Down Plus Final Baseball Numbers '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 20 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( October 26 , 2012 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' Big Bang Theory ' , ' Grey 's Anatomy ' , ' Vampire Diaries ' Adjusted Up ; ' Parks & Rec ' , ' Up All Night ' , ' Rock Center ' , ' 30 Rock ' , ' Person of Interest ' & ' Beauty & the Beast ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 26 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( November 9 , 2012 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The Big Bang Theory ' , ' Vampire Diaries ' & ' Grey 's Anatomy ' Adjusted Up , ' The Office ' , ' Parks & Rec ' , ' Scandal ' & ' Rock Center ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 10 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( November 16 , 2012 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The Big Bang Theory ' , ' Vampire Diaries ' , ' Grey 's Anatomy ' & ' The Office ' Adjusted Up ; ' Last Resort & ' Scandal ' Adjusted Down '' . Retrieved November 16 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( November 30 , 2012 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The Big Bang Theory ' & ' Grey 's Anatomy ' Adjusted Up ; ' The Vampire Diaries ' , ' Two and a Half Men ' & ' Beauty and the Beast ' Adjusted Down '' . Retrieved November 30 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( December 7 , 2012 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The X Factor ' , ' The Vampire Diaries ' and ' Glee ' Adjusted Up ; ' Two and a Half Men ' , ' Elementary ' , ' Person of Interest ' and ' Big Bang Theory ' Adjusted Down '' . Retrieved December 7 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( December 14 , 2012 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The Vampire Diaries ' Adjusted Up ; ' Last Resort ' , ' Two and a Half Men ' , ' Person of Interest ' , ' Grey 's Anatomy ' & ' Scandal ' Adjusted Down '' . Retrieved December 14 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( January 11 , 2013 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The Big Bang Theory ' , ' 30 Rock ' & ' Grey 's Anatomy ' Adjusted Up ; No Adjustment for ' Scandal ' '' . TV by the Numbers . Zap2it . Retrieved January 11 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( January 18 , 2013 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' Grey 's Anatomy ' Adjusted Up ; ' Rock Center ' Adjusted Down , No Adjustment for ' American Idol ' '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved January 18 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( February 1 , 2013 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The Big Bang Theory ' Adjusted Up ; No Adjustments for ' Scandal ' , ' American Idol ' or ' Do No Harm ' '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved February 2 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( February 8 , 2013 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' Community ' & ' The Big Bang Theory ' Adjusted Up ; ' Person of Interest ' & ' Elementary ' Adjusted Down '' . Retrieved February 8 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( February 15 , 2013 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' Zero Hour ' , ' Big Bang Theory ' , ' Community ' , ' Idol ' , ' Elementary ' & ' Grey 's Anatomy ' Adjusted Up ; ' Scandal ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved February 16 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( February 22 , 2013 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The Big Bang Theory ' , ' Parks and Recreation ' , ' Grey 's Anatomy ' & ' Elementary ' Adjusted Up ; ' Beauty and the Beast ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved February 22 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( March 22 , 2013 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The Vampire Diaries ' , ' American Idol ' , ' Grey 's Anatomy ' & ' 1600 Penn ' Adjusted Up ; ' Beauty and the Beast ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 22 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( March 29 , 2013 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' American Idol ' & ' Grey 's Anatomy ' Adjusted Up ; ' Raising Hope ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 30 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( April 5 , 2013 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The Big Bang Theory ' , ' American Idol ' , ' Grey 's Anatomy ' , ' Two and a Half Men ' , ' The Office ' , & ' Wife Swap ' Adjusted Up ; ' Scandal ' & ' The Mindy Project ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 6 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( April 26 , 2013 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The Vampire Diaries ' , ' The Big Bang Theory ' & ' American Idol ' Adjusted Up '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 27 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( May 3 , 2013 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The Big Bang Theory ' , ' American Idol ' , ' The Vampire Diaries ' , ' Two and a Half Men ' , ' Grey 's Anatomy ' , ' Glee ' , ' Parks and Recreation ' & ' Hannibal ' Adjusted Up '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 4 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( May 10 , 2013 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' Big Bang Theory ' , ' Grey 's Anatomy ' , ' American Idol ' , ' Vampire Diaries ' , ' Two and a Half Men ' , ' Wipeout ' , & ' Elementary ' Adjusted Up ; ' Glee ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 11 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( May 17 , 2013 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' Hannibal ' , ' The Big Bang Theory ' , ' The Vampire Diaries ' , ' Grey 's Anatomy ' & ' Office ' Retrospective Adjusted Up '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 17 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Bibel , Sara ( October 4 , 2013 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' Big Bang Theory ' , ' Grey 's Anatomy ' & ' The Originals ' Adjusted Up ; ' Parks And Recreation ' , ' Welcome to the Family ' , ' Sean Saves the World ' , ' Michael J. Fox Show ' , & ' Parenthood ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 4 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( October 11 , 2013 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The Big Bang Theory ' , ' The X Factor ' & ' Glee ' Adjusted Up ; ' The Vampire Diaries ' & ' The Millers ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 11 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( October 18 , 2013 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The Big Bang Theory ' & ' Grey 's Anatomy ' Adjusted Up ; ' The Crazy Ones ' & ' Elementary ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 18 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( October 25 , 2013 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' Big Bang Theory ' & ' The Vampire Diaries ' Adjusted Up ; ' The Millers ' and ' Scandal ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 26 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( November 1 , 2013 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : The Vampire Diaries , The Millers & Elementary Adjusted Up ; Sean Saves the World & Parenthood Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 6 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( November 8 , 2013 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' Elementary ' , ' Scandal ' , ' The Vampire Diaries ' , & ' The Big Bang Theory ' Adjusted Up ; ' The Voice ' , ' The Millers ' , ' Sean Saves the World ' , ' Parenthood ' , & ' The Michael J Fox Show ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 8 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( November 15 , 2013 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The Big Bang Theory ' Adjusted Up ; ' The X Factor ' , ' Parks and Recreation ' , ' The Millers ' , ' Sean Saves the World ' , ' Glee ' , ' The Michael J. Fox Show ' & ' Parenthood ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 15 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( November 22 , 2013 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' Big Bang Theory ' & ' Grey 's Anatomy Adjusted Up ; ' The X Factor ' , ' Reign ' & ' Glee ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 22 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( December 6 , 2013 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The Big Bang Theory ' & ' The X Factor ' Adjusted Up ; ' Once Upon a Time ' , ' The Millers ' , ' Grey 's Anatomy ' & Scandal ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved December 6 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( December 13 , 2013 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The Vampire Diaries ' Adjusted Up ; ' The Big Bang Theory ' , ' The Sing - Off ' , ' Once Upon a Time in Wonderland ' , ' The Millers ' , ' The Crazy Ones ' , ' Two and a Half Men ' & ' Elementary ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved December 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( February 28 , 2014 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The Big Bang Theory ' , ' Scandal ' , ' Grey 's Anatomy ' , ' American Idol ' & ' Parks & Recreation ' Adjusted Up ; ' The Millers ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved February 28 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( March 7 , 2014 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The Big Bang Theory ' , ' Once Upon A Time in Wonderland ' , ' Parks and Recreation ' & ' Elementary ' Adjusted Up ; ' The Millers ' & ' Two and a Half Men ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 7 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( March 14 , 2014 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' Hell 's Kitchen ' , ' Parks and Recreation ' & ' Scandal ' Adjusted Up ; ' Reign ' , ' The Crazy Ones ' , ' Two and a Half Men ' and ' The Millers ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 14 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( March 21 , 2014 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The Vampire Diaries ' , ' American Idol ' , ' Hell 's Kitchen ' & ' Parenthood ' Adjusted Up Plus Final NCAA Tournament Numbers '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 21 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' Hell 's Kitchen ' , ' Once Upon a Time in Wonderland ' , ' The Vampire Diaries ' & ' Grey 's Anatomy Adjusted Up + Final NCAA Basketball Ratings '' . Retrieved 30 March 2014 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( April 4 , 2014 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The Big Bang Theory ' , ' Grey 's Anatomy ' , ' Scandal ' & ' Hell 's Kitchen ' Adjusted Up ; ' American Idol ' , ' The Millers ' , ' The Crazy Ones ' & ' Elementary ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the numbers . Retrieved April 4 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( April 11 , 2014 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' Community ' , ' Grey 's Anatomy ' , ' Shark Tank ' , ' The Big Bang Theory ' & ' American Idol ' Adjusted Up ; ' The Millers ' & ' Elementary ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 11 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( April 18 , 2014 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' Grey 's Anatomy ' Adjusted Up '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 18 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( October 12 , 2014 ) . `` ' Gotham ' Has Biggest Adults 18 - 49 Ratings Increase ; ' Gotham ' & ' Red Band Society ' Top Percentage Gains & ' How To Get Away With Murder ' Tops Viewer Gains in Live + 7 Ratings for Week Ending September 28 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 13 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( October 20 , 2014 ) . `` ' How to Get Away With Murder ' Has Biggest Adults 18 - 49 Ratings Increase ; ' Parenthood ' Tops Percentage Gains & ' The Blacklist ' Tops Viewer Gains in Live + 7 Ratings for Week Ending October 5 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 20 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( October 10 , 2014 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' Bones ' & ' The Vampire Diaries ' Adjusted Up + Final Football Ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 10 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( October 17 , 2014 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' Bones ' & ' How To Get Away With Murder ' Adjusted Up ; ' Reign ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 17 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( October 24 , 2014 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : No Adjustement for ' Grey 's Anatomy ' , ' Gracepoint ' or ' Reign ' + Final Football Numbers '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 24 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( October 31 , 2014 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The Vampire Diaries ' & ' Scandal ' Adjusted Up ; ' Mom ' , ' Two and a Half Men ' , ' The McCarthys ' & ' Elementary ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 31 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( November 7 , 2014 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The Vampire Diaries ' & ' Big Bang Theory ' Adjusted Up ; ' Mom ' , ' The McCarthys ' , ' Two and a Half Men ' , ' Bad Judge ' , ' A to Z ' , ' Elementary ' , ' Parenthood ' & ' The Biggest Loser ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 7 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( November 14 , 2014 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' Bones ' Adjusted Up ; ' Mom ' , ' Two and a Half Men ' , ' The McCarthys ' & ' Elementary ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 14 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( November 21 , 2014 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The Big Bang Theory ' Adjusted Up ; ' Gracepoint ' , ' Reign ' , ' Parenthood ' , ' Bad Judge ' , ' Mom ' , ' Two and a Half Men ' ' The Biggest Loser ' & ' A to Z ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 21 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( January 30 , 2015 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' Grey 's Anatomy ' , ' The Big Bang Theory ' & ' How to Get Away With Murder ' Adjusted Up '' . Retrieved January 30 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( February 6 , 2015 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The Blacklist ' , ' Scandal ' , ' Grey 's Anatomy ' & ' The Big Bang Theory ' Adjusted Up ; ' The Vampire Diaries ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved February 6 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( February 13 , 2015 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' Backstrom ' Adjusted Down , No Adjustment to ' The Blacklist ' , ' Scandal ' or ' The Vampire Diaries ' '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved February 13 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( February 20 , 2015 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The Big Bang Theory , ' ' Scandal ' , ' Two and a Half Men ' & ' How To Get Away With Murder ' Adjusted Up '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved February 20 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( March 6 , 2015 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The Big Bang Theory ' , ' American Idol ' & ' The Blacklist ' Adjusted Up '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 6 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( March 13 , 2015 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' Scandal ' , ' American Idol ' , & ' Dateline ' Adjusted Up ; ' The Odd Couple ' , ' Mom ' & ' Elementary ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 13 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( March 20 , 2015 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' Reign ' Adjusted Down & Final Basketball Numbers '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 20 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( March 27 , 2015 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' American Crime ' Adjusted Up + Final Basketball Ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 27 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( April 3 , 2015 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The Big Bang Theory ' & ' Grey 's Anatomy ' Adjusted Up '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 3 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Amanda ( April 17 , 2015 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The Big Bang Theory ' & ' Backstrom ' Adjusted Up ; ' The Odd Couple ' & ' Reign ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 17 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( April 24 , 2015 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The Big Bang Theory ' & ' The Blacklist ' Adjusted Up '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 24 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( May 8 , 2015 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The Big Bang Theory ' Adjusted Up ; ' Grey 's Anatomy ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 8 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( May 15 , 2015 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The Blacklist ' Adjusted Up ; ' Reign ' Adjusted Down ; No Adjustment to ' Scandal ' '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 15 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( September 25 , 2015 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' Heroes Reborn ' & ' Scandal ' Adjusted Up + Final Football Ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved September 25 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Dixon , Dani ( October 2 , 2015 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' Bones ' & ' The Player ' Adjusted Up + Final Football Ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 2 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( October 9 , 2015 ) . `` Thursday final ratings : ' Grey 's Anatomy , ' ' How to Get Away with Murder ' adjusted up , low CW premieres hold '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 9 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( October 16 , 2015 ) . `` Thursday final ratings : ' Grey 's Anatomy ' and ' Scandal ' adjusted up , plus final NFL numbers '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 16 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( October 30 , 2015 ) . `` Thursday final ratings : ' How to Get Away with Murder ' adjusts up , ' Grey 's ' and others hold '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 30 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( November 4 , 2015 ) . `` Thursday final ratings : ' The Vampire Diaries ' adjusts up , all others hold , plus final NFL numbers '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 4 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( November 6 , 2015 ) . `` Thursday final ratings : ' Elementary ' and ' Mom ' adjust down considerably thanks to NFL '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 6 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( November 13 , 2015 ) . `` Thursday final ratings : ' 2 Broke Girls ' and CBS take NFL hit , ' Elementary ' below 1.0 , ' Blacklist ' adjusts up '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 13 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( November 20 , 2015 ) . `` Thursday final ratings : ' Mom ' and ' 2 Broke Girls ' up even after adjusting down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 20 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( February 12 , 2016 ) . `` Thursday final ratings : ' Mom ' adjusts up '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved February 12 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( February 19 , 2016 ) . `` Thursday final ratings : ' Big Bang Theory , ' ' Scandal ' and ' How to Get Away with Murder ' adjust up '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved February 19 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( February 26 , 2016 ) . `` Thursday final ratings : ' Big Bang Theory ' adjusts up , ' Life in Pieces ' adjusts down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved February 26 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( March 11 , 2016 ) . `` Thursday final ratings : ' Scandal ' adjusts up , 4 CBS shows adjust down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 11 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( March 18 , 2016 ) . `` Thursday final ratings : NCAA tourney has a soft start on CBS '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 18 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( March 25 , 2016 ) . `` Thursday final ratings : ' Grey 's Anatomy ' adjusts up , plus final NCAA numbers '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 25 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( April 1 , 2016 ) . `` Thursday final ratings : ' Big Bang Theory ' adjusts up , ' Scandal , ' ' Life in Pieces ' and ' The 100 ' adjust down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 1 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( April 8 , 2016 ) . `` Thursday final ratings : ' Big Bang Theory ' adjusts up , ' Odd Couple ' and ' The 100 ' adjust down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 8 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( April 22 , 2016 ) . `` Thursday final ratings : ' Big Bang Theory ' and ' Bones ' adjust up , ' 2 Broke Girls ' and ' Legends of Tomorrow ' adjust down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 22 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( April 29 , 2016 ) . `` Thursday final ratings : ' Grey 's Anatomy ' and ' Big Bang Theory ' adjust up , ' Odd Couple , ' ' Mom ' and ' The 100 ' adjust down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 29 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( May 6 , 2016 ) . `` Thursday final ratings : ' Big Bang Theory ' adjusts up , ' Mom ' and ' Rush Hour ' adjust down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 6 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( May 13 , 2016 ) . `` Thursday final ratings : ' The Big Bang Theory , ' ' The Catch ' and ' Legends of Tomorrow ' adjust up '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 13 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( January 27 , 2017 ) . `` ' Scandal ' and ' My Kitchen Rules ' adjust down , Mary Tyler Moore special adjusts up : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved January 27 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( February 3 , 2017 ) . `` ' Scandal ' adjusts down a little : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved February 3 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( February 10 , 2017 ) . `` ' Riverdale ' adjusts up ; ' Great Indoors , ' ' Powerless , ' ' Mom , ' ' Chicago Med ' down : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved February 10 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( February 17 , 2017 ) . `` ' Grey 's Anatomy , ' ' Big Bang Theory ' adjust up , ' Scandal ' adjusts down : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved February 17 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( March 10 , 2017 ) . `` ' Mom ' and NBC shows adjust down : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 10 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( March 17 , 2017 ) . `` ' Blacklist : Redemption ' and ' The Catch ' adjust down , final NCAA numbers : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 17 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( March 24 , 2017 ) . `` NCAA Sweet 16 up a little vs. last year : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 24 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( March 31 , 2017 ) . `` ' Big Bang Theory ' adjusts up ; ' Grey 's Anatomy , ' ' Scandal , ' ' Mom , ' ' Powerless ' down : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 31 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( April 7 , 2017 ) . `` ' Big Bang Theory , ' ' Blacklist : Redemption ' adjust up , ' Scandal ' adjusts down : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 7 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Welch , Alex ( April 14 , 2017 ) . `` ' Grey 's Anatomy ' and ' Chicago Med ' adjust up , ' Scandal ' adjusts down : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 14 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( April 21 , 2017 ) . `` ' Scandal , ' ' Superstore ' and all others hold : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 21 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( April 28 , 2017 ) . `` ' Big Bang Theory , ' ' Grey 's Anatomy ' and ' Masterchef Junior ' adjust up ; ' The Catch ' adjusts down : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 28 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( May 5 , 2017 ) . `` ' Big Bang Theory , ' ' Grey 's Anatomy , ' ' Masterchef Junior ' adjust up , ' Riverdale ' adjusts down : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 5 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Welch , Alex ( May 12 , 2017 ) . `` ' The Big Bang Theory , ' ' Masterchef Junior ' adjust up , ' The Blacklist ' adjusts down : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 12 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( May 19 , 2017 ) . `` ' Grey 's Anatomy ' and ' Masterchef Junior ' finales , ' Amazing Race ' adjust up : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 19 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( October 6 , 2017 ) . `` ' Grey 's Anatomy ' and NFL adjust up : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 6 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( October 13 , 2017 ) . `` ' Will & Grace , ' ' Grey 's Anatomy , ' ' Gotham ' and NFL adjust up : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 13 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( October 20 , 2017 ) . `` ' Gotham ' and ' Supernatural ' adjust up , final NFL numbers : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 20 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( October 27 , 2017 ) . `` NFL adjusts up , scripted shows all unchanged : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 27 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( November 3 , 2017 ) . `` ' Will & Grace ' adjusts up , ' Sheldon ' and other CBS shows adjust down : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 3 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( November 10 , 2017 ) . `` ' Big Bang Theory ' and ' Thursday Night Football ' adjust up : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 10 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( November 17 , 2017 ) . `` ' Supernatural ' and NFL adjust up , ' Young Sheldon ' adjusts down : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 17 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( January 22 , 2018 ) . `` ' Grey 's Anatomy ' adjusts up , ' The Four , ' ' Scandal ' and ' Great News ' down : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved January 22 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` ( # 708 ) `` Good People '' `` . The Futon Critic . Retrieved January 24 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : `` Shows A-Z - scandal on abc '' . The Futon Critic . Retrieved January 24 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` ' Scandal ' Sets Darby Stanchfield - Directed Web Series Ahead of Season 6 '' . The Hollywood Reporter . January 18 , 2017 . External links ( edit ) Official website List of Scandal episodes on IMDb ( hide ) Scandal Episodes Season 1 `` Sweet Baby '' Season 2 `` Nobody Likes Babies '' `` Whiskey Tango Foxtrot '' `` Boom Goes the Dynamite '' `` Top of the Hour '' `` Snake in the Garden '' `` Molly , You in Danger , Girl '' `` Seven Fifty - Two '' Season 3 `` It 's Handled '' `` Guess Who 's Coming to Dinner '' `` Mrs. Smith Goes to Washington '' `` Say Hello to My Little Friend '' `` More Cattle , Less Bull '' `` Icarus '' `` Everything 's Coming Up Mellie '' `` Vermont is for Lovers , Too '' `` YOLO '' `` A Door Marked Exit '' `` The Price of Free and Fair Elections '' Season 4 `` Randy , Red , Superfreak and Julia '' `` Where the Sun Do n't Shine '' `` Run '' `` Where 's the Black Lady ? '' `` Gladiators Do n't Run '' `` No More Blood '' Season 5 `` Heavy is the Head '' `` Dog - Whistle Politics '' `` Baby , It 's Cold Outside '' Season 6 `` Transfer of Power '' Season 7 `` Watch Me '' `` Day 101 '' Characters Olivia Pope Abby Whelan Quinn Perkins See also Judy Smith Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Scandal_episodes&oldid=821580194 '' Categories : Lists of American drama television series episodes Scandal ( TV series ) episodes Hidden categories : Use mdy dates from July 2017 Articles containing potentially dated statements from January 2018 All articles containing potentially dated statements Episode list using the default LineColor Official website not in Wikidata Talk Contents About Wikipedia Čeština Deutsch Español Français Nederlands 日本 語 Polski Português Русский 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 21 January 2018 , at 10 : 18 . About Wikipedia

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Philadelphia Eagles - Wikipedia Philadelphia Eagles Jump to : navigation , search Philadelphia Eagles Current season Established July 8 , 1933 ; 84 years ago ( July 8 , 1933 ) First season : 1933 Play in Lincoln Financial Field Philadelphia , Pennsylvania Headquartered in the NovaCare Complex Philadelphia , Pennsylvania Logo Wordmark League / conference affiliations National Football League ( 1933 -- present ) Eastern Division ( 1933 -- 1949 ) American Conference ( 1950 -- 1952 ) Eastern Conference ( 1953 -- 1969 ) Capitol Division ( 1967 -- 1969 ) National Football Conference ( 1970 -- present ) NFC East ( 1970 -- present ) Current uniform Team colors Midnight green , Silver , Black , White Fight song Fly , Eagles Fly Mascot Swoop Personnel Owner ( s ) Jeffrey Lurie Christina Weiss Lurie Chairman Jeffrey Lurie CEO Jeffrey Lurie President Don Smolenski General manager Howie Roseman Head coach Doug Pederson Team history Philadelphia Eagles ( 1933 -- 1942 ; 1944 -- present ) Phil - Pitt `` Steagles '' ( 1943 ) Team nicknames The Birds Championships League championships ( 4 ) NFL championships ( pre-1970 AFL -- NFL merger ) ( 3 ) 1948 , 1949 , 1960 Super Bowl championships ( 1 ) 2017 ( LII ) Conference championships ( 4 ) NFL Eastern : 1960 NFC : 1980 , 2004 , 2017 Division championships ( 13 ) NFL East : 1947 , 1948 , 1949 NFC East : 1980 , 1988 , 2001 , 2002 , 2003 , 2004 , 2006 , 2010 , 2013 , 2017 Playoff appearances ( 25 ) NFL : 1947 , 1948 , 1949 , 1960 , 1978 , 1979 , 1980 , 1981 , 1988 , 1989 , 1990 , 1992 , 1995 , 1996 , 2000 , 2001 , 2002 , 2003 , 2004 , 2006 , 2008 , 2009 , 2010 , 2013 , 2017 Home fields Baker Bowl ( 1933 -- 1935 ) Philadelphia Municipal Stadium ( 1936 -- 1939 , 1941 ) Connie Mack Stadium ( 1940 , 1942 -- 1957 ) Franklin Field ( 1958 -- 1970 ) Veterans Stadium ( 1971 -- 2002 ) Lincoln Financial Field ( 2003 -- present ) The Philadelphia Eagles are a professional American football franchise based in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . The Eagles compete in the National Football League ( NFL ) as a member club of the league 's National Football Conference ( NFC ) East division . They are Super Bowl champions , having won Super Bowl LII , their fourth NFL title , after winning in 1948 , 1949 , and 1960 . The franchise was established in 1933 as a replacement for the bankrupt Frankford Yellow Jackets , when a group led by Bert Bell secured the rights to an NFL franchise in Philadelphia . Bell , Chuck Bednarik , Bob Brown , Brian Dawkins , Reggie White , Steve Van Buren , Tommy McDonald , Greasy Neale , Pete Pihos , Sonny Jurgensen , and Norm Van Brocklin have been inducted to the Pro Football Hall of Fame . The team has an intense rivalry with the New York Giants . This rivalry is the oldest in the NFC East and is among the oldest in the NFL . It was ranked by NFL Network as the number one rivalry of all - time and Sports Illustrated ranks it amongst the Top 10 NFL rivalries of all - time at number four , and according to ESPN , it is one of the fiercest and most well - known rivalries in the American football community . They also have a bitter rivalry with the Dallas Cowboys , which has become more high - profile since the 1960s , as well as a historic rivalry with the Washington Redskins . Their rivalry with the Pittsburgh Steelers is another bitter rivalry , roughly dating back to 1933 , that mostly arises from the two teams ' statuses as being from opposite ends of the same state . The team consistently ranks in the top three in attendance and has sold out every game since the 1999 season . In a Sports Illustrated poll of 321 NFL players , Eagles fans were selected the most intimidating fans in the NFL . Contents ( hide ) 1 Franchise history 1.1 1931 -- 1960 1.2 1961 -- 1975 1.3 1976 -- 1984 1.4 1985 -- 1993 1.5 Lurie era ( 1994 -- present ) 1.5. 1 Andy Reid era ( 1999 -- 2012 ) 1.5. 1.1 2004 Season and Super Bowl XXXIX 1.5. 1.2 2005 - 2012 1.5. 2 Chip Kelly era ( 2013 -- 2015 ) 1.5. 2.1 Doug Pederson era ( 2016 -- present ) 1.5. 3 2016 1.5. 3.1 2017 : First Super Bowl championship 2 Season records 3 Rivalries 3.1 New York Giants 3.2 Dallas Cowboys 3.3 Washington Redskins 3.4 Pittsburgh Steelers 4 Logo and uniforms 5 Training camp 6 Fight song 7 Fans 7.1 Devotion 7.2 Bad behavior 8 Eagles cheerleaders 9 Current roster 10 List of Philadelphia Eagles players ( past and present ) 11 Awards and honors 11.1 Retired numbers 11.2 Pro Football Hall of Famers 11.3 Eagles Hall of Fame 11.4 75th anniversary team 11.5 John Wanamaker Athletic Award ( Philadelphia Sports Congress ) 11.6 Philadelphia Sports Hall of Fame 11.7 Pennsylvania Sports Hall of Fame 12 Franchise records 12.1 Passing 12.2 Rushing 12.3 Receiving 12.4 Other 12.5 Returning 12.6 Defense 12.7 Exceptional performances 13 Coaches of note 13.1 Current staff 14 Radio and television 14.1 Eagles radio affiliates 15 Media and cultural reference 16 See also 17 Notes and references 18 Sources 19 External links Franchise history Main article : History of the Philadelphia Eagles 1931 -- 1960 `` Concrete Charlie '' Midway through the 1931 season , the Frankford Yellow Jackets went bankrupt and ceased operations . After more than a year of searching for a suitable replacement , the NFL granted an expansion franchise to a syndicate headed by Bert Bell and Lud Wray and awarded them the franchise rights of the failed Yellow Jackets organization . The Bell - Wray group had to pay an entry fee of $3,500 ( equal to $40,230 today ) and assumed a total debt of $11,000 that was owed to three other NFL franchises . Drawing inspiration from the Blue Eagle insignia of the National Recovery Administration -- the centerpiece of President Franklin D. Roosevelt 's New Deal -- Bell and Wray named the new franchise the Philadelphia Eagles . Neither the Eagles nor the NFL officially regard the two franchises as the same , citing the aforementioned period of dormancy . Furthermore , almost no Yellow Jackets players were on the Eagles ' first roster . The Eagles , along with the Pittsburgh Steelers and the now - defunct Cincinnati Reds , joined the NFL as expansion teams . In 1937 , the Eagles moved to Shibe Park ( renamed Connie Mack Stadium in 1954 ) and played their home games at the stadium through 1957 , except for the 1941 season , which was played at Municipal Stadium , where they had played from 1936 to 1939 . To accommodate football at Shibe Park during the winter , management set up stands in right field , parallel to 20th Street . Some 20 feet high , these `` east stands '' had 22 rows of seats . The goalposts stood along the first base line and in left field . The uncovered east stands enlarged capacity of Shibe Park to over 39,000 , but the Eagles rarely drew more than 25 to 30,000 . The Eagles struggled over the course of their first decade , enduring repeated losing seasons . In December 1940 , Pittsburgh Steelers owner Art Rooney sold his franchise to Alexis Thompson for $160,000 and then used half of the proceeds to buy a half interest in the Eagles from Bell , his longtime friend . Soon after , Bell and Rooney traded the Eagles franchise to Thompson and moved it to Pittsburgh ( as the `` Steelers '' ) , while Thompson moved the Steelers franchise to Philadelphia ( as the `` Eagles '' ) . In 1943 , when manpower shortages stemming from World War II made it impossible to fill the roster , the team merged with the Pittsburgh Steelers forming the `` Phil - Pitt Eagles '' and were known as the `` Steagles . '' ( The merger , never intended as a permanent arrangement , was dissolved at the end of the 1943 season . ) By the late 1940s , head coach Earle `` Greasy '' Neale and running back Steve Van Buren led the team to three consecutive NFL Championship Games , winning two of them in 1948 and 1949 . Those two championships mark the Eagles as the only NFL team ever to win back - to - back championships by shutouts , defeating the Chicago Cardinals , 7 -- 0 , in 1948 -- in a blizzard -- and the Los Angeles Rams , 14 -- 0 , in 1949 . After the 1957 season , the Eagles moved from Connie Mack Stadium to Franklin Field at the University of Pennsylvania . Franklin Field would seat over 60,000 for the Eagles , whereas Connie Mack had a capacity of 39,000 . The stadium switched from grass to AstroTurf in 1969 . It was the first NFL stadium to use artificial turf . In 1960 , the Eagles won their third NFL championship , under the leadership of future Pro Football Hall of Famers Norm Van Brocklin and Chuck Bednarik ; the head coach was Buck Shaw . The 1960 Eagles , by a score of 17 -- 13 , became the only team to defeat Vince Lombardi and his Green Bay Packers in the playoffs . Dick Vermeil , Eagles head coach from 1976 to 1982 1961 -- 1975 The Eagles had a decent 1961 season and then fell on hard times in 1962 . Jerry Wolman , after consulting his longtime friend Brandon Sturrock , bought the franchise in 1963 from the `` Happy Hundred '' , a group of investors who owned the team from 1949 -- 1963 , for $5,505,000 ( equal to $44,004,098 today ) . In 1969 , Leonard Tose bought the Eagles from Wolman for $16,155,000 ( equal to $107,807,505 today ) , then a record for a professional sports franchise . Tose 's first official act was to fire Coach Joe Kuharich after a disappointing 24 -- 41 -- 1 record during his five - year reign . He followed this by naming former Eagles receiving great Pete Retzlaff as General Manager and Jerry Williams as coach . The Eagles defeated the Cowboys in the 1980 NFC Championship Game and earned their first Super Bowl appearance . With the merger of the NFL and AFL in 1970 , the Eagles were placed in the NFC East Division with their archrivals the New York Giants , the Washington Redskins , and the Dallas Cowboys . Their heated rivalry with the Giants is the oldest of the NFC East rivalries , dating all the way back to 1933 and is often named as one of the best rivalries in the NFL . 1976 -- 1984 In 1976 , Dick Vermeil was hired from UCLA to coach the Eagles , who had only one winning season from 1962 -- 1975 . Starting in 1978 , head coach Dick Vermeil and quarterback Ron Jaworski led the team to four consecutive playoff appearances . Vermeil 's 1980 team won their first NFC East title . They were matched up against their hated rival the Dallas Cowboys in the NFC Championship game , which they won 20 -- 7 . However , the Eagles lost to the Oakland Raiders in Super Bowl XV in 1981 . The following year , the Eagles were eliminated in the wildcard round at home against the New York Giants . In the aftermath of the disappointing and strike - shortened season of 1982 , head coach Dick Vermeil resigned , claiming that he was `` burned out '' . Vermeil was replaced by defensive coordinator Marion Campbell . In January 1983 , Tose announced that his daughter , Susan Fletcher , the Eagles ' vice president and legal counsel , would eventually succeed him as primary owner of the Eagles . Then in 1984 , rumors were circulating that Leonard Tose was thinking about moving the team to Phoenix , Arizona due to financial reasons . 1985 -- 1993 This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( December 2016 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) In 1985 , Tose was forced to sell the Eagles to Norman Braman and Ed Leibowitz , highly successful automobile dealers from Florida , for a reported $65 million ( equal to $147,899,134 today ) to pay off his more than $25 million ( equal to $56,884,282 today ) in gambling debts at Atlantic City casinos . Philadelphia football struggled through the Marion Campbell years of the mid-1980s and was marked by a malaise in fan participation . However , in the 1985 Supplemental draft , the Eagles acquired the rights to Memphis Showboats ' elite pass rusher Reggie White . In 1986 , the arrival of head coach Buddy Ryan and his fiery attitude rejuvenated team performance and ignited the fan base , but the Eagles failed to win a playoff game during Ryan 's tenure . Possibly the worst of these losses was the so - called Fog Bowl in 1988 against the Chicago Bears , which happened to be Ryan 's former team that he helped lead to a Super Bowl XX victory as defensive coordinator . Ryan was fired on January 7 , 1991 , after an upset home playoff loss to the Redskins . Offensive coordinator Rich Kotite was promoted to head coach three days later . After All Pro defensive tackle Jerome Brown was killed in an automobile accident , the team and fanbase became dedicated to `` bring it home for Jerome '' in the 1992 season . Kotite did lead the Eagles to a playoff victory against the New Orleans Saints during the 1992 season , but they lost all - time sacks leader Reggie White to free agency in the offseason . Kotie 's contract was not renewed after a disappointing 1994 season in which the Eagles went 7 -- 9 , losing their last seven games after starting the season 7 -- 2 . From 1988 to 1996 , the Eagles qualified for the playoffs during six out of those nine seasons , but they won the NFC East only once , in 1988 . Among the team 's offensive stars during that period were quarterback Randall Cunningham , tight end Keith Jackson , and running back Herschel Walker . But the `` Gang Green '' defense is possibly what defined the team , led by Reggie White , Jerome Brown , Clyde Simmons , Seth Joyner , Wes Hopkins , Mike Golic , Byron Evans , Eric Allen , Andre Waters and Mark McMillian . Lurie era ( 1994 -- present ) This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( December 2010 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Andy Reid speaks with Jeff Garcia in a game against the Redskins . Jeffrey Lurie bought the Eagles on May 6 , 1994 from then - owner Norman Braman for an estimated $185 million . The club is now estimated to be the 17th most valuable sports team , worth $1.314 billion , as valuated in 2014 by Forbes . In Lurie 's first season as owner , the team only had 7 wins , but that was followed by a 10 win season in 1995 . Besides the 10 wins and a playoff berth , 1996 was an eventful year . The uniforms changed from the classic shade of Kelly Green to a darker midnight green , quarterback Randall Cunningham left after 11 seasons , and future fan favorite 13 - year starter Brian Dawkins was drafted in the 2nd round . After slipping to 6 -- 9 -- 1 , and then to 3 -- 13 , head coach Ray Rhodes was fired after four seasons . Andy Reid era ( 1999 -- 2012 ) Jeffrey Lurie has been owner since 1994 . In 1999 , the Eagles hired head coach Andy Reid and drafted quarterback Donovan McNabb . From 1999 until 2004 , the team continually improved , going from 5 -- 11 in 1999 , returning to the playoffs in with an 11 -- 5 record in 2000 , surpassing the Buccaneers in the Wild Card round before losing in the divisional . Moreover , the Eagles played in four straight NFC Championship Games between 2001 and 2004 . In 2001 , the Eagles stayed at 11 -- 5 , beating the Buccaneers and Bears to advance to the NFC championship , where they lost to the St. Louis Rams . In 2002 , the Eagles drafted running back Brian Westbrook , got the 1st round bye with the 2nd seed in the NFC with a 12 -- 4 record , but the Tampa Bay Buccaneers got their revenge in the Championship and eliminated the Eagles . In 2003 , they won the NFC first seed , but Westbrook went down in Week 17 , culminating in a loss to the Carolina Panthers in their 3rd straight NFC Championship . 2004 season and Super Bowl XXXIX In 2004 , the Philadelphia Eagles had their best season since 1960 , going 13 -- 1 before resting their starters and losing their next 2 , clinching the 1st seed for the second year in a row . McNabb set career highs , completing 64 % of his passes for 3,875 yards , though he did n't play all 16 games . McNabb became the first quarterback ever to throw more than 30 touchdowns and fewer than 10 interceptions in a season . His success could be attributed to the fact that he had a reliable receiver , Terrell Owens , who got 1,200 yards and 14 touchdowns in 14 games . After beating the Vikings and Falcons the Eagles advanced to Super Bowl XXXIX , where they dueled the New England Patriots . Although McNabb threw 3 touchdown passes and 357 yards in the game , and the score was tied 14 -- 14 going into the fourth quarter , the Patriots outscored the Eagles and scored ten straight points . McNabb completed a 30 - yard touchdown pass , and the Eagles defense held the Patriots to a 3 and out , but a crucial interception with 46 seconds left on the clock secured their fate . 2005 - 2012 Brian Dawkins was one of the premier safeties in the NFL , and earned him the role of Eagles ' defensive captain , and a mainstay on the Eagles . The team took a step back in 2005 with a 6 -- 10 record . McNabb had played with a sports hernia and a broken thumb , starting 4 -- 2 but losing three in a row , before McNabb finally succumbs to injury and is out for the rest of the season . For obnoxious behavior and a feud with McNabb , Owens was suspended after 7 games , eventually being cut . In 2006 , the team lost McNabb 10 games in and went into turmoil , but Westbrook stepped up , and the Eagles earned their fifth NFC East title under Coach Reid , with a 10 -- 6 record and a win in the wild card round , but they had an 8 -- 8 2007 season . In 2008 , the team won their 500th game , and they also drafted DeSean Jackson , a receiving threat when paired with McNabb . On January 11 , 2009 , the team defeated the defending Super Bowl champion and 1st seed New York Giants 23 -- 11 en route to their 5th NFC Championship Game in 8 years and 5th in the 10 years the Eagles have been coached by Andy Reid . In the 2008 NFC Championship Game , the Eagles made a rally , going from 24 -- 6 at halftime to 25 -- 24 with three minutes left in the 4th , but they lost to the Arizona Cardinals by a score of 32 -- 25 after quarterback Kurt Warner scored a last minute touchdown . As of the conclusion of the 2016 season , during the Lurie era , the Eagles are 1 -- 4 in conference championship games and 0 -- 1 in Super Bowls . On August 13 , 2009 , the Eagles signed quarterback Michael Vick . On December 6 , 2009 , Andy Reid became only the 5th coach in NFL history to win 100 or more games with a single team in a single decade . The other four are Tom Landry , Don Shula , Tony Dungy , and Bill Belichick , all Super Bowl winners . McNabb finally had a complete receiving corps , between first round draft pick Jeremy Maclin , DeSean Jackson 's 1,000 yard season , and Brent Celek ranking among the top 5 tight ends in the league . Without Brian Dawkins , defensive end Trent Cole stepped up and became the dominant force on defense with 12 sacks , earning him his second trip to the Pro Bowl and All - Pro honors . In 2009 , the Eagles started 5 -- 4 , but moved up to 11 -- 4 , and could clinch the NFC 2nd seed if they won their next game . After a shutout at the hands of the Dallas Cowboys in week 17 , the Eagles missed the 1st round bye. but with a record of 11 -- 5 , but they were the NFC 6th seed and they narrowly made the playoffs . In the 2009 NFC Wild Card Game , the Eagles played against the Cowboys for the second consecutive week and lost 34 -- 14 . Despite many errors from many players , and a great season before the breakdown in Dallas , McNabb took the brunt of the blow and was heavily criticized . Coach Andy Reid said up until April 1 , 2010 , that McNabb would remain the starter . On March 5 , 2010 , Brian Westbrook was cut from the Eagles after eight seasons with the team . On April 4 , 2010 , the team traded long - time starting quarterback Donovan McNabb to the Washington Redskins in exchange for a second round draft pick . Kevin Kolb was immediately named the starter , but after suffering a concussion in week 1 against the Packers , Vick took over as the starter . Vick led the Eagles to its sixth NFC East division title in ten seasons . With a record of 10 -- 6 the Eagles clinched the 3rd seed and had to play a Wild Card Playoff Game . During the 2010 NFC Wild Card Game , the Eagles faced off against the eventual Super Bowl champion Green Bay Packers and lost 21 -- 16 . The 2011 season for the Eagles was a major disappointment , as they only managed to finish 8 -- 8 and did not qualify for the playoffs , although they did win the last 4 games of the season . Because of several free agent acquisitions , Vince Young , a back up quarterback , stated that the Eagles were a Dream Team . The Philadelphia fan base and faithful never did concur with the comment as some national outlets may comment . Many Eagles fans believe that Vince Young saying that the Eagles were a ' Dream Team ' is the reason that the Eagles had such a horrible season . Eagles fans had high expectations going into the 2012 season . The Eagles started off winning three out of their four first games , but that changed when they lost the next eight games , and were eliminated from the playoff hunt . They only won one out of their last four games . After a loss to the New York Giants on December 30 , 2012 , longtime head coach Andy Reid was fired after fourteen seasons with the team . Chip Kelly era ( 2013 -- 2015 ) On January 16 , 2013 , the Eagles brought in University of Oregon head coach Chip Kelly to succeed Reid as head coach after a 4 -- 12 season . The Philadelphia Eagles named Michael Vick starting quarterback going into the 2013 season with much promise running Chip Kelly 's fast - paced spread offense . The 2013 season proved to be more successful for the Eagles . A hamstring injury took Michael Vick out after a 1 -- 3 start , but his backup , Nick Foles , led the team to a 10 -- 6 regular season record , and its seventh NFC East title in 13 seasons . Before throwing his first interception in Week 14 , Foles threw 19 touchdowns , which was just one shy of the all - time NFL record of consecutive touchdowns without an interception to start a season , set earlier in the season by Peyton Manning . Foles also tied Manning for most touchdown passes in a single - game with seven against the Oakland Raiders which also made him the youngest player in NFL history to throw that many touchdowns in a game . Foles finished the regular season with 27 touchdown passes and only 2 interceptions , giving him the then - best TD - INT ratio in NFL history . ( That record was later broken by Tom Brady , in the 2016 season . ) He also finished with a 119.0 passer rating , third highest in league history behind only Aaron Rodgers in 2011 and Peyton Manning in 2004 . He was also only the second quarterback in NFL history to have a game in which he topped 400 passing yards and a perfect passer rating . LeSean McCoy finished his Pro Bowl season as the league 's top rusher with 1,607 rushing yards ( also a franchise record ) and 2,146 total yards from scrimmage , also best in the NFL . As a whole , the Eagles offense scored 51 touchdowns , most in franchise history passing the previous season high set back in 1948 . The Eagles opened the 2014 season winning their first three games and making NFL history as the only team ever to trail by ten or more points in their first three games and come back to win . Nick Foles struggled with turnovers , but ultimately did well and led the Eagles to a 6 -- 2 record , before breaking his collarbone , resulting in his job getting taken over by Mark Sanchez , who outplayed Foles despite facing more playoff teams . The Eagles held the divisional title from week one to week 15 against the Cowboys . After going 9 -- 3 with their crucial win over the Cowboys , the Eagles lost their next 3 , and a week after losing the NFC East title , they lost an upset against the 3 -- 11 Redskins and were eliminated from playoff contention with the Cowboys ' win over the Colts . Following the 2014 season , Chip Kelly was given total control and made some controversial moves . He traded LeSean McCoy , who had become the team 's all - time leading rusher after the 2014 season , for linebacker Kiko Alonso , a player Kelly coached at Oregon who had missed the entire 2014 season . He also cut ten - year veteran and starter , Trent Cole , who was still a consistent threat on defense and was second only to legend Reggie White on the Eagles all - time sack list . He also made a trade where the highly successful Nick Foles was traded for Sam Bradford , who had missed the entire 2014 season with an ACL tear . Kelly tried to re-sign Jeremy Maclin , who had stepped up as the team 's leading wide receiver , but he signed with the Kansas City Chiefs instead . However , the Eagles also acquired league leading rusher DeMarco Murray , which not only helped the Eagles , but hurt their rivals , the Dallas Cowboys . They also obtained Super Bowl champion Byron Maxwell , who left the Seattle Seahawks in free agency to sign a six - year , $63 million contract . The first two games of the season were disastrous , as they started 0 -- 2 . Bradford had a 2 -- 4 TD - INT ratio , Maxwell was constantly beaten by Falcons receiver Julio Jones , and Murray was held to 11 yards on 21 carries . After Murray was injured , Ryan Mathews rushed for over 100 yards in a Week 3 win against the New York Jets . Kelly made Murray the unquestioned starter and although Murray 's play improved over the season , he never regained his dominant form and was held to a career low 3.6 yards per carry average . On December 29 , 2015 , with one game left in the season , head coach Chip Kelly was released by the Eagles . Offensive Coordinator Pat Shurmur was named Interim Coach for the final game against the rival New York Giants , which Shurmur won 35 -- 30 . Former player and current running backs coach Duce Staley was the first coach to be interviewed for the opening head coaching job on January 2 , 2016 . Doug Pederson era ( 2016 -- present ) 2016 Carson Wentz made his debut in the 2016 season The Eagles hired Chiefs offensive coordinator Doug Pederson as their next head coach . The team made the official announcement on January 18 , 2016 . Eagles owner Jeffrey Lurie said in a statement : `` Doug is a strategic thinker , a compelling leader and communicator , and someone who truly knows how to get the best out of his players . All of these factors were what initially attracted us to Doug and we believe that he is the right man to help us achieve our ultimate goal . '' Pederson had been with the Chiefs for the preceding three years after spending the four seasons previous to those with the Eagles . He served as a quality control assistant for the Eagles in 2009 and 2010 before being promoted to quarterbacks coach for the 2011 and 2012 seasons . He was praised for his work with Chiefs quarterback Alex Smith over the preceding few seasons , particularly 2015 , as the Chiefs moved into the top 10 in scoring offense . At the end of the 2015 season , the Eagles had the 13th pick in the 2016 NFL Draft . They traded Byron Maxwell , Kiko Alonso , and their pick to the Miami Dolphins for the # 8 pick . Later , they traded the # 8 pick , their third - round pick , their fourth - round pick , a 2017 first - round pick , and a 2018 second - round pick to the Cleveland Browns for the # 2 pick and a 2017 fourth - round pick . They used the # 2 pick to draft North Dakota State quarterback Carson Wentz . On September 3 , 2016 , the Eagles traded starting quarterback Sam Bradford to the Minnesota Vikings , who had lost Teddy Bridgewater for the season , for a 2017 first - round pick and a 2018 fourth - round pick . Following the trade , the Eagles named Wentz the starting quarterback for Week 1 of the 2016 season . First - time head coach Pederson led the Eagles to a 3 -- 0 start to the season . His rookie quarterback started with 5 touchdowns , no interceptions and over 255 yards per game . The Week 4 bye took a toll on the Eagles , and they lost four out of the next five games , including a loss to every rival team in their division . They also lost right tackle Lane Johnson to a 10 - game suspension following the Week 5 loss againist the Lions which damaged Carson Wentz 's hot start . In those four games , their average margin of loss was just under 5 points . Pederson and the Eagles won just 3 of their last 7 games . Those included gruesome road losses against the Seattle Seahawks , the Cincinnati Bengals , and the Baltimore Ravens . Although Wentz started off the season well , the 6 -- 5 quarterback finished with a TD -- INT ratio of 16 : 14 . The rookie head coach and rookie quarterback tandem led the Eagles to a disappointing year , finishing with a 7 -- 9 record and coming in last in the division . 2017 : first Super Bowl Championship During the following offseason , the team made several acquisitions on the offensive side of the ball . The Eagles either traded or released notable players from the Chip Kelly era like Ryan Mathews , Matt Tobin , Allen Barbre , Jordan Matthews and Marcus Smith II . They signed more notable players to improve its wide receiver corps that have struggled the last two seasons like Alshon Jeffery , and Torrey Smith as well as 2016 Super Bowl champion , Legarrette Blount . They also added veterans on defense such as Patrick Robinson , Chris Long , Corey Graham , Tim Jernigan and Ronald Darby . The team addressed its defense mostly in the draft , using its top three picks on defensive players . The Eagles drafted Derek Barnett with the 14th overall pick . The Eagles had completely revamped their offense and strengthened their defense heading into the 2017 season . They opened the season on the road versus the Washington Redskins and won the game 30 -- 17 . The team lost to the Kansas City Chiefs the following week , 27 -- 20 , in Pederson 's return to face Andy Reid . The Eagles then won six consecutive games , including signature wins at the Carolina Panthers , 28 -- 23 , and versus the Washington Redskins , 34 -- 24 , in a Monday Night contest . On the morning of October 31 , 2017 , just before the NFL trade deadline , the Eagles made a blockbuster move sending a fourth - round pick to the Miami Dolphins for star running back Jay Ajayi . The move immediately paid dividends for the Eagles heading into their next game versus the Denver Broncos as Ajayi rushed for 77 yards on just eight attempts including a 46 - yard TD near the end of the second quarter . Ajayi and Wentz led the Eagles to a 51 -- 23 rout of the top defense in the NFL . Foles in the Huddle before leaving the field before Super Bowl LII . The Eagles headed into their bye week with the best record in the NFL ( 8 -- 1 ) , and with Wentz leading the NFL MVP discussion with an NFL - leading 23 touchdowns to 5 interceptions . During their bye , the Eagles signed former Giants offensive tackle Will Beatty and former Saints linebacker Dannell Ellerbe to not only add depth but also players with Super Bowl experiences . Coming off of the bye week , the Philadelphia Eagles entered a Sunday night showdown with the defending NFC East champion Dallas Cowboys . The Eagles came out sluggish and trailed 9 -- 7 at the half . The team exploded in the second half though , rattling off 30 unanswered points to soundly defeat their rival by a final score of 37 -- 9 . The Eagles were rolling on a nine - game winning streak after a huge blowout win over the Chicago Bears . The Eagles traveled to Seattle in Week 13 in a huge Sunday Night showdown against Russell Wilson and the Seattle Seahawks . The Eagles struggled throughout the whole game , blowing many scoring opportunities and allowing Wilson to throw 3 touchdowns . The Eagles lost 24 -- 10 , ending their win streak . However , the Eagles bounced back in Week 14 win over the Los Angeles Rams in a tough 43 -- 35 win . However , Carson Wentz left the game in the third quarter with a knee injury . It was later found out that Wentz tore his ACL , ending his MVP caliber season . Backup Nick Foles would once again take over as starting quarterback . In Foles 's first start against the New York Giants , he would lead them back from a 20 -- 7 deficit and score 4 touchdowns and win the game 34 -- 29 . Foles struggled in the last two games of the season against the Oakland Raiders and the Dallas Cowboys , and threw a touchdown and 2 interceptions in that span . Despite this , the Eagles finished 13 -- 3 and secured the top seed in the NFC . The Eagles opened as the underdogs , the first time in history that a No. 1 seed has opened up the postseason as an underdog . Despite this , Foles would lead the Eagles past the Atlanta Falcons in the Divisional Round 15 -- 10 . In the next game Foles and the Eagles annihilated the Minnesota Vikings 38 -- 7 in the NFC Championship nicknamed the Minneapolis Massacre , mocking the Minneapolis Miracle from their previous playoff victory . Foles had his best game since week 15 and threw for 352 passing yards and 3 touchdowns including an impressive flea flicker touchdown pass . This win marked the franchise 's third Super Bowl appearance and a berth in Super Bowl LII for a 2005 rematch against Tom Brady and the New England Patriots . With Foles at the helm , the Eagles started off the game strong , leading the Patriots 22 -- 12 at halftime . In the second half the Patriots gained momentum and for the first time took the lead in the 4th quarter 33 -- 32 . The Eagles rallied back and scored an 11 - yard Touchdown to tight end Zach Ertz . Later the Eagles converted on a 46 - yard field goal by Jake Elliott to lead 41 -- 33 . On the final play of the game with 9 seconds left , Brady threw a hail - mary pass directed toward tight end Rob Gronkowski which was bobbled by Patrick Robinson before being dropped in the end - zone as time expired , securing the win for the Eagles 41 -- 33 , and ending the 58 - year long championship drought . This would be Philadelphia 's first Super Bowl win and their fourth league championship ( their first championship since 1960 ) . Foles won Super Bowl MVP going 28 -- 43 with 373 passing yards , 3 touchdowns , and an interception . Nick Foles became the first backup quarterback to start and win a Super Bowl since his opponent Tom Brady won as the backup for Drew Bledsoe in 2001 . Season records Main article : List of Philadelphia Eagles seasons Regular season record ( all - time ) : 568 -- 594 -- 26 Playoff record ( all - time ) : 22 -- 21 ( last appearance after beating New England Patriots in Super Bowl LII ) Most points in a season : 474 points ( 2014 ) NFL championships won : 4 ( 3 before the 1967 NFL - AFL merger created the Super Bowl ) Super Bowls won : 1 out of 3 appearances Passing leader ( all - time ) : Donovan McNabb -- 32,873 yards Rushing leader ( all - time ) : LeSean McCoy -- 6,792 yards Receiving leader ( all - time ) : Harold Carmichael -- 8,978 yards Winningest coach ( all - time ) : Andy Reid -- 130 wins Top player by approximate value ( all - time ) : Donovan McNabb -- 126 AV Rivalries New York Giants Main article : Eagles -- Giants rivalry One of the NFL 's oldest , this rivalry began on October 15 , 1933 when the Giants defeated the newly founded Eagles 56 -- 0 . The Giants lead the all - time series 84 -- 82 -- 2 . Three of the best known comebacks against the Giants are labeled as `` Miracle In The Meadowlands -- Herm Edwards '' , `` Miracle In The Meadowlands II -- Brian Westbrook '' and `` Miracle In The New Meadowlands -- DeSean Jackson '' . Dallas Cowboys Main article : Cowboys -- Eagles rivalry The Cowboys have been one of the Eagles ' biggest rivals . The Eagles won the first game in this rivalry 27 -- 25 on September 30 , 1960 . Dallas leads the all - time series 63 -- 51 -- 0 . They have been close in recent years , with Dallas winning 12 games from 2006 to the present while the Eagles have also won 12 . There is much hostility between the two teams ' fan bases , with incidents such as the 1989 Bounty Bowl . Washington Redskins Main article : Eagles -- Redskins rivalry Not as big as the rivalries between the Giants and Cowboys , that with division rivals Washington Redskins is still fierce . It started in 1934 when the Washington Redskins were first known as the Boston Redskin ; the Redskins defeated the Eagles 6 -- 0 , and lead the all - time series 85 -- 76 -- 6 . The rivalry has been very even since 2010 overall . However , the Eagles swept the Redskins during the 2017 season for the first time since the 2013 season . Pittsburgh Steelers Main article : Eagles -- Steelers rivalry The Eagles and Pittsburgh Steelers are both located in Pennsylvania and began play in 1933 . From that season , through 1966 , this was a major rivalry for both teams as both were part of the same division . In 1967 , they were placed in separate divisions but remained in the same conference for three years . Finally , in 1970 , the Steelers ( along with the Cleveland Browns and Baltimore Colts ) moved to the American Football Conference while the Eagles stayed with the rest of the old - line NFL teams in the National Football Conference . As a result , the Eagles and Steelers no longer played each other every year . Currently they are scheduled to meet once every four years in the regular season , the most recent meeting being in 2016 at Philadelphia , with the Eagles winning 34 - 3 . The Steelers have lost nine straight games on the road against the Eagles dating back to 1966 , which was also the start of the Super Bowl era . The Eagles lead the all - time series 47 -- 28 -- 3 . Logo and uniforms See also : Uniform ( American football ) and footnote about Eagles ' uniform numbers . For several decades , the Eagles ' colors were kelly green , silver , and white . In 1954 , the Eagles , along with the Baltimore Colts , became the second team ever in the NFL to put a logo on their helmets , with silver wings on a kelly green helmet . In 1969 , the team wore two helmet versions : Kelly green with white wings in road games , and white with kelly green wings at home . From 1970 to ' 73 , they wore the white helmets with Kelly green wings exclusively before switching back to Kelly green helmets with silver wings . By 1974 , Joseph A. Scirrotto Jr. designed the silver wings took on a white outline , and this style on a kelly green helmet became standard for over two decades . From 1948 -- 95 , the team logo was an eagle in flight carrying a football in its claws , although from ' 69 -- 72 , the eagle took on a more stylized look . As the design was similar to the Apollo 11 emblem , and its moon - landing craft was dubbed Eagle , players wore the flight 's mission patch on their jerseys during 1969 . In 1973 , the team 's name was added below the eagle , which returned to its pre - ' 69 look . However , both the logo and uniforms were radically altered in 1996 . The primary kelly green color was changed to a darker shade , officially described as `` midnight green . '' Silver was practically abandoned , as uniform pants moved to either white or midnight green . The traditional helmet wings were changed to a primarily white color , with silver and black accents . The team 's logo combination ( the eagle and club name lettering ) also changed in 1996 , with the eagle itself limited to a white ( bald eagle ) head , drawn in a less realistic , more cartoon - based style , and the lettering changing from calligraphic to block letters . Since the 1996 alterations , the team has made only minor alterations , mostly relating to jersey / pant combinations worn during specific games . For example , in 1997 , against the San Francisco 49ers , the team wore midnight green jerseys and pants for the first of only two occasions in team history . The second occasion was in 2002 , during the final regular season game at Veterans Stadium , a win over the division - rival Washington Redskins . A year later , in the first two games of the 2003 season ( both home losses to the Tampa Bay Buccaneers and New England Patriots ) , the Eagles wore white jerseys with white pants . Since 2003 , the white jerseys along with white pants have been worn during preseason games . The 2003 season also saw the first ( though only subtle ) change to the 1996 - style uniform . On both white and green jerseys , black shadows and silver trim were added to both the green and white numbering . The stripe on the pants changed from black - green - black to black - silver - green on the white pants , and from a solid black stripe to one stripe of black , another of silver , with one small white stripe in between for the midnight blue pants . The 2003 season also saw the team debut black alternate jerseys , with a green ( instead of black ) shadow on white numbers , and silver trim . These black jerseys have been worn for two selected home games each season ( usually the first home game after bye week and the season finale ) . In the 2003 and 2004 regular season home finales , the team wore the green road pants with the black alternate jerseys , but lost each game . Since then , the Eagles have only worn the black jerseys with the white pants . However , due to the special 75th anniversary uniforms serving as the `` alternates '' for one game in 2007 , the Eagles could not wear the alternate black jersey that season per league rules ( alternate uniforms are permitted twice per season but only one can be used ) . The black jerseys with white pants , however , re-appeared for the 2008 Thanksgiving night game against the Arizona Cardinals . The black jerseys were most recently used in a December 21 , 2016 game against the New York Giants , in which they won 24 - 19 . From 2006 -- 2013 , the Eagles have only worn the alternate black jerseys once a season and for the last November home game , but did not use them in 2007 , 2010 , and 2011 . For the 2007 and 2010 seasons , the Eagles used throwback uniforms in place of the black alternates for their anniversary to commemorate past teams . The team also started wearing black shoes exclusively in 2004 . Since 2014 , the Eagles have worn the black jersey twice per season . In 2016 , they wore the black jersey three times . To celebrate the team 's 75th anniversary , the 2007 uniforms featured a 75th - season logo patch on the left shoulder . In addition , the team wore `` throwback '' jerseys in a 2007 game against the Detroit Lions . The yellow and blue jerseys , the same colors found on Philadelphia 's city flag , are based on those worn by the Philadelphia Eagles in the team 's inaugural season , and were the same colors used by the former Frankford Yellow Jackets franchise prior to their suspension of operations in 1931 . The Eagles beat Detroit , 56 -- 21 . The Philadelphia Eagles wear their white jerseys at home for preseason games and daytime games in the first half of the regular season from September to mid-October when the temperature is warmer . In night contests in the first half of the regular season , the Eagles do not need to wear white at home since the temperature is cooler . However , there have been exceptions , such as the home opener against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in 2003 and the Washington Redskins in 2007 that were played at night . In late October or beginning in November , the Eagles start to wear their colors at home ( although they have done it earlier before ) , be it the midnight green jerseys or a third jersey . On one occasion the Eagles wore white at home after October in a meeting against the Dallas Cowboys on November 4 , 2007 to make the Cowboys wear their road blue jerseys . Since moving to Lincoln Financial Field in 2003 , the Eagles have worn white at home for at least their home opener , with the exceptions for the 2010 home opener ( see next paragraph ) , the 2011 home opener against the New York Giants , the 2016 home opener against the Cleveland Browns , and the 2017 home opener against the Giants . In the 2010 season against the Green Bay Packers , on September 12 , 2010 , the Eagles wore uniforms similar to the ones that were worn by the 1960 championship team in honor the 50th anniversary of that team . In weeks 4 and 6 of the 2010 season , the Eagles wore their white jerseys in a match - up against the Washington Redskins and Atlanta Falcons respectively before reverting to their midnight green jerseys for the rest of their home games . For the 2011 season , the Eagles did not wear white for any of their home games . For the 2012 season Nike took over from Reebok as the NFL 's official apparel licensee but the Eagles decided that they would not be adopting Nike 's `` Elite 51 '' uniform technology . Aside from the Nike logo replacing the Reebok logo , the only other change is the league - wide revision of the NFL shield on the uniform ( replacing the NFL Equipment logo ) , other than that the uniforms essentially remain unchanged . The Eagles also revived their black alternate jersey . For the 2013 season , the Eagles started to wear white pants , as an alternate to their green pants , with their white jerseys , in the regular season . For the 2014 season the Eagles have officially adopted the `` Elite 51 '' style uniform from Nike . Recently the team has discussed bringing back the `` Kelly Green '' uniforms similar to the uniforms worn in the 1960 NFL Championship season and which were last worn in the 2010 season opener vs. Green Bay . Traditionally kelly green , silver and white had been the official team color until 1996 season when it switched to the current `` Midnight Green '' uniforms . But due to the NFL rules and restrictions having a team go through a waiting period before any major uniform changes and alterations can be made , it would most likely be quite some time before any uniform changes are officially made . In Week 6 of 2014 against the New York Giants , the team introduced black pants to complement their black jerseys , giving them a blackout uniform set , the Eagles won the game 27 -- 0 . The victory was their first shutout in 18 years . The blackout uniform was most recently worn in a Week 16 victory , 19 - 10 , against the Raiders in 2017 . The Eagles are 6 -- 3 in their blackout uniforms : winning three times against the Giants and once against each of the Minnesota Vikings , Denver Broncos , and Oakland Raiders , and losing against the Seattle Seahawks , Arizona Cardinals , and Green Bay Packers . Training camp The Eagles previously held their preseason training camp from the end of July through mid-August each year at Lehigh University in Bethlehem , Pennsylvania in the Lehigh Valley . With the addition of new head coach Chip Kelly , the Eagles recently moved their training camp to the NovaCare Complex in Philadelphia . Training camps were previously held at Chestnut Hill Academy in 1935 , Saint Joseph 's University in 1939 and 1943 , Saranac Lake from 1946 -- 1948 , Hershey from 1951 -- 1967 , Albright College from 1968 -- 1972 , Widener University from 1973 -- 1979 , and West Chester University from 1980 -- 1995 . Fight song Further information : Fly , Eagles Fly This fight song is heard during Eagles ' home games after touchdowns and before the team is introduced prior to kickoff . Fans Full house at `` The Linc '' for a playoff game in January 2011 An Eagles fan in attendance at U.S. Bank Stadium celebrates following the team 's victory at Super Bowl LII . Eagles fans celebrating along Benjamin Franklin Parkway at the Eagles victory parade Devotion Although the method may vary , studies that attempt to rank the 32 fan bases in the NFL consistently place Eagles fans among the best in the league , noting their `` unmatched fervor . '' Eagles fans have numerous dedicated web communities , ranking the Eagles just behind the Phillies as the dominant Philadelphia sports presence on the web . The American City Business Journals , which conducts a regular study to determine the most loyal fans in the NFL , evaluates fans based primarily on attendance - related factors , and ranked Eagles fans third in both 1999 and 2006 . The 2006 study called the fans `` incredibly loyal '' , noting that they filled 99.8 % of the seats in the stadium over the previous decade . Forbes placed the Eagles fans first in its 2008 survey , which was based on the correlation between team performance and fan attendance . ESPN.com placed Eagles fans fourth in the league in its 2008 survey , citing the connection between the team 's performance and the mood of the city . The last home game which was blacked out on television in the Philadelphia market as a result of not being sold out was against the Arizona Cardinals on Sunday , September 12 , 1999 , which was Andy Reid 's first home game as new head coach of the Eagles . The studies note that -- win or lose -- Eagles fans can be counted on to pack their stadium . As of August 2008 , the team had sold out 71 consecutive games , and 70,000 were on the team 's waiting list for season tickets . Despite finishing with a 6 -- 10 record in the 2005 season , the Eagles ranked second in the NFL in merchandise sales , and single - game tickets for the next season were sold out minutes after phone and Internet lines opened . Eagles fans have also been known to chant the famous , `` E-A-G-L-E-S -- Eagles ! ! '' at Flyers , Phillies , and 76ers games when the team is getting blown out late in a game and a loss is inevitable , signifying their displeasure with the given team 's performance , and that they are instead putting their hope into the Eagles . Bad behavior Along with their fierce devotion , Eagles fans have a reputation for bad behavior and sports - related violence , especially when the team plays its rivals . In If Football 's a Religion , Why Do n't We Have a Prayer ? , Jereé Longman described the fans of the 700 Level of Veterans Stadium as having a reputation for `` hostile taunting , fighting , public urination and general strangeness . '' So many incidents occurred at a 1997 game against the 49ers that at the following home game , Judge Seamus McCaffery began presiding over a temporary courtroom at the stadium ; 20 suspects came before him that day . Fan behavior improved after the team 's move to Lincoln Financial Field , and `` Eagles Court '' ended in December 2003 . Eagles Cheerleaders Eagles Cheerleaders doing a routine in 2008 . Main article : Philadelphia Eagles Cheerleaders The team also has its own cheerleading squad , which performs a variety of dance moves for the fans and the Eagles on the sideline . The squad also releases a swimsuit calendar each year , and is the first squad in the league to release the calendar on the Android and iOS mobile systems . Current roster Philadelphia Eagles roster view talk Quarterbacks 9 Nick Foles 7 Nate Sudfeld 11 Carson Wentz Running backs 26 Jay Ajayi 30 Corey Clement 34 Donnel Pumphrey 28 Wendell Smallwood Wide receivers 13 Nelson Agholor 19 Rashard Davis 18 Shelton Gibson 10 Mack Hollins 17 Alshon Jeffery 16 Bryce Treggs 14 Mike Wallace 89 Greg Ward Jr . -- Dom Williams -- Marquess Wilson Tight ends 85 Billy Brown 86 Zach Ertz -- Joshua Perkins -- Richard Rodgers -- Adam Zaruba Offensive linemen 79 Brandon Brooks G 78 Darrell Greene G -- Taylor Hart T 65 Lane Johnson T 62 Jason Kelce C 71 Jason Peters T 73 Isaac Seumalo G -- Jon Toth C 72 Halapoulivaati Vaitai T 67 Chance Warmack G 61 Stefen Wisniewski G Defensive linemen 96 Derek Barnett DE 77 Michael Bennett DE 91 Fletcher Cox DT -- Winston Craig DT 55 Brandon Graham DE 93 Timmy Jernigan DT 56 Chris Long DE 51 Steven Means DE 94 Haloti Ngata DT 98 Elijah Qualls DT -- Aziz Shittu DT 97 Destiny Vaeao DT Linebackers 53 Nigel Bradham OLB 47 Nathan Gerry OLB 54 Kamu Grugier - Hill OLB 58 Jordan Hicks MLB 95 Mychal Kendricks OLB -- Corey Nelson OLB 59 Joe Walker MLB -- Paul Worrilow OLB Defensive backs -- De'Vante Bausby CB -- Elie Bouka CB 21 Ronald Darby CB 32 Rasul Douglas CB -- Randall Goforth CB 27 Malcolm Jenkins SS 22 Sidney Jones CB 35 D.J. Killings CB 23 Rodney McLeod FS 42 Chris Maragos FS 31 Jalen Mills CB 49 Tre Sullivan S Special teams 4 Jake Elliott K -- Cameron Johnston P 45 Rick Lovato LS Reserve lists Currently vacant Rookies in italics Roster updated April 16 , 2018 Depth chart Transactions 68 Active , Inactive → AFC rosters → NFC rosters AFC East BUF MIA NE NYJ North BAL CIN CLE PIT South HOU IND JAX TEN West DEN KC LAC OAK NFC East DAL NYG PHI WAS North CHI DET GB MIN South ATL CAR NO TB West ARI LAR SF SEA List of Philadelphia Eagles players ( past and present ) Main article : List of Philadelphia Eagles players Awards and honors Retired numbers Philadelphia Eagles retired numbers No . Player Position Years played 5 Donovan McNabb QB 1999 -- 2009 15 Steve Van Buren HB 1944 -- 1951 20 Brian Dawkins 1996 -- 2008 40 Tom Brookshier CB 1953 -- 1961 44 Pete Retzlaff RB , WR , TE 1956 -- 1966 60 Chuck Bednarik LB , C 1949 -- 1962 70 Al Wistert OT 1943 -- 1951 92 Reggie White DE 1985 -- 1992 99 Jerome Brown DT 1987 -- 1991 Notes : Posthumous honors . Despite not being retired , no one has worn Randall Cunningham 's No. 12 since he left the Eagles . Pro Football Hall of Famers Eagles legend Steve Van Buren Main article : List of Pro Football Hall of Fame inductees Eagles in the Pro Football Hall of Fame Players No . Name Positions Seasons Inducted No . Name Positions Seasons Inducted 60 Chuck Bednarik C -- LB 1949 -- 1962 1967 33 Ollie Matson RB 1964 -- 1966 1972 76 Bob Brown OT 1964 -- 1968 25 Tommy McDonald WR 1957 -- 1963 1998 80 Cris Carter WR 1987 -- 1989 2013 85 James Arthur `` Art '' Monk WR 1995 2008 95 Richard Dent DE 1997 2011 35 Pete Pihos TE -- DE 1947 -- 1955 1970 89 Mike Ditka TE 1967 -- 1968 1988 54 Jim Ringo 1964 -- 1967 1981 86 Bud Grant WR -- DE 1951 -- 1952 1994 11 Norm Van Brocklin QB 1958 -- 1960 1971 56 Bill Hewitt End - FB 1937 -- 1939 , 1943 1971 15 Steve Van Buren HB 1944 -- 1951 1965 87 Claude Humphrey DE 1979 -- 1981 2014 92 Reggie White DE 1985 -- 1992 2006 9 Sonny Jurgensen QB 1957 -- 1963 53 Alex Wojciechowicz C -- DT 1946 -- 1950 1968 80 James Lofton WR 1993 2003 20 Brian Dawkins 1996 - 2008 2018 Coaches and Executives Name Positions Seasons Inducted Bert Bell Owner / Founder 1933 -- 1940 1963 Wayne Millner Assistant Coach 1951 1968 Earle `` Greasy '' Neale Head Coach 1941 -- 1950 1969 Mike McCormack Head Coach 1973 -- 1975 1984 Eagles Hall of Fame See also : Category : American football museums and halls of fame . In 1987 , the Eagles Honor Roll was established . Every Eagles player who had by then been elected into the Pro Football Hall of Fame was among the inaugural induction class . By 2012 , the Honor Roll had been retitled as the Eagles Hall of Fame . Players are considered for induction three years after their retirement from the NFL , and there have been 41 inductees into the Eagles Hall of Fame as of 2015 . Eagles Hall of Fame Year No . Name Position ( s ) Tenure 60 Chuck Bednarik C -- LB 1949 -- 1962 -- Bert Bell Founder - Owner 1933 -- 1940 17 Harold Carmichael WR 1971 -- 1983 56 Bill Hewitt TE -- DE 1936 -- 1939 , 1943 9 Sonny Jurgensen QB 1957 -- 1963 33 Ollie Matson RB 1964 -- 1966 31 Wilbert Montgomery RB 1977 -- 1984 -- Earle `` Greasy '' Neale Head Coach 1941 -- 1950 35 Pete Pihos TE -- DE 1947 -- 1955 54 Jim Ringo 1964 -- 1967 11 Norm Van Brocklin QB 1958 -- 1960 15 Steve Van Buren HB 1944 -- 1951 53 Alex Wojciechowicz C -- DT 1946 -- 1950 1988 66 Bill Bergey LB 1974 -- 1980 25 Tommy McDonald WR 1957 -- 1963 1989 40 Tom Brookshier CB 1954 -- 1961 44 Pete Retzlaff TE 1956 -- 1966 1990 22 Timmy Brown RB 1960 -- 1967 1991 76 Jerry Sisemore OT 1973 -- 1987 75 Stan Walters OT 1975 -- 1983 1992 7 Ron Jaworski QB 1977 -- 1986 1993 28 Bill Bradley S -- P 1969 -- 1976 1994 -- Dick Vermeil Head Coach 1976 -- 1982 1995 -- Jim Gallagher Team Executive 1949 -- 1995 82 Mike Quick WR 1982 -- 1990 99 Jerome Brown DT 1987 -- 1991 1999 -- Otho Davis Head Trainer 1973 -- 1995 1948 NFL Championship team 1949 NFL Championship team 76 Bob Brown OT 1964 -- 1968 2005 92 Reggie White DE 1985 -- 1992 2009 70 Al Wistert OT 1943 -- 1951 12 Randall Cunningham QB -- P 1985 -- 1995 2011 21 Eric Allen CB 1988 -- 1994 -- Jim Johnson Defensive Coordinator 1999 -- 2008 2012 -- Leo Carlin Ticket Manager 1960 -- 2015 20 Brian Dawkins 1996 -- 2008 23 Troy Vincent CB 1996 -- 2003 2013 5 Donovan McNabb QB 1999 -- 2009 2015 36 Brian Westbrook RB 2002 -- 2009 55 Maxie Baughan LB 1960 -- 1965 2016 54 Jeremiah Trotter LB 1998 -- 2001 , 2004 -- 2006 , 2009 - Merrill Reese Radio Play by Play 1977 -- Present 2017 David Akers 1999 - 2010 75th anniversary team Philadelphia Eagles 75th Anniversary Team ( 2007 ) Offense McNabb ( QB ) Van Buren ( RB ) Byars ( FB ) Carmichael ( WR ) McDonald ( WR ) Pihos ( TE ) Thomas ( LT ) Key ( LG ) Bednarik ( C ) Andrews ( RG ) Runyan ( RT ) Defense Simmons ( DE ) White ( DE ) J. Brown ( DT ) Johnson ( DT ) Bednarik ( MLB ) Joyner ( OLB ) Wojciechowicz ( OLB ) Allen ( CB ) Vincent ( CB ) Waters ( SS ) Dawkins ( FS ) Special teams T. Brown ( KR ) Westbrook ( PR ) Akers ( PK ) Landeta ( P ) Papale ( ST ) Coach Andy Reid John Wanamaker Athletic Award ( Philadelphia Sports Congress ) See footnote Philadelphia Sports Hall of Fame Main article : Philadelphia Sports Hall of Fame Pennsylvania Sports Hall of Fame See : Pennsylvania Sports Hall of Fame # Football Franchise records Source : pro-football-reference.com Eagles Franchise Page Passing Statistic Regular season Playoffs Rookie Career Season Game Career Season Game Season Game Completions 2801 Donovan McNabb 379 Carson Wentz 2016 37 Mark Sanchez 2014 - 12 - 20 @ WAS Sam Bradford 2015 - 12 - 26 WAS 341 Donovan McNabb 73 Donovan McNabb 2008 30 Donovan McNabb 2005 - 02 - 06 NNWE 379 Carson Wentz 2016 36 Carson Wentz 2016 - 12 - 04 @ CIN Pass Attempts 4746 Donovan McNabb 607 Carson Wentz 2016 62 Randall Cunningham 1989 - 10 - 02 @ CHI Nick Foles 2014 - 10 - 26 @ ARI 577 Donovan McNabb 121 Donovan McNabb 2008 54 Randall Cunningham 1988 - 12 - 31 @ CHI 607 Carson Wentz 2016 60 Carson Wentz 2016 - 12 - 04 @ CIN Passing Yards 32873 Donovan McNabb 3916 Donovan McNabb 2008 464 Donovan McNabb 2004 - 12 - 05 GNB 3752 Donovan McNabb 892 Donovan McNabb 2008 407 Randall Cunningham 1988 - 12 - 31 @ CHI 3782 Carson Wentz 2016 381 Nick Foles 2012 - 12 - 09 @ TAM Passing TDs 216 Donovan McNabb 33 Carson Wentz 2017 7 Nick Foles 2013 - 11 - 03 @ OAK 24 Donovan McNabb 7 Donovan McNabb Ron Jaworski 1979 - 12 - 23 CHI Rodney Peete 1995 - 12 - 30 DET Donovan McNabb 2005 - 02 - 06 NNWE 2009 - 01 - 18 @ ARI / > Nick Foles 2018 - 01 - 21 MIN 2018 - 02 - 04 NNWE 16 Carson Wentz 2016 Scott Tinsley 1987 - 10 - 11 @ DAL Donovan McNabb 2000 - 01 - 02 STL Intercepted 151 Ron Jaworski 26 Sonny Jurgensen 1962 6 Bobby Thomason 1956 - 10 - 21 CRD Pete Liske 1971 - 09 - 26 DAL 17 Donovan McNabb 7 Ron Jaworski 1980 Ron Jaworski 1981 - 01 - 25 NOAK Randall Cunningham 1988 - 12 - 31 @ CHI Donovan McNabb 2004 - 01 - 18 CAR 2005 - 02 - 06 NNWE 17 Davey O'Brien 1939 Randall Cunningham 1985 - 09 - 15 RAM Scott Tinsley 1987 - 10 - 18 @ GNB Brad Goebel 1991 - 10 - 13 NOR Passer Rating 94.2 + Nick Foles 119.2 # Nick Foles 2013 158.3 * Donovan McNabb 2007 - 09 - 23 DET Nick Foles 2013 - 11 - 03 @ OAK 83.6 # Jeff Garcia 132.4 * Rodney Peete 1995 143.3 * Rodney Peete 1995 - 12 - 30 DET 79.3 # Carson Wentz 2016 131.7 * Scott Tinsley 1987 - 10 - 11 @ DAL Sacked 422 Randall Cunningham 72 Randall Cunningham 1986 12 Donovan McNabb 2007 - 09 - 30 @ NYG 48 Donovan McNabb 12 Donovan McNabb 2003 8 Donovan McNabb 2004 - 01 - 11 GNB 38 John Reaves 1972 7 Randall Cunningham 1985 - 09 - 29 NYG Yds / Pass Att 8.71 + Sonny Jurgensen 9.12 # Nick Foles 2013 16.29 * Sonny Jurgensen 1962 - 11 - 25 DAL 6.5 # Donovan McNabb Randall Cunningham 10.2 * Norm Van Brocklin 1960 10.8 * Rodney Peete 1995 - 12 - 30 DET 6.73 # John Reaves 1972 12.47 * Randall Cunningham 1985 - 09 - 22 @ WAS Pass Yds / Game 266.1 + Sam Bradford 278.6 # Donovan McNabb 2005 - 234.5 # Donovan McNabb 407 * Randall Cunningham 1988 - 242.7 # Nick Foles 2012 - + = min . 500 attempts , # = min . 100 attempts , ∗ = minimum 15 attempts , Rushing Statistic Regular season Playoffs Rookie Career Season Game Career Season Game Season Game Rush Attempts 1465 Wilbert Montgomery 353 Ricky Watters 35 Heath Sherman 1990 - 11 - 12 WAS 141 Wilbert Montgomery 68 Wilbert Montgomery 1980 26 Wilbert Montgomery 1979 - 12 - 23 CHI 1981 - 01 - 03 MIN 1981 - 01 - 11 DAL 182 Po James 1972 28 Charlie Garner 1994 - 10 - 09 WAS Rush Yards 6792 LeSean McCoy 1607 LeSean McCoy 2013 217 LeSean McCoy 2013 - 12 - 08 DET 591 Brian Westbrook 312 Wilbert Montgomery 1980 194 Wilbert Montgomery 1981 - 01 - 11 DAL 637 LeSean McCoy 2009 178 Bryce Brown 2012 - 11 - 26 CAR Rush Yds / Att 6.62 Randall Cunningham 7.98 Randall Cunningham 1990 11.63 Timmy Brown 1965 - 11 - 07 @ CLE 5.86 Donovan McNabb 7.79 Brian Westbrook 2006 7.46 Wilbert Montgomery 1981 - 01 - 11 DAL 4.9 Bryce Brown 2012 9.37 Bryce Brown 2012 - 11 - 26 CAR Rushing TDs 69 Steve Van Buren 17 LeSean McCoy 2011 Wilbert Montgomery 1979 - 10 - 07 WAS 1982 - 12 - 19 HOU LeSean McCoy 2010 - 09 - 19 @ DET 6 Wilbert Montgomery Wilbert Montgomery 1980 Brian Westbrook 2006 Wilbert Montgomery 1981 - 01 - 03 MIN 1981 - 12 - 27 NYG Ken Keller 1956 LeSean McCoy 2009 Bryce Brown 2012 Wilbert Montgomery 1977 - 12 - 18 NYJ James Joseph 1991 - 11 - 04 NYG Charlie Garner 1994 - 10 - 02 @ SFO Bryce Brown 2012 - 11 - 26 CAR 2012 - 12 - 02 @ DAL Rush Yds / Game 79 Ricky Watters 100.4 LeSean McCoy 2013 - 74 Wilbert Montgomery 128.5 Brian Westbrook 2006 - 70.1 Mike Hogan 1976 - ∗ = minimum 15 attempts , # = min . 100 attempts , + = min . 500 attempts Receiving Statistic Regular season Playoffs Rookie Career Season Game Career Season Game Season Game Receptions 589 Harold Carmichael 90 Brian Westbrook 2007 13 Jeremy Maclin 2011 - 09 - 18 @ ATL Zach Ertz 2017 - 01 - 01 DAL 38 Chad Lewis 19 Brent Celek 2008 10 Brent Celek 2009 - 01 - 18 @ ARI 81 Keith Jackson 1988 11 Junior Tautalatasi 1986 - 11 - 09 NYG Receiving Yds 8,978 Harold Carmichael 1409 Mike Quick 237 Tommy McDonald 1961 - 12 - 10 NYG 465 Harold Carmichael 211 Kevin Curtis 2008 146 Jeremy Maclin 2010 - 01 - 09 @ DAL 912 DeSean Jackson 2008 177 Hank Baskett 2006 - 12 - 31 ATL Yds / Rec 19.16 + Tommy McDonald 21.44 # Ben Hawkins 1967 52.5 * DeSean Jackson 2010 - 12 - 12 @ DAL 16.03 # Harold Carmichael 23.5 * Donte ' Stallworth 2006 30.5 * Kevin Curtis 2009 - 01 - 18 @ ARI 21.09 # Hank Baskett 2006 28.5 * Fred Barnett 1990 - 10 - 15 MIN Receiving TDs 79 Harold Carmichael 14 Terrell Owens Ben Hawkins 1969 - 09 - 28 PIT 6 Harold Carmichael Harold Carmichael 1979 Brent Celek 2008 Harold Carmichael 1979 - 12 - 23 CHI Fred Barnett 1993 - 01 - 03 @ NOR Chad Lewis 2005 - 01 - 23 ATL Brent Celek 2009 - 01 - 18 @ ARI 9 Calvin Williams 1990 ( 9 times ) Rec Yds / Game 70.3 + DeSean Jackson 90.4 # Ben Hawkins 1967 - 66.4 # Harold Carmichael 146 * Jeremy Maclin 2009 - 64.3 # Don Looney 1940 - ∗ = minimum 4 receptions , # = min . 20 receptions , + = min . 200 receptions Other Statistic Regular season Playoffs Rookie Career Season Game Career Season Game Season Game Total TDs 79 Harold Carmichael 20 LeSean McCoy 2011 Ben Hawkins 1969 - 09 - 28 PIT Wilbert Montgomery 1978 - 09 - 10 @ WAS 1979 - 10 - 07 WAS Brian Westbrook 2008 - 11 - 27 ARI 6 Brian Westbrook Wilbert Montgomery Harold Carmichael Harold Carmichael 1979 Wilbert Montgomery 1980 Duce Staley 2001 Brian Westbrook 2006 Brent Celek 2008 ( 8 times ) 9 Calvin Williams 1990 Corey Clement 2017 - 11 - 05 DEN Yds from Scrimmage 9,785 Brian Westbrook 2146 LeSean McCoy 2013 249 Timmy Brown 1962 - 12 - 16 @ STL 925 Brian Westbrook 443 Wilbert Montgomery 1980 208 Wilbert Montgomery 1981 - 01 - 11 DAL 878 Charle Young 1973 189 Bryce Brown 2012 - 11 - 26 CAR All Purpose Yds 12,049 Timmy Brown 2428 Timmy Brown 1963 341 Timmy Brown 1962 - 12 - 16 @ STL 953 Brian Westbrook 443 Wilbert Montgomery 1980 208 Wilbert Montgomery 1981 - 01 - 11 DAL 940 Steve Van Buren 1944 231 Kevin Bowman 1987 - 10 - 11 @ DAL Returning Statistic Regular season Playoffs Career Season Game Career Season Game Kick Returns 169 Timmy Brown 54 Allen Rossum 1999 8 Derrick Witherspoon 1996 - 11 - 24 @ ARI Allen Rossum 1999 - 11 - 21 IND Quintin Demps 2008 - 11 - 09 NYG 22 Brian Mitchell 11 Brian Mitchell 2001 6 Brian Mitchell 2002 - 01 - 27 @ STL Kick Ret Yds 4,483 Timmy Brown 1347 Allen Rossum 1999 253 Derrick Witherspoon 1996 - 11 - 24 @ ARI 522 Brian Mitchell 239 Brian Mitchell 2001 128 Brian Mitchell 2002 - 01 - 27 @ STL Yds / KR 27.74 Josh Huff 33.25 Steve Van Buren 1944 61 Jake Elliott 2017 - 09 - 24 25.29 J.R. Reed 26.8 Brian Mitchell 2002 31.25 Brian Mitchell 2003 - 01 - 19 TAM Kick Ret TDs 5 Timmy Brown Timmy Brown 1966 Derrick Witherspoon Timmy Brown 1966 - 11 - 06 DAL 0 Punt Returns 148 Wally Henry 54 Wally Henry 1981 9 Larry Marshall 1977 - 09 - 18 TAM 16 Brian Mitchell 8 Wally Henry 1979 John Sciarra 1980 6 John Sciarra 1981 - 01 - 11 DAL Punt Ret Yds 1369 Brian Mitchell 567 Brian Mitchell 2002 140 Alvin Haymond 1968 - 10 - 06 @ WAS 174 DeSean Jackson 122 DeSean Jackson 2008 109 DeSean Jackson 2009 - 01 - 04 @ MIN Yds / PR 14.71 Ernie Steele 20.44 Ernie Steele 1942 33 Brian Mitchell 2002 - 11 - 25 @ SFO 15.82 DeSean Jackson 17.43 DeSean Jackson 2008 21.8 DeSean Jackson 2009 - 01 - 04 @ MIN Punt Ret TDs DeSean Jackson Darren Sproles Brian Westbrook 2003 DeSean Jackson 2009 Darren Sproles 2014 , 2015 ( 8 times ) 0 Total Return Yds 4,997 Timmy Brown 1729 Brian Mitchell 2002 234 Vai Sikahema 1992 - 11 - 22 @ NYG 657 Brian Mitchell 296 Brian Mitchell 2001 159 Brian Mitchell 2003 - 01 - 19 TAM Defense Statistic Regular season Playoffs Career Season Game Career Season Game Interceptions 34 Bill Bradley Brian Dawkins Eric Allen 11 Bill Bradley 1971 Don Burroughs 1961 - 12 - 03 @ PIT Nate Ramsey 1965 - 11 - 28 @ STL Jim Nettles 1965 - 12 - 12 @ PIT Joe Scarpati 1966 - 10 - 23 @ NYG 5 Herm Edwards Roynell Young 1980 Damon Moore 2001 Herm Edwards 1981 - 01 - 03 MIN Roynell Young 1981 - 01 - 03 MIN Eric Allen 1993 - 01 - 03 @ NOR Damon Moore 2002 - 01 - 12 TAM Int Ret Yds 536 Bill Bradley 248 Bill Bradley 1971 114 Frank LeMaster 1975 - 12 - 21 @ WAS 77 Damon Moore 77 Damon Moore 2001 59 Damon Moore 2002 - 01 - 12 TAM Int Ret TDs 5 Eric Allen Eric Allen 1993 Eric Allen 1993 - 12 - 26 NOR ( 6 times ) Sacks ( since 1982 ) 124 Reggie White 21 Reggie White 4.5 Clyde Simmons 1991 - 09 - 15 @ DAL Hugh Douglas 1998 - 10 - 18 @ SDG Derrick Burgess Hugh Douglas Carl Hairston Reggie White Carl Hairston 1980 Derrick Burgess Carl Hairston 1981 - 01 - 03 MIN Hugh Douglas 2000 - 12 - 31 TAM Derrick Burgess 2005 - 01 - 23 ATL Darwin Walker 2007 - 01 - 13 @ NOR Exceptional performances Statistic Career Season Playoff Games Rookie Games 300 + yard passing games 30 Donovan McNabb 6 Donovan McNabb Donovan McNabb Carson Wentz 2016 100 + yard rushing games 26 Wilbert Montgomery 8 Wilbert Montgomery 1981 Brian Westbrook 2006 Brian Westbrook Don Johnson 1953 Mike Hogan 1976 Charlie Garner 1994 Bryce Brown 2012 100 + yard receiving games 23 Pete Retzlaff 8 Terrell Owens Fred Barnett Keith Jackson Charle Young 1973 Games with 1 + TD scored 69 Harold Carmichael 13 LeSean McCoy 2011 5 Harold Carmichael Duce Staley Brian Westbrook 9 Calvin Williams 1990 Games with 2 + TD scored 18 Brian Westbrook 6 LeSean McCoy 2011 Wilbert Montgomery Bryce Brown 2012 Jordan Matthews 2014 Games with 3 + TD scored 7 Brian Westbrook Pete Retzlaff 1965 Wilbert Montgomery 1982 Terrell Owens Brian Westbrook 2007 , 2008 - - Coaches of note Main article : List of Philadelphia Eagles head coaches Current staff Philadelphia Eagles staff Front Office Chairman / CEO -- Jeffrey Lurie President -- Don Smolenski Executive Vice President of Football Operations -- Howie Roseman Senior Football Advisor -- Tom Donahoe Vice President of Player Personnel -- Joe Douglas Assistant Director of Player Personnel -- Andy Weidl Vice President of Football Operations and Strategy -- Alec Halaby Senior Director of College Scouting -- Anthony Patch Director of College Scouting -- Ian Cunningham Assistant Director of College Scouting -- Mike Bradway Director of Pro Scouting -- Dwayne Joseph Assistant Director of Pro Scouting -- Brandon Brown Director of Football Administration -- Jake Rosenberg Football Operations Executive -- Brian Dawkins Player Personnel Executive -- T.J. McCreight Player Personnel Executive College / Pro -- Trey Brown Assistant Director of Football Analytics -- Taylor Rajack Head Coaches Head Coach -- Doug Pederson Assistant Head Coach / Running Backs -- Duce Staley Offensive Coaches Offensive Coordinator -- Mike Groh Quarterbacks -- Press Taylor Wide Receivers -- Gunter Brewer Assistant Wide Receivers - Carson Walch Tight Ends -- Justin Peelle Offensive Line / Run Game Coordinator -- Jeff Stoutland Assistant Offensive Line / Tight Ends / Run Game -- Eugene Chung Offensive Quality Control / Assistant Quarterbacks -- Spencer Phillips Offensive Quality Control / Assistant Running Backs - Trent Miles Offensive Quality Control / Assistant Offensive Line -- T.J. Paganetti Defensive Coaches Defensive Coordinator -- Jim Schwartz Defensive Line -- Chris Wilson Linebackers -- Ken Flajole Secondary -- Cory Undlin Safeties -- Tim Hauck Defensive Quality Control / Assistant Defensive Line -- Phillip Daniels Defensive Quality Control / Assistant Linebackers - Ryan Paganetti Defensive Quality Control / Assistant Secondary -- Dino Vasso Special Teams Coaches Special Teams Coordinator -- Dave Fipp Assistant Special Teams -- Matthew Harper Strength and Conditioning Head Strength Coach -- Josh Hingst Assistant Strength Coach -- Keith Gray Perfomance Nutrition Coordinator / Assistant Strength Coach - Michael Minnis Strength Assistant -- Ben Wagner Director of High Performance -- Shaun Huls → Coaching Staff → Management → More NFL staffs AFC East BUF MIA NE NYJ North BAL CIN CLE PIT South HOU IND JAX TEN West DEN KC LAC OAK NFC East DAL NYG PHI WAS North CHI DET GB MIN South ATL CAR NO TB West ARI LAR SF SEA Radio and television Main article : List of Philadelphia Eagles broadcasters Eagles Radio affiliates Map of radio affiliates . City Call Sign Frenquency Atlantic City , New Jersey WPGG 1450 AM Easton , Pennsylvania WCTO 96.1 FM Levittown , Pennsylvania WBCB 1490 AM Milford , Delaware WAFL 97.7 FM Millville , New Jersey WENJ 97.3 FM Philadelphia WTEL 610 AM WIP - FM 94.1 FM Pottsville , Pennsylvania WPPA 1360 AM Reading , Pennsylvania WEEU 830 AM Scranton , Pennsylvania WEJL 630 AM Sunbury , Pennsylvania WEGH 107.3 FM Williamsport , Pennsylvania WBZD - FM 93.3 FM Wilmington , Delaware WDEL 1150 AM York , Pennsylvania WSOX 96.1 FM From 2008 through 2010 , Eagles games were broadcast on both rock - formatted WYSP and sports - talk Sports Radio 610 WIP , as both stations are owned and operated by CBS Radio . In 2011 , CBS dropped the music on WYSP , renaming it WIP - FM and making it a full simulcast of WIP . Later , 610 AM became a CBS Sports Radio national broadcast , and 94 WIP was broadcast on WIP FM . The Eagles extended their broadcasting contract with WIP - FM through 2024 . Merrill Reese , who joined the Eagles in 1976 , is the play - by - play announcer , and former Eagles wide receiver Mike Quick , who replaced the offense lineman Stan Walters beginning in 1998 , is the color analyst . The post game show , which has consisted of many Philadelphia sports personalities , as of the 2014 season is hosted by Kevin Riley , a former Eagles linebacker and special - teamer , and Rob Ellis . Riley was the former post-game host for the show on 94 WYSP before the WIP change over ; Rob Ellis hosts a weekly show nightly from 6 -- 10 on 94.1 WIP - FM . No announcement was made prior to the start of preseason regarding who would be the host ( s ) for 2015 . In 2015 , the preseason games are being televised on WCAU , the local NBC owned and operated station . Television announcers for these preseason games were not announced prior to the start of preseason . During the regular season , games are governed by the NFL 's master broadcasting contract with FOX , CBS , NBC , and ESPN . Most games can be seen on FOX - owned WTXF - TV . When hosting an AFC team , those games can be seen on CBS - owned KYW - TV . Media and cultural reference In the book MASH : A Novel About Three Army Doctors , the character Captain Oliver Wendell `` Spearchucker '' Jones fictionally played for the Philadelphia Eagles , though in the movie this was changed to San Francisco . The 1976 draw was the subject of the movie Invincible . The movie stars Mark Wahlberg as Vince Papale , a 30 - year - old bartender and part - time school teacher , and also a diehard Eagles fan who became an Eagles player . The film differs slightly from true events as the selection process was invitation only , and Papale had at least some previous playing experience . The film Silver Linings Playbook highlights the 2008 Philadelphia Eagles season . The film was critically acclaimed and nominated for several awards including 8 Academy Awards . In the 1978 Academy Award - winning movie The Deer Hunter , the Eagles are referenced when Nick talks to Stan in the bar , saying : `` Hey , I got a hundred bucks says the Eagles never cross the fifty in the next half and Oakland wins by 20 ! '' Stan responds ; `` And I got an extra twenty says the Eagles ' quarterback wears a dress ! '' The award - winning comedy series It 's Always Sunny in Philadelphia starring Danny DeVito makes several references to the Philadelphia Eagles , most notably Season 3 , Episode 2 -- `` The Gang Gets Invincible , '' the title being a reference to the Wahlberg film . See also Philadelphia portal Sports portal South Philadelphia Sports Complex Sports in Philadelphia The Michael Vick Project Forbes ' list of the most valuable sports teams Notes and references Jump up ^ `` Philadelphia Eagles Team Facts '' . Pro Football Hall of Fame . Retrieved October 2 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Team Information '' ( PDF ) . 2016 Philadelphia Eagles Training Camp Media Guide . Philadelphia Eagles . September 9 , 2016 . Retrieved September 17 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Philadelphia Eagles Team Capsule '' ( PDF ) . 2017 Official National Football League Record and Fact Book . National Football League . August 22 , 2017 . Retrieved September 17 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Top 10 NFL Rivalries Of All Time : No. 4 Giants - Eagles '' . Sports Illustrated . December 15 , 2005 . Retrieved September 17 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Chadiha , Jeffri ( October 31 , 2007 ) . `` Ranking the NFL 's best rivalries : Where does Colts - Pats fit ? '' . ESPN.com . Retrieved April 12 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Bryan , Dave ( September 20 , 2016 ) . `` After 8 Straight Losses , Steelers Looking For Philadelphia Freedom Sunday Against Eagles '' . SteelersDepot.com . Retrieved September 17 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Fox , Ashley ( January 4 , 2014 ) . `` Fans always have Eagles ' back '' . ESPN . Retrieved September 14 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Clark , Kevin ( July 2 , 2012 ) . `` Game Changer : NFL Scrambles to Fill Seats '' . The Wall Street Journal . Retrieved September 14 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Smith , Howard ( December 7 , 2011 ) . `` NFL Players Poll : Most Intimidating Fans '' . Sports Illustrated . Retrieved September 14 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Lyons , 2010 pg. 81 ^ Jump up to : Lyons , 2010 pg. 82 Jump up ^ Kuklick , Bruce ( 1993 ) . To Every Thing a Season : Shibe Park and Urban Philadelphia , 1909 -- 1976 . Princeton University Press . p. 86 . ISBN 0 - 691 - 02104 - X . Retrieved May 27 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : See : History of the Pittsburgh Steelers # 1940 -- 41 : A new name and a `` new '' team . ^ Jump up to : Didinger , Ray ; Robert S. Lyons ( 2005 ) . The Eagles Encyclopedia . Temple University Press . ISBN 1 - 59213 - 449 - 1 . Jump up ^ `` Year - by - Year History '' ( PDF ) . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on January 29 , 2006 . Retrieved December 20 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Brookover , Bob ( September 17 , 2006 ) . `` The Birds ' Biggest Rival -- In a division of fierce foes , the Giants have battled the Eagles as tough as anyone '' . Philadelphia Inquirer . p . D1 . Jump up ^ Brookover , Bob ( November 6 , 2008 ) . `` Eagles -- Giants among top rivalries '' . Philadelphia Inquirer . p . D6 . Jump up ^ `` Eagles search ends with Vermeil '' . St Petersburg Times . February 9 , 1976 . Retrieved November 5 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` The World 's Most Valuable Sports Teams No. 11 Philadelphia Eagles '' . Forbes.com . July 12 , 2011 . Retrieved February 11 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Heath , John . `` Denver 's Brian Dawkins : An Ageless Wolverine '' . BroncoTalk . Retrieved 24 April 2012 . Jump up ^ Dan Gelston ( Oct 26 , 2008 ) . `` Westbrook Helps Eagles Soar Above Falcons , Win 500th Game '' . NBC 10 Philadelphia . Retrieved February 11 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Vick , Eagles agree to 2 - year deal '' . ESPN.com . August 14 , 2009 . Retrieved February 11 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Eagles sign Reid through 2013 '' . ESPN.com . December 9 , 2009 . Retrieved February 11 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Maese , Rick ( April 5 , 2010 ) . `` Washington Redskins acquire quarterback Donovan McNabb from Philadelphia Eagles '' . The Washington Post . Retrieved April 5 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Eagles fire Reid '' . USA Today . Philadelphia . December 30 , 2012 . Retrieved December 30 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Eagles hire Chip Kelly as coach '' . ESPN.com . January 16 , 2013 . Retrieved February 11 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Sports . Rocky Mount Telegram . Retrieved on August 6 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` Eagles Acquire LB Alonso For RB McCoy '' . PhiladelphiaEagles.com . March 10 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Patra , Kevin ( March 10 , 2015 ) . `` Indianapolis Colts to sign Trent Cole '' . NFL.com . Retrieved March 10 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Sessler , Marc . `` Rams trading Sam Bradford to Eagles for Nick Foles '' . NFL.com . Retrieved March 10 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` It 's Official : RB Murray Signs With Eagles '' . PhiladelphiaEagles.com . March 12 , 2015 . Retrieved March 12 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` CB Byron Maxwell joins Eagles via FA '' . PhiladelphiaEagles.com . Retrieved March 10 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Eagles Release Head Coach Chip Kelly '' . PhiladelphiaEagles.com . December 29 , 2015 . Retrieved January 1 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Duce Staley interviews for Philadelphia Eagles ' vacant coaching job . Espn.go.com ( January 2 , 2016 ) . Retrieved on 2016 - 08 - 06 . Jump up ^ Wesseling , Chris ( January 18 , 2016 ) . `` Philadelphia Eagles hire Doug Pederson as coach '' . National Football League . Retrieved January 21 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Eagles Name Doug Pederson Head Coach '' . Philadelphia Eagles . January 18 , 2016 . Retrieved January 21 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Reimer , Alex ( September 5 , 2016 ) . `` Carson Wentz will start for Eagles '' . sbnation.com . Jump up ^ Pennington , Tom ( November 11 , 2016 ) . `` The Eagles Should Be Better Than 4 - 4 '' . fivethirtyeight.com . Retrieved April 25 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Philadelphia Eagles Media Guide Archived February 1 , 2014 , at the Wayback Machine ... Legacy.philadelphiaeagles.com . Retrieved on August 6 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Berman , Zach ( November 18 , 2016 ) . `` What 's in a number ? Eagles tell their stories : Some are chosen , some are random '' . Philadelphia Media Network ( Digital ) , LLC . Retrieved 2016 - 11 - 30 . See also : National Football League uniform numbers . Jump up ^ `` Eagles Unveil 75th Anniversary Plans '' . Philadelphia Eagles. April 25 , 2007 . Archived from the original on July 24 , 2010 . Retrieved December 20 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Eagles Announce Plans to Honor 1960 Title Team '' . Csnphilly.com . May 3 , 2010 . Archived from the original on July 30 , 2012 . Retrieved December 20 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Training Camp , '' . Philadelphiaeagles.com . Archived from the original on August 18 , 2010 . Retrieved December 20 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Eagles move training camp from Lehigh . Foxnews.com ( March 15 , 2013 ) . Retrieved on 2016 - 08 - 06 . ^ Jump up to : Frank , Reuben ( July 10 , 2012 ) . `` Eagles to keep training camp at Lehigh in 2013 '' . CSN Philly . Archived from the original on January 21 , 2013 . Retrieved July 10 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Woolsey , Matt ( September 1 , 2008 ) . `` In Depth : America 's Most Die - Hard Football Fans '' . Forbes . Retrieved February 8 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Phillies Pass Eagles In Google Ranking . myfoxphilly.com ( July 2 , 2011 ) Jump up ^ Thomas , G. Scott ( September 4 , 2006 ) . `` NFL Fan Loyalty : Methodology '' . Bizjournals . Archived from the original on May 26 , 2008 . Retrieved February 6 , 2009 . Jump up ^ George , John ( February 5 , 1999 ) . `` Proven : Eagles ' fans are fanatics '' . Philadelphia Business Journal . Philadelphia ; Pennsylvania . p. 3 . Jump up ^ Thomas , G. Scott ( September 4 , 2006 ) . `` Full fan loyalty rankings '' . Bizjournals . Archived from the original on June 29 , 2009 . Retrieved February 6 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Thomas , G. Scott ( September 4 , 2006 ) . `` NFL Fan Support Rankings '' . Bizjournals . Archived from the original on December 26 , 2009 . Retrieved February 6 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Woolsey , Matt ( September 1 , 2008 ) . `` America 's Most Die - Hard Football Fans '' . Forbes . Retrieved February 8 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Woolsey , Matt ( September 1 , 2008 ) . `` America 's Most Die - Hard Football Fans : Methodology '' . Forbes . Retrieved February 8 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : Mosley , Matt ( August 29 , 2008 ) . `` NFL 's best fans ? We got ta hand it to Steelers barely '' . ESPN . Retrieved August 30 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Berman , Zack ( June 14 , 2006 ) . `` Single Game Tickets Sold Out ! '' . PhiladelphiaEagles.com . Archived from the original on December 9 , 2008 . Retrieved June 22 , 2006 . ^ Jump up to : Anderson , Dave ( October 29 , 2002 ) . `` To Eagles , Shockey Is Public Enemy No. 1 '' . The New York Times . Retrieved December 23 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Longman , Jeré ( 2006 ) . If Football 's a Religion , Why Do n't We Have a Prayer ? . New York : HarperCollins Publishers . ISBN 978 - 0 - 06 - 084373 - 1 . Jump up ^ `` Court at Eagles ' games is out of session Sunday '' . Sports Illustrated . Associated Press . December 6 , 2003 . Retrieved December 23 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Cheerleaders '' . Philadelphia Eagles . Retrieved September 3 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Cheerleaders -- Swimsuit Calendar '' . Philadelphia Eagles . Retrieved July 4 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Eagles Cheerleaders Swimsuit -- Android - apps op Google Play '' . Play.google.com . November 28 , 2011 . Retrieved July 4 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Didinger , Ray ( July 21 , 2012 ) . `` Ray 's QB Notes 4 : Randall 's No. 12 retired ? '' . CSN Philly . Archived from the original on January 20 , 2013 . Retrieved August 3 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Weinberg , David ( July 20 , 2012 ) . `` Leo Carlin , Troy Vincent headed to Eagles Hall of Fame '' . pressofatlanticcity.com . Retrieved July 20 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Eagles Hall of Fame Inductees '' ( PDF ) . philadelphiaeagles.com . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on October 25 , 2014 . Retrieved August 2 , 2014 . Jump up ^ And The Winners Were ... See all the John Wanamaker Athletic Award - recipients since 1961 Archived July 24 , 2011 , at the Wayback Machine . webpage . Philadelphia Sports Congress website ( Philadelphia Convention & Visitors Bureau ) . Retrieved July 8 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Sportsradio WIP - Entercom Communications CEO David Field '' . Facebook.com . Retrieved 2018 - 01 - 19 . Jump up ^ Invincible on IMDb Jump up ^ Cimino , Michael . `` The Deer Hunter Final Screenplay '' ( PDF ) . drexel.edu . Retrieved 2018 - 01 - 19 . Jump up ^ Savage , Fred ( 13 September 2007 ) . `` The Gang Gets Invincible '' . IMDB . IMDB . Retrieved 27 September 2016 . Sources Lyons , Robert S. ( 2010 ) . On Any Given Sunday : A Life of Bert Bell . Philadelphia : Temple University Press . ISBN 978 - 1 - 59213 - 731 - 2 . OCLC 607553558 . External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Philadelphia Eagles . Official website Philadelphia Eagles Founded in 1933 Based and headquartered in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania Franchise Franchise History Seasons Coaches Quarterbacks Players Stadiums Baker Bowl Philadelphia Municipal Stadium Connie Mack Stadium Franklin Field Veterans Stadium Lincoln Financial Field Culture Fly , Eagles Fly Swoop Curse of Billy Penn The Lombardi Curse Invincible Philadelphia Sports Hall of Fame Matt Guokas Sr . 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when is the last time the philadelphia won the superbowl

Super Bowl LII,

July 8, 1933

List of nominated members of Rajya Sabha - wikipedia List of nominated members of Rajya Sabha Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see Member of Parliament ( India ) . As per the Fourth Schedule ( Articles 4 ( 1 ) and 80 ( 2 ) ) of the Constitution of India , 12 members are nominated by President for term of six years for their contributions to art , literature , science , and social services . Current nominated members of Rajya Sabha ( edit ) This is a Current list of Members of the Rajya Sabha who have been nominated by the President . No . Name Field Affiliation Date of Appointment Date of Retirement Roopa Ganguly Art Bharatiya Janata Party 04 - Oct - 2016 03 - Oct - 2022 Sambhaji Raje Social work Bharatiya Janata Party 07 - Jun - 2016 03 - May - 2022 Suresh Gopi Art Bharatiya Janata Party 25 - Apr - 2016 24 - Apr - 2022 Subramanian Swamy Economics Bharatiya Janata Party 25 - Apr - 2016 24 - Apr - 2022 5 Narendra Jadhav Economics Nominated 25 - Apr - 2016 24 - Apr - 2022 6 Mary Kom Sport Nominated 25 - Apr - 2016 24 - Apr - 2022 7 Swapan Dasgupta Journalism Nominated 25 - Apr - 2016 24 - Apr - 2022 8 K.T.S. Tulsi Law Nominated 25 - Feb - 2014 24 - Feb - 2020 9 K. Parasaran Law Nominated 09 - Jun - 2012 28 - Jun - 2018 10 Rekha Art Nominated 27 - Apr - 2012 26 - Apr - 2018 11 Sachin Tendulkar Social service Nominated 27 - Apr - 2012 26 - Apr - 2018 12 Anu Aga Business Nominated 27 - Apr - 2012 26 - Apr - 2018 Complete list of nominated members of Rajya Sabha ( edit ) This is a Complete list of Members of the Rajya Sabha who have been nominated by the President . Sr. No . Image Name Tenure -- Alladi Krishnaswamy Iyer 1952 -- 1953 Satyendranath Bose 1952 -- 1960 Prithviraj Kapoor 1952 -- 1960 -- Jagadisan Mohandas Kumarappa 1952 -- 1954 5 -- Kalidas Nag 1952 -- 1954 6 Rukmini Devi Arundale 1952 -- 1962 7 -- N.R. Malkani 1952 -- 1962 8 -- Sahib Singh Sokhey 1952 -- 1956 9 -- Zakir Hussain 1952 -- 1962 10 -- Maithili Sharan Gupt 1952 -- 1964 11 -- Kakasaheb Kalelkar 1952 -- 1964 12 -- Radha Kumud Mukherjee 1952 -- 1958 13 P.V. Kane 1953 -- 1964 14 -- Moturi Satyanarayana 1954 -- 1966 15 -- Ardeshir Ruttonji Wadia 1954 -- 1966 16 -- Bhargavram Vitthal Warerkar 1956 -- 1968 17 -- Tara Chand 1956 -- 1968 18 -- Ajudhia Nath Khosla 1958 -- 1964 19 -- K.M. Panikkar 1959 -- 1966 20 -- Jairamdas Daulatram 1959 -- 1976 21 -- Mohanlal Saksena 1959 -- 1964 22 -- Tarasankar Bandyopadhyay 1960 -- 1966 23 -- V.T. Krishnamachari 1961 -- 1967 24 -- R.R. Diwakar 1962 -- 1968 25 -- Gopal Singh 1962 -- 1968 26 -- M. Ajmal Khan 1964 -- 1972 27 -- Satyavrata Siddhantalankar 1964 -- 1968 28 Shakuntala Paranjpye 1964 -- 1970 29 -- Badri Nath Prasad 1964 -- 1970 30 -- G. Ramachandran 1964 -- 1970 31 -- M.N. Kaul 1964 -- 1972 32 -- Harivanshrai Bachchan 1966 -- 1972 33 -- Dhananjay Ramchandra Gadgil 1966 -- 1972 34 -- M.C. Setalvad 1966 -- 1972 35 G. Sankara Kurup 1968 -- 1972 36 Joachim Alva 1968 -- 1974 37 S. Nurul Hasan 1968 -- 1974 38 -- K. Ramiah 1968 -- 1974 39 -- Ganga Sharan Sinha 1968 -- 1974 40 -- Maragatham Chandrasekhar 1970 -- 1988 41 -- Umashankar Joshi 1970 -- 1976 42 -- Rasheeduddin Khan 1970 -- 1982 43 -- Vidya Prakash Dutt 1971 -- 1980 44 -- Abu Abraham 1972 -- 1978 45 -- Pramathanath Bishi 1972 -- 1978 46 -- C.K. Daphtary 1972 -- 1978 47 -- Habib Tanvir 1972 -- 1978 48 -- Krishna Kriplani 1974 -- 1980 49 Lokesh Chandra 1974 -- 1986 50 -- Scato Swu 1974 -- 1986 51 -- B.N. Banerjee 1976 -- 1982 52 -- Malcolm Adiseshiah 1978 -- 1984 53 -- Fathema Ismail 1978 -- 1984 54 -- Pandurang Dharmaji Jadhav 1978 -- 1984 55 -- Bhagwati Charan Varma 1978 -- 1984 56 Nargis Dutt 1980 -- 1986 57 Khushwant Singh 1980 -- 1986 58 -- Asima Chatterjee 1982 -- 1990 59 Sivaji Ganesan 1982 -- 1986 60 -- Hayatullah Ansari 1982 -- 1988 61 -- Madan Bhatia 1982 -- 1994 62 -- V.N. Tiwari 1982 -- 1984 63 -- Ghulam Rasool Kar 1984 -- 1987 64 -- Tindivanam K. Ramamurthy 1984 -- 1990 65 -- H.L. Kapur 1985 -- 1988 66 Salim Ali 1985 -- 1988 67 -- Purushottam Kakodkar 1985 -- 1991 68 Ela Bhatt 1986 -- 1988 69 -- Amrita Pritam 1986 -- 1992 70 M.F. Husain 1986 -- 1992 71 R.K. Narayan 1986 -- 1992 72 Ravi Shankar 1986 -- 1992 73 -- Syeda Anwara Taimur 1988 -- 1990 74 -- Sat Paul Mittal 1988 -- 1994 75 -- Bishambhar Nath Pande 1988 -- 1994 76 -- Mohammad Yunus 1989 -- 1995 77 Prakash Ambedkar 1990 -- 1996 78 Jagmohan 1990 -- 1996 79 -- Bhupinder Singh Mann 1990 -- 1996 80 -- Russi Karanjia 1991 -- 1997 81 -- Mahendra Prasad 1993 -- 1994 82 -- M. Aram 1993 -- 1999 83 Vyjayantimala Bali 1993 -- 1999 84 -- B.B. Dutta 1993 -- 1999 85 -- Maulana Habibur Rahman Nomani 1993 -- 1999 86 Nirmala Deshpande 1997 -- 1999 and 2004 -- 2010 87 Shabana Azmi 1997 -- 2003 88 -- P. Selvie Das 1997 -- 2003 89 -- Kartar Singh Duggal 1997 -- 2003 90 Kuldip Nayyar 1997 -- 2003 91 -- Raja Ramanna 1997 -- 2003 92 C. Narayana Reddy 1997 -- 2003 93 Mrinal Sen 1997 -- 2003 94 -- Chaudhary Harmohan Singh Yadav 1997 -- 2003 95 -- Nanaji Deshmukh 1999 -- 2005 96 Lata Mangeshkar 1999 -- 2005 97 -- Fali Nariman 1999 -- 2005 98 -- Cho Ramaswamy 1999 -- 2005 99 Hema Malini 2003 -- 2009 100 -- Bimal Jalan 2003 -- 2009 101 K. Kasturirangan 2003 -- 2009 102 -- Narayan Singh Manaklao 2003 -- 2009 103 -- Vidya Niwas Misra 2003 -- 2009 104 -- Chandan Mitra 2003 -- 2009 105 Dara Singh 2003 -- 2009 106 Kapila Vatsyayan 2006 -- 2012 107 Ram Jethmalani 2006 -- 2009 108 -- Shobhana Bhartia 2006 -- 2012 109 Shyam Benegal 2006 -- 2012 110 M.S. Swaminathan 2007 -- 2013 111 -- C. Rangarajan 2008 -- 2010 112 -- H.K. Dua 2009 -- 2015 113 -- Ashok Sekhar Ganguly 2009 -- 2015 114 -- Mani Shankar Aiyar 2010 -- 2016 115 Javed Akhtar 2010 -- 2016 116 B. Jayashree 2010 -- 2016 117 Ram Dayal Munda 2010 -- 2011 118 -- Bhalchandra Mungekar 2010 -- 2016 119 -- Mrinal Miri 2012 -- 2016 120 -- Anu Aga 2012 -- 2018 121 -- K. Parasaran 2012 -- 2018 122 Rekha 2012 -- 2018 123 Sachin Tendulkar 2012 -- 2018 124 -- K.T.S. Tulsi 2014 - 2020 125 Subramanian Swamy 2016 - 2022 126 MC Mary Kom 2016 - 2022 127 Narendra Jadhav 2016 - 2022 129 Suresh Gopi 2016 - 2022 130 -- Swapan Dasgupta 2016 - 2022 131 -- Sambhaji Raje 2016 - 2022 132 -- Roopa Ganguly 2016 - 2022 References ( edit ) Nominated Members since 1952 Narender Kumar Current list of Nominated Members Specific Jump up ^ `` Statewise List '' . 164.100. 47.5 . Retrieved 12 June 2016 . Jump up ^ http://164.100.47.5/Newmembers/partymemberlist.aspx ^ Jump up to : `` Statewise Retirement '' . 164.100. 47.5 . Retrieved 12 June 2016 . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_nominated_members_of_Rajya_Sabha&oldid=818220921 '' Categories : Nominated members of the Rajya Sabha Lists of members of the Rajya Sabha Talk About Wikipedia Bahasa Indonesia മലയാളം Edit links This page was last edited on 2 January 2018 , at 08 : 46 . About Wikipedia

who was the first lady nominated member of the rajya sabha

Mary Kom

Rajya Sabha

Adobe Flash Player - wikipedia Adobe Flash Player Jump to : navigation , search Adobe Flash Player Original author ( s ) FutureWave Macromedia Developer ( s ) Adobe Systems Initial release 1996 ; 22 years ago ( 1996 ) Stable release ( s ) ( ± ) Windows , macOS , Linux , Chrome OS 28.0. 0.137 / January 9 , 2018 ; 16 days ago ( 2018 - 01 - 09 ) Android 4.0. x 11.1. 115.81 / September 10 , 2013 ; 4 years ago ( 2013 - 09 - 10 ) Android 2. x and 3. x 11.1. 111.73 / September 10 , 2013 ; 4 years ago ( 2013 - 09 - 10 ) Solaris 11.2. 202.223 / March 28 , 2012 ; 5 years ago ( 2012 - 03 - 28 ) Preview release ( s ) ( ± ) Windows , macOS , Linux , Chrome OS 28.0. 0.152 Beta / January 24 , 2018 ; 1 day ago ( 2018 - 01 - 24 ) Written in C++ Operating system Windows , macOS , Linux , Chrome OS , Solaris , BlackBerry Tablet OS , Android , and Pocket PC Platform Web browsers and ActiveX - based software Available in Chinese Simplified , Chinese Traditional , English , French , German , Italian , Japanese , Polish , Russian , Spanish , Korean , and Turkish Type Run - time environment , Media player , and Browser extension License Freeware Website www.adobe.com/products/flashplayer.html Adobe Flash Player ( labeled Shockwave Flash in Internet Explorer and Firefox ) is freeware software for using content created on the Adobe Flash platform , including viewing multimedia , executing rich Internet applications , and streaming video and audio . Flash Player can run from a web browser as a browser plug - in or on supported mobile devices . Flash Player was created by Macromedia and has been developed and distributed by Adobe Systems since Adobe acquired Macromedia . Flash Player runs SWF files that can be created by the Adobe Animate and Adobe Flash Professional authoring tools , by Adobe Flash Builder or by third party tools such as FlashDevelop . Flash Player supports vector and raster graphics , 3D graphics , an embedded scripting language called ActionScript , and streaming of video and audio . ActionScript is based on ECMAScript , and supports object - oriented code , and is similar to JavaScript . Flash Player has a wide user base , and is a common format for games , animations , and graphical user interfaces ( GUIs ) embedded in web pages . Adobe stated in 2013 that more than 400 million out of over 1 billion connected desktops update to the new version of Flash Player within six weeks of release . Flash Player is distributed for free and its plug - in versions are available for every major web browser and operating system . Google Chrome comes bundled with the sandboxed Adobe Flash plug - in and Windows 8 and later come with their own integrated Flash Player ( for Internet Explorer and Edge ) . Flash Player has become increasingly criticized for its performance , consumption of battery on mobile devices , the number of security vulnerabilities that had been discovered in the software , and that Flash is a closed platform . Apple co-founder Steve Jobs was highly critical of Flash Player , having published an open letter detailing Apple 's reasoning for banning the Flash platform from being used on its iOS device family . Its usage has also waned due to modern web standards that allow some of Flash 's use cases to be fulfilled without third - party plugins . In July 2017 , Adobe announced that it would end support for Flash Player in 2020 , and continued to encourage the use of open HTML5 standards in place of Flash . The announcement was coordinated with Apple , Facebook , Google , Microsoft , and Mozilla . Contents ( hide ) 1 Features 1.1 Data formats 1.2 Multimedia formats 1.3 Streaming protocols 1.4 Performance 1.4. 1 Hardware acceleration 1.4. 2 Compilation 2 Development methods 3 Development tools 3.1 Game development 4 Availability 4.1 Desktop platforms 4.2 Mobile platforms 4.3 Other hardware 5 Open source 6 Criticism 6.1 Usability 6.2 Privacy 6.3 Security 6.4 Vendor lock - in 6.5 Apple controversy 7 Release history 8 See also 9 References and notes 10 Further reading 11 External links Features ( edit ) Adobe Flash Player is a runtime that executes and displays content from a provided SWF file , although it has no in - built features to modify the SWF file at runtime . It can execute software written in the ActionScript programming language which enables the runtime manipulation of text , data , vector graphics , raster graphics , sound and video . The player can also access certain connected hardware devices , including web cameras and microphones , after permission for the same has been granted by the user . Flash Player is used internally by the Adobe Integrated Runtime ( AIR ) , to provide a cross-platform runtime environment for desktop applications and mobile applications . AIR supports installable applications on Windows , Linux , macOS , and some mobile operating systems such as iOS and Android . Flash applications must specifically be built for the AIR runtime to use additional features provided , such as file system integration , native client extensions , native window / screen integration , taskbar / dock integration , and hardware integration with connected Accelerometer and GPS devices . Data formats ( edit ) Flash Player includes native support for many different data formats , some of which can only be accessed through the ActionScript scripting interface . XML : Flash Player has included native support for XML parsing and generation since version 8 . XML data is held in memory as an XML Document Object Model , and can be manipulated using ActionScript . ActionScript 3 also supports ECMAScript for XML ( E4X ) , which allows XML data to be manipulated more easily . JSON : Flash Player 11 includes native support for importing and exporting data in the JavaScript Object Notation ( JSON ) format , which allows interoperability with web services and JavaScript programs . AMF : Flash Player allows application data to be stored on users computers , in the form of Local Shared Objects , the Flash equivalent to browser cookies . Flash Player can also natively read and write files in the Action Message Format , the default data format for Local Shared Objects . Since the AMF format specification is published , data can be transferred to and from Flash applications using AMF datasets instead of JSON or XML , reducing the need for parsing and validating such data . SWF : The specification for the SWF file format was published by Adobe , enabling the development of the SWX Format project , which used the SWF file format and AMF as a means for Flash applications to exchange data with server side applications . The SWX system stores data as standard SWF bytecode which is automatically interpreted by Flash Player . Another open - source project , SWXml allows Flash applications to load XML files as native ActionScript objects without any client - side XML parsing , by converting XML files to SWF / AMF on the server . Multimedia formats ( edit ) Flash Player is primarily a graphics and multimedia platform , and has supported raster graphics and vector graphics since its earliest version . It supports the following different multimedia formats which it can natively decode and playback . MP3 : Support for decoding and playback of streaming MPEG - 2 Audio Layer III ( MP3 ) audio was introduced in Flash Player 4 . MP3 files can be accessed and played back from a server via HTTP , or embedded inside an SWF file , which is also a streaming format . FLV : Support for decoding and playing back video and audio inside Flash Video ( FLV and F4V ) files , a format developed by Adobe Systems and Macromedia . Flash Video is only a container format and supports multiple different video codecs , such as Sorenson Spark , VP6 and more recently H. 264 . Flash Player uses hardware acceleration to display video where present , using technologies such as DirectX Video Acceleration and OpenGL to do so . Flash Video is used by YouTube , Hulu , Yahoo ! Video , BBC Online and other news providers . FLV files can be played back from a server using HTTP progressive download , and can also be embedded inside an SWF file . Flash Video can also be streamed via RTMP using the Adobe Flash Media Server or other such server - side software . PNG : Support for decoding and rendering Portable Network Graphics ( PNG ) images , in both its 24 - bit ( opaque ) and 32 - bit ( semi-transparent ) variants . Flash Player 11 can also encode a PNG bitmap via ActionScript . JPEG : Support for decoding and rendering compressed JPEG images . Flash Player 10 added support for the JPEG - XR advanced image compression standard developed by Microsoft Corporation , which results in better compression and quality than JPEG . JPEG - XR enables lossy and lossless compression with or without alpha channel transparency . Flash Player 11 can also encode a JPEG or JPEG - XR bitmap via ActionScript . GIF : Support for decoding and rendering compressed Graphics Interchange Format ( GIF ) images , in its single - frame variants only . Loading a multi-frame GIF will display only the first image frame . Streaming protocols ( edit ) HTTP : Support for communicating with web servers using HTTP requests and POST data . However , only websites that explicitly allow Flash to connect to them can be accessed via HTTP or sockets , to prevent Flash being used as a tool for cross-site request forgery , cross-site scripting , DNS rebinding and denial - of - service attacks . Websites must host a certain XML file termed a cross domain policy , allowing or denying Flash content from specific websites to connect to them . Certain websites , such as Digg , Flickr , Photobucket already host a cross domain policy that permits Flash content to access their website via HTTP . RTMP : Support for live audio and video streaming using the Real Time Messaging Protocol ( RTMP ) developed by Macromedia . RTMP supports a non-encrypted version over the Transmission Control Protocol ( TCP ) or an encrypted version over a secure Transport Layer Security ( SSL ) connection . RTMPT can also be encapsulated within HTTP requests to traverse firewalls that only allow HTTP traffic . TCP : Support for Transmission Control Protocol ( TCP ) Internet socket communication to communicate with any type of server , using stream sockets . Sockets can be used only via ActionScript , and can transfer plain text , XML or binary data ( ActionScript 3.0 and later ) . To prevent security issues , web servers that permit Flash content to communicate with them using sockets must host an XML - based cross domain policy file , served on Port 843 . Sockets enable AS3 programs to interface with any kind of server software , such as MySQL . Performance ( edit ) Hardware acceleration ( edit ) Until version 10 of the Flash player , there was no support for GPU acceleration . Version 10 added a limited form of support for shaders on materials in the form of the Pixel Bender API , but still did not have GPU - accelerated 3D vertex processing . A significant change came in version 11 , which added a new low - level API called Stage3D ( initially codenamed Molehill ) , which provides full GPU acceleration , similar to WebGL . ( The partial support for GPU acceleration in Pixel Bender was completely removed in Flash 11.8 , resulting in the disruption of some projects like MIT 's Scratch , which lacked the manpower to recode their applications quickly enough . ) Current versions of Flash Player are optimized to use hardware acceleration for video playback and 3D graphics rendering on many devices , including desktop computers . Performance is similar to HTML5 video playback . Also , Flash Player has been used on multiple mobile devices as a primary user interface renderer . Compilation ( edit ) Although code written in ActionScript 3 executes up to 10 times faster than the prior ActionScript 2 , the Adobe ActionScript 3 compiler is a non-optimizing compiler , and produces inefficient bytecode in the resulting SWF , when compared to toolkits such as CrossBridge . CrossBridge , a toolkit that targets C++ code to run within the Flash Player , uses the LLVM compiler to produce bytecode that runs up to 10 times faster than code the ActionScript 3 compiler produces , only because the LLVM compiler uses more aggressive optimization . Adobe has released ActionScript Compiler 2 ( ASC2 ) in Flex 4.7 and onwards , which improves compilation times and optimizes the generated bytecode and supports method inlining , improving its performance at runtime . As of 2012 , the Haxe multiplatform language can build programs for Flash Player that perform faster than the same application built with the Adobe Flex SDK compiler . Development methods ( edit ) Flash Player applications and games can be built in two significantly different methods : `` Flex '' applications : The Adobe Flex Framework is an integrated collection of stylable Graphical User Interface , data manipulation and networking components , and applications built upon it are termed `` Flex '' applications . Startup time is reduced since the Flex framework must be downloaded before the application begins , and weighs in at approximately 500 KB . Editors include Adobe Flash Builder and FlashDevelop . `` Pure ActionScript '' applications : Applications built without the Flex framework allow greater flexibility and performance . Video games built for Flash Player are typically pure - Actionscript projects . Various open - source component frameworks are available for pure ActionScript projects , such as MadComponents , that provide UI Components at significantly smaller SWF file sizes . In both methods , developers can access the full Flash Player set of functions , including text , vector graphics , bitmap graphics , video , audio , camera , microphone , and others . AIR also includes added features such as file system integration , native extensions , native desktop integration , and hardware integration with connected devices . Development tools ( edit ) Adobe provides five ways of developing applications for Flash Player : Adobe Flash Builder : enterprise application development and debugging Adobe Animate : graphic design , animation and scripting toolset Adobe Scout : visual profiler for performance optimization Apache Flex : a free SDK to compile Flash and Adobe AIR applications from source code ; developed by Adobe and donated to the Apache Foundation CrossBridge : a free SDK to cross-compile C++ code to run in Flash Player Third - party development environments are also available : FlashDevelop : an open - source Flash ActionScript IDE , which includes a debugger for AIR applications Powerflasher FDT : a commercial ActionScript IDE CodeDrive : an extension to Microsoft Visual Studio 2010 for ActionScript 3 development and debugging MTASC : a compiler Haxe : a multi-platform language Game development ( edit ) Adobe offers the free Adobe Gaming SDK , consisting ( as of August 2014 ) of several open - source AS3 libraries built on the Flash Player Stage3D APIs for GPU - accelerated graphics : Away3D : GPU - accelerated 3D graphics and animation engine Starling : GPU - accelerated 2D graphics that mimics the Flash display list API Feathers : GPU - accelerated skinnable GUI library built on top of Starling Dragon Bones : GPU - accelerated 2D skeletal animation library A few commercial game engines target Flash Player ( Stage3D ) as run - time environment , such as Unity 3D and Unreal Engine 3 . Before the introduction of Stage3D , a number of older 2D engines or isometric engines like Flixel saw their heyday . Adobe also developed the CrossBridge toolkit which cross-compiles C / C++ code to run within the Flash Player , using LLVM and GCC as compiler backends , and high - performance memory - access opcodes in the Flash Player ( termed `` Domain Memory '' ) to work with in - memory data quickly . CrossBridge is targeted toward the game development industry , and includes tools for building , testing , and debugging C / C++ projects in Flash Player . Notable online video games developed in Flash include Angry Birds , FarmVille and FarmVille 2 , and AdventureQuest ( started in 2002 , and still active as of 2011 ) . Availability ( edit ) Desktop platforms ( edit ) The latest version of Flash Player is available for Windows XP and later , Mac OS X 10.6 and later and Linux . Adobe Flash Player is available in four flavors : The `` Internet Explorer -- ActiveX '' version is an ActiveX control for use in Internet Explorer , its shells , and other Windows applications that support ActiveX technology . This plugin can not be installed on Windows 8 and later , because these OSes come with their own integrated Flash Player ActiveX . The `` Firefox -- NPAPI '' version is available for Firefox as well as other applications that support NPAPI technology . The `` Opera and Chromium -- PPAPI '' version is available for Chromium and browsers based on Chromium ( such as Opera ) as well as other applications that support PPAPI technology . This plugin can not be installed on Google Chrome as it comes with its own built - in Flash component . The `` projector '' version is a standalone player that can open SWF files directly . On February 22 , 2012 , Adobe announced that it would no longer release new versions of NPAPI Flash plugins for Linux , although Flash Player 11.2 would continue to receive security updates . In August 2016 Adobe announced that , beginning with version 24 , it will resume offering of Flash Player for Linux for other browsers . The Extended Support Release ( ESR ) of Flash Player on macOS and Windows was a version of Flash Player kept up to date with security updates , but none of the new features or bug fixes available in later versions . It has been on version 11.7 as of July 9 , 2013 , version 13 as of May 13 , 2014 , and version 18 as of August 11 , 2015 . Adobe has decided to discontinue the ESR branch and instead focus solely on the standard release as of August 2016 . Availability on desktop operating systems Platform Latest version Browser support Windows XP and later Windows Server 2003 and later 28.0. 0.137 Firefox , Chrome , Chromium , Safari , Opera , Internet Explorer , Microsoft Edge Windows 2000 11.1. 102.55 ? Windows 98 and ME 9.0. 115.0 ? Windows 95 and NT 4 7.0. 14.0 ? Mac OS X 10.6 or later 28.0. 0.137 Firefox , Chrome , Chromium , Safari , Opera Mac OS X 10.5 10.3. 183.90 ? Classic Mac OS , PowerPC 7.0. 14.0 ? Classic Mac OS , 68k 5.0 ? Linux 28.0. 0.137 Firefox , Chrome , Chromium , Opera Solaris 11.2. 202.223 ? Mobile platforms ( edit ) Main article : Adobe Integrated Runtime In 2011 , Flash Player had emerged as the de facto standard for online video publishing on the desktop , with adaptive bitrate video streaming , DRM , and fullscreen support . On mobile devices however , after Apple refused to allow the Flash Player within the inbuilt iOS web browser , Adobe changed strategy , enabling Flash content to be delivered as native mobile applications using the Adobe Integrated Runtime . Up until 2012 , Flash Player 11 was available for the Android ( ARM Cortex - A8 and above ) , although in June 2012 , Google announced that Android 4.1 ( codenamed Jelly Bean ) would not support Flash by default . Starting in August 2012 , Adobe no longer updates Flash for Android . In spite of this , Adobe Flash is still available to install on Android devices via Adobe 's update archives ( up to Android 4.3 ) . Flash Player is certified to be supported on a select range of mobile and tablet devices , from Acer , BlackBerry 10 , Dell , HTC , Lenovo , Logitech , LG , Motorola , Samsung , Sharp , SoftBank , Sony ( and Sony Ericsson ) , and Toshiba . As of 2012 , Adobe has stopped browser - based Flash Player development for mobile browsers in favor of HTML5 , however Adobe continues to support Flash content on mobile devices with the Adobe Integrated Runtime , which allows developers to publish content that runs as native applications on certain supported mobile phone platforms . Version 9 is the most recent version currently available for the Linux / ARM - based Nokia 770 / N800 / N810 Internet tablets running Maemo OS2008 , classic Mac OS and Windows 95 / NT . Version 10 can be run under Windows 98 / Me using KernelEx . HP offers Version 6 of the player for HP - UX . Other versions of the player have been available at some point for OS / 2 , Symbian OS , Palm OS , BeOS and IRIX . The Kodak Easyshare One includes Flash Player . Adobe said it will optimize Flash for use on ARM architecture ( ARMv7 and ARMv6 architectures used in the Cortex - A series of processors and in the ARM11 family ) and release it in the second half of 2009 . The company also stated it wants to enable Flash on NVIDIA Tegra , Texas Instruments OMAP 3 and Samsung ARMs . Beginning 2009 , it was announced that Adobe would be bringing Flash to TV sets via Intel Media Processor CE 3100 before mid-2009 . ARM Holdings later said it welcomes the move of Flash , because `` it will transform mobile applications and it removes the claim that the desktop controls the Internet . '' However , as of May 2009 , the expected ARM / Linux netbook devices had poor support for Web video and fragmented software base . Among other devices , LeapFrog Enterprises provides Flash Player with their Leapster Multimedia Learning System and extended the Flash Player with touch - screen support . Sony has integrated Flash Player 6 into the PlayStation Portable 's web browser via firmware version 2.70 and Flash Player 9 into the PlayStation 3 's web browser in firmware version 2.50 . Nintendo has integrated Flash Lite 3.1 , equivalent to Flash 8 , in the Internet Channel on the Wii . The following table documents Flash Player and AIR support on mobile operating systems : Platform Latest version Android 2.2 -- 4.1 , ARM Cortex - A8 + Flash Player 11.1 , AIR 3.1 Android 2.1 Flash Lite 3.0 iOS Flash Player 11.1 , AIR 3.1 BlackBerry 10. 0 -- 10.3. 1 Flash Player 11.1 , AIR 3.1 BlackBerry Tablet OS Flash Player 11.1 , AIR 3.1 Maemo Flash Player 9.4 PlayStation 3 with Firmware 2.50 , NetFront 2.81 Flash Player 9.1 ( update 3 ) PSP with Firmware 2.70 Flash Player 6 Symbian OS Flash Lite 4.0 Wii ( Internet Channel ) Flash Lite 3.1 Pocket PC 2003 Flash Player 7 Windows Mobile 5 Flash Player 7 Other hardware ( edit ) Some CPU emulators have been created for Flash Player , including Chip8 , Commodore 64 , ZX Spectrum and the Nintendo Entertainment System . They enable video games created for such platforms to run within Flash Player . Open source ( edit ) Adobe has taken steps to reduce or eliminate Flash licensing costs . For instance , the SWF file format documentation is provided free of charge after they relaxed the requirement of accepting a non-disclosure agreement to view it in 2008 . Adobe also created the Open Screen Project which removes licensing fees and opens data protocols for Flash . Adobe has also open - sourced many components relating to Flash . In 2006 , the ActionScript Virtual Machine 2 ( AVM2 ) which implements ActionScript 3 was donated as open - source to Mozilla Foundation , to begin work on the Tamarin virtual machine that will finally implement the ECMAScript 4 language standard with the help of the Mozilla community . It was released under the terms of a MPL / GPL / LGPL tri-license and includes the specification for the ActionScript bytecode format ; Tamarin Project jointly managed by Mozilla and Adobe Systems It is now considered obsolete by Mozilla . In 2011 , the Adobe Flex Framework was donated as open - source to the Apache Software Foundation and rebranded as Apache Flex . Some saw this move as Adobe abandoning Flex , and stepping away from the Flash Platform as a whole . Sources from Apache say that `` Enterprise application development is no longer a focus at Adobe . At least as Flash is concerned , Adobe is concentrating on games and video . '' , and they conclude that `` Flex Innovation is Exploding ! '' . The donated source code included a partly developed AS3 compiler ( dubbed `` Falcon '' ) and the BlazeDS set of technologies . In 2013 , the CrossBridge C++ cross-compilation toolset was open sourced by Adobe and released on GitHub . The project was formerly termed `` Alchemy '' and `` Flash Runtime C++ Compiler '' , and targeted the game development market to enable C++ video games to run in Adobe Flash Player . However , Adobe has not been willing to make complete source code of the Flash Player available for free software development . Free and open source alternatives to the Adobe Flash Player such as Shumway and Gnash have been built , but are no longer under active development and therefore not a viable alternative . The only fully functional open - source third - party Flash Player is the commercially available Scaleform GFx Player , which is game development middleware designed for integration into non-Flash video games . Criticism ( edit ) Usability ( edit ) In some browsers , prior Flash versions have had to be uninstalled before an updated version could be installed . However , as of version 11.2 for Windows , there are now automatic updater options . Linux is partially supported , as Adobe is cooperating with Google to implement it via Chrome web browser on all Linux platforms . Mixing Flash applications with HTML leads to inconsistent behavior with respect to input handling ( keyboard and mouse not working as they would in an HTML - only document ) . This is often done in web sites and can lead to poor user experience with the site . The February 20 , 2014 update to 12.0. 0.70 introduced a reported bug , producing green video with sound only . This defect is related to hardware acceleration and may be overcome by disabling hardware acceleration via the Adobe settings in Firefox ( accessed by right clicking within the video ) or in Internet Explorer ( within the Tools settings ) . This defect may be related to widely used graphics hardware , AMD Radeon HD video cards , and similar visual defects have occurred in earlier Flash updates , with the same workaround . Privacy ( edit ) See also : Adobe Flash § Flash cookies Flash Player supports persistent local storage of data ( also referred to as Local Shared Objects ) , which can be used similarly to HTTP cookies or Web Storage in web applications . Local storage in Flash Player allows websites to store non-executable data on a user 's computer , such as authentication information , game high scores or saved games , server - based session identifiers , site preferences , saved work , or temporary files . Flash Player will only allow content originating from exactly the same website domain to access data saved in local storage . Because local storage can be used to save information on a computer that is later retrieved by the same site , a site can use it to gather user statistics , similar to how HTTP cookies and Web Storage can be used . With such technologies , the possibility of building a profile based on user statistics is considered by some a potential privacy concern . Users can disable or restrict use of local storage in Flash Player through a `` Settings Manager '' page . These settings can be accessed from the Adobe website or by right - clicking on Flash - based content and selecting `` Global Settings '' . Local storage can be disabled entirely or on a site - by - site basis . Disabling local storage will block any content from saving local user information using Flash Player , but this may disable or reduce the functionality of some websites , such as saved preferences or high scores and saved progress in games . Flash Player 10.1 and upward honor the privacy mode settings in the latest versions of the Chrome , Firefox , Internet Explorer , and Safari web browsers , such that no local storage data is saved when the browser 's privacy mode is in use . Security ( edit ) See also : Adobe Flash § Security Adobe security bulletins and advisories announce security updates , but Adobe Flash Player release notes do not disclose the security issues addressed when a release closes security holes , making it difficult to evaluate the urgency of a particular update . A version test page allows the user to check if the latest version is installed , and uninstallers may be used to ensure that old - version plugins have been uninstalled from all installed browsers . In February 2010 , Adobe officially apologized for not fixing a known vulnerability for over a year . In June 2010 Adobe announced a `` critical vulnerability '' in recent versions , saying there are reports that this vulnerability is being actively exploited in the wild against both Adobe Flash Player , and Adobe Reader and Acrobat . Later , in October 2010 , Adobe announced another critical vulnerability , this time also affecting Android - based mobile devices . Android users have been recommended to disable Flash or make it only on demand . Subsequent security vulnerabilities also exposed Android users , such as the two critical vulnerabilities published in February 2013 or the four critical vulnerabilities published in March 2013 , all of which could lead to arbitrary code execution . Symantec 's Internet Security Threat Report states that a remote code execution in Adobe Reader and Flash Player was the second most attacked vulnerability in 2009 . The same report also recommended using browser extensions to disable Flash Player usage on untrusted websites . McAfee predicted that Adobe software , especially Reader and Flash , would be primary target for attacks in 2010 . Adobe applications had become , at least at some point , the most popular client - software targets for attackers during the last quarter of 2009 . The Kaspersky Security Network published statistics for the third quarter of 2012 showing that 47.5 % of its users were affected by one or more critical vulnerabilities . The report also highlighted that `` Flash Player vulnerabilities enable cybercriminals to bypass security systems integrated into the application . '' Steve Jobs criticized the security of Flash Player , noting that `` Symantec recently highlighted Flash for having one of the worst security records in 2009 '' . Adobe responded by pointing out that `` the Symantec Global Internet Threat Report for 2009 , found that Flash Player had the second lowest number of vulnerabilities of all Internet technologies listed ( which included both web plug - ins and browsers ) . '' April 7 , 2016 , Adobe released a Flash Player patch for a zero - day memory corruption vulnerability CVE - 2016 - 1019 that could be used to deliver malware via the Magnitude exploit kit . The vulnerability could be exploited for remote code execution . Vendor lock - in ( edit ) Flash Player 11.2 does not play certain kinds of content unless it has been digitally signed by Adobe , following a license obtained by the publisher directly from Adobe . This move by Adobe , together with the abandonment of Flex to Apache was criticized as a way to lock out independent tool developers , in favor of Adobe 's commercial tools . This has been resolved as of January 2013 , after Adobe no longer requires a license or royalty from the developer . All premium features are now classified as general availability , and can be freely used by Flash applications . Apple controversy ( edit ) Main article : Apple and Adobe Flash controversy In April 2010 , Steve Jobs , at the time CEO of Apple Inc. published an open letter explaining why Apple would not support Flash on the iPhone , iPod touch and iPad . In the letter he blamed problems with the `` openness '' , stability , security , performance , and touchscreen integration of the Flash Player as reasons for refusing to support it . He also claimed that when one of Apple 's Macintosh computers crashes , `` more often than not '' the cause can be attributed to Flash , and described Flash as `` buggy '' . Adobe 's CEO Shantanu Narayen responded by saying , `` If Flash ( is ) the number one reason that Macs crash , which I 'm not aware of , it has as much to do with the Apple operating system . '' Steve Jobs also claimed that a large percentage of the video on the Internet is supported on iOS , since many popular video sharing websites such as YouTube have published video content in an HTML5 compatible format , enabling videos to playback in mobile web browsers even without Flash Player . Release history ( edit ) Adobe Flash Player version history ( show ) Macromedia Flash Player 2 ( June 17 , 1997 ) Mostly vectors and motion , some bitmaps , limited audio Support of stereo sound , enhanced bitmap integration , buttons , the Library , and the ability to tween color changes Macromedia Flash Player 3 ( May 31 , 1998 ) Added alpha transparency , licensed MP3 compression Brought improvements to animation , playback , and publishing , as well as the introduction of simple script commands for interactivity Macromedia Flash Player 4 ( June 15 , 1999 ) Saw the introduction of streaming MP3s and the Motion Tween . Initially , the Flash Player plug - in was not bundled with popular web browsers and users had to visit Macromedia website to download it ; As of 2000 , however , the Flash Player was already being distributed with all AOL , Netscape and Internet Explorer browsers . Two years later it shipped with all releases of Windows XP . The install - base of the Flash Player reached 92 percent of all Internet users . Macromedia Flash Player 5 ( August 24 , 2000 ) A major advance in ability , with the evolution of Flash 's scripting abilities as released as ActionScript Saw the ability to customize the authoring environment 's interface Macromedia Generator was the first initiative from Macromedia to separate design from content in Flash files . Generator 2.0 was released in April 2001 , and featured real - time server - side generation of Flash content in its Enterprise Edition . Generator was discontinued in 2002 , in favor of new technologies such as Flash Remoting , which allows for seamless transmission of data between the server and the client , and ColdFusion Server . In October 2000 , usability guru Jakob Nielsen wrote a polemic article regarding usability of Flash content entitled `` Flash : 99 % Bad '' . ( Macromedia later hired Nielsen to help them improve Flash usability . ) The old Macromedia Flash Player logo Macromedia Flash Player 6 ( version 6.0. 21.0 , codenamed Exorcist ) ( March 15 , 2002 ) Support for the consuming Flash Remoting ( AMF ) and Web Service ( SOAP ) Supports ondemand / live audio and video streaming ( RTMP ) Support for screenreaders via Microsoft Active Accessibility Added Sorenson Spark video codec for Flash Video Support for video , application components , shared libraries , and accessibility Macromedia Flash Communication Server MX , also released in 2002 , allowed video to be streamed to Flash Player 6 ( otherwise the video could be embedded into the Flash movie ) . Macromedia Flash Player 7 ( version 7.0. 14.0 , codenamed Mojo ) ( September 10 , 2003 ) Supports progressive audio and video streaming ( HTTP ) Supports ActionScript 2.0 , an object - oriented programming language for developers Ability to create charts , graphs and additional text effects with the new support for extensions ( sold separately ) , high fidelity import of PDF and Adobe Illustrator 10 files , mobile and device development and a forms - based development environment . ActionScript 2.0 was also introduced , giving developers a formal object - oriented approach to ActionScript . V2 Components replaced Flash MX 's components , being rewritten from the ground up to take advantage of ActionScript 2.0 and object - oriented principles . In 2004 , the `` Flash Platform '' was introduced . This expanded Flash to more than the Flash authoring tool . Flex 1.0 and Breeze 1.0 were released , both of which used the Flash Player as a delivery method but relied on tools other than the Flash authoring program to create Flash applications and presentations . Flash Lite 1.1 was also released , enabling mobile phones to play Flash content . Last version for Windows 95 / NT4 and Mac Classic Macromedia Flash Player 8 ( version 8.0. 22.0 , codenamed Maelstrom ) ( September 13 , 2005 ) Support for runtime loading of GIF and PNG images New video codec ( On2 VP6 ) Improved runtime performance and runtime bitmap caching Live filters and blendmodes File upload and download abilities New text - rendering engine , the Saffron Type System ExternalAPI subsystem introduced to replace fscommand On December 3 , 2005 , Adobe Systems acquired Macromedia and its product portfolio ( including Flash ) . Macromedia Flash Player 8 ( version 8.0. 24.0 ) ( April 23 , 2006 ) Adobe Flash Player 9 ( version 9.0. 15.0 , codenamed Zaphod and formerly named Flash Player 8.5 ) ( June 22 , 2006 ) Introduction of ActionScript Virtual Machine 2 ( AVM2 ) with AVM1 retained for compatibility ActionScript 3 ( a superset of ECMAScript 3 ) via AVM2 E4X , which is a new approach to parsing XML Support for binary sockets Support for regular expressions and namespaces AVM2 donated to Mozilla Foundation as open - source virtual machine named Tamarin Adobe Flash Player 9 Update 1 ( version 9.0. 28.0 , codenamed Marvin ) ( November 9 , 2006 ) Support for fullscreen mode Adobe Flash Player 9 ( version 9.0. 45.0 ) ( March 27 , 2007 ) Support for Creative Suite 3 . Adobe Flash Player 9 Update 2 ( version Mac / Windows 9.0. 47.0 and Linux 9.0. 48.0 , codenamed Hotblack ) ( June 11 , 2007 ) Security Update Adobe Flash Player 9 Update 3 ( version 9.0. 115.0 , codenamed Moviestar or Frogstar ) ( December 2007 ) H. 264 AAC ( HE - AAC , AAC Main Profile , and AAC - LC ) New Flash Video file format F4V based on the ISO base media file format ( MPEG - 4 Part 12 ) Support for container formats based on the ISO base media file format Last version for Windows 98 / ME and other platforms Adobe Flash Player 10 ( version 10.0. 12.36 , codenamed Astro ) ( October 15 , 2008 ) New Features 3D object transformations Custom filters via Pixel Bender Advanced text support Speex audio codec Real Time Media Flow Protocol ( RTMFP ) Dynamic sound generation Vector data type Enhanced Features Larger bitmap support Graphics drawing API Context menu Hardware acceleration Anti-aliasing engine ( Saffron 3.1 ) Read / write clipboard access WMODE Adobe Flash Player 10 ( version 10.0. 32.18 ) ( July 27 , 2009 ) Adobe Flash Player 10 ( version 10.0. 42.34 ) ( November 16 , 2009 ) Adobe Flash Player 10 ( version 10.0. 45.2 ) ( February 21 , 2010 ) Adobe Flash Player 10.1 ( version 10.1. 53.64 , codenamed Argo ) ( June 10 , 2010 ) Reuse of bitmap data copies for better memory management Improved garbage collector Hardware - based H. 264 video decoding HTTP Dynamic Streaming Peer - assisted networking and multicast Support for browser privacy modes Multi-touch APIs For Macs / OSX 10.4 ppc or later Using Cocoa UI for Macs Use of double - buffered OpenGL context for fullscreen Use of Core Animation Adobe Flash Player 10.2 ( version 10.2. 152.26 , codenamed Spicy ) ( February 8 , 2011 ) Stage Video , a full hardware - accelerated video pipeline Internet Explorer 9 hardware - accelerated rendering support Custom native mouse cursors Multiple monitor fullscreen support Enhanced subpixel rendering for text Adobe Flash Player 10.2 ( version 10.2. 152.32 ) ( February 28 , 2011 ) Adobe Flash Player 10.2 ( version 10.2. 153.1 ) ( March 21 , 2011 ) Adobe Flash Player 10.2 ( version 10.2. 159.1 ) ( April 15 , 2011 ) Adobe Flash Player 10.3 ( version 10.3. 181.14 , codenamed Wasabi ) ( May 12 , 2011 ) Media measurement ( video analytics for websites ; desktop only ) Acoustic Echo Cancellation ( acoustic echo cancellation , noise suppression , voice activity detection , automatic compensation for microphone input levels ; desktop only ) Integration with browser privacy controls for managing local storage ( ClearSiteData NPAPI ) Native control panel Auto - update notification for Mac OS X Last version for Mac OS X 10.5 and Windows 2000 ( unofficially bypassing the XP installer ) Adobe replaced Extended Support Release 10.3 by 11.7 on July 9 , 2013 . Adobe Flash Player 10.3 ( version 10.3. 181.23 ) ( June 5 , 2011 ) Adobe Flash Player 10.3 ( version 10.3. 181.26 ) ( June 14 , 2011 ) Adobe Flash Player 10.3 ( version 10.3. 181.34 ) ( June 29 , 2011 ) Adobe Flash Player 10.3 ( version 10.3. 183.5 ) ( August 14 , 2011 ) Adobe Flash Player 10.3 ( version 10.3. 183.7 ) ( August 24 , 2011 ) Adobe Flash Player 10.3 ( version 10.3. 183.10 ) ( September 21 , 2011 ) Adobe Flash Player 10.3 ( version 10.3. 183.11 ) ( November 11 , 2011 ) Adobe Flash Player 10.3 ( version 10.3. 183.25 ) ( September 18 , 2012 ) Adobe Flash Player 10.3 ( version 10.3. 183.29 ) ( October 8 , 2012 ) Adobe Flash Player 11 ( version 11.0. 1.152 , codenamed Serrano ) ( October 4 , 2011 ) Desktop only Stage 3D accelerated graphics rendering Desktop : Windows ( DirectX 9 ) , OS X ( Intel processor only ) and Linux ( OpenGL 1.3 ) , SwiftShader fallback Mobile : Android and iOS ( OpenGL ES 2 ) H. 264 / AVC software encoding for cameras Native 64 - bit Asynchronous bitmap decoding TLS secure sockets Desktop and mobile Stage Video hardware acceleration Native extension libraries Desktop : Windows (. dll ) , OS X (. framework ) Mobile : Android (. jar , . so ) , iOS (. a ) JPEG XR decoding G. 711 audio compression for telephony Protected HTTP Dynamic Streaming ( HDS ) Unlimited bitmap size LZMA SWF compression Mobile only H. 264 / AAC playback Front - facing camera Background audio playback Device speaker control 16 - and 32 - bit color depth Adobe Flash Player 11.1 ( version 11.1. 102.55 , codenamed Anza ) ( November 10 , 2011 ) Last version of the web browser plug - in for mobile devices ( made for Android 2.2 to 4.0. 3 ) iOS 5 native extensions for AIR StageText : Native text input UI for Android Security enhancements , last official version for Windows 2000 Adobe Flash Player 11.1 ( version 11.1. 102.62 ) ( March 5 , 2012 ) Adobe Flash Player 11.2 ( version 11.2. 202.228 ) ( March 28 , 2012 ) Adobe Flash Player 11.2 ( version 11.2. 202.233 ) ( April 12 , 2012 ) Adobe Flash Player 11.2 ( version 11.2. 202.235 , codenamed Brannan ) ( May 3 , 2012 ) The Windows version offers automatic updater options Dropped support of the browser plug - in for mobile devices ( Android ) . Android app developers are encouraged to use Adobe Air and Android web developers should switch to HTML5 . Extended support for Flash player 11.2 on Solaris as it is the last version to be supported . Adobe replaced Extended Support Release 11.2 on Linux with 24.0 on December 13 , 2016 . Adobe Flash Player 11.3 ( version 11.3. 300.257 ) ( June 8 , 2012 ) Adobe Flash Player 11.3 ( version 11.3. 300.262 ) ( June 21 , 2012 ) Adobe Flash Player 11.3 ( version 11.3. 300.265 ) ( July 11 , 2012 ) Adobe Flash Player 11.3 ( version 11.3. 300.268 ) ( July 26 , 2012 ) Adobe Flash Player 11.3 ( version 11.3. 300.270 ) ( August 4 , 2012 ) Desktop and mobile Fullscreen interactive mode ( keyboard input during fullscreen ) Native bitmap encoding and compression ( PNG , JPEG , JPEG - XR ) Draw bitmaps with quality ( low , medium , high , best ) Texture streaming for Stage3D Dropped support for Linux and Solaris Mobile - only Auto - orientation on specific devices USB debugging for AIR on iOS Adobe Flash Player 11.3 ( version 11.3. 300.271 ) ( September 18 , 2012 ) Adobe Flash Player 11.3 ( version 11.3. 300.273 ) ( October 3 , 2012 ) Adobe Flash Player 11.4 ( version 11.4. 402.259 ) ( August 10 , 2012 ) Flash Player only ActionScript workers SandboxBridge support Licensing support : Flash Player Premium features for gaming Flash Player and AIR Stage3D `` constrained '' profile for increased GPU reach LZMA support for ByteArray StageVideo attachCamera / Camera improvements Compressed texture with alpha support for Stage3D DXT encoding AIR only Deprecated Carbon APIs for AIR Direct AIR deployment using ADT Push notifications for iOS Ambient AudioPlaybackMode Exception support in Native Extensions for iOS Adobe Flash Player 11.4 ( version 11.4. 402.265 ) ( August 21 , 2012 ) Adobe Flash Player 11.4 ( version 11.4. 402.278 ) ( September 18 , 2012 ) Adobe Flash Player 11.4 ( version 11.4. 402.287 ) ( October 8 , 2012 ) Adobe Flash Player 11.5 Shared ByteArray Invoke Event enhancement ( for openurl ) Packaging multiple libraries in an ANE ( iOS ) Debug stack trace in release builds of Flash Player Statically link DRM ( desktop only ) Adobe Flash Player 11.6 ( codenamed Folsom ) Lossless video export from standalone and authplay. dll Support for flash. display. graphics. readGraphicsData ( ) that returns a Vector of IGraphicsData Improve permissions UI related to full screen keyboard access Prevent ActiveX abuse in Office documents Support file access in cloud on Windows Enhance multi-SWF support Migration certification for ANEs RectangleTexture File API update so AIR apps conform to Apple data storage guidelines Separate sampler state for Stage3D Set device specific Retina Display resolution ( iOS ) Adobe Flash Player 11.7 ( version 11.7. 700.169 , codenamed Geary ) ( April 9 , 2013 ) SharedObject. preventBackup property forceCPURenderModeForDevices Remote hosting of SWF files in case of multiple SWFs Support for uploading 16 - bit texture formats GameInput updates Android -- create captive runtime apps Adobe replaced Extended Support Release 11.7 on Mac and Windows with 13.0 on May 13 , 2014 . Adobe Flash Player 11.8 ( codenamed Harrison ) Stage3D baselineExtended profile Recursive stop on MovieClip Flash Player & AIR Desktop Game Pad Support Support for large textures ( extendedBaseline , 4096 ) Rectangle texture DatagramSocket ServerSocket Substitute a redirected URL from a source URLRequest for part of the URL in a new URLRequest Adobe Flash Player 11.9 ( codenamed Irving ) OS X Mavericks Support Mac . pkg Installation Support Adobe Flash Player 12 ( codenamed Jones ) Improved Mac . pkg Installation Support for the work flow and UI Support for Internet Explorer 11 on Windows 7 Support for Safe Mode in Safari 6.1 and higher 64 - bit PPAPI Flash Player for Google Chrome Graphics : Buffer Usage flag for Stage3D Adobe Flash Player 13 ( codenamed King ) Supplementary Characters Enhancement Support for Text Field Full Screen video message tweak As of 13 May 2014 this is the Extended Support Release . Adobe Flash Player 14 ( version 14.0. 0.125 , codenamed ( Lombard Street ( San Francisco ) Lombard ) ) ( June 10 , 2014 ) Stage 3D Standard profile Adobe Flash Player 14 ( version 14.0. 0.145 ) ( July 8 , 2014 ) Adobe Flash Player 14 ( version 14.0. 0.179 ) ( August 12 , 2014 ) Adobe Flash Player 15 ( version 15.0. 0.152 , codenamed ( Market Street ( San Francisco ) Market ) ) ( September 9 , 2014 ) Improved support for browser zoom levels Adobe Flash Player 15 ( version 15.0. 0.167 ) ( September 24 , 2014 ) Adobe Flash Player 15 ( version 15.0. 0.223 ) ( November 11 , 2014 ) Adobe Flash Player 15 ( version 15.0. 0.239 ) ( November 25 , 2014 ) Adobe Flash Player 16 ( version 16.0. 0.235 , codenamed Natoma ) ( December 12 , 2014 ) Stage3D -- Standard Constrained Profile PPAPI Installers for Windows and Mac Adobe Flash Player 16 ( version 16.0. 0.257 ) ( January 13 , 2015 ) Adobe Flash Player 16 ( version 16.0. 0.287 ) ( January 22 , 2015 ) Adobe Flash Player 17 ( version 17.0. 0.134 , codenamed Octavia ) ( March 12 , 2015 ) Control Panel improvements Installer improvements for Mac Adobe Flash Player 18 ( version 18.0. 0.160 , codenamed ( Presidio of San Francisco Presidio ) ) ( June 9 , 2015 ) Contains fixes for Adobe Security Bulletin APSB 15 -- 11 Adobe Flash Player 19 ( version 19.0. 0.185 , codenamed Quint ) ( September 21 , 2015 ) Adobe Flash Player 20 ( version 20.0. 0.228 , codenamed Rankin ) ( December 8 , 2015 ) Adobe Flash Player 21 ( version 21.0. 0.182 , codenamed Sutter ) ( March 10 , 2016 ) Adobe Flash Player 22 ( version 22.0. 0.192 , codenamed Townsend ) ( June 16 , 2016 ) Adobe Flash Player 23 ( version 23.0. 0.164 , codenamed Underwood ) ( September 13 , 2016 ) Adobe Flash Player 24 ( version 24.0. 0.186 , codenamed ( Van Ness Avenue Van Ness ) ) ( December 13 , 2016 ) Adobe Flash Player 24 ( version 24.0. 0.194 ) ( January 10 , 2017 ) Adobe Flash Player 25 ( version 25.0. 0.127 , codenamed Webster ) ( March 14 , 2017 ) Adobe Flash Player 25 ( version 25.0. 0.148 ) ( April 11 , 2017 ) Adobe Flash Player 25 ( version 25.0. 0.163 ) ( April 20 , 2017 ) Adobe Flash Player 26 ( version 26.0. 0.131 , codenamed York ) ( June 13 , 2017 ) Adobe Flash Player 27 ( version 27.0. 0.130 , codenamed Zoe ) ( September 12 , 2017 ) Adobe Flash Player 27 ( version 27.0. 0.159 ) ( October 10 , 2017 ) Adobe Flash Player 28 ( version 28.0. 0.11 , codenamed ( Atka ) ) ( November 16 , 2017 ) See also ( edit ) Adobe AIR Adobe Shockwave Apache Flex Microsoft Silverlight References and Notes ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` Adobe - Flash Player '' . Adobe.com . Adobe Systems . Retrieved 9 January 2018 . ^ Jump up to : `` Archived Flash Player versions '' . Adobe.com . Adobe Systems . Retrieved 20 October 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Download Flash Player 28 Beta '' . labs.adobe.com . Adobe Systems . Retrieved 2018 - 01 - 25 . Jump up ^ `` Adobe Flash Player Download '' . Adobe Systems . Retrieved August 10 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Why You Should Ditch Adobe Shockwave '' . Krebs on Security . May 14 , 2014 . Retrieved February 21 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Adobe Flash Runtimes Statistics '' . Adobe Systems Incorporated . Retrieved January 2 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Integrated Adobe Flash Player Plug - in , Chrome team blog Jump up ^ Porting Flash to sandboxed PPAPI platform , Official Chromium Blog Jump up ^ `` Flash Player issues Windows 8 '' . Adobe Systems . Retrieved December 15 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Flash Player Issues Windows 10 Internet Explorer '' . Adobe Systems . Retrieved December 15 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Flash Player issues Windows 10 Microsoft Edge '' . Adobe Systems . Retrieved December 15 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Barrett , Brian ( 15 July 2015 ) . `` Flash . Must . Die '' . Wired.com . Condé Nast . Jump up ^ Vaughan - Nichols , Steven J. ( 16 June 2016 ) . `` How to really fix the latest Adobe Flash security hole '' . ZDNet . CBS Interactive . Jump up ^ Collins , Katie ( 11 March 2016 ) . `` Adobe rushes out emergency update for ' critical ' Flash security flaw '' . CNET . Jump up ^ `` Flash & The Future of Interactive Content '' . 2017 - 07 - 25 . Jump up ^ Lardinois , Frederic . `` Get ready to finally say goodbye to Flash -- in 2020 '' . TechCrunch . Retrieved 2017 - 07 - 25 . Jump up ^ Warren , Tom ( 2017 - 07 - 25 ) . `` Adobe will finally kill Flash in 2018 '' . The Verge . Retrieved 2017 - 07 - 25 . Jump up ^ `` Adobe Announces Flash Distribution and Updates to End '' . 2017 - 07 - 25 . Jump up ^ Pudełek , Jakub ( 2017 - 07 - 25 ) . `` Migrating Games from Flash to Open Web Standards on Facebook '' . Jump up ^ Laforge , Anthony ( 2017 - 07 - 25 ) . `` Saying goodbye to Flash in Chrome '' . Jump up ^ `` The End of an Era -- Next Steps for Adobe Flash '' . 2017 - 07 - 25 . Jump up ^ Smedberg , Benjamin ( 2017 - 07 - 25 ) . `` Firefox Roadmap for Flash End - of - Life '' . Jump up ^ AIR 3 , Adobe Jump up ^ `` What are local shared objects ? '' . Security and privacy . Adobe Systems . Archived from the original on May 29 , 2010 . Retrieved December 5 , 2007 . Jump up ^ SWX : SWF Data Format , official website Jump up ^ swxjava -- SWX RPC implementation in Java , Google Code Jump up ^ swx - format -- Data Format , Google Code Jump up ^ SWX Contest Winners Archived August 18 , 2012 , at the Wayback Machine. , SWX Format Website Jump up ^ Introducing SWXml , Aral Balkan Jump up ^ `` Flash H. 264 '' . MainConcept . Archived from the original on November 18 , 2010 . Retrieved September 24 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : Flash and the HTML5 < video > tag , YouTube Blog ^ Jump up to : Pardon Our Dust , Hulu Blog Jump up ^ Future Media Standards & Guidelines -- AV Addendum v1. 5 BBC Jump up ^ Protocols : HTTP vs. RTMP > Beginner 's Guide to Distributing Flash Video , Adobe Press Jump up ^ Cross-domain policy file usage recommendations for Flash Player , Adobe ^ Jump up to : Policy file changes in Flash Player 9 and Flash Player 10 , Adobe Jump up ^ `` Sites which support crossdomain. xml to allow Flash and Silverlight access '' . Retrieved March 25 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Socket , Adobe ActionScript 3 API Reference Jump up ^ Sockets , ActionScript 3.0 Developer 's Guide Jump up ^ Setting up a socket policy file server , Adobe Jump up ^ AsSQL -- MySQL Driver for AS3 , Google Code Jump up ^ Remi Arnaud ( 2011 ) . `` 3D in a Web Browser '' . In Eric Lengyel . Game Engine Gems 2 . CRC Press . pp. 208 -- 212 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 56881 - 437 - 7 . Jump up ^ Christer Kaitila ( 2011 ) . Adobe Flash 11 Stage3D ( Molehill ) Game Programming Beginner 's Guide . Packt Publishing Ltd. p. 9 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 84969 - 169 - 7 . Jump up ^ `` Stage3D vs WebGL Performance -- Airtight Interactive '' . Airtightinteractive.com . October 28 , 2011 . Retrieved August 4 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Stage3D '' . scratch.mit.edu . Retrieved August 5 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Adobe Flash Player 11.8 -- Bug 3591185 : Pixel Bender shader performance drastically degraded in FP11. 8 . Closed as `` NeverFix '' Archived April 22 , 2014 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Comparing Flash , HTML5 Performance , OS News Jump up ^ Battery Performance with Flash Player 10.1 on Nexus One , Flash Mobile Blog Jump up ^ Reference Designs and Demos , QNX Jump up ^ ActionScript 3.0 overview , `` ActionScript 3.0 code executes up to 10 times faster than legacy ActionScript code . '' , Adobe Jump up ^ `` Alchemy : FAQ '' . Archived from the original on May 5 , 2012 . Retrieved May 5 , 2012 . , Adobe Labs , `` ASC performs few optimizations at this time '' Jump up ^ Zotov , Peter ( May 6 , 2012 ) . `` Reaching the Limits of Adobe Stupidity -- whitespace '' . Whitequark.org . Retrieved October 27 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Alchemy : FAQ Archived May 5 , 2012 , at the Wayback Machine. , Adobe Labs ^ Jump up to : Optimizing ActionScript Bytecode using LLVM , Adobe ^ Jump up to : Adobe Alchemy , is it ActionScript heresy ? , Unit Zero One Jump up ^ Introducing ASC 2.0 , Thibault Imbert , ByteArray.com Jump up ^ AS3 vs haXe performance , SplashDust website Archived January 5 , 2013 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Optimizing performance of applications for connected TVs , Adobe Developer Connection Jump up ^ Top 10 Performance Killers in your AIR Application , FlexWiz Jump up ^ Flex versus ActionScript -- the debate gets new life , Greg 's Ramblings Jump up ^ Pure ActionScript + MadComponents vs. Flash Builder 4.5 , MobileAppDev Jump up ^ Flex 4.5 vs Pure AS3 , Michael Crosby ^ Jump up to : `` Adobe donates Flex to Apache '' . Techworld . Retrieved November 17 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Response to `` Thoughts on Flash '' , True Gryc Blog Jump up ^ `` Adobe Gaming SDK '' . creative.adobe.com . Adobe . Retrieved August 4 , 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Wagner James Au ( 2012 ) . Game Design Secrets . John Wiley & Sons . p. 130 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 118 - 46391 - 8 . Jump up ^ `` Adobe Flash 11 adopts Unreal Engine 3 for better browser games The Verge '' . theverge.com . Retrieved August 4 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` List of Flash Gaming Engines '' . FlashRealtime.com. April 23 , 2011 . Archived from the original on April 6 , 2013 . Retrieved February 21 , 2015 . Jump up ^ CrossBridge for Flash Player , GitHub Jump up ^ `` Adobe Finally kills Adobe Flash Player in 2020 - Article Pub '' . Retrieved 26 July 2017 . Jump up ^ Remi Arnaud ( 2011 ) . `` 3D in a Web Browser '' . In Eric Lengyel . Game Engine Gems 2 . CRC Press . p. 205 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 56881 - 437 - 7 . Jump up ^ `` Downloads '' . Adobe Flash Player Support Center . Retrieved October 29 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Adobe and Google Partnering for Flash Player on Linux '' . Retrieved November 25 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Noyes , Katherine ( April 6 , 2012 ) . `` For Flash on Linux , Chrome Will Be Users ' Only Choice PCWorld Business Center '' . Pcworld.com . Retrieved April 10 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Adobe Releases Last Linux Version of Flash Player -- Slashdot '' . Linux.slashdot.org . Retrieved April 10 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Beta News -- Flash Player NPAPI for Linux '' . Adobe AIR and Adobe Flash Player Team Blog . August 31 , 2016 . Retrieved November 17 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Tareq Aljaber ( May 17 , 2013 ) . `` Extended Support Release Updated to Flash Player 11.7 '' . Adobe AIR and Adobe Flash Player Team Blog . Adobe . Retrieved February 15 , 2014 . ^ Jump up to : `` Upcoming changes to Flash Player 's extended support release '' . Adobe . March 5 , 2014 . Retrieved December 17 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Upcoming changes to Flash Player 's extended support release '' . Adobe . May 15 , 2015 . Retrieved September 30 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Campbell , Chris ( August 23 , 2016 ) . `` Where can I find the `` Extended Support Release '' of Flash Player for Windows or Macintosh ? `` . forums.adobe.com . Adobe Systems . ^ Jump up to : Adobe Flash Player Versions , Adobe.com ^ Jump up to : `` Archived Flash Player versions '' . Adobe . Retrieved February 18 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Flash Player 5 '' . System 7 Today . Retrieved October 15 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : iOS features in Adobe AIR 2.6 , Adobe Devnet ^ Jump up to : `` Flash Player 10.1 -- Installations and updates '' . Archived from the original on October 8 , 2010 . Retrieved November 19 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Arthur , Charles ( June 29 , 2012 ) . `` Flash Player for Android : Adobe calls time , declares it dead '' . The Guardian . Retrieved June 30 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Flash Platform Certified Devices , Adobe Jump up ^ Flash Platform Certified Devices : Smartphones , Adobe Jump up ^ Flash Platform Certified Devices : Tablets , Adobe Jump up ^ Adobe abandons Flash Player on mobile browsers for HTML5 , CBS News Jump up ^ Adobe abandons Flash for mobile devices , The Telegraph Jump up ^ Web Players . Adobe . Retrieved on March 11 , 2011 . Jump up ^ ( 1 ) Jump up ^ MACROMEDIA INTRODUCES FREE FLASH PLAYERS FOR LINUX , SOLARIS , IRIX USERS . Technology > Software Services & Applications from . AllBusiness.com . Retrieved on March 11 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Macromedia -- Flash Player SDK http://www.adobe.com/products/flashplayer_sdk/ ( Taken July 7 , 2006 ) . Jump up ^ Press Room : For immediate release Archived August 5 , 2014 , at the Wayback Machine ... Adobe . Retrieved on March 11 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Adobe Flash 10 to be ARM - optimized in 2009 . Electronista ( November 17 , 2008 ) . Retrieved on March 11 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Press Room : For immediate release Archived August 16 , 2014 , at the Wayback Machine ... Adobe . Retrieved on March 11 , 2011 . Jump up ^ ARM welcomes Adobe 's mobile Flash move -- 5 / 2 / 2008 . Electronics Weekly ( May 2 , 2008 ) . Retrieved on March 11 , 2011 . Jump up ^ ARM netbooks struggle with video , apps . Eetimes.com ( April 14 , 2009 ) . Retrieved on March 11 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Adobe Success Story : LeapFrog Enterprises http://www.adobe.com/cfusion/showcase/index.cfm?event=casestudydetail&casestudyid=21019&loc=en_us ( Taken July 7 , 2006 ) . Jump up ^ `` New info on the firmware updates for PS3 and PSP '' . ThreeSpeech . October 14 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Adobe Flash Player Archived October 13 , 2011 , at the Wayback Machine. , Android Market ^ Jump up to : Announcing Flash Player 11 and AIR 3 Archived May 4 , 2012 , at the Wayback Machine. , Adobe Flash Platform Blog Jump up ^ Flash Player 10.1 : Live and Ready for Android `` Adobe Flash Player Team Blog . Blogs.adobe.com . Retrieved on March 11 , 2011 . Jump up ^ ( 2 ) Retrieved on September 19 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Maemo software Nokia '' Maemo Browser Archived December 29 , 2009 , at the Wayback Machine ... Maemo.nokia.com . Retrieved on March 11 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Mobile and Devices Developer Center : Sony PSP . Adobe ( July 16 , 2007 ) . Retrieved on March 11 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Symbian ^ 3 . Adobe Flash Lite ( April 27 , 2010 ) . Retrieved on March 11 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Scott Janousek '' Blog Archive '' Nintendo Wii Flash Player supported via Opera updated to Flash Lite 3.1 ( Flash 8 / 9 ) Archived September 13 , 2011 , at the Wayback Machine ... Flashmobile.scottjanousek.com ( September 1 , 2009 ) . Retrieved on March 11 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Download Macromedia Flash Player 7 for Pocket PC Archived February 7 , 2014 , at the Wayback Machine. , Adobe ^ Jump up to : Flash Player 7 For Pocket PC Archived January 19 , 2014 , at the Wayback Machine ... Adobe ( July 14 , 2009 ) . Retrieved on March 11 , 2011 . Jump up ^ rich Internet applications Adobe Flash Platform runtimes . Adobe.com ( July 14 , 2009 ) . Retrieved on March 11 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Flip8 -- the World 's First Flash Emulator -- v0. 9 '' . Newsdee.com . Retrieved September 12 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Claus Wahlers . `` FC64 -- Flash Commodore 64 Emulator -- Demo -- c 么 deazur brasil lab '' . Codeazur.com.br . Retrieved September 12 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` FlashZXSpectrum48k , Sinclair ZX Spectrum Emulator written in Flash '' . Jorin.com . Archived from the original on February 3 , 2008 . Retrieved September 12 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` aminnes -- Project Hosting on Google Code '' . www.aminlab.com/ . May 17 , 2010 . Jump up ^ SWF Technology Center Adobe Developer Connection . Adobe.com ( July 14 , 2009 ) . Retrieved on March 11 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Adobe Open Screen Project '' . Starting today , there will be no restrictions on the use of the SWF specification or the FLV and F4V specifications that make up video in Flash . Formerly , to look at the SWF specification users had to sign a licensing agreement not to use it to create competing players Jump up ^ `` Adobe and Mozilla Foundation to Open Source Flash Player Scripting Engine '' . Mozilla Foundation Press Center . San Francisco . November 7 , 2006 . Retrieved September 3 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Tamarin Project Archived February 10 , 2007 , at the Wayback Machine ... Mozilla.org ( October 5 , 2010 ) . Retrieved on March 11 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Tim Anderson ( November 15 , 2015 ) . `` Adobe Flex SDK bombshell STUNS developers '' . ^ Jump up to : Joab Jackson , IDG News Service ( November 16 , 2011 ) . `` Adobe Donates Flex to Apache '' . PCWorld . ^ Jump up to : Flex ! = Flash , PrintUI , January 27 , 2013 Jump up ^ Open Source Flash C++ Compiler , CrossBridge , Adobe Blogs , June 25 , 2013 Jump up ^ CrossBridge , Adobe Gaming GitHub Website Jump up ^ Adobe Open - Sources Flash C / C++ Compiler , Phoronix , Michael Larabel , June 26 , 2013 Jump up ^ `` Gnash Reference Manual '' . gnu.org . Retrieved November 12 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Flash Player Help / Installation problems '' . Jump up ^ `` Help / Uninstall ( old - version ) Flash Player ( if installation is unsuccessful ) '' . ^ Jump up to : `` Patch for Adobe Flash '' . The H. March 29 , 2012 . Retrieved February 18 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Adobe roadmap for the Flash Player '' . Adobe . Retrieved January 14 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Usage Statistics of Flash for Websites , December 2013 . W3techs.com ( July 22 , 2013 ) . Retrieved on December 9 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Bug 3712099 , at `` bugbase.adobe.com '' Archived February 27 , 2014 , at the Wayback Machine ... Retrieved on February 22 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` What Is a Local Shared Object ? '' . Adobe Systems . Archived from the original on May 29 , 2010 . Retrieved July 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Adobe Flash Player Settings Manager '' . Adobe Systems . Archived from the original on June 20 , 2010 . Retrieved July 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Web Storage Settings Panel '' . Adobe Systems . Retrieved April 4 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Private browsing in Flash Player 10 '' . Adobe Systems . Archived from the original on May 28 , 2010 . Retrieved July 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Flash Bug Report '' . February 6 , 2010 . Archived from the original on February 10 , 2010 . Retrieved March 27 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Security Advisory for Flash Player , Adobe Reader and Acrobat '' . Adobe Systems . Retrieved June 8 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Adobe acknowledges critical security flaw in software '' . BBC News . June 7 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Security Advisory for Adobe Flash Player , Adobe Reader and Acrobat '' . Adobe Systems . Archived from the original on October 31 , 2010 . Retrieved October 31 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Flash vulnerability revealed for Android , fix coming November 9th '' . MobileCrunch . Archived from the original on October 31 , 2010 . Retrieved October 31 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Security updates available for Adobe Flash Player '' . Adobe Systems . February 7 , 2013 . Retrieved July 7 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Security updates available for Adobe Flash Player '' . Adobe Systems . March 12 , 2013 . Retrieved July 7 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Internet Security Threat Report : Volume XV : April 2010 '' . Symantec. April 2010 . pp. 37 , 40 , 42 . Archived from the original on April 25 , 2010 . Retrieved May 9 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Adobe Acrobat , Reader , and Flash Player Remote Code Execution Vulnerability '' . October 15 , 2009 . Retrieved May 9 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` 2010 Threat Predictions '' ( PDF ) . McAfee Labs . December 2009 . p. 2 . Retrieved May 9 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` McAfee Threats Report : Fourth quarter 2009 '' ( PDF ) . McAfee Avert Labs . February 2010 . p. 16 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on February 15 , 2010 . Retrieved May 9 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` IT Threat Evolution : Q3 2012 '' . Kaspersky Lab ZAO . November 1 , 2012 . Retrieved November 2 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Steve Jobs ( April 29 , 2010 ) . `` Thoughts on Flash '' . Apple . Archived from the original on May 1 , 2010 . Retrieved May 9 , 2010 . Jump up ^ future of Flash . Adobe ( July 14 , 2009 ) . Retrieved on March 11 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Symantec Global Internet Threat Report for 2009 , page 40 , `` In 2009 , Symantec documented 321 vulnerabilities affecting plug - ins for Web browsers ( figure 9 ) . ActiveX technologies were affected by 134 vulnerabilities , which was the highest among the plug - in technologies examined . Of the remaining technologies , Java SE had 84 vulnerabilities , Adobe Reader had 49 vulnerabilities , QuickTime had 27 vulnerabilities , and Adobe Flash Player was subject to 23 vulnerabilities . The remaining four vulnerabilities affected extensions for Firefox . '' Jump up ^ `` Adobe Patches Flash Zero - Day Exploited by Magnitude EK '' . April 7 , 2016 . Retrieved April 25 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Security Advisory for Adobe Flash Player '' . April 5 , 2016 . Retrieved April 25 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Update : Premium Features for Flash Player , Adobe AIR and FP Blog Jump up ^ `` Why will Premium Flash Player Features Kill Flash ? '' . ASVGuy . March 10 , 2012 . Archived from the original on February 5 , 2015 . Retrieved February 21 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Shankland , Stephen ( March 28 , 2014 ) . `` Adobe to charge Flash coders to use ' premium ' features '' . CNET . Retrieved February 21 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` And Then Premium Features Arrived ... '' . ASVGuy. April 5 , 2012 . Archived from the original on February 5 , 2015 . Retrieved February 21 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Adobe Premium Features for Flash Player , Flash Player Dev Center , Adobe Jump up ^ Cassella , Dena ( February 1 , 2010 ) . `` Steve Jobs Unleashes His Fury During Town Hall Meeting '' . Archived from the original on February 6 , 2010 . Retrieved February 22 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Richmond , Shane. ( April 30 , 2010 ) Adobe hits back at Apple 's ' smokescreen ' -- Telegraph Blogs . Blogs.telegraph.co.uk . Retrieved on March 11 , 2011 . Jump up ^ YouTube Mobile gets a kick start , Official YouTube Blog Jump up ^ Macromedia , Inc . ( March 4 , 2002 ) Macromedia and Sorenson Media bring video to Macromedia Flash content and applications , Retrieved on August 9 , 2009 Jump up ^ `` Adobe Completes Acquisition of Macromedia '' . Adobe Systems . December 5 , 2005 . Archived from the original on June 2 , 2007 . Retrieved June 18 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Huang , Emmy ( November 15 , 2006 ) . `` Flash Player 9 Update ( 9.0. 28.0 ) release now available for Windows and Macintosh '' . Archived from the original on June 25 , 2007 . Retrieved January 23 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Exploring full - screen mode in Flash Player 9 '' . Adobe Developer Center . December 3 , 2007 . Retrieved April 10 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Melanson , Mike ( December 4 , 2007 ) . `` Flash Player 9 Update 3 ( Final ) '' . Archived from the original on September 7 , 2010 . Retrieved January 23 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Adobe press release : `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on December 12 , 2007 . Retrieved December 14 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Adobe Systems Incorporated ( December 3 , 2007 ) List of codecs supported by Adobe Flash Player , Retrieved on August 5 , 2009 Jump up ^ Halfast , Todd . `` Flash Player 10.1 Now Available for Windows , Mac , and Linux '' Adobe AIR and Adobe Flash Player Team Blog `` . Blogs.adobe.com . Retrieved April 10 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` features Flash Player 10.3 Release Notes '' . Kb2.adobe.com . Retrieved April 10 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Flash Player 11 and AIR 3 Release Notes : 10 / 04 / 11 '' . Kb2.adobe.com . Retrieved April 10 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Introducing Molehill : 3D APIs for Adobe Flash Player and Adobe AIR Archived July 8 , 2012 , at the Wayback Machine. , Adobe Edge Jump up ^ Extending AIR , Adobe Devnet Jump up ^ `` Flash Player 11.1 and AIR 3.1 User Release Notes : 11 / 09 / 11 '' . Kb2.adobe.com . Retrieved April 10 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Adobe Introduces Premium Features for Gaming with Flash Player 11.2 ; Announces Collaboration with Unity Technologies '' . adobe.com . Retrieved May 18 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Flash Player and Adobe AIR feature list '' . adobe.com . Retrieved May 9 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Flash Player 12.0. 0.3 '' . Adobe Systems . November 14 , 2013 . Retrieved December 22 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Adobe Labs Downloads '' . Adobe . April 22 , 2015 . Retrieved April 25 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Flash Player 13.0. 0.80 '' . Adobe Systems . January 28 , 2014 . Retrieved February 18 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` 8 / 12 / 2014 -- Release -- Flash Player 14 '' . Adobe Systems . August 12 , 2014 . Retrieved January 12 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` 11 / 11 / 2014 -- Release -- Flash Player 15 '' . Adobe Systems . November 11 , 2014 . Retrieved January 12 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` 12 / 9 / 2014 -- Release -- Flash Player 16 '' . Adobe Systems . December 9 , 2014 . Retrieved January 12 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` 12 / 3 / 2015 -- Release -- Flash Player 17 '' . Adobe Systems . March 12 , 2014 . Retrieved March 13 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Adobe Security Bulletin '' . Retrieved March 25 , 2017 . 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The Sleeping Beauty ( ballet ) - wikipedia The Sleeping Beauty ( ballet ) Jump to : navigation , search Ballets by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky Swan Lake ( 1876 ) Sleeping Beauty ( 1889 ) The Nutcracker ( 1892 ) List of all compositions The Sleeping Beauty ( Russian : Спящая красавица / Spyashchaya krasavitsa ) is a ballet in a prologue and three acts , first performed in 1890 . The music was composed by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky ( his opus 66 ) . The score was completed in 1889 , and is the second of his three ballets . The original scenario was conceived by Ivan Vsevolozhsky , and is based on Charles Perrault 's La Belle au bois dormant . The choreographer of the original production was Marius Petipa . The premiere performance took place at the Mariinsky Theatre in St. Petersburg on January 15 , 1890 . The work has become one of the classical repertoire 's most famous ballets . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 1.1 Composition history 1.2 Performance history 2 Roles and original cast 3 Instrumentation 4 Roles 5 Synopsis 6 Structure 7 Versions by other hands 7.1 Piano arrangements 7.2 Aurora 's Wedding by Sergei Diaghilev 8 Trademark controversy 9 References 10 External links 10.1 Video samples 10.2 Scores 10.3 History History ( edit ) Composition history ( edit ) Tchaikovsky was approached by the Director of the Imperial Theatres in St. Petersburg , Ivan Vsevolozhsky on 25 May 1888 about a possible ballet adaptation on the subject of the story of Undine . It was later decided that Charles Perrault 's La Belle au bois dormant would be the story for which Tchaikovsky would compose the music for the ballet . Tchaikovsky did not hesitate to accept the commission , although he was aware that his only previous ballet , Swan Lake , met with little enthusiasm at that stage of his career . The ballet scenario that Tchaikovsky worked on was based on the Brothers Grimm 's version of Perrault 's work entitled ' Dornröschen ' . In that version , the Princess 's parents ( the King and the Queen ) survived the 100 - year sleep to celebrate the Princess 's wedding to the Prince . However , Vsevolozhsky incorporated Perrault 's other characters from his stories into the ballet , such as Puss in Boots , Little Red Riding Hood , Cinderella , Bluebird , Bluebeard , Ricky of the Tuft and Tom Thumb . Other French fairy tale characters to be featured are Beauty and the Beast , Pretty Goldilocks and The White Cat . Regardless , Tchaikovsky was happy to inform the Director of the Imperial Theatre that he had great pleasure studying the work and had come away with adequate inspiration to do it justice . The choreographer was Marius Petipa , ballet master of the Imperial Ballet , who wrote a very detailed list of instructions as to the musical requirements . Tchaikovsky worked quickly on the new work at Frolovskoye ; he began initial sketches in the winter of 1888 and began orchestration on the work on 30 May 1889 . The ballet 's focus was undeniably on the two main conflicting forces of good ( the Lilac Fairy ) and evil ( Carabosse ) ; each has a leitmotif representing them , which run through the entire ballet , serving as an important thread to the underlying plot . Act III of the work , however , takes a complete break from the two motifs and instead places focus on the individual characters of the various court dances . Performance history ( edit ) St. Petersburg premiere ( world premiere ) Date : 15 January 1890 Place : Imperial Mariinsky Theatre , St. Petersburg Balletmaster : Marius Petipa Conductor : Riccardo Drigo Scene Designers : Henrich Levogt ( Prologue ) , Ivan Andreyev ( Act 1 ) , Mikhail Bocharov ( Acts 1 & 2 ) , Matvey Shishkov ( Act 3 ) Costumes : Ivan Vsevolozhsky Moscow premiere Date : 17 January 1899 Place : Moscow Imperial Bolshoi Theatre Balletmaster : Aleksandr Gorsky Conductor : Andrey Arends Scene Designers : Anatoliy Geltser , Karl Valts ( Waltz ) Other notable productions 1896 , Milan , La Scala , staged by Giorgio Saracco , Carlotta Brianza as Aurora 1921 , London , Alhambra Theatre , as The Sleeping Princess , Diaghilev production , staged by Nikolay Sergeyev , scenes by Léon Bakst 1937 , Philadelphia , staged by Catherine Littlefield 1946 , London , Royal Opera House debut , performed by the Sadler 's Wells Ballet . 1968 , London , with the London Festival Ballet at the Royal Festival Hall 1990 , San Francisco , with San Francisco Ballet as choreographed by Helgi Tómasson in tribute to Tchaikovsky , and with a focus on maintaining the Russian - French connection 1992 , Basel Theater Basel reworked by Youri Vámos with new narrative involving the life of Anna Anderson and her claim to be Grand Duchess Anastasia . The order of musical numbers has been slightly changed , some numbers omitted with other music by Tchaikovsky added and major set pieces of Petipa 's choreography retained , but now placed in different narrative context - often performed as Anderson 's `` memories '' . This version has been performed by a number of central European ballet companies over the past two decades . Roles and original cast ( edit ) Role Mariinsky 1890 Bolshoi 1899 King Florestan Feliks Krzesiński ( Mathilde Kschessinska 's father ) Queen Giuseppina Cecchetti Princess Aurora , the Sleeping Beauty Carlotta Brianza Lyubov Roslavleva Lilac Fairy Marie Petipa M. Grachevskaya Carabosse Enrico Cecchetti Vasiliy Geltser Prince Désiré Pavel Gerdt Ivan Khlyustin Bluebird Enrico Cecchetti Princess Florine Varvara Nikitina The ballet 's premiere received more favorable accolades than Swan Lake from the press but Tchaikovsky never had the luxury of being able to witness his work become an instant success in theatres outside of Russia . He died in 1893 . By 1903 , The Sleeping Beauty was the second most popular ballet in the repertory of the Imperial Ballet ( the Petipa / Pugni The Pharaoh 's Daughter was first ) , having been performed 200 times in only 10 years . Original cast members costumed for Act I . At center is Carlotta Brianza as Aurora . Mariinsky Theatre , St. Petersburg , 1890 A production mounted at the La Scala in Milan did not arouse much interest and it was not until 1921 that , in London , the ballet finally gained wide acclaim and eventually a permanent place in the classical repertoire . In 1999 , the Mariinsky Ballet reconstructed the original 1899 production , including reproductions of the original sets and costumes . Although the 1951 Kirov production by Konstantin Sergeyev is available on DVD / Video , the 1999 `` authentic '' version is only available in short excerpts as of 2007 . The Sleeping Beauty is Tchaikovsky 's longest ballet , lasting nearly four hours at full length - counting the intermissions . Without intermissions ( as it appears on several CD sets ) , it lasts nearly three hours . It is nearly always cut . At the premiere , Tsar Alexander III summoned Tchaikovsky to the imperial box . The Tsar made the simple remark ' Very nice , ' which seemed to have irritated Tchaikovsky , who had likely expected a more favorable response . Instrumentation ( edit ) Strings : Violins I , Violins II , Violas , Cellos , Double Basses Woodwinds : Piccolo , 2 Flutes , 2 Oboes , Cor Anglais , 2 Clarinets ( B ♭ , A ) , 2 Bassoons Brass : 4 Horns ( F ) , 2 Cornets ( B ♭ , A ) , 2 Trumpets ( B ♭ , A ) , 3 Trombones , Tuba Percussion : Timpani , Triangle , Tambourine , Side Drum , Cymbals , Bass Drum , Tam - tam , Glockenspiel Other : 2 Harps , Piano Roles ( edit ) The Royal Court : King Florestan XXIV Queen , his wife Princess Aurora , the Sleeping Beauty , their daughter Catalabutte , the master - of - ceremonies Courtiers , maids of honor , pages , lackeys The Fairies : Candide ( Candor ) Coulante , Fleur de farine ( Flowing , Wheat flour ) Miettes qui tombent ( Falling breadcrumbs ) Canari qui chante ( Singing canary ) Violente ( Force ) The Lilac Fairy Carabosse , the evil fairy The Gold , Silver , Sapphire , and Diamond Fairies The Four Suitors : Prince Chéri Prince Charmant Prince Fortuné Prince Fleur de Pois The Prince 's Hunting Party : Prince Désiré ( Florimund ) Gallifron , Prince Désiré 's tutor The Prince 's friends , duchesses , baronesses , countesses , and marchionesses Fairy - Tale Characters : Puss - in - Boots The White Cat Cinderella Prince Charming Princess Florine Bluebird Little Red Riding Hood The Gray Wolf Hop - o ' - My - Thumb , his brothers , and the Ogre Synopsis ( edit ) Setting Time : Baroque Place : Europe The bad fairy Carabosse by Léon Bakst , who created the décor and about 300 costume designs in 2 months for Diaghilev 's lavish 1921 production of The Sleeping Beauty in London . Prologue ( The Christening ) King Florestan XXIV and his Queen have welcomed their first child , Princess Aurora , and declare a grand christening ceremony to honor her . Six fairies are invited to the ceremony to bestow gifts on the child . Each fairy represents a virtue or positive trait , such as beauty , courage , sweetness , musical talent , and mischief . The most powerful fairy , the Lilac Fairy , arrives with her entourage , but before she can bestow her gift , the evil fairy Carabosse arrives with her minions . Carabosse furiously asks the King and Queen why she had not received an invitation to the christening . The blame falls on the Master of Ceremonies who was in charge of the guest list . Carabosse gleefully tears his wig off and beats him with her staff , before placing a curse upon the baby princess as revenge : Aurora will indeed grow up to be a beautiful , healthy , delightful young lady , but on her sixteenth birthday she will prick her finger on a Spindle and die . The King and Queen are horrified and beg Carabosse for mercy , but she shows none . However , the Lilac Fairy intervenes . Though she does not have enough power to completely undo the curse , she alters it , allowing the spindle to cause a peaceful 100 - year sleep for the princess , rather than death . At the end of those 100 years , she will be woken by the kiss of a handsome prince . Relieved that Aurora 's life will ultimately be spared , the court is set at ease . Act I ( The Spell ) It is the day of Princess Aurora 's sixteenth birthday . Celebrations are underway , though the King is still unsettled by Carabosse 's omen . The master of ceremonies discovers several peasant ladies frolicking about with knitting needles and alerts the King , who initially sentences the women to a harsh punishment . The Queen gently persuades him to spare the innocent citizens , and he agrees . an elaborate waltz is performed and Princess Aurora arrives , She is introduced to four suitors by her doting parents . Aurora and the suitors perform the famous Rose Adagio. Presently , a cloaked stranger appears and offers a gift to the princess : a spindle . Having never seen one before , Aurora curiously examines the strange object as her parents desperately try to intervene . As predicted , she pricks her finger . While initially appearing to recover quickly , she falls into a swoon and collapses . The cloaked stranger reveals herself to be Carabosse , who believes that her curse still stands and that the princess is dead . Once again , the Lilac Fairy quells the hubbub and reminds the King and Queen that Aurora is merely asleep . The princess is carried off to bed , and the Lilac Fairy casts a spell of slumber over the entire kingdom , which will only be broken when Aurora awakens Carlotta Brianza as Princess Aurora and Pavel Gerdt as Prince Désiré , costumed for the Grand Procession of Act III in Petipa 's original production of The Sleeping Beauty . ( Mariinsky Theatre , St. Petersburg , 1890 ) Act II ( The Vision ) One hundred years later , Prince Désiré is with his bossy countess girlfriend . He is unhappy , but dances . Still unhappy , he asks for some time to himself . Alone in the forest , he is met by the Lilac Fairy , who has chosen him to awaken Aurora . She shows him a vision of the beautiful princess , and the prince is immediately smitten . The Lilac Fairy explains the situation , and Désiré begs to be taken to the princess . The Lilac Fairy takes himto the hidden castle . Carabosse makes one last attempt to cement her vengeful curse , but the Lilac Fairy and the prince manage to defeat her together at last . Once inside the castle , Désiré awakens Aurora with a kiss . The rest of the court wakes as well , and the King and Queen heartily approve when the prince proposes marriage and the princess accepts . The royal wedding is underway . Guests include the Jewel Fairies : Diamond , Gold , Silver and Sapphire , and of course the Lilac Fairy . Fairytale characters are in attendance , including Puss in Boots and The White Cat , Princess Florine and the Bluebird , and others . Aurora and Désiré perform a grand Pas de Deux , and the entire ensemble dances. The prince and princess are married , with the Lilac Fairy blessing the union . Structure ( edit ) Alexandra Ansanelli as Princess Aurora and David Makhateli as Prince Florimund in a Royal Ballet production of Sleeping Beauty , 29 April 2008 . Titles of all of the numbers listed here come from Marius Petipa 's original scenario , as well as the original libretto and programs of the first production of 1890 . Major changes which were made to the score for Petipa 's original production are mentioned , and help explain why the score is often heard in different versions in theatres today . All libretti and programs of works performed on the stages of the Imperial Theatres were titled in French , which was the official language of the Emperor 's Court , as well as the language in which balletic terminology is derived . Prologue -- Le baptême de la Princesse Aurore No. 1 - a Introduction No. 1 - b Marche de salon No. 2 - a Entrée des fées No. 2 - b Scène dansante No. 3 Grand pas d'ensemble ( a.k.a. Pas de six ) -- a . Grand adage . Petit allégro b . Variation - Candide c . Variation - Coulante -- Fleur de farine d . Variation - Miettes -- qui tombent ( a.k.a. breadcrumb ) e . Variation - Canari -- qui chante f . Variation - Violente -- échevelée g . Variation - La Fée des lilas -- voluptueuse h . Coda générale No. 4 Scène et final -- a . Entrée de Carabosse b . Scène mimique de Carabosse c . Scène mimique de la Fée des lilas Act I -- Les quatre fiancés de la Princesse Aurore No. 5 - a Introduction No. 5 - b Scène des tricoteuses No. 6 Grande valse villageoise ( a.k.a. The Garland Waltz ) No. 7 Entrée d'Aurore No. 8 Grand pas d'action -- a . Grand adage à la rose ( opening harp cadenza possibly extended by either the harpist Albert Heinrich Zabel or Riccardo Drigo ) b . Danse des demoiselles d'honneur et des pages c . Variation d'Aurore ( coda edited by an unknown hand , possibly Riccardo Drigo ) d . Coda No. 9 Scène et final -- a . Danse d'Aurore avec le fuseau b . Le charme c . L'arrivée de la Fée des lilas Act II Scene I -- La chasse du Prince Désiré No. 10 - a Entr'acte No. 10 - b Scène de la chasse royale No. 11 Colin - Maillard No. 12 Danses des demoiselles nobles -- a . Scène b . Danse des duchesses c . Danse des baronesses ( likely cut by Petipa from the original production ) d . Danse des comtesses ( likely cut by Petipa from the original production ) e . Danse des marquises ( likely cut by Petipa from the original production ) No. 13 Coda -- Farandole No. 14 - a Scène et départ des chasseurs No. 14 - b Entrée de la Fée des lilas No. 15 Pas d'action -- a . Entrée de l'apparition d'Aurore b . Grand adage ( opening harp cadenza possibly extended by either the harpist Albert Heinrich Zabel or Riccardo Drigo ) c . Valse des nymphes -- Petit allégro coquet Interpolation : 4 transitional bars for the end of no. 15 - c composed by Riccardo Drigo to lead into Brianza 's variation Interpolation : Variation Mlle . Brianza ( No. 23 - b Variation de la fée - Or from Act III ) d . Variation d'Aurore ( cut by Petipa from the original production ) e . Petite coda No. 16 Scène No. 17 Panorama Interpolation : 3 transitional bars for the end of no. 17 composed by Riccardo Drigo to lead into no. 19 , as no. 18 was cut in the original production No. 18 Entr'acte symphonique ( solo for violin with light orchestral accompaniment , composed for Leopold Auer , cut from the original production ) Scene II -- Le château de la belle au bois dormant No. 19 Scène du château de sommeil No. 20 Scène et final -- Le réveil d'Aurore The Bluebird and Princess Florina ( Valeri Panov and Natalia Makarova ) from the 1964 Russian motion picture featuring artists of the Kirov Ballet . Act III -- Les Noces de Désiré et d'Aurore No. 21 Marche No. 22 Grand polonaise dansée ( a.k.a. The Procession of the Fairy Tales ) Grand divertissement -- No. 23 Pas de quatre a . Entrée b . Variation de la fée - Or ( transferred by Petipa to Act II as a variation for Carlotta Brianza in the original production ) c . Variation de la fée - Argent ( changed by Petipa in the original production -- Pas de trois pour la Fées d'Or , d'Argent et de Saphir ) d . Variation de la fée - Saphir ( cut by Petipa from the original production ) e . Variation de la fée - Diamant f . Coda Interpolation : Entrée de chats ( a 10 bar introduction written by Tchaikovsky for no. 24 ) No. 24 Pas de caractère -- Le Chat botté et la Chatte blanche No. 25 Pas de quatre ( changed by Petipa in the original production -- Pas de deux de l'Oiseau bleu et la Princesse Florine ) a . Entrée b . Variation de Cendrillon et Prince Fortuné ( changed by Petipa in the original production -- Variation de l'Oiseau bleu ) c . Variation de l'Oiseau bleu la Princesse Florine ( changed by Petipa in the original production -- Variation de la Princesse Florine ) d . Coda No. 26 Pas de caractère -- Chaperon Rouge et le Loup Interpolation : Pas de caractère -- Cendrillon et Prince Fortuné No. 27 Pas berrichon -- Le Petit Poucet , ses frères et l'Ogre No. 28 Grand pas de quatre ( originally arranged by Petipa as a Pas de quatre for the Princess Aurora , Prince Désiré and the Gold and Sapphire Fairies ) a . Entrée ( only the first eight bars were retained ) b . Grand adage Interpolation : Danse pour les Fées d'Or et de Saphir in 6 / 8 ( Petipa possibly utilized the music for the Entrée to accompany a dance for the Gold and Sapphire Fairies ) c . Variation du Prince Désiré d . Variation d'Aurore -- Mlle . Brianza ( edited by Riccardo Drigo for the original production at Petipa 's request ) e . Coda No. 29 Sarabande -- quadrille pour Turcs , Éthiopiens , Africains et Américains No. 30 - a Coda générale No. 30 - b Apothéose -- Helios en costume de Louis XIV , éclairé par le soleil entouré des fées ( music based on Marche Henri IV ) Versions by other hands ( edit ) Piano arrangements ( edit ) In 1890 , Alexander Siloti was approached to arrange the music for piano duet . He declined , but suggested his then 17 - year - old cousin Sergei Rachmaninoff would be more than competent . This offer was accepted , although Siloti supervised the arrangement . Rachmaninoff himself arranged the entire score for piano solo . Aurora 's wedding by Sergei Diaghilev ( edit ) In 1922 , ballet impresario Sergei Diaghilev arranged a 45 - minute version of the final act for his Ballets Russes , entitled Aurora 's Wedding . This abridged version has been recorded by conductor Leopold Stokowski , in one of his last performances , and by Charles Dutoit . The adaptation takes material from the Act I Introduction of the ballet and combines it with most of the final act , as well as other sections . The selections in this version are listed as follows : Introduction ( Prologue ) Polacca ( Act 3 ) Pas de Six ( Prologue ) Scene ; Danse des Duchesses ; Danse des Marquises ( Act 2 ) Farandole ; Danse - Tempo di Mazurka ( Act 2 ) Pas de Quatre ( Act 3 ) Pas de Charactere - Chaperone Rouge et le Loup ( Act 3 ) Pas de Quatre ( Act 3 ) Coda - les trois Ivans ( Act 3 ) Pas de Deux ( Act 3 ) Finale - Tempo di Mazurka ; Apothéose ( Act 3 ) Trademark controversy ( edit ) The Walt Disney Company has registered a trademark with the US Patent and Trademark Office , filed 13 March 2007 , for the name `` Princess Aurora '' that covers production and distribution of motion picture films ; production of television programs ; production of sound and video recordings . Some suggest that this may limit the ability to perform this ballet , from which Disney acquired some of the music for its animated 1959 film Sleeping Beauty . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Roger Fiske ( 1973 ) : Eulenberg Edition , Foreword to the complete score of the ballet : `` On 2 Feb 1939 Sadler 's Wells presented the ballet in London with Margot Fonteyn in the title role ... This was the first successful production outside Russia , and it led to The Sleeping Beauty becoming extremely popular in all countries where classical ballet is cultivated ... The way in which he developed his themes and the lavish originality with which he scored the music raised his ballets far above those his predecessors had composed . '' Jump up ^ `` The Sleeping Beauty '' . Collections Online . Royal Opera House . Retrieved 9 April 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Review / Ballet ; San Francisco ' Sleeping Beauty ' Underlines Russian Influences '' . Retrieved November 27 , 2013 . New York Times / Anna Kisselgoff , March 20 , 1990 ^ Jump up to : Brillarelli , Livia ( 1995 ) . Cecchetti A Ballet Dynasty . Toronto : Dance Collection Danse Educational Publications . p. 31 . Jump up ^ Lawrence & Elizabeth Hanson , Tchaikovsky page 269 Cassell London 1965 Jump up ^ `` US Patent and Trademark Office -- Princess Aurora trademark status '' . Retrieved March 26 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` An Attempt To Stop The Disney Machine '' . Retrieved March 26 , 2010 . Deadline Hollywood / Niki Finke , May 1 , 2009 External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to The Sleeping Beauty . Video samples ( edit ) The Sleeping Beauty - Choreography by Rudolf Nureyev The Ballet Soloist ( aka Russian Ballerina ) -- 1947 Soviet musical film with scenes from Tchaikovsky 's Swan Lake and The Sleeping Beauty . With subtitles in Esperanto . Solo of Prince Désiré from Pas de deux ( Act 3 ) danced by Rudolf Nureyev ( from YouTube ) Scores ( edit ) Sleeping Beauty : Scores at the International Music Score Library Project ( IMSLP ) History ( edit ) Tchaikovsky Research Ballets by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky Swan Lake , Op. 20 Sleeping Beauty , Op. 66 The Nutcracker , Op. 71 List of compositions by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky The ballets and * revivals of Marius Petipa in Russia 1847 -- 59 Paquita ( * 1847 , * 1881 ) Le Diable amoureux ( as `` Satanella '' ) ( * 1848 ) Leda , the Swiss Milkmaid ( 1849 ) Giselle ( * 1850 , * 1884 , * 1899 , * 1903 ) The Star of Granada ( 1855 ) The Rose , the Violet , and the Butterfly ( 1857 ) Le Corsaire ( * 1858 , * 1863 , * 1868 , * 1885 , * 1899 ) A Marriage During the Regency ( 1858 ) The Parisian Market ( 1859 , * 1861 ) 1860 -- 79 The Blue Dahlia ( 1860 , * 1875 ) Terpsichore ( 1861 ) The Pharaoh 's Daughter ( 1862 , * 1885 , * 1898 ) The Beauty of Lebanon ( 1863 ) The Traveling Dancer ( 1864 ) Florida ( 1866 ) Titania ( 1866 ) Faust ( * 1867 ) The Benevolent Cupid ( 1868 ) The Slave ( 1868 ) Le Roi Candaule ( 1868 , * 1891 , * 1903 ) Don Quixote ( 1869 , * 1871 ) Trilby ( 1870 ) Catarina ( * 1870 ) The Two Stars ( 1871 ) La Péri ( * 1872 ) Camargo ( 1872 ) Le Papillon ( * 1874 ) Ondine ( as `` The Naiad and the Fisherman '' ) ( * 1874 , * 1892 ) The Bandits ( 1875 ) The Adventures of Peleus ( 1876 , * 1897 ) A Midsummer Night 's Dream ( 1876 ) La Bayadère ( 1877 , * 1900 ) Roxana ( 1878 ) Ariadne ( 1878 ) The Daughter of the Snows ( 1879 ) Frizak the Barber ( 1879 ) Mlada ( 1879 , * 1896 ) 1880 -- 99 La Fille du Danube ( * 1880 ) Zoraiya ( 1881 ) La Vivandière ( as `` Markitenka '' ) ( * 1881 ) Pâquerette ( * 1882 ) The Night and the Day ( 1883 ) Pygmalion ( 1883 ) Coppélia ( * 1884 ) Giselle ( * 1884 , 1899 , 1903 ) Le Diable à Quatre ( as `` The Willful Wife '' ) ( * 1885 ) La Fille Mal Gardée ( * 1885 ) The Magic Pills ( 1886 ) The King 's Command ( 1886 , * 1887 , * 1900 ) La Esmeralda ( * 1886 , * 1899 ) The Sacrifices to Cupid ( 1886 ) * Fiametta ( 1887 ) The Vestal ( 1888 ) The Talisman ( 1889 , * 1895 ) The Enchanted Forest ( * 1889 ) The Caprices of a Butterfly ( 1889 , * 1895 ) The Sleeping Beauty ( 1890 ) Nénuphar ( 1890 ) Kalkabrino ( 1891 ) A Fairy Tale ( 1891 ) La Sylphide ( * 1892 ) The Nutcracker ( 1892 ) Cinderella ( 1893 ) The Awakening of Flora ( 1894 ) Swan Lake ( * 1895 ) The Little Humpbacked Horse ( as `` The Tsar Maiden '' ) ( * 1895 ) The Calvary Halt ( 1896 ) The Pearl ( 1896 ) Bluebeard ( 1896 ) Raymonda ( 1898 ) 1900 -- 03 Les Ruses d'Amour or The Trial of Damis ( 1900 ) The Seasons ( 1900 ) Harlequinade ( 1900 ) The Heart of the Marquis ( 1902 ) The Magic Mirror ( 1903 ) The Romance of the Rosebud and the Butterfly ( never presented ) Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky Operas The Voyevoda Undina The Oprichnik Vakula the Smith Eugene Onegin The Maid of Orleans Mazepa ( or Mazeppa ) Cherevichki The Enchantress The Queen of Spades Iolanta Ballets Swan Lake The Sleeping Beauty The Nutcracker Symphonies No. 1 in G minor ( `` Winter Daydreams '' ) No. 2 in C minor ( `` Little Russian '' ) No. 3 in D major ( `` Polish '' ) No. 4 in F minor Symphony in B minor ( `` Manfred '' ) No. 5 in E minor No. 6 in B minor ( `` Pathétique '' ) No. 7 in E ♭ major ( unfinished ) Concertante Piano Concerto No. 1 in B ♭ minor Piano Concerto No. 2 in G major Piano Concerto No. 3 in E ♭ major Concert Fantasia Andante and Finale Sérénade mélancolique Valse - Scherzo Violin Concerto in D major Variations on a Rococo Theme Pezzo capriccioso Cello Concerto Orchestral works Romeo and Juliet The Tempest Hamlet Capriccio Italien Francesca da Rimini The Storm Fatum The Voyevoda 1812 Overture Marche slave Festival Overture on the Danish National Anthem Festival Coronation March Orchestral Suite No. 1 in D minor Orchestral Suite No. 2 in C major Orchestral Suite No. 3 in G major Orchestral Suite No. 4 in G major ( `` Mozartiana '' ) Serenade for Strings Vocal music Liturgy of St John Chrysostom All - Night Vigil Moscow Six Romances ( Op. 38 ) Chamber music Quartet Movement in B ♭ major String Quartet No. 1 in D major String Quartet No. 2 in F major String Quartet No. 3 in E ♭ minor Souvenir d'un lieu cher Piano Trio in A minor String Sextet in D minor ( Souvenir de Florence ) Piano music Scherzo à la russe Souvenir de Hapsal The Seasons ( Les saisons ) Piano Sonata No. 2 in C ♯ minor Grand Piano Sonata in G major Portrayals Tchaikovsky ( 1969 film ) Music competitions International Tchaikovsky Competition International Tchaikovsky Competition for Young Musicians Related articles Antonina Miliukova Belyayev circle Death Modest Ilyich Tchaikovsky Musical style Nadezhda von Meck Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky in popular media Symphonies by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky Tchaikovsky State House - Museum The Five Vladimir Davydov Book : Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky List of compositions by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky Category : Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky `` Sleeping Beauty '' / `` Little Briar Rose '' by Charles Perrault and the Brothers Grimm Theatre La Belle au Bois Dormant ( opera ) The Sleeping Beauty ( ballet ) Variants Sun , Moon , and Talia The Young Slave The Glass Coffin Retellings Alinda of the Loch Enchantment The Light Princess `` Little Daylight '' The Ordinary Princess The Sleeping Beauty Quartet Spindle 's End The Gates of Sleep Films Sleeping Beauty ( 1959 ) Some Call It Loving ( 1973 ) Sleeping Beauty ( 1987 ) Sleeping Beauty ( 1995 ) Keys to the Kingdom ( 2007 ) Sleeping Betty ( 2008 ) Maleficent ( 2014 ) Descendants ( 2015 ) Charming ( 2018 ) Disney `` Once Upon a Dream '' ( song ) Sleeping Beauty Castle Le Château de la Belle au Bois Dormant `` Evil Like Me '' ( song ) Kingdom Hearts series Characters Prince Charming Wicked fairy godmother Disney 's Sleeping Beauty characters Princess Aurora Flora , Fauna , and Merryweather Maleficent VIAF : 177018667 LCCN : n79129182 GND : 300033966 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Sleeping_Beauty_(ballet)&oldid=820890862 '' Categories : Ballets by Marius Petipa Suites by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky 1890 ballet premieres 1889 compositions Works based on Sleeping Beauty Adaptations of works by Charles Perrault Ballets by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky Ballets based on fairy tales Hidden categories : Articles containing Russian - language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February 2008 Articles with unsourced statements from April 2016 All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from January 2018 Articles with permanently dead external links Works with IMSLP links Articles with International Music Score Library Project links Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Talk Variants Contents About Wikipedia Български Català Deutsch Español فارسی Français Galego Հայերեն Italiano Magyar Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska Українська Tiếng Việt 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 17 January 2018 , at 05 : 48 . 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swan lake the sleeping beauty and the nutcracker are three famous ballets by

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List of Dragon Ball Z episodes - wikipedia List of Dragon Ball Z episodes Jump to : navigation , search This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( September 2009 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The first volume of the individual DVD compilations of Dragon Ball Z released in Japan . Dragon Ball Z ( ドラゴンボール ゼット , Doragon Bōru Zetto , commonly abbreviated as DBZ ) is the long - running anime sequel to the Dragon Ball TV series , adapted from the final twenty - six volumes of the Dragon Ball manga written by Akira Toriyama . The manga portion of the series debuted in Weekly Shōnen Jump in October 4 , 1988 and lasted until 1995 ; the anime adaptation premiered in Japan on Fuji Television on April 26 , 1989 , taking over its predecessor 's time slot , and ran until its end on January 31 , 1996 , lasting 291 episodes in Japan , and 276 episodes in the United States originally , although all 291 episodes were later broadcast when content from the first 67 episodes was restored . Dragon Ball Z uses four pieces of theme music in the Japanese version . From episodes 1 - 199 , the opening theme is `` Cha - La Head - Cha - La '' by Hironobu Kageyama , and the closing theme is `` Detekoi Tobikiri Zenkai Pawā ! '' by MANNA . From episodes 200 - 291 , the opening and closing themes are `` We Gotta Power '' and `` Boku - Tachi wa Tenshi Datta , '' both by Hironobu Kagayama . Contents ( hide ) 1 Seasons overview 2 Episode list 2.1 Season 1 : Saiyan Saga ( 1989 -- 1990 ) 2.2 Season 2 : Namek and Captain Ginyu Sagas ( 1990 -- 1991 ) 2.3 Season 3 : Frieza Saga ( 1991 ) 2.4 Season 4 : Garlic Jr. , Trunks and Androids Sagas ( 1991 -- 1992 ) 2.5 Season 5 : Imperfect Cell and Perfect Cell Sagas ( 1992 ) 2.6 Season 6 : Cell Games Saga ( 1992 -- 1993 ) 2.7 Season 7 : Great Saiyaman and World Tournament Sagas ( 1993 -- 1994 ) 2.8 Season 8 : Babidi and Majin Buu Sagas ( 1994 -- 1995 ) 2.9 Season 9 : Fusion and Kid Buu Sagas ( 1995 - 1996 ) 3 OVAs / Movie Specials 4 TV Specials 5 Films 6 Home media releases 6.1 Region 1 ( North America ) 6.1. 1 VHS Saga Box Set 6.1. 2 Individual DVD List 6.1. 3 Ultimate Uncut Edition Box Sets 6.1. 4 Season Box Sets 6.1. 5 Funimation Dragon Box Z Sets 6.1. 6 Blu - ray Level releases 6.1. 7 Season Blu - ray releases 6.1. 8 Original English dub Collector 's DVD Box Set 6.2 Region 2 6.2. 1 Dragon Box Z Sets ( Japan ) 6.2. 2 Season Box Sets ( United Kingdom ) 7 See also 8 References 9 External links Seasons overview ( edit ) A note on the `` Season '' nomenclature : The `` seasons '' that comprise the following list correspond to the remastered box sets released by Funimation from 2007 to 2009 . However , these `` seasons '' only correspond to story arcs ( which are themselves split at debatable points ) , and not to the pattern in which the show actually aired in either Japan or the United States . In Japan , Dragon Ball Z ( like both of the other Dragon Ball series ) was aired year - round continuously , with regular off - days for sporting events and television specials taking place about once every six weeks on average . Only when the series was broadcast in the United States was the series split into the standard seasonal cycle of new episodes followed by repeats followed by new episodes . The series was broadcast in eight separate near - continuous blocks ( 1 - 35 , 36 - 67 , 68 - 107 , 108 - 116 , 117 - 194 , 195 - 237 , 238 - 276 , and 277 - 291 ) , with breaks varying between four months to over a year between each block . In only one instance ( between episodes 194 and 195 ) was there actually parity between the DVD release and the actual broadcast sequence in terms of the end of one `` season '' and the beginning of the next . Season Episodes Japanese airdates English airdates Saiyan Saga 39 ( 1 -- 39 ) April 26 , 1989 -- March 7 , 1990 September 13 , 1996 -- September 20 , 1997 ( edited ) June 14 , 2005 -- August 18 , 2005 ( uncut ) Namek and Captain Ginyu Sagas 35 ( 40 -- 74 ) March 14 , 1990 -- January 16 , 1991 September 20 , 1997 -- April 4 , 1998 ( edited ) September 13 , 1999 -- September 20 , 1999 ( uncut ep. 68 -- 74 ) August 22 , 2005 -- October 10 , 2005 ( uncut ep. 40 -- 67 ) Frieza Saga 33 ( 75 -- 107 ) January 23 , 1991 -- September 11 , 1991 September 21 , 1999 -- November 3 , 1999 Garlic Jr. , Trunks and Androids Sagas 32 ( 108 -- 139 ) September 18 , 1991 -- May 13 , 1992 April 8 , 2000 -- October 3 , 2000 5 Imperfect Cell and Perfect Cell Sagas 26 ( 140 -- 165 ) May 20 -- November 18 , 1992 October 4 , 2000 -- November 8 , 2000 6 Cell Games Saga 29 ( 166 -- 194 ) November 25 , 1992 -- July 21 , 1993 November 9 , 2000 -- December 29 , 2000 7 Great Saiyaman and World Tournament Sagas 25 ( 195 -- 219 ) July 28 , 1993 -- March 2 , 1994 September 10 , 2001 -- October 12 , 2001 8 Babidi and Majin Buu Sagas 34 ( 220 -- 253 ) March 9 , 1994 -- January 25 , 1995 October 15 , 2001 -- October 10 , 2002 9 Fusion and Kid Buu Sagas 38 ( 254 -- 291 ) February 1 , 1995 -- January 31 , 1996 October 14 , 2002 -- April 7 , 2003 Episode list ( edit ) Season 1 : Saiyan saga ( 1989 -- 1990 ) ( edit ) Main article : List of Dragon Ball Z episodes ( season 1 ) No . Initial dub No . Translated title / Original FUNimation dub title ( Funimation 's redub title ) Japanese title Japanese airdate English airdate `` Mini-Goku is an Overprotected Boy ! I Am Gohan . '' / `` The Arrival of Raditz '' ( The New Threat ) `` Mini Gokū wa Obotchama ! Boku Gohan Desu . '' ( ミニ 悟空 はお ぼっ ちゃ ま ! ボク 悟 飯 です . ) April 26 , 1989 September 13 , 1996 June 14 , 2005 ( re-dub ) `` The Mightiest Warrior in All of History is Goku 's Older Brother ! '' / `` The Arrival of Raditz '' ( Reunions ) `` Shijō Saikyō no Senshi wa Gokū no Ani Datta ! '' ( 史上 最強 の 戦士 は 悟空 の 兄 だっ た ! ) May 3 , 1989 September 13 , 1996 June 15 , 2005 ( re-dub ) `` All Right ! This is the Strongest Combo in the World ! '' / `` The World 's Strongest Team '' ( Unlikely Alliance ) `` Yatta ! Kore ga Chijō Saikyō no Konbi Da ! '' ( やっ た ! これが 地上 最強 の コンビ だ ! ) May 10 , 1989 September 20 , 1996 June 16 , 2005 ( re-dub ) `` Piccolo 's Trump Card ! Gohan , the Crybaby - kun '' / `` Gohan 's Hidden Powers '' ( Piccolo 's Plan ) `` Pikkoro no Kirifuda ! Gohan wa Nakimushikun '' ( ピッコロ の 切り札 ! 悟 飯 は 泣き むし クン ) May 17 , 1989 September 27 , 1996 June 20 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 5 `` Goku Dies ! There 's Only One Last Chance '' / `` Goku 's Unusual Journey '' ( Gohan 's Rage ) `` Gokū Shisu ! Rasuto Chansu wa Ichido dake '' ( 悟空 死す ! ラスト チャンス は 一度 だけ ) May 24 , 1989 October 4 , 1996 June 21 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 6 `` Even Yama - sama is Surprised -- The Fight Continues in the Next World '' / `` Goku 's Unusual Journey '' ( No Time Like the Present ) `` Enmasama mo Bikkuri -- Ano Yo de Faito '' ( エンマ 様 も ビックリ あの世 で ファイト ) June 7 , 1989 October 4 , 1996 June 22 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 7 5 `` Survival with Dinosaurs ! Gohan 's Harsh Training '' / `` Gohan 's Metamorphosis '' ( Day 1 ) `` Kyōryū to Sabaibaru ! Gohan no Tsurai Shugyō '' ( 恐竜 と サバイバル ! 悟 飯 の ツライ 修行 ) June 14 , 1989 October 11 , 1996 June 23 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 8 5 `` A Great Transformation on a Moonlit Night ! The Secret of Gohan 's Power '' / `` Gohan 's Metamorphosis '' ( Gohan Goes Bananas ! ) `` Tsuki no Kagayaku Yoru ni Daihenshin ! Gohan Pawā no Himitsu '' ( 月 の 輝く 夜 に 大 変身 ! 悟 飯 パワー の 秘密 ) June 21 , 1989 October 11 , 1996 June 27 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 9 6 `` Sorry , Robot - san -- The Desert of Vanishing Tears '' / `` Gohan Makes a Friend '' ( The Strangest Robot ) `` Gomen ne Robottosan Sabaku ni Kieta Namida . '' ( ゴメン ね ロボット さん 砂漠 に 消え た 涙 . ) June 28 , 1989 October 18 , 1996 June 28 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 10 6 `` Do n't Cry , Gohan ! His First Fight '' / `` Gohan Makes a Friend '' ( A New Friend ) `` Naku na Gohan ! Hajimete no Tatakai . '' ( 泣く な 悟 飯 ! はじめて の 闘い ) July 5 , 1989 October 18 , 1996 June 29 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 11 7 `` The Saiyans , Mightiest Warriors in the Universe , Awaken ! '' / `` Trouble on Arlia '' ( Terror on Arlia ) `` Uchūichi no Kyōsenshi Saiyajin Mezameru ! '' ( 宇宙 一 の 強 戦士 サイヤ 人 めざめる ! ) July 12 , 1989 October 25 , 1996 June 30 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 12 8 `` Catnap on the Serpentine Road Goku Takes a Tumble '' / `` Home For Infinite Losers '' ( Global Training ) `` Hebi no Michi de Inemuri Gokū ga Okkochiru '' ( 蛇 の 道 で い ねむり 悟空 が 落っこちる ) July 19 , 1989 November 1 , 1996 July 4 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 13 8 `` Hands Off ! Yama - sama 's Secret Fruit '' / `` Home For Infinite Losers '' ( Goz and Mez ) `` Te o Dasu na ! Enmasama no Himitsu no Kudamono '' ( 手 を 出す な ! エンマ 様 の 秘密 の 果実 ) July 26 , 1989 November 1 , 1996 July 5 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 14 9 `` Such Sweet Temptation ! The Snake Princess - sama 's Hospitality '' / `` Princess Snake 's Hospitality '' ( Princess Snake ) '' `` Ama 〜 i Yūwaku ! Hebihimesama no Omotenashi '' ( あま ~ い 誘惑 ! 蛇 姫 さま の おもてなし ) August 2 , 1989 November 8 , 1996 July 6 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 15 10 `` Escape from Piccolo ! Gohan Summons a Storm '' / `` Escape from Piccolo '' ( Dueling Piccolos ) `` Pikkoro kara no Dasshutsu ! Arashi o Yobu Gohan '' ( ピッコロ から の 脱出 ! 嵐 を 呼ぶ 悟 飯 ) August 9 , 1989 September 14 , 1998 July 7 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 16 10 `` Run , Gohan ! Longing for Mount Paozu , Where Chichi is Waiting '' / `` Escape from Piccolo '' ( Plight of the Children ) `` Hashire Gohan ! Chichi no Matsu Natsukashi no Paozu Yama '' ( 走れ 悟 飯 ! チチ の 待つ なつかし の パオズ 山 ) August 16 , 1989 September 14 , 1998 July 11 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 17 11 `` City of No Tomorrow ! The Long Road to Victory '' / `` Showdown in the Past '' ( Pendulum Room Peril ) `` Asu Naki Machi ! Shōri e no Tōi Michinori '' ( 明日 なき 街 ! 勝利 へ の 遠い 道のり ) August 30 , 1989 November 15 , 1996 July 12 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 18 12 `` Last Stop on the Serpentine Road ! Are You Kaio - sama ? '' / `` The End of Snake Way '' ( The End of Snake Way ) `` Shūte 〜 n Hebi no Michi ! Omē Kaiōsama ka ? '' ( 終点 ~ ん 蛇 の 道 ! お め え 界 王様 か ? ) September 6 , 1989 January 3 , 1997 July 13 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 19 13 `` The Battle with Gravity ! Catch Bubbles - kun '' / `` A Fight Against Gravity ... Catch Bubbles ! '' ( Defying Gravity ) `` Jūryoku to no Tatakai ! Baburusukun o Tsukamaero '' ( 重力 と の 戦い ! バブルス 君 を つかまえろ ) September 13 , 1989 January 10 , 1997 July 14 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 20 14 `` The Saiyan Legend Reborn ! Goku 's Roots '' / `` The Legend of the Saiyans '' ( Goku 's Ancestors ) `` Yomigaeru Saiyajin Densetsu ! Gokū no Rūtsu '' ( よみがえる サイヤ 人 伝説 ! 悟空 の ルーツ ) September 20 , 1989 January 17 , 1997 July 18 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 21 15 `` Come Forth , Shen Long ! The Saiyans Finally Arrive on Earth '' / `` A Black Day for Planet Earth '' ( Counting Down ) `` Ide yo Shenron ! Saiyajin Tsui ni Chikyū Tōchaku '' ( いでよ 神龍 ! サイヤ 人 ついに 地球 到着 ) September 27 , 1989 January 24 , 1997 July 19 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 22 16 `` Unbelievable ! Saibaimen , Born of the Soil '' / `` The Battle Begins ... Goku Where Are You ? '' ( The Darkest Day ) ( ん な バカ な ! 土 から 生まれ た サイバイマン ) October 11 , 1989 February 1 , 1997 July 20 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 23 17 `` Yamucha Dies ! The Terror of the Saibaimen '' / `` The Saibamen Strike '' ( Saibamen Attack ! ) `` Yamucha Shisu ! Osoru Beshi Saibaiman '' ( ヤムチャ 死す ! お そる べし サイバイマン ) October 18 , 1989 February 8 , 1997 July 21 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 24 18 `` Farewell Ten - san ! Chaozu 's Suicide Strategy '' / `` Nappa ... The Invincible ? '' ( The Power of Nappa ) `` Sayonara Tensan ! Chaozu no Sutemi no Senpō '' ( さよなら 天 さん ! 餃子 の 捨て身 の 戦法 ) October 25 , 1989 February 15 , 1997 July 25 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 25 19 `` Tenshinhan Cries Out ! ! This is My Final Kikoho '' / `` Tien Goes All Out ! ! '' ( Sacrifice ) `` Tenshinhan Zekkyō ! ! Kore ga Saigo no Kikōhō Da '' ( 天津飯 絶叫 ! ! これが 最後 の 気功 砲 だ ) November 1 , 1989 February 22 , 1997 July 26 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 26 19 `` An Intense Three - Hour Delay ! The Kinto Un Bullet - Express '' / `` Tien Goes All Out ! ! '' ( Nappa 's Rampage ) `` Hitasura Matte Sanjikan ! Dangan Hikō no Kintoun '' ( ひたすら 待っ て 3 時間 ! 弾丸 飛行 の 筋斗 雲 ) November 8 , 1989 February 22 , 1997 July 27 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 27 20 `` Leave it to Me ! Gohan 's Great Burst of Anger '' / `` Time 's Up ! '' ( Nimbus Speed ) `` Boku ni Makasete ! Gohan - Ikari no Daibakuhatsu '' ( ぼく に まかせ て ! 悟 飯 ・ 怒り の 大 爆発 ) November 22 , 1989 April 12 , 1997 July 28 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 28 21 `` Ferocity of the Saiyans ! Kami - sama and Piccolo Both Die '' / `` The Return of Goku '' ( Goku 's Arrival ) `` Saiyajin no Mōi ! Kamisama mo Pikkoro mo Shinda '' ( サイヤ 人 の 猛威 ! 神様 も ピッコロ も 死ん だ ) November 29 , 1989 April 19 , 1997 August 1 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 29 22 `` Father is Awesome ! Kaio - ken , the Ultimate Finishing Technique '' / `` Goku Strikes Back '' ( Lesson Number One ) `` Tōsan Sugē ya ! Kyūkyoku no Hissatsuwaza - Kaiōken '' ( 父さん すげ ぇ や ! 究極 の 必殺 技 ・ 界 王 拳 ) December 6 , 1989 April 26 , 1997 August 2 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 30 23 `` A Hot , Unbounded Battle ! Goku vs. Vegeta '' / `` Goku vs. Vegeta ... A Saiyan Duel ! '' ( Goku vs. Vegeta ) `` Genkai o Koeta Atsui Tatakai ! Gokū Tai Bejīta '' ( 限界 を 超え た 熱い 戦い ! 悟空 対 ベジータ ) December 13 , 1989 May 3 , 1997 August 3 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 31 23 `` Now , Goku ! A Final Technique with Everything on the Line '' / `` Goku vs. Vegeta ... A Saiyan Duel ! '' ( Saiyan Sized Secret ) `` Ima da Gokū ! Subete o Kaketa Saigo no Ōwaza '' ( いまだ 悟空 ! すべて を 賭け た 最後 の 大 技 ) December 20 , 1989 May 3 , 1997 August 4 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 32 24 `` Battle Power Times Ten ! ! Vegeta 's Great Metamorphosis '' / `` Vegeta ... Saiyan Style ! '' ( Spirit Bomb Away ! ) `` Sentōryoku Jūbai ! ! Bejīta Daihenshin '' ( 戦闘 力 10 倍 ! ! ベジータ 大 変身 ) January 17 , 1990 May 10 , 1997 August 8 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 33 25 `` Do n't Die , Father ! ! This is the Depth of Gohan 's Power '' / `` Stop Vegeta Now ! '' ( Hero in the Shadows ) `` Shinanaide Tōsan ! ! Kore ga Gohan no Sokojikara '' ( 死な ない で 父さん ! ! これが 悟 飯 の 底力 ) January 24 , 1990 May 17 , 1997 August 9 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 34 25 `` Shoot , Kuririn ! The Genki Dama , Packed with Hope '' / `` Stop Vegeta Now ! '' ( Krillin 's Offensive ) `` Ute Kuririn ! Negai o Kometa Genkidama '' ( 撃て クリリン ! 願い を こめ た 元気 玉 ) January 31 , 1990 May 17 , 1997 August 10 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 35 26 `` Cause a Miracle ! Son Gohan , the Super Saiyan '' / `` The Battle Ends '' ( Mercy ) `` Kiseki o Okose ! Sūpā Saiyajin Son Gohan '' ( 奇跡 を 起こせ ! スーパー サイヤ 人 孫 悟 飯 ) February 7 , 1990 May 24 , 1997 August 11 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 36 27 `` We 're Off Into Space ! The Star of Hope is Piccolo 's Homeland '' / `` A New Goal ... Namek '' ( Picking Up the Pieces ) `` Tobidase Uchū e ! Kibō no Hoshi wa Pikkoro no Furusato '' ( 飛び出せ 宇宙 へ ! 希望 の 星 は ピッコロ の 故郷 ) February 14 , 1990 September 13 , 1997 August 15 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 37 27 `` Mysterious Yunzabit ! The Search for Kami - sama 's Spaceship '' / `` A New Goal ... Namek '' ( Plans for Departure ) `` Nazo no Yunzabitto ! Kamisama no Uchūsen o Sagase '' ( 謎 の ユンザビット ! 神様 の 宇宙 船 を 探せ ) February 21 , 1990 September 13 , 1997 August 16 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 38 28 `` Blast - off for Planet Namek ! The Terror Awaiting Gohan & Co . '' / `` Journey to Namek '' ( Nursing Wounds ) `` Namekkusei Iki Hasshin ! Gohantachi o Matsu Kyōfu '' ( ナメック 星 行き 発進 ! 悟 飯 たち を 待つ 恐怖 ) February 28 , 1990 September 20 , 1997 August 17 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 39 28 `` Friends or Foes ? Children of the Mysterious Giant Spaceship '' / `` Journey to Namek '' ( Friends or Foes ? ) `` Teki ka Mikata ka ? Nazo no Kyodai Uchūsen no Kodomotachi '' ( 敵 か 味方 か ? 謎 の 巨大 宇宙 船 の 子供 たち ) March 7 , 1990 September 20 , 1997 August 18 , 2005 ( re-dub ) Notes The term Oozaru has been changed to Great Ape as it was used in the live - action movie Dragonball Evolution which Akira Toriyama was not involved in and was not mentioned at all in the series , therefore it is non-canon . Season 2 : Namek and Captain Ginyu sagas ( 1990 -- 1991 ) ( edit ) Main article : List of Dragon Ball Z episodes ( season 2 ) Ep # Initial dub ep # Translated title / Original dub title ( Funimation 's dub title ) Japanese title Japanese airdate English airdate 40 29 `` Honest to Goodness ? There Lies Namek , Planet of Hope '' / `` Friends or Foes ? '' ( Held Captive ) `` Honto ni Honto ? Are ga Kibō no Namekkusei '' ( ホント に ホント ? あれ が 希望 の ナメック 星 ) March 14 , 1990 September 20 , 1997 August 22 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 41 29 `` Kind - hearted Aliens -- There 's the Wu Xing Qiu Already '' / `` Look Out Below '' ( Look Out Below ) `` Shinsetsu na Uchūjin -- Ikinari Atta yo Ūshinchū '' ( 親切 な 宇宙 人 いきなり あっ たよ 五 星球 ) March 21 , 1990 September 20 , 1997 August 23 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 42 30 `` Planet Freeza No. 79 -- Vegeta Recovers ! ! '' / `` Hunt for a Dragon Ball '' ( The Search Continues ) `` Wakusei Furīza Nanbā Nanajūkyū -- Fukkatsu no Bejīta ! ! '' ( 惑星 フリーザ NO. 79 復活 の ベジータ ! ! ) April 4 , 1990 September 20 , 1997 August 24 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 43 31 `` The Dragon Balls are All Found ! Piccolo - san Will Also Come Back to Life '' / `` Who 's Who ? ! '' ( A Friendly Surprise ) `` Sorotta zo Doragon Bōru ! Pikkorosan mo Ikikaeru '' ( そろっ た ぞ 神龍 球 ! ピッコロ さん も 生き返る ) April 11 , 1990 September 27 , 1997 August 25 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 44 32 `` A Tough New Enemy ! Freeza , Emperor of the Universe '' / `` Touchdown on Namek '' ( Brood of Evil ) `` Arata na Kyōteki ! Uchū no Teiō Furīza '' ( あらた な 強敵 ! 宇宙 の 帝王 フリーザ ) April 18 , 1990 September 27 , 1997 August 29 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 45 33 `` Vegeta 's Ambition ! I am the Greatest Warrior in the Universe ! ! '' / `` Face - off on Namek '' ( Frieza Strikes ! ) `` Yabō no Bejīta ! Uchūichi no Senshi wa Ore Da ! ! '' ( 野望 の ベジータ ! 宇宙 一 の 戦士 は オレ だ ! ! ) April 25 , 1990 October 4 , 1997 August 30 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 46 34 `` Goku 's Power Unleashed ! ! Six Days to the Far End of the Galaxy '' / `` The Ruthless Frieza '' ( Defying Orders ) `` Gokū Pawā Zenkai ! ! Ginga no Hate made Muikakan '' ( 悟空 パワー 全開 ! ! 銀河 の 果て まで 6 日間 ) May 2 , 1990 October 4 , 1997 August 31 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 47 35 `` Surprise Attack ! ! The Elder 's Target was the Scouters '' / `` The Nameks versus Frieza '' ( Namek 's Defense ) `` Ihyō o Tsuita Kōgeki ! ! Chōrō no Nerai wa Sukautā '' ( 意表 を つい た 攻撃 ! ! 長老 の 狙い は スカウター ) May 9 , 1990 October 11 , 1997 September 1 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 48 36 `` Gohan in Peril ! A Pursuing Dodoria Summons Death '' / `` Escape from Dodoria '' ( The Hunted ) `` Gohan Ayaushi ! Shi o Yobu Tsuisekisha Dodoria '' ( 悟 飯 危うし ! 死 を 呼ぶ 追跡 者 ドドリア ) May 16 , 1990 October 11 , 1997 September 5 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 49 37 `` Dodoria Dies by Explosion ! Vegeta 's Fearsome Shockwave '' / `` Secrets Revealed '' ( The Prince Fights Back ) `` Bakushi Dodoria ! Bejīta no Osoru Beki Shōgekiha '' ( 爆死 ドドリア ! ベジータ の 恐る べき 衝撃波 ) May 23 , 1990 October 18 , 1997 September 6 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 50 38 `` Escape From a Burning Planet ! ! A Life - or - Death Kamehame - Ha '' / `` A Collision Course '' ( Unexpected Problem ) `` Moeru Wakusei kara no Dasshutsu ! ! Inochigake no Kamehameha '' ( 燃える 惑星 から の 脱出 ! ! 命がけ の カメハメ 波 ) May 30 , 1990 October 18 , 1997 September 7 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 51 39 `` Courage Times One Hundred ! The Warriors Gathered Under Kaio '' / `` Stay Away From Frieza '' ( Vegeta has a Ball ) `` Yūki Hyakubai ! Kaiō no Moto ni Shūketsu Suru Senshitachi '' ( 勇気 百倍 ! 界 王 の 下 に 集結 する 戦士 たち ) June 6 , 1990 October 25 , 1997 September 12 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 52 39 `` Listen to Me , Goku ! Hands Off Freeza '' / `` Stay Away From Frieza '' ( The Past and Future ) `` Kike Gokū yo ! Furīza ni wa Te o Dasu na '' ( 聞け 悟空 よ ! フリーザ に は 手 を 出す な ) June 20 , 1990 October 25 , 1997 September 13 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 53 40 `` Nothing but Goosebumps ! The Handsome Warrior Zarbon 's Devilish Transformation '' / `` Zarbon Transformed '' ( Zarbon 's Surprise ) `` Hotondo Torihada ! Bisenshi Zābon no Akuma no Henshin '' ( ほとんど 鳥肌 ! 美 戦士 ザーボン の 悪魔 の 変身 ) June 27 , 1990 October 25 , 1997 September 14 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 54 41 `` Defend the Star of Hope ! ! Kuririn 's Astonishing Power - Up '' / `` The Eldest Namek '' ( Guru 's Gift ) `` Kibō no Hoshi o Mamore ! ! Kuririn Kyōi no Pawā Appu '' ( 希望 の 星 を 守れ ! ! クリリン 驚異 の パワー UP ) July 4 , 1990 November 1 , 1997 September 15 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 55 42 `` Back from the Brink of Death -- The Miracle Man , Vegeta '' / `` Get Vegeta ! '' ( Piccolo vs. Everyone ) `` Shi no Fuchi kara Yomigaetta -- Kiseki no Otoko - Bejīta '' ( 死 の 淵 から よみがえっ た 奇跡 の 男 ・ ベジータ ) July 18 , 1990 November 1 , 1997 September 19 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 56 43 `` An Enormous Battle Power ! ! Freeza 's Scheme is Shattered '' / `` Vegeta Revived '' ( Zarbon 's Mission ) `` Dodekai Sentōryoku ! ! Kudakechiru Furīza no Inbō '' ( ど でかい 戦闘 力 ! ! 砕け 散る フリーザ の 陰謀 ) August 1 , 1990 November 8 , 1997 September 20 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 57 44 `` I 'm Back to My Old Self Again ! ! Goku Under 100 - Times Super-Gravity '' / `` A Heavy Burden '' ( Gohan , the Hunted ) `` Genki ga Modotta zo ! ! Hyakubai Chōjūryoku no Naka no Gokū '' ( 元気 が 戻っ た ぞ ! ! 100 倍 超 重力 の 中 の 悟空 ) August 8 , 1990 November 8 , 1997 September 21 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 58 45 `` Freeza 's Secret Weapon ! The Devilish Ginyu Special Corps '' / `` Immortality Denied '' ( Unknown Enemies ) `` Furīza no Himitsu Heiki ! Akuma no Ginyū Tokusentai '' ( フリーザ の 秘密 兵器 ! 悪魔 の ギニュー 特 戦隊 ) August 22 , 1990 November 15 , 1997 September 22 , 2005 ( re-dub ) NA 46 `` The Decisive Battle for the Entire Earth '' / `` The Tree of Might : Part 1 '' `` Chikyū Marugoto Chōkessen '' ( 地球 まるごと 超 決戦 ) NA November 15 , 1997 NA 47 `` The Decisive Battle for the Entire Earth '' / `` The Tree of Might : Part 2 '' `` Chikyū Marugoto Chōkessen '' ( 地球 まるごと 超 決戦 ) NA November 22 , 1997 NA 48 `` The Decisive Battle for the Entire Earth '' / `` The Tree of Might : Part 3 '' `` Chikyū Marugoto Chōkessen '' ( 地球 まるごと 超 決戦 ) NA November 22 , 1997 59 46 / 49 `` Watch Out , Bulma ! ! The Si Xing Qiu Falls into Freeza 's Clutches '' / `` Big Trouble for Bulma '' ( Destination : Guru ) `` Buruma ga Abunai ! ! Sūshinchū wa Furīza no Te ni '' ( ブルマ が 危ない ! ! 四 星球 は フリーザ の 手 に ) August 29 , 1990 January 31 , 1998 September 26 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 60 47 / 50 `` Charge ! ! The Kaio - ken and Kamehame - Ha of an Indomitable Spirit '' / `` Scramble for the Dragon Balls ! '' ( Bulma 's Big Day ) `` Gekitotsu da ! ! Fukutsu no Tōshi no Kaiōken to Kamehameha '' ( 激突 だ ! ! 不屈 の 闘志 の 界 王 拳 と カメハメ 波 ) September 5 , 1990 February 7 , 1998 September 27 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 61 48 / 51 `` The Great Battle Approaches ! Ginyu 's Special Corps Takes the Stage ! ! '' / `` Arrival of the Ginyu Force '' ( Hidden Power ) `` Semaru Chō - Kessen ! Ginyū Tokusentai Tadaima Sanjō ! ! '' ( 激突 だ ! ! 不屈 の 闘志 の 界 王 拳 と カメハメ 波 ! ! ) September 12 , 1990 February 7 , 1998 September 28 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 62 49 / 52 `` Goku on Final Approach ! Smash Through Freeza 's Dragnet '' / `` Elite Fighters of the Universe ... The Ginyu Force '' ( New Ally , New Problem ) `` Gokū ga Daisekkin ! Furīza no Hōimō o Buchiyabure '' ( 悟空 が 大 接近 ! フリーザ の 包囲 網 を ぶち 破れ ) September 19 , 1990 February 14 , 1998 September 29 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 63 50 / 53 `` Super-Magic or Just a Trick ! ? Mr. Ghurd is Angry ! '' / `` Time Tricks and Body Binds '' ( Guldo 's Mind Binds ) `` Chōmajutsu ka Torikku ka ! ? Misutā Gurudo ga Okotta zo ! '' ( 超 魔術 か トリック か ! ? MR. グルド が 怒っ た ぞ ! ) September 26 , 1990 February 14 , 1998 October 3 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 64 51 / 54 `` The Savage ReaCoom ! ! He 's Bad , He 's Strong , He 's Outrageous '' / `` No Refuge From Recoome '' ( Recoome Unleashed ) `` Mōi Rikūmu ! ! Warukute Tsuyokute Tondemonai Yatsu '' ( 猛攻 リクーム ! ! 悪く て 強く て とんでも ない 奴 ) October 24 , 1990 May 16 , 1998 October 4 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 65 52 / 55 `` Do n't Die , Gohan ! Goku Finally Touches Down on the Battlefield '' / `` Enter Goku '' ( Let the Battle Begin ) `` Shinu na Gohan ! Gokū , Tsui ni Kessenjō ni Tōchaku Da '' ( 死ぬ な 悟 飯 ! 悟空 、 ついに 決戦 場 に 到着 だ ) October 31 , 1990 May 23 , 1998 October 5 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 66 53 / 56 `` Uncommon Strength ! ! Son Goku , the Legendary Super Saiyan '' / `` Goku ... Super Saiyan ? '' ( Goku 's New Power ) `` Ketahazure no Tsuyosa ! ! Densetsu no Sūpā Saiyajin Son Gokū '' ( ケタ 外れ の 強 さ ! ! 伝説 の 超 サイヤ 人 孫悟空 ) November 7 , 1990 May 23 , 1998 October 6 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 67 53 / 56 `` Lightning Balls of Red and Blue ! Jheese and Butta Attack Goku '' / `` Goku ... Super Saiyan ? '' ( A Legend Revealed ) `` Aka to Ao no Raitoningu Bōru ! Jīsu to Bāta ga Gokū o Osō '' ( 赤 と 青 の 光 球 ! ジース と バータ が 悟空 を 襲う ) November 14 , 1990 May 23 , 1998 October 10 , 2005 ( re-dub ) 68 54 `` At Last , a Direct Confrontation ! ! Captain Ginyu Takes the Field '' / `` Ginyu Assault '' `` Tsui ni Chokusetsu Taiketsu ! ! Ginyū Taichō no Odemashi Da '' ( ついに 直接 対決 ! ! ギニュー 隊長 の お で まし だ ) November 21 , 1990 September 13 , 1999 69 55 `` Incredible Force ! ! Did You See Goku 's Full Power ? '' / `` Incredible Force ! '' `` Susamajii Hakuryoku ! ! Mita ka , Gokū no Furu Pawā '' ( 凄まじい 迫力 ! ! 見 たか 、 悟空 の フル パワー ) November 28 , 1990 September 13 , 1999 70 56 `` What of the Battle 's Outcome ! ? Freeza 's Evil Hand Closes Around the Grand Elder '' / `` Frieza Approaches '' `` Tatakai no Yukue ! ? Saichōrō ni Semaru Furīza no Ma no Te '' ( 闘い の 行方 ! ? 最 長老 に 迫る フリーザ の 魔 の 手 ) December 5 , 1990 September 14 , 1999 71 57 `` Surprise ! ! Goku is Ginyu and Ginyu is Goku '' / `` Goku is Ginyu and Ginyu is Goku '' `` Bikkuri ! ! Gokū ga Ginyū de Ginyū ga Gokū '' ( ビックリ ! ! 悟空 が ギニュー で ギニュー が 悟空 ) December 12 , 1990 September 15 , 1999 72 58 `` Come Forth , Super Shen Long ! ! Grant Me My Wish '' / `` Calling the Eternal Dragon '' `` Ide yo Sūpā Shenron ! ! Boku no Negai o Kanaetamae '' ( 出 で よ 超 神龍 ! ! ボク の 願い を かなえ たまえ ) December 19 , 1990 September 16 , 1999 73 59 `` That Ai n't Me ! Gohan , Do n't Lose Your Nerve , Hit Your Father ! ! '' / `` Gohan - Defeat Your Dad ! '' `` Yatsu wa Ora ja Nē ! Gohan Bibiru na Chichi o Ute ! ! '' ( 奴 は オラ じゃ ネェ ! 悟 飯 びびる な 父 を 撃て ! ! ) January 9 , 1991 September 17 , 1999 74 60 `` Whoops ! ! Ginyu Has Turned Into a Frog '' / `` Captain Ginyu ... The Frog '' `` Daigosan ! ! Ginyū ga Kaeru ni Natchatta '' ( 大 誤算 ! ! ギニュー が カエル に なっ ちゃっ た ) January 16 , 1991 September 20 , 1999 Season 3 : Frieza saga ( 1991 ) ( edit ) Main article : List of Dragon Ball Z episodes ( season 3 ) Ep # Initial dub ep # Translated title / Funimation 's dub title Japanese title Japanese airdate English airdate 75 61 `` Thou Who Hast Gathered the Seven Balls ... Now Speak Forth the Password ! '' / `` Password is Porunga '' `` Nanatsu no Tama o Soroeshi Mono yo ... Sā Aikotoba o Ie ! '' ( 七 ッ の 玉 を 揃え し 者 よ ... さあ 合言葉 を 言え ! ) January 23 , 1991 September 21 , 1999 76 62 `` Kami - sama Also Returns to Life ! Piccolo is Resurrected by Super Shen Long '' / `` Piccolo 's Return '' `` Kamisama mo Ikikaetta ! Sūpā Shen Long de Pikkoro ga Fukkatsu '' ( 神様 も 生き返っ た ! 超 神龍 で ピッコロ が 復活 ) January 30 , 1991 September 22 , 1999 77 63 `` Birth of the Mightiest Warrior ! ? Nail and Piccolo Merge '' / `` The Fusion '' `` Saikyō Senshi no Tanjō ka ! ? Neiru to Pikkoro ga Gattai '' ( 最強 戦士 の 誕生 か ! ? ネイル と ピッコロ が 合体 ) February 6 , 1991 September 23 , 1999 78 64 `` A Nightmare Super-Transformation ! ! Frieza 's Battle Power of One Million '' / `` Fighting Power : One Million ? '' `` Akumu no Chōhenshin ! ! Sentōryoku Hyakuman no Furīza '' ( 悪夢 の 超 変身 ! ! 戦闘 力 100 万 の フリーザ ) February 13 , 1991 September 24 , 1999 79 65a `` Is This the End ! ? A Brutally Transcendent Power Attacks Gohan '' / `` Gohan Attacks '' `` Koko made ka ! ? Kyōaku Chōzetsu Pawā ga Gohan o Osō '' ( ここ まで か ! ? 凶悪 超絶 パワー が 悟 飯 を 襲う ) February 20 , 1991 September 27 , 1999 80 65b `` The Tide Suddenly Turned ! ! Piccolo , the Warrior Who Came Late '' / `` Piccolo the Super-Namek '' `` Ikki ni Keisei Gyakuten ! ! Okurete Kita Senshi - Pikkoro '' ( 一気に 形勢 逆転 ! ! 遅れ てき た 戦士 ・ ピッコロ ) February 27 , 1991 September 27 , 1999 81 66 `` Piccolo 's Self - Confidence ! I Will Be the One to Defeat Freeza '' / `` Deja Vu '' `` Pikkoro no Jishin ! Furīza o Taosu no wa Ore da '' ( ピッコロ の 自信 ! フリーザ を 倒す の は オレ だ ) March 6 , 1991 September 28 , 1999 82 67 `` Attack , Goku ! ! An Enraged Freeza 's Second Transformation '' / `` Frieza 's Second Transformation '' `` Shutsugeki da Gokū ! ! Gekido no Furīza ga Daini no Henshin '' ( 出撃 だ 悟空 ! ! 激怒 の フリーザ が 第 2 の 変身 ) March 13 , 1991 September 29 , 1999 83 68 `` Fear Me ! ! Freeza Does Battle with a Third Transformation '' / `` Another Transformation ? '' `` Kyōfu Shiro ! ! Furīza wa Sando no Henshin de Shōbu Suru '' ( 恐怖 しろ ! ! フリーザ は 3 度 の 変身 で 勝負 する ) March 20 , 1991 September 30 , 1999 84 69 `` The Death of Dende ... Come Forth ! Intense , Wide - Open Power '' / `` Dende 's Demise '' `` Dende no Shi ... Dete Koi ! Tobikiri Zenkai Pawā '' ( デンデ の 死 ... で て こい ! とびきり 全開 パワー ) March 27 , 1991 October 1 , 1999 85 70 `` How I 've Waited for this Moment ! ! ! Son Goku Revived '' / `` The Renewed Goku '' `` Machi ni Matta ze , Kono Shunkan ! ! ! Son Gokū ga Fukkatsu da '' ( 待ち に 待った ぜ 、 この 瞬間 ! ! ! 孫悟空 が 復活 だ ) April 3 , 1991 October 4 , 1999 86 71 `` Such Regret ... ! ! Vegeta , Pride of the Saiyans , Dies '' / `` The End of Vegeta '' `` Munen ... ! ! Hokori Takaki Saiyajin Bejīta Shisu '' ( 無念 ... ! ! 誇り 高き サイヤ 人 ・ ベジータ 死す ) April 10 , 1991 October 5 , 1999 87 72 `` The Curtain Rises over the Ultimate Battle ! ! I Am Going to Defeat You ! '' / `` The Ultimate Battle '' `` Chō Kessen no Makuake da ! ! Omēdake wa Ora ga Taosu '' ( 超 決戦 の 幕開け だ ! ! お め え だけ は オラ が 倒す ) April 17 , 1991 October 6 , 1999 88 73 `` The Two Superpowers Collide ! A Fistfight Where Both Turn Serious ! ! ! '' / `` Clash of the Super Powers '' `` Gekitotsu no Ni Dai Chō Pawā ! Honki Dōshi no Nikudan Sen ! ! ! '' ( 激突 の 2 大 超 パワー ! 本気 同士 の 肉弾 戦 ! ! ! ) April 24 , 1991 October 7 , 1999 89 74 `` Freeza 's Terrible Declaration ! I Will Defeat You Without Using My Hands '' / `` Frieza 's Boast '' `` Furīza Kyōfu no Sengen ! Te o Tsukawazu Omae o Taosu '' ( フリーザ 恐怖 の 宣言 ! 手 を 使わ ず お前 を 倒す ) May 1 , 1991 October 8 , 1999 90 75 `` That Was No Idle Boast ! ! Son Goku , an Audacious , Wonderful Guy '' / `` Bold and Fearless '' `` Hattari ja nē zo ! ! Daitan Suteki na Yatsu - Son Gokū '' ( ハッタリ じゃ ねえ ぞ ! ! 大胆 素敵 な 奴 ・ 孫悟空 ) May 8 , 1991 October 11 , 1999 91 76 `` Showdown ! ! The Embodiment of Flame in a 20 - Times Kaio - ken Kamehame - Ha '' / `` Embodiment of Fire '' `` Ketchaku da ! ! Honō no Keshin Nijūbai Kaiōken no Kamehameha '' ( 決着 だ ! ! 炎 の 化身 20 倍 界 王 拳 の カメハメ 波 ) May 15 , 1991 October 12 , 1999 92 77 `` A Super-Huge Genki Dama -- I 'm Playing My Last Card ! ! '' / `` Trump Card '' `` Chō Tokudai no Genki Dama Kore ga Saikyō no Kirifuda da ! ! '' ( 超 特大 の 元気 玉 これが 最後 の 切り札 だ ! ! ) May 22 , 1991 October 13 , 1999 93 78 `` Keep the Chance Alive ! ! Piccolo 's Suicide Support Strike '' / `` Keep the Chance Alive ! ! '' `` Chansu o Ikase ! ! Pikkoro Sutemi no Engo Shageki '' ( チャンス を 生かせ ! ! ピッコロ 捨身 の 援護 射撃 ) May 29 , 1991 October 14 , 1999 94 79 `` The Incredible Destructive Force of the Genki Dama ! ! Who Will Survive ? ! '' / `` Power of the Spirit '' `` Genki Dama no Chō Hakairyoku ! ! Ikinokotta no wa Dare da ! ? '' ( 元気 玉 の 超 破壊 力 ! ! 生き残っ た の は 誰 だ ! ? ) June 5 , 1991 October 15 , 1999 95 80 `` Transformed At Last ! ! Son Goku , the Legendary Super Saiyan '' / `` Transformed at Last '' `` Tsui ni Henshin ! ! Densetsu no Sūpā Saiyajin Son Gokū '' ( ついに 変身 ! ! 伝説 の 超 サイヤ 人 ・ 孫悟空 ) June 12 , 1991 October 18 , 1999 96 81 `` An Explosion of Anger ! ! Goku , Avenge Everyone 's Deaths '' / `` Explosion of Anger '' `` Ikari Bakuhatsu ! ! Gokū yo , Minna no Kataki o Uttekure '' ( 怒り 爆発 ! ! 悟空 よ 、 みんなの 仇 を 討っ て くれ ) June 19 , 1991 October 19 , 1999 97 82 `` The Destruction of Planet Namek ! ? A Demonic Flash Pierces the Ground '' / `` Namek 's Destruction ? '' `` Namekkusei Shōmetsu ka ! ? Daichi o Tsuranuku Ma no Senkō '' ( ナメック 星 消滅 か ! ? 大地 を 貫く 魔 の 閃光 ) June 26 , 1991 October 20 , 1999 98 83 `` I Will Be the One Who Wins ... Risking Survival , a Final Attack '' / `` A Final Attack '' `` Katsu no wa Ore Da ... Ikinokori o Kaketa Saishū Kōgeki '' ( 勝つ の は オレ だ ... 生き残り を かけ た 最終 攻撃 ) July 10 , 1991 October 21 , 1999 99 84 `` Shen Long , Run Yourself Through Space ! ! The Time of Namek 's Destruction Draws Near '' / `` Approaching Destruction '' `` Shen Long yo Uchū o Hashire ! ! Semaru Namekkusei Shōmetsu no Toki '' ( 神龍 よ 宇宙 を 走れ ! ! 迫る ナメック 星 消滅 の 時 ) July 17 , 1991 October 22 , 1999 100 85 `` I Am Son Goku 's Son ! ! Gohan Returns to the Battlefield '' / `` Gohan Returns '' `` Boku wa Son Gokū no Musuko da ! ! Gohan , Futatabi Kessenjō e '' ( ボク は 孫悟空 の 息子 だ ! ! 悟 飯 、 再び 決戦 場 へ ) July 24 , 1991 October 25 , 1999 101 86 `` I 'm Staying on This Planet ! ! A Final Wish Towards Victory '' / `` The Last Wish '' `` Ore wa Kono Hoshi ni Nokoru ! ! Shōri e no Saigo no Negai '' ( オレ は この 星 に 残る ! ! 勝利 へ の 最後 の 願い ) July 31 , 1991 October 26 , 1999 102 87 `` Let 's Get It On ! ! Two Remain on a Vanishing Planet '' / `` Duel on a Vanishing Planet '' `` Tokoton Yarōze ! ! Kieyuku Hoshi ni Nokotta Futari '' ( と とことん や ろう ぜ ! ! 消え ゆく 星 に 残っ た 二 人 ) August 7 , 1991 October 27 , 1999 103 88 `` Pathos of Freeza ! Once He Starts Shaking , He 's Unstoppable ! ! '' / `` Pathos of Frieza '' `` Aware Furīza ! Furue Dashitara Tomaranai ! ! '' ( 哀れ フリーザ ! 震え だ したら 止まら ない ! ! ) August 14 , 1991 October 28 , 1999 104 89 `` Goku 's Declaration of Victory ! ! As Freeza Destroys Himself ... '' / `` Frieza Defeated ! ! '' `` Gokū no Shōri Sengen da ! ! Furīza ga Jimetsu suru Toki ... '' ( 悟空 の 勝利 宣言 だ ! ! フリーザ が 自滅 する 時 ... ) August 21 , 1991 October 29 , 1999 105 90 `` Freeza Defeated ! ! A Single Blast Packed with a Totality of Rage '' / `` Mighty Blast of Rage '' `` Furīza Yabureru ! ! Subete no Ikari o Kometa Ichigeki '' ( フリーザ 敗れる ! ! すべて の 怒り を こめ た 一撃 ) August 28 , 1991 November 1 , 1999 106 91 `` Planet Namek 's Great Explosion ! ! Goku Disappears into Space '' / `` Namek 's Explosion ... Goku 's End ? '' `` Namekkusei Dai Bakuhatsu ! ! Uchū ni Kieta Gokū '' ( ナメック 星 大 爆発 ! ! 宇宙 に 消え た 悟空 ) September 4 , 1991 November 2 , 1999 107 92 `` Son Goku Survived -- The Z Warriors All Resurrected ! ! '' / `` Goku 's Alive ! ! '' `` Ikiteita Son Gokū Zetto Senshi ga Zen'in Fukkatsu da ! ! '' ( 生き てい た 孫悟空 Z 戦士 が 全員 復活 だ ! ! ) September 11 , 1991 November 3 , 1999 Season 4 : Garlic Jr , Trunks and Androids sagas ( 1991 -- 1992 ) ( edit ) Main article : List of Dragon Ball Z episodes ( season 4 ) Orig . ep # Initial dub ep # Translated title / Funimation 's dub title Original Japanese title Original airdate English airdate 108 93 `` Terrible Happenings in Heaven ! ! Garlic Jr. to Become Kami ! ? '' / `` The Heavens Tremble '' `` Tenkai ga Taihen da ! ! Gārikku Junia ga Kami ni Naru ! ? '' ( 天界 が 大変 だ ! ! ガーリック Jr が 神 に なる ! ? ) September 18 , 1991 April 8 , 2000 109 94 `` Black Mist of Terror ... ! ! Everyone Turns Demonic '' / `` Black Fog of Terror '' `` Kyōfu no Kuroi Kiri ... ! ! Minna Mazoku ni Natchatta '' ( 恐怖 の 黒い 霧 ... ! ! みんな 魔 族 に なっ ちゃっ た ) September 25 , 1991 April 15 , 2000 110 95 `` The Heavenly Realm is the Battlefield ! ! Piccolo Becomes Devilish Again ... '' / `` Battle in Kami 's Lookout '' `` Tenkai ga Senjō da ! ! Pikkoro ga Mazoku ni Gyaku Modori ... '' ( 天界 が 戦場 だ ! ! ピッコロ が 魔 族 に 逆戻り ... ) October 2 , 1991 April 22 , 2000 111 96 `` Direct Confrontation with Piccolo ! ! An Angry Masenko in the Heavenly Realm '' / `` Fight with Piccolo '' `` Pikkoro to Kyokusetsu Taiketsu ! ! Tenkai ni Ikari no Masenkō '' ( ピッコロ と 直接 対決 ! ! 天界 に 怒り の 魔 せん 光 ) October 9 , 1991 April 29 , 2000 112 97 `` Retrieve Everyone 's Minds ! ! The Ultra Holy Water Resting in the Temple '' / `` Call for Restoration '' `` Minna no Kokoro o Torimodose ! ! Shinden ni Nemuru Chō Shinsui '' ( みんなの 心 を 取り戻せ ! ! 神殿 に 眠る 超 神 水 ) October 16 , 1991 May 6 , 2000 113 98 `` Ca n't Wait Until Morning ! ! Kami - sama Determines a Suicidal Course of Action '' / `` Suicidal Course '' `` Asa made Matenai ! ! Kamisama no Kakugo o Kimeta Kesshikō '' ( 朝 まで 待て ない ! ! 神様 の 覚悟 を きめ た 決死 行 ) October 23 , 1991 May 13 , 2000 114 99 `` A Battle of Extreme Measures ! ! Kami - sama Breaks the Covenant '' / `` Extreme Measures '' `` Chō Kageki ni Shōbu da ! ! Okite Yaburi no Kamisama '' ( 超 過激 に 勝負 だ ! ! 掟 やぶり の 神様 ) October 30 , 1991 May 20 , 2000 115 100 `` The Ultra Holy Water Worked ! ! The World Awakens from Its Nightmare '' / `` The World Awakens '' `` Kiita ze Chō Shinsui ! ! Sekai ga Akumu kara Sameta '' ( 効い た ぜ 超 神 水 ! ! 世界 が 悪夢 から さめ た ) November 6 , 1991 May 27 , 2000 116 101 `` Gohan 's Brief Chance for Victory ! ! Blast the Makyo World ... '' / `` Brief Chance for Victory '' `` Gohan ni Isshun no Shōki ! ! Ano Makyōsei o Ute ... '' ( 悟 飯 に 一瞬 の 勝機 ! ! あの 魔 凶 星 を 撃て ... ) November 13 , 1991 May 27 , 2000 117 102 `` You 're My Guy ... Kuririn -- A 101st Proposal '' / `` Krillin 's Proposal '' `` Otoko da nē ... Kuririn Hyakuikkaime no Puropōzu '' ( 男 だ ねェ ... クリリン 101 回目 の プロポーズ ) November 20 , 1991 September 1 , 2000 118 103 `` That There is Earth , Papa ... The Counter-Attack of Freeza , Father and Son '' / `` Frieza 's Counterattack '' `` Are ga Chikyū dayo Papa ... Furīza Oyako no Gyakushū '' ( あれ が 地球 だ よ パパ ... フリーザ 親子 の 逆襲 ) November 27 , 1991 September 4 , 2000 119 104 `` I Will Defeat Freeza ... The Mysterious Youth Awaiting Goku '' / `` The Mysterious Youth '' `` Furīza wa Boku ga Taosu ... Gokū o Matsu Nazo no Shōnen '' ( フリーザ は ボク が 倒す ... 悟空 を 待つ 謎 の 少年 ) December 4 , 1991 September 5 , 2000 120 105 `` Freeza Halved by a Single Stroke ! ! Another Super Saiyan '' / `` Another Super Saiyan ? '' `` Furīza o Ittō Ryōdan ! ! Mō Hitori no Sūpā Saiyajin '' ( フリーザ を 一 刃 両断 ! ! もう 一人 の 超 サイヤ 人 ) December 11 , 1991 September 6 , 2000 121 106 `` Heya ! ! It 's Been a While ... Son Goku Returns '' / `` Welcome Back Goku '' `` Ossu ! ! Hisashiburi ... Kaettekita Son Gokū '' ( オッス ! ! ひさし ぶり ... 帰っ て 来 た 孫悟空 ) December 18 , 1991 September 7 , 2000 122 107 `` My Dad is Vegeta ... Admissions of the Mysterious Youth '' / `` Mystery Revealed '' `` Boku no Chichi wa Bejīta desu ... Nazo no Shōnen no Kokuhaku '' ( ボク の 父 は ベジータ です ... 謎 の 少年 の 告白 ) January 8 , 1992 September 8 , 2000 123 108 `` Goku 's New Finishing Technique ! ? Watch My Instantaneous Movement '' / `` Goku 's Special Technique '' `` Gokū no Shin Hissatsu Waza ! ? Mitekure , Ora no Shunkan Idō '' ( 悟空 の 新 必殺 技 ! ? 見てくれ 、 オラ の 瞬間 移動 ) January 15 , 1992 September 11 , 2000 124 109 `` I Will Overcome Goku ! ! The King of the Saiyan Warrior Race '' / `` Z Warriors Prepare '' `` Koeteyaru ... Gokū o ! ! Sentō Minzoku Saiyajin no Ō '' ( こえ て やる ... 悟空 を ! ! 戦闘 民族 サイヤ 人 の 王 ) January 22 , 1992 September 12 , 2000 125 110 `` License Mastery ? Goku 's Newest Trial '' / `` Goku 's Ordeal '' `` Menkyo Kaiden ? Gokū no Aratanaru Shiren '' ( 免許 皆伝 ? 悟空 の 新た なる 試練 ) January 29 , 1992 September 13 , 2000 126 111 `` Murderers Who Leave No Trace -- Which Ones Are the Artificial Humans ! ? '' / `` The Androids Appear '' `` Kehai o Motanu Satsujinki Doitsu ga Jinzō Ningen da ! ? '' ( 気配 を 持た ぬ 殺人 鬼 ど いつ が 人造 人間 だ ! ? ) February 5 , 1992 September 14 , 2000 127 112 `` The Cold - Blooded No. 20 's Hideous Atrocities ! ! Goku 's Super Transformation of Anger '' / `` A Handy Trick '' `` Reiketsu Nijūgō no Akugyaku Hidō ! ! Gokū - Ikari no Chōhenshin '' ( 冷血 20 号 の 悪逆 非道 ! ! 悟空 ・ 怒り の 超 変身 ) February 12 , 1992 September 15 , 2000 128 113 `` Goku 's Double - Shock ! ! Caught Between Illness and Adversary '' / `` Double Trouble for Goku '' `` Gokū , Daburu Shokku ! ! Yamai to Teki no Hasamiuchi '' ( 悟空 、 ダブル ショック ! ! 病 と 敵 の はさみ撃ち ) February 19 , 1992 September 18 , 2000 129 114 `` The Might of Vegeta ! ! The Blood of a Super Saiyan Awakens '' / `` Upgrade to Super Saiyan '' `` Bejīta Tsuyoshi ! ! Mezameru Sūpā Saiyajin no Chi '' ( ベジータ 強し ! ! 目覚める 超 サイヤ 人 の 血 ) February 26 , 1992 September 19 , 2000 130 115 `` No. 20 's Defiant Smile ... The Secret of Doctor Gero '' / `` The Secret of Dr. Gero '' `` Nijūgō no Futeki na Warai ... Dokutā Gero no Himitsu '' ( 20 号 の 不 敵 な 笑い ... ドクター ゲロ の 秘密 ) March 4 , 1992 September 20 , 2000 131 116 `` A Reality More Terrifying than the Future ! ? Trunks ' Suspicions '' / `` More Androids ? ! '' `` Jijitsu wa Mirai yori Osoroshii ! ? Torankusu no Giwaku '' ( 事実 は 未来 より 恐ろしい ! ? トランクス の 疑惑 ) March 11 , 1992 September 21 , 2000 132 117 `` Give Chase ! ! The Search for Doctor Gero 's Mysterious Laboratory '' / `` Follow Dr. Gero '' `` Tsuigeki ! ! Dokutā Gero Nazo no Kenkyūjo o Sagashidase '' ( 追撃 ! ! ドクター ゲロ 謎 の 研究 所 を 探し出せ ) March 18 , 1992 September 22 , 2000 133 118 `` And the Terror Becomes Reality ... No. 17 and No. 18 Awaken ! ! '' / `` Nightmare Comes True '' `` Soshite Kyōfu ga Genjitsu ni ... Mezameru Jūnanagō to Jūhachigō ! ! '' ( そして 恐怖 が 現実 に ... 目覚める 17 号 と 18 号 ! ! ) March 25 , 1992 September 25 , 2000 134 119 `` Too Late to Do Anything ! ? The Ultimate Weapons to Kill Goku '' / `` Goku 's Assassin '' `` Subete ga Teokure ka ! ? Gokū o Korosu Saishū Heiki '' ( すべて が 手遅れ か ! ? 悟空 を 殺す 最終 兵器 ) April 1 , 1992 September 26 , 2000 135 120 `` Good Looks and Super Power ! ? No Blind Spot on No. 18 '' / `` Deadly Beauty '' `` Kawaii Kao de Chōpawā ! ? Jūhachigō ni Shikaku Nashi '' ( カワイイ 顔 で 超 パワー ! ? 18 号 に 死角 なし ) April 15 , 1992 September 27 , 2000 136 121 `` Nobody Is Able to Stop Them ... Is This the End of the Z Warriors ! ? '' / `` No Match for the Androids '' `` Dare nimo Yatsura o Tomerarenai ... Zetto Senshi Zenmetsu ka ! ? '' ( 誰 に も 奴ら を 止め られ ない ... Z 戦士 全滅 か ! ? ) April 22 , 1992 September 28 , 2000 137 122 `` Piccolo 's Resolution ! ! The Last Measure in His Reserve '' / `` Last Ditch Effort '' `` Pikkoro no Ketsui ! ! Totteoki no Saigo no Shudan '' ( ピッコロ の 決意 ! ! とっておき の 最後 の 手段 ) April 29 , 1992 September 29 , 2000 138 123 `` Walking Weapons of Mass Destruction ! ! The Artificial Humans Draw Near Goku '' / `` Closing In '' `` Aruku Chōhakai Heiki ! ! Jinzō Ningen ga Gokū ni Semaru '' ( 歩く 超 破壊 兵器 ! ! 人造 人間 が 悟空 に 迫る ) May 6 , 1992 October 2 , 2000 139 124 `` An Ominous Foreboding ! Bulma Unveils a Mystery '' / `` Unwelcome Discovery '' `` Fukitsu na Yokan ! Buruma ga Shiraseta Misuterī '' ( 不吉 な 予感 ! ブルマ が 知らせ た ミステリー ) May 13 , 1992 October 3 , 2000 Season 5 : Imperfect Cell and Perfect Cell sagas ( 1992 ) ( edit ) Main article : List of Dragon Ball Z episodes ( season 5 ) Orig . ep # Initial dub ep # Translated title / Funimation 's dub title Original Japanese title Original airdate English airdate 140 125 `` Discovery of an Evil Egg ! ! A Terrified Trunks '' / `` Seized with Fear '' `` Jaaku no Tamago o Hakken ! ! Kyōfu suru Torankusu '' ( 邪悪 の 卵 を 発見 ! ! 恐怖 する トランクス ) May 20 , 1992 October 4 , 2000 141 126 `` To Face an Unprecedented Foe ... Birth of a Super Namekian ! ! '' / `` The Reunion '' `` Katsutenai Teki ni Mukete ... Sūpā Namekkuseijin Tanjō ! ! '' ( かつて ない 敵 に 向け て ... 超 ナメック 星人 誕生 ! ! ) May 27 , 1992 October 5 , 2000 142 127 `` Kamehame - Ha ! ? The Monster Who Possesses Goku 's Ki '' / `` Borrowed Powers '' `` Kamehameha ! ? Gokū no Ki o Motsu Monsutā '' ( カメハメ 波 ! ? 悟空 の 気 を 持つ モンスター ) June 3 , 1992 October 6 , 2000 143 128 `` A Life Form of Evil and Destruction ! ! His Name Is Artificial Human Cell '' / `` His Name is Cell '' `` Zōo to Hakai no Seimeitai ! ! Yatsu no Na wa Jinzō Ningen Seru '' ( 憎悪 と 破壊 の 生命 体 ! ! 奴 の 名 は 人造 人間 セル ) June 10 , 1992 October 9 , 2000 144 129 `` Piccolo 's Grievous Mistake ! Cell Turned Loose on the City ! '' / `` Piccolo 's Folly '' `` Pikkoro Tsūkon no Daishippai ! Seru ga Machi ni Hanatareta ! '' ( ピッコロ 痛恨 の 大 失敗 ! セル が 街 に 放 たれ た ! ) June 17 , 1992 October 10 , 2000 145 130 `` The Secret of Cell 's Birth ! What Lies Below the Laboratory ! ? '' / `` Laboratory Basement '' `` Seru Tanjō no Himitsu ! Kenkyūjo no Chika ni Nani ga Aru ! ? '' ( セル 誕生 の 秘密 ! 研究 所 の 地下 に 何 が ある ! ? ) June 24 , 1992 October 11 , 2000 146 131 `` Goku Awakens to Battle ! Go Beyond Super Saiyan ! ! '' / `` Our Hero Awakes '' `` Gokū Tatakai e no Mezame ! Sūpā Saiyajin o Koero ! ! '' ( 悟空 闘い へ の 目覚め ! 超 サイヤ 人 を 超えろ ! ! ) July 1 , 1992 October 11 , 2000 147 132 `` Hasten Your Training , Saiyans ! In the Room of Spirit and Time ... '' / `` Time Chamber '' `` Shugyō o Isoge Saiyajin ! Seishin to Toki no Heya de ... '' ( 修行 を 急げ サイヤ 人 ! 精神 と 時 の 部屋 で ... ) July 8 , 1992 October 13 , 2000 148 133 `` The Gekiretsu Kodan That Split the Heavens ! ! Piccolo vs. Artificial Human No. 17 '' / `` The Monster is Coming '' `` Ten o Saku Gekiretsu Kōdan ! ! Pikkoro Tai Jinzō Ningen Jūnanagō '' ( 天 を 裂く 激烈 光 弾 ! ! ピッコロ VS 人造 人間 17 号 ) July 15 , 1992 October 16 , 2000 149 134 `` How I Have Waited for This Day ! ! Cell 's Prologue to Perfection '' / `` He 's Here '' `` Kono Hi o Matte Ita ! ! Seru - Kanzentai eno Jokyoku '' ( この 日 を 待っ てい た ! ! セル ・ 完全 体 へ の 序曲 ) July 22 , 1992 October 17 , 2000 150 135 `` The Suicide Counterattack Proves Ineffective ! Piccolo 's Flame Burns Out ! ! '' / `` Up to Piccolo '' `` Sutemi no Hangeki Oyobazu ! Pikkoro Moetsukiru ! ! '' ( 捨て身 の 反撃 及ば ず ! ピッコロ 燃え尽きる ! ! ) July 29 , 1992 October 18 , 2000 151 136 `` One Final Remaining Hope ... No. 16 , the Wordless Warrior , Takes Action ! ! '' / `` Silent Warrior '' `` Nokosareta Yuiitsu no Nozomi ... Mugon no Senshi Jūrokugō Tatsu ! ! '' ( 残 され た 唯一 の 望み ... 無言 の 戦士 16 号 立つ ! ! ) August 5 , 1992 October 19 , 2000 152 137 `` No. 17 Swallowed ... The Transforming Cell is a Super Gourmet '' / `` Say Goodbye , 17 '' `` Jūnanagō o Nomikonda ... Henshin Seru wa Chōgurume '' ( 17 号 を 飲み込ん だ ... 変身 セル は 超 グルメ ) August 12 , 1992 October 20 , 2000 153 138 `` Tomorrow , I Am Going to Pulverize You ! ! Goku 's Challenge '' / `` Sacrifice '' `` Ashita wa Omee o Tatakinomesu ! ! Gokū no Chōsenjō '' ( 明日 は オメエ を 叩き の めす ! ! 悟空 の 挑戦 状 ) August 19 , 1992 October 23 , 2000 154 139 `` I Will Dispose of Everything ! ! A Reborn Vegeta , Father and Son , Sally Forth '' / `` Saiyans Emerge '' `` Subete Ore ga Katazukeru ! ! Shinsei Bejīta Oyako Shutsugeki '' ( 全て オレ が 片付ける ! ! 新生 ベジータ 親子 出撃 ) August 26 , 1992 October 24 , 2000 155 140 `` Suddenly Full - Throttle ! ! The Super Power of a Radiant Vegeta '' / `` Super Vegeta '' `` Ikinari Zenkai ! ! Hikarikagayaku Bejīta no Chōpawā '' ( いきなり 全開 ! ! 光り輝く ベジータ の 超 パワー ) September 2 , 1992 October 25 , 2000 156 141 `` On Your Knees , Cell ! I Am Super Vegeta ! ! '' / `` Bow to the Prince '' `` Seru yo Hizamazuke ! Ore wa Sūpā Bejīta da ! ! '' ( セル よ ひざまずけ ! オレ は 超 ベジータ だ ! ! ) September 9 , 1992 October 26 , 2000 157 142 `` Dangerous Pride ! ! A Challenge to Cell 's Perfect Form '' / `` Hour of Temptation '' `` Kiken na Puraido ! ! Kanzentai Seru eno Chōsen '' ( 危険 な プライド ! ! 完全 体 セル へ の 挑戦 ) September 16 , 1992 October 27 , 2000 158 143 `` I 'm So Distraught ! ! Kururin 's Handiwork in Destroying No. 18 '' / `` Krillin 's Decision '' `` Ore Nayanjau ! ! Kuririn no Jūhachigō Hakai Kōsaku '' ( オレ 悩ん じゃう ! ! クリリン の 18 号 破壊 工作 ) September 23 , 1992 October 30 , 2000 159 144 `` A Shock to the Entire Universe ! ! Cell 's Spectacular Evolution Toward His Perfect Form '' / `` The Last Defense '' `` Zen'uchū ni Shōgeki ! ! Seru , Kanzentai e Kyōi no Shinka '' ( 全 宇宙 に 衝撃 ! ! セル 、 完全 体 へ 驚異 の 進化 ) September 30 , 1992 October 31 , 2000 160 145 `` Battle Power Infinity ! ! Birth of the God of Destruction Named Cell '' / `` Cell is Complete '' `` Sentōryoku Mugendai ! ! Seru to Iu Na no Hakaishin Tanjō '' ( 戦闘 力 無限 大 ! ! セル という 名 の 破壊 神 誕生 ) October 14 , 1992 November 1 , 2000 161 146 `` Super Vegeta in Peril ! ! An Absolutely Perfect Terror Closes In ! ! '' / `` Vegeta Must Pay '' `` Sūpā Bejīta Ayaushi ! ! Kanzen Muketsu no Kyōfu ga Semaru ! ! '' ( 超 ベジータ 危うし ! ! 完全 無欠 の 恐怖 が 迫る ! ! ) October 21 , 1992 November 2 , 2000 162 147 `` Breaking Through the Boundaries of the Super Saiyan ! ! Trunks Summons a Storm '' / `` Trunks Ascends '' `` Sūpā Saiyajin no Genkai Toppa ! ! Arashi o Yobu Torankusu '' ( 超 サイヤ 人 の 限界 突破 ! ! 嵐 を 呼ぶ トランクス ) October 28 , 1992 November 3 , 2000 163 148 `` Save Your Father ! ! Trunks ' Fury , Which Scorches Even the Heavens '' / `` Saving Throw '' `` Chichi o Sukue ! ! Ten o mo Kogasu Torankusu no Ikari '' ( 父 を 救え ! ! 天 を も 焦がす トランクス の 怒り ) November 4 , 1992 November 6 , 2000 164 149 `` A Future of Despair ! ! Trunks , the Man Who Lived Through Hell '' / `` Ghosts from Tomorrow '' `` Zetsubō no Mirai ! ! Jigoku o Ikinuita Otoko Torankusu '' ( 絶望 の 未来 ! ! 地獄 を 生き抜い た 男 トランクス ) November 11 , 1992 November 7 , 2000 165 150 `` Super Trunks Has a Weakness ! ! Cell 's Shocking Bombshell Declaration '' / `` The Cell Games '' `` Sūpā Torankusu ni Jakuten ! ! Seru , Shōgeki no Bakudan Hatsugen '' ( 超 トランクス に 弱点 ! ! セル 、 衝撃 の 爆弾 発言 ) November 18 , 1992 November 8 , 2000 Season 6 : Cell Games saga ( 1992 -- 1993 ) ( edit ) Main article : List of Dragon Ball Z episodes ( season 6 ) Orig . ep # Initial dub ep # Translated title / Funimation 's dub title Original Japanese title Original airdate English airdate 166 151 `` A Final Battle Closes In on Goku ! ! The Mystery of the New Tenkaichi Tournament '' / `` What is the Tournament ? '' `` Gokū ni Semaru Daikessen ! ! Shin - Tenkaichi Budōkai no Nazo '' ( 悟空 に 迫る 大 決戦 ! ! 新 天下 一 武道 会 の 謎 ) November 25 , 1992 November 9 , 2000 167 152 `` 100 % Ratings ! ! The Cell Games Call Forth Death with an Exclusive Live Broadcast '' / `` The Doomsday Broadcast '' `` Shichōritsu Hyaku Pāsento ! ! Shi o Yobu Seru Gēmu Dokusen Namahōsō '' ( 視聴 率 100 % ! ! 死 を 呼ぶ セル ゲーム 独占 生放送 ) December 2 , 1992 November 13 , 2000 168 153 `` Goku and Gohan ... The Hero Father and Son 's Ultimate Level - Up '' / `` Meet Me in the Ring '' `` Gokū to Gohan ... Hīrō Oyako Kyūkyoku Reberu Appu '' ( 悟空 と 悟 飯 ... ヒーロー 親子 究極 レベル アップ ) December 9 , 1992 November 14 , 2000 169 154 `` Goku 's Composure ! ? Let 's Rest and Wait for the Cell Games '' / `` No Worries Here '' `` Gokū no Yoyū ! ? Yasunde Matō Seru Gēmu '' ( 悟空 の 余裕 ! ? 休ん で 待 とう セル ゲーム ) December 16 , 1992 November 15 , 2000 170 155 `` A Warrior 's Rest ... The Girl , the Lies , and Gohan 's Resolution '' / `` A Girl Named Lime '' `` Senshi no Kyūsoku ... Shōjo to Uso to Gohan no Ketsui '' ( 戦士 の 休息 ... 少女 と 嘘 と 悟 飯 の 決意 ) January 13 , 1993 November 16 , 2000 171 156 `` Hidden Power ! ! When Gohan Was a Baby '' / `` Memories of Gohan '' `` Himerareta Chikara ! ! Gohan ga Akanbō datta Koro '' ( 秘め られ た 力 ! ! 悟 飯 が 赤 ン 坊 だっ た 頃 ) January 20 , 1993 November 20 , 2000 172 157 `` Seek Out Kami - sama ! ! Goku 's Great Instantaneous Movement '' / `` A New Guardian '' `` Kamisama o Sagashidase ! ! Goku , Dai Shunkan Idō '' ( 神様 を 探し出せ ! ! 悟空 、 大 瞬間 移動 ) January 27 , 1993 November 21 , 2000 173 158 `` Dende 's First Task ! ! The Dragon Balls Restored '' / `` Dende 's Dragon '' `` Dende no Hatsu Shigoto ! ! Doragon Bōru Fukkatsu da '' ( デンデ の 初 仕事 ! ! ドラゴンボール 復活 だ ) February 3 , 1993 November 22 , 2000 174 159 `` A Hard Problem for Goku ! ? Take Back the Dragon Balls '' / `` The Puzzle of General Tao '' `` Gokū ni Nanmon ! ? Doragon Bōru o Torimodose '' ( 悟空 に 難問 ! ? 神龍 球 を とり 戻せ ) February 10 , 1993 November 23 , 2000 175 160 `` Those Who Would Challenge Cell ! ! The Curtain Rises on the Battle '' / `` The Games Begin '' `` Seru ni Idomu Mono Tachi ! ! Kessen no Makuake '' ( セル に 挑む 者 たち ! ! 決戦 の 幕開け ) February 17 , 1993 November 27 , 2000 176 161 `` Just a Moment ! ! The Satan Squad Goes On the Rampage '' / `` Losers Fight First '' `` Chotto Matta ! ! Satangundan Daiabare '' ( ちょっと 待った ! ! サタン 軍団 大 暴れ ) March 3 , 1993 November 28 , 2000 177 162 `` Fight Time , Goku ! ! The Ultra-Tense Cell Games '' / `` Goku vs. Cell '' `` Shōbu da Gokū ! ! Chō Kinpaku Seru Gēmu '' ( 勝負 だ 悟空 ! ! 超 緊迫 セル ゲーム ) March 10 , 1993 November 29 , 2000 178 163 `` Direct Hit to Earth ! ! Cell 's Extra-Large Kamehame - Ha '' / `` Cell 's Bag of Tricks '' `` Chikyū Chokugeki ! ! Seru no Tokudai Kamehameha '' ( 地球 直撃 ! ! セル の 特大 カメハメ 波 ) March 17 , 1993 November 30 , 2000 179 164 `` Defeat or Death ! ? Goku 's Turnabout Ploy '' / `` No More Rules '' `` Haiboku ka Shi ka ! ? Gokū , Gyakuten no Hisaku '' ( 敗北 か 死 か ! ? 悟空 、 逆転 の 秘策 ) March 31 , 1993 December 4 , 2000 180 165 `` A Conclusion to the Deathmatch ! ! Goku 's Declaration of Surrender ! ? '' / `` The Fight is Over '' `` Shitō ni Ketchaku ! ! Gokū no Kōsan Sengen ! ? '' ( 死闘 に 決着 ! ! 悟空 の 降参 宣言 ! ? ) April 7 , 1993 December 5 , 2000 181 166 `` He Who Takes Over as Strongest ... His Name is Gohan '' / `` Faith in a Boy '' `` Saikyō o Tsugu Mono ... Sono Na wa Gohan '' ( 最強 を 継ぐ 者 ... その 名 は 悟 飯 ) April 14 , 1993 December 6 , 2000 182 167 `` Become Enraged , Gohan -- Call Forth Your Dormant Power '' / `` Gohan 's Desperate Plea '' `` Okore Gohan Nemureru Chikara o Yobiokose '' ( 怒れ 悟 飯 眠れる 力 を 呼び 起 せ ) April 21 , 1993 December 7 , 2000 183 168 `` Teeny Menaces ! ! Attack of the Cell Juniors '' / `` Android Explosion '' `` Chitchana Kyōi ! ! Seru Junia Raishū '' ( ちっちゃな 脅威 ! ! セル ジュニア 来襲 ) April 28 , 1993 December 11 , 2000 184 169 `` The Tragic No. 16 ! ! An Enraged Super Gohan Begins Taking Action '' / `` Cell Juniors Attack ! '' `` Jūrokugō Muzan ! ! Ugokidasu Ikari no Sūpā Gohan '' ( 16 号 無惨 ! ! 動き出す 怒り の 超 悟 飯 ) May 5 , 1993 December 12 , 2000 185 170 `` Devastating True Power ! ! The Cell Juniors Pulverized '' / `` The Unleashing '' and `` Awakening '' `` Fukiareru Shin no Pawā ! ! Seru Junia Funsai '' ( 吹き荒れる 真 の 力 ! ! セル ジュニア 粉砕 ) May 12 , 1993 December 13 , 2000 186 171 `` Cell Gets KO'ed ! ! Just Two Super Ironfisted Blows '' / `` The Unstoppable Gohan '' `` Seru o Nokkuauto ! ! Tatta Nihatsu no Chō Tekken '' ( セル を KO ( ノックアウト ) ! ! たった 2 発 の 超 鉄拳 ) May 19 , 1993 December 14 , 2000 187 172 `` Something Amiss With Cell ! ! His Perfect Form Crumbles '' / `` Cell 's Mighty Breakdown '' `` Seru ni Ihen ! ! Kuzusareta Kanzentai '' ( セル に 異変 ! ! 崩 され た 完全 体 ) May 26 , 1993 December 18 , 2000 188 173 `` Bye - Bye , Everyone ! ! Goku 's Last Instantaneous Movement '' / `` A Hero 's Farewell '' `` Bai Bai Minna ! ! Gokū Saigo no Shunkan Idō '' ( バイバイ みんな ! ! 悟空 最後 の 瞬間 移動 ) June 2 , 1993 December 19 , 2000 189 174 `` A Nightmare in Broad Daylight ! ! The Terror Becomes Even More Perfect '' / `` Cell Returns ! '' `` Hakuchū no Akuma ! ! Kyōfu wa yori Kanpeki ni '' ( 白昼 の 悪夢 ! ! 恐怖 は より 完璧 に ) June 16 , 1993 December 20 , 2000 190 175 `` From Goku to Gohan ... The Spirit of the Father is Handed Down '' / `` The Horror Wo n't End '' `` Gokū kara Gohan e ... Chichi no Tamashii wa Tsutawatta '' ( 悟空 から 悟 飯 へ ... 父 の 魂 は 伝わっ た ) June 23 , 1993 December 21 , 2000 191 176 `` The Battle is Over ... Thank You , Son Goku '' / `` Save the World '' `` Tatakai wa Owatta ... Arigatō Son Gokū '' ( 戦い は 終っ た ... ありがとう 孫悟空 ) June 30 , 1993 December 26 , 2000 192 177 `` I 'm Going to Train In the Next World ! ! A Smile at Parting '' / `` Goku 's Decision '' `` Ora Ano Yo de Shugyō suru ! ! Egao no Wakare '' ( オラ あの世 で 修業 する ! ! 笑顔 の 別れ ) July 7 , 1993 December 27 , 2000 193 178 `` New Days ... Father ! I 'm Hanging In There '' / `` One More Wish '' `` Atarashii Hibi ... Tōsan ! Boku Ganbaru '' ( 新しい 日々 ... 父さん ! ボク がんばる ) July 14 , 1993 December 28 , 2000 194 179 `` One More Conclusion ! ! I Will Defend the Future '' / `` Free the Future '' `` Mō Hitotsu no Ketsumatsu ! ! Mirai wa Ore ga Mamoru '' ( もう 一 つの 結末 ! ! 未来 は オレ が 守る ) July 21 , 1993 December 29 , 2000 Season 7 : Great Saiyaman and World Tournament sagas ( 1993 -- 1994 ) ( edit ) Main article : List of Dragon Ball Z episodes ( season 7 ) Orig . ep # Initial dub ep # Translated title / Funimation 's dub title Original Japanese title Original airdate English airdate 195 180 `` A Deep Impression ! ! There They Are ! The Next World 's Awesome Dudes '' / `` Warriors of the Dead '' `` Daikangeki ! ! Ita zo ! Ano Yo no Sugee Yatsu '' ( 大 感激 ! ! いた ぞ ! あの世 の スゲエ 奴 ) July 28 , 1993 September 10 , 2001 196 181 `` I 'm the Best in the Next World ! ! Heroes of the Ages Assembled '' / `` Tournament Begins '' `` Ano Yo Ichi wa Ora da ! Rekishi no Yūsha Daishūgō '' ( あの世 一 は オラ だ ! ! 歴代 の 勇者 大 集合 ) August 11 , 1993 September 11 , 2001 197 182 `` Grand Kaio 's World Gone Wild ! ! Goku Kicks Up a Whirlwind '' / `` Water Fight '' `` Daikaiōsei Nekkyō ! ! Makiokose Gokū Senpū '' ( 大 界 王 星 熱狂 ! ! まき おこせ 悟空 旋風 ) August 18 , 1993 September 12 , 2001 198 183 `` Final Round of Flame ! ! Goku or Paikuhan ! ? '' / `` Final Round '' `` Honoo no Kesshō ! ! Gokū ka Paikūhan ka ! ? '' ( 炎 の 決勝 ! ! 悟空 か パイクーハン か ! ? ) August 25 , 1993 September 13 , 2001 199 184 `` Do n't Let Victory Get Away ! ! Finish With an Ultra-Fast Kamehame - Ha '' / `` Goku vs. Pikkon '' `` Nigasu na Shōri ! ! Kimero Chōhaya Kamehameha '' ( 逃す な 勝利 ! ! 決めろ 超速 かめ はめ 波 ) September 1 , 1993 September 14 , 2001 200 185 `` Seven Years Since Then ! Starting Today , I 'm a High School Student '' / `` Gohan Goes to High School '' `` Are kara Shichinen ! Kyō kara Boku wa Kōkōsei '' ( あれ から 7 年 ! 今日 から 僕 は 高校生 ) September 8 , 1993 September 17 , 2001 201 186 `` For Love and Justice -- Enter the Great Saiyaman '' / `` I am Saiyaman '' `` Ai to Seigi no Gurēto Saiyaman Sanjō '' ( 愛 と 正義 の グレート サイヤマン 参上 ) September 15 , 1993 September 18 , 2001 202 187 `` Gohan 's Frantic First Date ! ? '' / `` Gohan 's First Date '' `` Gohan no Hachamecha Hatsu Dēto ! ? '' ( 悟 飯 の ハチャメチャ 初 デート ! ? ) September 29 , 1993 November 27 , 2001 203 188 `` Gohan , Scramble ! Save Videl ! ! '' / `` Rescue Videl '' `` Gohan , Kinkyū Shutsudō ! Bīderu o Sukue ! '' ( 悟 飯 、 緊急 出動 ! ビーデル を 救え ! ! ) October 20 , 1993 September 19 , 2001 204 189 `` A Case of Robbery ! ! The Culprit is Saiyaman ! ? '' / `` Blackmail '' `` Tōnan Jiken Hassei ! ! Hannin wa Saiyaman ! ? '' ( 盗難 事件 発生 ! ! 犯人 は サイヤマン ! ? ) October 27 , 1993 September 20 , 2001 205 190 `` Goku Returning to Life ! ? Entry into the Tenkaichi Tournament ! ! '' / `` I 'll Fight Too ! '' `` Gokū mo Fukkatsu ! ? Tenkaichi Budōkai Shutsujō da ! ! '' ( 悟空 も 復活 ! ? 天下 一 武道 会 出場 だ ! ! ) November 3 , 1993 September 21 , 2001 206 191 `` Even Gohan is Surprised ! Goten 's Explosion of Power '' / `` The Newest Super Saiyan '' `` Gohan mo Bikkuri ! Goten no Bakuhatsu Pawā '' ( 悟 飯 も ビックリ ! 悟 天 の 爆発 パワー ) November 10 , 1993 September 24 , 2001 207 192 `` Ah , You 're Flying ! ! Videl 's Introduction to Bukujutsu '' / `` Take Flight Videl '' `` Attobeta ! ! Bīderu no Bukūjutsu Nyūmon '' ( あっ 飛べ た ! ! ビーデル の 舞 空 術 入門 ) November 17 , 1993 September 25 , 2001 208 193 `` Welcome Back , Goku ! The Entire Z Team Assembles ! ! '' / `` Gather For the Tournament '' `` Okaeri Gokū ! Zetto Chīmu Zen'in Shūgō ! ! '' ( おかえり 悟空 ! Z チーム 全員 集合 ! ! ) November 24 , 1993 September 26 , 2001 209 194 `` Watch Out , Saiyaman ! Beware of Sharpshooters ! ? '' / `` Camera Shy '' `` Ayaushi Saiyaman ! Gekisha ni Goyōjin ! ? '' ( 危うし サイヤマン ! 激写 に 御 用心 ! ? ) December 8 , 1993 September 27 , 2001 210 195 `` No Small Matter ! ! Little Trunks '' / `` The World Tournament '' `` Hanpa ja nai ze ! ! Chibi Torankusu '' ( ハンパ じゃ ない ぜ ! ! チビ トランクス ) December 15 , 1993 September 28 , 2001 211 196 `` It 's My Turn ! Goten 's Anxious First Fight '' / `` Trunks vs. Goten '' `` Boku no Deban da ! Goten , Kinchō no Daiissen '' ( ボク の 出番 だ ! 悟 天 、 緊張 の 第 一 戦 ) December 22 , 1993 October 2 , 2001 212 197 `` Happiness Times a Million ! The Junior Champion Is Decided ! ! '' / `` Best of the Boys '' `` Ureshisa Hyakumanbai ! Shōnen Chanpion Kettei ! ! '' ( うれし さ 百 万 倍 ! 少年 王者 ( チャンピオン ) 決定 ! ! ) January 12 , 1994 October 3 , 2001 213 198 `` Now What , Satan ! ? The Greatest Pinch in History '' / `` Big Trouble , Little Trunks '' `` Dō suru Satan ! ? Shijō Saidai no Pinchi '' ( どうする サタン ! ? 史上 最大 の ピンチ ) January 19 , 1994 October 4 , 2001 214 199 `` Event Match - ups Decided ! ! Let 's Hurry and Hold the First Round '' / `` Who Will Fight Who ? '' `` Taisen Aite Kettei ! ! Hayaku Yarō ze Ikkaisen '' ( 対戦 相手 決定 ! ! 早く や ろう ぜ 一 回戦 ) January 26 , 1994 October 5 , 2001 215 200 `` What 's the Matter , Piccolo ! ? An Unheard - of No - Fight - Forfeit '' / `` Forfeit of Piccolo ! '' `` Dōshita Pikkoro ! ! Masaka no Fusenbai '' ( どう した ピッコロ ! ! まさかの 不戦敗 ) February 2 , 1994 October 8 , 2001 216 201 `` Undyingly Unpleasant ! ? The Mystery of Spopovitch '' / `` A Dark and Secret Power '' `` Fujimi de Bukimi ! ? Supopobitchi no Nazo '' ( 不死身 で 不気味 ! ? スポポビッチ の 謎 ) February 9 , 1994 October 9 , 2001 217 202 `` A Tragic Videl ! ! Are You Coming Out , Angry Super Gohan ? '' / `` Videl is Crushed '' `` Bīderu Muzan ! ! Deru ka Ikari no Sūpā Gohan '' ( ビーデル 無残 ! ! 出る か 怒り の 超 悟 飯 ) February 16 , 1994 October 10 , 2001 218 203 `` Exposed ! ! The Saiyaman is Son Gohan ! '' / `` Identities Revealed '' `` Barechatta ! ! Saiyaman wa Son Gohan '' ( バレ ちゃっ た ! ! サイヤマン は 孫 悟 飯 ) February 23 , 1994 October 11 , 2001 219 204 `` A Slithering Conspiracy ! ! Gohan 's Power is Stolen '' / `` Energy Drain '' `` Ugomeku Inbō ! ! Gohan no Pawā ga Ubawareta '' ( うごめく 陰謀 ! ! 悟 飯 の 力 ( パワー ) が 奪 われ た ) March 2 , 1994 October 12 , 2001 Season 8 : Babidi and Majin Buu sagas ( 1994 -- 1995 ) ( edit ) Main article : List of Dragon Ball Z episodes ( season 8 ) Orig . ep # Initial dub ep # Translated title / Funimation 's dub title Original Japanese title Original airdate English airdate 220 205 `` The Man Behind the Curtains Appears ! ! The Evil Madoshi Babidi '' / `` The Wizard 's Curse '' `` Kuromaku Tōjō ! ! Aku no Madōshi Babidi '' ( 黒幕 登場 ! ! 悪 の 魔 導師 バビディ ) March 9 , 1994 October 15 , 2001 221 206 `` The Awaiting Trap ! ! A Challenge from the Demon Realm '' / `` King of the Demons '' `` Machiukeru Wana ! ! Makai kara no Chōsenjō '' ( 待ち受ける ワナ ! ! 魔界 から の 挑戦 状 ) March 16 , 1994 October 16 , 2001 222 207 `` Do n't Toy With Me ! ! Vegeta 's Breakthrough First Strike of Fury '' / `` Vegeta Attacks '' `` Nameru na ! ! Bejīta Ikari no Shosen Toppa '' ( なめる な ! ! ベジータ 怒り の 初戦 突破 ) March 23 , 1994 October 17 , 2001 223 208 `` Goku 's Power Wide Open ! ! Blow Away Yakon '' / `` Next Up , Goku '' `` Gokū Pawā Zenkai ! ! Buttobe Yakon '' ( 悟空 パワー 全開 ! ! ブッ 飛べ ヤコン ) April 13 , 1994 October 18 , 2001 224 209 `` A Great Miscalculation ! ! Satan vs. Three Super-Warriors ! ? '' / `` Battle Supreme '' `` Daigosan ! ! Satan tai Sannin no Chōsenshi ! ? '' ( 大 誤算 ! ! サタン VS3 人 の 超 戦士 ! ? ) April 20 , 1994 October 22 , 2001 225 210 `` Such Strong Kids ! ! No. 18 's Close Fight ! ? '' / `` Eighteen Unmasks '' `` Tsuyoi ze Chibikko ! ! Jūhachigō Daikusen ! ? '' ( 強い ぜ チビッコ ! ! 18 号 大 苦戦 ! ? ) April 27 , 1994 October 23 , 2001 226 211 `` Confrontation with the Demon King ! It 's Your Turn , Gohan ! ! '' / `` Pay to Win '' `` Tachihadakaru Maō ! Deban da Gohan ! ! '' ( たち はだか る 魔王 ! 出番 だ 悟 飯 ! ! ) May 4 , 1994 October 24 , 2001 227 212 `` A Wicked Heart Discovered ! ! Dabura 's Great Idea '' / `` Heart of a Villain '' `` Mitsukerareta Jashin ! ! Dābura no Meian '' ( 見つけ られ た 邪心 ! ! ダーブラ の 名 案 ) May 18 , 1994 October 25 , 2001 228 213 `` Vegeta , Prince of Destruction , Revived ! ! Intrusion at the Tournament '' / `` The Dark Prince Returns '' `` Hakai Ōji Bejīta Fukkatsu ! ! Butōkai Rannyū '' ( 破壊 王子 ベジータ 復活 ! ! 武闘 会 乱入 ) May 25 , 1994 October 29 , 2001 229 214 `` The Super-confrontation of Destiny ! ! The Clash of Goku vs. Vegeta '' / `` Vegeta 's Pride '' `` Shukumei no Chōtaiketsu ! ! Gekitotsu Gokū tai Bejīta '' ( 宿命 の 超 対決 ! ! 激突 悟空 VS ベジータ ) June 15 , 1994 October 30 , 2001 230 215 `` Just You Wait , Babidi ! ! Your Aspirations Will Not Be Allowed '' / `` The Long Awaited Fight '' `` Mattero Babidi ! ! Yabō wa Yurusanai '' ( 待っ てろ バビディ ! ! 野望 は 許さ ない ) June 22 , 1994 October 31 , 2001 231 216 `` The Seal is Broken ! Out Comes the Vicious Majin Boo ! ! '' / `` Magic Ball of Buu '' `` Toketa Fūin ! Deruzo Kyōaku Majin Bū ! ! '' ( 解け た 封印 ! 出る ぞ 凶悪 魔 人 ブウ ! ! ) June 29 , 1994 November 1 , 2001 232 217 `` I Wo n't Allow the Revival ! ! A Kamehame - Ha of Resistance '' / `` Buu is Hatched ! '' `` Fukkatsu Sasenai ! ! Teikō no Kamehameha '' ( 復活 させない ! ! 抵抗 の かめ はめ 波 ) July 6 , 1994 November 5 , 2001 233 218 `` A Straight Line to Despair ! ? The Grief of Kaioshin '' / `` The Losses Begin '' `` Zetsubō e Itchokusen ! ? Nageki no Kaiōshin '' ( 絶望 へ 一直線 ! ? 嘆き の 界 王 神 ) July 13 , 1994 November 6 , 2001 234 219 `` The Terrifying Majin ! ! Death 's Dread Draws Near Gohan '' / `` The Terror of Majin Buu '' `` Majin Osorubeshi ! ! Gohan ni Semaru Shi no Kyōfu '' ( 魔 人 恐る べし ! ! 悟 飯 に 迫る 死 の 恐怖 ) July 27 , 1994 November 7 , 2001 235 220 `` ' Gonna Eat'cha ! ! ' The Hungry Majin 's Supernatural Powers '' / `` Meal Time '' `` Tabechau zo ! ! Harapeko Majin no Chōnōryoku '' ( 食べ ちゃう ぞ ! ! 腹 ペコ 魔 人 の 超 能力 ) August 3 , 1994 November 8 , 2001 236 221 `` A Warrior 's Resolution ! ! I Will Dispose of the Majin '' / `` The Warrior 's Decision '' `` Senshi no Ketsui ! ! Majin wa Ore ga Shimatsu - suru '' ( 戦士 の 決意 ! ! 魔 人 は オレ が 始末 する ) August 17 , 1994 November 12 , 2001 237 222 `` For Those Whom He Loves ... Vegeta Perishes ! ! '' / `` Final Atonement '' `` Ai suru Mono no Tame ni ... Bejīta Chiru ! ! '' ( 愛する 者 の ため に ... ベジータ 散る ! ! ) August 24 , 1994 November 13 , 2001 238 223 `` The Nightmare Revisited ! ! Majin Boo Has Survived '' / `` Evil Lives On '' `` Akumu Futatabi ! Ikiteita Majin Bū '' ( 悪夢 ふたたび ! ! 生き てい た 魔 人 ブウ ) August 31 , 1994 September 16 , 2002 239 224 `` The Struggle of Videl and the Others ! Find the Dragon Balls '' / `` Find the Dragon Balls '' `` Bīderutachi no Funtō ! Sagase Doragon Bōru '' ( ビーデル たち の 奮闘 ! 探せ 神龍 球 ( ドラゴンボール ) ) September 7 , 1994 September 17 , 2002 240 225 `` Enormous Hope ! ! A New Finishing Technique for the Little Squirts '' / `` Revival '' `` Dekkai Kibō ! ! Chibitachi no Shin Hissatsu Waza '' ( でっかい 希望 ! ! チビ たち の 新 必殺 技 ) September 21 , 1994 September 18 , 2002 241 226 `` Goten and Trunks -- The World 's Most Wanted '' / `` Global Announcement '' `` Goten Torankusu Zensekai ni Shimei Tehai '' ( 悟 天 トランクス 全 世界 に 指名 手配 ) September 28 , 1994 September 19 , 2002 242 227 `` Gohan Revived -- Kaioshin 's Secret Weapon ! ? '' / `` Learn to Fuse '' `` Gohan Fukkatsu ! ! Kaiōshin no Himitsu Heiki ! ? '' ( 悟 飯 復活 界 王 神 の 秘密 兵器 ! ? ) October 12 , 1994 September 23 , 2002 243 228 `` It Came Ou ~ t ! ! The Legendary Z - Sword '' / `` The Z Sword '' `` Nuketā 〜 ! ! Densetsu no Zetto Sōdo '' ( 抜け た ァ ~ ! ! 伝説 の ゼット ソード ) October 19 , 1994 September 24 , 2002 244 229 `` Metro West is Targeted ! Stop , Majin Boo ! ! '' / `` Race to Capsule Corp . '' `` Nerawareta Nishi no Miyako ! Tomare Majin Bū ! ! '' ( 狙 われ た 西 の 都 ! 止まれ 魔 人 ブウ ! ! ) November 2 , 1994 September 25 , 2002 245 230 `` An Astounding Great Transformation ! ! Super Saiyan 3 '' / `` Super Saiyan 3 ? ! '' `` Atto Odoroku Daihenshin ! ! Sūpā Saiyajin Surī '' ( アッ と 驚く 大 変身 ! ! 超 サイヤ 人 3 ) November 9 , 1994 September 26 , 2002 246 231 `` Bye Bye Babidi ! ! Majin Boo Rebels '' / `` Buu 's Mutiny '' `` Bai Bai Babidi ! ! Majin Bū Hangyaku '' ( バイバイ ・ バビディ ! ! 魔 人 ブウ 反逆 ) November 16 , 1994 September 30 , 2002 247 232 `` Absurdly Aweful - Looking ! ? The Special Training Transformation Pose '' / `` The Fusion Dance '' `` Mecha Kakko Warui ! ? Tokkun Henshin Pōzu '' ( メチャ カッコ 悪い ! ? 特訓 変身 ポーズ ) November 23 , 1994 October 1 , 2002 248 233 `` See You Later , Everybody ! ! Goku Returns to the Other World '' / `` Goku 's Time is Up '' `` Jā na Minna ! ! Gokū Ano Yo ni Kaeru '' ( じゃあ な みんな ! ! 悟空 あの世 に 帰る ) November 30 , 1994 October 2 , 2002 249 234 `` Where is Gohan ! ? Ferocious Training in the Kaioshin Realm '' / `` Return to Other World '' `` Gohan wa Doko da ! ? Kaiōshinkai no Mōtokkun '' ( 悟 飯 は どこ だ ! ? 界 王 神 界 の 猛 特訓 ) December 7 , 1994 October 3 , 2002 250 235 `` You 're Kidding , Right ! ? The Z - Sword is Broken '' / `` Out From the Broken Sword '' `` Uso daro ! ? Zetto Sōdo ga Orechatta '' ( ウソ だろ ! ? ゼット ソード が 折れ ちゃっ た ) December 14 , 1994 October 7 , 2002 251 236 `` Birth of a Superhuman Warrior ! ! His Name is Gotenks '' / `` Gotenks is Born '' `` Gattai Chōjin Tanjō ! ! Sono Na wa Gotenkusu '' ( 合体 超人 誕生 ! ! その 名 は ゴテンクス ) December 21 , 1994 October 8 , 2002 252 237 `` The Final Weapon is Engaged ! ? Satan Will Save the Earth '' / `` Unlikely Friendship '' `` Saishū Heiki Shidō ! ? Satan wa Chikyū o Sukuu '' ( 最終 兵器 始動 ! ? サタン は 地球 を 救う ) January 11 , 1995 October 9 , 2002 253 238 `` I 've Stopped Killing ! ! Majin Boo 's Good Boy Declaration '' / `` I Kill No More '' `` Korosu no Yameta ! ! Majin Bū Yoi Ko Sengen '' ( 殺す の やめた ! ! 魔 人 ブウ よい 子 宣言 ) January 25 , 1995 October 10 , 2002 Season 9 : Fusion and Kid Buu sagas ( 1995 - 1996 ) ( edit ) Main article : List of Dragon Ball Z episodes ( season 9 ) Orig . ep # Initial dub ep # Translated title / Funimation 's dub title Original Japanese title Original airdate English airdate 254 239 `` Run Away , Satan ! ! An Angry Majin Boo Emerges '' / `` The Evil of Men '' `` Nigero Satan ! ! Ikari no Majin Bū Shutsugen '' ( 逃げろ サタン ! ! 怒り の 魔 人 ブウ 出現 ) February 1 , 1995 October 14 , 2002 255 240 `` Which One Will Win ! ? A Good - and - Evil Boo - Boo Confrontation '' / `` Buu Against Buu '' `` Dotchi ga Katsu no ! ? Zen'aku Bū Bū Taiketsu '' ( どっち が 勝つ の ! ? 善悪 ブウブウ 対決 ) February 8 , 1995 October 15 , 2002 256 241 `` A No - Timeout Catastrophe ! ! Earth 's Humanity Exterminated '' / `` Empty Planet '' `` Matta nashi no Hakyoku ! ! Chikyū Jinrui Zetsumetsu '' ( 待った なし の 破局 ! ! 地球 人類 絶滅 ) February 15 , 1995 October 16 , 2002 257 242 `` The Special Training Is a Success ! ! You 're Finished Now , Majin Boo '' / `` Time Struggle '' `` Tokkun Seikō ! ! Kore de Owari da Majin Bū '' ( 特訓 成功 ! ! これ で 終り だ 魔 人 ブウ ) February 22 , 1995 October 17 , 2002 258 243 `` I 'm Going Like I Mean It ! ! A Wide - Open Super Gotenks '' / `` Super Moves of Gotenks '' `` Honki de Iku ze ! ! Sūpā Gotenkusu Zenkai '' ( 本気 で 行く ぜ ! ! 超 ゴテンクス 全開 ) March 1 , 1995 October 21 , 2002 259 244 `` I 've Done It ! ! Boo Successfully Eliminated With Ghosts ! ? '' / `` Trapped in Forever '' `` Yatta ze ! ! Obake de Seikō Bū Taiji ! ? '' ( やっ た ぜ ! ! オバケ で 成功 ブウ 退治 ! ? ) March 8 , 1995 October 22 , 2002 260 245 `` Escape From Another Dimension ! ! Super Gotenks 3 '' / `` Feeding Frenzy '' `` Ijigen kara no Dasshutsu ! ! Sūpā Gotenkusu Surī '' ( 異 次元 から の 脱出 ! ! 超 ゴテンクス 3 ) March 15 , 1995 October 23 , 2002 261 246 `` Going Too Far ! ? Boo - Boo Volleyball '' / `` Gotenks is Awesome '' `` Norisugi ! ? Bū Bū Barēbōru '' ( ノリ すぎ ! ? ブウブウ バレーボール ) March 22 , 1995 October 24 , 2002 262 247 `` Truly ' Great ' ! ! A Reborn Gohan Returns to Earth '' / `` Unlucky Break '' `` Masa ni Gurēto ! ! Shinsei Gohan Chikyū e '' ( まさに グレート ! ! 新生 悟 飯 地球 へ ) April 26 , 1995 October 28 , 2002 263 248 `` Boo Overwhelmed ! ! Gohan 's Miracle Power '' / `` A Whole New Gohan '' `` Bū o Attō ! ! Gohan no Mirakuru Pawā '' ( ブウ を 圧倒 ! ! 悟 飯 の ミラクル パワー ) May 3 , 1995 October 29 , 2002 264 249 `` Has He Done It ! ? Majin Boo 's Great Explosion '' / `` Search for Survivors '' `` Yatta ka ! ? Majin Bū Daibakuhatsu '' ( やっ たか ! ? 魔 人 ブウ 大 爆発 ) May 17 , 1995 October 30 , 2002 265 250 `` Boo 's Worst Foul ! Gotenks is Absorbed ! ? '' / `` Majin Buu Transforms '' `` Bū Saiaku no Hansoku ! ! Gotenkusu Kyūshū ! ? '' ( ブウ 最悪 の 反則 ! ! ゴテンクス 吸収 ! ? ) May 24 , 1995 November 4 , 2002 266 251 `` For the Sake of the Entire Universe ... Return to Life , Son Goku '' / `` The Old Kai 's Weapon '' `` Zen'uchū no Tame ni ... Yomigaere Son Gokū '' ( 全 宇宙 の ため に ... よみがえれ 孫悟空 ) May 31 , 1995 November 5 , 2002 267 252 `` The Miracle Happens Once ... Will the Super Combination With Gohan Come About ? '' / `` Ready to Fuse ? '' `` Kiseki wa Ichido ... Naru ka Gohan to no Chōgattai '' ( 奇跡 は 一度 ... なる か 悟 飯 と の 超 合体 ) June 7 , 1995 November 6 , 2002 268 253 `` Merged ! ! Vegeta 's Pride and Goku 's Rage '' / `` Union of Rivals '' `` Gattai ! ! Bejīta no Hokori to Gokū no Ikari '' ( 合体 ! ! ベジータ の 誇り と 悟空 の 怒り ) June 28 , 1995 November 7 , 2002 269 254 `` Magnificent Power ! ! Vegetto Surpasses the Ultimate '' / `` Meet Vegito '' `` Sōzetsu Pawā ! ! Kyūkyoku o Koeru Bejitto '' ( 壮絶 パワー ! ! 究極 を 越える ベジット ) July 5 , 1995 November 8 , 2002 270 255 `` A Fissure Between Dimensions ! ! Has Boo Snapped ! ? '' / `` Rip in the Universe '' `` Jigen ni Kiretsu ! ! Bū ga Kirechatta ! ? '' ( 次元 に 亀裂 ! ! ブウ が キレ ちゃっ た ! ? ) July 12 , 1995 November 11 , 2002 271 256 `` The Ace Up Boo 's Sleeve ! ! You Become a Hard Candy ! '' / `` Vegito ... Downsized '' `` Bū no Oku no Te ! ! Amedama ni Natchae '' ( ブウ の 奥の手 ! ! アメ 玉 に なっ ちゃえ ) July 19 , 1995 November 12 , 2002 272 257 `` A Hero Lost ! ? Vegito is Absorbed '' / `` The Incredible Fighting Candy '' `` Hīrō Sōshitsu ! ? Kyūshūsareta Bejitto '' ( ヒーロー 喪失 ! ? 吸収 され た ベジット ) July 26 , 1995 November 13 , 2002 273 258 `` A Demonic Maze ! ! What Is There Inside Boo 's Belly ! ? '' / `` The Innards of Buu '' `` Ma no Meikyū ! ! Bū no Onaka ni Nani ga Aru ! ? '' ( 魔 の 迷宮 ! ! ブウ の 腹 ( おなか ) に 何 が ある ! ? ) August 2 , 1995 November 14 , 2002 274 259 `` Nightmares or Illusions ! ? Goku and Gohan 's Father - Son Confrontation '' / `` Mind Trap '' `` Akumu ka Maboroshi ka ! ? Gokū to Gohan no Oyako Taiketsu '' ( 悪夢 か 幻 か ! ? 悟空 と 悟 飯 の 親子 対決 ) August 9 , 1995 November 15 , 2002 275 260 `` A Majin 's Secret ! ! Two More Boos Inside of Boo '' / `` Deadly Vision '' `` Majin no Himitsu ! ! Bū no Naka ni Futari no Bū '' ( 魔 人 の 秘密 ! ! ブウ の 中 に 2 人 の ブウ ) August 16 , 1995 November 18 , 2002 276 261 `` Where Is the Exit ! ? Escape from a Collapsing Boo '' / `` Evil Kid Buu ! '' `` Deguchi wa Doko Da ! ? Kuzureru Bū kara Dasshutsu '' ( 出口 は どこ だ ! ? 崩れる ブウ から 脱出 ) August 23 , 1995 November 19 , 2002 277 262 `` Earth Disappears ! ! Boo 's Reverse - Transformation of Evil '' / `` End of Earth '' `` Chikyū Shōmetsu ! ! Bū Jaaku e no Gyakuhenshin '' ( 地球 消滅 ! ! ブウ 邪悪 へ の 逆 変身 ) September 6 , 1995 March 17 , 2003 278 263 `` Buu 's Assault ! ! A Conclusion in the Kaioshin Realm '' / `` True Saiyans Fight Alone '' `` Bū Raishū ! ! Kaiōshinkai de Ketchaku da '' ( ブウ 来襲 ! ! 界 王 神 界 で 決着 だ ) September 13 , 1995 March 18 , 2003 279 264 `` Seize the Future ! ! A Decisive Battle with the Universe at Stake '' / `` Battle for the Universe Begins '' `` Mirai o Tsukame ! ! Uchū o Kaketa Daikessen '' ( 未来 を つかめ ! ! 宇宙 を かけ た 大 決戦 ) September 20 , 1995 March 19 , 2003 280 265 `` Vegeta Takes Off His Hat ! ! Goku , You Are No. 1 '' / `` Vegeta 's Respect '' `` Bejīta Datsubō ! ! Gokū Omae ga Nanbā Wan da '' ( ベジータ 脱帽 ! ! 悟空 おまえ が No. 1 だ ) October 18 , 1995 March 20 , 2003 281 266 `` Pull Through , Vegeta ! ! One Life - Threatening Minute '' / `` Minute of Desperation '' `` Taenuke Bejīta ! ! Inochigake no Ippunkan '' ( 耐え 抜け ベジータ ! ! 命がけ の 1 分間 ) November 1 , 1995 March 21 , 2003 282 267 `` Do n't You Pick on Satan ! ! The Original Boo is Revived '' / `` Old Buu Emerges '' `` Satan o Ijimeru na ! ! Ganso Bū Fukkatsu '' ( サタン を いじめる な ! ! 元祖 ブウ 復活 ) November 8 , 1995 March 24 , 2003 283 268 `` Vegeta 's Secret Plan ! ! Polunga and the Two Wishes '' / `` Earth Reborn '' `` Bejīta no Hisaku ! ! Porunga to Futatsu no Negai '' ( ベジータ の 秘策 ! ! 神龍 ( ポルンガ ) と 2 つの 願い ) November 15 , 1995 March 25 , 2003 284 269 `` A Last Hope ! ! We 'll Make a Huge Genki Dama '' / `` Call to Action '' `` Saigo no Kibō ! ! Tsukuru ze Dekkai Genkidama '' ( 最後 の 希望 ! ! 作る ぜ でっかい 元気 玉 ) November 22 , 1995 March 26 , 2003 285 270 `` Ultra-Impressive ! ! The Genki Dama From Everyone is Finished '' / `` People of Earth Unite '' `` Chōkangeki ! ! Dekita ze Minna no Genkidama '' ( 超 感激 ! ! でき た ぜ みんなの 元気 玉 ) November 29 , 1995 March 27 , 2003 286 271 `` Son Goku is Strongest After All ! ! Majin Boo is Eliminated '' / `` Spirit Bomb Triumphant '' `` Yappari Saikyō Son Gokū ! ! Majin Bū Shōmetsu '' ( やっぱり 最強 孫悟空 ! ! 魔 人 ブウ 消滅 ) December 13 , 1995 March 28 , 2003 287 272 `` Peace Returns ! ! Majin Boo , Champion of Justice ! ? '' / `` Celebrations with Majin Buu '' `` Modotta Heiwa ! ! Seigi no Mikata Majin Bū ! ? '' ( 戻っ た 平和 ! ! 正義 の 味方 魔 人 ブウ ! ? ) December 20 , 1995 March 31 , 2003 288 273 `` You 're Late , Goku ! Everyone Party ! ! '' / `` He 's Always Late '' `` Osoi ze Gokū ! Minna de Pāti ! ! '' ( 遅い ぜ 悟空 ! みんな で パーティ ! ! ) January 10 , 1996 April 2 , 2003 289 274 `` Grandpa Goku ! I Am Pan ! ! '' / `` Granddaughter Pan '' `` Gokū Ojiichan ! Watashi ga Pan yo ! ! '' ( 悟空 おじいちゃん ! 私 が パン よ ! ! ) January 17 , 1996 April 3 , 2003 290 275 `` I Am Oob ! Now Ten Years Old , the Former Majin ! ? '' / `` Buu 's Reincarnation '' `` Oira wa Ūbu ! Ima Jussai de Moto Majin ! ? '' ( オイラ は ウーブ ! 今 10 歳 で 元 魔 人 ! ? ) January 24 , 1996 April 4 , 2003 291 276 `` Even Stronger ! ! Goku 's Dream is Super-Huge '' / `` Goku 's Next Journey '' `` Motto Tsuyoku ! ! Gokū no Yume wa Chō Dekkee '' ( もっと 強く ! ! 悟空 の 夢 は 超 で っ け え ) January 31 , 1996 April 7 , 2003 Ovas / movie specials ( edit ) No . Title Original release US release `` Dragon Ball Z Side Story : Plan to Eradicate the Saiyans '' `` Doragon Bōru Zetto Gaiden : Saiyajin Zetsumetsu Keikaku '' ( ドラゴンボール Z 外伝 サイヤ 人 絶滅 計画 ) September 6 , 1993 ( 1993 - 09 - 06 ) N / A This feature was released in two parts as an `` Official Visual Guide '' to the Famicom video game of the same title . It is notable for never having seen an official release outside Japan , unlike its 2010 remake . It was re-released with new scenes entitled `` Dragon Ball Z Side Story : True Plan to Eradicate the Saiyans '' for the Bandai Playdia system . `` Dragon Ball : Yo ! Son Goku and His Friends Return ! ! '' `` Doragon Bōru Ossu ! Kaette Kita Son Gokū to Nakama - tachi ! ! '' ( ドラゴンボール オッス ! 帰っ てき た 孫悟空 と 仲間 たち ! ) September 21 , 2008 ( 2008 - 09 - 21 ) N / A This feature is the first Dragon Ball animation in twelve years , following a short story arc in the remade Dr. Slump anime series featuring Kid Goku and the Red Ribbon Army in 1999 . The film premiered in Japan at the Jump Super Anime Tour in honor of Weekly Shōnen Jump 's fortieth anniversary . `` Dragon Ball : Plan to Eradicate the Super Saiyans '' `` Doragon Bōru : Suupaa Saiyajin Zetsumetsu Keikaku '' ( ドラゴンボール 超 サイヤ 人 絶滅 計画 ) November 11 , 2010 ( 2010 - 11 - 11 ) November 2 , 2010 ( 2010 - 11 - 02 ) This is a remake of the 1993 OVA Dragon Ball Z Side Story : Plan to Eradicate the Saiyans . It was released as a bonus feature with the video game Dragon Ball : Raging Blast 2 . The feature was included worldwide , but was not dubbed in the appropriate language . Instead , the feature could only be viewed in Japanese with subtitles . `` Dragon Ball : Episode of Bardock '' `` Doragon Bōru : Episōdo obu Bādakku '' ( ドラゴンボール エピソード オブ バーダック ) December 17 , 2011 ( 2011 - 12 - 17 ) October 9 , 2012 ( 2012 - 10 - 09 ) This 20 - minute animated feature was adapted from the eponymous three - chapter manga by Naho Ōishi . It features a scenario taking place after the events of the TV special Dragon Ball Z : Bardock - The Father of Goku , in which Bardock survives the destruction of Planet Vegeta and is sent into the past , combating Frieza 's ancestor Chilled , and turning into a Super Saiyan . It was screened at Jump Festa 2012 ( December 17 and 18 , 2011 ) in Japan and internationally released in October 2012 as a subtitled extra to the Xbox 360 video game Dragon Ball Z : For Kinect . TV specials ( edit ) # Title Original airdate English release `` Dragon Ball Z : Bardock -- The Father of Goku '' `` Doragon Bōru Zetto : Tatta Hitori no Saishū Kessen ~ Furīza ni Idonda Zetto Senshi Kakarotto no Chichi ~ '' ( ドラゴンボール Z たった ひとり の 最終 決戦 ~ フリーザ に 挑ん だ Z 戦士 孫悟空 ( カカロット ) の 父 ~ ) October 17 , 1990 January 10 , 2001 `` Dragon Ball Z : Summer Vacation Special '' `` Kyokugen Batoru ! ! San Dai Sūpā Saiya - jin Supesharu '' ( 極限 バトル ! ! 三 大 超 サイヤ 人 スペシャル ) August 3 , 1992 N / A This rare special aired on Tokai TV a month after the release of Dragon Ball Z : Super Android 13 ! , between episodes 148 and 155 , and is set after the events thereof . Goku and Gohan meet in West city , dressed up in Tuxedos , and discuss the events of the nine previously - released movies ( the first three Dragon Ball Films , and the first six Dragon Ball Z films ) . This special has never been released in English , nor on any form of home media . `` Dragon Ball Z : The History of Trunks '' `` Doragon Bōru Zetto : Zetsubō e no Hankō ! ! Nokosareta Chō - Senshi Gohan to Torankusu '' ( ドラゴンボール Z 絶望 へ の 反抗 ! ! 残 され た 超 戦士 ・ 悟 飯 と トランクス ) February 24 , 1993 October 24 , 2000 `` Looking Back at it All : The Dragon Ball Z Year - End Show ! '' `` Zenbu Misemasu Toshi Wasure Doragon Boru Zetto ! '' ( 全部 見せ ます 年 忘れ ドラゴンボール Z ! ) December 31 , 1993 N / A This rare special aired on Fuji Television between episodes 211 and 212 , and looks back at what had happened in Dragon Ball Z in 1993 . It takes placed before the adult division of the 25th World Martial Arts Tournament into the Dragon Ball Timeline , as noted by Gohan at the end of the special . This special has not been released on DVD and it has not been translated to English either . 5 `` Dream 9 Toriko & One Piece & Dragon Ball Z Super Collaboration Special '' `` Dori - mu 9 Toriko & Wan Pi - su & Doragonbo - ru Z chō Korabo Supesharu ! ! '' ( ドリーム 9 トリコ & ワンピース & ドラゴンボール Z 超 コラボ スペシャル ! ! ) April 7 , 2013 N / A This is a two - part crossover special which aired on April 7 , 2013 , on Fuji TV . It commemorated the start of the third year of the anime Toriko , and features characters from Dragon Ball Z , Toriko , and One Piece . Films ( edit ) # Title Original release English releases `` Dragon Ball Z : Dead Zone '' `` Doragon Bōru Zetto : Ora no Gohan o Kaese ! ! '' ( ドラゴンボール Z オラ の 悟 飯 を かえせ ッ ! ! ) July 15 , 1989 December 9 , 1997 May 31 , 2005 ( Funimation re-dub ) `` Dragon Ball Z : The World 's Strongest '' `` Doragon Bōru Zetto : Kono Yo de Ichiban Tsuyoi Yatsu '' ( ドラゴンボール Z この世 で 一 番 強い ヤツ ) March 10 , 1990 March 17 , 1998 November 14 , 2006 ( Funimation re-dub ) `` Dragon Ball Z : The Tree of Might '' `` Doragon Bōru Zetto : Chikyū Marugoto Chōkessen '' ( ドラゴンボール Z 地球 まるごと 超 決戦 ) July 7 , 1990 November 15 -- 22 , 1997 ( Edited TV airing ) May 26 , 1998 ( Pioneer re-dub ) November 14 , 2006 ( Funimation re-dub ) `` Dragon Ball Z : Lord Slug '' `` Doragon Bōru Zetto : Sūpā Saiyajin da Son Gokū '' ( ドラゴンボール Z 超 サイヤ 人 だ 孫悟空 ) March 9 , 1991 August 7 , 2001 5 `` Dragon Ball Z : Cooler 's Revenge '' `` Doragon Bōru Zetto : Tobikkiri no Saikyō tai Saikyō '' ( ドラゴンボール Z と びっき り の 最強 対 最強 ) July 20 , 1991 January 22 , 2002 6 `` Dragon Ball Z : The Return of Cooler '' `` Doragon Bōru Zetto : Gekitotsu ! ! Hyaku - Oku Pawā no Senshi - tachi '' ( ドラゴンボール Z 激突 ! ! 100 億 パワー の 戦士 たち ) March 7 , 1992 August 13 , 2002 7 `` Dragon Ball Z : Super Android 13 ! '' `` Doragon Bōru Zetto : Kyokugen Batoru ! ! San Dai Sūpā Saiyajin '' ( ドラゴンボール Z 極限 バトル ! ! 三 大 超 サイヤ 人 , ) July 11 , 1992 February 4 , 2003 8 `` Dragon Ball Z : Broly -- The Legendary Super Saiyan '' `` Doragon Bōru Zetto : Moetsukiro ! ! Nessen Ressen Chō - Gekisen '' ( ドラゴンボール Z 燃えつきろ ! ! 熱戦 ・ 烈 戦 ・ 超 激戦 ) March 6 , 1993 August 26 , 2003 9 `` Dragon Ball Z : Bojack Unbound '' `` Doragon Bōru Zetto : Ginga Giri - Giri ! ! Butchigiri no Sugoi Yatsu '' ( ドラゴンボール Z 銀河 ギリギリ ! ! ぶっ ちぎり の 凄い 奴 ) July 10 , 1993 August 17 , 2004 10 `` Dragon Ball Z : Broly -- Second Coming '' `` Doragon Bōru Zetto : Kiken na Futari ! Sūpā Senshi wa Nemurenai '' ( ドラゴンボール Z 危険 な ふたり ! 超 戦士 は ねむれ ない ) March 12 , 1994 April 5 , 2005 11 `` Dragon Ball Z : Bio-Broly '' `` Doragon Bōru Zetto : Sūpā Senshi Gekiha ! ! Katsu No wa Ore da '' ( ドラゴンボール Z 超 戦士 撃破 ! ! 勝つ の は オレ だ ) July 9 , 1994 September 13 , 2005 12 `` Dragon Ball Z : Fusion Reborn '' `` Doragon Bōru Zetto : Fukkatsu no Fyūjon ! ! Gokū to Vejīta '' ( ドラゴンボール Z 復活 の フュージョン ! ! 悟空 と ベジータ ) March 4 , 1995 March 28 , 2006 13 `` Dragon Ball Z : Wrath of the Dragon '' `` Doragon Bōru Zetto : Ryū - Ken Bakuhatsu ! ! Gokū ga Yaraneba Dare ga Yaru '' ( ドラゴンボール Z 龍 拳 爆発 ! ! 悟空 が やら ねば 誰が やる ) July 15 , 1995 September 12 , 2006 14 `` Dragon Ball Z : Battle of Gods '' `` Doragon Bōru Zetto : Kami to Kami '' ( ドラゴンボール Z 神 と 神 ) March 30 , 2013 August 5 , 2014 15 `` Dragon Ball Z : Resurrection ' F ' '' `` Doragon Bōru Zetto : Fukkatsu no Efu '' ( ドラゴンボール Z 復活 の 「 F 」 ) April 18 , 2015 August 4 , 2015 Home media releases ( edit ) Region 1 ( north america ) ( edit ) VHS Saga Box Set ( edit ) Name # Date Episodes The Saiyan Conflict 000000002001 - 10 - 09 - 0000 October 9 , 2001 1 -- 34 ( 1 -- 25 edited ) The Namekian Saga 000000002001 - 10 - 09 - 0000 October 9 , 2001 35 -- 67 ( 26 -- 53 edited ) Ginyu Force 000000002000 - 10 - 01 - 0000 October 1 , 2000 68 -- 74 ( 54 -- 60 edited ) Frieza 000000002001 - 12 - 11 - 0000 December 11 , 2001 75 -- 107 ( 61 -- 92 edited ) Garlic Jr . 5 000000002003 - 01 - 21 - 0000 January 21 , 2003 108 -- 117 ( 93 -- 102 edited ) Trunks 6 000000002000 - 09 - 26 - 0000 September 26 , 2000 118 -- 125 ( 103 -- 110 edited ) Androids 7 000000002003 - 02 - 11 - 0000 February 11 , 2003 126 -- 139 ( 111 -- 124 edited ) Imperfect Cell 8 000000002003 - 03 - 04 - 0000 March 4 , 2003 140 -- 152 ( 125 -- 137 edited ) Perfect Cell 9 000000002003 - 03 - 25 - 0000 March 25 , 2003 153 -- 165 ( 138 -- 150 edited ) Cell Games 10 000000002004 - 01 - 27 - 0000 January 27 , 2004 166 -- 194 ( 151 -- 179 edited ) Great Saiyaman 11 000000002005 - 03 - 15 - 0000 March 15 , 2005 195 -- 209 ( 180 -- 194 edited ) World Tournament 12 000000002003 - 04 - 22 - 0000 April 22 , 2003 210 -- 219 ( 195 -- 204 edited ) Babidi 13 000000002003 - 06 - 17 - 0000 June 17 , 2003 220 -- 231 ( 205 -- 216 edited ) Majin Buu 14 000000002003 - 11 - 11 - 0000 November 11 , 2003 232 -- 253 ( 217 -- 238 edited ) Fusion 15 000000002003 - 09 - 16 - 0000 September 16 , 2003 254 -- 275 ( 239 -- 260 edited ) Kid Buu 16 000000002003 - 11 - 11 - 0000 November 11 , 2003 276 -- 291 ( 261 -- 276 edited ) Individual DVD list ( edit ) Note : The VHS version of `` Z Warriors Prepare '' ( Episodes 109 - 110 ) was released in the US as part of a Burger King Kid 's Meal promotion and never released as a Region 1 DVD . Funimation re-released `` Prelude to Terror '' with the missing episodes , resulting in 3 - episode and 5 - episode versions of the disc being available . Madman Entertainment in Australia released `` Z Warriors Prepare '' as a Region 4 DVD on December 12 , 2000 . Name Disc # Release Date Episodes Saga Arrival 000000001999 - 04 - 13 - 0000 April 13 , 1999 1 -- 6 ( 1 -- 4 edited ) The Saiyan Conflict The Saiyans 000000001999 - 05 - 11 - 0000 May 11 , 1999 7 -- 11 ( 5 -- 7 edited ) Snake Way 000000001999 - 05 - 11 - 0000 May 11 , 1999 12 -- 16 ( 8 -- 10 edited ) Pendulum Room 000000001999 - 06 - 01 - 0000 June 1 , 1999 17 -- 19 ( 11 -- 13 edited ) Doom 5 000000001999 - 06 - 01 - 0000 June 1 , 1999 20 -- 22 ( 14 -- 16 edited ) Immortals 6 000000001999 - 07 - 13 - 0000 July 13 , 1999 23 -- 26 ( 17 -- 19 edited ) Destruction 7 000000001999 - 07 - 13 - 0000 July 13 , 1999 27 -- 29 ( 20 -- 22 edited ) Showdown 8 000000001999 - 08 - 17 - 0000 August 17 , 1999 30 -- 34 ( 23 -- 25 edited ) Departure 9 000000001999 - 08 - 17 - 0000 August 17 , 1999 35 -- 39 ( 26 -- 28 edited ) The Namek Saga Rebirth 10 000000001999 - 09 - 14 - 0000 September 14 , 1999 40 -- 43 ( 29 -- 31 edited ) Namek 11 000000001999 - 09 - 14 - 0000 September 14 , 1999 44 -- 46 ( 32 -- 34 edited ) Betrayal 12 000000001999 - 10 - 12 - 0000 October 12 , 1999 47 -- 49 ( 35 -- 37 edited ) Collision 13 000000001999 - 10 - 12 - 0000 October 12 , 1999 50 -- 53 ( 38 -- 40 edited ) Quest 14 000000001999 - 11 - 09 - 0000 November 9 , 1999 54 -- 56 ( 41 -- 43 edited ) Trouble ! 15 000000001999 - 11 - 09 - 0000 November 9 , 1999 57 -- 59 ( 44 -- 46 edited ) The Ginyu Force 16 000000001999 - 12 - 07 - 0000 December 7 , 1999 60 -- 62 ( 47 -- 49 edited ) Super Saiyan ? ! 17 000000001999 - 12 - 07 - 0000 December 7 , 1999 63 -- 67 ( 50 -- 53 edited ) Assault 18 000000002000 - 06 - 19 - 0000 June 19 , 2000 68 -- 70 ( 54 -- 56 edited ) Captain Ginyu Saga Double Cross 19 000000002000 - 07 - 25 - 0000 July 25 , 2000 71 -- 74 ( 57 -- 60 edited ) The Summoning 20 000000002001 - 05 - 08 - 0000 May 8 , 2001 75 -- 77 ( 61 -- 63 edited ) Frieza Saga Transformation 21 000000002001 - 06 - 26 - 0000 June 26 , 2001 78 -- 81 ( 64 -- 66 edited ) Revealed 22 000000002001 - 07 - 10 - 0000 July 10 , 2001 82 -- 84 ( 67 -- 69 edited ) Death of a Prince 23 000000002001 - 08 - 21 - 0000 August 21 , 2001 85 -- 87 ( 70 -- 72 edited ) Clash 24 000000002001 - 08 - 14 - 0000 August 14 , 2001 88 -- 90 ( 73 -- 75 edited ) Desperation 25 000000002001 - 09 - 04 - 0000 September 4 , 2001 91 -- 93 ( 76 -- 78 edited ) Super Saiyan Goku 26 000000002001 - 10 - 16 - 0000 October 16 , 2001 94 -- 96 ( 79 -- 81 edited ) Eleventh Hour 27 000000002001 - 11 - 13 - 0000 November 13 , 2001 97 -- 100 ( 82 -- 85 edited ) Fall of a Tyrant 28 000000002001 - 11 - 13 - 0000 November 13 , 2001 101 -- 104 ( 86 -- 89 edited ) Namek 's End 29 000000002001 - 12 - 11 - 0000 December 11 , 2001 105 -- 107 ( 90 -- 92 edited ) Black Water Mist 30 000000002002 - 01 - 08 - 0000 January 8 , 2002 108 -- 110 ( 93 -- 95 edited ) Garlic Jr . Saga Sacred Water 31 000000002002 - 02 - 26 - 0000 February 26 , 2002 111 -- 113 ( 96 -- 98 edited ) Vanquished 32 000000002002 - 02 - 26 - 0000 February 26 , 2002 114 -- 117 ( 99 -- 102 edited ) Mysterious Youth 33 000000002000 - 09 - 06 - 0000 September 6 , 2000 118 -- 120 ( 103 -- 105 edited ) Trunks Saga Prelude to Terror 34 000000002000 - 09 - 20 - 0000 September 20 , 2000 121 -- 123 ( 106 -- 108 edited ) 121 -- 125 ( 106 -- 110 edited ) Invasion 35 000000002001 - 03 - 13 - 0000 March 13 , 2001 126 -- 129 ( 111 -- 114 edited ) Androids Saga Dr. Gero 36 000000002001 - 03 - 13 - 0000 March 13 , 2001 130 -- 132 ( 115 -- 117 edited ) Assassins 37 000000002001 - 04 - 03 - 0000 April 3 , 2001 133 -- 135 ( 118 -- 120 edited ) Invincible 38 000000002001 - 05 - 08 - 0000 May 8 , 2001 136 -- 139 ( 121 -- 124 edited ) Encounter 39 000000002002 - 01 - 29 - 0000 January 29 , 2002 140 -- 142 ( 125 -- 127 edited ) Imperfect Cell Saga Discovery 40 000000002002 - 01 - 29 - 0000 January 29 , 2002 143 -- 145 ( 128 -- 130 edited ) Race Against Time 41 000000002002 - 03 - 05 - 0000 March 5 , 2002 146 -- 148 ( 131 -- 133 edited ) 17 's End 42 000000002002 - 05 - 14 - 0000 May 14 , 2002 149 -- 152 ( 134 -- 137 edited ) Hunt for 18 43 000000002002 - 06 - 18 - 0000 June 18 , 2002 153 -- 155 ( 138 -- 140 edited ) Perfect Cell Saga Temptation 44 000000002002 - 07 - 30 - 0000 July 30 , 2002 156 -- 158 ( 141 -- 143 edited ) Perfection 45 000000002002 - 09 - 03 - 0000 September 3 , 2002 159 -- 161 ( 144 -- 146 edited ) Unstoppable 46 000000002002 - 10 - 08 - 0000 October 8 , 2002 162 -- 165 ( 147 -- 150 edited ) Ultimatum 47 000000002002 - 11 - 12 - 0000 November 12 , 2002 166 -- 168 ( 151 -- 153 edited ) Cell Games Saga A Moment 's Peace 48 000000002004 - 01 - 27 - 0000 January 27 , 2004 169 -- 171 ( 154 -- 156 edited ) Guardian 's Return 49 000000002004 - 03 - 23 - 0000 March 23 , 2004 172 -- 174 ( 157 -- 159 edited ) The Games Begin 50 000000002004 - 05 - 18 - 0000 May 18 , 2004 175 -- 177 ( 160 -- 162 edited ) Surrender 51 000000002004 - 06 - 29 - 0000 June 29 , 2004 178 -- 180 ( 163 -- 165 edited ) Earth 's Last Hope 52 000000002004 - 08 - 17 - 0000 August 17 , 2004 181 -- 183 ( 166 -- 168 edited ) Awakening 53 000000002004 - 10 - 19 - 0000 October 19 , 2004 184 -- 186 ( 169 -- 171 edited ) Sacrifice 54 000000002004 - 12 - 07 - 0000 December 7 , 2004 187 -- 190 ( 172 -- 175 edited ) Nightmare 's End 55 000000002005 - 02 - 08 - 0000 February 8 , 2005 191 -- 194 ( 176 -- 179 edited ) Opening Ceremony 56 000000002005 - 03 - 15 - 0000 March 15 , 2005 195 -- 197 ( 180 -- 182 edited ) Great Saiyaman Saga Final Round 57 000000002005 - 05 - 10 - 0000 May 10 , 2005 198 -- 200 ( 183 -- 185 edited ) Gohan 's Secret 58 000000002005 - 07 - 26 - 0000 July 26 , 2005 201 -- 203 ( 186 -- 188 edited ) Declaration 59 000000002005 - 09 - 20 - 0000 September 20 , 2005 204 -- 206 ( 189 -- 191 edited ) Crash Course 60 000000002005 - 11 - 15 - 0000 November 15 , 2005 207 -- 209 ( 192 -- 194 edited ) Junior Division 61 000000002001 - 06 - 26 - 0000 June 26 , 2001 210 -- 212 ( 195 -- 197 edited ) World Tournament Saga Draw 62 000000002001 - 07 - 31 - 0000 July 31 , 2001 213 -- 215 ( 198 -- 200 edited ) Blackout 63 000000002001 - 07 - 31 - 0000 July 31 , 2001 216 -- 219 ( 201 -- 204 edited ) Descent 64 000000002001 - 10 - 02 - 0000 October 2 , 2001 220 -- 222 ( 205 -- 207 edited ) Babidi Saga Battle Royale 65 000000002001 - 10 - 02 - 0000 October 2 , 2001 223 -- 225 ( 208 -- 210 edited ) The Dark Prince Returns 66 000000002001 - 10 - 30 - 0000 October 30 , 2001 226 -- 228 ( 211 -- 213 edited ) Rivals 67 000000002001 - 10 - 30 - 0000 October 30 , 2001 229 -- 231 ( 214 -- 216 edited ) The Hatching 68 000000002002 - 01 - 29 - 0000 January 29 , 2002 232 -- 234 ( 217 -- 219 edited ) Majin Buu Saga Atonement 69 000000002002 - 01 - 29 - 0000 January 29 , 2002 235 -- 237 ( 220 -- 222 edited ) Revival 70 000000002002 - 03 - 12 - 0000 March 12 , 2002 238 -- 240 ( 223 -- 225 edited ) Tactics 71 000000002002 - 03 - 12 - 0000 March 12 , 2002 241 -- 243 ( 226 -- 228 edited ) Defiance 72 000000002002 - 05 - 07 - 0000 May 7 , 2002 244 -- 246 ( 229 -- 231 edited ) A Hero 's Farewell 73 000000002002 - 05 - 07 - 0000 May 7 , 2002 247 -- 249 ( 232 -- 234 edited ) Emergence 74 000000002002 - 06 - 11 - 0000 June 11 , 2002 250 -- 253 ( 235 -- 238 edited ) Evil Buu 75 000000002002 - 06 - 11 - 0000 June 11 , 2002 254 -- 256 ( 239 -- 241 edited ) Fusion Saga Play for Time 76 000000002002 - 07 - 16 - 0000 July 16 , 2002 257 -- 259 ( 242 -- 244 edited ) Losing Battle 77 000000002002 - 07 - 16 - 0000 July 16 , 2002 260 -- 262 ( 245 - 247 edited ) Hope Returns 78 000000002002 - 08 - 20 - 0000 August 20 , 2002 263 -- 265 ( 248 -- 250 edited ) Ambush 79 000000002002 - 08 - 20 - 0000 August 20 , 2002 266 -- 268 ( 251 -- 253 edited ) The Last Saiyan 80 000000002002 - 10 - 22 - 0000 October 22 , 2002 269 -- 272 ( 254 -- 257 edited ) Internal Struggle 81 000000002002 - 10 - 22 - 0000 October 22 , 2002 273 -- 275 ( 258 -- 260 edited ) Regression 82 000000002002 - 11 - 26 - 0000 November 26 , 2002 276 -- 278 ( 261 -- 263 edited ) Kid Buu Saga Saiyan Pride 83 000000002002 - 11 - 26 - 0000 November 26 , 2002 279 -- 281 ( 264 -- 266 edited ) Vegeta 's Plea 84 000000002003 - 01 - 07 - 0000 January 7 , 2003 282 -- 284 ( 267 -- 269 edited ) Price of Victory 85 000000002003 - 01 - 07 - 0000 January 7 , 2003 285 -- 287 ( 270 -- 272 edited ) A New Beginning 86 000000002003 - 03 - 11 - 0000 March 11 , 2003 288 -- 291 ( 273 -- 276 edited ) Ultimate Uncut Edition Box Sets ( edit ) Name Date Episodes Vegeta Saga I April 12 , 2005 1 -- 21 Vegeta Saga II March 21 , 2006 22 -- 27 Season Box Sets ( edit ) Name Date Discs Episodes Saga ( s ) Season One February 6 , 2007 6 1 -- 39 Vegeta Saga Season Two May 22 , 2007 6 40 -- 74 Namek / Captain Ginyu Saga Season Three September 18 , 2007 6 75 -- 107 Frieza Saga Season Four February 19 , 2008 6 108 -- 139 Garlic Jr. / Trunks / Androids Saga Season Five May 27 , 2008 6 140 -- 165 Imperfect Cell / Perfect Cell Saga Season Six September 16 , 2008 6 166 -- 194 Cell Games Saga Season Seven November 11 , 2008 6 195 -- 219 Great Saiyaman / World Tournament Saga Season Eight February 10 , 2009 6 220 -- 253 Babidi / Majin Buu Saga Season Nine May 19 , 2009 6 254 -- 291 Fusion / Kid Buu Saga Funimation Dragon Box Z Sets ( edit ) Name Date Discs Episodes Dragon Box Z , Vol. 1 November 17 , 2009 6 1 -- 42 Dragon Box Z , Vol. 2 February 16 , 2010 6 43 -- 84 Dragon Box Z , Vol. 3 May 4 , 2010 6 85 -- 126 Dragon Box Z , Vol. 4 September 21 , 2010 6 127 -- 168 Dragon Box Z , Vol. 5 April 26 , 2011 6 169 -- 209 Dragon Box Z , Vol. 6 July 5 , 2011 6 210 -- 250 Dragon Box Z , Vol. 7 October 11 , 2011 6 251 -- 291 Blu - ray Level releases ( edit ) Name Date Discs Episodes Dragon Ball Z , Level 1.1 November 8 , 2011 1 -- 17 Dragon Ball Z , Level 1.2 December 13 , 2011 18 -- 34 Dragon Ball Z , Level 2.1 Cancelled 35 -- 51 Dragon Ball Z , Level 2.2 Cancelled 52 -- 67 Season Blu - ray releases ( edit ) Name Date Discs Episodes Dragon Ball Z Season One December 31 , 2013 1 -- 39 Dragon Ball Z Season Two March 4 , 2014 40 -- 74 Dragon Ball Z Season Three April 1 , 2014 75 -- 107 Dragon Ball Z Season Four May 13 , 2014 108 -- 139 Dragon Ball Z Season Five June 24 , 2014 140 -- 165 Dragon Ball Z Season Six August 5 , 2014 166 -- 194 Dragon Ball Z Season Seven September 16 , 2014 195 -- 219 Dragon Ball Z Season Eight October 28 , 2014 220 -- 253 Dragon Ball Z Season Nine December 9 , 2014 5 254 -- 291 Original English dub Collector 's DVD Box Set ( edit ) Name Date Discs Episodes Dragon Ball Z : Rock the Dragon Edition August 13 , 2013 9 1 -- 67 ( 1 -- 53 edited ) + Movies 1 -- 3 Region 2 ( edit ) Dragon Box Z Sets ( Japan ) ( edit ) Name Date Discs Episodes Dragon Box Z , Vol. 1 March 19 , 2003 26 1 -- 147 + TV Special 1 Dragon Box Z , Vol. 2 September 18 , 2003 26 148 -- 291 + TV Special 2 Season Box Sets ( United Kingdom ) ( edit ) Name Date Discs Episodes Dragon Ball Z Season 1 July 2 , 2012 6 1 -- 39 Dragon Ball Z Season 2 August 27 , 2012 6 40 -- 74 Dragon Ball Z Season 3 October 1 , 2012 6 75 -- 107 Dragon Ball Z Season 4 November 5 , 2012 6 108 -- 139 Dragon Ball Z Season 5 January 7 , 2013 6 140 -- 165 Dragon Ball Z Season 6 March 4 , 2013 6 166 -- 194 Dragon Ball Z Season 7 May 13 , 2013 6 195 -- 219 Dragon Ball Z Season 8 July 15 , 2013 6 220 -- 253 Dragon Ball Z Season 9 October 21 , 2013 6 254 -- 291 See also ( edit ) Dragon Ball portal List of Dragon Ball episodes List of Dragon Ball GT episodes List of Dragon Ball films References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` '' Escape From Piccolo '' Unaired English Dub Episode Played on Cartoon Network `` . Kanzenshuu . Jump up ^ `` Dragon Ball Z 2015 Movie : Frieza 's Resurrection '' . Anime News Network . Retrieved November 17 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Dragon Ball Z - Series 3.3 : Z - Warriors Prepare DVD '' . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragonball Z , Vol. 1 - Arrival '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 7 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z , Vol. 2 - Saiyan - The Saiyans '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 7 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragonball Z , Vol. 3 - Snake Way '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 7 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragonball Z , Vol. 4 - Pendulum Room '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 7 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z , Vol. 5 - Saiyan - Doom '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 7 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragonball Z , Vol. 6 - Immortals '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 7 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragonball Z , Vol. 7 - Destruction '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 7 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z , Vol. 8 - Saiyan - Showdown '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 7 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragonball Z , Vol. 9 - Departure '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 7 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragonball Z , Vol. 10 - Rebirth '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 7 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragonball Z , Vol. 11 - Namek '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 7 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragonball Z , Vol. 12 - Betrayal '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 7 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragonball Z , Vol. 13 - Collision '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 7 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragonball Z , Vol. 14 - Quest '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 7 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragonball Z , Vol. 15 - Trouble '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 7 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : DragonBall Z , Vol 16 . - The Ginyu Force '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 7 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragonball Z , Vol. 17 - Super Saiyan '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 7 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragonball Z , Vol. 18 - Captain Ginyu : Assault '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 7 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Mania.com : Anime / Manga Review - Dragonball Z TV # 19 : Captain Gunyu - Double Cross '' . Mania.com . Retrieved July 7 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Frieza - The Summoning '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Frieza - Transformation '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Frieza - Revealed '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Frieza - Death of a Prince '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Frieza - Clash '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Frieza - Desperation '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Frieza - Super Saiyan Goku '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Frieza - Eleventh Hour '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Frieza - Fall of a Tyrant '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Frieza Namek 's End '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Garlic Jr . - Black Water Mist '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Garlic Jr . - Sacred Water '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Garlic Jr . - Vanquished '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Trunks - Mysterious Youth '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragonball Z , Trunks : Prelude to Terror '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Androids - Invasion '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Androids - Dr. Gero '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Androids - Assassins '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Androids - Invincible '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Imperfect Cell - Encounter '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Imperfect Cell - Discovery '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Imperfect Cell - Race Against Time '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Imperfect Cell - 17 's End '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z : Perfect Cell - Hunt for 18 '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Perfect Cell - Temptation '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : DragonBall Z : Perfect Cell - Perfection '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z : Perfect Cell - Unstoppable '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Cell Games - Ultimatum '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Cell Games - A Moment 's Peace '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Cell Games - Guardian 's Return '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Cell Games - The Games Begin '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Cell Games - Surrender '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Cell Games - Earth 's Last Hope '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Cell Games - Awakening '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Cell Games - Sacrifice '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Cell Games - Nightmare 's End '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Great Saiyaman - Opening Ceremony '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Great Saiyaman - Final Round '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Great Saiyaman - Gohan 's Secret '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : DragonBall Z : Great Saiyaman - Declaration '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : DragonBall Z : Great Saiyaman - Crash Course '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - World Tournament - Junior Division '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - World Tournament - Draw '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - World Tournament - Blackout '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Babidi - Descent '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Babidi - Battle Royal '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Babidi - Dark Prince Returns '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Babidi - Rivals '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Majin Buu - Hatching '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Majin Buu - Atonement '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Majin Buu - Revival '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Majin Buu - Tactics '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Majin Buu - Defiance '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Majin Buu - A Hero 's Farewell '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Majin Buu - Emergence '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Fusion - Evil Buu '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Fusion - Play for Time '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Fusion - Losing Battle '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : DragonBall Z : Fusion - Hope Returns '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z : Fusion - Ambush '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Fusion : The Last Saiyan '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Fusion : Internal Struggle '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Kid Buu - Regression '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Kid Buu - Saiyan Pride '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Kid Buu - Vegeta 's Plea '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Kid Buu - The Price of Victory '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dragon Ball Z - Kid Buu - A New Beginning '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Dragon Ball Z Season 1 ( DVD ) '' . rightstuf.com . Jump up ^ `` Dragon Ball Z Season 2 ( DVD ) '' . rightstuf.com . Jump up ^ `` Dragon Ball Z Season 3 ( DVD ) '' . rightstuf.com . Jump up ^ `` Dragon Ball Z Season 4 ( DVD ) '' . amazon.com . Jump up ^ `` Dragon Ball Z Season 5 ( DVD ) '' . amazon.com . Jump up ^ `` Dragon Ball Z Season 6 ( DVD ) '' . rightstuf.com . Jump up ^ `` Dragon Ball Z Season 7 ( DVD ) '' . rightstuf.com . Jump up ^ `` Dragon Ball Z Season 8 ( DVD ) '' . rightstuf.com . Jump up ^ `` Dragon Ball Z Season 9 ( DVD ) '' . rightstuf.com . Jump up ^ `` Dragon Ball Box One ( DVD ) '' . amazon.com . Jump up ^ `` Dragon Ball Box Two ( DVD ) '' . amazon.com . Jump up ^ `` Dragon Ball Box Three ( DVD ) '' . amazon.com . Jump up ^ `` Dragon Ball Box Four ( DVD ) '' . amazon.com . Jump up ^ `` Dragon Ball Box Five ( DVD ) '' . amazon.com . Jump up ^ `` Dragon Ball Box Six ( DVD ) '' . amazon.com . Jump up ^ `` Dragon Ball Box Seven ( DVD ) '' . amazon.com . Jump up ^ `` FUNIMATION ENTERTAINMENT ANNOUNCES DRAGON BALL Z SERIES ON BLU - RAY - Funimation -- Blog ! '' . Retrieved December 30 , 2016 . Jump up ^ ( 1 ) Jump up ^ `` FUNimation Cancels Remastered `` Dragon Ball Z '' Blu - Ray Release `` . Retrieved December 30 , 2016 . Jump up ^ http://www.funimation.com/dragon-ball-universe/forum/funimation-shows/fan-favorites/dragon-ball-universe/dragon-ball-z-series?page=11 Jump up ^ `` Dragon Ball Z Season 1 '' . Amazon.co.uk . Retrieved June 27 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Dragon Ball Z Season 2 '' . Amazon.co.uk . Retrieved June 27 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Dragon Ball Z Season 3 '' . Amazon.co.uk . Retrieved June 27 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Dragon Ball Z Season 4 '' . Amazon.co.uk . Retrieved June 27 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Dragon Ball Z Season 5 '' . Amazon.co.uk . Retrieved June 27 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Dragon Ball Z Season 6 '' . Amazon.co.uk . Retrieved June 27 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Dragon Ball Z Season 7 '' . Amazon.co.uk . Retrieved June 27 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Dragon Ball Z Season 8 '' . Amazon.co.uk . Retrieved June 27 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Dragon Ball Z Season 9 '' . Amazon.co.uk . Retrieved June 27 , 2014 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Dragon Ball . Official Funimation Entertainment Dragon Ball Z episode list Dragon Ball Z ( hide ) Dragon Ball by Akira Toriyama Media Manga chapters Dragon Ball Z Dragon Ball episodes Z episodes season 1 5 6 7 8 9 GT episodes Z Kai episodes Super episodes Films and TV specials Video games Soundtracks Characters Goku Bulma Master Roshi Yamcha Krillin Tien Shinhan Piccolo Gohan Vegeta Frieza Trunks Android 17 Android 18 Cell Majin Buu Beerus Zamasu Related Dr. Slump Arale Norimaki List of Dr. Slump characters Neko Majin Episode of Bardock Jaco the Galactic Patrolman Portal Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dragon_Ball_Z_episodes&oldid=836279411 '' Categories : Dragon Ball episode lists Hidden categories : Use mdy dates from January 2017 Articles needing additional references from September 2009 All articles needing additional references Articles containing Japanese - language text Talk Contents About Wikipedia Català Deutsch Español Euskara Français Galego Italiano Magyar Nederlands 日本 語 Polski Português Română ไทย 5 more Edit links This page was last edited on 13 April 2018 , at 19 : 47 . 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Law & Order : Special Victims Unit - Wikipedia Law & Order : Special Victims Unit Jump to : navigation , search For the current season , see Law & Order : Special Victims Unit ( season 19 ) . Law & Order : Special Victims Unit Also known as Law & Order : SVU SVU Genre Police procedural Legal drama Thriller Created by Dick Wolf Starring Christopher Meloni Mariska Hargitay Richard Belzer Dann Florek Michelle Hurd Stephanie March Ice - T B.D. Wong Diane Neal Tamara Tunie Adam Beach Michaela McManus Danny Pino Kelli Giddish Raúl Esparza Peter Scanavino Opening theme Theme of Law & Order : Special Victims Unit Composer ( s ) Mike Post Country of origin United States Original language ( s ) English No. of seasons 19 No. of episodes 421 ( list of episodes ) Production Executive producer ( s ) Dick Wolf Robert Palm ( season 1 ) David J. Burke ( season 2 ) Neal Baer ( seasons 2 -- 12 ) Ted Kotcheff ( seasons 2 -- 13 ) Peter Jankowski ( season 2 -- present ) Warren Leight ( seasons 13 -- 17 ) Michael Smith ( season 14 ) Julie Martin ( seasons 14 -- present ) Jonathan Starch ( season 15 -- present ) Arthur W. Forney ( season 17 -- present ) Rick Eid ( season 18 ) Mariska Hargitay ( season 18 -- present ) Michael Chernuchin ( season 19 -- present ) Running time 40 -- 44 minutes Production company ( s ) Wolf Films Studios USA ( 1999 -- 2002 ) Universal Television ( 2002 -- 04 , 2011 -- present ) NBC Universal Television Studio ( 2004 -- 07 ) Universal Media Studios ( 2007 -- 11 ) Distributor NBCUniversal Television Distribution Release Original network NBC Picture format NTSC ( 480i ) HDTV 1080i Original release September 20 , 1999 ( 1999 - 09 - 20 ) -- present Chronology Related shows Law & Order franchise External links Website Law & Order : Special Victims Unit ( often abbreviated to Law & Order : SVU or just SVU ) is an American police procedural , legal , crime drama television series set in New York City , where it is also primarily produced . In the style of the original Law & Order , episodes are often `` ripped from the headlines '' or loosely based on real crimes that have received media attention . Created by Dick Wolf , the series premiered on NBC on September 20 , 1999 , as the second series in Wolf 's successful Law & Order franchise . Law & Order : Special Victims Unit has been nominated for and won numerous awards , including the 2006 Emmy for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series for Mariska Hargitay , the first , and to date only , Emmy to be received by a regular on any Law & Order series . It is the current longest running scripted non-animated U.S. primetime TV series since the cancellation of the original Law & Order on May 24 , 2010 and is the fourth - longest running scripted U.S. primetime TV series on a major broadcast network . Law & Order : Special Victims Unit originally centered almost exclusively on the detectives of the Special Victims Unit in a fictional version of the 16th Precinct of the New York City Police Department . As the series progressed , additional supporting characters were added as allies of the detectives in the New York County Manhattan District Attorney 's office ( known as advisers from the Sex Crimes Bureau ) and the Medical Examiner 's office . Certain episodes will go into detail about detectives ' personal lives and how they may or may not tie into the crimes dealt with during the show . Typical episodes follow the detectives and their colleagues as they investigate and prosecute sexually based offenses , child abuse , and crimes against the elderly . The show starred Christopher Meloni as Detective Elliot Stabler and Mariska Hargitay as Detective Olivia Benson for its first twelve seasons until the former left the cast , unable to come to an agreement on his contract . On May 12 , 2017 , the series was renewed for a nineteenth season , which premiered on September 27 , 2017 . As of January 17 , 2018 , Law & Order : Special Victims Unit has aired 421 original episodes . Contents ( hide ) 1 Production 1.1 History and development 1.1. 1 Executive producers 1.2 Filming 1.3 Broadcast history 1.4 Russian adaptation 2 Casting 2.1 Salaries 3 Cast and characters 4 Series overview 5 Episodes 6 Reception 6.1 U.S. television ratings 6.2 Awards and honors 7 Broadcast and streaming 7.1 Syndication 8 International broadcast 9 References 9.1 Notes 9.2 Bibliography 10 External links Production ( edit ) History and development ( edit ) The idea for Law & Order : Special . Victims Unit originated with the 1986 `` preppie murder '' case of Robert Chambers , who strangled Jennifer Levin , a woman he dated whom he later killed during what he claimed was consensual `` rough sex '' in Manhattan 's Central Park . The crime inspired Dick Wolf to write the story for the season one episode of Law & Order titled `` Kiss the Girls and Make Them Die '' . Even after writing the episode , however , the case continued to haunt Wolf , who wanted to go deeper into the psychology of crimes to examine the role of human sexuality . The original title of the show was Sex Crimes , reflecting the sexual nature of the crimes depicted on the show . Initially there was concern among the producers that , should Sex Crimes fail , identifying the new show with the Law & Order franchise could hurt the original show . Additionally , Ted Kotcheff wanted to create a new series that was not dependent upon the original series for success . Wolf felt , however , that it was important and commercially desirable to have `` Law & Order '' in the title , and he initially proposed the title of the show be Law & Order : Sex Crimes . Barry Diller , then head of Studios USA , was concerned about the title , however , and it was changed to Law & Order : Special Victims Unit to reflect the actual unit of the New York City Police Department ( NYPD ) that handles sexually based offenses that are especially heinous . The first episode , `` Payback '' , premiered on NBC on September 20 , 1999 . Executive producers ( edit ) Executive producer Neal Baer left Law & Order : SVU as showrunner at the end of season twelve , after eleven years ( seasons 2 -- 12 ) on the show , in order to sign a three - year deal with CBS Studios . Baer was replaced by former Law & Order : Criminal Intent showrunner Warren Leight . In March 2015 , it was announced that Warren Leight signed a three - year deal with Sony Pictures Television , that will allow him to work on SVU one more season , its seventeenth . Leight joined the show in season thirteen . It was announced on March 10 , 2016 that original Law & Order veteran producer Rick Eid would take Leight 's place as showrunner starting in season 18 . Creator Dick Wolf commented to The Hollywood Reporter , `` I 'm extremely pleased that Rick had decided to rejoin the family and hope that he will be here for years to come . '' During post-production of season 18 , following the announcement that SVU was renewed for a nineteenth season , it was revealed that Rick Eid departed the series . He will be taking over another Dick Wolf / NBC series . Chicago P.D. It was announced on May 25 , 2017 that original Law & Order and Law & Order : Criminal Intent showrunner Michael S. Chernuchin would be reprising his role starting on season nineteen . Chernuchin was also co-creator and executive producing showrunner of Chicago Justice , another Wolf - related show that was canceled by NBC at the end of the 2016 -- 17 TV season . Filming ( edit ) SVU shooting on location in Central Park at night Many exterior scenes of Law & Order : Special Victims Unit are filmed on location in New York City , Wolf 's hometown , throughout all five of New York City 's boroughs . As the NYPD encounters varied law enforcement challenges on a daily basis , the backdrop provides the writers a supply of ideal locations from which to choose . Fort Lee , New Jersey served as the filming location for Detective Elliot Stabler 's residence in Queens , New York . When searching for a place to film the interiors of the show , the producers found that there were no suitable studio spaces available in New York City . As a result , a space was chosen at NBC 's Central Archives building in nearby North Bergen , New Jersey , which had sat empty for some time , and featured air - conditioning , adequate parking , and 53,000 square feet ( 4,900 m ) of stage area . The Archives building was used for police station and courtroom scenes , with various other locations in Hudson County used for other scenes , such as a scene shot at the Meadowlands Parkway in Secaucus in 2010 . The production left New Jersey for New York in 2010 , however , when New Jersey Governor Chris Christie suspended the tax credits for film and television production for the Fiscal Year 2011 to close budget gaps . The show moved into the studio space at Chelsea Piers that had been occupied by the original Law & Order series until its cancellation in May 2010 . Broadcast history ( edit ) The show originally aired on Monday nights at 9 : 00 p.m. ET for the first nine episodes , from September 20 through November 29 , 1999 . It was then shifted to Friday nights at 10 p.m. ET on January 7 , 2000 , and remained in that time slot through the end of season four on May 16 , 2003 . Beginning with the season five premiere on September 23 , 2003 , SVU moved to Tuesday nights at 10 : 00 p.m. ET . NBC airs repeats on Saturday nights at varying times and previous episodes are shown on the USA Network on varying days in marathon blocks With the season eleven premiere on September 23 , 2009 , the series vacated its Tuesday 10 p.m. ET slot because NBC began a prime - time weeknight Jay Leno series . The new time slot became Wednesday nights at 9 : 00 p.m. ET on NBC , with CTV still airing SVU on Tuesdays at 10 : 00 in Canada . After the 2010 Winter Olympics on March 3 , 2010 , the time slot for SVU changed again to Wednesdays at 10 p.m. ET , where it stayed until the twelfth season . In the 12th season , SVU moved back to 9 : 00 p.m. to lead in the newest Law & Order spinoff , Law & Order : LA , until it was pulled from the network in January 2011 to be retooled . SVU moved back to 10 : 00 p.m. on January 12 , 2011 , until the end of the 13th season . With season 14 , SVU moved back to 9 : 00 p.m. after a two - hour season premiere event on September 26 , 2012 , a position the show has held since . Russian adaptation ( edit ) In 2007 , the Russian production company Studio 2B purchased the rights to create an adaptation of Law & Order : Special Victims Unit for Russian television . Titled Закон и порядок : отдел оперативных расследований ( Law & Order : Division of Field Investigation ) , the series stars Alisa Bogart as Major Olga Bobrova . The series follows a unit of investigators in Moscow whose job is to investigate crimes of a sexual nature . The series airs on NTV and is produced by Pavel Korchagin , Felix Kleiman , and Edward Verzbovski and directed by Dmitry Brusnikin . The screenplays are written by Sergei Kuznvetsov , Elena Karavaeshnikova , and Maya Shapovalova . Casting ( edit ) Cast of Law & Order : Special Victims Unit Cast of seasons 4 -- 5 ( 2002 -- 04 ) , from left : Ice - T , Richard Belzer , Mariska Hargitay , Dann Florek , Christopher Meloni , B.D. Wong , Stephanie March Cast of season 9 ( 2007 -- 08 ) , from left : Diane Neal , Wong , Tamara Tunie , Meloni , Florek , Hargitay , Ice - T , Belzer , Adam Beach Cast of season 10 ( 2008 -- 09 ) from left : Michaela McManus , Wong , Tunie , Meloni , Hargitay , Florek , Belzer , Ice - T The cast of season 15 ( 2013 -- 2014 ) from left : Raúl Esparza , Florek , Danny Pino , Hargitay , Kelli Giddish , Belzer , Ice - T The cast of seasons 17 -- 18 ( 2015 -- 2017 ) . from left : Esparza , Giddish , Hargitay , Ice - T , Peter Scanavino Casting for the lead characters of Law & Order : Special Victims Unit occurred in the spring of 1999 . Dick Wolf , along with officials from NBC and Studios USA were at the final auditions for the two leads at Rockefeller Center . The last round had been narrowed down to seven finalists . For the female lead , Detective Olivia Benson , actresses Samantha Mathis , Reiko Aylesworth , and Mariska Hargitay were being considered . For the male role , Detective Elliot Stabler , the finalists were Tim Matheson , John Slattery , Nick Chinlund , and Christopher Meloni . Hargitay and Meloni had auditioned in the final round together and , after the actors left , there was a moment of dead silence , after which Wolf blurted out , `` Oh well . There 's no doubt who we should choose -- Hargitay and Meloni . '' Wolf believed the duo had the perfect chemistry together from the first time he saw them together , and they ended up being his first choice . Garth Ancier , then head of NBC Entertainment , agreed , and the rest of the panel assembled began voicing their assent . The first actor to be cast for the show was Dann Florek . Florek had originated the character of Captain Don Cragen in the 1988 pilot for Law & Order and played the character for the first three seasons of the show until he was fired on the orders of network executives , who wanted to add female characters to the all male primary cast . He maintained a friendly relationship with Wolf , however , and went on to direct three episodes of the original series as well as to occasionally guest star on the show . Shortly after Florek reprised his role for Exiled : A Law & Order Movie , he received a call to be on Sex Crimes . Initially reluctant , he eventually agreed to star on the show as Cragen on the assurance that he would not be asked to audition for the role . Shortly after the cancellation of Homicide : Life on the Street , Richard Belzer heard that Benjamin Bratt had left Law & Order . Belzer requested his manager to call Wolf and pitch the idea for Belzer 's character from Homicide , Detective John Munch , to become the new partner of Jerry Orbach 's character , Detective Lennie Briscoe , since they had previously teamed in three Homicide crossovers . Wolf loved the idea , but had already cast Jesse L. Martin as Briscoe 's new partner , Detective Ed Green . The idea was reconfigured , however , to have Munch on Law & Order : Special Victims Unit instead . Since the character of Munch was inspired by David Simon 's depiction of Detective Sergeant Jay Landsman and developed for Homicide by Tom Fontana and Barry Levinson , the addition of Munch to the cast required the consent of all three . The appropriate agreements were reached and , while Fontana and Levinson agreed to waive their royalty rights , contracts with Simon required that he be paid royalties for any new show in which Munch is a main character ; as a result , Simon receives royalties every time Munch appears in an episode of the show . Dean Winters was cast as Munch 's partner , Brian Cassidy , at the insistence of Belzer . Belzer looked at Winters as a sort of little brother , and told Wolf , `` Well , I 'll do this new show of yours , SVU , only if you make Dean Winters my partner . '' Wolf did make Winters Belzer 's partner , but he was contractually obligated to his other show at the time , the HBO drama Oz . Since the role on Law & Order : Special Victims Unit was only initially meant to be a few episodes , Winters was forced to leave when it was time to film Oz again . Winters returned for the Season 13 finale , `` Rhodium Nights , '' reprising his role as Cassidy . He also appeared ( as Cassidy ) on the two - part Season 14 premiere `` Lost Reputation '' / `` Above Suspicion '' . He subsequently became a recurring character into season 15 . The void left by Winters 's departure was filled for the remainder of the season by Michelle Hurd as Detective Monique Jeffries , a character who Wolf promised that , despite starting out as a minor character with one scene in the pilot , would eventually develop . Hurd left the show at the beginning of season two to join the cast of Leap Years . Munch 's permanent partner came in the form of rapper - turned - actor Ice - T , who had previously worked with Wolf on New York Undercover and Exiled . Ice - T originally agreed to do only four episodes of Law & Order : Special Victims Unit , but he quickly gained affection for the ensemble nature of the cast . He relocated to New York City before his four - episode contract was up and remained with the show as Munch 's permanent partner , Detective Odafin `` Fin '' Tutuola . Initially , the show focused exclusively on the policework of the detectives in the Special Victims Unit of the 16th precinct , with members of the District Attorney 's office occasionally appearing as guest roles crossing over from the original Law & Order . From season two onwards , the format was changed to be more faithful to the original Law & Order concept by including court cases . Stephanie March had little television experience before being cast on Law & Order : Special Victims Unit , nor did she watch much TV . Nevertheless , March was cast as Assistant District Attorney Alexandra Cabot at the beginning of season two but still believed that , due to the grim nature of the series , it would be short - lived . She stayed with the series for three seasons , however , and left when she believed she had reached the natural conclusion of the character 's development . She would later reprise the character as a guest appearance in season six and as a regular character on the short - lived Wolf series , Conviction , where she was promised more to do . Diane Neal had previously guest starred on Law & Order : Special Victims Unit in season three before being cast as Cabot 's replacement , Casey Novak , in season five . Neal remained with the show through the end of season nine , after which she was replaced by Michaela McManus . March returned to the show in the tenth season ( after McManus ' departure from the cast ) when Neal Baer proposed Cabot receive a character arc to revitalize the second part of the season , which would continue through season eleven . Tamara Tunie was cast as medical examiner Melinda Warner in season two after working with Wolf previously on New York Undercover , Feds , and Law & Order . Warner was initially a recurring character but became a regular character in season seven , and Tunie was added to the opening credits at that time . When initially cast as Warner , Tunie was appearing as attorney Jessica Griffin on the CBS daytime soap opera As the World Turns . From 2000 to 2007 ( and again briefly in 2009 ) , she appeared on both series simultaneously . In 2002 , she also appeared on the Fox espionage - themed drama series 24 , in the recurring role of CTU Acting Director Alberta Green . B.D. Wong was asked to film four episodes as Dr. George Huang , a Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) forensic psychiatrist and criminal profiler on loan to the Special Victims Unit . After his four episodes , he was asked to stay on with the show . After he starred in Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee and guest starred as Detective Chester Lake in the eighth season , Wolf felt that Adam Beach would be a good addition to the cast and asked him to be a permanent member beginning with the ninth season . Although Beach felt the role was a `` dream role '' , the character proved unpopular with fans who felt that he was designed to gradually write out either Richard Belzer or Ice - T. Feeling there were too many police characters on the show , Beach left the show after only one season . Michaela McManus was originally felt to be too young for the role of an Assistant District Attorney ( ADA ) before being cast as ADA Kim Greylek in the tenth season . McManus , months removed from a recurring role on One Tree Hill , remained with the series only half a season , however , before departing for unspecified reasons . Paula Patton joined the cast as ADA Mikka Von . She replaced Stephanie March . However , Patton dropped out after one episode to film Mission : Impossible -- Ghost Protocol , and was replaced by Melissa Sagemiller in the recurring role of ADA Gillian Hardwicke . Before the end of season twelve , Mariska Hargitay asked for a lighter workload . As a way of writing her out of certain episodes , a plan to have her character promoted to a supervisory role was discussed . At the end of season twelve , Christopher Meloni departed the cast , unable to come to terms with his contract . Warren Leight became the new showrunner during this same year and signed on before he knew that Meloni would be leaving the cast . The second major departure to be announced in 2011 was that of B. D. Wong . On July 17 , Wong announced on Twitter that , `` I actually do not return for season 13 , I am jumping to Awake ! It 's awesome ! '' Wong added , `` I do n't know if or when I 'll be back on SVU ! It was amazing to have such a cool job for 11 years and to be a real NY Actor . '' Wong reprised his role as Dr. Huang in season 13 's episode `` Father Dearest '' . In response to these departures , two new main actors were hired , and several changes were made to the recurring cast . In June 2011 , it was announced that Kelli Giddish and Danny Pino would join the cast as new series regulars . Weeks later , it was announced that Stephanie March and Diane Neal would be reprising their roles as ADA Alexandra Cabot and ADA Casey Novak , respectively . The launch of season 13 was marked with a retooling of the show that Warren Leight referred to as `` SVU 2.0 '' . Changes that accompanied this included Tamara Tunie 's being bumped from the main cast to a guest starring role and recurring actor Joel de la Fuente 's not appearing for the first time since 2002 . Of the latter change , Warren Leight said , `` those scenes ( which featured Fuente ) can be dry '' and hired Gilbert Gottfried as a more comedic replacement . In addition to these changes , Linus Roache became a recurring cast member in his role of Michael Cutter , whom he played on Law & Order ; on SVU former Executive ADA Cutter serves as the Bureau Chief for ADAs attached to the Special Victims Unit . In season 14 , Raúl Esparza joined the cast in a recurring capacity as ADA Rafael Barba and prior to the season 15 premiere , Esparza was promoted to a series regular . Also in season 15 , Belzer departed the cast in the fifth episode , `` Wonderland Story '' , in which Sgt . Munch retired from the NYPD and took a job in the DA 's office as an investigator . Later in the season , Captain Cragen announced his departure from the NYPD , which made newly promoted Sgt . Benson the temporary squad commander . In leaving the cast , Florek ended a 400 - episode run as Captain Cragen . In season 16 , Peter Scanavino joined the series , first in a recurring role for episodes 1 -- 3 and then was promoted to the main cast in episode 5 , with Kelli Giddish , Danny Pino , Ice - T and Raúl Esparza no longer appearing in every episode . On May 20 , 2015 , it was revealed that Danny Pino would be leaving the cast after the season 16 finale `` Surrendering Noah '' . In August 2017 , it was announced that Philip Winchester will recur in season 19 as ADA Peter Stone , his character from Chicago P.D. and Chicago Justice , who is the son of Benjamin Stone , the ADA on the original Law & Order show . It was later also announced that Brooke Shields was enlisted to assume a major recurring role starting in Season 19 of the long - running dramatic series . Salaries ( edit ) By season twelve , both Mariska Hargitay and Christopher Meloni had become among the highest - paid lead actors on a drama , with each earning nearly $400,000 per episode , a salary that TV Guide said was exceeded only by House 's Hugh Laurie . During season sixteen , Hargitay was reported to be earning $450,000 per episode , or $10,350,000 per season , In season seventeen , her salary increased to $500,000 per episode . Cast and characters ( edit ) Main article : List of Law & Order : Special Victims Unit characters Cast Character Rank / Position Seasons Notes Regular Recurring Guest Christopher Meloni Elliot Stabler Detective 1 -- 12 Mariska Hargitay Olivia Benson Lieutenant 1 -- Richard Belzer John Munch DA Investigator 1 -- 15 15 , 17 Dann Florek Donald Cragen Captain 1 -- 15 16 Michelle Hurd Monique Jeffries Detective 1 -- 2 Stephanie March Alexandra Cabot Assistant District Attorney 2 -- 5 , 11 2 , 10 , 13 6 Ice - T Odafin `` Fin '' Tutuola Detective 2 -- Tamara Tunie Melinda Warner Medical Examiner 7 -- 12 2 -- 6 , 13 -- 17 19 B.D. Wong George Huang FBI Special Agent 4 -- 12 2 -- 3 13 -- 15 , 17 Diane Neal Casey Novak Senior Assistant District Attorney 5 -- 9 13 12 Adam Beach Chester Lake Detective 9 8 Michaela McManus Kim Greylek Assistant District Attorney 10 Danny Pino Nick Amaro Detective 13 -- 16 Kelli Giddish Amanda Rollins Detective 13 -- Raúl Esparza Rafael Barba Assistant District Attorney 15 -- 14 Peter Scanavino Dominick Carisi Jr . Detective 16 -- 16 Positions Jump up ^ Olivia Benson was previously a Detective ( seasons 1 -- 15 ) and a Sergeant ( seasons 15 -- 17 ) Jump up ^ John Munch was previously a Detective ( seasons 1 -- 8 ) and a Sergeant ( seasons 9 -- 15 ) ; the character , played by Belzer , first appeared on Homicide : Life on the Street ( 1993 - 99 ) Jump up ^ Captain Donald Cragen was the commanding officer of the unit until his retirement ( seasons 1 -- 15 ) ; the character , played by Florek , first appeared in the first three seasons of Law & Order ( 1990 - 93 ) Jump up ^ George Huang was the unit 's forensic psychiatrist and criminal profiler until his retirement ( seasons 1 -- 15 ) Appearances Jump up ^ Christopher Meloni was first billed as `` starring '' during seasons 1 -- 12 Jump up ^ Mariska Hargitay has been first billed as `` starring '' since season 13 ; she was previously second billed after Meloni . Series overview ( edit ) In the criminal justice system , sexually based offenses are considered especially heinous . In New York City , the dedicated detectives who investigate these vicious felonies are members of an elite squad known as the Special Victims Unit . These are their stories . -- Opening narration spoken by Steven Zirnkilton Based out of the New York City Police Department 's 16th precinct in Manhattan , Law & Order : Special Victims Unit delves into the dark side of the New York underworld as the detectives of a new elite force , the Special Victims Unit ( SVU for short ) , investigate and prosecute various sexually - oriented crimes including rape , pedophilia , and domestic violence . They also investigate the abuses of children , the disabled and elderly victims of non-sexual crimes who require specialist handling . All the while trying to balance the effects of the investigation on their own lives . Its stories also touch on the political and societal issues associated with gender identity , sexual preferences , and equality rights . While the victim is often murdered , this is not always the case , and victims frequently play prominent roles in episodes . The unit also works with the Manhattan District Attorney 's office as they prosecute cases and seek justice for SVU 's victims and survivors with precision and a passion to win and bring closure to the intense investigations . The series often uses stories that are `` ripped from the headlines '' or based on real crimes . Such episodes take a real crime and fictionalize it by changing some details . Originally the show focused around the detective pairings of Elliot Stabler & Olivia Benson and John Munch & Brian Cassidy . Stabler is a seasoned veteran of the unit who has seen it all and tries his best to protect his family from the horrors he sees every day . His partner Benson 's difficult past as the child of a rape victim is the reason she joined the unit . Backing them up is John Munch , and his first partner Brian Cassidy . Munch is a transfer from Baltimore 's homicide unit , who brings his acerbic wit , conspiracy theories , and street - honed investigative skills . Whilst Cassidy is young and eager to learn from his fellow detectives . These two detective teams received support from Detectives Monique Jeffries and Ken Briscoe . When Cassidy transferred to Narcotics after thirteen episodes , Jeffries was partnered with Munch for the remaining of Season One and Briscoe was phased out . In the beginning of season two , Munch was then permanently partnered with Detective Odafin `` Fin '' Tutuola , whose unique yet sometimes vulgar sense of humor and investigative experience make him a formidable match for Munch . These detectives were supervised by veteran Captain Donald Cragen who oversaw the team from seasons 1 -- 15 . Cragen 's tough - but - supportive approach to the team 's complex cases guides the squad through the challenges they face every day . Also on the team 's payroll is FBI Special Agent Dr. George Huang and Medical Examiner Dr. Melinda Warner . As the resident psychiatrist for the Special Victims Unit , Huang helps keep the officers sane in a field that could drive ordinary people mad . He has also served as the squad 's resident criminal profiler , and his insights into the criminal mind have often helped the officers to crack the toughest perps , whilst Warner has become an integral part of the Manhattan Special Victims Unit , and her personal skills have contributed to the unit 's high success rate in closing cases . The Unit did not receive a full - time assistant district attorney until season two , when Alexandra Cabot was assigned to work with the detectives . After Cabot 's departure in season five , she was replaced by Casey Novak , who remained as the ADA until the end of season nine . Kim Greylek became the permanent ADA in the season ten premiere , until Cabot made a return midway through that season when Greylek departed . Cabot remained the ADA through the second half of season eleven . After Cabot 's departure , the ADA void was filled by Sonya Paxton ( Christine Lahti ) and Jo Marlowe ( Sharon Stone ) until the conclusion of season eleven . Gillian Hardwicke served as the SVU ADA during season twelve . In season thirteen , both Cabot and Novak returned as ADAs and since the beginning of season fourteen , ADA Rafael Barba has been SVU 's prosecutor . In season 13 other big changes happened when Stabler left in the season twelve finale . Detectives Nick Amaro and Amanda Rollins joined the team filling the void left by Stabler . Amaro brings empathy to his cases while dealing with a stressful home life , whilst Rollins ' dogged persistence and instincts help her close cases , but her secrets could derail her career . In the current seasons the Manhattan SVU is now run by Lieutenant Olivia Benson . Episodes ( edit ) Main article : List of Law & Order : Special Victims Unit episodes Law & Order : Special Victims Unit has concluded its eighteenth season and has started its nineteenth season . Each season has aired on NBC and consists of 19 to 25 episodes , each lasting approximately forty minutes ( sixty minutes including commercials ) . Season Episodes Originally aired Nielsen ratings First aired Last aired Rank Rating 22 September 20 , 1999 ( 1999 - 09 - 20 ) May 19 , 2000 ( 2000 - 05 - 19 ) 30 8.8 ( Tied with The CBS Wednesday Movie ) 21 October 20 , 2000 ( 2000 - 10 - 20 ) May 11 , 2001 ( 2001 - 05 - 11 ) 25 9.6 23 September 28 , 2001 ( 2001 - 09 - 28 ) May 17 , 2002 ( 2002 - 05 - 17 ) 12 10.4 25 September 27 , 2002 ( 2002 - 09 - 27 ) May 16 , 2003 ( 2003 - 05 - 16 ) 14 10.1 5 25 September 23 , 2003 ( 2003 - 09 - 23 ) May 18 , 2004 ( 2004 - 05 - 18 ) 18 8.7 6 23 September 21 , 2004 ( 2004 - 09 - 21 ) May 24 , 2005 ( 2005 - 05 - 24 ) 16 9.2 ( Tied with 60 Minutes ) 7 22 September 20 , 2005 ( 2005 - 09 - 20 ) May 16 , 2006 ( 2006 - 05 - 16 ) 18 9.2 ( Tied with Lost and CSI : NY ) 8 22 September 19 , 2006 ( 2006 - 09 - 19 ) May 22 , 2007 ( 2007 - 05 - 22 ) 24 7.9 9 19 September 25 , 2007 ( 2007 - 09 - 25 ) May 13 , 2008 ( 2008 - 05 - 13 ) 22 7.6 ( Tied with Brothers & Sisters , CSI : NY and Heroes ) 10 22 September 23 , 2008 ( 2008 - 09 - 23 ) June 2 , 2009 ( 2009 - 06 - 02 ) 26 6.7 ( Tied with ER and Bones ) 11 24 September 23 , 2009 ( 2009 - 09 - 23 ) May 19 , 2010 ( 2010 - 05 - 19 ) N / A N / A 12 24 September 22 , 2010 ( 2010 - 09 - 22 ) May 18 , 2011 ( 2011 - 05 - 18 ) N / A N / A 13 23 September 21 , 2011 ( 2011 - 09 - 21 ) May 23 , 2012 ( 2012 - 05 - 23 ) N / A N / A 14 24 September 26 , 2012 ( 2012 - 09 - 26 ) May 22 , 2013 ( 2013 - 05 - 22 ) N / A N / A 15 24 September 25 , 2013 ( 2013 - 09 - 25 ) May 21 , 2014 ( 2014 - 05 - 21 ) N / A N / A 16 23 September 24 , 2014 ( 2014 - 09 - 24 ) May 20 , 2015 ( 2015 - 05 - 20 ) N / A N / A 17 23 September 23 , 2015 ( 2015 - 09 - 23 ) May 25 , 2016 ( 2016 - 05 - 25 ) N / A N / A 18 21 September 21 , 2016 ( 2016 - 09 - 21 ) May 24 , 2017 ( 2017 - 05 - 24 ) N / A N / A 19 24 September 27 , 2017 ( 2017 - 09 - 27 ) TBA TBA TBA Reception ( edit ) U.S. television Ratings ( edit ) Law & Order : Special Victims Unit premiered on Monday , September 20 , 1999 . After nine episodes , the show was moved to Friday nights , where it found its audience and following its first and second seasons became a Top 20 - overall show , overcoming the `` Friday night death slot '' phenomenon . Beginning with the season five , the show aired on Tuesdays to compete with CBS ' Judging Amy and ABC 's NYPD Blue . In its later years , Law & Order : Special Victims Unit consistently outperformed Law & Order in the Nielsen ratings for first run episodes until the latter 's cancellation in 2010 . In 2016 , a New York Times study of the 50 TV shows with the most Facebook Likes found that SVU 's popularity was `` atypical : generally slightly more popular in rural areas and the Black Belt , but largely restricted to the eastern half of the country . It 's most popular in Albany , N.Y. ; least in Colorado and Utah '' . Note : Each U.S. network television season starts in late September and ends in late May ( with the exception of the second and tenth season ) , which coincides with the completion of May sweeps . Season Time slot ( ET ) Episodes First aired Last aired TV season Rank Viewers ( in millions ) Date Viewers ( in millions ) Date Viewers ( in millions ) Monday 9 : 00 pm ( Episodes 1 -- 9 ) Friday 10 : 00 pm ( Episodes 10 -- 22 ) 22 September 20 , 1999 ( 1999 - 09 - 20 ) 18.43 May 19 , 2000 ( 2000 - 05 - 19 ) 15.11 1999 -- 2000 No. 33 12.18 Friday 10 : 00 pm 21 October 20 , 2000 ( 2000 - 10 - 20 ) 13.20 May 11 , 2001 ( 2001 - 05 - 11 ) 15.06 2000 -- 01 No. 29 13.1 23 September 28 , 2001 ( 2001 - 09 - 28 ) 15.80 May 17 , 2002 ( 2002 - 05 - 17 ) 14.27 2001 -- 02 No. 14 15.2 25 September 27 , 2002 ( 2002 - 09 - 27 ) 15.60 May 16 , 2003 ( 2003 - 05 - 16 ) 13.70 2002 -- 03 No. 16 14.83 5 Tuesday 10 : 00 pm 25 September 23 , 2003 ( 2003 - 09 - 23 ) 13.23 May 18 , 2004 ( 2004 - 05 - 18 ) 18.36 2003 -- 04 No. 21 12.72 6 23 September 21 , 2004 ( 2004 - 09 - 21 ) 14.20 May 21 , 2005 ( 2005 - 05 - 21 ) 16.38 2004 -- 05 No. 23 13.46 7 22 September 20 , 2005 ( 2005 - 09 - 20 ) 15.32 May 16 , 2006 ( 2006 - 05 - 16 ) 12.97 2005 -- 06 No. 24 13.78 8 22 September 19 , 2006 ( 2006 - 09 - 19 ) 14.55 May 22 , 2007 ( 2007 - 05 - 22 ) 10.28 2006 -- 07 No. 38 11.94 9 19 September 25 , 2007 ( 2007 - 09 - 25 ) 12.10 May 13 , 2008 ( 2008 - 05 - 13 ) 10.83 2007 -- 08 No. 30 11.33 10 22 September 23 , 2008 ( 2008 - 09 - 23 ) 9.52 June 2 , 2009 ( 2009 - 06 - 02 ) 11.34 2008 -- 09 No. 39 10.11 11 Wednesday 9 : 00 pm 24 September 23 , 2009 ( 2009 - 09 - 23 ) 8.36 May 19 , 2010 ( 2010 - 05 - 19 ) 8.61 2009 -- 10 No. 44 8.81 12 24 September 22 , 2010 ( 2010 - 09 - 22 ) 9.68 May 18 , 2011 ( 2011 - 05 - 18 ) 8.98 2010 -- 11 No. 47 8.84 13 Wednesday 10 : 00 pm 23 September 21 , 2011 ( 2011 - 09 - 21 ) 7.63 May 23 , 2012 ( 2012 - 05 - 23 ) 7.16 2011 -- 12 No. 67 7.59 14 Wednesday 9 : 00 pm 24 September 26 , 2012 ( 2012 - 09 - 26 ) 7.19 May 22 , 2013 ( 2013 - 05 - 22 ) 6.66 2012 -- 13 No. 56 7.30 15 24 September 25 , 2013 ( 2013 - 09 - 25 ) 9.58 May 21 , 2014 ( 2014 - 05 - 21 ) 6.39 2013 -- 14 No. 46 8.18 16 23 September 24 , 2014 ( 2014 - 09 - 24 ) 10.07 May 20 , 2015 ( 2015 - 05 - 20 ) 6.96 2014 -- 15 No. 52 8.71 17 23 September 23 , 2015 ( 2015 - 09 - 23 ) 8.27 May 25 , 2016 ( 2016 - 05 - 25 ) 7.19 2015 -- 16 No. 52 8.31 18 21 September 21 , 2016 ( 2016 - 09 - 21 ) 7.83 May 24 , 2017 ( 2017 - 05 - 24 ) 6.22 2016 -- 17 No. 48 7.39 19 24 September 27 , 2017 ( 2017 - 09 - 27 ) 5.67 TBA TBA 2017 - 18 TBA TBA Awards and honors ( edit ) Main article : List of awards and nominations received by Law & Order : Special Victims Unit Law & Order : Special Victims Unit has received many awards and award nominations . Mariska Hargitay has twice been nominated for a Golden Globe Award and won once in 2005 . The show has been nominated numerous times for the Emmy Award . Mariska Hargitay has been nominated for the Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series category 8 years in a row beginning in 2004 and won the Emmy in 2006 . Christopher Meloni was nominated for the Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series category in 2006 . Robin Williams was nominated in the Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series in 2008 . The series was nominated in the category Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series for Jane Alexander and Tracy Pollan in 2000 , Martha Plimpton in 2002 , Barbara Barrie in 2003 , Mare Winningham and Marlee Matlin in 2004 , Amanda Plummer and Angela Lansbury in 2005 , Marcia Gay Harden and Leslie Caron in 2007 , Cynthia Nixon in 2008 , Ellen Burstyn , Brenda Blethyn , and Carol Burnett in 2009 , and Ann - Margret in 2010 . The series won the award for Plummer in 2005 , Caron in 2007 , Nixon in 2008 , Burstyn in 2009 , and Margret in 2010 . Broadcast and streaming ( edit ) Law and Order SVU airs on NBC in the United States . All seasons , including the season that is currently on the air , are available to stream on Hulu ( with a subscription ) . The latest 5 episodes can be watched for free on NBC.com and the NBC app . Outside of SVOD and NBC platforms , all episodes can be found on electronic sell - through platforms such as iTunes and Amazon Video . The show airs every Thursday night , on Network Ten in Australia , with a new episode usually followed by a repeat and occasionally shows repeats on other nights . Ten 's digital channel One sometimes shows Seasons One - Three on Friday or Saturday nights , but is not currently airing these seasons at the moment . From the 29th of August 2017 , Channel Nine started airing the first season at a late night slot , which it has also done with the original Law & Order but stopped after the first episode . It is unknown if it will continue to air on Channel Nine . Season 19 premiered on Network Ten on October 5th , 2017 at 9 : 40pm . Syndication ( edit ) As of September 2017 , the show is currently reran on fellow NBCUniversal network USA Network , as well as Ion Television and local stations . The show also briefly ran on Syfy in 2006 . International broadcast ( edit ) In Australia , Law & Order : SVU airs on Network Ten and Australia 's cable channel Universal Channel ( formerly aired on TV1 which ceased to broadcast in December 2013 ) . In the UK `` Law & Order : SVU '' originally aired on the Hallmark Channel ( which in 2012 became the Universal Channel ) with a terrestrial TV airing on Channel 5 in 2016 which then switched to Five USA . The UK is two and half weeks behind the US . In Brazil , Law & Order : SVU also airs on Universal Channel , with weekdays episodes from past seasons and simultaneously , two episodes after the original airing in the US . Law & Order : SVU is broadcast at 9.30 pm on Tuesdays on TV3 in New Zealand . Series 18 premiered on 11 April 2017 . References ( edit ) Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ SVU Writers Room ( @ SVUWritersRoom ) ( 7 July 2016 ) . `` First cast read - through of # SVUSeason18 '' ( Tweet ) -- via Twitter . Jump up ^ Special Victims Unit : The Beginning . Law & Order : Special Victims Unit : The First Year . Universal Studios . 2004 . Jump up ^ Webb Mitovich , Matt ( May 24 , 2011 ) . `` Exclusive : Chris Meloni Exits Law & Order : SVU '' . TVLine . Retrieved May 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Ausiello , Michael ( August 1 , 2011 ) . `` NBC on Chris Meloni 's Law & Order : SVU Exit : We 're Not Killing Him Off '' . TVLine . Retrieved August 10 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Seidman , Robert . `` NBC Signs Kelli Giddish ( Chase ) and Danny Pino ( Cold Case ) as New Detectives for Law & Order : Special Victims Unit '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved June 27 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Otterson , Joe ( May 12 , 2017 ) . `` ' Law & Order : SVU ' Renewed for Season 19 , Showrunner Rick Eid Exits for ' Chicago PD ' '' . Variety . Retrieved May 21 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` NBC Announces Fall Premiere Dates for New 2017 - 18 Season '' . The Futon Critic . June 19 , 2017 . Retrieved June 19 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Green and Dawn ( 2009 ) , p. 2 Jump up ^ Green and Dawn ( 2009 ) , pp. 10 -- 11 Jump up ^ Green and Dawn ( 2009 ) , p. 187 Jump up ^ Andreeva , Nellie ( November 23 , 2010 ) . `` ' Law & Order : SVU ' Show - runner Neal Baer Signs Big Overall Deal With CBS TV Studios '' . Deadline.com . Jump up ^ Ausiello , Michael ( April 11 , 2011 ) . `` Scoop : NBC Taps New Law & Order : SVU Boss '' . TVLine . Jump up ^ Littleton , Cynthia ( March 13 , 2015 ) . `` ' Law & Order : SVU ' Showrunner Warren Leight Sets Overall Deal with Sony TV ( EXCLUSIVE ) '' . Variety . Retrieved May 11 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Stanhope , Kate ( March 10 , 2016 ) . `` ' Law & Order : SVU ' Taps Flagship Series Vet as New Showrunner '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved March 20 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Andreeva , Nellie ( May 12 , 2017 ) . `` ' Law & Order : SVU ' Showrunner Rick Eid to Run ' Chicago P.D. ' Next Season '' . Deadline.com . Retrieved May 13 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Otterson , Joe ( May 25 , 2017 ) . `` ' Law and Order : SVU ' Taps ' Chicago Justice ' EP Michael Chernuchin as New Showrunner '' . Deadline.com . Retrieved May 27 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Green and Dawn ( 2009 ) , pp. 2 -- 3 ^ Jump up to : Kimpton , Roger . `` Hollywood on the Palisades '' ; Palisade magazine ; Summer 2010 ; Pages 12 -- 15 Jump up ^ Green and Dawn ( 2009 ) , p. 14 Jump up ^ Wright , E. Assata . `` Getting the film crews back to NJ '' , The Union City Reporter , February 13 , 2011 , pages 5 and 7 Jump up ^ Ausiello , Michael ( May 14 , 2010 ) . `` It 's official : NBC cancels ' Law & Order ' '' . Jump up ^ Andreeva , Nellie ( June 25 , 2010 ) . `` ' Law & Order : SVU ' Leaves New Jersey Over Nixed Tax Credit & May Move Into ' L&O ' Set '' . Deadline . Mail.com Media . Retrieved June 25 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Mitovich , Matt . `` Fall TV : NBC Announces Premiere Dates '' . TV Guide . Retrieved June 25 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Hibberd , James ( January 10 , 2010 ) . `` NBC firms up post - ' Leno ' schedule '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on January 23 , 2010 . Retrieved January 22 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Breaking News -- NBC Announces Updated Fall Schedule Premieres '' . The Futon Critic . July 30 , 2010 . Retrieved June 17 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Stanhope , Kate ( January 18 , 2011 ) . `` NBC Benches Law & Order : Los Angeles Following Cast Shake - Up '' . TV Guide . Retrieved June 17 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Seidman , Robert ( November 15 , 2010 ) . `` NBC Renews ' 30 Rock ' , Announces Parks & Rec Return & Major Midseason Schedule Changes '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved June 17 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( June 14 , 2012 ) . `` NBC Announces Fall 2012 Premiere Dates for ' Grimm ' , ' Revolution ' , ' The Voice , ' ' Animal Practice ' & More '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved June 14 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Главная страница ( in Russian ) . Retrieved December 14 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Green and Dawn ( 2009 ) , p. 11 Jump up ^ Green and Dawn ( 2009 ) , pp. 145 -- 146 ^ Jump up to : Green and Dawn ( 2009 ) , p. 13 Jump up ^ Green and Dawn ( 2009 ) , p. 150 Jump up ^ Green and Dawn ( 2009 ) , p. 157 Jump up ^ Green and Dawn ( 2009 ) , pp. 154 -- 156 Jump up ^ Green and Dawn ( 2009 ) , pp. 152 -- 154 Jump up ^ Green and Dawn ( 2009 ) , pp. 167 -- 169 Jump up ^ Green and Dawn ( 2009 ) , pp. 165 -- 166 Jump up ^ O'Connor , Mickey ( June 29 , 2009 ) . `` SVU News : Mariska and Meloni Are In For Season 11 , and So Is Christine Lahti '' . TV Guide . Archived from the original on August 2 , 2009 . Retrieved June 29 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Green and Dawn ( 2009 ) , pp. 172 -- 173 Jump up ^ Green and Dawn ( 2009 ) , pp. 175 -- 176 Jump up ^ Green and Dawn ( 2009 ) , pp. 160 -- 162 Jump up ^ Green and Dawn ( 2009 ) , pp. 170 -- 171 Jump up ^ O'Connor , Mickey ( July 21 , 2010 ) . `` Precious Star Paula Patton Is Law & Order : SVU 's New ADA '' . TV Guide . Retrieved July 21 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Ausiello , Michael ( September 10 , 2010 ) . `` ' Law & Order : SVU ' scoop : ' Bar ' girl Melissa Sagemiller is new ADA '' . Entertainment Weekly . Archived from the original on September 11 , 2010 . Retrieved September 11 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Rudolph , Ileane ( September 10 , 2010 ) . `` SVU Producer Neal Baer Explains ADA Shakeup '' . TV Guide . Retrieved September 11 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Andreeva , Nellie ( May 14 , 2011 ) . `` Law & Order : SVU Scoop : Hargitay Inks New Deal , Jennifer Love Hewitt May Succeed Her '' . TVLine . Mail.com Media . Retrieved May 14 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( May 24 , 2012 ) . `` ' Law & Order : SVU ' cliffhanger : EP Warren Leight on what 's next for Cragen and the squad '' . Zap2It . Archived from the original on June 8 , 2012 . Retrieved June 6 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Mitovich , Matt ( July 17 , 2011 ) . `` Fall TV Scoop : B.D. Wong Reveals His SVU Fate '' . TVLine . Mail.com Media . Retrieved July 17 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Ausiello , Michael ( July 5 , 2011 ) . `` Law & Order : SVU Scoop : Stephanie March , Diane Neal Heading Back to Court '' . TVLine . Retrieved July 5 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Bryant , Adam ( September 1 , 2011 ) . `` Law & Order : SVU 's New Boss on Meloni 's Exit , the New Detectives and Rejuvenating the Show '' . TV Guide . Retrieved June 6 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Keck , William ( October 26 , 2011 ) . `` Gilbert Gottfried to Annoy SVU Cast '' . TV Guide . Retrieved June 21 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Kimberly Roots ( August 8 , 2017 ) . `` Law & Order SVU : Philip Winchester to Bring Chicago Justice Role to NY '' . TVLine . Retrieved August 12 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Laura Hurley ( August 11 , 2017 ) . `` Law & Order : SVU Season 19 Is Adding Brooke Shields For A Big Role '' . CinemaBlend . Retrieved August 11 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Stephen Battaglio ( August 10 , 2010 ) . `` Who Are TV 's Top Earners ? '' . TV Guide . Retrieved September 4 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` No. 2 : Mariska Hargitay -- pg. 4 Forbes '' . Forbes.com . Retrieved 2016 - 09 - 17 . Jump up ^ By : Garrett ( 2015 - 09 - 21 ) . `` Per episode salaries of the highest paid TV actors of all time '' . theCHIVE . Retrieved 2016 - 09 - 17 . ^ Jump up to : Writer : Dick Wolf . Director : Jean de Segonzac ( September 20 , 1999 ) . `` Payback '' . Law & Order : Special Victims Unit . Season 1 . Episode 1 . NBC . Jump up ^ Conan , Neal ( September 29 , 2009 ) . `` ' Law & Order ' Writer Turns Headlines Into TV '' . Talk of the Nation . NPR . Retrieved December 14 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Writer : Michael R. Perry . Director : Constantine Makris ( February 11 , 2000 ) . `` Limitations '' . Law & Order : Special Victims Unit . Season 1 . Episode 14 . NBC . Jump up ^ Writers : Jeff Eckerle & David J. Burke . Director : Ted Kotcheff ( October 20 , 2000 ) . `` Wrong is Right '' . Law & Order : Special Victims Unit . Season 2 . Episode 1 . NBC . Jump up ^ Brooks , Tim ; Marsh , Earle ( 2007 ) . The Complete Directory to Prime Time Network and Cable TV Shows 1946 - Present ( Ninth Edition ) . Ballantine Books . p. 1695 - 1698 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 345 - 49773 - 4 . Jump up ^ Top Rated TV Programs By Season ( 2007 - Present ) Jump up ^ @ https://twitter.com/RobertBCohen/status/950776144315539462?s=17 . ( Tweet ) https://twitter.com/ -- via Twitter . Missing or empty title = ( help ) ; Missing or empty number = ( help ) ; Missing or empty date = ( help ) Jump up ^ Katz , Josh ( 2016 - 12 - 27 ) . `` ' Duck Dynasty ' vs. ' Modern Family ' : 50 Maps of the U.S. Cultural Divide '' . The New York Times . Jump up ^ `` Law & Order : Special Victims Unit -- Series -- Episode List -- Season 1 '' . Spot Vault . June 9 , 2014 . Retrieved June 27 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Law & Order : Special Victims Unit -- Series -- Episode List -- Season 1 '' . Spot Vault . July 7 , 2014 . Retrieved July 14 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Top TV Shows For 1999 -- 2000 Season '' . Variety . Retrieved February 12 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Law & Order : Special Victims Unit -- Series -- Episode List -- Season 2 '' . TV Tango . Retrieved June 10 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` SpotVault -- Law & Order : SVU ( NBC ) -- 2000 -- 01 '' . Spot Vault . December 9 , 2011 . Retrieved March 4 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` The Bitter End '' . Entertainment Weekly Published in issue No. 598 June 1 , 2001 . June 1 , 2001 . Retrieved February 12 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Law & Order : Special Victims Unit -- Series -- Episode List -- Season 3 '' . TV Tango . Retrieved June 10 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` SpotVault -- Law & Order : SVU ( NBC ) -- 2001 -- 02 '' . Spot Vault . December 9 , 2011 . Retrieved March 4 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` How did your favorite show rate ? '' . USA Today . May 28 , 2002 . Jump up ^ `` SpotVault -- Law & Order : SVU ( NBC ) -- 2002 -- 03 '' . Spot Vault . December 9 , 2011 . Retrieved March 4 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Law & Order : Special Victims Unit -- Series -- Episode List -- Season 4 '' . TV Tango . Retrieved June 10 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Nielsen 's TOP 156 Shows for 2002 -- 03 Options '' . rec.arts.tv . Retrieved October 24 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` SpotVault -- Law & Order : SVU ( NBC ) -- 2003 -- 04 '' . Spot Vault . December 9 , 2011 . Retrieved March 7 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Weekly Program Rankings : 05 / 17 / 04 Through 05 / 23 / 04 '' . ABC Medianet . May 25 , 2004 . Archived from the original on March 14 , 2012 . Retrieved March 7 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` I.T.R.S. Ranking Report '' . ABC Television Network . June 2 , 2004 . Archived from the original on September 30 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Weekly Program Rankings : From 09 / 20 / 04 Through 09 / 26 / 04 '' . ABC Medianet . September 29 , 2004 . Archived from the original on March 6 , 2012 . Retrieved March 11 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Weekly Program Rankings : 05 / 23 / 05 Through 05 / 29 / 05 '' . ABC Medianet . June 1 , 2005 . Archived from the original on February 29 , 2012 . Retrieved March 11 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` ABC Television Network 2004 -- 2005 Primetime Ranking Report '' . ( June 1 , 2005 ) . ABC Medianet . Retrieved November 6 , 2007 . Archived April 21 , 2012 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ `` Weekly Program Rankings : From 09 / 26 / 05 Through 10 / 02 / 05 '' . ABC Medianet . October 4 , 2005 . Archived from the original on February 17 , 2012 . Retrieved March 13 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Weekly Program Rankings : From 05 / 15 / 06 Through 05 / 21 / 06 '' . ABC Medianet . May 23 , 2006 . Archived from the original on February 29 , 2012 . Retrieved March 13 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` ABC Television Network 2005 -- 2006 Primetime Ranking Report '' . ( May 31 , 2006 ) . ABC Medianet . Retrieved November 6 , 2007 . Archived July 6 , 2011 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ `` Weekly Program Rankings '' . ABC Medianet . September 26 , 2006 . Archived from the original on March 29 , 2012 . Retrieved March 19 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Weekly Program Rankings '' . ABC Medianet . May 30 , 2007 . Archived from the original on October 11 , 2013 . Retrieved March 19 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` ABC Television Network 2006 -- 2007 Primetime Ranking Report '' . ( May 30 , 2007 ) . ABC Medianet . Retrieved May 31 , 2011 . Archived March 23 , 2012 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ `` With Break - Out Performances from New and Returning Series , NBC Ties for Premiere Week 's Top Spot in 18 -- 49 '' . The Futon Critic / NBC . The Futon Critic / NBC . October 2 , 2007 . Retrieved September 11 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Seidman , Robert ( May 14 , 2008 ) . `` Nielsen Ratings May 13 , 2008 : American Idol Still Crushes Field '' . The Nielsen Company . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved August 7 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` ABC Television Network 2007 -- 2008 Primetime Ranking Report '' . ( May 28 , 2008 ) . ABC Medianet . Retrieved July 3 , 2009 . Archived April 13 , 2010 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Gorman , Bill ( September 24 , 2008 ) . `` Tuesday , Sept. 23 : Second Night Wins To CBS , ABC and Fox '' . The Nielsen Company . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved July 11 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Gorman , Bill ( June 3 , 2009 ) . `` Tuesday Ratings : NBC Wins Again Lead By Law & Order : SVU Finale , Obama Special '' . The Nielsen Company . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved July 11 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` ABC Television Network 2008 -- 2009 Primetime Ranking Report '' . ( June 2 , 2009 ) . ABC Medianet . Retrieved August 29 , 2013 . Archived October 7 , 2009 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Seidman , Robert ( September 24 , 2009 ) . `` Wednesday broadcast finals : Modern Family down a tenth , Cougar Town up a tenth with adults 18 -- 49 '' . The Nielsen Company . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on October 5 , 2009 . Retrieved April 24 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` TV Ratings Wednesday : Good Guys Off To Bad Start ; Idol Down '' . The Nielsen Company . TV by the Numbers . May 20 , 2010 . Retrieved May 20 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Final 2009 -- 10 Broadcast Primetime Show Average Viewership '' . Tvbythenumbers.com . June 16 , 2010 . Archived from the original on June 19 , 2010 . Retrieved August 26 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Seidman , Robert ( September 23 , 2010 ) . `` Wednesday Finals : ' The Middle , ' ' Modern Family , ' ' Cougar Town , ' ' Undercovers ' All See Small Gains '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved September 23 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Seidman , Robert ( May 19 , 2011 ) . `` Wednesday Final Ratings : ' American Idol , ' ' Modern Family , ' ' Law & Order : SVU ' Adjusted Up ; ' Happy Endings ' Adj . Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 20 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Gorman , Bill ( June 1 , 2011 ) . `` 2010 -- 11 Season Broadcast Primetime Show Viewership Averages '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on June 20 , 2011 . Retrieved June 1 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Seidman , Robert ( September 22 , 2011 ) . `` Wednesday Final Ratings : ' The X Factor , ' ' Modern Family , ' ' The Middle , ' ' Revenge ' And Others Adjusted Up '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved September 22 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( May 24 , 2012 ) . `` Wednesday Final Ratings : ' Idol ' , ' Modern Family ' , & ' SVU ' Adjusted Up , ' Apt 23 ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 24 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Gorman , Bill ( May 24 , 2012 ) . `` Complete List Of 2011 -- 12 Season TV Show Viewership : ' Sunday Night Football ' Tops , Followed By ' American Idol , ' ' NCIS ' & ' Dancing With The Stars ' '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 25 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( September 27 , 2012 ) . `` Wednesday Final Ratings : ' X Factor ' , ' Survivor ' , ' The Middle ' Adjusted Up , ' The Neighbors ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved September 27 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara . `` Wednesday Final Ratings : ' MasterChef ' , ' Modern Family ' , ' Criminal Minds ' & ' Law & Order : SVU ' Adjusted Up ; ' How To Live With Your Parents ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 24 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( May 29 , 2013 ) . `` Complete List Of 2012 -- 13 Season TV Show Viewership : ' Sunday Night Football ' Tops , Followed By ' NCIS , ' ' The Big Bang Theory ' & ' NCIS : Los Angeles ' '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 29 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( September 26 , 2013 ) . `` Wednesday Final Ratings : ' The Middle ' , ' Modern Family ' and ' Survivor ' Adjusted Up ; ' Nashville ' & ' CSI ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved September 26 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( May 22 , 2014 ) . `` Wednesday Final Ratings : ' Survivor ' , ' The Middle ' & ' Modern Family ' Adjusted Up ; ' Survivor ' Reunion Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 22 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Deadline Team , The ( May 23 , 2014 ) . `` Full 2013 -- 14 Series Rankings '' . Retrieved May 23 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( September 25 , 2014 ) . `` Wednesday Final Ratings : ' The Middle ' , ' The Goldbergs ' , ' Modern Family ' , ' Law and Order : SVU ' , & ' Red Band Society ' Adjusted Up '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on September 27 , 2014 . Retrieved September 25 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( May 21 , 2015 ) . `` Wednesday Final Ratings : ' Survivor ' , ' Survivor : Reunion ' & ' Modern Family ' Adjusted Up '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 21 , 2015 . Jump up ^ de Moraes , Lisa ( May 21 , 2015 ) . `` Full 2014 -- 15 TV Season Series Rankings : Football & ' Empire ' Ruled '' . Archived from the original on May 22 , 2015 . Retrieved May 22 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( September 24 , 2015 ) . `` Wednesday Final Ratings : ' Survivor ' , ' Modern Family ' & ' Law and Order : SVU ' Adjusted Up ; ' Nashville ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved September 24 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( May 26 , 2016 ) . `` Wednesday final ratings : ' SVU ' finale adjusts up , ' Supernatural ' finale adjusts down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 26 , 2016 . Jump up ^ de Moraes , Lisa ( May 29 , 2016 ) . `` Full 2015 -- 16 TV Season Series Rankings : ' Blindspot ' , ' Life In Pieces ' & ' Quantico ' Lead Newcomers '' . Retrieved May 26 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( September 22 , 2016 ) . `` Wednesday final ratings : ' Empire ' adjusts up , ' Designated Survivor ' adjusts down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved September 22 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( May 25 , 2017 ) . `` ' Empire ' finale and ' Dirty Dancing ' adjust up , ' Survivor ' reunion adjusts down : Wednesday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 25 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Final 2016 - 17 TV Rankings : ' Sunday Night Football ' Winning Streak Continues '' . Deadline Hollywood . May 26 , 2017 . Retrieved May 26 , 2017 . Jump up ^ @ https://twitter.com/RobertBCohen/status/950776144315539462?s=17 . ( Tweet ) https://twitter.com/ -- via Twitter . Missing or empty title = ( help ) ; Missing or empty number = ( help ) ; Missing or empty date = ( help ) Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( September 28 , 2017 ) . `` ' Survivor ' premiere adjusts up : Wednesday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved September 28 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Golden Globe Wins : Law & Order : Special Victims Unit '' . Archived from the original on August 1 , 2012 . Retrieved December 14 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` SVU Emmy Nominations '' . Academy of Television Arts & Sciences . Retrieved 2012 - 12 - 27 . Jump up ^ `` Watch Law & Order : SVU Videos , Highlights & Clips - NBC.com '' . NBC . Retrieved 2015 - 12 - 14 . Jump up ^ `` Download the NBC App for Phones , Tablets and Connected Devices ! '' . NBC . Retrieved 2015 - 12 - 14 . Jump up ^ `` Law & Order : SVU ( Special Victims Unit ) , Season 16 on iTunes '' . iTunes . Retrieved 2015 - 12 - 14 . Jump up ^ `` Watch Law & Order : Special Victims Unit Season 1 Episode -- Amazon Video '' . www.amazon.com . Retrieved 2015 - 12 - 14 . Bibliography ( edit ) Green , Susan ; Dawn , Randee ( 2009 ) . Law & Order : Special Victims Unit : The Unofficial Companion . Dallas : BenBella Books . ISBN 1 - 933771 - 88 - 7 . OCLC 429604907 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Law & Order : Special Victims Unit . Wikiquote has quotations related to : Law & Order : Special Victims Unit Official website on NBC Law & Order : Special Victims Unit on IMDb Law & Order : Special Victims Unit at TV.com `` List of Law & Order : SVU Episodes '' . TV Guide . Law & Order : Special Victims Unit on MyNetworkTV Law & Order franchise Series Law & Order ( 1990 -- 2010 ) Law & Order : Special Victims Unit ( 1999 -- present ) Law & Order : Criminal Intent ( 2001 -- 2011 ) Law & Order : Trial by Jury ( 2005 -- 2006 ) Law & Order : LA ( 2010 -- 2011 ) Law & Order True Crime ( 2017 -- present ) Adaptations Paris enquêtes criminelles ( 2007 -- 2008 ) Law & Order : UK ( 2009 -- 2014 ) Video games Law & Order : Dead on the Money Law & Order : Double or Nothing Law & Order : Justice Is Served Law & Order : Criminal Intent Law & Order : Legacies Related series Homicide : Life on the Street ( 1993 -- 1999 ) New York Undercover ( 1994 -- 1998 ) Arrest & Trial ( 2000 -- 2001 ) Deadline ( 2000 -- 2001 ) Crime & Punishment ( 2002 -- 2004 ) Conviction ( 2006 ) In Plain Sight ( 2008 -- 2012 ) Chicago franchise Chicago Fire ( 2012 -- present ) Chicago P.D. ( 2014 -- present ) Chicago Med ( 2015 -- present ) Chicago Justice ( 2017 ) Films Exiled : A Law & Order Movie ( 1998 ) Homicide : The Movie ( 2000 ) Law & Order : Special Victims Unit Characters Detectives Elliot Stabler Olivia Benson John Munch Monique Jeffries Fin Tutuola Chester Lake Nick Amaro Amanda Rollins Dominick Carisi Jr . Commanding officers Donald Cragen Olivia Benson Assistant District Attorneys Alexandra Cabot Casey Novak Kim Greylek Rafael Barba Doctors George Huang Melinda Warner Other characters Barry Moredock Brian Cassidy Elizabeth Donnelly Michael Cutter Sonya Paxton Jack McCoy Seasons Episodes Season 1 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Notable episodes `` Payback '' `` 911 '' `` Authority '' `` Cold '' `` Zebras '' `` Behave '' `` Smoked '' `` Scorched Earth '' `` Justice Denied '' `` Father Dearest '' `` Rhodium Nights '' `` Lost Reputation '' `` Above Suspicion '' `` Acceptable Loss '' `` Manhattan Vigil '' `` Comic Perversion '' `` Glasgowman 's Wrath '' `` Chicago Crossover '' See also Cast members Awards and nominations Law & Order franchise Chicago franchise Chicago Fire Characters Matthew Casey Kelly Severide Episodes Season 1 5 6 Chicago P.D. 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cast of law & order special victim unit

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New Earswick - wikipedia New Earswick Jump to : navigation , search New Earswick New Earswick New Earswick shown within North Yorkshire Population 2,737 ( 2011 ) OS grid reference SE609555 Civil parish New Earswick Unitary authority City of York Ceremonial county North Yorkshire Region Yorkshire and the Humber Country England Sovereign state United Kingdom Post town YORK Postcode district YO32 Dialling code 01904 Police North Yorkshire Fire North Yorkshire Ambulance Yorkshire EU Parliament Yorkshire and the Humber UK Parliament York Outer List of places UK England Yorkshire 53 ° 59 ′ 31 '' N 1 ° 04 ′ 21 '' W  /  53.992020 ° N 1.072380 ° W  / 53.992020 ; - 1.072380 Coordinates : 53 ° 59 ′ 31 '' N 1 ° 04 ′ 21 '' W  /  53.992020 ° N 1.072380 ° W  / 53.992020 ; - 1.072380 New Earswick is a model village and civil parish in the unitary authority of City of York in North Yorkshire , England , near the River Foss , north of York and south of Haxby . According to the 2001 census the parish had a population of 2,812 , reducing to 2,737 at the 2011 Census . Before 1996 it had been part of the Ryedale district . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 2 Governance 3 Community 4 Geography 5 Economy 6 Transport 7 Education 8 Religious sites 9 Sport 10 Gallery 11 References 12 External links History ( edit ) The village of New Earswick was built as a genuine mixed community . There was housing for both workers and managers , in a green setting with gardens for each home with its own 2 fruit trees . It was founded by the York philanthropist , Joseph Rowntree , who was quoted as saying , `` I do not want to establish communities bearing the stamp of charity but rather of rightly ordered and self governing communities '' . The first 28 houses were built between 1902 and 1904 by the architect Raymond Unwin , after which the Joseph Rowntree Village Trust ( now the Joseph Rowntree Housing Trust ) was established to continue building and manage the new village . The Joseph Rowntree Housing Trust is part of the Joseph Rowntree Foundation . The village had contemporaries such as Bournville , Saltaire , Port Sunlight and others . This was in sharp contrast to the slums that had developed in York and other cities during the previous century , the deprivation of which had been revealed in Seebohm Rowntree 's report of 1901 , entitled Poverty : a study of town life . It revealed appalling statistics of dark , overcrowded and insanitary housing . As a result of the report , Joseph Rowntree 's conviction that it must be possible to provide better housing for people on low incomes led him to acquire 150 acres of land near the village of Earswick , two and a half miles to the north of the centre of York . The planner Raymond Unwin and the architect Barry Parker were commissioned to produce an overall plan for a new ' garden ' village and the detailed designs for its first houses . They also designed the garden cities of Letchworth and Welwyn Garden City . The building of New Earswick created a balanced village community where rents were kept low , but still represented a modest commercial return on the capital invested . Houses were open to any working people , not just Rowntree employees . The village was to be a demonstration of good practice . The Trust Deed of the Joseph Rowntree Village Trust , which was set up in 1904 to build and manage New Earswick , safeguarded generous open green space . All the grass verges were planted with trees after which almost all the roads are named . The village was built with bricks that were made in the brickworks on the outskirts of New Earswick . From 1950 the brickyard , which closed down in the 1930s , was developed into a nature reserve . Due to their religious beliefs , The Rowntree family decreed there would not be a public house in the village . There never has been , although the Sports Club obtained a drink 's license in the 1980s . Governance ( edit ) New Earswick is part of the Huntington & New Earswick Ward of the City of York Council . As of 2010 it is represented by Keith Hyman , Keith Orrel and Carol Runciman who are all members of the local Liberal Democrat Party . A Parish Council was created in 1934 consisting of ten elected councillors and a clerk . Community ( edit ) There is a local community centre , the Folk Hall , which hosts activities such as keep - fit , yoga , snooker , and a junior youth club . New Earswick has recreational facilities , including a swimming pool ( due for closure without public consultation ) , tennis courts and football , rugby and cricket pitches at the New Earswick Sports and Social Club . There were two open access play areas close to the Folk Hall , including a hard surface play area which have recently been bulldozed for a development of houses . There is a library based in the Integrated Children 's Centre at the local primary school , a doctor 's surgery and a range of shops , including two general stores , a pet shop and Post Office . As of 2017 the Post Office is situated within the Folk Hall . The village has 36 allotments in two areas , Willow Bank and Sleeper Path . In the 1960s , the Folk Hall was a live music venue featuring the likes of Procol Harum and Pink Floyd . Geography ( edit ) The River Foss runs along the eastern boundary of New Earswick with the York to Scarborough Line running to the west . The Nestle factory and grounds mark the southern border with the northern border being the A1237 York Outer Ring Road . The village was built using bricks from the brickworks on the outskirts of the village . From 1950 the brickyard was developed into a nature reserve . The reserve is the home of New Earswick Angling Club , which was formed in 1948 . Economy ( edit ) Unlike the villages of Port Sunlight , Saltaire and Bournville the village was not designed specifically for the workforce of the nearby Joseph Rowntree Cocoa Works although some do earn their living at the factory which was taken over by Swiss firm , Nestle . Transport ( edit ) Transdev York operate a bus service that stops in the village as part of the Askham Bar to Clifton Moor route . First Group operate two bus services that stop in the village as part of the Wigginton to Acomb and Haxby to York City Centre routes . New Earswick was served by Earswick railway station on the York to Beverley Line between 1847 and 1965 . Education ( edit ) There are both primary and secondary schools in New Earswick . New Earswick Primary School was built in 1912 . The primary school is one of eight Integrated Children 's Centres in York . Joseph Rowntree School is a secondary school and was built in 1941 . In 2006 , the Joseph Rowntree School secured £ 27million for a complete rebuild that was completed in late 2009 . The catchement area for the secondary school is from the village itself , Huntington , The Groves and the villages of Haxby and Wigginton . Religious sites ( edit ) In 1914 the Anglican church of St. Andrew 's was built on the edge of the parish . The church was extended in 1939 to cater for the new housing in South Huntington just across the River Foss . A Methodist chapel and meeting house for the Society of Friends were added later . St. Andrew 's Church is now part of the ecclesiastical parish of Huntington and New Earswick . Sport ( edit ) New Earswick Cricket Club play at the recreation ground on White Rose Avenue . As of 2014 their two teams will play in Division 3 ( South ) and Division 4 ( Central ) of the York and District Senior Cricket League . The recreation ground is shared with New Earswick All Blacks , an open age rugby league club that was founded in the 1980s and currently play in The Pennines Amateur Rugby League competition , in 2013 / 4 , playing in the Championship ( the second tier ) . Steve Webster , 10 times FIM Sidecar World Championships , world champion was born and raised in the village. . Gallery ( edit ) Views of New Earswick The Folk Hall in New Earswick White Rose Avenue in New Earswick Westfield Beck behind housing on the west of New Earswick References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Civil Parish population 2011 '' . Neighbourhood Statistics . Office for National Statistics . Retrieved 19 February 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Village History '' . Retrieved 12 December 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Village planning '' . Retrieved 12 December 2010 . Jump up ^ `` New Earswick : a village of new ideas '' . BBC . Retrieved 29 March 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Couoncillors '' . Retrieved 12 December 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` Village Information '' ( PDF ) . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 4 October 2013 . Retrieved 12 December 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Procol Harum and Pink Floyd play New Earswick '' . Archived from the original on 30 March 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Transdev Bus Service '' . Retrieved 12 December 2010 . Jump up ^ `` First Bus Services '' . Retrieved 12 December 2010 . Jump up ^ Butt , R.V.J. ( 1995 ) . The Directory of Railway Stations : details every public and private passenger station , halt , platform and stopping place , past and present ( 1st ed . ) . Sparkford : Patrick Stephens Ltd . ISBN 978 - 1 - 85260 - 508 - 7 . OCLC 60251199 . Jump up ^ `` Primary School '' . Retrieved 12 December 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Catchment Area '' ( PDF ) . Retrieved 12 December 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Cricket '' . Retrieved 16 March 2014 . Jump up ^ `` New Earswick All Blacks '' . Archived from the original on 16 January 2008 . Jump up ^ Havard , Jane ( 1992 ) . A Bit On The Side . Menoshire . p. 1 . ISBN 0947981667 . External links ( edit ) `` New Earswick , York '' . The Joseph Rowntree Housing Trust . Retrieved 4 March 2017 . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=New_Earswick&oldid=826057861 '' Categories : Model villages Villages and areas in the City of York Civil parishes in North Yorkshire Rowntree family Hidden categories : All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from November 2017 Articles with permanently dead external links Use British English from October 2013 Use dmy dates from October 2013 Articles with OS grid coordinates Coordinates on Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from April 2013 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Cebuano Gaeilge Nederlands Polski Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 16 February 2018 , at 23 : 16 . 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who designed the garden city of new earswick

The planner Raymond Unwin and the architect Barry Parker

Raymond Unwin

Evolution of the eye - wikipedia Evolution of the eye Jump to : navigation , search Major stages in the evolution of the eye in vertebrates . The evolution of the eye is attractive to study , because the eye distinctively exemplifies an analogous organ found in many animal forms . Complex , image - forming eyes have evolved independently several times . The evolutionary geneticist Walter Gering holds a different opinion . According his theory , the genes engaged with photoreceptor cells ( so called Pax 6 genes ) appeared probably at once in the life history , at a very early stage of the evolution . Probably , the complex , image forming kinds of eyes are at least five : Chidaria - lens eye , complex eye ; Molluscs - lens eye , everse retina ; Annelids - lens eye , everse retina ; Arthropods - facet eye ; Vertebrate - lens eye , inverse retina Complex eyes appeared first within the few million years of the Cambrian explosion . From before the Cambrian , no evidence of eyes has survived , but diverse eyes are known from the Burgess shale of the Middle Cambrian , and from the slightly older Emu Bay Shale . Eyes are adapted to the various requirements of their owners . They vary in their visual acuity , the range of wavelengths they can detect , their sensitivity in low light , their ability to detect motion or to resolve objects , and whether they can discriminate colours . Contents ( hide ) 1 History of research 2 Rate of evolution 3 One origin or many ? 4 Stages of eye evolution 4.1 Early eyes 4.2 Lens formation and diversification 4.3 Other developments 4.3. 1 Color vision 4.3. 2 Polarization vision 4.3. 3 Focusing mechanism 4.3. 4 Location 5 Evolutionary baggage 6 Footnotes 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links History of research ( edit ) The human eye , showing the iris In 1802 , philosopher William Paley called it a miracle of `` design '' . Charles Darwin himself wrote in his Origin of Species , that the evolution of the eye by natural selection seemed at first glance `` absurd in the highest possible degree '' . However , he went on that despite the difficulty in imagining it , its evolution was perfectly feasible : ... if numerous gradations from a simple and imperfect eye to one complex and perfect can be shown to exist , each grade being useful to its possessor , as is certainly the case ; if further , the eye ever varies and the variations be inherited , as is likewise certainly the case and if such variations should be useful to any animal under changing conditions of life , then the difficulty of believing that a perfect and complex eye could be formed by natural selection , though insuperable by our imagination , should not be considered as subversive of the theory . He suggested a stepwise evolution from `` an optic nerve merely coated with pigment , and without any other mechanism '' to `` a moderately high stage of perfection '' , and gave examples of existing intermediate steps . Darwin 's suggestions were soon shown to be correct , and current research is investigating the genetic mechanisms underlying eye development and evolution . Biologist D.E. Nilsson has independently theorized about four general stages in the evolution of a vertebrate eye from a patch of photoreceptors . Nilsson and S. Pelger estimated in a classical paper how many generations are needed to evolve a complex eye in vertebrates . Another researcher , G.C. Young , has used the fossil record to infer evolutionary conclusions , based on the structure of eye orbits and openings in fossilized skulls for blood vessels and nerves to go through . All this adds to the growing amount of evidence that supports Darwin 's theory . Rate of evolution ( edit ) The first fossils of eyes found to date are from the lower Cambrian period ( about 540 million years ago ) . The lower Cambrian had a burst of apparently rapid evolution , called the `` Cambrian explosion '' . One of the many hypotheses for `` causes '' of the Cambrian explosion is the `` Light Switch '' theory of Andrew Parker : It holds that the evolution of eyes started an arms race that accelerated evolution . Before the Cambrian explosion , animals may have sensed light , but did not use it for fast locomotion or navigation by vision . The rate of eye evolution is difficult to estimate , because the fossil record , particularly of the lower Cambrian , is poor . How fast a circular patch of photoreceptor cells evolve into a fully functional vertebrate eye has been estimated based on rates of mutation , relative advantage to the organism , and natural selection . However , the time needed for each state was consistently overestimated and the generation time was set to one year , which is common in small animals . Even with these pessimistic values , the vertebrate eye would still evolve from a patch of photoreceptor cells in less than 364,000 years . One origin or many ? ( edit ) Whether the eye evolved once or many times depends on the definition of an eye . All eyed animals share much of the genetic machinery for eye development . This suggests that the ancestor of eyed animals had some form of light - sensitive machinery -- even if it was not a dedicated optical organ . However , even photoreceptor cells may have evolved more than once from molecularly similar chemoreceptor cells . Probably , photoreceptor cells existed long before the Cambrian explosion . Higher - level similarities -- such as the use of the protein crystallin in the independently derived cephalopod and vertebrate lenses -- reflect the co-option of a more fundamental protein to a new function within the eye . A shared trait common to all light - sensitive organs are opsins . Opsins belong to a family of photo - sensitive proteins and fall into nine groups , which already existed in the urbilaterian , the last common ancestor of all bilateral symmetrical animals . Additionally , the genetic toolkit for positioning eyes is shared by all animals : The PAX6 gene controls where eyes develop in animals ranging from octopuses to mice and fruit flies . Such high - level genes are , by implication , much older than many of the structures that they control today ; they must originally have served a different purpose , before they were co-opted for eye development . Eyes and other sensory organs probably evolved before the brain : There is no need for an information - processing organ ( brain ) before there is information to process . Stages of eye evolution ( edit ) The stigma ( 2 ) of the euglena hides a light - sensitive spot . The earliest predecessors of the eye were photoreceptor proteins that sense light , found even in unicellular organisms , called `` eyespots '' . Eyespots can only sense ambient brightness : they can distinguish light from dark , sufficient for photoperiodism and daily synchronization of circadian rhythms . They are insufficient for vision , as they can not distinguish shapes or determine the direction light is coming from . Eyespots are found in nearly all major animal groups , and are common among unicellular organisms , including euglena . The euglena 's eyespot , called a stigma , is located at its anterior end . It is a small splotch of red pigment which shades a collection of light sensitive crystals . Together with the leading flagellum , the eyespot allows the organism to move in response to light , often toward the light to assist in photosynthesis , and to predict day and night , the primary function of circadian rhythms . Visual pigments are located in the brains of more complex organisms , and are thought to have a role in synchronising spawning with lunar cycles . By detecting the subtle changes in night - time illumination , organisms could synchronise the release of sperm and eggs to maximise the probability of fertilisation . Vision itself relies on a basic biochemistry which is common to all eyes . However , how this biochemical toolkit is used to interpret an organism 's environment varies widely : eyes have a wide range of structures and forms , all of which have evolved quite late relative to the underlying proteins and molecules . At a cellular level , there appear to be two main `` designs '' of eyes , one possessed by the protostomes ( molluscs , annelid worms and arthropods ) , the other by the deuterostomes ( chordates and echinoderms ) . The functional unit of the eye is the photoreceptor cell , which contains the opsin proteins and responds to light by initiating a nerve impulse . The light sensitive opsins are borne on a hairy layer , to maximise the surface area . The nature of these `` hairs '' differs , with two basic forms underlying photoreceptor structure : microvilli and cilia . In the eyes of protostomes , they are microvilli : extensions or protrusions of the cellular membrane . But in the eyes of deuterostomes , they are derived from cilia , which are separate structures . However , outside the eyes an organism may use the other type of photoreceptor cells , for instance the clamworm Platynereis dumerilii uses microvilliar cells in the eyes but has additionally deep brain ciliary photoreceptor cells . The actual derivation may be more complicated , as some microvilli contain traces of cilia -- but other observations appear to support a fundamental difference between protostomes and deuterostomes . These considerations centre on the response of the cells to light -- some use sodium to cause the electric signal that will form a nerve impulse , and others use potassium ; further , protostomes on the whole construct a signal by allowing more sodium to pass through their cell walls , whereas deuterostomes allow less through . This suggests that when the two lineages diverged in the Precambrian , they had only very primitive light receptors , which developed into more complex eyes independently . Early eyes ( edit ) The basic light - processing unit of eyes is the photoreceptor cell , a specialized cell containing two types of molecules in a membrane : the opsin , a light - sensitive protein , surrounding the chromophore , a pigment that distinguishes colors . Groups of such cells are termed `` eyespots '' , and have evolved independently somewhere between 40 and 65 times . These eyespots permit animals to gain only a very basic sense of the direction and intensity of light , but not enough to discriminate an object from its surroundings . Developing an optical system that can discriminate the direction of light to within a few degrees is apparently much more difficult , and only six of the thirty - some phyla possess such a system . However , these phyla account for 96 % of living species . The planarian has `` cup '' eyespots that can slightly distinguish light direction . These complex optical systems started out as the multicellular eyepatch gradually depressed into a cup , which first granted the ability to discriminate brightness in directions , then in finer and finer directions as the pit deepened . While flat eyepatches were ineffective at determining the direction of light , as a beam of light would activate exactly the same patch of photo - sensitive cells regardless of its direction , the `` cup '' shape of the pit eyes allowed limited directional differentiation by changing which cells the lights would hit depending upon the light 's angle . Pit eyes , which had arisen by the Cambrian period , were seen in ancient snails , and are found in some snails and other invertebrates living today , such as planaria . Planaria can slightly differentiate the direction and intensity of light because of their cup - shaped , heavily pigmented retina cells , which shield the light - sensitive cells from exposure in all directions except for the single opening for the light . However , this proto - eye is still much more useful for detecting the absence or presence of light than its direction ; this gradually changes as the eye 's pit deepens and the number of photoreceptive cells grows , allowing for increasingly precise visual information . When a photon is absorbed by the chromophore , a chemical reaction causes the photon 's energy to be transduced into electrical energy and relayed , in higher animals , to the nervous system . These photoreceptor cells form part of the retina , a thin layer of cells that relays visual information , including the light and day - length information needed by the circadian rhythm system , to the brain . However , some jellyfish , such as Cladonema , have elaborate eyes but no brain . Their eyes transmit a message directly to the muscles without the intermediate processing provided by a brain . During the Cambrian explosion , the development of the eye accelerated rapidly , with radical improvements in image - processing and detection of light direction . The primitive nautilus eye functions similarly to a pinhole camera . After the photosensitive cell region invaginated , there came a point when reducing the width of the light opening became more efficient at increasing visual resolution than continued deepening of the cup . By reducing the size of the opening , organisms achieved true imaging , allowing for fine directional sensing and even some shape - sensing . Eyes of this nature are currently found in the nautilus . Lacking a cornea or lens , they provide poor resolution and dim imaging , but are still , for the purpose of vision , a major improvement over the early eyepatches . Overgrowths of transparent cells prevented contamination and parasitic infestation . The chamber contents , now segregated , could slowly specialize into a transparent humour , for optimizations such as colour filtering , higher refractive index , blocking of ultraviolet radiation , or the ability to operate in and out of water . The layer may , in certain classes , be related to the moulting of the organism 's shell or skin . An example of this can be observed in Onychophorans where the cuticula of the shell continues to the cornea . The cornea is composed of either one or two cuticular layers depending on how recently the animal has moulted . Along with the lens and two humors , the cornea is responsible for converging light and aiding the focusing of it on the back of the retina . The cornea protects the eyeball while at the same time accounting for approximately 2 / 3 of the eye 's total refractive power . It is likely that a key reason eyes specialize in detecting a specific , narrow range of wavelengths on the electromagnetic spectrum -- the visible spectrum -- is because the earliest species to develop photosensitivity were aquatic , and only two specific wavelength ranges of electromagnetic radiation , blue and green visible light , can travel through water . This same light - filtering property of water also influenced the photosensitivity of plants . Lens formation and diversification ( edit ) Light from a distant object and a near object being focused by changing the curvature of the lens In a lensless eye , the light emanating from a distant point hits the back of the eye with about the same size as the eye 's aperture . With the addition of a lens this incoming light is concentrated on a smaller surface area , without reducing the overall intensity of the stimulus . The focal length of an early lobopod with lens - containing simple eyes focused the image behind the retina , so while no part of the image could be brought into focus , the intensity of light allowed the organism to see in deeper ( and therefore darker ) waters . A subsequent increase of the lens 's refractive index probably resulted in an in - focus image being formed . The development of the lens in camera - type eyes probably followed a different trajectory . The transparent cells over a pinhole eye 's aperture split into two layers , with liquid in between . The liquid originally served as a circulatory fluid for oxygen , nutrients , wastes , and immune functions , allowing greater total thickness and higher mechanical protection . In addition , multiple interfaces between solids and liquids increase optical power , allowing wider viewing angles and greater imaging resolution . Again , the division of layers may have originated with the shedding of skin ; intracellular fluid may infill naturally depending on layer depth . Note that this optical layout has not been found , nor is it expected to be found . Fossilization rarely preserves soft tissues , and even if it did , the new humour would almost certainly close as the remains desiccated , or as sediment overburden forced the layers together , making the fossilized eye resemble the previous layout . Compound eye of Antarctic krill Vertebrate lenses are composed of adapted epithelial cells which have high concentrations of the protein crystallin . These crystallins belong to two major families , the α - crystallins and the βγ - crystallins . Both were categories of proteins originally used for other functions in organisms , but eventually were adapted for the sole purpose of vision in animal eyes . In the embryo , the lens is living tissue , but the cellular machinery is not transparent so must be removed before the organism can see . Removing the machinery means the lens is composed of dead cells , packed with crystallins . These crystallins are special because they have the unique characteristics required for transparency and function in the lens such as tight packing , resistance to crystallization , and extreme longevity , as they must survive for the entirety of the organism 's life . The refractive index gradient which makes the lens useful is caused by the radial shift in crystallin concentration in different parts of the lens , rather than by the specific type of protein : it is not the presence of crystallin , but the relative distribution of it , that renders the lens useful . It is biologically difficult to maintain a transparent layer of cells . Deposition of transparent , nonliving , material eased the need for nutrient supply and waste removal . Trilobites used calcite , a mineral which today is known to be used for vision only in a single species of brittle star . In other compound eyes and camera eyes , the material is crystallin . A gap between tissue layers naturally forms a biconvex shape , which is optically and mechanically ideal for substances of normal refractive index . A biconvex lens confers not only optical resolution , but aperture and low - light ability , as resolution is now decoupled from hole size -- which slowly increases again , free from the circulatory constraints . Independently , a transparent layer and a nontransparent layer may split forward from the lens : a separate cornea and iris . ( These may happen before or after crystal deposition , or not at all . ) Separation of the forward layer again forms a humour , the aqueous humour . This increases refractive power and again eases circulatory problems . Formation of a nontransparent ring allows more blood vessels , more circulation , and larger eye sizes . This flap around the perimeter of the lens also masks optical imperfections , which are more common at lens edges . The need to mask lens imperfections gradually increases with lens curvature and power , overall lens and eye size , and the resolution and aperture needs of the organism , driven by hunting or survival requirements . This type is now functionally identical to the eye of most vertebrates , including humans . Indeed , `` the basic pattern of all vertebrate eyes is similar . '' Other developments ( edit ) Color vision ( edit ) This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( October 2016 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Five classes of visual opsins are found in vertebrates . All but one of these developed prior to the divergence of Cyclostomata and fish . The five opsin classes are variously adapted depending on the light spectrum encountered . As light travels through water , longer wavelengths , such as reds and yellows , are absorbed more quickly than the shorter wavelengths of the greens and blues . This creates a gradient of light as the depth of water increases . The visual opsins in fish are more sensitive to the range of light in their habitat and depth . However , land environments do not vary in wavelength composition , so that the opsin sensitivities among land vertebrates does not vary much . This directly contributes to the significant presence of communication colors . Color vision gives distinct selective advantages , such as better recognition of predators , food , and mates . Indeed , it is thought that simple sensory - neural mechanisms may selectively control general behavior patterns , such as escape , foraging , and hiding . Many examples of wavelength - specific behaviors have been identified , in two primary groups : Below 450 nm , associated with direct light , and above 450 nm , associated with reflected light . As opsin molecules were tuned to detect different wavelengths of light , at some point color vision developed when the photoreceptor cells used differently tuned opsins . This may have happened at any of the early stages of the eye 's evolution , and may have disappeared and reevolved as organisms became predator or prey . Similarly , night and day vision emerged when photoreceptor cells differentiated into rods and cones , respectively . Further information : Evolution of color vision Polarization vision ( edit ) As discussed earlier , the properties of light under water differ from those in air . One example of this is the polarization of light . Polarization is the organization of originally disordered light , from the sun , into linear arrangements . This occurs when light passes through slit like filters , as well as when passing into a new medium . Sensitivity to polarized light is especially useful for organisms whose habitats are located more than a few meters under water . In this environment , color vision is less dependable , and therefore a weaker selective factor . While most photoreceptors have the ability to distinguish partially polarized light , terrestrial vertebrates ' membranes are orientated perpendicularly , such that they are insensitive to polarized light . However , some fish can discern polarized light , demonstrating that they possess some linear photoreceptors . Additionally , cuttlefish are capable of perceiving the polarization of light with high visual fidelity , although they appear to lack any significant capacity for color differentiation . Like color vision , sensitivity to polarization can aid in an organism 's ability to differentiate surrounding objects and individuals . Because of the marginal reflective interference of polarized light , it is often used for orientation and navigation , as well as distinguishing concealed objects , such as disguised prey . Focusing mechanism ( edit ) By utilizing the iris sphincter muscle , some species move the lens back and forth , some stretch the lens flatter . Another mechanism regulates focusing chemically and independently of these two , by controlling growth of the eye and maintaining focal length . In addition , the pupil shape can be used to predict the focal system being utilized . A slit pupil can indicate the common multifocal system , while a circular pupil usually specifies a monofocal system . When using a circular form , the pupil will constrict under bright light , increasing the focal length , and will dilate when dark in order to decrease the depth of focus . Note that a focusing method is not a requirement . As photographers know , focal errors increase as aperture increases . Thus , countless organisms with small eyes are active in direct sunlight and survive with no focus mechanism at all . As a species grows larger , or transitions to dimmer environments , a means of focusing need only appear gradually . Location ( edit ) Prey generally have eyes on the sides of their head so to have a larger field of view , from which to avoid predators . Predators , however , have eyes in front of their head in order to have better depth perception . Flatfish are predators which lie on their side on the bottom , and have eyes placed asymmetrically on the same side of the head . A transitional fossil from the common symmetric position is Amphistium . Evolutionary baggage ( edit ) Vertebrate Octopus Vertebrates and octopodes developed the camera eye independently . In the vertebrate version the nerve fibers pass in front of the retina , and there is a blind spot where the nerves pass through the retina . In the vertebrate example , 4 represents the blind spot , which is notably absent from the octopus eye . In both vertebrates and octopodes , 1 represents the retina , 2 represents the nerve fibers , and 3 represents the optic nerve . Main article : Evolutionary baggage The eyes of many animals record their evolutionary history in their contemporary anatomy . The vertebrate eye , for instance , is built `` backwards and upside down '' , requiring `` photons of light to travel through the cornea , lens , aqueous fluid , blood vessels , ganglion cells , amacrine cells , horizontal cells , and bipolar cells before they reach the light - sensitive rods and cones that transduce the light signal into neural impulses , which are then sent to the visual cortex at the back of the brain for processing into meaningful patterns . '' While such a construct has some drawbacks , it also allows the outer retina of the vertebrates to sustain higher metabolic activities as compared to the non-inverted design . It also allowed for the evolution of the choroid layer , including the retinal pigment epithelial ( RPE ) cells , which play an important role in protecting the photoreceptive cells from photo - oxidative damage . The camera eyes of cephalopods , in contrast , are constructed the `` right way out '' , with the nerves attached to the rear of the retina . This means that they do not have a blind spot . This difference may be accounted for by the origins of eyes ; in cephalopods they develop as an invagination of the head surface whereas in vertebrates they originate as an extension of the brain . Footnotes ( edit ) Jump up ^ David Berlinski , an intelligent design proponent , questioned the basis of the calculations , and the author of the original paper refuted Berlinski 's criticism . Berlinski , David ( April 2001 ) . `` Commentary magazine '' . Nilsson , Dan - E. `` Beware of Pseudo-science : a response to David Berlinski 's attack on my calculation of how long it takes for an eye to evolve '' . `` Evolution of the Eye '' on PBS Jump up ^ The precise number varies from author to author . See also ( edit ) Ocelloid References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` '' An important cue for understanding eye evolution is the distinction between different types of photoreceptor cells . Salvini - Plawen and Mayr ( 1977 ) noted a remarkable diversity of photoreceptor cell morphology across the animal kingdom , and suggested that photoreceptors evolved independently numerous times . '' - Land , M.F. and Nilsson , D. - E. , Animal Eyes ( 2 - nd ed . ) , Oxford University Press , Oxford ( 2012 ) , p. 7 . Jump up ^ `` '' About 65 % of genes expressed in the retina of the fruit fly are also active in the retina of the mouse '' - Glaeser G. , Paulus H.F. - The Evolution of the Eye , Springer ( 2015 ) , ch. 7 , Pax and homology : the third act in the history of evolution - p. 148 Jump up ^ `` Glaeser G. , Paulus H.F. - The Evolution of the Eye , Springer ( 2015 ) , ch. 7 , Pax and homology : the third act in the history of evolution - p. 149 Jump up ^ Lee , M.S.Y. ; Jago , J.B. ; Garcia - Bellido , D.C. ; Edgecombe , G.E. ; Gehling , J. G ; Paterson , J.R. ( 2011 ) . `` Modern optics in exceptionally preserved eyes of Early Cambrian arthropods from Australia '' . Nature . 474 : 631 -- 634 . doi : 10.1038 / nature10097 . PMID 21720369 . ^ Jump up to : Darwin , Charles ( 1859 ) . On the Origin of Species . London : John Murray . Jump up ^ Gehring WJ ( 2005 ) . `` New perspectives on eye development and the evolution of eyes and photoreceptors '' . J. Hered. 96 ( 3 ) : 171 -- 84 . doi : 10.1093 / jhered / esi027 . PMID 15653558 . Jump up ^ Nilsson , D. - E. ( 2013 ) . `` Eye evolution and its functional basis '' . Visual Neuroscience. 30 : 5 -- 20 . doi : 10.1017 / s0952523813000035 . ^ Jump up to : Nilsson , D. - E. ; Pelger , S. ( 1994 ) . `` A pessimistic estimate of the time required for an eye to evolve '' . Proceedings of the Royal Society B : Biological Sciences . 256 : 53 -- 58 . doi : 10.1098 / rspb. 1994.0048 . PMID 8008757 . Jump up ^ Young , G.C. ( 2008 ) . `` Early evolution of the vertebrate eye -- fossil evidence '' . Evo Edu Outreach. 1 : 427 -- 438 . doi : 10.1007 / s12052 - 008 - 0087 - y . Jump up ^ Parker , A.R. ( 2009 ) . `` On the origin of optics '' . Optics & Laser Technology . 43 ( 2 ) : 323 -- 329 . Bibcode : 2011OptLT ... 43 ... 323P . doi : 10.1016 / j. optlastec. 2008.12. 020 . Jump up ^ Parker , Andrew ( 2003 ) . In the Blink of an Eye : How Vision Sparked the Big Bang of Evolution . Cambridge , MA : Perseus Pub . ISBN 0 - 7382 - 0607 - 5 . ^ Jump up to : Nilsson , D-E ; Pelger S ( 1994 ) . `` A pessimistic estimate of the time required for an eye to evolve '' . Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 256 ( 1345 ) : 53 -- 58 . doi : 10.1098 / rspb. 1994.0048 . PMID 8008757 . Jump up ^ Nilsson , D.E. ( 1996 ) . `` Eye ancestry : old genes for new eyes '' . Current Biology . 6 ( 1 ) : 39 -- 42 . doi : 10.1016 / S0960 - 9822 ( 02 ) 00417 - 7 . PMID 8805210 . Jump up ^ Zinovieva , R. ; Piatigorsky , J. ; Tomarev , S.I. ( 1999 ) . `` O - Crystallin , arginine kinase and ferritin from the octopus lens '' . Biochimica et Biophysica Acta ( BBA ) - Protein Structure and Molecular Enzymology. 1431 ( 2 ) : 512 -- 517 . doi : 10.1016 / S0167 - 4838 ( 99 ) 00066 - 7 . ^ Jump up to : Scotland , R.W. ( 2010 ) . `` Deep homology : A view from systematics '' . BioEssays. 32 ( 5 ) : 438 -- 449 . doi : 10.1002 / bies. 200900175 . PMID 20394064 . Jump up ^ Ramirez , MD ; Pairett , AN ; Pankey , MS ; Serb , JM ; Speiser , DI ; Swafford , AJ ; Oakley , TH ( 26 October 2016 ) . `` The last common ancestor of most bilaterian animals possessed at least 9 opsins '' . Genome Biology and Evolution : evw248 . doi : 10.1093 / gbe / evw248 . Jump up ^ Yoshida , Masa - aki ; Yura , Kei ; Ogura , Atsushi ( 5 March 2014 ) . `` Cephalopod eye evolution was modulated by the acquisition of Pax - 6 splicing variants '' . Scientific Reports . nature.com. 4 . Bibcode : 2014NatSR ... 4E4256Y . doi : 10.1038 / srep04256 . PMC 3942700 . PMID 24594543 . Retrieved June 30 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Halder , G. ; Callaerts , P. ; Gehring , W.J. ( 1995 ) . `` New perspectives on eye evolution '' . Current Opinion in Genetics & Development . 5 ( 5 ) : 602 -- 609 . doi : 10.1016 / 0959 - 437X ( 95 ) 80029 - 8 . PMID 8664548 . Jump up ^ Halder , G. ; Callaerts , P. ; Gehring , W. ( 1995 ) . `` Induction of ectopic eyes by targeted expression of the eyeless gene in Drosophila '' . Science . 267 ( 5205 ) : 1788 -- 92 . Bibcode : 1995Sci ... 267.1788 H . doi : 10.1126 / science. 7892602 . PMID 7892602 . Jump up ^ Tomarev , S.I. ; Callaerts , P. ; Kos , L. ; Zinovieva , R. ; Halder , G. ; Gehring , W. ; Piatigorsky , J. ( 1997 ) . `` Squid Pax - 6 and eye development '' . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America . 94 ( 6 ) : 2421 -- 2426 . Bibcode : 1997PNAS ... 94.2421 T . doi : 10.1073 / pnas. 94.6. 2421 . PMC 20103 . PMID 9122210 . ^ Jump up to : Gehring , W.J. ( 13 January 2005 ) . `` New Perspectives on Eye Development and the Evolution of Eyes and Photoreceptors '' ( Full text ) . Journal of Heredity . Oxford Journals. 96 ( 3 ) : 171 -- 184 . doi : 10.1093 / jhered / esi027 . PMID 15653558 . Retrieved 2008 - 04 - 26 . ^ Jump up to : MF Land ; RD Fernald ( 1992 ) . `` The Evolution of Eyes '' . Annual Review of Neuroscience. 15 : 1 -- 29 . doi : 10.1146 / annurev. ne. 15.030192. 000245 . PMID 1575438 . Jump up ^ Autrum , H ( 1979 ) . `` Introduction '' . In H. Autrum . Comparative Physiology and Evolution of Vision in Invertebrates - A : Invertebrate Photoreceptors . Handbook of Sensory Physiology . VII / 6A . New York : Springer - Verlag . pp. 6 -- 9 . ISBN 3 - 540 - 08837 - 7 . Jump up ^ Arendt , D. ; Tessmar - Raible , K. ; Snyman , H. ; Dorresteijn , A.W. ; Wittbrodt , J. ( 29 October 2004 ) . `` Ciliary Photoreceptors with a Vertebrate - Type Opsin in an Invertebrate Brain '' . Science . 306 ( 5697 ) : 869 -- 871 . doi : 10.1126 / science. 1099955 . PMID 15514158 . Jump up ^ Eye - Evolution ? Archived 15 September 2012 at the Wayback Machine . ^ Jump up to : Fernald , Russell D. ( 2001 ) . The Evolution of Eyes : How Do Eyes Capture Photons ? Karger Gazette 64 : `` The Eye in Focus '' . Jump up ^ Conway - Morris , S. ( 1998 ) . The Crucible of Creation . Oxford : Oxford University Press . Jump up ^ Dawkins , Richard ( 1986 ) . The Blind Watchmaker . ^ Jump up to : Schoenemann , B. ; Liu , J.N. ; Shu , D.G. ; Han , J. ; Zhang , Z.F. ( 2008 ) . `` A miniscule optimized visual system in the Lower Cambrian '' . Lethaia. 42 ( 3 ) : 265 -- 273 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1502 - 3931.2008. 00138. x . Jump up ^ Ali , M.A. and M.A. Klyne. 1985 . Vision in vertebrates . New York : Plenum Press Jump up ^ Fernald , Russell D. ( 2001 ) . The Evolution of Eyes : Why Do We See What We See ? Karger Gazette 64 : `` The Eye in Focus '' . Jump up ^ Fernald , Russell D. ( 1998 ) . Aquatic Adaptations in Fish Eyes . New York , Springer . Jump up ^ Fernald RD ( 1997 ) . `` The evolution of eyes '' . Brain Behav . Evol. 50 ( 4 ) : 253 -- 9 . doi : 10.1159 / 000113339 . PMID 9310200 . ^ Jump up to : Slingsby , C. ; Wistow , G.J. ; Clark , A.R. ( 2013 ) . `` Evolution of crystallins for a role in the vertebrate eye lens '' . Protein Science . 22 : 367 -- 380 . doi : 10.1002 / pro. 2229 . Jump up ^ Fernald , Russell D. ( 2001 ) . The Evolution of Eyes : Where Do Lenses Come From ? Karger Gazette 64 : `` The Eye in Focus '' . Jump up ^ Burgess , Daniel S. ( 2001 ) . Brittle Star Features Calcite Lenses , Photonics Spectra Jump up ^ Ali , Mohamed Ather ; Klyne , M.A. ( 1985 ) . Vision in Vertebrates . New York : Plenum Press . p. 1 . ISBN 0 - 306 - 42065 - 1 . ^ Jump up to : Osorio , D ; Vorobyev , M ( 2005 ) . `` Photo - receptor spectral sensitivities in terrestrial animals : adaptations for luminescence and color vision '' . Proc. R. Soc . B . Jump up ^ Gühmann , Martin ; Jia , Huiyong ; Randel , Nadine ; Verasztó , Csaba ; Bezares - Calderón , Luis A. ; Michiels , Nico K. ; Yokoyama , Shozo ; Jékely , Gáspár ( August 2015 ) . `` Spectral Tuning of Phototaxis by a Go - Opsin in the Rhabdomeric Eyes of Platynereis '' . Current Biology . 25 ( 17 ) : 2265 -- 2271 . doi : 10.1016 / j. cub. 2015.07. 017 . PMID 26255845 . Jump up ^ Menzel , Randolf ( 1979 ) . `` Spectral Sensitivity and Color Vision in Invertebrates '' . In H. Autrum . Comparative Physiology and Evolution of Vision in Invertebrates - A : Invertebrate Photo - receptors . Handbook of Sensory Physiology . VII / 6A . New York : Springer - Verlag . pp. 504 -- 506 ; 551 -- 558 . ISBN 3 - 540 - 08837 - 7 . ^ Jump up to : Cronin , T ; Shashar , N ; Caldwell , R ; Marshall , J ; Cheroske , A ; Chiou , T ( 2003 ) . `` Polarization vision and its role in biological signaling '' . Integr . Comp. Biol . Jump up ^ Mäthger , Lydia M. ; Barbosa , Alexandra ; Miner , Simon ; Hanlon , Roger T. ( 2006 - 05 - 01 ) . `` Color blindness and contrast perception in cuttlefish ( Sepia officinalis ) determined by a visual sensorimotor assay '' . Vision Research . 46 ( 11 ) : 1746 -- 1753 . doi : 10.1016 / j. visres. 2005.09. 035 . PMID 16376404 . Jump up ^ Malstrom , T ; Kroger , R ( 2006 ) . `` pupil shape and lens optics in the eyes of terrestrial vertebrates '' . The Journal of Experimental Biology . Jump up ^ `` Carnivores '' . U.S. Department of the Interior , Bureau of Land Management . 2009 - 12 - 14 . Retrieved 2011 - 03 - 28 . Jump up ^ Boroditsky , Lera ( 1999 - 06 - 24 ) . `` Light & Eyes : Lecture Notes '' . Lecture Notes . Stanford . Retrieved 11 May 2010 . Jump up ^ Dr. Michael Shermer , as quoted by Christopher Hitchens in his book `` God is Not Great '' ( pg. 82 ) Jump up ^ Reichenbach A , Bringmann A. ( 2010 ) . Müller cells in the healthy and diseased retina . New York : Springer . pp 15 - 20 . Jump up ^ http://www.photobiology.info/Rozanowska.html Jump up ^ Diagrammatic representation of disc shedding and phagosome retrieval into the pigment epithelial cell. ( 1 ) Jump up ^ Serb , Jeanne M. ; Eernisse , Douglas J. ( 2008 - 09 - 25 ) . `` Charting Evolution 's Trajectory : Using Molluscan Eye Diversity to Understand Parallel and Convergent Evolution '' . Evolution : Education and Outreach. 1 ( 4 ) : 439 -- 447 . doi : 10.1007 / s12052 - 008 - 0084 - 1 . ISSN 1936 - 6426 . Further reading ( edit ) Lamb TD , Collin SP , Pugh EN ( December 2007 ) . `` Evolution of the vertebrate eye : opsins , photoreceptors , retina and eye cup '' . Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 8 ( 12 ) : 960 -- 76 . doi : 10.1038 / nrn2283 . PMC 3143066 . PMID 18026166 . Illustration . Review Lamb , TD ( 2011 ) . `` Evolution of the Eye '' ( PDF ) . Scientific American . 305 : 64 -- 69 . doi : 10.1038 / scientificamerican0711 - 64 . Land , Michael F. ; Nilsson , Dan - Eric ( 2012 ) . `` The origin of vision '' . Animal Eyes ( 2 ed . ) . Oxford : Oxford University Press . pp. 1 -- 22 . ISBN 978 - 0199581146 . Journal Evolution : Education and Outreach Volume 1 , Number 4 / October 2008 . Special Issue : The Evolution of Eyes . 26 articles , free access . Ivan R. Schwab ( 2012 ) . Evolution 's Witness : How Eyes Evolved . New York : Oxford University Press . ISBN 9780195369748 . Hayakawa S , Takaku Y , Hwang JS , Horiguchi T , Suga H , Gehring W , et al. ( 2015 ) . `` Function and evolutionary origin of unicellular camera - type eye structure '' . PLoS ONE . 10 ( 3 ) : e0118415 . Bibcode : 2015PLoSO ... 1018415H . doi : 10.1371 / journal. pone. 0118415 . PMC 4348419 . PMID 25734540 . Greuet , C ( 1968 ) . `` Organisation ultrastructurale de l'ocelle de deux Peridiniens Warnowiidae , Erythropsis pavillardi Kofoid et Swezy et Warnowia pulchra Schiller '' . Protistologica. 4 : 209 -- 230 . Gregory S. Gavelis , Shiho Hayakawa , Richard A. White III , Takashi Gojobori , Curtis A. Suttle , Patrick J. Keeling , Brian S. Leander ( 2015 ) . `` Eye - like ocelloids are built from different endosymbiotically acquired components '' . Nature . 523 : 204 -- 7 . Bibcode : 2015Natur. 523 ... 204G . doi : 10.1038 / nature14593 . PMID 26131935 . CS1 maint : Uses authors parameter ( link ) Oakley , Todd H. ; Speiser , Daniel I. ( 2015 ) . `` How Complexity Originates : The Evolution of Animal Eyes '' . Annual Review of Ecology , Evolution , and Systematics. 46 : 237 -- 260 . doi : 10.1146 / annurev - ecolsys - 110512 - 135907 . Ed Young ; photographs by David Liittschwager ( February 2016 ) . `` Inside the Eye : Nature 's Most Exquisite Creation '' . National Geographic . 229 ( 2 ) : 30 -- 57 . External links ( edit ) `` Evolution of the Eye '' . WGBH Educational Foundation and Clear Blue Sky Productions . PBS . 2001 . Creationism Disproved ? Video from the National Center for Science Education on the evolution of the eye Evolution : Education and Outreach Special Issue : Evolution and Eyes volume 1 , number 4 , October 2008 , pages 351 - 559 . ISSN 1936 - 6426 ( Print ) 1936 - 6434 ( Online ) Evolutionary biology Evolutionary history of life Index of evolutionary biology articles Introduction Outline of evolution Timeline of evolution Evolution Abiogenesis Adaptation Adaptive radiation Cladistics Coevolution Common descent Convergence Divergence Earliest known life forms Evidence of common descent Extinction Event Gene - centered view Homology Last universal common ancestor Macroevolution Microevolution Origin of life Panspermia Parallel evolution Prehistoric Autopsy Speciation Taxonomy Population genetics Biodiversity Gene flow Genetic drift Mutation Natural selection Variation Development Canalisation Evolutionary developmental biology Inversion Modularity Phenotypic plasticity Of taxa Birds origin Brachiopods Molluscs Cephalopods Dinosaurs Fish Fungi Insects butterflies Life Mammals cats canids wolves dogs hyenas dolphins and whales horses primates humans lemurs sea cows Plants Reptiles Spiders Tetrapods Viruses influenza Of organs Cell DNA Flagella Eukaryotes symbiogenesis chromosome endomembrane system mitochondria nucleus plastids In animals eye hair auditory ossicle nervous system brain Of processes Aging Death Programmed cell death Avian flight Biological complexity Cooperation Color vision in primates Emotion Empathy Ethics Eusociality Immune system Metabolism Monogamy Morality Mosaic evolution Multicellularity Sexual reproduction Gamete differentiation / sexes Life cycles / nuclear phases Mating types Sex - determination Snake venom Tempo and modes Gradualism / Punctuated equilibrium / Saltationism Micromutation / Macromutation Uniformitarianism / Catastrophism Speciation Allopatric Anagenesis Catagenesis Cladogenesis Cospeciation Ecological Hybrid Parapatric Peripatric Reinforcement Sympatric History Renaissance and Enlightenment Transmutation of species Charles Darwin On the Origin of Species History of paleontology Transitional fossil Blending inheritance Mendelian inheritance The eclipse of Darwinism Modern synthesis History of molecular evolution Extended evolutionary synthesis Philosophy Darwinism Alternatives Catastrophism Lamarckism Orthogenesis Mutationism Saltationism Structuralism Spandrel Theistic Vitalism Teleology in biology Related Biogeography Ecological genetics Molecular evolution Phylogenetics Tree Polymorphism Protocell Systematics Commons Portal WikiProject Vision in animals Vision Birds Cats Chameleons Dinosaurs Dogs Fishes Horses Toads Eyes Arthropod eye Compound eye Eagle eye Eye shine Simple eye in invertebrates Mammalian eye Human eye Mollusc eye Cephalopod eye Gastropod eye Holochroal eye Parietal eye Schizochroal eye Evolution Evolution of the eye Evolution of color vision Evolution of color vision in primates Coloration Albinism in biology Animal coloration Aposematism Camouflage Chromatophore Counter-illumination Countershading Crypsis Deimatic behaviour Disruptive coloration Eyespot ( mimicry ) Mimicry Structural coloration Underwater camouflage Related topics Animal senses Blindness in animals Eyespot apparatus Feature detection Infrared sensing in snakes Monocular deprivation Ommatidium Palpebral ( bone ) Pseudopupil Rhopalium Underwater vision Visual perception Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_the_eye&oldid=838517245 '' Categories : Evolution by phenotype Eye Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from May 2011 Wikipedia articles needing clarification from December 2008 Articles with unsourced statements from April 2009 All pages needing factual verification Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from February 2009 Wikipedia articles needing clarification from March 2017 Articles needing additional references from October 2016 All articles needing additional references Articles with specifically marked weasel - worded phrases from March 2016 Articles with unsourced statements from March 2016 All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from November 2017 CS1 maint : Uses authors parameter Use dmy dates from May 2011 Talk Contents About Wikipedia বাংলা Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français مصرى 日本 語 Simple English Suomi ไทย Türkçe 4 more Edit links This page was last edited on 27 April 2018 , at 14 : 37 . 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The Curse of Oak Island - wikipedia The Curse of Oak Island Jump to : navigation , search The Curse of Oak Island Genre Reality Narrated by Robert Clotworthy Country of origin Canada Original language ( s ) English No. of seasons 5 No. of episodes 62 Production Executive producer ( s ) Kevin Burns Camera setup Multiple Running time 43 minutes Production company ( s ) Prometheus Entertainment Distributor A&E Networks Release Original network History Canada Original release January 5 , 2014 ( 2014 - 01 - 05 ) -- present External links Website Production website The Curse of Oak Island is an active reality television series that first premiered in Canada on the History network on January 5 , 2014 . The show features what is known as the Oak Island mystery , showing efforts to search for historical artifacts and treasure . Contents ( hide ) 1 Overview 1.1 Background 1.2 Theories 2 Series overview 3 Production 4 Episodes 4.1 Season 1 ( 2014 ) 4.2 Season 2 ( 2014 -- 2015 ) 4.3 Season 3 ( 2015 -- 2016 ) 4.4 Season 4 ( 2016 -- 2017 ) 4.5 Season 5 ( 2017 -- 2018 ) 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links Overview ( edit ) The Curse of Oak Island follows brothers Marty and Rick Lagina , originally from Kingsford , Michigan , through their efforts to find the speculated treasure or historical artifacts believed to be on Oak Island . The series discusses the history of the island , recent discoveries , theories , and prior attempts to investigate the site . Areas of interest include the `` Money Pit '' , Borehole 10 - x , Smith 's Cove , `` Nolan 's Cross '' , the `` Hatch '' , the `` Watchtower '' and the `` Swamp '' . Background ( edit ) The Lagina brothers became fascinated with the island after reading the January 1965 issue of Reader 's Digest magazine that features an article on the Restall family 's work to investigate the so - called `` Money Pit '' . Marty and his brother Rick obtained a controlling interest in Oak Island Tours , which reportedly owns most of the island . The brothers were later approached by Prometheus Entertainment to do a reality show . Rick and Marty have engaged the assistance of father - and - son Dan and Dave Blankenship , permanent residents of the island who have likewise been searching for treasure since the 1960s . Theories ( edit ) The series explores various Oak Island theories and conjectures through conversations with independent researchers . Persons featured have included Zena Halpern discussing her theory about North African gold and sharing copies of a French map of the island which she claims is dated 1347 ; J. Hutton Pulitzer discussing his theory of ancient mariner visitations ; Petter Amundsen discussing his theory about codes hidden in Shakespearen literature and a secret project involving Sir Francis Bacon and the Rosicrucians ; Daniel Ronnstam discussing his theory about the 90 foot stone being a dual cypher containing instructions as how to defeat the money pit flood tunnels with corn ; authors Kathleen McGowen and Alen Butler discussing their theory involving the fabled Knights Templar treasure and an alleged relocation of historical religious artifacts to the island ; and John O'Brien discussing his theory that the island contains treasures of the Aztec Empire . It has also been suggested by Zena Halpern , without evidence , that the Templars worshipped the Phoenician goddess Tanit . Series overview ( edit ) Season Episodes Originally aired First aired Last aired 5 January 5 , 2014 ( 2014 - 01 - 05 ) February 9 , 2014 ( 2014 - 02 - 09 ) 10 November 4 , 2014 ( 2014 - 11 - 04 ) January 13 , 2015 ( 2015 - 01 - 13 ) 13 November 10 , 2015 ( 2015 - 11 - 10 ) February 2 , 2016 ( 2016 - 02 - 02 ) 16 November 15 , 2016 ( 2016 - 11 - 15 ) February 21 , 2017 ( 2017 - 02 - 21 ) 5 18 November 7 , 2017 ( 2017 - 11 - 07 ) March 6 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 06 ) Production ( edit ) Having started in 2014 , The Curse of Oak Island is currently in its fifth season . On August 2 , 2016 , it was announced that Nova Scotia Business Inc. approved $1,271,546 in film funding for the production of the 4th season . In October 2017 , a fifth season was announced , which began airing on November 7 , 2017 . Episodes ( edit ) Season 1 ( 2014 ) ( edit ) No . overall No. in season Title Original air date Viewers ( millions ) `` What Lies Below '' January 5 , 2014 ( 2014 - 01 - 05 ) 2.53 Brothers Rick and Marty Lagina now own most of Oak Island . Determined to resume the search for treasure on the island , they explore an abandoned shaft called Borehole 10 - X and use water pressure to pump material to the surface . They find a tiny piece of metal . `` The Mystery of Smith 's Cove '' January 12 , 2014 ( 2014 - 01 - 12 ) 2.35 A scuba team that includes Marty 's son Alex Lagina dives Smith 's Cove and finds what are claimed to be non-indigenous coconut fibres and anomalous stones . Meanwhile , more metal fragments and cat bones are found in the slurry from 10 - X . `` Voices from the Grave '' January 19 , 2014 ( 2014 - 01 - 19 ) 2.33 As Rick and Marty Lagina begin working to drain a swamp , they are visited by a woman who lost her father and brother to a tragic accident on Oak Island . `` The Secret of Solomon 's Temple '' January 26 , 2014 ( 2014 - 01 - 26 ) 2.72 A visitor to the island presents Rick and Marty Lagina with his theory about where the treasure on Oak Island is located and the idea that the Menorah might be among the treasures for which they are searching . 5 5 `` The Find '' February 9 , 2014 ( 2014 - 02 - 09 ) 2.97 The team digs in a shallow muddy swamp and finds what appears to be an antique Spanish copper coin . A diver is later sent into the swamp and finds no additional objects . Season 2 ( 2014 -- 2015 ) ( edit ) No . overall No. in season Title Original air date Viewers ( millions ) 6 `` Once In , Forever In '' November 4 , 2014 ( 2014 - 11 - 04 ) 2.60 After dating the Spanish coin they found last summer to 1652 , brothers Rick and Marty Lagina return to Oak Island and begin searching the swamp again . Two men perform a Nuclear Magnetic Resonance test in which they present a map of ground voids and metals under the ground . 7 `` Return To The Money Pit '' November 11 , 2014 ( 2014 - 11 - 11 ) 2.15 The team drills in the area of the money pit but is unable to drill through the underground material . A visitor shows them alleged evidence that the treasures from King Solomon 's Temple could be buried on Oak Island . 8 `` The Eight - Pointed Star '' November 18 , 2014 ( 2014 - 11 - 18 ) 2.23 A treasure hunter presents a theory that Phoenicians visited the island 2500 years ago and left behind the ark of the covenant . Rick and Marty Lagina unsuccessfully look for evidence to prove it while also trying to locate the original Money Pit . 9 `` The Breakthrough '' November 25 , 2014 ( 2014 - 11 - 25 ) 2.15 A tree stump in the swamp is examined . Core samples extracted by drilling are discovered to contain rocks and wood . 10 5 `` The 90 - Foot Stone '' December 2 , 2014 ( 2014 - 12 - 02 ) 2.46 A visitor comes to the island suggesting that he has discovered a secret method of getting to the treasure . He claims that Francis Bacon has left behind instructions to the effect that the `` flood tunnels '' can be disabled by pouring corn into the money pit . The team declines to test the theory and instead visits a masonic lodge . The team searches the swamp again and finds nothing . 11 6 `` Seven Must Dye '' December 9 , 2014 ( 2014 - 12 - 09 ) 2.90 Rick searches for man - made flood tunnels without success ; Marty and John visit Europe to track down a lead . 12 7 `` The Trail of the Templars '' December 16 , 2014 ( 2014 - 12 - 16 ) 2.47 While work begins in the swamp , Rick and Marty travel to Scotland to investigate more corn - related theories about the money pit . They are also presented with a theory that Oak Island is a copy of King Solomon 's Temple and that the entrance to the Money Pit is in the swamp . 13 8 `` X Marks the Spot '' December 23 , 2014 ( 2014 - 12 - 23 ) 2.72 Rick and Marty search the swamp for an alternate entrance into the Money Pit , without success . 14 9 `` A Dangerous Dive '' January 6 , 2015 ( 2015 - 01 - 06 ) 2.59 Rick and Marty take a team of divers to Oak Island . 15 10 `` The Big Reveal '' January 13 , 2015 ( 2015 - 01 - 13 ) 3.06 Rick and Marty use sonar to map out the bottom chamber of the 10 - X borehole . Season 3 ( 2015 -- 2016 ) ( edit ) No . overall No. in season Title Original air date Viewers ( millions ) 16 `` The Hole Truth '' November 10 , 2015 ( 2015 - 11 - 10 ) 2.26 Rick and Marty search for underground tunnels on Oak Island and prep borehole 10 - X for a dive . 17 `` Pipe Down '' November 17 , 2015 ( 2015 - 11 - 17 ) 2.56 Prep work for a dive in borehole 10X continues while the team simultaneously searches the area near the Money Pit for shallow treasure . 18 `` Time to Dig '' November 24 , 2015 ( 2015 - 11 - 24 ) 2.60 Rick , Marty and the team go shopping for excavation equipment , investigate the location of a possible Knight 's Templar treasure and search for the original location of the Money Pit . 19 `` The Overton Stone '' December 1 , 2015 ( 2015 - 12 - 01 ) 3.05 Work continues to locate the Money Pit while the team investigates a stone with purported Portuguese carvings . 20 5 `` Disappearing Act '' December 8 , 2015 ( 2015 - 12 - 08 ) 3.22 The team completes preparations for a dive expedition down borehole 10X by investigating the shaft with a camera . 21 6 `` Carved in Stone '' December 15 , 2015 ( 2015 - 12 - 15 ) 2.47 Rick , Marty and the team investigate rocks on Oak Island . A researcher visits the island and claims that the Aztecs may have visited the island in the past . 22 7 `` The Missing Peace '' December 22 , 2015 ( 2015 - 12 - 22 ) 3.40 Rick and Marty welcome long - time rival Fred Nolan into the team . 23 8 `` Phantoms of the Deep '' December 29 , 2015 ( 2015 - 12 - 29 ) 3.30 The team conducts a sonar sweep of the waters surrounding Oak Island and begin digging on Fred Nolan 's property . 24 9 `` Columbus Day '' January 5 , 2016 ( 2016 - 01 - 05 ) 2.79 The team preps for a dive of borehole 10X . They also listen to a theory about Christopher Columbus visiting the Island . 25 10 `` Silence in the Dark '' January 12 , 2016 ( 2016 - 01 - 12 ) 3.11 Difficulties are encountered during the dive to the bottom of borehole 10X , the team further investigates Fred Nolan 's property and an alleged Roman sword found in the waters off Oak Island is presented to the team . 26 11 `` Sword Play '' January 19 , 2016 ( 2016 - 01 - 19 ) 2.82 The team has the Roman sword investigated and find that it is a modern reproduction . There is an unproductive search for treasure north of the Money Pit . 27 12 `` Voices from Below '' January 26 , 2016 ( 2016 - 01 - 26 ) 3.17 The team dives to the bottom of borehole 10X . In a separate investigation , a cavity is found far underground near the Money Pit . 28 13 `` Secrets and Revelations '' February 2 , 2016 ( 2016 - 02 - 02 ) 3.41 The diving investigation of borehole 10X concludes with nothing found . Relatives of the original Oak Island treasure hunters present a gold cross which is said to have come from the treasure . Season 4 ( 2016 -- 2017 ) ( edit ) No . overall No. in season Title Original air date Viewers ( millions ) 29 `` Going for Broke '' November 15 , 2016 ( 2016 - 11 - 15 ) 2.62 The team agrees to turn focus over to the Money Pit and review what they have collected . Researcher Zena Halpern presents a handmade copy of what she claims is a French map from 1347 of Oak Island . The map shows locations for a `` hatch '' , a `` valve '' and an `` anchor '' on the Island . A theory is presented based on a purported decoding of a cipher that Joab at the time of King David transported the Ark of the Covenant to North Africa from which it was later transported onward by the Knights Templar from the then - Portuguese town of Safi in Morocco to Oak Island . 30 `` Always Forward '' November 22 , 2016 ( 2016 - 11 - 22 ) 2.66 While preparing to excavate the Money Pit , the team investigates an 18th century well on mainland Nova Scotia . The team brings in an archaeologist to inspect a hole on Dave Blankenship 's property which they think is a potential `` hatch '' . 31 `` Swamp Things '' November 29 , 2016 ( 2016 - 11 - 29 ) 2.97 A piece of rock with scratches is found , before the team revisits the swamp for another look and finds very little . 32 `` No Stone Unturned '' December 6 , 2016 ( 2016 - 12 - 06 ) 2.95 Part of the team unsuccessfully attempts to track down the ' 90 - foot stone ' in nearby Halifax ; while the first excavation in over 50 years begins in the Money Pit . 33 5 `` Bullseye '' December 11 , 2016 ( 2016 - 12 - 11 ) 2.82 A new theory that Inca gold is buried on Oak Island is offered , albeit without evidence to support it . Meanwhile the team supposedly inches their way to the alleged target in the Money Pit . 34 6 `` Circles in Wood '' December 20 , 2016 ( 2016 - 12 - 20 ) 3.44 A few coins are found on the island , a long way from the money pit . The money pit search for the ' Chappel Vault ' ends in failure so a new target is set for 170ft C - 1 shaft in the Money Pit area . 35 7 `` All That Glitters '' December 27 , 2016 ( 2016 - 12 - 27 ) 3.68 The swamp is drained and searched with a metal detector revealing an old spike . Object not dated . C - 1 Dig Site is drilled to target depth of 170 ft. where previously inserted camera may have seen something shiny and gold colored . 36 8 `` The Mystery of Samuel Ball '' January 3 , 2017 ( 2017 - 01 - 03 ) 3.43 A tiny amount of evidence is offered supposedly linking an 18th - century slave to the mystery . 37 9 `` Echoes from the Deep '' January 10 , 2017 ( 2017 - 01 - 10 ) 3.35 A camera sent down 10X confirms the divers impression that there is nothing there of note , undermining the camera 's operators previous assertion that they were 90 % certain there was a chest there . Some of the team are in denial about this and insist there is still some point in exploring 10 - X further on the basis that Dan Blankenship has spent so much time on it , it must be the key to the alleged puzzle . 38 10 `` About Face '' January 17 , 2017 ( 2017 - 01 - 17 ) 3.04 Divers are sent to the bottom of borehole C - 1 . Nothing is found . A rock fifty miles from Oak Island is examined . The team decides to do a new examination of borehole 10X . 39 11 `` Presidential Secrets '' January 24 , 2017 ( 2017 - 01 - 24 ) 3.20 The new examination of borehole 10X concludes . Equipment failure delays excavation of a new hole . Rick heads to the Franklin D. Roosevelt library to learn why the late President was interested in Oak Island . 40 12 `` Hyde Park & Seek '' January 31 , 2017 ( 2017 - 01 - 31 ) 3.15 A cofferdam is built at Smith 's Cove and the beach is excavated . The team debates where the `` money pit '' might have been . 41 13 `` One Of Seven '' February 7 , 2017 ( 2017 - 02 - 07 ) 3.24 The team attempts to decode a cipher and concludes that they only possess 1 / 7th of the cipher . Rocks are found at Smith 's Cove . The investigation of the cove is halted for the year . A man from Arizona claims , without any evidence , that several hundred tons of gold are hidden in tunnels near Oak Island . 42 14 `` Sticks and Stones '' February 14 , 2017 ( 2017 - 02 - 14 ) 3.20 Rocks are examined on Oak Island . Pieces of wood are carbon dated . The third excavation on the island this season reaches bedrock with nothing found . The team decides to dig another hole . 43 15 `` Blood is Thicker '' February 21 , 2017 ( 2017 - 02 - 21 ) 3.79 The final excavation of the season leads to the discovery of scrap metal pieces , a washer , several hex nuts and a button . Season finale featured McGinnis gold cross , iron spike , and other artifacts evaluated by antiques appraiser Dr. Lori Verderame ( Ph. D. - History of Art and Architecture ) . Note : This episode aired as a 2 - hour special . 44 16 `` Drilling Down '' February 28 , 2017 ( 2017 - 02 - 28 ) 1.72 The team is interviewed at the end of season . The wood from borehole 10 - X is carbon dated as being from 1670 - 1780 . A new cipher is decoded leading the team to once again believe that there is a `` hatch '' somewhere on the island . The team wants to continue searching the swamp . The team proposes pumping borehole 10 - X dry to enable yet another round of searches . The team wants to search more of the Island with metal detectors in the future . Note : This episode is a special . Season 5 ( 2017 -- 2018 ) ( edit ) No . overall No. in season Title Original air date Viewers ( millions ) 45 `` Forever Family '' November 7 , 2017 ( 2017 - 11 - 07 ) 2.95 A diver is sent to the bottom of borehole C - 1 . Mud is recovered . A nail is found in an old spoils pile from GAL - 1 . A copper coin is found in the woods near Issac 's Point . 46 `` Dead Man 's Chest '' November 14 , 2017 ( 2017 - 11 - 14 ) 2.98 The sea chest of a captain who lived in Nova Scotia in the 1780s is examined . Salt water starts coming out the top of borehole C - 1 . Another copper coin is found on the island . 47 `` Obstruction '' November 21 , 2017 ( 2017 - 11 - 21 ) 2.85 Two old British copper coins are found in the woods . The Province of Nova Scotia requests that an archaeologist be on site on Oak Island as an adviser to the treasure hunters . Part of a metal spoon and round rocks are discovered under tree stumps . Based on the rocks and the spoon pieces , Marty Lagina concludes that `` something must have happened here '' . A small piece of scrap metal is found in the mud brought up from one of the new boreholes being drilled in the `` money pit '' area . 48 `` Close Call '' November 28 , 2017 ( 2017 - 11 - 28 ) 3.36 Drilling below bedrock , the team discovers a void in the rock . A hose on the drill detaches resulting in a worker falling backward and suffering a minor injury to his wrist . Drilling is halted for over a week . A toy gun is found in the woods and the team launches an investigation of it . Lee Lamb and Richard Restall visit the island . Richard Restall is identified conclusively as the owner of the toy gun . 49 5 `` Bone Dry '' December 5 , 2017 ( 2017 - 12 - 05 ) 3.16 An iron spike is found on the beach . Some small pottery fragments are brought up from one of the boreholes . Two human bone fragments were recovered and sent in for testing . 50 6 `` Remains of the Day '' December 12 , 2017 ( 2017 - 12 - 12 ) 3.01 A piece of leather is found . Rick Lagina has headaches and a rash . He is later diagnosed as having lyme disease . The team intends to have the previously discovered human bone fragments carbon dated . 51 7 `` The Lot Thickens '' December 19 , 2017 ( 2017 - 12 - 19 ) 3.13 A theory is presented that Sir Francis Drake is buried on Oak Island in a vault with gold treasure . It is suggested that the lack of any records documenting Drake travelling to Canada is proof that he must have travelled to Canada . A theory is presented that the scrap leather piece found is from a book binding . A patch of ground is excavated and nothing is found . 52 8 `` Dan 's Breakthrough '' January 2 , 2018 ( 2018 - 01 - 02 ) 3.31 The team discovers a horseshoe , a piece of shot and another coin . It is discovered that one of the words on the Zena Halpern map is the name of a French family ( Rochefoucauld ) who participated in the Crusades . The team presents an unsupported theory that Samuel de Champlain was ordered to incorrectly map Nova Scotia to hide Oak Island by Pierre Dugua , Sieur de Mons at the direction of Rochefoucauld family . The team decides to send several members to France for further investigation of the theory . The testing on the human bone fragments ( found in episode 5 ) indicated that they dated in a range from 1682 AD to 1764 AD . 53 9 `` The French Connection '' January 9 , 2018 ( 2018 - 01 - 09 ) 3.02 A small pottery fragment is found on Lot 24 . It is determined that the rocks found in Season Five Episode 3 are not consistent with the foundation of a house . The team theorizes , without evidence , that there must have been a `` watchtower '' on Lot 24 . In France , the team establishes that there is no connection between the Rochefoucauld family and the Knights Templar . A Zena Halpern map is examined again and it is determined that the English translations of the map done to present have been incorrect . The team looks at cave carvings in France and consults an expert in the Knights Templar . The team observes a pattern in part of a cave carving that they claim is roughly similar to an upside - down image of the Rochefoucauld family coat of arms and conclude that the family must be linked to the Knights Templar . They find a carving of a multi-armed cross and offer an unsupported theory that it is a representation of the `` Tree of Life '' and that it is the same as Nolan 's Cross on the island . A theory is presented that the cave carving may represent an `` earlier version '' of the `` Tree of Life '' . Based on the information discovered in France , the team concludes that the Oak Island swamp should be excavated again . 54 10 `` The Signs Of A Cross '' January 16 , 2018 ( 2018 - 01 - 16 ) 3.34 Eight pages of what is alleged to be a transcript of an incomplete log of an unnamed ship are presented . It is claimed , without any evidence , that the log is from a French ship which participated in the Duc d'Anville Nova Scotia expedition of 1746 . More wood , a bone and a metal spike are brought up from a borehole in the money pit area . The shaft excavation reaches an obstruction at 170 feet . A small lead cross is found at Smith 's Cove . It is theorized , with no supporting evidence , that crosses with an attaching loop at the top were used by members of the Knights Templar and that this lead cross dates from the years 1200 to 1600 . 55 11 `` Moving Targets '' January 23 , 2018 ( 2018 - 01 - 23 ) 3.32 A spoon handle and a piece of brass are found at Smith 's Cove . More pottery fragments , another bone and small bits of leather are found in the material brought up from borehole H8 . The team debates the location of the `` Chappel Vault '' . 56 12 `` A Key to the Mystery '' January 30 , 2018 ( 2018 - 01 - 30 ) 3.25 The team gains access to Fred Nolan 's survey maps of the island but have difficulty interpreting them . A folding metal key is examined . Searching for a local dumpsite , the team digs a trench on Lot 12 near the former house of Fred Nolan . Pottery fragments are found in the trench . 57 13 `` Unhinged '' February 6 , 2018 ( 2018 - 02 - 06 ) 3.32 More pottery fragments and a metal hinge are found at the Nolan dumpsite . A part of the swamp is drained and a wooden stake is found . Zena Halpern is shown a picture of the lead cross and claims it is not a cross , but the symbol of the Phoenician goddess Tanit . She further makes unsupported claims that the cross is around 3200 years old ( dating to 1200 BC ) and that the Knights Templar worshiped Tanit . The drilling of the latest borehole encounters an obstruction at 75 feet . 58 14 `` The Templar Connection '' February 13 , 2018 ( 2018 - 02 - 13 ) 2.34 A history of the Knights Templar is presented along with speculative theories about how they might have been involved with Oak Island . Note : This episode is a special . 59 15 `` Steel Trapped '' February 20 , 2018 ( 2018 - 02 - 20 ) 2.99 Independent researcher Kathleen McGowan Coppens offers an unsupported theory that the lead cross was part of a necklace used by Templars to smuggle gold . She also claims that the country of Canada was named by the Templars after the town of Sarlat - la - Canéda in France . A rusty keyhole plate is found in the woods . On examination , the exposed surface of the drilling obstruction at the money pit appears to be rocks and clay soil . The borehole later fills with water . The team arranges for a diver to go down the borehole . 60 16 `` Seeing Red '' February 27 , 2018 ( 2018 - 02 - 27 ) 3.02 An excavation is done at Smith 's cove and wood is found . The team plans for further excavations at Smith 's cove next year . A button claimed to be from the 1700s and an old jewelry fragment are located by metal detector . 61 17 `` A Family Album '' February 27 , 2018 ( 2018 - 02 - 27 ) 1.98 The episode includes accounts of activities on the Oak Island by the McGinnis family , descendants of Samuel Ball , William Chappell 's family , the Restall Family and the family of Robert Dunfield . The Blankenship / Nolan disputes on Oak Island are discussed . The episode ends with a short history of the Lagina brothers ' interest in Oak Island . Note : This episode is a special . 62 18 `` Amazing Discoveries '' March 6 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 06 ) 2.89 The gem in the Jewelry fragment found on the island is a Rhodolite Garnet stone of small value . The drilling obstruction in the `` money pit '' borehole is determined by divers to be a granite boulder . References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` Shows A-Z - curse of oak island , the on history '' . The Futon Critic . Retrieved December 6 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` History to Premiere New Series ' The Curse of Oak Island ' , 1 / 5 '' . BroadwayWorld . Retrieved January 4 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda . `` History Announces New Series ' The Curse of Oak Island ' '' . Zap2It . Retrieved January 4 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Treasure Hunters : U.P. Natives on History Channel tonight '' . The Mining Journal . Marquette , MI . Associated Press . January 5 , 2014 . Retrieved January 6 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Marty Lagina 's Wiki : Net Worth , Brother , Wife & Facts to Know '' . Earn The Necklace. 2017 - 12 - 06 . Retrieved 2017 - 12 - 28 . Jump up ^ `` About ' The Curse of Oak Island ' '' . History Channel . Retrieved January 4 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Matthes , Ilsa ( February 8 , 2014 ) . `` Treasure or Money Pit ? : History Channel Star Visits Escanaba School '' . Daily Press . Escanaba , Michigan . Jump up ^ Conaton , Chris ( January 5 , 2014 ) . `` ' The Curse of Oak Island ' : Slow Going '' . PopMatters . Retrieved January 6 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` History Channel 's Curse of Oak Island gets film funding for Season 4 '' . The Chronicle Herald . 2016 - 08 - 02 . Retrieved 2016 - 08 - 02 . Jump up ^ Facebook , `` Curse of Oak Island '' . Accessed October 6 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Sunday Cable Ratings : ' Real Housewives of Atlanta ' Wins Night , ' Blood , Sweat & Heels ' , ' Ax Men ' , ' Thicker Than Water ' & More - TV By The Numbers by zap2it.com '' . TV By The Numbers by zap2it.com . Jump up ^ `` Sunday Cable Ratings : ' Real Housewives of Atlanta ' Wins Night , ' True Detective ' , ' Ax Men ' , ' Shameless ' & More - TV By The Numbers by zap2it.com '' . TV By The Numbers by zap2it.com . Jump up ^ `` Sunday Cable Ratings : ' Real Housewives of Atlanta ' Wins Night , ' Keeping Up With the Kardashians ' , ' Shameless ' , ' True Detective ' , ' Girls ' & More - TV By The Numbers by zap2it.com '' . TV By The Numbers by zap2it.com . Jump up ^ `` Sunday Cable Ratings : ' Real Housewives of Atlanta ' Wins Night + ' Live From the Red Carpet ' , ' Curse of Oak Island ' , ' Sister Wives ' & More - TV By The Numbers by zap2it.com '' . TV By The Numbers by zap2it.com . Jump up ^ `` Sunday Cable Ratings : ' The Walking Dead ' Tops Night + ' Real Housewives of Atlanta ' , ' Keeping Up With the Kardashians ' & More - TV By The Numbers by zap2it.com '' . TV By The Numbers by zap2it.com . Jump up ^ `` SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 25 Tuesday Cable Originals ( & Network Update ) : 11.4. 2014 '' . Jump up ^ `` SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 25 Tuesday Cable Originals Ratings ( & Network Update ) : 11.11. 2014 '' . Jump up ^ `` SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 25 Tuesday Cable Originals ( & Network Update ) : 11.18. 2014 '' . Jump up ^ `` SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 25 Tuesday Cable Originals ( & Network Update ) : 11.25. 2014 '' . Jump up ^ `` SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 25 Tuesday Cable Originals ( & Network Update ) : 12.2. 2014 '' . Jump up ^ `` SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 25 Tuesday Cable Originals ( & Network Update ) : 12.9. 2014 '' . Jump up ^ `` SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 25 Tuesday Cable Originals ( & Network Update ) : 12.16. 2014 '' . Jump up ^ `` SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 25 Tuesday Cable Originals ( & Network Update ) : 12.23. 2014 '' . Jump up ^ `` Tuesday Cable Ratings : ' The Haves and the Have Nots ' Wins Night ' ' Pretty Little Liars ' , ' Switched at Birth ' , ' Dance Moms ' , ' The Real World ' & More - TV By The Numbers by zap2it.com '' . TV By The Numbers by zap2it.com . Jump up ^ `` Tuesday Cable Ratings : ' Pretty Little Liars ' Tops Night + ' The Real Housewives of Beverly Hills ' , ' The Curse of Oak Island ' & More - TV By The Numbers by zap2it.com '' . TV By The Numbers by zap2it.com . Jump up ^ `` History.ca : The Hole Truth Episode Guide '' . history.ca . Jump up ^ `` Tuesday cable ratings : Republican debate sets a Fox Business record '' . TV By The Numbers by zap2it.com . Jump up ^ `` History.ca : Pipe Down Episode Guide '' . history.ca . Jump up ^ `` Tuesday cable ratings : ESPN leads quiet primetime , plus ' Curse of Oak Island , ' ' Being Mary Jane ' - TV By The Numbers by zap2it.com '' . TV By The Numbers by zap2it.com . Jump up ^ `` History.ca : Time To Dig Episode Guide '' . history.ca . Jump up ^ `` Tuesday cable ratings : NBA on TNT leads , plus ' Chrisley Knows Best , ' ' Curse of Oak Island ' - TV By The Numbers by zap2it.com '' . TV By The Numbers by zap2it.com . Jump up ^ `` History.ca : The Overton Stone Episode Guide '' . history.ca . Jump up ^ `` Tuesday cable ratings : It 's a ' Big Bang ' kind of day - TV By The Numbers by zap2it.com '' . TV By The Numbers by zap2it.com . Jump up ^ `` History.ca : Disappearing Act Episode Guide '' . history.ca . Jump up ^ `` Tuesday cable ratings : ' Family Guy ' leads day , ' Curse of Oak Island ' and ' Moonshiners ' top originals - TV By The Numbers by zap2it.com '' . TV By The Numbers by zap2it.com . Jump up ^ `` History.ca : Carved In Stone Episode Guide '' . history.ca . ^ Jump up to : `` Shows A-Z - curse of oak island , the on history - TheFutonCritic.com '' . Jump up ^ `` Tuesday cable ratings : Republican debate delivers big numbers for CNN '' . TV By The Numbers by zap2it.com . Jump up ^ `` History.ca : The Missing Peace Episode Guide '' . history.ca . Jump up ^ `` Tuesday cable ratings : ' Curse of Oak Island ' and ' Big Bang Theory ' win the day - TV By The Numbers by zap2it.com '' . TV By The Numbers by zap2it.com . Jump up ^ `` History.ca : Phantoms of the Deep Episode Guide '' . history.ca . Jump up ^ `` UPDATED : SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Update : 12.29. 2015 '' . Retrieved December 31 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` History.ca : The Curse of Oak Island : Columbus Day '' . history.ca . Jump up ^ `` UPDATED : SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Update : 1.5. 2016 '' . Retrieved January 6 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` History.ca : Silence in the Dark Episode Guide '' . history.ca . Jump up ^ `` UPDATED : SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Update : 1.12. 2016 '' . Retrieved January 13 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` History.ca : Sword Play Episode Guide '' . history.ca . Jump up ^ `` UPDATED : SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Update : 1.19. 2016 '' . Retrieved January 21 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` History.ca : The Curse of Oak Island : Voices From Below '' . history.ca . Jump up ^ `` UPDATED : SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Update : 1.26. 2016 '' . Retrieved January 27 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 2.2. 2016 '' . Retrieved February 3 , 2016 . Jump up ^ history.com , `` The Curse of Oak Island : Season 4 '' . Accessed November 13 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( November 16 , 2016 ) . `` UPDATED : SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 11.15. 2016 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved November 16 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( November 23 , 2016 ) . `` UPDATED : SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 11.22. 2016 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved November 23 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( November 30 , 2016 ) . `` UPDATED : SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 11.29. 2016 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved November 30 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( December 7 , 2016 ) . `` UPDATED : SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 12.6. 2016 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved December 7 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( December 14 , 2016 ) . `` UPDATED : SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 12.13. 2016 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved December 14 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( December 21 , 2016 ) . `` UPDATED : SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 12.20. 2016 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved December 21 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( December 29 , 2016 ) . `` UPDATED : SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 12.27. 2016 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved December 29 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( January 5 , 2017 ) . `` UPDATED : SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 1.3. 2017 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved January 5 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( January 11 , 2017 ) . `` UPDATED : SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 1.10. 2017 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved January 11 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( January 19 , 2017 ) . `` UPDATED : SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 1.17. 2017 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved January 19 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( January 25 , 2017 ) . `` UPDATED : SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 1.24. 2017 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved January 25 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( February 1 , 2017 ) . `` UPDATED : SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 1.31. 2017 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved February 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( February 8 , 2017 ) . `` UPDATED : SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 2.7. 2017 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved February 8 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( February 15 , 2017 ) . `` UPDATED : SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 2.14. 2017 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved February 15 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( February 23 , 2017 ) . `` UPDATED : SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 2.21. 2017 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved February 23 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( March 1 , 2017 ) . `` UPDATED : SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 2.28. 2017 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved March 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( November 8 , 2017 ) . `` Updated : ShowBuzzDaily 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 11.7. 2017 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved November 8 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( November 15 , 2017 ) . `` Updated : ShowBuzzDaily 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 11.14. 2017 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved November 15 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( November 22 , 2017 ) . `` Updated : ShowBuzzDaily 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 11.21. 2017 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved November 22 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( November 29 , 2017 ) . `` Updated : ShowBuzzDaily 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 11.28. 2017 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved November 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( December 6 , 2017 ) . `` Updated : ShowBuzzDaily 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 12.5. 2017 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved December 6 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( December 13 , 2017 ) . `` Updated : ShowBuzzDaily 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 12.12. 2017 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved December 13 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( December 20 , 2017 ) . `` Updated : ShowBuzzDaily 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 12.19. 2017 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved December 20 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( January 4 , 2018 ) . `` Updated : ShowBuzzDaily 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 1.2. 2018 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved January 4 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( January 10 , 2018 ) . `` Updated : ShowBuzzDaily 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 1.9. 2018 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved January 10 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( January 18 , 2018 ) . `` Updated : ShowBuzzDaily 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 1.16. 2018 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved January 18 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( January 24 , 2018 ) . `` Updated : ShowBuzzDaily 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 1.23. 2018 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved January 24 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( January 31 , 2018 ) . `` Updated : ShowBuzzDaily 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 1.30. 2018 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved January 31 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( February 7 , 2018 ) . `` Updated : ShowBuzzDaily 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 2.6. 2018 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved February 7 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( February 14 , 2018 ) . `` Updated : ShowBuzzDaily 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 2.13. 2018 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved February 14 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( February 22 , 2018 ) . `` Updated : ShowBuzzDaily 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 2.20. 2018 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved February 22 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Metcalf , Mitch ( February 28 , 2018 ) . `` Updated : ShowBuzzDaily 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 2.27. 2018 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved February 28 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( March 7 , 2018 ) . `` Updated : ShowBuzzDaily 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 3.6. 2018 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved March 7 , 2018 . Further reading ( edit ) MacDonald , David ( 1965 ) . `` Treasure Hunt : The Mystery of Oak Island '' . Reader 's Digest -- via readersdigest.ca . 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Gallbladder - Wikipedia Gallbladder This is the latest accepted revision , reviewed on 18 January 2018 . Jump to : navigation , search Gallbladder The gallbladder sits beneath the liver . Details Precursor Foregut System Digestive system Artery Cystic artery Vein Cystic vein Nerve Celiac ganglia , Vagus nerve Identifiers Latin Vesica biliaris , vesica fellea MeSH A03. 159.439 Dorlands / Elsevier 12383343 TA A05. 8.02. 001 FMA 7202 Anatomical terminology ( edit on Wikidata ) In vertebrates , the gallbladder is a small hollow organ where bile is stored and concentrated before it is released into the small intestine . In humans , the pear - shaped gallbladder lies beneath the liver , although the structure and position of the gallbladder can vary significantly among animal species . It receives and stores bile , produced by the liver , via the common hepatic duct , and releases it via the common bile duct into the duodenum , where the bile helps in the digestion of fats . The gallbladder can be affected by gallstones , formed by material that can not be dissolved -- usually cholesterol or bilirubin , a product of haemoglobin breakdown . These may cause significant pain , particularly in the right upper corner of the abdomen , and are often treated with removal of the gallbladder called a cholecystectomy . Cholecystitis , inflammation of the gallbladder , has a wide range of causes , including result from the impaction of gallstones , infection , and autoimmune disease . Contents ( hide ) 1 Structure 1.1 Microanatomy 1.2 Variation 1.3 Development 2 Function 3 Clinical significance 3.1 Gallstones 3.2 Inflammation 3.3 Gallbladder removal 3.4 Cancer 3.5 Tests 4 Society and culture 5 Other animals 6 History 7 See also 8 References 9 External links Structure ( edit ) The gallbladder is a hollow organ that sits in a shallow depression below the right lobe of the liver , that is grey - blue in life . In adults , the gallbladder measures approximately 7 to 10 centimetres ( 2.8 to 3.9 inches ) in length and 4 centimetres ( 1.6 in ) in diameter when fully distended . The gallbladder has a capacity of about 50 millilitres ( 1.8 imperial fluid ounces ) . The gallbladder is shaped like a pear , with its tip opening into the cystic duct . The gallbladder is divided into three sections : the fundus , body , and neck . The fundus is the rounded base , angled so that it faces the abdominal wall . The body lies in a depression in the surface of the lower liver . The neck tapers and is continuous with the cystic duct , part of the biliary tree . The gallbladder fossa , against which the fundus and body of the gallbladder lie , is found beneath the junction of hepatic segments IVB and V . The cystic duct unites with the common hepatic duct to become the common bile duct . At the junction of the neck of the gallbladder and the cystic duct , there is an out - pouching of the gallbladder wall forming a mucosal fold known as `` Hartmann 's pouch '' . Microanatomy ( edit ) Micrograph of a normal gallbladder wall . H&E stain . The gallbladder wall is composed of a number of layers . The gallbladder wall 's innermost surface is lined by a single layer of columnar cells with a brush border of microvilli , very similar to intestinal absorptive cells . Underneath the epithelium is an underlying lamina propria , a muscular layer , an outer perimuscular layer and serosa . Unlike elsewhere in the intestinal tract , the gallbladder does not have a muscularis mucosae , and the muscular fibres are not arranged in distinct layers . The mucosa , the inner portion of the gallbladder wall , consists of a lining of a single layer of columnar cells , with cells possessing small hair - like attachments called microvilli . This sits on a thin layer of connective tissue , the lamina propria . The mucosa is curved and collected into tiny outpouchings called rugae . A muscular layer sits beneath the mucosa . This is formed by smooth muscle , with fibres that lie in longitudinal , oblique and transverse directions , and are not arranged in separate layers . The muscle fibres here contract to expel bile from the gallbladder . A distinctive feature of the gallbladder is the presence of Rokitansky -- Aschoff sinuses , deep outpouchings of the mucosa that can extend through the muscular layer . The muscular layer is surrounded by a layer of connective and fat tissue . The outer layer of the fundus of gallbladder , and the surfaces not in contact with the liver , are covered by a thick serosa , which is exposed to the peritoneum . The serosa contains blood vessels and lymphatics . The surfaces in contact with the liver are covered in connective tissue . Variation ( edit ) The gallbladder varies in size , shape , and position between different people . Rarely , two or even three gallbladders may coexist , either as separate bladders draining into the cystic duct , or sharing a common branch that drains into the cystic duct . Additionally , the gallbladder may fail to form at all . Gallbladders with two lobes separated by a septum may also exist . These abnormalities are not likely to affect function and are generally asymptomatic . The location of the gallbladder in relation to the liver may also vary , with documented variants including gallbladders found within , above , on the left side of , behind , and detached or suspended from the liver . Such variants are very rare : from 1886 to 1998 , only 110 cases of left - lying liver , or less than one per year , were reported in scientific literature . An anatomical variation can occur , known as a Phrygian cap , which is an innocuous fold in the fundus , named after its resemblance to the Phrygian cap . Development ( edit ) The gallbladder develops from an endodermal outpouching of the embryonic gut tube . Early in development , the human embryo has three germ layers and abuts an embryonic yolk sac . During the second week of embryogenesis , as the embryo grows , it begins to surround and envelop portions of this sac . The enveloped portions form the basis for the adult gastrointestinal tract . Sections of this foregut begin to differentiate into the organs of the gastrointestinal tract , such as the esophagus , stomach , and intestines . During the fourth week of embryological development , the stomach rotates . The stomach , originally lying in the midline of the embryo , rotates so that its body is on the left . This rotation also affects the part of the gastrointestinal tube immediately below the stomach , which will go on to become the duodenum . By the end of the fourth week , the developing duodenum begins to spout a small outpouching on its right side , the hepatic diverticulum , which will go on to become the biliary tree . Just below this is a second outpouching , known as the cystic diverticulum , that will eventually develop into the gallbladder . Function ( edit ) 1 . Bile ducts : 2 . Intrahepatic bile ducts , 3 . Left and right hepatic ducts , 4 . Common hepatic duct , 5 . Cystic duct , 6 . Common bile duct , 7 . Ampulla of Vater , 8 . Major duodenal papilla 9 . Gallbladder , 10 -- 11 . Right and left lobes of liver . 12 . Spleen . 13 . Esophagus. 14 . Stomach . 15 . Pancreas : 16 . Accessory pancreatic duct , 17 . Pancreatic duct . 18 . Small intestine : 19 . Duodenum , 20 . Jejunum 21 -- 22 . Right and left kidneys . The front border of the liver has been lifted up ( brown arrow ) . The main purpose of the gallbladder is to store bile , also called gall , needed for the digestion of fats in food . Produced by the liver , bile flows through small vessels into the larger hepatic ducts and ultimately though the cystic duct ( parts of the biliary tree ) into the gallbladder , where it is stored . At any one time , 30 to 60 millilitres ( 1.0 to 2.0 US fl oz ) of bile is stored within the gallbladder . When food containing fat enters the digestive tract , it stimulates the secretion of cholecystokinin ( CCK ) from I cells of the duodenum and jejunum . In response to cholecystokinin , the gallbladder rhythmically contracts and releases its contents into the common bile duct , eventually draining into the duodenum . The bile emulsifies fats in partly digested food , thereby assisting their absorption . Bile consists primarily of water and bile salts , and also acts as a means of eliminating bilirubin , a product of hemoglobin metabolism , from the body . The bile that is secreted by the liver and stored in the gallbladder is not the same as the bile that is secreted by the gallbladder . During gallbladder storage of bile , it is concentrated by removal of some water and electrolytes . This is through the active transport of sodium ions across the epithelium of the gallbladder , which creates an osmotic pressure that also causes water and other electrolytes such as chloride to be reabsorbed . Clinical significance ( edit ) Main article : Gallbladder disease Gallstones ( edit ) Main article : Gallstones Gallstones form when the bile is saturated , usually with either cholesterol or bilirubin . Most gallstones do not cause symptoms , with stones either remaining in the gallbladder or passed along the biliary system . When symptoms occur , severe `` colicky '' pain in the upper right part of the abdomen is often felt . If the stone blocks the gallbladder , inflammation known as cholecystitis may result . If the stone lodges in the biliary system , jaundice may occur ; and if the stone blocks the pancreatic duct , then pancreatitis may occur . Gallstones are diagnosed using ultrasound . When a symptomatic gallstone occurs , it is often managed by waiting it to be passed naturally . Given the likelihood of recurrent gallstones , surgery to remove the gallbladder is often considered . Some medication , such as ursodeoxycholic acid , may be used ; and lithotripsy , a procedure used to break down the stones , may also be used . Inflammation ( edit ) Main article : Cholecystitis Known as cholecystitis , inflammation of the gallbladder is commonly caused by obstruction of the duct with gallstones , which is known as cholelithiasis . Blocked bile accumulates , and pressure on the gallbladder wall may lead to the release of substances that cause inflammation , such as phospholipase . There is also the risk of bacterial infection . An inflamed gallbladder is likely to cause pain and fever , and tenderness in the upper , right corner of the abdomen , and may have a positive Murphy 's sign . Cholecystitis is often managed with rest and antibiotics , particularly cephalosporins and , in severe cases , metronidazole . Gallbladder removal ( edit ) Main article : Cholecystectomy A cholecystectomy is a procedure in which the gallbladder is removed . It may be removed because of recurrent gallstones , and is considered an elective procedure . A cholecystectomy may be an open procedure , or one conducted by laparoscopy . In the surgery , the gallbladder is removed from the neck to the fundus , and so bile will drain directly from the liver into the biliary tree . About 30 percent of patients may experience some degree of indigestion following the procedure , although severe complications are much rarer . About 10 percent of surgeries lead to a chronic condition of postcholecystectomy syndrome . Cancer ( edit ) Main article : Gallbladder carcinoma Cancer of the gallbladder is uncommon and mostly occurs in later life . When cancer occurs , it is mostly of the glands lining the surface of the gallbladder ( adenocarcinoma ) . Gallstones are thought to be linked to the formation of cancer , and other risk factors include large ( > 1 cm ) gallbladder polyps and having a highly calcified `` porcelain '' gallbladder . Cancer of the gallbladder can cause attacks of biliary pain , yellowing of the skin ( jaundice ) , and weight loss . A large gallbladder may be able to felt in the abdomen . Liver function tests may be elevated , particularly involving GGT and ALP , with ultrasound and CT scans being considered medical imaging investigations of choice . Cancer of the gallbladder is managed by removing the gallbladder , however As of 2010 the prognosis remains poor . Cancer of the gallbladder may also be found incidentally after surgical removal of the gallbladder , with 1 - 3 % of cancers identified in this way . Gallbladder polyps are mostly benign growths or lesions resembling growths that form in the gallbladder wall , and are only associated with cancer when they are larger in size ( > 1 cm ) . Cholesterol polyps , often associated with cholesterolosis ( `` strawberry gallbladder '' , a change in the gallbladder wall due to excess cholesterol. ) Such polyps often cause no symptoms and so are often detected in this way . Tests ( edit ) An ultrasound showing the gallbladder ( central dark area ) with a large gallstone ( white circular area found near the middle ) . Tests used to investigate for gallbladder disease include blood tests and medical imaging . A full blood count may reveal an increased white cell count suggestive of inflammation or infection . Tests such as bilirubin and liver function tests may reveal if there is inflammation linked to the biliary tree or gallbladder , and whether this is associated with inflammation of the liver , and a lipase or amylase may be elvated if there is pancreatitis . Bilirubin may rise when there is obstruction of the flow of bile . A CA 19 - 9 level may be taken to investigate for cholangiocarcinoma . Ultrasound is often the first medical imaging test performed when gallbladder disease such as gallstones are suspected . An abdominal X-ray or CT scan is another form of imaging that may be used to examine the gallbladder and surrounding organs . Other imaging options include MRCP ( magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography ) , ERCP and percutaneous or intraoperative cholangiography . A cholescintigraphy scan is a nuclear imaging procedure used to assess the condition of the gallbladder . Society and Culture ( edit ) To have ' gall ' is associated with bold behaviour , whereas to have ' bile ' is associated with bitterness . In the Chinese language , the gallbladder ( Chinese : 膽 ) is associated with courage and a myriad of related idioms , including using terms such as `` a body completely ( of ) gall '' ( Chinese : 渾身 是 膽 ) to describe a brave person , and `` single gallbladder hero '' ( Chinese : 孤膽 英雄 ) to describe a lone hero . In the Zangfu theory of Chinese medicine , the gallbladder not only has a digestive role , but is seen as the seat of decision - making . Other animals ( edit ) Most vertebrates have gallbladders , but the form and arrangement of the bile ducts may vary considerably . In many species , for example , there are several separate ducts running to the intestine , rather than the single common bile duct found in humans . Several species of mammals ( including horses , deer , rats , and laminoids ) , several species of birds , lampreys and all invertebrates lack a gallbladder altogether . The bile from several species of bears is used in Traditional Chinese medicine ; bile bears are kept alive in captivity while their bile is painfully extracted , in an industry characterized by animal cruelty . History ( edit ) Depictions of the gallbladder and biliary tree are found in Babylonian models found from 2000 BCE , and in ancient Etruscan model from 200 BCE , with models associated with divine worship . Diseases of the gallbladder have affected humans since antiquity , with gallstones found in the mummy of Princess Amenen of Thebes dating to 1500 BCE . Some historians believe the death of Alexander the Great may have been associated with an acute episode of cholecystitis . The existence of the gallbladder has been noted since the 5th century , but it is only relatively recently that the function and the diseases of the gallbladder has been documented , particularly in the last two centuries . The first descriptions of gallstones appear to have been in the Renaissance , perhaps because of the low incidence of gallstones in earlier times owing to a diet with more cereals and vegetables , and less meat . Anthonius Benevinius in 1506 was the first to draw a connection between symptoms and the presence of gallstones . Courvoisier after examining a number of cases in 1890 that gave rise to the eponymous Courvoisier 's law stating that in an enlarged , nontender gallbladder , the cause of jaundice is unlikely to be gallstones . The first surgical removal of a gallstone ( cholecystolithotomy ) was in 1676 by physician Joenisius , who removed the stones from a spontaneously occurring biliary fistula . Stough Hobbs in 1867 performed the first recorded cholecystotomy , although such an operation was in fact described earlier by French surgeon Jean Louis Petit in the mid eighteenth century . German surgeon Carl Langenbuch performed the first cholecystectomy in 1882 for a sufferer of cholelithiasis . Before this , surgery had focused on creating a fistula for drainage of gallstones . Langenbuch reasoned that given several other species of mammal has no gallbladder , humans could survive without one . The debate whether surgical removal of the gallbladder or simply gallstones was preferred was settled in the 1920s , with consensus that removal of the gallbladder was preferred . It was only in the mid and late parts of the twentieth century that medical imaging techniques such as use of contrast medium and CT scans were used to view the gallbladder . The first laparoscopic cholecystectomy performed by Erich Mühe of Germany in 1985 , although French surgeons Phillipe Mouret and Francois Dubois are often credited for their operations in 1987 and 1988 respectively . See also ( edit ) Medicine portal Enterohepatic circulation References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Ginsburg , Ph. D. , J.N. ( August 22 , 2005 ) . `` Control of Gastrointestinal Function '' . In Thomas M. Nosek , Ph. D. Gastrointestinal Physiology . Essentials of Human Physiology . Augusta , Georgia , United State : Medical College of Georgia . pp. p. 30 . Archived from the original on April 1 , 2008 . Retrieved June 29 , 2007 . ^ Jump up to : Gray 's Anatomy 2008 , p. 1187 - 81 . Jump up ^ Jon W. Meilstrup ( 1994 ) . Imaging Atlas of the Normal Gallbladder and Its Variants . Boca Raton : CRC Press . p. 4 . ISBN 0 - 8493 - 4788 - 2 . Jump up ^ Nagral , Sanjay ( 2005 ) . `` Anatomy relevant to cholecystectomy '' . Journal of Minimal Access Surgery . 1 ( 2 ) : 53 . doi : 10.4103 / 0972 - 9941.16527 . Jump up ^ Shakelford 's Surgery of Alimentary Tract , ed. 7 . 2013 ^ Jump up to : Young , Barbara ; et al. ( 2006 ) . Wheater 's functional histology : a text and colour atlas ( 5th ed . ) . ( Edinburgh ? ) : Churchill Livingstone / Elsevier . p. 298 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 443 - 06850 - 8 . Jump up ^ Ross , M. ; Pawlina , W. ( 2011 ) . Histology : A Text and Atlas ( 6th ed . ) . Lippincott Williams & Wilkins . p. 646 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7817 - 7200 - 6 . Jump up ^ Leeuw , Th. G. ; Verbeek , P.C.M. ; Rauws , E.A.J. ; Gouma , D.J. ( September 1995 ) . `` A double or bilobar gallbladder as a cause of severe complications after ( laparoscopic ) cholecystectomy '' . Surgical Endoscopy. 9 ( 9 ) : 998 -- 1000 . doi : 10.1007 / BF00188459 . PMID 7482221 . Jump up ^ Segura - Sampedro , JJ ; Navarro - Sánchez , A ; Ashrafian , H ; Martínez - Isla , A ( February 2015 ) . `` Laparoscopic approach to the intrahepatic gallbladder . A case report '' . Revista espanola de enfermedades digestivas : organo oficial de la Sociedad Espanola de Patologia Digestiva. 107 ( 2 ) : 122 -- 3 . PMID 25659400 . Archived from the original on March 4 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Dhulkotia , A ; Kumar , S ; Kabra , V ; Shukla , HS ( March 1 , 2002 ) . `` Aberrant gallbladder situated beneath the left lobe of liver '' . HPB. 4 ( 1 ) : 39 -- 42 . doi : 10.1080 / 136518202753598726 . Jump up ^ Naganuma , S. ; Ishida , H. ; Konno , K. ; Hamashima , Y. ; Hoshino , T. ; Naganuma , H. ; Komatsuda , T. ; Ohyama , Y. ; Yamada , N. ; Ishida , J. ; Masamune , O. ( March 6 , 2014 ) . `` Sonographic findings of anomalous position of the gallbladder '' . Abdominal Imaging. 23 ( 1 ) : 67 -- 72 . doi : 10.1007 / s002619900287 . PMID 9437066 . Jump up ^ Meilstrup JW ; Hopper KD ; Thieme GA ( December 1991 ) . `` Imaging of gallbladder variants '' . AJR Am J Roentgenol. 157 ( 6 ) : 1205 -- 8 . doi : 10.2214 / ajr. 157.6. 1950867 . PMID 1950867 . ^ Jump up to : Gary C. Schoenwolf ; et al. ( 2009 ) . Larsen 's human embryology ( Thoroughly rev. and updated 4th ed . ) . Philadelphia : Churchill Livingstone / Elsevier . pp. `` Development of the Gastrointestinal Tract '' . ISBN 978 - 0 - 443 - 06811 - 9 . Jump up ^ editor - in - chief , Susan Standring ; section editors , Neil R. Borley ; et al. ( 2008 ) . Gray 's anatomy : the anatomical basis of clinical practice ( 40th ed . ) . London : Churchill Livingstone . pp. 1163 , 1177 , 1185 -- 6 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8089 - 2371 - 8 . CS1 maint : Explicit use of et al. ( link ) CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) CS1 maint : Extra text : authors list ( link ) ^ Jump up to : Hall , Arthur C. Guyton , John E. ( 2005 ) . Textbook of medical physiology ( 11th ed . ) . Philadelphia : W.B. Saunders . pp. 802 -- 804 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7216 - 0240 - 0 . ^ Jump up to : `` Cholelithiasis - Hepatic and Biliary Disorders - MSD Manual Professional Edition '' . MSD Manual Professional Edition . Retrieved 18 October 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Britton , the editors Nicki R. Colledge , Brian R. Walker , Stuart H. Ralston ; illustrated by Robert ( 2010 ) . Davidson 's principles and practice of medicine ( 21st ed . ) . Edinburgh : Churchill Livingstone / Elsevier . pp. 977 -- 984 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7020 - 3085 - 7 . Jump up ^ Neri V ; Ambrosi A ; Fersini A ; Tartaglia N ; Valentino TP ( 2007 ) . `` Antegrade dissection in laparoscopic cholecystectomy '' . JSLS : Journal of the Society of Laparoendoscopic Surgeons / Society of Laparoendoscopic Surgeons. 11 ( 2 ) : 225 -- 8 . PMC 3015719 . PMID 17761085 . Jump up ^ nhs.uk , Complications of a gallbladder removal Jump up ^ `` Gallbladder Polyps '' . MayoClinic . Retrieved March 19 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Strawberry gallbladder -- cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk . Jump up ^ `` HIDA scan - Overview '' . Mayo Clinic . Retrieved 18 October 2017 . Jump up ^ J.A. Simpson ( 1989 ) . The Oxford English dictionary ( 2nd ed . ) . Oxford : Clarendon Press . gall , bile . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 861186 - 8 . ^ Jump up to : Yu , Ning ( January 1 , 2003 ) . `` Metaphor , Body , and Culture : The Chinese Understanding of Gallbladder and Courage '' . Metaphor and Symbol. 18 ( 1 ) : 13 -- 31 . doi : 10.1207 / S15327868MS1801_2 . Jump up ^ C. Michael Hogan . 2008 . Guanaco : Lama guanicoe , GlobalTwitcher.com , ed . N. Strömberg Archived March 4 , 2011 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Higashiyama , H ; Sumitomo , H ; Ozawa , A ; Igarashi , H ; Tsunekawa , N ; Kurohmaru , M ; Kanai , Y ( 2016 ) . `` Anatomy of the Murine Hepatobiliary System : A Whole - Organ - Level Analysis Using a Transparency Method '' . The Anatomical Record . 299 ( 2 ) : 161 -- 172 . doi : 10.1002 / ar. 23287 . PMID 26559382 . Jump up ^ Romer , Alfred Sherwood ; Parsons , Thomas S. ( 1977 ) . The Vertebrate Body . Philadelphia , PA : Holt - Saunders International . p. 355 . ISBN 0 - 03 - 910284 - X . Jump up ^ Actman , Jani ( 5 May 2016 ) . `` Inside the Disturbing World of Bear - Bile Farming '' . National Geographic . Retrieved 23 October 2017 . Jump up ^ Hance , Jeremy ( 9 April 2015 ) . `` Is the end of ' house of horror ' bear bile factories in sight ? '' . The Guardian . Retrieved 23 October 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Eachempati , Soumitra R. ; II , R. Lawrence Reed ( 2015 ) . Acute Cholecystitis . Springer . pp. 1 -- 16 . ISBN 9783319148243 . ^ Jump up to : Jarnagin , William R. ( 2012 ) . Blumgart 's Surgery of the Liver , Pancreas and Biliary Tract E-Book : Expert Consult - Online . Elsevier Health Sciences . p. 511 . ISBN 1455746061 . ^ Jump up to : Bateson , M.C. ( 2012 ) . Gallstone Disease and its Management . Springer Science & Business Media . pp. 1 -- 2 . ISBN 9789400941731 . Jump up ^ Reynolds , Walker ( January -- March 2001 ) . `` The First Laparoscopic Cholecystectomy '' . Journal of the Society of Laparoendoscopic surgeons. 5 ( 1 ) : 89 -- 94 . Books editor - in - chief , Susan Standring ; section editors , Neil R. Borley ; et al. ( 2008 ) . Gray 's anatomy : the anatomical basis of clinical practice ( 40th ed . ) . London : Churchill Livingstone . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8089 - 2371 - 8 . CS1 maint : Explicit use of et al. ( link ) CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) CS1 maint : Extra text : authors list ( link ) External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gallbladder . Diagram of Human Stomach and Gallbladder -- Human Anatomy Online dd , MyHealthScore.com . ( hide ) Anatomy of the liver , pancreas and biliary tree Liver Bare area Cantlie line Ligamentum venosum Porta hepatis Round ligament Lobes of liver Caudate Quadrate Fibrous capsule of Glisson Perisinusoidal space Liver sinusoid Periportal space Portal triad Lobules of liver Liver segment Microanatomy Hepatocyte Hepatic stellate cell Kupffer cell Biliary tract Bile ducts Intrahepatic bile ducts Bile canaliculus Canals of Hering Interlobular Left hepatic duct Right hepatic duct Common hepatic duct Gallbladder Cystic duct Common bile duct Ampulla of Vater Sphincter of Oddi Cells Cholecystocyte Pancreas Gross Tail Body Neck Head ( Uncinate process ) Ducts main accessory Microanatomy Pancreatic islets Centroacinar cell Stellate cell GND : 4071544 - 9 NDL : 00572670 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gallbladder&oldid=821194740 '' Categories : Abdomen Animal anatomy Gallbladder Organs ( anatomy ) Hidden categories : CS1 maint : Explicit use of et al . 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where is gall bladder situated in human body

beneath the liver

beneath the liver

Director of the United States Mint - wikipedia Director of the United States Mint Jump to : navigation , search Seal of the United States Mint . The Director of the United States Mint is the head of the United States Mint . The position is currently vacant . Since January 20 , 2017 , the senior career official at the Mint has been Acting Principal Deputy Director David Motl . The office of Director has existed since the creation of the Mint by the Coinage Act of 1792 . Initially appointed serving at the pleasure of the President of the United States , the Coinage Act of 1873 specified a five - year term for Directors . The Director operates with general directions provided by the United States Secretary of the Treasury . Since the resignation of Edmund C. Moy in 2011 the mint has been without an official director . Initially Matthew Rhett Jeppson was nominated by US President Barack Obama to become the mint 's 39th director and was given the temporary title of principal deputy director , however the nomination was never confirmed by the Senate . Jeppson stepped down as principal deputy director in January 2017 , being replaced by Acting Principal Deputy Director David Motl . List of Directors of the United States Mint ( edit ) Name Assumed Office Left Office President Appointed By David Rittenhouse April 1792 June 1795 George Washington Henry William de Saussure July 1795 October 1795 Elias Boudinot October 1795 July 1805 Robert Patterson January 1806 July 1824 Thomas Jefferson Samuel Moore July 1824 July 1835 James Monroe Robert M. Patterson May 1835 July 1851 Andrew Jackson George Nicholas Eckert July 1851 April 1853 Millard Fillmore Thomas M. Pettit April 1853 May 1853 Franklin Pierce James Ross Snowden June 1853 May 1861 James Pollock May 1861 September 1866 Abraham Lincoln William Millward October 1866 April 1867 Andrew Johnson Henry Linderman April 1867 May 1869 James Pollock May 1869 March 1873 Ulysses S. Grant Henry Linderman April 1873 December 1878 Horatio C. Burchard February 1879 June 1885 Rutherford B. Hayes James P. Kimball July 1885 October 1889 Grover Cleveland Edward O. Leech October 1889 May 1893 Benjamin Harrison Robert E. Preston November 1893 February 1898 Grover Cleveland George E. Roberts February 1898 July 1907 William McKinley Frank A. Leach September 1907 August 1909 Theodore Roosevelt A. Piatt Andrew November 1909 June 1910 William Howard Taft George E. Roberts July 1910 November 1914 Robert W. Woolley March 1915 July 1916 Woodrow Wilson F.H. von Engelken September 1916 March 1917 Raymond T. Baker March 1917 March 1922 Frank Edgar Scobey March 1922 September 1923 Warren G. Harding Robert J. Grant November 1923 May 1933 Calvin Coolidge Nellie Tayloe Ross May 1933 April 1953 Franklin D. Roosevelt William H. Brett July 1954 January 1961 Dwight D. Eisenhower Eva Adams October 1961 August 1969 John F. Kennedy Mary Brooks September 1969 February 1977 Richard Nixon Stella Hackel Sims November 1977 April 1981 Jimmy Carter Donna Pope July 1981 August 1991 Ronald Reagan David J. Ryder September 1992 November 1993 George H.W. Bush Philip N. Diehl June 1994 March 2000 Bill Clinton Jay W. Johnson May 2000 August 2001 Henrietta H. Fore August 2001 August 2005 George W. Bush Edmund C. Moy September 2006 January 2011 David J. Ryder April 2018 Incumbent Donald Trump References ( edit ) Jump up ^ About the Mint at usmint.gov ( retrieved 20 April 2015 ) . Jump up ^ Gilkes , Paul ( 23 January 2017 ) . `` Rhett Jeppson leaves U.S. Mint as principal deputy director '' . coinworld.com . Retrieved 13 April 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Director 's Office '' . US Mint . Retrieved 13 April 2017 . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Director_of_the_United_States_Mint&oldid=836791366 '' Categories : Directors of the United States Mint United States Department of the Treasury 1792 establishments in the United States Talk About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 16 April 2018 , at 21 : 26 . About Wikipedia

who is the current director of the us mint

David Motl

David Motl

African Footballer of the Year - wikipedia African Footballer of the Year Jump to : navigation , search The African Footballer of the Year award , presented to the best African footballer each year , has been conferred by the Confederation of African Football ( CAF ) since 1992 . An earlier African Footballer of the Year Golden Ball award was given out between 1970 and 1994 by France Football magazine . The changes resulted in parallel Golden Ball awards given out to Abedi Pele and George Weah in 1993 and 1994 by the magazine although the CAF sponsored awards for those years were won respectively by Rashidi Yekini and Emmanuel Amuneke , as well as two awards given to Abedi Pelé in 1992 . France Football discontinued the election from 1995 after the European Ballon d'Or -- also awarded by the magazine -- had been opened to all players in the European leagues . On 2 February 2008 , Sevilla 's Frédéric Kanouté was named the 2007 African Footballer of the Year . Kanouté , who was born in France , is the first European - born player to win the award ( he plays for his father 's native country of Mali ) . Contents ( hide ) 1 Winners 1.1 France Football award ( 1970 -- 1994 ) 1.2 CAF award ( 1992 -- present ) 1.3 Wins By Country 1.4 Wins By Club 2 See also 3 References Winners ( edit ) France Football award ( 1970 -- 1994 ) ( edit ) Roger Milla , two - time winner of the award given by France Football . Lakhdar Belloumi , winner of the award in 1981 . Mahmoud El Khatib was the first player from Egypt to win the award in 1983 . The award by France Football magazine was awarded to the best African footballer between 1970 and 1994 . The award was discontinued in 1995 after the European Footballer of the Year ( Ballon d'Or ) was opened to players of non-European nationality , the award being given to George Weah that year . It had already been replaced by an official award given out by the Confederation of African Football since 1992 . Year Rank Player Team Points 1970 1st Salif Keïta Saint - Étienne 54 2nd Laurent Pokou ASEC Abidjan 28 Ali Abo Greisha Ismaily 1971 1st Ibrahim Sunday Asante Kotoko 29 2nd Robert Mensah Asante Kotoko 15 3rd François Ndoumbé Canon Yaoundé 13 1972 1st Chérif Souleymane Hafia 21 2nd Bwanga Tshimen TP Mazembe 16 3rd Petit Sory Hafia 14 1973 1st Bwanga Tshimen TP Mazembe 49 2nd Kazadi Mwamba TP Mazembe 44 3rd Laurent Pokou ASEC Abidjan 41 1st Paul Moukila CARA Brazzaville 57 2nd Lobilo Boba Vita Club 32 3rd Hassan Shehata Zamalek 28 1st Ahmed Faras Mohammédia 28 2nd Roger Milla Tonnerre Yaoundé 24 Mamadou Aliou Kéïta Hafia 1976 1st Roger Milla Tonnerre Yaoundé 33 2nd Papa Camara Hafia 32 3rd Ali Bencheikh MC Alger 27 1977 1st Tarak Dhiab Espérance Tunis 45 2nd Papa Camara Hafia 33 3rd Segun Odegbami Shooting Stars 29 1978 1st Karim Abdul Razak Asante Kotoko 58 2nd Ali Bencheikh MC Alger 33 3rd Thomas N'Kono Canon Yaoundé 29 1979 1st Thomas N'Kono Canon Yaoundé 55 2nd Adolf Armah Hearts of Oak 23 3rd Kerfalla Bangoura Horoya 15 1980 1st Jean Manga - Onguéné Canon Yaoundé 64 2nd Segun Odegbami Shooting Stars 41 3rd Théophile Abega Canon Yaoundé 18 1981 1st Lakhdar Belloumi GC Mascara 78 2nd Thomas N'Kono Canon Yaoundé 54 3rd Ali Fergani JS Kabylie 26 1982 1st Thomas N'Kono Espanyol 83 2nd Salah Assad Mulhouse 54 3rd Lakhdar Belloumi GC Mascara 36 1st Mahmoud El Khatib Al Ahly 98 2nd Opoku Nti Asante Kotoko 89 3rd Rafiou Moutairou OC Agaza 19 1984 1st Théophile Abega Toulouse 124 2nd Joseph - Antoine Bell El Mokawloon 65 Ibrahim Youssef Zamalek 1985 1st Mohamed Timoumi AS FAR 113 2nd Rabah Madjer Porto 45 3rd Ibrahim Youssef Zamalek 39 1986 1st Ezzaki Badou Mallorca 125 2nd Aziz Bouderbala Sion 88 3rd Roger Milla Montpellier 80 1st Rabah Madjer Porto 130 2nd Youssouf Falikou Fofana Monaco 63 3rd François Omam - Biyik Laval 52 1st Kalusha Bwalya Cercle Brugge 111 2nd Roger Milla Montpellier 68 3rd Youssouf Falikou Fofana Monaco 40 1st George Weah Monaco 133 2nd Joseph - Antoine Bell Bordeaux 105 3rd Kalusha Bwalya PSV 49 1st Roger Milla Saint - Pierroise 209 2nd Tahar Chérif El - Ouazzani Aydınspor 64 3rd Rabah Madjer Porto 60 François Omam - Biyik Rennes 1991 1st Abedi Pele Marseille 152 2nd George Weah Monaco 106 3rd François Omam - Biyik Cannes 52 1992 1st Abedi Pele Marseille 198 2nd George Weah Paris Saint - Germain 161 3rd Tony Yeboah Eintracht Frankfurt 64 1993 1st Abedi Pele Marseille 119 2nd Tony Yeboah Eintracht Frankfurt 117 3rd Rashidi Yekini Vitória de Setúbal 104 1994 1st George Weah Paris Saint - Germain 148 2nd Emmanuel Amunike Sporting CP 133 3rd Daniel Amokachi Everton 99 CAF award ( 1992 -- present ) ( edit ) Samuel Eto'o won the award four times . Yaya Touré won the award four consecutive times from 2011 to 2014 . Pierre - Emerick Aubameyang was the first player from Gabon to win the award in 2015 . Mohamed Salah is the latest player to win the award in 2017 . Year Rank Player Team Points 1992 1st Abedi Pele Marseille -- 1993 1st Rashidi Yekini Vitória de Setúbal -- 1994 1st Emmanuel Amunike Sporting CP 48 2nd George Weah Paris Saint - Germain 44 Rashidi Yekini Olympiacos 1995 1st George Weah Milan -- 2nd Emmanuel Amunike Sporting CP -- 3rd Daniel Amokachi Everton -- 1st Nwankwo Kanu Internazionale -- 2nd George Weah Milan -- 3rd Daniel Amokachi Beşiktaş -- 1st Victor Ikpeba Monaco 56 2nd Japhet N'Doram Monaco 40 3rd Taribo West Internazionale 35 1998 1st Mustapha Hadji Deportivo La Coruña 76 2nd Jay - Jay Okocha Paris Saint - Germain 74 3rd Sunday Oliseh Ajax 58 1999 1st Nwankwo Kanu Arsenal 46 2nd Samuel Kuffour Bayern Munich 44 3rd Ibrahima Bakayoko Marseille 42 2000 1st Patrick M'Boma Parma 123 2nd Lauren Mallorca 36 3rd Samuel Eto'o Mallorca 29 1st El Hadji Diouf Lens 93 2nd Samuel Kuffour Bayern Munich 66 3rd Samuel Eto'o Mallorca 34 2002 1st El Hadji Diouf Liverpool 93 2nd Papa Bouba Diop Lens 46 3rd Mido Ajax 42 2003 1st Samuel Eto'o Mallorca -- 2nd Didier Drogba Marseille -- 3rd Jay - Jay Okocha Bolton Wanderers -- 1st Samuel Eto'o Barcelona 116 2nd Didier Drogba Chelsea 90 3rd Jay - Jay Okocha Bolton Wanderers 68 2005 1st Samuel Eto'o Barcelona 108 2nd Didier Drogba Chelsea 106 3rd Michael Essien Chelsea 50 2006 1st Didier Drogba Chelsea 79 2nd Samuel Eto'o Barcelona 76 3rd Michael Essien Chelsea 36 2007 1st Frédéric Kanouté Sevilla -- 2nd Michael Essien Chelsea -- 3rd Didier Drogba Chelsea -- 2008 1st Emmanuel Adebayor Arsenal 74 2nd Mohamed Aboutrika Al - Ahly 53 3rd Michael Essien Chelsea 36 2009 1st Didier Drogba Chelsea 92 2nd Samuel Eto'o Internazionale 69 3rd Michael Essien Chelsea 43 1st Samuel Eto'o Internazionale -- 2nd Asamoah Gyan Sunderland -- 3rd Didier Drogba Chelsea -- 2011 1st Yaya Touré Manchester City -- 2nd Seydou Keita Barcelona -- 3rd André Ayew Marseille -- 2012 1st Yaya Touré Manchester City -- 2nd Didier Drogba Shanghai Shenhua -- 3rd Alex Song Barcelona -- 2013 1st Yaya Touré Manchester City 373 2nd John Obi Mikel Chelsea 265 3rd Didier Drogba Galatasaray 236 2014 1st Yaya Touré Manchester City 175 2nd Pierre - Emerick Aubameyang Borussia Dortmund 120 3rd Vincent Enyeama Lille 105 2015 1st Pierre - Emerick Aubameyang Borussia Dortmund 143 2nd Yaya Touré Manchester City 136 3rd André Ayew Swansea City 112 2016 1st Riyad Mahrez Leicester City 361 2nd Pierre - Emerick Aubameyang Borussia Dortmund 313 3rd Sadio Mané Liverpool 186 2017 1st Mohamed Salah Liverpool 625 2nd Sadio Mané Liverpool 507 3rd Pierre - Emerick Aubameyang Borussia Dortmund 311 Wins By Country ( edit ) Nation Winners Runners - up Third places Cameroon 11 8 11 Ivory Coast 8 6 7 Ghana 6 7 7 Nigeria 5 6 7 Morocco 0 Algeria 5 Liberia -- Egypt Mali -- Senegal Guinea DR Congo -- Gabon Zambia -- Togo -- Tunisia -- -- Congo -- -- Chad -- -- Wins By Club ( edit ) Club Winners Runners - up Third places Olympique Marseille Manchester City -- Chelsea 6 AS Monaco Barcelona Asante Kotoko -- Canon Yaoundé RCD Mallorca Inter Milan Liverpool Arsenal -- -- Paris SG -- Hafia Conacry TP Mazembe -- Borussia Dortmund -- Sporting CP -- Al Ahly FC Porto Tonnerre Yaoundé -- RC Lens -- Milan -- Sporting CP -- GC Mascara -- Vitória de Setúbal -- Cercle Brugge -- -- CARA Brazzaville -- -- Leicester City -- -- AS Saint - Étienne -- -- Toulouse FC -- -- Parma -- -- FAR Rabat -- -- SCC Mohammédia -- -- JS Saint - Pierroise -- -- Deportivo de La Coruña -- -- Espanyol -- -- Sevilla -- -- Espérance ST -- -- Bayern Munich -- -- MC Alger -- ASEC Mimosas -- Montpellier -- Eintracht Frankfurt -- Shooting Stars -- Shanghai Shenhua -- -- Vita Club -- -- El Mokawloon -- -- Sunderland -- -- Girondins Bordeaux -- -- FC Mulhouse -- -- Hearts of Oak -- -- FC Sion -- -- Aydınspor -- -- JS Kabylie -- -- Bolton Wanderers -- -- Everton FC -- -- Ajax Amsterdam -- -- Ismaily SC -- -- Zamalek SC -- AS Cannes -- -- Stade Lavallois -- -- Lille OSC -- -- Stade Rennais -- -- Olympiacos -- -- Horoya AC -- -- PSV Eindhoven -- -- OC Agaza -- -- Beşiktaş -- -- Galatasaray -- -- Swansea City -- -- See also ( edit ) BBC African Footballer of the Year African Women Footballer of the Year FIFA World Player of the Year CAF Awards References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` African Player of the Year 1993 '' . Rsssf.com. 2001 - 01 - 05 . Retrieved 2014 - 01 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` African Player of the Year 1994 '' . Rsssf.com. 2001 - 01 - 05 . Retrieved 2014 - 01 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` African Player of the Year '' . rsssf.com. 2000 - 01 - 01 . Retrieved 2013 - 07 - 02 . Jump up ^ `` African Player of the Year '' . rsssf.com. 2000 - 01 - 01 . Retrieved 2016 - 09 - 29 . Jump up ^ Kanoute named Africa 's best Jump up ^ Furious Drogba Slams CAF Over Kanoute Award And Pulls Out Football in Africa ( CAF ) National competitions Men Africa Cup of Nations African Nations Championship Africa Futsal Cup of Nations Africa Beach Soccer Cup of Nations Women Africa Women Cup of Nations Women 's Olympic Qualifying Tournament African Games Youth competitions Men U-23 Cup of Nations U-20 Cup of Nations U-17 Cup of Nations African Games Women U-20 Cup for Women U-17 Cup for Women Club competitions Current Champions League Confederation Cup Super Cup Defunct CAF Cup Cup Winners ' Cup Afro - Asian Championship Lists and awards African Footballer of the Year African Women 's Footballer of the Year CAF Awards CAF 5 - Year Ranking List of African national football team managers Sub-regions Northern Africa UNAF Western Africa WAFU Central Africa UNIFFAC Eastern Africa CECAFA Southern Africa COSAFA CAFOnline.com African Footballer of the Year France Football award 1970 : Keïta 1971 : Sunday 1972 : Souleymane 1973 : Bwanga 1974 : Moukila 1975 : Faras 1976 : Milla 1977 : Dhiab 1978 : Abdul Razak 1979 : N'Kono 1980 : Manga - Onguéné 1981 : Belloumi 1982 : N'Kono 1983 : El Khatib 1984 : Abega 1985 : Timoumi 1986 : Zaki 1987 : Madjer 1988 : Bwalya 1989 : Weah 1990 : Milla 1991 : Abedi Pele 1992 : Abedi Pele 1993 : Abedi Pele 1994 : Weah CAF award 1992 : Abedi Pele 1993 : Yekini 1994 : Amunike 1995 : Weah 1996 : Kanu 1997 : Ikpeba 1998 : Hadji 1999 : Kanu 2000 : M'Boma 2001 : Diouf 2002 : Diouf 2003 : Eto'o 2004 : Eto'o 2005 : Eto'o 2006 : Drogba 2007 : Kanouté 2008 : Adebayor 2009 : Drogba 2010 : Eto'o 2011 : Touré 2012 : Touré 2013 : Touré 2014 : Touré 2015 : Aubameyang 2016 : Mahrez 2017 : Salah Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=African_Footballer_of_the_Year&oldid=822578197 '' Categories : African Footballer of the Year winners Confederation of African Football African football trophies and awards Association football player of the year awards Talk Contents About Wikipedia Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español فارسی Français 한국어 Italiano עברית Magyar Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Română Русский Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 17 more Edit links This page was last edited on 27 January 2018 , at 05 : 36 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

who was named african footballer of the year 2014

Yaya Touré

Frédéric Kanouté

Lithium - wikipedia Lithium Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the chemical element . For the use of lithium as a medication , see Lithium ( medication ) . For other uses , see Lithium ( disambiguation ) . It has been suggested that Lithium as an investment be merged into this article . ( Discuss ) Proposed since June 2017 . Lithium , Li Lithium floating in oil General properties Pronunciation / ˈlɪθiəm / ​ ( LI - thee - əm ) Appearance silvery - white Standard atomic weight ( A ) ( 7000693800000000000 ♠ 6.938 , 7000699700000000000 ♠ 6.997 ) conventional : 7000694000000000000 ♠ 6.94 Lithium in the periodic table Hydrogen Helium Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon Caesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury ( element ) Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon Francium Radium Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson ↑ Li ↓ Na helium ← lithium → beryllium Atomic number ( Z ) Group , period group 1 ( alkali metals ) , period 2 Block s - block Element category alkali metal Electron configuration ( He ) 2s Electrons per shell 2 , 1 Physical properties Phase ( at STP ) solid Melting point 453.65 K ​ ( 180.50 ° C , ​ 356.90 ° F ) Boiling point 1603 K ​ ( 1330 ° C , ​ 2426 ° F ) Density ( near r.t. ) 0.534 g / cm when liquid ( at m.p. ) 0.512 g / cm Critical point 3220 K , 67 MPa ( extrapolated ) Heat of fusion 3.00 kJ / mol Heat of vaporization 136 kJ / mol Molar heat capacity 24.860 J / ( mol K ) Vapor pressure P ( Pa ) 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k at T ( K ) 797 885 995 1144 1337 1610 Atomic properties Oxidation states + 1 ​ ( a strongly basic oxide ) Electronegativity Pauling scale : 0.98 Ionization energies 1st : 520.2 kJ / mol 2nd : 7298.1 kJ / mol 3rd : 11815.0 kJ / mol Atomic radius empirical : 152 pm Covalent radius 128 ± 7 pm Van der Waals radius 182 pm Spectral lines Miscellanea Crystal structure ​ body - centered cubic ( bcc ) Speed of sound thin rod 6000 m / s ( at 20 ° C ) Thermal expansion 46 μm / ( m K ) ( at 25 ° C ) Thermal conductivity 84.8 W / ( m K ) Electrical resistivity 92.8 nΩ m ( at 20 ° C ) Magnetic ordering paramagnetic Magnetic susceptibility + 14.2 10 cm / mol ( 298 K ) Young 's modulus 4.9 GPa Shear modulus 4.2 GPa Bulk modulus 11 GPa Mohs hardness 0.6 Brinell hardness 5 MPa CAS Number 7439 - 93 - 2 History Discovery Johan August Arfwedson ( 1817 ) First isolation William Thomas Brande ( 1821 ) Main isotopes of lithium Isotope Abundance Half - life ( t ) Decay mode Product Li 5 % stable Li 95 % stable Li content may be as low as 3.75 % in natural samples . Li would therefore have a content of up to 96.25 % . view talk references in Wikidata Lithium ( from Greek : λίθος , translit . lithos , lit . ' stone ' ) is a chemical element with symbol Li and atomic number 3 . It is a soft , silvery - white alkali metal . Under standard conditions , it is the lightest metal and the lightest solid element . Like all alkali metals , lithium is highly reactive and flammable , and is stored in mineral oil . When cut open , it exhibits a metallic luster , but moist air corrodes it quickly to a dull silvery gray , then black tarnish . It never occurs freely in nature , but only in ( usually ionic ) compounds , such as pegmatitic minerals which were once the main source of lithium . Due to its solubility as an ion , it is present in ocean water and is commonly obtained from brines . Lithium metal is isolated electrolytically from a mixture of lithium chloride and potassium chloride . The nucleus of the lithium atom verges on instability , since the two stable lithium isotopes found in nature have among the lowest binding energies per nucleon of all stable nuclides . Because of its relative nuclear instability , lithium is less common in the solar system than 25 of the first 32 chemical elements even though its nuclei are very light : it is an exception to the trend that heavier nuclei are less common . For related reasons , lithium has important uses in nuclear physics . The transmutation of lithium atoms to helium in 1932 was the first fully man - made nuclear reaction , and lithium deuteride serves as a fusion fuel in staged thermonuclear weapons . Lithium and its compounds have several industrial applications , including heat - resistant glass and ceramics , lithium grease lubricants , flux additives for iron , steel and aluminium production , lithium batteries , and lithium - ion batteries . These uses consume more than three quarters of lithium production . Lithium is present in biological systems in trace amounts ; its functions are uncertain . Lithium salts have proven to be useful as a mood - stabilizing drug in the treatment of bipolar disorder in humans . Contents ( hide ) 1 Properties 1.1 Atomic and physical 1.2 Chemistry and compounds 1.3 Isotopes 2 Occurrence 2.1 Astronomical 2.2 Terrestrial 2.3 Biological 3 History 4 Production 4.1 Reserves 4.2 Pricing 4.3 Extraction 5 Uses 5.1 Ceramics and glass 5.2 Electrical and electronics 5.3 Lubricating greases 5.4 Metallurgy 5.5 Silicon nano - welding 5.6 Other chemical and industrial uses 5.6. 1 Pyrotechnics 5.6. 2 Air purification 5.6. 3 Optics 5.6. 4 Organic and polymer chemistry 5.6. 5 Military applications 5.7 Nuclear 5.8 Medicine 6 Biological role 7 Precautions 7.1 Regulation 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 External links Properties ( edit ) Atomic and physical ( edit ) Lithium ingots with a thin layer of black nitride tarnish Like the other alkali metals , lithium has a single valence electron that is easily given up to form a cation . Because of this , lithium is a good conductor of heat and electricity as well as a highly reactive element , though it is the least reactive of the alkali metals . Lithium 's low reactivity is due to the proximity of its valence electron to its nucleus ( the remaining two electrons are in the 1s orbital , much lower in energy , and do not participate in chemical bonds ) . Lithium metal is soft enough to be cut with a knife . When cut , it possesses a silvery - white color that quickly changes to gray as it oxidizes to lithium oxide . While it has one of the lowest melting points among all metals ( 180 ° C ) , it has the highest melting and boiling points of the alkali metals . Lithium has a very low density ( 0.534 g / cm ) , comparable with pine wood . It is the least dense of all elements that are solids at room temperature ; the next lightest solid element ( potassium , at 0.862 g / cm ) is more than 60 % denser . Furthermore , apart from helium and hydrogen , it is less dense than any liquid element , being only two thirds as dense as liquid nitrogen ( 0.808 g / cm ) . Lithium can float on the lightest hydrocarbon oils and is one of only three metals that can float on water , the other two being sodium and potassium . Lithium floating in oil Lithium 's coefficient of thermal expansion is twice that of aluminium and almost four times that of iron . Lithium is superconductive below 400 μK at standard pressure and at higher temperatures ( more than 9 K ) at very high pressures ( > 20 GPa ) . At temperatures below 70 K , lithium , like sodium , undergoes diffusionless phase change transformations . At 4.2 K it has a rhombohedral crystal system ( with a nine - layer repeat spacing ) ; at higher temperatures it transforms to face - centered cubic and then body - centered cubic . At liquid - helium temperatures ( 4 K ) the rhombohedral structure is prevalent . Multiple allotropic forms have been identified for lithium at high pressures . Lithium has a mass specific heat capacity of 3.58 kilojoules per kilogram - kelvin , the highest of all solids . Because of this , lithium metal is often used in coolants for heat transfer applications . Chemistry and compounds ( edit ) Lithium reacts with water easily , but with noticeably less vigor than other alkali metals . The reaction forms hydrogen gas and lithium hydroxide in aqueous solution . Because of its reactivity with water , lithium is usually stored in a hydrocarbon sealant , often petroleum jelly . Though the heavier alkali metals can be stored in more dense substances , such as mineral oil , lithium is not dense enough to be fully submerged in these liquids . In moist air , lithium rapidly tarnishes to form a black coating of lithium hydroxide ( LiOH and LiOH H O ) , lithium nitride ( Li N ) and lithium carbonate ( Li CO , the result of a secondary reaction between LiOH and CO ) . Hexameric structure of the n - butyllithium fragment in a crystal When placed over a flame , lithium compounds give off a striking crimson color , but when it burns strongly the flame becomes a brilliant silver . Lithium will ignite and burn in oxygen when exposed to water or water vapors . Lithium is flammable , and it is potentially explosive when exposed to air and especially to water , though less so than the other alkali metals . The lithium - water reaction at normal temperatures is brisk but nonviolent because the hydrogen produced does not ignite on its own . As with all alkali metals , lithium fires are difficult to extinguish , requiring dry powder fire extinguishers ( Class D type ) . Lithium is one of the few metals that react with nitrogen under normal conditions . Lithium has a diagonal relationship with magnesium , an element of similar atomic and ionic radius . Chemical resemblances between the two metals include the formation of a nitride by reaction with N , the formation of an oxide ( Li 2O ) and peroxide ( Li 2O 2 ) when burnt in O , salts with similar solubilities , and thermal instability of the carbonates and nitrides . The metal reacts with hydrogen gas at high temperatures to produce lithium hydride ( LiH ) . Other known binary compounds include halides ( LiF , LiCl , LiBr , LiI ) , sulfide ( Li 2S ) , superoxide ( LiO 2 ) , and carbide ( Li 2 ) . Many other inorganic compounds are known in which lithium combines with anions to form salts : borates , amides , carbonate , nitrate , or borohydride ( LiBH 4 ) . Lithium aluminium hydride ( LiAlH 4 ) is commonly used as a reducing agent in organic synthesis . Multiple organolithium reagents are known in which there is a direct bond between carbon and lithium atoms , effectively creating a carbanion . These are extremely powerful bases and nucleophiles . In many of these organolithium compounds , the lithium ions tend to aggregate into high - symmetry clusters by themselves , which is relatively common for alkali cations . LiHe , a very weakly interacting van der Waals compound , has been detected at very low temperatures . Isotopes ( edit ) Main article : Isotopes of lithium Naturally occurring lithium is composed of two stable isotopes , Li and Li , the latter being the more abundant ( 92.5 % natural abundance ) . Both natural isotopes have anomalously low nuclear binding energy per nucleon ( compared to the neighboring elements on the periodic table , helium and beryllium ) ; lithium is the only low numbered element that can produce net energy through nuclear fission . The two lithium nuclei have lower binding energies per nucleon than any other stable nuclides other than deuterium and helium - 3 . As a result of this , though very light in atomic weight , lithium is less common in the Solar System than 25 of the first 32 chemical elements . Seven radioisotopes have been characterized , the most stable being Li with a half - life of 838 ms and Li with a half - life of 178 ms . All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half - lives that are shorter than 8.6 ms . The shortest - lived isotope of lithium is Li , which decays through proton emission and has a half - life of 7.6 × 10 s . Li is one of the primordial elements ( or , more properly , primordial nuclides ) produced in Big Bang nucleosynthesis . A small amount of both Li and Li are produced in stars , but are thought to be `` burned '' as fast as produced . Additional small amounts of lithium of both Li and Li may be generated from solar wind , cosmic rays hitting heavier atoms , and from early solar system Be and Be radioactive decay . While lithium is created in stars during stellar nucleosynthesis , it is further burned . Li can also be generated in carbon stars . Lithium isotopes fractionate substantially during a wide variety of natural processes , including mineral formation ( chemical precipitation ) , metabolism , and ion exchange . Lithium ions substitute for magnesium and iron in octahedral sites in clay minerals , where Li is preferred to Li , resulting in enrichment of the light isotope in processes of hyperfiltration and rock alteration . The exotic Li is known to exhibit a nuclear halo . The process known as laser isotope separation can be used to separate lithium isotopes , in particular Li from Li . Nuclear weapons manufacture and other nuclear physics applications are a major source of artificial lithium fractionation , with the light isotope Li being retained by industry and military stockpiles to such an extent that it has caused slight but measurable change in the Li to Li ratios in natural sources , such as rivers . This has led to unusual uncertainty in the standardized atomic weight of lithium , since this quantity depends on the natural abundance ratios of these naturally - occurring stable lithium isotopes , as they are available in commercial lithium mineral sources . Both stable isotopes of lithium can be laser cooled and were used to produce the first quantum degenerate Bose - Fermi mixture . Occurrence ( edit ) Lithium is about as common as chlorine in the Earth 's upper continental crust , on a per - atom basis . Astronomical ( edit ) Main article : Nucleosynthesis Though it was synthesized in the Big Bang , lithium ( together with beryllium and boron ) , is markedly less abundant in the universe than other elements . This is a result of the comparatively low stellar temperatures necessary to destroy lithium , along with a lack of common processes to produce it . According to modern cosmological theory , lithium -- in both stable isotopes ( lithium - 6 and lithium - 7 ) -- was one of the 3 elements synthesized in the Big Bang . Though the amount of lithium generated in Big Bang nucleosynthesis is dependent upon the number of photons per baryon , for accepted values the lithium abundance can be calculated , and there is a `` cosmological lithium discrepancy '' in the Universe : older stars seem to have less lithium than they should , and some younger stars have much more . The lack of lithium in older stars is apparently caused by the `` mixing '' of lithium into the interior of stars , where it is destroyed , while lithium is produced in younger stars . Though it transmutes into two atoms of helium due to collision with a proton at temperatures above 2.4 million degrees Celsius ( most stars easily attain this temperature in their interiors ) , lithium is more abundant than current computations would predict in later - generation stars . Nova Centauri 2013 is the first in which evidence of lithium has been found . Lithium is also found in brown dwarf substellar objects and certain anomalous orange stars . Because lithium is present in cooler , less - massive brown dwarfs , but is destroyed in hotter red dwarf stars , its presence in the stars ' spectra can be used in the `` lithium test '' to differentiate the two , as both are smaller than the Sun . Certain orange stars can also contain a high concentration of lithium . Those orange stars found to have a higher than usual concentration of lithium ( such as Centaurus X-4 ) orbit massive objects -- neutron stars or black holes -- whose gravity evidently pulls heavier lithium to the surface of a hydrogen - helium star , causing more lithium to be observed . Terrestrial ( edit ) Lithium mine production ( 2016 ) , reserves and resources in tonnes according to USGS Country Production Reserves Resources Argentina 5,700 2,000,000 9,000,000 Australia 14,300 1,600,000 2,000,000 + Austria - - 100,000 + Bolivia - - 9,000,000 Brazil 200 48,000 200,000 Canada ( 2010 ) 480 180,000 2,000,000 Chile 12,000 7,500,000 7,500,000 + DR Congo - - 1,000,000 Mexico - - 200,000 People 's Republic of China 2,000 3,200,000 7,000,000 Portugal 200 60,000 N / A Russia - - 1,000,000 Serbia - - 1,000,000 United States 38,000 6,900,000 Zimbabwe 900 23,000 100,000 + World total 32,500 14,000,000 46,900,000 See also : Lithium minerals Although lithium is widely distributed on Earth , it does not naturally occur in elemental form due to its high reactivity . The total lithium content of seawater is very large and is estimated as 230 billion tonnes , where the element exists at a relatively constant concentration of 0.14 to 0.25 parts per million ( ppm ) , or 25 micromolar ; higher concentrations approaching 7 ppm are found near hydrothermal vents . Estimates for the Earth 's crustal content range from 20 to 70 ppm by weight . In keeping with its name , lithium forms a minor part of igneous rocks , with the largest concentrations in granites . Granitic pegmatites also provide the greatest abundance of lithium - containing minerals , with spodumene and petalite being the most commercially viable sources . Another significant mineral of lithium is lepidolite . A newer source for lithium is hectorite clay , the only active development of which is through the Western Lithium Corporation in the United States . At 20 mg lithium per kg of Earth 's crust , lithium is the 25th most abundant element . According to the Handbook of Lithium and Natural Calcium , `` Lithium is a comparatively rare element , although it is found in many rocks and some brines , but always in very low concentrations . There are a fairly large number of both lithium mineral and brine deposits but only comparatively few of them are of actual or potential commercial value . Many are very small , others are too low in grade . '' The US Geological Survey estimates that in 2010 , Chile had the largest reserves by far ( 7.5 million tonnes ) and the highest annual production ( 8,800 tonnes ) . One of the largest reserve bases of lithium is in the Salar de Uyuni area of Bolivia , which has 5.4 million tonnes . Other major suppliers include Australia , Argentina and China . As of 2015 Czech Geological Survey considered the entire Ore Mountains in the Czech Republic as lithium province . Five deposits are registered , one near Cínovec ( cs ) is considered as potentially economic deposit with 160 000 tonnes of lithium . In June 2010 , The New York Times reported that American geologists were conducting ground surveys on dry salt lakes in western Afghanistan believing that large deposits of lithium are located there . `` Pentagon officials said that their initial analysis at one location in Ghazni Province showed the potential for lithium deposits as large as those of Bolivia , which now has the world 's largest known lithium reserves . '' These estimates are `` based principally on old data , which was gathered mainly by the Soviets during their occupation of Afghanistan from 1979 -- 1989 '' . Stephen Peters , the head of the USGS 's Afghanistan Minerals Project , said that he was unaware of USGS involvement in any new surveying for minerals in Afghanistan in the past two years . ' We are not aware of any discoveries of lithium , ' he said . '' Lithia ( `` lithium brine '' ) is associated with tin mining areas in Cornwall , England and an evaluation project from 400 - metre deep test boreholes is under consideration . If successful the hot brines will also provide geothermal energy to power the lithium extraction and refining process . Biological ( edit ) Lithium is found in trace amount in numerous plants , plankton , and invertebrates , at concentrations of 69 to 5,760 parts per billion ( ppb ) . In vertebrates the concentration is slightly lower , and nearly all vertebrate tissue and body fluids contain lithium ranging from 21 to 763 ppb . Marine organisms tend to bioaccumulate lithium more than terrestrial organisms . Whether lithium has a physiological role in any of these organisms is unknown . History ( edit ) Johan August Arfwedson is credited with the discovery of lithium in 1817 Petalite ( LiAlSi O ) was discovered in 1800 by the Brazilian chemist and statesman José Bonifácio de Andrada e Silva in a mine on the island of Utö , Sweden . However , it was not until 1817 that Johan August Arfwedson , then working in the laboratory of the chemist Jöns Jakob Berzelius , detected the presence of a new element while analyzing petalite ore . This element formed compounds similar to those of sodium and potassium , though its carbonate and hydroxide were less soluble in water and more alkaline . Berzelius gave the alkaline material the name `` lithion / lithina '' , from the Greek word λιθoς ( transliterated as lithos , meaning `` stone '' ) , to reflect its discovery in a solid mineral , as opposed to potassium , which had been discovered in plant ashes , and sodium , which was known partly for its high abundance in animal blood . He named the metal inside the material `` lithium '' . Arfwedson later showed that this same element was present in the minerals spodumene and lepidolite . In 1818 , Christian Gmelin was the first to observe that lithium salts give a bright red color to flame . However , both Arfwedson and Gmelin tried and failed to isolate the pure element from its salts . It was not isolated until 1821 , when William Thomas Brande obtained it by electrolysis of lithium oxide , a process that had previously been employed by the chemist Sir Humphry Davy to isolate the alkali metals potassium and sodium . Brande also described some pure salts of lithium , such as the chloride , and , estimating that lithia ( lithium oxide ) contained about 55 % metal , estimated the atomic weight of lithium to be around 9.8 g / mol ( modern value ~ 6.94 g / mol ) . In 1855 , larger quantities of lithium were produced through the electrolysis of lithium chloride by Robert Bunsen and Augustus Matthiessen . The discovery of this procedure led to commercial production of lithium in 1923 by the German company Metallgesellschaft AG , which performed an electrolysis of a liquid mixture of lithium chloride and potassium chloride . The production and use of lithium underwent several drastic changes in history . The first major application of lithium was in high - temperature lithium greases for aircraft engines and similar applications in World War II and shortly after . This use was supported by the fact that lithium - based soaps have a higher melting point than other alkali soaps , and are less corrosive than calcium based soaps . The small demand for lithium soaps and lubricating greases was supported by several small mining operations , mostly in the US . The demand for lithium increased dramatically during the Cold War with the production of nuclear fusion weapons . Both lithium - 6 and lithium - 7 produce tritium when irradiated by neutrons , and are thus useful for the production of tritium by itself , as well as a form of solid fusion fuel used inside hydrogen bombs in the form of lithium deuteride . The US became the prime producer of lithium between the late 1950s and the mid 1980s . At the end , the stockpile of lithium was roughly 42,000 tonnes of lithium hydroxide . The stockpiled lithium was depleted in lithium - 6 by 75 % , which was enough to affect the measured atomic weight of lithium in many standardized chemicals , and even the atomic weight of lithium in some `` natural sources '' of lithium ion which had been `` contaminated '' by lithium salts discharged from isotope separation facilities , which had found its way into ground water . Lithium was used to decrease the melting temperature of glass and to improve the melting behavior of aluminium oxide when using the Hall - Héroult process . These two uses dominated the market until the middle of the 1990s . After the end of the nuclear arms race , the demand for lithium decreased and the sale of Department of Energy stockpiles on the open market further reduced prices . In the mid 1990s , several companies started to extract lithium from brine which proved to be a less expensive than underground or open - pit mining . Most of the mines closed or shifted their focus to other materials because only the ore from zoned pegmatites could be mined for a competitive price . For example , the US mines near Kings Mountain , North Carolina closed before the beginning of the 21st century . The development of lithium ion batteries increased the demand for lithium and became the dominant use in 2007 . With the surge of lithium demand in batteries in the 2000s , new companies have expanded brine extraction efforts to meet the rising demand . Production ( edit ) Satellite images of the Salar del Hombre Muerto , Argentina ( left ) , and Uyuni , Bolivia ( right ) , salt flats that are rich in lithium . The lithium - rich brine is concentrated by pumping it into solar evaporation ponds ( visible in the left image ) . World production trend of lithium Lithium production has greatly increased since the end of World War II . The metal is separated from other elements in igneous minerals . The metal is produced through electrolysis from a mixture of fused 55 % lithium chloride and 45 % potassium chloride at about 450 ° C . As of 2015 , most of the world 's lithium production is in South America , where lithium - containing brine is extracted from underground pools and concentrated by solar evaporation . The standard extraction technique is to evaporate water from brine . Each batch takes from 18 to 24 months . In 1998 , the price of lithium was about 95 USD / kg ( or 43 USD / lb ) . Reserves ( edit ) Worldwide identified reserves in 2008 were estimated by the US Geological Survey ( USGS ) to be 13 million tonnes , though an accurate estimate of world lithium reserves is difficult . One reason for this is that most lithium classification schemes are developed for solid ore deposits , whereas brine is a fluid that is problematic to treat with the same classification scheme due to varying concentrations and pumping effects . The world has been estimated to contain about 15 million tonnes of lithium reserves , while 65 million tonnes of known resources are reasonable . A total of 75 % of everything can typically be found in the ten largest deposits of the world . Another study noted that 83 % of the geological resources of lithium are located in six brine , two pegmatite , and two sedimentary deposits . Deposits are found in South America throughout the Andes mountain chain . Chile is the leading producer , followed by Argentina . Both countries recover lithium from brine pools . According to USGS , Bolivia 's Uyuni Desert has 5.4 million tonnes of lithium . In the US , lithium is recovered from brine pools in Nevada . Half the world 's known reserves are located in Bolivia along the central eastern slope of the Andes . In 2009 , Bolivia negotiated with Japanese , French , and Korean firms to begin extraction . A deposit discovered in 2013 in Wyoming 's Rock Springs Uplift is estimated to contain 228,000 tons . Additional deposits in the same formation were estimated to be as much as 18 million tons . Opinions differ about potential growth . A 2008 study concluded that `` realistically achievable lithium carbonate production will be sufficient for only a small fraction of future PHEV and EV global market requirements '' , that `` demand from the portable electronics sector will absorb much of the planned production increases in the next decade '' , and that `` mass production of lithium carbonate is not environmentally sound , it will cause irreparable ecological damage to ecosystems that should be protected and that LiIon propulsion is incompatible with the notion of the ' Green Car ' '' . According to a 2011 study by Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and the University of California , Berkeley , the currently estimated reserve base of lithium should not be a limiting factor for large - scale battery production for electric vehicles because an estimated 1 billion 40 kWh Li - based batteries could be built with current reserves - about 10 kg of lithium per car . Another 2011 study at the University of Michigan and Ford Motor Company found enough resources to support global demand until 2100 , including the lithium required for the potential widespread transportation use . The study estimated global reserves at 39 million tons , and total demand for lithium during the 90 - year period analyzed at 12 -- 20 million tons , depending on the scenarios regarding economic growth and recycling rates . On June 9 , 2014 , the Financialist stated that demand for lithium was growing at more than 12 % a year . According to Credit Suisse , this rate exceeds projected availability by 25 % . The publication compared the 2014 lithium situation with oil , whereby `` higher oil prices spurred investment in expensive deepwater and oil sands production techniques '' ; that is , the price of lithium will continue to rise until more expensive production methods that can boost total output receive the attention of investors . Pricing ( edit ) After the 2007 financial crisis , major suppliers such as Sociedad Química y Minera ( SQM ) dropped lithium carbonate pricing by 20 % . Prices rose in 2012 . A 2012 Business Week article outlined the oligopoly in the lithium space : `` SQM , controlled by billionaire Julio Ponce , is the second - largest , followed by Rockwood , which is backed by Henry Kravis 's KKR & Co. , and Philadelphia - based FMC '' . Global consumption may jump to 300,000 metric tons a year by 2020 from about 150,000 tons in 2012 , to match the demand for lithium batteries that has been growing at about 25 % a year , outpacing the 4 % to 5 % overall gain in lithium production . Extraction ( edit ) Lithium salts are extracted from water in mineral springs , brine pools , and brine deposits . Lithium is present in seawater , but commercially viable methods of extraction have yet to be developed . Another potential source of lithium is the leachates of geothermal wells , which are carried to the surface . Recovery of lithium has been demonstrated in the field ; the lithium is separated by simple filtration . The process and environmental costs are primarily those of the already - operating well ; net environmental impacts may thus be positive . Uses ( edit ) Estimates of global lithium uses in 2015 Ceramics and glass ( 32 % ) Batteries ( 35 % ) Lubricating greases ( 9 % ) Continuous casting ( 5 % ) Air treatment ( 5 % ) Polymers ( 4 % ) Primary aluminum production ( 1 % ) Pharmaceuticals ( < 1 % ) Other ( 9 % ) Ceramics and glass ( edit ) Lithium oxide is widely used as a flux for processing silica , reducing the melting point and viscosity of the material and leading to glazes with improved physical properties including low coefficients of thermal expansion . Worldwide , this is one of the largest use for lithium compounds . Glazes containing lithium oxides are used for ovenware . Lithium carbonate ( Li CO ) is generally used in this application because it converts to the oxide upon heating . Electrical and electronics ( edit ) Late in the 20th century , lithium became an important component of battery electrolytes and electrodes , because of its high electrode potential . Because of its low atomic mass , it has a high charge - and power - to - weight ratio . A typical lithium - ion battery can generate approximately 3 volts per cell , compared with 2.1 volts for lead - acid or 1.5 volts for zinc - carbon cells . Lithium - ion batteries , which are rechargeable and have a high energy density , should not be confused with lithium batteries , which are disposable ( primary ) batteries with lithium or its compounds as the anode . Other rechargeable batteries that use lithium include the lithium - ion polymer battery , lithium iron phosphate battery , and the nanowire battery . Lubricating greases ( edit ) Main article : Lithium grease The third most common use of lithium is in greases . Lithium hydroxide is a strong base and , when heated with a fat , produces a soap made of lithium stearate . Lithium soap has the ability to thicken oils , and it is used to manufacture all - purpose , high - temperature lubricating greases . Metallurgy ( edit ) Lithium ( e.g. as lithium carbonate ) is used as an additive to continuous casting mould flux slags where it increases fluidity , a use which accounts for 5 % of global lithium use ( 2011 ) . Lithium compounds are also used as additives ( fluxes ) to foundry sand for iron casting to reduce veining . Lithium ( as lithium fluoride ) is used as an additive to aluminium smelters ( Hall -- Héroult process ) , reducing melting temperature and increasing electrical resistance , a use which accounts for 3 % of production ( 2011 ) . When used as a flux for welding or soldering , metallic lithium promotes the fusing of metals during the process and eliminates the forming of oxides by absorbing impurities . Alloys of the metal with aluminium , cadmium , copper and manganese are used to make high - performance aircraft parts ( see also Lithium - aluminium alloys ) . Silicon nano - welding ( edit ) Lithium has been found effective in assisting the perfection of silicon nano - welds in electronic components for electric batteries and other devices . Other chemical and industrial uses ( edit ) Lithium use in flares and pyrotechnics is due to its rose - red flame . Pyrotechnics ( edit ) Lithium compounds are used as pyrotechnic colorants and oxidizers in red fireworks and flares . Air purification ( edit ) Lithium chloride and lithium bromide are hygroscopic and are used as desiccants for gas streams . Lithium hydroxide and lithium peroxide are the salts most used in confined areas , such as aboard spacecraft and submarines , for carbon dioxide removal and air purification . Lithium hydroxide absorbs carbon dioxide from the air by forming lithium carbonate , and is preferred over other alkaline hydroxides for its low weight . Lithium peroxide ( Li O ) in presence of moisture not only reacts with carbon dioxide to form lithium carbonate , but also releases oxygen . The reaction is as follows : 2 Li O + 2 CO → 2 Li CO + O . Some of the aforementioned compounds , as well as lithium perchlorate , are used in oxygen candles that supply submarines with oxygen . These can also include small amounts of boron , magnesium , aluminum , silicon , titanium , manganese , and iron . Optics ( edit ) Lithium fluoride , artificially grown as crystal , is clear and transparent and often used in specialist optics for IR , UV and VUV ( vacuum UV ) applications . It has one of the lowest refractive indexes and the furthest transmission range in the deep UV of most common materials . Finely divided lithium fluoride powder has been used for thermoluminescent radiation dosimetry ( TLD ) : when a sample of such is exposed to radiation , it accumulates crystal defects which , when heated , resolve via a release of bluish light whose intensity is proportional to the absorbed dose , thus allowing this to be quantified . Lithium fluoride is sometimes used in focal lenses of telescopes . The high non-linearity of lithium niobate also makes it useful in non-linear optics applications . It is used extensively in telecommunication products such as mobile phones and optical modulators , for such components as resonant crystals . Lithium applications are used in more than 60 % of mobile phones . Organic and polymer Chemistry ( edit ) Organolithium compounds are widely used in the production of polymer and fine - chemicals . In the polymer industry , which is the dominant consumer of these reagents , alkyl lithium compounds are catalysts / initiators. in anionic polymerization of unfunctionalized olefins . For the production of fine chemicals , organolithium compounds function as strong bases and as reagents for the formation of carbon - carbon bonds . Organolithium compounds are prepared from lithium metal and alkyl halides . Many other lithium compounds are used as reagents to prepare organic compounds . Some popular compounds include lithium aluminium hydride ( LiAlH ) , lithium triethylborohydride , n - Butyllithium and tert - butyllithium are commonly used as extremely strong bases called superbase . Military applications ( edit ) Metallic lithium and its complex hydrides , such as Li ( AlH ) , are used as high - energy additives to rocket propellants . Lithium aluminum hydride can also be used by itself as a solid fuel . The launch of a torpedo using lithium as fuel The Mark 50 torpedo stored chemical energy propulsion system ( SCEPS ) uses a small tank of sulfur hexafluoride gas , which is sprayed over a block of solid lithium . The reaction generates heat , creating steam to propel the torpedo in a closed Rankine cycle . Lithium hydride containing lithium - 6 is used in thermonuclear weapons , where it serves as fuel for the fusion stage of the bomb . Nuclear ( edit ) Lithium - 6 is valued as a source material for tritium production and as a neutron absorber in nuclear fusion . Natural lithium contains about 7.5 % lithium - 6 from which large amounts of lithium - 6 have been produced by isotope separation for use in nuclear weapons . Lithium - 7 gained interest for use in nuclear reactor coolants . Lithium deuteride was used as fuel in the Castle Bravo nuclear device . Lithium deuteride was the fusion fuel of choice in early versions of the hydrogen bomb . When bombarded by neutrons , both Li and Li produce tritium -- this reaction , which was not fully understood when hydrogen bombs were first tested , was responsible for the runaway yield of the Castle Bravo nuclear test . Tritium fuses with deuterium in a fusion reaction that is relatively easy to achieve . Although details remain secret , lithium - 6 deuteride apparently still plays a role in modern nuclear weapons as a fusion material . Lithium fluoride , when highly enriched in the lithium - 7 isotope , forms the basic constituent of the fluoride salt mixture LiF - BeF used in liquid fluoride nuclear reactors . Lithium fluoride is exceptionally chemically stable and LiF - BeF mixtures have low melting points . In addition , Li , Be , and F are among the few nuclides with low enough thermal neutron capture cross-sections not to poison the fission reactions inside a nuclear fission reactor . In conceptualized ( hypothetical ) nuclear fusion power plants , lithium will be used to produce tritium in magnetically confined reactors using deuterium and tritium as the fuel . Naturally occurring tritium is extremely rare , and must be synthetically produced by surrounding the reacting plasma with a ' blanket ' containing lithium where neutrons from the deuterium - tritium reaction in the plasma will fission the lithium to produce more tritium : Li + n → He + H . Lithium is also used as a source for alpha particles , or helium nuclei . When Li is bombarded by accelerated protons Be is formed , which undergoes fission to form two alpha particles . This feat , called `` splitting the atom '' at the time , was the first fully man - made nuclear reaction . It was produced by Cockroft and Walton in 1932 . In 2013 , the US Government Accountability Office said a shortage of lithium - 7 critical to the operation of 65 out of 100 American nuclear reactors `` places their ability to continue to provide electricity at some risk '' . The problem stems from the decline of US nuclear infrastructure . The equipment needed to separate lithium - 6 from lithium - 7 is mostly a cold war leftover . The US shut down most of this machinery in 1963 , when it had a huge surplus of separated lithium , mostly consumed during the twentieth century . The report said it would take five years and $10 million to $12 million to reestablish the ability to separate lithium - 6 from lithium - 7 . Reactors that use lithium - 7 heat water under high pressure and transfer heat through heat exchangers that are prone to corrosion . The reactors use lithium to counteract the corrosive effects of boric acid , which is added to the water to absorb excess neutrons . Medicine ( edit ) Main article : Lithium ( medication ) Lithium is useful in the treatment of bipolar disorder . Lithium salts may also be helpful for related diagnoses , such as schizoaffective disorder and cyclic major depression . The active part of these salts is the lithium ion Li . They may increase the risk of developing Ebstein 's cardiac anomaly in infants born to women who take lithium during the first trimester of pregnancy . Lithium has also been researched as a possible treatment for cluster headaches . Biological role ( edit ) Primary food sources of lithium are grains and vegetables , and , in some areas , drinking water also contains significant amounts . Human intake varies depending on location and diet . Lithium was first detected in human organs and fetal tissues in the late 19th century . In humans there are no defined lithium deficiency diseases , but low lithium intakes from water supplies were associated with increased rates of suicides , homicides and the arrest rates for drug use and other crimes . The biochemical mechanisms of action of lithium appear to be multifactorial and are intercorrelated with the functions of several enzymes , hormones and vitamins , as well as with growth and transforming factors . Evidence now appears to be sufficient to accept lithium as essential ; a provisional RDA of 1,000 μg / day is suggested for a 70 kg adult . Precautions ( edit ) NFPA 704 fire diamond Fire diamond hazard sign for lithium metal Lithium is corrosive and requires special handling to avoid skin contact . Breathing lithium dust or lithium compounds ( which are often alkaline ) initially irritate the nose and throat , while higher exposure can cause a buildup of fluid in the lungs , leading to pulmonary edema . The metal itself is a handling hazard because contact with moisture produces the caustic lithium hydroxide . Lithium is safely stored in non-reactive compounds such as naphtha . Regulation ( edit ) Some jurisdictions limit the sale of lithium batteries , which are the most readily available source of lithium for ordinary consumers . Lithium can be used to reduce pseudoephedrine and ephedrine to methamphetamine in the Birch reduction method , which employs solutions of alkali metals dissolved in anhydrous ammonia . Carriage and shipment of some kinds of lithium batteries may be prohibited aboard certain types of transportation ( particularly aircraft ) because of the ability of most types of lithium batteries to fully discharge very rapidly when short - circuited , leading to overheating and possible explosion in a process called thermal runaway . Most consumer lithium batteries have built - in thermal overload protection to prevent this type of incident , or are otherwise designed to limit short - circuit currents . Internal shorts from manufacturing defect or physical damage can lead to spontaneous thermal runaway . See also ( edit ) Dilithium List of countries by lithium production Lithium as an investment Lithium compounds Lithium ( medication ) Lithium soap Lithium - ion battery Lithium -- air battery Books View or order collections of articles Lithium Period 2 elements Alkali metals Chemical elements ( sorted alphabetically ) Chemical elements ( sorted by number ) Portals Access related topics Chemistry portal Find out more on Wikipedia 's Sister projects Media from Commons Definitions from Wiktionary Textbooks from Wikibooks Learning resources from Wikiversity Notes ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Apendixes Archived 6 November 2011 at the Wayback Machine ... By USGS definitions , the reserve base `` may encompass those parts of the resources that have a reasonable potential for becoming economically available within planning horizons beyond those that assume proven technology and current economics . The reserve base includes those resources that are currently economic ( reserves ) , marginally economic ( marginal reserves ) , and some of those that are currently subeconomic ( subeconomic resources ) . '' Jump up ^ withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data Jump up ^ Beryllium and fluorine occur only as one isotope , Be and F respectively . These two , together with Li , as well as H , B , N , Bi , and the stable isotopes of C , and O , are the only nuclides with low enough thermal neutron capture cross sections aside from actinides to serve as major constituents of a molten salt breeder reactor fuel . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Meija , J. ; et al. 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( 2015 ) . `` Lithium as a Nutrient '' ( PDF ) . Journal of American Physicians and Surgeons. 20 ( 4 ) : 104 -- 9 . Archived ( PDF ) from the original on 15 February 2017 . Jump up ^ Technical data for Lithium Archived 23 March 2015 at the Wayback Machine ... periodictable.com Jump up ^ Furr , A.K. ( 2000 ) . CRC handbook of laboratory safety . Boca Raton : CRC Press . pp. 244 -- 246 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8493 - 2523 - 6 . Jump up ^ `` Illinois Attorney General -- Basic Understanding Of Meth '' . Illinoisattorneygeneral.gov . Archived from the original on 10 September 2010 . Retrieved 6 October 2010 . Jump up ^ Harmon , Aaron R. ( 2006 ) . `` Methamphetamine remediation research act of 2005 : Just what the doctor ordered for cleaning up methfields -- or sugar pill placebo ? '' ( PDF ) . North Carolina Journal of Law & Technology . 7 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2008 - 12 - 01 . Retrieved 5 October 2010 . Jump up ^ Bro , Per & Levy , Samuel C. ( 1994 ) . Battery hazards and accident prevention . New York : Plenum Press . pp. 15 -- 16 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 306 - 44758 - 7 . Jump up ^ `` TSA : Safe Travel with Batteries and Devices '' . Tsa.gov. 1 January 2008 . Archived from the original on 4 January 2012 . External links ( edit ) Lithium at The Periodic Table of Videos ( University of Nottingham ) International Lithium Alliance USGS : Lithium Statistics and Information Lithium Supply & Markets 2009 IM Conference 2009 Sustainable lithium supplies through 2020 in the face of sustainable market growth University of Southampton , Mountbatten Centre for International Studies , Nuclear History Working Paper No5 . ( hide ) Periodic table ( Large cells ) 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 He Li Be O Ne Na Mg Al Si Cl Ar Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr 5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te Xe 6 Cs Ba La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Hf Ta Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn 7 Fr Ra Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og Alkali metal Alkaline earth metal Lanthanide Actinide Transition metal Post - ​ transition metal Metalloid Polyatomic nonmetal Diatomic nonmetal Noble gas Unknown chemical properties Lithium compounds Inorganic LiAlCl LiAlH LiAlO LiBF LiBH LiBO LiB O Li B O LiBr Li CO Li C LiCl LiClO LiClO LiClO LiCoO LiF LiH LiI LiIO Li IrO Li MoO LiNH Li NH LiN Li N LiNO LiNO LiNbO LiOH LiO Li O Li O LiPF Li PtO Li Po Li RuO Li S Li SO Li SO Li SiO LiTaO Li TiO Organic 12 - hydroxystearate acetate aspartate citrate diisopropylamide orotate succinate stearate organolithiums Minerals Amblygonite Elbaite Eucryptite Jadarite Lepidolite Lithiophilite Petalite Pezzottaite Saliotite Spodumene Sugilite Tourmaline Zabuyelite Zinnwaldite LCCN : sh85077577 GND : 4036037 - 4 BNF : cb119338639 ( data ) NDL : 00569575 BNE : XX531331 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lithium&oldid=819518707 '' Categories : Lithium Alkali metals Chemical elements Reducing agents Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from December 2016 Webarchive template archiveis links Pages using citations with accessdate and no URL CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list Articles to be merged from June 2017 All articles to be merged Articles containing Greek - language text Instances of Lang - el using second unnamed parameter Interlanguage link template link number Good articles Use dmy dates from May 2012 Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikiversity Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés Armãneashti Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা Bân - lâm - gú Беларуская Беларуская ( тарашкевіца ) ‎ भोजपुरी Български བོད ་ ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština ChiShona Corsu Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gàidhlig Galego 贛 語 Gĩkũyũ ગુજરાતી 客家 語 / Hak - kâ - ngî Хальмг 한국어 Hawaiʻi Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית Basa Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Коми Kreyòl ayisyen Kurdî Кыргызча Кырык мары Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Livvinkarjala La . lojban . Lumbaart Magyar Македонски മലയാളം मराठी Bahasa Melayu Mìng - dĕ̤ng - ngṳ̄ Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands नेपाली नेपाल भाषा 日本 語 Nordfriisk Norsk Norsk nynorsk Occitan ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ पालि پنجابی Papiamentu ភាសា ខ្មែរ Piemontèis Plattdüütsch Polski Ποντιακά Português Ripoarisch Română Runa Simi Русский Саха тыла संस्कृतम् Scots Seeltersk Shqip සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Soomaaliga کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Basa Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça తెలుగు ไทย ᏣᎳᎩ Türkçe Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vepsän kel ' Tiếng Việt Walon 文言 Winaray ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 中文 Kabɩyɛ Edit links This page was last edited on 9 January 2018 , at 20 : 30 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . 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Fundamental rights in India - Wikipedia Fundamental rights in India Jump to : navigation , search Part of a series on Constitution of India Preamble Parts ( show ) Fundamental Rights PART I ∙ II ∙ III ∙ IV ∙ IVA ∙ V ∙ VI ∙ VII VIII ∙ IX ∙ IXA ∙ IXB ∙ X ∙ XI ∙ XII ∙ XIII ∙ XIV XV ∙ XVI ∙ XVIA ∙ XVII ∙ XVIII ∙ XIX ∙ XX ∙ XXI XXII Schedules ( show ) First ∙ Second ∙ Third ∙ Fourth ∙ Fifth Sixth ∙ Seventh ∙ Eighth ∙ Ninth Tenth ∙ Eleventh ∙ Twelfth Appendices ( show ) I ∙ II ∙ III ∙ IV ∙ V Amendments ( show ) List ∙ 1 ∙ 2 ∙ 3 ∙ 4 ∙ 5 ∙ 6 ∙ 7 ∙ 8 ∙ 9 ∙ 10 ∙ 11 ∙ 12 ∙ 13 ∙ 14 ∙ 15 ∙ 16 ∙ 17 ∙ 18 ∙ 19 ∙ 20 ∙ 21 ∙ 22 ∙ 23 ∙ 24 ∙ 25 ∙ 26 ∙ 27 ∙ 28 ∙ 29 ∙ 30 ∙ 31 ∙ 32 ∙ 33 ∙ 34 ∙ 35 ∙ 36 ∙ 37 ∙ 38 ∙ 39 ∙ 40 ∙ 41 ∙ 42 ∙ 43 ∙ 44 ∙ 45 ∙ 46 ∙ 47 ∙ 48 ∙ 49 ∙ 50 ∙ 51 ∙ 52 ∙ 53 ∙ 54 ∙ 55 ∙ 56 ∙ 57 ∙ 58 ∙ 59 ∙ 60 ∙ 61 ∙ 62 ∙ 63 ∙ 64 ∙ 65 ∙ 66 ∙ 67 ∙ 68 ∙ 69 ∙ 70 ∙ 71 ∙ 72 ∙ 73 ∙ 74 ∙ 75 ∙ 76 ∙ 77 ∙ 78 ∙ 79 ∙ 80 ∙ 81 ∙ 82 ∙ 83 ∙ 84 ∙ 85 ∙ 86 ∙ 87 ∙ 88 ∙ 89 ∙ 90 ∙ 91 ∙ 92 ∙ 93 ∙ 94 ∙ 95 ∙ 96 ∙ 97 ∙ 98 ∙ 99 ∙ 100 ∙ 101 Related topics ( show ) Union List State List Concurrent List Basic structure doctrine Uniform civil code Fundamental Rights are the basic rights of the people and the charter of rights contained in Part III ( Article 12 to 35 ) of Constitution of India . It guarantees civil liberties such that all Indians can lead their lives in peace and harmony as citizens of India . These include individual rights common to most liberal democracies , such as equality before law freedom of speech and expression , religious and cultural freedom and peaceful assembly , freedom to practice religion , and the right to constitutional remedies for the protection of civil rights by means of writs such as habeas corpus , Mandamus , Prohibition , Certiorari and Quo Warranto . Violation of these rights result in punishments as prescribed in the Indian Penal Code or other special laws , subject to discretion of the judiciary . The Fundamental Rights are defined as basic human freedoms that every Indian citizen has the right to enjoy for a proper and harmonious development of personality . These rights universally apply to all citizens , irrespective of race , place of birth , religion , caste or gender . Though the rights conferred by the constitution other than fundamental rights are equally valid and their enforcement in case of violation shall be secured from the judiciary in a time consuming legal process . However , in case of fundamental rights violation , Supreme court of India can be approached directly for ultimate justice per Article 32 . The Rights have their origins in many sources , including England 's Bill of Rights , the United States Bill of Rights and France 's Declaration of the Rights of Man . The six fundamental rights recognised by the Indian constitution are the right to equality , right to freedom , right against exploitation , right to freedom of religion , cultural and educational rights , right to constitutional remedies and right to privacy . The right to equality includes equality before law , prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion , race , caste , gender or place of birth , and equality of opportunity in matters of employment , abolition of untouchability and abolition of titles . The right to freedom includes freedom of speech and expression , assembly , association or union or cooperatives , movement , residence , and right to practice any profession or occupation , right to life and liberty , protection in respect to conviction in offences and protection against arrest and detention in certain cases . The right against exploitation prohibits all forms of forced labour , child labour and trafficking of human beings . The right to freedom of religion includes freedom of conscience and free profession , practice , and propagation of religion , freedom to manage religious affairs , freedom from certain taxes and freedom from religious instructions in certain educational institutes . Cultural and educational rights preserve the right of any section of citizens to conserve their culture , language or script , and right of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice . The right to constitutional remedies is present for enforcement of Fundamental Rights . The right to privacy is an intrinsic part of Article 21 that protects life and liberty of the citizens . Fundamental rights for Indians have also been aimed at overturning the inequalities of pre-independence social practices . Specifically , they have also been used to abolish untouchability and thus prohibit discrimination on the grounds of religion , race , caste , sex , or place of birth . They also forbid trafficking of human beings and forced labour ( a crime ) . They also protect cultural and educational rights of religious and linguistic minorities by allowing them to preserve their languages and also establish and administer their own education institutions . They are covered in Part III ( Articles 12 to 35 ) of Indian constitution . Contents ( hide ) 1 Genesis 2 Significance and characteristics 3 Right to equality 4 Right to freedom 5 Right against exploitation 6 Right to freedom of religion 7 Right to life 8 Cultural and Educational rights 9 Right to constitutional remedies 10 Right to Privacy 11 Critical analysis 12 Amendments 13 Fundamental rights not sacrosanct 13.1 Validity of Article 31B 13.2 Amendment to Article 31C 13.3 Right to property 13.4 Right to education 14 See also 15 References 16 Footnotes Genesis ( edit ) The development of constitutionally guaranteed fundamental human rights in India was inspired by historical examples such as England 's Bill of Rights ( 1689 ) , the United States Bill of Rights ( approved on 17 September 1787 , final ratification on 15 December 1791 ) and France 's Declaration of the Rights of Man ( created during the revolution of 1789 , and ratified on 26 August 1789 ) . In 1919 , the Rowlatt Act gave extensive powers to the British government and police , and allowed indefinite arrest and detention of individuals , warrant-less searches and seizures , restrictions on public gatherings , and intensive censorship of media and publications . The public opposition to this act eventually led to mass campaigns of non-violent civil disobedience throughout the country demanding guaranteed civil freedoms , and limitations on government power . Indians , who were seeking independence and their own government , were particularly influenced by the independence of Ireland and the development of the Irish constitution . Also , the directive principles of state policy in Irish constitution were looked upon by the people of India as an inspiration for the independent India 's government to comprehensively tackle complex social and economic challenges across a vast , diverse nation and population . In 1928 , the Nehru Commission composing of representatives of Indian political parties proposed constitutional reforms for India that apart from calling for dominion status for India and elections under universal suffrage , would guarantee rights deemed fundamental , representation for religious and ethnic minorities , and limit the powers of the government . In 1931 , the Indian National Congress ( the largest Indian political party of the time ) adopted resolutions committing itself to the defence of fundamental civil rights , as well as socio - economic rights such as the minimum wage and the abolition of untouchability and serfdom . Committing themselves to socialism in 1936 , the Congress leaders took examples from the Constitution of the Soviet Union , which inspired the fundamental duties of citizens as a means of collective patriotic responsibility for national interests and challenges . Task of developing a constitution for the nation was undertaken by the Constituent Assembly of India , composing of elected representatives . The Constituent Assembly first met on 9 December 1946 under the presidency of Dr. Sachidanand later Dr. Rajendra Prasad was made its president . While members of Congress composed of a large majority , Congress leaders appointed persons from diverse political backgrounds to responsibilities of developing the constitution and national laws . Notably , Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar became the chairperson of the drafting committee , while Jawaharlal Nehru and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel became chairpersons of committees and sub-committees responsible for different subjects . A notable development during that period having significant effect on the Indian constitution took place on 10 December 1948 when the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and called upon all member states to adopt these rights in their respective constitutions . The fundamental rights were included in the First Draft Constitution ( February 1948 ) , the Second Draft Constitution ( 17 October 1948 ) and final Third Draft Constitution ( 26 November 1949 ) , prepared by the Drafting Committee . Significance and characteristics ( edit ) The fundamental rights were included in the constitution because they were considered essential for the development of the personality of every individual and to preserve human dignity . The writers of the constitution regarded democracy of no avail if civil liberties , like freedom of speech and religion were not recognised and protected by the State . According to them , `` democracy '' is , in essence , a government by opinion and therefore , the means of formulating public opinion should be secured to the people of a democratic nation . For this purpose , the constitution guaranteed to all the citizens of India the freedom of speech and expression and various other freedoms in the form of the fundamental rights . Rights Theoretical distinctions Claim rights and liberty rights Individual and group rights Natural and legal rights Negative and positive rights Human rights Civil and political Economic , social and cultural Three generations Rights by beneficiary Animals Authors Children Consumers Creditors Elders Fathers Fetuses Gun owners Humans Natives Intersex Kings LGBT Men Minorities Mothers Patients Plants Prisoners Students Victims Women Workers Youth Disabled persons Other groups of rights Civil liberties Digital Linguistic Property Reproductive Self - determination of people Water and sanitation All people , irrespective of race , religion , caste or sex , have been given the right to petition directly the Supreme Court or the High Courts for the enforcement of their fundamental rights . It is not necessary that the aggrieved party has to be the one to do so . Poverty stricken people may not have the means to do so and therefore , in the public interest , anyone can commence litigation in the court on their behalf . This is known as `` Public interest litigation '' . In some cases , High Court judges have acted suo moto on their own on the basis of newspaper reports . These fundamental rights help not only in protection but also the prevention of gross violations of human rights . They emphasise on the fundamental unity of India by guaranteeing to all citizens the access and use of the same facilities , irrespective of background . Some fundamental rights apply for persons of any nationality whereas others are available only to the citizens of India . The right to life and personal liberty is available to all people and so is the right to freedom of religion . On the other hand , freedoms of speech and expression and freedom to reside and settle in any part of the country are reserved to citizens alone , including non-resident Indian citizens . The right to equality in matters of public employment can not be conferred to overseas citizens of India . Fundamental rights primarily protect individuals from any arbitrary state actions , but some rights are enforceable against individuals . For instance , the Constitution abolishes untouchability and also prohibits begar . These provisions act as a check both on state action as well as the action of private individuals . However , these rights are not absolute or uncontrolled and are subject to reasonable restrictions as necessary for the protection of general welfare . They can also be selectively curtailed . The Supreme Court has ruled that all provisions of the Constitution , including fundamental rights can be amended . However , the Parliament can not alter the basic structure of the constitution . Since the fundamental rights can be altered only by a constitutional amendment , their inclusion is a check not only on the executive branch but also on the Parliament and state legislatures . A state of national emergency has an adverse effect on these rights . Under such a state , the rights conferred by Article 19 ( freedoms of speech , assembly and movement , etc . ) remain suspended . Hence , in such a situation , the legislature may make laws that go against the rights given in Article 19 . Also , the President may by order suspend the right to move court for the enforcement of other rights as well . Right to equality ( edit ) Right to equality is an important and meaningful right provided for in Articles 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 and 18 of the constitution . It is the principal foundation of all other rights and liberties , and guarantees the following : Equality before law : Article 14 of the constitution guarantees that all people shall be equally protected by the laws of the country . It means that the State will treat people in the same circumstances alike . This article also means that individuals , whether citizens of India or otherwise shall be treated differently if the circumstances are different . Social equality and equal access to public areas : Article 15 of the constitution states that no person shall be discriminated on the basis of religion , race , caste , sex or place of birth . Every person shall have equal access to public places like public parks , museums , wells , bathing ghats and temples etc . However , the State may make any special provision for women and children . Special provisions may be made for the advancements of any socially or educationally backward class or scheduled castes or scheduled tribes . Equality in matters of public employment : Article 16 of the constitution lays down that the State can not discriminate against anyone in the matters of employment . All citizens can apply for government jobs . There are some exceptions . The Parliament may enact a law stating that certain jobs can be filled only by applicants who are domiciled in the area . This may be meant for posts that require knowledge of the locality and language of the area . The State may also reserve posts for members of backward classes , scheduled castes or scheduled tribes which are not adequately represented in the services under the State to bring up the weaker sections of the society . Also , there a law may be passed that requires that the holder of an office of any religious institution shall also be a person professing that particular religion . According to the Citizenship ( Amendment ) Bill , 2003 , this right shall not be conferred to Overseas citizens of India . Abolition of untouchability : Article 17 of the constitution abolishes the practice of untouchability . Practice of untouchability is an offence and anyone doing so is punishable by law . The Untouchability Offences Act of 1955 ( renamed to Protection of Civil Rights Act in 1976 ) provided penalties for preventing a person from entering a place of worship or from taking water from a tank or well . Abolition of Titles : Article 18 of the constitution prohibits the State from conferring any titles . `` Citizens of India can not accept titles from a foreign State . The British government had created an aristocratic class known as Rai Bahadurs and Khan Bahadurs in India -- these titles were also abolished . However , Military and academic distinctions can be conferred on the citizens of India . The awards of Bharat Ratna and Padma Vibhushan can not be used by the recipient as a title and do not , accordingly , come within the constitutional prohibition '' . The Supreme Court , on 15 December 1995 , upheld the validity of such awards . Right to freedom ( edit ) The Constitution of India contains the right to freedom , given in articles 19 , 20 , 21 , 21A , and 22 , and with the view of guaranteeing individual rights that were considered vital by the framers of the constitution . It is a cluster of four main laws . The right to freedom in Article 19 guarantees the following six freedoms : Freedom of speech and expression , on which the State can impose reasonable restrictions in the interests of the sovereignty and integrity of India , the security of the State , friendly relations with foreign States , public order , decency or morality or in relation to contempt of court , defamation or incitement to an offence . Freedom to assemble peacefully without arms on which the State can impose reasonable restrictions in the interest of public order and the sovereignty and integrity of India . The Freedom to form associations or unions or co-operative societies on which the State can impose reasonable restrictions in the interest of public order , morality and the sovereignty and integrity of India . Freedom to move freely throughout the territory of India though reasonable restrictions can be imposed on this right in the interest of the general public , for example , restrictions may be imposed on movement and travelling , so as to control epidemics . Freedom to reside and settle in any part of the territory of India , subject to reasonable restrictions by the State in the interest of the general public or for the protection of the scheduled tribes because certain safeguards as are envisaged here seem to be justified to protect indigenous and tribal peoples from exploitation and coercion . Article 370 restricts citizens from other Indian states and Kashmiri women who marry men from other states from purchasing land or property in Jammu & Kashmir . Freedom to practice any profession or to carry on any occupation , trade or business on which the State may impose reasonable restrictions in the interest of the general public . Thus , there is no right to carry on a business which is dangerous or immoral . Also , professional or technical qualifications may be prescribed for practising any profession or carrying on any trade . Article 21A gives education to all children of the age of six to fourteen years in such manner as the State may , by law , determine . The constitution also imposes restrictions on these rights . The government restricts these freedoms in the interest of the independence , sovereignty and integrity of India . In the interest of morality and public order , the government can also impose restrictions . However , the right to life and personal liberty can not be suspended . The six freedoms are also automatically suspended or have restrictions imposed on them during a state of emergency . Right to Information ( RTI ) Right to Information has been given the status of a fundamental right under Article 19 ( 1 ) of the Constitution in 2005 . Article 19 ( 1 ) under which every citizen has freedom of speech and expression and have the right to know how the government works , what role does it play , what are its functions and so on . Right against exploitation ( edit ) Child labour and Begar is prohibited under Right against exploitation . The right against exploitation , given in Articles 23 and 24 , provides for two provisions , namely the abolition of trafficking in human beings and Begar ( forced labour ) , and abolition of employment of children below the age of 14 years in dangerous jobs like factories , mines , etc . Child labour is considered a gross violation of the spirit and provisions of the constitution . Begar , practised in the past by landlords , has been declared a crime and is punishable by law . Trafficking in humans for the purpose of slave trade or prostitution is also prohibited by law . An exception is made in employment without payment for compulsory services for public purposes . Compulsory military conscription is covered by this provision . Right to freedom of religion ( edit ) Right to freedom of religion , covered in Articles 25 , 26 , 27 and 28 , provides religious freedom to all citizens of India . The objective of this right is to sustain the principle of secularism in India . According to the Constitution , all religions are equal before the State and no religion shall be given preference over the other . Citizens are free to preach , practice and propagate any religion of their choice . Religious communities can set up charitable institutions of their own . However , activities in such institutions that are not religious are performed according to the laws laid down by the government . Establishing a charitable institution can also be restricted in the interest of public order , morality and health . No person shall be compelled to pay taxes for the promotion of a particular religion . A State run institution can not be impart education that is pro-religion . Also , nothing in this article shall affect the operation of any existing law or prevent the State from making any further law regulating or restricting any economic , financial , political or other secular activity that may be associated with religious practice , or providing for social welfare and reform . Right to life ( edit ) The constitution guarantees the right to life and personal liberty , which in turn cites specific provisions in which these rights are applied and enforced : Protection with respect to conviction for offences is guaranteed in the right to life and personal liberty . According to Article 20 , no one can be awarded punishment which is more than what the law of the land prescribes at that time . This legal axiom is based on the principle that no criminal law can be made retrospective , that is , for an act to become an offence , the essential condition is that it should have been an offence legally at the time of committing it . Moreover , no person accused of any offence shall be compelled to be a witness against himself . `` Compulsion '' in this article refers to what in law is called `` Duress '' ( injury , beating or unlawful imprisonment to make a person do something that he does not want to do ) . This article is known as a safeguard against self incrimination . The other principle enshrined in this article is known as the principle of double jeopardy , that is , no person can be convicted twice for the same offence , which has been derived from Anglo Saxon law . This principle was first established in the Magna Carta . Protection of life and personal liberty is also stated under right to life and personal liberty . Article 21 declares that no citizen can be denied his life and liberty except by law . This means that a person 's life and personal liberty can be disputed only if that person has committed a crime . However , the right to life does not include the right to die and hence , suicide or an attempt thereof , is an offence . ( Attempted suicide being interpreted as a crime has seen many debates . The Supreme Court of India gave a landmark ruling in 1994 . The court repealed section 309 of the Indian penal code , under which people attempting suicide could face prosecution and prison terms of up to one year . In 1996 however another Supreme Court ruling nullified the earlier one . ) `` Personal liberty '' includes all the freedoms which are not included in Article 19 ( that is , the six freedoms ) . The right to travel abroad is also covered under `` personal liberty '' in Article 21 . In 2002 , through the 86th Amendment Act , Article 21 ( A ) was incorporated . It made the right to primary education part of the right to freedom , stating that the State would provide free and compulsory education to children from six to fourteen years of age . Six years after an amendment was made in the Indian Constitution , the union cabinet cleared the Right to Education Bill in 2008 . Rights of a person arrested under ordinary circumstances is laid down in the right to life and personal liberty . No one can be arrested without being told the grounds for his arrest . If arrested , the person has the right to defend himself by a lawyer of his choice . Also an arrested citizen has to be brought before the nearest magistrate within 24 hours . The rights of a person arrested under ordinary circumstances are not available to an enemy alien . They are also not available to persons detained under the Preventive Detention Act . Under preventive detention , the government can imprison a person for a maximum of three months . It means that if the government feels that a person being at liberty can be a threat to the law and order or to the unity and integrity of the nation , it can detain or arrest that person to prevent him from doing this possible harm . After three months such a case is brought before an advisory board for review . Cultural and educational rights ( edit ) The Flag of India As India is a country of many languages , religions , and cultures , the Constitution provides special measures , in Articles 29 and 30 , to protect the rights of the minorities . Any community that has a language and a script of its own has the right to conserve and develop it . No citizen can be discriminated against for admission in State or State aided institutions . All minorities , or linguistic , can set up their own educational institutions to preserve and develop their own culture . In granting aid to institutions , the State can not discriminate against any institution on the basis of the fact that it is administered by a minority institution . But the right to administer does not mean that the State can not interfere in case of maladministration . In a precedent - setting judgement in 1980 , the Supreme Court held that the State can certainly take regulatory measures to promote the efficiency and excellence of educational standards . It can also issue guidelines for ensuring the security of the services of the teachers or other employees of the institution . In another landmark judgement delivered on 31 October 2002 , the Supreme Court ruled that in case of aided minority institutions offering professional courses , admission could be only through a common entrance test conducted by State or a university . Even an unaided minority institution ought not to ignore the merit of the students for admission . Right to constitutional remedies ( edit ) Right to constitutional remedies ( Article 32 to 35 ) empowers the citizens to move to a court of law in case of any denial of the fundamental rights . For instance , in case of imprisonment , any citizen can ask the court to see if it is according to the provisions of the law of the country by lodging a PIL . If the court finds that it is not , the person will have to be freed . This procedure of asking the courts to preserve or safeguard the citizens ' fundamental rights can be done in various ways . The courts can issue various kinds of writs . These writs are habeas corpus , mandamus , prohibition , quo warranto and certiorari . Dr. B.R. Ambedkar rightly declared Right to constitutional remedies as `` the heart and soul '' of Indian constitution . When a national or state emergency is declared , this right is suspended by the central government . Article 32 is also called citizens right to protect and defend the constitution as it can be used by the citizens to enforce the constitution through the judiciary . Right to Privacy ( edit ) The right to privacy is protected as an intrinsic part of the right to life and personal liberty under Article 21 and as a part of the freedoms guaranteed by Part III of the Constitution . It protects the inner sphere of the individual from interference from both State , and non-State actors and allows the individuals to make autonomous life choices . On 24 August 2017 the Supreme Court ruled that : `` Right to Privacy is an integral part of Right to Life and Personal Liberty guaranteed in Article 21 of the Constitution , '' -- Supreme Court Critical analysis ( edit ) The fundamental rights have been revised for many reasons . Political groups have demanded that the right to work , the right to economic assistance in case of unemployment , old age , and similar rights be enshrined as constitutional guarantees to address issues of poverty and economic insecurity , though these provisions have been enshrined in the Directive Principles of state policy . The right to freedom and personal liberty has a number of limiting clauses , and thus have been criticised for failing to check the sanctioning of powers often deemed `` excessive '' . There is also the provision of preventive detention and suspension of fundamental rights in times of Emergency . The provisions of acts like the Maintenance of Internal Security Act ( MISA ) , Armed Forces ( Special Powers ) Act and the National Security Act ( NSA ) are a means of countering the fundamental rights , because they sanction excessive powers with the aim of fighting internal and cross-border terrorism and political violence , without safeguards for civil rights . The phrases `` security of State '' , `` public order '' and `` morality '' are of wide implication . People of alternate sexuality are criminalised in India with prison term up to 10 years . The meaning of phrases like `` reasonable restrictions '' and `` the interest of public order '' have not been explicitly stated in the constitution , and this ambiguity leads to unnecessary litigation . The freedom to assemble peaceably and without arms is exercised , but in some cases , these meetings are broken up by the police through the use of non-fatal methods . `` Freedom of press '' has not been included in the right to freedom , which is necessary for formulating public opinion and to make freedom of expression more legitimate . Employment of child labour in hazardous job environments has been reduced , but their employment even in non-hazardous jobs , including their prevalent employment as domestic help violates the spirit and ideals of the constitution . More than 16.5 million children are employed and working in India . India was ranked 88 out of 159 in 2005 , according to the degree to which corruption is perceived to exist among public officials and politicians worldwide . But in 2014 , India has improved marginally to a rank of 85 . The right to equality in matters regarding public employment shall not be conferred to overseas citizens of India , according to the Citizenship ( Amendment ) Bill , 2003 . As per Article 19 of Part III of the Indian constitution , the fundamental rights of people such as freedom of speech and expression , gathering peaceably without arms and forming associations or unions shall not effect the interests of the sovereignty and integrity of India but not unity of India . The words sovereignty and integrity are the qualities to be cultivated / emulated by Indian people as urged by the Indian constitution but not used related to territory of India . Article 1 of Part 1 of the Indian constitution , defines India ( Bharat ) as union of states . In nutshell , India is its people not its land as enshrined in its constitution . Since speedy trial is not the constitutional right of the citizens , the cases involving violations of fundamental rights take inordinate time for resolution by the Supreme Court which is against the legal maxim ' justice delayed is justice denied ' . Amendments ( edit ) Changes to the fundamental rights require a constitutional amendment , which has to be passed by a special majority of both houses of Parliament . This means that an amendment requires the approval of two - thirds of the members present and voting . However , the number of members voting in support of the amendment shall not be less than the simple majority of the total members of a house -- whether the Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha . Fundamental rights not sacrosanct ( edit ) While deciding the Golaknath case in February 1967 , Supreme Court ruled that the Parliament has no power to curtail the fundamental rights . They were made permanent and sacrosanct reversing the Supreme Court 's earlier decision which had upheld Parliament 's power to amend all parts of the Constitution , including Part III related to Fundamental Rights . Up till the 24th constitutional amendment in 1971 , the fundamental rights given to the people were permanent and can not be repealed or diluted by the Parliament . 24th constitutional amendment introduced a new Article 13 ( 4 ) enabling Parliament to legislate on the subjects of Part III of the constitution using its constituent powers per Article 368 ( 1 ) . In the year 1973 , the 13 member constitutional bench of supreme court also upheld with majority the validity of 24th constitutional amendment . However it ruled that Basic structure of the constitution which is built on the basic foundation representing the dignity and freedom of the individual , can not be altered . This is of supreme importance and can not be destroyed by any form of amendment to the constitution . Many constitutional amendments to Part III of the constitution were made deleting or adding or diluting the fundamental rights before the judgement of Golaknath case ( Constitutional amendments 1 , 4 , 7 and 16 ) and after the validity of 24th constitutional amendment is upheld by the Supreme Court ( Constitutional amendments 25 , 42 , 44 , 50 , 77 , 81 , 85 , 86 , 93 and 97 ) . Validity of Article 31B ( edit ) Articles 31A and Article 31B are added by First constitutional amendment in 1951 . Article 31B says that any acts and regulations included in the Ninth Schedule of the constitution by the Parliament can override the fundamental rights and such laws can not be repealed or made void by the judiciary on the grounds of violating fundamental rights . Thus fundamental rights given in Part III are not equally applicable in each state / region and can be made different by making additions / deletions to Ninth Schedule by constitutional amendments . In 2007 , Supreme Court ruled that there could not be any blanket immunity from judicial review for the laws inserted in the Ninth Schedule . Apex court also stated it shall examine laws included in the Ninth Schedule after 1973 for any incompatibility with the basic structure doctrine . Amendment to Article 31C ( edit ) Section 4 of the 42nd Amendment , had changed Article 31C of the constitution to accord precedence to the Directive Principles ( earlier applicable only to clauses b & c of Article 39 ) over the fundamental rights of individuals . In Minerva Mills v. Union of India case , supreme court ruled that the amendment to the Article 31C is not valid and ultra vires . Right to property ( edit ) The Constitution originally provided for the right to property under Articles 19 and 31 . Article 19 guaranteed to all citizens the right to acquire , hold and dispose of property . Article 31 provided that `` no person shall be deprived of his property save by authority of law . '' It also provided that compensation would be paid to a person whose property has been taken for public purposes . The provisions relating to the right to property were changed a number of times . The Forty - Fourth Amendment of 1978 deleted the right to property from the list of fundamental rights A new provision , Article 300 - A , was added to the constitution , which provided that `` no person shall be deprived of his property save by authority of law '' . Thus if a legislature makes a law depriving a person of his property , there would be no obligation on the part of the State to pay anything as compensation . The aggrieved person shall have no right to move the court under Article 32 . Thus , the right to property is no longer a fundamental right , though it is still a constitutional right . If the government appears to have acted unfairly , the action can be challenged in a court of law by aggrieved citizens . The liberalisation of the economy and the government 's initiative to set up special economic zones has led to many protests by farmers and have led to calls for the reinstatement of the fundamental right to private property . The Supreme Court has sent a notice to the government questioning why the right should not be brought back but in 2010 the court rejected the PIL Right to education ( edit ) The right to education at elementary level has been made one of the fundamental rights in 2002 under the Eighty - Sixth Amendment of 2002 . However this right was brought in to implementation after eight years in 2010 . Article 21A -- On 2 April 2010 , India joined a group of few countries in the world , with a historic law making education a fundamental right of every child coming into force . Making elementary education an entitlement for children in the 6 -- 14 age group , the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act will directly benefit children who do not go to school at present . This act provides for appointment of teachers with the requisite entry and academic qualifications . The former Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh announced the operationalisation of the Act . Children , who had either dropped out of schools or never been to any educational institution , will get elementary education as it will be binding on the part of the local and State governments to ensure that all children in the 6 -- 14 age group get schooling . As per the Act , private educational institutions should reserve 25 per cent seats for children from the weaker sections of society . The Centre and the States have agreed to share the financial burden in the ratio of 55 : 45 , while the Finance Commission has given Rs. 250 billion to the States for implementing the Act . The Centre has approved an outlay of Rs. 150 billion for 2010 -- 2011 . The school management committee or the local authority will identify the drop - outs or out - of - school children aged above six and admit them in classes appropriate to their age after giving special training . Wikisource has original text related to this article : Constitution of India / Part III See also ( edit ) Lawmaking procedure in India President 's rule President of India Federalism in India Part I of the Constitution of India List of amendments of the Constitution of India List of Acts of the Parliament of India References ( edit ) Jump up ^ http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-41033954 Jump up ^ Tayal , B.B. & Jacob , A. ( 2005 ) , Indian History , World Developments and Civics , pg . A-23 Jump up ^ Gandhi , Rajmohan. Patel : A Life . p. 206 . Jump up ^ UNI . `` Sardar Patel was the real architect of the Constitution '' . Rediff.com . Retrieved 2006 - 05 - 15 . ^ Jump up to : The term `` State '' includes all authorities within the territory of India . It includes the Government of India , the Parliament of India , the Government and legislature of the states of India . It also includes all local or other authorities such as Municipal Corporations , Municipal Boards , District Boards , Panchayats etc . To avoid confusion with the term states and territories of India , State ( encompassing all the authorities in India ) has been capitalised and the term state ( referring to the state governments ) is in lowercase . Jump up ^ Laski , Harold Joseph ( 1930 ) . Liberty in the Modern State . New York and London : Harpers and Brothers . Jump up ^ `` Bodhisattwa Gautam vs. Subhra Chakraborty ; 1995 ICHRL 69 '' . www.worldlii.org , World Legal Information Institute . Retrieved 2006 - 05 - 25 . This was the case where Public interest litigation was introduced ( date of ruling 15 December 1995 ) . Jump up ^ Tayal , B.B. & Jacob , A. ( 2005 ) , Indian History , World Developments and Civics , pg . A-25 ^ Jump up to : `` Citizenship ( Amendment ) Bill , 2003 '' ( PDF ) . rajyasabha.nic.in/ , Rajya Sabha . p. 5 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 25 April 2006 . Retrieved 2006 - 05 - 25 . Jump up ^ `` Bodhisattwa Gautam vs. Subhra Chakraborty ; 1995 ICHRL 69 '' . www.worldlii.org , World Legal Information Institute . Retrieved 2006 - 05 - 25 . This was the case where fundamental rights were enforced against private individuals ( date of ruling 15 December 1995 ) . Jump up ^ Kesavananda Bharati vs. The State of Kerala ; AIR 1973 S.C. 1461 , ( 1973 ) 4 SCC 225 -- In what became famously known as the `` Fundamental Rights case '' , the Supreme Court decided that the basic structure of the Constitution of India was unamendable Jump up ^ Tayal , B.B. & Jacob , A. ( 2005 ) , Indian History , World Developments and Civics , pg . A-24 Jump up ^ Basu , Durga Das ( 1988 ) . Shorter Constitution of India . New Delhi : Prentice Hall of India . Basu , Durga Das ( 1993 ) . Introduction to the Constitution of India . New Delhi : Prentice Hall of India . Jump up ^ Democratic Politics Class 9 . NCERT . Jump up ^ `` Article 19 in The Constitution Of India 1949 '' . Indiankanoon.org . Retrieved 2015 - 05 - 29 . Jump up ^ Pylee , M.V. ( 1999 ) . India 's Constitution . New Delhi : S. Chand and Company . ISBN 81 - 219 - 1907 - X . Jump up ^ Vasudha Dhagamwar ( 4 May 2004 ) . `` The price of a Bill '' . Retrieved 24 March 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Home : Central Information Commission ( CIC ) Online '' . rti.india.gov.in . Retrieved 2016 - 02 - 10 . Jump up ^ Nandan G ( May 1994 ) . `` Indian grants right to suicide '' . BMJ. 308 ( 6941 ) : 1392 . doi : 10.1136 / bmj. 308.6941. 1392 . Jump up ^ Paper 3 : Abolition and Restoration of Section 309 IPC -- an overview by BR Sharma , A Sharma , D Harish : Anil Aggrawal 's Internet Journal of Forensic Medicine : Vol. 7 , No. 1 ( January -- June 2006 ) Archived 25 July 2008 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India ; AIR 1978 S.C. 597 , ( 1978 ) . ^ Jump up to : 86th Amendment Act , 2002 . Jump up ^ right to education bill Archived 26 June 2009 at the Wayback Machine ... Jump up ^ `` Justice KS Puttaswamy v. Union of India '' ( PDF ) . ^ Jump up to : Tayal , B.B. & Jacob , A. ( 2005 ) , Indian History , World Developments and Civics , pg . A-33 Jump up ^ Constitution of India - Part IV Article 41 Directive Principles of State Policy . Jump up ^ Senior Inspector justifies lathi - charge during the 2006 Indian anti-reservation protests Jump up ^ Lathi Charge in Mumbai during the 2006 Indian anti-reservation protests Jump up ^ `` Child labour in India '' . Archived from the original on 12 July 2014 . Retrieved 27 June 2006 . Jump up ^ https://www.transparency.org/cpi2014/results Jump up ^ Index of perception of corruption , published by Transparency International . Jump up ^ Sovereign means possessing supreme or ultimate power . `` in modern democracies the people 's will is in theory sovereign '' synonyms : supreme , absolute , unlimited , unrestricted , unrestrained , unbounded , boundless , infinite , ultimate , total , unconditional , full , utter , paramount ; principal , chief , dominant , predominant Jump up ^ `` What causes judicial delay ? Judgements diluting time frames in Code of Civil Procedure worsen the problem of adjournments '' . Retrieved 13 September 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Paras 316 and 317 of Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala , ( AIR 1973 SC 1461 ) '' . 1973 . Retrieved 21 October 2016 . Jump up ^ `` IX Schedule laws open to review '' . 2007 . Retrieved 21 October 2017 . Jump up ^ 44th Amendment Act , 1978 . Jump up ^ Mahapatra , Dhananjay ( 28 February 2009 ) . `` Should right to property return ? '' . The Times of India . Retrieved 8 July 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Court rejects plea to make property a fundamental right '' . The Hindu . Chennai , India . 19 October 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Education is now a fundamental right of every child '' . Hindustan Times . 1 April 2010 . Archived from the original on 9 July 2010 . Retrieved 8 July 2010 . Footnotes ( edit ) Links to related articles ( hide ) Government of India Constitution Constitution Fundamental Rights , Directive Principles and Fundamental Duties Federalism ( Union List State List Concurrent List ) Executive Union Government Prime Minister ( list ) Cabinet Ministers President ( list ) Vice President ( list ) Civil Services All India Services ( IAS IFS / IFoS IPS ) Cabinet Secretary Secretaries ( Defence Finance Foreign Home ) State governments Chief Minister ( list ) Chief Secretary Governors ( list ) Legislative Parliament Lok Sabha ( Speaker ) Rajya Sabha ( Chairman ) Vidhan Sabha Vidhan Parishad Leader of the Opposition Judiciary Supreme Court ( Chief Justice ) High Courts District Courts Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fundamental_rights_in_India&oldid=837658190 '' Categories : Constitution of India National human rights instruments Human rights in India Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from January 2017 Articles with permanently dead external links Use dmy dates from March 2013 Use Indian English from August 2017 All Wikipedia articles written in Indian English Pages using div col with deprecated parameters Good articles Talk Contents About Wikipedia বাংলা भोजपुरी हिन्दी मराठी नेपाली ਪੰਜਾਬੀ தமிழ் తెలుగు Edit links This page was last edited on 22 April 2018 , at 05 : 38 . 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President of the United States - wikipedia President of the United States Jump to : navigation , search `` POTUS '' redirects here . For the political talk radio channel , see P.O.T.U.S. ( Sirius XM ) . For other uses , see President of the United States ( disambiguation ) . For a list , see List of Presidents of the United States . President of the United States of America Presidential Seal Presidential Standard Incumbent Donald Trump since January 20 , 2017 Executive Branch of the U.S. Government Executive Office of the President Style Mr. President ( informal ) The Honorable ( formal ) His Excellency ( international correspondence ) Status Head of State Head of Government Member of Cabinet Domestic Policy Council National Economic Council National Security Council Residence White House Seat Washington , D.C. Appointer Electoral College of the United States Term length Four years , renewable once ( Amendment XXII ) Constituting instrument United States Constitution Inaugural holder George Washington Formation March 4 , 1789 ( 229 years ago ) ( 1789 - 03 - 04 ) Salary $400,000 annually Website whitehouse.gov This article is part of a series on the Politics of the United States of America Federal Government ( show ) Constitution of the United States Law Taxation Legislature ( show ) United States Congress House of Representatives Speaker Paul Ryan ( R ) Majority Leader Kevin McCarthy ( R ) Minority Leader Nancy Pelosi ( D ) Congressional districts United States Senate President Mike Pence ( R ) President Pro Tempore Orrin Hatch ( R ) President Pro Tempore Emeritus Patrick Leahy ( D ) Majority Leader Mitch McConnell ( R ) Minority Leader Chuck Schumer ( D ) Executive ( show ) President of the United States Donald Trump ( R ) Vice President of the United States Mike Pence ( R ) Cabinet Federal agencies Executive Office Judiciary ( show ) Supreme Court of the United States Chief Justice John Roberts Kennedy Thomas Ginsburg Breyer Alito Sotomayor Kagan Gorsuch Courts of Appeals District Courts ( list ) Other tribunals Elections ( show ) Presidential elections Midterm elections Off - year elections Political parties ( show ) Democratic Republican Third parties Federalism ( show ) State Government Governors Legislatures ( List ) State courts Local government Other countries Atlas The President of the United States ( POTUS / ˈpoʊtəs / POH - təs ) is the head of state and head of government of the United States of America . The president directs the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander - in - chief of the United States Armed Forces . In contemporary times , the president is looked upon as the world 's most powerful political figure and as the leader of the only current global superpower . The role includes responsibility for the world 's most expensive military that has the second largest nuclear arsenal . The president also leads the nation with the largest economy by nominal GDP . The president possesses significant domestic and international hard and soft power . Article II of the Constitution establishes the executive branch of the federal government . It vests the executive power of the United States in the president . The power includes the execution and enforcement of federal law , alongside the responsibility of appointing federal executive , diplomatic , regulatory and judicial officers , and concluding treaties with foreign powers with the advice and consent of the Senate . The president is further empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves , and to convene and adjourn either or both houses of Congress under extraordinary circumstances . The president directs the foreign and domestic policies of the United States , and takes an active role in promoting his policy priorities to members of Congress . In addition , as part of the system of checks and balances , Article One of the United States Constitution gives the president the power to sign or veto federal legislation . Since the office of president was established in 1789 , its power has grown substantially , as has the power of the federal government as a whole . Through the Electoral College , the registered voters indirectly elect the president and vice president to a four - year term . This is the only federal election in the United States which is not decided by popular vote . Nine vice presidents became president by virtue of a president 's intra-term death or resignation . The Twenty - second Amendment precludes any United States citizen from being elected president for a third term . It also prohibits a person from being elected to the presidency more than once if that person previously had served as president , or acting president , for more than two years of another person 's term as president . In all , 44 individuals have served 45 presidencies ( counting Grover Cleveland 's two non-consecutive terms separately ) spanning 57 full four - year terms . Donald Trump is the 45th and current president , inaugurated on January 20 , 2017 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Origin 2 Powers and duties 2.1 Article I legislative role 2.2 Article II executive powers 2.2. 1 War and foreign affairs powers 2.2. 2 Administrative powers 2.2. 3 Juridical powers 2.2. 4 Legislative facilitator 2.3 Ceremonial roles 2.4 Critics of presidency 's evolution 3 Selection process 3.1 Eligibility 3.2 Campaigns and nomination 3.3 Election and oath 3.4 Tenure and term limits 3.5 Succession , vacancy , or disability 3.6 Political affiliation 4 Compensation 5 Residence 6 Travel 7 Protection 8 Post-presidency 8.1 Presidential libraries 9 Timeline of presidents 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References 13 Further reading 13.1 Primary sources 14 External links Origin During the American Revolution in 1776 , the Thirteen Colonies , acting through the Second Continental Congress , declared political independence from Great Britain . The new states were independent of each other as nation states and recognized the necessity of closely coordinating their efforts against the British . Congress desired to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy and negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish an alliance between the states . Under the Articles , Congress was a central authority without any legislative power . It could make its own resolutions , determinations , and regulations , but not any laws , and could not impose any taxes or enforce local commercial regulations upon its citizens . This institutional design reflected how Americans believed the deposed British system of Crown and Parliament ought to have functioned with respect to the royal dominion : a superintending body for matters that concerned the entire empire . The states were out from under any monarchy and assigned some formerly royal prerogatives ( e.g. , making war , receiving ambassadors , etc . ) to Congress ; the remaining prerogatives were lodged within their own respective state governments . The states agreed to a resolution that settled competing western land claims . The Articles took effect on March 1 , 1781 , when Maryland became the final state to ratify them . In 1783 , the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies . With peace at hand , the states each turned toward their own internal affairs . By 1786 , Americans found their continental borders besieged and weak and their respective economies in crises as neighboring states agitated trade rivalries with one another . They witnessed their hard currency pouring into foreign markets to pay for imports , their Mediterranean commerce preyed upon by North African pirates , and their foreign - financed Revolutionary War debts unpaid and accruing interest . Civil and political unrest loomed . Following the successful resolution of commercial and fishing disputes between Virginia and Maryland at the Mount Vernon Conference in 1785 , Virginia called for a trade conference between all the states , set for September 1786 in Annapolis , Maryland , with an aim toward resolving further - reaching interstate commercial antagonisms . When the convention failed for lack of attendance due to suspicions among most of the other states , Alexander Hamilton led the Annapolis delegates in a call for a convention to offer revisions to the Articles , to be held the next spring in Philadelphia . Prospects for the next convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washington 's attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia . When the Constitutional Convention convened in May 1787 , the 12 state delegations in attendance ( Rhode Island did not send delegates ) brought with them an accumulated experience over a diverse set of institutional arrangements between legislative and executive branches from within their respective state governments . Most states maintained a weak executive without veto or appointment powers , elected annually by the legislature to a single term only , sharing power with an executive council , and countered by a strong legislature . New York offered the greatest exception , having a strong , unitary governor with veto and appointment power elected to a three - year term , and eligible for reelection to an indefinite number of terms thereafter . It was through the closed - door negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U.S. Constitution emerged . Powers and duties Article I legislative role President Ronald Reagan signs the Martin Luther King bill , 1983 . The Presentment Clause requires that any bill passed by Congress must be presented to the president before it can become law . Once the legislation has been presented , the president has three options : Sign the legislation within ten days , excluding Sundays -- the bill becomes law . Veto the legislation within the above timeframe and return it to the house of Congress from which it originated , expressing any objections -- the bill does not become law , unless both houses of Congress vote to override the veto by a two - thirds vote . Take no action on the legislation within the above timeframe -- the bill becomes law , as if the president had signed it , unless Congress is adjourned at the time , in which case it does not become law ( a pocket veto ) . In 1996 , Congress attempted to enhance the president 's veto power with the Line Item Veto Act . The legislation empowered the president to sign any spending bill into law while simultaneously striking certain spending items within the bill , particularly any new spending , any amount of discretionary spending , or any new limited tax benefit . Congress could then repass that particular item . If the president then vetoed the new legislation , Congress could override the veto by its ordinary means , a two - thirds vote in both houses . In Clinton v. City of New York , 524 U.S. 417 ( 1998 ) , the U.S. Supreme Court ruled such a legislative alteration of the veto power to be unconstitutional . Article II executive powers War and foreign Affairs powers Abraham Lincoln , the 16th president of the United States , successfully preserved the Union during the American Civil War One of the most important of all executive powers is the president 's role as commander - in - chief of the United States Armed Forces . The power to declare war is constitutionally vested in Congress , but the president has ultimate responsibility for the direction and disposition of the military . The present - day operational command of the Armed Forces is delegated to the Department of Defense and is normally exercised through the Secretary of Defense . The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and the Combatant Commands assist with the operation as outlined in the presidentially approved Unified Command Plan ( UCP ) . The framers of the Constitution took care to limit the president 's powers regarding the military ; Alexander Hamilton explained this in Federalist No. 69 : The President is to be commander - in - chief of the army and navy of the United States ... It would amount to nothing more than the supreme command and direction of the military and naval forces ... while that ( the power ) of the British king extends to the DECLARING of war and to the RAISING and REGULATING of fleets and armies , all ( of ) which ... would appertain to the legislature . ( Emphasis in the original . ) Pursuant to the War Powers Resolution , Congress must authorize any troop deployments longer than 60 days , although that process relies on triggering mechanisms that have never been employed , rendering it ineffectual . Additionally , Congress provides a check to presidential military power through its control over military spending and regulation . Presidents have historically initiated the process for going to war , but critics have charged that there have been several conflicts in which presidents did not get official declarations , including Theodore Roosevelt 's military move into Panama in 1903 , the Korean War , the Vietnam War , and the invasions of Grenada in 1983 and Panama in 1990 . Administrative powers Suffice it to say that the President is made the sole repository of the executive powers of the United States , and the powers entrusted to him as well as the duties imposed upon him are awesome indeed . William Rehnquist , Nixon v. General Services Administration , 433 U.S. 425 ( 1977 ) ( dissenting opinion ) The president is the head of the executive branch of the federal government and is constitutionally obligated to `` take care that the laws be faithfully executed '' . The executive branch has over four million employees , including members of the military . Presidents make numerous executive branch appointments : an incoming president may make up to 6,000 before taking office and 8,000 more while serving . Ambassadors , members of the Cabinet , and other federal officers , are all appointed by a president with the `` advice and consent '' of a majority of the Senate . When the Senate is in recess for at least ten days , the president may make recess appointments . Recess appointments are temporary and expire at the end of the next session of the Senate . The power of a president to fire executive officials has long been a contentious political issue . Generally , a president may remove executive officials purely at will . However , Congress can curtail and constrain a president 's authority to fire commissioners of independent regulatory agencies and certain inferior executive officers by statute . To manage the growing federal bureaucracy , presidents have gradually surrounded themselves with many layers of staff , who were eventually organized into the Executive Office of the President of the United States . Within the Executive Office , the president 's innermost layer of aides ( and their assistants ) are located in the White House Office . Additionally , the president possesses the power to manage operations of the federal government through issuing various types of directives , such as presidential proclamation and executive orders . When the president is lawfully exercising one of his constitutionally conferred responsibilities , the scope of this power is broad . Even so , these directives are subject to judicial review by U.S. federal courts , which can find them to be unconstitutional . Moreover , Congress can overturn an executive order though legislation . Juridical powers The president also has the power to nominate federal judges , including members of the United States courts of appeals and the Supreme Court of the United States . However , these nominations require Senate confirmation . Securing Senate approval can provide a major obstacle for presidents who wish to orient the federal judiciary toward a particular ideological stance . When nominating judges to U.S. district courts , presidents often respect the long - standing tradition of senatorial courtesy . Presidents may also grant pardons and reprieves . Gerald Ford pardoned Richard Nixon a month after taking office . Bill Clinton pardoned Patty Hearst on his last day in office , as is often done just before the end of a second presidential term , but not without controversy . Historically , two doctrines concerning executive power have developed that enable the president to exercise executive power with a degree of autonomy . The first is executive privilege , which allows the president to withhold from disclosure any communications made directly to the president in the performance of executive duties . George Washington first claimed the privilege when Congress requested to see Chief Justice John Jay 's notes from an unpopular treaty negotiation with Great Britain . While not enshrined in the Constitution , or any other law , Washington 's action created the precedent for the privilege . When Richard Nixon tried to use executive privilege as a reason for not turning over subpoenaed evidence to Congress during the Watergate scandal , the Supreme Court ruled in United States v. Nixon , 418 U.S. 683 ( 1974 ) , that executive privilege did not apply in cases where a president was attempting to avoid criminal prosecution . When President Bill Clinton attempted to use executive privilege regarding the Lewinsky scandal , the Supreme Court ruled in Clinton v. Jones , 520 U.S. 681 ( 1997 ) , that the privilege also could not be used in civil suits . These cases established the legal precedent that executive privilege is valid , although the exact extent of the privilege has yet to be clearly defined . Additionally , federal courts have allowed this privilege to radiate outward and protect other executive branch employees , but have weakened that protection for those executive branch communications that do not involve the president . President George W. Bush delivers the 2007 State of the Union Address , with Vice President Dick Cheney and Speaker of the House Nancy Pelosi . The state secrets privilege allows the president and the executive branch to withhold information or documents from discovery in legal proceedings if such release would harm national security . Precedent for the privilege arose early in the 19th century when Thomas Jefferson refused to release military documents in the treason trial of Aaron Burr and again in Totten v. United States 92 U.S. 105 ( 1876 ) , when the Supreme Court dismissed a case brought by a former Union spy . However , the privilege was not formally recognized by the U.S. Supreme Court until United States v. Reynolds 345 U.S. 1 ( 1953 ) , where it was held to be a common law evidentiary privilege . Before the September 11 attacks , use of the privilege had been rare , but increasing in frequency . Since 2001 , the government has asserted the privilege in more cases and at earlier stages of the litigation , thus in some instances causing dismissal of the suits before reaching the merits of the claims , as in the Ninth Circuit 's ruling in Mohamed v. Jeppesen Dataplan , Inc . Critics of the privilege claim its use has become a tool for the government to cover up illegal or embarrassing government actions . Legislative facilitator The Constitution 's Ineligibility Clause prevents the president ( and all other executive officers ) from simultaneously being a member of Congress . Therefore , the president can not directly introduce legislative proposals for consideration in Congress . However , the president can take an indirect role in shaping legislation , especially if the president 's political party has a majority in one or both houses of Congress . For example , the president or other officials of the executive branch may draft legislation and then ask senators or representatives to introduce these drafts into Congress . The president can further influence the legislative branch through constitutionally or statutorily mandated , periodic reports to Congress . These reports may be either written or oral , but today the greatest in importance are given as the oral State of the Union addresses , which often outline the president 's legislative proposals for the coming year . Additionally , the president may attempt to have Congress alter proposed legislation by threatening to veto that legislation unless requested changes are made . In the 20th century , critics charged that too many legislative and budgetary powers that should have belonged to Congress had slid into the hands of presidents . As the head of the executive branch , presidents control a vast array of agencies that can issue regulations with little oversight from Congress . One critic charged that presidents could appoint a `` virtual army of ' czars ' -- each wholly unaccountable to Congress yet tasked with spearheading major policy efforts for the White House '' . Presidents have been criticized for making signing statements when signing congressional legislation about how they understand a bill or plan to execute it . This practice has been criticized by the American Bar Association as unconstitutional . Conservative commentator George Will wrote of an `` increasingly swollen executive branch '' and `` the eclipse of Congress '' . According to Article II , Section 3 of the Constitution , the president may convene either or both houses of Congress . If both houses can not agree on a date of adjournment , the president may appoint a date for Congress to adjourn . For example , Franklin Delano Roosevelt convened a special session of Congress immediately after the December 7 , 1941 , Japanese sneak attack on Pearl Harbor and asked for a declaration of war . Ceremonial roles President Woodrow Wilson throws out the ceremonial first ball on Opening Day , 1916 As head of state , the president can fulfill traditions established by previous presidents . William Howard Taft started the tradition of throwing out the ceremonial first pitch in 1910 at Griffith Stadium , Washington , D.C. , on the Washington Senators ' Opening Day . Every president since Taft , except for Jimmy Carter , threw out at least one ceremonial first ball or pitch for Opening Day , the All - Star Game , or the World Series , usually with much fanfare . The President of the United States has served as the honorary president of the Boy Scouts of America since the founding of the organization . Other presidential traditions are associated with American holidays . Rutherford B. Hayes began in 1878 the first White House egg rolling for local children . Beginning in 1947 , during the Harry S. Truman administration , every Thanksgiving the president is presented with a live domestic turkey during the annual National Thanksgiving Turkey Presentation held at the White House . Since 1989 , when the custom of `` pardoning '' the turkey was formalized by George H.W. Bush , the turkey has been taken to a farm where it will live out the rest of its natural life . Presidential traditions also involve the president 's role as head of government . Many outgoing presidents since James Buchanan traditionally give advice to their successor during the presidential transition . Ronald Reagan and his successors have also left a private message on the desk of the Oval Office on Inauguration Day for the incoming president . Four ruffles and flourishes and ' Hail to the Chief ' ( long version ) Problems playing this file ? See media help . During a state visit by a foreign head of state , the president typically hosts a State Arrival Ceremony held on the South Lawn , a custom begun by John F. Kennedy in 1961 . This is followed by a state dinner given by the president which is held in the State Dining Room later in the evening . The modern presidency holds the president as one of the nation 's premier celebrities . Some argue that images of the presidency have a tendency to be manipulated by administration public relations officials as well as by presidents themselves . One critic described the presidency as `` propagandized leadership '' which has a `` mesmerizing power surrounding the office '' . Administration public relations managers staged carefully crafted photo - ops of smiling presidents with smiling crowds for television cameras . One critic wrote the image of John F. Kennedy was described as carefully framed `` in rich detail '' which `` drew on the power of myth '' regarding the incident of PT 109 and wrote that Kennedy understood how to use images to further his presidential ambitions . As a result , some political commentators have opined that American voters have unrealistic expectations of presidents : voters expect a president to `` drive the economy , vanquish enemies , lead the free world , comfort tornado victims , heal the national soul and protect borrowers from hidden credit - card fees '' . Critics of presidency 's evolution Main articles : Imperial Presidency and Imperiled Presidency The nation 's Founding Fathers expected the Congress -- which was the first branch of government described in the Constitution -- to be the dominant branch of government ; they did not expect a strong executive department . However , presidential power has shifted over time , which has resulted in claims that the modern presidency has become too powerful , unchecked , unbalanced , and `` monarchist '' in nature . Critic Dana D. Nelson believes presidents over the past thirty years have worked towards `` undivided presidential control of the executive branch and its agencies '' . She criticizes proponents of the unitary executive for expanding `` the many existing uncheckable executive powers -- such as executive orders , decrees , memorandums , proclamations , national security directives and legislative signing statements -- that already allow presidents to enact a good deal of foreign and domestic policy without aid , interference or consent from Congress '' . Activist Bill Wilson opined that the expanded presidency was `` the greatest threat ever to individual freedom and democratic rule '' . Selection process George Washington , the first president of the United States Eligibility Article II , Section 1 , Clause 5 of the Constitution sets the following qualifications for holding the presidency : be a natural - born citizen of the United States ; be at least thirty - five years old ; be a resident in the United States for at least fourteen years . A person who meets the above qualifications is still disqualified from holding the office of president under any of the following conditions : Under the Twenty - second Amendment , no person can be elected president more than twice . The amendment also specifies that if any eligible person serves as president or acting president for more than two years of a term for which some other eligible person was elected president , the former can only be elected president once . Scholars disagree over whether a person precluded by the Twenty - second Amendment to being elected president is also precluded from being vice president . Under Article I , Section 3 , Clause 7 , upon conviction in impeachment cases , the Senate has the option of disqualifying convicted individuals from holding federal office , including that of president . Under Section 3 of the Fourteenth Amendment , no person who swore an oath to support the Constitution , and later rebelled against the United States , can become president . However , this disqualification can be lifted by a two - thirds vote of each house of Congress . Campaigns and nomination Main articles : United States presidential primary , United States presidential nominating convention , United States presidential election debates , and United States presidential election The modern presidential campaign begins before the primary elections , which the two major political parties use to clear the field of candidates before their national nominating conventions , where the most successful candidate is made the party 's nominee for president . Typically , the party 's presidential candidate chooses a vice presidential nominee , and this choice is rubber - stamped by the convention . The most common previous profession of U.S. presidents is lawyer . Nominees participate in nationally televised debates , and while the debates are usually restricted to the Democratic and Republican nominees , third party candidates may be invited , such as Ross Perot in the 1992 debates . Nominees campaign across the country to explain their views , convince voters and solicit contributions . Much of the modern electoral process is concerned with winning swing states through frequent visits and mass media advertising drives . Election and oath Map of the United States showing the number of electoral votes allocated following the 2010 census to each state for the 2012 , 2016 and 2020 presidential elections ; it also notes that Maine and Nebraska distribute electors by way of the Congressional District Method. 270 electoral votes are required for a majority out of 538 votes possible . Main articles : Electoral College ( United States ) and Oath of office of the President of the United States The president is elected indirectly . A number of electors , collectively known as the Electoral College , officially select the president . On Election Day , voters in each of the states and the District of Columbia cast ballots for these electors . Each state is allocated a number of electors , equal to the size of its combined delegation in both Houses of Congress . Generally , the ticket that wins the most votes in a state wins all of that state 's electoral votes and thus has its slate of electors chosen to vote in the Electoral College . The winning slate of electors meet at its state 's capital on the first Monday after the second Wednesday in December , about six weeks after the election , to vote . They then send a record of that vote to Congress . The vote of the electors is opened by the sitting vice president -- acting in that role 's capacity as President of the Senate -- and read aloud to a joint session of the incoming Congress , which was elected at the same time as the president . Pursuant to the Twentieth Amendment , the president 's term of office begins at noon on January 20 of the year following the election . This date , known as Inauguration Day , marks the beginning of the four - year terms of both the president and the vice president . Before executing the powers of the office , a president is constitutionally required to take the presidential oath : I do solemnly swear ( or affirm ) that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States , and will to the best of my Ability , preserve , protect , and defend the Constitution of the United States . Presidents have traditionally palmed a Bible while taking the oath and have added , `` So help me God ! '' to the end of the oath . Although the oath may be administered by any person authorized by law to administer oaths , presidents are traditionally sworn in by the Chief Justice of the United States , except when vice presidents have succeeded to the presidency due to a president 's death or resignation . Tenure and term limits Franklin D. Roosevelt was elected to four terms as President of the United States . Since ratification of the Twenty - second Amendment in 1951 , no one can be elected president more than twice . The term of office for the president is four years . As the first president , George Washington set an unofficial precedent by serving only two terms . Prior to Franklin D. Roosevelt , Ulysses S. Grant and Theodore Roosevelt both unsuccessfully sought a third term . In 1940 , FDR was elected to a third term after being `` drafted '' by his party . In 1941 , the United States entered World War II , which led voters to elect Roosevelt to a fourth term in 1944 despite his declining physical health ; he died 82 days into his fourth term on April 12 , 1945 . In response to the unprecedented length of Roosevelt 's presidency , the Twenty - second Amendment was adopted in 1951 . The amendment bars anyone from being elected president more than twice , or once if that person served more than two years ( 24 months ) of another president 's four - year term . Harry S. Truman , president when this term limit came into force , was exempted from its limitations , and briefly sought a second full term -- to which he would have otherwise inelegible for election to , as he had been president for more than two years of Roosevelt 's fourth term -- before he withdrew from the 1952 election . Since the amendment 's adoption , five presidents have served two full terms : Dwight D. Eisenhower , Ronald Reagan , Bill Clinton , George W. Bush , and Barack Obama . Both Jimmy Carter and George H.W. Bush sought a second term , but were defeated . Richard Nixon was elected to a second term , but resigned before completing it . Lyndon B. Johnson , having held the presidency for one full term in addition to only 14 months of John F. Kennedy 's unexpired term , was eligible for a second full term in 1968 , but withdrew from Democratic Primary . Additionally , Gerald Ford , who served out the last two years and five months of Nixon 's second term , sought a full term , but was defeated by Jimmy Carter in the 1976 election . Succession , vacancy , or disability See also : Twenty - fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution , United States presidential line of succession , Presidential Succession Act , and Impeachment in the United States Succession to or vacancies in the office of president may arise under several possible circumstances : death , resignation , and removal from office . Deaths have occurred a number of times , resignation has occurred only once , and removal from office has never occurred . Article II , Section 4 of the Constitution allows for the removal of high federal officials , including the president , from office for `` treason , bribery , or other high crimes and misdemeanors . '' Article I , Section 2 , Clause 5 gives the House of Representatives the power to impeach such officials by a majority vote . Article I , Section 3 , Clause 6 gives the Senate the power to remove impeached officials from office , given a two - thirds vote to convict . The House has thus far impeached two presidents : Andrew Johnson in 1868 and Bill Clinton in 1998 . Neither was convicted by the Senate . Johnson was acquitted by just one vote and Clinton by 17 votes . Under Section 3 of the Twenty - fifth Amendment , the president may transfer the presidential powers and duties to the vice president , who then becomes acting president , by transmitting a statement to the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate stating the reasons for the transfer . The president resumes the discharge of the presidential powers and duties upon transmitting , to those two officials , a written declaration stating that resumption . This transfer of power may occur for any reason the president considers appropriate ; in 2002 and again in 2007 , President George W. Bush briefly transferred presidential authority to Vice President Dick Cheney . In both cases , this was done to accommodate a medical procedure that required Bush to be sedated ; both times , Bush returned to duty later the same day . Under Section 4 of the Twenty - fifth Amendment , the vice president , in conjunction with a majority of the Cabinet , may transfer the presidential powers and duties from the president to the vice president by transmitting a written declaration to the Speaker of the House and the president pro tempore of the Senate that the president is unable to discharge the presidential powers and duties . If this occurs , then the vice president will assume the presidential powers and duties as acting president ; however , the president can declare that no such inability exists and resume the discharge of the presidential powers and duties . If the vice president and Cabinet contest this claim , it is up to Congress , which must meet within two days if not already in session , to decide the merit of the claim . The United States Constitution mentions the resignation of the president , but does not regulate its form or the conditions for its validity . Pursuant to federal law , the only valid evidence of the president 's resignation is a written instrument to that effect , signed by the president and delivered to the office of the Secretary of State . This has only occurred once , when Richard Nixon delivered a letter to Henry Kissinger to that effect . Section 1 of the Twenty - fifth Amendment states that the vice president becomes president upon the removal from office , death , or resignation of the preceding president . The Presidential Succession Act of 1947 provides that if the offices of president and vice president are each either vacant or are held by a disabled person , the next officer in the presidential line of succession , the Speaker of the House , becomes acting president . The line then extends to the President pro tempore of the Senate , followed by every member of the Cabinet . The constitutionality of having congressional officials in the line of succession has been questioned . A person must fulfill all eligibility requirements of the office of president to be eligible to become acting president ; ineligible individuals are skipped . Political affiliation Throughout most of its history , politics of the United States have been dominated by political parties . Political parties had not been anticipated when the U.S. Constitution was drafted in 1787 , nor did they exist at the time of the first presidential election in 1788 -- 1789 . Organized political parties developed in the U.S. in the mid -- 1790s , but political factions , from which organized parties evolved , began to appear almost immediately after the Federal government came into existence . Those who supported the Washington administration were referred to as `` pro-administration '' and would eventually form the Federalist Party , while those in opposition joined the emerging Democratic - Republican Party . Greatly concerned about the very real capacity of political parties to destroy the fragile unity holding the nation together , Washington remained unaffiliated with any political faction or party throughout his eight - year presidency . He was , and remains , the only U.S. president never to be affiliated with a political party . Since George Washington , 43 persons have been sworn into the office of president , and each has been affiliated with a political party at the time of assuming office . The number of presidents per political party are : 19 with the Republican Party -- Chester A. Arthur , George H.W. Bush , George W. Bush , Calvin Coolidge , Dwight D. Eisenhower , Gerald Ford , James A. Garfield , Ulysses S. Grant , Warren G. Harding , Benjamin Harrison , Rutherford B. Hayes , Herbert Hoover , Abraham Lincoln , William McKinley , Richard Nixon , Ronald Reagan , Theodore Roosevelt , William Howard Taft , and Donald Trump 15 with the Democratic Party -- James Buchanan , Jimmy Carter , Grover Cleveland , Bill Clinton , Andrew Jackson , Andrew Johnson , Lyndon B. Johnson , John F. Kennedy , Barack Obama , Franklin Pierce , James K. Polk , Franklin D. Roosevelt , Harry S. Truman , Martin Van Buren , and Woodrow Wilson Four with the Democratic - Republican Party -- John Quincy Adams , Thomas Jefferson , James Madison , and James Monroe Four with the Whig Party -- Millard Fillmore , William Henry Harrison , Zachary Taylor , and John Tyler Two with the National Union Party -- Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson One with the Federalist Party -- John Adams Compensation Presidential pay history Date established Salary Salary in 2016 dollars September 24 , 1789 $25,000 $702,755 March 3 , 1873 $50,000 $1,032,868 March 4 , 1909 $75,000 $2,045,483 January 19 , 1949 $100,000 $1,008,433 January 20 , 1969 $200,000 $1,307,940 January 20 , 2001 $400,000 $542,082 Sources : Since 2001 , the president has earned a $400,000 annual salary , along with a $50,000 annual expense account , a $100,000 nontaxable travel account , and $19,000 for entertainment . The most recent raise in salary was approved by Congress and President Bill Clinton in 1999 and went into effect in 2001 . Residence The White House in Washington , D.C. serves as the official residence of the president . Facilities that are available to the president include access to the White House staff , medical care , recreation , housekeeping , and security services . The government pays for state dinners and other official functions , but the president pays for personal , family , and guest dry cleaning and food ; the high food bill often amazes new residents . Camp David , officially titled Naval Support Facility Thurmont , is a mountain - based military camp in Frederick County , Maryland , used as a country retreat and for high alert protection of the president and guests . Blair House , located next to the Eisenhower Executive Office Building at the White House Complex and Lafayette Park , is a complex of four connected townhouses exceeding 70,000 square feet ( 6,500 m ) of floor space that serves as the president 's official guest house and as a secondary residence for the president if needed . Travel The primary means of long distance air travel for the president is one of two identical Boeing VC - 25 aircraft , which are extensively modified Boeing 747 airliners and are referred to as Air Force One while the president is on board ( although any U.S. Air Force aircraft the president is aboard is designated as `` Air Force One '' for the duration of the flight ) . In - country trips are typically handled with just one of the two planes , while overseas trips are handled with both , one primary and one backup . The president also has access to smaller Air Force aircraft , most notably the Boeing C - 32 , which are used when the president must travel to airports that can not support a jumbo jet . Any civilian aircraft the president is aboard is designated Executive One for the flight . For short distance air travel , the president has access to a fleet of U.S. Marine Corps helicopters of varying models , designated Marine One when the president is aboard any particular one in the fleet . Flights are typically handled with as many as five helicopters all flying together and frequently swapping positions as to disguise which helicopter the president is actually aboard to any would - be threats . For ground travel , the president uses the presidential state car , which is an armored limousine designed to look like a Cadillac sedan , but built on a truck chassis . The US Secret Service operates and maintains the fleet of several limousines . The president also has access to two armored motorcoaches , which are primarily used for touring trips . Protection The U.S. Secret Service is charged with protecting the president and the first family . As part of their protection , presidents , first ladies , their children and other immediate family members , and other prominent persons and locations are assigned Secret Service codenames . The use of such names was originally for security purposes and dates to a time when sensitive electronic communications were not routinely encrypted ; today , the names simply serve for purposes of brevity , clarity , and tradition . Presidential amenities The White House Camp David Blair House State car Air Force One Marine One Post-presidency Five presidents : George H.W. Bush , Barack Obama , George W. Bush , Bill Clinton , and Jimmy Carter . Photo taken in the Oval Office on January 7 , 2009 . Under the Former Presidents Act , all living former presidents are granted a pension , an office , and a staff . The pension has increased numerous times with Congressional approval . Retired presidents now receive a pension based on the salary of the current administration 's cabinet secretaries , which was $199,700 each year in 2012 . Former presidents who served in Congress may also collect congressional pensions . The act also provides former presidents with travel funds and franking privileges . Prior to 1997 , all former presidents , their spouses , and their children until age 16 were protected by the Secret Service until the president 's death . In 1997 , Congress passed legislation limiting secret service protection to no more than 10 years from the date a president leaves office . On January 10 , 2013 , President Obama signed legislation reinstating lifetime secret service protection for him , George W. Bush , and all subsequent presidents . A spouse who remarries is no longer eligible for secret service protection . Some presidents have had significant careers after leaving office . Prominent examples include William Howard Taft 's tenure as Chief Justice of the United States and Herbert Hoover 's work on government reorganization after World War II . Grover Cleveland , whose bid for reelection failed in 1888 , was elected president again four years later in 1892 . Two former presidents served in Congress after leaving the White House : John Quincy Adams was elected to the House of Representatives , serving there for seventeen years , and Andrew Johnson returned to the Senate in 1875 . John Tyler served in the provisional Congress of the Confederate States during the Civil War and was elected to the Confederate House of Representatives , but died before that body first met . Presidents may use their predecessors as emissaries to deliver private messages to other nations or as official representatives of the United States to state funerals and other important foreign events . Richard Nixon made multiple foreign trips to countries including China and Russia and was lauded as an elder statesman . Jimmy Carter has become a global human rights campaigner , international arbiter , and election monitor , as well as a recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize . Bill Clinton has also worked as an informal ambassador , most recently in the negotiations that led to the release of two American journalists , Laura Ling and Euna Lee , from North Korea . Clinton has also been active politically since his presidential term ended , working with his wife Hillary on her 2008 and 2016 presidential bids and President Obama on his 2012 reelection campaign . The five living former presidents Jimmy Carter ( age 93 ) since 1981 George H.W. Bush ( age 93 ) since 1993 Bill Clinton ( age 71 ) since 2001 George W. Bush ( age 71 ) since 2009 Barack Obama ( age 56 ) since 2017 Presidential libraries Main article : Presidential library Every president since Herbert Hoover has created a repository known as a presidential library for preserving and making available his papers , records , and other documents and materials . Completed libraries are deeded to and maintained by the National Archives and Records Administration ( NARA ) ; the initial funding for building and equipping each library must come from private , non-federal sources . There are currently thirteen presidential libraries in the NARA system . There are also presidential libraries maintained by state governments and private foundations and Universities of Higher Education , such as the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum , which is run by the State of Illinois , the George W. Bush Presidential library and Museum , which is run by Southern Methodist University , the George H.W. Bush Presidential Library and Museum , which is run by Texas A&M University , and the Lyndon Baines Johnson Presidential Library and Museum , which is run by the University of Texas at Austin . A number of presidents have lived for many years after leaving office , and several of them have personally overseen the building and opening of their own presidential libraries . Some have even made arrangements for their own burial at the site . Several presidential libraries contain the graves of the president they document , including the Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library , Museum and Boyhood Home in Abilene , Kansas , Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum in Yorba Linda , California , and the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley , California . These gravesites are open to the general public . Timeline of presidents Main article : List of Presidents of the United States § Presidents See also Government of the United States portal Curse of Tippecanoe Imperial Presidency The Imperial Presidency Imperiled presidency List of United States presidential trips Mr. President ( title ) President of the Continental Congress Presidential $1 Coin Program Presidential M&M 's Second - term curse United States presidential line of succession in fiction Vice President of the United States White House Office Notes Jump up ^ Donald Trump has announced he will take a salary of only 1 dollar per annum . Jump up ^ The informal term POTUS originated in the Phillips Code , a shorthand method created in 1879 by Walter P. Phillips for the rapid transmission of press reports by telegraph . Jump up ^ The nine vice presidents who succeeded to the presidency upon their predecessor 's death or resignation and finished - out that unexpired term are John Tyler ( 1841 ) ; Millard Fillmore ( 1850 ) ; Andrew Johnson ( 1865 ) ; Chester A. Arthur ( 1881 ) ; Theodore Roosevelt ( 1901 ) ; Calvin Coolidge ( 1923 ) ; Harry S. Truman ( 1945 ) ; Lyndon B. Johnson ( 1963 ) ; and Gerald Ford ( 1974 ) . Jump up ^ Foreign - born American citizens who met the age and residency requirements at the time the Constitution was adopted were also eligible for the presidency . However , this allowance has since become obsolete . References Jump up ^ `` How To Address The President ; He Is Not Your Excellency Or Your Honor , But Mr. President '' . The New York Times . August 2 , 1891 . Jump up ^ `` USGS Correspondence Handbook -- Chapter 4 '' . Usgs.gov . July 18 , 2007 . Retrieved November 15 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Models of Address and Salutation '' . Ita.doc.gov . Retrieved September 4 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Heads of State , Heads of Government , Ministers for Foreign Affairs , Protocol and Liaison Service , United Nations . Retrieved November 1 , 2012 . Jump up ^ The White House Office of the Press Secretary ( September 1 , 2010 ) . `` Remarks by President Obama , President Mubarak , His Majesty King Abdullah , Prime Minister Netanyahu and President Abbas Before Working Dinner '' . obamawhitehouse.archives.gov . Retrieved July 19 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Exchanges of Letters '' . Jimmy Carter Library . September 1978 . Retrieved November 9 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Owings v. Speed , 18 U.S. 420 ( 1820 ) Jump up ^ Lawson , Gary ; Seidman , Guy ( 2001 ) . `` When Did the Constitution Become Law ? '' . Notre Dame Law Review . 77 : 1 -- 37 . Jump up ^ `` How common is Trump 's $1 salary ? '' . BBC World Service . November 14 , 2016 . Retrieved January 22 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Safire , William ( 2008 ) . Safire 's Political Dictionary . Oxford University Press . p. 564 . ISBN 9780195340617 . Jump up ^ Von Drehle , David ( February 2 , 2017 ) . `` Is Steve Bannon the Second Most Powerful Man in the World ? '' . Time . Jump up ^ `` Who should be the world 's most powerful person ? '' . The Guardian . London . January 3 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Meacham , Jon ( December 20 , 2008 ) . `` Meacham : The History of Power '' . Newsweek . Retrieved September 4 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Zakaria , Fareed ( December 20 , 2008 ) . `` The NEWSWEEK 50 : Barack Obama '' . Newsweek . Retrieved September 4 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Transcript of the Constitution of the United States -- Official '' . Archives.gov . Retrieved September 4 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Pfiffner , J.P. ( 1988 ) . `` The President 's Legislative Agenda '' . Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science . 499 : 22 -- 35 . doi : 10.1177 / 0002716288499001002 . Jump up ^ The Influence of State Politics in Expanding Federal Power , ' Henry Jones Ford , Proceedings of the American Political Science Association , Vol. 5 , Fifth Annual Meeting ( 1908 ) . Retrieved March 17 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Executive Branch '' . obamawhitehouse.archives.gov . , The White House . Jump up ^ `` Executive Branch '' . obamawhitehouse.archives.gov ... Grover Cleveland served two non-consecutive terms , so he is counted twice ; as the 22nd and 24th presidents . ^ Jump up to : Milkis , Sidney M. ; Nelson , Michael ( 2008 ) . The American Presidency : Origins and Development ( 5th ed . ) . Washington , D.C. : CQ Press . pp. 1 -- 25 . ISBN 0 - 87289 - 336 - 7 . ^ Jump up to : Kelly , Alfred H. ; Harbison , Winfred A. ; Belz , Herman ( 1991 ) . The American Constitution : Its Origins and Development . I ( 7th ed . ) . New York : W.W. Norton & Co. pp. 76 -- 81 . ISBN 0 - 393 - 96056 - 0 . Jump up ^ Beeman , Richard ( 2009 ) . Plain , Honest Men : The Making of the American Constitution . New York : Random House . ISBN 0 - 8129 - 7684 - 3 . Jump up ^ `` DOD Releases Unified Command Plan 2011 '' . United States Department of Defense . April 8 , 2011 . Archived from the original on May 13 , 2011 . Retrieved February 25 , 2013 . Jump up ^ 10 U.S.C. § 164 Jump up ^ Joint Chiefs of Staff . About the Joint Chiefs of Staff . Retrieved February 25 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Hamilton , Alexander . The Federalist # 69 ( reposting ) . Retrieved June 15 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Christopher , James A. ; Baker , III ( July 8 , 2008 ) . `` The National War Powers Commission Report '' . The Miller Center of Public Affairs at the University of Virginia . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on November 26 , 2010 . Retrieved December 15 , 2010 . No clear mechanism or requirement exists today for the president and Congress to consult . The War Powers Resolution of 1973 contains only vague consultation requirements . Instead , it relies on reporting requirements that , if triggered , begin the clock running for Congress to approve the particular armed conflict . By the terms of the 1973 Resolution , however , Congress need not act to disapprove the conflict ; the cessation of all hostilities is required in 60 to 90 days merely if Congress fails to act . Many have criticized this aspect of the Resolution as unwise and unconstitutional , and no president in the past 35 years has filed a report `` pursuant '' to these triggering provisions . ^ Jump up to : `` The Law : The President 's War Powers '' . Time . June 1 , 1970 . Retrieved September 28 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Mitchell , Alison ( May 2 , 1999 ) . `` The World ; Only Congress Can Declare War . Really . It 's True '' . The New York Times . Retrieved November 8 , 2009 . Presidents have sent forces abroad more than 100 times ; Congress has declared war only five times : the War of 1812 , the Mexican War , the Spanish -- American War , World War I and World War II . Jump up ^ Mitchell , Alison ( May 2 , 1999 ) . `` The World ; Only Congress Can Declare War . Really . It 's True '' . The New York Times . Retrieved November 8 , 2009 . President Reagan told Congress of the invasion of Grenada two hours after he had ordered the landing . He told Congressional leaders of the bombing of Libya while the aircraft were on their way . Jump up ^ Gordon , Michael R. ( December 20 , 1990 ) . `` U.S. troops move in panama in effort to seize noriega ; gunfire is heard in capital '' . The New York Times . Retrieved November 8 , 2009 . It was not clear whether the White House consulted with Congressional leaders about the military action , or notified them in advance . Thomas S. Foley , the Speaker of the House , said on Tuesday night that he had not been alerted by the Administration . Jump up ^ `` Article II , Section 3 , U.S. Constitution '' . law.cornell.edu . Legal Information Institute . 2012 . Retrieved August 7 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` The Executive Branch '' . The White House website . obamawhitehouse.archives.gov . Retrieved February 5 , 2010 . Jump up ^ National Labor Relations Board v. Noel Canning , 572 U.S. __ ( 2014 ) . Jump up ^ Shurtleff v. United States , 189 U.S. 311 ( 1903 ) ; Myers v. United States , 272 U.S. 52 ( 1926 ) . Jump up ^ Humphrey 's Executor v. United States , 295 U.S. 602 ( 1935 ) and Morrison v. Olson , 487 U.S. 654 ( 1988 ) , respectively . Jump up ^ Gaziano , Todd ( February 21 , 2001 ) . `` Executive Summary : The Use and Abuse of Executive Orders and Other Presidential Directives '' . Washington , D.C. : The Heritage Foundation . Retrieved January 23 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Johnston , David ( December 24 , 1992 ) . `` Bush Pardons 6 in Iran Affair , Aborting a Weinberger Trial ; Prosecutor Assails ' Cover - Up ' '' . The New York Times . Retrieved November 8 , 2009 . But not since President Gerald R. Ford granted clemency to former President Richard M. Nixon for possible crimes in Watergate has a Presidential pardon so pointedly raised the issue of whether the President was trying to shield officials for political purposes . Jump up ^ Johnston , David ( December 24 , 1992 ) . `` Bush Pardons 6 in Iran Affair , Aborting a Weinberger Trial ; Prosecutor Assails ' Cover - Up ' '' . The New York Times . Retrieved November 8 , 2009 . The prosecutor charged that Mr. Weinberger 's efforts to hide his notes may have ' forestalled impeachment proceedings against President Reagan ' and formed part of a pattern of ' deception and obstruction . ' ... In light of President Bush 's own misconduct , we are gravely concerned about his decision to pardon others who lied to Congress and obstructed official investigations . Jump up ^ Eisler , Peter ( March 7 , 2008 ) . `` Clinton - papers release blocked '' . USA Today . Retrieved November 8 , 2009 . Former president Clinton issued 140 pardons on his last day in office , including several to controversial figures , such as commodities trader Rich , then a fugitive on tax evasion charges . Rich 's ex-wife , Denise , contributed $2,000 in 1999 to Hillary Clinton 's Senate campaign ; $5,000 to a related political action committee ; and $450,000 to a fund set up to build the Clinton library . Jump up ^ Millhiser , Ian ( June 1 , 2010 ) . `` Executive Privilege 101 '' . Center for American Progress . Retrieved October 8 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Part III of the opinion in Mohamed v. Jeppesen Dataplan '' . Caselaw.findlaw.com . Retrieved November 29 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : Frost , Amanda ; Florence , Justin ( 2009 ) . `` Reforming the State Secrets Privilege '' ( PDF ) . American Constitution Society . Retrieved November 9 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Weaver , William G. ; Pallitto , Robert M. ( 2005 ) . `` State Secrets and Executive Power '' . Political Science Quarterly . The Academy of Political Science . 120 ( 1 ) : 85 -- 112 . doi : 10.1002 / j. 1538 - 165x. 2005. tb00539. x . Use of the state secrets privilege in courts has grown significantly over the last twenty - five years . In the twenty - three years between the decision in Reynolds ( 1953 ) and the election of Jimmy Carter , in 1976 , there were four reported cases in which the government invoked the privilege . Between 1977 and 2001 , there were a total of fifty - one reported cases in which courts ruled on invocation of the privilege . Because reported cases only represent a fraction of the total cases in which the privilege is invoked or implicated , it is unclear precisely how dramatically the use of the privilege has grown . But the increase in reported cases is indicative of greater willingness to assert the privilege than in the past . Jump up ^ Savage , Charlie ( September 8 , 2010 ) . `` Court Dismisses a Case Asserting Torture by C.I.A '' . The New York Times . Retrieved October 8 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Finn , Peter ( September 9 , 2010 ) . `` Suit dismissed against firm in CIA rendition case '' . The Washington Post . Retrieved October 8 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Greenwald , Glenn ( February 10 , 2009 ) . `` The 180 - degree reversal of Obama 's State Secrets position '' . Salon . Retrieved October 8 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Background on the State Secrets Privilege '' . American Civil Liberties Union . January 31 , 2007 . Retrieved October 8 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Cantor , Eric ( July 30 , 2009 ) . `` Obama 's 32 Czars '' . The Washington Post . Retrieved September 28 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Nelson , Dana D. ( October 11 , 2008 ) . `` The ' unitary executive ' question '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved October 4 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Suarez , Ray ; et al. ( July 24 , 2006 ) . `` President 's Use of ' Signing Statements ' Raises Constitutional Concerns '' . PBS Online NewsHour . Archived from the original on March 21 , 2007 . Retrieved November 11 , 2009 . The American Bar Association said President Bush 's use of `` signing statements '' , which allow him to sign a bill into law but not enforce certain provisions , disregards the rule of law and the separation of powers . Legal experts discuss the implications . Jump up ^ Will , George F. ( December 21 , 2008 ) . `` Making Congress Moot '' . The Washington Post . Retrieved September 28 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Duggan , Paul ( April 2 , 2007 ) . `` Balking at the First Pitch '' . The Washington Post . p . A01 . Jump up ^ `` History of the BSA Fact Sheet '' ( PDF ) . Boy Scouts of America . Retrieved November 9 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Grier , Peter ( April 25 , 2011 ) . `` The ( not so ) secret history of the White House Easter Egg Roll '' . The Christian Science Monitor . Archived from the original on July 30 , 2012 . Retrieved July 30 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Hesse , Monica ( November 21 , 2007 ) . `` Turkey Pardons , The Stuffing of Historic Legend '' . The Washington Post . Retrieved May 14 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Gibbs , Nancy ( November 13 , 2008 ) . `` How Presidents Pass The Torch '' . Time . Retrieved May 6 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Dorning , Mike ( January 22 , 2009 ) . `` A note from Bush starts morning in the Oval Office '' . Chicago Tribune . Archived from the original on December 28 , 2011 . Retrieved May 6 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Abbott , James A. ; Rice , Elaine M. ( 1998 ) . Designing Camelot : The Kennedy White House Restoration . Van Nostrand Reinhold . pp. 9 -- 10 . ISBN 0 - 442 - 02532 - 7 . Jump up ^ `` The White House State Dinner '' . The White House Historical Association . Retrieved November 9 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Dykoski , Rachel ( November 1 , 2008 ) . `` Book note : Presidential idolatry is `` Bad for Democracy '' `` . Twin Cities Daily Planet . Retrieved November 11 , 2009 . Dana D. Nelson 's book makes the case that we 've had 200 + years of propagandized leadership ... Jump up ^ Neffinger , John ( April 2 , 2007 ) . `` Democrats vs. Science : Why We 're So Damn Good at Losing Elections '' . HuffPost . Retrieved November 11 , 2009 ... back in the 1980s Lesley Stahl of 60 Minutes ran a piece skewering Reagan 's policies on the elderly ... But while her voiceover delivered a scathing critique , the video footage was all drawn from carefully - staged photo - ops of Reagan smiling with seniors and addressing large crowds ... Deaver thanked ... Stahl ... for broadcasting all those images of Reagan looking his best . Jump up ^ Nelson , Dana D. ( 2008 ) . `` Bad for democracy : how the Presidency undermines the power of the people '' . U of Minnesota Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8166 - 5677 - 6 . Retrieved November 11 , 2009 . in rich detail how Kennedy drew on the power of myth as he framed his experience during World War II , when his PT boat was sliced in half by a Japanese ... Jump up ^ Nelson , Dana D. ( 2008 ) . `` Bad for democracy : how the Presidency undermines the power of the people '' . U of Minnesota Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8166 - 5677 - 6 . Retrieved November 11 , 2009 . Even before Kennedy ran for Congress , he had become fascinated , through his Hollywood acquaintances and visits , with the idea of image ... ( p. 54 ) Jump up ^ Lexington ( July 21 , 2009 ) . `` The Cult of the Presidency '' . The Economist . Retrieved November 9 , 2009 . Gene Healy argues that because voters expect the president to do everything ... When they inevitably fail to keep their promises , voters swiftly become disillusioned . Yet they never lose their romantic idea that the president should drive the economy , vanquish enemies , lead the free world , comfort tornado victims , heal the national soul and protect borrowers from hidden credit - card fees . Jump up ^ Kakutani , Michiko ( July 6 , 2007 ) . `` Unchecked and Unbalanced '' . The New York Times . Retrieved November 9 , 2009 . the founding fathers had ' scant affection for strong executives ' like England 's king , and ... Bush White House 's claims are rooted in ideas `` about the ' divine ' right of kings '' ... and that certainly did not find their ' way into our founding documents , the 1776 Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of 1787 . ' Jump up ^ `` The Conquest of Presidentialism '' . HuffPost . August 22 , 2008 . Retrieved September 20 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Schimke , David ( September -- October 2008 ) . `` Presidential Power to the People -- Author Dana D. Nelson on why democracy demands that the next president be taken down a notch '' . Utne Reader . Retrieved September 20 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Linker , Ross ( September 27 , 2007 ) . `` Critical of Presidency , Prof. Ginsberg and Crenson unite '' . The Johns - Hopkins Newsletter . Retrieved November 9 , 2017 . presidents slowly but surely gain more and more power with both the public at large and other political institutions doing nothing to prevent it . Jump up ^ Kakutani , Michiko ( July 6 , 2007 ) . `` Unchecked and Unbalanced '' . The New York Times . Retrieved November 9 , 2009 . Unchecked and Unbalanced : Presidential Power in a Time of Terror By Frederick A.O. Schwarz Jr. and Aziz Z . Huq ( authors ) ^ Jump up to : Nelson , Dana D. ( October 11 , 2008 ) . `` Opinion -- The ' unitary executive ' question -- What do McCain and Obama think of the concept ? '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved September 21 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Shane , Scott ( September 25 , 2009 ) . `` A Critic Finds Obama Policies a Perfect Target '' . The New York Times . Retrieved November 8 , 2009 . There is the small , minority - owned firm with deep ties to President Obama 's Chicago backers , made eligible by the Federal Reserve to handle potentially lucrative credit deals . ' I want to know how these firms are picked and who picked them , ' Mr. Wilson , the group 's president , tells his eager researchers . Jump up ^ See : Peabody , Bruce G. ; Gant , Scott E. ( 1999 ) . `` The Twice and Future President : Constitutional Interstices and the Twenty - Second Amendment '' . Minnesota Law Review . Minneapolis , MN : Minnesota Law Review . 83 ( 565 ) . ; alternatively , see : Albert , Richard ( 2005 ) . `` The Evolving Vice Presidency '' . Temple Law Review . Philadelphia , PA : Temple University of the Commonwealth System of Higher Education . 78 ( 811 , at 856 -- 9 ) . Jump up ^ See GPO Annotated U.S. Constitution , 2002 Ed . Archived August 6 , 2009 , at the Wayback Machine. , at 611 & nn. 772 -- 773 . Jump up ^ International Law , US Power : The United States ' Quest for Legal Security , p 10 , Shirley V. Scott -- 2012 Jump up ^ U.S. Const . art . II , § 1 , cl. 8 . Jump up ^ `` Judge does n't ban `` God '' in inaugural oath `` . Associated Press . January 15 , 2009 . Retrieved August 18 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Guardian , `` Bush colonoscopy leaves Cheney in charge '' , July 20 , 2007 . Jump up ^ 3 U.S.C. § 20 Jump up ^ `` U.S. Senate : Party Division '' . senate.gov . Retrieved January 2 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Jamison , Dennis ( December 31 , 2014 ) . `` George Washington 's views on political parties in America '' . The Washington Times . Retrieved July 1 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Chambers , William Nisbet ( 1963 ) . Political parties in a new Nation : the American experience , 1776 -- 1809 . New York : Oxford University Press . Jump up ^ `` Presidential and Vice Presidential Salaries Exclusive of Perquisites '' . University of Michigan . Retrieved November 9 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Relative Value in US Dollars . Measuring Worth . Retrieved May 30 , 2006 . Jump up ^ Dept. of Labor Inflation Calculator . Inflation Calculator . Retrieved August 10 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` How much does the U.S. president get paid ? '' . Howstuffworks . Retrieved July 24 , 2007 . ^ Jump up to : Salaries of Federal Officials : A Fact Sheet Archived April 26 , 2013 , at the Wayback Machine ... United States Senate website . Retrieved August 6 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Bumiller , Elizabeth ( January 2009 ) . `` Inside the Presidency '' . National Geographic . Retrieved June 24 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` President 's Guest House ( includes Lee House and Blair House ) , Washington , DC '' . Retrieved November 9 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Air Force One '' . whitehouse.gov/about/air-force-one/ . Archived from the original on December 14 , 2012 ... White House Military Office . Retrieved June 17 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Any U.S. Air Force aircraft carrying the president will use the call sign `` Air Force One . '' Similarly , `` Navy One '' , `` Army One '' , and `` Coast Guard One '' are the call signs used if the president is aboard a craft belonging to these services . `` Executive One '' becomes the call sign of any civilian aircraft when the president boards . Jump up ^ New Presidential Limousine enters Secret Service Fleet U.S. Secret Service Press Release ( January 14 , 2009 ) Retrieved on January 20 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Ahlers , Mike M. ; Marrapodi , Eric ( January 6 , 2009 ) . `` Obama 's wheels : Secret Service to unveil new presidential limo '' . CNN . Archived from the original on February 2 , 2016 . Retrieved December 16 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Farley , Robert ( August 25 , 2011 ) . `` Obama 's Canadian - American Bus '' . FactCheck . Retrieved December 16 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Junior Secret Service Program : Assignment 7 . Code Names '' . National Park Service . Archived from the original on January 18 , 2007 . Retrieved August 18 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Candidate Code Names Secret Service Monikers Used on the Campaign Trail '' . CBS . September 16 , 2008 . Retrieved November 12 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Schwemle , Barbara L. ( October 17 , 2012 ) . `` President of the United States : Compensation '' ( PDF ) . Congressional Research Service . Retrieved January 10 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Former presidents cost U.S. taxpayers big bucks '' . Toledo Blade . January 7 , 2007 . Retrieved May 22 , 2007 . Jump up ^ 18 U.S.C. § 3056 Jump up ^ `` Obama signs bill granting lifetime Secret Service protection to former presidents and spouses '' . The Washington Post . Associated Press . January 10 , 2013 . Archived from the original on August 23 , 2016 . Retrieved January 10 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` United States Secret Service : Protection '' . United States Secret Service . Retrieved November 9 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Obama signs protection bill for former presidents '' . The Washington Times . January 10 , 2013 . Retrieved August 14 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Shock and Anger Flash Throughout the United States '' . Associated Press . March 31 , 1981 . Retrieved March 11 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Four Presidents '' . Reagan Presidential Library , National Archives and Records Administration . Retrieved April 3 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Biography of Richard M. Nixon '' . obamawhitehouse.archives.gov . , The White House . Jump up ^ 44 U.S.C. § 2112 Further reading Balogh , Brian and Bruce J. Schulman , eds . Recapturing the Oval Office : New Historical Approaches to the American Presidency ( Cornell University Press , 2015 ) , 311 pp . Bumiller , Elisabeth ( January 2009 ) . `` Inside the Presidency '' . National Geographic . 215 ( 1 ) : 130 -- 149 . Couch , Ernie . Presidential Trivia . Rutledge Hill Press . March 1 , 1996 . ISBN 1 - 55853 - 412 - 1 Lang , J. Stephen . The Complete Book of Presidential Trivia . Pelican Publishing . 2001 . ISBN 1 - 56554 - 877 - 9 Greenberg , David . Republic of Spin : An Inside History of the American Presidency ( W.W. Norton & Company , 2015 ) . xx , 540 pp . Leo , Leonard -- Taranto , James -- Bennett , William J. Presidential Leadership : Rating the Best and the Worst in the White House . Simon and Schuster . 2004 . ISBN 0 - 7432 - 5433 - 3 Presidential Studies Quarterly , published by Blackwell Synergy , is a quarterly academic journal on the presidency . Świątczak , Wasilewska , Iwona . `` The Toughest Season in the White House '' : The Rhetorical Presidency and the State of the Union Address , 1953 -- 1992 . PhD thesis . University of Helsinki , 2014 . ISBN 978 - 951 - 51 - 0248 - 5 . Primary sources Waldman , Michael -- Stephanopoulos , George . My Fellow Americans : The Most Important Speeches of America 's presidents , from George Washington to George W. Bush . Sourcebooks Trade . 2003 . ISBN 1 - 4022 - 0027 - 7 Jacobs , Ron . Interview with Joseph G. Peschek and William Grover , authors of The Unsustainable Presidency , a book offering an analysis of the role the US President plays in economics and politics External links Wikisource has original text related to this article : President of the United States Wikimedia Commons has media related to Presidents of the United States . Wikiquote has quotations related to : President of the United States Official `` Executive Office of the President '' . Retrieved January 21 , 2009 . `` White House '' . Presidential histories A New Nation Votes : American Election Returns , 1787 -- 1825 Presidential election returns including town and county breakdowns `` American Presidents : Life Portraits '' . C - SPAN . Retrieved February 13 , 2016 . Companion website for the C - SPAN television series : American presidents : Life Portraits `` Presidential Documents from the National Archives '' . Retrieved March 21 , 2007 . Collection of letters , portraits , photos , and other documents from the National Archives `` The American Presidency Project '' . UC Santa Barbara . Retrieved October 7 , 2005 . Collection of over 67,000 presidential documents The History Channel : US Presidents Miscellaneous `` All the President 's Roles '' . Ask Gleaves . Archived from the original on September 29 , 2007 . Retrieved October 20 , 2006 . Article analyzing a president 's many hats Hauenstein Center for Presidential Studies . Educational site on the American presidency `` Presidents ' Occupations '' . Retrieved August 20 , 2007 . Listing of every president 's occupations before and after becoming the commander in chief `` The Masonic Presidents Tour '' . The Masonic Library and Museum of Pennsylvania . Archived from the original on October 12 , 2014 . Retrieved October 7 , 2005 . Brief histories of the Masonic careers of presidents who were members of the Freemasons `` The Presidents '' . American Experience . Retrieved March 4 , 2007 . PBS site on the American presidency Presidents of the United States : Resource Guides from the Library of Congress Shapell Manuscript Foundation . Images of documents written by U.S. presidents Presidents of the United States ( list ) George Washington ( 1789 -- 1797 ) John Adams ( 1797 -- 1801 ) Thomas Jefferson ( 1801 -- 1809 ) James Madison ( 1809 -- 1817 ) James Monroe ( 1817 -- 1825 ) John Quincy Adams ( 1825 -- 1829 ) Andrew Jackson ( 1829 -- 1837 ) Martin Van Buren ( 1837 -- 1841 ) William Henry Harrison ( 1841 ) John Tyler ( 1841 -- 1845 ) James K. Polk ( 1845 -- 1849 ) Zachary Taylor ( 1849 -- 1850 ) Millard Fillmore ( 1850 -- 1853 ) Franklin Pierce ( 1853 -- 1857 ) James Buchanan ( 1857 -- 1861 ) Abraham Lincoln ( 1861 -- 1865 ) Andrew Johnson ( 1865 -- 1869 ) Ulysses S. Grant ( 1869 -- 1877 ) Rutherford B. Hayes ( 1877 -- 1881 ) James A. Garfield ( 1881 ) Chester A. 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Donald Trump

President of the United States

Adobe Flash - Wikipedia Adobe Flash Jump to : navigation , search For the application / animation - maker , see Adobe Animate . For other uses , see Adobe Flash ( disambiguation ) . Adobe Flash Developer ( s ) Adobe Systems Macromedia FutureWave Target platform ( s ) Web browsers , iOS , Android , Windows , macOS Editor software Adobe Animate , Flash Builder , FlashDevelop , Powerflasher FDT , Flash Catalyst Scaleform Player software Flash Player Adobe AIR OpenFL Scaleform Gnash Lightspark Format ( s ) SWF FLV FLA Programming language ( s ) ActionScript Application ( s ) Animation Browser games Rich Internet applications Desktop applications Mobile apps Mobile games console games computer games Status Active ( Until 2020 ) License Proprietary Adobe Flash is a multimedia software platform used for production of animations , rich Internet applications , desktop applications , mobile applications , mobile games and embedded web browser video players . Flash displays text , vector graphics and raster graphics to provide animations , video games and applications . It allows streaming of audio and video , and can capture mouse , keyboard , microphone and camera input . Artists may produce Flash graphics and animations using Adobe Animate . Software developers may produce applications and video games using Adobe Flash Builder , FlashDevelop , Flash Catalyst , or any text editor when used with the Apache Flex SDK . End - users can view Flash content via Flash Player ( for web browsers ) , AIR ( for desktop or mobile apps ) or third - party players such as Scaleform ( for video games ) . Adobe Flash Player ( supported on Microsoft Windows , macOS and Linux ) enables end - users to view Flash content using web browsers . Adobe Flash Lite enabled viewing Flash content on older smartphones , but has been discontinued and superseded by Adobe AIR . The ActionScript programming language allows the development of interactive animations , video games , web applications , desktop applications and mobile applications . Programmers can implement Flash software using an IDE such as Adobe Animate , Adobe Flash Builder , Adobe Director , FlashDevelop and Powerflasher FDT . Adobe AIR enables full - featured desktop and mobile applications to be developed with Flash and published for Windows , macOS , Android , iOS , Xbox One , PlayStation 4 , and Nintendo Wii U and Switch . Although Flash was previously a dominant platform for online multimedia content , it is slowly being abandoned as Adobe favors a transition to HTML5 . Flash Player has been deprecated and has an official end - of - life by 2020 . However , Adobe will continue to develop Adobe AIR , a technology for building applications and games with Flash . OpenFL , an open - source implementation of the Flash Player is also actively developed . Contents ( hide ) 1 Applications 1.1 Websites 1.2 RIAs 1.3 Video games 1.4 Film and animation 2 History 2.1 FutureWave 2.2 Macromedia 2.3 Adobe 2.4 Open Screen Project 2.5 End of life 3 Format 3.1 FLA 3.2 SWF 3.3 3D 3.4 Flash Video 3.5 Flash Audio 3.6 Scripting language 3.7 Specifications 4 Animation tools 4.1 Official tools 4.2 Third - party tools 5 Programming tools 5.1 Official tools 5.2 Third - party tools 6 Players 6.1 Proprietary 6.2 Open source 7 Availability 7.1 Desktop computers 7.1. 1 Flash Player 7.1. 2 Adobe AIR 7.2 Mobile devices 7.2. 1 Flash Player 7.2. 2 Adobe AIR 7.3 Portable electronic devices 8 Alternatives 8.1 OpenFL 8.2 HTML5 8.3 Flash to HTML5 9 Criticisms 9.1 Mobile support 9.2 Vendor dependence 9.3 Accessibility 9.4 Flash blocking in web browsers 9.5 Security 9.6 Flash cookies 10 See also 11 Footnotes 12 References 13 External links Applications ( edit ) Websites ( edit ) In the early 2000s , Flash was widely installed on desktop computers , and was commonly used to display interactive web pages , online games , and to playback video and audio content . In 2005 , YouTube was founded by former PayPal employees , and it used Flash Player as a means to display compressed video content on the web . Between 2000 and 2010 , numerous businesses used Flash - based websites to launch new products , or to create interactive company portals . Notable users include Nike , Hewlett - Packard , Nokia , General Electric , World Wildlife Fund , HBO , Cartoon Network and Disney . After Adobe introduced hardware - accelerated 3D for Flash ( Stage3D ) , Flash websites saw a growth of 3D content for product demonstrations and virtual tours . In 2007 , YouTube offered videos in HTML5 format to support the iPhone and iPad , which did not support Flash Player . After a controversy with Apple , Adobe stopped developing Flash Player for Mobile , focussing its efforts on Adobe AIR applications and HTML5 animation . In 2015 , Google introduced Google Swiffy to convert Flash animation to HTML5 , a tool Google would use to automatically convert Flash web ads for mobile devices . In 2015 , YouTube switched to HTML5 technology on all devices , however it will preserve the Flash - based video player for older web browsers . RIAs ( edit ) After Flash 5 introduced ActionScript in 2000 , developers combined the visual and programming capabilities of Flash to produce interactive experiences and applications for the Web . Such Web - based applications eventually came to be known as `` Rich Internet Applications '' ( RIAs ) . In 2004 , Macromedia Flex was released , and specifically targeted the application development market . Flex introduced new user interface components , advanced data visualization components , data remoting , and a modern IDE ( Flash Builder ) . Flex competed with Asynchronous JavaScript and XML ( AJAX ) and Microsoft Silverlight during its tenure . Flex was upgraded to support integration with remote data sources , using AMF , BlazeDS , Adobe LiveCycle , Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud , and others . As of 2015 , Flex applications can be published for desktop platforms using Adobe AIR . Between 2006 and 2016 , the Speedtest.net web service conducted over 9.0 billion speed tests using an RIA built with Adobe Flash . In 2016 , the service shifted to HTML5 due to the decreasing availability of Adobe Flash Player on PCs . As of 2016 , Web applications and RIAs can be developed with Flash using the ActionScript 3.0 programming language and related tools such as Adobe Flash Builder . Third - party IDEs such as FlashDevelop and Powerflasher FDT also enable developers to create Flash games and applications , and are generally similar to Microsoft Visual Studio . Flex applications are typically built using Flex frameworks such as PureMVC . Video games ( edit ) Play media Screenshots and footage of Flash games QWOP , Solipskier , and Hundreds Flash video games were popular on the Internet , with portals like Newgrounds dedicated to hosting of Flash - based games . Popular games developed with Flash include Angry Birds , Clash of Clans , FarmVille , AdventureQuest , Machinarium , Hundreds , N , QWOP and Solipskier . Adobe introduced various technologies to help build video games , including Adobe AIR ( to release games for desktop or mobile platforms ) , Adobe Scout ( to improve performance ) , CrossBridge ( to convert C++ - based games to run in Flash ) , and Stage3D ( to support GPU - accelerated video games ) . 3D frameworks like Away3D and Flare3D simplified creation of 3D content for Flash . Adobe AIR allows creation of Flash - based mobile games , which may be published to the Google Play and iTunes app stores . Flash is also used to build interfaces and HUDs for 3D video games using Scaleform GFx , a technology that renders Flash content within non-Flash video games . Scaleform is supported by more than 10 major video game engines including Unreal Engine , UDK , CryEngine and PhyreEngine , and has been used to provide 3D interfaces for more than 150 major video game titles since its launch in 2003 . Film and animation ( edit ) Main articles : List of Flash animated films and List of Flash animated television series Adobe Animate is one of the common animation programs for low - cost 2D television and commercial animation , in competition with Anime Studio and Toon Boom Animation . Notable users of Flash include DHX Media Vancouver for productions including Pound Puppies and My Little Pony : Friendship Is Magic , Fresh TV for Total Drama , Nelvana for 6teen and Clone High , Williams Street for Metalocalypse and Squidbillies , Nickelodeon Animation Studios for Wow ! Wow ! Wubbzy ! El Tigre : The Adventures of Manny Rivera , Danny Phantom , and more . Flash is less commonly used for feature - length animated films ; however , 2009 's The Secret of Kells , an Irish film , was animated primarily in Adobe Flash , and was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Animated Feature at the 82nd Academy Awards . Several popular online series are currently produced in Flash , such as the Emmy Award - winning Off - Mikes , produced by ESPN and Animax Entertainment ; Happy Tree Friends ; Gotham Girls , produced by Warner Brothers ; Crime Time , produced by Future Thought Productions and Homestar Runner produced by Mike and Matt Chapman . Various third - party software packages designed for traditionally trained cartoonists and animators can publish animations in the SWF format . History ( edit ) FutureWave ( edit ) The precursor to Flash was a product named SmartSketch , published by FutureWave Software . The company was founded by Charlie Jackson , Jonathan Gay , and Michelle Welsh . SmartSketch was a vector drawing application for pen computers running the PenPoint OS . When PenPoint failed in the marketplace , SmartSketch was ported to Microsoft Windows and Mac OS . As the Internet became more popular , FutureWave realized the potential for a vector - based web animation tool that might challenge Macromedia Shockwave technology . In 1995 , FutureWave modified SmartSketch by adding frame - by - frame animation features and released this new product as FutureSplash Animator on Macintosh and PC . FutureWave approached Adobe Systems with an offer to sell them FutureSplash in 1995 , but Adobe turned down the offer at that time . Microsoft wanted to create an `` online TV network '' ( MSN 2.0 ) and adopted FutureSplash animated content as a central part of it . Disney Online used FutureSplash animations for their subscription - based service Disney 's Daily Blast . Fox Broadcasting Company launched The Simpsons using FutureSplash . Macromedia ( edit ) In November 1996 , FutureSplash was acquired by Macromedia , and Macromedia re-branded and released FutureSplash Animator as Macromedia Flash 1.0 . Flash was a two - part system , a graphics and animation editor known as Macromedia Flash , and a player known as Macromedia Flash Player . FutureSplash Animator was an animation tool originally developed for pen - based computing devices . Due to the small size of the FutureSplash Viewer , it was particularly suited for download on the Web . Macromedia distributed Flash Player as a free browser plugin in order to quickly gain market share . By 2005 , more computers worldwide had Flash Player installed than any other Web media format , including Java , QuickTime , RealNetworks and Windows Media Player . Macromedia upgraded the Flash system between 1996 and 1999 adding MovieClips , Actions ( the precursor to ActionScript ) , Alpha transparency , and other features . As Flash matured , Macromedia 's focus shifted from marketing it as a graphics and media tool to promoting it as a Web application platform , adding scripting and data access capabilities to the player while attempting to retain its small footprint . In 2000 , the first major version of ActionScript was developed , and released with Flash 5 . Actionscript 2.0 was released with Flash MX 2004 and supported object - oriented programming , improved UI components and other programming features . The last version of Flash released by Macromedia was Flash 8 , which focused on graphical upgrades such as filters ( blur , drop shadow , etc . ) , blend modes ( similar to Adobe Photoshop ) , and advanced features for FLV video . Adobe ( edit ) Macromedia was acquired by Adobe Systems in 2005 , and the entire Macromedia product line including Flash , Dreamweaver , Director / Shockwave , Fireworks ( which has since been discontinued ) and Authorware is now handled by Adobe . In 2007 , Adobe 's first version release was Adobe Flash CS3 Professional , the ninth major version of Flash . It introduced the ActionScript 3.0 programming language , which supported modern programming practices and enabled business applications to be developed with Flash . Adobe Flex Builder ( built on Eclipse ) targeted the enterprise application development market , and was also released the same year . Flex Builder included the Flex SDK , a set of components that included charting , advanced UI , and data services ( Flex Data Services ) . In 2008 , Adobe released the tenth version of Flash , Adobe Flash CS4 . Flash 10 improved animation capabilities within the Flash editor , adding a motion editor panel ( similar to Adobe After Effects ) , inverse kinematics ( bones ) , basic 3D object animation , object - based animation , and other text and graphics features . Flash Player 10 included an in - built 3D engine ( without GPU acceleration ) that allowed basic object transformations in 3D space ( position , rotation , scaling ) . Also in 2008 , Adobe released the first version of Adobe Integrated Runtime ( later re-branded as Adobe AIR ) , a runtime engine that replaced Flash Player , and provided additional capabilities to the ActionScript 3.0 language to build desktop and mobile applications . With AIR , developers could access the file system ( the user 's files and folders ) , and connected devices suxh as joystick , gamepad and sensors for the first time . In 2011 , Adobe Flash Player 11 was released , and with it the first version of Stage3D , allowing GPU - accelerated 3D rendering for Flash applications and games on desktop platforms such as Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X . Adobe further improved 3D capabilities from 2011 to 2013 , adding support for 3D rendering on Android and iOS platforms , alpha - channels , compressed textures , texture atlases , and other features . Adobe AIR was upgraded to support 64 - bit computers , and to allow developers to add additional functionality to the AIR runtime using AIR Native Extensions ( ANE ) . In 2014 , Adobe AIR reached a milestone with over 100,000 unique applications built , and over 1 billion installations logged across the world ( May 2014 ) . Adobe AIR was voted the Best Mobile Application Development product at the Consumer Electronics Show on two consecutive years ( CES 2014 and CES 2015 ) . In 2016 , Adobe renamed Flash Professional , the primary authoring software for Flash content , to Adobe Animate to reflect its growing use for authoring HTML5 content in favour of Flash content . Open Screen Project ( edit ) On May 1 , 2008 , Adobe announced the Open Screen Project , with the intent of providing a consistent application interface across devices such as personal computers , mobile devices , and consumer electronics . When the project was announced , seven goals were outlined : the abolition of licensing fees for Adobe Flash Player and Adobe Integrated Runtime , the removal of restrictions on the use of the Shockwave Flash ( SWF ) and Flash Video ( FLV ) file formats , the publishing of application programming interfaces for porting Flash to new devices , and the publishing of The Flash Cast protocol and Action Message Format ( AMF ) , which let Flash applications receive information from remote databases . As of February 2009 , the specifications removing the restrictions on the use of SWF and FLV / F4V specs have been published . The Flash Cast protocol -- now known as the Mobile Content Delivery Protocol -- and AMF protocols have also been made available , with AMF available as an open source implementation , BlazeDS . The list of mobile device providers who have joined the project includes Palm , Motorola , and Nokia , who , together with Adobe , have announced a $10 million Open Screen Project fund . As of 2012 , the Open Screen Project is no longer accepting new applications according to partner BSQuare . However paid licensing is still an option for device makers who want to use Adobe software . End of life ( edit ) Although Flash was previously a dominant platform for online multimedia content , it is slowly being abandoned as Adobe favors a transition to HTML5 due to inherent security flaws and significant resources required to maintain the platform . Apple restricted the use of Flash on iOS due to concerns that it performed poorly on its mobile devices , had negative impact on battery life , and was deemed unnecessary for online content . As a result , it was not adopted by Apple for its smartphone and tablet devices , which also reduced its user base and encouraged wider adoption of HTML5 features such as the canvas and video elements , which can replace Flash without the need for plugins . In 2015 , Adobe rebranded its Flash authoring environment as Adobe Animate to emphasize its expanded support for HTML5 authoring , and stated that it would `` encourage content creators to build with new web standards '' rather than using Flash . In July 2017 , Adobe announced that it would declare Flash to be end - of - life in 2020 , and will cease support , distribution , and security updates to Flash Player . After the announcement , developers have started a petition to turn Flash into an open - source project , leading to controversy . The Flash Platform will continue in the form of Adobe AIR , which Adobe will continue to develop , and OpenFL , an open - source implementation of the Flash Player . Format ( edit ) FLA ( edit ) Flash source files are in the FLA format , and contain graphics and animation , as well as embedded assets such as bitmap images , audio files and FLV video files . The Flash source file format is a proprietary format and Adobe Animate is the only available authoring tool capable of editing such files . Flash source files (. fla ) may be compiled into Flash movie files (. swf ) using Adobe Animate . Note that FLA files can be edited , but output (. swf ) files can not . SWF ( edit ) Main article : SWF Flash movie files are in the SWF format , traditionally called `` ShockWave Flash '' movies , `` Flash movies '' , or `` Flash applications '' , usually have a . swf file extension , and may be used in the form of a web page plug - in , strictly `` played '' in a standalone Flash Player , or incorporated into a self - executing Projector movie ( with the . exe extension in Microsoft Windows ) . Flash Video files have a . flv file extension and are either used from within . swf files or played through a flv - aware player , such as VLC , or QuickTime and Windows Media Player with external codecs added . The use of vector graphics combined with program code allows Flash files to be smaller -- and thus allows streams to use less bandwidth -- than the corresponding bitmaps or video clips . For content in a single format ( such as just text , video , or audio ) , other alternatives may provide better performance and consume less CPU power than the corresponding Flash movie , for example when using transparency or making large screen updates such as photographic or text fades . In addition to a vector - rendering engine , the Flash Player includes a virtual machine called the ActionScript Virtual Machine ( AVM ) for scripting interactivity at run - time , with video , MP3 - based audio , and bitmap graphics . As of Flash Player 8 , it offers two video codecs : On2 Technologies VP6 and Sorenson Spark , and run - time JPEG , Progressive JPEG , PNG , and GIF capability . 3D ( edit ) Main article : Stage3D Flash Player 11 introduced a full 3D shader API , called Stage3D , which is fairly similar to WebGL . Stage3D enables GPU - accelerated rendering of 3D graphics within Flash games and applications , and has been used to build Angry Birds , and a couple of other notable games . Various 3D frameworks have been built for Flash using Stage3D , such as Away3D 4 , CopperCube , Flare3D , Starling , . Professional game engines like Unreal Engine and Unity also export Flash versions which use Stage3D to render 3D graphics . Flash video ( edit ) Main article : Flash Video Virtually all browser plugins for video are free of charge and cross-platform , including Adobe 's offering of Flash Video , which was first introduced with Flash version 6 . Flash Video has been a popular choice for websites due to the large installed user base and programmability of Flash . In 2010 , Apple publicly criticized Adobe Flash , including its implementation of video playback for not taking advantage of hardware acceleration , one reason Flash is not to be found on Apple 's mobile devices . Soon after Apple 's criticism , Adobe demoed and released a beta version of Flash 10.1 , which takes advantage of GPU hardware acceleration even on a Mac . Flash 10.2 beta , released December 2010 , adds hardware acceleration for the whole video rendering pipeline . Flash Player supports two distinct modes of video playback , and hardware accelerated video decoding may not be used for older video content . Such content causes excessive CPU usage compared to comparable content played with other players . Software Rendered Video : Flash Player supports software rendered video since version 6 . Such video supports vector animations displayed above the video content . This obligation may , depending on graphic APIs exposed by the operating system , prohibit using a video overlay , like a traditional multimedia player would use , with the consequence that color space conversion and scaling must happen in software . Hardware Accelerated Video : Flash Player supports hardware accelerated video playback since version 10.2 , for H. 264 , F4V , and FLV video formats . Such video is displayed above all Flash content , and takes advantage of video codec chipsets installed on the user 's device . Developers must specifically use the `` StageVideo '' technology within Flash Player in order for hardware decoding to be enabled . Flash Player internally uses technologies such as DirectX Video Acceleration and OpenGL to do so . In tests done by Ars Technica in 2008 and 2009 , Adobe Flash Player performed better on Windows than Mac OS X and Linux with the same hardware . Performance has later improved for the latter two , on Mac OS X with Flash Player 10.1 , and on Linux with Flash Player 11 . Flash audio ( edit ) Flash Audio is most commonly encoded in MP3 or AAC ( Advanced Audio Coding ) however it can also use ADPCM , Nellymoser ( Nellymoser Asao Codec ) and Speex audio codecs . Flash allows sample rates of 11 , 22 and 44.1 kHz . It can not have 48 kHz audio sample rate , which is the standard TV and DVD sample rate . On August 20 , 2007 , Adobe announced on its blog that with Update 3 of Flash Player 9 , Flash Video will also implement some parts of the MPEG - 4 international standards . Specifically , Flash Player will work with video compressed in H. 264 ( MPEG - 4 Part 10 ) , audio compressed using AAC ( MPEG - 4 Part 3 ) , the F4V , MP4 ( MPEG - 4 Part 14 ) , M4V , M4A , 3GP and MOV multimedia container formats , 3GPP Timed Text specification ( MPEG - 4 Part 17 ) , which is a standardized subtitle format and partial parsing capability for the ' ilst ' atom , which is the ID3 equivalent iTunes uses to store metadata . MPEG - 4 Part 2 and H. 263 will not work in F4V file format . Adobe also announced that it will be gradually moving away from the FLV format to the standard ISO base media file format ( MPEG - 4 Part 12 ) owing to functional limits with the FLV structure when streaming H. 264 . The final release of the Flash Player implementing some parts of MPEG - 4 standards had become available in Fall 2007 . Adobe Flash Player 10.1 does not have acoustic echo cancellation , unlike the VoIP offerings of Skype and Google Voice , making this and earlier versions of Flash less suitable for group calling or meetings . Flash Player 10.3 Beta incorporates acoustic echo cancellation . Scripting language ( edit ) Further information : ActionScript ActionScript is the programming language used by Flash . It is an enhanced superset of the ECMAScript programming language , with a classical Java - style class model , rather than JavaScript 's prototype model . Specifications ( edit ) In October 1998 , Macromedia disclosed the Flash Version 3 Specification on its website . It did this in response to many new and often semi-open formats competing with SWF , such as Xara 's Flare and Sharp 's Extended Vector Animation formats . Several developers quickly created a C library for producing SWF . In February 1999 , MorphInk 99 was introduced , the first third - party program to create SWF files . Macromedia also hired Middlesoft to create a freely available developers ' kit for the SWF file format versions 3 to 5 . Macromedia made the Flash Files specifications for versions 6 and later available only under a non-disclosure agreement , but they are widely available from various sites . In April 2006 , the Flash SWF file format specification was released with details on the then newest version format ( Flash 8 ) . Although still lacking specific information on the incorporated video compression formats ( On2 , Sorenson Spark , etc . ) , this new documentation covered all the new features offered in Flash v8 including new ActionScript commands , expressive filter controls , and so on . The file format specification document is offered only to developers who agree to a license agreement that permits them to use the specifications only to develop programs that can export to the Flash file format . The license does not allow the use of the specifications to create programs that can be used for playback of Flash files . The Flash 9 specification was made available under similar restrictions . In June 2009 , Adobe launched the Open Screen Project ( Adobe link ) , which made the SWF specification available without restrictions . Previously , developers could not use the specification for making SWF - compatible players , but only for making SWF - exporting authoring software . The specification still omits information on codecs such as Sorenson Spark , however . Animation tools ( edit ) Official tools ( edit ) Main article : Adobe Animate The Adobe Animate authoring program is primarily used to design graphics and animation and publish the same for websites , web applications , and video games . The program also offers limited support for audio and video embedding , and ActionScript scripting . Adobe released Adobe LiveMotion , designed to create interactive animation content and export it to a variety of formats , including SWF . LiveMotion failed to gain any notable user base . In February 2003 , Macromedia purchased Presedia , which had developed a Flash authoring tool that automatically converted PowerPoint files into Flash . Macromedia subsequently released the new product as Breeze , which included many new enhancements . Third - party tools ( edit ) Main article : Comparison of vector graphics editors Various free and commercial software packages can output animations into the Flash SWF format , suitable for display on the web , including : SWiSH Max is an animation editor with preset animation , developed by an ex-employee of Macromedia , that can output Flash animations Toon Boom is a traditional animation tool that can output Flash animations Apple Keynote allows users to export presentations to Flash SWF animations Xara Photo & Graphic Designer can output Flash animations Ajax Animator aim to create a Flash development environment KToon can edit vectors and generate SWF , but its interface is very different from Macromedia 's Screencast and Screencam , produces demos or tutorials by capturing the screen and generating a Flash animation of the same GoAnimate is a software as a service tool to create animated videos . Anime Studio is a 2D animation software package specialized for character animation , that creates Flash animations Question Writer publishes its quizzes to Flash animations OpenOffice Impress Toufee KoolMoves Express Animator CelAction2D Alligator Flash Designer Amara Web Clash Salasaga Synfig The Flash 4 Linux project was an initiative to develop an open source Linux application as an alternative to Adobe Animate . Development plans included authoring capacity for 2D animation , and tweening , as well as outputing SWF file formats . F4L evolved into an editor that was capable of authoring 2D animation and publishing of SWF files . Flash 4 Linux was renamed UIRA . UIRA intended to combine the resources and knowledge of the F4L project and the Qflash project , both of which were Open Source applications that aimed to provide an alternative to the proprietary Adobe Flash . Programming tools ( edit ) Official tools ( edit ) Adobe provides a series of tools to develop software applications and video games for Flash : Apache Flex SDK -- a free , open source SDK to compile Flash - based rich Internet applications from source code . The Apache Flex ActionScript 3.0 compiler generates SWF files from ActionScript 3 files . Flex was the primary ActionScript 3 compiler and was actively developed by Adobe before it was donated to Apache Software Foundation in 2011 . Adobe Animate -- primarily used to design graphics and animation , but supports ActionScript scripting and debugging . Adobe Flash Builder -- enterprise application development & debugging , contains the Flex SDK with UI and charting components . Adobe Scout -- a visual profiler to optimize performance of Flash content . CrossBridge -- a free SDK to cross-compile C++ code to run in Flash Player . Third - party tools ( edit ) Third - party development tools have been created to assist developers in creating software applications and video games with Flash . FlashDevelop is a free and open - source Flash ActionScript IDE , which includes a project manager and debugger for building applications on Flash Player and Adobe AIR . Powerflasher FDT is a commercial ActionScript IDE similar to FlashDevelop . Haxe is an open source , high - level object - oriented programming language geared towards web - content creation that can compile SWF files from Haxe programs . As of 2012 , Haxe can build programs for Flash Player that perform faster than the same application built with the Adobe Flex SDK compiler , due to additional compiler optimizations supported in Haxe . SWFTools ( specifically , swfc ) is an open - source ActionScript 3.0 compiler which generates SWF files from script files , which includes SVG tags . swfmill and MTASC also provide tools to create SWF files by compiling text , ActionScript or XML files into Flash animations Ming library , to create SWF files programmatically , has interfaces for C , PHP , C++ , Perl , Python , and Ruby . It is able to import and export graphics from XML into SWF . Players ( edit ) Proprietary ( edit ) Adobe Flash Player is the multimedia and application player originally developed by Macromedia and acquired by Adobe Systems . It plays SWF files , which can be created by Adobe Animate , Apache Flex , or a number of other Adobe Systems and 3rd party tools . It has support for a scripting language called ActionScript , which can be used to display Flash Video from an SWF file . Scaleform GFx is a commercial alternative Flash player that features fully hardware - accelerated 2D graphics rendering using the GPU . Scaleform has high conformance with both Flash 10 ActionScript 3 and Flash 8 ActionScript 2 . Scaleform GFx is a game development middleware solution that helps create graphical user interfaces or HUDs within 3D video games . It does not work with web browsers . IrfanView , an image viewer , uses Flash Player to display SWF files . Open source ( edit ) OpenFL is an open - source implementation of the Adobe Flash player and runtime . It allows developers to build a single application against the OpenFL APIs , and simultaneously target multiple platforms including Flash / AIR , HTML5 , Windows , Android , Tizen , Neko , BlackBerry and webOS . OpenFL mirrors the Flash API for graphical operations . OpenFL applications are written in Haxe , a modern multi-platform programming language . Lightspark is a free and open source SWF player that supports most of ActionScript 3.0 and has a Mozilla - compatible plug - in . It will fall back on Gnash , a free SWF player supporting ActionScript 1.0 and 2.0 ( AVM1 ) code . Lightspark supports OpenGL - based rendering for 3D content . The player is also compatible with H. 264 Flash videos on YouTube . Gnash aims to create a software player and browser plugin replacement for the Adobe Flash Player . Gnash can play SWF files up to version 7 , and 80 % of ActionScript 2.0 . Gnash run on Windows , Linux and other platforms for the 32 - bit , 64 - bit , and other operating systems , but development has slowed significantly in recent years . Shumway was an open source Flash Player released by Mozilla in November 2012 . It was built in JavaScript and is thus compatible with modern web - browsers . In early October 2013 , Shumway was included by default in the Firefox nightly branch . Shumway rendered Flash contents by translating contents inside Flash files to HTML5 elements , and running an ActionScript interpreter in JavaScript . It supported both AVM1 and AVM2 , and ActionScript versions 1 , 2 , and 3 . Development of Shumway ceased in early 2016 . Adobe Flash Player can not ship as part of a pure open source , or completely free operating system , as its distribution is bound to the Macromedia Licensing Program and subject to proposition first from Adobe . Availability ( edit ) Desktop computers ( edit ) Flash Player ( edit ) The latest version of Adobe Flash Player is available for three major desktop platforms , including Windows , macOS and Linux . On Linux the PPAPI plug - in is available ; the NPAPI version was n't updated to new major versions for a while until Adobe changed its mind on stopping support and its former plan to discontinue `` in 2017 '' . Adobe Flash Player is available in four flavors : ActiveX - based Plug - in NPAPI - based Plug - in PPAPI - based Plug - in Projector The ActiveX version is an ActiveX control for use in Internet Explorer and any other Windows applications that supports ActiveX technology . The Plug - in versions are available for browsers supporting either NPAPI or PPAPI plug - ins on Microsoft Windows , macOS and Linux . The projector version is a standalone player that can open SWF files directly . The following table documents Flash Player and Adobe AIR support on desktop operating systems : Operating System Prerequisites Usage Latest Adobe Flash Player Browser Support Microsoft Windows Windows XP ( 32 - bit , AIR only ) / Vista ( 32 - bit , AIR only ) / 7 / 8.1 / 10 Internet Browser , Standalone Applications Flash Player 25.0 , AIR 25.0 Internet Explorer , Edge , Firefox , Chrome , Chromium , Opera macOS OS X 10.9 or newer ( Flash Player ) / Mac OS X 10.7 or newer ( AIR ) Internet Browser , Standalone Applications Flash Player 25.0 , AIR 25.0 Safari , Firefox , Chrome , Chromium , Opera Linux Red Hat Enterprise Linux 5.6 or newer / openSUSE 11.3 or newer / Ubuntu 10.04 or newer Internet Browser Flash Player 25.0. 0.127 ( NPAPI ) , Flash Player 25.0. 0.127 ( PPAPI ) Firefox ( NPAPI ) / Chrome , Chromium , Opera ( PPAPI ) Adobe AIR ( edit ) The latest version of Adobe AIR , version 18 , contains Adobe Flash Player 18 , and is available for Windows XP and later , as well as macOS . Official support for desktop Linux distributions ceased in June 2011 with version 2.6 . Platform Installer file support App Store support Windows . air , . exe and . msi None macOS . air and . dmg With captive runtime Android . apk Google Play iOS . ipa iTunes Store PlayBook . bar BlackBerry App World Mobile devices ( edit ) Flash Player ( edit ) Adobe Flash Player was available for a variety of mobile operating systems , including Android ( between versions 2.2 and 4.0. 4 ) , Pocket PC / Windows CE , QNX ( e.g. on BlackBerry PlayBook ) , Symbian , Palm OS , and webOS ( since version 2.0 ) . Flash Player for smart phones was made available to handset manufacturers at the end of 2009 . However , in November 2011 , Adobe announced the withdrawal of support for Flash Player on mobile devices . Adobe continues to support deploying Flash - based content as mobile applications via Adobe AIR . Adobe is reaffirming its commitment to `` aggressively contribute '' to HTML5 . Adobe announced the end of Flash for mobile platforms or TV , instead focusing on HTML5 for browser content and Adobe AIR for the various mobile application stores and described it as `` the beginning of the end '' . BlackBerry LTD ( formerly known as RIM ) announced that it would continue to develop Flash Player for the PlayBook . There is no Adobe Flash Player for iOS devices ( iPhone , iPad and iPod Touch ) . However , Flash content can be made to run on iOS devices in a variety of ways : Flash content can be bundled inside an Adobe AIR app , which will then run on iOS devices . ( Apple did not allow this for a while , but they relaxed those restrictions in September 2010 . ) On March 8 , 2011 , Techradar reported that Adobe provides an experimental server side tool ( Wallaby ) to convert Flash programs ( as far as possible ) to HTML5 code , thus allowing iOS devices to display the content . If the content is Flash video being served by Adobe Flash Media Server 4.5 , the server will translate and send the video as HTTP Dynamic Streaming or HTTP Live Streaming , both of which can be played by iOS devices . Some specialized mobile browsers manage to accommodate Flash via streaming content from the cloud directly to a user 's device . Some examples are Photon Browser and Puffin Web Browser . The mobile version of Internet Explorer for Windows Phone can not play Flash content , however Flash support is still present on the tablet version of Windows . Adobe AIR ( edit ) Main article : Adobe AIR This section needs to be updated . Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information . ( March 2016 ) Adobe AIR was released in 2008 , and allows the creation of mobile applications and mobile games using Flash and ActionScript . Notable mobile games built with Flash include Angry Birds , Machinarium and Defend Your Castle . Using AIR , developers can access the full Adobe Flash functionality , including text , vector graphics , raster graphics , video , audio , camera and microphone capability . Adobe AIR also includes additional features such as file system integration , native client extensions , desktop integration and access to connected devices and sensors . AIR applications can be published as native phone applications on certain mobile operating systems , such as Android ( ARM Cortex - A8 and above ) and Apple iOS . The following table explains to what extent Adobe AIR can run on various mobile operating systems : Operating System Prerequisites Latest Adobe Flash Player AIR Framework Android Android 2.3 + , ARM Cortex - A8 + or Android x86 AIR 3.6. 0.597 ( uses Flash Player 11.6 ) Option 1 : The AIR player can be embedded as a ' captive ' runtime , which increases APK size but makes the application standalone . Option 2 : The runtime is not included with the app , and must installed as a separate app from the app market . Apple iOS iOS 4.3 or later AIR 3.6. 0.597 ( uses Flash Player 11.6 ) Not applicable : each app includes its own ' captive ' runtime . BlackBerry Tablet OS None AIR 3.1 ( uses Flash Player 11.1 ) Already pre-installed on each device . BlackBerry 10 Blackberry 10.2 and lower ( no longer supported from 10.3 ) AIR 3.5 ( uses Flash Player 11.1 ) Already pre-installed on each device . Portable electronic devices ( edit ) Adobe Flash Lite is a lightweight version of Adobe Flash Player intended for mobile phones and other portable electronic devices like Chumby and iRiver . On the emerging single - board enthusiast market , as substantially popularized by the Raspberry Pi , support from Adobe is lacking . However , the open - source player Gnash has been ported and found to be useful . Alternatives ( edit ) OpenFL ( edit ) Main article : OpenFL OpenFL is an open - source implementation of the Adobe Flash technology . It allows developers to build a single application against the OpenFL APIs , and simultaneously target multiple platforms including Flash / AIR , HTML5 , Windows , Android , Tizen , Neko , BlackBerry and webOS . OpenFL mirrors the Flash API for graphical operations . OpenFL applications are written in Haxe , a modern multi-platform programming language . More than 500 video games have been developed with OpenFL , including the BAFTA - award - winning game Papers , Please , Rymdkapsel , Lightbot and Madden NFL Mobile . HTML5 ( edit ) Main article : Comparison of HTML5 and Flash HTML5 is often cited as an alternative to Adobe Flash technology usage on web pages . Adobe released a tool that converts Flash to HTML5 , and in June 2011 , Google released an experimental tool that does the same . In January 2015 , YouTube defaulted to HTML5 players to better support more devices . Flash to HTML5 ( edit ) The following tools allow running Flash content in web browsers using HTML5 : Adobe Edge Animate was designed to produce HTML5 animations directly . Adobe Animate now allows Flash animations to be published into HTML5 content directly . Google Swiffy - A web - based tool developed by Google that converts SWF files into HTML5 , using SVG for graphics and JavaScript for animation Mozilla Shumway , a Flash virtual machine written in JavaScript . CreateJS is library that while available separately was also adopted by Adobe as a replacement for Wallaby in CS6 . Unlike Wallaby , which was a standalone program , the `` Toolkit for CreateJS '' only works as a plug - in inside Flash Professional ; it generates output for the HTML5 canvas , animated with JavaScript . Around December 2013 , the toolkit was integrated directly into Flash Professional CC . Criticisms ( edit ) Mobile support ( edit ) Websites built with Adobe Flash will not function on most modern mobile devices running Google Android or iOS ( iPhone , iPad ) . The only alternative is using HTML5 and responsive web design to build websites that support both desktop and mobile devices . However , Flash is still used to build mobile games using Adobe AIR . Such games will not work in mobile web browsers , but must be installed via the appropriate app store . Vendor dependence ( edit ) See also : Vendor lock - in The reliance on Adobe for decoding Flash makes its use on the World Wide Web a concern -- the completeness of its public specifications are debated , and no complete implementation of Flash is publicly available in source code form with a license that permits reuse . Generally , public specifications are what makes a format re-implementable ( see future proofing data storage ) , and reusable codebases can be ported to new platforms without the endorsement of the format creator . Adobe 's restrictions on the use of the SWF / FLV specifications were lifted in February 2009 ( see Adobe 's Open Screen Project ) . However , despite efforts of projects like Gnash , Swfdec and Lightspark , a complete free Flash player is yet to be seen , as of September 2011 . For example , Gnash can not use SWF v10 yet . Notably , Gnash was listed on the Free Software Foundation 's high priority list , from at least 2007 , to its overdue removal in January 2017 . Notable advocates of free software , open standards , and the World Wide Web have warned against the use of Flash : The founder of Mozilla Europe , Tristan Nitot , stated in 2008 : Companies building websites should beware of proprietary rich - media technologies like Adobe 's Flash and Microsoft 's Silverlight . ( ... ) You 're producing content for your users and there 's someone in the middle deciding whether users should see your content . Representing open standards , inventor of CSS and co-author of HTML5 , Håkon Wium Lie explained in a Google tech talk of 2007 , entitled `` the < video > element '' , the proposal of Theora as the format for HTML5 video : I believe very strongly , that we need to agree on some kind of baseline video format if ( the video element ) is going to succeed . Flash is today the baseline format on the web . The problem with Flash is that it 's not an open standard . Representing the free software movement , Richard Stallman stated in a speech in 2004 that : `` The use of Flash in websites is a major problem for our community . '' Accessibility ( edit ) Usability consultant Jakob Nielsen published an Alertbox in 2000 entitled , Flash : 99 % Bad , stating that `` Flash tends to degrade websites for three reasons : it encourages design abuse , it breaks with the Web 's fundamental interaction principles , and it distracts attention from the site 's core value . '' Some problems have been at least partially fixed since Nielsen 's complaints : Text size can be controlled using full page zoom and it has been possible for authors to include alternative text in Flash since Flash Player 6 . Flash blocking in web browsers ( edit ) Some websites rely heavily on Flash and become unusable without Flash Player , or with Flash blocked . Flash content is usually embedded using the object or embed HTML element . A web browser that does not fully implement one of these elements displays the replacement text , if supplied by the web page . Often , a plugin is required for the browser to fully implement these elements , though some users can not or will not install it . Since Flash can be used to produce content ( such as advertisements ) that some users find obnoxious or take a large amount of bandwidth to download , some web browsers , by default , do not play Flash content until the user clicks on it , e.g. Konqueror , K - Meleon . Most current browsers have a feature to block plugins , playing one only when the user clicks it . Opera versions since 10.5 feature native Flash blocking . Opera Turbo requires the user to click to play Flash content , and the browser also allows the user to enable this option permanently . Both Chrome and Firefox have an option to enable `` click to play plugins '' . Equivalent `` Flash blocker '' extensions are also available for many popular browsers : Firefox has Flashblock and NoScript , Internet Explorer has Foxie , which contains a number of features , one of them named Flashblock . WebKit - based browsers under macOS , such as Apple 's Safari , have ClickToFlash . In June 2015 , Google announced that Chrome will `` pause '' advertisements and `` non-central '' Flash content by default . Firefox ( from version 46 ) rewrites old Flash - only YouTube embed code into YouTube 's modern embedded player that is capable of using either HTML5 or Flash . Such embed code is used by non-YouTube sites to embed YouTube 's videos , and can still be encountered , for example , on old blogs and forums . Security ( edit ) See also : Adobe Flash Player § Security , and Browser security § Plugins and extensions For many years Adobe Flash Player 's security record has led many security experts to recommend against installing the player , or to block Flash content . The US - CERT has recommended blocking Flash , and security researcher Charlie Miller recommended `` not to install Flash '' ; however , for people still using Flash , Intego recommended that users get trusted updates `` only directly from the vendor that publishes them . '' As of February 12 , 2015 , Adobe Flash Player has over 400 CVE entries , of which over 300 lead to arbitrary code execution , and past vulnerabilities have enabled spying via web cameras . Security experts have long predicted the demise of Flash , saying that with the rise of HTML5 `` ... the need for browser plugins such as Flash is diminishing '' , as only 7 to 10 percent of websites still use it . Active moves by third parties to limit the risk began with Steve Jobs in 2010 saying that Apple would not allow Flash on the iPhone , iPod touch and iPad -- citing abysmal security as one reason . Flash often used the ability to dynamically change parts of the runtime on languages on OSX to improve their own performance , but caused general instability . In July 2015 , a series of newly discovered vulnerabilities resulted in Facebook 's chief security officer , Alex Stamos , issuing a call to Adobe to discontinue the software entirely and the Mozilla Firefox web browser , Google Chrome and Apple Safari to blacklist all earlier versions of Flash Player . As a result , `` Adobe has essentially stopped trying to do anything new and innovative with Flash . '' Flash cookies ( edit ) Main article : Local shared object Like the HTTP cookie , a flash cookie ( also known as a `` Local Shared Object '' ) can be used to save application data . Flash cookies are not shared across domains . An August 2009 study by the Ashkan Soltani and a team of researchers at UC Berkeley found that 50 % of websites using Flash were also employing flash cookies , yet privacy policies rarely disclosed them , and user controls for privacy preferences were lacking . Most browsers ' cache and history suppress or delete functions did not affect Flash Player 's writing Local Shared Objects to its own cache in version 10.2 and earlier , at which point the user community was much less aware of the existence and function of Flash cookies than HTTP cookies . Thus , users with those versions , having deleted HTTP cookies and purged browser history files and caches , may believe that they have purged all tracking data from their computers when in fact Flash browsing history remains . Adobe 's own Flash Website Storage Settings panel , a submenu of Adobe 's Flash Settings Manager web application , and other editors and toolkits can manage settings for and delete Flash Local Shared Objects . See also ( edit ) Adobe Creative Cloud List of 2D animation software OpenFL is an open - source implementation of the Flash platform Saffron Type System -- the anti-aliased text - rendering engine used in version 8 onwards SWFObject -- a JavaScript library used to embed Flash content into web pages Microsoft Silverlight JavaFX OpenLaszlo Synfig Footnotes ( edit ) Jump up ^ FLV and F4V F4V is based on ISO base media file format standard , available as a free download ( 1 ) References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` FLASH & THE FUTURE OF INTERACTIVE CONTENT '' . Adobe Systems . July 25 , 2017 . Jump up ^ AIR Roadmap Update , Chris Campbell , Adobe Blog , Jul 25 , 2017 9 : 08 AM ^ Jump up to : WARREN , CHRISTINA ( 2012 - 11 - 20 ) . `` The Life , Death and Rebirth of Adobe Flash '' . Mashable . Retrieved 2015 - 06 - 11 . ^ Jump up to : Pinho , Carlos ( 2009 - 07 - 07 ) . `` 50 Beautiful Flash Websites '' . Smashing Magazine . Retrieved 2015 - 06 - 11 . Jump up ^ Looking back at the best Flash sites of 2009 , Adobe Developer Connection , 14 December 2009 Jump up ^ DAVLIN , ANN ( 2011 - 06 - 15 ) . `` 35 Of The Best 3D Flash Websites Ever '' . Smashing 3D . Retrieved 2015 - 06 - 11 . Jump up ^ 20 Best 3D Websites , Web Designer Drops , September 15 , 2012 Jump up ^ Google to automatically convert Flash web ads to HTML5 , IT Pro Magazine , Caroline Preece , 27 Feb 2015 Jump up ^ YOUTUBE NOW PLAYS HTML5 VIDEO BY DEFAULT , ESCHEWS ADOBE FLASH , Popular Science , Dan Moren , January 28 , 2015 Jump up ^ YouTube ditches Adobe Flash for HTML5 on most browsers , The Inquirer , Chris Merriman , Jan 28 2015 Jump up ^ So long , Flash ! YouTube now defaults to HTML5 on the web , PC World Magazine , Ian Paul , Jan 28 , 2015 ^ Jump up to : McCune , Doug ( 2009 - 02 - 23 ) . Adobe Flex 3.0 For Dummies . John Wiley & Sons . p . Chapter 1 , `` From HTML to RIA '' . ISBN 0470436824 . Retrieved 2015 - 06 - 11 . Jump up ^ Rocchi , Cesare ( 2011 ) . Data Visualization with Flash Builder . Focal Press . ISBN 0240815033 . ^ Jump up to : Fain , Yakov ( 2010 - 03 - 16 ) . Enterprise Development with Flex : Best Practices for RIA Developers . O'Reilly Media , Inc . ISBN 1449388736 . Jump up ^ `` Speedtest.net by Ookla -- The Global Broadband Speed Test '' . Jump up ^ What are the requirements to use Speedtest.net ? , Speedtest.net Jump up ^ The world 's most popular internet speed test finally drops Adobe Flash , The Next Web , Owen Williams , 7 December 2015 ^ Jump up to : Grandmasters of Flash : An Interview with the Creators of Flash , Cold Hard Flash ^ Jump up to : MACROMEDIA FLASH BACK , Digital Archaeology Jump up ^ PC Graphics & Video , Volume 6 , Issues 1 -- 6 , Advanstar Communications , 1997 Jump up ^ Personal Computer Magazine , PC Communications Corporation , 1995 Jump up ^ Waldron , Rick ( August 27 , 2006 ) . `` The Flash History '' . Flashmagazine . Retrieved June 18 , 2001 . Jump up ^ Gay , Jonathan ( 2001 ) . `` The History of Flash '' . Adobe Systems Inc . Archived from the original on February 4 , 2009 . Retrieved October 18 , 2009 . Jump up ^ The History of Flash : Back to Graphics Archived January 1 , 2015 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ The History of Flash : The Dawn of Web Animation Jump up ^ `` Grandmasters of Flash : An Interview with the Creators of Flash '' . ColdHardFlash.com . Retrieved February 12 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Flash Player in 2005 '' . ZDNet . Archived from the original on May 16 , 2007 . Retrieved 2008 - 12 - 26 . Jump up ^ Joseph Labrecque ( 2011 ) . What 's New in Flash Player 11 . O'Reilly Media , Inc. p. 17 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4493 - 1110 - 0 . Jump up ^ Adobe Flash Roadmap , Adobe Jump up ^ ( 2 ) Introducing Flash Player 11.4 / AIR 3.4 beta ! , by Thibault Imbert ( Adobe employee ) , ByteArray Jump up ^ AIR app installs cross a billion , Adobe AIR and Adobe Flash Player Team Blog Jump up ^ 1 Billion AIR Installations , Ben Forta Jump up ^ Compass Intelligence Announces Winners of the 2014 Mobility Awards , Compass Intelligence Jump up ^ Compass Intelligence Announces Winners of the 2015 Mobility Awards , Compass Intelligence Jump up ^ Barrett , Brian . `` Sadly , Adobe Flash Is n't Dead . It Just Changed Its Name '' . WIRED . Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 22 . ^ Jump up to : `` Adobe and Industry Leaders Establish Open Screen Project '' . May 1 , 2008 . Archived from the original on February 10 , 2009 . Retrieved February 20 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : Murarka , Anup . `` Inside the Open Screen Project '' . Archived from the original on February 10 , 2009 . Retrieved February 21 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Open Screen Project partners '' . Archived from the original on February 24 , 2009 . Retrieved February 20 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Adobe and Nokia Announce $10 Million Open Screen Project Fund '' . February 16 , 2009 . Archived from the original on February 19 , 2009 . Retrieved February 20 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Valentino - Devries , Jennifer ( April 29 , 2010 ) . `` Highlights : The Journal 's Exclusive Interview With Adobe CEO '' . The Wall Street Journal . Retrieved June 19 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Arthur , Charles ( April 29 , 2010 ) . `` Adobe CEO hits back in row with Steve Jobs over Flash on Apple 's iPhone '' . The Guardian . Retrieved June 19 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Kastrenakes , Jacob ( 2015 - 12 - 01 ) . `` Adobe is telling people to stop using Flash '' . The Verge . Retrieved 2017 - 07 - 25 . Jump up ^ `` Flash & The Future of Interactive Content '' . Latest company news & updates Adobe Conversations Blog . Retrieved 2017 - 09 - 07 . Jump up ^ Sharwood , Simon ; tweet_btn ( ) , APAC Editor 31 Jul 2017 at 02 : 58 . `` Petition calls for Adobe Flash to survive as open source zombie '' . Retrieved 2017 - 08 - 02 . Jump up ^ Matt Fisher ( 2013 ) . HTML5 for Flash Developers . Packt Publishing Ltd . § Stage3D versus WebGL , p. 91 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 84969 - 333 - 2 . ^ Jump up to : `` Stage3D vs WebGL Performance -- Airtight Interactive '' . Airtightinteractive.com. 2011 - 10 - 28 . Retrieved 2014 - 08 - 04 . Jump up ^ `` Tools Spotlight : CopperCube 4.0 '' . evelop-online.net. 2014 - 05 - 28 . Retrieved 2014 - 09 - 22 . Jump up ^ Keith Gladstien ( 2013 ) . Flash Game Development In a Social , Mobile and 3D World . Cengage Learning . pp. 383 -- 421 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4354 - 6021 - 8 . Jump up ^ Thibault Imbert ( 2012 ) . Introducing Starling . O'Reilly Media , Inc . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4493 - 2089 - 8 . Jump up ^ Wagner James Au ( 2012 ) . Game Design Secrets . John Wiley & Sons . p. 130 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 118 - 46391 - 8 . Jump up ^ `` Adobe Flash 11 adopts Unreal Engine 3 for better browser games The Verge '' . theverge.com . Retrieved 2014 - 08 - 04 . Jump up ^ Melanson , Mike ( January 27 , 2010 ) . `` Solving Different Problems '' . Penguin. SWF . Retrieved November 15 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Flash benchmarks on different operating systems '' . Jump up ^ Paul , Ryan ( October 16 , 2009 ) . `` Hands - on : Hulu Desktop for Linux beta a big resource hog '' . Arstechnica.com . Retrieved December 4 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Flash Player 10.1 : Performance improvements for Mac OS X '' . Jump up ^ `` Flash Player 11 : More stable and faster for Linux '' . Jump up ^ `` What just happened to video on the web '' . Adobe . Archived from the original on January 6 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Adobe Press release on MPEG - 4 in Flash Player 9 '' . Adobe.com . Archived from the original on December 3 , 2010 . Retrieved December 4 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Adobe File Format Specification FAQ '' . Adobe Systems . Archived from the original on November 11 , 2007 . Retrieved November 15 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Free Flash community reacts to Adobe Open Screen Project '' . Archived from the original on September 28 , 2008 . Retrieved November 29 , 2008 . Jump up ^ AS3 vs haXe performance , SplashDust website Archived July 7 , 2015 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Kris Graft . `` Scaleform GFx 4 Supports Flash 10 AS3 '' . Gamasutra . Retrieved 2010 - 10 - 01 . Jump up ^ `` Lightspark flash player continues to advance '' . Linux.be. 2010 - 07 - 09 . Retrieved 2010 - 09 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Gnash Reference Manual '' . www.gnu.org . Retrieved 2011 - 11 - 12 . Jump up ^ Duckett , Chris ( 2012 - 11 - 13 ) . `` Shumway looks to replace Flash with JavaScript '' . ZDNet . Retrieved 2013 - 01 - 08 . Jump up ^ `` Shumway : Mozilla 's open SWF runtime project -- The H Open : News and Features '' . H-online.com. 2012 - 11 - 13 . Archived from the original on December 20 , 2012 . Retrieved 2013 - 01 - 08 . Jump up ^ `` Mozilla publicly announces the open - source Flash - renderer Mozilla - sponsored Shumway project Iloveubuntu : Ubuntu blog '' . Iloveubuntu. 2012 - 11 - 12 . Retrieved 2013 - 01 - 08 . Jump up ^ `` ( Phoronix ) X.Org vs. XMir On KDE , Xfce , Unity Desktops '' . Phoronix.com. 2013 - 09 - 24 . Retrieved 2013 - 10 - 04 . Jump up ^ Villegas , Jet ( November 12 , 2012 ) . `` The Shumway Open SWF Runtime Project '' . Mozilla . Jump up ^ Willis , Nathan ( November 21 , 2012 ) . `` Gnash , Lightspark , and Shumway '' . LWN.net . Retrieved 13 June 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Flash Replacement Shumway is as good as dead -- gHacks Tech News '' . 2016 - 02 - 23 . Retrieved 2016 - 09 - 17 . Jump up ^ Sfetcu , Nicolae ( 2014 - 05 - 14 ) . Web Design & Development . Nicolae Sfetcu . ^ Jump up to : Adobe Flash Player Tech specs , Adobe.com Jump up ^ `` Adobe and Google Partnering for Flash Player on Linux '' . Retrieved November 25 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Beta News -- Flash Player NPAPI for Linux '' . Jump up ^ `` Downloads '' . Adobe Flash Player Support Center . Retrieved October 1 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Adobe AIR Tech specs , Adobe.com ^ Jump up to : Adobe Flash Player Versions , Adobe.com ^ Jump up to : Get Adobe Air , Adobe.com ^ Jump up to : iOS features in Adobe AIR 2.6 , Adobe Devnet Jump up ^ `` Install Adobe AIR 2 -- 64 - bit Linux '' . Retrieved May 22 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Generating a Windows installer for your AIR captive runtime application , Adobe Developer Connection ^ Jump up to : Packaging a desktop native installer , Adobe Help Center Jump up ^ `` Post Adobe AIR app to Mac app store '' . ^ Jump up to : Using Flash Builder 4.5 to package applications for Google Android devices , Adobe Developer Connection ^ Jump up to : Using Flash Builder 4.5 to package applications for Apple iOS devices , Adobe Developer Connection ^ Jump up to : Using Flash Builder 4.5 to package applications for BlackBerry Tablet OS devices , Adobe Developer Connection Jump up ^ Phil Nickinson ( April 27 , 2010 ) . `` Andy Rubin says Flash is coming in Froyo version of Android operating system '' . Androidcentral.com . Archived from the original on December 4 , 2010 . Retrieved December 4 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Today Is The Last Day To Get Flash For Android '' . WebProNews . August 14 , 2012 . Retrieved January 12 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Sascha Segan ( October 19 , 2010 ) . `` HP WebOS 2.0 with Flash : Hands On '' . PCMAG.com . Retrieved October 16 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Palm Latest Mobile Industry Leader to Join Open Screen Project '' . February 16 , 2009 . Archived from the original on February 23 , 2009 . Retrieved February 20 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Winokur , Danny ( November 9 , 2011 ) . `` Flash to Focus on PC Browsing and Mobile Apps ; Adobe to More Aggressively Contribute to HTML5 ( Adobe Featured Blogs ) '' . Blogs.adobe.com . Retrieved January 26 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Stevens , Tim . ( 2011 - 11 - 09 ) Adobe confirms Flash Player is dead for mobile devices . Engadget.com . Retrieved on 2013 - 07 - 21 . Jump up ^ `` Adobe Flash Player Turfed for Mobile Devices '' . Retrieved November 11 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Web designers : Time to ditch Flash , Silverlight , and embrace HTML5 '' . Jump up ^ `` Flash is dead . Long live HTML5 '' . ZDNet . November 9 , 2011 . Retrieved November 12 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Flash to Focus on PC Browsing and Mobile Apps ; Adobe to More Aggressively Contribute to HTML5 '' . Adobe Systems . November 9 , 2011 . Retrieved November 12 , 2011 . We will no longer continue to develop Flash Player in the browser to work with new mobile device configurations ( chipset , browser , OS version , etc . ) following the upcoming release of Flash Player 11.1 for Android and BlackBerry PlayBook Jump up ^ `` PlayBook has a Flash - filled future ; RIM 's worst decision to date ? '' . Jump up ^ `` The beginning of the end for Adobe 's Flash '' . CNN . November 10 , 2011 . Retrieved November 11 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` PlayBook has a Flash - filled future ; RIM 's worst decision to date ? '' . Retrieved November 11 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Joseph Menn ( September 9 , 2010 ) . `` Apple relaxes app developer rules '' . Financial Times . Retrieved October 16 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Gary Marshall ( March 8 , 2011 ) . `` Flash is coming to the iPad , iPad 2 and iPhone '' . techradar.com . Retrieved March 8 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Jonny Evans ( September 9 , 2011 ) . `` Adobe brings Flash - free - Flash to Apple iPad , iPhone '' . COMPUTERWORLD . Retrieved October 16 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Photon Browser '' . Retrieved 5 March 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Puffin Web Browser -- About '' . Retrieved 12 February 2014 . Jump up ^ Hemphill , Kenny ( September 15 , 2011 ) . `` Microsoft ditches Flash support in tablet version of Internet Explorer '' . MacUser . London : Dennis Publishing . Archived from the original on December 20 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Bott , Ed . `` Microsoft changes default Flash behavior in Windows 8 and RT '' . zdnet.com . Retrieved 2 February 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Flash Player 10.1 -- Installations and updates '' . Archived from the original on October 8 , 2010 . Retrieved November 19 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Adobe AIR -- Tech specs -- Adobe AIR -- System requirements '' . Retrieved May 22 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Adobe AIR now supports x86 Android '' . Retrieved May 22 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` Release Notes -- Flash Player ® 11.6 AIR ® 3.6 '' . Retrieved May 22 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` java -- Install Air Application in Android without Adobe Air -- Stack Overflow '' . Retrieved May 22 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Android -- must install adobe air ? '' . Retrieved May 22 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` How are Adobe AIR applications packaged and dep ... -- Adobe Community '' . Retrieved May 22 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Announcing Flash Player 11 and AIR 3 Archived May 4 , 2012 , at the Wayback Machine. , Adobe Flash Platform Blog Jump up ^ https://www.adobe.com/flashplatform/certified_devices/tablets.html Retrieved on September 19 , 2011 . Jump up ^ BlackBerry . `` End of Support -- BlackBerry SDK for Adobe AIR -- BlackBerry Developer '' . Retrieved May 22 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Moll , Cameron ( 2007 ) . Mobile Web Design . Lulu.com . ISBN 9780615185910 . Jump up ^ Christopher Kramer ( August 7 , 2012 ) . `` Flash on the Raspberry Pi '' . Retrieved May 12 , 2013 . Jump up ^ OpenFL Showcase Jump up ^ `` Flash to HTML5 : Learn more about the CreateJS toolkit '' . Adobe.com . Jump up ^ `` Google Swiffy '' . Google Labs . Jump up ^ L. , Maxime . `` Google just announced a SWF to HTML5 converter '' . Linked In Groups : HTML5 Technologies . Jump up ^ `` YouTube now defaults to HTML5 < video > '' . Retrieved 16 July 2015 . Jump up ^ RJ Owen ; Luke Stevens ( 2013 ) . The Truth About HTML5 . Apress . p. 83 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4302 - 6415 - 6 . Jump up ^ http://data.fen-om.com/siggraph/sd/tutorials/html_css_animation/html_css_animation.pdf Jump up ^ http://www.adobe.com/content/dam/Adobe/en/products/flash/pdfs/html_extension_faq_ue.pdf Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on 2014 - 08 - 08 . Retrieved 2014 - 08 - 05 . Jump up ^ http://www.adobe.com/inspire/2014/02/flash-html5-canvas.html Jump up ^ `` Gnash homepage '' . Gnu.org . Retrieved September 4 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Changelog for the High Priority Projects list '' . Free Software Foundation . Jump up ^ Nitot , Tristan ( April 29 , 2008 ) . `` Mozilla warns of Flash and Silverlight ' agenda ' '' . ZDNet . Archived from the original on December 27 , 2008 . Retrieved September 4 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Håkon Wium Lie on the video element in HTML 5 '' . Google Video . 2007 - 03 - 29 . Retrieved 2014 - 08 - 14 . Jump up ^ `` Richard Stallman on The free software movement and its challenges '' . Australian National University , Canberra , Australia : Google Video . 2004 - 10 - 13 . Retrieved 2014 - 08 - 14 . Jump up ^ Nielsen , Jakob ( October 29 , 2000 ) . `` Flash : 99 % Bad '' . Retrieved February 21 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Help for The W3C Markup Validation Service '' . Validator.w3.org . Retrieved January 26 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` How to Enable Flashblock in Chrome ( And Make it 5000 % More Secure ) '' . How - to Geek . 8 April 2011 . Retrieved 18 August 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Firefox 14 To Get Click To Play Plugin Feature '' . ghacks.net. 29 March 2012 . Retrieved 18 August 2012 . Jump up ^ `` ClickToFlash '' . Retrieved July 27 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Better battery life for your laptop '' . Jump up ^ `` QA / Youtube Embedded Rewrite '' . Retrieved 21 May 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Security bulletins and advisories '' . Archived from the original on April 6 , 2010 . Retrieved March 27 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Expert says Adobe Flash policy is risky '' . ZDNet . November 12 , 2009 . Retrieved March 27 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Protect yourself from Flash attacks in Internet Explorer '' . September 9 , 2012 . Retrieved July 7 , 2013 . I recommend that you disable the Shockwave Flash add - on in IE completely Jump up ^ `` Securing Your Web Browser '' . Archived from the original on March 26 , 2010 . Retrieved March 27 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Pwn2Own 2010 : interview with Charlie Miller '' . March 1 , 2010 . Retrieved March 27 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` How to Tell if Adobe Flash Player Update is Valid '' . Intego . Retrieved 9 April 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Adobe Flash Player : CVE security vulnerabilities , versions and detailed reports '' . Retrieved February 12 , 2015 . 291 total vulnerabilities Jump up ^ `` Adobe remedies webcam spy hole in Flash '' . Retrieved April 4 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Flash Player as a spy system '' . Retrieved April 4 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Adobe Flash Player Settings Manager '' . Adobe Systems . Archived from the original on June 20 , 2010 . Retrieved July 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Global Privacy Settings panel '' . Adobe Systems . Retrieved April 4 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Sophos Security Threat Report 2013 '' ( PDF ) . Sophos . December 2012 . pp. 11 , 24 . Retrieved May 9 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Historical trends in the usage of client - side programming languages for websites '' , http://w3techs.com/ ^ Jump up to : `` The Agonizingly Slow Decline Of Adobe Flash Player '' , JARED NEWMAN 08.18. 15 , fastcompany.com Jump up ^ Jobs , Steve ( April 29 , 2010 ) . `` Thoughts on Flash '' . Apple.com . Retrieved 2012 - 06 - 18 . Jump up ^ Vincent , James ( July 13 , 2015 ) . `` Facebook 's new chief security officer wants to set a date to kill Flash '' . The Verge . Retrieved July 14 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Firefox blacklists Flash player due to unpatched 0 - day vulnerabilities '' . Ars Technica . Condé Nast . Retrieved 15 July 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Google and Mozilla pull the plug on Adobe Flash : Tech giants disable the program on browsers following ' critical ' security flaw '' . DailyMail . Victoria Woollaston . Retrieved 20 October 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Adobe Flash has been blocked because it 's out of date '' . Google Support . Retrieved 20 October 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Apple blocks old , unsafe Adobe Flash plug - in versions in OS X Safari '' . Apple Insider . Retrieved 24 October 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Soltani , Ashkan , Canty , Shannon , Mayo , Quentin , Thomas , Lauren and Hoofnagle , Chris Jay : Flash Cookies and Privacy '' . August 10 , 2009 . SSRN 1446862 . Missing or empty url = ( help ) ; access - date = requires url = ( help ) Jump up ^ `` Local Shared Objects -- `` Flash Cookies '' `` . Electronic Privacy Information Center . July 21 , 2005 . Archived from the original on April 16 , 2010 . Retrieved March 8 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` How to manage and disable Local Shared Objects '' . Adobe Systems Inc . September 9 , 2005 . Retrieved March 8 , 2010 . External links ( edit ) Official website Adobe Flash File formats ActionScript ( AS ) Action Message Format ( AMF ) Flash Video ( FLV ) Flash XML Graphics ( FXG ) Local shared objects ( LSOs ) MXML Flash Movie ( SWF ) Flash Code Library ( SWC ) Software ( list ) Players Adobe AIR Adobe Flash Player OpenFL Gnash Lightspark Gameswf Tamarin Animation tools Adobe Animate Toon Boom Moho GoAnimate Stencyl Programming tools FlashDevelop Powerflasher FDT Apache Flex Haxe CrossBridge Adobe Scout FlashFirebug Libraries Starling Framework Away3D Flare3D Stage3D PureMVC Ming List of Flex frameworks Converters Adobe Flash Media Live Encoder SWFTools swfmill Google Swiffy Adobe Wallaby Server - side Adobe Flash Media Server Obsolete software Adobe Flash Builder Adobe Flash Catalyst Adobe Flash Lite SWFAddress SWFObject MTASC Scaleform GFx SWiSH Max Swift 3D Papervision3D Ajax Animator Shumway Swfdec OpenLaszlo Related topics Comparison of HTML5 and Flash Apple and Adobe Flash controversy Flash animation films television Protected Streaming Real - Time Messaging Protocol Real - Time Media Flow Protocol Developers FutureWave Software Macromedia Adobe Systems Adobe Creative Suite and Creative Cloud Current products Acrobat After Effects Animate Audition Bridge Dreamweaver Flash Builder Illustrator InCopy InDesign Lightroom Media Encoder Muse Photoshop Prelude Premiere Pro Spark XD Creative Cloud services Behance Business Catalyst Story Typekit Former products Contribute Device Central Edge Edge Animate Encore Flash Catalyst Fireworks GoLive ImageReady OnLocation Soundbooth Stock Photos Ultra Adobe eLearning Suite Current products Captivate Flash Dreamweaver Photoshop Acrobat Presenter Soundbooth Shared applications Bridge Device Central Adobe Systems Software Suites Creative Cloud ( Creative Suite ) eLearning Suite Technical Communication Suite Desktop Animate Acrobat After Effects Brackets Edge Code Edge Reflow Digital Editions Director Dreamweaver FrameMaker FreeHand Flash Player Flex Builder GoLive Illustrator InDesign Media Encoder Media Player Muse PageMaker Photoshop Photoshop Lightroom Premiere Pro Reader Shockwave Player Server LiveCycle Flash Media Server BlazeDS ColdFusion JRun PhoneGap Build Technologies ActionScript Adobe AIR Adobe Flash Adobe Flex Adobe Shockwave Adobe Font Folio Digital Negative ( DNG ) Authorware FlashPaper Portable Document Format ( PDF ) PostScript Web services Acrobat.com Adobe Solutions Network Adobe Photoshop Express Adobe Premiere Express Adobe Spark Adobe Stock Acquisitions Aldus Macromedia Scene7 Omniture Behance Fotolia People Bruce Chizen Charles Geschke Shantanu Narayen John Warnock Del Yocam Commons Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Adobe_Flash&oldid=821675124 '' Categories : Adobe Flash American inventions Cross-platform software Computing platforms C++ software Mac OS multimedia software MacOS multimedia software Windows multimedia software Macromedia software Adobe software 1993 software Video game development software Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links Pages using web citations with no URL Pages using citations with accessdate and no URL Use mdy dates from April 2012 Articles containing potentially dated statements from February 2009 All articles containing potentially dated statements Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2012 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from March 2016 Articles needing more detailed references All articles lacking reliable references Articles lacking reliable references from August 2014 Wikipedia articles in need of updating from March 2016 All Wikipedia articles in need of updating Official website different in Wikidata and Wikipedia Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikibooks Wikiversity Azərbaycanca বাংলা Bân - lâm - gú Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Euskara فارسی Français Galego ગુજરાતી 한국어 हिन्दी Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Basa Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Lietuvių Magyar Македонски मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Română Русиньскый Русский Scots Shqip සිංහල Simple English Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் తెలుగు ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 21 January 2018 , at 23 : 18 . 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Middle cranial fossa - wikipedia Middle cranial fossa Jump to : navigation , search Middle cranial fossa Base of the skull . Upper surface . ( Middle cranial fossa is the centermost of the three indentations , in pink and yellow . ) Details Identifiers Latin fossa cranii media TA A02. 1.00. 049 FMA 54369 Anatomical terminology ( edit on Wikidata ) The middle cranial fossa , deeper than the anterior cranial fossa , is narrow medially and widens laterally to the sides of the skull . It is separated from the posterior fossa by the clivus and the petrous crest . It is bounded in front by the posterior margins of the lesser wings of the sphenoid bone , the anterior clinoid processes , and the ridge forming the anterior margin of the chiasmatic groove ; behind , by the superior angles of the petrous portions of the temporal bones and the dorsum sellæ ; laterally by the temporal squamæ , sphenoidal angles of the parietals , and greater wings of the sphenoid . It is traversed by the squamosal , sphenoparietal , sphenosquamosal , and sphenopetrosal sutures . It houses the temporal lobes of the brain and the pituitary gland . A middle fossa craniotomy is one means to surgically remove acoustic neuromas ( vestibular schwannoma ) growing within the internal auditory canal of the temporal bone . Middle cranial fossa surgical anatomy as demonstrated in a right cadaver temporal bone by Dr Jack M Kartush - view from above . Contents ( hide ) 1 Middle part 2 Lateral parts 3 See also 4 References 5 Additional images 6 External links Middle part ( edit ) The middle part of the fossa presents , in front , the chiasmatic groove and tuberculum sellae ; the chiasmatic groove ends on either side at the optic foramen , which transmits the optic nerve and ophthalmic artery to the orbital cavity . Behind the optic foramen the anterior clinoid process is directed backward and medialward and gives attachment to the tentorium cerebelli . Behind the tuberculum sellæ is a deep depression , the sella turcica , containing the fossa hypophyseos , which lodges the hypophysis , and presents on its anterior wall the middle clinoid processes . The sella turcica is bounded posteriorly by a quadrilateral plate of bone , the dorsum sellae , the upper angles of which are surmounted by the posterior clinoid processes : these afford attachment to the tentorium cerebelli , and below each is a notch for the abducent nerve . On either side of the sella turcica is the carotid groove , which is broad , shallow , and curved somewhat like the italic letter f . It begins behind at the foramen lacerum , and ends on the medial side of the anterior clinoid process , where it is sometimes converted into a foramen ( carotico - clinoid ) by the union of the anterior with the middle clinoid process ; posteriorly , it is bounded laterally by the lingula . This groove lodges the cavernous sinus and the internal carotid artery , the latter being surrounded by a plexus of sympathetic nerves . Lateral parts ( edit ) The lateral parts of the middle fossa are of considerable depth , and support the temporal lobes of the brain . They are marked by depressions for the brain convolutions and traversed by furrows for the anterior and posterior branches of the middle meningeal vessels . These furrows begin near the foramen spinosum , and the anterior runs forward and upward to the sphenoidal angle of the parietal , where it is sometimes converted into a bony canal ; the posterior runs lateralward and backward across the temporal squama and passes on to the parietal near the middle of its lower border . The following apertures are also to be seen . In front is the superior orbital fissure , bounded above by the small wing , below , by the great wing , and medially , by the body of the sphenoid ; it is usually completed laterally by the orbital plate of the frontal bone . It transmits to the orbital cavity the oculomotor , the trochlear , the ophthalmic division of the trigeminal , and the abducent nerves , some filaments from the cavernous plexus of the sympathetic , and the orbital branch of the middle meningeal artery ; and from the orbital cavity a recurrent branch from the lacrimal artery to the dura mater , and the ophthalmic veins . Behind the medial end of the superior orbital fissure is the foramen rotundum , for the passage of the maxillary nerve . Behind and lateral to the foramen rotundum is the foramen ovale , which transmits the mandibular nerve , the accessory meningeal artery , and the lesser superficial petrosal nerve . Medial to the foramen ovale is the foramen Vesalii , which varies in size in different individuals , and is often absent ; when present , it opens below at the lateral side of the scaphoid fossa , and transmits a small vein . Lateral to the foramen ovale is the foramen spinosum , for the passage of the middle meningeal vessels , and a recurrent branch from the mandibular nerve . Medial to the foramen ovale is the foramen lacerum ; in the fresh state the lower part of this aperture is filled up by a layer of fibrocartilage , while its upper and inner parts transmit the internal carotid artery surrounded by a plexus of sympathetic nerves . The nerve of the pterygoid canal and a meningeal branch from the ascending pharyngeal artery pierce the layer of fibrocartilage . On the anterior surface of the petrous portion of the temporal bone are seen the eminence caused by the projection of the superior semicircular canal ; in front of and a little lateral to this a depression corresponding to the roof of the tympanic cavity ; the groove leading to the hiatus of the facial canal , for the transmission of the greater superficial petrosal nerve and the petrosal branch of the middle meningeal artery ; beneath it , the smaller groove , for the passage of the lesser superficial petrosal nerve ; and , near the apex of the bone , the depression for the semilunar ganglion and the orifice of the carotid canal . See also ( edit ) Anterior cranial fossa Posterior cranial fossa References ( edit ) This article incorporates text in the public domain from the 20th edition of Gray 's Anatomy ( 1918 ) Jump up ^ Mancall , Elliott L. ; Brock , David G. , eds. ( 2011 ) . `` Cranial Fossae '' . Gray 's Clinical Anatomy . Elsevier Health Sciences . p. 154 . ISBN 9781437735802 . Additional images ( edit ) Middle cranial fossa at human foetus Base of skull Middle cranial fossa Middle cranial fossa Middle cranial fossa External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Middle cranial fossa . Anatomy photo : 22 : os - 0802 at the SUNY Downstate Medical Center Compound structures of skull Neurocranium Calvaria Diploë Asterion Pterion Stephanion Inion Bregma Lambda Fossae anterior middle posterior cranial cavity Base of skull Fontanelle anterior posterior sphenoidal mastoid Facial skeleton Nasion Gonion Both dacryon zygomatic arch temporal fossa infratemporal fossa pterygomaxillary fissure pterygopalatine fossa Foramina of the skull ( and canals , fissures , meatus , and hiatus ) Anterior cranial fossa to Orbit : ethmoidal foramina anterior posterior to Nasal cavity : olfactory foramina ( CN - I ) foramen cecum Middle cranial fossa to Orbit : optic canal ( CN - II ) superior orbital fissure ( CN - III , IV , V1 , VI ) to Pterygopalatine fossa : foramen rotundum ( CN - V2 ) pterygoid canal to Infratemporal fossa : foramen ovale ( CN - V3 ) foramen spinosum / carotid canal other : foramen lacerum hiatus for greater petrosal nerve hiatus for lesser petrosal nerve sphenoidal emissary foramen Posterior cranial fossa internal auditory meatus / facial canal / stylomastoid foramen ( CN - VII , VIII ) jugular foramen ( CN - IX , X , XI ) foramen magnum ( CN - XI ) hypoglossal canal ( CN - XII ) condylar canal mastoid foramen Orbit to Nasal cavity : nasolacrimal canal to face : supraorbital notch foramen infraorbital foramen groove zygomatic foramen - facial - temporal to Pterygopalatine fossa : inferior orbital fissure other : Inferior orbital fissure Fossa for lacrimal sac Pterygopalatine fossa to Nasal cavity : sphenopalatine foramen to Oral cavity : greater palatine canal foramen lesser palatine canals foramina to Infratemporal fossa : pterygomaxillary fissure to Nasopharynx : palatovaginal canal to oral cavity : incisive canals incisive foramen to nasal cavity : Foramen vomerinum Meatus vomerinus Fissura vomerina Hiatus vomerinus Other external acoustic meatus mandibular foramen mental foramen parietal foramen petrotympanic fissure semilunar hiatus Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Middle_cranial_fossa&oldid=808415657 '' Categories : Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 20th edition of Gray 's Anatomy ( 1918 ) Skull Hidden categories : Medicine infobox template using GraySubject or GrayPage Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch فارسی Polski Edit links This page was last edited on 2 November 2017 , at 18 : 54 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

what part of the brain is in the middle cranial fossa

the temporal lobes

pituitary gland

The Outsiders ( novel ) - wikipedia The Outsiders ( novel ) Jump to : navigation , search The Outsiders First hardcover edition , 1967 Author S.E. Hinton Cover artist Robert Hunt Country United States Language English Genre Young adult fiction Publisher Viking Press , Dell Publishing Publication date April 24 , 1967 Media type Print ( hardcover , paperback ) , Audiobook Pages 192 ISBN 0 - 670 - 53257 - 6 OCLC 64396432 Followed by That Was Then , This Is Now The Outsiders is a coming - of - age novel by S.E. Hinton , first published in 1967 by Viking Press . Hinton was 15 when she started writing the novel , but did most of the work when she was 16 and a junior in high school . Hinton was 18 when the book was published . The book details the conflict between two rival gangs divided by their socioeconomic status : the working - class `` greasers '' and the upper - class `` Socs '' ( pronounced / ˈsoʊʃɪz / -- short for Socials ) . The story is told in first - person perspective by teenaged protagonist Ponyboy Curtis . The story in the book takes place in Tulsa , Oklahoma , in 1965 , but this is never explicitly stated in the book . A film adaptation was produced in 1983 , and a little - known short - lived television series appeared in 1990 , picking up where the movie left off . A stage adaptation was written by Christopher Sergel and published in 1990 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Plot summary 2 Major characters 2.1 Greasers 2.2 Socs 2.3 Other characters 3 Controversy 4 See also 5 References 6 Bibliography 7 External links Plot summary Ponyboy Curtis , a teenaged member of a loose gang of `` greasers '' , is leaving a movie theater when he is jumped by `` Socs '' , the greasers ' rival gang . Several greasers , including Ponyboy 's two older brothers -- the paternal Darry and the popular Sodapop -- come to his rescue . The next night , Ponyboy and two greaser friends , the hardened Dally and the quiet Johnny , meet Cherry and Marcia , a pair of Soc girls , at a drive - in movie theater . Cherry spurns Dally 's rude advances , but Ponyboy ends up speaking civilly with Cherry , emotionally connecting with a Soc for the first time in his life . Afterward , Ponyboy , Johnny , and their wisecracking friend Two - Bit begin to walk Cherry and Marcia home , when they are stopped by Cherry 's boyfriend Bob , who badly beat up Johnny a few months back . Bob and the greasers exchange taunts , but Cherry prevents a fight by willingly leaving with Bob . Ponyboy gets home at two in the morning , enraging Darry until he suddenly slaps Ponyboy . Ponyboy runs out the door and meets up with Johnny , expressing his anger at Darry 's increasing coldness in the wake of his parents ' recent deaths in a car crash . Ponyboy and Johnny wander into a park , where Bob and four other Socs surround them . After some heated talk , Ponyboy spits at the Socs , prompting them to try to drown him in a nearby fountain , but Johnny stabs Bob , killing him and dispersing the Socs . Terrified of what to do next , Ponyboy and Johnny rush to find Dally , who gives them money and a loaded gun , directing them to hide in an abandoned church in Windrixville . During their stay there , Pony cuts and dyes his hair as a disguise , reads Gone with the Wind to Johnny , and , upon viewing a beautiful sunrise , recites the poem `` Nothing Gold Can Stay '' by Robert Frost . Days later , Dally comes to check on them , revealing that violence between the greasers and Socs has escalated since Bob 's death into all - out city - wide warfare , with Cherry acting out of guilt as a spy for the greasers . Johnny decides to turn himself in and Dally agrees to take the boys back home . As they attempt to leave , they notice the church has caught fire and several local schoolchildren have become trapped inside . The greasers run inside the burning church to save the children , but Ponyboy is rendered unconscious by the fumes . At the hospital he discovers that he and Dally are not badly injured , but a piece of the church roof fell on Johnny and broke his back . Sodapop and Darry come to the hospital ; Darry breaks down and cries . Ponyboy then realizes that Darry cares about him , and is only hard on Ponyboy because he loves him and cares about his future . The following morning the newspapers declare Pony and Johnny heroes , but Johnny will be charged with manslaughter for Bob 's death . Two - Bit tells them that the greaser -- Soc rivalry is to be settled in a final rumble . Ponyboy and Two - Bit are approached by a Soc named Randy , Bob 's best friend , who expresses remorse for his involvement in the gang war , lacks confidence about the rumble ending the feud , and says he will not participate . Later , Ponyboy visits Johnny at the hospital , where he is in critical condition . On their way home , Pony spots Cherry and they talk . Cherry says she is unwilling to visit Johnny in the hospital because he killed her boyfriend . Pony calls her a traitor , but after explaining herself , they end on good terms . After escaping the hospital , Dally shows up just in time for the rumble . The greasers win the brutal fight . Afterward , Pony and Dally hurry back to the hospital to see Johnny , but he dies moments later and a maniacal Dally runs out of the room . Pony returns home that night feeling confused and disoriented . Dally calls the house to say that he has robbed a store and is running from the police . The greasers find Dally deliberately pointing an unloaded gun at the police , causing them to shoot and kill him . Overwhelmed , Ponyboy faints and is sick in bed for several days due to the resulting concussion . When the hearing finally comes , the judge frees Ponyboy from responsibility for Bob 's death and allows Pony to remain at home with Darry and Soda . Ponyboy returns to school , but his grades drop . Although he is failing English , his teacher , Mr. Syme , says he will pass him if he writes a decent theme . In the copy of Gone with the Wind that Johnny gave him before dying , Ponyboy finds a note from Johnny describing how he will die proudly after saving the kids from the fire . Johnny also urges Ponyboy to `` stay gold '' . Ponyboy decides to write his English assignment about the recent events , and begins his essay with the opening line of the novel : `` When I stepped out into the bright sunlight from the darkness of the movie house , I had only two things on my mind : Paul Newman and a ride home ... '' Major Characters Greasers Ponyboy Curtis : Narrator and the youngest Curtis brother , 14 years old , who gets good grades and runs track . Sodapop Curtis : The middle Curtis brother , 16 years old , a high school dropout who works at a gas station . Darrel `` Darry '' Curtis : The oldest of the Curtis brothers , 20 years old , who has been caring for his brothers since their parents died in a car crash . He is the unofficial leader of the gang . Johnny Cade : Ponyboy 's best friend , 16 years old , who is extremely quiet and lives with his alcoholic and abusive mother and father . Dallas `` Dally '' Winston : The roughest of the greasers , who lived on the streets of New York City for three years . Keith `` Two - Bit '' Mathews : A wise - cracking kleptomaniac . Steve Randle : Sodapop 's best friend since grade school . Timothy `` Tim '' Shepard : Leader of another greaser gang : an organized downtown one . Sandy : Sodapop 's girlfriend . Socs Sherri `` Cherry '' Valance : Bob 's girlfriend , attends the same high school as Ponyboy . Robert `` Bob '' Sheldon : Cherry 's boyfriend who is stabbed and killed by Johnny . Randy Adderson : A friend of Bob 's and Marcia 's boyfriend . Marcia : Cherry 's best friend and Randy 's girlfriend . David : A member of Bob and Randy 's gang who attempted to drown Ponyboy in the fountain . Paul Holden : A former friend of Darry 's . Other Characters Jerry Wood : The schoolteacher responsible for the children who were in the seemingly abandoned church . Mr. Syme : Ponyboy 's English teacher who assigns him a theme to write that becomes the story of the novel itself . Controversy The Outsiders was a controversial book at the time of its publication ; it is still currently challenged and debated . It was ranked # 38 on the American Library Association 's Top 100 Most Frequently Challenged Books of 1990 -- 1999 . This book has been banned from some schools and libraries because of the portrayal of gang violence , underage smoking and drinking , strong language / slang , and family dysfunction . However , in many U.S. schools , the book is part of the English curriculum at the middle - or high - school level . See also The Outsiders House Museum References Jump up ^ Hinton , S.E. ( 2005 ) ( 1977 ) . `` speaking with S.E. Hinton '' . The Outsiders . Speak / Penguin Putnam . p. 162 . ISBN 0 - 14 - 038572 - X . ^ Jump up to : Frequently Asked Questions at sehinton.com Jump up ^ Hinton 1967 , p. 180 . Jump up ^ Fallon , Claire ( 2017 ) . `` 50 Years After ' The Outsiders , ' S.E. Hinton Is Sure The Characters Are n't Gay '' . The Huffington Post . HuffPost News ( Oath Inc . ) . Jump up ^ `` 100 most frequently challenged books : 1990 -- 1999 American Library Association '' . Ala.org . Retrieved 2012 - 07 - 24 . Jump up ^ `` Banned Books Awareness : The Outsiders Banned Books Awareness '' . World.edu. 2011 - 05 - 08 . Retrieved 2012 - 07 - 24 . Jump up ^ Cummings , Siena ( 2017 ) . `` ( www.standard.net/TX/2017/09/24/After-50-years-Outsiders After 50 years , ' Outsiders ' continues to ' stay gold ' ) . '' Standard - Examiner . Ogden Publishing Corporation . Bibliography Hinton , S.E. ( 1997 ) . The Outsiders . New York : SPEAK . ISBN 9780140385724 . External links S.E. Hinton 's Website `` ' The Outsiders ' : 40 Years Later '' By Dale Peck The New York Times September 23 , 2007 S.E. Hinton Books The Outsiders Rumble Fish That Was Then , This Is Now Tex Taming the Star Runner Hawkes Harbor Some of Tim 's Stories Big David , Little David The Puppy Sister Books I Love Best Yearly : Older Readers Award The Secret Diary of Adrian Mole , Aged 133⁄4 by Sue Townsend ( 1990 ) The Outsiders by S.E. Hinton ( 1991 ) Where 's Wally ? by Martin Handford ( 1992 ) Flowers in the Attic by V.C. Andrews ( 1993 ) Looking for Alibrandi by Melina Marchetta ( 1995 ) Jurassic Park by Michael Crichton ( 1996 ) The Hobbit by J.R.R. Tolkien ( 1997 ) Tomorrow , When the War Began by John Marsden ( 1998 ) Bumface by Morris Gleitzman ( 1999 ) Looking for Alibrandi by Melina Marchetta ( 2000 ) Harry Potter series by J.K. Rowling ( 2001 ) The Lord of the Rings by J.R.R. Tolkien ( 2002 ) Two of a Kind series by various authors ( 2003 ) Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix by J.K. Rowling ( 2004 ) Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban by J.K. Rowling ( 2005 ) Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince by J.K. Rowling ( 2006 ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Outsiders_(novel)&oldid=837955086 '' Categories : 1967 American novels American young adult novels American novels adapted into films American novels adapted into plays Coming - of - age fiction Debut novels 1965 in fiction American bildungsromans Culture of Tulsa , Oklahoma BILBY Award - winning works Viking Press books Novels set in Tulsa , Oklahoma Hidden categories : Wikipedia pages semi-protected against vandalism Pages to import images to Wikidata Talk View source Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch Español Italiano עברית Português Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 24 April 2018 , at 01 : 23 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

where do the greasers live in the outsiders

Tulsa, Oklahoma

Oklahoma,

Flight ( Grey 's Anatomy ) - wikipedia Flight ( Grey 's Anatomy ) Jump to : navigation , search `` Flight '' Grey 's Anatomy episode Shepherd 's mangled hand , following an aviation accident . Episode no . Season 8 Episode 24 Directed by Rob Corn Written by Shonda Rhimes Featured music `` Featherstone '' `` Graveyard '' Original air date May 17 , 2012 ( 2012 - 05 - 17 ) Running time 43 minutes Guest appearance ( s ) Jason George as Dr. Ben Warren James LeGros as Jerry Episode chronology ← Previous `` Migration '' Next → `` Going , Going , Gone '' Grey 's Anatomy ( season 8 ) List of Grey 's Anatomy episodes `` Flight '' is the twenty - fourth and final episode of the eighth season of the American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy , and the show 's 172nd episode overall . It was written by series creator Shonda Rhimes , and directed by Rob Corn . The episode was originally broadcast on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) in the United States on May 17 , 2012 . In the episode , six doctors from Seattle Grace Mercy West Hospital who are victims of an aviation accident fight to stay alive , but Dr. Lexie Grey ( Chyler Leigh ) ultimately dies . Other storylines occur in Seattle where Dr. Richard Webber ( James Pickens , Jr . ) plans his annual dinner for the departing residents , Dr. Owen Hunt ( Kevin McKidd ) fires Dr. Teddy Altman ( Kim Raver ) , and Dr. Miranda Bailey ( Chandra Wilson ) gets engaged . The episode marked Leigh 's and Raver 's final appearance to the series . Exterior filming of the accident took place at Big Bear Lake , California . Jason George reprised his role as a guest star , whereas James LeGros made his first appearance . The episode opened to mixed reviews from television critics , with some criticizing the death of Lexie , but praising Leigh 's performance , in addition to Ellen Pompeo ( Dr. Meredith Grey ) 's and Eric Dane ( Dr. Mark Sloan ) 's . `` Flight '' earned Rhimes an NAACP Image Award nomination and it was also nominated under several categories of Entertainment Weekly 's finale awards . Upon its initial airing , the episode was viewed in the United States by 11.44 million people , garnered a 4.1 / 11 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 -- 49 demographic , ranking fourth for the night in terms of viewership , and registering as Thursday 's highest - rated drama . Contents ( hide ) 1 Plot 2 Production 3 Reception 4 References 5 External links Plot ( edit ) After their plane crashes in the woods , Dr. Meredith Grey ( Ellen Pompeo ) , Dr. Lexie Grey ( Chyler Leigh ) , Dr. Cristina Yang ( Sandra Oh ) , Dr. Arizona Robbins ( Jessica Capshaw ) , Dr. Derek Shepherd ( Patrick Dempsey ) , and Dr. Mark Sloan ( Eric Dane ) desperately fight to stay alive . Meredith is relatively unscathed , while the rest have serious injuries : the pilot , Jerry ( James LeGros ) , has a major spine injury , and Yang dislocates her arm . Robbins ' femur is broken and sticking through the skin , Sloan has serious internal injuries ; though initially adrenaline keeps him on his feet . Shepherd is sucked out the side of the plane and awakens alone in the wood ; his mangled hand having been pushed through the door of the plane . However , none are in as bad shape as Lexie , who is crushed under a piece of the plane . While Meredith searches for Shepherd , Yang and Sloan try to move the debris off Lexie . Eventually , the two realize that they can not save her , so Sloan holds her hand while she dies , telling her that he loves her . As Sloan tells her of the life the two were meant to have together , Lexie dies with a smile on her face just as Meredith and Yang are approaching . Lexie 's death devastates Meredith , who is still desperately trying to find her husband . Eventually , she and Shepherd reunite and they fix his hand as best as they can . Meanwhile , back at Seattle Grace Mercy West Hospital , no one is aware of what has happened to the other doctors . Dr. Richard Webber ( James Pickens , Jr . ) prepares the annual dinner for the departing residents , which Dr. Alex Karev ( Justin Chambers ) , Dr. Jackson Avery ( Jesse Williams ) , and Dr. April Kepner ( Sarah Drew ) are dreading . Avery makes the choice to take a job offer at Tulane Medical Center , and he and Kepner share a moment . Dr. Ben Warren ( Jason George ) and Dr. Miranda Bailey ( Chandra Wilson ) decide to get married , even though Warren is going to start his surgical internship in Los Angeles . After realizing Dr. Teddy Altman ( Kim Raver ) was offered a chief position at United States Army Medical Command ( MEDCOM ) and is refusing to leave Seattle out of loyalty , Dr. Owen Hunt ( Kevin McKidd ) , the chief of surgery , fires her to free her from the hospital where her husband died . As the episode ends , Hunt picks up his messages to discover the surgical team never made it to Boise . The residents , finally excited to celebrate at Webber 's dinner , are left waiting for their stranded friends . The remaining crash survivors are left struggling to stay awake as their last match goes out . In the closing monologue , Meredith repeats the opening to the speech that Webber gave in the pilot episode of the series . Production ( edit ) `` It was so hard . It was physically and emotionally challenging because you 're constantly at extremely high stakes . The physicality for Cristina , she had to do a lot of things with one arm , and I had to do a lot of things with one shoe . You 're running around the mountain with one shoe and one arm basically and doing things that way . And it 's like we 've had this cushy time on stages and in the hospital . But being out in the open on the side of a mountain was exhilarating ; you can not beat location work . I 've done very little greenscreen work , but it 's just a pooper . I do n't care how much you blow that fan on my face , there 's not a helicopter coming at me . It 's really hard to manufacture the clear reality of what that is , but when you are on a mountain and you are freezing , you 're freezing . '' -- Oh 's impressions on shooting in the mountains The episode was written by Shonda Rhimes , and directed by Rob Corn . Featured music included The Paper Kites ' `` Featherstone '' and Feist 's ' Graveyard `` . Filming took place in Big Bear Lake , California , a location previously used in the seventh season for Yang and Shepherd 's fishing trip . Commenting on the filming conditions , Leigh said : `` It would rain and be sunny and hot . I never died before ( on camera ) . That sounds funny saying that . I think everyone has an emotional wellspring and that happened to be a moment where I was sprung . Everybody was very accommodating -- the crew , cast . And I opted to stay underneath ( the wreckage ) for the most part over two days rather than trying to get in and out . '' In regard to the episode , Rhimes commented before it originally aired that it was difficult to write , largely because of the death of a main character . She compared it to writing the season six finale , by explaining that the former was `` more painful '' to write . After the episode aired , Rhimes repeated in a tweet that it was hard for her to write the finale , adding : `` I did not enjoy it . It made me sick and it made me sad . '' Rhimes also explained the departure of Leigh , whose character died after the plane crash , by saying that the two came to an agreement on the decision to kill Lexie , after extensive discussion . Speaking of Raver 's departure whose character left Seattle Grace for MEDCOM , Rhimes elaborated that Raver was offered a contract renewal , but declined . Reception ( edit ) Chyler Leigh 's performance was deemed `` phenomenal '' . The episode received mixed reviews among television critics , and it outperformed the previous episode in terms of both viewership and ratings . `` Flight '' was originally broadcast on May 17 , 2012 in the United States on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) . The episode was watched in the United States by a total of 11.44 million people , a 16.5 % ( 1.62 million ) increase from the previous episode `` Migration '' , which garnered 9.82 million viewers . In terms of viewership , `` Flight '' ranked fourth for the night , behind the season finales of Fox 's American Idol , and CBS 's Person of Interest and The Mentalist . In terms of Grey 's Anatomy 's other season finales , the episode was the show 's second least - viewed finale , just behind the seventh season 's , which garnered 9.89 million viewers . The episode did not rank in the top three for viewership , but its 4.1 / 11 Nielsen rating ranked first in its 9 : 00 Eastern time - slot and second for the night , registering the show as Thursday 's No. 1 drama , for both the rating and share percentages of the key 18 -- 49 demographic . Its rating lost to American Idol , but beat out CBS 's The Big Bang Theory , Person of Interest , and The Mentalist . In addition to its rating being in the top rankings for the night , it was an increase from the previous episode , which netted a 3.5 / 10 rating / share in the 18 -- 49 demographic . The episode also showed an increase in ratings in comparison to the previous year 's finale , which attained a 3.6 / 9 rating / share in the 18 -- 49 demographic . Poptimal 's Tanya Lane wrote , `` Wow ... just wow . Grey 's Anatomy has once again managed to shock with its season finale . '' While she appreciated the `` realism and authenticity that Grey 's is known for '' , she found the episode was `` almost too much '' as it was `` extremely gory and difficult to watch , initially because of the grisly wounds '' but later because of the `` heavy and emotional things that transpired '' . She thought Pompeo gave one of her best performances when her character learned that her sister was dead . Digital Spy 's Ben Lee found Leigh 's and Dane 's performances `` phenomenal '' and added that he had probably never seen a better performance from Dane . He described the moment the two actors shared as `` truly poignant '' . To him , Lexie 's death felt like a finale , which was thus too early . As for what was happening in Seattle Grace , he thought it was `` a bit pointless '' and `` uninteresting '' except Altman 's departure , which he deemed `` the most significant moment at the hospital '' . Entertainment Weekly 's Tanner Stransky commented of Lexie 's death : `` It was an intense death . I mean , how awful was it to watch one of Grey 's longest - running characters pass away so quickly -- and rather unceremoniously ? I get that Ms. Rhimes had to do what she had to do -- and every show needs to be shaken up once in a while -- but I do n't love that Lexie was the one to die . Could it have been someone less important somehow ? I guess it would have been too obvious to do Kepner . And you probably just do n't kill off a hottie like Mark Sloan , right ? '' Stransky also complained about Robbins ' screams at the beginning of the episode , but enjoyed Bailey 's story . In an Entertainment Weekly poll that judged all the television season finales of the year , Lexie 's death was voted the `` Top Tissue Moment '' , while Robbins ' injured leg and Shepherd 's mangled hand were voted the `` Most Disturbing Image '' . The ending of the episode was also considered as the `` Best Ending to an Otherwise So - So Season '' . Lexie 's death was also nominated under the `` Best ( Presumed ) Death '' category , while the plane crash 's aftermath was nominated as the `` Best Non-romantic Cliffhanger '' , and the episode in entirety was nominated for the special award for `` Biggest Regret That I Did n't See It , I Just Heard or Read About It '' . Entertainment Weekly later named the scene where Meredith is crying one of the best crying scenes of 2012 . In TVLine 's review of 2012 , Lexie 's death was runner - up for `` Biggest Tearjerker '' . The episode is nominated at the NAACP Image Awards under the Outstanding Writing in a Dramatic Series category for Rhimes . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Goldberg , Lesley ( June 25 , 2012 ) . `` Emmys 2012 : ' Grey 's Anatomy 's ' Sandra Oh on Cristina 's Emotional Season '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Prometheus Global Media . Retrieved July 21 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Writer : Rhimes , Shonda . Director : Corn , Rob ( May 17 , 2012 ) . `` Flight '' . Grey 's Anatomy . Season 8 . American Broadcasting Company . Jump up ^ `` Season 8 , Episode : 24 `` Flight '' Music `` . TV Fanatic . SheKnows Entertainment . Retrieved July 22 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Dos Santos , Kristin ( May 1 , 2012 ) . `` Spoiler Chat Daily : American Horror Story Season Two Scoop ! Plus , Grey 's , True Blood and More ! '' . E ! Online . NBCUniversal . Retrieved July 21 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Hilton , Perez ( June 24 , 2010 ) . `` Chyler Leigh Describes Filming Deets Behind Grey 's Anatomy Death ! '' . PerezHilton.com . Retrieved July 21 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Goldberg , Lesley ( April 26 , 2012 ) . `` ' Grey 's Anatomy 's ' Shonda Rhimes on the Deadly Finale : ' We 're Literally Saying Goodbye to People ' '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Prometheus Global Media . Retrieved July 22 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Lee , Ben ( May 18 , 2012 ) . `` ' Grey 's Anatomy ' creator Shonda Rhimes : ' Finale made me sick and sad ' '' . Digital Spy . Nat Mags . Retrieved July 22 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Bibel , Sara ( May 18 , 2012 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' American Idol ' , ' Grey 's Anatomy ' , ' 30 Rock ' Adjusted Up ; ' Touch ' , ' Scandal ' Adjusted Dow '' . TV by the Numbers . Zap2it . Retrieved July 22 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Kondolojy , Amanda ( May 11 , 2012 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' Big Bang Theory ' , ' Idol ' , ' Vampire Diaries ' , ' Office ' , ' Secret Circle ' , ' Grey 's ' Adjusted Up ; ' Touch ' , ' Scandal ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Zap2it . Retrieved July 22 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Seidman , Robert ( May 20 , 2011 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' American Idol , ' ' Big Bang , ' ' The Office , ' ' Grey 's , ' ' Mentalist ' Adjusted Up '' . TV by the Numbers . Zap2it . Retrieved May 21 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Lane , Tanya ( May 21 , 2012 ) . `` Grey 's Anatomy Season Finale Review : Tears and Gore Galore '' . Poptimal . Retrieved May 22 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Lee , Ben ( May 18 , 2012 ) . `` ' Grey 's Anatomy ' recap : Major death in season finale ' Flight ' '' . Digital Spy . Nat Mags . Retrieved May 22 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Stransky , Tanner ( May 18 , 2012 ) . `` ' Grey 's Anatomy ' season finale recap : A Grey Goes Down '' . Entertainment Weekly . Time Inc . Retrieved May 22 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Bierly , Mandi ( May 29 , 2012 ) . `` Grey 's Anatomy , Chyler Leigh , ... TV Season Finale Awards : YOUR 2012 Winners ! Photo 9 of 20 '' . Entertainment Weekly . Time Inc . Retrieved June 17 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Bierly , Mandi ( May 29 , 2012 ) . `` Grey 's Anatomy , Ellen Pompeo TV Season Finales TV Season Finale Awards : YOUR 2012 Winners ! Photo 12 of 20 '' . Entertainment Weekly . Time Inc . Retrieved June 18 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Bierley , Mandi ( May 29 , 2012 ) . `` Grey 's Anatomy , Ellen Pompeo , ... TV Season Finale Awards : YOUR 2012 Winners ! Photo 16 of 20 '' . Entertainment Weekly . Time Inc . Retrieved June 18 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Bierley , Mandi ( May 29 , 2012 ) . `` Best ( Presumed ) Death '' . Entertainment Weekly . Time Inc . Retrieved July 22 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Bierley , Mandi ( May 29 , 2012 ) . `` Best Non-romantic Cliffhanger '' . Entertainment Weekly . Time Inc . Retrieved July 22 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Bierley , Mandi ( May 29 , 2012 ) . `` Biggest Regret That I Did n't See It , I Just Heard or Read About It '' . Entertainment Weekly . Time Inc . Retrieved July 22 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Best of 2012 : The crying game '' . Entertainment Weekly . Time Inc . December 5 , 2012 . Retrieved December 7 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` TVLine 's 2012 in Review , Part 2 : Best Cliffhanger , Worst New Character and 38 More Categories '' . TVLine . PMC . December 27 , 2012 . Retrieved January 2 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` The 44th NAACP Image Awards - Nominations '' ( PDF ) . Naacpimageawards.net . December 11 , 2012 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on March 19 , 2013 . Retrieved December 16 , 2012 . External links ( edit ) `` Flight '' at ABC.com `` Flight '' on IMDb `` Flight '' at TV.com ( hide ) Grey 's Anatomy episodes Season 1 `` A Hard Day 's Night '' `` If Tomorrow Never Comes '' Season 2 `` Into You Like a Train '' `` It 's the End of the World '' `` As We Know It '' `` Losing My Religion '' Season 3 `` Time Has Come Today '' `` I Am a Tree '' `` Great Expectations '' `` Wishin ' and Hopin ' '' `` Did n't We Almost Have It All ? '' Season 4 `` A Change Is Gonna Come '' Season 5 `` What a Difference a Day Makes '' `` Stand By Me '' `` Elevator Love Letter '' `` Now or Never '' Season 6 `` Good Mourning '' `` Goodbye '' `` I Always Feel Like Somebody 's Watchin ' Me '' `` Tainted Obligation '' `` Invasion '' `` I Saw What I Saw '' `` Give Peace a Chance '' `` Invest in Love '' `` I Like You So Much Better When You 're Naked '' `` Death and All His Friends '' Season 7 `` Song Beneath the Song '' Season 8 `` Flight '' Season 9 `` Going , Going , Gone '' `` Beautiful Doom '' `` Perfect Storm '' Season 10 `` Fear ( of the Unknown ) '' Season 11 `` I Must Have Lost it on the Wind '' `` Puzzle With a Piece Missing '' `` Got to Be Real '' `` Only Mama Knows '' `` Bend & Break '' `` Do n't Let 's Start '' `` One Flight Down '' `` How to Save a Life '' `` She 's Leaving Home '' `` Time Stops '' `` You 're My Home '' Season 12 `` Sledgehammer '' `` Guess Who 's Coming to Dinner '' `` Something Against You '' `` Things We Lost in the Fire '' `` The Sound of Silence '' `` Family Affair '' Season 13 `` True Colors '' Season 14 `` Danger Zone '' `` Personal Jesus '' Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flight_(Grey%27s_Anatomy)&oldid=804214813 '' Categories : Grey 's Anatomy episodes 2012 American television episodes Hidden categories : Good articles Pages using deprecated image syntax Talk Contents About Wikipedia Português Edit links This page was last edited on 7 October 2017 , at 14 : 48 . 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Lexie

Dr. Lexie Grey

Hops - wikipedia Hops Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see hop ( disambiguation ) . Hop flower in a hop yard in the Hallertau , Germany Cross-section drawing of a hop Hops are the flowers ( also called seed cones or strobiles ) of the hop plant Humulus lupulus . They are used primarily as a flavouring and stability agent in beer , to which they impart bitter , zesty , or citric flavours ; though they are also used for various purposes in other beverages and herbal medicine . The hop plant is a vigorous , climbing , herbaceous perennial , usually trained to grow up strings in a field called a hopfield , hop garden ( nomenclature in the South of England ) , or hop yard ( in the West Country and U.S. ) when grown commercially . Many different varieties of hops are grown by farmers around the world , with different types used for particular styles of beer . The first documented use of hops in beer is from the 9th century , though Hildegard of Bingen , 300 years later , is often cited as the earliest documented source . Before this period , brewers used a `` gruit '' , composed of a wide variety of bitter herbs and flowers , including dandelion , burdock root , marigold , horehound ( the old German name for horehound , Berghopfen , means `` mountain hops '' ) , ground ivy , and heather . Early documents include mention of a hop garden in the will of Charlemagne 's father , Pepin III . Hops are also used in brewing for their antibacterial effect over less desirable microorganisms and for purported benefits including balancing the sweetness of the malt with bitterness and a variety of flavours and aromas . Historically , traditional herb combinations for beers were believed to have been abandoned when beers made with hops were noticed to be less prone to spoilage . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 2 World production 2.1 Cultivation and harvest 2.2 Migrant labor and social impact 3 Chemical composition 3.1 Alpha acids 3.2 Beta acids 3.3 Essential oils 3.4 Flavonoids 4 Brewing 5 Varieties 5.1 Breeding programs 5.2 Noble hops 6 Other uses 7 Toxicity 8 See also 9 References 10 External links History ( edit ) The first documented hop cultivation was in 736 , in the Hallertau region of present - day Germany , although the first mention of the use of hops in brewing in that country was 1079 . However , in a will of Pepin the Short , the father of Charlemagne , hop gardens were left to the Cloister of Saint - Denis in 768 . Not until the 13th century did hops begin to start threatening the use of gruit for flavouring . Gruit was used when taxes were levied by the nobility on hops . Whichever was taxed made the brewer then quickly switch to the other . In Britain , hopped beer was first imported from Holland around 1400 , yet hops were condemned as late as 1519 as a `` wicked and pernicious weed '' . In 1471 , Norwich , England , banned use of the plant in the brewing of ale ( `` beer '' was the name for fermented malt liquors bittered with hops ; only in recent times are the words often used as synonyms ) . In Germany , using hops was also a religious and political choice in the early 16th century . There was no tax on hops to be paid on the Catholic church , unlike on gruit , for which the Protestant preferred hopped beer . Hops used in England were imported from France , Holland and Germany with import duty paid for those ; it was not until 1524 that hops were first grown in the southeast of England ( Kent ) when they were introduced as an agricultural crop by Dutch farmers . Therefore , in the hop industry there are many words which originally were Dutch words ( see oast house ) . Hops were then grown as far north as Aberdeen , near breweries for infrastructure convenience . According to Thomas Tusser 's 1557 Five Hundred Points of Good Husbandry : `` The hop for his profit I thus do exalt , It strengtheneth drink and it flavoureth malt ; And being well - brewed long kept it will last , And drawing abide , if ye draw not too fast . '' In England there were many complaints over the quality of imported hops , the sacks of which were often contaminated by stalks , sand or straw to increase their weight . As a result , in 1603 , King James I approved an Act of Parliament banning the practice by which `` the Subjects of this Realm have been of late years abused &c. to the Value of £ 20,000 yearly , besides the Danger of their Healths '' . Hop cultivation was begun in the present - day United States in 1629 by English and Dutch farmers . Before prohibition , cultivation was mainly centred around New York , California , Oregon , and Washington state . Problems with powdery mildew and downy mildew devastated New York 's production by the 1920s , and California only produces hops on a small scale . Hop bars were used before modern machinery was invented to make the holes for the hop poles . World production ( edit ) Hops production is concentrated in moist temperate climates , with much of the world 's production occurring near the 48th parallel north . Hop plants prefer the same soils as potatoes and the leading potato - growing states in the United States are also major hops - producing areas ; however , not all potato - growing areas can produce good hops naturally : soils in the Maritime Provinces of Canada , for example , lack the boron that hops prefer . Historically , hops were not grown in Ireland , but were imported from England . In 1752 more than 500 tons of English hops were imported through Dublin alone . Important production centres today are the Hallertau in Germany ( more hop - growing area than any other country as of 2006 ) , the Yakima ( Washington ) and Willamette ( Oregon ) valleys , and western Canyon County , Idaho ( including the communities of Parma , Wilder , Greenleaf , and Notus ) . The principal production centres in the UK are in Kent ( which produces Kent Goldings hops ) , Herefordshire , and Worcestershire . Essentially all of the harvested hops are used in beer making . Early season hop growth in a hop yard in the Yakima River Valley of Washington with Mount Adams in the distance Hop producing country 2012 hop output in tonnes ( t ) Germany 34,434 United States 27,782 China 11,000 Czech Republic 4,338 Poland 2,206 North Korea 2,000 Albania 1,650 United Kingdom 1,650 Slovenia 1,338 Cultivation and harvest ( edit ) A superstructure of overhead wires supports strings that in turn support bines Although hops are grown in most of the continental United States and Canada , cultivation of hops for commercial production requires a particular environment . As hops are a climbing plant , they are trained to grow up trellises made from strings or wires that support the plants and allow them significantly greater growth with the same sunlight profile . In this way , energy that would have been required to build structural cells is also freed for crop growth . The hop plant 's reproduction method is that male and female flowers develop on separate plants , although occasionally a fertile individual will develop which contains both male and female flowers . Because pollinated seeds are undesirable for brewing beer , only female plants are grown in hop fields , thus preventing pollination . Female plants are propagated vegetatively , and male plants are culled if plants are grown from seeds . Hop plants are planted in rows about 2 to 2.5 metres ( 7 to 8 ft ) apart . Each spring , the roots send forth new bines that are started up strings from the ground to an overhead trellis . The cones grow high on the bine , and in the past , these cones were picked by hand . Harvesting of hops became much more efficient with the invention of the mechanical hops separator , patented by Emil Clemens Horst in 1909 . Harvest comes near the end of summer when the bines are pulled down and the flowers are taken to a hop house or oast house for drying . Hop houses are two - story buildings , of which the upper story has a slatted floor covered with burlap . Here the flowers are poured out and raked even . A heating unit on the lower floor is used to dry the hops . When dry , the hops are moved to a press , a sturdy box with a plunger . Two long pieces of burlap are laid into the hop press at right angles , the hops are poured in and compressed into bales . Hop cones contain different oils , such as lupulin , a yellowish , waxy substance , an oleoresin , that imparts flavour and aroma to beer . Lupulin contains lupulone and humulone , which possess antibiotic properties , suppressing bacterial growth favoring brewer 's yeast to grow . After lupulin has been extracted in the brewing process the papery cones are discarded . Migrant labor and social impact ( edit ) Hops harvest in the Kingdom of Bohemia ( 1898 ) Hops harvest in Skåne , Sweden in 1937 The need for massed labor at harvest time meant hop - growing had a big social impact . Around the world , the labor - intensive harvesting work involved large numbers of migrant workers who would travel for the annual hop harvest . Whole families would partake and live in hoppers ' huts , with even the smallest children helping in the fields . The final chapters of W. Somerset Maugham 's Of Human Bondage and a large part of George Orwell 's A Clergyman 's Daughter contain a vivid description of London families participating in this annual hops harvest . In England , many of those picking hops in Kent were from eastern areas of London . This provided a break from urban conditions that was spent in the countryside . People also came from Birmingham and other Midlands cities to pick hops in the Malvern area of Worcestershire . Some photographs have been preserved . Particularly in Kent , because of a shortage of small - denomination coin of the realm , many growers issued their own currency to those doing the labor . In some cases , the coins issued were adorned with fanciful hops images , making them quite beautiful . In the US , Prohibition had a major impact on hops productions , but remnants of this significant industry in West and Northwest US are still noticeable in the form of old hop kilns that survive throughout Sonoma County , among others . Florian Dauenhauer , of Santa Rosa in Sonoma County , became a manufacturer of hop - harvesting machines in 1940 , in part because of the hop industry 's importance to the county . This mechanization helped destroy the local industry by enabling large - scale mechanized production , which moved to larger farms in other areas . Dauenhauer Manufacturing remains a current producer of hop harvesting machines . Chemical composition ( edit ) In addition to water , cellulose , and various proteins , the chemical composition of hops consists of compounds important for imparting character to beer . Alpha acids ( edit ) Isomerization scheme of humulone Probably the most important chemical compound within hops are the alpha acids or humulones . During wort boiling , the humulones are thermally isomerized into iso - alpha acids or isohumulones , which are responsible for the bitter taste of beer . Beta acids ( edit ) Structure of lupulone ( beta acid ) Hops contain beta acids or lupulones sensitive to oxidative decomposition which may be detrimental to the taste of beer . For this reason , beta acids are considered a negative factor in brewing and many brewers usually choose hops with a low beta acid content . Essential oils ( edit ) The main components of hops essential oils are terpene hydrocarbons consisting of myrcene , humulene and caryophyllene . Myrcene is responsible for the pungent smell of fresh hops . Humulene and its oxidative reaction products may give beer its prominent hop aroma . Together , myrcene , humulene , and caryophyllene represent 80 to 90 % of the total hops essential oil . Flavonoids ( edit ) Chemical structure of 8 - prenylnaringenin Xanthohumol is the principal flavonoid in hops . The other well - studied prenylflavonoids are 8 - prenylnaringenin and isoxanthohumol . Xanthohumol is under basic research for its potential properties , while 8 - prenylnaringenin is a potent phytoestrogen . Brewing ( edit ) Hops are used for beer brewing . The sample at the brewery Moscow Brewing Company . Hops are usually dried in an oast house before they are used in the brewing process . Undried or `` wet '' hops are sometimes ( since ca. 1990 ) used . The wort ( sugar - rich liquid produced from malt ) is boiled with hops before it is cooled down and yeast is added , to start fermentation . The effect of hops on the finished beer varies by type and use , though there are two main hop types : bittering and aroma . Bittering hops have higher concentrations of alpha acids , and are responsible for the large majority of the bitter flavour of a beer . European ( so - called `` noble '' ) hops typically average 5 -- 9 % alpha acids by weight ( AABW ) , and the newer American cultivars typically range from 8 -- 19 % AABW . Aroma hops usually have a lower concentration of alpha acids ( ~ 5 % ) and are the primary contributors of hop aroma and ( nonbitter ) flavour . Bittering hops are boiled for a longer period of time , typically 60 -- 90 minutes , to maximize the isomerization of the alpha acids . They often have inferior aromatic properties , as the aromatic compounds evaporate off during the boil . The degree of bitterness imparted by hops depends on the degree to which alpha acids are isomerized during the boil , and the impact of a given amount of hops is specified in International Bitterness Units . Unboiled hops are only mildly bitter . On the other hand , the nonbitter flavour and aroma of hops come from the essential oils , which evaporate during the boil . Aroma hops are typically added to the wort later to prevent the evaporation of the essential oils , to impart `` hop taste '' ( if during the final 30 minutes of boil ) or `` hop aroma '' ( if during the final 10 minutes , or less , of boil ) . Aroma hops are often added after the wort has cooled and while the beer ferments , a technique known as `` dry hopping '' , which contributes to the hop aroma . Farnesene is a major component in some hops . The composition of hop essential oils can differ between varieties and between years in the same variety , having a significant influence on flavour and aroma . Today , a substantial amount of `` dual - use '' hops are used , as well . These have high concentrations of alpha acids and good aromatic properties . These can be added to the boil at any time , depending on the desired effect . Hop acids also contribute to and stabilize the foam qualities of beer . Flavours and aromas are described appreciatively using terms which include `` grassy '' , `` floral '' , `` citrus '' , `` spicy '' , `` piney '' , `` lemony '' , `` grapefruit '' , and `` earthy '' . Many pale lagers have fairly low hop influence , while lagers marketed as Pilsener or brewed in the Czech Republic may have noticeable noble hop aroma . Certain ales ( particularly the highly hopped style known as India Pale Ale , or IPA ) can have high levels of hop bitterness . Brewers may use software tools to control the bittering levels in the boil and adjust recipes to account for a change in the hop bill or seasonal variations in the crop that may lead to the need to compensate for a difference in alpha acid contribution . Data may be shared with other brewers via BeerXML allowing the reproduction of a recipe allowing for differences in hop availability . Varieties ( edit ) Main article : List of hop varieties This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( July 2014 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Breeding programs ( edit ) There are many different varieties of hops used in brewing today . Historically , hops varieties were identified by geography ( such as Hallertau , Spalt , and Tettnang from Germany ) , by the farmer who is recognized as first cultivating them ( such as Goldings or Fuggles from England ) , or by their growing habit ( e.g. , Oregon Cluster ) . Around 1900 , a number of institutions began to experiment with breeding specific hop varieties . The breeding program at Wye College in Wye , Kent was started in 1904 and rose to prominence through the work of Prof. E.S. Salmon . Salmon released Brewer 's Gold and Brewer 's Favorite for commercial cultivation in 1934 , and went on to release more than two dozen new cultivars before his death in 1959 . Brewer 's Gold has become the ancestor of the bulk of new hop releases around the world since its release . Wye College continued its breeding program and again received attention in the 1970s , when Dr. Ray A. Neve released Wye Target , Wye Challenger , Wye Northdown , Wye Saxon and Wye Yeoman . More recently , Wye College and its successor institution Wye Hops Ltd. , have focused on breeding the first dwarf hop varieties , which are easier to pick by machine and far more economical to grow . Wye College have also been responsible for breeding hop varieties that will grow with only 12 hours of daily light for the South African hop farmers . Wye College was closed in 2009 but the legacy of their hop breeding programs , particularly that of the dwarf varieties , is continuing as already the U.S.A. private and public breeding programs are using their stock material . Particular hop varieties are associated with beer regions and styles , for example pale lagers are usually brewed with European ( often German , Polish or Czech ) noble hop varieties such as Saaz , Hallertau and Strissel Spalt . British ales use hop varieties such as Fuggles , Goldings and W.G.V. North American beers often use Cascade hops , Columbus hops , Centennial hops , Willamette , Amarillo hops and about forty more varieties as the U.S.A. have lately been the more significant breeders of new hop varieties , including dwarf hop varieties . Hops from New Zealand , such as Pacific Gem , Motueka and Nelson Sauvin , are used in a `` Pacific Pale Ale '' style of beer with increasing production in 2014 . Noble hops ( edit ) Mature hops growing in a hop yard in Germany The term `` noble hops '' traditionally refers to varieties of hops which are low in bitterness and high in aroma . They are the European cultivars or races Hallertau , Tettnanger , Spalt , and Saaz . Their low relative bitterness but strong aroma are often distinguishing characteristics of European - style lagers , such as Pilsener , Dunkel , and Oktoberfest / Märzen . In beer , they are considered aroma hops ( as opposed to bittering hops ) ; see Pilsner Urquell as a classic example of the Bohemian Pilsener style , which showcases noble hops . As with grapes , the location where hops are grown affects the hops ' characteristics . Much as Dortmunder beer may within the EU be labelled `` Dortmunder '' only if it has been brewed in Dortmund , noble hops may officially be considered `` noble '' only if they were grown in the areas for which the hop varieties ( races ) were named . Hallertau or Hallertauer -- The original German lager hop ; named after Hallertau or Holledau region in central Bavaria . Due to susceptibility to crop disease , it was largely replaced by Hersbrucker in the 1970s and 1980s . ( Alpha acid 3.5 -- 5.5 % / beta acid 3 -- 4 % ) Žatec ( Saaz ) -- Noble hop , named after Žatec town , used extensively in Bohemia to flavour pale Czech lagers such as Pilsner Urquell . Soft aroma and bitterness . ( Alpha acid 3 -- 4.5 % / Beta acid 3 -- 4.5 % ) Spalt -- Traditional German noble hop from the Spalter region south of Nuremberg . With a delicate , spicy aroma . ( Alpha acid 4 -- 5 % / beta acid 4 -- 5 % ) Tettnang -- Comes from Tettnang , a small town in southern Baden - Württemberg in Germany . The region produces significant quantities of hops , and ships them to breweries throughout the world . Noble German dual - use hop used in European pale lagers , sometimes with Hallertau . Soft bitterness . ( Alpha acid 3.5 -- 5.5 % / beta acid 3.5 -- 5.5 % ) English noble varieties are Fuggle , East Kent Goldings and Goldings . They are characterized through analysis as having an alpha : beta ratio of 1 : 1 , low alpha - acid levels ( 2 -- 5 % ) with a low cohumulone content , low myrcene in the hop oil , high humulene in the oil , a ratio of humulene : caryophyllene above three , and poor storability resulting in them being more prone to oxidation . In reality , this means they have a relatively consistent bittering potential as they age , due to beta - acid oxidation , and a flavour that improves as they age during periods of poor storage . Other Uses ( edit ) 2 - methyl - 3 - buten - 2 - ol In addition to beer , hops are used in herbal teas and in soft drinks . These soft drinks include Julmust ( a carbonated beverage similar to soda that is popular in Sweden during December ) , Malta ( a Latin American soft drink ) and kvass . Hops can be eaten , the young shoots of the bine are edible and can be cooked similar to asparagus . Hops may be used in herbal medicine in a way similar to valerian , as a treatment for anxiety , restlessness , and insomnia . A pillow filled with hops is a popular folk remedy for sleeplessness , and animal research has shown a sedative effect . The relaxing effect of hops may be due , in part , to the specific degradation product from alpha acids , 2 - methyl - 3 - buten - 2 - ol , as demonstrated from nighttime consumption of non-alcoholic beer . 2 - methyl - 3 - buten - 2 - ol is structurally similar to tert - amyl alcohol which was historically used as an anesthetic . Hops tend to be unstable when exposed to light or air and lose their potency after a few months ' storage . Hops are of interest for hormone replacement therapy and are under basic research for potential relief of menstruation - related problems . In preliminary veterinary research , hops compounds are under study for potential activity against pasture - associated laminitis in horses . Toxicity ( edit ) Dermatitis sometimes results from harvesting hops . Although few cases require medical treatment , an estimated 3 % of the workers suffer some type of skin lesions on the face , hands , and legs . Hops are toxic to dogs . See also ( edit ) Beer portal Gruit , an old - fashioned herb mixture used for bittering and flavouring beer , popular before the extensive use of hops Mugwort , a herb historically used as a bitter in beer production Oast house , a building designed for drying hops Rhamnus prinoides , a plant whose leaves are used in the Ethiopian variety of mead called tej Humulus lupulus , the hop plant References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` University of Minnesota Libraries : The Transfer of Knowledge . Hops - ' ' Humulus lupulus ' ' '' . Lib.umn.edu. 2008 - 05 - 13 . Retrieved 2012 - 05 - 20 . ^ Jump up to : Schönberger C , Kostelecky T ( 16 May 2012 ) . `` 125th Anniversary Review : The Role of Hops in Brewing '' . Journal of the Institute of Brewing ( Wiley Online Library ) . 117 ( 3 ) . CS1 maint : Uses authors parameter ( link ) Jump up ^ Hornsey , Ian S. ( 2003 ) . A History of Beer and Brewing . Royal Society of Chemistry . p. 305 . ISBN 9780854046300 . Jump up ^ `` Understanding Beer - A Broad Overview of Brewing , Tasting and Analyzing Beer - October 12th , 2006 , Beer & Brewing , The Brewing Process '' . Jongriffin.com . Archived from the original on 15 March 2012 . Retrieved 20 May 2012 . Jump up ^ Michael Jackson ( 1988 ) . The New World World Guide to Beer . Running Press . p. 18 . ISBN 0 - 89471 - 884 - 3 . Jump up ^ F.G. Priest ; Iain Campbell ( 2003 ) . Brewing microbiology . Springer . pp. 5 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 306 - 47288 - 6 . Jump up ^ Ian Hornsey . Brewing . p. 58 . Jump up ^ H.S. Corran ( 23 Jan 1975 ) . History of Brewing . David and Charles PLC . p. 303 . ISBN 0715367358 . Jump up ^ Richard W. Unger ( 2004 ) . Beer in the Middle Ages and Renaissance . University of Pennsylvania Press . p. 100 . Jump up ^ Mika Rissanen . `` The Reformation had some help from hops '' . Retrieved 2016 - 09 - 21 . Jump up ^ Charles Knight ( 1832 ) . Antiquity of Beer . The Penny Magazine . p. 3 . Jump up ^ Adam Anderson ( 1764 ) . An Historical and Chronological Deduction of the Origin of Commerce . 1 . p. 461 . Jump up ^ Charles W. Bamforth ( 1998 ) . Beer : tap into the art and science of brewing . Plenum Press . p. 245 . ISBN 0 - 306 - 45797 - 0 . Jump up ^ Knight , Paul D. `` HOPS IN BEER '' . USA Hops . Hop Growers of America . Retrieved 11 June 2015 . Jump up ^ Annual Report of the Commissioner of Patents , Part 2 ; Part 4 . US Patent office . 1858 . p. 291 . ^ Jump up to : Peicanada Jump up ^ `` The London magazine , 1752 '' , page 332 Jump up ^ Summary of Reports : Nürnberg , Germany , 14 November 2006 , International Hop Growers ' Convention : Economic Committee Jump up ^ `` NCGR - Corvallis Humulus Genetic Resources '' . Ars-grin.gov . Retrieved 2012 - 05 - 20 . Jump up ^ Norman Moss , A Fancy to Worcesters Archived 29 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine. , Agricultural research Service , U.S. Department of Agriculture Jump up ^ `` Herefordshire Through Time - Welcome '' . Smr.herefordshire.gov.uk . Retrieved 2012 - 05 - 24 . Jump up ^ Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations ( FAO ) . FAOSTAT Archived 13 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine ... Rome , Italy : Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations ( FAO ) . Jump up ^ `` Humulus lupulus L. common hop '' . USDA Plants database . Retrieved 2013 - 09 - 13 . Jump up ^ Keegstra , Kenneth ( 2010 - 10 - 01 ) . `` Plant Cell Walls '' . Plant Physiology. 154 ( 2 ) : 483 -- 486 . doi : 10.1104 / pp. 110.161240 . ISSN 1532 - 2548 . PMC 2949028 . PMID 20921169 . Jump up ^ C.C. Ainsworth ( 15 Jun 1999 ) . Sex Determination in Plants . Garland Science . p. 146 . Jump up ^ `` Interactive Agricultural Ecological Atlas of Russia and Neighboring Countries . Economic Plants and their Diseases , Pests and Weeds . ' ' Humulus lupulus ' ' '' . Agroatlas.ru . Archived from the original on 10 March 2012 . Retrieved 20 May 2012 . Jump up ^ Andrew , Sewalish . `` Hops : Anatomy and Chemistry 101 '' . Retrieved 2013 - 09 - 13 . Jump up ^ `` Connie 's Homepage - Hop Picking in Kent '' . Btinternet.com . Archived from the original on 21 July 2012 . Retrieved 2012 - 05 - 20 . Jump up ^ `` George Orwell : Hop - picking '' . Theorwellprize.co.uk . Retrieved 2012 - 05 - 20 . Jump up ^ Smith , Keith . Around Malvern in old photographs ... Alan Sutton Publishing , Gloucester . ISBN 0 - 86299 - 587 - 6 . Jump up ^ `` Charles Levett Hop Tokens , 60 Bushels Denomination , The Fitzwilliam Museum , fitzmuseum.cam.ack.uk '' . Fitzmuseum.cam.ac.uk . Retrieved 2012 - 05 - 20 . Jump up ^ Gaye LeBaron ( 29 June 2008 ) . `` Hops , once king of county 's crops , helped put region on map '' . Press Democrat . Retrieved 4 September 2012 . ^ Jump up to : M. Verzele ( 1986 - 01 - 02 ) . `` 100 Years of Hop Chemistry and Its Relevance to Brewing '' . Journal of the Institute of Brewing . 92 ( 1 ) : 32 -- 48 . doi : 10.1002 / j. 2050 - 0416.1986. tb04372. x . ISSN 2050 - 0416 . ^ Jump up to : Denis De Keukeleire . `` Fundamentals of beer and hop chemistry '' . Química Nova . 23 ( 1 ) : 108 -- 112 . doi : 10.1590 / S0100 - 40422000000100019 . ISSN 0100 - 4042 . Jump up ^ Stevens , Jan F ; Page , Jonathan E ( 2004 - 05 - 01 ) . `` Xanthohumol and related prenylflavonoids from hops and beer : to your good health ! '' . Phytochemistry. 65 ( 10 ) : 1317 -- 1330 . doi : 10.1016 / j. phytochem. 2004.04. 025 . PMID 15231405 . Jump up ^ Milligan , S ; Kalita , J ; Pocock , V ; Heyerick , A ; Cooman , L De ; Rong , H ; Keukeleire , D De . `` Oestrogenic activity of the hop phyto - oestrogen , 8 - prenylnaringenin '' . Reproduction. 123 ( 2 ) : 235 -- 242 . doi : 10.1530 / rep. 0.1230235 . Jump up ^ James S Hough ( 1991 ) . The Biotechnology of Malting and Brewing . ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 39553 - 3 . Retrieved 2009 - 03 - 02 . Jump up ^ Elizabeth Aguilera ( 10 September 2008 ) . `` Hop harvest yields hip beer for brewer '' . Denver Post . Jump up ^ Kristin Underwood It 's Harvest Time at the Sierra Nevada Brewery . Treehugger. 6 August 2009 . Retrieved 20 March 2011 . Jump up ^ John Palmer ( 2006 ) . How to Brew . Boulder , CO : Brewers Publications . pp. 41 -- 44 . ISBN 0 - 937381 - 88 - 8 . Jump up ^ Hough JS , Briggs DE , Stevens R , Young TW ( 2012 - 12 - 06 ) . Malting and Brewing Science : Volume II Hopped Wort and Beer . Springer . pp. 867 -- . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4615 - 1799 - 3 . Jump up ^ `` Brewery History : 121 , pp. 94 - 112 '' . www.breweryhistory.com . Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 02 . Jump up ^ Capper , Allison ; Darby , Peter ( 24 March 2014 ) . `` What makes British Hops Unique in the world of Hop Growing ? '' ( PDF ) . British Hop Association . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 25 July 2014 . Retrieved 4 July 2014 . Jump up ^ `` History of Hops '' . British Hop Association . Retrieved 19 July 2014 . Jump up ^ `` On Trade Preview 2014 '' ( PDF ) . www.ontrade.co.uk . Jump up ^ `` Hop growers union of the Czech Republic '' . Czhops.cz . Retrieved 2012 - 05 - 20 . Jump up ^ `` Hop Chemistry : Homebrew Science '' . Byo.com. 2000 - 04 - 28 . Retrieved 2012 - 05 - 20 . Jump up ^ `` 9 Perennial Vegetables You Can Plant Once , Harvest Forever ... And Never Worry About Again '' . 8 March 2017 . torageprepper.com . Retrieved 3 June 2017 . Jump up ^ Alexi Duggins ( 18 May 2015 ) . `` ' It 's like eating a hedgerow ' : why do hop shoots cost € 1,000 a kilo ? '' . The Guardian . Retrieved 3 June 2017 . Jump up ^ Plants for a Future : Humulus lupulus Plants for a Future . Retrieved 4 September 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Franco L , Sánchez C , Bravo R , Rodriguez A , Barriga C , Juánez JC ( 2012 ) . `` The sedative effects of hops ( Humulus lupulus ) , a component of beer , on the activity / rest rhythm '' . Acta Physiol Hung. 99 ( 2 ) : 133 -- 9 . doi : 10.1556 / APhysiol. 99.2012. 2.6 . PMID 22849837 . Jump up ^ Franco L , Sánchez C , Bravo R , Rodríguez AB , Barriga C , Romero E , Cubero J ( 2012 ) . `` The sedative effect of non-alcoholic beer in healthy female nurses '' . PLoS ONE . 7 ( 7 ) : e37290 . doi : 10.1371 / journal. pone. 0037290 . PMC 3399866 . PMID 22815680 . Jump up ^ Keiler AM , Zierau O , Kretzschmar G ( 2013 ) . `` Hop extracts and hop substances in treatment of menopausal complaints '' . Planta Med. 79 ( 7 ) : 576 -- 9 . doi : 10.1055 / s - 0032 - 1328330 . PMID 23512496 . Jump up ^ `` Beer Breakthrough : Hops May Prevent Pasture - Associated Laminitis '' . Horse Collaborative. 1 August 2014 . Archived from the original on 7 December 2014 . Retrieved 11 December 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Purdue University : Center for New Crops and Plant Products . ' ' Humulus lupulus ' ' L '' . Hort.purdue.edu. 1998 - 01 - 07 . Retrieved 2012 - 05 - 20 . Jump up ^ `` Animal Poison Control Center . Hops '' . ASPCA . Retrieved 2012 - 05 - 20 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Humulus lupulus . `` Hop '' . The New Student 's Reference Work . 1914 . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hops&oldid=836763018 '' Categories : Brewing ingredients Crops originating from Europe Medicinal plants Medieval agriculture Hidden categories : CS1 maint : Uses authors parameter Webarchive template wayback links All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from May 2010 Articles needing additional references from July 2014 All articles needing additional references Articles with unsourced statements from July 2014 Articles with unsourced statements from October 2014 Articles with unsourced statements from April 2018 Use dmy dates from September 2010 Wikipedia articles incorporating citation to the NSRW Wikipedia articles incorporating citation to the NSRW with an wstitle parameter Talk Contents About Wikipedia Cymraeg Ελληνικά Esperanto Gaeilge Ido Bahasa Indonesia IsiXhosa Íslenska Bahasa Melayu Scots Simple English 4 more Edit links This page was last edited on 16 April 2018 , at 18 : 14 . 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where do they grow hops in the us

the Yakima (Washington) and Willamette (Oregon) valleys

West Country and U.S.

List of Tom and Jerry characters - wikipedia List of Tom and Jerry characters Jump to : navigation , search ( hide ) This article has multiple issues . Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page . ( Learn how and when to remove these template messages ) This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( May 2013 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) This article describes a work or element of fiction in a primarily in - universe style . Please help rewrite it to explain the fiction more clearly and provide non-fictional perspective . ( May 2013 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) This is a list of characters in the Tom and Jerry cartoon short series . Most of these characters did not appear in all of the movies . Contents ( hide ) 1 Main characters 1.1 Tom Cat and Jerry Mouse 2 Hanna - Barbera era 2.1 Spike and Tyke 2.2 Butch 2.3 Toodles Galore 2.4 Mammy Two Shoes 2.5 Nibbles 2.6 Quacker 2.7 Cuckoo 2.8 Lightning 2.9 Topsy 2.10 Meathead 2.11 George and Joan 2.12 Jeannie and the Baby 2.13 The Ants 2.14 Guardian devils 2.15 Goldfish 2.16 Muscles 2.17 George ( cat ) 2.18 Fluff , Muff and Puff 2.19 Chérie 2.20 Toots 2.21 King of France 2.22 Mechano cat and Robot - Mouse 2.23 The St. Bernard 2.24 Eagle 2.25 Lion 2.26 Baby Woodpecker 2.27 Uncle Pecos 2.28 Radio 2.29 Jackass 3 Gene Deitch era 3.1 Clint Clobber 3.2 Mad Scientist 3.3 Thin Lady 4 Chuck Jones era 4.1 Tiny Bulldog 4.2 Porpoise 5 The Tom and Jerry Show 5.1 Broke 5.2 Robin Ho Ho and his merry men 5.3 Sheriff of Nottingham 5.4 Yvonne Jockalong 5.5 Sergeant Farce 5.6 Alley Cat Gang 6 The Tom and Jerry Comedy Show 6.1 Droopy 6.2 Barney Bear 6.3 McWolf 7 Tom & Jerry Kids 7.1 Dripple 7.2 Miss Vavoom 7.3 Calaboose Cal 7.4 Urfo 7.5 Clyde 7.6 Kyle the Cat 7.7 Bernie the Swallow 7.8 Wild Mouse 7.9 Moncy 7.10 Sheriff Potgut 7.11 Gator Brothers 7.12 Stinky Jr . McWolf 7.13 Screwball Squirrel 7.14 Lightning Bolt the Super Squirrel 8 Tom and Jerry Tales 8.1 Morizzio 8.2 Princess 9 The Tom and Jerry Show 9.1 Rick and Ginger 9.2 Napoleon 9.3 Hamster 9.4 Newt 9.5 Bot 9.6 Beatie and Hildie 9.7 The Detective 9.8 Dr. Bigby 9.9 Skid 10 Tom and Jerry movies 10.1 Biff Buzzard and Buzz Blister 10.2 Tin , Pan and Alley 10.3 Butch ( dog ) 11 References Main characters ( edit ) Tom cat and Jerry Mouse ( edit ) Main articles : Tom Cat and Jerry Mouse Tom ( named `` Jasper '' in his debut appearance ) is a grey and white domestic shorthair cat . `` Tom '' is a generic name for a male cat . He is usually but not always , portrayed as living a comfortable , or even pampered life , while Jerry ( named `` Jinx '' in his debut appearance ) is a small , brown , house mouse who always lives in close proximity to Tom . Despite being very energetic , determined and much larger , Tom is no match for Jerry 's wits . Jerry also possesses surprising strength for his size , approximately the equivalent of Tom 's , lifting items such as anvils with relative ease and withstanding considerable impacts . Although cats typically chase mice to consume them , it is quite rare for Tom to actually try to consume Jerry . Most of his attempts are just to torment or humiliate Jerry , sometimes in revenge , and sometimes to obtain a reward from a human for catching Jerry . By the final `` fade - out '' of each cartoon , Jerry usually emerges triumphant , while Tom is shown as the loser . However , other results may be reached . On rare occasions , Tom triumphs , usually when Jerry becomes the aggressor or when he pushes Tom a little too far . In The Million Dollar Cat Jerry learns that Tom will lose his newly acquired wealth if he harms any animal , `` including a mouse ; '' he then torments Tom a little too much until he retaliates . In Timid Tabby Tom 's look - alike cousin pushes Jerry over the edge . Occasionally and usually ironically , they both lose , usually when Jerry 's final trap or attack on Tom backfires or Jerry overlooks something . In Chuck Jones ' Filet Meow , Jerry orders a shark from the pet store to scare Tom away from eating a goldfish , but finds himself entirely intimidated as well . Finally , they occasionally end up being friends , although within this set of stories , there is often a last minute event that ruins the truce . One story that has friendly ending is Snowbody Loves Me . Both characters display sadistic tendencies , in that they are equally likely to take pleasure in tormenting each other , although it is often in response to a triggering event . However , when one character appears to truly be in mortal danger from an unplanned situation or due to actions by a third party , the other will develop a conscience and save him . Occasionally , they bond over a mutual sentiment towards an unpleasant experience and their attacking each other is more play than serious attacks . Multiple shorts show the two getting along with minimal difficulty , and they are more than capable of working together when the situation calls for it , usually against a third party who manages to torture and humiliate them both . Sometimes this partnership is forgotten quickly when an unexpected event happens , or when one character feels that the other is no longer necessary . This is the case in Posse Cat , when they agree that Jerry will allow himself to be caught if Tom agrees to share his reward dinner , but Tom then reneges . Other times however , Tom does keep his promise to Jerry and the partnerships are not quickly dissolved after the problem is solved . Tom changes his love interest many times . The first love interest is Toots who appears in Puss n ' Toots , and calls him `` Tommy '' in The Mouse Comes to Dinner . He is also interested in a cat called Toots in The Zoot Cat although she has a different appearance to the original Toots . The most frequent love interest of Tom 's is Toodles Galore , who never has any dialogue in the cartoons . Despite five shorts ending with a depiction of Tom 's apparent death , his demise is never permanent ; he even reads about his own death in a flashback in Jerry 's Diary . He appears to die in explosions in Mouse Trouble ( after which he is seen in heaven ) , Yankee Doodle Mouse and in Safety Second , while in The Two Mouseketeers he is guillotined offscreen . Hanna - Barbera era ( edit ) The following characters were introduced in the theatrical shorts that were directed by William Hanna and Joseph Barbera . Spike and Tyke ( edit ) Main article : Spike and Tyke ( characters ) Spike , occasionally referred to as Butch or Killer , is a stern but occasionally dumb American bulldog who is particularly disapproving of cats , but a softie when it comes to mice ( though in his debut appearance , Dog Trouble , Spike goes after both Tom and Jerry ) , and later , his son Tyke . In the shorts Jerry would often try to get Tom in trouble with Spike making him a shoo - in for a beating from the bulldog . Spike has a few weaknesses that Tom tries to capitalize upon : his possessiveness about his bone and his ticklishness . He made his first appearance in the 1942 Tom and Jerry cartoon Dog Trouble , and his first speaking role was in 1944 's The Bodyguard , where he was voiced by Billy Bletcher up until 1949 , from which point he was voiced by Daws Butler . Unlike his father Spike , Tyke does not speak . He only communicates by yapping , whimpering , growling , facial expressions and wagging his tail . In Tom and Jerry Kids , Tyke does have a speaking role in the program and is the first time that viewers were able to hear Tyke speak . Spike is very protective towards his son and gets very angry at Tom if Tyke is bothered or harmed . Although Tyke has spoken in Tom and Jerry Kids , he has laughed in one Tom and Jerry short . After Daws Butler , Maurice LaMarche , Frank Welker , John DiMaggio , Michael Donovan , Phil LaMarr and currently Rick Zieff would all perform Spike 's voice . Tyke 's vocal effects are provided by Frank Welker and speaking roles by Patric Zimmerman . Butch ( edit ) Main article : Butch Cat ( Tom and Jerry ) Butch ( voiced by Frank Graham , later Daws Butler due to Graham 's death ) is a black alley cat who made his first appearance in the Tom and Jerry series in the 1943 short Baby Puss , alongside Topsy and the already - established Meathead . His character , however ( along with the character of Toodles Galore ) , first appeared in the 1941 MGM short The Alley Cat , directed by Hugh Harman , Butch 's only solo cartoon . Butch is the leader of the alley cat bullies who are usually friends with Tom and help him catch Jerry . In his first appearance , however , Butch was an antagonist , tormenting Tom after Tom 's young girl owner treated him like a baby -- to the point of dressing Tom up in a diaper , a bonnet , and pink paw mittens . Thus costumed , Tom could n't help but be a figure of fun -- both for Butch and his gang , and for Jerry . Butch also battles with Tom over Toodles Galore and her affections in a couple of shorts including the 1946 short , Springtime for Thomas and the 1951 short Casanova Cat . In some cartoons , such as A Mouse in the House , Butch battles with Tom to catch Jerry . He is voiced by Maurice LaMarche in Tom and Jerry : The Magic Ring , Tony Cervone in The Karate Guard , Colin Murdock in Tom and Jerry Tales , Billy West in Tom and Jerry in War of the Whiskers , and Joey D'Auria in The Tom and Jerry Show . Butch is usually decipted as a homeless alley / street cat although in the 1956 short , Blue Cat Blues , Butch is apparently a millionaire who wins the attention of Tom 's love interest due to his immense wealth much to Tom 's dismay . Butch also appears in the Spike and Tyke cartoon Scat Cats as a house cat owned by George and Joan who in the original series own Tom . Toodles Galore ( edit ) Toodles Galore is an attractive white female cat , and is supposedly Tom 's usual love interest , although Tom is a reputed playboy , and had other love interests before and after Toodles . Toodles is the only love interest who appeared more than twice , and is probably the most favored . During the classic era , Tom had to compete twice against Butch and even once against Spike for Toodles 's affection , and he lost them all . In Casanova Cat , Toodles fell in love with Jerry . However , in her final short Love Me , Love My Mouse , she remained with Tom . Toodles is one of the most anthropomorphic animals in the series , with the only cat features being her tail , nose and ears . She never speaks and she rarely moves around . However , in The Tom and Jerry Show , her appearance and attitude is shown differently and she is heard speaking for the first time . Mammy two Shoes ( edit ) Mammy Two Shoes in a scene from the Tom & Jerry short Saturday Evening Puss , in which her full face was shown for the first time . Main article : Mammy Two Shoes From the beginning , Tom also has to deal with Mammy Two Shoes ( voiced by Lillian Randolph ) , an African - American domestic housemaid based on Hattie McDaniel . In the earliest shorts , Mammy is depicted as the maid taking care of the often opulent home in which Tom and Jerry reside . Later Tom and Jerry shorts are set in what appears to be Mammy 's own house . Her face is never seen ( with the exception of 1950s Saturday Evening Puss , in which her face is very briefly seen as she runs towards the camera ) , and she usually wallops the cat ( whom she usually addresses as `` Thomas '' ) with a broom when he misbehaves . When Mammy was not present , other humans would sometimes be seen , usually from the neck down as well . Mammy would appear in many cartoons until 1952 's Push - Button Kitty ; Mammy 's character was retired after that year following McDaniel 's death . Later cartoons would instead show Tom and Jerry living with a 1950s suburban couple . Soon after , virtually all humans in the series had visible faces . Nibbles ( edit ) Main article : Nibbles ( Tom and Jerry ) Nibbles in the 1949 theatrical short The Little Orphan Nibbles ( also known as Tuffy ) is the little , blue / gray , diaper - wearing orphan mouse who is close to Jerry and appears frequently with him , especially in the comics . His cartoon debut came in the 1946 short The Milky Waif . Nibbles was later featured in the 1949 Academy Award - winning short The Little Orphan . He is sometimes seen as Jerry 's nephew , but occasionally referred to as an orphan . In many cartoons , Nibbles is seen eating a lot ( he is always hungry ) . In his first animated appearance , he was left on Jerry 's doorstep , abandoned by his parents . Tom enjoys chasing Nibbles much as he does with Jerry . Though the character was created under the name Tuffy for the comics in 1942 , his early animated appearances ( from 1945 ) gave him the name Nibbles . From the 1950s , the mouse was called Tuffy on - screen as well . In Tom and Jerry : The Magic Ring , the name Nibbles was used again -- and the character was depicted as a pet - store mouse whom Jerry does n't know . In the Mouseketeer shorts , Nibbles speaks in French and English . He also is not Jerry 's nephew ; rather , he is the son of François Mouse -- who does not make an appearance , but his name was given in two letters in the short Touché , Pussy Cat ! Nibbles is often mistaken for a girl due to the extaordinarily high pitched voice . He was voiced by Tara Strong in Tom and Jerry : The Magic Ring , Kath Soucie from 2010 , onwards , and Nancy Cartwright in War of the Whiskers . Quacker ( edit ) Quacker at the end of That 's My Mommy Another recurring character in the series was Little Quacker the duckling , who was later adapted into the Hanna - Barbera character Yakky Doodle . He appears in Little Quacker , The Duck Doctor , Just Ducky , Downhearted Duckling , Southbound Duckling , That 's My Mommy , Happy Go Ducky , and The Vanishing Duck . Quacker talks a lot compared to Tom and Jerry . His voice is a ' duck voice ' similar to Disney 's Donald Duck . In many shorts , he is the only one who speaks . He 's very trusting , even trusting Tom in many situations in which Tom wishes to eat him . He 's a friend of Jerry , but unlike Jerry harbors no hard feelings towards Tom . He appeared in The Tom and Jerry Show episode `` The Lost Duckling . '' He also got his own series of shorts on The Yogi Bear Show ( renamed Yakky Doodle ) after guesting in several Hanna - Barbera TV shows . Quacker was then used as a template for the ' Hard Luck Duck ' character starring in the titular character 's short from the What A Cartoon ! series . His What A Cartoon ! counterpart Hard Luck Duck was voiced by Russi Taylor . Quacker was voiced by Red Coffey in the classic shorts , and Charlie Adler in Tom and Jerry in War of the Whiskers , along with Jerry . He was named `` Duckling '' in that game . In Tom and Jerry Show , Quacker 's `` duck voice '' is provided by Sam Kwasman . In three cartoons Quacker gets separated from his mother at birth , only to reunite with her later in two of them ( Little Quacker and Just Ducky ) . In That 's My Mommy however , he is adopted by Tom . In Little Quacker , Quacker 's father , Henry makes an appearance . Because his birth is shown differently in different cartoons , he may have siblings as seen in Just Ducky and Happy Go Ducky . Quacker gets a girlfriend in Downhearted Duckling . Cuckoo ( edit ) Cuckoo is a canary that first appeared in Kitty Foiled . He also appeared in The Flying Cat , Life with Tom , Hic - cup Pup , Two Little Indians ( where he is red in color ) and Matinee Mouse . He is Jerry 's good friend . Despite being a little bird , he can actually carry heavy objects which is seen in both Kitty Foiled and The Flying Cat . Lightning ( edit ) Lightning is a ginger orange cat who first appeared in the 1948 short Old Rockin ' Chair Tom as Tom 's rival . Lightning is named as such because in his first short , he practically moved at the speed of lightning . In later cartoons , Lightning often appeared as one of Tom 's alley cat buddies / rivals . Lightning has the same character design as Butch Cat , but with an orange color ( although his coloring occasionally varies from film - to - film ) . In Mucho Mouse , he speaks Spanish and is a house cat . He also appears in the Gene Deitch short Switchin ' Kitten . In the Chuck Jones short Catty - Cornered ( his final appearance ) , Lightning is portrayed with more of an orange - yellow color than before , with the additional changes of a black tail and ears . Lightning also makes several appearances in Tom and Jerry Tales , often with a red nose and , in two episodes , a bushy tail . Fans have occasionally confused Lightning with Meathead , though the two are not the same and have appeared side - by - side in two cartoons . Topsy ( edit ) Topsy is a grey / brown kitten . He is one of Tom 's alley cat friends / foes , although in Professor Tom he befriends Jerry . He first appeared in Baby Puss ; his final appearance in the original theatrical shorts was in Scat Cats . He also appears in Tom and Jerry Tales with a more yellowish color ( similar to Life with Tom ) . In Professor Tom , Topsy is explicitly a house cat ; more often ( as in Saturday Evening Puss and elsewhere ) , he is depicted as an alley cat or a cat of unknown origin . Meathead ( edit ) Meathead is a brown , mangy alley cat who wears a red toupee ( which is occasionally seen the same color as the rest of his fur ) . He is generally portrayed as dull - witted and first appeared in the 1943 short , Sufferin ' Cats ! , as Tom 's rival . He also appears in Baby Puss and additional shorts as one of Tom 's alley cat buddies / foes . He is known as Frankie in Heavenly Puss . In Scat Cats , his final appearance in the original theatrical shorts , he is portrayed with an all - gray color . Fans have occasionally confused Meathead with Lightning , though the two are not the same and have appeared side - by - side in two cartoons . After over nearly six decades of absence , Meathead re-appeared in The Tom and Jerry Show episode Cruisin ' for a Bruisin ' as a lead antagonist , while a drag version of the character named Meathelda appeared in the episode Hop to It ! George and Joan ( edit ) George and Joan are an average middle class white couple , who debuted in the 1954 short Pet Peeve . They are the new owners of Tom and Spike , but Tom likes to keep Joan company and Spike likes to keep George company . Joan is often seen either cooking or sitting on her armchair knitting or sewing a dress with Tom keeping her company . George , on the other hand , hates the monthly bills and complains that they 're too expensive . But when he 's not complaining about the bills , he is sitting in his armchair or on the sofa reading the newspaper wearing his smart purple or grey suit and Spike is keeping him company . Both George and Joan are very kind and polite towards each other and Tom and Spike . In Pet Peeve , George and Joan decided that they keep Jerry as a pet because he is easy to look after and does n't eat too much ( George and Joan do not know Jerry 's secret : He eats a lot more than Tom and Spike combined , which explains the amount of food he has in his mouse hole shown later ) and tell Tom and Spike to leave . However , in later shorts with George and Joan , Tom and Spike still happily live with them and Jerry is not known by the couple and he is not a pet anymore . In some shorts , Joan appears without George , such as Mouse for Sale , The Flying Sorceress and Mucho Mouse . It could be presumed that George would be working at his office during the settings of these cartoons . George and Joan also appeared in four other Tom & Jerry shorts , Tom 's Photo Finish , Busy Buddies , The Vanishing Duck ( Quacker 's last short ) and Tot Watchers . Jeannie and the baby ( edit ) Jeannie , the babysitter of George and Joan 's baby , is an average teenager who spends much of her time talking on the phone . She is often called on to look after the baby if they 're going out . Jeannie proceeds to leap straight onto the phone just as George and Joan shut the front door , which tells us that she is very negligent about her job . Despite this , Jeannie is very kind , friendly , cheerful and rarely loses a smile -- except to scold Tom for `` bothering the baby '' , which she thinks he is doing on purpose to annoy her . Jeannie was seen in only two cartoons : Busy Buddies ( 1956 ) and Tot Watchers ( 1958 ) . Jeannie is voiced by Janet Waldo in the original shorts . The baby also appears in Tom & Jerry Kids where the babysitter is slightly younger and a redhead instead . The ants ( edit ) The Ants are an army of red ants who steal food as they see them . They appeared in four cartoons Cat Napping , Pup on a Picnic , Barbecue Brawl and Carmen Get It ! . They also appeared in Tom & Jerry Kids . They 're unusually heavy for their size , and their combined weight often causes many items , such as Tom 's hammock , to break . It 's unclear how or why the ants are so heavy , as they are even capable of making tables and diving boards shake as they march onto them . Guardian devils ( edit ) Each guardian devil for Tom and Jerry appeared in three cartoons Sufferin ' Cats ! , Springtime for Thomas and Smitten Kitten . In the first of these cartoons , one served as evil conscience for Tom and in the other one for Jerry . Goldfish ( edit ) A tiny goldfish who is friends with Jerry and lives in the same house as Tom and Jerry . She appeared in major roles in Jerry and the Goldfish and Filet Meow . Tom 's attempts to eat her lead to Jerry earning her affections . She also appeared in cameo roles in several other cartoons such as The Million Dollar Cat , Casanova Cat and The Missing Mouse . Muscles ( edit ) Muscles is Jerry 's cousin and a mouse with incredible strength . In Jerry 's Cousin , Muscles appears to hate cats , including Tom . In Haunted Mouse , another mouse named Merlin , who is also a cousin of Jerry 's , appears as a wizard with magical abilities . Muscles ' final appearance was in Tom and Jerry : The Magic Ring , however his name was changed to Freddie and he was hostile towards Jerry . He was voiced by Paul Frees in Jerry 's Cousin and by Billy West in Tom and Jerry : The Magic Ring . George ( cat ) ( edit ) George is the cat counterpart of Muscles but with a personality that is in stark contrast to him . Like Muscles , George is identical to Tom ( although he is shorter ) and is his cousin . Unlike Muscles , however , George is a coward and is scared of mice . He first appeared at the beginning of Jerry 's Cousin where he gets thrashed by Muscles ( possibly the reason for his fear of mice ) . His bigger role was in Timid Tabby where he finally overcomes his fear . He also appeared in Tom and Jerry Kids where his fear seems to have re-instated even though he pretended it has not ( his name was changed to Tim in that short ) . Fluff , Muff and Puff ( edit ) Fluff , Muff and Puff are a trio of brown , black and orange kittens that first appeared in Heavenly Puss as adorable kittens - who were murdered by drowning - in a cameo role ( that happened in Tom 's dream ) . They also appeared in Triplet Trouble as cute but extremely mischievous kittens . They also appeared in The Tom and Jerry Show . Chérie ( edit ) Chérie is a brown / grey female mouse who serves as Jerry 's love interest . She first appeared at the end of Springtime for Thomas , and then later in Smitten Kitten , Touché , Pussy Cat ! ( only cartoon where she has an identical twin ) , Tom and Chérie ( the first cartoon where she is named ) and The Mouse from H.U.N.G.E.R. ( as a ticking time bomb set by Tom ) . Toots ( edit ) Toots is the name given to three different characters that have appeared infrequently . The first of these is a fluffy beige cat who appears in Puss n ' Toots and The Mouse Comes to Dinner , the latter being her only speaking role . She also has a cameo in Smitten Kitten . This version of Toots also appeared in some 1940s Tom and Jerry comics . Toots is also a different cat by the same name who appears in The Zoot Cat and in the Tom and Jerry Tales episode `` Kitty Cat Blues . '' She has occasionally and erroneously been referred to as `` Sheikie , '' but this is actually Tom 's nickname , as seen on a gift card in the cartoon . Finally Toots is the name of a mouse who serves as Jerry 's love interest in Blue Cat Blues . King of France ( edit ) In some of the mouseketeer series of cartoons , Tom serves the king of France . This is an obvious reference to Louis XVI of France , who is shown as an extremely short - tempered and cruel monarch . In The Two Mouseketeers , the king guillotines Tom while in Royal Cat Nap , he orders for Tom 's decapitation . Mechano cat and Robot - Mouse ( edit ) Mechano cat first appeared in Push Button Kitty as Tom 's rival . Later , Mechano and Robot - Mouse are seen as a cat - like - robot and mouse - like - robot who serve Tom and Jerry ( except at the end of Advance and Be Mechanized , when they get revenge and switch roles with Tom and Jerry , as they control their minds and make them do the work ) in the three Chuck Jones outer space cartoons O - Solar Meow , Guided Mouse - ille and Advance and Be Mechanized . Mechano 's efforts to catch or trap Jerry or Robot - Mouse always backfire for Tom , except in Advance and Be Mechanized , when he succeeds to catch Robot - Mouse in the beginning . In Guided Mouse - ille , he can stand up right and have hands to use a gun with to try and blast Jerry in his mobile tank . This backfired and left Mechano with a black face , while crying in frustration . He sneaks back and promptly shoots Tom , who attempts to shoot Mechano back for his insubordination . However , the shot came out on the wrong end and Tom faints leaving Mechano laughing himself silly . He also appeared in the Tom and Jerry Tales episode `` Tin Cat of Tomorrow '' where he is named Verminator 7000 . Mechano ( called `` Robot Cat '' ) also appeared as a fighter in the video game , War of the Whiskers , and was voiced by Dee Bradley Baker . The St. Bernard ( edit ) The St. Bernard is a dog who first appeared in Puttin ' on the Dog and then again in The A-Tom - Inable Snowman . Unlike other dogs in the series , he is not hostile to cats and even attends Tom medically . Eagle ( edit ) Eagle is an Eagle that tries to steal Jerry for food from Tom . He first appeared in Flirty Birdy , then in The Tom and Jerry Show episode `` The Egg and Tom and Jerry '' ( where he is female instead of male ) and then again in Tom and Jerry Tales episode `` Bend it like Thomas . '' Eagle also appeared as a playable character in Tom and Jerry in War of the Whiskers , voiced by Rob Paulsen . Lion ( edit ) Lion is a lion that has switched from a tame one in Jerry and the Lion , to a nervous one in The Tom and Jerry Show episode `` The Hypochondriac Lion '' to a monster in the Tom and Jerry Tales episode `` You 're Lion . '' He is also a playable character in Tom and Jerry in War of the Whiskers where he is voiced by Jim Cummings . Baby woodpecker ( edit ) A baby woodpecker that first appeared in Hatch Up Your Troubles and it 's remake The Egg and Jerry where it could peck into virtually anything including Tom 's stomach , Tom 's golf club in Tee for Two or a water pipe as in Landing Stripling . Baby Woodpecker and his Mama would re-appear by making cameo appearances in The Tom and Jerry Show ( 2014 TV Series ) . Uncle Pecos ( edit ) Uncle Pecos is Jerry 's Cowboyish uncle who appears in Pecos Pest . He was voiced by Shug Fisher . He is known to always play with a guitar and wears a black cowboy hat that covers his eyes . He plucks one of Tom 's whiskers off to replace broken strings on the guitar . Being from Texas , he is shown to be super strong . Uncle Pecos returned in the Tom and Jerry Tales episode `` Cry Uncle '' , voiced by Scott McNeil . In the episode , he arrives at Tom and Jerry 's house and annoys Tom and Jerry with his music . He later leaves with Auntie Spinner in the end of the episode . Uncle Pecos made his second return in The Tom and Jerry Show , voiced by Stephen Stanton . He appears in the Season 2 episodes , `` I Quit '' , `` Uncle Pecos Rides Again '' and `` Cat - A-Tonic Mouse '' . Radio ( edit ) A radio with a male human voice that broadcasts music , cookery show and warnings on escaped animals , bomb threats etc . In Jerry 's Diary , the radio is shown to be anthropomorphic ( with the announcer 's name as ' Uncle Dudley ' ) but this is not the case with other cartoons . The radio 's announcements often cause troubles for Tom ( The Missing Mouse , Jerry and the Lion , Little Runaway and Down Beat Bear ) , fear ( Fraidy Cat ) , embarrassment ( Jerry 's Diary and Life with Tom ) or may be the cause of evil intentions ( Jerry and the Goldfish ) . Radio has been voiced by Martha Wentworth in Fraidy Cat , by Paul Frees in The Missing Mouse and Jerry and the Lion and by Joseph Forte in Jerry 's Diary . Other voice actors such as Daws Butler in Jerry and the Goldfish have been uncredited . Jackass ( edit ) Unlike other Tom and Jerry characters , this one is not a character per se , but rather an avatar of a popular character such as Spike . Usually , a character turns into a jackass when it is fooled such as Spike in Solid Serenade , The Framed Cat and Pet Peeve or Tom in Polka Dot Puss . In Pup on a Picnic , the word ' Sucker ' is used instead of ' Jackass ' . Gene Deitch era ( edit ) The following characters were introduced in the theatrical shorts that were directed by Gene Deitch in the 1960s . Clint Clobber ( edit ) An overweight , average height , middle - aged , bald white man became Tom 's owner in three of the thirteen cartoons in Down and Outing , High Steaks and Sorry Safari . He has very severe anger issues and is repeatedly violent towards Tom for his actions . There is some debate as to whether this is the genuine Clint Clobber as the real Clint would never be an animal abuser , he was just a put - upon grouch . Mad scientist ( edit ) He is a mad scientist reminiscent of Frankenstein . He first appeared in Switchin ' Kitten and subsequently was the subject of a number of television episodes ( for e.g. ' Trojan Dog ' in Tom and Jerry Comedy Show ) and movies thereafter . In his first appearance , the mad scientist is the owner of Jerry ( who is also his assistant ) and has numerous cats trapped in a prison . When Jerry picks an orange cat named Lightning , the other cats flee in terror as the scientist pulls him out for his latest experiment . He switches the mind of the orange cat with that of a bulldog and presents him as his present to Jerry . Thin lady ( edit ) An unnamed thin white lady became Tom 's owner in Buddies Thicker Than Water . Gene Deitch opted not to use Mammy 's character in his shorts , as he felt a `` stereotypical black housekeep '' character `` did n't work in a modern context . '' Chuck Jones would also use her in The Unshrinkable Jerry Mouse and in the re-animated version of Saturday Evening Puss . She also appeared in the movie Tom and Jerry : The Fast and the Furry . Like many other early human characters , her face was never shown . Chuck Jones era ( edit ) The following characters were introduced in the theatrical shorts that were produced by Chuck Jones in the 1960s . Tiny bulldog ( edit ) This nameless mouse - sized bulldog , designed similarly to Spike the Bulldog , is Jerry 's pet dog companion in only two shorts : The Cat 's Me - Ouch and Purr - Chance to Dream . His role is similar to Spike in cartoons such as The Bodyguard , Fit To Be Tied , and Much Ado About Mousing , which is to defend Jerry against Tom . He is presumably the oldest son of Spike before Tyke , and this could be identified by his looks and personality that is similar to his father Spike . Unlike Spike and Tyke he has a big bite ( similar to those of Looney Tunes ' Tasmanian Devil ) . Porpoise ( edit ) A shark who tries to eat Tom and Jerry . He appears in Cannery Rodent , Puss ' n ' Boats , Filet Meow and Surf - Bored Cat . The creature 's color and species varies , in Cannery Rodent and Surf - Bored Cat it is a blue shark , while in Filet Meow and Puss ' n ' Boats it is a great white shark . Porpoise also appeared in the Tom and Jerry Comedy Show episode A Connecticut mouse in King Arthur 's court . The Tom and Jerry Show ( edit ) The following characters were introduced in the 1975 television series The Tom and Jerry Show . Broke ( edit ) A gopher that devours vegetables in Gopher Broke . He appeared in the cartoon 's sequel The Son of Gopher Broke . He also appeared in Tom and Jerry Comedy Show . Robin Ho Ho and his Merry men ( edit ) A parody of Robin Hood and his merry men , they appeared in Robin Ho Ho . They also appeared in Tom and Jerry : Robin Hood and His Merry Mouse . Sheriff of nottingham ( edit ) The primary antagonist in Robin Ho Ho and also in Tom and Jerry : Robin Hood and His Merry Mouse . He is based on the character from Robin Hood tales . Yvonne jockalong ( edit ) Love interest to both Tom and Jerry , she appears in Sky Bunny and The Tennis Menace . Sergeant farce ( edit ) A police officer who appears in See Dr. Jackal and Hide and in The Police Kitten where he is the superior officer to both Tom and Jerry . Alley Cat Gang ( edit ) The Tom and Jerry Comedy Show ( edit ) The following characters were introduced in the television series The Tom and Jerry Comedy Show . Droopy ( edit ) Main article : Droopy Dog A Basset Hound often with a miserable look on his face , originally introduced in the Tex Avery shorts of the 1940s . He first made a poster cameo in Matinee Mouse . He also appeared in the Droopy and Dripple segments of Tom and Jerry Kids . He is sometimes an adversary of Spike . He would also appear in Tom and Jerry Tales and would appear in the direct - to - video films . Barney Bear ( edit ) Main article : Barney Bear An anthropomorphic cartoon character , a sluggish , sleepy bear who often is in pursuit of nothing but peace and quiet , originally introduced in the Harman - Ising shorts of the 1930s . He would also appear in the direct - to - video films . McWolf ( edit ) McWolf , initially named ' Slick Wolf ' is the villain of the `` Droopy and Dripple '' segments . A bad and cruel wolf whose only mission is to ruin the life of Droopy ( and Dripple and sometimes to remain with Miss Vavoom in Tom & Jerry Kids ) . Sometimes for of crazy scientist whom it loves to dominate the world , of space villain , a criminal fat person ( known as `` The Chubby Man '' ) , etc . His character is based on the wolf in Red Hot Riding Hood . He is voiced by Frank Welker . Tom & Jerry Kids ( edit ) The following characters were introduced in the television series Tom & Jerry Kids . Dripple ( edit ) The son of Droopy , essentially an older version of the infant pup from Homesteader Droopy . He is always with his father and they always do the same ( although sometimes Dripple thinks `` better '' than his father ) . The identity of his mother is never mentioned or even addressed , although , due to Droopy 's frequent relationships with Miss Vavoom , it can be assumed that his mother is either dead or is divorced from Droopy with no visitation rights prior to the events of the series . He is voiced by Charlie Adler . Miss Vavoom ( edit ) The contiguous woman of the show . She is very seductive and she always takes different hairdos . She always is conquered by Droopy and most of times is the greater target of McWolf . Sometimes she is called Bubbles Vavoom , Ultra Vavoom , Sugar Vavoom , etc . Her character is based on Red from Red Hot Riding Hood . She is voiced by Teresa Ganzel . Calaboose Cal ( edit ) A gold cat owner of a show of demonstration and participation . He is arrogant ( sometimes ) , has a rancher accent , and is sometimes presented as an enemy to Tom . Purportedly inspired by legendary Southern California car dealer Cal Worthington . He is voiced by Phil Hartman . Urfo ( edit ) Urfo is a six - legged alien dog that arrives on Earth many times and helps Jerry fend off Tom . His owners often send people to retrieve him . Clyde ( edit ) A fat cat that often one puts in problems , and when Tom and Jerry save him , he promises to be their better friend ( Although for Tom and Jerry he is like a punishment ) . Voiced by Brian Cummings . Kyle the cat ( edit ) A mangy orange cat that first appeared as the antagonist of Spike and / or Tyke . Voiced by Pat Fraley . Bernie the Swallow ( edit ) A medically challenged yellow swallow that is friends with Jerry in `` Hard to Swallow '' . He had a color change to blue in `` Swallow the Swallow '' and `` Grab that Bird '' as he is chased mostly by Clyde and Kyle . Voiced by David L. Lander . Wild Mouse ( edit ) A grayish - green , shaggy fanged mouse who occasionally replaces Jerry and outwits his foes . Like Tom and Jerry , Wildmouse is voiced by Frank Welker . He first appears in the episode `` Wildmouse '' and is last seen in the episode `` King Windmouse . '' Moncy ( edit ) A cougar who loves tormenting Spike and Tyke . He wants to eat Tyke 's lunch ( and Spike prevents him ) . He was voiced by Frank Welker . Sheriff Potgut ( edit ) The elderly sheriff of Hokey Finokey Swamp . He is arrogant , rude , and self - centered . He threatened to send Swampy back to the circus ( which Swampy is aware of the fact that it promotes animal cruelty ) , throwing Swampy into tears . He also envies the map Swampy made out to search for the hidden treasure . He appears in the episode `` Cajun Gumbo '' as the episode 's main antagonist . Aside from the lone episode where he battled Swampy , the Sheriff and the Gator Brothers were also used as antagonists in an episode featuring Wild Mouse . Gator Brothers ( edit ) Sheriff Potgut 's henchmen . They appear in the episode `` Cajun Gumbo '' as antagonists and in another episode featuring Wild Mouse . Stinky Jr. . McWolf ( edit ) Stinky Jr. is the son of McWolf who has the same personality as him . Screwball Squirrel ( edit ) Main article : Screwy Squirrel Screwball Squirrel is based on the original Screwball `` Screwy '' Squirrel in 1944 , but now his adventures take place in a public city park , as he messes with hot - headed park attendant Dweeble and his dumb guard dog , Rumpley . He was voiced by Charlie Adler . Lightning bolt the super Squirrel ( edit ) A squirrel superhero . He is a rather campy and flamboyant superhero who throws lightning bolts . He also speaks with a slight Minnesotan accent and appeared in the spin - off series Droopy , Master Detective . He was voiced by Charlie Adler . Tom and Jerry Tales ( edit ) The following characters were introduced in the television series Tom and Jerry Tales . Morizzio ( edit ) Morizzio is a very amorous octopus gentleman who first appeared in the 1953 musical film Dangerous When Wet . In Octo Sauve , Tom encounters him , who mistakes Tom for a mermaid . Morizzio wants to date Tom , and they end up getting lost in the sea . Princess ( edit ) Nicole Bouma voiced the princess in Tom and Jerry Tales . The princess appears in Medieval Menace where she kisses Tom - who has turned into a frog - thinking he is a prince transformed by a spell . The Tom and Jerry Show ( edit ) The following characters were introduced in the 2014 television series Tom and Jerry Show . Rick and ginger ( edit ) Tom 's new owners are Rick and Ginger , a middle - class couple similar to George and Joan . Much like the original couple , the husband is more sympathetic towards Spike while the wife favors Tom . Rick is stouter in appearance when compared to George . Unlike Joan and George , their faces are never seen . Napoleon ( edit ) Napoleon is a small rat with grey fur . He has light pink ears , light pink hands , feet and tail and has black eyes . Hamster ( edit ) The Hamster is a small `` anti-social , overachieving '' hamster with light brown fur . He wears glasses and is the smartest hamster in the lab . Newt ( edit ) Newt is a newt with orange skin . He has yellow spots and long feet . He wears a black eye - patch over his right eye and has green eyes with a black pupil . Bot ( edit ) Bot is a robot that cleans the lab with its vacuum cleaner and control arm . It has a red screen that spots trash all over the lab and most often mistakes Tom as such out of its programming . Beatie and Hildie ( edit ) Beatie and Hildie are witch sisters who act as Tom and Jerry 's medieval owners . The detective ( edit ) The detective is a detective who is the owner of Tom ( and presumably Jerry too ) . In his absence , Tom and Jerry work as sleuths themselves , in the process using his name and fame . He appeared in `` Feline Fatale '' , `` One of a Kind '' , `` Haunted Mouse '' , `` Sleuth or Consequences '' , `` Poof ! '' , `` Bone Dry '' , `` Cat Napped '' , and `` Curse Case Scenario '' . Dr. Bigby ( edit ) Dr. Bigby is an eccentric scientist whose experiments do n't always often go according to plan ( with Jerry and Napoleon usually being the only ones to see the results ) . Skid ( edit ) Skid is an orange cat that was always the great leader and also always makes the election of the Top cat . Both Tom and Butch compete for the Golden Fez in the United Mouse Catchers when they both attempt to capture Jerry . Tom and Jerry movies ( edit ) The following recurring characters were introduced in the various Tom and Jerry movies . Biff Buzzard and Buzz Blister ( edit ) Biff Buzzard and Buzz Blister are characters in Tom and Jerry : The Fast and the Furry and Tom and Jerry : Blast Off to Mars . In Tom and Jerry : The Fast and the Furry , they were news reporters . In Tom and Jerry : Blast Off to Mars , they were astronauts . Biff is voiced by Billy West and Buzz by Jess Harnell . Tin , Pan and alley ( edit ) Tin , Pan and Alley are a trio of male Siamese cats created especially for the new direct - to - video films , they are secondary antagonists in Tom and Jerry Meet Sherlock Holmes , Tom and Jerry : Robin Hood and His Merry Mouse , Tom and Jerry 's Giant Adventure , Tom and Jerry : The Lost Dragon and Tom and Jerry : Spy Quest . In their first appearance in Tom and Jerry Meet Sherlock Holmes , they are local gravediggers who work for Professor Moriarty . In Tom and Jerry : Robin Hood and His Merry Mouse , they work for Prince John . In Tom and Jerry : The Lost Dragon , they are the Hench - cats of Drizelda . In Tom and Jerry : Spy Quest , they are seen working for Doctor Zin . They also make an appearance in Tom and Jerry : Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory . They were named after the Warner Bros. 1943 short Tin Pan Alley Cats . Tin is voiced by Greg Ellis , Pan by Jess Harnell and Alley by Richard McGonagle . Butch ( dog ) ( edit ) Main article : Butch Dog ( Tex Avery ) Butch ( Originally known as Spike , until renamed as Butch to avoid confusion with Spike from the Tom and Jerry cartoons ) is the name of another bulldog from Tex Avery 's shorts in the 1940s and 1950s . He was one of the main antagonists in Droopy shorts ( although he was replaced by Hanna - Barbera 's Spike in the 1980s ) and also had a series of his own . He appears in a number of movies e.g. Tom and Jerry and the Wizard of Oz and Tom and Jerry : The Magic Ring . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Deitch , Gene ( 2015 ) . Tom and Jerry ... and Gene in Tom and Jerry : The Gene Deitch Collection ( DVD ) . 20th Century Fox . Tom and Jerry Characters Tom Cat Jerry Mouse Butch Nibbles Spike and Tyke Mammy Two Shoes Theatrical releases Tom and Jerry ( shorts ) Spike and Tyke ( shorts ) The Movie Cameos Anchors Aweigh Dangerous When Wet DVD releases of shorts Spotlight Collection Golden Collection Chuck Jones Collection Classic Collection Deluxe Anniversary Collection Gene Deitch Collection Television series Show ( 1975 ) Comedy Show Kids Show episodes Tales Show ( 2014 ) episodes Television specials Hanna - Barbera 's 50th : A Yabba Dabba Doo Celebration The Mansion Cat Santa 's Little Helpers Direct - to - video films The Magic Ring Blast Off to Mars The Fast and the Furry Shiver Me Whiskers A Nutcracker Tale Meet Sherlock Holmes The Wizard of Oz Robin Hood and His Merry Mouse Giant Adventure The Lost Dragon Spy Quest Back to Oz Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory Other formats Video games Soundtrack Related William Hanna Joseph Barbera Scott Bradley Hanna - Barbera Founders William Hanna Joseph Barbera Original productions The Atom Ant / Secret Squirrel Show Birdman Captain Caveman and the Teen Angels CB Bears The Flintstones The Funky Phantom Grape Ape Hong Kong Phooey Huckleberry Hound Jabberjaw The Jetsons Jonny Quest Loopy De Loop Magilla Gorilla The Hanna - Barbera New Cartoon Series Peter Potamus Quick Draw McGraw The Ruff and Reddy Show Scooby - Doo Smurfs Snorks Space Ghost Tom and Jerry Top Cat Yogi Bear Wacky Races Amusement attractions Hanna -- Barbera Land The Funtastic World of Hanna - Barbera Comics Hanna - Barbera Beyond Other media Films Video games See also Characters Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Tom_and_Jerry_characters&oldid=812821786 '' Categories : Tom and Jerry characters Lists of fictional animals in animation Lists of characters in American television animation Hidden categories : Articles needing additional references from May 2013 All articles needing additional references Articles that need to differentiate between fact and fiction from May 2013 All articles that need to differentiate between fact and fiction Articles with multiple maintenance issues Talk Contents About Wikipedia Italiano Magyar Português Română Edit links This page was last edited on 30 November 2017 , at 02 : 05 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

what's the dog's name on tom and jerry

Spike

Tiny Bulldog

What Ifs - wikipedia What Ifs Jump to : navigation , search `` What Ifs '' Single by Kane Brown featuring Lauren Alaina from the album Kane Brown Released February 6 , 2017 ( 2017 - 02 - 06 ) Format Digital download Genre Country Length 3 : 08 Label RCA Nashville Songwriter ( s ) Kane Brown Matthew McGinn Jordan Schmidt Producer ( s ) Dann Huff Kane Brown singles chronology `` Thunder in the Rain '' ( 2016 ) `` What Ifs '' ( 2017 ) `` Heaven '' ( 2017 ) `` Thunder in the Rain '' ( 2016 ) `` What Ifs '' ( 2017 ) `` Heaven '' ( 2017 ) Lauren Alaina singles chronology `` Road Less Traveled '' ( 2016 ) Road Less Traveled 2016 `` What Ifs '' ( 2017 ) What Ifs2017 `` Doin ' Fine '' ( 2017 ) Doin ' Fine 2017 `` What Ifs '' is a song recorded by American country music singer Kane Brown featuring Lauren Alaina for his self - titled debut album . The song was released with the album through RCA Nashville and was serviced to radio as the third single on February 6 , 2017 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Background 2 Composition 3 Commercial performance 4 Music video 5 Chart performance 5.1 Weekly charts 5.2 Year - end charts 6 Certifications and sales 7 References Background ( edit ) The song was written by Brown with Matthew McGinn and Jordan Schmidt . The song is about a couple where the question `` what if '' is asked repeatedly about what would happen in their relationship . It features a duet with Lauren Alaina , a school friend from Lakeview - Fort Oglethorpe High School when he was living in Fort Oglethorpe , Georgia . According to Brown , the song was initially not intended to be a duet , he said : `` Once we decided on adding a woman to `` What Ifs , '' I knew that I wanted Lauren to sing it , and , of course , she killed it . '' According to Brown , another song was going to be used in the album , however , he was asked so much about `` What Ifs '' on social media that it was then decided that the song should be included in the album . Composition ( edit ) The song is in the key of G minor with a moderately fast tempo of approximately 126 beats per minute . It follows the chord progression Gm - B ♭ - F. Brown 's vocals range from F - B ♭ . Commercial performance ( edit ) The song sold 6,000 downloads in the US the week the album was released on December 2 , 2016 , allowing it to chart at number 37 on the US Billboard Hot Country Songs chart . The song first entered the US Billboard Country Airplay chart for the week of March 4 , 2017 at number 60 . It reached No. 1 on Hot Country Songs in October 2017 , ending the record breaking 34 - week reign of Sam Hunt 's `` Body Like a Back Road '' . The song is the first No. 1 on the chart for both Brown and Alaina . The following week , for charts dated October 28 , 2017 , `` What Ifs '' stayed at number one , as well as topping the Country Airplay and Country Streaming Songs charts . Together with the release of the deluxe edition of the album which also reached number on Top Country Albums , and another number one for a new track `` Heaven '' on digital sales , Brown became the first artist to have simultaneous number ones on all five main country charts . The song was certified Platinum by the RIAA on October 2 , 2017 . It was the third most - consumed country song of 2017 , with 1,551,000 including streams ( 599,000 in pure sale ) sold in the year . It has sold 679,000 copies in the US as of March 2018 . Music video ( edit ) The official music video for the song was directed by P.R. Brown and produced by Steve Lamar . The video was filmed along the Californian coast at The Inn at Newport Ranch , a resort and cattle ranch to the north of San Francisco . It features Brown and his duet partner Lauren Alaina singing along the coast . It was released on May 14 , 2017 . An earlier lyric video was first released on May 4 , 2017 , and shows Brown and Alaina cruising down a road . Chart performance ( edit ) Weekly charts ( edit ) Chart ( 2017 ) Peak position Canada ( Canadian Hot 100 ) 45 Canada Country ( Billboard ) US Billboard Hot 100 26 US Country Airplay ( Billboard ) US Hot Country Songs ( Billboard ) Year - end charts ( edit ) Chart ( 2017 ) Position US Billboard Country Airplay 7 US Billboard Hot Country Songs US Billboard Hot 100 72 Certifications and sales ( edit ) Region Certification Certified units / Sales Canada ( Music Canada ) Platinum 80,000 United States ( RIAA ) Platinum 679,000 sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Dukes , Billy ( January 24 , 2017 ) . `` Kane Brown ( Feat . Lauren Alaina ) , ' What Ifs ' ( Listen ) '' . Taste of Country . ^ Jump up to : Konicki , Lisa ( February 8 , 2017 ) . `` Kane Brown 's Current Single , `` What Ifs , '' With Lauren Alaina Almost Did n't Make The Album `` . Nash Country Daily . Jump up ^ Freeman , Jon ( December 2 , 2016 ) . `` Kane Brown on Personal New Album , Why He Wo n't Sing First Hit : Ram Report '' . Rolling Stone . ^ Jump up to : Asker , Jim ( October 17 , 2017 ) . `` Kane Brown Becomes First Artist To Simultaneously Lead Five Country Charts '' . Billboard . Jump up ^ `` ' What Ifs ' sheet music '' . MusicNotes.com . Retrieved 5 February 2018 . Jump up ^ Bjorke , Matt ( December 13 , 2016 ) . `` Top 30 Digital Country Singles Chart : December 13 , 2016 '' . Roughstock . Retrieved February 5 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Country Airplay '' . Billboard . March 4 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Asker , Jim ( October 10 , 2017 ) . `` Kane Brown 's ' What Ifs ' Featuring Lauren Alaina Tops Hot Country Songs , Stopping Sam Hunt 's Record Run '' . Billboard . Jump up ^ Bjorke , Matt ( October 17 , 2017 ) . `` Top 30 Digital Country Chart : October 17 , 2017 '' . Roughstock . Retrieved October 17 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` American single certifications -- Kane Brown -- What Ifs '' . Recording Industry Association of America . Retrieved October 17 , 2017 . If necessary , click Advanced , then click Format , then select Single , then click SEARCH Jump up ^ Rau , , Nate ( January 4 , 2018 ) . `` Revealed : Country music 's most listened to artists in 2017 '' . Tennessean . USA Today . Jump up ^ Bjorke , Matt ( January 3 , 2018 ) . `` Top 30 Country Digital Singles Chart : January 3 , 2018 '' . Roughstock . Retrieved January 14 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Bjorke , Matt ( March 6 , 2018 ) . `` The Top 30 Digital Country Singles : March 5 , 2018 '' . Roughstock . Retrieved March 11 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Watch Kane Brown , Lauren Alaina 's Picturesque ' What Ifs ' Video '' . Rolling Stone . May 15 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Kimble , Lindsay ( May 4 , 2017 ) . `` From Middle School Chorus to Nashville , Kane Brown and Lauren Alaina Team Up for Duet ' What Ifs ' '' . Jump up ^ `` Kane Brown Chart History ( Canadian Hot 100 ) '' . Billboard . Retrieved October 24 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Kane Brown Chart History ( Canada Country ) '' . Billboard . Retrieved November 14 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Kane Brown Chart History ( Hot 100 ) '' . Billboard . Retrieved October 24 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Kane Brown Chart History ( Country Airplay ) '' . Billboard . Retrieved October 17 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Kane Brown Chart History ( Hot Country Songs ) '' . Billboard . Retrieved October 10 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Country Airplay Songs -- Year - End 2017 '' . Billboard . Retrieved December 18 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Hot Country Songs -- Year - End 2017 '' . Billboard . Retrieved December 18 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Hot 100 Songs -- Year - End 2017 '' . Billboard . Retrieved December 12 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Canadian single certifications -- Kane Brown -- What Ifs '' . Music Canada . Retrieved February 8 , 2018 . Preceded by `` Body Like a Back Road '' by Sam Hunt Billboard Hot Country Songs number - one single October 21 -- November 11 , 2017 Succeeded by `` When It Rains It Pours '' by Luke Combs Preceded by `` All the Pretty Girls '' by Kenny Chesney Billboard Country Airplay number - one single October 28 , 2017 Kane Brown Studio albums Kane Brown ( 2016 ) EPs Closer ( 2015 ) Chapter 1 ( 2016 ) Singles `` Do n't Go City on Me '' `` Used to Love You Sober '' `` What Ifs '' `` Heaven '' Lauren Alaina Studio albums Wildflower Road Less Traveled EPs Lauren Alaina Singles `` Like My Mother Does '' `` Georgia Peaches '' `` Eighteen Inches '' `` Barefoot and Buckwild '' `` Next Boyfriend '' `` Road Less Traveled '' `` Doin ' Fine '' Other singles `` My Grown Up Christmas List '' `` What Ifs '' Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=What_Ifs&oldid=838232791 '' Categories : 2016 songs 2017 singles Kane Brown songs Lauren Alaina songs RCA Records Nashville singles Vocal duets Song recordings produced by Dann Huff Songs written by Jordan Schmidt Billboard Hot Country Songs number - one singles Hidden categories : Music infoboxes with deprecated parameters Articles with hAudio microformats Singlechart usages for Canada Singlechart called without song Singlechart usages for Billboardcanadacountry Singlechart usages for Billboardhot100 Singlechart usages for Billboardcountryairplay Singlechart usages for Billboardcountrysongs Certification Table Entry usages for Canada Certification Table Entry usages for United States Talk Contents About Wikipedia Español Edit links This page was last edited on 25 April 2018 , at 18 : 59 . 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where was the music video what ifs filmed

along the Californian coast at The Inn at Newport Ranch, a resort and cattle ranch to the north of San Francisco

5 Chart performance 5.1 Weekly charts 5.2 Year - end charts 6 Certifications and sales 7 References Background ( edit )

Petroleum industry in Nigeria - wikipedia Petroleum industry in Nigeria Jump to : navigation , search Nigeria is the largest oil and gas producer in Africa . Crude oil from the delta basin comes in two types : light , and comparatively heavy -- the lighter around 36 gravity and the heavier , 20 -- 25 gravity . Both types are paraffinic and low in sulfur . The gates of the oil refinery in Port Harcourt Contents ( hide ) 1 History of oil exploration 2 Production and exploration 2.1 Offshore 2.2 Natural gas 2.3 Downstream 3 Current manufacturing 4 History and politics 4.1 Colonial legacy ( 1800s -- 1960s ) 4.2 Implications and causes of civil war ( 1966 -- 1970 ) 4.3 Industry nationalisation ( 1970 -- 1979 ) 4.4 Attempted democracy and debt ( 1979 -- 1983 ) 4.5 Return to military rule and electoral annulment ( 1983 -- 1993 ) 4.6 An environment of crisis ( 1993 -- present ) 5 Operating agreements 5.1 Joint venture companies 5.2 Current situation 5.3 Oil theft 6 Environmental impact 6.1 Oil spills and water contamination 6.2 Natural gas flaring 7 Human rights impact 7.1 Repression of protest and government corruption 7.2 Poverty and chronic underdevelopment 8 References 9 External links History of oil exploration ( edit ) The history of oil exploration in Nigeria dates back to 1907 when Nigerian Bitumen Corporation conducted exploratory work in the country , at the onset of World War I the firm 's operation were stopped . Thereafter , licenses were given to D'Arcy Exploration Company and Whitehall Petroleum but neither company found oil of commercial value and they returned their licenses in 1923 . A new license covering 920,000 square kilometres ( 357,000 square miles ) was given to Shell D'arcy Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria , a consortium of Shell and British Petroleum ( then known as Anglo - Iranian ) . The company began exploratory work in 1937 . The consortium was granted license to explore oil all over the territory of Nigeria but the acreage allotted to the company in the original license was reduced in 1951 and then between 1955 and 1957 . Drilling activities started in 1951 with the first test well drilled in Owerri area . Oil was discovered in non-commercial quantities at Akata , near Eket in 1953 . Prior to the Akata find , the company had spent around 6 million pounds in exploratory activities in the country . Shell - BP in the pursuit of commercially available petroleum found oil in Oloibiri , Nigeria in 1956 . Other important oil wells discovered during the period were Afam and Bomu in Ogoni territory . Production of crude oil began in 1957 and in 1960 , a total of 847,000 tonnes of crude oil was exported . Towards the end of the 1950s , non-British firms were granted license to explore for oil : Mobil in 1955 , Tenneco in 1960 , Gulf Oil and later Chevron in 1961 , Agip in 1962 , and Elf in 1962 . Prior to the discovery of oil , Nigeria ( like many other African countries ) strongly relied on agricultural exports to other countries to supply their economy . Many Nigerians thought the developers were looking for palm oil . But after nearly 50 years searching for oil in the country , Shell - BP discovered the oil at Oloibiri in the Niger Delta . The first oil field began production in 1958 . After that , the economy of Nigeria should have seemingly have experienced a strong increase . However , competition for the profits from oil created a great level of terror and conflict for those living in the region . Many citizens of Nigeria believe that they have n't been able to see the economic benefits of oil companies in the state . Additionally , Nigerian government officials have remained majority shareholders in the profits created by the production of Nigerian oil , leading to government capturing of nearly all oil production , and citizens are not seeing socioeconomic benefits , and insist that oil companies should compensate people . Production and exploration ( edit ) Satellite image of Niger Delta As of 2000 , oil and gas exports accounted for more than 98 % of export earnings and about 83 % of federal government revenue , as well as generating more than 14 % of its GDP . It also provides 95 % of foreign exchange earnings , and about 65 % of government budgetary revenues . Nigeria 's proven oil reserves are estimated by the United States Energy Information Administration ( EIA ) at between 16 and 22 billion barrels ( 2.5 × 10 and 3.5 × 10 m ) , but other sources claim there could be as much as 35.3 billion barrels ( 5.61 × 10 m ) . Its reserves make Nigeria the tenth most petroleum - rich nation , and by the far the most affluent in Africa . In mid-2001 its crude oil production was averaging around 2,200,000 barrels ( 350,000 m ) per day . It is expected that the industry will continue to be profitable based on an average bench mark oil price of $85 - $90 per barrel . Nearly all of the country 's primary reserves are concentrated in and around the delta of the Niger River , but off - shore rigs are also prominent in the well - endowed coastal region . Nigeria is one of the few major oil - producing nations still capable of increasing its oil output . Unlike most of the other OPEC countries , Nigeria is not projected to exceed peak production until at least 2009 . The reason for Nigeria 's relative unproductivity is primarily OPEC regulations on production to regulate prices on the international market . More recently , production has been disrupted intermittently by the protests of the Niger Delta 's inhabitants , who feel they are being exploited . Nigeria has a total of 159 oil fields and 1481 wells in operation according to the Department of Petroleum Resources . The most productive region of the nation is the coastal Niger Delta Basin in the Niger Delta or `` South - south '' region which encompasses 78 of the 159 oil fields . Most of Nigeria 's oil fields are small and scattered , and as of 1990 , these small unproductive fields accounted for 62.1 % of all Nigerian production . This contrasts with the sixteen largest fields which produced 37.9 % of Nigeria 's petroleum at that time . As a result of the numerous small fields , an extensive and well - developed pipeline network has been engineered to transport the crude oil . Also because of the lack of highly productive fields , money from the jointly operated ( with the federal government ) companies is constantly directed towards petroleum exploration and production . Nigeria 's petroleum is classified mostly as `` light '' and `` sweet '' , as the oil is largely free of sulphur . Nigeria is the largest producer of sweet oil in OPEC . This sweet oil is similar in composition to petroleum extracted from the North Sea . This crude oil is known as `` Bonny light '' . Names of other Nigerian crudes , all of which are named according to export terminal , are Qua Ibo , Escravos blend , Brass River , Forcados , and Pennington Anfan . As recently as 2010 , Nigeria provided about 10 % of overall U.S. oil imports and ranked as the fifth - largest source for oil imports in the U.S. However , Nigeria ceased exports to the US in July 2014 because of the impact of shale production in America ; India is now the largest consumer of Nigerian oil . There are six petroleum exportation terminals in the country . Shell owns two , while Mobil , Chevron , Texaco , and Agip own one each . Shell also owns the Forcados Terminal , which is capable of storing 13 million barrels ( 2,100,000 m ) of crude oil in conjunction with the nearby Bonny Terminal . Mobil operates primarily out of the Qua Iboe Terminal in Akwa Ibom State , while Chevron owns the Escravos Terminal located in Delta State and has a storage capacity of 3.6 million barrels ( 570,000 m ) . Agip operates the Brass Terminal in Brass , a town 113 kilometres ( 70 miles ) southwest of Port Harcourt and has a storage capacity of 3,558,000 barrels ( 565,700 m ) . Texaco operates the Pennington Terminal . Offshore ( edit ) Oil companies in Africa investigate offshore production as an alternative area of production . Deepwater production mainly involves underwater drilling that exists 400 metres ( 1,300 ft ) or more below the surface of the water . By expanding to deep water drilling the possible sources for finding new oil reserves is expanded . Through the introduction of deep water drilling 50 % more oil is extracted than before the new forms of retrieving the oil . Angola and Nigeria are the largest oil producers in Africa . In Nigeria , the deepwater sector still has a large avenue to expand and develop . The Agbami oilfields hit full production in 2005 , at 250,000 barrels ( 40,000 m ) a day . Operated by Chevron 's Star Deep and a company called Famfa , Agbami is only one off - shore concession ; there are others named Akpo , Bonga and Erha . The amount of oil extracted from Nigeria was expected to expand from 15,000 barrels per day ( 2,400 m / d ) in 2003 to 1.27 million barrels per day ( 202,000 m / d ) in 2010 . Deepwater drilling for oil is especially attractive to oil companies because the Nigerian government has very little share in these activities and it is more difficult for the government to regulate the offshore activities of the companies . The deepwater extraction plants are less disturbed by local militant attacks , seizures due to civil conflicts , and sabotage . These advancements offer more resources and alternatives to extract the oil from the Niger Delta , with less exposure to conflict than the operations on land . An open - air market for illegal crude oil operates off the Niger Delta , called the Togo Triangle . Natural gas ( edit ) Natural gas reserves are well over 5,300 km ( 187 × 10 ^ cu ft ) , the gas reserves are three times as substantial as the crude oil reserves . The biggest natural gas initiative is the Nigerian Liquified Natural Gas Company , which is operated jointly by several companies and the state . It began exploration and production in 1999 . Chevron is also attempting to create the Escravos Gas Utilization project which will be capable of producing 4,500,000 m ( 160 × 10 ^ cu ft ) per day . gas reserves . In 2008 , the government prepared a Gas Master Plan that was intended to promote natural gas production and encourage the supply of natural gas to domestic power stations so as to help alleviate the country 's electricity shortages . There is also an export gas pipeline , known as the West African Gas Pipeline , in the works but has encountered numerous setbacks . The pipeline would allow for transportation of natural gas to Benin , Ghana , Togo , and Cote d'Ivoire . The majority of Nigeria 's natural gas is flared off and it is estimated that Nigeria loses 18.2 million US $ daily from the loss of the flared gas . Downstream ( edit ) This section 's factual accuracy is disputed . Relevant discussion may be found on Talk : Petroleum industry in Nigeria . Please help to ensure that disputed statements are reliably sourced . ( May 2008 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Nigeria 's total petroleum refining capacity is 445,000 barrels ( 70,700 m ) per day , however , only 240,000 barrels ( 38,000 m ) per day was allotted during the 1990s . Subsequently , crude oil production for refineries was reduced further to as little as 75,000 barrels ( 11,900 m ) per day during the regime of Sanni Abacha . There are four major oil refineries : the Warri Refinery and Petrochemical Plant which can process 125,000 barrels ( 19,900 m ) of crude per day , the New Port Harcourt Refinery which can produce 150,000 barrels ( 24,000 m ) per day ( there is also an ' Old ' Port Harcourt Refinery with negligible production ) , as well as the now defunct Kaduna Refinery . The Port Harcourt and Warri Refineries both operate at only 30 % capacity . It is estimated that demand and consumption of petroleum in Nigeria grows at a rate of 12.8 % annually . However , petroleum products are unavailable to most Nigerians and are quite costly , because almost all of the oil extracted by the multinational oil companies is refined overseas , while only a limited quantity is supplied to Nigerians themselves . Current manufacturing ( edit ) Nigeria is Africa 's largest oil producer and has been a member of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries since 1971 . The Nigerian economy is heavily dependent on the oil sector , which , accounts for over 95 percent of export earnings and about 40 percent of government revenues , according to the International Monetary Fund . According to the International Energy Agency , Nigeria produced about 2.53 million barrels ( 402,000 m ) per day , well below its oil production capacity of over 3 million barrels ( 480,000 m ) per day , in 2011 . Nigeria is an important oil supplier to the United States . For the last nine years , the United States has imported between 9 - 11 percent of its crude oil from Nigeria ; however , United States import data for the first half of 2012 show that Nigerian crude is down to a 5 percent share of total United States crude imports . According to the International Energy Agency , in 2011 , approximately 33 percent of Nigeria 's crude exports were sent to the United States , making Nigeria its fourth largest foreign oil supplier . Although total crude imports into the United States are falling , imports from Nigeria have declined at a steeper rate , according to the International Energy Agency . The main reasons underlying this trend are that some Gulf Coast refiners have reduced Nigerian imports in favor of domestically - produced crude , and that two refineries in the U.S. East Coast , which were significant buyers of Nigerian crude , were idled in late 2011 . As a result , Nigerian crude as a share of total United States imports has fallen to 5 percent in the first half of 2012 , down from 10 and 11 percent in the first half of 2011 and 2010 , respectively , according to the International Energy Agency . According to the CIA World Factbook , Nigeria 's main export partners are the United States , India , Brazil , Spain , France and the Netherlands . Shell has been working in Nigeria since 1936 , and currently dominates gas production in the country , as the Niger Delta , which contains most of Nigeria 's gas resources , also houses most of Shell 's hydrocarbon assets . History and politics ( edit ) See also : History of Nigeria and Niger Delta An Ethno - linguistic map of Nigeria . Prior to its official amalgamation into the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria by the military forces of the British Empire in 1914 , the territory of Nigeria was a loose collection of autonomous states , villages , and ethnic communities . Many of these established themselves as pillars of art , trade , and politics in West Africa as late as the 19th century ; four of these cultural entities , the Hausa - Fulani , the Igbo ( sometimes spelled Ibo ) , the Yoruba and the Efik grew extremely prominent in the region before the arrival of foreigners , dictated British colonial policies , and dominate national politics in Nigeria to this day . The modern Hausa and Fulani societies in northern Nigeria are the cultural successors of the Sokoto Caliphate , a theocratic state founded by Muslim reformer empire - maker Uthman dan Fodio in 1817 . Geographically isolated in the north , the Caliphate was governed by Islamic laws as prescribed by dan Fodio 's Kitab al - Farq and maintained greater links commercially and culturally to North Africa and the Arab states than to West Africa and the Atlantic . By contrast , the Yoruba , the Igbo and the Efik in the south had regularly experienced contact with Europeans since at least the 16th century . A minority of southerners converted to Christianity even prior to the establishment of permanent British control , but the majority followed traditional indigenous religions , worshipping myriad deities with vast domains spanning both cosmic and terrestrial spheres . Coastal Nigerians established thriving trade both regionally and abroad , fashioning the coast into a hub for products like palm oil , a good sought after by rapidly industrialising Europe , while also serving as key source for the slave trade prior to its international banning ( the region came to be known as the Slave Coast as a result ) . The Niger Delta region , which is roughly synonymous with the Niger Delta province in location and the contemporary heart of the petroleum industry , is and was a zone of dense cultural diversity and is currently inhabited by roughly forty ethnic groups speaking an estimated 250 dialects . Some of the more relevant ethnic groups in the western part of the Niger Delta region include the Ijaw , Itsekiri , and Ogoni . The Ijaw ( sometimes spelled Ijo ) , the fourth most populous tribe in Nigeria and by far the largest in the Delta region , lived during late medieval times in small fishing villages within the inlets of the delta ; however by the 16th century , as the slave trade grew in importance , Ijaw port cities like Bonny and Brass developed into major trading states which served as major exporters of fish and other goods regionally . Other states such as those of Itsekiri domain of Warri sprang up at this time as well . The eastern Niger Delta region has the Efik people ( Annang / Efik / Ibibio who are all related with a common language and ancestors who were all referred to as Efik or Calabar people in early Nigerian history ) . Their capital city of Calabar , located at the coastal southeast of Nigeria ( eastern Niger Delta ) served as the major trading and shipping center during the pre-colonial and colonial period . Calabar also served as the first capital of Nigeria and the point of entry of Western religion and Western education into southeastern Nigeria . The combined population of the Ibibio , Annang and Efik people is the fourth largest language group in Nigeria . Colonial legacy ( 1800s -- 1960s ) ( edit ) See also : Colonial Nigeria Even before the consolidation of British control over all of present - day Nigeria 's borders in 1914 from the protectorates of Southern and Northern Nigeria , British forces had begun imposing drastic political and economic policies on the Nigerian people which would lead to important consequences in the future . Originally this was done primarily through the government - owned Royal Niger Company . The company was crucial in securing most of Nigeria 's major ports and monopolised coastal trade ; this resulted in the severing of the ties which had linked the area to the flourishing West African regional trade network , in favour of the exportation of cheap natural resources and cash crops to industrialising nations . Most of the population eventually abandoned food production for such market - dependent crops ( peanuts and cotton in the north , palm oil in the east , and cocoa in the west ) . From the beginning , divide and rule tactics were employed by both traders and administrators , highlighting ethno - religious differences and playing groups against one another . After 1914 , the north was permitted a system of indirect rule under authoritarian leaders , while in the south the British exercised control directly . Interest in Nigerian oil originated in 1914 with an ordinance making any oil and mineral under Nigerian soil legal property of the Crown . By 1938 the colonial government had granted the state - sponsored company , Shell ( then known as Shell D'Arcy ) a monopoly over the exploration of all minerals and petroleum throughout the entire colony . Commercially viable oil was discovered by Shell in 1956 roughly 90 kilometres ( 56 mi ) west of the soon - to - be oil capital of Port Harcourt at Oloibiri , now in Bayelsa State ; initially a 50 -- 50 profit sharing system was implemented between the company and the government . Until the late 1950s concessions on production and exploration continued to be the exclusive domain of the company , then known as Shell - British Petroleum . However , other firms became interested and by the early 1960s Mobil , Texaco , and Gulf had purchased concessions . In October 1960 Nigeria gained full independence from Britain with the British monarch continuing to preside as Head of State , but the country quickly altered its relationship with its former colonizers by declaring Nigeria a republic of three federated states ( the Eastern , Western and Northern Regions ) . But the flaring of ethnic tensions assured that this new republic would be short - lived , as on 15 January 1966 , a small group of army officers consisting mostly of southeastern Igbos , staged a successful coup d'état against the civilian government . The federal military government which assumed power under General Aguiyi - Ironsi was unable to quiet ethnic tensions or produce a constitution acceptable to all sections of the country . In fact , its efforts to abolish the federal structure exacerbated the growing unrest and led to another coup , led by largely northern officers in July of the same year . This second coup established the regime of Major General Yakubu Gowon . Subsequently , the massacre of thousands of Igbo in the north prompted hundreds of thousands to return to the southeast , where increasingly strong Igbo secessionist sentiment emerged under the leadership of the Igbo military governor Lieutenant Colonel Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu . With tensions stoked between the Eastern region and Gowon 's federal government , on 4 -- 5 January 1967 , in compliance with Ojukwu 's desire to meet for talks only on neutral soil , a summit attended by Gowon , Ojukwu and other members of the Supreme Military Council was held at Aburi in Ghana , the stated purpose of which was to resolve all outstanding conflicts and establish Nigeria as a confederation of regions . The outcome of this summit was the Aburi Accord , the differing interpretations of which would soon cause Ojukwu to declare Biafran independence and plunge Nigeria into civil war . Implications and causes of civil war ( 1966 -- 1970 ) ( edit ) Map showing the location of the secessionist Republic of Biafra within Nigeria . See also : Biafra and Nigerian Civil War Igbo secessionism arose in part from the pogroms in the North that were aimed at Eastern people , most specifically , the Igbo . However , since the southeast encompassed most of the petroleum - rich Niger Delta , the prospect emerged of the Eastern Region gaining self - sufficiency and increasing prosperity . The exclusion of easterners from power caused many in the east to fear that oil revenues would be used to benefit areas in the north and west rather than their own . The desire to accrue profits from oil revenues combined with ethnic tensions acted as a catalyst for the Igbo - spearheaded secession . Additionally , despite his denials in later years , it appears that Ojukwu 's insistence on secession at the time was heavily influenced by his knowledge of the extent of the area 's oil reserves . Recent evidence has suggested a tax battle waged by American oil companies contributed to the regional and ethnic tensions that would lead to the outbreak of war . It was also during this period that , again thanks to the Americans , the opacity and concomitant corruption of Nigerian oil began to crystallise . However , evidence from leaked US State Department documents have proven that Britain , through Shell - BP , still held the most influence over the Nigerian oil industry at the time the war broke out . The United States declared neutrality , with US Secretary of State Dean Rusk stating that `` America is not in a position to take action as Nigeria is an area under British influence , '' but nevertheless provided military assistance to the Nigeria government . On top of scores of deaths , the war had a largely negative impact on the oil industry . Strife caused production of crude to drop significantly , particularly in Biafra . Total crude output decreased from 420,000 barrels per day ( 67,000 cubic metres per day ) in 1966 at the start of the war , to only 140,000 barrels per day ( 22,000 cubic metres per day ) in 1968 . Shell alone saw a drop from 367,000 barrels per day ( 58,300 cubic metres per day ) in 1966 , to 43,000 ( 6,800 ) in 1968 . And in addition to concerns about production , oil companies began experiencing uncertainty as to the future of their investments depending on who prevailed in the war . This led to relations between oil companies and the federal government becoming strained , with the government at one point accusing the oil company Safrap ( now TotalFinaElf , but Elf until 1974 ) of favouring Biafra and enlisting the aid of France for the Biafran cause . Shell , the other major holder of concessions in the southeast , was concerned but placated and limited politically by Britain 's staunch support of the Nigerian government in the war effort . Despite oil 's prominent role in national affairs , up to this time , the Nigerian federal government had only limited involvement in the oil industry , and the government confined its financial involvement in the oil industry to taxes and royalties on the oil companies . The companies were subsequently able to set their own price on the petroleum they extracted , and dominated petroleum to such a point that laws governing the oil sector were having a negative effect on Nigerian interests . However , even during the conflict with Biafra would force changes to the relationship between federal government and the petroleum industry . Gowon 's military government instituted the 1969 Petroleum Decree which dismantled the existing revenue allocation system that had divided revenue from oil taxes equally between federal and state government , instead favouring an allocation formula in which the federal government controlled the dispensation of revenues to the states . After the loss of over 2,000,000 lives , the war concluded in 1970 and resulted in a victory for the Nigerian state , as the secessionist regions were subsequently brought back into the Nigerian fold . However , the former Eastern Region had been split into two new states , Rivers and South - Eastern ( now Cross River ) in order to discourage lingering ideas of independence . Industry nationalisation ( 1970 -- 1979 ) ( edit ) See also : Corruption in Nigeria In May 1971 the Nigerian federal government , then under the control of General Yakubu Gowon , nationalised the oil industry by creating the Nigerian National Oil Corporation via a decree . Following the war with Biafra , the government felt it necessary to secure and gain more control over the oil industry . Nationalization of the oil sector was also precipitated by Nigeria 's desire to join OPEC , which was encouraging member states to acquire 51 % stakes and become increasingly involved in the oil sector . Although the Nigerian government had maintained involvement in the industry prior to 1971 , this was accomplished mainly through business deals on concessions of the foreign firms in operation . The creation of the NNOC made government participation in the industry legally binding . The federal government would continue to consolidate its oil involvement throughout the next several decades . However , it was during the years of Gowon and his successors Murtala Mohammed and Olusegun Obasanjo known officially as the Heads of the Federal Military Government of Nigeria , who ruled amidst the oil boom of the 1970s that the political economy of petroleum in Nigeria truly became characterised by endemic patronage and corruption by the political elites , which plagues the nation to this day . At both state and federal government levels , power and therefore wealth has typically been monopolised by select lobby groups who maintain a strong tendency to ' look after their own ' by financially rewarding their political supporters . At the state or community level this means that interest groups in power will reward and protect their own ; this is typically based on ethnic / tribal or religious affiliation of the interest group . The heavy patronage based on tribal affiliation has fueled ethnic unrest and violence throughout Nigeria , but particularly in the Niger Delta states , where the stakes for control of the immense oil resources are very high . At the federal level , political elites have utilised patronage to consolidate power for the ruling government , not only by rewarding their political friends in the federal government , but also by paying off major interest groups at the state or tribal level in order to elicit their cooperation . Inevitably these financial favours are distributed unequally and inefficiently , resulting in concentration of wealth and power in the hands of a small minority . Nigeria is ranked by the Corruption Perceptions Index 136st out of 180 countries total ( for comparison , this is the same as Russia ) . Following the NNOC 's genesis , the Nigerian government continued to garner control over oil revenues . In 1972 it declared that all property not currently owned by a foreign entity was legally the property of the government , which gained jurisdiction over the sale and allocation of concessions to foreign investors . The military regime oversaw the implementation of a number of other important milestones related to oil : 1974 : Participation in oil industry by government increases to 55 % . 1975 : Decree 6 increases federal government share in oil sector to 80 % , with only 20 % going to the states . 1976 : First exploration and development venture by NNOC undertaken and drills to uncover commercial quantities of petroleum off - shore . 1978 : Perhaps most importantly , the federal government created the Land Use Act which vested control over state lands in military governors appointed by the federal military regime , and eventually led to Section 40 ( 3 ) of the 1979 constitution which declared all minerals , oil , natural gas , and natural resources found within the bounds of Nigeria to be legal property of the Nigerian federal government . 1979 : In an effort to establish further control over the industry , the government merges and restructures the NNOC and the Ministry of Petroleum to form the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation , an entity which would exert more power over the allocation and sale of concessions than the NNOC . By 1979 , the NNPC had also gained 60 % participation in the oil industry . Attempted democracy and debt ( 1979 -- 1983 ) ( edit ) Despite the vast revenues accrued by Gowon and his heirs , the junta succumbed to the demands of the civilian population , and in 1979 military head of state Olusegun Obasanjo handed over power to elected National Party of Nigeria ( NPN ) candidate Shehu Shagari . This event coincided with the declaration of Nigeria 's Second Republic . At this juncture , the oil producing states of the Niger Delta were accounting for 82 % of all federal government revenue but the population of these areas received very little compensation and demands for adequate reimbursement for the black gold extracted from their land could be heard at this time . Overall , petroleum accounted for 96 % of all government external revenue but a mere 27 % of the nation 's GDP . However , the advent of democracy did not improve the situation . A 1982 Revenue Act implemented by the Shagari government would eventually be modified by yet another military regime in 1984 via Decree 36 which reduced the government share of oil revenue from 80 % to 55 % . States got 32.5 % and 10 % went to local governments . The remaining 1.5 % was earmarked as a special fund to new develop oil - producing areas , but during the Shagari regime the corruption in Nigerian governance reached its zenith and capital flight out of Nigeria peaked , while people in the oil - producing areas continued to receive little or none of the oil profits . Additionally , 1980 saw oil - generated revenues attain an all - time high of US $24.9 billion but Nigeria still managed an international debt of $9 billion . Shagari 's NPN government was viewed by the majority of Nigerians as incorrigibly corrupt by the time the national elections of 1983 came about . Shagari and his subordinates steadily transformed Nigeria into a police state where Nigerian military and police forces were permitted to utilise force quite liberally in order to control the civilian population . Such repressive measures were employed to ensure victory in the forthcoming elections , and this outcome was achieved largely through the bankrupting of the federal government 's treasury . Another disturbing trend had also been gaining steam in Nigeria since the early 1970s : a steep drop in agricultural production correlating roughly with the rise in federal revenues from petroleum extraction . Whereas previously Nigeria had been the world 's lead exporter of cocoa , production of this cash crop dropped by 43 % , while productivity in other important income generators like rubber ( 29 % ) , groundnuts ( 64 % ) , and cotton ( 65 % ) plummeted as well between 1972 and 1983 . The decline in agricultural production was not limited to cash crops amid the oil boom , and national output of staple foodstuffs also fell . This situation contrasts to Nigeria in 1960 just after independence , when despite British underdevelopment , the nation was more or less self - sufficient in terms of food supply , while crops made up 97 % of all revenue from exports . The drop in production was so substantial that by the early 1980s the NPN government was forced to implement a now notorious import license scheme which essentially involved Nigeria , for the first time in its history , importing basic food items . However , as Nigerian activist and Nobel Laureate Wole Soyinka asserts , `` the import license scam that was used by the party as a reward and enticement for party loyalists and would - be supporters cost the nation billions of dollars ... while food production in the country virtually ceased '' . Return to military rule and electoral annulment ( 1983 -- 1993 ) ( edit ) For these reasons , seizure of power by General Muhammadu Buhari a short time after the NPN government was fraudulently re-elected was initially perceived as a positive development by civilians . Buhari charged out of the gate in December 1983 , declaring himself Head of the Supreme Military Council of Nigeria , he condemned the civilian government 's blatant corruption and instituted programs supposedly designed to eliminate the disease of corruption . However , these measures were largely transparent and the looting of federal coffers by Nigeria 's rulers continued largely unabated , `` as Shagari 's officers -- both within party and government -- left the country , came in and out as they pleased , while Burahi 's tribunal sentence opposition figures to spells of between a hundred and three hundred years in prison for every dubious kind of crime '' . The Buhari government neglected to punish even Shagari himself , a consistent trend in Nigerian 's long line of dictariorial rulers , who almost universally been spared any kind of justice . In 1985 , another general , this time General Ibrahim Babangida , stole power and again alleged that his predecessors were corrupt violators of human rights and promised to rectify the situation , committing to a return to democracy by 1990 . Nigeria had been saddled with a crushingly large international debt at this point . This was because , despite over 101 billion US dollars having been generated by the oil industry between 1958 and 1983 , nearly all of these funds had been siphoned into the private bank accounts and the state sponsored pet projects maintained by the succession of Nigerian governmental elites . Immediately prior to Babangida 's rise to power , which is viewed by some as having been orchestrated by international oil and banking interests , the International Monetary Fund was exerting increasingly acute pressure on the Nigerian government to repay its massive debts , of which 44 % of all federal revenue was already servicing . Therefore , it was unsurprising when Babangida implemented the IMF 's Structural Adjustment Program in October 1986 in order to facilitate debt repayment . The SAP was extremely controversial while it was in effect between 1986 and 1988 . While it did permit Nigerian exports to become more competitive internationally and spurred a degree of economic growth , the SAP also incurred a dramatic drop in real wages for the majority of Nigerians . This , combined with major cuts to important public services , incited public unrest so extreme that Babangida 's Armed Forces Ruling Council was obliged to partially reverse the SAP initiatives and return to inflationary economic policies . Babangida 's rule also oversaw the annihilation of the Nigerian economic middle class , and Nigeria 's entry to the Organisation of the Islamic Conference , despite Muslims accounting for less than 50 % of the Nigerian populace . The 1980s military juntas conducted several attempted re-organisations of the NNPC to increase its efficiency . However , according to most sources by the early 1990s the NNPC was characterised by chronic inefficiency and waste . Red tape and poor organisation are standard , with the NNPC being divided into several sub-entities , each fulfilling a particular function . This is despite the NNPC 's growing participation in the industry , including development and exploration of numerous off - shore wells . As a result , the functionality of the industry is dependent on foreign corporations , not the NNPC . The sudden jump in oil prices caused by the First Gulf War in 1990 and 1991 , as most researchers confirm , was at best squandered . The Babangida junta has been widely accused of `` mismanaging '' the oil windfall from the Gulf War price jump , which accounted for about $12.5 billion in revenues . Another alleges that the federal government siphoned off about $12.2 billion between 1988 and 1994 into private accounts or expenditures , `` clandestinely undertaken while the country was openly reeling with a crushing external debt '' . Under these circumstances , Babangida eventually allowed for nationwide elections on 12 June 1993 . These elections were declared universally free and fair ( at least in comparison to past elections ) by all major international election monitors , and the eventual winner of the presidential race was the Chief M.K.O. Abiola ( of the newly formed SDP ) . However , the military regime cynically pronounced the election , in which fourteen million Nigerians participated , to be null and void due to `` electoral irregularities '' . The Nigerian people took to the streets in large numbers to protest the election 's annulment . As civil unrest continued , Babangida was forced to cede power to the caretaker government of Ernest Shonekan . An environment of crisis ( 1993 -- present ) ( edit ) Shonekan 's interim government would be short - lived , as on 17 November 1993 , Babangida 's former Chief of Army Staff and Minister of Defence Sani Abacha overthrew the caretaker regime and installed himself as Head of State . Popular opposition to the junta was widespread and public demonstrations were taking place on a regular basis . Immediately upon taking power , Abacha commenced the brutal repression of these subversive elements which would make his tenure notorious on a global basis . Throughout the early 1990s such popular unrest grew steadily , particularly in the Niger Delta region , where various ethnic groups began demanding compensation for years of ecological damage as well as control over their land 's oil resources . This unrest manifested itself at the outset as peaceful activist organisations that united their members on the basis of ethnicity . One of the most prominent of these organisations to emerge in the region was the Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People ( MOSOP ) . The group declared that the Ogoni people , a small minority in Rivers state of Nigeria , were slowly being annihilated as the arable terrain of their homeland ( known as Ogoniland ) was degraded by pollution from oil production by Chevron and primarily Shell . Main article : Conflict in the Niger Delta Conflict in the Niger Delta arose in the early 1990s due to tensions between the foreign oil corporations , the Nigerian federal government , and a number of the Niger Delta 's ethnic groups who felt they were being exploited , particularly minority groups like the Ogoni as well as the Ijaw in the late 1990s . Ethnic and political unrest has continued throughout the 1990s and persists as of 2006 despite the conversion to a more democratic , civilian federal system under the Obasanjo government in 1999 ; democracy has to some degree fan the flames as politicians seeking office may now employ militia groups to coerce voters and generally disrupt the election process . Competition for oil wealth has fuelled violence between innumerable ethnic groups , causing the militarisation of nearly the entire region by ethnic militia groups as well as Nigerian military and police forces ( notably the Nigerian Mobile Police ) . Victims of crimes are fearful of seeking justice for crimes committed against them because of growing `` impunity from prosecution for individuals responsible for serious human rights abuses , ( which ) has created a devastating cycle of increasing conflict and violence '' . The regional and ethnic conflicts are so numerous that fully detailing each is impossible and impractical . On 30 January 2013 , a Dutch court ruled that Shell can be held accountable for the pollution in the Niger Delta . Operating agreements ( edit ) Details and nature of the relationship between the government and the operating companies are governed by three types of agreements , joint ventures , production sharing contracts and service contracts . Joint venture companies ( edit ) Royal Dutch Shell ( British / Dutch ) Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria Limited ( SPDC ) , usually known simply as Shell Nigeria : A joint venture operated by Shell accounts for 50 % of Nigerian 's total oil production ( 899,000 barrels ( 142,900 m ) per day in 1997 ) from more than eighty oil fields . The joint venture is composed of NNPC ( 55 % ) , Shell ( 30 % ) , TotalFinaElf ( 10 % ) and Agip ( 5 % ) and operates largely onshore on dry land or in the mangrove swamp in the Niger Delta . `` The company has more than 100 producing oil fields , and a network of more than 6,000 kilometres of pipelines , flowing through 87 flowstations . SPDC operates 2 coastal oil export terminals '' . The Shell joint venture produces about 50 % of Nigeria 's total crude . Shell Nigeria owns concessions on four companies , they are : Shell Petroleum Development Company ( SPDC ) , Shell Nigeria Exploration and Production Company ( SNEPCO ) , Shell Nigeria Gas ( SNG ) , Shell Nigeria Oil Products ( SNOP ) , as well as holding a major stake in Nigeria Liquified Natural Gas ( NLNG ) . Shell formerly operated alongside British Petroleum as Shell - BP , but BP has since sold all of its Nigerian concessions . Most of Shell 's operations in Nigeria are conducted through the Shell Petroleum Development Company ( SPDC ) . Chevron ( American ) Chevron Nigeria Limited ( CNL ) : A joint venture between NNPC ( 60 % ) and Chevron ( 40 % ) has in the past been the second largest producer ( approximately 400,000 barrels per day ( 64,000 cubic metres per day ) ) , with fields located in the Warri region west of the Niger river and offshore in shallow water . It is reported to aim to increase production to 600,000 barrels per day ( 95,000 cubic metres per day ) . Exxon - Mobil ( American ) Mobil Producing Nigeria Unlimited ( MPNU ) : A joint venture between the NNPC ( 60 % ) and Exxon - Mobil ( 40 % ) operates in shallow water off Akwa Ibom state in the southeastern delta and averaged production of 632,000 barrels per day ( 100,500 cubic metres per day ) in 1997 , making it the second largest producer , as against 543,000 barrels per day ( 86,300 cubic metres per day ) in 1996 . Mobil also holds a 50 % interest in a Production Sharing Contract for a deep water block further offshore , and is reported to plan to increase output to 900,000 barrels per day ( 140,000 cubic metres per day ) by 2000 . Oil industry sources indicate that Mobil is likely to overtake Shell as the largest producer in Nigeria within the next five years , if current trends continue , mainly due to its offshore base allowing it refuge from the strife Shell has experienced onshore . It is headquartered in Eket and operates in Nigeria under the subsidiary of Mobil Producing Nigeria ( MPN ) . Agip ( Italian ) Nigerian Agip Oil Company Limited ( NAOC ) : A joint venture operated by Agip and owned by the NNPC ( 60 % ) , Agip ( 20 % ) and ConocoPhillips ( 20 % ) produces 150,000 barrels per day ( 24,000 cubic metres per day ) mostly from small onshore fields . Total ( French ) Total Petroleum Nigeria Limited ( TPNL ) : A joint venture between NNPC ( 60 % ) and Elf ( now Total ) produced approximately 125,000 barrels per day ( 19,900 cubic metres per day ) during 1997 , both on and offshore . Elf and Mobil are in dispute over operational control of an offshore field with a production capacity of 90,000 barrels per day ( 14,000 cubic metres per day ) . Texaco ( now merged with Chevron ) NNPC Texaco - Chevron Joint Venture ( formerly Texaco Overseas Petroleum Company of Nigeria Unlimited ) : A joint venture operated by Texaco and owned by NNPC ( 60 % ) , Texaco ( 20 % ) and Chevron ( 20 % ) currently produces about 60,000 barrels per day ( 9,500 cubic metres per day ) from five offshore fields . Current situation ( edit ) Nigeria 's oil revenue has totaled $340 billion in exports since the 1970s and it is the fifth largest producer . Though Nigeria is a major oil exporter , it imports most of its gasoline , and when fuel subsidies were lifted in January 2012 , fuel increased from roughly $1.70 per gallon to $3.50 . Nigeria produces a form of oil ideal for the United States , has huge reserves , and has increased its production to 2.8 million barrels ( 450,000 m ) of oil a day . But this , some say , is all a resource curse that is hurting Nigeria and disadvantaging her people . Oil theft ( edit ) A report analysing the effect of oil theft in Nigeria revealed in July 2013 that Nigeria lost $10.9 billion in potential oil revenues between 2009 and 2011 . Environmental impact ( edit ) See also : Environmental issues in Nigeria Map of vegetation in Nigeria The Niger Delta comprises 70,000 square kilometres ( 27,000 square miles ) of wetlands formed primarily by sediment deposition . Home to more than 20 million people and 40 different ethnic groups , this floodplain makes up 7.5 % of Nigeria 's total land mass . It is the largest wetland and maintains the third - largest drainage area in Africa . The Delta 's environment can be broken down into four ecological zones : coastal barrier islands , mangrove swamp forests , freshwater swamps , and lowland rainforests . This incredibly well - endowed ecosystem , which contains one of the highest concentrations of biodiversity on the planet , in addition to supporting an abundant flora and fauna , arable terrain that can sustain a wide variety of crops , economic trees , and more species of freshwater fish than any ecosystem in West Africa . The region could experience a loss of 40 % of its inhabitable terrain in the next thirty years because of extensive dam construction in the region . The carelessness of the oil industry has also precipitated this situation , which can perhaps be best encapsulated by a report issued by the NNPC in 1983 , long before popular unrest surfaced : We witnessed the slow poisoning of the waters of this country and the destruction of vegetation and agricultural land by oil spills which occur during petroleum operations . But since the inception of the oil industry in Nigeria , more than twenty - five years ago , there has been no concerned and effective effort on the part of the government , let alone the oil operators , to control environmental problems associated with the industry . Oil spills and water contamination ( edit ) Oil spills in Nigeria are a common occurrence ; it has been estimated that between 9 and 13 million barrels ( 1,400,000 and 2,100,000 m ) have been spilled since oil drilling started in 1958 . The government estimates that about 7,000 spills occurred between 1970 and 2000 . Causes include corrosion of pipelines and tankers ( accounts for 50 % of all spills ) , sabotage ( 28 % ) , and oil production operations ( 21 % ) , with 1 % of the spills being accounted for by inadequate or non-functional production equipment . One reason that corrosion accounts for such a high percentage of all spills is that as a result of the small size of the oilfields in the Niger Delta , there is an extensive network of pipelines between the fields . Many facilities and pipelines were constructed to older standards , are poorly maintained and have outlived their estimated life span . Sabotage is performed primarily through what is known as `` bunkering '' , whereby the saboteur taps a pipeline , and in the process of extraction sometimes the pipeline is damaged . Oil extracted in this manner is often sold for cash compensation . Oil spills have a major impact on the ecosystem . Large tracts of mangrove forests have been desroyed . They are especially susceptible to oil spills because the oil is stored in the soil and re-released annually with each inundation . An estimated 5 -- 10 % of Nigerian mangrove ecosystems have been wiped out either by settlement or by oil . Spills also take out crops and aquacultures through contamination of groundwater and soils . Drinking water is frequently contaminated , and a sheen of oil is visible in many localised bodies of water . If the drinking water is contaminated , even if no immediate health effects are apparent , the numerous hydrocarbons and other chemicals present in oil represent a carcinogenic risk . Offshore spills , which are usually much greater in scale , contaminate coastal environments and cause a decline in local fishing production . Nigerian regulations are weak and rarely enforced allowing oil companies , in essence , to self - regulate . Natural gas flaring ( edit ) See also main article : Environmental issues in the Niger Delta Nigeria flares more natural gas associated with oil extraction than any other country , with estimates suggesting that of the 99,000,000 m ( 3.5 × 10 ^ cu ft ) of associated gas ( AG ) produced annually , 71,000,000 m ( 2.5 × 10 ^ cu ft ) , or about 70 % is wasted via flaring . Statistical data associated with gas flaring is notoriously unreliable , but AG wasted during flaring is estimated to cost Nigeria US $2.5 billion on a yearly basis . Companies operating in Nigeria harvest natural gas for commercial purposes , however prefer to extract it gas from deposits where it is found in isolation as non-associated gas . It is costly to separate commercially viable associated gas from oil , hence gas flaring to increase crude production . Gas flaring is discouraged by the international community as it contributes to climate change . In fact , in western Europe 99 % of associated gas is used or re-injected into the ground . Gas flaring in Nigeria releases large amounts methane , which has very high global warming potential . The methane is accompanied by carbon dioxide , of which Nigeria is estimated to have emitted more than 34.38 million tons in 2002 , accounting for about 50 % of all industrial emissions in the country and 30 % of the total CO emissions . As flaring in the west has been minimised , in Nigeria it has grown proportionally with oil production . While the international community , the Nigerian government , and the oil corporations seem to agree that gas flaring need to be curtailed , efforts to do so have been slow and largely ineffective . Gas flares release a variety of potentially poisonous chemicals such as nitrogen dioxides , sulphur dioxide , volatile organic compounds like benzene , toluene , xylene and hydrogen sulfide , as well as carcinogens like benzapyrene and dioxins . Often gas flares are often close to local communities , and lack adequate fencing or protection for villagers who may risk nearing the heat of the flare in order to carry out their daily activities . Flares which are often older and inefficient are rarely relocated away from villages , and are known to coat the land and communities in the area with soot and damage adjacent vegetation . In November 2005 a judgment by , `` the Federal High Court of Nigeria ordered that gas flaring must stop in a Niger Delta community as it violates guaranteed constitutional rights to life and dignity . In a case brought against the Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria ( Shell ) , Justice C.V. Nwokorie ruled in Benin City that the damaging and wasteful practice of flaring can not lawfully continue . '' Human rights impact ( edit ) Repression of protest and government corruption ( edit ) One of the greatest threats facing the people of the Niger River Delta has actually been their own government . The Nigerian government has total control over property rights and they have the authority to seize any property for use by the oil companies . A majority of every dollar that comes out of the ground in the delta goes to the State and Federal governments . According to the World Bank , most of Nigeria 's oil wealth gets siphoned off by 1 % of the population . Corruption in the government is rampant , in fact since 1960 it is estimated that 300 to 400 billion dollars has been stolen by corrupt government officials . The corruption is found at the highest levels as well . For example , a former inspector general of the national police was accused of stealing 52 million dollars . He was sentenced to six years in prison for a lesser charge . Nigerians have on many occasions engaged in protests against oil - related corruption and environmental concerns in the past , but have been met with harsh suppression by government forces . For example , in February 2005 at a protest at Chevron 's Escravos oil terminal , soldiers opened fire on the protestors . One man was killed and 30 others were injured . The soldiers claimed that the protestors were armed , which the protestors denied . Another , more extreme example happened in 1994 . The Nigerian military moved into a region called Ogoniland in force . They razed 30 villages , arrested hundreds of protestors , and killed an estimated 2,000 people . One of the protestors they arrested was a man named Ken Saro - Wiwa , a Nigerian TV producer , writer and social activist . In 1990 he founded the Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People ( MOSOP ) . Ken wrote and spoke out about the rampant corruption in the Nigerian government and he condemned Shell and British Petroleum . He was arrested by the Nigerian government and imprisoned for 17 months . Then in a show trial he and eight others were condemned to death . He and the others were hung in 1995 and he was buried in an unmarked common grave . Poverty and chronic underdevelopment ( edit ) Previous pipeline explosions in Nigeria City Date Casualties Lagos 26 December 2007 at least 40 Lagos 26 December 2006 at least 260 Lagos 12 May 2006 at least 150 Lagos December 2004 at least 20 Lagos September 2004 at least 60 Abia June 2003 at least 105 Warri July 2000 at least 300 Abia March 2000 at least 50 Jesse October 1998 at least 1000 The people of the delta states live in extreme poverty even in the face of great material wealth found in the waters by their homes . According to Amnesty International in 2006 , 70 % of the people in the Niger River Delta live on less than US $1 per day . For many people , this means finding work in a labour market which is in many instances hostile to them . Much of the labour in the past has been imported . To a growing degree , the labour force for the oil companies is coming from Nigeria . But discrimination is rampant , and for the most part , locals are discriminated against . This leads to a situation where the men in the community have to search for temporary employment . This has two negative effects on the community . First it takes the men out of the community as they go in search of work . The second is the nature of temporary employment sets up unsustainable spending habits ) . They earn some money and spend it thinking it will be easy to earn more , when in many cases this does not turn out to be the case . As the government officials siphon off all the money generated from oil sales the infrastructure suffers . Most of the villages do not have electricity or even running water . They do not have good access to schools or medical clinics . For many , even clean drinking water is difficult to come by . The deterioration of the infrastructure in the delta states is so severe it is even a problem in the more urban areas . One example of this is the airport at Port Harcourt . Part of a fence was not properly maintained and an Air France flight hit a herd of cattle on the runway in 2005 . The airport was closed and still had not reopened by 2007 . The leadership of the Niger Delta region appears responsible for most of the underdevelopment in the region . There is large - scale corruption amongst the elected leaders especially governors , and the leaders have helped sponsor the militant groups kidnapping innocent people and sabotaging efforts by the federal government for infrastructure development . Indicted corrupt leaders are also cheered by the Niger Delta people . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ David Thomas ( 13 November 1995 ) . `` NIGER DELTA OIL PRODUCTION , RESERVES , FIELD SIZES ASSESSED '' . Industry Briefs . Oil and Gas Journal . ^ Jump up to : Frynas , J.G. ( 1999 ) . Oil in Nigeria : Conflict and litigation between oil companies and village communities . Münster : Lit Verlag . ^ Jump up to : http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7840310.stm Retrieved 26 November 2012 Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on 10 April 2012 . Retrieved 4 December 2012 . Retrieved 26 November 2012 Jump up ^ U.S. Energy Information Administration ( U.S. EIA ) , `` Nigeria Country Analysis Brief , '' December 1997 . Jump up ^ http://www.oilandgascouncil.com/expert_insight_articles/review-nigeria-oil-gas-industry Jump up ^ Environmental Resources Managers Ltd , Niger Delta Environmental Survey Final Report Phase I ; Volume I : Environmental and Socio - Economic Characteristics ( Lagos : Niger Delta Environmental Survey , September 1997 ) ^ Jump up to : Nigeria : The Political Economy of Oil ISBN 0 - 19 - 730014 - 6 ( Khan , Ahmad ) Jump up ^ US Shuts its Door on Nigeria 's Oil Exports ( ThisDayLive.com ) ^ Jump up to : Nigerian Crude and Gas Industry ( NigeriaBusinessInfo.com ) ^ Jump up to : McLennan , James ; Stewart Williams ( Feb 2005 ) . Deepwater Africa reaches turning point . Oil & Gas Journal . Vol. 103 , 6 ; ABI / INFORM Global . pg. 18 Jump up ^ Khadija Sharife . `` How Nigeria 's lucrative oil profits disappear '' . # Panama Papers . ANCIR . Jump up ^ Smith , Robert ; Simon , Julia ( 30 October 2014 ) . `` How To Steal A Million Barrels Of Oil '' . Planet Money . NPR . Retrieved 1 November 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Natural Gas ( Online Nigeria Portal ) Jump up ^ ( 1 ) ( corporate-nigeria.com ) ^ Jump up to : Where Vultures Feast . ( Okonta and Douglas , 2001 ) . Jump up ^ Klieman , Kairn A. ( 2012 ) . `` U.S. Oil Companies , the Nigerian Civil War , and the Origins of Opacity in the Nigerian Oil Industry '' . Journal of American History . 1 ( 1 ) : 155 -- 165 . doi : 10.1093 / jahist / jas072 . ^ Jump up to : Awoyokun , Damola ( 19 February 2013 ) . `` BIAFRA : The Untold Story of Nigeria 's civil war '' . P.M. News . access - date = requires url = ( help ) Jump up ^ http://www.transparency.org/cpi2014/results ^ Jump up to : The Price of Oil : Corporate Responsibility and Human Rights Violations in Nigeria 's Oil Producing Communities ( Human Rights Watch , 1999 ) ^ Jump up to : The Open Sore of a Continent . Soyinka , Wole . Jump up ^ Raymond Ridderhof ( 15 February 2013 ) . `` Shell and Ogoni People : ( s ) oil pollution in the Niger Delta '' . Peace Palace Library . Retrieved 18 March 2014 . Jump up ^ Frynas , Jedrzej Georg ( 1999 ) . Oil in Nigeria : : conflict and litigation between oil companies and village communities . Münster : Lit Verlag . p. 81 . ISBN 3825839214 . Jump up ^ http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=75700003&site=ehost-live Retrieved 26 November 2012 Jump up ^ https://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/10/world/africa/nigerians-protest-oil-price-rise-as-subsidies-end.html Retrieved 26 November 2012 Jump up ^ http://find.galegroup.com/gtx/infomark.do?&source=gale&srcprod=AONE&prodId=AONE&userGroupName=uiuc_uc&tabID=T002&docId=A126748348&type=retrieve&contentSet=IAC-Documents&version=1.0 Retrieved 26 November 2012 Jump up ^ http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=75700003&site=ehost-live Retrieved 26 November 2012 Jump up ^ Nigeria loses $10.9 bn to oil theft , South Africa : Fin24.com , 2013 Jump up ^ ( Quoted in Greenpeace International 's Shell Shocked , 11 ) ( Greenpeace ) ^ Jump up to : Baird J ( 26 July 2010 ) . `` Oil 's Shame in Africa '' . Newsweek . Jump up ^ Shell International Petroleum Company , Developments in Nigeria ( London : March 1995 ) Jump up ^ Nigeria to start rehabilitation of oil joint venture facilities ( NigeriaBusinessInfo.com ) Jump up ^ Media Briefing : Gas flaring in Nigeria Archived 29 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine . ( Friends of the Earth ) ^ Jump up to : GAS FLARING IN NIGERIA : A HUMAN RIGHTS , ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECONOMIC MONSTROSITY ( Climate Justice Programme and Environmental Rights Action / Friends of the Earth Nigeria ) ^ Jump up to : Boele , R. , Fabig , H. , Wheeler , D. ( 2001 ) . Shell , Nigeria and the Ogoni : A Study in Unsustainable Development : I . The Story of Shell , Nigeria and the Ogoni People - Environment , Economy , Relationships : Conflict and Prospects for Resolution . Sustainable Development , 9 , 74 -- 86 . ^ Jump up to : Junger , S. ( 2007 ) . Blood Oil . Vanity Fair.com . Retrieved 2 May 2007 , from http://www.vanityfair.com/politics/features/2007/02/junger200702 ^ Jump up to : Amnesty International . ( 2006 ) . Nigeria : Oil , Poverty and Violence . Archived 19 August 2007 , at https://web.archive.org/web/20070819155442/http://www.web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGAFR440172006?open&of=ENG-NGA Jump up ^ Books and Writers . ( 2003 ) . Ken Saro - Wiwa ( 1941 -- 1945 ) . Retrieved 9 May 2007 from , http://www.kirjsto.sci.fi/saro.htm Jump up ^ `` Nigeria mourns pipeline victims '' . BBC News . 27 December 2007 . Retrieved 2008 - 05 - 16 . Jump up ^ Egan , J. ( 1999 ) . Troubled Times in the Niger Delta . Retrieved 8 May 2007 , from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programes/crossing-continents/325300.stm Jump up ^ `` More Corrupt Deals of Bayelsa Governor Uncovered '' . Elendu Reports . Retrieved 13 September 2011 . Jump up ^ `` TELL Magazine Details Allegations of Corruption Against Ex-Governor James Ibori '' . Waado.org . Retrieved 13 September 2011 . Jump up ^ http://www.businessdayonline.com/index.php?news=13891 Jump up ^ Ekeinde , Austin ( 31 August 2007 ) . `` Convicted governor cheered in Nigerian oil delta '' . Uk.reuters.com . Retrieved 13 September 2011 . External links ( edit ) Nigeria portal Energy portal Premier source of information on the West Africa Energy sector International Museum of Women feature on Nigerian Women 's Activism Against Exploitation John Ghazvinian 's `` The Curse of Oil '' in the Virginia Quarterly Review Nigeria Oil Gas Online The Niger Delta Petroleum System : Niger Delta Province , Nigeria , Cameroon , and Equatorial Guinea , Africa , United States Geological Survey TIME article on the background to the 2006 increase in militant activity Remember Saro - Wiwa Amnesty International 's latest report on oil and injustice in Nigeria Blood Oil : report on the Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta by Sebastian Juger for Vanity Fair , Feb 2007 Nigerian Oil -- `` Curse of the Black Gold : Hope and Betrayal in the Niger Delta '' -- article from National Geographic Magazine ( February 2007 ) Map of the oil and gas infrastructure in Nigeria Map of the production license holders in Nigeria Nigeria articles History Kingdoms Empires Aro Benin Fulani Kanem - Bornu Nri Oyo Timeline Northern Nigeria Southern Nigeria Civil War Geography Adamawa Plateau Cities Ecoregions Environmental issues Islands Jos Plateau Mountains National parks Niger Delta Rivers Niger Benue Wildlife Politics Administrative divisions Cabinet Constitution Elections Federal Executive Council Foreign relations Human rights Law enforcement LGBT history Military National Assembly House of Representatives Senate Political parties PDP APC President Vice-President Supreme Court Economy Agriculture Central Bank Economic history Energy Mining Naira ( currency ) Petroleum Stock Exchange Telecommunications Tourism Transport Society Capital punishment Corruption Demographics Diaspora Education Ethnic groups MASSOB MOSOP Oodua Peoples Congress Health Languages Organized crime Poverty Rankings Refugees Water supply and sanitation Islamist insurgency Communal conflicts in Nigeria , Herder -- farmer conflicts in Nigeria Niger Delta conflict 2016 Biafra conflict Culture Anthem Cinema Nollywood Colonial era Golden Age Video film era New Wave Coat of arms Cuisine Demonyms Flag List of Nigerians Literature Media Newspapers Radio TV Music Public holidays Religion Smoking Sport Video gaming Outline Index Portal Petroleum industry in Africa Sovereign states Algeria Angola Benin Botswana Burkina Faso Burundi Cameroon Cape Verde ( Cabo Verde ) Central African Republic Chad Comoros Democratic Republic of the Congo Republic of the Congo Djibouti Egypt Equatorial Guinea Eritrea Ethiopia Gabon The Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea - Bissau Ivory Coast ( Côte d'Ivoire ) Kenya Lesotho Liberia Libya Madagascar Malawi Mali Mauritania Mauritius Morocco Mozambique Namibia Niger Nigeria Rwanda São Tomé and Príncipe Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Somalia South Africa South Sudan Sudan Swaziland Tanzania Togo Tunisia Uganda Zambia Zimbabwe States with limited recognition Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic Somaliland Dependencies and other territories Canary Islands / Ceuta / Melilla ( Spain ) Madeira ( Portugal ) Mayotte / Réunion ( France ) Saint Helena / Ascension Island / Tristan da Cunha ( United Kingdom ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Petroleum_industry_in_Nigeria&oldid=834244345 '' Categories : Petroleum industry in Nigeria Hidden categories : Pages using citations with accessdate and no URL Webarchive template wayback links Use British English from October 2011 Use dmy dates from October 2011 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from June 2013 Accuracy disputes from May 2008 All accuracy disputes Articles with unsourced statements from November 2013 All articles with specifically marked weasel - worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel - worded phrases from April 2015 Articles with disputed statements from April 2015 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Languages Čeština Polski Edit links This page was last edited on 4 April 2018 , at 17 : 54 . 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in which regions are most of africa petroleum and natural gas found

Nigeria

Nigeria

Pearl - Wikipedia Pearl Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see Pearl ( disambiguation ) . Pearl Various pearls General Carbonate mineral , protein Formula ( repeating unit ) Calcium carbonate , CaCO Conchiolin Strunz classification 05. AB Crystal system Orthorhombic Identification Color white , pink , silver , cream , brown , green , blue , black , yellow , orange , gold , purple , iridescent Cleavage None Fracture Uneven Mohs scale hardness 2.5 -- 4.5 Streak white Specific gravity 2.60 -- 2.85 Refractive index Common pearl : 1.52 - 1.66 Black pearl : 1.53 - 1.69 Birefringence 0.156 Pleochroism Absent Dispersion None Ultraviolet fluorescence White pearls : light blue to light yellow ; Yellow and golden pearls : yellow - green , greenish brown to dark brown ; Black pearls : commonly pink to orange - red Georgian seed pearl gold ring A pearl is a hard glistening object produced within the soft tissue ( specifically the mantle ) of a living shelled mollusk or another animal , such as a conulariid . Just like the shell of a mollusk , a pearl is composed of calcium carbonate ( mainly aragonite or a mixture of aragonite and calcite ) in minute crystalline form , which has been deposited in concentric layers . The ideal pearl is perfectly round and smooth , but many other shapes , known as baroque pearls , can occur . The finest quality natural pearls have been highly valued as gemstones and objects of beauty for many centuries . Because of this , pearl has become a metaphor for something rare , fine , admirable and valuable . The most valuable pearls occur spontaneously in the wild , but are extremely rare . These wild pearls are referred to as natural pearls . Cultured or farmed pearls from pearl oysters and freshwater mussels make up the majority of those currently sold . Imitation pearls are also widely sold in inexpensive jewelry , but the quality of their iridescence is usually very poor and is easily distinguished from that of genuine pearls . Pearls have been harvested and cultivated primarily for use in jewelry , but in the past were also used to adorn clothing . They have also been crushed and used in cosmetics , medicines and paint formulations . Whether wild or cultured , gem - quality pearls are almost always nacreous and iridescent , like the interior of the shell that produces them . However , almost all species of shelled mollusks are capable of producing pearls ( technically `` calcareous concretions '' ) of lesser shine or less spherical shape . Although these may also be legitimately referred to as `` pearls '' by gemological labs and also under U.S. Federal Trade Commission rules , and are formed in the same way , most of them have no value except as curiosities . Contents ( hide ) 1 Etymology 2 Definition 3 Physical properties 4 Freshwater and saltwater pearls 5 Creation 5.1 Natural pearls 5.2 Cultured pearls 5.3 Imitation pearls 5.4 Gemological identification 5.5 Value of a natural pearl 5.6 Origin of a natural pearl 5.7 Types of cultured pearls 6 From other species 7 History 7.1 Pearl hunting 7.1. 1 British Isles 7.2 Pearl farming 8 Timeline of pearl production 9 Freshwater pearl farming 10 Momme weight 11 In jewelry 11.1 Gallery 11.2 Shapes 11.3 Lengths of pearl necklaces 11.4 Colors 12 Religious references 12.1 Hindu scriptures 12.2 Hebrew scriptures 12.3 New Testament scriptures 12.4 Islamic scriptures 12.5 Additional references 13 See also 14 References 15 External links Etymology ( edit ) The English word pearl comes from the French perle , originally from the Latin perna meaning leg , after the ham - or mutton leg - shaped bivalve . Definition ( edit ) A black pearl and a shell of the black - lipped pearl oyster . The iridescent colors originate from nacre layers . All shelled mollusks can , by natural processes , produce some kind of `` pearl '' when an irritating microscopic object becomes trapped within its mantle folds , but the great majority of these `` pearls '' are not valued as gemstones . Nacreous pearls , the best - known and most commercially significant , are primarily produced by two groups of molluskan bivalves or clams . A nacreous pearl is made from layers of nacre , by the same living process as is used in the secretion of the mother of pearl which lines the shell . Natural ( or wild ) pearls , formed without human intervention , are very rare . Many hundreds of pearl oysters or mussels must be gathered and opened , and thus killed , to find even one wild pearl ; for many centuries , this was the only way pearls were obtained , and why pearls fetched such extraordinary prices in the past . Cultured pearls are formed in pearl farms , using human intervention as well as natural processes . One family of nacreous pearl bivalves -- the pearl oyster -- lives in the sea , while the other -- a very different group of bivalves -- lives in freshwater ; these are the river mussels such as the freshwater pearl mussel . Saltwater pearls can grow in several species of marine pearl oysters in the family Pteriidae . Freshwater pearls grow within certain ( but by no means all ) species of freshwater mussels in the order Unionida , the families Unionidae and Margaritiferidae . Physical properties ( edit ) Structure of nacre layers , wherein aragonite plates are separated by biopolymers , such as chitin , lustrin and silk - like proteins Electron microscopy image of a fractured surface of nacre The unique luster of pearls depends upon the reflection , refraction , and diffraction of light from the translucent layers . The thinner and more numerous the layers in the pearl , the finer the luster . The iridescence that pearls display is caused by the overlapping of successive layers , which breaks up light falling on the surface . In addition , pearls ( especially cultured freshwater pearls ) can be dyed yellow , green , blue , brown , pink , purple , or black . The very best pearls have a metallic mirror - like luster . Because pearls are made primarily of calcium carbonate , they can be dissolved in vinegar . Calcium carbonate is susceptible to even a weak acid solution because the crystals of calcium carbonate react with the acetic acid in the vinegar to form calcium acetate and carbon dioxide . Freshwater and saltwater pearls ( edit ) Freshwater and saltwater pearls may sometimes look quite similar , but they come from different sources . Freshwater pearls form in various species of freshwater mussels , family Unionidae , which live in lakes , rivers , ponds and other bodies of fresh water . These freshwater pearl mussels occur not only in hotter climates , but also in colder more temperate areas such as Scotland ( where they are protected under law ) . Most freshwater cultured pearls sold today come from China . Saltwater pearls grow within pearl oysters , family Pteriidae , which live in oceans . Saltwater pearl oysters are usually cultivated in protected lagoons or volcanic atolls . Creation ( edit ) Diagram comparing a cross-section of a cultured pearl , upper , with a natural pearl , lower Pearls are formed inside the shell of certain mollusks as a defense mechanism against a potentially threatening irritant such as a parasite inside the shell , or an attack from outside that injures the mantle tissue . The mollusk creates a pearl sac to seal off the irritation . Pearls are thus the result of an immune response analogous in the human body to the capture of an antigen by a phagocyte ( phagocytosis ) . The mollusk 's mantle ( protective membrane ) deposits layers of calcium carbonate ( CaCO ) in the form of the mineral aragonite or a mixture of aragonite and calcite ( polymorphs with the same chemical formula , but different crystal structures ) held together by an organic horn - like compound called conchiolin . The combination of aragonite and conchiolin is called nacre , which makes up mother - of - pearl . The commonly held belief that a grain of sand acts as the irritant is in fact rarely the case . Typical stimuli include organic material , parasites , or even damage that displaces mantle tissue to another part of the mollusk 's body . These small particles or organisms gain entry when the shell valves are open for feeding or respiration . In cultured pearls , the irritant is typically an introduced piece of the mantle epithelium , with or without a spherical bead ( beaded or beadless cultured pearls ) . Natural pearls ( edit ) Natural pearls are nearly 100 % calcium carbonate and conchiolin . It is thought that natural pearls form under a set of accidental conditions when a microscopic intruder or parasite enters a bivalve mollusk and settles inside the shell . The mollusk , irritated by the intruder , forms a pearl sac of external mantle tissue cells and secretes the calcium carbonate and conchiolin to cover the irritant . This secretion process is repeated many times , thus producing a pearl . Natural pearls come in many shapes , with perfectly round ones being comparatively rare . Typically , the build - up of a natural pearl consists of a brown central zone formed by columnar calcium carbonate ( usually calcite , sometimes columnar aragonite ) and a yellowish to white outer zone consisting of nacre ( tabular aragonite ) . In a pearl cross-section such as the diagram , these two different materials can be seen . The presence of columnar calcium carbonate rich in organic material indicates juvenile mantle tissue that formed during the early stage of pearl development . Displaced living cells with a well - defined task may continue to perform their function in their new location , often resulting in a cyst . Such displacement may occur via an injury . The fragile rim of the shell is exposed and is prone to damage and injury . Crabs , other predators and parasites such as worm larvae may produce traumatic attacks and cause injuries in which some external mantle tissue cells are disconnected from their layer . Embedded in the conjunctive tissue of the mantle , these cells may survive and form a small pocket in which they continue to secrete calcium carbonate , their natural product . The pocket is called a pearl sac , and grows with time by cell division . The juvenile mantle tissue cells , according to their stage of growth , secrete columnar calcium carbonate from pearl sac 's inner surface . In time , the pearl sac 's external mantle cells proceed to the formation of tabular aragonite . When the transition to nacre secretion occurs , the brown pebble becomes covered with a nacreous coating . During this process , the pearl sac seems to travel into the shell ; however , the sac actually stays in its original relative position the mantle tissue while the shell itself grows . After a couple of years , a pearl forms and the shell may be found by a lucky pearl fisher . Cultured pearls ( edit ) Main article : Cultured pearl Nuclei from Toba Pearl Island , Japan Cultured pearls are the response of the shell to a tissue implant . A tiny piece of mantle tissue ( called a graft ) from a donor shell is transplanted into a recipient shell , causing a pearl sac to form into which the tissue precipitates calcium carbonate . There are a number of methods for producing cultured pearls : using freshwater or seawater shells , transplanting the graft into the mantle or into the gonad , and adding a spherical bead as a nucleus . Most saltwater cultured pearls are grown with beads . Tradenames of cultured pearls are Akoya , white or golden South sea , and black Tahitian . Most beadless cultured pearls are mantle - grown in freshwater shells in China , and are known as freshwater cultured pearls . Cultured pearls can be distinguished from natural pearls by X-ray examination . Nucleated cultured pearls are often ' preformed ' as they tend to follow the shape of the implanted shell bead nucleus . After a bead is inserted into the oyster , it secretes a few layers of nacre around the bead ; the resulting cultured pearl can then be harvested in as few as six months . When a cultured pearl with a bead nucleus is X-rayed , it reveals a different structure to that of a natural pearl ( see diagram ) . A beaded cultured pearl shows a solid center with no concentric growth rings , whereas a natural pearl shows a series of concentric growth rings . A beadless cultured pearl ( whether of freshwater or saltwater origin ) may show growth rings , but also a complex central cavity , witness of the first precipitation of the young pearl sac . Imitation pearls ( edit ) Main article : Imitation pearl Some imitation pearls ( also called shell pearls ) are simply made of mother - of - pearl , coral or conch shell , while others are made from glass and are coated with a solution containing fish scales called essence d'Orient . Although imitation pearls look the part , they do not have the same weight or smoothness as real pearls , and their luster will also dim greatly . Gemological Identification ( edit ) A well - equipped gem testing laboratory can distinguish natural pearls from cultured pearls by using gemological X-ray equipment to examine the center of a pearl . With X-rays it is possible to see the growth rings of the pearl , where the layers of calcium carbonate are separated by thin layers of conchiolin . The differentiation of natural pearls from non-beaded cultured pearls can be very difficult without the use of this X-ray technique . Natural and cultured pearls can be distinguished from imitation pearls using a microscope . Another method of testing for imitations is to rub two pearls against each other . Imitation pearls are completely smooth , but natural and cultured pearls are composed of nacre platelets , making both feel slightly gritty . Value of a natural pearl ( edit ) Pearl tiara of Empress Eugénie ( 1853 ) featuring 212 natural pearls , Louvre , Paris . Fine quality natural pearls are very rare jewels . Their values are determined similarly to those of other precious gems , according to size , shape , color , quality of surface , orient and luster . Single natural pearls are often sold as collectors ' items , or set as centerpieces in unique jewelry . Very few matched strands of natural pearls exist , and those that do often sell for hundreds of thousands of dollars . ( In 1917 , jeweler Pierre Cartier purchased the Fifth Avenue mansion that is now the New York Cartier store in exchange for a matched double strand of natural pearls Cartier had been collecting for years ; at the time , it was valued at US $1 million . ) The introduction and advance of the cultured pearl hit the pearl industry hard . Pearl dealers publicly disputed the authenticity of these new cultured products , and left many consumers uneasy and confused about their much lower prices . Essentially , the controversy damaged the images of both natural and cultured pearls . By the 1950s , when a significant number of women in developed countries could afford their own cultured pearl necklace , natural pearls were reduced to a small , exclusive niche in the pearl industry . Origin of a natural pearl ( edit ) Mary , Queen of Scots wearing a rope of black pearls Previously , natural pearls were found in many parts of the world . Present day natural pearling is confined mostly to seas off Bahrain . Australia also has one of the world 's last remaining fleets of pearl diving ships . Australian pearl divers dive for south sea pearl oysters to be used in the cultured south sea pearl industry . The catch of pearl oysters is similar to the numbers of oysters taken during the natural pearl days . Hence significant numbers of natural pearls are still found in the Australian Indian Ocean waters from wild oysters . X-ray examination is required to positively verify natural pearls found today . Types of cultured pearls ( edit ) A blister pearl , a half - sphere , formed flush against the shell of the pearl oyster . Keshi pearls , although they often occur by chance , are not considered natural . They are a byproduct of the culturing process , and hence do not happen without human intervention . They are quite small , typically only a few millimeters . Keshi pearls are produced by many different types of marine mollusks and freshwater mussels in China . Keshi pearls are actually a mistake in the cultured pearl seeding process . In seeding the cultured pearl , a piece of mantle muscle from a sacrificed oyster is placed with a bead of mother of pearl within the oyster . If the piece of mantle should slip off the bead , a pearl forms of baroque shape about the mantle piece which is entirely nacre . Therefore , a Keshi pearl could be considered superior to cultured pearls with a mother of pearl bead center . In the cultured pearl industry , the resources used to create a mistaken all nacre baroque pearl is a drain on the production of round cultured pearls . Therefore , they are trying to improve culturing technique so that keshi pearls do not occur . All nacre pearls may one day be limited to natural found pearls . Today many `` keshi '' pearls are actually intentional , with post-harvest shells returned to the water to regenerate a pearl in the existing pearl sac . Tahitian pearls , frequently referred to as black pearls , are highly valued because of their rarity ; the culturing process for them dictates a smaller volume output and they can never be mass - produced because , in common with most sea pearls , the oyster can only be nucleated with one pearl at a time , while freshwater mussels are capable of multiple pearl implants . Before the days of cultured pearls , black pearls were rare and highly valued for the simple reason that white pearl oysters rarely produced naturally black pearls , and black pearl oysters rarely produced any natural pearls at all . Since the development of pearl culture technology , the black pearl oysters Pinctada margaritifera found in Tahiti and many other Pacific islands including the Cook Islands and Fiji are being extensively used for producing cultured pearls . The rarity of the black cultured pearl is now a `` comparative '' issue . The black cultured pearl is rare when compared to Chinese freshwater cultured pearls , and Japanese and Chinese akoya cultured pearls , and is more valuable than these pearls . However , it is more abundant than the South Sea pearl , which is more valuable than the black cultured pearl . This is simply because the black pearl oyster Pinctada margaritifera is far more abundant than the elusive , rare , and larger south sea pearl oyster Pinctada maxima , which can not be found in lagoons , but which must be dived for in a rare number of deep ocean habitats or grown in hatcheries . Black pearls are very rarely black : they are usually shades of green , purple , aubergine , blue , grey , silver or peacock ( a mix of several shades , like a peacock 's feather ) . Black cultured pearls from the black pearl oyster -- Pinctada margaritifera -- are not South Sea pearls , although they are often mistakenly described as black South Sea pearls . In the absence of an official definition for the pearl from the black oyster , these pearls are usually referred to as `` black pearls '' . The correct definition of a South Sea pearl -- as described by CIBJO and GIA -- is a pearl produced by the Pinctada maxima pearl oyster . South Sea pearls are the color of their host Pinctada maxima oyster -- and can be white , silver , pink , gold , cream , and any combination of these basic colors , including overtones of the various colors of the rainbow displayed in the pearl nacre of the oyster shell itself . South Sea pearls are the largest and rarest of the cultured pearls -- making them the most valuable . Prized for their exquisitely beautiful ' orient ' or lustre , South Sea pearls are now farmed in various parts of the world where the Pinctada maxima oysters can be found , with the finest South Sea pearls being produced by Paspaley along the remote coastline of North - Western Australia . White and silver colored South Sea pearls tend to come from the Broome area of Australia , while golden colored ones are more prevalent in the Philippines and Indonesia . A farm in the Gulf of California , Mexico , is culturing pearls from the black lipped Pinctada mazatlanica oysters and the rainbow lipped Pteria sterna oysters . Also called Concha Nácar , the pearls from these rainbow lipped oysters fluoresce red under ultraviolet light . From other species ( edit ) A shell of the Indian volute , Melo melo , surrounded by a number of pearls from this species Conch pearl pendant Biologically speaking , under the right set of circumstances , almost any shelled mollusk can produce some kind of pearl . However , most of these molluskan pearls have no luster or iridescence . The great majority of mollusk species produce pearls which are not attractive , and are sometimes not even very durable , such that they usually have no value at all , except perhaps to a scientist or collector , or as a curiosity . These objects used to be referred to as `` calcareous concretions '' by some gemologists , even though a malacologist would still consider them to be pearls . Valueless pearls of this type are sometimes found in edible mussels , edible oysters , escargot snails , and so on . The GIA and CIBJO now simply use the term ' pearl ' ( or , where appropriate , the more descriptive term ' non-nacreous pearl ' ) when referring to such items and , under Federal Trade Commission rules , various mollusk pearls may be referred to as ' pearls ' , without qualification . A few species produce pearls that can be of interest as gemstones . These species include the bailer shell Melo , the giant clam Tridacna , various scallop species , Pen shells Pinna , and the Haliotis iris species of abalone . Pearls of abalone , or pāua , are mabe pearls , or blister pearls , unique to New Zealand waters and are commonly referred to as ' blue pearls ' . They are admired for their incredible luster and naturally bright vibrant colors that are often compared to opal . Another example is the conch pearl ( sometimes referred to simply as the ' pink pearl ' ) , which is found very rarely growing between the mantle and the shell of the queen conch or pink conch , Strombus gigas , a large sea snail or marine gastropod from the Caribbean Sea . These pearls , which are often pink in color , are a by - product of the conch fishing industry , and the best of them display a shimmering optical effect related to chatoyance known as ' flame structure ' . Somewhat similar gastropod pearls , this time more orange in hue , are ( again very rarely ) found in the horse conch Pleuroploca gigantea . The second largest pearl known was found in the Philippines in 1934 and is known as the Pearl of Lao Tzu . It is a naturally occurring , non-nacreous , calcareous concretion ( pearl ) from a giant clam . Because it did not grow in a pearl oyster it is not pearly ; instead the surface is glossy like porcelain . Other pearls from giant clams are known to exist , but this is a particularly large one weighing 14 lb ( 6.4 kg ) . The largest known pearl ( also from a giant clam ) was found in the Philippines as well by a fisherman from Puerto Princesa , Palawan Island . The enormous pearl is 30 cm wide ( 1 ft ) , 67 cm long ( 2.2 ft ) and weighs 75 lb ( 34 kg ) . History ( edit ) Pearl hunting ( edit ) Main article : Pearl hunting A 14th - century piece of clothing used by Kuwaiti divers searching for pearls in the Persian Gulf The ancient chronicle Mahavamsa mentions of the thriving pearl industry in the port of Oruwella in the Gulf of Mannar in Sri Lanka . It also records that eight varieties of pearls accompanied Prince Vijaya 's embassy to the Pandyan king as well as king Devanampiya Tissa 's embassy to Emperor Ashoka . Pliny the Elder ( 23 -- 79AD ) praised the pearl fishery of the Gulf as most productive in the world . For thousands of years , seawater pearls were retrieved by divers in the Indian Ocean in areas such as the Persian Gulf , the Red Sea and the Gulf of Mannar . Evidence also suggest a prehistoric origin to pearl diving in these regions . Starting in the Han Dynasty ( 206 BC -- 220 AD ) , the Chinese hunted extensively for seawater pearls in the South China Sea . In the 14th - century Arabian Sea , the traveller Ibn Battuta provided the earliest known description of pearl diving by means of attaching a cord to the diver 's waist . Catching of pearls , Bern Physiologus ( 9th century ) When Spanish conquistadors arrived in the Western Hemisphere , they discovered that around the islands of Cubagua and Margarita , some 200 km north of the Venezuelan coast , was an extensive pearl bed ( a bed of pearl oysters ) . One discovered and named pearl , La Peregrina pearl , was offered to the Spanish queen . According to Garcilasso de la Vega , who says that he saw La Peregrina at Seville in 1607 , this was found at Panama in 1560 by a slave worker who was rewarded with his liberty , and his owner with the office of alcalde of Panama . Margarita pearls are extremely difficult to find today and are known for their unique yellowish color . The most famous Margarita necklace that anyone can see today is the one that then Venezuelan President Romulo Betancourt gave to Jacqueline Kennedy when she and her husband , President John F. Kennedy paid an official visit to Venezuela . Before the beginning of the 20th century , pearl hunting was the most common way of harvesting pearls . Divers manually pulled oysters from ocean floors and river bottoms and checked them individually for pearls . Not all mussels and oysters produce pearls . In a haul of three tons , only three or four oysters will produce perfect pearls . British isles ( edit ) Pearls were one of the attractions which drew Julius Caesar to Britain . They are , for the most part , freshwater pearls from mussels . Pearling was banned in the U.K. in 1998 due to the endangered status of river mussels . Discovery and publicity about the sale for a substantial sum of the Abernethy pearl in the River Tay had resulted in heavy exploitation of mussel colonies during the 1970s and 80s by weekend warriors . When it was permitted it was carried on mainly by Scottish Travellers who found pearls varied from river to river with the River Oykel in the Highlands being noted for the finest rose - pink pearls . There are two firms in Scotland that are licensed to sell pre-1998 freshwater pearls . Pearl farming ( edit ) A pearl being extracted from an akoya pearl oyster . See also : Oyster farming Today , the cultured pearls on the market can be divided into two categories . The first category covers the beaded cultured pearls , including Akoya , South Sea and Tahiti . These pearls are gonad grown , and usually one pearl is grown at a time . This limits the number of pearls at a harvest period . The pearls are usually harvested after one year for akoya , 2 -- 4 years for Tahitian and South Sea , and 2 -- 7 years for freshwater . This perliculture process was first developed by the British biologist William Saville - Kent who passed the information along to Tatsuhei Mise and Tokichi Nishikawa from Japan . The second category includes the non-beaded freshwater cultured pearls , like the Biwa or Chinese pearls . As they grow in the mantle , where on each wing up to 25 grafts can be implanted , these pearls are much more frequent and saturate the market completely . An impressive improvement in quality has taken place in the last ten years when the former rice - grain - shaped pebbles are compared with the near round pearls of today . In the last two years large near perfect round bead nucleated pearls up to 15mm in diameter have been produced with metallic luster . The nucleus bead in a beaded cultured pearl is generally a polished sphere made from freshwater mussel shell . Along with a small piece of mantle tissue from another mollusk ( donor shell ) to serve as a catalyst for the pearl sac , it is surgically implanted into the gonad ( reproductive organ ) of a saltwater mollusk . In freshwater perliculture , only the piece of tissue is used in most cases , and is inserted into the fleshy mantle of the host mussel . South Sea and Tahitian pearl oysters , also known as Pinctada maxima and Pinctada margaritifera , which survive the subsequent surgery to remove the finished pearl , are often implanted with a new , larger beads as part of the same procedure and then returned to the water for another 2 -- 3 years of growth . Despite the common misperception , Mikimoto did not discover the process of pearl culture . The accepted process of pearl culture was developed by the British Biologist William Saville - Kent in Australia and brought to Japan by Tokichi Nishikawa and Tatsuhei Mise . Nishikawa was granted the patent in 1916 , and married the daughter of Mikimoto . Mikimoto was able to use Nishikawa 's technology . After the patent was granted in 1916 , the technology was immediately commercially applied to akoya pearl oysters in Japan in 1916 . Mise 's brother was the first to produce a commercial crop of pearls in the akoya oyster . Mitsubishi 's Baron Iwasaki immediately applied the technology to the south sea pearl oyster in 1917 in the Philippines , and later in Buton , and Palau . Mitsubishi was the first to produce a cultured south sea pearl -- although it was not until 1928 that the first small commercial crop of pearls was successfully produced . The original Japanese cultured pearls , known as akoya pearls , are produced by a species of small pearl oyster , Pinctada fucata martensii , which is no bigger than 6 to 8 cm ( 2.4 to 3.1 in ) in size , hence akoya pearls larger than 10 mm in diameter are extremely rare and highly priced . Today , a hybrid mollusk is used in both Japan and China in the production of akoya pearls . Cultured Pearls were sold in cans for the export market . These were packed in Japan by the I.C.P. Canning Factory ( International Pearl Company L.T.D. ) in Nagasaki Pref . Japan . Timeline of pearl production ( edit ) Mitsubishi commenced pearl culture with the South Sea pearl oyster in 1916 , as soon as the technology patent was commercialized . By 1931 this project was showing signs of success , but was upset by the death of Tatsuhei Mise . Although the project was recommenced after Tatsuhei 's death , the project was discontinued at the beginning of WWII before significant productions of pearls were achieved . After WWII , new south sea pearl projects were commenced in the early 1950s at Kuri Bay and Port Essington in Australia , and Burma . Japanese companies were involved in all projects using technicians from the original Mitsubishi South Sea pre-war projects . Kuri Bay is now the location of one of the largest and most well - known pearl farms owned by Paspaley , the biggest producer of South Sea pearls in the world . In 2010 , China overtook Japan in akoya pearl production . Japan has all but ceased its production of akoya pearls smaller than 8 mm . Japan maintains its status as a pearl processing center , however , and imports the majority of Chinese akoya pearl production . These pearls are then processed ( often simply matched and sorted ) , relabeled as product of Japan , and exported . In the past two decades , cultured pearls have been produced using larger oysters in the south Pacific and Indian Ocean . The largest pearl oyster is the Pinctada maxima , which is roughly the size of a dinner plate . South Sea pearls are characterized by their large size and warm luster . Sizes up to 14 mm in diameter are not uncommon . In 2013 , Indonesia Pearl supplied 43 percent of South Sea Pearls international market . The other significant producers are Australia , Philippines , Myanmar and Malaysia . Freshwater pearl farming ( edit ) In 1914 , pearl farmers began growing cultured freshwater pearls using the pearl mussels native to Lake Biwa . This lake , the largest and most ancient in Japan , lies near the city of Kyoto . The extensive and successful use of the Biwa Pearl Mussel is reflected in the name Biwa pearls , a phrase which was at one time nearly synonymous with freshwater pearls in general . Since the time of peak production in 1971 , when Biwa pearl farmers produced six tons of cultured pearls , pollution has caused the virtual extinction of the industry . Japanese pearl farmers recently cultured a hybrid pearl mussel -- a cross between Biwa Pearl Mussels and a closely related species from China , Hyriopsis cumingi , in Lake Kasumigaura . This industry has also nearly ceased production , due to pollution . Japanese pearl producers also invested in producing cultured pearls with freshwater mussels in the region of Shanghai , China . China has since become the world 's largest producer of freshwater pearls , producing more than 1,500 metric tons per year ( in addition to metric measurements , Japanese units of measurement such as the kan and momme are sometimes encountered in the pearl industry ) . Led by pearl pioneer John Latendresse and his wife Chessy , the United States began farming cultured freshwater pearls in the mid-1960s . National Geographic magazine introduced the American cultured pearl as a commercial product in their August 1985 issue . The Tennessee pearl farm has emerged as a tourist destination in recent years , but commercial production of freshwater pearls has ceased . Momme weight ( edit ) For many cultured pearl dealers and wholesalers , the preferred weight measure used for loose pearls and pearl strands is the momme . Momme is a weight measure used by the Japanese for centuries . Today , momme weight is still the standard unit of measure used by most pearl dealers to communicate with pearl producers and wholesalers . One momme corresponds to 1 / 1000 kan . Reluctant to give up tradition , the Japanese government formalized the kan measure in 1891 as being exactly 3.75 kilograms or 8.28 pounds . Hence , 1 momme = 3.75 grams or 3750 milligrams . In the United States , during the 19th and 20th centuries , through trade with Japan in silk cloth the momme became a unit indicating the quality of silk cloth . Though millimeter size range is typically the first factor in determining a cultured pearl necklace 's value , the momme weight of pearl necklace will allow the buyer to quickly determine if the necklace is properly proportioned . This is especially true when comparing the larger south sea and Tahitian pearl necklaces . In jewelry ( edit ) The value of the pearls in jewelry is determined by a combination of the luster , color , size , lack of surface flaw and symmetry that are appropriate for the type of pearl under consideration . Among those attributes , luster is the most important differentiator of pearl quality according to jewelers . All factors being equal , however , the larger the pearl the more valuable it is . Large , perfectly round pearls are rare and highly valued . Teardrop - shaped pearls are often used in pendants . Gallery ( edit ) A necklace of white pearls George Villiers , 1st Duke of Buckingham wearing white pearls Queen of Italy , Margherita of Savoy , owned one of the most famous collections of natural pearls . She is wearing a multi-strand choker and a rope of pearls Pearl bracelet from the 1840s Pearl earrings Shapes ( edit ) Pearls come in eight basic shapes : round , semi-round , button , drop , pear , oval , baroque , circled and double bouldered . Perfectly round pearls are the rarest and most valuable shape . Semi-rounds are also used in necklaces or in pieces where the shape of the pearl can be disguised to look like it is a perfectly round pearl . Button pearls are like a slightly flattened round pearl and can also make a necklace , but are more often used in single pendants or earrings where the back half of the pearl is covered , making it look like a larger , rounder pearl . Drop and pear shaped pearls are sometimes referred to as teardrop pearls and are most often seen in earrings , pendants , or as a center pearl in a necklace . Baroque pearls have a different appeal ; they are often highly irregular with unique and interesting shapes . They are also commonly seen in necklaces . Circled pearls are characterized by concentric ridges , or rings , around the body of the pearl . In general , cultured pearls are less valuable than natural pearls , whereas imitation pearls have almost no value . One way that jewelers can determine whether a pearl is cultured or natural is to have a gemlab perform an X-ray examination of the pearl . If X-rays reveals a nucleus , the pearl is likely a bead - nucleated saltwater pearl . If no nucleus is present , but irregular and small dark inner spots indicating a cavity are visible , combined with concentric rings of organic substance , the pearl is likely a cultured freshwater . Cultured freshwater pearls can often be confused for natural pearls which present as homogeneous pictures which continuously darken toward the surface of the pearl . Natural pearls will often show larger cavities where organic matter has dried out and decomposed . Lengths of pearl necklaces ( edit ) There is a special vocabulary used to describe the length of pearl necklaces . While most other necklaces are simply referred to by their physical measurement , pearl necklaces are named by how low they hang when worn around the neck . A collar , measuring 10 to 13 inches or 25 to 33 cm in length , sits directly against the throat and does not hang down the neck at all ; collars are often made up of multiple strands of pearls . Pearl chokers , measuring 14 to 16 inches or 35 to 41 cm in length , nestle just at the base of the neck . A strand called a princess length , measuring 17 to 19 inches or 43 to 48 cm in length , comes down to or just below the collarbone . A matinee length , measuring 20 to 24 inches or 50 to 60 cm in length , falls just above the breasts . An opera length , measuring 28 to 35 inches or 70 to 90 cm in length , will be long enough to reach the breastbone or sternum of the wearer ; and longer still , a pearl rope , measuring more than 45 inches or 115 cm in length , is any length that falls down farther than an opera . Necklaces can also be classified as uniform , or graduated . In a uniform strand of pearls , all pearls are classified as the same size , but actually fall in a range . A uniform strand of akoya pearls , for example , will measure within 0.5 mm . So a strand will never be 7 mm , but will be 6.5 -- 7 mm . Freshwater pearls , Tahitian pearls , and South Sea pearls all measure to a full millimeter when considered uniform . A graduated strand of pearls most often has at least 3 mm of differentiation from the ends to the center of the necklace . Popularized in the United States during the 1950s by the GIs bringing strands of cultured akoya pearls home from Japan , a 3.5 momme , 3 mm to 7 mm graduated strand was much more affordable than a uniform strand because most of the pearls were small . Colors ( edit ) This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( December 2015 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Earrings and necklaces can also be classified on the grade of the color of the pearl : saltwater and freshwater pearls come in many different colors . While white , and more recently black , saltwater pearls are by far the most popular , other color tints can be found on pearls from the oceans . Pink , blue , champagne , green , black and even purple saltwater pearls can be encountered , but to collect enough of these rare colors to form a complete string of the same size and same shade can take years . Religious references ( edit ) This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( March 2018 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Hindu scriptures ( edit ) The Hindu tradition describes the sacred Nine Pearls which were first documented in the Garuda Purana , one of the books of the Hindu mythology . Ayurveda contains references to pearl powder as a stimulant of digestion and to treat mental ailments . According to Marco Polo , the kings of Malabar wore a necklace of 104 rubies and pearls which was given from one generation of kings to the next . The reason was that every king had to say 104 prayers every morning and every evening . At least until the beginning of the 20th century it was a Hindu custom to present a completely new , undrilled pearl and pierce it during the wedding ceremony . The Pearl , which can be transliterated to `` Moti '' , a type of `` Mani '' from Sanskrit , is also associated with many Hindu deities , the most famous being the Kaustubha that Lord Vishnu wears on his chest . Hebrew scriptures ( edit ) According to Rebbenu Bachya , the word Yahalom in the verse Exodus 28 : 18 means `` pearl '' and was the stone on the Hoshen representing the tribe of Zebulun . This is generally disputed among scholars , particularly since the word in question in most manuscripts is actually Yasepheh -- the word from which jasper derives ; scholars think that refers to green jasper ( the rarest and most prized form in early times ) rather than red jasper ( the most common form ) . Yahalom is usually translated by the Septuagint as an `` onyx '' , but sometimes as `` beryl '' or as `` jasper '' ; onyx only started being mined after the Septuagint was written , so the Septuagint 's term `` onyx '' probably does not mean onyx -- onyx is originally an Assyrian word meaning ring , and so could refer to anything used for making rings . Yahalom is similar to a Hebrew word meaning hit hard , so some people think that it means diamond . The variation in possibilities of meaning for this sixth stone in the Hoshen is reflected in different translations of the Bible -- the King James Version translates the sixth stone as diamond , the New International Version translates it as emerald , and the Vulgate translates it as jaspis -- meaning jasper . There is a wide range of views among traditional sources about which tribe the stone refers to . New Testament scriptures ( edit ) Religious pendant showing Christ blessing , framed with rubies and pearls , from the Byzantine empire , 12th or 13th century In a Christian New Testament parable ( Matthew 13 : 45 -- 46 ) , Jesus compared the Kingdom of Heaven to a `` pearl of great price '' . `` Again , the kingdom of heaven is like unto a merchant man , seeking goodly ( fine ) pearls : Who , when he had found one pearl of great price , went and sold all that he had , and bought it . '' The twelve gates of the New Jerusalem are reportedly each made of a single pearl in Revelation 21 : 21 , that is , the Pearly Gates . `` And the twelve gates were twelve pearls ; every gate was of one pearl : and the streets of the city were pure gold , as if transparent glass . '' Holy things are compared to pearls in Matthew 7 : 6 : `` Do not give dogs what is holy , and do not throw your pearls before pigs , lest they trample them underfoot and turn to attack you . '' Pearls are also found in numerous references showing the wickedness and pride of a people , as in Revelation 18 : 16 . `` And saying , Alas , alas , that great city , that was clothed in fine linen , in purple and scarlet , and decked with gold , and precious stones , and pearls ! '' Islamic scriptures ( edit ) The Qur'an often mentions that dwellers of paradise will be adorned with pearls : 22 : 23 God will admit those who believe and work righteous deeds , to Gardens beneath which rivers flow : they shall be adorned therein with bracelets of gold and pearls ; and their garments there will be of silk . 35 : 33 Gardens of Eternity will they enter : therein will they be adorned with bracelets of gold and pearls ; and their garments there will be of silk . 52 : 24 Round about them will serve , ( devoted ) to them , youths ( handsome ) as pearls well - guarded . Additional references ( edit ) The metaphor of a pearl appears in the longer Hymn of the Pearl , a poem respected for its high literary quality , and use of layered theological metaphor , found within one of the texts of Gnosticism . The Pearl of Great Price is a book of scripture in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints ( LDS Church ) and some other Latter Day Saint denominations . See also ( edit ) Amber Ammolite -- another organic gemstone formed primarily of fossil aragonite mollusk shells Bahrain Pearling Trail , a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Muharraq , Bahrain Broome , Western Australia , a pearling town Cave pearl La Pelegrina pearl La Peregrina pearl Les pêcheurs de perles , The Pearl Fishers , an opera by Georges Bizet Mary Tudor pearl Oriental Pride Pearl Maxima , one of the largest nacreous pearls ever found Pearl of Lao Tzu Pearl of Puerto , largest pearl in the world Pearl powder , used in Traditional Chinese Medicine Precious coral References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Schumann , Walter ( 2001 ) . Gemstones of the World . Robert Hale . p. 230 . ISBN 0 - 7198 - 0301 - 2 . Jump up ^ Lazzarelli , Herve Nicolas ( 2010 ) . Blue Chart Gem Identification . p. 8 . Archived from the original on October 6 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Pearl '' . Gemdat.org . Archived from the original on April 4 , 2017 . Retrieved April 3 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` Guides for the Jewelry , Precious Metals , and Pewter Industries '' . Ftc.gov . May 30 , 1996 . Archived from the original on May 28 , 2010 . Retrieved July 17 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Shorter Oxford English Dictionary ( 6th ed . ) , Oxford University Press , 2007 , ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 920687 - 2 Jump up ^ Sima , Petr. ( 1990 ) . Evolution of Immune Reactions . Taylor & Francis . ISBN 0849365937 . Jump up ^ Neil H. Landman , et al. ( 2001 ) Pearls : A Natural History , Harry Abrams , Inc. , ISBN 0 - 8109 - 4495 - 2 Jump up ^ `` Pearl oyster farming and pearl culture '' . Fao.org . Archived from the original on 2008 - 03 - 20 . Retrieved 17 May 2013 . Jump up ^ Kenneth Scarratt , The Pearl and the Dragon , Houlton ; 1st edition ( 1999 ) ISBN 0 - 935681 - 07 - 8 ^ Jump up to : Farn , Alexander E. ( 2013 ) . Pearls : Natural , Cultured and Imitation . Burlington : Elsevier Science . pp. 90 -- 108 . ISBN 9781483162737 . Jump up ^ Strack , Elisabeth . `` Pearls '' . Ruhle - Diebener - Verlag , 2006 , p. 38 ISBN 3981084802 . Jump up ^ The Pearl Book , pp. 47 -- 49 , 4th edition , Matlins , Antoinette , Gemstone Press , copyright 2008 Jump up ^ The Pearl Story , Gemstone Adventure Series , volume 2 , copyright 2007 America 's Collectibles Network , Jump up ^ Hanni , HA ( June 2006 ) . `` Keshi Perlen : Ein Erklarungbedurftiger Begriff ( Keshi Pearls : a term in need of explanation ) '' . Zeitschrift der Deutschen Gemmologischen Gesellschaft . DGemG. 55 ( 1 -- 2 ) : 39 -- 50 . Jump up ^ Pouvreau , Stéphane ; et al. ( 2000 ) . `` Ecophysiological model of growth and reproduction of the black pearl oyster , Pinctada margaritifera : potential applications for pearl farming in French Polynesia '' . Aquaculture. 186 ( 1 -- 2 ) : 117 -- 144 . doi : 10.1016 / S0044 - 8486 ( 99 ) 00373 - 7 . Jump up ^ Pinctada maxima Archived August 20 , 2017 , at the Wayback Machine ... MissJoaquim.com Retrieved on 2017 - 05 - 31 . Jump up ^ How To Buy Pearls Archived September 28 , 2013 , at the Wayback Machine ... Nature.berkeley.edu . Retrieved on 2015 - 10 - 14 . ^ Jump up to : Scarratt , Kenneth ( 2012 ) . `` Natural Pearls from Australian Pinctada maxima '' . Gems & Gemology. 48 ( 4 ) . Archived from the original on October 16 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Jewel of the South Sea '' ( PDF ) . Archived ( PDF ) from the original on September 30 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Concha Nacar The Sea of Cortez Pearl Blog Archived February 25 , 2014 , at the Wayback Machine ... Perlas.com.mx ( 2010 - 11 - 22 ) . Retrieved on 2015 - 10 - 14 . Jump up ^ `` CIBJO ' Pearl Book ' '' ( PDF ) . Archived ( PDF ) from the original on July 23 , 2011 . Retrieved July 30 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` GIA ' Gems & Gemology ' magazine news archive '' . Gia.edu . Archived from the original on January 13 , 2009 . Retrieved July 30 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Fisherman hands in giant pearl he kept under the bed for 10 years '' . The Guardian . Archived from the original on August 24 , 2016 . Retrieved August 25 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Senaveratna , John M ( 1930 ) . The story of the Sinhalese : From the most ancient times up to the end of `` The Mahavasna '' , or great dynasty ; Vijaya to Maha Sena ( B.C. 543 to A.D. 302 ) . W.M.A. Wahid . pp. 16 -- 9 , 46,130,144 -- 8,161 -- 3,213 . ASIN B000874SS0 . ISBN 9788120612716 . Archived from the original on December 20 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Kunz , George F. ; Stevenson , Charles ( 1908 ) . The book of the pearl . New York : The Century Co. p. 2 . Archived from the original on May 14 , 2016 . Jump up ^ R. Raghu Prasad and P.V. Ramachandran Nair ( 1973 ) . `` India and the Indian Ocean Fisheries '' ( PDF ) . Journal of the Marine Biological Association of India . 15 : 1 -- 19 . Archived ( PDF ) from the original on July 18 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Arnold Wright ( 1999 ) . Twentieth century impressions of Ceylon : its history , people , commerce , industries , and resources . p. 227 . ISBN 81 - 206 - 1335 - X . Archived from the original on January 18 , 2017 . Jump up ^ James Hornell ( 2009 ) . The Indian Pearl Fisheries of the Gulf of Manar and Palk Bay . BiblioBazaar . p. 6 . ISBN 1 - 110 - 87096 - 5 . Archived from the original on January 18 , 2017 . Jump up ^ De Silva , K.M. ( 1995 ) . Volume 2 of History of Ceylon , History of Ceylon : History of Sri Lanka . Peradeniya : Ceylon University Press . p. 56 . ISBN 955 - 589 - 004 - 8 . Archived from the original on October 1 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` History of the Discovery and Appreciation of Pearls - the Organic Gem Perfected by Nature '' . internetstones.com . Archived from the original on December 6 , 2015 . Retrieved January 31 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : ROBERT CARTER ( 2005 ) . `` THE HISTORY AND PREHISTORY OF PEARLING IN THE PERSIAN GULF '' ( PDF ) . Archived ( PDF ) from the original on May 13 , 2016 . Retrieved January 31 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Garcilasso , `` Historie des Incas , Rois du Perou , '' Amsterdam , 1704 , Vol. II , P. 352 . Jump up ^ `` It was not only Britain 's mineral resources or her pretty slaves that had persuaded Caesar to make his military move across the Channel that summer : according to his biographer Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus it was something quite different . It was her pearls . '' Finlay , Victoria . Jewels : A Secret History ( Kindle Locations 1264 - 1267 ) . Random House Publishing Group . Kindle Edition . Jump up ^ `` Unlike sea pearls , which come from oysters , freshwater pearls come from mussels . And although farmed mussels are common throughout the world , wild colonies are now so endangered that in 1998 pearling was forbidden in the UK river system . Finlay , Victoria . Jewels : A Secret History ( Kindle Locations 1289 - 1290 ) . Random House Publishing Group . Kindle Edition . Jump up ^ `` The new weekend pearl - fishers were `` mostly middle - aged men driving big cars with beer coolers in the back '' and they would spend afternoons pulling hundreds of live mussels out of the rivers , opening them , and throwing away the shells , with not a care for conservation or the breeding season . All they cared about was finding another Abernethy pearl . Finlay , Victoria . Jewels : A Secret History ( Kindle Locations 1375 - 1377 ) . Random House Publishing Group . Kindle Edition . Jump up ^ `` Pearlers were mostly Highland traveling people ... '' Finlay , Victoria . Jewels : A Secret History ( Kindle Location 1296 ) . Random House Publishing Group . Kindle Edition . Jump up ^ `` Pearls from the Oykel River , northwest of Inverness , for example , are a sweet rose pink , and have always been the most valuable . '' Finlay , Victoria . Jewels : A Secret History ( Kindle Location 1341 ) . Random House Publishing Group . Kindle Edition . Jump up ^ Scottish Freshwater Pearls accessed January 19 , 2018 Jump up ^ Travel more . Create better memories . `` Welcome to Kuri Bay Paspaley Pearl Farm '' . Ytravelblog.com . Archived from the original on September 27 , 2013 . Retrieved September 26 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Pearl Guide : comparison Japan -- China akoya production Archived September 2 , 2011 , at the Wayback Machine ... pearl-guide.com Jump up ^ Ward , Fred ( 2002 ) Pearls ( Fred Ward Gem Book ) , 3rd Edition , Gem Guides Book Company , pp. 35 -- 36 , ISBN 1 - 887651 - 08 - X Jump up ^ `` Special Virtues Indonesian South Sea Pearls '' . Archived from the original on August 20 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Indonesian Pearls Figures '' . Archived from the original on August 20 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Indonesia Pasok 43 Persen Mutiara Dunia '' . August 13 , 2013 . Archived from the original on February 21 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Kunz , George F. ; Stevenson , Charles ( 1908 ) . The book of the pearl . New York : The Century Co. p. 412 . Archived from the original on May 14 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Kunz , George F. ; Stevenson , Charles ( 1908 ) . The book of the pearl . New York : The Century Co. p. 350 . Archived from the original on May 14 , 2016 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to : Pearl ( category ) Wikisource has the text of the 1921 Collier 's Encyclopedia article Pearl . The History of Pearls . PBS Pearl History Special . Recover the major pearl produce country by aquaculture in UAE ( Japanese page with English narration ) Jewellery Forms Anklet Barrette Belt buckle Belly chain Bindi Bolo tie Bracelet Brooch Chatelaine Collar pin Crown Cufflink Earring Ferronnière Lapel pin Necklace Pectoral Pendant Ring Tiara Tie chain Tie clip Tie pin Toe ring Watch pocket strap Making People Bench jeweler Clockmaker Goldsmith Silversmith Jewelry designer Lapidary Watchmaker Processes Carving Casting centrifugal lost - wax vacuum Enameling Engraving Filigree Kazaziye Metal clay Plating Polishing Repoussé and chasing Soldering Stonesetting Wire sculpture Wire wrapped jewelry Tools Draw plate File Hammer Mandrel Pliers Materials Precious metals Gold Palladium Platinum Rhodium Silver Precious metal alloys Britannia silver Colored gold Crown gold Electrum Shakudō Shibuichi Sterling silver Tumbaga Base metals Brass Bronze Copper Mokume - gane Pewter Stainless steel Titanium Tungsten Mineral gemstones Aventurine Agate Amethyst Beryl Carnelian Chrysoberyl Chrysocolla Diamond Diopside Emerald Garnet Howlite Jade Jasper Lapis lazuli Larimar Malachite Marcasite Moonstone Obsidian Onyx Opal Pearl Peridot Prasiolite Quartz Ruby Sapphire Sodalite Spinel Sunstone Tanzanite Tiger 's eye Topaz Tourmaline Turquoise Variscite Zircon Organic gemstones Abalone Amber Ammolite Bog - 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in which sea pearl is found in india

the Indian Ocean

Pearl

List of National Animals - wikipedia List of National Animals Jump to : navigation , search This article is incomplete . Please help to improve it , or discuss the issue on the talk page . ( June 2017 ) This is a list of national animals . National animals Country Name of animal Scientific name Pictures Ref . Algeria Fennec fox Vulpes zerda Angola Red - crested turaco ( national bird ) Tauraco erythrolophus Anguilla Zenaida dove Zenaida aurita Antigua and Barbuda Fallow deer ( national animal ) Dama dama Frigate ( national bird ) Fregata magnificens Hawksbill turtle ( national sea creature ) Eretmochelys imbricata Argentina Rufous hornero Furnarius rufus Australia Red kangaroo ( national animal ) Macropus rufus Emu ( national bird ) Dromaius novaehollandiae Austria Black eagle Ictinaetus malaiensis Azerbaijan Karabakh horse Equus ferus caballus Bangladesh Royal Bengal tiger ( national animal ) Panthera tigris tigris Magpie robin ( national bird ) Copsychus saularis Ilish ( national fish ) Tenualosa ilisha Belarus European bison Bison bonasus Belgium Lion ( heraldic Leo Belgicus ) Panthera leo Belize Baird 's tapir ( national animal ) Tapirus bairdii Keel - billed toucan ( national bird ) Ramphastos sulfuratus Bhutan Druk Mythical Takin Budorcas taxicolor Brazil Rufous - bellied thrush Turdus rufiventris Cambodia Kouprey Bos sauveli Canada North American beaver ( sovereignty animal symbol ) Castor canadensis Canadian horse ( national horse ) Equus ferus caballus China Giant panda ( national animal ) Ailuropoda melanoleuca Chinese dragon ( national animal ) Mythical Red - crowned crane ( national bird ) Grus japonensis Democratic Republic of the Congo Okapi Okapia johnstoni Colombia Andean condor Vultur gryphus Costa Rica Yigüirro ( national bird ) Turdus grayi White - tailed deer ( national animal ) Odocoileus virginianus West Indian manatee ( national aquatic animal ) Trichechus manatus Croatia Pine marten Martes martes Cuba Cuban trogon Priotelus temnurus Cyprus Cypriot mouflon Ovis orientalis Czech Republic Double - tailed lion Mythical Denmark Mute swan ( national bird ) Cygnus olor Small tortoiseshell ( national butterfly ) Aglais urticae Egypt Steppe eagle Aquila nipalensis Estonia Barn swallow ( national bird ) Hirundo rustica Eritrea Arabian camel Camelus dromedarius Ethiopia Lion Panthera leo Faroe Islands Eurasian oystercatcher ( national bird ) Haematopus ostralgus Finland Brown bear ( national animal ) Ursus arctos Whooper swan ( national bird ) Cygnus cygnus Holly blue ( national butterfly ) Celastrina argiolus European perch ( national fish ) Perca fluviatilis Seven - spot ladybird ( national insect ) Coccinella septempunctata France Gallic rooster Gallus gallus domesticus Germany Unspecified Eagle Members of Accipitridae Greece Phoenix Mythical Dolphins Delphinus Guatemala Quetzal Pharomachrus mocinno Haiti Hispaniolan Trogan Priotelus roseigaster Honduras White - tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus Hungary Turul Mythical ( most probably Falco cherrug ) Iceland Gyrfalcon Falco rusticolus India Bengal tiger ( National predator ) Panthera tigris tigris Indian peafowl ( National bird ) Pavo cristatus King cobra ( National reptile ) Ophiophagus hannah Ganges river dolphin ( National aquatic animal ) Platanista gangetica gangetica Indian elephant ( National heritage animal ) Elephas maximus indicus Indonesia Komodo dragon ( national animal ) Varanus komodoensis Garuda ( historic national animal ) Mythical Iran Persian lion Panthera leo persica Iraq Chukar partridge Alectoris chukar Goat ( KRG ) Capra aegagrus Israel Hoopoe ( national bird ) Upupa epops Jamaica Red - billed streamertail Trochilus polytmus Japan Green pheasant ( national bird ) Phasianus versicolor Carp ( national fish ) Cyprinus carpio Latvia White wagtail ( national bird ) Motacilla alba Two - spotted ladybird ( national insect ) Adalia bipunctata Lithuania White stork Ciconia ciconia Macedonia Lion ( in Macedonian heraldry ) Panthera leo Madagascar Zebu ( in Malagasy heraldry ) Bos primigenius indicus Ring - tailed lemur ( national animal ) Lemur catta Malaysia Malayan tiger ( national animal ) Panthera tigris jacksoni Malta Pharaoh Hound ( national animal ) Canis lupus familiaris ( 1 ) Moldova Aurochs ( national animal ) Bos primigenius Mauritius Dodo Raphus cucullatus Mexico Golden eagle ( national animal ) Aquila chrysaetos Xoloitzcuintli ( national dog ) Canis lupus familiaris Jaguar ( national mammal ) Panthera onca Grasshopper ( national arthropod ) Sphenarium purpurascens Vaquita ( national marine mammal ) Phocoena sinus Nepal Cow ( national animal ) Bos taurus indicus Danphe ( national bird ) Lophophorus impejanus Netherlands Lion ( heraldic symbol ) Panthera leo Black - tailed godwit ( national bird ) Limosa limosa New Zealand Kiwi Apteryx sp . North Korea Chollima Mythical Norway Lion ( royal national animal ) Panthera leo White - throated dipper ( national bird ) Cinclus cinclus Fjord horse ( national horse ) Equus ferus caballus Oman Arabian oryx ( national animal ) Oryx leucoryx Pakistan Markhor ( National animal ) Capra falconeri Indus river dolphin ( National aquatic mammal ) Platanista indicus minor minor Chukar ( National bird ) Alectoris chukar Indus crocodile ( National reptile ) Crocodylus palustris Shaheen falcon ( Heritage bird ) Falco peregrinus peregrinator Snow leopard ( National predator ) Panthera uncia Panama Harpy eagle Harpia harpyja Papua New Guinea Dugong ( national marine mammal ) Dugong dugon Peru Vicuña ( national animal ) Vicugna vicugna Philippines Carabao ( national animal ) Bubalus bubalis Philippine eagle ( national bird ) Pithecophaga jefferyi Poland White - tailed eagle ( national bird ) Haliaeetus albicilla White stork ( national bird ) Ciconia ciconia European bison ( national animal ) Bison bonasus Qatar Arabian oryx Oryx leucoryx Romania Lynx Lynx lynx Russia Eurasian brown bear Ursus arctos arctos Rwanda Leopard Panthera pardus Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Saint Vincent amazon Amazona guildingii Serbia Wolf Canis lupus lupus White eagle Mythical Lynx Lynx lynx Somalia Leopard ( national animal ) Panthera pardus South Africa Springbok ( national animal ) Antidorcas marsupialis Blue crane ( national bird ) Anthropoides paradiseus Galjoen ( national fish ) Dichistius capensis South Korea Siberian tiger Panthera tigris altaica Korean magpie ( national bird ) Pica ( pica ) sericea Sri Lanka Sri Lankan junglefowl ( national bird ) Gallus lafayettii Tanzania Giraffe Giraffa camelopardalis Thailand Elephant Elephas maximus United Arab Emirates Arabian oryx ( national animal ) Oryx leucoryx Peregrine falcon ( national bird ) Falco peregrinus United Kingdom Lion ( United Kingdom , England , Scotland , Wales ) Panthera leo Bulldog ( Britain as `` British Bulldog '' ) Canis lupus familiaris Red kite ( Wales ) Milvus milvus Unicorn ( Scotland ) Mythical Y Ddraig Goch ( Welsh Dragon Wales ) Mythical United States Bald eagle ( national bird ) Haliaeetus leucocephalus American bison ( national mammal ) Bison bison See also Animals portal Lists portal State animal List of national birds Animals as heraldic charges Floral emblem National personification References Jump up ^ `` The Fennec Fox : Algeria 's National Animal '' . algeria.com . Retrieved 2013 - 03 - 21 . Jump up ^ `` THE NATIONAL BIRD OF ANGOLA '' . BIRDS ANGOLA . Retrieved 12 April 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Atributos Nacionales : Anguila '' ( National Attributes : Anguilla ) ( in Spanish ) . CaribeInsider.com. 2011 . Retrieved 25 June 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Government of Antigua and Barbuda . `` Official Website for the Government of Antigua and Barbuda '' . ab.gov.ag . Retrieved 2011 - 08 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` Info about Hornero '' ( in Spanish ) . Redargentina.com. 24 September 2007 . Archived from the original on 13 November 2013 . Retrieved 25 April 2010 . Jump up ^ Gregory , Herbert E. ( 1916 ) . `` Lonely Australia : The Unique Continent '' . National Geographic . National Geographic Society . XXX ( 6 ) : 497 . Retrieved 19 June 2011 . Jump up ^ `` The Emu Bird , from Australian Outback to American ranches '' . emufacts.com . Archived from the original on 2013 - 09 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` National Animal Of Austria '' . Retrieved 2018 - 01 - 02 . Jump up ^ Emily Wither ( 11 November 2011 ) . `` Azerbaijan fights to protect horse from extinction '' . CNN . ^ Jump up to : `` NATIONAL SYMBOLS '' . Bangladesh Tourism Board . Bangladesh : Ministry of Civil Aviation & Tourism . ^ Jump up to : `` 6 Extremely Rare National Animals '' . mentalfloss.com . Retrieved 2014 - 10 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Heraldic emblem and motto - About Belgium - Portal Belgian Government '' . www.belgium.be . Retrieved 2015 - 11 - 29 . Jump up ^ Stallings , Douglas ( 2006 ) . Fodor 's Caribbean Ports of Call 2007 . New York : Random House . p. 204 . ISBN 1 - 4000 - 1698 - 3 . Retrieved 25 June 2011 . Jump up ^ `` The National Symbols '' . Government of Belize . Retrieved 2016 - 11 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` National Animals : The Legendary , Extinct and Imaginary - 3 of 9 '' . abcnews.go.com . Retrieved 2014 - 10 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Ten Unusual National Animals That Rival the Unicorn - 5 of 10 '' . Retrieved 2014 - 10 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Embassy of Brazil in Washington '' . http://washington.itamaraty.gov.br . Retrieved 2018 - 03 - 17 . External link in publisher = ( help ) Jump up ^ `` Forestry.gov.kh '' ( PDF ) . Retrieved 2013 - 08 - 29 . Jump up ^ `` National Emblems : The Beaver '' . Canadian Heritage . 2011 . Retrieved 9 July 2011 . ^ Jump up to : `` Official Symbols of Canada '' . Canadian Heritage . 2016 . Retrieved 1 December 2016 . Jump up ^ `` National Symbols of China '' . 123independenceday.com . Jump up ^ `` China National Symbols '' . worldatlast.com. 2015 . Retrieved 2017 - 03 - 28 . Jump up ^ `` China Considers Red - crowned Crane for National Bird '' . www.china.org.cn . Jump up ^ `` El cóndor , ave nacional - banrepcultural.org '' . Jump up ^ `` 16 de diciembre : Declaración del yigüirro como ave nacional de Costa Rica '' . Jump up ^ `` El Venado Cola Blanca , Símbolo Nacional de la Fauna Silvestre '' . Jump up ^ `` Manatee Now Costa Rica 's New National Symbol '' . QCOSTARICA . 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Royal Thai Government Gazette. 118 ( 99D ) : 1 . 11 December 2001 . ^ Jump up to : `` The UAE National Symbols ... '' TEACH United Arab Emirates . Jess Jumeira School . 2 ( 2 ) . Nov -- Dec 2014 . Retrieved 2015 - 05 - 09 . Jump up ^ Garai , Jana ( 1973 ) . The Book of Symbols . New York : Simon & Schuster . ISBN 0 - 671 - 21773 - 9 . Jump up ^ `` What images are associated with England ? '' . projectbritain.com . Retrieved 2010 - 09 - 22 . Jump up ^ `` The British Bulldog '' . Retrieved 1 August 2014 . ^ Jump up to : `` National symbols of Wales '' . visitwales.com . Jump up ^ `` National Animals : The Legendary , Extinct and Imaginary - 2 of 9 '' . abcnews.go.com . Retrieved 2014 - 10 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Scottish fact of the week : Scotland 's official animal , the Unicorn '' . scotsman.com . Retrieved 2014 - 10 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` The Mystical Unicorn Of Scotland '' . scottish-at-heart.com . Retrieved 2014 - 10 - 03 . 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Jump up ^ A symbol of hope : US government designates bison as the national mammal Jump up ^ Obama Makes North American Bison National Mammal National symbols ( list ) Topics Coat of arms Colour Dish Emblem Epic Flower Myth Patron saint Personification National poetry Poets Sport Lists Animals Birds Anthems Dances Founders Fruits Instruments Liquors Mottos Parks Trees Galleries Country coats of arms State flags Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_national_animals&oldid=837910587 '' Categories : Lists of national symbols Lists of animals Hidden categories : CS1 Spanish - language sources ( es ) All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from December 2017 Articles with permanently dead external links CS1 errors : external links CS1 Finnish - language sources ( fi ) CS1 French - language sources ( fr ) CS1 errors : dates CS1 maint : BOT : original - url status unknown Articles to be expanded from June 2017 Talk View source About Wikipedia বাংলা Español Esperanto Français Italiano Кырык мары Latviešu Magyar മലയാളം Bahasa Melayu 日本 語 ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Português Simple English Suomi తెలుగు اردو Tiếng Việt 11 more Edit links This page was last edited on 23 April 2018 , at 19 : 27 . 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Kylo Ren - wikipedia Kylo Ren Jump to : navigation , search `` Kylo '' redirects here . For the web browser , see Kylo ( web browser ) . Kylo Ren Ben Solo Star Wars character Kylo Ren 's costume displayed on a mannequin First appearance The Force Awakens ( 2015 ) Created by Lawrence Kasdan J.J. Abrams Michael Arndt Portrayed by Adam Driver Voiced by Adam Driver ( Disney Infinity 3.0 , Lego Star Wars : The Force Awakens , Lego Star Wars : The Resistance Rises ) Matthew Wood ( Star Wars Battlefront II ) Roger Craig Smith ( Star Wars Battlefront II ) Information Full name Ben Solo Species Human Gender Male Occupation Supreme Leader of the First Order Master of the Knights of Ren Former Jedi Padawan Affiliation First Order Knights of Ren New Jedi Order ( formerly ) Family Han Solo ( father ) Leia Organa ( mother ) Relatives Luke Skywalker ( maternal uncle ) Anakin Skywalker ( maternal grandfather ) Padmé Amidala ( maternal grandmother ) Bail Organa ( adopted maternal grandfather ) Breha Organa ( adopted maternal grandmother ) Shmi Skywalker ( maternal great - grandmother ) Homeworld Chandrila Kylo Ren is a fictional character in the Star Wars franchise . Introduced in the 2015 film Star Wars : The Force Awakens , he is portrayed by Adam Driver . Kylo Ren is the chosen name of Ben Solo , the son of original Star Wars trilogy characters Han Solo and Leia Organa . Though trained by his uncle Luke Skywalker as a Jedi , he has been seduced to the dark side of the Force by Supreme Leader Snoke and aspires to be as powerful as his grandfather , Darth Vader . Kylo Ren is also the master of the Knights of Ren , as well as a commander and later the supreme leader of the First Order , an organization spawned from the fallen Galactic Empire . He is featured in The Force Awakens media and merchandising and appears in the film 's sequel , Star Wars : The Last Jedi ( 2017 ) . Contents ( hide ) 1 Concept and creation 2 Character 3 Appearances 3.1 Feature films 3.1. 1 The Force Awakens ( 2015 ) 3.1. 2 The Last Jedi ( 2017 ) 3.2 Related works and promotional material 3.3 Novels 4 Reception 5 Family tree 6 References 7 External links Concept and creation ( edit ) After Lucasfilm was acquired by The Walt Disney Company in 2012 , the script for The Force Awakens was written by Lawrence Kasdan , J.J. Abrams and Michael Arndt , with no direct participation from Star Wars creator George Lucas . According to director Abrams , the First Order is inspired by ODESSA , a theoretical network of SS officers who fled to Argentina following World War II . Driver 's casting in the film in an unnamed role was first announced on April 29 , 2014 . Kylo Ren was first seen , but still not named , in the 88 - second The Force Awakens teaser trailer released by Lucasfilm on November 28 , 2014 , wielding a jagged red lightsaber with a crossguard . The name Kylo Ren was revealed by Entertainment Weekly in a Lucasfilm - designed Topps - style trading card mockup in December 2014 . A May 2015 Vanity Fair photo shoot by Annie Leibovitz confirmed that Driver would be portraying Kylo . In an interview with Time , The Force Awakens costume designer Michael Kaplan said that Abrams requested that Ren 's mask be designed to be memorable for a child . After numerous attempts to gain Abrams ' approval , the final design was selected . Kaplan said : I do n't know if it was the kind of spaghetti type lines on it or what , but the next time J.J. came by that was what we presented to him and he loved it . Also the silver in those lines kind of reflects and changes color with the action . You know , if he 's standing in front of fire you see that , so it almost brings you into the mask . Abrams told Entertainment Weekly in August 2015 , `` The movie explains the origins of the mask and where it 's from , but the design was meant to be a nod to the Vader mask . '' According to other cast members , Driver is a method actor , which meant that he sometimes stayed in character on set as Ren and left his mask on between scenes . Driver explained that his goal was `` to forget you 're in Star Wars and treat it like any other job that 's filled with moments and problems '' , because from the perspective of the characters living within the film 's universe , `` Darth Vader is real '' . Ren 's character arc shares similarities with that of the Star Wars expanded universe character Jacen Solo , the son of Han Solo and Princess Leia who threatens the galaxy as a fallen Jedi . Additionally , critics have noted a resemblance between Ren 's character design and that of Revan , the protagonist of Knights of the Old Republic . Character ( edit ) Abrams told Empire in August 2015 , `` Kylo Ren is not a Sith . He works under Supreme Leader Snoke , who is a powerful figure on the Dark Side of the Force . '' Abrams had previously told Entertainment Weekly that the character , `` came to the name Kylo Ren when he joined a group called the Knights of Ren . '' Robbie Collin of The Telegraph described Ren as `` a hot - headed , radicalised Dark Side jihadi , whose red lightsaber splutters and crackles as violently as his temper '' . Abrams noted , `` The lightsaber is something that he built himself , and is as dangerous and as fierce and as ragged as the character . '' The Telegraph also explains that Ren 's wild and erratic temper and `` angsty '' instability make him dangerous . Melissa Leon of The Daily Beast describes Ren 's use of the Force as `` formidable '' , citing his ability to stop a blaster shot mid-air , immobilize victims and probe their minds against their will . Kasdan told Entertainment Weekly in August 2015 , `` I 've written four Star Wars movies now , and there 's never been a character quite like the one that Adam plays . I think you 're going to see something that 's brand new to the saga , '' noting that the character is `` full of emotion '' . Abrams explained , `` I think that what makes Ren so unique is that he is n't as fully formed as when we meet a character such as Darth Vader ... He is not your prototypical mustache - twirling bad guy . He is a little bit more complex than that . '' Driver said in December 2015 that , despite the visual similarities to Darth Vader , Ren is `` unlike any villain the franchise has seen before '' . He explained : I feel there 's a recklessness about him that 's maybe not normally associated with the Dark Side . You normally think of order , and structure , and full commitment and no hesitation ... he 's just a little bit more unpolished . It 's in his costume , in his lightsaber -- how you kind of get the sense that it could just not work at any moment ; that it could just blow up . That 's kind of like a big metaphor for him . Appearances ( edit ) Model of Kylo 's cross-bladed lightsaber on display at Star Wars Launch Bay at Disney 's Hollywood Studios ( 2015 ) . Feature films ( edit ) The Force Awakens ( 2015 ) ( edit ) Main article : Star Wars : The Force Awakens Kylo Ren first appears in The Force Awakens as the commander of the First Order , a sinister regime that has risen from the remains of the old Galactic Empire . After arriving at Jakku to retrieve a map containing the coordinates for the location of Luke Skywalker , Ren kills an old vicar known as Lor San Tekka and captures Resistance pilot Poe Dameron , who has also been sent to recover the map by General Leia Organa . Ren soon learns that the pilot had entrusted his astromech droid , BB - 8 , with the map . Poe flees with the help of rogue stormtrooper Finn , who later finds BB - 8 , and the scavenger Rey . Finn , Rey , and BB - 8 escape Jakku in the Millennium Falcon , and are soon intercepted by the ship 's former owner , Han Solo , and his co-pilot Chewbacca . It is revealed that Ren is the son of Han and Leia , and was once one of Luke 's Jedi pupils . He was drawn to the dark side of the Force by the First Order 's Supreme Leader Snoke . He then helped to destroy his uncle Luke 's new Jedi Academy . However , Ren still feels the pull of the light side of the Force and seeks the strength to overcome this weakness from his grandfather Darth Vader , whose burnt helmet is in Ren 's possession . Arriving at the Maz Kanata castle , Ren captures Rey , who he senses has seen the map . While interrogating her with the Force , he realizes that she is strong with the Force herself , though unaware of it . Rey finds herself able to experience Ren 's emotions and confronts him on his fear that he will never be as powerful as Vader . She later uses the `` Jedi mind trick '' to compel her stormtrooper guard to let her escape . Han arrives at the First Order 's battle station , Starkiller Base , as part of the Resistance 's plan to destroy it . After Han plants explosives to destroy the base , he confronts Ren , calling him by his real name , Ben , and implores him to abandon the dark side , warning him that Snoke will kill him once he accomplishes his goal to seize control of the galaxy . Ren refuses and kills his father , enraging Chewbacca , Han 's copilot , who fires , injuring Ren . As Finn and Rey flee the damaged base , a badly injured Ren follows and confronts them . Finn fights Ren with Luke 's recovered lightsaber , but Ren overpowers and severely wounds him . Rey then takes up the lightsaber and , using the Force , begins to overcome Ren , as well as striking him on the face with the lightsaber , leaving Ren with a scar on the right side of his face . Before the duel is finished , they are separated by a seismic fissure created by the collapsing base . Rey and the others escape as Snoke orders General Hux to evacuate the base and bring Ren to him to complete his training . The last Jedi ( 2017 ) ( edit ) Main article : Star Wars : The Last Jedi Ren 's inner conflict continues into The Last Jedi , specifically through his conversations with Rey , with whom he connects through the Force . Rey believes that his conflict will ultimately bring him back to the light side . Ren captures her and brings her before Snoke , who orders Ren to kill her . However , Ren uses the Force to ignite a lightsaber at Snoke 's side and cut him in half , killing him . Ren beseeches Rey to join him in creating a new order , separate from the legacies created by Snoke and Luke . When Rey refuses , Ren declares himself Supreme Leader of the First Order , and orders his forces to attack the Resistance base on Crait . Ren engages Luke in battle and appears to blow him up and cut him in half , but Luke remains standing ; `` Luke '' is revealed to be simply a vision projected from the real Luke on Ahch - To , serving as a distraction which allows the Resistance to escape from the First Order . When Luke vanishes , the First Order storms the base , but Resistance has already evacuated ; he shares a final look with Rey through the Force before Rey closes the door to the Millennium Falcon and escapes with the Resistance . Related works and promotional material ( edit ) He is a playable character in the 2015 Force Awakens add - on to the Disney Infinity 3.0 video game , with an Infinity character figurine available separately . He is also a character in the strategy video game Star Wars : Force Arena . Hasbro has released a 3 ⁄ - inch ( 9.5 cm ) Kylo Ren action figure , and a 6 - inch ( 15 cm ) figure in their Black Series line . He is also featured in the Lego Star Wars playsets Kylo Ren 's Command Shuttle ( 2015 ) and Battle on Takodana ( 2016 ) , as well as a Lego Buildable Figure . The Lego version of Kylo also appears in the 2016 short form animated series Lego Star Wars : The Resistance Rises . In January 2016 , Driver reprised the role for a Star Wars / Undercover Boss sketch on Saturday Night Live , with Kylo Ren disguising himself as a radar technician named `` Matt '' to determine what the Starkiller Base employees really think of him . Kylo Ren appears in Star Wars Battlefront II , voiced by Matthew Wood and Roger Craig Smith , masked and unmasked respectively . In the game , Kylo interrogates Del Meeko about Lor San Tekka 's location ( who possess the map to Luke Skywalker ) using his Force abilities . When Del finally relents and reveals the map and Lor San Tekka 's location , Kylo leaves him for Hask , Del 's former comrade in Inferno Squad . Novels ( edit ) Kylo Ren is a point of view character in the 2015 novelization of The Force Awakens by Alan Dean Foster . In the 2017 Chuck Wendig novel Star Wars : Aftermath : Empire 's End , Ben Solo is stated as having been born on the planet Chandrila on the same day as a peace treaty is signed between the remnants of the Empire and the New Galactic Republic . Kylo Ren is additionally mentioned in the 2017 novel Star Wars : Phasma . Reception ( edit ) Adam Driver received positive reviews for his performance as Kylo Ren . Both the character of Kylo Ren and Driver 's performance have been positively received . Many complimented Ren 's conflicted nature and depth , as well as his costume design , and noted there were many places the character could be taken in future installments . Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian praised the character and the actor alike , saying , `` He is gorgeously cruel , spiteful and capricious -- and unlike the Vader of old , he is given to petulant temper tantrums , with his lightsaber drawn . '' Terri Schwartz of IGN also called Driver 's performance `` spectacular '' , noting that `` his performance adds great depth to a character who could have come off as one - dimensional , and the implications of his arc leave a viewer with plenty to think about after they leave the theater . '' Collin wrote , `` To describe Kylo Ren as this film 's Vader would be accurate in a sense ... But it would also be to undersell the deep ingenuity with which this astonishing character has been crafted by Abrams , Kasdan and Arndt , and also the wells of emotional tumult Driver invests in him . '' Comparing the character to the one - note Vader of the 1977 film , Leon calls Ren `` a living battleground between darkness and light , making him a far more resonant and familiar portrayal of that struggle than we 've ever seen in Star Wars ... ( which ) makes him a far more interesting villain . '' Abrams told Entertainment Weekly , `` it was a great joy to work with Adam Driver on this role , because he threw himself into it in a deep and remarkable way . '' Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter noted , `` Ren is given a pronounced inferiority complex , a clever bad guy twist that could be taken to interesting places both in the writing and performance . '' Peter Travers of Rolling Stone wrote , `` The bald - faced attempt to clone Vader , one of the greatest badasses in film history , is clankingly obvious , but Driver , masked and unmasked , gives him hypnotic and haunting contours . '' Kyle Buchanan of Vulture.com was underwhelmed by the reveal of Driver under the mask . Leon , however , argued : But that face -- that of a normal , vulnerable young man -- is the most subversively terrifying thing about J. J. Abrams ' reimagining of A New Hope . Rather than pure evil , Ren is something far more familiar : He is human . Just like the real - life young men with minds clouded by fear , hate , and anger who commit unspeakable acts in our world every day ... all the visual cues that leave the character open to criticisms of not being `` evil '' enough -- are all signs of Ren 's struggle between the Dark Side and the Light . Driver won a 2016 Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actor for his portrayal . In January 2018 , Kylo was voted seventh greatest movie villain of all time by the readers of Empire . Family tree ( edit ) Main article : Solo family ( hide ) Skywalker family tree Aika Lars Cliegg Lars Shmi Skywalker Jobal Naberrie Ruwee Naberrie Beru Whitesun Owen Lars Anakin Skywalker Padmé Amidala Bail Organa Breha Organa Luke Skywalker Leia Organa Han Solo Ben Solo References : Jump up ^ Hidalgo , Pablo ( 2016 ) . Star Wars Character Encyclopedia : Updated and Expanded . Jump up ^ `` Databank : Cliegg Lars '' . StarWars.com . Retrieved December 3 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Databank : Shmi Skywalker Lars '' . StarWars.com . Retrieved December 3 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Attack of the Clones ( 2002 ) and Revenge of the Sith ( 2005 ) Jump up ^ `` Databank : Beru Lars '' . StarWars.com . Retrieved December 3 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Databank : Owen Lars '' . StarWars.com . Retrieved December 3 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Databank : Anakin Skywalker '' . StarWars.com . Retrieved December 4 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Databank : Darth Vader '' . StarWars.com . Retrieved December 4 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Databank : Padmé Amidala '' . StarWars.com . Retrieved December 4 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Adopted father of Leia Organa , as established in Revenge of the Sith ( 2005 ) . Jump up ^ `` Databank : Bail Organa '' . StarWars.com . Retrieved December 3 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Adopted mother of Leia Organa , as established in Revenge of the Sith ( 2005 ) . Jump up ^ `` Databank : Luke Skywalker '' . StarWars.com . Retrieved December 4 , 2015 . Jump up ^ In the alternate Star Wars expanded universe ( Legends ) , Luke is married to Mara Jade and has a son , Ben Skywalker . Jump up ^ `` Databank : Princess Leia Organa '' . StarWars.com . Retrieved December 4 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : The Force Awakens. 2015 . Jump up ^ In the alternate Star Wars expanded universe ( Legends ) continuity , Han and Leia have three children : Jaina , Jacen and Anakin Solo . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Wendig , Chuck ( 2017 ) . Star Wars : Aftermath : Empire 's End . Del Rey . ISBN 9781101966976 . What is known is this : The child 's name is Ben , and he takes his father 's last name , even as Leia keeps only her own family name , Organa . Jump up ^ Star Wars : The Force Awakens ( Little Golden Book ) . Golden Books . April 12 , 2016 . ISBN 9780736434911 . Jump up ^ Dennis , Catrina ( May 6 , 2016 ) . `` Legacy of My Mother : 5 Women Who Changed the Star Wars Galaxy '' . StarWars.com . Retrieved May 26 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Dyer , James ( August 25 , 2015 ) . `` JJ Abrams Spills Details On Kylo Ren '' . Empire . Retrieved December 18 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Star Wars : Episode VII Cast Announced '' . StarWars.com. April 29 , 2014 . Retrieved December 20 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Watch the Incredible Star Wars : The Force Awakens Trailer '' . Rolling Stone . November 28 , 2014 . Retrieved January 1 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Lewis , Andy ( December 1 , 2014 ) . `` Trailer Report : Star Wars Teaser Beats Age of Ultron In Debut '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved December 2 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Kain , Erik ( November 29 , 2014 ) . `` 5 Reasons The New Star Wars Trailer Was The Perfect First Look At The Force Awakens '' . Forbes . Retrieved January 1 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Ahmed , Tufayel ( November 28 , 2014 ) . `` Star Wars The Force Awakens trailer : 5 things we 've learned from the EPIC Episode VII trailer '' . Daily Mirror . Retrieved January 1 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Gilman , Greg ( November 29 , 2014 ) . `` Star Wars : Episode VII -- The Force Awakens Trailer Unmasks a Stormtrooper , Teases Villain '' . TheWrap . Retrieved January 1 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Breznican , Anthony ( December 11 , 2014 ) . `` Star Wars : The Force Awakens character names revealed ( in coolest way possible ) '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved December 11 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Star Wars : The Force Awakens Digital Trading Cards '' . StarWars.com . Retrieved December 6 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Robinson , Joanna ( May 4 , 2015 ) . `` Adam Driver 's and Lupita Nyong'o's Characters Revealed in Exclusive Star Wars : The Force Awakens Photos '' . Vanity Fair . Retrieved January 6 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` How Kylo Ren 's Terrifying Mask Was Designed to Be Unforgettable to Kids '' . Time . December 11 , 2015 . Retrieved December 18 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Breznican , Anthony ( August 12 , 2015 ) . `` Star Wars : The Force Awakens : Kylo Ren 's shroud is pulled back at last , but ... '' Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved January 6 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Hiatt , Brian ( December 2 , 2015 ) . `` Star Wars Strikes Back : Behind the Scenes of the Biggest Movie of the Year '' . Rolling Stone . Retrieved December 22 , 2015 . Jump up ^ McMillan , Graeme ( December 23 , 2015 ) . `` How the Abandoned Star Wars Expanded Universe Inspired Force Awakens '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved January 1 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Bouie , Jamelle ( December 16 , 2015 ) . `` How The Force Awakens Remixes the Star Wars Expanded Universe '' . Slate . Retrieved December 20 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Kendrick , Ben ( December 18 , 2015 ) . `` Star Wars 7 : Kylo Ren Backstory Explained '' . Screen Rant . Retrieved December 20 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Saavedra , John ( December 17 , 2015 ) . `` Star Wars : The Force Awakens Easter Eggs and Reference Guide ( Kylo Ren / Ben Solo and the Knights of Ren ) '' . Den of Geek . Retrieved December 18 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Dickens , Donna ( August 17 , 2015 ) . `` Kylo Ren Looks An Awful Lot Like This Other Star Wars Character '' . HitFix . Retrieved December 24 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Chung , Frank ( August 25 , 2015 ) . `` Who is the new Star Wars villain ? '' . News.com.au . Retrieved January 6 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Collin , Robbie ( December 18 , 2015 ) . `` Star Wars : The Force Awakens review : ' the magic is back ' '' . The Telegraph . Retrieved December 29 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` 14 things Star Wars fans will love about The Force Awakens '' . The Telegraph . December 17 , 2015 . Retrieved December 29 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Leon , Melissa ( December 27 , 2015 ) . `` Emo Kylo Ren : Star Wars : The Force Awakens ' Polarizing Villain '' . The Daily Beast . Retrieved December 30 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Hawkes , Rebecca ( December 17 , 2015 ) . `` Adam Driver : why Kylo Ren is nothing like Vader '' . The Telegraph . Retrieved December 29 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Robertson , Andy ( October 12 , 2015 ) . `` Disney Infinity : The Force Awakens Dated , Adds Kylo Ren And Poe Dameron '' . Forbes . Retrieved December 22 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Valdes , Giancarlo ( December 9 , 2015 ) . `` Disney Infinity 's Star Wars : The Force Awakens lets John Boyega play with himself '' . VentureBeat . Retrieved December 22 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Star Wars : The Force Awakens Play Set for Disney Infinity 3.0 Edition Now Available '' . StarWars.com . December 18 , 2015 . Retrieved December 22 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Truitt , Brian ( December 16 , 2015 ) . `` Infinity adds to Force Awakens experience '' . USA Today . Retrieved December 22 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Compendio , Chris ( November 9 , 2017 ) . `` Kylo Ren and Rey Finally Join Mobile Game Star Wars : Force Arena '' . Screen Rant . Retrieved November 22 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Spry , Jeff ( August 14 , 2015 ) . `` Leaked peek at Hasbro 's Kylo Ren , Captain Phasma and 10 more The Force Awakens action figures '' . Blastr . Retrieved January 3 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Myatt , D. Martin . `` 03 Kylo Ren from Hasbro 's The Black Series '' . Rebelscum.com . Retrieved January 3 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` 75104 - 1 : Kylo Ren 's Command Shuttle '' . Brickset.com. 2015 . Retrieved January 1 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Minifigs : sw663 : Kylo Ren ( 75104 ) '' . Brickset.com. 2015 . Retrieved January 13 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` 75139 - 1 : Battle on Takodana '' . Brickset.com. 2016 . Retrieved January 13 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Minifigs : sw717 : Kylo Ren ( 75139 ) '' . Brickset.com. 2016 . Retrieved January 13 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` 75117 - 1 : Kylo Ren '' . Brickset.com. 2015 . Retrieved January 1 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Li , Shirley ( February 12 , 2016 ) . `` The Force Awakens characters to appear in new LEGO Star Wars series '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved April 23 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` LEGO Star Wars : The Resistance Rises to Debut on Disney XD February 15 '' . Oh My Disney . February 2016 . Retrieved April 22 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Watercutter , Angela ( February 12 , 2016 ) . `` This New Animated Lego Star Wars Short Looks Legit '' . Wired . Retrieved April 25 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Whitbrook , James ( February 12 , 2016 ) . `` Poe Dameron Stages a Daring Rescue in the First The Force Awakens Lego Short '' . io9 . Retrieved April 25 , 2016 . Jump up ^ McGee , Ryan ( January 17 , 2016 ) . `` Adam Driver on ' SNL ' : 3 Sketches You Have to See '' . Rolling Stone . Retrieved January 17 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Mroz , Guillaume ( @ guillaume_mroz ) ( November 15 , 2017 ) . `` Sorry , incomplete information : Matthew Woods : Masked Kylo Ren Roger Craig Smith : Unmasked Kylo Ren '' ( Tweet ) . Retrieved November 22 , 2017 -- via Twitter . Jump up ^ Foster , Alan Dean ( 2015 ) . `` Chapter I '' . The Force Awakens ( e-book ) . ISBN 9781101965504 . Jump up ^ Trendacosta , Katharine ( February 22 , 2017 ) . `` Everything That Aftermath : Empire 's End Reveals About the New Star Wars Universe '' . Gizmodo . Retrieved February 22 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Star Wars : The Force Awakens Review ( Or How I Might Just Like Kylo Ren ) '' . thebiglead.com . Retrieved December 21 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Force Awakens Thrilling If Not Familiar Adventure '' . thereeldeal.com . Retrieved December 21 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` What Happened To Kylo Ren After The Force Awakens ? The Villian Could Make A Return '' . Bustle.com . Retrieved December 21 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Bradshaw , Peter ( December 16 , 2015 ) . `` Star Wars : The Force Awakens review -- ' a spectacular homecoming ' '' . The Guardian . Retrieved December 21 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Schwartz , Terri . `` Star Wars : The Force Awakens Review '' . IGN . Retrieved 22 December 2015 . Jump up ^ McCarthy , Todd ( December 16 , 2015 ) . `` Star Wars : The Force Awakens : Review '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved December 29 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Travers , Peter ( December 16 , 2015 ) . `` Star Wars : The Force Awakens '' . Rolling Stone . Retrieved December 21 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Buchanan , Kyle ( November 11 , 2015 ) . `` Let 's Discuss the Ending of Star Wars : The Force Awakens '' . Vulture.com . Retrieved December 19 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Cohen , David S. ( June 23 , 2016 ) . `` The Force Awakens Rings Up Eight Saturn Awards '' . Variety . Retrieved June 23 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Agar , Chris ( January 22 , 2018 ) . `` Kylo Ren Voted Seventh - Greatest Movie Villain '' . Screen Rant . Retrieved January 24 , 2018 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Kylo Ren . Kylo Ren in the StarWars.com Databank Kylo Ren on Wookieepedia , a Star Wars wiki Kylo Ren on IMDb Star Wars characters List of The Clone Wars characters List of Rebels characters List of Legends characters Characters Canon Admiral Ackbar Padmé Amidala Cassian Andor Wedge Antilles Cad Bane Darth Bane BB - 8 Jar Jar Binks C - 3PO Lando Calrissian Chewbacca Lieutenant Connix Poe Dameron Count Dooku Jyn Erso Boba Fett Jango Fett Finn Saw Gerrera Greedo Tag Greenley General Grievous Jabba the Hutt General Hux Kanan Jarrus Qui - Gon Jinn K - 2SO Maz Kanata Obi - Wan Kenobi Orson Krennic Princess Leia Darth Maul Nien Nunb Bink Otauna Palpatine Captain Phasma Admiral Piett R2 - D2 Kylo Ren Rey Captain Rex Bodhi Rook Bail Organa Luke Skywalker Supreme Leader Snoke Han Solo Ahsoka Tano Grand Moff Tarkin Grand Admiral Thrawn Rose Tico Darth Vader Asajj Ventress Iden Versio Watto Wicket W. 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where does kylo ren's name come from

the character, "came to the name Kylo Ren when he joined a group called the Knights of Ren."

Ben Solo

OPEC - wikipedia OPEC Jump to : navigation , search Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries ( OPEC ) Flag Headquarters Vienna , Austria Official language English Type International cartel Membership 14 states ( May 2017 ) ( show ) Algeria Angola Ecuador Equatorial Guinea Gabon Iran * Iraq * Kuwait * Libya Nigeria Qatar Saudi Arabia * United Arab Emirates Venezuela * * founding member Leaders Secretary General Mohammed Barkindo Establishment Baghdad , Iraq Statute September 1960 In effect January 1961 Currency Indexed as USD per barrel ( US $ / bbl ) Website OPEC.org Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries ( OPEC , / ˈoʊpɛk / OH - pek , or OPEP in several other languages ) is an intergovernmental organization of 14 nations as of February 2018 , founded in 1960 in Baghdad by the first five members ( Iran , Iraq , Kuwait , Saudi Arabia , and Venezuela ) , and headquartered since 1965 in Vienna , Austria . As of 2016 , the 14 countries accounted for an estimated 44 percent of global oil production and 73 percent of the world 's `` proven '' oil reserves , giving OPEC a major influence on global oil prices that were previously determined by American - dominated multinational oil companies . OPEC 's stated mission is `` to coordinate and unify the petroleum policies of its member countries and ensure the stabilization of oil markets , in order to secure an efficient , economic and regular supply of petroleum to consumers , a steady income to producers , and a fair return on capital for those investing in the petroleum industry . '' The organization is also a significant provider of information about the international oil market . As of May 2017 , OPEC 's members are Algeria , Angola , Ecuador , Equatorial Guinea , Gabon , Iran , Iraq , Kuwait , Libya , Nigeria , Qatar , Saudi Arabia ( the de facto leader ) , United Arab Emirates , and Venezuela , while Indonesia is a former member . Two - thirds of OPEC 's oil production and reserves are in its six Middle Eastern countries that surround the oil - rich Persian Gulf . The formation of OPEC marked a turning point toward national sovereignty over natural resources , and OPEC decisions have come to play a prominent role in the global oil market and international relations . The effect can be particularly strong when wars or civil disorders lead to extended interruptions in supply . In the 1970s , restrictions in oil production led to a dramatic rise in oil prices and OPEC 's revenue and wealth , with long - lasting and far - reaching consequences for the global economy . In the 1980s , OPEC started setting production targets for its member nations ; and generally when the production targets are reduced , oil prices increase , most recently from the organization 's 2008 and 2016 decisions to trim oversupply . Economists often cite OPEC as a textbook example of a cartel that cooperates to reduce market competition , but whose consultations are protected by the doctrine of state immunity under international law . In December 2014 , `` OPEC and the oil men '' ranked as # 3 on Lloyd 's list of `` the top 100 most influential people in the shipping industry '' . However , their influence on international trade is periodically challenged by the expansion of non-OPEC energy sources , and by the recurring temptation for individual OPEC countries to exceed production ceilings and pursue conflicting self - interests . Contents ( hide ) 1 Membership 1.1 Current member countries 1.2 Lapsed members 1.3 Observers 1.4 Leadership and decision - making 1.5 International cartel 1.6 Conflicts 2 Market information 2.1 Publications and research 2.2 Crude oil benchmarks 2.3 Spare capacity 3 History and impact 3.1 Post-WWII situation 3.2 1959 -- 1960 anger from exporting countries 3.3 1960 -- 1975 founding and expansion 3.4 1973 -- 1974 oil embargo 3.5 1975 -- 1980 Special Fund , now OFID 3.6 1975 hostage siege 3.7 1979 -- 1980 oil crisis and 1980s oil glut 3.8 1990 -- 2003 ample supply and modest disruptions 3.9 2003 -- 2011 volatility 3.10 2008 production dispute 3.11 2014 -- 2017 oil glut 3.12 2017 - 2018 Production cut 4 See also 5 References 6 External links Membership ( edit ) Current member countries ( edit ) As of May 2017 , OPEC has 14 member countries : six in the Middle East ( Western Asia ) , six in Africa , and two in South America . According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration ( EIA ) , OPEC 's combined rate of oil production ( including gas condensate ) represented 44 percent of the world 's total in 2016 , and OPEC accounted for 73 percent of the world 's `` proven '' oil reserves , including 48 percent from just the six Middle Eastern members : Approval of a new member country requires agreement by three - quarters of OPEC 's existing members , including all five of the founders . In October 2015 , Sudan formally submitted an application to join , but it is not yet a member . Country Region Membership Years Population ( 2016 est . ) Area ( km ) Oil Production ( bbl / day , 2016 ) Proven Reserves ( bbl , 2016 ) Algeria North Africa 1969 -- 40,606,052 2,381,740 1,348,361 12,200,000,000 Angola Southern Africa 2007 -- 28,813,463 1,246,700 1,769,615 8,423,000,000 Ecuador South America 1973 -- 1992 , 2007 -- 16,385,068 283,560 548,421 8,273,000,000 Equatorial Guinea Central Africa 2017 -- 1,221,490 28,051 227,000 1,100,000,000 Gabon Central Africa 1975 -- 1995 , 2016 -- 1,979,786 267,667 210,820 2,000,000,000 Iran Middle East 1960 -- 80,277,428 1,648,000 3,990,956 157,530,000,000 Iraq Middle East 1960 -- 37,202,572 437,072 4,451,516 143,069,000,000 Kuwait Middle East 1960 -- 4,052,584 17,820 2,923,825 101,500,000,000 Libya North Africa 1962 -- 6,293,253 1,759,540 384,686 48,363,000,000 Nigeria West Africa 1971 -- 185,989,640 923,768 1,999,885 37,070,000,000 Qatar Middle East 1961 -- 2,569,804 11,437 1,522,902 25,244,000,000 Saudi Arabia Middle East 1960 -- 32,275,687 2,149,690 10,460,710 266,578,000,000 United Arab Emirates Middle East 1967 -- 9,269,612 83,600 3,106,077 97,800,000,000 Venezuela South America 1960 -- 31,568,179 912,050 2,276,967 299,953,000,000 OPEC Total 478,498,000 12,150,695 35,221,740 1,209,103,000,000 World Total 7,618,511,000 510,072,000 80,622,287 1,650,585,000,000 OPEC Percent 6 % 2 % 44 % 73 % ^ Jump up to : One petroleum barrel ( bbl ) is approximately 42 U.S. gallons , or 159 liters , or 0.159 m , varying slightly with temperature . To put the production numbers in context , a supertanker typically holds 2,000,000 barrels ( 320,000 m ) , and the world 's current production rate would take approximately 56 years to exhaust the world 's current proven reserves . ^ Jump up to : The five founding members attended the first OPEC conference in September 1960 . Jump up ^ The UAE was founded in December 1971 . Its OPEC membership originated with the Emirate of Abu Dhabi . Lapsed members ( edit ) Country Region Membership Years Population ( 2016 est . ) Area ( km ) Oil Production ( bbl / day , 2016 ) Proven Reserves ( bbl , 2016 ) Indonesia Southeast Asia 1962 -- 2008 , Jan - Nov 2016 261,115,456 1,904,569 833,667 3,692,500,000 For countries that export petroleum at relatively low volume , their limited negotiating power as OPEC members would not necessarily justify the burdens imposed by OPEC production quotas and membership costs . Ecuador withdrew from OPEC in December 1992 , because it was unwilling to pay the annual US $2 million membership fee and felt that it needed to produce more oil than it was allowed under its OPEC quota at the time , although it rejoined in October 2007 . Similar concerns prompted Gabon to suspend membership in January 1995 ; it rejoined in July 2016 . In May 2008 , Indonesia announced that it would leave OPEC when its membership expired at the end of that year , having become a net importer of oil and being unable to meet its production quota . It rejoined the organization in January 2016 , but announced another `` temporary suspension '' of its membership at year - end when OPEC requested a 5 percent production cut . Some commentators consider that the United States was a de facto member of OPEC during its formal occupation of Iraq , due to its leadership of the Coalition Provisional Authority in 2003 -- 2004 . But this is not borne out by the minutes of OPEC meetings , as no US representative attended in an official capacity . Observers ( edit ) Since the 1980s , representatives from Egypt , Mexico , Norway , Oman , Russia , and other oil - exporting nations have attended many OPEC meetings as observers . This arrangement serves as an informal mechanism for coordinating policies . Leadership and decision - Making ( edit ) OPEC Conference delegates at Swissotel , Quito , Ecuador , December 2010 See also : List of Secretaries General of OPEC The OPEC Conference is the supreme authority of the organization , and consists of delegations normally headed by the oil ministers of member countries . The chief executive of the organization is the OPEC Secretary General . The Conference ordinarily meets at the Vienna headquarters , at least twice a year and in additional extraordinary sessions when necessary . It generally operates on the principles of unanimity and `` one member , one vote '' , with each country paying an equal membership fee into the annual budget . However , since Saudi Arabia is by far the largest and most - profitable oil exporter in the world , with enough capacity to function as the traditional swing producer to balance the global market , it serves as `` OPEC 's de facto leader '' . International cartel ( edit ) At various times , OPEC members have displayed apparent anti-competitive cartel behavior through the organization 's agreements about oil production and price levels . In fact , economists often cite OPEC as a textbook example of a cartel that cooperates to reduce market competition , as in this definition from OECD 's Glossary of Industrial Organisation Economics and Competition Law : International commodity agreements covering products such as coffee , sugar , tin and more recently oil ( OPEC : Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries ) are examples of international cartels which have publicly entailed agreements between different national governments . OPEC members strongly prefer to describe their organization as a modest force for market stabilization , rather than a powerful anti-competitive cartel . In its defense , the organization was founded as a counterweight against the previous `` Seven Sisters '' cartel of multinational oil companies , and non-OPEC energy suppliers have maintained enough market share for a substantial degree of worldwide competition . Moreover , because of an economic `` prisoner 's dilemma '' that encourages each member nation individually to discount its price and exceed its production quota , widespread cheating within OPEC often erodes its ability to influence global oil prices through collective action . OPEC has not been involved in any disputes related to the competition rules of the World Trade Organization , even though the objectives , actions , and principles of the two organizations diverge considerably . A key US District Court decision held that OPEC consultations are protected as `` governmental '' acts of state by the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act , and are therefore beyond the legal reach of US competition law governing `` commercial '' acts . Despite popular sentiment against OPEC , legislative proposals to limit the organization 's sovereign immunity , such as the NOPEC Act , have so far been unsuccessful . Conflicts ( edit ) OPEC often has difficulty agreeing on policy decisions because its member countries differ widely in their oil export capacities , production costs , reserves , geological features , population , economic development , budgetary situations , and political circumstances . Indeed , over the course of market cycles , oil reserves can themselves become a source of serious conflict , instability and imbalances , in what economists call the `` natural resource curse '' . A further complication is that religion - linked conflicts in the Middle East are recurring features of the geopolitical landscape for this oil - rich region . Internationally important conflicts in OPEC 's history have included the Six - Day War ( 1967 ) , Yom Kippur War ( 1973 ) , a hostage siege directed by Palestinian militants ( 1975 ) , the Iranian Revolution ( 1979 ) , Iran -- Iraq War ( 1980 -- 1988 ) , Iraqi occupation of Kuwait ( 1990 -- 1991 ) , September 11 attacks by mostly Saudi hijackers ( 2001 ) , American occupation of Iraq ( 2003 -- 2011 ) , Conflict in the Niger Delta ( 2004 -- present ) , Arab Spring ( 2010 -- 2012 ) , Libyan Crisis ( 2011 -- present ) , and international Embargo against Iran ( 2012 -- 2016 ) . Although events such as these can temporarily disrupt oil supplies and elevate prices , the frequent disputes and instabilities tend to limit OPEC 's long - term cohesion and effectiveness . Market Information ( edit ) As one area in which OPEC members have been able to cooperate productively over the decades , the organization has significantly improved the quality and quantity of information available about the international oil market . This is especially helpful for a natural - resource industry whose smooth functioning requires months and years of careful planning . Publications and research ( edit ) Logo for JODI , in which OPEC is a founding member In April 2001 , OPEC collaborated with five other international organizations ( APEC , Eurostat , IEA , OLADE ( es ) , UNSD ) to improve the availability and reliability of oil data . They launched the Joint Oil Data Exercise , which in 2005 was joined by IEF and renamed the Joint Organisations Data Initiative ( JODI ) , covering more than 90 percent of the global oil market . GECF joined as an eighth partner in 2014 , enabling JODI also to cover nearly 90 percent of the global market for natural gas . Since 2007 , OPEC has published the `` World Oil Outlook '' ( WOO ) annually , in which it presents a comprehensive analysis of the global oil industry including medium - and long - term projections for supply and demand . OPEC also produces an `` Annual Statistical Bulletin '' ( ASB ) , and publishes more - frequent updates in its `` Monthly Oil Market Report '' ( MOMR ) and `` OPEC Bulletin '' . Crude oil benchmarks ( edit ) Sulfur content and API gravity of different types of crude oil See also : Benchmark ( crude oil ) A `` crude oil benchmark '' is a standardized petroleum product that serves as a convenient reference price for buyers and sellers of crude oil , including standardized contracts in major futures markets since 1983 . Benchmarks are used because oil prices differ ( usually by a few dollars per barrel ) based on variety , grade , delivery date and location , and other legal requirements . The OPEC Reference Basket of Crudes has been an important benchmark for oil prices since 2000 . It is calculated as a weighted average of prices for petroleum blends from the OPEC member countries : Saharan Blend ( Algeria ) , Girassol ( Angola ) , Oriente ( Ecuador ) , Rabi Light ( Gabon ) , Iran Heavy ( Islamic Republic of Iran ) , Basra Light ( Iraq ) , Kuwait Export ( Kuwait ) , Es Sider ( Libya ) , Bonny Light ( Nigeria ) , Qatar Marine ( Qatar ) , Arab Light ( Saudi Arabia ) , Murban ( UAE ) , and Merey ( Venezuela ) . North Sea Brent Crude Oil is the leading benchmark for Atlantic basin crude oils , and is used to price approximately two - thirds of the world 's traded crude oil . Other well - known benchmarks are West Texas Intermediate ( WTI ) , Dubai Crude , Oman Crude , and Urals oil . Spare capacity ( edit ) The US Energy Information Administration , the statistical arm of the US Department of Energy , defines spare capacity for crude oil market management `` as the volume of production that can be brought on within 30 days and sustained for at least 90 days ... OPEC spare capacity provides an indicator of the world oil market 's ability to respond to potential crises that reduce oil supplies . '' In November 2014 , the International Energy Agency ( IEA ) estimated that OPEC 's `` effective '' spare capacity , adjusted for ongoing disruptions in countries like Libya and Nigeria , was 3.5 million barrels per day ( 560,000 m / d ) and that this number would increase to a peak in 2017 of 4.6 million barrels per day ( 730,000 m / d ) . By November 2015 , the IEA changed its assessment `` with OPEC 's spare production buffer stretched thin , as Saudi Arabia -- which holds the lion 's share of excess capacity -- and its ( Persian ) Gulf neighbours pump at near - record rates . '' History and impact ( edit ) Post-WWII situation ( edit ) In 1949 , Venezuela and Iran took the earliest steps in the direction of OPEC , by inviting Iraq , Kuwait and Saudi Arabia to improve communication among petroleum - exporting nations as the world recovered from World War II . At the time , some of the world 's largest oil fields were just entering production in the Middle East . The United States had established the Interstate Oil Compact Commission to join the Texas Railroad Commission in limiting overproduction . The US was simultaneously the world 's largest producer and consumer of oil ; and the world market was dominated by a group of multinational companies known as the `` Seven Sisters '' , five of which were headquartered in the US following the breakup of John D. Rockefeller 's original Standard Oil monopoly . Oil - exporting countries were eventually motivated to form OPEC as a counterweight to this concentration of political and economic power . 1959 -- 1960 anger from exporting countries ( edit ) In February 1959 , as new supplies were becoming available , the multinational oil companies ( MOCs ) unilaterally reduced their posted prices for Venezuelan and Middle Eastern crude oil by 10 percent . Weeks later , the Arab League 's first Arab Petroleum Congress convened in Cairo , Egypt , where the influential journalist Wanda Jablonski introduced Saudi Arabia 's Abdullah Tariki to Venezuela 's observer Juan Pablo Pérez Alfonzo , representing the two then - largest oil - producing nations outside the United States and the Soviet Union . Both oil ministers were angered by the price cuts , and the two led their fellow delegates to establish the Maadi Pact or Gentlemen 's Agreement , calling for an `` Oil Consultation Commission '' of exporting countries , to which MOCs should present price - change plans . Jablonski reported a marked hostility toward the West and a growing outcry against `` absentee landlordism '' of the MOCs , which at the time controlled all oil operations within the exporting countries and wielded enormous political influence . In August 1960 , ignoring the warnings , and with the US favoring Canadian and Mexican oil for strategic reasons , the MOCs again unilaterally announced significant cuts in their posted prices for Middle Eastern crude oil . 1960 -- 1975 founding and expansion ( edit ) OPEC headquarters in Vienna ( 2009 building ) The following month , during 10 -- 14 September 1960 , the Baghdad Conference was held at the initiative of Tariki , Pérez Alfonzo , and Iraqi prime minister Abd al - Karim Qasim , whose country had skipped the 1959 congress . Government representatives from Iran , Iraq , Kuwait , Saudi Arabia and Venezuela met in Baghdad to discuss ways to increase the price of crude oil produced by their countries , and ways to respond to unilateral actions by the MOCs . Despite strong US opposition : `` Together with Arab and non-Arab producers , Saudi Arabia formed the Organization of Petroleum Export Countries ( OPEC ) to secure the best price available from the major oil corporations . '' The Middle Eastern members originally called for OPEC headquarters to be in Baghdad or Beirut , but Venezuela argued for a neutral location , and so the organization chose Geneva , Switzerland . On 1 September 1965 , OPEC moved to Vienna , Austria , after Switzerland declined to extend diplomatic privileges . During 1961 -- 1975 , the five founding nations were joined by Qatar ( 1961 ) , Indonesia ( 1962 -- 2008 , rejoined 2014 - 2016 ) , Libya ( 1962 ) , United Arab Emirates ( originally just the Emirate of Abu Dhabi , 1967 ) , Algeria ( 1969 ) , Nigeria ( 1971 ) , Ecuador ( 1973 -- 1992 , rejoined 2007 ) , and Gabon ( 1975 -- 1994 , rejoined 2016 ) . By the early 1970s , OPEC 's membership accounted for more than half of worldwide oil production . Indicating that OPEC is not averse to further expansion , Mohammed Barkindo , OPEC 's Acting Secretary General in 2006 , urged his African neighbors Angola and Sudan to join , and Angola did in 2007 , followed by Equatorial Guinea in 2017 . Since the 1980s , representatives from Egypt , Mexico , Norway , Oman , Russia , and other oil - exporting nations have attended many OPEC meetings as observers , as an informal mechanism for coordinating policies . 1973 -- 1974 oil embargo ( edit ) An undersupplied US gasoline station , closed during the oil embargo in 1973 Main article : 1973 oil crisis In October 1973 , the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries ( OAPEC , consisting of the Arab majority of OPEC plus Egypt and Syria ) declared significant production cuts and an oil embargo against the United States and other industrialized nations that supported Israel in the Yom Kippur War . A previous embargo attempt was largely ineffective in response to the Six - Day War in 1967 . However , in 1973 , the result was a sharp rise in oil prices and OPEC revenues , from US $3 / bbl to US $12 / bbl , and an emergency period of energy rationing , intensified by panic reactions , a declining trend in US oil production , currency devaluations , and a lengthy UK coal - miners dispute . For a time , the UK imposed an emergency three - day workweek . Seven European nations banned non-essential Sunday driving . US gas stations limited the amount of gasoline that could be dispensed , closed on Sundays , and restricted the days when gasoline could be purchased , based on license plate numbers . Even after the embargo ended in March 1974 following intense diplomatic activity , prices continued to rise . The world experienced a global economic recession , with unemployment and inflation surging simultaneously , steep declines in stock and bond prices , major shifts in trade balances and petrodollar flows , and a dramatic end to the post-WWII economic boom . The 1973 -- 1974 oil embargo had lasting effects on the United States and other industrialized nations , which established the International Energy Agency in response , as well as national emergency stockpiles designed to withstand months of future supply disruptions . Oil conservation efforts included lower speed limits on highways , smaller and more energy - efficient cars and appliances , year - round daylight saving time , reduced usage of heating and air - conditioning , better insulation , increased support of mass transit , and greater emphasis on coal , natural gas , ethanol , nuclear and other alternative energy sources . These long - term efforts became effective enough that US oil consumption would rise only 11 percent during 1980 -- 2014 , while real GDP rose 150 percent . But in the 1970s , OPEC nations demonstrated convincingly that their oil could be used as both a political and economic weapon against other nations , at least in the short term . 1975 -- 1980 Special Fund , now OFID ( edit ) Main article : OPEC Fund for International Development OPEC 's international aid activities date from well before the 1973 -- 1974 oil price surge . For example , the Kuwait Fund for Arab Economic Development has operated since 1961 . In the years after 1973 , as an example of so - called `` checkbook diplomacy '' , certain Arab nations have been among the world 's largest providers of foreign aid , and OPEC added to its goals the selling of oil for the socio - economic growth of poorer nations . The OPEC Special Fund was conceived in Algiers , Algeria , in March 1975 , and was formally established the following January . `` A Solemn Declaration ' reaffirmed the natural solidarity which unites OPEC countries with other developing countries in their struggle to overcome underdevelopment , ' and called for measures to strengthen cooperation between these countries ... ( The OPEC Special Fund 's ) resources are additional to those already made available by OPEC states through a number of bilateral and multilateral channels . '' The Fund became an official international development agency in May 1980 and was renamed the OPEC Fund for International Development ( OFID ) , with Permanent Observer status at the United Nations . 1975 hostage siege ( edit ) Main article : OPEC siege On 21 December 1975 , Saudi Arabia 's Ahmed Zaki Yamani , Iran 's Jamshid Amuzegar , and the other OPEC oil ministers were taken hostage at their semi-annual conference in Vienna , Austria . The attack , which killed three non-ministers , was orchestrated by a six - person team led by Venezuelan terrorist `` Carlos the Jackal '' , and which included Gabriele Kröcher - Tiedemann and Hans - Joachim Klein . The self - named `` Arm of the Arab Revolution '' group declared its goal to be the liberation of Palestine . Carlos planned to take over the conference by force and hold for ransom all eleven attending oil ministers , except for Yamani and Amuzegar who were to be executed . Carlos arranged bus and plane travel for his team and 42 of the original 63 hostages , with stops in Algiers and Tripoli , planning to fly eventually to Baghdad , where Yamani and Amuzegar were to be killed . All 30 non-Arab hostages were released in Algiers , excluding Amuzegar . Additional hostages were released at another stop in Tripoli before returning to Algiers . With only 10 hostages remaining , Carlos held a phone conversation with Algerian President Houari Boumédienne , who informed Carlos that the oil ministers ' deaths would result in an attack on the plane . Boumédienne must also have offered Carlos asylum at this time and possibly financial compensation for failing to complete his assignment . Carlos expressed his regret at not being able to murder Yamani and Amuzegar , then he and his comrades left the plane . All the hostages and terrorists walked away from the situation , two days after it began . Some time after the attack , Carlos 's accomplices revealed that the operation was commanded by Wadie Haddad , a founder of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine . They also claimed that the idea and funding came from an Arab president , widely thought to be Muammar al - Gaddafi of Libya , itself an OPEC member . Fellow militants Bassam Abu Sharif and Klein claimed that Carlos received and kept a ransom between US $20 million and US $50 million from `` an Arab president '' . Carlos claimed that Saudi Arabia paid ransom on behalf of Iran , but that the money was `` diverted en route and lost by the Revolution '' . He was finally captured in 1994 and is serving life sentences for at least 16 other murders . 1979 -- 1980 oil Crisis and 1980s oil glut ( edit ) Fluctuations of OPEC net oil export revenues since 1972 Main articles : 1979 oil crisis and 1980s oil glut In response to a wave of oil nationalizations and the high prices of the 1970s , industrial nations took steps to reduce their dependence on OPEC oil , especially after prices reached new peaks approaching US $40 / bbl in 1979 -- 1980 when the Iranian Revolution and Iran -- Iraq War disrupted regional stability and oil supplies . Electric utilities worldwide switched from oil to coal , natural gas , or nuclear power ; national governments initiated multibillion - dollar research programs to develop alternatives to oil ; and commercial exploration developed major non-OPEC oilfields in Siberia , Alaska , the North Sea , and the Gulf of Mexico . By 1986 , daily worldwide demand for oil dropped by 5 million barrels , non-OPEC production rose by an even - larger amount , and OPEC 's market share sank from approximately 50 percent in 1979 to less than 30 percent in 1985 . Illustrating the volatile multi-year timeframes of typical market cycles for natural resources , the result was a six - year decline in the price of oil , which culminated by plunging more than half in 1986 alone . As one oil analyst summarized succinctly : `` When the price of something as essential as oil spikes , humanity does two things : finds more of it and finds ways to use less of it . '' To combat falling revenue from oil sales , in 1982 Saudi Arabia pressed OPEC for audited national production quotas in an attempt to limit output and boost prices . When other OPEC nations failed to comply , Saudi Arabia first slashed its own production from 10 million barrels daily in 1979 -- 1981 to just one - third of that level in 1985 . When even this proved ineffective , Saudi Arabia reversed course and flooded the market with cheap oil , causing prices to fall below US $10 / bbl and higher - cost producers to become unprofitable . Faced with increasing economic hardship ( which ultimately contributed to the collapse of the Soviet bloc in 1989 ) , the `` free - riding '' oil exporters that had previously failed to comply with OPEC agreements finally began to limit production to shore up prices , based on painstakingly negotiated national quotas that sought to balance oil - related and economic criteria since 1986 . ( Within their sovereign - controlled territories , the national governments of OPEC members are able to impose production limits on both government - owned and private oil companies . ) Generally when OPEC production targets are reduced , oil prices increase . 1990 -- 2003 ample supply and modest disruptions ( edit ) See also : 1990 oil price shock One of the hundreds of Kuwaiti oil fires set by retreating Iraqi troops in 1991 Fluctuations of Brent crude oil price , 1988 -- 2015 Leading up to his August 1990 Invasion of Kuwait , Iraqi President Saddam Hussein was pushing OPEC to end overproduction and to send oil prices higher , in order to help OPEC members financially and to accelerate rebuilding from the 1980 -- 1988 Iran -- Iraq War . But these two Iraqi wars against fellow OPEC founders marked a low point in the cohesion of the organization , and oil prices subsided quickly after the short - term supply disruptions . The September 2001 Al Qaeda attacks on the US and the March 2003 US invasion of Iraq had even milder short - term impacts on oil prices , as Saudi Arabia and other exporters again cooperated to keep the world adequately supplied . In the 1990s , OPEC lost its two newest members , who had joined in the mid-1970s . Ecuador withdrew in December 1992 , because it was unwilling to pay the annual US $2 million membership fee and felt that it needed to produce more oil than it was allowed under the OPEC quota , although it rejoined in October 2007 . Similar concerns prompted Gabon to suspend membership in January 1995 ; it rejoined in July 2016 . Iraq has remained a member of OPEC since the organization 's founding , but Iraqi production was not a part of OPEC quota agreements from 1998 to 2016 , due to the country 's daunting political difficulties . Lower demand triggered by the 1997 -- 1998 Asian financial crisis saw the price of oil fall back to 1986 levels . After oil slumped to around US $10 / bbl , joint diplomacy achieved a gradual slowing of oil production by OPEC , Mexico and Norway . In June 2003 , the International Energy Agency ( IEA ) and OPEC held their first joint workshop on energy issues . They have continued to meet regularly since then , `` to collectively better understand trends , analysis and viewpoints and advance market transparency and predictability . '' 2003 -- 2011 volatility ( edit ) See also : Oil price increases of 2003 -- 2008 Widespread insurgency and sabotage occurred during the 2003 -- 2008 height of the American occupation of Iraq , coinciding with rapidly increasing oil demand from China and commodity - hungry investors , recurring violence against the Nigerian oil industry , and dwindling spare capacity as a cushion against potential shortages . This combination of forces prompted a sharp rise in oil prices to levels far higher than those previously targeted by OPEC . Price volatility reached an extreme in 2008 , as WTI crude oil surged to a record US $147 / bbl in July and then plunged back to US $32 / bbl in December , during the worst global recession since World War II . OPEC 's annual oil export revenue also set a new record in 2008 , estimated around US $1 trillion , and reached similar annual rates in 2011 -- 2014 ( along with extensive petrodollar recycling activity ) before plunging again . By the time of the 2011 Libyan Civil War and Arab Spring , OPEC started issuing explicit statements to counter `` excessive speculation '' in oil futures markets , blaming financial speculators for increasing volatility beyond market fundamentals . In May 2008 , Indonesia announced that it would leave OPEC when its membership expired at the end of that year , having become a net importer of oil and being unable to meet its production quota . A statement released by OPEC on 10 September 2008 confirmed Indonesia 's withdrawal , noting that OPEC `` regretfully accepted the wish of Indonesia to suspend its full membership in the organization , and recorded its hope that the country would be in a position to rejoin the organization in the not - too - distant future . '' 2008 production dispute ( edit ) Countries by net oil exports ( 2008 ) The differing economic needs of OPEC member states often affect the internal debates behind OPEC production quotas . Poorer members have pushed for production cuts from fellow members , to increase the price of oil and thus their own revenues . These proposals conflict with Saudi Arabia 's stated long - term strategy of being a partner with the world 's economic powers to ensure a steady flow of oil that would support economic expansion . Part of the basis for this policy is the Saudi concern that overly expensive oil or unreliable supply will drive industrial nations to conserve energy and develop alternative fuels , curtailing the worldwide demand for oil and eventually leaving unneeded barrels in the ground . To this point , Saudi Oil Minister Yamani famously remarked in 1973 : `` The Stone Age did n't end because we ran out of stones . '' On 10 September 2008 , with oil prices still near US $100 / bbl , a production dispute occurred when the Saudis reportedly walked out of a negotiating session where rival members voted to reduce OPEC output . Although Saudi delegates officially endorsed the new quotas , they stated anonymously that they would not observe them . The New York Times quoted one such delegate as saying : `` Saudi Arabia will meet the market 's demand . We will see what the market requires and we will not leave a customer without oil . The policy has not changed . '' Over the next few months , oil prices plummeted into the $30 s , and did not return to $100 until the Libyan Civil War in 2011 . 2014 -- 2017 oil glut ( edit ) See also : 2010s oil glut Countries by oil production ( 2013 ) Top oil - producing countries ( million barrels per day , 1973 -- 2016 ) Gusher well in Saudi Arabia : conventional source of OPEC production Shale `` fracking '' in the US : important new challenge to OPEC market share During 2014 -- 2015 , OPEC members consistently exceeded their production ceiling , and China experienced a slowdown in economic growth . At the same time , US oil production nearly doubled from 2008 levels and approached the world - leading `` swing producer '' volumes of Saudi Arabia and Russia , due to the substantial long - term improvement and spread of shale `` fracking '' technology in response to the years of record oil prices . These developments led in turn to a plunge in US oil import requirements ( moving closer to energy independence ) , a record volume of worldwide oil inventories , and a collapse in oil prices that continued into early 2016 . In spite of global oversupply , on 27 November 2014 in Vienna , Saudi Oil Minister Ali Al - Naimi blocked appeals from poorer OPEC members for production cuts to support prices . Naimi argued that the oil market should be left to rebalance itself competitively at lower price levels , strategically rebuilding OPEC 's long - term market share by ending the profitability of high - cost US shale oil production . As he explained in an interview : Is it reasonable for a highly efficient producer to reduce output , while the producer of poor efficiency continues to produce ? That is crooked logic . If I reduce , what happens to my market share ? The price will go up and the Russians , the Brazilians , US shale oil producers will take my share ... We want to tell the world that high - efficiency producing countries are the ones that deserve market share . That is the operative principle in all capitalist countries ... One thing is for sure : Current prices ( roughly US $60 / bbl ) do not support all producers . A year later , when OPEC met in Vienna on 4 December 2015 , the organization had exceeded its production ceiling for 18 consecutive months , US oil production had declined only slightly from its peak , world markets appeared to be oversupplied by at least 2 million barrels per day despite war - torn Libya pumping 1 million barrels below capacity , oil producers were making major adjustments to withstand prices as low as the $40 s , Indonesia was rejoining the export organization , Iraqi production had surged after years of disorder , Iranian output was poised to rebound with the lifting of international sanctions , hundreds of world leaders at the Paris Climate Agreement were committing to limit carbon emissions from fossil fuels , and solar technologies were becoming steadily more competitive and prevalent . In light of all these market pressures , OPEC decided to set aside its ineffective production ceiling until the next ministerial conference in June 2016 . By 20 January 2016 , the OPEC Reference Basket was down to US $22.48 / bbl -- less than one - fourth of its high from June 2014 ( $110.48 ) , less than one - sixth of its record from July 2008 ( $140.73 ) , and back below the April 2003 starting point ( $23.27 ) of its historic run - up . As 2016 continued , the oil glut was partially trimmed with significant production offline in the US , Canada , Libya , Nigeria and China , and the basket price gradually rose back into the $40 s . OPEC regained a modest percentage of market share , saw the cancellation of many competing drilling projects , maintained the status quo at its June conference , and endorsed `` prices at levels that are suitable for both producers and consumers '' , although many producers were still experiencing serious economic difficulties . 2017 - 2018 production cut ( edit ) As OPEC members grew weary of a multi-year supply contest with diminishing returns and shrinking financial reserves , the organization finally attempted its first production cut since 2008 . Despite many political obstacles , a September 2016 decision to trim approximately 1 million barrels per day was codified by a new quota agreement at the November 2016 OPEC conference . The agreement ( which exempted disruption - ridden members Libya and Nigeria ) covered the first half of 2017 -- alongside promised reductions from Russia and ten other non-members , offset by expected increases in the US shale sector , Libya , Nigeria , spare capacity , and surging late - 2016 OPEC production before the cuts took effect . Indonesia announced another `` temporary suspension '' of its OPEC membership , rather than accepting the organization 's requested 5 percent production cut . Prices fluctuated around US $50 / bbl , and OPEC in May 2017 decided to extend the new quotas through March 2018 , with the world waiting to see if and how the oil inventory glut might be fully siphoned - off by then . Longtime oil analyst Daniel Yergin `` described the relationship between OPEC and shale as ' mutual coexistence ' , with both sides learning to live with prices that are lower than they would like . 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Jump up ^ `` Renewables in Global Energy Supply : An IEA Fact Sheet '' ( PDF ) . International Energy Agency . January 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Renewable Energy : World Invests $244 billion in 2012 , Geographic Shift to Developing Countries '' ( Press release ) . United Nations Environment Programme. 12 June 2013 . Jump up ^ Bromley , Simon ( 2013 ) . American Power and the Prospects for International Order . John Wiley & Sons . p. 95 . ISBN 9780745658414 . ^ Jump up to : Robert , Paul ( 2004 ) . The End of Oil : The Decline of the Petroleum Economy and the Rise of a New Energy Order . New York : Houghton Mifflin Company . pp. 103 -- 104 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 618 - 23977 - 1 . Jump up ^ Hershey Jr. , Robert D. ( 30 December 1989 ) . `` Worrying Anew Over Oil Imports '' . The New York Times . Jump up ^ Gaidar , Yegor ( April 2007 ) . `` The Soviet Collapse : Grain and Oil '' ( PDF ) . American Enterprise Institute . Retrieved 12 January 2016 . Oil production in Saudi Arabia increased fourfold , while oil prices collapsed by approximately the same amount in real terms . As a result , the Soviet Union lost approximately $20 billion per year , money without which the country simply could not survive . Jump up ^ McMaken , Ryan ( 7 November 2014 ) . `` The Economics Behind the Fall of the Berlin Wall '' . Mises Institute . Retrieved 12 January 2016 . High oil prices in the 1970s propped up the regime so well , that had it not been for Soviet oil sales , it 's quite possible the regime would have collapsed a decade earlier . Jump up ^ `` Brief History '' . OPEC . Retrieved 16 February 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Libya orders oil cuts of 270K bpd '' . Associated Press . 30 December 2008 . Libya has asked oil companies to slash production by 270,000 barrels per day . Abu Dhabi National Oil Co. told customers in letters dated Dec. 25 that it was cutting ... 10 to 15 percent of all types of ADNOC crude in February . Ecuadorean President Rafael Correa said the South American nation would suspend crude production by Italy 's Agip and reduce quotas for other companies to comply with new OPEC cuts . Jump up ^ `` Report to Congress : United States Gulf Environmental Technical Assistance '' . US Environmental Protection Agency . 1991 . p. 14 . Retrieved 11 April 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` Europe Brent Crude Oil Spot Price FOB ( DOE ) '' . Quandl . Retrieved 1 January 2016 . Jump up ^ Ibrahim , Youssef M. ( 18 July 1990 ) . `` Iraq Threatens Emirates and Kuwait on Oil Glut '' . The New York Times . Jump up ^ `` Iraq heads for OPEC clash over quota '' . UPI. 5 February 2010 . Iraq , a founding member of OPEC , has not had a production quota since 1998 , when it was pegged at 1.3 million bpd to allow Saddam Hussein 's regime to sell oil for food during U.N. sanctions imposed in 1990 ... Despite the success of the 2009 auctions , problems remain -- mounting violence in the run - up to March 7 parliamentary elections , uncertainty over their outcome , and , probably more importantly , the absence of a long - delayed oil law that will define revenue - sharing and regulation of the industry . Jump up ^ Putting a Price on Energy ( PDF ) . Energy Charter Secretariat. 2007 . p. 90 . ISBN 9059480465 . Jump up ^ `` Dialogue replaces OPEC -- IEA Mistrust '' ( PDF ) . IEA Energy ( 7 ) : 7 . November 2014 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2 May 2016 . Jump up ^ Simmons , Greg ( 7 December 2005 ) . `` Dems Doubt Iraq Progress '' . Fox News . Jump up ^ `` Oil price ' may hit $200 a barrel ' '' . BBC News . 7 May 2008 . Jump up ^ Masters , Michael W. ( 20 May 2008 ) . `` Testimony '' ( PDF ) . U.S. Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs . Jump up ^ Tuttle , Robert ; Galal , Ola ( 10 May 2010 ) . `` Oil Ministers See Demand Rising '' . Bloomberg News . Retrieved 14 January 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Opening address to the 159th Meeting of the OPEC Conference '' . OPEC ( Press release ) . 8 June 2011 . Retrieved 12 December 2014 . Jump up ^ `` 149th Meeting of the OPEC Conference '' . OPEC ( Press release ) . 10 September 2008 . Retrieved 16 December 2015 . Jump up ^ Owen , Nick A. ; Inderwildi , Oliver R. ; King , David A. ( August 2010 ) . `` The status of conventional world oil reserves : Hype or cause for concern ? '' . Energy Policy . 38 ( 8 ) : 4743 -- 4749 . doi : 10.1016 / j. enpol. 2010.02. 026 . Jump up ^ Al - Naimi , Ali ( 20 October 1999 ) . `` Saudi oil policy : stability with strength '' . Saudi Embassy . Archived from the original on 26 April 2009 . CS1 maint : Unfit url ( link ) Jump up ^ Waldman , Peter ( 12 April 2015 ) . `` Saudi Arabia 's Plan to Extend the Age of Oil '' . Bloomberg News . Jump up ^ Frei , Matt ( 3 July 2008 ) . `` Washington diary : Oil addiction '' . BBC . Retrieved 27 January 2014 . ^ Jump up to : `` OPEC Basket Daily Archives '' . OPEC . Retrieved 21 January 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Monthly Energy Review '' ( PDF ) . US Energy Information Administration . 25 May 2017 . Figure 11.1 a . Retrieved 28 May 2017 . Jump up ^ Krassnov , Clifford ( 3 November 2014 ) . `` US Oil Prices Fall Below $80 a Barrel '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 13 December 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Smith , Grant ; Rascouet , Angelina ; Mahdi , Wael ( 4 December 2015 ) . `` OPEC Wo n't Cut Production to Stop Oil 's Slump '' . Bloomberg News . Jump up ^ `` Inside OPEC room , Naimi declares price war on US shale oil '' . Reuters. 28 November 2014 . Retrieved 13 January 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Country Analysis Brief : Libya '' ( PDF ) . US Energy Information Administration . 19 November 2015 . Retrieved 22 May 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Despite Climate Concerns , OPEC Plans to Keep Pumping Oil While It Can '' . The New York Times . 5 December 2015 . Jump up ^ `` OPEC ceiling falls in '' . Argus Media . 7 December 2015 . Jump up ^ Kalantari , Hashem ; Sergie , Mohammed ( 2 January 2016 ) . `` Iran Says Post-Sanctions Crude Output Boost Wo n't Hurt Prices '' . Bloomberg News . Retrieved 18 April 2016 . Jump up ^ `` OPEC 169th Meeting concludes '' . OPEC ( Press release ) . 2 June 2016 . Jump up ^ Halligan , Liam ( 4 June 2016 ) . `` OPEC is very much alive as Saudis learn to tread softly '' . The Telegraph . Jump up ^ `` OPEC Has Its Way as China Oil Output Cut by Most in 15 Years '' . Bloomberg News . 13 June 2016 . Jump up ^ `` North America Rig Count '' . Baker Hughes . Retrieved 21 February 2017 . Jump up ^ `` OPEC Agrees to Cut Production in Drive to End Record Glut '' . Bloomberg News . 30 November 2016 . Jump up ^ `` OPEC 171st Meeting concludes '' . OPEC ( Press release ) . 30 November 2016 . Jump up ^ Blas , Javier ( 20 October 2016 ) . `` The World 's Biggest Oil Kingdom Reverses Course '' . Bloomberg News . Jump up ^ Hume , Neil ( 28 September 2016 ) . `` OPEC agrees on need for output cut '' . The Financial Times . Jump up ^ `` Russian Energy Minister Says Oil Cuts to Start in January '' . Bloomberg News . 11 December 2016 . Jump up ^ `` OPEC Said to Break Bread With Shale in Rare Show of Detente '' . Bloomberg News . 7 March 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Russia backs gradual , managed exit from oil cuts with OPEC '' . Reuters. 2017 - 12 - 22 . Retrieved 2017 - 12 - 25 . External links ( edit ) Energy portal Wikimedia Commons has media related to OPEC . Official website The OPEC Fund for International Development ( OFID ) official website ( hide ) Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries ( OPEC ) Algeria Angola Ecuador Equatorial Guinea Gabon Iran Iraq Kuwait Libya Nigeria Qatar Saudi Arabia United Arab Emirates Venezuela List of Secretaries General OPEC Fund for International Development OPEC Reference Basket Heads of state of OPEC member states Bouteflika Lourenço Moreno Obiang Bongo Khamenei Masum Sabah Sarraj Buhari Tamim Salman Khalifa Maduro Acting heads of state shown in italics . 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Jeep - wikipedia Jeep Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the U.S. motor manufacturing company . For the original World War II Jeep , see Willys MB . For other uses , see Jeep ( disambiguation ) . Jeep Type Division Industry Automotive Founded 1943 trademark application 1945 first civilian Jeep launched Headquarters Toledo , Ohio , U.S. Area served Worldwide Key people Michael Manley ( CEO of Jeep division ) Sergio Marchionne ( CEO of FCA US LLC ) Products Sport utility vehicles Luxury vehicles Owner Fiat Chrysler Automobiles Parent Willys - Overland ( 1943 - 1953 ) Kaiser - Jeep ( 1953 - 1970 ) American Motors Corporation ( 1970 - 1986 ) Chrysler ( 1987 - present ) Website jeep.com Jeep is a brand of American automobiles that is a division of FCA US LLC ( formerly Chrysler Group , LLC ) , a wholly owned subsidiary of Fiat Chrysler Automobiles . Jeep has been a part of Chrysler since 1987 , when Chrysler acquired the Jeep brand , along with remaining assets , from its previous owner : American Motors Corporation ( AMC ) . Jeep 's current product range consists solely of sport utility vehicles and off - road vehicles , but has also included pickup trucks in the past . Some of Jeep 's vehicles , such as the Grand Cherokee and the Wagoneer , reach into the luxury segment . Jeep sold 1.4 million SUVs globally in 2016 , up from 500,000 in 2008 , two - thirds of which in North America , and was Fiat - Chrysler 's best selling brand in the U.S. during the first half of 2017 . In the U.S. alone , over 2400 dealerships hold franchise rights to sell Jeep - branded vehicles , and if Jeep were spun off into a separate company , it is estimated to be worth between $22 and $33.5 billion -- slightly more than all of FCA ( US ) . Prior to 1940 the term `` jeep '' had been used as U.S. Army slang for new recruits or vehicles , but the World War II `` jeep '' that went into production in 1941 specifically tied the name to this light military 4x4 , arguably making them the oldest four - wheel drive mass - production vehicles now known as SUVs . The Jeep became the primary light 4 - wheel - drive vehicle of the United States Army and the Allies during World War II , as well as the postwar period . The term became common worldwide in the wake of the war . Doug Stewart noted : `` The spartan , cramped , and unstintingly functional jeep became the ubiquitous World War II four - wheeled personification of Yankee ingenuity and cocky , can - do determination . '' The Jeep marque has been headquartered in Toledo , Ohio , ever since Willys - Overland launched production of the first CJ or Civilian Jeep branded models there in 1945 . Its replacement , the conceptually consistent Jeep Wrangler series , remains in production since 1986 . With its solid axles and open top , the Wrangler has been called the Jeep model that is as central to the brand 's identity as the rear - engined 911 is to Porsche . At least two Jeep models ( the CJ - 5 and the SJ Wagoneer ) enjoyed extraordinary three - decade production runs of a single body generation . Jeeps have since the war inspired a number of other light utility vehicles , such as the Land Rover . Many Jeep variants serving similar military and civilian roles have since been designed in other nations . In lowercase the term `` jeep '' continues to be used as a generic term for vehicles inspired by the Jeep that are suitable for use on rough terrain . Contents ( hide ) 1 World War II Jeeps 1.1 Development -- 1 . Bantam Reconnaissance Car 1.2 Development -- 2 . Enter Willys and Ford 1.3 Full production -- Willys MB and Ford GPW 2 Post-war military Jeeps 2.1 CJ - V35 / U 2.2 M715 3 Jeep etymology 4 Brand , trademarks and image 4.1 Off - road abilities 5 Company history and ownership 5.1 Ownership chronology 6 Military Jeeps model list 7 Civilian Jeeps model list 7.1 Jeep CJ 7.2 Willys Jeep Station Wagon and Truck 7.3 Willys / Jeep Jeepster & ( Jeepster ) Commando 7.4 Jeep Forward Control 7.5 Jeep DJ and Fleetvan 7.6 SJ Wagoneer , Cherokee and pickups 7.7 Jeep Cherokee ( XJ ) and Comanche 7.8 Jeep Wrangler 7.9 Grand Cherokee 7.10 Jeep Liberty / Cherokee 7.11 Jeep Commander 7.12 Jeep Compass and Patriot platform 7.13 Concepts and prototypes 8 Current models 9 Future models 10 Jeeps built outside the USA 11 Jeep apparel and sponsorships 12 See also 13 References 14 External links World War II Jeeps Main article : Willys MB Bantam BRC 40 Ford Pygmy Dashboard of World War II era jeep . Jeep with 50 cal . Browning machine gun Development -- 1 . Bantam reconnaissance Car When it became clear that the United States would be involved in the European theatre of World War II , the U.S. Army contacted 135 companies to create working prototypes of a four - wheel - drive reconnaissance car . Only two companies responded : American Bantam Car Company and Willys - Overland . The Army set a seemingly impossible deadline of 49 days to supply a working prototype . Willys asked for more time , but was refused . The broke American Bantam Car Company had only a skeleton staff left on the payroll and solicited Karl Probst , a talented freelance designer from Detroit . After turning down Bantam 's initial request , Probst responded to an Army request and began work on July 17 , 1940 , initially without salary . Probst laid out full plans for the Bantam prototype , known as the BRC or Bantam Reconnaissance Car , in just two days , working up a cost estimate the next day . Bantam 's bid was submitted , complete with blueprints , on July 22 . While much of the vehicle could be assembled from off - the - shelf automotive parts , custom four - wheel drivetrain components were to be supplied by Spicer . The hand - built prototype was completed in Butler , Pennsylvania , and driven to Camp Holabird , Maryland , delivered for Army testing on September 23 . The vehicle met all the Army 's criteria except engine torque . World War II had already begun in Asia , with Japan expanding in China , Manchuria and Southeast Asia . The Imperial Japanese Army used a small four - wheel - drive car for reconnaissance and troop movements , having introduced the Kurogane Type 95 in 1936 . Development -- 2 . Enter Willys and Ford The Army thought that the Bantam company was too small to supply the required number of vehicles , so it supplied the Bantam design to Willys and Ford , and encouraged them to modify the design . The resulting Ford `` Pygmy '' and Willys `` Quad '' prototypes looked very similar to the Bantam BRC prototype , and Spicer supplied very similar four - wheel drivetrain components to all three manufacturers . 1,500 of each model ( Bantam BRC - 40 , Ford GP , and Willys MA ) were built and extensively field - tested . After the weight specification was revised from 1,275 lb ( 578 kg ) to a maximum of 2,450 lb ( 1,110 kg ) including oil and water , Willys - Overland 's chief engineer Delmar `` Barney '' Roos modified the design in order to use Willys 's heavy but powerful `` Go Devil '' engine , and won the initial production contract . The Willys version became the standard Jeep design , designated the model MB and was built at their plant in Toledo , Ohio . The familiar pressed - metal Jeep grille was a Ford design feature and incorporated in the final design by the Army . Because the US War Department required a large number of vehicles in a short time , Willys - Overland granted the US Government a non-exclusive license to allow another company to manufacture vehicles using Willys ' specifications . The Army chose Ford as a second supplier , building Jeeps to the Willys ' design . Willys supplied Ford with a complete set of plans and specifications . American Bantam , the creators of the first Jeep , built approximately 2,700 of them to the BRC - 40 design , but spent the rest of the war building heavy - duty trailers for the Army . Full production -- Willys MB and Ford GPW 1943 Willys Jeep Final production version Jeeps built by Willys - Overland were the Model MB , while those built by Ford were the Model GPW ( G = government vehicle , P designated the 80 '' wheelbase , and W = the Willys engine design ) . There were subtle differences between the two . The versions produced by Ford had every component ( including bolt heads ) marked with an `` F '' . Willys also followed the Ford pattern by stamping its name into some body parts , but stopped this in 1942 . The cost per vehicle trended upwards as the war continued from the price under the first contract from Willys at US $648.74 ( Ford 's was $782.59 per unit ) . Willys - Overland and Ford , under the direction of Charles E. Sorensen ( Vice-President of Ford during World War II ) , produced about 640,000 Jeeps towards the war effort , which accounted for approximately 18 % of all the wheeled military vehicles built in the U.S. during the war . Jeeps were used by every service of the U.S. military . An average of 145 were supplied to every Army infantry regiment . Jeeps were used for many purposes , including cable laying , saw milling , as firefighting pumpers , field ambulances , tractors and , with suitable wheels , would even run on railway tracks . An amphibious jeep , the model GPA , or `` seep '' ( Sea Jeep ) was built for Ford in modest numbers but it could not be considered a huge success -- it was neither a good off - road vehicle nor a good boat . As part of the war effort , nearly 30 % of all Jeep production was supplied to Great Britain and to the Soviet Red Army . Postwar military Jeeps The Jeep has been widely imitated around the world , including in France by Delahaye and by Hotchkiss et Cie ( after 1954 , Hotchkiss manufactured Jeeps under license from Willys ) , and in Japan by Mitsubishi Motors and Toyota . The utilitarian good looks of the original Jeep have been hailed by industrial designers and museum curators alike . The Museum of Modern Art described the Jeep as a masterpiece of functionalist design , and has periodically exhibited the Jeep as part of its collection . Pulitzer Prize - winning war correspondent Ernie Pyle called the jeep , along with the Coleman G.I. Pocket Stove , `` the two most important pieces of noncombat equipment ever developed . '' Jeeps became even more famous following the war , as they became available on the surplus market . Some ads claimed to offer `` Jeeps still in the factory crate . '' This legend persisted for decades , despite the fact that Jeeps were never shipped from the factory in crates ( although Ford did `` knock down '' Jeeps for easier shipping , which may have perpetuated the myth ) . The Jeepney is a unique type of taxi or bus created in the Philippines . The first Jeepneys were military - surplus MBs and GPWs , left behind in the war - ravaged country following World War II and Filipino independence . Jeepneys were built from Jeeps by lengthening and widening the rear `` tub '' of the vehicle , allowing them to carry more passengers . Over the years , Jeepneys have become the most ubiquitous symbol of the modern Philippines , even as they have been decorated in more elaborate and flamboyant styles by their owners . Most Jeepneys today are scratch - built by local manufacturers , using different powertrains . Some are even constructed from stainless steel . In the United States military , the Jeep has been supplanted by a number of vehicles ( e.g. Ford 's M151 ) of which the latest is the Humvee . CJ - V35 / U After World War II , Jeep began to experiment with new designs , including a model that could drive under water . On February 1 , 1950 , contract N8ss - 2660 was approved for 1,000 units `` especially adapted for general reconnaissance or command communications '' and `` constructed for short period underwater operation such as encountered in landing and fording operations . '' The engine was modified with a snorkel system so that the engine could properly breathe under water . Jeep M715 M715 In 1965 , Jeep developed the M715 1.25 - ton army truck , a militarized version of the civilian J - series Jeep truck , which served extensively in the Vietnam War . It had heavier full - floating axles and a foldable , vertical , flat windshield . Today , it serves other countries , and is still being produced by Kia under license . Jeep etymology See also : Willys MB § How the jeep got its name Many explanations of the origin of the word jeep have proven difficult to verify . The most widely held theory is that the military designation GP ( for Government Purposes or General Purpose ) was slurred into the word Jeep in the same way that the contemporary HMMWV ( for High - Mobility Multi-purpose Wheeled Vehicle ) has become known as the Humvee . Joe Frazer , Willys - Overland President from 1939 to 1944 , claimed to have coined the word jeep by slurring the initials G.P. There are no contemporaneous uses of `` GP '' before later attempts to create a `` backronym . '' A more detailed view , popularized by R. Lee Ermey on his television series Mail Call , disputes this `` slurred GP '' origin , saying that the vehicle was designed for specific duties , and was never referred to as `` General Purpose '' and it is highly unlikely that the average jeep - driving GI would have been familiar with this designation . The Ford GPW abbreviation actually meant G for government use , P to designate its 80 - inch ( 2,000 mm ) wheelbase and W to indicate its Willys - Overland designed engine . Ermey suggests that soldiers at the time were so impressed with the new vehicles that they informally named it after Eugene the Jeep , a character in the Thimble Theatre comic strip and cartoons created by E.C. Segar , as early as mid-March 1936 . Eugene the Jeep was Popeye 's `` jungle pet '' and was `` small , able to move between dimensions and could solve seemingly impossible problems . '' The word `` jeep '' however , was used as early as World War I , as US Army slang for new uninitiated recruits , or by mechanics to refer to new unproven vehicles . In 1937 , tractors which were supplied by Minneapolis Moline to the US Army were called jeeps . A precursor of the Boeing B - 17 Flying Fortress was also referred to as the jeep . Words of the Fighting Forces by Clinton A. Sanders , a dictionary of military slang , published in 1942 , in the library at The Pentagon gives this definition : Jeep : A four - wheel drive vehicle of one - half - to one - and - one - half - ton capacity for reconnaissance or other army duty . A term applied to the bantam - cars , and occasionally to other motor vehicles ( U.S.A. ) in the Air Corps , the Link Trainer ; in the armored forces , the 1⁄2 - ton command vehicle . Also referred to as `` any small plane , helicopter , or gadget . '' This definition is supported by the use of the term `` jeep carrier '' to refer to the Navy 's small escort carriers . Early in 1941 , Willys - Overland demonstrated the vehicle 's off - road capability by having it drive up the steps of the United States Capitol , driven by Willys test driver Irving `` Red '' Hausmann , who had recently heard soldiers at Fort Holabird calling it a `` jeep . '' When asked by syndicated columnist Katharine Hillyer for the Washington Daily News ( or by a bystander , according to another account ) what it was called , Hausmann answered , `` It 's a jeep . '' Katharine Hillyer 's article was published nationally on February 19 , 1941 , and included a picture of the vehicle with the caption : LAWMAKERS TAKE A RIDE - With Senator Meade , of New York , at the wheel , and Representative Thomas , of New Jersey , sitting beside him , one of the Army 's new scout cars , known as `` jeeps '' or `` quads '' , climbs up the Capitol steps in a demonstration yesterday . Soldiers in the rear seat for gunners were unperturbed . Although the term was also military slang for vehicles that were untried or untested , this exposure caused all other jeep references to fade , leaving the 4x4 with the name . Brand , trademarks and image Willys wartime advertisement promoting its Jeeps ' contribution to the war effort The `` Jeep '' brand has gone through many owners , starting with Willys - Overland , which filed the original trademark application for the `` Jeep '' brand - name in February 1943 . To help establish the term as a Willys brand , the firm campaigned with advertisements emphasizing Willys ' prominent contribution to the Jeep that helped win the war . Willys ' application initially met with years of opposition , primarily from Bantam , but also from Minneapolis - Moline . The Federal Trade Commission initially ruled in favor of Bantam in May 1943 , largely ignoring Minneapolis - Moline 's claim , and continued to scold Willys - Overland after the war for its advertising . The FTC even slapped the company with a formal complaint , to cease and desist any claims that it `` created or designed '' the Jeep -- Willys was only allowed to advertise its contribution to the jeep 's development . Willys however proceeded to produce the first Civilian Jeep ( CJ ) branded vehicles in 1945 , and simply copyrighted the Jeep name in 1946 . Being the only company that continually produced `` Jeep '' vehicles after the war , Willys - Overland was eventually granted the name `` Jeep '' as a registered trademark in June 1950 . Willys had also seriously considered the brand name AGRIJEEP , and was granted the trademark for it in December of 1944 , but instead the civilian production models as of 1945 were marketed as the `` Universal Jeep , '' which reflected a wider range of uses outside of farming . A division of FCA US LLC , the most recent successor company to the Jeep brand , now holds trademark status on the name `` Jeep '' and the distinctive 7 - slot front grille design . The original 9 - slot grille associated with all World War II jeeps was designed by Ford for their GPW , and because it weighed less than the original `` Slat Grille '' of Willys ( an arrangement of flat bars ) , was incorporated into the `` standardized jeep '' design . The history of the HMMWV ( Humvee ) has ties with Jeep . In 1971 , Jeep 's Defense and Government Products Division was turned into AM General , a wholly owned subsidiary of American Motors Corporation , which also owned Jeep . In 1979 , while still owned by American Motors , AM General began the first steps toward designing the Humvee . AM General also continued manufacturing the two - wheel - drive DJ , which Jeep created in 1953 . The General Motors Hummer and Chrysler Jeep have been waging battle in U.S. courts over the right to use seven slots in their respective radiator grilles . Chrysler Jeep claims it has the exclusive rights to use the seven vertical slits since it is the sole remaining assignee of the various companies since Willys gave their postwar jeeps seven slots instead of Ford 's nine - slot design for the Jeep . Off - road abilities Jeep Wrangler off - roading . Jeep advertising has always emphasized the brand 's vehicles ' off - road capabilities . Today , the Wrangler is one of the few remaining four - wheel - drive vehicles with solid front and rear axles . These axles are known for their durability , strength , and articulation . New Wranglers come with a Dana 44 rear differential and a Dana 30 front differential . The upgraded Rubicon model of the JK Wrangler is equipped with electronically activated locking differentials , Dana 44 axles front and rear with 4.10 gears , a 4 : 1 transfer case , electronic sway bar disconnect and heavy duty suspension . Another benefit of solid axle vehicles is they tend to be easier and cheaper to `` lift '' with aftermarket suspension systems . This increases the distance between the axle and chassis of the vehicle . By increasing this distance , larger tires can be installed , which will increase the ground clearance , allowing it to traverse even larger and more difficult obstacles . In addition to higher ground clearance , many owners aim to increase suspension articulation or `` flex '' to give their Jeeps greatly improved off - road capabilities . Good suspension articulation keeps all four wheels in contact with the ground and maintains traction . Useful features of the smaller Jeeps are their short wheelbases , narrow frames , and ample approach , breakover , and departure angles , allowing them to fit into places where full - size four - wheel drives have difficulty . Company History and ownership After the war , Willys did not resume production of its passenger - car models , choosing instead to concentrate on Jeeps and Jeep - branded vehicles , launching the Jeep Station Wagon in 1946 , the Jeep Truck in 1947 , and the Jeepster in 1948 . An attempt to re-enter the passenger - car market in 1952 with the Willys Aero sedan proved unsuccessful , and ended with the company 's acquisition by Kaiser Motors in 1953 , for $60 million . Kaiser initially called the merged company `` Willys Motors '' , but renamed itself Kaiser - Jeep in 1963 . By the end of 1955 , Kaiser - Frazer had dropped the Willys Aero , as well as its own passenger cars to sell Jeeps exclusively . American Motors Corporation ( AMC ) in turn purchased Kaiser 's money - losing Jeep operations in 1970 . This time $70 million changed hands . The utility vehicles complemented AMC 's passenger car business by sharing components , achieving volume efficiencies , as well as capitalizing on Jeep 's international and government markets . In 1971 AMC spun off Jeep 's commercial , postal and military vehicle lines into a separate subsidiary , AM General -- the company that later developed the M998 Humvee . In 1976 Jeep introduced the CJ - 7 , replacing the CJ - 6 in North America , as well as crossing 100,000 civilian units in annual global sales for the first time . The French automaker Renault began investing in AMC in 1979 . During this period Jeep introduced the XJ Cherokee , its first unibody SUV ; and global sales top 200,000 for the first time in 1985 . However , the replacement of the CJ Jeeps by the new Wrangler line in 1986 marked the start of a different era . By 1987 , the automobile markets had changed and Renault itself was experiencing financial troubles . At the same time , Chrysler Corporation wanted to capture the Jeep brand , as well as other assets of AMC . So Chrysler bought out AMC in 1987 , shortly after the Jeep CJ - 7 had been replaced with the AMC - designed Wrangler YJ . After more than 40 years , the four - wheel drive utility vehicles brand that had been a profitable niche for smaller automakers , fell into the hands of one of the Big Three ; and Jeep was the only AMC brand continued by Chrysler after the acquisition . But Chrysler subsequently merged with Daimler - Benz in 1998 and folded into DaimlerChrysler . DaimlerChrysler eventually sold most of their interest in Chrysler to a private equity company in 2007 . Chrysler and the Jeep division operated under Chrysler Group LLC , until December 15 , 2014 , when Chrysler folded into Fiat Chrysler Automobiles , with the stateside division operating under ' FCA US LLC ' . Jeeps have been built under licence by various manufacturers around the world , including Mahindra in India , EBRO in Spain , and several in South America . Mitsubishi built more than 30 models in Japan between 1953 and 1998 . Most were based on the CJ - 3B model of the original Willys - Kaiser design . Toledo , Ohio has been the headquarters of the Jeep brand since its inception , and the city has always been proud of this heritage . Although no longer produced in the same Toledo Complex as the World War II originals , two streets in the vicinity of the old plant are named Willys Parkway and Jeep Parkway . The Jeep Wrangler and Jeep Cherokee are built in the city currently , in separate facilities , not far from the site of the original Willys - Overland plant . American Motors set up the first automobile - manufacturing joint venture in the People 's Republic of China on January 15 , 1984 . The result was Beijing Jeep Corporation , Ltd. , in partnership with Beijing Automobile Industry Corporation , to produce the Jeep Cherokee ( XJ ) in Beijing . Manufacture continued after Chrysler 's buyout of AMC . This joint venture is now part of DaimlerChrysler and DaimlerChrysler China Invest Corporation . The original 1984 XJ model was updated and called the `` Jeep 2500 '' toward the end of its production that ended after 2005 . While Jeeps have been built in India under licence by Mahindra & Mahindra since the 1960s , Jeep has entered the Indian market directly in 2016 , starting with release of the Wrangler and Grand Cherokee in the country . Ownership chronology 1944 -- 1953 : Willys - Overland 1953 -- 1964 : Kaiser Jeep ( calling themselves `` Willys Motors '' ) 1964 -- 1970 : Kaiser Jeep 1970 -- 1987 : AMC ( w / Renault controlling production in 1986 ) 1987 -- 1998 : Chrysler 1998 -- 2007 : Daimler Chrysler AG 2007 -- 2009 : Chrysler LLC 2009 -- 2013 : Chrysler Group LLC - Fiat Group Automobiles 2014 -- present : Fiat Chrysler Automobiles Military Jeeps model list This is a list of military light utility vehicles , made under the Jeep brand , by the Jeep company , or its corporate forebears , beginning with Willys - Overland , the first company to officially market `` Jeep '' branded cars and light trucks . For a full list of U.S. military jeeps , that includes models built by other brands and companies , see : List of U.S. military jeeps Willys MA on assembly line , 1941 . 1942 Willys MB slat grille . 1952 -- 1957 Willys / Kaiser MD Jeep M715 truck 1940 Willys Quad -- Willys ' first prototype , competing for the U.S. Army contract for a 1⁄4 - ton light reconnaissance vehicle 1941 Willys MA -- Willys ' low - volume preproduction model , preceding the standardized World War II jeep 1941 - 1944 Willys MT `` Super Jeep '' -- 6x6 , 3 ⁄ 4 - ton prototype -- a small number were built in various configurations 1942 Willys MB -- slat grille 1942 -- 1945 Willys MB -- stamped grille 1943 Willys WAC ( for ' Willys Air Cooled ' ) `` Jeeplet '' -- prototype for a super light - weight , fulltime 4WD with front and rear independent suspension 1944 Willys MLW - 1 ( for ' Military Long Wheelbase ' ) -- prototype ( never finished ) 1944 Willys MLW - 2 ( for ' Military Long Wheelbase ' ) or `` Jungle Jeep '' -- prototype for a half - ton , jungle - suited jeep 1948 Willys Jungle Burden Carrier -- a medical litter , personnel and cargo carrier , built in small numbers for testing in jungle warfare and with airborne forces . 1949 -- 1952 Willys MC / M38 1950 CJ V - 35 ( / U ) -- deep water fording CJ - 3A ; 1000 units built for the USMC 1952 -- 1971 Willys / Kaiser MD / M38A1 1952 -- 1957 Willys M38A1C -- fitted with 105 / 106mm anti-tank recoilless rifle 1950s / 1960s Willys M38A1D -- a small number of M38A1s carried the M28 or M29 `` Davy Crockett Weapon System '' , the US ' smallest tactical nuclear weapon , fired from a 120mm or 155mm recoilless rifle M170 Ambulance 1953 Willys BC Bobcat aka `` Aero Jeep '' -- prototype for a very small , lightweight ( 1475 lbs ) jeep , for easier lifting by helicopters of the day . 1958 - 1960 Willys XM443 / M443E1 `` Super Mule '' -- prototypes for 3 ⁄ 4 - ton , underfloor mid-engined platform - trucks , comparable to , but larger than the M274 `` Mechanical Mule '' 1959 -- 1982 M151 jeep -- Although the M151 was developed and initially produced by Ford , production contracts for the M151A2 were later also awarded to Kaiser Jeep and AM General Corp , a Jeep sister company , once Jeep had become part of AMC . 1970 -- 1982 M151A2 M718A1 Ambulance M825 Weapons Platform 1960 -- 1968 Jeep M606 1964 US Navy and USMC variants of the Forward Control FC - 170 , labeled `` Truck , Diesel engine , 7000 - pound GVW , 4x4 '' : M676 Truck , Cargo Pickup M677 Truck , Cargo Pickup w / 4 Dr. Cab M678 Truck , Carry All M679 Truck , Ambulance 1967 -- 1969 Kaiser Jeep M715 truck -- based on the civilian Jeep Gladiator Civilian Jeeps model list This section may be too long and excessively detailed . Please consider summarizing the material while citing sources as needed . ( December 2017 ) Main article : List of Jeep vehicles Jeep CJ Main article : Jeep CJ ( Civilian Jeep ) 1982 Jeep Scrambler The CJ ( for `` Civilian Jeep '' ) series were literally the first `` Jeep '' branded vehicles produced for the civilian public , beginning in 1945 with the CJ - 2A , followed by the CJ - 3A in 1949 and the CJ - 3B in 1953 . These early Jeeps are commonly referred to as `` flatfenders '' because their front fenders were flat and rectangular across , like on their military forebears , the Willys MB and identical Ford GPW models . The CJ - 4 exists only as a 1951 prototype , and is the `` missing link '' between the flat - fendered CJ - 2A and CJ - 3B and the round - fendered CJ - 5 first introduced in 1955 . 1944 -- 1945 CJ - 2 1945 -- 1949 CJ - 2A 1949 -- 1953 CJ - 3 A 1953 -- 1968 CJ - 3B 1954 -- 1983 CJ - 5 1955 -- 1975 CJ - 6 1964 -- 1967 CJ - 5A / CJ - 6A Tuxedo Park 1976 -- 1986 CJ - 7 1981 -- 1985 CJ - 8 Scrambler 1981 -- 1985 CJ - 10 Willys Jeep Station Wagon and Truck The 1946 -- 1965 Willys Jeep Station Wagon and the 1947 -- 1965 Willys Jeep Truck shared much in terms of styling and engineering . With over 300,000 wagons and its variants built in the U.S. , it was one of Willys ' most successful post-World War II models . Its production coincided with consumers moving to the suburbs . Willys / Jeep Jeepster & ( Jeepster ) commando Main articles : Willys / Jeep Jeepster and Jeepster Commando The 1948 introduced Jeepster was directly based on the rear - wheel - drive Jeep Station Wagon chassis , and shared many of the same parts . 1948 -- 1950 Willys VJ Jeepster 1948 -- 1949 VJ2 Jeepster 1949 -- 1951 VJ3 Jeepster ( Jeepster ) Commando 1966 -- 1971 C101 -- Jeepster Commando Hurst Jeepster ( only 100 produced ) Hurst Half Cab Revival Jeepster Commando convertible open body roadster 1972 -- 1973 C104 -- Jeep Commando Commando Half Cab Jeep Forward Control Main article : Jeep Forward Control The 1956 -- 1965 Jeep Forward Control was built in both civilian and military models . The civilian versions were : FC - 150 FC - 160 -- Spain , India FC - 170 Jeep DJ and Fleetvan Main articles : Jeep DJ ( Dispatcher Jeep ) and Fleetvan A USPS mail delivery vehicle made by Jeep From 1955 onwards Willys offered two - wheel drive versions of their CJ Jeeps for commercial use , called DJ models ( for ' Dispatcher Jeep ' ) , in both open and closed body - styles . A well - known version was the right - hand drive model with sliding side - doors , used by the US Postal service . In 1961 the range was expanded with the ' Fleetvan ' delivery - van , based on DJ Jeeps . 1955 USAF DJ 1955 -- 1964 DJ - 3A 1965 -- 1975 DJ - 5 1965 -- 1973 DJ - 6 1967 -- 1975 DJ - 5A 1970 -- 1972 DJ - 5B 1973 -- 1974 DJ - 5C 1975 -- 1976 DJ - 5D 1976 DJ - 5E Electruck 1977 -- 1978 DJ - 5F 1979 DJ - 5G 1982 DJ - 5L Fleetvan Jeep 1961 -- 1975 Fleetvan FJ - 3 FJ - 3A FJ - 6 FJ - 6A FJ - 8 FJ - 9 `` Full - Size Jeeps '' Jeep Wagoneer ca . 1968 J20 pickup , Honcho package SJ Wagoneer , Cherokee and pickups Main article : Jeep SJ ( aka Full Size Jeep ) SUV models ( 1962 - 1991 ) 1962 -- 1983 SJ Wagoneer 1966 -- 1969 SJ Super Wagoneer 1974 -- 1983 SJ Cherokee 1984 -- 1991 SJ Grand Wagoneer Pickup models ( 1962 - 1988 ) 1962 -- 1971 Jeep Gladiator 1971 -- 1988 Jeep pickup truck ( J - ) Jeep Cherokee ( XJ ) and Comanche 1988 Jeep Cherokee 2.5 Main articles : Jeep Cherokee ( XJ ) and Jeep Comanche 1984 -- 2001 XJ Cherokee 1984 -- 1990 XJ Wagoneer 1984 -- 1985 Broughwood 1984 -- 1990 Limited 1986 -- 1992 Jeep Comanche ( MJ ) Jeep Wrangler 1989 Jeep Wrangler YJ Islander 1997 Jeep Wrangler TJ 2016 Jeep Wrangler JK Unlimited ( MIAS ' 16 ) Jeep Wrangler Main article : Jeep Wrangler 1987 -- 1995 Jeep Wrangler YJ 1991 -- 1993 Renegade 1988 -- 1995 Wrangler Long -- Venezuela 1995 Wrangler Rio Grande 1997 -- 2006 Wrangler TJ 2002 TJ Se , X , Sport , Sahara models 2003 TJ Rubicon , Rubicon Tomb Raider Edition , Sahara , Sport , X , Se models , Freedom Edition 2004 -- 2006 TJ Long Wheel Base ( LJ ) Unlimited ( 15 '' Longer than a standard TJ ) Rubicon , Sport , X , Se models 2004 -- 2005 Willys Edition ( 2004 -- 1997 made , 2005 -- 2001 made ) 2004 Columbia Edition 2005 Rubicon Sahara Unlimited TJ LWB ( LJ ) ( 1000 made ) 2006 Golden Eagle Edition , 65 Year Anniversary Edition ( 1,675 Black 65th Anniversary Editions made ) 2007 - 2011 TJL AEV Brute : Compact pickup truck , 2 - door version ; produced by AEV with the Jeep logo . 2007 -- 2018 Wrangler JK 2007 -- 2009 JK Rubicon , Sahara , X 2010 JK Rubicon , Sahara , Mountain , Islander , and Sport Editions 2011 70th Anniversary , Call of Duty : Black Ops , Mojave , and Oscar Mike Military ( 200 made ) Editions 2011 JK - 8 Independence -- a MOPAR JK pick - up conversion kit , mirroring the 1980s CJ - 8 Scrambler pick - up 2013 Rubicon 10th Anniversary Edition 2013 - 2017 Brute Double Cab : Pickup truck , 4 - door version , produced by American Expedition Vehicles 2014 Willys Wheeler Edition 2017 -- Jeep Wrangler JL Grand Cherokee Main article : Jeep Grand Cherokee 1st generation Grand Cherokee ZJ . 2008 - 2010 WK Grand Cherokee . 1993 -- 1998 Grand Cherokee ZJ 1993 -- 1995 Base SE 1993 -- 1998 Laredo 1993 -- 1998 Limited 1995 -- 1997 Orvis `` Limited Edition '' 1997 -- 1998 TSi 1998 5.9 Limited 1993 ZJ Jeep Grand Wagoneer 1999 -- 2004 Grand Cherokee WJ Grand Cherokee 2002 -- 2003 Sport 2002 -- 2004 Special edition 2002 -- 2004 Overland 2004 Columbia Edition 2005 - 2010 Grand Cherokee WK : Five - passenger family - oriented SUV -- `` WK '' is the designator for the 2005 -- 2010 Grand Cherokee , marks the beginning of the - K designation compared to the - J designation 2011 -- present Jeep Grand Cherokee WK2 Jeep Liberty / Cherokee Main article : Jeep Liberty 2008 - 2009 Jeep Liberty 2002 -- 2007 Jeep Liberty KJ or Jeep Cherokee ( KJ ) outside North America Sport Limited Renegade 2003 Freedom Edition 2004 -- 05 Rocky Mountain Edition 2004 Columbia Edition 2006 65th Anniversary Edition 2007 Latitude Edition ( replaced Renegade ) 2008 -- 2012 Jeep Liberty KK or Jeep Cherokee ( KK ) outside North America Jeep Commander 2006 -- 2010 Jeep Commander ( XK ) 2006 Base 2007 -- 2010 Sport 2006 -- 2010 Limited 2007 -- 2009 Overland Jeep Compass and Patriot platform Main articles : Jeep Compass and Jeep Patriot 2007 -- 2017 Jeep Compass MK49 2017 -- present Jeep Compass MP / 552 2006 - 2017 Jeep Patriot ( MK74 ) : Compact sport utility vehicle Concepts and prototypes This section may be too long and excessively detailed . Please consider summarizing the material while citing sources as needed . ( April 2018 ) 1944 CJ - 1 prototype 1949 Alcoa Aluminum - bodied Jeepster Coupe ( prototype ) 1949 / 1950 X-98 prototype ; with flat fenders , but a rounded hood and grille like the CJ - 5 , it may have been the first F - head - powered Jeep 1950 CJ - 4 prototype 1950 CJ - 4 M prototype 1950 CJ - 4 MA prototype 1952 CJ Coiler : experimental design for an all independent suspension , with portal - hub swing - axles and coil - springs 1958 DJ - 3A Pickup : Prototype pickup truck version of the DJ - 3A 1958 Jeep Creep : prototype utility vehicle ; several versions built for tests , including a Postal rig and an aircraft tug 1959 Jeep J - 100 Malibu and Berkeley : Later developed into the Wagoneer 1960 Jeep Wide - Trac : Concept for developing a low - cost vehicle for third - world countries 1962 The Brazilian Jeepster ( prototype ) 1963 Jeep XM - 200 : J200 based concept for developing a low - cost vehicle for third - world countries 1965 Jeep / Renault Model H : A light 4x4 prototype based on the Renault 16 1966 FWD Concept Jeepvair : Similar to the Model H but with a Chevrolet Corvair powertrain 1970 XJ001 1970 XJ002 1971 Jeep Cowboy : A design study using AMC 's `` compact '' automobile platform 1977 Jeep II 1979 Jeep Jeepster II 1986 Cherokee Targa : A two - door Cherokee convertible ( later revised as Jeep Freedom show car ) 1987 Comanche Thunderchief : This vehicle was put into production later as the Comanche Eliminator 1989 Jeep Concept 1 : Evolved into the ZJ Grand Cherokee 1989 Jeep Rubicon Wrangler : This vehicle was later put in production 1990 Jeep JJ : Essentially what would later be called the Icon 1990 Jeep Freedom : A revised Cherokee Targa 1991 Jeep Wagoneer 2000 : A large design concept 1993 Jeep Ecco 1997 Jeep Cherokee Casablanca : A special edition of Cherokee , never produced 1997 Jeep Wrangler Ultimate Rescue : A tuned version of a regular TJ Wrangler developed for SEMA show 1997 Fender Jeep Wrangler 1997 Jeep Dakar : A fused version of a XJ Cherokee and TJ Wrangler 1997 Jeep Icon : A design study for the next - generation Wrangler 1999 Jeep Commander : methanol fuel cell drive train with electric motors 1999 Jeep Journey 1999 Jeep Jeepster Concept 2000 Jeep Cherokee Total Exposure 2000 Jeep Varsity : Subsequently , put into production as the Compass 2000 Jeep Commander Concept : Subsequently , put into production as the XK 2000 Jeep Willys 2001 Jeep Willys2 2002 Jeep Wrangler Tabasco 2002 Jeep Wrangler Patriot : A special decal package for the Wrangler X / Sport 2002 Jeep Wrangler Mountain Biker 2004 Jeep Grand Cherokee ( WJ ) Concierge 2004 Jeep Treo 2004 Jeep Rescue 2004 Jeep Liberator CRD 2005 Jeep Hurricane : The 4 - wheel steering system allows the vehicle to have both a zero turning circle , and `` crab '' sideways . Its engine was later put in the Grand Cherokee ( WK ) SRT - 8 2005 Jeep Gladiator Concept 2005 Jeep Aggressor ( the Rezo ) 2007 Jeep Trailhawk 2008 Jeep Renegade 2010 Jeep J8 2010 Jeep Nukizer : Design study inspired by the Military Kaiser M - 715 2011 Jeep Wrangler Pork Chop 2011 Jeep Compass Canyon : uses a 2 1 / 8 inch lift 2011 Jeep Cherokee Overland 2012 Jeep Mighty FC : inspired by the 1956 to 1965 Forward Control vehicles Jeep sold 2012 Jeep J - 12 Concept : recalling the 1962 - 1971 Gladiator pickups 2013 Jeep Wrangler Mopar Recon 2013 Jeep Grand Cherokee Trailhawk EcoDiesel 2013 Jeep Wrangler Stitch 2013 Jeep Wrangler Flattop : featuring a one - piece , windowless hardtop 2014 Jeep Wrangler Level Red 2014 Jeep Cherokee Dakar 2014 Jeep Wrangler MOJO 2015 Jeep Chief 2015 Jeep Wrangler Africa 2015 Jeep Wrangler Red Rock Responder 2015 Jeep Staff Car : a tribute to Jeep 's military history starting with WWII Current models The Jeep brand currently produces five models , but 8 vehicles are under the brand name or use the Jeep logo : Jeep Renegade BU : Subcompact Sport Utility Vehicle Jeep Wrangler JK : Standard wheelbase Compact Sport utility vehicle , 2 - door version JK Unlimited : Long wheelbase Mid-Size sport utility vehicle , 4 - door version J8 : Mid-Size military sport utility vehicle ; Produced by AIL , AAV , and AEV . TJL : Compact pickup truck , 2 - door version ; Produced by AAV . JL : Short ( 2 - door ) and long ( 4 - door ) wheelbase SUV ; in production since November 2017 Jeep Grand Cherokee : Mid-size sport utility vehicle Jeep Compass : Compact sport utility vehicle Jeep Cherokee KL : Mid-size sport utility vehicle Future models Jeep Wagoneer / Grand Wagoneer : Full - Size SUVs expected for 2021 . Jeeps built outside the U.S.A. The Troller T4 Mahindra & Mahindra Limited Indian Jeep Jeeps have been built and / or assembled around the world by various companies . Argentina -- IKA Jeeps 1956 -- current ; now owned by Chrysler Australia -- Willys Motors Australia -- 1940s -- 1980s Brazil -- Willys Overland do Brasil , purchased by Ford to become Ford do Brasil -- 1957 -- 1985 built the Jeep Rural from 1960 -- 1977 , and the Troller T4 is a fiberglass bodied Jeep version built in Brazil . Troller was purchased by Ford do Brasil in 2007 . Burma / Myanmar -- Two Burmese companies produce unlicensed copies of jeeps ; Myanmar Jeeps and Chin Dwin Star Jeeps . Canada -- Kaiser Jeep -- 1959 -- 1969 China -- Beijing Jeep Corporation -- 1983 to 2009 as Beijing - Benz DaimlerChrysler Automotive . Fiat - Chrysler plans to re-open Jeep production in China through joint venture with Guangzhou Automobile Industry Group ( GAIG ) . Colombia -- Willys Colombia -- at least until 1999 Egypt -- Arab Organization for Industrialization subsidiary Arab American Vehicles based in Cairo produces the Jeep Cherokee ; the open - top , Wrangler - based Jeep AAV TJL . France -- Licence produced jeeps : Hotchkiss M201 and by Cournil ( now Auverland ) -- 1952 -- 1962 India -- Mahindra & Mahindra Limited -- 1960s - current Iran -- Pars Khodro , ShahBaaz , Sahra , and Ahoo -- ShahBaaz based on DJ series , Sahra based on Jeep Wrangler and CJ series , and Ahoo based on Wagoneer Israel -- Automotive Industries which produces the AIL Storm ( Sufa ) series of Jeep Wrangler - derivatives Italy -- 1950s Japan -- Mitsubishi Jeeps -- 1953 -- 1998 Korea -- Asia Motors , Ltd , Dong A Motors ( SsangYong Motor Company ) and Kia . ( do n't use Jeep name ) -- 1980s - current Mexico -- VAM Jeeps -- 1946 -- 1987 Netherlands -- NEKAF - JEEP Nederlandse Kaiser - Frazer -- 1954 - 1990s Philippines -- Jeepneys ; MD Juan Willys MB. ; `` E-jeepneys '' or minibuses , LSV ( low - speed vehicles ) which uses electricity . Spanish - built long - wheelbase CJ - 3B Portugal -- Bravia Sarl -- 1960s to 1980s This Lisbon company assembled a number of Kaiser Jeep M - 201 models from several Spanish EBRO and VIASA parts built to order for the USAF airfields & the US Army based at the time in Portugal , of the 500 vehicles made , most had American running gear . Spain -- Vehículos Industriales y Agrícolas , S.A ( VIASA ) , absorbed by Ebro trucks , and later sold to Nissan -- 1960 - 1990s For instance built a long - wheelbase version of the CJ - 3B from 1955 -- 1968 . Turkey -- Tuzla -- 1954 - 1970s Venezuela - Valencia Carabobo 1962 -- 2011 , 1962 Tejerias Edo Aragua Willys de Venezuela , S.A , 1979 -- 2011 Ensambladora Carabobo C.A Valencia Edo Carabobo Jeep apparel and sponsorships Jeep is also a brand of apparel of outdoor lifestyle sold under license . It is reported that there are between 600 and 1,500 such outlets in China , vastly outnumbering the number of Jeep auto dealers in the country . In April 2012 Jeep signed a shirt sponsorship deal worth € 35m ( $45 m ) with Italian football club Juventus . In August 2014 Jeep signed a sponsorship deal with Greek football club AEK Athens F.C. . See also AMC and Jeep transmissions Criticism of sport utility vehicles Jeep four - wheel - drive systems Jeep Jamboree : Off Road Adventure , a video game based on the then - current Jeep Wrangler YJ model Jeep Thrills Jeep parade Jeep trail Jeepney List of automobile manufacturers of the United States References Inline ^ Jump up to : Statham , Steve ( 2002 ) . Jeep Color History . MBI Publishing . pp. 26 -- 27 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7603 - 0636 - 9 . Retrieved 28 October 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Chrysler 8 - K / A SEC filing '' ( PDF ) . secdatabase.com. 3 December 2012 . Retrieved 18 January 2015 ... served as the auditor for Fiat S.p.A. and its consolidated subsidiaries , which include Chrysler Group Jump up ^ `` Chrysler Group LLC '' . InsideView company data . Archived from the original on 27 September 2013 . Retrieved 18 January 2015 . Chrysler Group LLC operates as a subsidiary of Fiat North America LLC Jump up ^ Jeep Guns For 2 Million In Annual Sales -- Forbes , Feb 24 , 2017 ^ Jump up to : Could Fiat Chrysler spin off Jeep , Ram ? ' Yes ' -- Detroit Free Press ^ Jump up to : China 's Great Wall sets sights on Jeep -- AutoNews.com , August 21 , 2017 Jump up ^ Marchionne Is Betting Big on Rugged Jeep to Steer Fiat - Bloomberg , 24 augustus 2017 ^ Jump up to : Zaloga , Steven J. ( 2011 ) . Jeeps 1941 -- 45 . Bloomsbury Publishing . ISBN 9781780961477 . ^ Jump up to : Origin of the Term Jeep -- Olive - Drab Jump up ^ Russell , Philip ( 2013 ) . 100 Military Inventions that Changed the World . Little , Brown Book Group . ISBN 9781472106704 . Retrieved 18 January 2015 . Jump up ^ Stewart , Doug ( 1992 ) . `` Hail to the jeep ! Could we have won without it ? '' . Smithsonian. 23 ( 8 ) : 60 -- 69 . Jump up ^ Allen , Jim ( 2004 ) . Jeep Collector 's Library . MBI Publishing . pp. 49 -- 51 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7603 - 1979 - 6 . Retrieved 22 May 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Curbside Classic : Kaiser Jeep CJ - 5 -- Transcendent Independent Jump up ^ Gunn , Richard ( 2006 ) . Trucks & Off - Road Vehicles . Motorbooks . p. 137 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7603 - 2569 - 8 . Retrieved 31 July 2011 . Jump up ^ Robson , Graham ( 1981 ) . The Rover Story . Stephens . p. 87 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 85059 - 543 - 7 . The first Land - Rover owed a lot to the Jeep . Designer Gordon Bashford , who laid out the basic concept , makes no secret of that . It was also his job to go off to an ex-WD surplus vehicle dump in the Cotswolds , buy a couple of roadworthy Jeeps ... Jump up ^ Morr , Tom ; Brubaker , Ken ( 2007 ) . The Joy of Jeep . MBI Publishing . p. 50 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7603 - 3061 - 6 . Retrieved 28 October 2010 . Jump up ^ `` The Military Jeep '' . Cossor.com.au . Retrieved 2010 - 03 - 12 . Jump up ^ `` Invention of the Jeep - Pennsylvania Historical Markers '' . Waymarking.com. 2006 - 03 - 09 . Retrieved 23 February 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Ford Manufacturers a Jeep '' . Jeep History . Retrieved 4 July 2012 . Jump up ^ Notman , Robert ( 2006 ) . Bantam , Ford and Willys - 1 / 4 - Ton Reconnaissance Cars . Lulu.com . p. 68 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 84728 - 188 - 3 . Retrieved 2010 - 11 - 30 . Jump up ^ Auto Editors of Consumer Guide ( 14 December 2007 ) . `` 1940 -- 1941 Jeep '' . Retrieved 24 February 2012 . Jump up ^ Allen , Jim ( 2003 ) . Jeep : Collector 's Library . MBI Publishing . pp. 36 -- 39 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7603 - 1486 - 9 . Jump up ^ Scott , Graham ( 1996 ) . Essential Military Jeep : Willys , Ford & Bantam models 1941 -- 45 . MBI Publishing . p. 25 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 870979 - 76 - 4 . Jump up ^ Zaloga , Steven J. ( 2005 ) . Jeeps 1941 -- 45 . Osprey Publishing . p. 10 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 84176 - 888 - 5 . Jump up ^ `` The History of Jeep '' . Gear Heads. 17 May 2012 . Retrieved 3 July 2012 . Jump up ^ Borth , Christy . Masters of Mass Production , pp. 208 - 36 , Bobbs - Merrill Co. , Indianapolis , IN , 1945 . Jump up ^ Herman , Arthur . Freedom 's Forge : How American Business Produced Victory in World War II , pp. 214 , 218 , 342 , Random House , New York , NY , 2012 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4000 - 6964 - 4 . Jump up ^ Leigh Brown , Patricia , `` Where Do You Hang The 747 ? '' , The New York Times , December 13 , 1998 Jump up ^ `` New Acquisitions -- Smart Car , Volkswagen `` Beetle , '' and Willys - Overland Jeep -- Join Three Other Automobiles in MoMA 's Collection '' ( PDF ) . The Museum of Modern Art . June 2002 . Retrieved 2010 - 11 - 30 . Jump up ^ R. Cole , `` Chairman Offers to Buy Coleman '' , The New York Times , Page D1 , Feb. 15 , 1989 . Jump up ^ `` Jeep in a crate $50 ! - The legend of Jeep Body Tubs '' . motorcitymusclecars. 7 July 2010 . Archived from the original on 7 January 2015 . Retrieved 18 January 2015 . Jump up ^ `` The 3A 's Navy Cousin - The CJ - V35 / U '' . Cj3apage.com. 1950 - 02 - 01 . Retrieved 2012 - 01 - 14 . ^ Jump up to : Brown , Arch ( 2001 ) . Jeep : The Unstoppable Legend . Publications International . p. 42 . ISBN 0 - 7853 - 5562 - 6 . Jump up ^ `` Wordorigins.org '' . Wordorigins.org . Retrieved 2010 - 07 - 04 . Jump up ^ Borth , Christy . Masters of Mass Production , pp. 208 - 236 , Bobbs - Merrill Co. , Indianapolis , IN , 1945 . Jump up ^ Sfetcu , Nicolae ( 2014 ) . The Car Show . Jump up ^ The Industrial Jeep - 1943 NTX - Minneapolis - Moline 's -- Hemmings Motor News Jump up ^ Pulos , Arthur J. ( 1988 ) . The American Design Adventure , 1940 -- 1975 . MIT Press . p. 20 . ISBN 9780262161060 . Retrieved 25 January 2018 . Jump up ^ How the Jeep got its name -- Allpar Jump up ^ Allen , Jim ( 27 July 2015 ) . `` The Oldest Restored Civilian Jeep '' . FourWheeler.com . Extreme Ventures , LLC . Retrieved 2018 - 02 - 22 . Jump up ^ `` Toledo - built Jeeps ' sales results abroad mirror those in North American market '' . News.top100.biz. 2007 - 11 - 13 . Archived from the original on 2011 - 07 - 06 . Retrieved 2010 - 07 - 04 . ^ Jump up to : Cranswick , Marc ( 2001 ) . Cars of American Motors : An Illustrated History . McFarland . pp. 239 -- 240 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7864 - 4672 - 8 . Retrieved 11 June 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Jeep 's climb to the top : A year - by - year history -- Autoweek Jump up ^ `` Mitsubishi Jeep Photos on The CJ3B Page '' . Film.queensu.ca. 2002 - 08 - 29 . Archived from the original on 2009 - 10 - 11 . Retrieved 2009 - 09 - 23 . Jump up ^ Mann , Jim ( 1997 ) . Beijing Jeep : A Case Study of Western Business in China . Perseus . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8133 - 3327 - 4 . Jump up ^ Dunne , Timothy ( 2007 - 11 - 02 ) . `` Can Chrysler Rebound in China ? '' . Business Week . Retrieved 2010 - 10 - 26 . Jump up ^ `` Will Jeep storm India despite ' exorbitant ' price tag ? Fiat has fingers crossed '' . Hindustan Times . 2 September 2016 . Retrieved 9 April 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Cool Jeeps You Never Saw - 4 - Wheel & Off - Road Magazine Jump up ^ `` Jungle Buggy Packs A Load '' . Popular Science . Bonnier Corporation . 152 ( 5 ) : 122 . May 1948 . Retrieved November 17 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Evolution Of Deep Water Fording and the Jeep Jump up ^ Built to Fly - Army Tests Aluminum Jeep -- Popular Science , Feb 1954 , p. 162 Jump up ^ Foster , Patrick R. ( 2014 ) . Jeep : The History of America 's Greatest Vehicle . Motorbooks . p. 63 . ISBN 9780760345856 . Jump up ^ 3 / 4 ton 4x4 - G503 Military Vehicle Forums Jump up ^ ' Jeep ' Truck , Diesel engine , 7000 - pound GVW , 4x4 ( SM - 1020 ) ( PDF ) . Service Manual . Toledo , Ohio : Kaiser Jeep Corporation . May 1964 . p. 1 . Jump up ^ 1948 Willys Jeepster Introduction -- HowStuffWorks Jump up ^ `` Jeepster VJ '' . Jeep.off-road.com . Archived from the original on 13 October 2007 . Retrieved 23 February 2012 . Jump up ^ http://www.encs.com/vehicles.aspx?id=2210 Jump up ^ https://www.aev-conversions.com/vehicles/brute-double-cab Jump up ^ `` Jeepster fixed roof coupe '' . americanjeepsterclub.org . Archived from the original on 24 February 2013 . Retrieved 2014 - 01 - 23 . Jump up ^ Prototype X-98 on CJ3B.info Jump up ^ `` 196X Jeepster front '' . americanjeepsterclub.org . Archived from the original on 24 February 2013 . Retrieved 2014 - 01 - 23 . Jump up ^ `` 196X Jeepster top view '' . americanjeepsterclub.org . Archived from the original on 24 February 2013 . Retrieved 2014 - 01 - 23 . Jump up ^ Cranswick , Marc ( 2001 ) . Cars of American Motors : An Illustrated History . McFarland . pp. 146 -- 147 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7864 - 4672 - 8 . Retrieved 11 June 2012 . Jump up ^ Statham , Steve ( 2002 ) . Jeep Color History . MBI Publishing . p. 101 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7603 - 0636 - 9 . Retrieved 11 June 2011 . Jump up ^ Orlove , Raphael ( 30 November 2017 ) . `` The 1991 Jeep Wagoneer 2000 Was Large Enough To Eat The Moon '' . Jalopnik . Retrieved 31 March 2018 . Jump up ^ `` 1999 Jeep Commander Concept Car '' . Test Drive Junkie . Retrieved 31 March 2018 . Jump up ^ Jewett , Dale . `` 2005 Detroit : Jeep blows into auto show with twin - Hemi Hurricane '' . Retrieved 23 February 2012 . Jump up ^ https://www.caranddriver.com/features/the-2021-jeep-wagoneer-and-grand-wagoneer-are-cars-worth-waiting-for-feature Jump up ^ `` Jeeps Around the World on The CJ3B Page '' . Film.queensu.ca. 2009 - 01 - 31 . Archived from the original on 2010 - 07 - 16 . Retrieved 2010 - 07 - 04 . Jump up ^ `` Jeeps in Argentina on The CJ3B Page '' . Film.queensu.ca. 2005 - 02 - 06 . Archived from the original on 2010 - 06 - 28 . Retrieved 2010 - 07 - 04 . Jump up ^ `` Jeeps in Australia on The CJ3B Page '' . Film.queensu.ca . Archived from the original on 2010 - 07 - 16 . Retrieved 2010 - 07 - 04 . Jump up ^ `` Jeeps in Brasil on The CJ3B Page '' . Film.queensu.ca . Archived from the original on 2010 - 07 - 16 . Retrieved 2010 - 07 - 04 . Jump up ^ `` Kaiser Jeep in Canada 1959 -- 69 on The CJ3B Page '' . Film.queensu.ca . Archived from the original on 2010 - 04 - 13 . Retrieved 2010 - 07 - 04 . Jump up ^ `` Fiat to Re-introduce Jeep to China '' . ChinaAutoWeb.com . May 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Jeeps in Colombia on The CJ3B Page '' . Film.queensu.ca. 2010 - 03 - 22 . Archived from the original on 2010 - 07 - 01 . Retrieved 2010 - 07 - 04 . Jump up ^ `` Jeeps in France on The CJ3B Page '' . Film.queensu.ca. 2008 - 09 - 17 . Archived from the original on 2010 - 04 - 01 . Retrieved 2010 - 07 - 04 . Jump up ^ `` Mahindra Jeeps on The CJ3B Page '' . Film.queensu.ca. 2007 - 01 - 31 . Archived from the original on 1999 - 04 - 21 . Retrieved 2010 - 07 - 04 . Jump up ^ `` Jeeps in Italy on The CJ3B Page '' . Film.queensu.ca. 2009 - 03 - 24 . Archived from the original on 2010 - 04 - 01 . Retrieved 2010 - 07 - 04 . Jump up ^ `` Jeeps in Japan on The CJ3B Page '' . Film.queensu.ca. 2009 - 01 - 31 . Archived from the original on 2010 - 09 - 11 . Retrieved 2010 - 07 - 04 . Jump up ^ `` Jeeps in Korea on The CJ3B Page '' . Film.queensu.ca. 2006 - 11 - 02 . Archived from the original on 2010 - 04 - 01 . Retrieved 2010 - 07 - 04 . Jump up ^ `` Jeeps in Mexico on The CJ3B Page '' . Film.queensu.ca. 2002 - 07 - 25 . Archived from the original on 2010 - 04 - 01 . Retrieved 2010 - 07 - 04 . Jump up ^ `` Jeeps in the Netherlands on The CJ3B Page '' . Film.queensu.ca . Archived from the original on 2010 - 04 - 01 . Retrieved 2010 - 07 - 04 . Jump up ^ `` Jeepneys of the Philippines on The CJ3B Page '' . Film.queensu.ca. 2005 - 04 - 27 . Archived from the original on 2012 - 06 - 08 . Retrieved 2012 - 06 - 11 . Jump up ^ `` Philippine firm brings old WWII jeeps back to life '' . Afp.google.com. 2008 - 06 - 30 . Archived from the original on 2012 - 03 - 08 . Retrieved 2012 - 06 - 11 . Jump up ^ `` Electric minibuses start commercial operations in Philippines '' . Gulf-Times.com. 2008 - 07 - 02 . Archived from the original on 2012 - 04 - 26 . Retrieved 2012 - 07 - 02 . Jump up ^ Fabella , Ferdinand ( 2008 - 06 - 30 ) . `` Enforcers to drive E-jeeps '' . ManilaStandardToday.com . Archived from the original on 8 December 2008 . Retrieved 18 January 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Jeeps in Spain on CJ3B.info '' . 14 January 2017 . Retrieved 2018 - 01 - 01 . Jump up ^ `` Jeeps in Turkey on The CJ3B Page '' . Film.queensu.ca. 2005 - 11 - 22 . Archived from the original on 2010 - 04 - 01 . Retrieved 2010 - 07 - 04 . Jump up ^ Frost , Laurence ( 27 April 2012 ) . `` China auto market laggards chase premium profile '' . Chicago Tribune . Reuters . Retrieved 11 June 2012 . Jump up ^ Higgins , Tim ( 21 May 2012 ) . `` Jeeps Sell for $189,750 as China Demand Offsets Tariffs '' . Bloomberg Businessweek . Archived from the original on 25 May 2012 . Retrieved 11 June 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Juventus nets Jeep Deal '' . Football-Italia.net. 2002 - 08 - 29 . Retrieved 2009 - 09 - 23 . General Allen , Jim ( 2004 ) . Jeep . MBI Publishing . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7603 - 1979 - 6 . Foster , Patrick R. ( 2003 ) . Standard Catalog of Jeep 1940 -- 2003 . Krause Publications . ISBN 978 - 0 - 87349 - 522 - 6 . Ludel , Moses ( 1992 ) . Jeep Owner 's Bible : A Hands - On Guide to Getting the Most from Your Jeep . Robert Bentley . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8376 - 0154 - 0 . Hartwell , Dickson ( December 1960 ) . `` The Mighty Jeep '' . American Heritage Magazine . 12 ( 1 ) . External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Jeep , Jeep vehicles and Willys vehicles . Look up jeep in Wiktionary , the free dictionary . Official website `` Leeping Lena Joins the Army '' , October 1941 first detailed article on what became known as the Jeep Autobiography of a Jeep ( 1943 ) . United Films , Prelinger Archives , Historical Public Domain video . Meet the Postwar Jeep August 1945 Popular Science Story of the Jeep and the American Story are Intertwined A Visual History Jeep road vehicle timeline , 1945 -- 1970s -- next '' Type 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 5 6 7 8 9 0 5 6 7 8 9 0 5 6 7 8 9 0 5 6 7 8 9 Traditional CJ - 2A CJ - 3A CJ - 5 CJ - 3B CJ - 7 CJ - 6 Dispatcher DJ - 3A DJ - 5 / 6 AM General Compact SUV Jeepster ( VJ ) Jeepster Commando Commando SUV Willys Jeep Station Wagon Cherokee ( SJ ) Wagoneer ( SJ ) Compact pickup Jeepster Commando Commando Full - size pickup Willys Jeep Truck Gladiator J - Series Truck Forward Control Van FJ - 3 / 3A FJ - 6 / 6A `` previous -- Jeep road vehicle timeline , 1980s -- present Type 1980s 1990s 2000s 2010s 0 5 6 7 8 9 0 5 6 7 8 9 0 5 6 7 8 9 0 5 6 7 8 Traditional CJ - 5 CJ - 7 Wrangler ( YJ ) Wrangler ( TJ ) Wrangler ( JK ) Wrangler ( JL ) Wrangler Unlimited ( LJ ) Wrangler Unlimited ( JKU ) Wrangler Unlimited ( JLU ) Subcompact crossover Renegade ( BU ) Compact crossover Compass ( MK49 ) Compass ( MP ) Patriot ( MK74 ) Mid-size crossover Cherokee ( KL ) Compact SUV Cherokee / Wagoneer ( XJ ) Liberty / Cherokee ( KJ ) Liberty / Cherokee ( KK ) Mid-size SUV Grand Cherokee / Grand Wagoneer ( ZJ ) Grand Cherokee ( WJ ) Grand Cherokee ( WK ) Grand Cherokee ( WK2 ) Commander ( XK ) Full - size SUV Cherokee ( SJ ) Wagoneer / Grand Wagoneer ( SJ ) Compact pickup CJ - 8 ( Scrambler ) Comanche ( MJ ) Midsize pickup CJ - 10 Scrambler ( JT ) Full - size pickup J - Series FCA US LLC Marques Current Chrysler Dodge Jeep Ram Fiat Automobiles ( USA ) Defunct AMC ( 1966 -- 1988 ) Commer ( 1905 -- 1979 ) Barreiros ( 1959 -- 1978 ) DeSoto ( 1928 -- 1961 ) Eagle ( 1988 -- 1998 ) Fargo ( 1920 -- 1972 ) Hillman ( 1907 -- 1976 ) Humber ( 1898 -- 1975 ) Imperial ( 1955 -- 1975 , 1981 -- 1983 ) Karrier ( 1908 -- 1977 ) Plymouth ( 1928 -- 2001 ) Singer ( 1905 -- 1970 ) Simca ( 1934 -- 1977 ) SRT ( 2013 -- 2014 ) Sunbeam ( 1901 -- 1976 ) Valiant ( 1960 -- 1966 ) Divisions and subsidiaries Current Chrysler Australia Chrysler Capital Chrysler Canada Dodge Jeep Mopar Ram Trucks Street & Racing Technology ( SRT ) Road Track ( R / T ) Defunct Chrysler - Plymouth ( 1928 -- 2001 ) American Motors Corporation ( 1954 -- 88 ) Chrysler Australia ( 1951 -- 81 ) Chrysler Europe ( 1967 -- 81 ) Chrysler UK ( 1970 -- 81 ) Envi ( 2007 -- 09 ) Former Eurostar Automobilwerk Global Electric Motorcars Chrysler First Financial Services Corporation Joint ventures and alliances Current United States Council for Automotive Research Defunct Diamond - Star Motors DaimlerChrysler -- Mitsubishi alliance Global Engine Alliance People Walter Chrysler Lee Iacocca Bob Lutz C. 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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

what type of car is a jeep considered

light utility vehicles

Jeep

Eastern coastal plains - Wikipedia Eastern coastal plains Jump to : navigation , search This article relies largely or entirely on a single source . Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page . Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources . ( May 2015 ) View of Fields at Biccavolu , Eastern coastal plains , Andhra Pradesh The Eastern Coastal Plains refers to a wide stretch of landmass of India , lying between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal . It is wider and leveled than the western coastal plains and stretches from Tamil Nadu in the south to West Bengal in the north through Andhra Pradesh and Odisha . Chilka Lake is a brackish water lake along the eastern coastal plain . It lies in the state of Odisha and stretches to the south of the Mahanadi Delta . Deltas of many of India 's rivers form a major portion of these plains . The Mahanadi , Godavari , Kaveri and Krishna rivers drain these plains . The region receives both the Northeast & Southwest monsoon rains with its annual rainfall averaging between 1,000 and 3,000 mm ( 39 and 118 in ) . The width of the plains varies between 100 and 130 km ( 62 to 80 miles ) . It is locally known as Utkal Plains in the Northern part between Cossye and Rushikulya Rivers , Northern Circars in the Central part between Rushikulya and Krishna Rivers and , as Coromandel Coast in the Southern part from the south of river Krishna till the Southern tip of Mainland India at Cape Comorin where it merges with the Western Coastal Plains . See also ( edit ) Western Coastal Plains References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Sr. Bimcy ; Sr. Sisily ; Charlotte . Bibliographic information . Scholar Publishing House . pp. 20 -- 21 . ISBN 8171725163 . Geography of India Climate Climate Climatic regions Geology Fossil Parks Geology of India Indian Plate Stones Landforms Beaches Canals Desert Extreme points Glaciers Islands Lakes Mountains Rivers Valleys Volcanoes Waterfalls Plains Indo - Gangetic Eastern Coastal Western Coastal Regions North India Northeast India East India South India West India Central India Subdivisions Autonomous administrative divisions States and territories Districts Cities Towns Municipalities Environment Biogeographic classification Ecoregions Fauna Flora Forests Issues Protected Areas Wildlife This Indian location article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eastern_coastal_plains&oldid=812520937 '' Categories : Plains of India Coasts of India India geography stubs Hidden categories : Articles needing additional references from May 2015 All articles needing additional references India articles missing geocoordinate data All articles needing coordinates All stub articles Talk About Wikipedia हिन्दी Português தமிழ் Edit links This page was last edited on 28 November 2017 , at 08 : 32 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

where are the coastal plains of india situated

between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal

Andhra Pradesh

Deion Sanders - wikipedia Deion Sanders Jump to : navigation , search Deion Sanders Sanders in 2011 No. 21 , 37 Position : Cornerback Date of birth : ( 1967 - 08 - 09 ) August 9 , 1967 ( age 50 ) Place of birth : Fort Myers , Florida Height : 6 ft 1 in ( 1.85 m ) Weight : 198 lb ( 90 kg ) Career information High school : North Fort Myers ( FL ) College : Florida State NFL Draft : 1989 / Round : 1 / Pick : 5 Career history Atlanta Falcons ( 1989 -- 1993 ) San Francisco 49ers ( 1994 ) Dallas Cowboys ( 1995 -- 1999 ) Washington Redskins ( 2000 ) Baltimore Ravens ( 2004 -- 2005 ) Career highlights and awards 2 × Super Bowl champion ( XXIX , XXX ) 8 × Pro Bowl ( 1991 -- 1994 , 1996 -- 1999 ) 8 × First - team All - Pro ( 1991 -- 1994 , 1996 -- 1999 ) NFL Defensive Player of the Year ( 1994 ) NFL 1990s All - Decade Team Atlanta Falcons Ring of Honor Jim Thorpe Award ( 1988 ) 2 × Unanimous All - American ( 1987 , 1988 ) Florida State Seminoles No. 2 retired Career NFL statistics Interceptions : 53 Defensive touchdowns : 10 Return touchdowns : 9 Receptions : 60 Receiving yards : 784 Receiving touchdowns : 3 Player stats at NFL.com Player stats at PFR Pro Football Hall of Fame College Football Hall of Fame Deion Luywnn Sanders Sr. ( / ˈdiːɒn / ; born August 9 , 1967 ) , nicknamed Primetime , is a former American football and baseball player who works as an analyst for CBS Sports and the NFL Network . He was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 2011 . Sanders played football primarily at cornerback , but also as a kick returner , punt returner and occasionally wide receiver . He played in the National Football League ( NFL ) for the Atlanta Falcons , the San Francisco 49ers , the Dallas Cowboys , the Washington Redskins and the Baltimore Ravens , winning the Super Bowl with both the 49ers and the Cowboys . An outfielder in baseball , he played professionally for the New York Yankees , the Atlanta Braves , the Cincinnati Reds and the San Francisco Giants , and participated in the 1992 World Series with the Braves . He attended Florida State University , where he was recognized as a two - time All - American in football , and also played baseball and ran track . Sanders founded the Prime Prep Academy charter school in 2012 and has coached at the school . The school was closed January 30 , 2015 , due to financial insolvency . In 2014 , he debuted his new show , the Deion Family Playbook . Contents ( hide ) 1 Early life 1.1 High school 1.2 College career 2 Professional baseball career 3 Professional football career 3.1 Draft and Atlanta Falcons 3.2 San Francisco 49ers 3.3 Dallas Cowboys 3.4 Washington Redskins 3.5 Baltimore Ravens 4 Legacy 5 Media appearances and pop culture fame 6 Other business and entertainment ventures 7 Discography 8 Personal life 9 See also 10 References 11 External links Early life ( edit ) High school ( edit ) Sanders was born in Fort Myers , Florida . He attended North Fort Myers High School in North Fort Myers , and was a letterman and All - State honoree in football , basketball and baseball . In 1985 , Sanders was named to the Florida High School Association All - Century Team which selected the top 33 players in the 100 - year history of high school football in the state . The Kansas City Royals selected Sanders out of North Fort Myers High School in the sixth round of the 1985 Major League Baseball draft . He did not sign with the Royals . College career ( edit ) Sanders at Florida State Sanders enrolled at Florida State University and played three sports for the Florida State Seminoles : football , baseball , and track . Beginning his freshman year , he started in the Seminoles ' secondary , played outfield for the baseball team that finished fifth in the nation , and helped lead the track and field team to a conference championship . Under head coach Bobby Bowden , Sanders was a two - time consensus All - American cornerback in 1987 and 1988 , and a third team All - American in 1986 , intercepting 14 passes in his career , including three in bowl games , and managed to return one interception 100 yards for a touchdown breaking Fred Biletnikoff 's interception return record by one yard . He won the Jim Thorpe Award in 1988 . He was also a standout punt returner for Florida State , leading the nation in 1988 with his punt return average , and breaking the school 's record for career punt return yards . Sanders made an interception with 5 seconds left to seal Florida State 's 13 - 7 win over Auburn in the 1989 Sugar Bowl , during the 1988 postseason . Based on those accolades , his jersey at Florida State , # 2 , was retired in 1995 . He finished his career with 126 punt returns for 1,429 yards . While playing baseball under head coach Mike Martin at Florida State , Sanders hit . 331 in 1986 ; he was known more for base stealing , compiling 27 stolen bases in 1987 . Sanders once played the first game of a baseball doubleheader , ran a leg of a 4 × 100 relay , then returned to play another baseball game . Professional baseball career ( edit ) Deion Sanders Left fielder / Center fielder Born : ( 1967 - 08 - 09 ) August 9 , 1967 ( age 50 ) Fort Myers , Florida Batted : Left Threw : Left MLB debut May 31 , 1989 , for the New York Yankees Last MLB appearance June 14 , 2001 , for the Cincinnati Reds MLB statistics Batting average . 263 Hits 558 Home runs 39 Stolen bases 186 Teams New York Yankees ( 1989 -- 1990 ) Atlanta Braves ( 1991 -- 1994 ) Cincinnati Reds ( 1994 -- 1995 ) San Francisco Giants ( 1995 ) Cincinnati Reds ( 1997 , 2001 ) Career highlights and awards NL Triples champion ( 1992 ) Sanders played a nine - year , part - time baseball career , playing left and center field in 641 games with 4 teams . He was originally drafted by the Kansas City Royals in the 6th round of the 1985 draft , but did not sign with them . The New York Yankees selected Sanders in the 30th round of the 1988 Major League Baseball draft , and he signed with the team on June 22 . He opened the 1989 season with the Albany - Colonie Yankees of the Class AA Eastern League . Though he planned to leave the Yankees in July to attend NFL training camp , he became embroiled in a contract dispute with the Falcons , and used the Yankees as leverage . He received a promotion to the major leagues , and spent the summer with the Columbus Clippers of the Class AAA International League . He made his major league baseball debut on May 31 , 1989 . Sanders made the Yankees ' Opening Day roster for the 1990 season . On May 22 , 1990 , Sanders became involved in a dispute with Chicago White Sox ' catcher Carlton Fisk . Sanders started by stepping up to the plate with one out and a runner on third , drawing a dollar sign in the dirt before the pitch and then failed to run to first base after hitting a routine pop fly to shortstop , trotting back to the dugout instead . The Yankee fans booed , and Fisk told Sanders to `` run the fucking ball out '' and called Sanders a `` piece of shit . '' Later in the game , Sanders told Fisk that `` the days of slavery are over . '' Fisk was furious . `` He comes up and wants to make it a racial issue , there 's no racial issue involved . There is a right way and a wrong way to play this game . '' By mid-July , Sanders expressed that he was unsure if he would remain with the Yankees or report to NFL training camp for the upcoming NFL season . He requested a $1 million salary for the 1991 season , and the Yankees ended negotiations on a contract extension with Sanders . He left the team , finishing the 1990 season with a . 158 batting average and three home runs in 57 games . In September 1990 , the Yankees placed Sanders on waivers with the intention of giving him his release , as Yankees ' general manager Gene Michael said that Sanders ' football career was stunting his baseball development . Sanders later signed with the Atlanta Braves for the 1991 MLB season . On July 31 , Sanders hit a key three - run homer to spark a comeback win against the Pittsburgh Pirates during the Braves ' run to the National League West Division title . However , he had to leave the Braves the very next day to report to the Atlanta Falcons because of a clause in his NFL contract and missed the postseason . Before the 1992 season , Sanders reworked his NFL deal whereby he still reported to the Falcons for training camp in August , but was allowed to rejoin the Braves for the postseason . During his most productive year in the majors , the 1992 season , he hit . 304 for the team , stole 26 bases , and led the NL with 14 triples in 97 games . During the 1989 season , he hit a major league home run and scored a touchdown in the NFL in the same week , the only player ever to do so . Sanders is also the only man to play in both a Super Bowl and a World Series . Sanders batting for the Braves in 1993 . In four games of the 1992 World Series , Sanders batted . 533 with 4 runs , 8 hits , 2 doubles , and 1 RBI while playing with a broken bone in his foot . Despite Sanders 's performance , the Braves ultimately lost to the Toronto Blue Jays in six games . In Game 3 , he narrowly avoided being a victim of what would have been only the second triple play in World Series history ( following Bill Wambsganss 's unassisted triple play in 1920 ) . With Sanders on second base and Terry Pendleton on first , David Justice hit a deep fly ball to center field that Blue Jays center fielder Devon White unexpectedly caught with a leaping effort . Pendleton passed Sanders on the bases for the second out , but umpire Bob Davidson called Sanders safe after he scampered back to second base . Replays showed that Toronto third baseman Kelly Gruber tagged him on the heel before he returned to second . In 1997 , Sanders finished 2nd in the NL with 56 stolen bases in 115 games while with the Cincinnati Reds before leaving baseball for three years . Sanders returned to the Reds in 2001 , but was released after playing in only 29 games and batting just . 173 . Following his release from the Reds he signed a minor league contract with the Toronto Blue Jays triple - A affiliate , Syracuse Chiefs . Sanders was hitting . 252 for Syracuse before the Washington Redskins found a loophole in his contract which compelled him to return to the Redskins . His football contract had been negotiated to allow for Sanders to play both baseball and football , but the terms of the contract stated that Sanders could miss NFL training camp and the first few games of the season only if he were playing Major League Baseball . Since he was not then on an MLB roster , Sanders had to leave Syracuse and return to the Redskins so he would not violate his NFL contract . But before arriving at training camp , Sanders informed Redskins personnel he was retiring from professional baseball . In his final professional baseball game , Sanders hit a solo home run and an RBI single in Syracuse 's 12 - 6 win over the Toledo Mud Hens . As those in MLB and the NFL urged Sanders to concentrate on only one sport , he would often explain , `` football is my wife and baseball is my mistress . '' Professional football career ( edit ) This section of a biography of a living person needs additional citations for verification . Please help by adding reliable sources . Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately , especially if potentially libelous or harmful . ( July 2013 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Draft and Atlanta Falcons ( edit ) At the 1989 NFL Scouting Combine , Sanders ran a 4.27 second 40 - yard dash . He was the fifth pick overall in the 1989 NFL Draft by the Atlanta Falcons , where he played until 1993 . Despite fumbling ( and recovering ) his first NFL punt ( which was re-kicked on a penalty ) , Sanders ran for a touchdown on his second attempt of his first game . During his time in Atlanta , he intercepted 24 passes ( including a career - high 7 in 1993 ) , three of which he returned for touchdowns . In 1992 , he also led the league in kickoff return yards ( 1,067 ) , yards per return ( 26.7 ) and return touchdowns ( 2 ) . On October 11 , 1992 , Sanders played in a Falcons game at Miami and then flew to Pittsburgh , hoping to play in the Braves ' League Championship Series game against the Pirates that evening and become the first athlete to play in two professional leagues in the same day . Sanders ultimately did not , however , appear in the baseball game that night . Over his five years with the Falcons , Sanders scored ten touchdowns ( three defensive , three kick returns , two punt returns , and two receptions ) . San Francisco 49ers ( edit ) After five seasons Sanders signed on to play the 1994 season with the San Francisco 49ers , where he had arguably his best season as a professional football player , recording six interceptions and returning them for an NFL best and a then - NFL record 303 yards and three touchdowns . Two of his interceptions were returned for a gain of at least 90 yards , making him the first player to do this in NFL history . On October 16 , 1994 , Sanders made his dramatic return to the Georgia Dome in a 49er uniform . After getting into a scuffle with his former Falcon teammate Andre Rison , Sanders intercepted a pass from quarterback Jeff George and returned it 93 yards while mockingly staring down the entire Falcons sideline before high - stepping into the end zone . Sanders was later voted the 1994 NFL Defensive Player of the Year and recorded an interception in the 49ers 49 -- 26 victory over the San Diego Chargers in Super Bowl XXIX , earning him his first championship ring . Dallas Cowboys ( edit ) Following his successful season with the 49ers , Sanders , along with his agent Eugene Parker , courted numerous teams in need of a cornerback . The several teams in the `` Deion Sweepstakes '' , as it was called by the media , were the Philadelphia Eagles , Oakland Raiders , Miami Dolphins , New Orleans Saints , San Francisco 49ers and the Dallas Cowboys , who had lost their starting cornerback Kevin Smith to injury for the rest of the season . On September 9 , 1995 ( which fell in Week 2 of that NFL season ) , Sanders signed a lucrative contract with the Dallas Cowboys ( seven years , $35 million with a $12.999 million signing bonus , because owner Jerry Jones was superstitious of the number 13 ) , essentially making him , at the time , the highest - paid defensive player in the NFL . Sanders later stated in his book Power , Money & Sex : How Success Almost Ruined My Life that the Oakland Raiders offered him more money than any other team , but he chose to play in Dallas for more time on the offensive side of the ball , a chance to win back - to - back Super Bowls , and because of his friendship with Cowboys wide receiver Michael Irvin . Arthroscopic surgery kept him sidelined until his debut in Week 9 , which was once again in Atlanta against the Falcons ; the Cowboys won , 28 - 13 . He went on to help the Cowboys win their third title in four years in Super Bowl XXX against the Pittsburgh Steelers , where he returned a punt for 11 yards and caught a 47 - yard reception on offense , setting up Dallas ' first touchdown of the game and a 27 -- 17 victory . Sanders played four more seasons with Dallas , earning Pro Bowl selection in all of them . On June 2 , 2000 , he was released in a salary cap move . Washington Redskins ( edit ) Soon after being released by the Cowboys , the Washington Redskins and Daniel Snyder signed Sanders to a hefty $56 million , 7 - year contract . At the end of the 2000 season and an above - average statistical year , Sanders abruptly retired after only playing one year with the Redskins . Baltimore Ravens ( edit ) In 2004 , Sanders announced that he was going to end his retirement , after being lured back to football by Ravens cornerback Corey Fuller , linebacker Ray Lewis and best friend Joe Zorovich . A major reason for doing so was to play with Ray Lewis . He signed a 1 - year deal with the Baltimore Ravens to be a nickelback . Sanders chose to wear the number 37 , which matched his age at the time , to preemptively let people know that he was well aware of his relative senior status as an NFL player ( additionally , the number 21 , used by Sanders throughout his career , was already being worn by Ravens Pro Bowl cornerback Chris McAlister ) . Against the Buffalo Bills in Week 7 of 2004 , Sanders scored his ninth career interception return touchdown , moving him into a tie for second place with Ken Houston and Aeneas Williams , and behind Rod Woodson ( with 12 ) for all - time in the statistical category . Sanders in 2008 . In January 2006 , after playing two seasons as a corner and safety for Baltimore in which the Ravens did not qualify for the postseason , Sanders once again retired from the NFL and became an analyst for the NFL Network . Legacy ( edit ) During his 14 - year NFL career , Sanders was a perennial All - Pro and one of the strongest pass defenders ever . He was known for being a relatively poor tackler and he was not much of a factor in run support . Sanders also occasionally lined up with his team 's offense . During the 1996 season , Sanders skipped the baseball season , concentrating on football , and attended the first NFL training camp of his career to better familiarize himself with the nuances of the wide receiver position . He became only the second two - way starter ( after the Cardinals ' Roy Green ) in the NFL since Chuck Bednarik for the first half of the season due . Sanders is the only man to play in both a Super Bowl and a World Series , to hit an MLB home run and score an NFL touchdown in the same week , and to have both a reception and an interception in the Super Bowl . He is one of two players to score an NFL touchdown six different ways . During his career , Sanders intercepted 53 passes for 1,331 yards ( a 25.1 yards per return average ) , recovered four fumbles for 15 yards , returned 155 kickoffs for 3,523 yards , gained 2,199 yards on 212 punt returns , and caught 60 passes for 784 yards . Sanders amassed 7,838 all - purpose yards and scored 22 touchdowns : nine interception returns , six punt returns , three kickoff returns , three receiving , and one fumble recovery . His 19 defensive and return touchdowns was an NFL record ( now held by Devin Hester ) . In the postseason , Sanders added 5 more interceptions , as well as 3 receptions for 95 yards , 4 carries for 39 yards , and two touchdowns ( one rushing and one receiving ) . He was selected to eight Pro Bowls and won the NFL Defensive Player of the Year Award in 1994 . College Football News named Sanders # 8 in its list of 100 Greatest College Football Players of All - Time . The Sporting News named Sanders # 37 in their Top 100 Football Players of the Century released in 1999 . ESPN named Sanders # 74 in its list of the 100 Great Athletes of the Century released in 1999 . NFL.com named Sanders # 34 on NFL 's Top 100 list released in late 2010 On November 11 , 2010 , Sanders was inducted into the Atlanta Falcons ' Ring of Honor . On February 5 , 2011 , Sanders was announced as a Pro Football Hall of Fame inductee in his first year of eligibility . On May 17 , 2011 , Sanders was announced as a College Football Hall of Fame inductee . On August 6 , 2011 , Sanders was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame . Sanders also had a rushing TD in the playoffs ( against the Philadelphia Eagles in January 1996 ) . This makes him ( including post season ) one of only two players in NFL history ( Bill Dudley being the other ) to score a touchdown six different ways ( interception return , punt return , kickoff return , receiving , rushing , and a fumble recovery ) . On February 6 , 2011 , at Super Bowl XLV in Arlington , Texas , Sanders performed the pre-game coin toss . Sanders did not attend classes or take final exams during the fall semester of his senior year at Florida State , yet played in the Sugar Bowl against Auburn . This caused the Florida State Legislature to create the ' Deion Sanders rule ' , whereby a football athlete at any state university could not play in a bowl game if he failed to successfully complete the previous semester . In 1995 , he signed with the Dallas Cowboys for a minimum yearly base salary and a nearly $13 million signing bonus in an attempt to circumvent the NFL 's salary cap . This caused the NFL to institute its own ' Deion Sanders rule ' whereby a prorated portion of a player 's signing bonus counted against the salary cap . Media appearances and pop culture Fame ( edit ) See also : Leon Sandcastle Sanders became known for sporting a `` do - rag '' or bandana and for his high - stepping into the end zone followed by his touchdown dance celebrations . At the end of his Hall of Fame speech , he put a bandana on his bust . His `` Prime Time '' nickname was given to him by a friend and high - school teammate , Florida Gators defensive back Richard Fain . The two played pickup basketball games together during the prime time television hour , and Sanders ' athletic display during those games earned him the nickname . His other nickname is `` Neon Deion '' . Following his first Super Bowl victory with the San Francisco 49ers , Sanders hosted Saturday Night Live , broadcast on February 18 , 1995 . In January 1995 , Sanders became the official spokesman of the Sega Sports line of video games . Sanders has also appeared in television commercials for such companies as Nike , Pepsi , Burger King , Pizza Hut , and American Express . These included a Road Runner Pepsi ad , with Sanders as Wile E. Coyote , and a Pizza Hut commercial in which he appeared with Dallas Cowboys owner Jerry Jones . He also makes a cameo as himself in the film Celtic Pride . Sanders , known for his custom - made showy suits and flashy jewelry , frequently capitalized on his image . On December 26 , 1994 , Sanders released Prime Time , a rap album on Bust It Records ( MC Hammer 's label , of whom Sanders is a friend ) that featured the singles `` Must Be the Money '' and `` Prime Time Keeps on Tickin ' '' . The album was universally panned by critics , and despite Sanders ' fame , neither the album nor its singles charted in the Top 40 . Sanders also appeared in Hammer 's `` Too Legit to Quit '' music video , and his alter - ego `` Prime Time '' showed up in Hammer 's `` Pumps and a Bump '' video . Hammer , a big sports fan , had launched a new enterprise during his career called Roll Wit It Entertainment & Sports Management and boasted such clients as Evander Holyfield , Deion Sanders and Reggie Brooks . In 1995 , Hammer released `` Straight to My Feet '' ( with Deion Sanders ) from the Street Fighter soundtrack ( released in December 1994 ) . The song charted # 57 in the UK . After retiring from the NFL , Sanders worked as a pre-game commentator for CBS ' The NFL Today until 2004 , when contract negotiations failed . Sanders turned down a 30 % salary increase demanding to be paid $2.5 million , the highest of any NFL TV analyst . He was replaced by Shannon Sharpe . During Sanders ' run , he participated in several sketches . The first was `` Primetime and 21st '' , a mock street corner where Sanders ( not yet a regular panelist ) would give his opinions . Another was his `` Sanders Claus '' persona , one of numerous sketches that involved young kids in football jerseys , representing NFL players , receiving a sarcastic gift from Sanders . Deion actually debuted as `` Sanders Claus '' in a set of Nike commercials . Sanders still takes presents at Christmas time to local children 's hospitals in his area dressed as `` Sanders Claus '' . Sanders as an NFL Network analyst in 2008 . Sanders frequently made guest appearances on ESPN , especially on the ESPN Radio Dallas affiliate , and briefly hosted a show called The New American Sportsman . He also hosted the 2002 Miss USA pageant . Sanders also was co-host of the 2004 GMA Music Awards broadcast , taped in late April 2004 , and slated for air on UPN in May 2004 . When negotiations with fellow Viacom property CBS failed ( see above ) two weeks before the broadcast , and he signed a deal with ESPN , UPN promptly canceled the broadcast , and the show aired on the i Network in December 2004 ( both UPN and CBS are now owned by CBS Corporation ) . Sanders works at NFL Network as an analyst on a number of the network 's shows . Prior to the Sunday night game , Sanders , alongside host Rich Eisen and Steve Mariucci , breaks down all the action from the afternoon games on NFL GameDay . At the conclusion of all the action on Sunday , Sanders , Mariucci , Michael Irvin and host Fran Charles recap the day 's action with highlights , analysis and postgame interviews . For the 2010 season , Sanders joined Eisen , Mariucci and Marshall Faulk on the road for Thursday Night Kickoff presented by Lexus , NFL Network 's two - hour pregame show leading into Thursday Night Football . The group broadcasts live from the stadium two hours prior to all eight live Thursday Night Football games and returns for the Sprint halftime show and Kay Jewelers postgame show . Sanders also has a segment called `` Let 's Go Primetime '' on NFL Network . In 2008 , Sanders and his wife starred in the reality show Deion & Pilar : Prime Time Love , centering on them and their five children living in the small town of Prosper , Texas . Sanders appeared as himself in the fourth season of The League , playing a prospective buyer of Andre 's apartment . In 2014 , Sanders was featured in an episode of Running Wild with Bear Grylls , where he and Grylls hiked in the desert of southern Utah for two days , rappelling down canyon walls and later climbing up a mesa . Sanders served as an alumni captain for Team Sanders in the 2014 Pro Bowl . In 2014 , he rejoined CBS Sports as a studio analyst for Thursday games only . He still works for the NFL Network on Sundays . Sanders and his girlfriend Tracey Edmonds were featured together on an episode of Tiny House Nation that first aired on January 21 , 2017 . Other business and Entertainment ventures ( edit ) In addition to his sports career , Sanders also had a career in music as a rapper . He released his debut album , Prime Time , through Hammer 's Bust It Records label via Capitol Records , in 1994 . Sanders moved on to other ventures after his retirement . In 2003 , Sanders took interest in Devin Hester , a return specialist from Miami . Sanders mentored Hester , counseling and advising him during various points of his collegiate career . The Chicago Bears drafted Hester in the second round of the 2006 NFL Draft . Since then , Hester has broken the record for the most total returns for touchdowns in NFL history with 15 punt returns and 5 kick off returns . Hester has cited Sanders as one of his major inspirations and idols , and thanked him for his training and advice . Hester , also known as `` Anytime '' , occasionally performs Sanders ' signature touchdown dance and high - steps in homage to his mentor . Sanders also tried to adopt a high school running back , Noel Devine , who was one of the top recruits in 2007 . Sanders was advised against this , but responded , `` He does n't have parents ; they died . God put this young man in my heart . This is not about sports . This is about a kid 's life . '' He now mentors Devine , and was a factor in Devine 's extended wait to sign a letter - of - intent to West Virginia University . Devine eventually signed to play football for the Mountaineers . Sanders has also been a mentor to Oakland Raiders wide receiver Michael Crabtree , as well as Dallas Cowboys wide receiver , Dez Bryant . In January 2004 , Sanders was hired as an assistant coach to the Dallas Fury , a women 's professional basketball team in the National Women 's Basketball League , even though Sanders had never played organized basketball either in college or the professional level . On September 2 , 2005 , in response to the after - effects of Hurricane Katrina , Sanders challenged all professional athletes in the four major sports to donate $1,000 each to relief efforts , hoping to raise between $1.5 and $3 million total . Sanders said `` Through unity , we can touch thousands ... I have friends and relatives that feel this pain . Help in any way you can . '' In April 2006 , Sanders became an owner of the Austin Wranglers , an Arena Football League team . Sanders has occasionally served as a celebrity spokesperson , such as representing Monitronics , a security system firm , at an industry conference in the spring of 2010 . In 2012 , he co-founded Prime Prep Academy , a grouping of charter schools in Texas . The school was plagued by ethical , legal and financial issues , and closed on January 30 , 2015 , due to financial insolvency . Discography ( edit ) Year Album Chart Positions US Hip - Hop US Heatseekers 1994 Prime Time 70 14 2005 The Encore Remix - - `` -- '' denotes the album failed to chart or not released Personal life ( edit ) Sanders has been married twice -- to Carolyn Chambers ( 1989 -- 1998 ) , with whom he has two children ( Deion Jr. and Deiondra ) , and Pilar Biggers - Sanders ( 1999 -- 2013 ) with whom he has three children ( Shilo , Shelomi Golenzer and Shedeur ) . Sanders , along with J.M. Black , published his autobiography , Power , Money & Sex : How Success Almost Ruined My Life . World Publishing 1998 . The book was inspired after he began counseling with Bishop T.D. Jakes . He notes his agent Eugene E. Parker as another person who influenced his life . He appeared with his family on the NBC show Celebrity Family Feud which premiered on June 24 , 2008 . On September 22 , 2011 , he served Pilar Biggers - Sanders with divorce papers . He then backed away from the story and denied he and Pilar would be divorcing . By December 17 , 2011 , he had followed through with filing for divorce . On March 12 , 2013 , he was awarded primary custody of his two sons , Shilo and Shedeur , and Pilar was awarded primary custody of their daughter Shelomi . However , one week later , a judge awarded custody of Shelomi to him as well . During the divorce battle , Pilar made several accusations of abuse against him on social media and in interviews , leading him to file a Defamation of Character lawsuit against her . In 2015 , he was vindicated when the court awarded him a $2.2 million judgment against his ex-wife in the case . Sanders is a devout Christian . He has been in a relationship with Tracey Edmonds since 2012 . See also ( edit ) Biography portal National Football League portal Baseball portal List of Major League Baseball annual triples leaders List of athletes who played in Major League Baseball and the National Football League Leon Sandcastle References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Mosier , Jeff ( 2015 - 02 - 08 ) . `` Prime Prep Academy troubles continue after closing '' . Dallasnews.com . Retrieved 2015 - 02 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` Deion Sanders Fired By His Own School , Again '' . ThePostGame . Retrieved February 5 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Deion enough to njoyed ' Prime ' moments on diamond '' . Major League Baseball . Retrieved February 5 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Florida State Football Guide '' . Issuu.com . Retrieved August 16 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` ESPN Classic - Prime Time '' . www.espn.com . Retrieved 2017 - 03 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` Football Flash No Flash In Pan '' . The New York Times . May 18 , 1989 . Retrieved February 5 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` SPORTS PEOPLE -- FOOTBALL -- Sanders N.F.L. Bound -- NYTimes.com '' . The New York Times . April 14 , 1989 . Retrieved February 5 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` SPORTS PEOPLE -- FOOTBALL -- Deion Sanders ' Fed Up ' -- NYTimes.com '' . The New York Times . August 29 , 1989 . Retrieved February 5 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Sanders Dives Into Prime Time as He Makes Yankee Debut '' . The New York Times . June 1 , 1989 . Retrieved February 5 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Yankees , Sanders Have a Parting '' . The New York Times . July 31 , 1990 . Retrieved February 5 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Kass , John . When it comes to heart , truth hurts Sanders . Chicago Tribune . January 30 , 2011 . Retrieved August 11 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Donnelly , Joe . Fisk 's Outburst at Sanders Was One for Yankee Pride . Newsday . May 24 , 1990 . Retrieved August 11 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Forum Clip : `` Carlton Fisk on Deion Sanders '' . The Forum Channel . February 2005 . Retrieved August 11 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Is Sanders Staying ? He 's Puzzled '' . The New York Times . July 18 , 1990 . Retrieved February 5 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Yankees , Sanders Have a Parting '' . The New York Times . July 31 , 1990 . Retrieved February 5 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` BASEBALL -- Deion Sanders Placed On Waivers by Yanks -- NYTimes.com '' . The New York Times . September 25 , 1990 . Retrieved February 5 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` ESPN Classic -- Where Sanders goes , teams win '' . ESPN . Retrieved October 18 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` World Series champ speaks about tomahawks and triple plays '' Archived November 17 , 2008 , at the Wayback Machine. , Western Wheel , August 20 , 2008 Jump up ^ `` Deion 's contract presents major dilemma '' . USA Today . July 27 , 2001 . Jump up ^ `` Houston Chronicle '' . Sanders knows Bo 's woes . Jump up ^ `` Prime 's Time : The True Story of Deion 's Mythical 40 - Yard Dash '' . NFL.com . Retrieved 2017 - 04 - 02 . Jump up ^ Hessler , Warner ( April 23 , 1989 ) . `` NFL General Managers Moan About Another Diluted Draft '' . Daily Press . Retrieved March 1 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` NFL Draft History '' . Football.about.com . June 14 , 2010 . Retrieved October 18 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` October 11 , 1992 National League Championship Series ( NLCS ) Game 5 , Braves at Pirates '' . Baseball-Reference.com . October 11 , 1992 . Retrieved October 18 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Taking Big Hacks In Free Agency Can Produce Foul Balls '' . DallasCowboys.com . March 18 , 2016 . Retrieved March 18 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Cowboys Make Deion Free Man '' . Pittsburgh Post-Gazette . June 3 , 2000 . Retrieved March 18 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` How $100 Million Becomes $62.2 Million '' . The Washington Post . June 2000 . Jump up ^ Brandt , Gil . `` Ten things you did n't know about Deion Sanders '' . NFL . National Football League . Retrieved 28 January 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Deion Sanders HOF Speech '' . Video Entry . Retrieved October 19 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Kallestad , Brent . `` Deion Changes the Rules Again : Pro football : This time , however , it 's for better education of athletes with new standards in Florida . '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved 29 January 2017 . Jump up ^ Trex , Ethan . `` Two Rules Named After Deion Sanders '' . mental_floss . Mental Floss , Inc . Retrieved 29 January 2017 . Jump up ^ `` NFL Videos : 2011 HOF : Deion Sanders '' . Nfl.com . August 6 , 2011 . Retrieved August 16 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Frohman , Jimmy . `` 11 Most Awesome NFL Player Nicknames '' . Phactual . Phactual , LLC . Retrieved 24 January 2017 . Jump up ^ `` CES ProNews Flashes ! '' . GamePro . IDG ( 68 ) : 156 . March 1995 . Jump up ^ Ebony -- Google Books . Books.google.com . October 1990 . Retrieved August 16 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` '' The League '' 12.12. 12 ( TV Episode 2012 ) `` . IMDb . Retrieved February 5 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Running Wild with Bear Grylis -- Deion Sanders '' . NBC . Retrieved 13 July 2015 . Jump up ^ `` 2014 Pro Bowl features new format for NFL all - star game '' . NFL.com . Retrieved September 15 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` Deion Sanders Goes Tiny '' . FYI , . A & E Television Networks , LLC . Retrieved 22 January 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Pilot episode is prime - time '' . Chicago Tribune . Jump up ^ `` Hester wins second straight player of week award '' . Jump up ^ `` Q&A : Devin Hester '' . Chicago Tribune . Jump up ^ `` ESPN.com : Where Sanders goes , teams win '' . Espn.go.com . August 9 , 1967 . Retrieved October 18 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Prime Time joins Wranglers -- ArenaFootball.com -- The Official Web site of the Arena Football League AFL Archived January 17 , 2009 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ The Street . `` Monitronics Welcomes NFL Stars At ISC West '' . Archived from the original on 2012 - 06 - 15 . Jump up ^ `` Deion Sanders Files for Divorce from Wife , Pilar '' . Essence.com . Jump up ^ `` Deion Sanders -- WINS Child Custody War with Estranged Wife Pilar Sanders '' . tmz.com . March 12 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Pilar Sanders In Tears Over Visitation Schedule Of Her Children '' . RumorFix -- The Anti Tabloid . Jump up ^ Gabrielle McMillen . `` Deion Sanders wins $2.2 million in defamation lawsuit against ex-wife '' . Sporting News . Jump up ^ https://www.christianspeakers360.com/speaker/deion-sanders.php Jump up ^ `` Deion Sanders Talks Relationship With Tracey Edmonds : ' Every Night Is A Date Night ' '' . xonecole . xonecole.com . Retrieved 23 January 2017 . External links ( edit ) Wikiquote has quotations related to : Deion Sanders Wikimedia Commons has media related to Deion Sanders . Official website Baltimore Ravens profile ( archived from 2005 ) Career statistics and player information from Baseball - Reference , or Fangraphs , or The Baseball Cube , or Baseball - Reference ( Minors ) Career statistics and player information from Pro-Football - Reference Databasefootball.com Deion Sanders on IMDb Links to related articles 1987 College Football All - America Team consensus selections Offense QB Don McPherson RB Lorenzo White RB Craig Heyward WR Tim Brown WR Wendell Davis TE Keith Jackson OL Mark Hutson OL Dave Cadigan OL John Elliott OL Randall McDaniel C Nacho Albergamo Defense DL Daniel Stubbs DL Chad Hennings DL Tracy Rocker DL Ted Gregory DL John Roper LB Chris Spielman LB Aundray Bruce LB Dante Jones DB Bennie Blades DB Deion Sanders DB Rickey Dixon DB Chuck Cecil Special teams PK David Treadwell P Tom Tupa 1988 College Football All - America Team consensus selections Offense QB Steve Walsh & Troy Aikman RB Barry Sanders RB Anthony Thompson RB Tim Worley WR Jason Phillips WR Hart Lee Dykes TE Marv Cook OL Tony Mandarich OL Anthony Phillips OL Mike Utley OL Mark Stepnoski C Jake Young C John Vitale Defense DL Mark Messner DL Tracy Rocker DL Wayne Martin DL Frank Stams DL Bill Hawkins LB Derrick Thomas LB Broderick Thomas LB Mike Stonebreaker DB Deion Sanders DB Donnell Woolford DB Louis Oliver DB Darryl Henley Special teams PK Kendall Trainor P Keith English Jim Thorpe Award winners 1986 : Everett 1987 : Blades & Dixon 1988 : Sanders 1989 : Carrier 1990 : Lewis 1991 : Buckley 1992 : Figures 1993 : Langham 1994 : Hudson 1995 : Myers 1996 : Wright 1997 : Woodson 1998 : Winfield 1999 : Carter 2000 : Fletcher 2001 : Williams 2002 : Newman 2003 : Strait 2004 : Rogers 2005 : Huff 2006 : Ross 2007 : Cason 2008 : Jenkins 2009 : Berry 2010 : Peterson 2011 : Claiborne 2012 : Banks 2013 : Dennard 2014 : Holliman 2015 : King 2016 : Jackson FWAA 1969 -- 1994 Quarter - century All - America Team Offense : QB John Elway RB Tony Dorsett RB Herschel Walker WR Jerry Rice WR Anthony Carter TE Keith Jackson G John Hannah G Dean Steinkuhler T Jerry Sisemore T Bill Fralic C Dave Rimington Defense : DE Jack Youngblood DE Lee Roy Selmon DT Steve Emtman DT Randy White OLB Hugh Green OLB Lawrence Taylor MLB Mike Singletary CB Deion Sanders CB Jack Tatum SS Kenny Easley FS Ronnie Lott Special Teams P Ray Guy PK Tony Franklin KR Johnny Rodgers 1989 NFL draft first - round selections Troy Aikman Tony Mandarich Barry Sanders Derrick Thomas Deion Sanders Broderick Thomas Tim Worley Burt Grossman Sammie Smith Eric Hill Donnell Woolford Trace Armstrong Eric Metcalf Jeff Lageman Andy Heck Hart Lee Dykes Joe Wolf Brian Williams Wayne Martin Steve Atwater Bill Hawkins Andre Rison David Williams Tom Ricketts Louis Oliver Cleveland Gary Shawn Collins Keith DeLong Atlanta Falcons first - round draft picks Nobis Johnson Humphrey Kunz Small Profit Ellis Bartkowski Bean Bryant Faumuina Kenn D. Smith J. Miller Butler Riggs Pitts Bryan Fralic Casillas Green C. Miller Bruce Sanders Collins Broussard Pickens Pritchard Whitfield T. Smith Kennedy Bush Booker Brooking Kerney Vick Duckett Hall Jenkins White Anderson Ryan Baker Jerry Weatherspoon Jones Trufant Matthews Beasley Neal McKinley Atlanta Falcons 1989 NFL draft selections Deion Sanders Shawn Collins Ralph Norwood Keith Jones Troy Sadowski Undra Johnson Paul Singer Chris Dunn Greg Paterra Tony Bowick San Francisco 49ers Super Bowl XXIX champions 4 Doug Brien 8 Steve Young ( MVP ) 10 Klaus Wilmsmeyer 14 Bill Musgrave 18 Elvis Grbac 20 Derek Loville 21 Deion Sanders 22 Tyronne Drakeford 25 Eric Davis 27 Adam Walker 28 Dana Hall 32 Ricky Watters 33 Dedrick Dodge 35 Dexter Carter 36 Merton Hanks 40 William Floyd 41 Toi Cook 43 Marc Logan 45 Adrian Hardy 46 Tim McDonald 50 Gary Plummer 51 Ken Norton Jr . 53 Tony Peterson 54 Lee Woodall 55 Kevin Mitchell 57 Rickey Jackson 58 Todd Kelly 61 Jesse Sapolu 63 Derrick Deese 64 Ralph Tamm 65 Harry Boatswain 66 Bart Oates 67 Chris Dalman 69 Rod Milstead 71 Charles Mann 72 Mark Thomas 74 Steve Wallace 75 Frank Pollack 77 Brian Bollinger 79 Harris Barton 80 Jerry Rice 81 Ed McCaffrey 82 John Taylor 84 Brent Jones 85 Ted Popson 86 Brett Carolan 88 Nate Singleton 90 Darin Jordan 91 Rhett Hall 92 Troy Wilson 94 Dana Stubblefield 95 Richard Dent 96 Dennis Brown 97 Bryant Young 98 Antonio Goss 99 Tim Harris Head coach : George Seifert Coaches : Dwaine Board Neal Dahlen Tom Holmoe Carl Jackson Larry Kirksey Gary Kubiak Alan Lowry John Marshall Bobb McKittrick Bill McPherson Brian Pariani Bo Pelini Ray Rhodes Mike Shanahan Mike Solari Dallas Cowboys Super Bowl XXX champions 8 Troy Aikman 10 Jon Baker 11 Wade Wilson 17 Jason Garrett 18 Chris Boniol 19 John Jett 20 Sherman Williams 21 Deion Sanders 22 Emmitt Smith 23 Robert Bailey 24 Larry Brown ( MVP ) 25 Scott Case 26 Kevin Smith 27 Greg Tremble 28 Darren Woodson 29 Alundis Brice 31 Brock Marion 36 Dominique Ross 38 David Lang 40 Bill Bates 42 Charlie Williams 43 Greg Briggs 47 Clayton Holmes 48 Daryl Johnston 52 Jim Schwantz 53 Ray Donaldson 54 Darryl Hardy 54 Anthony Fieldings 55 Robert Jones 56 Reggie Barnes 58 Dixon Edwards 59 Darrin Smith 60 Derek Kennard 61 Nate Newton 65 Ron Stone 67 Russell Maryland 68 Michael Batiste 69 George Hegamin 70 Dale Hellestrae 71 Mark Tuinei 73 Larry Allen 78 Leon Lett 79 Erik Williams 81 Ed Hervey 82 Cory Fleming 83 Kendell Watkins 84 Jay Novacek 85 Kevin Williams 86 Eric Bjornson 87 Billy Davis 88 Michael Irvin 90 Oscar Sturgis 91 Darren Benson 92 Tony Tolbert 94 Charles Haley 95 Chad Hennings 96 Shante Carver 98 Godfrey Myles 99 Hurvin McCormack Head coach : Barry Switzer Coaches : Hubbard Alexander Joe Avezzano Craig Boller Joe Brodsky Dave Campo Jim Eddy Robert Ford Steve Hoffman Hudson Houck Ernie Zampese Mike Zimmer Associated Press NFL Defensive Player of the Year Award winners 1971 : Page 1972 : Greene 1973 : Anderson 1974 : Greene 1975 : Blount 1976 : Lambert 1977 : Martin 1978 : Gradishar 1979 : Selmon 1980 : Hayes 1981 : Taylor 1982 : Taylor 1983 : Betters 1984 : Easley 1985 : Singletary 1986 : Taylor 1987 : White 1988 : Singletary 1989 : Millard 1990 : Smith 1991 : Swilling 1992 : Kennedy 1993 : R. Woodson 1994 : D. Sanders 1995 : Paup 1996 : Smith 1997 : Stubblefield 1998 : White 1999 : Sapp 2000 : Lewis 2001 : Strahan 2002 : Brooks 2003 : Lewis 2004 : Reed 2005 : Urlacher 2006 : Taylor 2007 : B. Sanders 2008 : Harrison 2009 : C. Woodson 2010 : Polamalu 2011 : Suggs 2012 : Watt 2013 : Kuechly 2014 : Watt 2015 : Watt 2016 : Mack National Football League NFL 's 1990s All - Decade Team Brett Favre John Elway Barry Sanders Emmitt Smith Terrell Davis Thurman Thomas Cris Carter Jerry Rice Tim Brown Michael Irvin Shannon Sharpe Ben Coates Willie Roaf Gary Zimmerman Tony Boselli Richmond Webb Bruce Matthews Randall McDaniel Larry Allen Steve Wisniewski Dermontti Dawson Mark Stepnoski Bruce Smith Reggie White Chris Doleman Neil Smith Cortez Kennedy John Randle Warren Sapp Bryant Young Kevin Greene Junior Seau Derrick Thomas Cornelius Bennett Hardy Nickerson Levon Kirkland Deion Sanders Rod Woodson Darrell Green Aeneas Williams Steve Atwater LeRoy Butler Carnell Lake Ronnie Lott Darren Bennett Sean Landeta Morten Andersen Gary Anderson Mel Gray Michael Bates Bill Parcells Marv Levy NFL Network On - air talent Current Kay Adams Brian Baldinger Judy Battista Brian Billick Tiffany Blackmon Kyle Brandt Albert Breer Bucky Brooks Nate Burleson Charley Casserly Erin Coscarelli Stacey Dales Dave Dameshek Charles Davis Terrell Davis Jamie Dukes Rich Eisen Heath Evans Michael Fabiano Marshall Faulk Alex Flanagan Jay Glazer Rebecca Haarlow Scott Hanson Elliot Harrison Michael Irvin Daniel Jeremiah Kimberly Jones Aditi Kinkhabwala Andrea Kremer Rhett Lewis Steve Mariucci Mike Mayock Willie McGinest Randy Moss Adam Rank Ian Rapoport Lindsay Rhodes Deion Sanders Peter Schrager Sterling Sharpe Andrew Siciliano Jane Slater Jason Smith Matt Smith Melissa Stark Amber Theoharis Kurt Warner Solomon Wilcots Ari Wolfe Cole Wright Steve Wyche Former Jennifer Allen Marcus Allen Bobby Beathard Michelle Beisner Paul Burmeister Fran Charles Jeff Darlington Butch Davis Spero Dedes Dennis Green Kara Henderson Derrin Horton Seth Joyner Lincoln Kennedy Jason La Canfora Michael Lombardi Mike Martz Jim E. 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Manchester United F.C. - Wikipedia Manchester United F.C. Jump to : navigation , search `` MUFC '' and `` Manchester United '' redirect here . For other uses , see MUFC ( disambiguation ) . For the basketball team , see Manchester Eagles . Not to be confused with F.C. United of Manchester . Manchester United Full name Manchester United Football Club Nickname ( s ) The Red Devils Short name MUFC Founded 1878 ; 140 years ago ( 1878 ) , as Newton Heath LYR F.C. 1902 ; 116 years ago ( 1902 ) , as Manchester United F.C. Ground Old Trafford Ground Capacity 74,994 Owner Manchester United plc ( NYSE : MANU ) Co-chairmen Joel and Avram Glazer Manager José Mourinho League Premier League 2016 -- 17 Premier League , 6th of 20 Website Club website Home colours Away colours Third colours Current season Manchester United Football Club is a professional football club based in Old Trafford , Greater Manchester , England , that competes in the Premier League , the top flight of English football . Nicknamed `` the Red Devils '' , the club was founded as Newton Heath LYR Football Club in 1878 , changed its name to Manchester United in 1902 and moved to its current stadium , Old Trafford , in 1910 . Manchester United have won a record 20 League titles , 12 FA Cups , 5 League Cups and a record 21 FA Community Shields . The club has also won three UEFA Champions Leagues , one UEFA Europa League , one UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup , one UEFA Super Cup , one Intercontinental Cup and one FIFA Club World Cup . In 1998 -- 99 , the club became the first in the history of English football to achieve the treble of the Premier League , the FA Cup and the UEFA Champions League . In 2016 -- 17 , by winning the UEFA Europa League , they became one of five clubs to have won all three main UEFA club competitions . In addition , they became the only professional English club to have won every ongoing honour available to the first team that is organised by a national or international governing body . The 1958 Munich air disaster claimed the lives of eight players . In 1968 , under the management of Matt Busby , Manchester United became the first English football club to win the European Cup . Alex Ferguson won 38 trophies as manager , including 13 Premier League titles , 5 FA Cups and 2 UEFA Champions Leagues , between 1986 and 2013 , when he announced his retirement . José Mourinho is the club 's current manager , having been appointed on 27 May 2016 . Manchester United was the highest - earning football club in the world for 2016 -- 17 , with an annual revenue of € 676.3 million , and the world 's most valuable football club in 2017 , valued at £ 2.86 billion . As of June 2015 , it is the world 's most valuable football brand , estimated to be worth $1.2 billion . After being floated on the London Stock Exchange in 1991 , the club was purchased by Malcolm Glazer in May 2005 in a deal valuing the club at almost £ 800 million , after which the company was taken private again , before going public once more in August 2012 , when they made an initial public offering on the New York Stock Exchange . Manchester United is one of the most widely supported football clubs in the world , and has its strongest rivalries with Liverpool , Manchester City and Leeds United . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 1.1 Early years ( 1878 -- 1945 ) 1.2 Busby years ( 1945 -- 1969 ) 1.3 1969 -- 1986 1.4 Ferguson years ( 1986 -- 2013 ) 1.5 2013 -- present 2 Crest and colours 2.1 Kit evolution 3 Grounds 4 Support 4.1 Rivalries 5 Global brand 5.1 Sponsorship 6 Ownership and finances 7 Players 7.1 First - team squad 7.1. 1 Out on loan 7.2 Reserves and academy 7.3 Former players 7.4 Club captains 7.5 Player records 7.6 Sir Matt Busby Player of the Year 8 Club officials 8.1 Managerial history 9 Honours 9.1 Domestic 9.1. 1 League 9.1. 2 Cups 9.2 European 9.3 Worldwide 9.4 Doubles and Trebles 10 See also 11 Footnotes 12 References 13 Further reading 14 External links History Early years ( 1878 -- 1945 ) Main article : History of Manchester United F.C. ( 1878 -- 1945 ) A chart showing the progress of Manchester United through the English football league system from joining as Newton Heath in 1892 -- 93 to the present Manchester United was formed in 1878 as Newton Heath LYR Football Club by the Carriage and Wagon department of the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway ( LYR ) depot at Newton Heath . The team initially played games against other departments and railway companies , but on 20 November 1880 , they competed in their first recorded match ; wearing the colours of the railway company -- green and gold -- they were defeated 6 -- 0 by Bolton Wanderers ' reserve team . By 1888 , the club had become a founding member of The Combination , a regional football league . Following the league 's dissolution after only one season , Newton Heath joined the newly formed Football Alliance , which ran for three seasons before being merged with the Football League . This resulted in the club starting the 1892 -- 93 season in the First Division , by which time it had become independent of the railway company and dropped the `` LYR '' from its name . After two seasons , the club was relegated to the Second Division . The Manchester United team at the start of the 1905 -- 06 season , in which they were runners - up in the Second Division In January 1902 , with debts of £ 2,670 -- equivalent to £ 270,000 in 2018 -- the club was served with a winding - up order . Captain Harry Stafford found four local businessmen , including John Henry Davies ( who became club president ) , each willing to invest £ 500 in return for a direct interest in running the club and who subsequently changed the name ; on 24 April 1902 , Manchester United was officially born . Under Ernest Mangnall , who assumed managerial duties in 1903 , the team finished as Second Division runners - up in 1906 and secured promotion to the First Division , which they won in 1908 -- the club 's first league title . The following season began with victory in the first ever Charity Shield and ended with the club 's first FA Cup title . Manchester United won the First Division for the second time in 1911 , but at the end of the following season , Mangnall left the club to join Manchester City . In 1922 , three years after the resumption of football following the First World War , the club was relegated to the Second Division , where it remained until regaining promotion in 1925 . Relegated again in 1931 , Manchester United became a yo - yo club , achieving its all - time lowest position of 20th place in the Second Division in 1934 . Following the death of principal benefactor John Henry Davies in October 1927 , the club 's finances deteriorated to the extent that Manchester United would likely have gone bankrupt had it not been for James W. Gibson , who , in December 1931 , invested £ 2,000 and assumed control of the club . In the 1938 -- 39 season , the last year of football before the Second World War , the club finished 14th in the First Division . Busby years ( 1945 -- 1969 ) Main article : History of Manchester United F.C. ( 1945 -- 1969 ) The Busby Babes in Denmark in 1955 In October 1945 , the impending resumption of football led to the managerial appointment of Matt Busby , who demanded an unprecedented level of control over team selection , player transfers and training sessions . Busby led the team to second - place league finishes in 1947 , 1948 and 1949 , and to FA Cup victory in 1948 . In 1952 , the club won the First Division , its first league title for 41 years . With an average age of 22 , the back - to - back title winning side of 1956 were labelled `` the Busby Babes '' by the media , a testament to Busby 's faith in his youth players . In 1957 , Manchester United became the first English team to compete in the European Cup , despite objections from The Football League , who had denied Chelsea the same opportunity the previous season . En route to the semi-final , which they lost to Real Madrid , the team recorded a 10 -- 0 victory over Belgian champions Anderlecht , which remains the club 's biggest victory on record . A plaque at Old Trafford in memory of those who died in the Munich air disaster , including players ' names The following season , on the way home from a European Cup quarter - final victory against Red Star Belgrade , the aircraft carrying the Manchester United players , officials and journalists crashed while attempting to take off after refuelling in Munich , Germany . The Munich air disaster of 6 February 1958 claimed 23 lives , including those of eight players -- Geoff Bent , Roger Byrne , Eddie Colman , Duncan Edwards , Mark Jones , David Pegg , Tommy Taylor and Billy Whelan -- and injured several more . Manchester United ( 1963 ) Assistant manager Jimmy Murphy took over as manager while Busby recovered from his injuries and the club 's makeshift side reached the FA Cup final , which they lost to Bolton Wanderers . In recognition of the team 's tragedy , UEFA invited the club to compete in the 1958 -- 59 European Cup alongside eventual League champions Wolverhampton Wanderers . Despite approval from the FA , the Football League determined that the club should not enter the competition , since it had not qualified . Busby rebuilt the team through the 1960s by signing players such as Denis Law and Pat Crerand , who combined with the next generation of youth players -- including George Best -- to win the FA Cup in 1963 . The following season , they finished second in the league , then won the title in 1965 and 1967 . In 1968 , Manchester United became the first English ( and second British ) club to win the European Cup , beating Benfica 4 -- 1 in the final with a team that contained three European Footballers of the Year : Bobby Charlton , Denis Law and George Best . Matt Busby resigned as manager in 1969 and was replaced by the reserve team coach , former Manchester United player Wilf McGuinness . 1969 -- 1986 Main article : History of Manchester United F.C. ( 1969 -- 1986 ) Bryan Robson was the captain of Manchester United for 12 years , longer than any other player . Following an eighth - place finish in the 1969 -- 70 season and a poor start to the 1970 -- 71 season , Busby was persuaded to temporarily resume managerial duties , and McGuinness returned to his position as reserve team coach . In June 1971 , Frank O'Farrell was appointed as manager , but lasted less than 18 months before being replaced by Tommy Docherty in December 1972 . Docherty saved Manchester United from relegation that season , only to see them relegated in 1974 ; by that time the trio of Best , Law , and Charlton had left the club . The team won promotion at the first attempt and reached the FA Cup final in 1976 , but were beaten by Southampton . They reached the final again in 1977 , beating Liverpool 2 -- 1 . Docherty was dismissed shortly afterwards , following the revelation of his affair with the club physiotherapist 's wife . Dave Sexton replaced Docherty as manager in the summer of 1977 . Despite major signings , including Joe Jordan , Gordon McQueen , Gary Bailey , and Ray Wilkins , the team failed to achieve any significant results ; they finished in the top two in 1979 -- 80 and lost to Arsenal in the 1979 FA Cup Final . Sexton was dismissed in 1981 , even though the team won the last seven games under his direction . He was replaced by Ron Atkinson , who immediately broke the British record transfer fee to sign Bryan Robson from West Bromwich Albion . Under Atkinson , Manchester United won the FA Cup twice in three years -- in 1983 and 1985 . In 1985 -- 86 , after 13 wins and two draws in its first 15 matches , the club was favourite to win the league , but finished in fourth place . The following season , with the club in danger of relegation by November , Atkinson was dismissed . Ferguson years ( 1986 -- 2013 ) Main article : History of Manchester United F.C. ( 1986 -- 2013 ) Alex Ferguson managed the team between 1986 and 2013 . Alex Ferguson and his assistant Archie Knox arrived from Aberdeen on the day of Atkinson 's dismissal , and guided the club to an 11th - place finish in the league . Despite a second - place finish in 1987 -- 88 , the club was back in 11th place the following season . Reportedly on the verge of being dismissed , victory over Crystal Palace in the 1990 FA Cup Final replay ( after a 3 -- 3 draw ) saved Ferguson 's career . The following season , Manchester United claimed its first Cup Winners ' Cup title and competed in the 1991 UEFA Super Cup , beating European Cup holders Red Star Belgrade 1 -- 0 in the final at Old Trafford . A second consecutive League Cup final appearance followed in 1992 , in which the team beat Nottingham Forest 1 -- 0 at Wembley . In 1993 , the club won its first league title since 1967 , and a year later , for the first time since 1957 , it won a second consecutive title -- alongside the FA Cup -- to complete the first `` Double '' in the club 's history . Ryan Giggs is the most decorated player in English football history . In the 1998 -- 99 season , Manchester United became the first team to win the Premier League , FA Cup and UEFA Champions League -- `` The Treble '' -- in the same season . Losing 1 -- 0 going into injury time in the 1999 UEFA Champions League Final , Teddy Sheringham and Ole Gunnar Solskjær scored late goals to claim a dramatic victory over Bayern Munich , in what is considered one of the greatest comebacks of all time . The club also won the Intercontinental Cup after beating Palmeiras 1 -- 0 in Tokyo . Ferguson was subsequently knighted for his services to football . Manchester United won the league again in the 1999 -- 2000 and 2000 -- 01 seasons . The team finished third in 2001 -- 02 , before regaining the title in 2002 -- 03 . They won the 2003 -- 04 FA Cup , beating Millwall 3 -- 0 in the final at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff to lift the trophy for a record 11th time . In the 2005 -- 06 season , Manchester United failed to qualify for the knockout phase of the UEFA Champions League for the first time in over a decade , but recovered to secure a second - place league finish and victory over Wigan Athletic in the 2006 Football League Cup Final . The club regained the Premier League in the 2006 -- 07 and 2007 -- 08 seasons , and completed the European double by beating Chelsea 6 -- 5 on penalties in the 2008 UEFA Champions League Final in Moscow 's Luzhniki Stadium . Ryan Giggs made a record 759th appearance for the club in this game , overtaking previous record holder Bobby Charlton . In December 2008 , the club won the 2008 FIFA Club World Cup and followed this with the 2008 -- 09 Football League Cup , and its third successive Premier League title . That summer , Cristiano Ronaldo was sold to Real Madrid for a world record £ 80 million . In 2010 , Manchester United defeated Aston Villa 2 -- 1 at Wembley to retain the League Cup , its first successful defence of a knockout cup competition . After finishing as runner - up to Chelsea in the 2009 -- 10 season , United achieved a record 19th league title in 2010 -- 11 , securing the championship with a 1 -- 1 away draw against Blackburn Rovers on 14 May 2011 . This was extended to 20 league titles in 2012 -- 13 , securing the championship with a 3 -- 0 home win against Aston Villa on 22 April 2013 . 2013 -- Present On 8 May 2013 , Ferguson announced that he was to retire as manager at the end of the football season , but would remain at the club as a director and club ambassador . The club announced the next day that Everton manager David Moyes would replace him from 1 July , having signed a six - year contract . Ryan Giggs took over as interim player - manager 10 months later , on 22 April 2014 , when Moyes was sacked after a poor season in which the club failed to defend their Premier League title and failed to qualify for the UEFA Champions League for the first time since 1995 -- 96 . They also failed to qualify for the Europa League , meaning that it was the first time Manchester United had n't qualified for a European competition since 1990 . On 19 May 2014 , it was confirmed that Louis van Gaal would replace Moyes as Manchester United manager on a three - year deal , with Giggs as his assistant . Malcolm Glazer , the patriarch of the Glazer family that owns the club , died on 28 May 2014 . Although Van Gaal 's first season saw United once again qualify for the Champions League through a fourth - place finish in the Premier League , his second season saw United go out of the same tournament in the group stage . United also fell behind in the title race for the third consecutive season , finishing in 5th place , in spite of several expensive signings during Van Gaal 's tenure . However , that same season , Manchester United won the FA Cup for a 12th time . Despite this victory , Van Gaal was sacked as manager just two days later , with José Mourinho appointed in his place on 27 May , signing a three - year contract . That season , United finished in sixth place while winning the EFL Cup for the fifth time and the Europa League for the first time , as well as the FA Community Shield for a record 21st time . Wayne Rooney scored his 250th goal with United , surpassing Sir Bobby Charlton as United 's all - time top scorer , before leaving the club at the end of the season to return to Everton . Crest and colours Manchester United badge in the 1960s The club crest is derived from the Manchester City Council coat of arms , although all that remains of it on the current crest is the ship in full sail . The devil stems from the club 's nickname `` The Red Devils '' ; it was included on club programmes and scarves in the 1960s , and incorporated into the club crest in 1970 , although the crest was not included on the chest of the shirt until 1971 . Newton Heath 's uniform in 1879 , four years before the club played its first competitive match , has been documented as ' white with blue cord ' . A photograph of the Newton Heath team , taken in 1892 , is believed to show the players wearing red - and - white quartered jerseys and navy blue knickerbockers . Between 1894 -- 96 , the players wore distinctive green and gold jerseys which were replaced in 1896 by white shirts , which were worn with navy blue shorts . After the name change in 1902 , the club colours were changed to red shirts , white shorts , and black socks , which has become the standard Manchester United home kit . Very few changes were made to the kit until 1922 when the club adopted white shirts bearing a deep red `` V '' around the neck , similar to the shirt worn in the 1909 FA Cup Final . They remained part of their home kits until 1927 . For a period in 1934 , the cherry and white hooped change shirt became the home colours , but the following season the red shirt was recalled after the club 's lowest ever league placing of 20th in the Second Division and the hooped shirt dropped back to being the change . The black socks were changed to white from 1959 to 1965 , where they were replaced with red socks up until 1971 , when the club reverted to black . Black shorts and / or white socks are sometimes worn with the home strip , most often in away games , if there is a clash with the opponent 's kit . Since 1997 -- 98 , white socks have been the preferred choice for European games , which are typically played on weeknights , to aid with player visibility . The current home kit is a red Henley shirt , with black - and - white - banded cuffs and the trademark Adidas three stripes in white across the shoulders . The Manchester United away strip has often been a white shirt , black shorts and white socks , but there have been several exceptions . These include an all - black strip with blue and gold trimmings between 1993 and 1995 , the navy blue shirt with silver horizontal pinstripes worn during the 1999 -- 2000 season , and the 2011 -- 12 away kit , which had a royal blue body and sleeves with hoops made of small midnight navy blue and black stripes , with black shorts and blue socks . An all - grey away kit worn during the 1995 -- 96 season was dropped after just five games , most notoriously against Southampton where Alex Ferguson forced the team to change into the third kit during half - time of its final outing . The reason for dropping it being that the players claimed to have trouble finding their teammates against the crowd , United failed to win a competitive game in the kit . In 2001 , to celebrate 100 years as `` Manchester United '' , a reversible white / gold away kit was released , although the actual match day shirts were not reversible . The club 's third kit is often all - blue , this was most recently the case during the 2014 -- 15 season . Exceptions include a green - and - gold halved shirt worn between 1992 and 1994 , a blue - and - white striped shirt worn during the 1994 -- 95 and 1995 -- 96 seasons and once in 1996 -- 97 , an all - black kit worn during the Treble - winning 1998 -- 99 season , and a white shirt with black - and - red horizontal pinstripes worn between 2003 -- 04 and 2005 -- 06 . From 2006 -- 07 to 2013 -- 14 , the third kit was the previous season 's away kit , albeit updated with the new club sponsor in 2006 -- 07 and 2010 -- 11 , apart from 2008 -- 09 when an all - blue kit was launch to mark the 40th anniversary of the 1967 -- 68 European Cup success . Kit evolution 1879 -- 1880 , 1896 -- 1902 1880 -- 1887 1887 -- 1893 1893 -- 1894 1894 -- 1896 1902 -- 1920 , 1921 -- 1922 , 1927 -- 1934 , 1934 -- 1960 , 1971 -- present 1920 -- 1921 , 1963 -- 1971 1922 -- 1927 1934 1960 -- 1963 ( 1997 -- present ) Notes ^ Since 1997 this combination is primarily used in domestic competitions and friendlies . ^ Since 1997 this combination is primarily used in European and international competitions . Grounds Old Trafford after its expansion completed in 2006 Newton Heath initially played on a field on North Road , close to the railway yard ; the original capacity was about 12,000 , but club officials deemed the facilities inadequate for a club hoping to join The Football League . Some expansion took place in 1887 , and in 1891 , Newton Heath used its minimal financial reserves to purchase two grandstands , each able to hold 1,000 spectators . Although attendances were not recorded for many of the earliest matches at North Road , the highest documented attendance was approximately 15,000 for a First Division match against Sunderland on 4 March 1893 . A similar attendance was also recorded for a friendly match against Gorton Villa on 5 September 1889 . In June 1893 , after the club was evicted from North Road by its owners , Manchester Deans and Canons , who felt it was inappropriate for the club to charge an entry fee to the ground , secretary A.H. Albut procured the use of the Bank Street ground in Clayton . It initially had no stands , by the start of the 1893 -- 94 season , two had been built ; one spanning the full length of the pitch on one side and the other behind the goal at the `` Bradford end '' . At the opposite end , the `` Clayton end '' , the ground had been `` built up , thousands thus being provided for '' . Newton Heath 's first league match at Bank Street was played against Burnley on 1 September 1893 , when 10,000 people saw Alf Farman score a hat - trick , Newton Heath 's only goals in a 3 -- 2 win . The remaining stands were completed for the following league game against Nottingham Forest three weeks later . In October 1895 , before the visit of Manchester City , the club purchased a 2,000 - capacity stand from the Broughton Rangers rugby league club , and put up another stand on the `` reserved side '' ( as distinct from the `` popular side '' ) . However , weather restricted the attendance for the Manchester City match to just 12,000 . When the Bank Street ground was temporarily closed by bailiffs in 1902 , club captain Harry Stafford raised enough money to pay for the club 's next away game at Bristol City and found a temporary ground at Harpurhey for the next reserves game against Padiham . Following financial investment , new club president John Henry Davies paid £ 500 for the erection of a new 1,000 - seat stand at Bank Street . Within four years , the stadium had cover on all four sides , as well as the ability to hold approximately 50,000 spectators , some of whom could watch from the viewing gallery atop the Main Stand . However , following Manchester United 's first league title in 1908 and the FA Cup a year later , it was decided that Bank Street was too restrictive for Davies ' ambition ; in February 1909 , six weeks before the club 's first FA Cup title , Old Trafford was named as the home of Manchester United , following the purchase of land for around £ 60,000 . Architect Archibald Leitch was given a budget of £ 30,000 for construction ; original plans called for seating capacity of 100,000 , though budget constraints forced a revision to 77,000 . The building was constructed by Messrs Brameld and Smith of Manchester . The stadium 's record attendance was registered on 25 March 1939 , when an FA Cup semi-final between Wolverhampton Wanderers and Grimsby Town drew 76,962 spectators . Bombing in the Second World War destroyed much of the stadium ; the central tunnel in the South Stand was all that remained of that quarter . After the war , the club received compensation from the War Damage Commission in the amount of £ 22,278 . While reconstruction took place , the team played its `` home '' games at Manchester City 's Maine Road ground ; Manchester United was charged £ 5,000 per year , plus a nominal percentage of gate receipts . Later improvements included the addition of roofs , first to the Stretford End and then to the North and East Stands . The roofs were supported by pillars that obstructed many fans ' views , and they were eventually replaced with a cantilevered structure . The Stretford End was the last stand to receive a cantilevered roof , completed in time for the 1993 -- 94 season . First used on 25 March 1957 and costing £ 40,000 , four 180 - foot ( 55 m ) pylons were erected , each housing 54 individual floodlights . These were dismantled in 1987 and replaced by a lighting system embedded in the roof of each stand , which remains in use today . The Taylor Report 's requirement for an all - seater stadium lowered capacity at Old Trafford to around 44,000 by 1993 . In 1995 , the North Stand was redeveloped into three tiers , restoring capacity to approximately 55,000 . At the end of the 1998 -- 99 season , second tiers were added to the East and West Stands , raising capacity to around 67,000 , and between July 2005 and May 2006 , 8,000 more seats were added via second tiers in the north - west and north - east quadrants . Part of the new seating was used for the first time on 26 March 2006 , when an attendance of 69,070 became a new Premier League record . The record was pushed steadily upwards before reaching its peak on 31 March 2007 , when 76,098 spectators saw Manchester United beat Blackburn Rovers 4 -- 1 , with just 114 seats ( 0.15 per cent of the total capacity of 76,212 ) unoccupied . In 2009 , reorganisation of the seating resulted in a reduction of capacity by 255 to 75,957 . Manchester United has the second highest average attendance of European football clubs only behind Borussia Dortmund . Support Manchester United is one of the most popular football clubs in the world , with one of the highest average home attendance in Europe . The club states that its worldwide fan base includes more than 200 officially recognised branches of the Manchester United Supporters Club ( MUSC ) , in at least 24 countries . The club takes advantage of this support through its worldwide summer tours . Accountancy firm and sports industry consultants Deloitte estimate that Manchester United has 75 million fans worldwide , while other estimates put this figure closer to 333 million . The club has the third highest social media following in the world among sports teams ( after Barcelona and Real Madrid ) , with over 71 million Facebook fans as of September 2016 . A 2014 study showed that Manchester United had the loudest fans in the Premier League . Supporters are represented by two independent bodies ; the Independent Manchester United Supporters ' Association ( IMUSA ) , which maintains close links to the club through the MUFC Fans Forum , and the Manchester United Supporters ' Trust ( MUST ) . After the Glazer family 's takeover in 2005 , a group of fans formed a splinter club , F.C. United of Manchester . The West Stand of Old Trafford -- the `` Stretford End '' -- is the home end and the traditional source of the club 's most vocal support . Rivalries Main articles : Arsenal F.C. -- Manchester United F.C. rivalry , Manchester derby , Liverpool F.C. -- Manchester United F.C. rivalry , and Leeds United F.C. -- Manchester United F.C. rivalry Manchester United has rivalries with Arsenal , Leeds United , Liverpool , and Manchester City , against whom they contest the Manchester derby . The rivalry with Liverpool is rooted in competition between the cities during the Industrial Revolution when Manchester was famous for its textile industry while Liverpool was a major port . Manchester United and Liverpool are also the two most successful teams in England and , at many points in their history , they have battled each other for the league title ( most recently in the 2008 -- 09 season ) . Their matches are usually considered by the players and their fans as the biggest in any given season . The `` Roses Rivalry '' with Leeds stems from the Wars of the Roses , fought between the House of Lancaster and the House of York , with Manchester United representing Lancashire and Leeds representing Yorkshire . The rivalry with Arsenal arises from the numerous times the two teams , as well as managers Alex Ferguson and Arsène Wenger , have battled for the Premier League title . With 33 titles between them ( 20 for Manchester United , 13 for Arsenal ) this fixture has become known as one of the finest Premier League match - ups in history . Global brand Aeroflot is an official carrier of the club . Manchester United has been described as a global brand ; a 2011 report by Brand Finance , valued the club 's trademarks and associated intellectual property at £ 412 million -- an increase of £ 39 million on the previous year , valuing it at £ 11 million more than the second best brand , Real Madrid -- and gave the brand a strength rating of AAA ( Extremely Strong ) . In July 2012 , Manchester United was ranked first by Forbes magazine in its list of the ten most valuable sports team brands , valuing the Manchester United brand at $2.23 billion . The club is ranked third in the Deloitte Football Money League ( behind Real Madrid and Barcelona ) . In January 2013 , the club became the first sports team in the world to be valued at $3 billion . Forbes Magazine valued the club at $3.3 billion -- $1.2 billion higher than the next most valuable sports team . They were overtaken by Real Madrid for the next four years , but Manchester United returned to the top of the Forbes list in June 2017 , with a valuation of $3.689 billion . The core strength of Manchester United 's global brand is often attributed to Matt Busby 's rebuilding of the team and subsequent success following the Munich air disaster , which drew worldwide acclaim . The `` iconic '' team included Bobby Charlton and Nobby Stiles ( members of England 's World Cup winning team ) , Denis Law and George Best . The attacking style of play adopted by this team ( in contrast to the defensive - minded `` catenaccio '' approach favoured by the leading Italian teams of the era ) `` captured the imagination of the English footballing public '' . Busby 's team also became associated with the liberalisation of Western society during the 1960s ; George Best , known as the `` Fifth Beatle '' for his iconic haircut , was the first footballer to significantly develop an off - the - field media profile . As the second English football club to float on the London Stock Exchange in 1991 , the club raised significant capital , with which it further developed its commercial strategy . The club 's focus on commercial and sporting success brought significant profits in an industry often characterised by chronic losses . The strength of the Manchester United brand was bolstered by intense off - the - field media attention to individual players , most notably David Beckham ( who quickly developed his own global brand ) . This attention often generates greater interest in on - the - field activities , and hence generates sponsorship opportunities -- the value of which is driven by television exposure . During his time with the club , Beckham 's popularity across Asia was integral to the club 's commercial success in that part of the world . Because higher league placement results in a greater share of television rights , success on the field generates greater income for the club . Since the inception of the Premier League , Manchester United has received the largest share of the revenue generated from the BSkyB broadcasting deal . Manchester United has also consistently enjoyed the highest commercial income of any English club ; in 2005 -- 06 , the club 's commercial arm generated £ 51 million , compared to £ 42.5 million at Chelsea , £ 39.3 million at Liverpool , £ 34 million at Arsenal and £ 27.9 million at Newcastle United . A key sponsorship relationship was with sportswear company Nike , who managed the club 's merchandising operation as part of a £ 303 million 13 - year partnership between 2002 and 2015 . Through Manchester United Finance and the club 's membership scheme , One United , those with an affinity for the club can purchase a range of branded goods and services . Additionally , Manchester United - branded media services -- such as the club 's dedicated television channel , MUTV -- have allowed the club to expand its fan base to those beyond the reach of its Old Trafford stadium . Sponsorship Period Kit manufacturer Shirt sponsor 1945 -- 1975 Umbro -- 1975 -- 1980 Admiral 1980 -- 1982 Adidas 1982 -- 1992 Sharp Electronics 1992 -- 2000 Umbro 2000 -- 2002 Vodafone 2002 -- 2006 Nike 2006 -- 2010 AIG 2010 -- 2014 Aon 2014 -- 2015 Chevrolet 2015 -- Adidas In an initial five - year deal worth £ 500,000 , Sharp Electronics became the club 's first shirt sponsor at the beginning of the 1982 -- 83 season , a relationship that lasted until the end of the 1999 -- 2000 season , when Vodafone agreed a four - year , £ 30 million deal . Vodafone agreed to pay £ 36 million to extend the deal by four years , but after two seasons triggered a break clause in order to concentrate on its sponsorship of the Champions League . To commence at the start of the 2006 -- 07 season , American insurance corporation AIG agreed a four - year £ 56.5 million deal which in September 2006 became the most valuable in the world . At the beginning of the 2010 -- 11 season , American reinsurance company Aon became the club 's principal sponsor in a four - year deal reputed to be worth approximately £ 80 million , making it the most lucrative shirt sponsorship deal in football history . Manchester United announced their first training kit sponsor in August 2011 , agreeing a four - year deal with DHL reported to be worth £ 40 million ; it is believed to be the first instance of training kit sponsorship in English football . The DHL contract lasted for over a year before the club bought back the contract in October 2012 , although they remained the club 's official logistics partner . The contract for the training kit sponsorship was then sold to Aon in April 2013 for a deal worth £ 180 million over eight years , which also included purchasing the naming rights for the Trafford Training Centre . The club 's first kit manufacturer was Umbro , until a five - year deal was agreed with Admiral Sportswear in 1975 . Adidas received the contract in 1980 , before Umbro started a second spell in 1992 . Umbro 's sponsorship lasted for ten years , followed by Nike 's record - breaking £ 302.9 million deal that lasted until 2015 ; 3.8 million replica shirts were sold in the first 22 months with the company . In addition to Nike and Chevrolet , the club also has several lower - level `` platinum '' sponsors , including Aon and Budweiser . On 30 July 2012 , United signed a seven - year deal with American automotive corporation General Motors , which replaced Aon as the shirt sponsor from the 2014 -- 15 season . The new $80 m-a - year shirt deal is worth $559 m over seven years and features the logo of General Motors brand Chevrolet . Nike announced that they would not renew their kit supply deal with Manchester United after the 2014 -- 15 season , citing rising costs . Since the start of the 2015 -- 16 season , Adidas has manufactured Manchester United 's kit as part of a world - record 10 - year deal worth a minimum of £ 750 million . Ownership and finances See also : Glazer ownership of Manchester United Originally funded by the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway Company , the club became a limited company in 1892 and sold shares to local supporters for £ 1 via an application form . In 1902 , majority ownership passed to the four local businessmen who invested £ 500 to save the club from bankruptcy , including future club president John Henry Davies . After his death in 1927 , the club faced bankruptcy yet again , but was saved in December 1931 by James W. Gibson , who assumed control of the club after an investment of £ 2,000 . Gibson promoted his son , Alan , to the board in 1948 , but died three years later ; the Gibson family retained ownership of the club through James ' wife , Lillian , but the position of chairman passed to former player Harold Hardman . Promoted to the board a few days after the Munich air disaster , Louis Edwards , a friend of Matt Busby , began acquiring shares in the club ; for an investment of approximately £ 40,000 , he accumulated a 54 per cent shareholding and took control in January 1964 . When Lillian Gibson died in January 1971 , her shares passed to Alan Gibson who sold a percentage of his shares to Louis Edwards ' son , Martin , in 1978 ; Martin Edwards went on to become chairman upon his father 's death in 1980 . Media tycoon Robert Maxwell attempted to buy the club in 1984 , but did not meet Edwards ' asking price . In 1989 , chairman Martin Edwards attempted to sell the club to Michael Knighton for £ 20 million , but the sale fell through and Knighton joined the board of directors instead . Manchester United was floated on the stock market in June 1991 ( raising £ 6.7 million ) , and received yet another takeover bid in 1998 , this time from Rupert Murdoch 's British Sky Broadcasting Corporation . This resulted in the formation of Shareholders United Against Murdoch -- now the Manchester United Supporters ' Trust -- who encouraged supporters to buy shares in the club in an attempt to block any hostile takeover . The Manchester United board accepted a £ 623 million offer , but the takeover was blocked by the Monopolies and Mergers Commission at the final hurdle in April 1999 . A few years later , a power struggle emerged between the club 's manager , Alex Ferguson , and his horse - racing partners , John Magnier and J.P. McManus , who had gradually become the majority shareholders . In a dispute that stemmed from contested ownership of the horse Rock of Gibraltar , Magnier and McManus attempted to have Ferguson removed from his position as manager , and the board responded by approaching investors to attempt to reduce the Irishmen 's majority . In May 2005 , Malcolm Glazer purchased the 28.7 per cent stake held by McManus and Magnier , thus acquiring a controlling interest through his investment vehicle Red Football Ltd in a highly leveraged takeover valuing the club at approximately £ 800 million ( then approx . $1.5 billion ) . Once the purchase was complete , the club was taken off the stock exchange . In July 2006 , the club announced a £ 660 million debt refinancing package , resulting in a 30 per cent reduction in annual interest payments to £ 62 million a year . In January 2010 , with debts of £ 716.5 million ( $1.17 billion ) , Manchester United further refinanced through a bond issue worth £ 504 million , enabling them to pay off most of the £ 509 million owed to international banks . The annual interest payable on the bonds -- which mature on 1 February 2017 -- is approximately £ 45 million per annum . Despite restructuring , the club 's debt prompted protests from fans on 23 January 2010 , at Old Trafford and the club 's Trafford Training Centre . Supporter groups encouraged match - going fans to wear green and gold , the colours of Newton Heath . On 30 January , reports emerged that the Manchester United Supporters ' Trust had held meetings with a group of wealthy fans , dubbed the `` Red Knights '' , with plans to buying out the Glazers ' controlling interest . In August 2011 , the Glazers were believed to have approached Credit Suisse in preparation for a $1 billion ( approx. £ 600 million ) initial public offering ( IPO ) on the Singapore stock exchange that would value the club at more than £ 2 billion . However , in July 2012 , the club announced plans to list its IPO on the New York Stock Exchange instead . Shares were originally set to go on sale for between $16 and $20 each , but the price was cut to $14 by the launch of the IPO on 10 August , following negative comments from Wall Street analysts and Facebook 's disappointing stock market debut in May . Even after the cut , Manchester United was valued at $2.3 billion , making it the most valuable football club in the world . Players First - team squad As of 22 March 2018 Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality . No . Position Player GK David de Gea DF Victor Lindelöf DF Eric Bailly DF Phil Jones 5 DF Marcos Rojo 6 MF Paul Pogba 7 FW Alexis Sánchez 8 MF Juan Mata 9 FW Romelu Lukaku 11 FW Anthony Martial 12 DF Chris Smalling 14 MF Jesse Lingard 16 MF Michael Carrick ( captain ) No . Position Player 17 DF Daley Blind 18 MF Ashley Young 19 FW Marcus Rashford 20 GK Sergio Romero 21 MF Ander Herrera 23 DF Luke Shaw 25 DF Antonio Valencia ( vice-captain ) 27 MF Marouane Fellaini 31 MF Nemanja Matić 36 DF Matteo Darmian 39 MF Scott McTominay 40 GK Joel Castro Pereira 43 DF Cameron Borthwick - Jackson Out on loan Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality . No . Position Player 15 MF Andreas Pereira ( at Valencia until 30 June 2018 ) 24 DF Timothy Fosu - Mensah ( at Crystal Palace until 30 June 2018 ) No . Position Player 32 GK Sam Johnstone ( at Aston Villa until 30 June 2018 ) 38 DF Axel Tuanzebe ( at Aston Villa until 30 June 2018 ) Reserves and academy Further information : Manchester United F.C. Reserves and Academy Former players Further information : List of Manchester United F.C. players and Category : Manchester United F.C. players Club captains Further information : List of Manchester United F.C. players § Club captains Player records Further information : List of Manchester United F.C. records and statistics Sir Matt Busby Player of the Year Further information : Sir Matt Busby Player of the Year Club officials Owner : Glazer family via Red Football Shareholder Limited Honorary president : Martin Edwards Manchester United Limited Co-chairmen : Avram Glazer and Joel Glazer Executive vice chairman : Ed Woodward Group managing director : Richard Arnold Chief financial officer : Cliff Baty Non-executive directors : Bryan Glazer , Kevin Glazer , Edward Glazer , Darcie Glazer Kassewitz , Robert Leitão , John Hooks and Manu Sawhney Manchester United Football Club Directors : David Gill , Michael Edelson , Sir Bobby Charlton , Sir Alex Ferguson Club secretary : John Alexander Club ambassadors : Andy Cole , Gary Neville , Bryan Robson , Peter Schmeichel , Bobby Charlton , Alex Ferguson , Park Ji - sung , Dwight Yorke , Nemanja Vidić Senior club staff Director of Group Operations : Alan Dawson MBE Director of Communications : Phil Townsend Director of Legal and Business Affairs : Patrick Stewart Director of Finance and IT : Steve Deaville Director of Venue : David French Director of Partnerships : Sean Jefferson CEO of Media : Phil Lynch Ticket office manager : Sam Kelleher Safety officer : Charlie Coxon Stadium manager : Ian Collins Grounds manager : Anthony Sinclair Coaching staff Manager : José Mourinho Assistant manager : Rui Faria Coach : Silvino Louro Coach : Ricardo Formosinho Goalkeeping coach : Emilio Alvarez Fitness coach : Carlos Lalin Tactical analyst : Giovanni Cerra Head of first - team development : John Murtough Scouting Staff Chief scout : Jim Lawlor Head of global scouting : Marcel Bout Scouts : Gerado Guzmán , Sandro Orlandelli , Tommy Møller Nielsen , Javier Ribalta Academy coaching staff Director of youth academy : Nicky Butt Academy operations manager : Nick Cox Under - 23 manager : Ricky Sbragia Under - 23s team assistant manager : Tommy Martin Under - 18 head coach : Kieran McKenna Under - 18s coach : John Cooke Under - 18s coach : Colin Little Head of Academy Coaching : Tony Whelan Under - 16 Head Coach : Neil Ryan Under - 12 - 14 Head Coach : Hasney Aljofree Under 12s Head Coach : Lee Unsworth Under 10s Head Coach : Eamon Mulvey Under 9s Head Coach : Eddie Leach Academy goalkeeping coach : Alan Fettis Medical and sports science staff Head of sports medicine and science / club doctor : Dr. Steve McNally Assistant club doctor : Dr. Tony Gill Head first - team physiotherapist : Richard Merron Assistant first team physiotherapist : Jon Picot Head of academy physiotherapy : Neil Hough Senior academy physiotherapist : Mandy Johnson Academy physiotherapist : John Davin Masseurs : Gary Armer , Rod Thornley and Andy Caveney Club dietician : Trevor Lea Head of performance : Tony Strudwick Head of strength and conditioning : Dr. Gary Walker Head of human performance : Dr. Richard Hawkins Managerial history Main article : List of Manchester United F.C. managers Dates Name Notes 1878 -- 1892 Unknown 1892 -- 1900 A.H. Albut 1900 -- 1903 James West 1903 -- 1912 Ernest Mangnall 1912 -- 1914 John Bentley 1914 -- 1921 Jack Robson 1921 -- 1926 John Chapman 1926 -- 1927 Lal Hilditch Player - manager 1927 -- 1931 Herbert Bamlett 1931 -- 1932 Walter Crickmer 1932 -- 1937 Scott Duncan 1937 -- 1945 Walter Crickmer 1945 -- 1969 Matt Busby 1969 -- 1970 Wilf McGuinness 1970 -- 1971 Matt Busby 1971 -- 1972 Frank O'Farrell 1972 -- 1977 Tommy Docherty 1977 -- 1981 Dave Sexton 1981 -- 1986 Ron Atkinson 1986 -- 2013 Alex Ferguson 2013 -- 2014 David Moyes 2014 Ryan Giggs Interim player - manager 2014 -- 2016 Louis van Gaal 2016 -- José Mourinho Honours Winners ' and runners - up medals from Manchester United 's UEFA Champions League final appearances in 2008 , 2009 and 2011 Manchester United are one of the most successful clubs in Europe . The club 's first trophy was the Manchester Cup , which it won as Newton Heath LYR in 1886 . In 1908 , the club won its first league title , and won the FA Cup for the first time the following year . Manchester United won the most trophies in the 1990s ; five league titles , four FA Cups , one League Cup , five Charity Shields ( one shared ) , one UEFA Champions League , one UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup , one UEFA Super Cup and one Intercontinental Cup . The club holds the record for most top - division titles ( 20 ) -- including a record 13 Premier League titles -- and FA Community Shields ( 21 ) . It was also the first English club to win the European Cup in 1968 , and , as of 2017 , is the only British club to have won the Club World Cup , in 2008 . United also became the sole British club to win the Intercontinental Cup , in 1999 . The club 's most recent trophy came in May 2017 , with the 2016 -- 17 UEFA Europa League . In winning the 2016 -- 17 UEFA Europa League , United became the fifth club in history to have won the `` European Treble '' of European Cup / UEFA Champions League , European Cup Winners ' Cup / UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup , and UEFA Cup / UEFA Europa League after Juventus , Ajax , Bayern Munich and Chelsea . Domestic League First Division / Premier League Winners ( 20 ) : 1907 -- 08 , 1910 -- 11 , 1951 -- 52 , 1955 -- 56 , 1956 -- 57 , 1964 -- 65 , 1966 -- 67 , 1992 -- 93 , 1993 -- 94 , 1995 -- 96 , 1996 -- 97 , 1998 -- 99 , 1999 -- 2000 , 2000 -- 01 , 2002 -- 03 , 2006 -- 07 , 2007 -- 08 , 2008 -- 09 , 2010 -- 11 , 2012 -- 13 ( record ) Second Division Winners ( 2 ) : 1935 -- 36 , 1974 -- 75 Cups FA Cup Winners ( 12 ) : 1908 -- 09 , 1947 -- 48 , 1962 -- 63 , 1976 -- 77 , 1982 -- 83 , 1984 -- 85 , 1989 -- 90 , 1993 -- 94 , 1995 -- 96 , 1998 -- 99 , 2003 -- 04 , 2015 -- 16 Football League Cup Winners ( 5 ) : 1991 -- 92 , 2005 -- 06 , 2008 -- 09 , 2009 -- 10 , 2016 -- 17 FA Charity / Community Shield Winners ( 21 ) : 1908 , 1911 , 1952 , 1956 , 1957 , 1965 * , 1967 * , 1977 * , 1983 , 1990 * , 1993 , 1994 , 1996 , 1997 , 2003 , 2007 , 2008 , 2010 , 2011 , 2013 , 2016 ( * shared ) ( record ) European European Cup / UEFA Champions League Winners ( 3 ) : 1967 -- 68 , 1998 -- 99 , 2007 -- 08 European Cup Winners ' Cup Winners ( 1 ) : 1990 -- 91 UEFA Europa League Winners ( 1 ) : 2016 -- 17 European Super Cup Winners ( 1 ) : 1991 Worldwide Intercontinental Cup Winners ( 1 ) : 1999 FIFA Club World Cup Winners ( 1 ) : 2008 Doubles and trebles Doubles League and FA Cup : 2 1993 -- 94 , 1995 -- 96 European Double ( League and European Cup ) : 1 2007 -- 08 League and League Cup : 1 2008 -- 09 League Cup and Europa League : 1 2016 -- 17 Trebles Continental Treble ( League , FA Cup and European Cup ) : 1 1998 -- 99 Especially short competitions such as the Charity / Community Shield , Intercontinental Cup ( now defunct ) , FIFA Club World Cup or UEFA Super Cup are not generally considered to contribute towards a Double or Treble . See also Book : Manchester United F.C. List of Manchester United F.C. records and statistics List of Manchester United F.C. players List of Manchester United F.C. seasons List of Manchester United F.C. managers Manchester derby Liverpool F.C. -- Manchester United F.C. rivalry Association football portal English football portal Greater Manchester portal Footnotes Jump up ^ UK Retail Price Index inflation figures are based on data from Clark , Gregory ( 2017 ) . `` The Annual RPI and Average Earnings for Britain , 1209 to Present ( New Series ) '' . MeasuringWorth . Retrieved November 6 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Sources are divided on the exact date of the meeting and subsequent name change . Whilst official club sources claim that it occurred on 26 April , the meeting was reported by the Manchester Evening Chronicle in its edition of 25 April , suggesting it was indeed on 24 April . ^ Jump up to : Upon its formation in 1992 , the Premier League became the top tier of English football ; the First and Second Divisions then became the second and third tiers , respectively . The First Division is now known as the Football League Championship and the Second Division is now known as Football League One . References Jump up ^ `` Premier League Handbook Season 2015 / 16 '' ( PDF ) . Premier League . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 6 September 2015 . Retrieved 23 May 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Manchester United -- Stadium '' ( PDF ) . premierleague.com . Premier League . Retrieved 9 November 2017 . Jump up ^ `` BBC ON THIS DAY - 14 - 1969 : Matt Busby retires from Man United '' . bbc.co.uk . Jump up ^ http://www.skysports.com/football/news/11667/10862214/jose-mourinho-wants-manchester-united-to-close-the-circle-of-trophies-and-win-europa-league Jump up ^ `` The 49 trophies of Sir Alex Ferguson - the most successful managerial career Britain has ever known '' . The Independent . London : Independent Print . 8 May 2013 . Retrieved 30 October 2015 . Jump up ^ Stewart , Rob ( 1 October 2009 ) . `` Sir Alex Ferguson successful because he was given time , says Steve Bruce '' . The Daily Telegraph . London : Telegraph Media Group . Retrieved 11 May 2011 . Jump up ^ Northcroft , Jonathan ( 5 November 2006 ) . `` 20 glorious years , 20 key decisions '' . The Sunday Times . London : Times Newspapers . Retrieved 24 June 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Manchester United remain football 's top revenue - generator '' . BBC News ( British Broadcasting Corporation ) . 23 January 2018 . Retrieved 14 April 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Man Utd back on top of Forbes ' most valuable list at £ 2.86 bn '' . 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Archived from the original on 9 December 2010 . Retrieved 3 December 2010 . Jump up ^ Barnes et al. ( 2001 ) , pp. 54 -- 57 . Jump up ^ Bloomfield , Craig ( 13 August 2015 ) . `` Which club has won the most trophies in Europe ? The most successful clubs from the best leagues revealed '' . talkSPORT . Retrieved 30 October 2015 . Jump up ^ Shury & Landamore ( 2005 ) , p. 8 . Jump up ^ `` Manchester United win the UEFA Europa League '' . manutd.com. 24 May 2017 . Retrieved 26 May 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Europa League final : Manchester United on the brink of unique achievement no other English club could ever match '' . talkSPORT. 23 May 2017 . Retrieved 28 May 2017 . Jump up ^ Rice , Simon ( 20 May 2010 ) . `` Treble treble : The teams that won the treble '' . The Independent . London : Independent Print . Retrieved 14 July 2010 . Further reading Andrews , David L. , ed. ( 2004 ) . Manchester United : A Thematic Study . London : Routledge . ISBN 0 - 415 - 33333 - 4 . Barnes , Justyn ; Bostock , Adam ; Butler , Cliff ; Ferguson , Jim ; Meek , David ; Mitten , Andy ; Pilger , Sam ; Taylor , Frank OBE ; Tyrrell , Tom ( 2001 ) ( 1998 ) . The Official Manchester United Illustrated Encyclopedia ( 3rd ed . ) . London : Manchester United Books . ISBN 0 - 233 - 99964 - 7 . Bose , Mihir ( 2007 ) . Manchester Disunited : Trouble and Takeover at the World 's Richest Football Club . London : Aurum Press . ISBN 1 - 84513 - 121 - 5 . Crick , Michael ; Smith , David ( 1990 ) . Manchester United -- The Betrayal of a Legend . London : Pan Books . ISBN 0 - 330 - 31440 - 8 . Devlin , John ( 2005 ) . True Colours : Football Kits from 1980 to the Present Day . London : A & C Black . ISBN 0 - 7136 - 7389 - 3 . Dobson , Stephen ; Goddard , John ( 2004 ) . `` Ownership and Finance of Professional Soccer in England and Europe '' . In Fort , Rodney ; Fizel , John . International Sports Economics Comparisons . Westport , CT : Praeger Publishers . ISBN 0 - 275 - 98032 - 4 . Dunning , Eric ( 1999 ) . Sport Matters : Sociological Studies of Sport , Violence and Civilisation . London : Routledge . ISBN 978 - 0 - 415 - 09378 - 1 . Hamil , Sean ( 2008 ) . `` Case 9 : Manchester United : the Commercial Development of a Global Football Brand '' . In Chadwick , Simon ; Arth , Dave . International Cases in the Business of Sport . Oxford : Butterworth - Heinemann . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7506 - 8543 - 6 . Inglis , Simon ( 1996 ) ( 1985 ) . Football Grounds of Britain ( 3rd ed . ) . London : CollinsWillow . ISBN 0 - 00 - 218426 - 5 . James , Gary ( 2008 ) . Manchester : A Football History . Halifax : James Ward . ISBN 978 - 0 - 9558127 - 0 - 5 . Morgan , Steve ( March 2010 ) . McLeish , Ian , ed . `` Design for life '' . Inside United . Haymarket Network ( 212 ) . ISSN 1749 - 6497 . Murphy , Alex ( 2006 ) . The Official Illustrated History of Manchester United . London : Orion Books . ISBN 0 - 7528 - 7603 - 1 . Rollin , Glenda ; Rollin , Jack . Sky Sports Football Yearbook 2008 -- 2009 . London : Headline Publishing Group . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7553 - 1820 - 9 . Shury , Alan ; Landamore , Brian ( 2005 ) . The Definitive Newton Heath F.C . SoccerData . ISBN 1 - 899468 - 16 - 1 . Tyrrell , Tom ; Meek , David ( 1996 ) ( 1988 ) . The Hamlyn Illustrated History of Manchester United 1878 -- 1996 ( 5th ed . ) . London : Hamlyn . ISBN 0 - 600 - 59074 - 7 . White , Jim ( 2008 ) . Manchester United : The Biography . London : Sphere . ISBN 978 - 1 - 84744 - 088 - 4 . White , John ( 2007 ) ( 2005 ) . The United Miscellany ( 2nd ed . ) . London : Carlton Books . ISBN 978 - 1 - 84442 - 745 - 1 . External links Wikiquote has quotations related to : Manchester United F.C. Wikinews has news related to : Manchester United F.C. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Manchester United FC . 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what is the name of manchester united stadium

Old Trafford

Manchester United F.C.

The Black stallion ( film ) - wikipedia The Black stallion ( film ) Jump to : navigation , search The Black Stallion 1979 poster Directed by Carroll Ballard Produced by Fred Roos Francis Ford Coppola Tom Sternberg Screenplay by Melissa Mathison Jeanne Rosenberg William D. Wittliff Based on The Black Stallion by Walter Farley Starring Kelly Reno Mickey Rooney Teri Garr Music by Carmine Coppola Cinematography Caleb Deschanel Edited by Robert Dalva Production company American Zoetrope Distributed by United Artists Release date October 17 , 1979 ( 1979 - 10 - 17 ) Running time 118 minutes Country United States Language English Budget $2.7 million Box office $37.8 million The Black Stallion is a 1979 American adventure film based on the 1941 classic children 's novel The Black Stallion by Walter Farley . But the film starts in 1946 , five years after the book was published . It tells the story of Alec Ramsey , who is shipwrecked on a deserted island with a wild Arabian stallion whom he befriends . After being rescued , they are set on entering a race challenging two champion horses . The film is adapted by Melissa Mathison , Jeanne Rosenberg and William D. Wittliff . It is directed by Carroll Ballard . The movie stars Kelly Reno , Mickey Rooney , Teri Garr , Hoyt Axton , and the Arabian horse Cass Ole . The film features music by Carmine Coppola , the father of Hollywood producer Francis Ford Coppola , who was the executive producer of the film . Contents ( hide ) 1 Plot 2 Cast 2.1 Horses 3 Awards and honors 3.1 Academy Awards 3.2 Golden Globe Awards 3.3 British Academy Awards 3.4 LA Film Critics Awards 3.5 Others 4 Sequel , prequel and television series 5 See also 6 References 7 External links Plot ( edit ) In 1946 Alec Ramsey is aboard the steamer Drake off the coast of North Africa , where he sees a wild black stallion being forced into a makeshift stable compartment and heavily restrained by ropes leading to his halter . Captivated by the horse , Alec later sneaks to the horse to feed him some sugar cubes , but he is caught by the horse 's supposed owner , who tells him in Arabic to stay away from Shetan and shoves the boy away . Later in their cabin , Alec 's father shows Alec his winnings from a card game and gives him a pocket knife and a small statue of Bucephalus , and tells the story of how Alexander the Great became Bucephalus ' master . Later that night , Alec is thrown out of his bunk ; he grabs his knife and his Bucephalus statue and joins his father on the other side of the cabin . His father puts Alec into a life jacket and they struggle with the rest of the passengers to get on deck . The ship is in flames and has started to sink . Alec 's father leaves him by the compartment holding The Black to go help the crew . In the chaos , Alec opens the compartment hatch but is attacked by Shetan 's owner who cuts Alec 's life jacket off him so he can take it for himself . Alec 's father rescues Alec from his attacker but the life jacket is lost and father & son are separated . The black stallion breaks free from his compartment and then jumps into the sea . Alec himself is swept overboard by a gigantic wave . Once in the water , he swims toward the stallion and managed to grab hold of the ropes that were previously restraining the stallion . Alec wakes on the shore of a deserted island and starts to explore . He finds the stallion caught in his restraints with the ropes stuck between the rocks . With his knife , Alec manages to free the stallion once again and the stallion runs away . For a time , the two keep their distance . Alec discovers means to survive by catching fish and seaweed . As Alec suddenly faces a cobra eye to eye , the Black comes to the rescue and kills the snake , only to run off again . By now , Alec decides to try to get closer to the horse and offer him some seaweed . The hungry stallion finds himself unable to resist , but visibly struggles with his distrust for humans . Eventually , the hunger wins and he takes Alec 's offer ; their bond has been sealed and the two are now inseparable . Alec even manages to ride the unbroken horse , after many times falling off the horse . One day , a fishing ship arrives , rescuing both Alec and the stallion . Back home in Flushing , NY , Alec is given a hero 's welcome . The Black has a temporary home in Alec 's backyard , but a garbage man not knowing that there is a wild horse in the backyard is chased by the Black , who races off down the street after being spooked by a passing car . Alec chases after him through every part of town , but loses track of him . The next day , Alec meets Snoe ( and Napoleon ) who tell him where the Black is . Alec finds the stallion in the barn of Henry Dailey , a retired jockey and racehorse trainer , who apparently spent all night catching the Black . Henry allows Alec to keep the Black in his barn . When Alec wonders how fast the Black is , Alec and Henry decide to train the Black for the racetrack , while Henry teaches Alec how to be a jockey . The Black surprises Henry with his speed . Henry immediately starts plotting to get the Black into a match race between two of the country 's current champions , to be held at Santa Anita , California . To do that , he sets up a secret demonstration at night where the press can witness his speed , keeping the identity of Alec and the Black secret . The news about the mystery horse is soon widespread and the Black is entered into the race . The race is the most anticipated horse - racing event of the year . Before the two champions and the Black enter the starting gate , the Black gets into a fight with one of his opponents , wounding his leg . Alec does not see the wound until he is in the gate . As he dismounts , the bell rings and the horses take off . Alec desperately tries to stay on his horse and trying to stop him . He falls behind , but the Black wo n't stop . When Alec regains his balance , the Black is well on his way to catch up with his opponents . Alec now encourages the Black to run as fast as he can , remembering the wild rides on the island , as they catch up . The Black eventually wins by two lengths . Cast ( edit ) Kelly Reno as Alec Ramsay Mickey Rooney as Henry Dailey Teri Garr as Mrs. Ramsay , Alec 's mother Hoyt Axton as Mr. Ramsay , Alec 's father Clarence Muse as Snoe Michael Higgins as Jim Neville Ed McNamara as Jake Doghmi Larbi as Arab John Burton as Jockey No. 1 John Buchanan as Jockey No. 2 Kristen Vigard as Becky Fausto Tozzi as Rescue Captain John Karlsen as Archeologist Leopoldo Trieste as Priest Frank Cousins as African Chieftain Don Hudson as Zaurog Marne Maitland as Drake Captain Tom Dahlgren as Veterinarian Horses ( edit ) Cass Ole , a champion Arabian stallion , was featured in most of the movie 's scenes , with Fae Jur , another black Arabian stallion , being his main double . Fae Jur 's main scene is the one where Alec is trying to gain the trust of the Black on the beach . Two other stunt doubles were used for running , fighting and swimming scenes . El Mokhtar , an Egyptian Arabian racehorse , was the producers ' first choice to portray the Black , but they were unable to secure his services for the film from his owners , who declined any offers . He does appear in The Black Stallion Returns , alongside Cass Ole , by which time the studio bought out the syndicate of owners in order to secure El Mokhtar 's services . Napoleon was portrayed by Junior , who previously appeared in National Lampoon 's Animal House as Trooper , Niedermeyer 's horse . Awards and honors ( edit ) Academy Awards ( edit ) The film received two nominations for the Academy Awards : Mickey Rooney was nominated for Best Actor in a Supporting Role . Robert Dalva was nominated for Best Film Editing . In addition , Alan Splet was awarded with a Special Achievement Award for sound editing . Golden Globe Awards ( edit ) Carmine Coppola was nominated for Best Original Score at the Golden Globe Awards . He later won the award in this category for his score of Apocalypse Now . British Academy Awards ( edit ) Caleb Deschanel was nominated for Best Cinematography by the British Academy of Film and Television Arts Awards . La film Critics Awards ( edit ) The film received two awards from the Los Angeles Film Critics Association Awards for Best Cinematography ( Caleb Deschanel ) and Best Music ( Carmine Coppola ) . Others ( edit ) The film also won the 1979 National Society of Film Critics award for Best Cinematography . In 2002 , it was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being `` culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant '' . Also , the film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists : 2001 : AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Thrills -- Nominated 2005 : AFI 's 100 Years of Film Scores -- Nominated 2006 : AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Cheers -- # 64 Sequel , prequel and television series ( edit ) The film was followed in 1983 by a sequel , The Black Stallion Returns , which also starred Reno . There was also a television series called The Adventures of the Black Stallion which aired from 1990 to 1993 and starred Mickey Rooney and Richard Ian Cox . In 2003 , a 50 - minute prequel called The Young Black Stallion , was shot and released for IMAX theaters . See also ( edit ) The Black Stallion books References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` The Black Stallion , Box Office Information '' . The Numbers . Retrieved January 28 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Junior '' . Internet Movie Database . Retrieved 2011 - 02 - 02 . Jump up ^ Cannady , Sheryl ( 2002 - 12 - 17 ) . `` Librarian of Congress Adds 25 Films to National Film Registry '' . Library of Congress . Retrieved 2017 - 02 - 04 . Jump up ^ `` AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Thrills Nominees '' ( PDF ) . Retrieved 2016 - 08 - 20 . Jump up ^ `` AFI 's 100 Years of Film Scores Nominees '' ( PDF ) . Retrieved 2016 - 08 - 20 . Jump up ^ `` AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Cheers '' ( PDF ) . American Film Institute . Retrieved 2016 - 08 - 20 . External links ( edit ) Official website The Black Stallion on IMDb The Black Stallion at AllMovie The Black Stallion at Rotten Tomatoes The Black Stallion at Box Office Mojo The Black Stallion at the TCM Movie Database The Black Stallion by Walter Farley Books The Black Stallion book series Films The Black Stallion ( 1979 ) The Black Stallion Returns ( 1983 ) The Young Black Stallion ( 2003 ) Television The Adventures of the Black Stallion ( 1990 - 1993 ) Related Cass Ole El Mokhtar Docs Keepin Time Films directed by Carroll Ballard The Black Stallion ( 1979 ) Never Cry Wolf ( 1983 ) Nutcracker : The Motion Picture ( 1986 ) Wind ( 1992 ) Fly Away Home ( 1996 ) Duma ( 2005 ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Black_Stallion_(film)&oldid=836268326 '' Categories : 1979 films English - language films American children 's films Films about horses United States National Film Registry films United Artists films American Zoetrope films Directorial debut films Films shot in Sardinia Films directed by Carroll Ballard Films that won the Best Sound Editing Academy Award Horse racing films Screenplays by Melissa Mathison American films Films set on islands Films set in 1946 Hidden categories : Pages using div col with deprecated parameters Talk Contents About Wikipedia Català Dansk Deutsch Español فارسی Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Polski Português Русский Svenska 6 more Edit links This page was last edited on 13 April 2018 , at 18 : 25 . About Wikipedia

who played the mother in the black stallion

Teri Garr

Carmine Coppola

The Proud Family ( soundtrack ) - Wikipedia The Proud Family ( soundtrack ) Jump to : navigation , search This article does not cite any sources . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( December 2009 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The Proud Family Soundtrack album by Various Artists Released April 20 , 2004 August 16 , 2005 ( Re-release ) Genre Soul , hip hop , hip hop soul Label Walt Disney The Proud Family is a soundtrack album for the show of the same name . A combination of both original tunes by the characters in the show , popular hits by popular music artists such as Alicia Keys , Jhené Aiko , India Arie , and Solange Knowles & Destiny 's Child ( who perform the theme song ) , and classic soul music from artists such as Aretha Franklin and The O'Jays . References ( edit ) This soundtrack - related article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Proud_Family_(soundtrack)&oldid=638462881 '' Categories : Television animation soundtracks 2004 soundtracks Hip hop soundtracks Soul soundtracks Walt Disney Records soundtracks Soundtrack stubs Hidden categories : Articles lacking sources from December 2009 All articles lacking sources Articles with hAudio microformats Music infoboxes with deprecated parameters All stub articles Talk About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 17 December 2014 , at 07 : 09 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

who sings the theme song for the proud family

Destiny's Child

Solange Knowles & Destiny's Child

Ca n't Get You Out of My Head - Wikipedia Ca n't Get You Out of My Head Jump to : navigation , search `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' Single cover used for CD # 02 and digital releases of the song . Single by Kylie Minogue from the album Fever B - side `` Boy '' `` Rendezvous at Sunset '' Released 8 September 2001 ( 2001 - 09 - 08 ) Format CD digital download Recorded 2001 ; London , England Genre Synthpop dance - pop Length 3 : 50 Label Parlophone Songwriter ( s ) Cathy Dennis Rob Davis Producer ( s ) Cathy Dennis Rob Davis Kylie Minogue singles chronology `` Your Disco Needs You '' ( 2001 ) `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' ( 2001 ) `` In Your Eyes '' ( 2002 ) `` Your Disco Needs You '' ( 2001 ) `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' ( 2001 ) `` In Your Eyes '' ( 2002 ) Music video `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' on YouTube `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' is a song recorded by Australian singer Kylie Minogue for her eighth studio album , titled Fever , which she released in 2001 . The song was released in Australia by Parlophone as the lead single from the album on 8 September 2001 . It was released on 17 September 2001 in the United Kingdom . In the United States , the single was released on 18 February 2002 . Jointly written , composed , and produced by Cathy Dennis and Rob Davis , `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' is a midtempo dance - pop song which lyrically details its narrator 's obsession towards her lover . The song is famous for its `` la la la '' hook . In addition to positive reviews from music critics , `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' found commercial success on a large scale . It peaked at number one on the charts of Austria , Belgium , France , Germany , Italy , Poland , Switzerland , the United Kingdom , and every other European country excluding Finland . It also topped the charts of Minogue 's native country Australia , Canada and New Zealand . In the United States , the song peaked at number seven on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart , becoming Minogue 's biggest hit in the region since `` The Loco - Motion '' . `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' reportedly reached number one in 40 countries across the globe . It was certified triple - platinum in Australia , double - platinum in the United Kingdom , and gold in the United States . It became Minogue 's first single to sell in excess of one million copies in the United Kingdom , where it also stands as the 28th best - selling single of the millennium . As of 2013 , the song was Minogue 's highest selling single and one of the best - selling singles of all time , with worldwide sales exceeding five million . The accompanying music video for the song was directed by Dawn Shadforth , and featured Minogue performing various dance routines in different futuristic backdrops . It became notable for the revealing hooded white jumpsuit Minogue wore during one of the scenes . The song has been performed by Minogue during all of her concert tours as of 2017 , with the exception of the Anti Tour . Following its release , `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' ranked on a number of decade - end lists compiled by magazines such as Rolling Stone , The Guardian , and NME . It is considered to be Minogue 's strongest commercial breakthrough in the United States and is said to have been the reason behind the success of its parent album Fever in the region . `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' is also recognized as Minogue 's signature song and was a defining point in her musical career . In 2012 , the song was re-recorded for inclusion in Minogue 's orchestral compilation album , The Abbey Road Sessions . Contents ( hide ) 1 Background and recording 2 Composition 3 Critical reception 4 Commercial performance 5 Music video 5.1 Development and synopsis 5.2 Legacy 6 Live performances 7 Legacy 7.1 Commercial impact 7.2 Cultural impact 8 Formats and track listings 9 Charts 9.1 Weekly charts 9.2 Year - end charts 9.3 Decade - end charts 9.4 All Time Charts 10 Certifications 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External links Background and Recording ( edit ) In 2000 , Minogue signed to the Parlophone Records label and released her seventh studio album , Light Years . The disco and Europop inspired album was a critical and commercial success , and was later certified four times - platinum in Minogue 's native country Australia for shipment of 280,000 units , and platinum in the United Kingdom for shipment of 300,000 units . `` Spinning Around '' was released as the lead single from the album , and it was a commercial success , attaining a platinum certification in Australia for shipment of 70,000 units , and a silver certification in the United Kingdom for shipment of 200,000 units . She promoted the album by embarking on the On a Night Like This tour . Minogue premiered `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' by performing it during the tour , and soon after , discussion regarding the song `` quickly set online messageboards alight . '' `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' was chosen as the lead single from Minogue 's eighth studio album , Fever , and it was released on 8 September 2001 by Parlophone in Australia , while in the United Kingdom and other European countries it was released on 17 September . My A&R at the time , Miles Leonard and Jamie Nelson , said , `` We 've got something . Come into the office . We 've got to play you something . '' So I went to the EMI office , and I had the same reaction you did , about 20 seconds in . I could n't even fathom what I was hearing . It just ... did something . I was beside myself . Then at the end of the song , panic set in . I was saying `` Are you sure we 've got this song ? Do n't tell me that we do n't ! Is it secured ? Can we have it ? '' And we did ! And that kick - started a whole different phase in my career . -- Minogue , about her reaction to hearing the demo of the song . `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' was jointly written , composed , and produced by Cathy Dennis and Rob Davis . Dennis and Davis had been brought together by British artist manager Simon Fuller , who wanted the duo to come up with a song for British pop group S Club 7 . The song was recorded using Cubase music software , which Davis ran on his Mac computer . Davis began playing an acoustic guitar and ran a 125 beats per minute drum loop , on which Dennis , herself a singer who had enjoyed chart success in the United States , began singing the line `` I just ca n't get you out of my head '' in the key of D minor . After three and a half hours , the demo was recorded and the vocals were laid afterwards . Dennis called their recording setup for the song `` the most primitive set - up you could imagine ! Different producers work in different ways . But it 's good to be reminded you do n't have to be reliant on equipment . A song is about melody and lyrics and being able to take something away in your memory that is going to haunt you . '' She also regarded their production as a `` very natural and fluid process , '' saying : `` We know how hard we work sometimes to write songs and then spend months picking them to pieces , but this was the easiest process , the chemicals were all happy and working together . '' But after Fuller heard the demo , he felt it was wrong for S Club 7 and rejected it ; English singer - songwriter Sophie Ellis - Bextor also turned down the offer to record it . Davis then met with Minogue 's A&R executive , Jamie Nelson . After hearing the demo cassette of the song , Nelson booked it for Minogue to record later that year . Nelson was impressed by the `` vibe '' of the song and felt it would please the `` danceheads . '' Although Davis was initially under the impression that the recording deal would be called off later , Minogue became enthusiastic to record the song after hearing 20 seconds of the demo . The whole song , including Minogue 's vocals , were recorded at Davis 's home studio in Surrey . The music , excluding the guitar part , was programmed using Korg Triton workstation via MIDI . Dennis later remarked : `` Even though Kylie was n't the first artist to be offered the song , I do n't believe it was meant to go to anyone other than Kylie , and I do n't believe anyone else would have done the incredible job she did with it , with the video , looking super-hot ! '' Composition ( edit ) `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' A 21 - second sample of `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' containing the hook and part of the chorus of the song . The song is known for its `` la la la '' hook . Problems playing this file ? See media help . `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' is a `` robotic '' midtempo dance - pop song , with a tempo of 126 beats per minute . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by EMI Music Publishing , Minogue 's vocal range spans from C to D. Minogue chants a `` la la la '' hook in the song , which is often heralded as its most appealing part . BBC Radio 2 noted that the composition of the song is `` deceptively simple , but its veins run with the whole history of electronic music . '' They described the song 's bassline as `` pulsing , '' and recognised influences of English rock band New Order and German electronic music band Kraftwerk . The song does not follow the common verse - chorus structure and is instead composed of numerous `` misplaced sections . '' Dennis reasoned that these sections `` somehow work together '' as she and Davis `` did n't try to force any structure after the event . The seeds were watered and they very quickly sprouted into something bigger than any of us . '' Likewise , Davis commented : `` It breaks a few rules as it starts with a chorus and in comes the ' la 's ' -- that is what confused my publisher ( Fuller ) when he first heard it . '' Through the lyrics of the song , its singer expresses an obsession with an anonymous figure . Dorian Lynskey from The Guardian termed the song a `` mystery '' as Minogue never reveals the identity of her object of infatuation . The critic suggested that the person Minogue is referring to is either `` a partner , an evasive one - night stand or someone who does n't know she exists . '' Writing for the same newspaper , Everett True identified a `` darker element '' in the simple lyrics and felt this sentiment was echoed in Minogue 's restrained vocals . Further , True emphasised that while Minogue 's 1987 single `` I Should Be So Lucky '' had presented an optimistic romantic future , `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' focuses on an `` unhealthy '' and potentially destructive obsession . He also noted that in the former song , Minogue played `` the wide - eyed ingénue with alacrity , '' but in the latter song she is aware of the harmful nature of her infatuation , calling it a `` desire that is wholly dependent on her own self - control . '' In late 2012 , `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' was re-recorded by Minogue for inclusion in her orchestral compilation album , The Abbey Road Sessions . On the album , Minogue reworked 16 of her past songs with an orchestra , which , according to Nick Levine from BBC Music , `` re-imagine them without the disco glitz and vocal effects . '' The Abbey Road Sessions - version of `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' features a `` more dramatic , fully fleshed out '' musical arrangement , and follows a pizzicato playing technique , in which the strings of a string instrument are continuously plucked . Critical reception ( edit ) Minogue performing `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' during her 2009 North American For You , For Me Tour . The song received overwhelming critical acclaim , subsequently being cited as one of the greatest songs of the 2000s . Chris True from AllMusic picked the song as a highlight of Fever , commenting that it `` pulses and grooves like no other she 's ( Minogue 's ) recorded . '' Jason Thompson from PopMatters described Minogue 's vocals as a `` sexual come on '' and called the song `` trim and funky , certainly something that could n't miss anywhere . '' Dominique Leone from Pitchfork Media praised the commercial prospect of the song , saying that it `` exudes a catchiness that belies its inherent simplicity , so reassuring during an era when chart acts sound increasingly baroque and producers race to see who can ape electronic music trends first . '' Jim Farber from Entertainment Weekly said that the song `` fully lives up to its title '' with `` every sound a hook , '' and compared it to the works of Andrea True . Michael Hubbard from MusicOMH labelled the song `` one of 2001 's best singles , '' saying that it `` predictably beat off lesser ' competition . ' '' In 2012 , The Guardian critic Everett True defined `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' as `` one of those rare moments in pop : sleek and chic and stylish and damnably danceable , but with a darker element hidden in plain sight . '' Billboard 's Jason Lipshutz felt that `` the metallic production would n't carry quite as much of its impact if Minogue had attempted to outshine it ; wisely , her voice operates alongside it , finding renewed power in its drive '' , concluding that `` almost 15 years after its release , it still sounds fresh , forward - thinking and alive '' . The Abbey Road Sessions -- version of the song received generally positive reviews . Tim Sendra from AllMusic felt that `` most interesting reboot '' in the album took place on `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head , '' saying that the `` insistent strings push the song along with a tightly coiled electricity that is impossible to resist . '' He also picked the song as a highlight on the album . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine chose the song as one of the `` standouts '' on the album , saying that its arrangement `` compensate for the lack of synthetic dance beats and vocal effects . '' Tania Zeine from ARIA Charts described the track as a `` powerful violin ballad with the accompaniment of a large orchestra throughout the remainder . '' Simon Price from The Independent said that while the original version of `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' would be `` impossible to improve on , '' the reworked version `` turns it into a pizzicato thriller score . '' Jude Rogers from The Quietus , however , felt that the song does not `` respond well to this ( orchestral ) treatment . '' Louis Vartel from the LGBT oriented website NewNownext , called it `` a pulsing march through the most hypnotic beat of the past 20 years ( ... ) Kylie 's American breakthrough still holds up as a cool , streamlined dance - floor magnet '' . He ranked the track on the second position of his list of the singer 's 48 greatest songs , in honor of her 48th birthday . John Russell , from LGBT magazine Queerty , concluded that `` even if ' La - La - La ' did n't make Kylie a household name in the States , at the very least it introduced her to a whole new generation of adoring American gays '' . Commercial performance ( edit ) In the United Kingdom , the simultaneous releases of `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' and Victoria Beckham 's single `` Not Such an Innocent Girl '' ( pictured ) became the focus of media attention , with the BBC deeming it the `` battle of the pop princesses . '' In Minogue 's native country , Australia , `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' entered at number one on the Australian Singles Chart of 23 September 2001 , and remained at that position for four weeks . It spent a total of 12 weeks on the chart . In this region , it was certified triple - platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association for shipments of 210,000 units . In both the Dutch - speaking Flanders and French - speaking Wallonia regions of Belgium , the song peaked at number one on the Ultratop chart , spending a total of 22 and 24 weeks on the charts , respectively . In Belgium , the song was certified double - platinum for sales of 100,000 units . In France , the song entered the French Singles Chart at number 14 and peaked at number one , spending a total of 41 weeks on the chart . In this region , it was certified platinum by the Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique for sales of 500,000 units . As of August 2014 , the song was the 22nd best - selling single of the 21st century in France , with 542,000 units sold . In Germany , the song was number one for one week on the German Singles Chart . In this region , it was certified platinum by the Federal Association of Music Industry for shipments of 500,000 units . In Ireland , the song entered at number one on the Ireland Singles Chart , spending a total of consecutive 19 weeks on the chart . In the United Kingdom , the single faced competition in a hugely - hyped chart battle with Victoria Beckham 's single `` Not Such an Innocent Girl . '' On the chart date of 29 September 2001 , `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' debuted at number one on the UK Singles Chart with first week sales of 306,000 units , while `` Not Such an Innocent Girl '' debuted at number six with first week sales of 35,000 units . It spent four weeks at number one , and a total of 25 weeks inside the top 40 on the chart . The song spent a record - breaking eight weeks at number one on the airplay chart of the country and became the first to garner 3000 radio plays in a single week . Subsequently , it became the most - played song of 2001 in the region . `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry for shipments of 600,000 units in 2001 . The certification was upgraded to double - platinum in 2015 , denoting shipments of 1,200,000 units . In the United States , `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' peaked at number seven on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart , becoming Minogue 's best selling single in the region since her interpretation of `` The Loco - Motion . '' Additionally , the song peaked at number one on the Hot Dance Club Songs chart , at number 23 on the Adult Top 40 chart , at number three on the Mainstream Top 40 ( Pop Songs ) chart , and number eight on the Radio Songs chart . In this region , the song was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America for shipments of 500,000 units . Music video ( edit ) Development and synopsis ( edit ) The white hooded jumpsuit sported by Minogue ( pictured ) was seen as a highlight of the video The accompanying music video for `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' was directed by Dawn Shadforth , and featured dance routines choreographed by Michael Rooney . Early in Minogue 's career , her youthful look , slim figure , and her `` proportionally '' large mouth attracted comments from various critics , with British red top newspaper News of the World speculating that the singer could possibly be an alien . Later while discussing the video , Shadforth and music critic Paul Morley took this `` bizarre suggestion '' into consideration to comment on Minogue as a `` creative , experimental artist . '' Shadforth blocked some shots of the initial driving scene based upon similar shots of Shirley Manson piloting an airplane in her award - winning dogfight clip for Garbage 's `` Special . '' The video was released on 11 August 2001 . It begins with Minogue driving a De Tomaso Mangusta sports car on a futuristic bridge , while singing the `` la la la '' hook of the song . The next scene consists of a number of dance couples performing a dance routine dressed in black and white costumes ; they are soon joined by Minogue , who is seen wearing a white tracksuit . The setting changes to a room where Minogue is seen striking various poses sporting bright crimson lipstick and a hooded white jumpsuit with a neckline plunging down to her navel . The outfit was designed by London - based fashion designer Fee Doran , under the label of Mrs Jones . Minogue then performs a synchronised dance routine with several backup dancers , who are wearing red and black suits . As the video ends , she performs a similar routine on the top of a building during the night , this time wearing a lavender halter neck dress with ribbon tile trim . Various scenes in the video show Minogue 's face `` unusually '' close to the lens of the camera , thus it `` subtly distorts , yet remains glamorous . '' Shadforth felt the shot gave a `` sort of sense of intimacy and as you say a sort of strangeness , '' again drawing upon the suggestion of Minogue being an alien . Similarly , Morley opined that it was `` the side of Kylie that suddenly reveals itself as being experimental , she is prepared to push herself into positions and shapes that might not be conventionally attractive ( ... ) She becomes alien Kylie as well . '' Legacy ( edit ) At the 2002 MTV Video Music Awards ceremony , the music video was nominated for Best Dance Video , while Michael Rooney won the award for Best Choreography . The hooded white jumpsuit Minogue wore in the music video is often considered to be one of her most iconic looks , particularly due to its deep plunging neckline . British fashion designer and Minogue 's stylist William Baker described the choice of the outfit , saying it was `` it was pure but kind of slutty at the same time . '' The outfit was put on display at Kylie : The Exhibition , an exhibition that featured `` costumes and memorabilia collected over Kylie 's career , '' held at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London , England , and at Kylie : an exhibition , a similar exhibition held at the Powerhouse Museum in Sydney , Australia . It was also included in Minogue 's official fashion photography book , Kylie / Fashion , which was released on 19 November 2012 by Thames and Hudson to celebrate Minogue 's completion of 25 years in music . The music video served as an inspiration for Morley while writing his book Words and Music : the history of pop in the shape of a city . In the book , Morley `` turned the lonely drive she ( Minogue ) made in the song 's video towards a city ( ... ) into a fictional history of music , '' referring to the opening sequence of the music video . The critic takes a ride with Minogue through a city and encounters various musicians and artists like the ghost of Elvis Presley , and Madonna , Kraftwerk , and ( Ludwig ) Wittgenstein . Academics Diane Railton and Paul Weston , in their 2005 essay Naughty Girls and Red Blooded Women ( Representations of Female Heterosexuality in Music Video ) , contrasted the music video of `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' with that of American singer Beyoncé 's 2003 single `` Baby Boy . '' Railton and Weston concluded that while both videos focus on two singers performing seductive dance routines , Minogue is presented in a calculated manner and `` is always provisional , restricted , and contingent , '' whereas Beyoncé displays a particular `` primitive , feral , uncontrolled and uncontrollable '' sexuality embodied by the black female body . The two felt that the videos were representative of the raced depictions of white and black women in colonial times and pop culture , respectively . Comedian John Bishop made a parody of the video which appeared in an episode of the ITV show The Nightly Show , which Bishop was guest presenting . The same video featured in the introduction video of Bishop 's 2017 tour `` Winging It '' . Live performances ( edit ) Minogue performing the song , as part of her Kiss Me Once Tour , on 2014 . On 2 August 2001 , Minogue performed `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' at the BBC Radio 1 One Big Sunday show held at Leicester , in the United Kingdom , along with `` Spinning Around ; '' for the performance , she wore a black trilby hat , a sleeveless T - shirt upon which a picture of Marilyn Monroe had been printed , knee - length black boots , and trousers with open zips placed on both the thighs . She performed `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' on 8 November 2001 at the MTV Europe Music Awards ceremony in 2001 . At the 2002 Brit Awards held on 20 February 2002 , Minogue performed a mash - up version of `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' and British band New Order 's 1983 song `` Blue Monday '' conceived by and also produced by Stuart Crichton . The mash - up was soon released as the B - side to `` Love at First Sight , '' the third single from the album Fever . The live performance of the mash - up ranked at number 40 on The Guardian 's list of `` 50 Key Events in the History of Dance Music '' in 2011 . The mashup was dubbed `` Ca n't Get Blue Monday Out of My Head '' during its inclusion as the B - side to `` Love at First Sight '' and as a remix on Minogue 's remix album Boombox . On 16 March 2002 , Minogue performed `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' along with `` In Your Eyes , '' the second single from Fever , on Saturday Night Live . On 4 June 2012 , she sang `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' at the Diamond Jubilee Concert in front of the Buckingham Palace , held in honour of Elizabeth II 's completion of 60 years as Queen . Minogue wore a pearl - studded black jacket and hat for the performance . The dance troupe Flawless , who had been finalists on the British television talent show Britain 's Got Talent , served as Minogue 's backup dancers . More recently , Minogue has performed a version of the song remixed by Steve Anderson . She performed the version during her `` MasterCard Pricless Gig '' and other mini-concerts to promote her twelfth studio album Kiss Me Once . It was performed during her seven - song set at the 2014 Commonwealth Games closing ceremony , as the final song of her performance . She also performed on the French TV show Le Grand Journal along with `` I Was Gonna Cancel . '' Following its release , `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' has been performed by Minogue during all of her concert tours as of 2013 , with the exception of the Anti Tour in 2012 . In 2001 , the song was included in the setlist of Minogue 's On a Night Like This tour , which was launched to promote Light Years . According to Tim DiGravina from AllMusic , the performance was infused with an `` almost tangible passion and fire . '' The song was included in the encore segment of the KylieFever2002 tour , which was launched to promote Fever . In 2003 , Minogue performed the song on the one - night only concert Money Ca n't Buy , which concert was used to promote her ninth studio album , Body Language , and was held at major entertainment venue Hammersmith Apollo in London . During the performance , `` a visual flurry of quasi-Japanese symbols '' was projected onto large digital screens set behind the stage , and dancers wearing bondage costumes carried out a `` robotic '' dance routine . Minogue performing `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' on the Aphrodite : Les Folies Tour , 2011 . In 2005 , she performed the song on her Showgirl : The Greatest Hits Tour . But Minogue was unable to complete the tour , as she was diagnosed with early breast cancer and had to cancel the Australian leg of the tour . After undergoing treatment and recovery , Minogue resumed the concert tour in the form of Showgirl : The Homecoming Tour in 2007 , and she included `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' on the setlist . In 2008 , she performed the song on the KylieX2008 tour , which was launched to promote her tenth studio album , X . The show was split into five acts ; `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' was featured on the first act , titled `` Xlectro Static , '' in a mashup with the song `` Boombox . '' In 2009 , she performed the same version of the song on the For You , for Me tour , which was her first concert tour in North America . A more rock - oriented version of the song was performed during the Aphrodite : Les Folies Tour , which was launched to promote her eleventh studio album , Aphrodite . It was regarded as `` seemingly inspired by the crunch of Janet Jackson 's `` Black Cat . '' During the performance , male back - up dancers in `` S&M dog collars '' danced with female back - up dancers , who were dressed in red ballroom gowns . In 2012 , Minogue promoted The Abbey Road Sessions by performing on the BBC Proms in the Park at Hyde Park , London . During the event , she also sang the orchestral version of `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head . '' More recently , the Steve Anderson remix was performed on Minogue 's Kiss Me Once Tour and Kylie Summer 2015 Tour . It followed a performance of `` Sexercize '' in the fourth section , and an interlude dubbed the `` Sex Segue . '' She also performed this version during the 2015 Royal Albert Hall performance as part of her `` Kylie Christmas '' concert . Legacy ( edit ) Commercial impact ( edit ) Following its release , `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' peaked at number one on the charts of every European country ( except Finland ) , Australia , New Zealand and Canada . The song reportedly reached number one in 40 countries worldwide , and as of 2013 , it has sold over seven million copies . In the United Kingdom , the total sales of the song are accumulated to be around 1.16 million units , thus making it the 75th best - selling single in the United Kingdom of all time . It is Minogue 's highest selling single as of 2013 and also one of the best - selling singles of all time . As of June 2015 , it is the 28th best - selling single of the millennium in the United Kingdom . The song is notable for being Minogue 's biggest and strongest commercial breakthrough in the United States , a region in which Minogue had previously managed to achieve little success . The commercial success of `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' in the US is often considered to have piloted its parent album Fever to achieve similar success in the region . The album would later peak at number three on the Billboard 200 chart , and attain a platinum certification from the Recording Industry Association of America for shipments of 1,000,000 units . Fever reportedly sold over six million copies worldwide , becoming Minogue 's highest selling album as of 2013 . Cultural impact ( edit ) Eventually , with the hugely successful `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head , '' Kylie would rattle the American pop psyche , reminding the rather insular scene that the bubbly girl who had first made waves with the 1987 cover of `` The Loco - Motion '' had developed into a stylish , experienced , and able pop performer with a clear agenda -- both musically and visually -- and the chops to match . -- Chris True , in his biography of Minogue at AllMusic . In 2011 , Rolling Stone magazine ranked `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' at number 45 on `` 100 Best Songs of the 2000s '' list , noting that Minogue had `` seduced the U.S. with this mirror - ball classic '' and that `` we 've been hearing it at the gym ever since . '' NME ranked the song at number 74 on their `` 100 Best Track of the Noughties '' list , saying it `` encapsulated everything enviable in a well - crafted song '' and heralding it as Minogue 's best single . In 2012 , Priya Elan from NME ranked the song at number four on his `` The Greatest Pop Songs in History '' list , saying : `` It was unlike any song I remember hearing before . '' In 2012 , The Guardian included the song in their list of `` The Best Number One Records , '' labelling it to be `` sleek , Arctic - blue minimalism , like an emotionally thwarted retelling of Donna Summer 's `` I Feel Love . '' In the same year , PRS for Music , a UK copyright collection society and performance rights organisation which collects royalties on behalf of songwriters and composers , named `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' the `` Most Popular Song of the Decade '' as it received the highest airplay and live covers in the 2000s ( decade ) . Minogue performing `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' during her KylieX Tour ( 2008 ) . In 2013 , a survey of 700 people was conducted as part of the Manchester Science Festival to find out which song they considered the `` catchiest , '' and `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' topped the poll . Lee Barron , in his essay The Seven Ages of Kylie Minogue : Postmodernism , Identity , and Performative Mimicry , noted that the song `` further established Minogue 's cultural and commercial relevance in the new millennium . '' He remarked that the song `` with its hypnotic ' la la la ' refrain and the deceptively uncomplicated , catchily repetitive beats and synth - sound , marked yet another clearly defined image transformation from the camp - infused Light Years to an emphasis upon a cool , machine - like sexuality , a trait clearly identifiable within the promotional video for ' Ca n't Get You Out of My Head . ' '' Similarly , Everett True from The Guardian wrote that the song continued the `` change in the marketing and public perception of Kylie '' and her transition from the `` homely girl - next - door '' to `` a much more flirtatious , sophisticated persona '' that started with the release of `` Spinning Around '' in 2000 . True also felt that the success of `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' was one of the motivating factors behind `` manufactured '' pop music gaining a `` new postmodern respectability '' and marked a `` clear shift in attitude towards pop music among the ' serious ' rock critic fraternity : the idea that ( manufactured , female ) pop music might well be the equal of ( organic , male ) rock music after all , that each has their high points and their low . '' In 2011 , Minogue 's official website posted a special article marking the song 's 10th anniversary on 8 September , the release date of `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' in Australia . `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' is recognised as Minogue 's signature song . `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' garnered Minogue a number of awards . At the 2001 Top of the Pops Awards ceremony , the song won the award for `` Best Single . '' At the 2002 ARIA Music Awards ceremony , `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' won the awards for `` Single of the Year '' and `` Highest Selling Single , '' and Minogue won the `` Outstanding Achievement Award . '' In 2002 , it won a Dutch Edison Award for `` Single of the Year . '' In the same year , Dennis and Davis won three awards at the 47th Ivor Novello Awards for their composition of the song ; they won the awards `` The Ivors Dance Award , '' `` Most Performed Work , '' and `` International Hit of the Year . '' At the inaugural Premios Oye ! in 2002 , the song received a nomination in the category of `` Song of the Year . '' In the 2007 episode of The Simpsons , `` Homerazzi '' , the track is heard playing in a celebrity - packed nightclub into which Homer storms . The track is also heard in the films Bridget Jones : The Edge of Reason , Hey Good Looking ! , Holy Motors , and 20,000 Days on Earth . The `` Ca n't Get Blue Monday Out of My Head '' mash - up is heard in the film Layer Cake , and New Order themselves sampled the song during their 2005 Coachella set as they performed `` Blue Monday '' . Formats and track listings ( edit ) These are the formats and track listings of major single releases of `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head : '' CD single # 1 `` Ca n't Get You Out Of My Head '' -- 3 : 50 `` Boy '' -- 3 : 47 `` Rendezvous at Sunset '' -- 3 : 23 CD single # 2 `` Ca n't Get You Out Of My Head '' - 3 : 50 `` Ca n't Get You Out Of My Head '' ( K & M Mindprint Mix ) - 6 : 34 `` Ca n't Get You Out Of My Head '' ( Plastika Mix ) - 9 : 26 Digital download `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' -- 3 : 52 `` Boy '' -- 3 : 48 Charts ( edit ) Weekly charts ( edit ) Chart ( 2001 -- 02 ) Peak position Australia ( ARIA ) Austria ( Ö3 Austria Top 40 ) Belgium ( Ultratop 50 Flanders ) Belgium ( Ultratop 50 Wallonia ) Brazil ( ABPD ) Canada ( Canadian Hot 100 ) Denmark ( Tracklisten ) Finland ( Suomen virallinen lista ) 5 France ( SNEP ) Germany ( Official German Charts ) Greece ( IFPI Greece ) Ireland ( IRMA ) Italy ( FIMI ) Netherlands ( Single Top 100 ) New Zealand ( Recorded Music NZ ) Norway ( VG - lista ) Poland ( Polish Singles Chart ) Portugal ( Billboard ) Romania ( Romanian Top 100 ) Scotland ( Official Charts Company ) South Africa ( RiSA ) Spain ( PROMUSICAE ) Sweden ( Sverigetopplistan ) Switzerland ( Schweizer Hitparade ) UK Singles ( Official Charts Company ) US Billboard Hot 100 7 US Adult Top 40 ( Billboard ) 23 US Dance Club Songs ( Billboard ) US Mainstream Top 40 ( Billboard ) US Rhythmic ( Billboard ) 9 Year - end charts ( edit ) Chart ( 2001 ) Position Australian Singles Chart Austrian Singles Chart Belgian Singles Chart ( Flanders ) 8 Belgian Singles Chart ( Wallonia ) 7 Dutch Top 40 French Singles Chart 8 German Singles Chart 6 Irish Singles Chart 7 Italian Singles Chart New Zealand ( Recorded Music NZ ) 45 Romanian Singles Chart Swiss Singles Chart UK Singles Chart Chart ( 2002 ) Position Austrian Singles Chart 50 French Singles Chart 36 Swiss Singles Chart 26 US Billboard Hot 100 45 Decade - end charts ( edit ) Country Position Australia 58 Germany 67 Netherlands 15 United Kingdom 7 All Time Charts ( edit ) Country Position UK Singles Chart 72 Certifications ( edit ) Region Certification Certified units / Sales Australia ( ARIA ) 3 × Platinum 210,000 Austria ( IFPI Austria ) Platinum 40,000 Belgium ( BEA ) 2 × Platinum 100,000 France ( SNEP ) Platinum 918,000 Germany ( BVMI ) Platinum 500,000 Greece ( IFPI Greece ) Platinum 20,000 Italy ( FIMI ) Platinum 50,000 Netherlands ( NVPI ) Platinum 60,000 New Zealand ( RMNZ ) Gold 5,000 Norway ( IFPI Norway ) Platinum 10,000 South Africa Platinum 50,000 ^ Sweden ( GLF ) Platinum 30,000 Switzerland ( IFPI Switzerland ) Platinum 40,000 United Kingdom ( BPI ) 2 × Platinum 1,200,000 United States ( RIAA ) Gold 531,000 sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : True , Chris . `` Kylie Minogue -- Biography '' . Allmusic . Rovi Corporation . Retrieved 21 July 2013 . Jump up ^ `` ARIA Charts -- Accreditations -- 2001 Albums '' . Australian Recording Industry Association . Archived from the original on 17 January 2010 . Retrieved 21 July 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` Certified Awards '' . British Phonographic Industry . Archived from the original on 6 February 2013 . Retrieved 21 July 2013 . Jump up ^ `` ARIA Charts -- Accreditations -- 2000 Singles '' . Australian Recording Industry Association . Archived from the original on 20 April 2009 . Retrieved 21 July 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` Ten Years Ago On 8Th September 2001 ... '' Kylie.com . Parlophone Records . 8 September 2011 . Archived from the original on 31 May 2012 . Retrieved 16 August 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' . Kylie.com . Parlophone Records . Archived from the original on 27 February 2014 . 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Recording Industry Association of America . If necessary , click Advanced , then click Format , then select Single , then click SEARCH Jump up ^ Trust , Gary ( 4 March 2011 ) . `` Ask Billboard : Katy Perry , Kylie Minogue , Cee Lo Green '' . Billboard . Retrieved 29 April 2013 . Further reading ( edit ) The Complete Kylie , Simon Sheridan , Reynolds & Hearn Books ( February 2009 ) . ( 2nd ed . ) ISBN 1 - 905287 - 89 - 5 External links ( edit ) A page on `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' at Kylie Minogue 's official website Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics Kylie Minogue songs Singles discography Kylie `` I Should Be So Lucky '' `` The Loco - Motion '' `` Je ne sais pas pourquoi '' `` It 's No Secret '' `` Got to Be Certain '' `` Turn It into Love '' Enjoy Yourself `` Hand on Your Heart '' `` Would n't Change a Thing '' `` Never Too Late '' `` Tears on My Pillow '' `` Especially for You '' Rhythm of Love `` Better the Devil You Know '' `` Step Back in Time '' `` What Do I Have to Do '' `` Shocked '' Let 's Get to It `` Word Is Out '' `` Give Me Just a Little More Time '' `` Finer Feelings '' `` If You Were with Me Now '' `` I Guess I Like It Like That '' Greatest Hits `` What Kind of Fool ( Heard All That Before ) '' `` Celebration '' Kylie Minogue `` Confide in Me '' `` Put Yourself in My Place '' `` Where Is the Feeling ? '' Impossible Princess `` Too Far '' `` Cowboy Style '' `` Some Kind of Bliss '' `` Did It Again '' `` Breathe '' Light Years `` Spinning Around '' `` On a Night Like This '' `` Your Disco Needs You '' `` Please Stay '' `` Butterfly '' `` Kids '' Fever `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' `` In Your Eyes '' `` Love at First Sight '' `` Come into My World '' Body Language `` Slow '' `` Red Blooded Woman '' `` Chocolate '' Ultimate Kylie `` I Believe in You '' `` Giving You Up '' X `` 2 Hearts '' `` Wow '' `` In My Arms '' `` Speakerphone '' `` All I See '' `` The One '' Aphrodite `` All the Lovers '' `` Get Outta My Way '' `` Put Your Hands Up ( If You Feel Love ) '' `` Aphrodite '' `` Better than Today '' A Kylie Christmas `` Let It Snow '' `` Santa Baby '' The Abbey Road Sessions `` Flower '' Kiss Me Once `` Into the Blue '' `` I Was Gonna Cancel '' `` Sexercize '' `` Beautiful '' Kylie + Garibay `` Black and White '' Kylie Christmas `` It 's the Most Wonderful Time of the Year '' `` Santa Claus Is Comin ' to Town '' `` Winter Wonderland '' `` Christmas Wrapping '' `` Only You '' `` Every Day 's Like Christmas '' `` I 'm Gonna Be Warm This Winter '' `` 2000 Miles '' `` Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas '' `` 100 Degrees '' Kylie Christmas : Snow Queen Edition `` Stay Another Day '' `` At Christmas '' `` Wonderful Christmastime '' `` I Wish It Could Be Christmas Everyday '' `` Christmas Lights '' `` Everybody 's Free ( To Feel Good ) '' `` Night Fever '' Golden `` Dancing '' `` Stop Me from Falling '' `` Raining Glitter '' ARIA Award for Single of the Year `` You 're the Voice '' by John Farnham ( 1987 ) `` Beds Are Burning '' by Midnight Oil ( 1988 ) `` Under the Milky Way '' by The Church ( 1989 ) `` Crying in the Chapel '' by Peter Blakeley ( 1990 ) `` I Do n't Wanna Be with Nobody But You '' by Absent Friends ( 1991 ) `` Treaty ( Filthy Lucre Remix ) '' by Yothu Yindi ( 1992 ) `` The Day You Went Away '' by Wendy Matthews ( 1993 ) `` The Honeymoon Is Over '' by The Cruel Sea ( 1994 ) `` Tomorrow '' by Silverchair ( 1995 ) `` Where the Wild Roses Grow '' by Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds and Kylie Minogue ( 1996 ) `` Truly Madly Deeply '' by Savage Garden ( 1997 ) `` Torn '' by Natalie Imbruglia ( 1998 ) `` The Day You Come '' by Powderfinger ( 1999 ) `` Do n't Call Me Baby '' by Madison Avenue ( 2000 ) `` My Happiness '' by Powderfinger ( 2001 ) `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' by Kylie Minogue ( 2002 ) `` Born to Try '' by Delta Goodrem ( 2003 ) `` Are You Gonna Be My Girl '' by Jet ( 2004 ) `` Catch My Disease '' by Ben Lee ( 2005 ) `` Black Fingernails , Red Wine '' by Eskimo Joe ( 2006 ) `` Straight Lines '' by Silverchair ( 2007 ) `` Sweet About Me '' by Gabriella Cilmi ( 2008 ) `` Walking on a Dream '' by Empire of the Sun ( 2009 ) `` Big Jet Plane '' by Angus & Julia Stone ( 2010 ) `` Somebody That I Used to Know '' by Gotye featuring Kimbra ( 2011 ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Can%27t_Get_You_Out_of_My_Head&oldid=838110772 '' Categories : Kylie Minogue songs 2001 singles 2002 singles 2001 songs ARIA Award - 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who wrote cant get you out of my head lyrics

Cathy Dennis and Rob Davis

Kylie Minogue

Hamlet - wikipedia Hamlet Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the play by William Shakespeare . For other uses , see Hamlet ( disambiguation ) . The American actor Edwin Booth as Hamlet , ca . 1870 The Tragedy of Hamlet , Prince of Denmark , often shortened to Hamlet ( / ˈhæmlɪt / ) , is a tragedy written by William Shakespeare at an uncertain date between 1599 and 1602 . Set in Denmark , the play dramatises the revenge Prince Hamlet is called to wreak upon his uncle , Claudius , by the ghost of Hamlet 's father , King Hamlet . Claudius had murdered his own brother and seized the throne , also marrying his deceased brother 's widow . Hamlet is Shakespeare 's longest play , and is considered among the most powerful and influential works of world literature , with a story capable of `` seemingly endless retelling and adaptation by others '' . It was probably one of Shakespeare 's most popular works during his lifetime , and still ranks among his most performed , topping the performance list of the Royal Shakespeare Company and its predecessors in Stratford - upon - Avon since 1879 . It has inspired many other writers -- from Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Charles Dickens to James Joyce and Iris Murdoch -- and has been described as `` the world 's most filmed story after Cinderella '' . The story of Shakespeare 's Hamlet was derived from the legend of Amleth , preserved by 13th - century chronicler Saxo Grammaticus in his Gesta Danorum , as subsequently retold by the 16th - century scholar François de Belleforest . Shakespeare may also have drawn on an earlier Elizabethan play known today as the Ur - Hamlet , though some scholars believe he himself wrote the Ur - Hamlet , later revising it to create the version of Hamlet we now have . He almost certainly wrote his version of the title role for his fellow actor , Richard Burbage , the leading tragedian of Shakespeare 's time . In the 400 years since its inception , the role has been performed by numerous highly acclaimed actors in each successive century . Three different early versions of the play are extant : the First Quarto ( Q1 , 1603 ) ; the Second Quarto ( Q2 , 1604 ) ; and the First Folio ( F1 , 1623 ) . Each version includes lines and entire scenes missing from the others . The play 's structure and depth of characterisation have inspired much critical scrutiny . One such example is the centuries - old debate about Hamlet 's hesitation to kill his uncle , which some see as merely a plot device to prolong the action , but which others argue is a dramatisation of the complex philosophical and ethical issues that surround cold - blooded murder , calculated revenge , and thwarted desire . More recently , psychoanalytic critics have examined Hamlet 's unconscious desires , while feminist critics have re-evaluated and attempted to rehabilitate the often maligned characters of Ophelia and Gertrude . Contents ( hide ) 1 Characters 2 Plot 2.1 Act I 2.2 Act II 2.3 Act III 2.4 Act IV 2.5 Act V 3 Sources 4 Date 5 Texts 6 Analysis and criticism 6.1 Critical history 6.2 Dramatic structure 6.3 Length 6.4 Language 7 Context and interpretation 7.1 Religious 7.2 Philosophical 7.3 Psychoanalytic 7.4 Feminist 8 Influence 9 Performance history 9.1 Shakespeare 's day to the Interregnum 9.2 Restoration and 18th century 9.3 19th century 9.4 20th century 9.5 21st century 9.6 Film and TV performances 9.7 Stage pastiches 10 Notes and references 10.1 Notes 10.2 References 11 Sources 11.1 Editions of Hamlet 11.2 Secondary sources 12 External links 12.1 Texts 12.2 Analysis 12.3 Related works Characters ( edit ) Main article : Characters in Hamlet Hamlet -- Son of the late King and nephew of the present King , Claudius . Claudius -- King of Denmark , Hamlet 's uncle and brother to the former King Gertrude -- Queen of Denmark and Hamlet 's mother Polonius -- Chief counsellor to the king Ophelia -- Polonius 's daughter Horatio -- Friend to Hamlet Laertes -- Polonius 's son Voltimand and Cornelius -- Courtiers Rosencrantz and Guildenstern -- Courtiers , friends of Hamlet Osric -- a Courtier Marcellus -- an Officer Barnardo -- an Officer Francisco -- a Soldier Reynaldo -- Polonius 's servant Ghost of Hamlet 's Father Fortinbras -- Prince of Norway Gravediggers -- a Sexton Player King , Player Queen , Lucianus etc. -- Players Plot ( edit ) Act I ( edit ) The protagonist of Hamlet is Prince Hamlet of Denmark , son of the recently deceased King Hamlet , and nephew of King Claudius , his father 's brother and successor . Claudius hastily married King Hamlet 's widow , Gertrude , Hamlet 's mother , and took the throne for himself . Denmark has a long - standing feud with neighbouring Norway , in which King Hamlet slew King Fortinbras of Norway in a battle some years ago . Although Denmark defeated Norway , and the Norwegian throne fell to King Fortinbras 's infirm brother , Denmark fears that an invasion led by the dead Norwegian king 's son , Prince Fortinbras , is imminent . On a cold night on the ramparts of Elsinore , the Danish royal castle , the sentries Bernardo and Marcellus discuss a ghost resembling the late King Hamlet which they have recently seen , and bring Prince Hamlet 's friend Horatio as a witness . After the ghost appears again , the three vow to tell Prince Hamlet what they have witnessed . As the court gathers the next day , while King Claudius and Queen Gertrude discuss affairs of state with their elderly adviser Polonius , Hamlet looks on glumly . During the court , Claudius grants permission for Polonius 's son Laertes to return to school in France , and sends envoys to inform the King of Norway about Fortinbras . Claudius also scolds Hamlet for continuing to grieve over his father , and forbids him from returning to his schooling in Wittenberg . After the court exits , Hamlet despairs of his father 's death and his mother 's hasty remarriage . Learning of the ghost from Horatio , Hamlet resolves to see it himself . Horatio , Hamlet , and the ghost ( Artist : Henry Fuseli , 1789 ) As Polonius 's son Laertes prepares to depart for a visit to France , Polonius gives him contradictory advice that culminates in the ironic maxim `` to thine own self be true . '' Polonius 's daughter , Ophelia , admits her interest in Hamlet , but Laertes warns her against seeking the prince 's attention , and Polonius orders her to reject his advances . That night on the rampart , the ghost appears to Hamlet , telling the prince that he has been condemned to Purgatory due to his inability to receive his last rites . He further explains that he was murdered by Claudius and demands that Hamlet avenge him . Hamlet agrees and the ghost vanishes . The prince confides to Horatio and the sentries that from now on he plans to `` put an antic disposition on '' , or act as though he has gone mad , and forces them to swear to keep his plans for revenge secret . Privately , however , he remains uncertain of the ghost 's reliability . Act II ( edit ) After the departure of Laertes , Polonius sends his servant Reynaldo to Paris to spy on his son . Soon thereafter , Ophelia rushes to her father , telling him that Hamlet arrived at her door the prior night half - undressed and behaving erratically . Polonius blames love for Hamlet 's madness and resolves to inform Claudius and Gertrude . As he enters to do so , the king and queen finish welcoming Rosencrantz and Guildenstern , two student acquaintances of Hamlet , to Elsinore . The royal couple has requested that the students investigate the cause of Hamlet 's mood and behaviour . Additional news requires that Polonius wait to be heard : messengers from Norway inform Claudius that the King of Norway has rebuked Prince Fortinbras for attempting to re-fight his father 's battles . The forces that Fortinbras had conscripted to march against Denmark will instead be sent against Poland , though they will pass through Danish territory to get there . Polonius tells Claudius and Gertrude his theory regarding Hamlet 's behaviour , and speaks to Hamlet in a hall of the castle to try to uncover more information . Hamlet feigns madness but subtly insults Polonius all the while . When Rosencrantz and Guildenstern arrive , Hamlet greets his `` friends '' warmly , but quickly discerns that they are spies . Hamlet becomes bitter , admitting that he is upset at his situation but refusing to give the true reason why , instead commenting on `` what a piece of work '' humanity is . Rosencrantz and Guildenstern tell Hamlet that they have brought along a troupe of actors that they met while traveling to Elsinore . Hamlet , after welcoming the actors and dismissing his friends - turned - spies , asks them to deliver a soliloquy about the death of King Priam and Queen Hecuba at the climax of the Trojan War . Impressed by their delivery of the speech , he plots to stage The Murder of Gonzago , a play featuring a death in the style of his father 's murder , and to determine the truth of the ghost 's story , as well as Claudius 's guilt or innocence , by studying Claudius 's reaction . Act III ( edit ) Polonius forces Ophelia to return Hamlet 's love letters and tokens of affection to the prince while he and Claudius watch from afar to evaluate Hamlet 's reaction . Hamlet is walking alone in the hall as the King and Polonius await Ophelia 's entrance , musing whether `` to be or not to be '' . When Ophelia enters and tries to return Hamlet 's things , Hamlet accuses her of immodesty and cries `` get thee to a nunnery '' , though it is unclear whether this , too , is a show of madness or genuine distress . His reaction convinces Claudius that Hamlet is not mad for love . Shortly thereafter , the court assembles to watch the play Hamlet has commissioned . After seeing the Player King murdered by his rival pouring poison in his ear , Claudius abruptly rises and runs from the room : for Hamlet , proof positive of his uncle 's guilt . Hamlet mistakenly stabs Polonius ( Artist : Coke Smyth , 19th century ) . Gertrude summons Hamlet to her room to demand an explanation . Meanwhile , Claudius soliloquizes about the impossibility of repenting , since he still has possession of his ill - gotten goods : his brother 's crown and wife . He sinks to his knees . Hamlet , on his way to visit his mother , sneaks up behind him , but does not kill him , reasoning that killing Claudius while he is praying will send him straight to heaven while his father 's ghost is stuck in purgatory . In the queen 's bedchamber , Hamlet and Gertrude fight bitterly . Polonius , spying on the conversation from behind a tapestry , makes a noise . Hamlet , believing it is Claudius , stabs wildly , killing Polonius , but pulls aside the curtain and sees his mistake . In a rage , Hamlet brutally insults his mother for her apparent ignorance of Claudius 's villainy , but the ghost enters and reprimands Hamlet for his inaction and harsh words . Unable to see or hear the ghost herself , Gertrude takes Hamlet 's conversation with it as further evidence of madness . After begging the queen to stop sleeping with Claudius , Hamlet leaves , dragging Polonius 's corpse away . Act IV ( edit ) Hamlet jokes with Claudius about where he has hidden Polonius 's body , and the king , fearing for his life , sends Rosencrantz and Guildenstern to accompany Hamlet to England with a sealed letter to the English king requesting that Hamlet be executed immediately . Demented by grief at Polonius 's death , Ophelia wanders Elsinore . Laertes arrives back from France , enraged by his father 's death and his sister 's madness . Claudius convinces Laertes that Hamlet is solely responsible , but a letter soon arrives indicating that Hamlet has returned to Denmark , foiling Claudius ' plan . Claudius switches tactics , proposing a fencing match between Laertes and Hamlet to settle their differences . Laertes will be given a poison - tipped foil , and Claudius will offer Hamlet poisoned wine as a congratulation if that fails . Gertrude interrupts to report that Ophelia has drowned , though it is unclear whether it was suicide or an accident exacerbated by her madness . The gravedigger scene ( Artist : Eugène Delacroix , 1839 ) Act v ( edit ) Horatio has received a letter from Hamlet , explaining that the prince escaped by negotiating with pirates who attempted to attack his England - bound ship , and the friends reunite offstage . Two gravediggers discuss Ophelia 's apparent suicide while digging her grave . Hamlet arrives with Horatio and banters with one of the gravediggers , who unearths the skull of a jester from Hamlet 's childhood , Yorick . Hamlet picks up the skull , saying `` alas , poor Yorick '' as he contemplates mortality . Ophelia 's funeral procession approaches , led by Laertes . Hamlet and Horatio initially hide , but when Hamlet realizes that Ophelia is the one being buried , he reveals himself , proclaiming his love for her . Laertes and Hamlet fight by Ophelia 's graveside , but the brawl is broken up . Back at Elsinore , Hamlet explains to Horatio that he had discovered Claudius 's letter with Rosencrantz and Guildenstern 's belongings and replaced it with a forged copy indicating that his former friends should be killed instead . A foppish courtier , Osric , interrupts the conversation to deliver the fencing challenge to Hamlet . Hamlet , despite Horatio 's pleas , accepts it . Hamlet does well at first , leading the match by two hits to none , and Gertrude raises a toast to him using the poisoned glass of wine Claudius had set aside for Hamlet . Claudius tries to stop her , but is too late : she drinks , and Laertes realizes the plot will be revealed . Laertes slashes Hamlet with his poisoned blade . In the ensuing scuffle , they switch weapons and Hamlet wounds Laertes with his own poisoned sword . Gertrude collapses and , claiming she has been poisoned , dies . In his dying moments , Laertes reconciles with Hamlet and reveals Claudius 's plan . Hamlet rushes at Claudius and kills him . As the poison takes effect , Hamlet , hearing that Fortinbras is marching through the area , names the Norwegian prince as his successor . Horatio , distraught at the thought of being the last survivor and living whilst Hamlet does not , says he will commit suicide by drinking the dregs of Gertrude 's poisoned wine , but Hamlet begs him to live on and tell his story . Hamlet dies in Horatio 's arms , proclaiming `` the rest is silence '' . Fortinbras , who was ostensibly marching towards Poland with his army , arrives at the palace , along with an English ambassador bringing news of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern 's deaths . Horatio promises to recount the full story of what happened , and Fortinbras , seeing the entire Danish royal family dead , takes the crown for himself , and orders a military funeral to honour Hamlet . Sources ( edit ) Main article : Sources of Hamlet A facsimile of Gesta Danorum by Saxo Grammaticus , which contains the legend of Amleth Hamlet - like legends are so widely found ( for example in Italy , Spain , Scandinavia , Byzantium , and Arabia ) that the core `` hero - as - fool '' theme is possibly Indo - European in origin . Several ancient written precursors to Hamlet can be identified . The first is the anonymous Scandinavian Saga of Hrolf Kraki . In this , the murdered king has two sons -- Hroar and Helgi -- who spend most of the story in disguise , under false names , rather than feigning madness , in a sequence of events that differs from Shakespeare 's . The second is the Roman legend of Brutus , recorded in two separate Latin works . Its hero , Lucius ( `` shining , light '' ) , changes his name and persona to Brutus ( `` dull , stupid '' ) , playing the role of a fool to avoid the fate of his father and brothers , and eventually slaying his family 's killer , King Tarquinius . A 17th - century Nordic scholar , Torfaeus , compared the Icelandic hero Amlodi and the Spanish hero Prince Ambales ( from the Ambales Saga ) to Shakespeare 's Hamlet . Similarities include the prince 's feigned madness , his accidental killing of the king 's counsellor in his mother 's bedroom , and the eventual slaying of his uncle . Many of the earlier legendary elements are interwoven in the 13th - century `` Life of Amleth '' ( Latin : Vita Amlethi ) by Saxo Grammaticus , part of Gesta Danorum . Written in Latin , it reflects classical Roman concepts of virtue and heroism , and was widely available in Shakespeare 's day . Significant parallels include the prince feigning madness , his mother 's hasty marriage to the usurper , the prince killing a hidden spy , and the prince substituting the execution of two retainers for his own . A reasonably faithful version of Saxo 's story was translated into French in 1570 by François de Belleforest , in his Histoires tragiques . Belleforest embellished Saxo 's text substantially , almost doubling its length , and introduced the hero 's melancholy . Title page of The Spanish Tragedy by Thomas Kyd According to one theory , Shakespeare 's main source is an earlier play -- now lost -- known today as the Ur - Hamlet . Possibly written by Thomas Kyd or even William Shakespeare , the Ur - Hamlet would have existed by 1589 , and would have incorporated a ghost . Shakespeare 's company , the Chamberlain 's Men , may have purchased that play and performed a version for some time , which Shakespeare reworked . However , since no copy of the Ur - Hamlet has survived , it is impossible to compare its language and style with the known works of any of its putative authors . Consequently , there is no direct evidence that Kyd wrote it , nor any evidence that the play was not an early version of Hamlet by Shakespeare himself . This latter idea -- placing Hamlet far earlier than the generally accepted date , with a much longer period of development -- has attracted some support . The upshot is that scholars can not assert with any confidence how much material Shakespeare took from the Ur - Hamlet ( if it even existed ) , how much from Belleforest or Saxo , and how much from other contemporary sources ( such as Kyd 's The Spanish Tragedy ) . No clear evidence exists that Shakespeare made any direct references to Saxo 's version . However , elements of Belleforest 's version which are not in Saxo 's story do appear in Shakespeare 's play . Whether Shakespeare took these from Belleforest directly or from the hypothetical Ur - Hamlet remains unclear . Most scholars reject the idea that Hamlet is in any way connected with Shakespeare 's only son , Hamnet Shakespeare , who died in 1596 at age eleven . Conventional wisdom holds that Hamlet is too obviously connected to legend , and the name Hamnet was quite popular at the time . However , Stephen Greenblatt has argued that the coincidence of the names and Shakespeare 's grief for the loss of his son may lie at the heart of the tragedy . He notes that the name of Hamnet Sadler , the Stratford neighbour after whom Hamnet was named , was often written as Hamlet Sadler and that , in the loose orthography of the time , the names were virtually interchangeable . Scholars have often speculated that Hamlet 's Polonius might have been inspired by William Cecil ( Lord Burghley ) -- Lord High Treasurer and chief counsellor to Queen Elizabeth I. E.K. Chambers suggested Polonius 's advice to Laertes may have echoed Burghley 's to his son Robert Cecil . John Dover Wilson thought it almost certain that the figure of Polonius caricatured Burghley . A.L. Rowse speculated that Polonius 's tedious verbosity might have resembled Burghley 's . Lilian Winstanley thought the name Corambis ( in the First Quarto ) did suggest Cecil and Burghley . Harold Jenkins considers the idea that Polonius might be a caricature of Burghley is a conjecture , and may be based on the similar role they each played at court , and also on the fact that Burghley addressed his Ten Precepts to his son , as in the play Polonius offers `` precepts '' to Laertes , his son . Jenkins suggests that any personal satire may be found in the name `` Polonius '' , which might point to a Polish or Polonian connection . G.R. Hibbard hypothesised that differences in names ( Corambis / Polonius : Montano / Raynoldo ) between the First Quarto and other editions might reflect a desire not to offend scholars at Oxford University . Date ( edit ) John Barrymore as Hamlet ( 1922 ) `` Any dating of Hamlet must be tentative '' , cautions the New Cambridge editor , Phillip Edwards . The earliest date estimate relies on Hamlet 's frequent allusions to Shakespeare 's Julius Caesar , itself dated to mid-1599 . The latest date estimate is based on an entry , of 26 July 1602 , in the Register of the Stationers ' Company , indicating that Hamlet was `` latelie Acted by the Lo : Chamberleyne his servantes '' . In 1598 , Francis Meres published his Palladis Tamia , a survey of English literature from Chaucer to its present day , within which twelve of Shakespeare 's plays are named . Hamlet is not among them , suggesting that it had not yet been written . As Hamlet was very popular , Bernard Lott , the series editor of New Swan , believes it `` unlikely that he ( Meres ) would have overlooked ... so significant a piece '' . The phrase `` little eyases '' in the First Folio ( F1 ) may allude to the Children of the Chapel , whose popularity in London forced the Globe company into provincial touring . This became known as the War of the Theatres , and supports a 1601 dating . Katherine Duncan - Jones accepts a 1600 -- 1 attribution for the date Hamlet was written , but notes that the Lord Chamberlain 's Men , playing Hamlet in the 3000 - capacity Globe , were unlikely to be put to any disadvantage by an audience of `` barely one hundred '' for the Children of the Chapel 's equivalent play , Antonio 's Revenge ; she believes that Shakespeare , confident in the superiority of his own work , was making a playful and charitable allusion to his friend John Marston 's very similar piece . A contemporary of Shakespeare 's , Gabriel Harvey , wrote a marginal note in his copy of the 1598 edition of Chaucer 's works , which some scholars use as dating evidence . Harvey 's note says that `` the wiser sort '' enjoy Hamlet , and implies that the Earl of Essex -- executed in February 1601 for rebellion -- was still alive . Other scholars consider this inconclusive . Edwards , for example , concludes that the `` sense of time is so confused in Harvey 's note that it is really of little use in trying to date Hamlet '' . This is because the same note also refers to Spenser and Watson as if they were still alive ( `` our flourishing metricians '' ) , but also mentions `` Owen 's new epigrams '' , published in 1607 . Texts ( edit ) Title page of the 1605 printing ( Q2 ) of Hamlet Three early editions of the text have survived , making attempts to establish a single `` authentic '' text problematic and inconclusive . Each surviving edition differs from the others : First Quarto ( Q1 ) : In 1603 the booksellers Nicholas Ling and John Trundell published , and Valentine Simmes printed , the so - called `` bad '' first quarto . Q1 contains just over half of the text of the later second quarto . Second Quarto ( Q2 ) : In 1604 Nicholas Ling published , and James Roberts printed , the second quarto . Some copies are dated 1605 , which may indicate a second impression ; consequently , Q2 is often dated `` 1604 / 5 '' . Q2 is the longest early edition , although it omits about 77 lines found in F1 ( most likely to avoid offending James I 's queen , Anne of Denmark ) . First Folio ( F1 ) : In 1623 Edward Blount and William and Isaac Jaggard published the First Folio , the first edition of Shakespeare 's Complete Works . Other folios and quartos were subsequently published -- including John Smethwick 's Q3 , Q4 , and Q5 ( 1611 -- 37 ) -- but these are regarded as derivatives of the first three editions . The first page of the First Folio printing of Hamlet , 1623 Early editors of Shakespeare 's works , beginning with Nicholas Rowe ( 1709 ) and Lewis Theobald ( 1733 ) , combined material from the two earliest sources of Hamlet available at the time , Q2 and F1 . Each text contains material that the other lacks , with many minor differences in wording : scarcely 200 lines are identical in the two . Editors have combined them in an effort to create one `` inclusive '' text that reflects an imagined `` ideal '' of Shakespeare 's original . Theobald 's version became standard for a long time , and his `` full text '' approach continues to influence editorial practice to the present day . Some contemporary scholarship , however , discounts this approach , instead considering `` an authentic Hamlet an unrealisable ideal ... there are texts of this play but no text '' . The 2006 publication by Arden Shakespeare of different Hamlet texts in different volumes is perhaps evidence of this shifting focus and emphasis . Other editors have continued to argue the need for well - edited editions taking material from all versions of the play . Colin Burrow has argued that `` most of us should read a text that is made up by conflating all three versions ... it 's about as likely that Shakespeare wrote : `` To be or not to be , ay , there 's the point '' ( in Q1 ) , as that he wrote the works of Francis Bacon . I suspect most people just wo n't want to read a three - text play ... ( multi-text editions are ) a version of the play that is out of touch with the needs of a wider public . '' Traditionally , editors of Shakespeare 's plays have divided them into five acts . None of the early texts of Hamlet , however , were arranged this way , and the play 's division into acts and scenes derives from a 1676 quarto . Modern editors generally follow this traditional division , but consider it unsatisfactory ; for example , after Hamlet drags Polonius 's body out of Gertrude 's bedchamber , there is an act - break after which the action appears to continue uninterrupted . Comparison of the ' To be , or not to be ' soliloquy in the first three editions of Hamlet , showing the varying quality of the text in the Bad Quarto , the Good Quarto and the First Folio The discovery in 1823 of Q1 -- whose existence had been quite unsuspected -- caused considerable interest and excitement , raising many questions of editorial practice and interpretation . Scholars immediately identified apparent deficiencies in Q1 , which was instrumental in the development of the concept of a Shakespearean `` bad quarto '' . Yet Q1 has value : it contains stage directions ( such as Ophelia entering with a lute and her hair down ) that reveal actual stage practices in a way that Q2 and F1 do not ; it contains an entire scene ( usually labelled 4.6 ) that does not appear in either Q2 or F1 ; and it is useful for comparison with the later editions . The major deficiency of Q1 is in the language : particularly noticeable in the opening lines of the famous `` To be , or not to be '' soliloquy : `` To be , or not to be , aye there 's the point . / To die , to sleep , is that all ? Aye all : / No , to sleep , to dream , aye marry there it goes . '' However , the scene order is more coherent , without the problems of Q2 and F1 of Hamlet seeming to resolve something in one scene and enter the next drowning in indecision . New Cambridge editor Kathleen Irace has noted that `` Q1 's more linear plot design is certainly easier ( ... ) to follow ( ... ) but the simplicity of the Q1 plot arrangement eliminates the alternating plot elements that correspond to Hamlet 's shifts in mood . '' Q1 is considerably shorter than Q2 or F1 and may be a memorial reconstruction of the play as Shakespeare 's company performed it , by an actor who played a minor role ( most likely Marcellus ) . Scholars disagree whether the reconstruction was pirated or authorised . It is suggested by Irace that Q1 is an abridged version intended especially for travelling productions , thus the question of length may be considered as separate from issues of poor textual quality . Editing Q1 thus poses problems in whether or not to `` correct '' differences from Q2 and F. Irace , in her introduction to Q1 , wrote that `` I have avoided as many other alterations as possible , because the differences ... are especially intriguing ... I have recorded a selection of Q2 / F readings in the collation . '' The idea that Q1 is not riddled with error but is instead eminently fit for the stage has led to at least 28 different Q1 productions since 1881 . Other productions have used the probably superior Q2 and Folio texts , but used Q1 's running order , in particular moving the to be or not to be soliloquy earlier . Developing this , some editors such as Jonathan Bate have argued that Q2 may represent `` a ' reading ' text as opposed to a ' performance ' one '' of Hamlet , analogous to how modern films released on disc may include deleted scenes : an edition containing all of Shakespeare 's material for the play for the pleasure of readers , so not representing the play as it would have been staged . Analysis and criticism ( edit ) Main article : Critical approaches to Hamlet Critical History ( edit ) From the early 17th century , the play was famous for its ghost and vivid dramatisation of melancholy and insanity , leading to a procession of mad courtiers and ladies in Jacobean and Caroline drama . Though it remained popular with mass audiences , late 17th - century Restoration critics saw Hamlet as primitive and disapproved of its lack of unity and decorum . This view changed drastically in the 18th century , when critics regarded Hamlet as a hero -- a pure , brilliant young man thrust into unfortunate circumstances . By the mid-18th century , however , the advent of Gothic literature brought psychological and mystical readings , returning madness and the ghost to the forefront . Not until the late 18th century did critics and performers begin to view Hamlet as confusing and inconsistent . Before then , he was either mad , or not ; either a hero , or not ; with no in - betweens . These developments represented a fundamental change in literary criticism , which came to focus more on character and less on plot . By the 19th century , Romantic critics valued Hamlet for its internal , individual conflict reflecting the strong contemporary emphasis on internal struggles and inner character in general . Then too , critics started to focus on Hamlet 's delay as a character trait , rather than a plot device . This focus on character and internal struggle continued into the 20th century , when criticism branched in several directions , discussed in context and interpretation below . Dramatic structure ( edit ) Hamlet departed from contemporary dramatic convention in several ways . For example , in Shakespeare 's day , plays were usually expected to follow the advice of Aristotle in his Poetics : that a drama should focus on action , not character . In Hamlet , Shakespeare reverses this so that it is through the soliloquies , not the action , that the audience learns Hamlet 's motives and thoughts . The play is full of seeming discontinuities and irregularities of action , except in the `` bad '' quarto . At one point , as in the Gravedigger scene , Hamlet seems resolved to kill Claudius : in the next scene , however , when Claudius appears , he is suddenly tame . Scholars still debate whether these twists are mistakes or intentional additions to add to the play 's themes of confusion and duality . Hamlet also contains a recurrent Shakespearean device , a play within the play , a literary device or conceit in which one story is told during the action of another story . Length ( edit ) Hamlet is Shakespeare 's longest play . The Riverside edition constitutes 4,042 lines totaling 29,551 words , typically requiring over four hours to stage . It is rare that the play is performed without some abridgments , and only one film adaptation has used a full - text conflation : Kenneth Branagh 's 1996 version , which runs slightly more than four hours . Language ( edit ) Hamlet 's statement that his dark clothes are the outer sign of his inner grief demonstrates strong rhetorical skill ( artist : Eugène Delacroix 1834 ) . Much of Hamlet 's language is courtly : elaborate , witty discourse , as recommended by Baldassare Castiglione 's 1528 etiquette guide , The Courtier . This work specifically advises royal retainers to amuse their masters with inventive language . Osric and Polonius , especially , seem to respect this injunction . Claudius 's speech is rich with rhetorical figures -- as is Hamlet 's and , at times , Ophelia 's -- while the language of Horatio , the guards , and the gravediggers is simpler . Claudius 's high status is reinforced by using the royal first person plural ( `` we '' or `` us '' ) , and anaphora mixed with metaphor to resonate with Greek political speeches . Of all the characters , Hamlet has the greatest rhetorical skill . He uses highly developed metaphors , stichomythia , and in nine memorable words deploys both anaphora and asyndeton : `` to die : to sleep -- / To sleep , perchance to dream '' . In contrast , when occasion demands , he is precise and straightforward , as when he explains his inward emotion to his mother : `` But I have that within which passes show , / These but the trappings and the suits of woe '' . At times , he relies heavily on puns to express his true thoughts while simultaneously concealing them . His `` nunnery '' remarks to Ophelia are an example of a cruel double meaning as nunnery was Elizabethan slang for brothel . His very first words in the play are a pun ; when Claudius addresses him as `` my cousin Hamlet , and my son '' , Hamlet says as an aside : `` A little more than kin , and less than kind . '' An unusual rhetorical device , hendiadys , appears in several places in the play . Examples are found in Ophelia 's speech at the end of the nunnery scene : `` Th'expectancy and rose of the fair state '' and `` And I , of ladies most deject and wretched '' . Many scholars have found it odd that Shakespeare would , seemingly arbitrarily , use this rhetorical form throughout the play . One explanation may be that Hamlet was written later in Shakespeare 's life , when he was adept at matching rhetorical devices to characters and the plot . Linguist George T. Wright suggests that hendiadys had been used deliberately to heighten the play 's sense of duality and dislocation . Pauline Kiernan argues that Shakespeare changed English drama forever in Hamlet because he `` showed how a character 's language can often be saying several things at once , and contradictory meanings at that , to reflect fragmented thoughts and disturbed feelings '' . She gives the example of Hamlet 's advice to Ophelia , `` get thee to a nunnery '' , which is simultaneously a reference to a place of chastity and a slang term for a brothel , reflecting Hamlet 's confused feelings about female sexuality . Hamlet 's soliloquies have also captured the attention of scholars . Hamlet interrupts himself , vocalising either disgust or agreement with himself , and embellishing his own words . He has difficulty expressing himself directly and instead blunts the thrust of his thought with wordplay . It is not until late in the play , after his experience with the pirates , that Hamlet is able to articulate his feelings freely . Context and interpretation ( edit ) Religious ( edit ) John Everett Millais ' Ophelia ( 1852 ) depicts Lady Ophelia 's mysterious death by drowning . In the play , the gravediggers discuss whether Ophelia 's death was a suicide and whether she merits a Christian burial . Written at a time of religious upheaval , and in the wake of the English Reformation , the play is alternately Catholic ( or piously medieval ) and Protestant ( or consciously modern ) . The ghost describes himself as being in purgatory , and as dying without last rites . This and Ophelia 's burial ceremony , which is characteristically Catholic , make up most of the play 's Catholic connections . Some scholars have observed that revenge tragedies come from Catholic countries like Italy and Spain , where the revenge tragedies present contradictions of motives , since according to Catholic doctrine the duty to God and family precedes civil justice . Hamlet 's conundrum , then , is whether to avenge his father and kill Claudius , or to leave the vengeance to God , as his religion requires . Much of the play 's Protestant tones derive from its setting in Denmark -- both then and now a predominantly Protestant country , though it is unclear whether the fictional Denmark of the play is intended to portray this implicit fact . Dialog refers explicitly to Wittenberg , where Hamlet , Horatio , and Rosencrantz and Guildenstern attend university , implying where Martin Luther in 1517 first proposed his 95 theses and thereby initiated the Protestant Reformation . Philosophical ( edit ) Philosophical ideas in Hamlet are similar to those of the French writer Michel de Montaigne , a contemporary of Shakespeare 's ( artist : Thomas de Leu , fl. 1560 -- 1612 ) . Hamlet is often perceived as a philosophical character , expounding ideas that are now described as relativist , existentialist , and sceptical . For example , he expresses a subjectivistic idea when he says to Rosencrantz : `` there is nothing either good or bad , but thinking makes it so '' . The idea that nothing is real except in the mind of the individual finds its roots in the Greek Sophists , who argued that since nothing can be perceived except through the senses -- and since all individuals sense , and therefore perceive things differently -- there is no absolute truth , but rather only relative truth . The clearest alleged instance of existentialism is in the `` to be , or not to be '' speech , where Hamlet is thought by some to use `` being '' to allude to life and action , and `` not being '' to death and inaction . Hamlet reflects the contemporary scepticism promoted by the French Renaissance humanist Michel de Montaigne . Prior to Montaigne 's time , humanists such as Pico della Mirandola had argued that man was God 's greatest creation , made in God 's image and able to choose his own nature , but this view was subsequently challenged in Montaigne 's Essais of 1580 . Hamlet 's `` What a piece of work is a man '' seems to echo many of Montaigne 's ideas , and many scholars have discussed whether Shakespeare drew directly from Montaigne or whether both men were simply reacting similarly to the spirit of the times . Psychoanalytic ( edit ) Freud suggested that an unconscious Oedipal conflict caused Hamlet 's hesitations ( artist : Eugène Delacroix 1844 ) . In the first half of the 20th century , when psychoanalysis was at the height of its influence , its concepts were applied to Hamlet , notably by Sigmund Freud , Ernest Jones , and Jacques Lacan , and these studies influenced theatrical productions . In his The Interpretation of Dreams ( 1900 ) , Freud 's analysis starts from the premise that `` the play is built up on Hamlet 's hesitations over fulfilling the task of revenge that is assigned to him ; but its text offers no reasons or motives for these hesitations '' . After reviewing various literary theories , Freud concludes that Hamlet has an `` Oedipal desire for his mother and the subsequent guilt ( is ) preventing him from murdering the man ( Claudius ) who has done what he unconsciously wanted to do '' . Confronted with his repressed desires , Hamlet realises that `` he himself is literally no better than the sinner whom he is to punish '' . Freud suggests that Hamlet 's apparent `` distaste for sexuality '' -- articulated in his `` nunnery '' conversation with Ophelia -- accords with this interpretation . John Barrymore 's long - running 1922 performance in New York , directed by Thomas Hopkins , `` broke new ground in its Freudian approach to character '' , in keeping with the post-World War I rebellion against everything Victorian . He had a `` blunter intention '' than presenting the genteel , sweet prince of 19th - century tradition , imbuing his character with virility and lust . Beginning in 1910 , with the publication of `` The Œdipus - Complex as an Explanation of Hamlet 's Mystery : A Study in Motive '' Ernest Jones -- a psychoanalyst and Freud 's biographer -- developed Freud 's ideas into a series of essays that culminated in his book Hamlet and Oedipus ( 1949 ) . Influenced by Jones 's psychoanalytic approach , several productions have portrayed the `` closet scene '' , where Hamlet confronts his mother in her private quarters , in a sexual light . In this reading , Hamlet is disgusted by his mother 's `` incestuous '' relationship with Claudius while simultaneously fearful of killing him , as this would clear Hamlet 's path to his mother 's bed . Ophelia 's madness after her father 's death may also be read through the Freudian lens : as a reaction to the death of her hoped - for lover , her father . Ophelia is overwhelmed by having her unfulfilled love for him so abruptly terminated and drifts into the oblivion of insanity . In 1937 , Tyrone Guthrie directed Laurence Olivier in a Jones - inspired Hamlet at The Old Vic . Olivier later used some of these same ideas in his 1948 film version of the play . In the 1950s , Lacan 's structuralist theories about Hamlet were first presented in a series of seminars given in Paris and later published in `` Desire and the Interpretation of Desire in Hamlet '' . Lacan postulated that the human psyche is determined by structures of language and that the linguistic structures of Hamlet shed light on human desire . His point of departure is Freud 's Oedipal theories , and the central theme of mourning that runs through Hamlet . In Lacan 's analysis , Hamlet unconsciously assumes the role of phallus -- the cause of his inaction -- and is increasingly distanced from reality `` by mourning , fantasy , narcissism and psychosis '' , which create holes ( or lack ) in the real , imaginary , and symbolic aspects of his psyche . Lacan 's theories influenced literary criticism of Hamlet because of his alternative vision of the play and his use of semantics to explore the play 's psychological landscape . In the Bloom 's Shakespeare Through the Ages volume on Hamlet , editors Bloom and Foster express a conviction that the intentions of Shakespeare in portraying the character of Hamlet in the play exceeded the capacity of the Freudian Oedipus complex to completely encompass the extent of characteristics depicted in Hamlet throughout the tragedy : `` For once , Freud regressed in attempting to fasten the Oedipus Complex upon Hamlet : it will not stick , and merely showed that Freud did better than T.S. Eliot , who preferred Coriolanus to Hamlet , or so he said . Who can believe Eliot , when he exposes his own Hamlet Complex by declaring the play to be an aesthetic failure ? '' The book also notes James Joyce 's interpretation , stating that he `` did far better in the Library Scene of Ulysses , where Stephen marvelously credits Shakespeare , in this play , with universal fatherhood while accurately implying that Hamlet is fatherless , thus opening a pragmatic gap between Shakespeare and Hamlet . '' Joshua Rothman has written in The New Yorker that `` we tell the story wrong when we say that Freud used the idea of the Oedipus complex to understand Hamlet '' . Rothman suggests that `` it was the other way around : Hamlet helped Freud understand , and perhaps even invent , psychoanalysis '' . He concludes , `` The Oedipus complex is a misnomer . It should be called the ' Hamlet complex ' . '' In the essay `` Hamlet Made Simple '' , David P. Gontar turns the tables on the psychoanalysts by suggesting that Claudius is not a symbolic father figure but actually Prince Hamlet 's biological father . The hesitation in killing Claudius results from an unwillingness on Hamlet 's part to slay his real father . If Hamlet is the biological son of Claudius , that explains many things . Hamlet does not become King of Denmark on the occasion of the King 's death inasmuch as it is an open secret in court that he is Claudius 's biological son , and as such he is merely a court bastard not in the line of succession . He is angry with his mother because of her long standing affair with a man Hamlet hates , and Hamlet must face the fact that he has been sired by the man he loathes . That point overturns T.S. Eliot 's complaint that the play is a failure for not furnishing an `` objective correlative '' to account for Hamlet 's rage at his mother . Gontar suggests that if the reader assumes that Hamlet is not who he seems to be , the objective correlative becomes apparent . Hamlet is suicidal in the first soliloquy not because his mother quickly remarries but because of her adulterous affair with the despised Claudius which makes Hamlet his son . Finally , the ghost 's confirmation of an alternative fatherhood for Hamlet is a fabrication that gives the prince a motive for revenge . Feminist ( edit ) Ophelia is distracted by grief . Feminist critics have explored her descent into madness ( artist : Henrietta Rae 1890 ) . In the 20th century , feminist critics opened up new approaches to Gertrude and Ophelia . New Historicist and cultural materialist critics examined the play in its historical context , attempting to piece together its original cultural environment . They focused on the gender system of early modern England , pointing to the common trinity of maid , wife , or widow , with whores outside of that stereotype . In this analysis , the essence of Hamlet is the central character 's changed perception of his mother as a whore because of her failure to remain faithful to Old Hamlet . In consequence , Hamlet loses his faith in all women , treating Ophelia as if she too were a whore and dishonest with Hamlet . Ophelia , by some critics , can be seen as honest and fair ; however , it is virtually impossible to link these two traits , since ' fairness ' is an outward trait , while ' honesty ' is an inward trait . Hamlet tries to show his mother Gertrude his father 's ghost ( artist : Nicolai A. Abildgaard , ca . 1778 ) . Carolyn Heilbrun 's 1957 essay `` The Character of Hamlet 's Mother '' defends Gertrude , arguing that the text never hints that Gertrude knew of Claudius poisoning King Hamlet . This analysis has been praised by many feminist critics , combating what is , by Heilbrun 's argument , centuries ' worth of misinterpretation . By this account , Gertrude 's worst crime is of pragmatically marrying her brother - in - law in order to avoid a power vacuum . This is borne out by the fact that King Hamlet 's ghost tells Hamlet to leave Gertrude out of Hamlet 's revenge , to leave her to heaven , an arbitrary mercy to grant to a conspirator to murder . This view has not been without objection from some critics . Ophelia has also been defended by feminist critics , most notably Elaine Showalter . Ophelia is surrounded by powerful men : her father , brother , and Hamlet . All three disappear : Laertes leaves , Hamlet abandons her , and Polonius dies . Conventional theories had argued that without these three powerful men making decisions for her , Ophelia is driven into madness . Feminist theorists argue that she goes mad with guilt because , when Hamlet kills her father , he has fulfilled her sexual desire to have Hamlet kill her father so they can be together . Showalter points out that Ophelia has become the symbol of the distraught and hysterical woman in modern culture . Influence ( edit ) See also : Literary influence of Hamlet Hamlet is one of the most quoted works in the English language , and is often included on lists of the world 's greatest literature . As such , it reverberates through the writing of later centuries . Academic Laurie Osborne identifies the direct influence of Hamlet in numerous modern narratives , and divides them into four main categories : fictional accounts of the play 's composition , simplifications of the story for young readers , stories expanding the role of one or more characters , and narratives featuring performances of the play . Actors before Hamlet by Władysław Czachórski ( 1875 ) , National Museum in Warsaw . English poet John Milton was an early admirer of Shakespeare , and took evident inspiration from his work . As John Kerrigan discusses , Milton originally considered writing his epic poem Paradise Lost ( 1667 ) as a tragedy . While Milton did not ultimately go that route , the poem still shows distinct echoes of Shakespearean revenge tragedy , and of Hamlet in particular . As scholar Christopher N. Warren argues , Paradise Lost 's Satan `` undergoes a transformation in the poem from a Hamlet - like avenger into a Claudius - like usurper , '' a plot device that supports Milton 's larger Republican internationalist project . The poem also reworks theatrical language from Hamlet , especially around the idea of `` putting on '' certain dispositions , as when Hamlet puts on `` an antic disposition , '' similarly to the Son in Paradise Lost who `` can put on / ( God 's ) terrors . '' Henry Fielding 's Tom Jones , published about 1749 , describes a visit to Hamlet by Tom Jones and Mr Partridge , with similarities to the `` play within a play '' . In contrast , Goethe 's Bildungsroman Wilhelm Meister 's Apprenticeship , written between 1776 and 1796 , not only has a production of Hamlet at its core but also creates parallels between the ghost and Wilhelm Meister 's dead father . In the early 1850s , in Pierre , Herman Melville focuses on a Hamlet - like character 's long development as a writer . Ten years later , Dickens 's Great Expectations contains many Hamlet - like plot elements : it is driven by revenge - motivated actions , contains ghost - like characters ( Abel Magwitch and Miss Havisham ) , and focuses on the hero 's guilt . Academic Alexander Welsh notes that Great Expectations is an `` autobiographical novel '' and `` anticipates psychoanalytic readings of Hamlet itself '' . About the same time , George Eliot 's The Mill on the Floss was published , introducing Maggie Tulliver `` who is explicitly compared with Hamlet '' though `` with a reputation for sanity '' . L. Frank Baum 's first published short story was `` They Played a New Hamlet '' ( 1895 ) . When Baum had been touring New York State in the title role , the actor playing the ghost fell through the floorboards , and the rural audience thought it was part of the show and demanded that the actor repeat the fall , because they thought it was funny . Baum would later recount the actual story in an article , but the short story is told from the point of view of the actor playing the ghost . In the 1920s , James Joyce managed `` a more upbeat version '' of Hamlet -- stripped of obsession and revenge -- in Ulysses , though its main parallels are with Homer 's Odyssey . In the 1990s , two novelists were explicitly influenced by Hamlet . In Angela Carter 's Wise Children , To be or not to be is reworked as a song and dance routine , and Iris Murdoch 's The Black Prince has Oedipal themes and murder intertwined with a love affair between a Hamlet - obsessed writer , Bradley Pearson , and the daughter of his rival . There is the story of the woman who read Hamlet for the first time and said , `` I do n't see why people admire that play so . It is nothing but a bunch of quotations strung together . '' -- Isaac Asimov , Asimov 's Guide to Shakespeare , pg vii , Avenal Books , 1970 Performance History ( edit ) Main articles : Hamlet in performance and Shakespeare in performance The day we see Hamlet die in the theatre , something of him dies for us . He is dethroned by the spectre of an actor , and we shall never be able to keep the usurper out of our dreams . Maurice Maeterlinck in La Jeune Belgique ( 1890 ) . Shakespeare 's day to the Interregnum ( edit ) Shakespeare almost certainly wrote the role of Hamlet for Richard Burbage . He was the chief tragedian of the Lord Chamberlain 's Men , with a capacious memory for lines and a wide emotional range . Judging by the number of reprints , Hamlet appears to have been Shakespeare 's fourth most popular play during his lifetime -- only Henry IV Part 1 , Richard III and Pericles eclipsed it . Shakespeare provides no clear indication of when his play is set ; however , as Elizabethan actors performed at the Globe in contemporary dress on minimal sets , this would not have affected the staging . Firm evidence for specific early performances of the play is scant . What is known is that the crew of the ship Red Dragon , anchored off Sierra Leone , performed Hamlet in September 1607 ; that the play toured in Germany within five years of Shakespeare 's death ; and that it was performed before James I in 1619 and Charles I in 1637 . Oxford editor George Hibbard argues that , since the contemporary literature contains many allusions and references to Hamlet ( only Falstaff is mentioned more , from Shakespeare ) , the play was surely performed with a frequency that the historical record misses . All theatres were closed down by the Puritan government during the Interregnum . Even during this time , however , playlets known as drolls were often performed illegally , including one called The Grave - Makers based on Act 5 , Scene 1 of Hamlet . Restoration and 18th century ( edit ) Title page and frontispiece for Hamlet , Prince of Denmark : A Tragedy . As it is now acted at the Theatres - Royal in Drury - Lane and Covent - Garden . London , 1776 The play was revived early in the Restoration . When the existing stock of pre-civil war plays was divided between the two newly created patent theatre companies , Hamlet was the only Shakespearean favourite that Sir William Davenant 's Duke 's Company secured . It became the first of Shakespeare 's plays to be presented with movable flats painted with generic scenery behind the proscenium arch of Lincoln 's Inn Fields Theatre . This new stage convention highlighted the frequency with which Shakespeare shifts dramatic location , encouraging the recurrent criticism of his failure to maintain unity of place . In the title role , Davenant cast Thomas Betterton , who continued to play the Dane until he was 74 . David Garrick at Drury Lane produced a version that adapted Shakespeare heavily ; he declared : `` I had sworn I would not leave the stage till I had rescued that noble play from all the rubbish of the fifth act . I have brought it forth without the grave - digger 's trick , Osrick , & the fencing match '' . The first actor known to have played Hamlet in North America is Lewis Hallam . Jr. , in the American Company 's production in Philadelphia in 1759 . David Garrick 's iconic hand gesture expresses Hamlet 's shock at the first sight of the ghost ( artist : unknown ) . John Philip Kemble made his Drury Lane debut as Hamlet in 1783 . His performance was said to be 20 minutes longer than anyone else 's , and his lengthy pauses provoked the suggestion by Richard Brinsley Sheridan that `` music should be played between the words '' . Sarah Siddons was the first actress known to play Hamlet ; many women have since played him as a breeches role , to great acclaim . In 1748 , Alexander Sumarokov wrote a Russian adaptation that focused on Prince Hamlet as the embodiment of an opposition to Claudius 's tyranny -- a treatment that would recur in Eastern European versions into the 20th century . In the years following America 's independence , Thomas Apthorpe Cooper , the young nation 's leading tragedian , performed Hamlet among other plays at the Chestnut Street Theatre in Philadelphia , and at the Park Theatre in New York . Although chided for `` acknowledging acquaintances in the audience '' and `` inadequate memorisation of his lines '' , he became a national celebrity . 19th century ( edit ) A poster , ca . 1884 , for an American production of Hamlet ( starring Thomas W. Keene ) , showing several of the key scenes From around 1810 to 1840 , the best - known Shakespearean performances in the United States were tours by leading London actors -- including George Frederick Cooke , Junius Brutus Booth , Edmund Kean , William Charles Macready , and Charles Kemble . Of these , Booth remained to make his career in the States , fathering the nation 's most notorious actor , John Wilkes Booth ( who later assassinated Abraham Lincoln ) , and its most famous Hamlet , Edwin Booth . Edwin Booth 's Hamlet at the Fifth Avenue Theatre in 1875 was described as `` ... the dark , sad , dreamy , mysterious hero of a poem. ... ( acted ) in an ideal manner , as far removed as possible from the plane of actual life '' . Booth played Hamlet for 100 nights in the 1864 / 5 season at The Winter Garden Theatre , inaugurating the era of long - run Shakespeare in America . In the United Kingdom , the actor - managers of the Victorian era ( including Kean , Samuel Phelps , Macready , and Henry Irving ) staged Shakespeare in a grand manner , with elaborate scenery and costumes . The tendency of actor - managers to emphasise the importance of their own central character did not always meet with the critics ' approval . George Bernard Shaw 's praise for Johnston Forbes - Robertson 's performance contains a sideswipe at Irving : `` The story of the play was perfectly intelligible , and quite took the attention of the audience off the principal actor at moments . What is the Lyceum coming to ? '' In London , Edmund Kean was the first Hamlet to abandon the regal finery usually associated with the role in favour of a plain costume , and he is said to have surprised his audience by playing Hamlet as serious and introspective . In stark contrast to earlier opulence , William Poel 's 1881 production of the Q1 text was an early attempt at reconstructing the Elizabethan theatre 's austerity ; his only backdrop was a set of red curtains . Sarah Bernhardt played the prince in her popular 1899 London production . In contrast to the `` effeminate '' view of the central character that usually accompanied a female casting , she described her character as `` manly and resolute , but nonetheless thoughtful ... ( he ) thinks before he acts , a trait indicative of great strength and great spiritual power '' . In France , Charles Kemble initiated an enthusiasm for Shakespeare ; and leading members of the Romantic movement such as Victor Hugo and Alexandre Dumas saw his 1827 Paris performance of Hamlet , particularly admiring the madness of Harriet Smithson 's Ophelia . In Germany , Hamlet had become so assimilated by the mid-19th century that Ferdinand Freiligrath declared that `` Germany is Hamlet '' . From the 1850s , the Parsi theatre tradition in India transformed Hamlet into folk performances , with dozens of songs added . 20th century ( edit ) Apart from some western troupes ' 19th - century visits , the first professional performance of Hamlet in Japan was Otojirō Kawakami 's 1903 Shimpa ( `` new school theatre '' ) adaptation . Tsubouchi Shōyō translated Hamlet and produced a performance in 1911 that blended Shingeki ( `` new drama '' ) and Kabuki styles . This hybrid - genre reached its peak in Tsuneari Fukuda 's 1955 Hamlet . In 1998 , Yukio Ninagawa produced an acclaimed version of Hamlet in the style of Nō theatre , which he took to London . Konstantin Stanislavski and Edward Gordon Craig -- two of the 20th century 's most influential theatre practitioners -- collaborated on the Moscow Art Theatre 's seminal production of 1911 -- 12 . While Craig favoured stylised abstraction , Stanislavski , armed with his ' system , ' explored psychological motivation . Craig conceived of the play as a symbolist monodrama , offering a dream - like vision as seen through Hamlet 's eyes alone . This was most evident in the staging of the first court scene . The most famous aspect of the production is Craig 's use of large , abstract screens that altered the size and shape of the acting area for each scene , representing the character 's state of mind spatially or visualising a dramaturgical progression . The production attracted enthusiastic and unprecedented worldwide attention for the theatre and placed it `` on the cultural map for Western Europe '' . Hamlet is often played with contemporary political overtones . Leopold Jessner 's 1926 production at the Berlin Staatstheater portrayed Claudius 's court as a parody of the corrupt and fawning court of Kaiser Wilhelm . In Poland , the number of productions of Hamlet has tended to increase at times of political unrest , since its political themes ( suspected crimes , coups , surveillance ) can be used to comment on a contemporary situation . Similarly , Czech directors have used the play at times of occupation : a 1941 Vinohrady Theatre production `` emphasised , with due caution , the helpless situation of an intellectual attempting to endure in a ruthless environment '' . In China , performances of Hamlet often have political significance : Gu Wuwei 's 1916 The Usurper of State Power , an amalgam of Hamlet and Macbeth , was an attack on Yuan Shikai 's attempt to overthrow the republic . In 1942 , Jiao Juyin directed the play in a Confucian temple in Sichuan Province , to which the government had retreated from the advancing Japanese . In the immediate aftermath of the collapse of the protests at Tiananmen Square , Lin Zhaohua staged a 1990 Hamlet in which the prince was an ordinary individual tortured by a loss of meaning . In this production , the actors playing Hamlet , Claudius and Polonius exchanged roles at crucial moments in the performance , including the moment of Claudius 's death , at which point the actor mainly associated with Hamlet fell to the ground . Mignon Nevada as Ophelia , 1910 Notable stagings in London and New York include Barrymore 's 1925 production at the Haymarket ; it influenced subsequent performances by John Gielgud and Laurence Olivier . Gielgud played the central role many times : his 1936 New York production ran for 132 performances , leading to the accolade that he was `` the finest interpreter of the role since Barrymore '' . Although `` posterity has treated Maurice Evans less kindly '' , throughout the 1930s and 1940s he was regarded by many as the leading interpreter of Shakespeare in the United States and in the 1938 / 9 season he presented Broadway 's first uncut Hamlet , running four and a half hours . Evans later performed a highly truncated version of the play that he played for South Pacific war zones during World War II which made the prince a more decisive character . The staging , known as the `` G.I. Hamlet '' , was produced on Broadway for 131 performances in 1945 / 46 . Olivier 's 1937 performance at The Old Vic was popular with audiences but not with critics , with James Agate writing in a famous review in The Sunday Times , `` Mr. Olivier does not speak poetry badly . He does not speak it at all . '' In 1937 Tyrone Guthrie directed the play at Elsinore , Denmark with Laurence Olivier as Hamlet and Vivien Leigh as Ophelia . In 1963 , Olivier directed Peter O'Toole as Hamlet in the inaugural performance of the newly formed National Theatre ; critics found resonance between O'Toole's Hamlet and John Osborne 's hero , Jimmy Porter , from Look Back in Anger . Richard Burton received his third Tony Award nomination when he played his second Hamlet , his first under John Gielgud 's direction , in 1964 in a production that holds the record for the longest run of the play in Broadway history ( 137 performances ) . The performance was set on a bare stage , conceived to appear like a dress rehearsal , with Burton in a black v - neck sweater , and Gielgud himself tape - recorded the voice for the ghost ( which appeared as a looming shadow ) . It was immortalised both on record and on a film that played in US theatres for a week in 1964 as well as being the subject of books written by cast members William Redfield and Richard L. Sterne . Other New York portrayals of Hamlet of note include that of Ralph Fiennes 's in 1995 ( for which he won the Tony Award for Best Actor ) -- which ran , from first preview to closing night , a total of one hundred performances . About the Fiennes Hamlet Vincent Canby wrote in The New York Times that it was `` ... not one for literary sleuths and Shakespeare scholars . It respects the play , but it does n't provide any new material for arcane debates on what it all means . Instead it 's an intelligent , beautifully read ... '' Stacy Keach played the role with an all - star cast at Joseph Papp 's Delacorte Theatre in the early 70s , with Colleen Dewhurst 's Gertrude , James Earl Jones 's King , Barnard Hughes 's Polonius , Sam Waterston 's Laertes and Raúl Juliá 's Osric . Sam Waterston later played the role himself at the Delacorte for the New York Shakespeare Festival , and the show transferred to the Vivian Beaumont Theatre in 1975 ( Stephen Lang played Bernardo and other roles ) . Stephen Lang 's Hamlet for the Roundabout Theatre Company in 1992 received mixed reviews and ran for sixty - one performances . David Warner played the role with the Royal Shakespeare Theatre in 1965 . William Hurt ( at Circle Rep Off - Broadway , memorably performing `` To Be Or Not to Be '' while lying on the floor ) , Jon Voight at Rutgers , and Christopher Walken ( fiercely ) at Stratford CT have all played the role , as has Diane Venora at the Public Theatre . Off Broadway , the Riverside Shakespeare Company mounted an uncut first folio Hamlet in 1978 at Columbia University , with a playing time of under three hours . In fact , Hamlet is the most produced Shakespeare play in New York theatre history , with sixty - four recorded productions on Broadway , and an untold number Off Broadway . Ian Charleson performed Hamlet from 9 October to 13 November 1989 , in Richard Eyre 's production at the Olivier Theatre , replacing Daniel Day - Lewis , who had abandoned the production . Seriously ill from AIDS at the time , Charleson died eight weeks after his last performance . Fellow actor and friend , Sir Ian McKellen , said that Charleson played Hamlet so well it was as if he had rehearsed the role all his life ; McKellen called it `` the perfect Hamlet '' . The performance garnered other major accolades as well , some critics echoing McKellen in calling it the definitive Hamlet performance . In Australia , a production of Hamlet was staged at the Belvoir Street Theatre in Sydney in 1994 starring notable names including Richard Roxburgh as Hamlet , Geoffrey Rush as Horatio , Jacqueline McKenzie as Ophelia and David Wenham as Laertes . The critically acclaimed production was directed by Niel Armfield . 21st century ( edit ) Benedict Cumberbatch began playing Hamlet at the Barbican Theatre in August 2015 . Hamlet continues to be staged regularly , with actors such as Simon Russell Beale , Ben Whishaw , David Tennant , Angela Winkler , Samuel West , Christopher Eccleston , Maxine Peake , Rory Kinnear , Oscar Isaac , Christian Camargo , Andrew Scott , Paapa Essiedu and Michael Urie performing the lead role . In May 2009 , Hamlet opened with Jude Law in the title role at the Donmar Warehouse West End season at Wyndham 's Theatre . The production officially opened on 3 June and ran through 22 August 2009 . A further production of the play ran at Elsinore Castle in Denmark from 25 -- 30 August 2009 . The Jude Law Hamlet then moved to Broadway , and ran for 12 weeks at the Broadhurst Theatre in New York . In 2013 , American actor Paul Giamatti won critical acclaim for his performance on stage in the title role of Hamlet , performed in modern dress , at the Yale Repertory Theater , at Yale University in New Haven , Connecticut . The Globe Theatre of London initiated a project in 2014 to perform Hamlet in every country in the world in the space of two years . Titled Globe to Globe Hamlet , it began its tour on 23 April 2014 , the 450th anniversary of Shakespeare 's birth . As of 23 February 2016 , the project had performed in 170 countries . Benedict Cumberbatch played the role for a 12 - week run in a production at the Barbican Theatre , opening on 25 August 2015 . The play was produced by Sonia Friedman , and directed by Lyndsey Turner , with set design by Es Devlin . It was called the `` most in - demand theatre production of all time '' and sold out in seven hours after tickets went on sale 11 August 2014 , more than a year before the play opened . Tom Hiddleston played the role for a three - week run at Vanbrugh Theatre that opened on September 1 , 2017 and was directed by Kenneth Branagh . Film and TV performances ( edit ) Main article : Hamlet on screen See also : Hamlet in popular culture The earliest screen success for Hamlet was Sarah Bernhardt 's five - minute film of the fencing scene , which was produced in 1900 . The film was an early attempt at combining sound and film , music and words were recorded on phonograph records , to be played along with the film . Silent versions were released in 1907 , 1908 , 1910 , 1913 , 1917 , and 1920 . In the 1921 film Hamlet , Danish actress Asta Nielsen played the role of Hamlet as a woman who spends her life disguised as a man . In 1942 Ernst Lubitsch directed a motion picture titled To Be or Not To Be . The story is a comedy about a troupe of Polish actors in the Nazi era . A key plot point revolves around the famous soliloquy . The story was remade in 1983 in a film starring ( and produced by ) Mel Brooks . Laurence Olivier 's 1948 moody black - and - white Hamlet won Best Picture and Best Actor Oscars , and is still , as of 2017 , the only Shakespeare film to have done so . His interpretation stressed the Oedipal overtones of the play , and cast 28 - year - old Eileen Herlie as Hamlet 's mother , opposite himself , at 41 , as Hamlet . In 1953 , actor Jack Manning performed the play in 15 - minute segments over two weeks in the short - lived late night DuMont series Monodrama Theater . New York Times TV critic Jack Gould praised Manning 's performance as Hamlet . Renowned Shakespearean actor - directors Sir John Gielgud , Sir Laurence Olivier and Sir Kenneth Branagh consider the definitive rendition of the play to be the 1964 Soviet film Gamlet ( Russian : Гамлет ) based on a translation by Boris Pasternak and directed by Grigori Kozintsev , with a score by Dmitri Shostakovich . Innokenty Smoktunovsky was cast in the role of Hamlet . John Gielgud directed Richard Burton in a Broadway production at the Lunt - Fontanne Theatre in 1964 -- 5 , the longest - running Hamlet in the U.S. to date . A live film of the production was produced using `` Electronovision '' , a method of recording a live performance with multiple video cameras and converting the image to film . Eileen Herlie repeated her role from Olivier 's film version as the Queen , and the voice of Gielgud was heard as the ghost . The Gielgud / Burton production was also recorded complete and released on LP by Columbia Masterworks . Sarah Bernhardt as Hamlet , with Yorick 's skull ( photographer : James Lafayette , c. 1885 -- 1900 ) . The first Hamlet in color was a 1969 film directed by Tony Richardson with Nicol Williamson as Hamlet and Marianne Faithfull as Ophelia . In 1990 Franco Zeffirelli , whose Shakespeare films have been described as `` sensual rather than cerebral '' , cast Mel Gibson -- then famous for the Mad Max and Lethal Weapon movies -- in the title role of his 1990 version ; Glenn Close -- then famous as the psychotic `` other woman '' in Fatal Attraction -- played Gertrude , and Paul Scofield played Hamlet 's father . In contrast to Zeffirelli , whose Hamlet was heavily cut , Kenneth Branagh adapted , directed , and starred in a 1996 version containing every word of Shakespeare 's play , combining the material from the F1 and Q2 texts . Branagh 's Hamlet runs for just over four hours . Branagh set the film with late 19th - century costuming and furnishings , a production in many ways reminiscent of a Russian novel of the time ; and Blenheim Palace , built in the early 18th century , became Elsinore Castle in the external scenes . The film is structured as an epic and makes frequent use of flashbacks to highlight elements not made explicit in the play : Hamlet 's sexual relationship with Kate Winslet 's Ophelia , for example , or his childhood affection for Yorick ( played by Ken Dodd ) . In 2000 , Michael Almereyda 's Hamlet set the story in contemporary Manhattan , with Ethan Hawke playing Hamlet as a film student . Claudius ( played by Kyle MacLachlan ) became the CEO of `` Denmark Corporation '' , having taken over the company by killing his brother . The 2002 The Simpsons episode `` Tales from the Public Domain '' features a retelling of the play . There have also been several films that transposed the general storyline of Hamlet or elements thereof to other settings . For example , the 2014 Bollywood film Haider is an adaptation set in Kashmir . There have also been many films which included performances of scenes from Hamlet as a play - within - a-film . Stage pastiches ( edit ) There have been various `` derivative works '' of Hamlet which recast the story from the point of view of other characters , or transpose the story into a new setting or act as sequels or prequels to Hamlet . This section is limited to those written for the stage . The best - known is Tom Stoppard 's 1966 play Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead , which retells many of the events of the story from the point of view of the characters Rosencrantz and Guildenstern and gives them a backstory of their own . Several times since 1995 , the American Shakespeare Center has mounted repertories that included both Hamlet and Rosencrantz and Guildenstern , with the same actors performing the same roles in each ; in their 2001 and 2009 seasons the two plays were `` directed , designed , and rehearsed together to make the most out of the shared scenes and situations '' . W.S. Gilbert wrote a short comic play titled Rosencrantz and Guildenstern , in which Hamlet 's play is presented as a tragedy written by Claudius in his youth of which he is greatly embarrassed . Through the chaos triggered by Hamlet 's staging of it , Guildenstern helps Rosencrantz vie with Hamlet to make Ophelia his bride . Lee Blessing 's Fortinbras is a comical sequel to Hamlet in which all the deceased characters come back as ghosts . The New York Times reviewed the play , saying it is `` scarcely more than an extended comedy sketch , lacking the portent and linguistic complexity of Tom Stoppard 's Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead . Fortinbras operates on a far less ambitious plane , but it is a ripping yarn and offers Keith Reddin a role in which he can commit comic mayhem '' . Caridad Svich 's 12 Ophelias ( a play with broken songs ) includes elements of the story of Hamlet but focuses on Ophelia . In Svich 's play , Ophelia is resurrected and rises from a pool of water , after her death in Hamlet . The play is a series of scenes and songs , and was first staged at public swimming pool in Brooklyn . David Davalos ' Wittenberg is a `` tragical - comical - historical '' prequel to Hamlet that depicts the Danish prince as a student at Wittenberg University ( now known as the University of Halle - Wittenberg ) , where he is torn between the conflicting teachings of his mentors John Faustus and Martin Luther . The New York Times reviewed the play , saying , `` Mr. Davalos has molded a daft campus comedy out of this unlikely convergence , '' and Nytheatre.com 's review said the playwright `` has imagined a fascinating alternate reality , and quite possibly , given the fictional Hamlet a back story that will inform the role for the future . '' Mad Boy Chronicle by Canadian playwright Michael O'Brien is a dark comedy loosely based on Hamlet , set in Viking Denmark in 999 A.D. Notes and references ( edit ) Notes ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : The gravedigger scene is in Hamlet 5.1. 1 -- 205 . Jump up ^ In his 1936 book The Problem of Hamlet : A Solution Andrew Cairncross asserted that the Hamlet referred to in 1589 was written by Shakespeare ; Peter Alexander , Eric Sams and , more recently , Harold Bloom have agreed . However Harold Jenkins , the editor of the second series Arden edition of the play , considers that there are not grounds for thinking that the Ur - Hamlet is an early work by Shakespeare , which he then rewrote . Jump up ^ Polonius was close to the Latin name for Robert Pullen , founder of Oxford University , and Reynaldo too close for safety to John Rainolds , the President of Corpus Christi College . Jump up ^ MacCary suggests 1599 or 1600 ; James Shapiro offers late 1600 or early 1601 ; Wells and Taylor suggest that the play was written in 1600 and revised later ; the New Cambridge editor settles on mid-1601 ; the New Swan Shakespeare Advanced Series editor agrees with 1601 ; Thompson and Taylor , tentatively ( `` according to whether one is the more persuaded by Jenkins or by Honigmann '' ) suggest a terminus ad quem of either Spring 1601 or sometime in 1600 . Jump up ^ The whole conversation between Rozencrantz , Guildenstern and Hamlet concerning the touring players ' departure from the city is at Hamlet F1 2.2. 324 -- 360 . Jump up ^ The Arden Shakespeare third series published Q2 , with appendices , in their first volume , and the F1 and Q1 texts in their second volume . The RSC Shakespeare is the F1 text with additional Q2 passages in an appendix . The New Cambridge Shakespeare series has begun to publish separate volumes for the separate quarto versions that exist of Shakespeare 's plays . Jump up ^ Also used in Love 's Labour 's Lost and A Midsummer Night 's Dream . Jump up ^ This compares with about two to three hours for a typical Elizajacobean play . ^ Jump up to : The `` Nunnery Scene '' is Hamlet 3.1. 87 -- 160 . Jump up ^ This interpretation is widely held , but has been challenged by , among others , Harold Jenkins . He finds the evidence for a precedent for that interpretation to be insufficient and inconclusive , and considers the literal interpretation to be better suited to the dramatic context . Jump up ^ In the New Testament , see Romans 12 : 19 : `` ' vengeance is mine , I will repay ' sayeth the Lord '' . Jump up ^ See the articles on the Reformation in Denmark -- Norway and Holstein and Church of Denmark for details . Jump up ^ The `` Closet Scene '' is Hamlet 3.4 . Jump up ^ `` There is a recent ' Be kind to Gertrude ' fashion among some feminist critics ... '' Jump up ^ Hamlet has 208 quotations in The Oxford Dictionary of Quotations ; it takes up 10 of 85 pages dedicated to Shakespeare in the 1986 Bartlett 's Familiar Quotations ( 14th ed. 1968 ) . For examples of lists of the greatest books , see Harvard Classics , Great Books , Great Books of the Western World , Harold Bloom 's The Western Canon , St. John 's College reading list , and Columbia College Core Curriculum . Jump up ^ Hattaway asserts that `` Richard Burbage ... played Hieronimo and also Richard III but then was the first Hamlet , Lear , and Othello '' and Thomson argues that the identity of Hamlet as Burbage is built into the dramaturgy of several moments of the play : `` we will profoundly misjudge the position if we do not recognise that , whilst this is Hamlet talking about the groundlings , it is also Burbage talking to the groundlings '' . See also Thomson on the first player 's beard . Jump up ^ Samuel Pepys records his delight at the novelty of Hamlet `` done with scenes '' . Jump up ^ Letter to Sir William Young , 10 January 1773 , quoted by Uglow . Jump up ^ George Bernard Shaw in The Saturday Review on 2 October 1897 . Jump up ^ Sarah Bernhardt , in a letter to the London Daily Telegraph . Jump up ^ For more on this production , see the MAT production of Hamlet article . Craig and Stanislavski began planning the production in 1908 but , due to a serious illness of Stanislavski 's , it was delayed until December , 1911 . Jump up ^ On Craig 's relationship to Symbolism , Russian symbolism , and its principles of monodrama in particular , see Taxidou ; on Craig 's staging proposals , see Innes ; on the centrality of the protagonist and his mirroring of the ' authorial self ' , see Taxidou and Innes . Jump up ^ The first court scene is Hamlet 1.2. 1 -- 128 . Jump up ^ A brightly lit , golden pyramid descended from Claudius 's throne , representing the feudal hierarchy , giving the illusion of a single , unified mass of bodies . In the dark , shadowy foreground , separated by a gauze , Hamlet lay , as if dreaming . On Claudius 's exit - line the figures remained but the gauze was loosened , so that they appeared to melt away as if Hamlet 's thoughts had turned elsewhere . For this effect , the scene received an ovation , which was unheard of at the MAT . Jump up ^ According to the Internet Broadway Database Romeo and Juliet is the second most - produced Shakespeare play on Broadway , with thirty - four different productions , followed by Twelfth Night , with thirty . Jump up ^ The `` Fencing Scene '' is Hamlet 5.2. 203 -- 387 . References ( edit ) All references to Hamlet , unless otherwise specified , are taken from the Arden Shakespeare Q2 . Under their referencing system , 3.1. 55 means act 3 , scene 1 , line 55 . References to the First Quarto and First Folio are marked Hamlet Q1 and Hamlet F1 , respectively , and are taken from the Arden Shakespeare Hamlet : the texts of 1603 and 1623 . Their referencing system for Q1 has no act breaks , so 7.115 means scene 7 , line 115 . Jump up ^ Thompson & Taylor 2006a , p. 74 . ^ Jump up to : Taylor 2002 , p. 18 . Jump up ^ Crystal & Crystal 2005 , p. 66 . Jump up ^ Thompson & Taylor 2006a , p. 17 . Jump up ^ Hamlet 1.4 . Jump up ^ Trilling 2009 , p. 8 . Jump up ^ Hamlet 5.1. 1 -- 205 Jump up ^ Saxo & Hansen 1983 , pp. 36 -- 7 . Jump up ^ Saxo & Hansen 1983 , pp. 16 -- 25 . Jump up ^ Saxo & Hansen 1983 , pp. 5 -- 15 . Jump up ^ Saxo & Hansen 1983 , pp. 1 -- 5 . Jump up ^ Saxo & Hansen 1983 , pp. 25 -- 37 . Jump up ^ Edwards 1985 , pp. 1 -- 2 . Jump up ^ Saxo & Hansen 1983 , pp. 66 -- 7 . Jump up ^ Jenkins 1982 , pp. 82 -- 5 . Jump up ^ Saxo & Hansen 1983 , p. 67 . Jump up ^ Cairncross 1975 . Jump up ^ Alexander 1964 . Jump up ^ Jackson 1991 , p. 267 . Jump up ^ Bloom 2001 , pp. xiii , 383 . Jump up ^ Bloom 2003 , p. 154 . Jump up ^ Jenkins 1982 , p. 84 n4 . Jump up ^ Saxo & Hansen 1983 , pp. 66 -- 8 . Jump up ^ Saxo & Hansen 1983 , p. 6 . Jump up ^ Greenblatt 2004a , p. 311 . Jump up ^ Greenblatt 2004b . Jump up ^ Chambers 1930 , p. 418 . Jump up ^ Wilson 1932 , p. 104 . Jump up ^ Rowse 1963 , p. 323 . Jump up ^ Winstanley 1977 , p. 114 . Jump up ^ Cecil 2012 . Jump up ^ Jenkins 1982 , p. 35 . Jump up ^ Hibbard 1987 , pp. 74 -- 5 . Jump up ^ MacCary 1998 , p. 13 . Jump up ^ Shapiro 2005 , p. 341 . Jump up ^ Wells & Taylor 1988 , p. 653 . Jump up ^ Edwards 1985 , p. 8 . ^ Jump up to : Lott 1970 , p. xlvi . Jump up ^ Thompson & Taylor 2006a , p. 58 -- 9 . Jump up ^ MacCary 1998 , pp. 12 -- 13 . Jump up ^ Edwards 1985 , pp. 5 -- 6 . Jump up ^ Hamlet F1 2.2. 337 . Jump up ^ Hamlet F1 2.2. 324 -- 360 Jump up ^ Duncan - Jones 2001 , pp. 143 -- 9 . Jump up ^ Edwards 1985 , p. 5 . Jump up ^ Hattaway 1987 , pp. 13 -- 20 . Jump up ^ Chambers 1923b , pp. 486 -- 7 . Jump up ^ Halliday 1964 , pp. 204 -- 5 . Jump up ^ Thompson & Taylor 2006a , p. 465 . ^ Jump up to : Halliday 1964 , p. 204 . ^ Jump up to : Thompson & Taylor 2006a , p. 78 . Jump up ^ Hibbard 1987 , pp. 22 -- 3 . Jump up ^ Hattaway 1987 , p. 16 . ^ Jump up to : Thompson & Taylor 2006a . ^ Jump up to : Thompson & Taylor 2006b . Jump up ^ Bate & Rasmussen 2007 , p. 1923 . ^ Jump up to : Irace 1998 . Jump up ^ Burrow 2002 . Jump up ^ Hamlet 3.4 and 4.1 . Jump up ^ Thompson & Taylor 2006a , pp. 543 -- 52 . Jump up ^ Jenkins 1982 , p. 14 . Jump up ^ Hamlet Q1 14 . Jump up ^ Irace 1998 , pp. 1 -- 34 . Jump up ^ Jackson 1986 , p. 171 . Jump up ^ Thompson & Taylor 2006a , pp. 85 -- 6 . Jump up ^ Thompson & Taylor 2006b , pp. 36 -- 9 . Jump up ^ Thompson & Taylor 2006a , pp. 18 -- 19 . Jump up ^ Bate & Rasmussen 2008 , p. 11 . Jump up ^ Crowl 2014 , pp. 5 -- 6 . Jump up ^ Wofford 1994 . Jump up ^ Kirsch 1969 . Jump up ^ Vickers 1974a , p. 447 . Jump up ^ Vickers 1974b , p. 92 . Jump up ^ Wofford 1994 , p. 184 -- 5 . Jump up ^ Vickers 1974c , p. 5 . Jump up ^ Wofford 1994 , p. 185 . ^ Jump up to : Wofford 1994 , p. 186 . Jump up ^ Rosenberg 1992 , p. 179 . Jump up ^ MacCary 1998 , pp. 67 -- 72 , 84 . Jump up ^ Kermode 2000 , p. 256 . Jump up ^ Evans 1974 . Jump up ^ Hirrel 2010 . Jump up ^ MacCary 1998 , pp. 84 -- 5 . Jump up ^ Hamlet 3.1. 63 -- 64 . Jump up ^ Hamlet 1.2. 85 -- 86 . Jump up ^ MacCary 1998 , pp. 89 -- 90 . Jump up ^ Hamlet 3.1. 87 -- 160 Jump up ^ OED 2005 . ^ Jump up to : Kiernan 2007 , p. 34 . ^ Jump up to : Jenkins 1982 , pp. 493 -- 5 . Jump up ^ Hamlet 2.1. 63 -- 65 . Jump up ^ Hamlet 3.1. 151 . Jump up ^ Hamlet 3.1. 154 . Jump up ^ MacCary 1998 , pp. 87 -- 8 . Jump up ^ MacCary 1998 , pp. 91 -- 3 . Jump up ^ MacCary 1998 , pp. 37 -- 8 . Jump up ^ MacCary 1998 , p. 38 . Jump up ^ Hamlet F1 2.2. 247 -- 248 . Jump up ^ MacCary 1998 , pp. 47 -- 8 . Jump up ^ Hamlet 3.1. 55 -- 87 . ^ Jump up to : MacCary 1998 , p. 49 . Jump up ^ Knowles 1999 , pp. 1049 , 1052 -- 3 . Jump up ^ Thompson & Taylor 2006a , pp. 73 -- 4 . ^ Jump up to : Freud 1900 , pp. 367 -- 8 . ^ Jump up to : Britton 1995 , pp. 207 -- 11 . Jump up ^ Morrison 1997 , pp. 4 , 129 -- 30 . Jump up ^ Cotsell 2005 , p. 191 . Jump up ^ Jones 1910 . Jump up ^ Hamlet 3.4 . Jump up ^ MacCary 1998 , pp. 104 -- 7 , 113 -- 16 . Jump up ^ de Grazia 2007 , pp. 168 -- 70 . Jump up ^ Smallwood 2002 , p. 102 . ^ Jump up to : Bloom & Foster 2008 , p. xii . Jump up ^ Rothman 2013 . Jump up ^ Gontar 2013 . Jump up ^ Hamlet 4.5 . Jump up ^ Wofford 1994 , pp. 199 -- 202 . Jump up ^ Howard 2003 , pp. 411 -- 15 . Jump up ^ Heilbrun 1957 . Jump up ^ Bloom 2003 , pp. 58 -- 9 . Jump up ^ Thompson 2001 , p. 4 . Jump up ^ Bloom 2003 . Jump up ^ Showalter 1985 . Jump up ^ Bloom 2003 , p. 57 . Jump up ^ MacCary 1998 , pp. 111 -- 13 . Jump up ^ Osborne 2007 , pp. 114 -- 33 . Jump up ^ Kerrigan 1996 , p. 122 . Jump up ^ Warren 2016 , p. 367 . Jump up ^ Warren 2016 , p. 379 . ^ Jump up to : Thompson & Taylor 2006a , pp. 123 -- 6 . Jump up ^ Welsh 2001 , p. 131 . ^ Jump up to : Thompson & Taylor 2006a , pp. 126 -- 31 . Jump up ^ Novy 1994 , pp. 62 , 77 -- 8 . Jump up ^ Hamlet 3.1. 55 -- 87 . Jump up ^ Braun 1982 , p. 40 . Jump up ^ Taylor 2002 , p. 4 . Jump up ^ Banham 1998 , p. 141 . Jump up ^ Hattaway 1982 , p. 91 . Jump up ^ Thomson 1983 , p. 24 . Jump up ^ Thomson 1983 , p. 110 . Jump up ^ Taylor 2002 , p. 13 . Jump up ^ Thompson & Taylor 2006a , pp. 53 -- 5 . Jump up ^ Chambers 1930 , p. 334 . ^ Jump up to : Dawson 2002 , p. 176 . Jump up ^ Pitcher & Woudhuysen 1969 , p. 204 . Jump up ^ Hibbard 1987 , p. 17 . Jump up ^ Marsden 2002 , p. 21 . Jump up ^ Holland 2007 , p. 34 . Jump up ^ Marsden 2002 , pp. 21 -- 2 . Jump up ^ Thompson & Taylor 1996 , p. 57 . Jump up ^ Taylor 1989 , p. 16 . Jump up ^ Thompson & Taylor 2006a , pp. 98 -- 9 . Jump up ^ Uglow 1977 , p. 473 . Jump up ^ Morrison 2002 , p. 231 . Jump up ^ Moody 2002 , p. 41 . Jump up ^ Moody 2002 , p. 44 . Jump up ^ Gay 2002 , p. 159 . Jump up ^ Dawson 2002 , pp. 185 -- 7 . Jump up ^ Morrison 2002 , pp. 232 -- 3 . Jump up ^ Morrison 2002 , pp. 235 -- 7 . Jump up ^ Winter 1875 . ^ Jump up to : Morrison 2002 , p. 241 . Jump up ^ Schoch 2002 , pp. 58 -- 75 . Jump up ^ Shaw 1961 , p. 81 . Jump up ^ Moody 2002 , p. 54 . Jump up ^ O'Connor 2002 , p. 77 . Jump up ^ Gay 2002 , p. 164 . Jump up ^ Holland 2002 , pp. 203 -- 5 . Jump up ^ Dawson 2002 , p. 184 . Jump up ^ Dawson 2002 , p. 188 . ^ Jump up to : Gillies et al. 2002 , pp. 259 -- 62 . Jump up ^ Dawson 2002 , p. 180 . Jump up ^ Benedetti 1999 , pp. 188 -- 211 . Jump up ^ Benedetti 1999 , pp. 189 , 195 . Jump up ^ Taxidou 1998 , pp. 38 -- 41 . ^ Jump up to : Innes 1983 , p. 153 . Jump up ^ Taxidou 1998 , p. 181 , 188 . Jump up ^ Hamlet 1.2. 1 -- 128 . Jump up ^ Innes 1983 , p. 152 . Jump up ^ Innes 1983 , pp. 165 -- 7 . Jump up ^ Innes 1983 , p. 172 . Jump up ^ Innes 1983 , pp. 140 -- 75 . Jump up ^ Hortmann 2002 , p. 214 . Jump up ^ Hortmann 2002 , p. 223 . Jump up ^ Burian 2004 . Jump up ^ Hortmann 2002 , pp. 224 -- 5 . ^ Jump up to : Gillies et al. 2002 , pp. 267 -- 9 . Jump up ^ Morrison 2002 , pp. 247 -- 8 . Jump up ^ Thompson & Taylor 2006a , p. 109 . Jump up ^ Morrison 2002 , p. 249 . Jump up ^ Morrison 2002 , pp. 249 -- 50 . Jump up ^ Blum 1981 , p. 307 . Jump up ^ Tanitch 1985 . Jump up ^ Smallwood 2002 , p. 108 . Jump up ^ National Theatre n.d. Jump up ^ Canby 1995 . ^ Jump up to : Gussow 1992 . Jump up ^ Guernsey & Sweet 2000 , p. 43 . Jump up ^ Panagako 1978 . Jump up ^ McKellen et al. 1990 , p. 124 . Jump up ^ Barratt 2005 , p. 63 . Jump up ^ Davison 1999 , pp. 170 -- 82 . Jump up ^ `` AusStage '' . www.ausstage.edu.au . Archived from the original on 13 February 2018 . Retrieved 13 February 2018 . Jump up ^ Billington 2001 . Jump up ^ Gardner 2002 . Jump up ^ Billington 2008 . Jump up ^ Brown 2016 . Jump up ^ Shenton 2007 . Jump up ^ Broadwayworld 2009 . Jump up ^ Daily Mirror 2009 . Jump up ^ Law 2009 , 53 : 55 . Jump up ^ Itzkoff 2009 . Jump up ^ Fine 2013 . Jump up ^ Globe to Globe Hamlet n.d. Jump up ^ Stewart 2014 . Jump up ^ Calia 2014 . Jump up ^ Sulcas 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Tom Hiddleston in Hamlet review : a supremely self - assured Prince - Rada 's Jerwood Vanbrugh Theatre '' . The Telegraph . 2017 - 09 - 02 . ISSN 0307 - 1235 . Retrieved 2018 - 02 - 19 . Jump up ^ Hamlet 5.2. 203 -- 387 . ^ Jump up to : Brode 2001 , pp. 117 -- 18 . Jump up ^ Davies 2000 , p. 171 . Jump up ^ Fox 2009 . Jump up ^ Brennan n.d. Jump up ^ Guntner 2000 , pp. 120 -- 1 . Jump up ^ Brode 2001 , pp. 125 -- 7 . Jump up ^ Cartmell 2000 , p. 212 . Jump up ^ Guntner 2000 , pp. 121 -- 2 . Jump up ^ Crowl 2000 , p. 232 . Jump up ^ Starks 1999 , p. 272 . Jump up ^ Keyishian 2000 , pp. 78 -- 9 . Jump up ^ Burnett 2003 . Jump up ^ Gupta 2014 . Jump up ^ Warren n.d. Jump up ^ Gilbert 1892 , pp. 349 -- 66 . Jump up ^ Schultz 2008 . Jump up ^ Grode 2011 . Jump up ^ Todoroff 2011 . Jump up ^ Brandes 2001 . Sources ( edit ) Editions of Hamlet ( edit ) Bate , Jonathan ; Rasmussen , Eric , eds. ( 2007 ) . Complete Works . The RSC Shakespeare . New York : Royal Shakespeare Company . ISBN 0 - 679 - 64295 - 1 . Bate , Jonathan ; Rasmussen , Eric , eds. ( 2008 ) . Hamlet . The RSC Shakespeare . The Royal Shakespeare Company . ISBN 978 - 0230217867 . Edwards , Phillip , ed. ( 1985 ) . Hamlet , Prince of Denmark . New Cambridge Shakespeare . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978 - 0521293662 . Evans , G. Blakemore , ed. ( 1974 ) . The Riverside Shakespeare . The Riverside Shakespeare . Houghton Mifflin for Riverside Shakespeare Company . ISBN 9780395044025 . Hibbard , G.R. , ed. ( 1987 ) . Hamlet . Oxford World 's Classics . Oxford : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 - 19 - 283416 - 9 . Irace , Kathleen O. , ed. ( 1998 ) . The First Quarto of Hamlet . New Cambridge Shakespeare . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 - 521 - 65390 - 8 . Jenkins , Harold , ed. ( 1982 ) . Hamlet . The Arden Shakespeare , second series . London : Methuen . ISBN 1 - 903436 - 67 - 2 . Lott , Bernard , ed. ( 1970 ) . Hamlet . New Swan Shakespeare , Advanced series ( New ed . ) . London : Longman . ISBN 0 - 582 - 52742 - 2 . Thompson , Ann ; Taylor , Neil , eds. ( 2006 ) . Hamlet . The Arden Shakespeare , third series . 1 . London : Cengage Learning . ISBN 1 - 904271 - 33 - 2 . Thompson , Ann ; Taylor , Neil , eds. ( 2006 ) . Hamlet : The Texts of 1603 and 1623 . The Arden Shakespeare , third series . 2 . London : Cengage Learning . ISBN 1 - 904271 - 80 - 4 . Wells , Stanley ; Taylor , Gary , eds. ( 1988 ) . The Complete Works . The Oxford Shakespeare ( Compact ed . ) . Oxford : Clarendon Press . ISBN 0 - 19 - 871190 - 5 . Secondary sources ( edit ) Alexander , Peter ( 1964 ) . Alexander 's Introductions to Shakespeare . London : Collins . OCLC 257743100 . Banham , Martin , ed. ( 1998 ) . The Cambridge Guide to Theatre . Cambridge Guides . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 - 521 - 43437 - 8 . Barratt , Mark ( 2005 ) . Ian Mckellen : An Unofficial Biography . Virgin Books . ISBN 978 - 1852272517 . Benedetti , Jean ( 1999 ) ( 1988 ) . Stanislavski : His Life and Art ( Revised ed . ) . London : Methuen . ISBN 0 - 413 - 52520 - 1 . 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External links ( edit ) Library resources about Hamlet Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Listen to this article ( info / dl ) This audio file was created from a revision of the article `` Hamlet '' dated 2011 - 10 - 14 , and does not reflect subsequent edits to the article . ( Audio help ) More spoken articles Hamlet at the British Library Hamlet at the Internet Broadway Database Hamlet at the Internet Off - Broadway Database Hamlet public domain audiobook at LibriVox Texts ( edit ) Hamlet Complete text on one page with definitions of difficult words and explanations of difficult passages . Hamlet -- Digital text by the Folger Shakespeare Library Hamlet at the Internet Shakespeare Editions -- Transcripts and facsimiles of Q1 , Q2 and F1 . Shakespeare Quartos Archive -- Transcriptions and facsimiles of thirty - two copies of the five pre-1642 quarto editions . Hamlet at Open Source Shakespeare -- A complete text of Hamlet based on Q2 . Hamlet -- Annotated text aligned to Common Core standards . Hamlet -- Etext in Spanish available in many formats at Gutenberg.org . Analysis ( edit ) Hamlet on the Ramparts -- The MIT 's Shakespeare Electronic Archive . Hamletworks.org -- Scholarly resource with multiple versions of Hamlet , commentaries , concordances , and more . Depictions and commentary of Hamlet paintings Clear Shakespeare Hamlet -- A word - by - word audio guide through the play . Related works ( edit ) The Danish History ( Books I - IX ) by Saxo Grammaticus at The Online Medieval & Classical Library ( public domain translation into English of the Gesta Danorum ) . William Shakespeare Plays Tragedies Antony and Cleopatra Coriolanus Hamlet Julius Caesar King Lear Macbeth Othello Romeo and Juliet Timon of Athens Titus Andronicus Troilus and Cressida Comedies All 's Well That Ends Well As You Like It The Comedy of Errors Cymbeline Love 's Labour 's Lost Measure for Measure The Merchant of Venice The Merry Wives of Windsor A Midsummer Night 's Dream Much Ado About Nothing Pericles , Prince of Tyre * The Taming of the Shrew The Tempest Twelfth Night The Two Gentlemen of Verona The Two Noble Kinsmen * The Winter 's Tale Histories King John Edward III * Richard II Henry IV Henry V Henry VI 1 * Richard III Henry VIII * See also Problem plays Late romances Characters A -- K L -- Z Ghost character Chronology Performances Settings Quarto publications First Folio Second Folio Poems Shakespeare 's sonnets comparison to Petrarch A Lover 's Complaint The Phoenix and the Turtle The Rape of Lucrece Venus and Adonis Apocrypha Plays Arden of Faversham The Birth of Merlin Cardenio * Double Falsehood Edmund Ironside Fair Em Locrine The London Prodigal Love 's Labour 's Won The Merry Devil of Edmonton Mucedorus The Puritan The Second Maiden 's Tragedy Sejanus His Fall Sir John Oldcastle Sir Thomas More * The Spanish Tragedy Thomas Lord Cromwell Thomas of Woodstock Vortigern and Rowena A Yorkshire Tragedy Poems The Passionate Pilgrim To the Queen Life and works Birthplace and childhood home Bibliography Complete Works of William Shakespeare Translations Early editions Editors English Renaissance theatre Globe Theatre Handwriting Lord Chamberlain 's Men / King 's Men The Theatre Curtain Theatre New Place Portraits Religious views Sexuality Spelling of his name Stratford - upon - Avon Style Legacy Attribution studies Authorship question Influence Memorials Screen adaptations Shakespeare Birthplace Trust Folger Shakespeare Library Shakespeare Quarterly Shakespeare 's Globe ( replica ) Bardolatry Titles of works taken from Shakespeare Family Anne Hathaway ( wife ) Susanna Hall ( daughter ) Hamnet Shakespeare ( son ) Judith Quiney ( daughter ) Elizabeth Barnard ( granddaughter ) John Shakespeare ( father ) Mary Arden ( mother ) Gilbert Shakespeare ( brother ) Joan Shakespeare ( sister ) Edmund Shakespeare ( brother ) Richard Shakespeare ( grandfather ) John Hall ( son - in - law ) Thomas Quiney ( son - in - law ) Thomas Nash ( grandson - in - law ) * Shakespeare and other authors Lost William Shakespeare 's Hamlet Characters Hamlet Claudius Gertrude Ghost Polonius Laertes Ophelia Horatio Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Fortinbras The Gravediggers Yorick Soliloquies `` To be , or not to be '' `` Mortal coil '' `` What a piece of work is a man '' `` Speak the speech '' Words and phrases `` The lady doth protest too much , methinks '' `` Thy name is '' `` Primrose path '' Terminology Dumbshow Induction Quiddity Substitution Sources Criticism Legend of Hamlet The Spanish Tragedy Ur - Hamlet Critical approaches Bibliographies Horwendill Saxo Grammaticus House of Gonzaga Damon and Pythias Influence Common phrases from Hamlet Hamlet in popular culture References to Ophelia Language of flowers Human skull symbolism Performances Moscow Art Theatre ( 1911 -- 1912 ) Richard Burton ( 1964 ) On screen 1900 1907 1908 1912 1913 1917 1921 1935 1948 1954 1961 1964 1969 2000 2011 Adaptations Films The Rest Is Silence ( 1959 ) The Bad Sleep Well ( 1960 ) Ophelia ( 1963 ) Johnny Hamlet ( 1968 ) One Hamlet Less ( 1973 ) The Angel of Vengeance -- The Female Hamlet ( 1977 ) Strange Brew ( 1983 ) Hamlet Goes Business ( 1987 ) The Lion King ( 1994 ) Let the Devil Wear Black ( 1999 ) The Banquet ( 2006 ) Tardid ( 2009 ) Karmayogi ( 2012 ) Haider ( 2014 ) Hamlet A.D.D. ( 2014 ) Ophelia ( 2018 ) The Lion King ( 2019 ) Novels Gertrude and Claudius ( 2000 ) Dating Hamlet ( 2002 ) Ophelia 's Revenge ( 2003 ) The Dead Fathers Club ( 2006 ) Something Rotten ( 2007 ) Hamlet 's Father ( 2008 ) The Story of Edgar Sawtelle ( 2008 ) Hamlet Had an Uncle Plays Hamletmachine ( 1977 ) Dogg 's Hamlet ( 1979 ) Fortinbras ( 1991 ) Musicals Rockabye Hamlet ( 1973 ) The Lion King ( 1997 ) Television Hamlet ( Australian TV , 1959 ) Hamlet at Elsinore ( BBC , 1964 ) Hamlet , Prince of Denmark ( BBC , 1980 ) Hamlet ( BBC 2 , animated , 1992 ) Hamlet ( BBC 2 , 2009 ) Parodies 15 - Minute Hamlet The Complete Works of William Shakespeare ( Abridged ) Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Io , Amleto The Klingon Hamlet `` Lyle the Kindly Viking '' To Be or Not to Be : That is the Adventure `` Tales from the Public Domain '' Songs `` My Robin is to the Greenwood Gone '' ( 16th century ) `` Pull Me Under '' ( 1992 ) `` Song for Athene '' ( 1997 ) Opera / classical Hamlet ( Thomas ) Amleto ( Faccio ) Hamlet ( Tchaikovsky ) Tristia ( Berlioz ) Die Hamletmaschine ( Rihm ) Hamlet ( Dean ) Story within a story Films To Be or Not to Be ( 1942 ) Acting Hamlet in the Village of Mrdusa Donja ( 1973 ) To Be or Not to Be ( 1983 ) Rosencrantz & Guildenstern Are Dead ( 1990 ) Highlander II : The Quickening ( 1991 ) Last Action Hero ( 1993 ) Renaissance Man ( 1994 ) In the Bleak Midwinter ( 1995 ) War ( 2002 ) Hamlet 2 ( 2008 ) Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Undead ( 2009 ) Three Days ( 2012 ) Plays Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead ( 1966 ) Stage Blood ( 1974 ) I Hate Hamlet ( 1991 ) To Be or Not to Be ( 2008 ) Novels Hamlet , Revenge ! 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who did shakespeare write his play hamlet for

almost certainly wrote his version of the title role for his fellow actor, Richard Burbage

Richard Burbag

List of the Fall characters - wikipedia List of the Fall characters Jump to : navigation , search The Fall , starring Gillian Anderson , is a British - Irish drama series produced by Artists Studio and created by Allan Cubitt . It premiered in the Republic of Ireland at 21 : 30 on 12 May 2013 , and in the UK on BBC Two at 21 : 00 on 13 May 2013 . The series features Jamie Dornan , with John Lynch , Bronagh Waugh , Stuart Graham , and Niamh McGrady . Contents ( hide ) 1 Cast overview 2 Main characters 2.1 Det . Supt . Stella Gibson 2.2 Peter Paul Spector 2.3 Asst . Ch . Constable Jim Burns 2.4 Katie Benedetto 2.5 Sally Ann Spector 2.6 PC Danielle Ferrington 2.7 Det . Ch . Insp . Matthew Eastwood 2.8 DC Gail McNally 2.9 Rose Stagg 2.10 DC Glen Martin 2.11 Professor Reed Smith 2.12 DC Rick Turner 2.13 Det . Sgt . Tom Anderson 2.14 Annie Brawley 2.15 Tom Stagg 2.16 Ned Callan 2.17 James Tyler 2.18 Liz Tyler 2.19 Det . Sgt . James Olson 2.20 Morgan Monroe 2.21 Sean Healy 2.22 Wallace 2.23 Det . Insp . Rob Breedlove 2.24 Det . Ch . Insp . Garrett Brink 2.25 Kiera Sheridan 2.26 Patrick Spencer 2.27 August Larson 2.28 Sarah Kay 2.29 Joe O'Donnell 2.30 Alison Walden 2.31 Peter Jensen 2.32 Det . Ch . Insp . Joan Kinkead 2.33 David Alvarez 3 References 4 External links Cast overview ( edit ) Actor Character Series 1 Series 2 Series 3 Total Appearances 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Gillian Anderson DSI Stella Gibson 17 Jamie Dornan Paul Spector 17 John Lynch ACC Jim Burns 17 Aisling Franciosi Katie Benedetto N / A 16 Bronagh Waugh Sally Ann Spector N / A 15 Niamh McGrady PC Danielle Ferrington N / A N / A 15 Stuart Graham DCI Matthew Eastwood N / A N / A N / A 13 Bronágh Taggart DC Gail McNally N / A 12 Valene Kane Rose Stagg N / A N / A N / A N / A 11 Emmett J. Scanlan DC Glen Martin N / A N / A N / A 10 Archie Panjabi Prof. Reed Smith N / A N / A 9 Richard Clements DC Rick Turner N / A N / A N / A N / A 9 Colin Morgan DS Tom Anderson N / A 9 Karen Hassan Annie Brawley N / A N / A N / A N / A 8 Jonjo O'Neill Tom Stagg N / A N / A N / A 7 Nick Lee Ned Callan N / A N / A N / A 6 Brian Milligan James Tyler N / A N / A N / A 6 Seainin Brennan Liz Tyler N / A N / A N / A N / A 5 Ben Peel DS James Olson N / A N / A 5 Ian McElhinney Morgan Monroe N / A N / A 5 Aidan McArdle Sean Healy N / A 5 Ruth Bradley Wallace N / A 5 Michael McElhatton DI Rob Breedlove N / A Frank McCusker DCI Garrett Brink N / A N / A Aisling Bea Kiera Sheridan N / A N / A Barry Ward Dr. Patrick Spencer N / A N / A Krister Henriksson Dr. August Larson N / A Laura Donnelly Sarah Kay N / A N / A Richard Coyle Dr. Joe O'Donnell N / A N / A N / A Denise Gough Dr. Alison Walden N / A N / A Seán McGinley Fr . Peter Jensen N / A N / A Genevieve O'Reilly DCI Joan Kinkead N / A N / A Martin McCann David Alvarez N / A N / A Main characters ( edit ) Det . Supt . Stella Gibson ( edit ) DSI Stella Gibson ( Gillian Anderson ) , a senior Metropolitan Police Superintendent attached to Britain 's major case review team . Gibson has been seconded to the PSNI on a 28 - day review of a murder investigation that quickly escalates into the hunt for a serial killer and she 's made the Senior Investigating Officer ( and Silver Commander ) of Operation Musicman . Gibson is a very capable detective and a woman who 's highly comfortable with her own sexuality ; this plays a pivotal role in her story arc with other characters , primarily James Olson and Jim Burns . Whilst working in Belfast , she becomes embroiled in the politics of policing and uncovers corruption within the force . In the second series , with her investigation stalled , Gibson is forced to get results under the threat of a new 28 - day review into Operation Musicman . As Stella 's personal past comes back to haunt her , her professional present becomes further tangled in it . Stella has what Paul describes as `` daddy - issues '' , due to her father 's untimely death . During series three , Gibson is placed under investigation by the Police Ombudsman following the shooting of Spector . Burns allows her to retain her job , which leads her to fall victim to a vicious assault during her final showdown with the killer . Peter Paul Spector ( edit ) Peter Paul Spector ( Jamie Dornan ) , the father of two young children . During the day , Paul is a bereavement counsellor , though at night he is , as dubbed by the press , the `` Belfast Strangler '' . As Paul hunts his prey , he begins to develop an obsession with , and an affinity for , Stella . He is married to Sally Ann , a neo-natal nurse , and has a strong friendship with Katie Benedetto . Spector claims that he had an affair with Katie , a fifteen - year - old school girl , in order to quell the suspicions of his wife . Sally Ann later becomes pregnant , and the first series ends with Paul fleeing Ireland for Scotland as the net closes in . In series 2 , returning to Ireland , Spector 's lust to kill is now stronger than ever . As he gets closer to Stella , he finds an unusual source of help in Katie . After an encounter with James Tyler , Spector is arrested , and , co-operating with officers , is gunned down by Tyler at a crime scene . After surviving his injuries , Spector claims to have lost six years of memory . After undergoing psychological evaluation , he attacks both Gibson and his psychiatrist , before committing suicide . Asst . Ch . Constable Jim Burns ( edit ) ACC Jim Burns ( John Lynch ) , the Assistant Chief Constable of the PSNI in charge of operations , and the Gold Commander of Musicman . Burns had an affair with Stella several years previously , and , despite being married , still appears to be infatuated with her . He 's a skilled officer and knows how to balance politics and police - work . He is initially hesitant about linking the murders , but later provides the investigation with all the resources it requires . He is , at first , believed to be linked to the PSNI corruption scandal , though this is later disproved . During series 2 , his lust for Stella becomes more apparent when he attempts to force himself on her whilst drunk . This drinking continues into series three , and he resigns his commission during the series finale . Katie Benedetto ( edit ) Katerina `` Katie '' Benedetto ( Aisling Franciosi ) , a 15 - year - old schoolgirl . She babysits the Spectors ' children and - over the course of doing so - develops an affinity for Paul Spector . Katie is a gifted musician and uses online videos to express her feelings . During series 2 she becomes deeply embroiled in Paul 's life . Paul ties her up in a hotel room , for example , whilst Katie breaks into a house wearing a shirt with Spector 's face on . Benedetto is placed under police surveillance and later arrested whilst trying to dispose of evidence that implicates Paul in the murders . In series three , she attacks a girl with acid , and is detained for her crimes . During this time , she reveals to Stella that her father 's death had a severe emotional impact on her , and she has been self - harming . Sally Ann Spector ( edit ) Sally Ann Spector ( Bronagh Waugh ) , the wife of Paul Spector and a neonatal nurse . She has a deep devotion to Paul , but is wary of his character as she has never met his family . Sally Ann is the mother of his two children and is unaware of his dark side . Over the course of the series , she becomes embroiled in his crimes without her knowledge , and even provides a false alibi to the police . After leaving Paul for a short time , believing he slept with Katie , the two reconcile and she flees Ireland with him . In series 2 , they return . Sally Ann is pregnant with her third child , though she suffers a miscarriage . Following her arrest for assisting an offender , Sally attempts to kill her children . Pc Danielle Ferrington ( edit ) PC Danielle Ferrington ( Niamh McGrady ) , a Police Constable first seen attending a breaking and entering call at Sarah Kay 's home . She blames herself for Kay 's murder and tells Gibson this , resulting in her being recruited by Stella to work with Operation Musicman . Dani is a skilled investigator , and proves herself invaluable to the team . She speaks openly of her homosexuality to bisexual Gibson , and as a result the two develop both a professional and a personal bond . She later returns to patrol , believing she can do the most good on the street . It is in this capacity that she is involved in a gunfight with Spector and , following her suspension from front - line duty , is re-recruited by Stella . Det . Ch . Insp . Matthew Eastwood ( edit ) DCI Matt Eastwood ( Stuart Graham ) , a senior Detective Chief Inspector and longtime PSNI officer . Eastwood works for the Discipline and Complaints Commission and , as such , his character withstands the scrutiny of others . His primary task is to investigate corruption allegations within the PSNI . He and Stella work together several times due to her involvement with Olson and Breedlove . As well as being a corruption investigator , he is also trained in criminal investigations . During series 2 , he becomes Stella 's Deputy S.I.O. ( and Bronze Commander ) , questioning many of her investigative decisions . He and Stella become a formidable team during series three , and he is visibly saddened by her departure in the series finale . DC Gail McNally ( edit ) DC Gail McNally ( Bronágh Taggart ) , a detective who was assigned to Musicman sometime prior to the second series . She is Martin 's partner . Tough , eager , and skilled , McNally is not afraid to confront criminals in the same manner as her male colleagues . Gibson relies on her heavily during the investigative process . Rose Stagg ( edit ) Rose Stagg ( Valene Kane ) , a woman who had a sexual relationship with Paul whilst at university . During a night of passion , Paul tried to strangle her to death . As the Belfast Strangler comes to the attention of the public , Stagg notices the similarities and contacts her close friend Reed Smith . Her husband was unaware the attack had taken place . She is later kidnapped and held captive by Spector . She is later found unconscious in a car trunk . During series three , Stagg reveals that her sexual relationship with Paul was entirely consensual , and that , during sex , he strangled her so aggressively she had to be revived . DC Glen Martin ( edit ) DC Glen Martin ( Emmett Scanlan ) , a capable detective with a somewhat boyish attitude towards his work . Martin is an invaluable member of Gibson 's team and , during series two , takes on a more prominent role in the decision making process . He is partnered with DC Gail McNally , and is fiercely protective of her , though not to a fault . Stella is often shown to be displeased at his attitude towards police work , and in particular his habit of eating whilst on duty . Professor Reed Smith ( edit ) Professor Reed Smith ( Archie Panjabi ) , an esteemed medical professional and the senior pathologist assigned to Musicman . An avid rider of motorcycles , and somewhat unconventional in manner , Smith develops a personal closeness to Gibson and the two confide in each - other regularly . She 's very professional , though her personal life later becomes embroiled in the case when an old friend of hers reveals she has had a sexual encounter with Spector . Whilst drinking with Stella , the two embrace in a kiss , and go back to Stella 's hotel room , though Reed later gets cold feet . DC Rick Turner ( edit ) Rick Turner ( Richard Clements ) , a Detective Constable . Det . Sgt . Tom Anderson ( edit ) DS Tom Anderson ( Colin Morgan ) , the Senior Investigating Officer of a death that could be linked to Stella 's investigation . Impressed with both his professional attitude and looks , Stella invites him to join her team . Seeing the parallels between Anderson and Spector , Stella allows him to conduct the arrest and interviews of Paul . He is later gunned down by James Tyler whilst cuffed to the serial killer , and suffers nerve damage as a result . After returning to active duty , Anderson is once again attacked by Spector whilst protecting Stella in an interview . Annie Brawley ( edit ) Annie Brawley ( Karen Hassan ) , a woman who is recovering from an attack by Spector in which her brother died . Suffering from memory loss and unable to identify her attacker , Spector manipulates his way into her life . Tom Stagg ( edit ) Tom Stagg ( Jonjo O'Neill ) , Rose Stagg 's husband and a close friend of Professor Reed Smith . He is unaware of his wife 's past relationship with Paul , and is at first ignorant to her involvement in the current case . Like Spector , he is the father of two children . He is particularly hurt when his wife goes missing , and is the first one to raise the alarm to Gibson and her team . Ned Callan ( edit ) Ned Callan ( Nick Lee ) , a journalist with a keen interest in Gibson 's investigation . He 's intrepid , but does not always understand the boundaries placed upon him by the law . James Tyler ( edit ) James ' Jimmy ' Tyler ( Brian Milligan ) , a gangster whose son died as a child of meningitis. Tyler is part of the gang that are responsible for the death of DS Olson , and his gang ties allow him to become threatening towards Paul when he believes Spector slept with his wife . Following a confrontation in which Ferrington is shot at , Tyler hunts down Spector and shoots both him and Anderson . He is killed by officers including Hagstrom as a result of this . Liz Tyler ( edit ) Liz Tyler ( Séainín Brennan ) , a grieving mother who was counselled by Spector following the death of her young son . Tyler develops a close friendship with Paul , and as a result the killer appears to put himself at great personal risk in order to protect her . Following a violent confrontation with her husband , Liz is placed in a half way house for her own protection . Feeling unattractive , she lied , stating that Spector had had sex with her , and a result Jimmy tracks her down , beats her , and goes on to shoot Paul and Tom Anderson . Det . Sgt . James Olson ( edit ) DS James Olson ( Ben Peel ) , a young Sergeant who is first seen investigating an unrelated murder . Gibson invites him to her hotel room , and two engage in sexual activity . Following this , Olson begins to call Gibson , intimating he wants more than a one - night stand with her . After she rejects him , he is gunned down by unknown gang members . At the time of his death , he was married with at least one child . He is later linked to part of a wider corruption scandal within the PSNI . Following his death , Stella begins to see him in her dreams , implying his murder had a huge psychological impact on her . During series three , it is noted that his murder remains unsolved . Morgan Monroe ( edit ) Morgan Monroe ( Ian McElhinney ) , the Chairman of the PSNI oversight executive board . Monroe wields great control over the police force and , in particular , Jim Burns . He is of questionable character , both personally and professionally . Morgan is the father - in - law of one of Spector 's victims , though he initially believes his own son to be responsible for the murder . He is linked to the PSNI corruption scandal that Stella uncovers over the course of her investigation . He later threatens Stella with a new 28 - day review into her own investigation . During series three , he is no longer the incumbent chairman . His departure remains unexplained . Seán Healy ( edit ) Sean Healy ( Aidan McArdle ) , Spector 's defense attorney . He is retained by Sally Ann , and continues to strongly advocate for Spector 's freedom at the possible cost of Stella 's career . This puts him at odds with Wallace , and the two develop a fractious relationship . Wallace ( edit ) Wallace ( Ruth Bradley ) , Spector 's defense attorney . Though initially showing a strong support for Healy 's desire to free Spector , she later changes her position following his attack on Gibson . She also realises that her desire to do the right thing means she can not advocate for the criminal . Det . Insp . Rob Breedlove ( edit ) DI Rob Breedlove ( Michael McElhatton ) , Sergeant James Olson 's partner . Breedlove finds himself caught up in the gangland violence of Northern Ireland and , as a result , begins moonlighting for a Belfast power broker . Corrupt , Breedlove first crosses paths with Stella following Olson 's death . After being confronted by Stella , Breedlove turns a gun on himself and commits suicide in the middle of the Police Station . His death marks the beginning of Gibson 's quest to uncover the corruption . Det . Ch . Insp . Garrett Brink ( edit ) DCI Garrett Brink ( Frank McCusker ) , a veteran Detective Chief Inspector and , originally , the internal reviewer of Gibson 's investigation . After failing to make any progress in his review , he is subjected to a 28 - day review and subsequently becomes Gibson 's deputy SIO ( and Bronze Commander ) during Musicman . He 's a dedicated professional , but is more concerned with the politics of policing than with policing itself . Shortly after the first series , he is called to trial and as such steps down as Gibson 's number two . Kiera Sheridan ( edit ) Kiera Sheridan ( Aisling Bea ) , an Intensive Care Nurse employed by Belfast General Hospital . During series three , she is responsible for the treatment of Spector . During series three , the two develop a bond , with Kiera gifting Paul both her phone number and a small amount of cash with writing on it . Following Paul 's discharge from hospital , the two share no further communication . Patrick Spencer ( edit ) Spencer ( Barry Ward ) , an Intensive Care physician . August Larson ( edit ) August Larson ( Krister Henriksson ) , a psychologist retained by the PSNI in order to examine Spector 's competency . Throughout his time with Spector , Larson also develops a strong friendship with Gibson , examining her psychology via various phone - calls and procedural meetings . In the finale , he is viciously attacked by Spector , though it is later stated that he is in critical - yet - stable condition . Sarah Kay ( edit ) Sarah Kay ( Laura Donnelly ) , a young solicitor who is brought to the attention of Ferrington after a home invasion . Kay decides to stay at her house , unbeknownst to her that the culprit , Spector , would return . She is later found murdered . Ferrington blames herself for this , however it is her death that allows Stella to link the previous crimes together and establish Musicman . Joe O'Donnell ( edit ) Dr. Joe O'Donnell ( Richard Coyle ) , an emergency medical physician who is responsible for the immediate treatment and oversight of Spector . Following Spector 's discharge , O'Donnell shares a tender moment with Gibson , in which he asks her numerous questions in order to assess her for concussion . He reveals he has five children , aged between seven months and twelve years old . Alison walden ( edit ) Walden ( Denise Gough ) , a consultant neuropsychologist who works with Spector . Peter Jensen ( edit ) Father Peter Jensen ( Seán McGinley ) , was a priest until he was convicted of molesting numerous young choir boys . Regretful , Jensen attempts to make amends with God , but to little avail . During the investigation , Burns and Gibson notice Paul Spector was a member of his congregation , and Burns goes to interview him in order to gather background information on the killer . In series two , Jensen claims that he did not molest Paul , with Paul later clarifying that this was only because he did n't wash himself , with the goal of repulsing Peter . In series three , however , it is revealed that this is a lie , and that Paul was Jensen 's `` favourite , '' subjected to daily abuse for a year . Det . Ch . Insp . Joan Kinkead ( edit ) Joan Kinkead ( Genevieve O'Reilly ) , a Detective Chief Inspector , and the senior investigating officer assigned to examine Spector 's shooting . She interviews Gibson under caution , though she later clears her of all wrongdoing . David Alvarez ( edit ) David Alvarez ( Martin McCann ) , a childhood friend of Spector . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Munn , Patrick ( 1 May 2013 ) . `` BBC Two Sets Premiere Date For ' The Fall ' '' . TVWise . Retrieved 1 May 2013 . External links ( edit ) The Fall at BBC Programmes The Fall on RTÉ The Fall on Netflix The Fall on IMDb The Fall at Rotten Tomatoes The Fall Trailer at ZDF Enterprises The Fall on Facebook Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_The_Fall_characters&oldid=811099612 '' Categories : Lists of drama television characters Lists of British television series characters Lists of Irish television series characters Hidden categories : Use dmy dates from January 2017 Use British English from January 2017 BBC programme ID not in Wikidata Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 19 November 2017 , at 14 : 36 . About Wikipedia

who is rose in the fall season 2

a woman who had a sexual relationship with Paul whilst at university

Gail McNally

The Great Gatsby - Wikipedia The Great Gatsby Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the novel . For the film , TV and opera adaptations , see The Great Gatsby ( disambiguation ) . The Great Gatsby Cover of the first edition in 1925 . Author F. Scott Fitzgerald Cover artist Francis Cugat Country United States Language English Genre Novel Published April 10 , 1925 ( Charles Scribner 's Sons ) Media type Print ( hardcover & paperback ) Preceded by The Beautiful and Damned ( 1922 ) Followed by Tender Is the Night ( 1934 ) The Great Gatsby is a 1925 novel written by American author F. Scott Fitzgerald that follows a cast of characters living in the fictional town of West Egg on prosperous Long Island in the summer of 1922 . The story primarily concerns the young and mysterious millionaire Jay Gatsby and his quixotic passion and obsession for the beautiful former debutante Daisy Buchanan . Considered to be Fitzgerald 's magnum opus , The Great Gatsby explores themes of decadence , idealism , resistance to change , social upheaval , and excess , creating a portrait of the Jazz Age or the Roaring Twenties that has been described as a cautionary tale regarding the American Dream . Fitzgerald -- inspired by the parties he had attended while visiting Long Island 's north shore -- began planning the novel in 1923 , desiring to produce , in his words , `` something new -- something extraordinary and beautiful and simple and intricately patterned . '' Progress was slow , with Fitzgerald completing his first draft following a move to the French Riviera in 1924 . His editor , Maxwell Perkins , felt the book was vague and persuaded the author to revise over the following winter . Fitzgerald was repeatedly ambivalent about the book 's title and he considered a variety of alternatives , including titles that referenced the Roman character Trimalchio ; the title he was last documented to have desired was Under the Red , White , and Blue . First published by Scribner 's in April 1925 , The Great Gatsby received mixed reviews and sold poorly ; in its first year , the book sold only 20,000 copies . Fitzgerald died in 1940 , believing himself to be a failure and his work forgotten . However , the novel experienced a revival during World War II , and became a part of American high school curricula and numerous stage and film adaptations in the following decades . Today , The Great Gatsby is widely considered to be a literary classic and a contender for the title `` Great American Novel . '' In 1998 , the Modern Library editorial board voted it the 20th century 's best American novel and second best English - language novel of the same time period . Contents ( hide ) 1 Historical context 2 Plot summary 3 Major characters 4 Writing and production 5 Cover art 6 Title 7 Themes 8 Reception 9 Legacy and modern analysis 10 Adaptations 10.1 Ballet 10.2 Computer games 10.3 Film and television 10.4 Literature 10.5 Opera 10.6 Radio 10.7 Theater 11 See also 12 Notes 13 References 13.1 Bibliography 14 External links Historical context ( edit ) Set on the prosperous Long Island of 1922 , The Great Gatsby provides a critical social history of America during the Roaring Twenties within its fictional narrative . That era , known for unprecedented economic prosperity , the evolution of jazz music flapper culture , new technologies in communication ( motion pictures , broadcast radio , recorded music ) forging a genuine mass culture ; and bootlegging , along with other criminal activity , is plausibly depicted in Fitzgerald 's novel . Fitzgerald uses many of these societal developments of the 1920s that were to build Gatsby 's stories from many of the simple details like automobiles to broader themes like Fitzgerald 's discreet allusions to the organized crime culture which was the source of Gatsby 's fortune . Fitzgerald depicts the garish society of the Roaring Twenties by placing the book 's plotline within the historical context of the era . Fitzgerald 's visits to Long Island 's north shore and his experience attending parties at mansions inspired The Great Gatsby 's setting . Today , there are a number of theories as to which mansion was the inspiration for the book . One possibility is Land 's End , a notable Gold Coast Mansion where Fitzgerald may have attended a party . Many of the events in Fitzgerald 's early life are reflected throughout The Great Gatsby . Fitzgerald was a young man from Minnesota , and like Nick , he was educated at an Ivy League school , Princeton ( in Nick 's case , Yale ) . Fitzgerald is also similar to Jay Gatsby , in that he fell in love while stationed far from home in the military and fell into a life of decadence trying to prove himself to the girl he loved . Fitzgerald became a second lieutenant , and was stationed at Camp Sheridan , in Montgomery , Alabama . There he met and fell in love with a wild seventeen - year - old beauty named Zelda Sayre . Zelda finally agreed to marry him , but her preference for wealth , fun , and leisure led her to delay their wedding until he could prove a success . Like Nick in The Great Gatsby , Fitzgerald found this new lifestyle seductive and exciting , and , like Gatsby , he had always idolized the very rich . In many ways , The Great Gatsby represents Fitzgerald 's attempt to confront his conflicting feelings about the Jazz Age . Like Gatsby , Fitzgerald was driven by his love for a woman who symbolized everything he wanted , even as she led him toward everything he despised . In her book Careless People : Murder , Mayhem and the Invention of ' The Great Gatsby ( 2013 ) , Sarah Churchwell speculates that parts of the ending of The Great Gatsby were based on the Hall - Mills Case . Based on her forensic search for clues , she asserts that the two victims in the Hall - Mills murder case inspired the characters who were murdered in The Great Gatsby . Plot summary ( edit ) The main events of the novel take place in the summer of 1922 . Nick Carraway , a Yale graduate and veteran of the Great War from the Midwest -- who serves as the novel 's narrator -- takes a job in New York as a bond salesman . He rents a small house on Long Island , in the fictional village of West Egg , next door to the lavish mansion of Jay Gatsby , a mysterious multi-millionaire who holds extravagant parties but does not participate in them . Nick drives around the bay to East Egg for dinner at the home of his cousin , Daisy Fay Buchanan , and her husband , Tom , a college acquaintance of Nick 's . They introduce Nick to Jordan Baker , an attractive , cynical young golfer with whom Nick begins a romantic relationship . She reveals to Nick that Tom has a mistress , Myrtle Wilson , who lives in the `` valley of ashes '' , an industrial dumping ground between West Egg and New York City . Not long after this revelation , Nick travels to New York City with Tom and Myrtle to an apartment Tom keeps for his affairs with Myrtle and others . At Tom 's New York apartment , a vulgar and bizarre party takes place . It ends with Tom breaking Myrtle 's nose after she annoys him by saying Daisy 's name several times . The Plaza Hotel in the early - 1920s As the summer progresses , Nick eventually receives an invitation to one of Gatsby 's parties . Nick encounters Jordan Baker at the party , and they meet Gatsby himself , an aloof and surprisingly young man who recognizes Nick from their same division in the Great War . Through Jordan , Nick later learns that Gatsby knew Daisy through a purely chance meeting in 1917 , when Daisy and her friends were doing volunteer services ' work with young Officers headed to Europe . From their brief meetings and casual encounters at that time , Gatsby became ( and still is ) deeply in love with Daisy . Even more , he became obsessed with the idea of her , and the ideal of living in the world he saw her living in , as the fulfillment of all the possible dreams he could ever have . Jordan confides in Nick that the only reason Gatsby bought the mansion is because it was across the bay from Tom and Daisy 's home , and that Gatsby 's extravagant lifestyle and wild parties were an attempt to impress Daisy and raise her curiosity about her `` anonymous '' neighbor across the bay . Gatsby had hoped that one day curiosity would have brought the unsuspecting Daisy to appear at his doorstep , and thereby he 'd be able to present himself as a `` new man '' , now of wealth and position , and now able to join her at her side and within her world . That however never played out , and although Tom had been invited ( as a guest of Jordan 's ) to a Gatsby party and had attended more than one of them , both he and Daisy had ( for different reasons ) never responded affirmatively to an RSVP to attend as the Buchanans ( Mr. and Mrs . ) . The deeper reasons behind this fact are expanded upon later in the story by Daisy . His research of Nick , who has so fortuitously rented the small cottage next door to Gatsby 's mansion , results in a wholly new approach to his problem of how to introduce Daisy to the `` new '' J. Gatsby . The whole purpose of the `` invitation '' to Nick to attend a Gatsby party was to develop a relationship with him so that Gatsby could later ask Nick to arrange a reunion between himself and Daisy . Nick invites Daisy to have tea at his house without telling her that Gatsby will also be there . After an initially awkward reunion , Gatsby and Daisy reestablish their connection . They begin an affair and , after a short time , Tom grows increasingly suspicious of his wife 's relationship with Gatsby . At a luncheon at the Buchanans ' house , Daisy speaks to Gatsby with such undisguised intimacy that Tom realizes she is in love with Gatsby . Though Tom is himself involved in an extramarital affair , he is outraged by his wife 's infidelity . He forces the group to drive into New York City and confronts Gatsby in a suite at the Plaza Hotel , asserting that he and Daisy have a history that Gatsby could never understand . In addition to that , he announces to his wife that Gatsby is a criminal whose fortune comes from bootlegging alcohol and other illegal activities . Daisy realizes that her allegiance is to Tom , and Tom contemptuously sends her back to East Egg with Gatsby , attempting to prove that Gatsby can not hurt her . When Nick , Jordan , and Tom drive through the valley of ashes on their way home , they discover that Gatsby 's car has struck and killed Tom 's mistress , Myrtle . Nick later learns from Gatsby that Daisy , not Gatsby himself , was driving the car at the time of the accident but Gatsby took the blame . Myrtle 's husband , George , falsely concludes that the driver of the yellow car is the secret lover he recently began suspecting she has , and sets out on foot to find him . After finding out the yellow car is Gatsby 's , he arrives at Gatsby 's mansion where he fatally shoots Gatsby and then himself . Nick stages an unsettlingly small funeral for Gatsby in which none of Gatsby 's associates or partygoers attend . Later , Nick runs into Tom in New York and finds out that Tom had told George that Gatsby was Myrtle 's secret lover and that Gatsby had killed her , then gave Gatsby 's address to George . Nick breaks up with Jordan , and , disillusioned with the East , moves back to the Midwest . Major characters ( edit ) Nick Carraway -- a Yale graduate originating from the Midwest , a World War I veteran , and , at the start of the plot , a newly arrived resident of West Egg , who is aged 29 ( later 30 ) . He also serves as the first - person narrator of the novel . He is Gatsby 's next - door neighbor and a bond salesman . He is easy - going , occasionally sarcastic , and somewhat optimistic , although this latter quality fades as the novel progresses . He is a more grounded character than the others , and more practical , and is always in awe of other character 's lifestyles and morals . Jay Gatsby ( originally James `` Jimmy '' Gatz ) -- a young , mysterious millionaire with shady business connections ( later revealed to be a bootlegger ) , originally from North Dakota . He is obsessed with Daisy Buchanan , a beautiful debutante from Louisville , Kentucky whom he had met when he was a young military officer stationed at the Army 's Camp Taylor in Louisville during World War I. Fitzgerald himself was actually based at Camp Taylor in Louisville when he was in the Army and makes various references to Louisville in the novel , including the Seelbach Hotel where the Buchanan party stayed while in town for Tom and Daisy 's wedding . The character is based on the bootlegger and former World War I officer , Max Gerlach , according to Some Sort of Epic Grandeur , Matthew J. Bruccoli 's biography of F. Scott Fitzgerald . Gatsby is said to have briefly studied at Trinity College , Oxford in England after the end of World War I . Daisy Fay Buchanan -- an attractive and effervescent , if shallow and self - absorbed , young Louisville , Kentucky debutante and socialite , identified as a flapper . She is Nick 's second cousin , once removed , and the wife of Tom Buchanan . Daisy is believed to have been inspired by Fitzgerald 's own youthful romances with Ginevra King . Daisy once had a romantic relationship with Gatsby , before she married Tom . Her choice between Gatsby and Tom is one of the central conflicts in the novel . Thomas ( or Tom ) Buchanan -- a millionaire who lives on East Egg , and Daisy 's husband . Tom is an imposing man of muscular build with a `` husky tenor '' voice and arrogant demeanor . He is a former football star at Yale . Buchanan has parallels with William Mitchell , the Chicagoan who married Ginevra King . Buchanan and Mitchell were both Chicagoans with an interest in polo . Like Ginevra 's father , whom Fitzgerald resented , Buchanan attended Yale and is a white supremacist . Jordan Baker -- A professional golfer and Daisy Buchanan 's long - time friend with a sarcastic streak and an aloof attitude . She is Nick Carraway 's girlfriend for most of the novel , though they grow apart towards the end . She has a slightly shady reputation amongst the New York social elite due to her habit of being evasive and untruthful with her friends and lovers . Fitzgerald told Maxwell Perkins that Jordan was based on the golfer Edith Cummings , a friend of Ginevra King . Her name is a play on the two popular automobile brands , the Jordan Motor Car Company and the Baker Motor Vehicle , alluding to Jordan 's `` fast '' reputation and the freedom now presented to Americans , especially women , in the 1920s . George B. Wilson -- a mechanic and owner of a garage . He is disliked by both his wife , Myrtle Wilson , and Tom Buchanan , who describes him as `` so dumb he does n't know he 's alive '' . One interpretation of the novel 's ending is that he learns of the death of his wife , he shoots and kills Gatsby , wrongly believing he had been driving the car that killed Myrtle , and then kills himself . Myrtle Wilson -- George 's wife , and Tom Buchanan 's mistress . Myrtle , who possesses a fierce vitality , is desperate to find refuge from her complacent marriage , but unfortunately this leads to her tragic ending . She is accidentally killed by Gatsby 's car ( driven by Daisy , though Gatsby insists he would take the blame for the accident ) . Meyer Wolfshiem -- a Jewish friend and mentor of Gatsby 's , described as a gambler who fixed the World Series . Wolfshiem appears only twice in the novel , the second time refusing to attend Gatsby 's funeral . He is a clear allusion to Arnold Rothstein , a New York crime kingpin who was notoriously blamed for the Black Sox Scandal which tainted the 1919 World Series . Writing and production ( edit ) The now - demolished Beacon Towers served as an inspiration for Gatsby 's home Oheka Castle was another North Shore inspiration for the novel 's setting Fitzgerald began planning his third novel in June 1922 , but it was interrupted by production of his play , The Vegetable , in the summer and fall . The play failed miserably , and Fitzgerald worked that winter on magazine stories struggling to pay his debt caused by the production . The stories were , in his words , `` all trash and it nearly broke my heart , '' although included among those stories was `` Winter Dreams '' , which Fitzgerald later described as `` a sort of first draft of the Gatsby idea '' . After the birth of their child , the Fitzgeralds moved to Great Neck , New York , on Long Island , in October 1922 . The town was used as the scene of The Great Gatsby . Fitzgerald 's neighbors in Great Neck included such prominent and newly wealthy New Yorkers as writer Ring Lardner , actor Lew Fields , and comedian Ed Wynn . These figures were all considered to be `` new money '' , unlike those who came from Manhasset Neck or Cow Neck Peninsula , places which were home to many of New York 's wealthiest established families , and which sat across the bay from Great Neck . This real - life juxtaposition gave Fitzgerald his idea for `` West Egg '' and `` East Egg '' . In this novel , Great Neck ( King 's Point ) became the `` new money '' peninsula of West Egg and Port Washington ( Sands Point ) the old - money East Egg . Several mansions in the area served as inspiration for Gatsby 's home , such as Oheka Castle and Beacon Towers , since demolished . By mid-1923 , Fitzgerald had written 18,000 words for his novel but discarded most of his new story as a false start , some of which resurfaced in the 1924 short story `` Absolution '' . Work on The Great Gatsby began in earnest in April 1924 . Fitzgerald wrote in his ledger , `` Out of woods at last and starting novel . '' He decided to make a departure from the writing process of his previous novels and told Perkins that the novel was to be a `` consciously artistic achievement '' and a `` purely creative work -- not trashy imaginings as in my stories but the sustained imagination of a sincere and yet radiant world . '' He added later , during editing , that he felt `` an enormous power in me now , more than I 've ever had . '' Soon after this burst of inspiration , work slowed while the Fitzgeralds made a move to the French Riviera , where a serious crisis in their relationship soon developed . By August , however , Fitzgerald was hard at work and completed what he believed to be his final manuscript in October , sending the book to his editor , Maxwell Perkins , and agent , Harold Ober , on October 30 . The Fitzgeralds then moved to Rome for the winter . Fitzgerald made revisions through the winter after Perkins informed him in a November letter that the character of Gatsby was `` somewhat vague '' and Gatsby 's wealth and business , respectively , needed `` the suggestion of an explanation '' and should be `` adumbrated '' . Content after a few rounds of revision , Fitzgerald returned the final batch of revised galleys in the middle of February 1925 . Fitzgerald 's revisions included an extensive rewriting of Chapter VI and VIII . Despite this , he refused an offer of $10,000 for the serial rights in order not to delay the book 's publication . He had received a $3,939 advance in 1923 and $1,981.25 upon publication . Cover art ( edit ) The cover of the first printing of The Great Gatsby is among the most celebrated pieces of art in American literature . It depicts disembodied eyes and a mouth over a blue skyline , with images of naked women reflected in the irises . A little - known artist named Francis Cugat was commissioned to illustrate the book while Fitzgerald was in the midst of writing it . The cover was completed before the novel ; Fitzgerald was so enamored with it that he told his publisher he had `` written it into '' the novel . Fitzgerald 's remarks about incorporating the painting into the novel led to the interpretation that the eyes are reminiscent of those of fictional optometrist Dr. T.J. Eckleburg ( depicted on a faded commercial billboard near George Wilson 's auto repair shop ) which Fitzgerald described as `` blue and gigantic -- their retinas are one yard high . They look out of no face , but instead , from a pair of enormous yellow spectacles which pass over a non-existent nose . '' Although this passage has some resemblance to the painting , a closer explanation can be found in the description of Daisy Buchanan as the `` girl whose disembodied face floated along the dark cornices and blinding signs . '' Ernest Hemingway wrote in A Moveable Feast that when Fitzgerald lent him a copy of The Great Gatsby to read , he immediately disliked the cover , but `` Scott told me not to be put off by it , that it had to do with a billboard along a highway in Long Island that was important in the story . He said he had liked the jacket and now he did n't like it . '' Title ( edit ) Fitzgerald had difficulty choosing a title for his novel and entertained many choices before reluctantly choosing The Great Gatsby , a title inspired by Alain - Fournier 's Le Grand Meaulnes . Prior , Fitzgerald shifted between Gatsby ; Among Ash - Heaps and Millionaires ; Trimalchio ; Trimalchio in West Egg ; On the Road to West Egg ; Under the Red , White , and Blue ; Gold - Hatted Gatsby ; and The High - Bouncing Lover . The titles The Gold - Hatted Gatsby and The High - Bouncing Lover came from Fitzgerald 's epigraph for the novel , one which he wrote himself under the pen name of Thomas Parke D'Invilliers . He initially preferred titles referencing Trimalchio , the crude parvenu in Petronius 's Satyricon , and even refers to Gatsby as Trimalchio once in the novel : `` It was when curiosity about Gatsby was at its highest that the lights in his house failed to go on one Saturday night -- and , as obscurely as it had begun , his career as Trimalchio was over . '' Unlike Gatsby 's spectacular parties , Trimalchio participated in the audacious and libidinous orgies he hosted but , according to Tony Tanner 's introduction to the Penguin edition , there are subtle similarities between the two . In November 1924 , Fitzgerald wrote to Perkins that `` I have now decided to stick to the title I put on the book ... Trimalchio in West Egg '' but was eventually persuaded that the reference was too obscure and that people would not be able to pronounce it . His wife , Zelda , and Perkins both expressed their preference for The Great Gatsby and the next month Fitzgerald agreed . A month before publication , after a final review of the proofs , he asked if it would be possible to re-title it Trimalchio or Gold - Hatted Gatsby but Perkins advised against it . On March 19 , 1925 , Fitzgerald expressed intense enthusiasm for the title Under the Red , White and Blue , but it was at that stage too late to change . The Great Gatsby was published on April 10 , 1925 . Fitzgerald remarked that `` the title is only fair , rather bad than good . '' Early drafts of the novel entitled Trimalchio : An Early Version of The Great Gatsby have been published . A notable difference between the Trimalchio draft and The Great Gatsby is a less complete failure of Gatsby 's dream in Trimalchio . Another difference is that the argument between Tom Buchanan and Jay Gatsby is more even , although Daisy still returns to Tom . Themes ( edit ) Sarah Churchwell sees The Great Gatsby as a `` cautionary tale of the decadent downside of the American dream . '' The story deals with the limits and realities of America 's myths of social and class mobility ; and the inevitably hopeless lower class aspirations to rise above the station ( s ) of their birth . The book in stark relief through the narrator , Nick Carraway , observes that : `` ... a sense of the fundamental decencies is parcelled out unequally at birth . '' Using elements of irony and tragic ending , it also delves into themes of excesses of the rich , and recklessness of youth . Others , like journalist Nick Gillespie , see The Great Gatsby as a story `` underlying permanence of class differences ; even in the face of a modern economy 's attempt to assert that the class structure is based ; not on status and inherited position ; but , upon the innovation and the ability of literally anyone , to succeed by meeting the ever - changing demands and tastes of consumers ' needs . '' This interpretation asserts that The Great Gatsby captures the American experience because it is a story about change and those who resist it ; whether the change comes in the form of a new wave of immigrants ( Southern Europeans in the early 20th century , Latin Americans today ) , the nouveau riche , or successful minorities , Americans from the 1920s to the 21st century have plenty of experience with changing economic and social circumstances . As Gillespie states , `` While the specific terms of the equation are always changing , it 's easy to see echoes of Gatsby 's basic conflict between established sources of economic and cultural power and upstarts in virtually all aspects of American society . '' Because this concept is particularly American and can be seen throughout American history , readers are able to relate to The Great Gatsby ( which has lent the novel an enduring popularity ) . Later critical writings on The Great Gatsby , following the novel 's revival , focus in particular on Fitzgerald 's disillusionment with the American Dream -- life , liberty and the pursuit of happiness -- in the context of the hedonistic Jazz Age , a name for the era which Fitzgerald claimed to have coined . In 1970 , Roger Pearson published the article Gatsby : False prophet of the American Dream , in which he states that Fitzgerald `` has come to be associated with this concept of the AMERICAN Dream more than any other writer of the twentieth century '' . Pearson goes on to suggest that Gatsby 's failure to realize the American dream demonstrates that it no longer exists except in the minds of those as materialistic as Gatsby . He concludes that the American dream pursued by Gatsby `` is , in reality , a nightmare '' , bringing nothing but discontent and disillusionment to those who chase it as they realize its unsustainability and ultimately its unattainability . In addition to exploring the trials and tribulations of achieving the great American dream during the Jazz Age , The Great Gatsby explores societal gender expectations as a theme , exemplifying in Daisy Buchanan 's character the marginalization of women in the East Egg social class that Fitzgerald depicts . As an upper - class , white woman living in East Egg during this time period in America , Daisy must adhere to certain societal expectations , including but certainly not limited to actively filling the role of dutiful wife , mother , keeper of the house , and charming socialite . As the reader finds in the novel , many of Daisy 's choices , ultimately culminating in the tragedy of the plot and misery for all those involved , can be at least partly attributed to her prescribed role as a `` beautiful little fool '' who is completely reliant on her husband for financial and societal security . For instance , one could argue that Daisy 's ultimate decision to remain with her husband despite her feelings for Gatsby can be attributed to the status , security , and comfort that her marriage to Tom Buchanan provides . Additionally , the theme of the female familial role within The Great Gatsby goes hand in hand with that of the ideal family unit associated with the great American dream - a dream that goes unrealized for Gatsby and Daisy in Fitzgerald 's prose . Reception ( edit ) The Great Gatsby was published by Charles Scribner 's Sons on April 10 , 1925 . Fitzgerald called Perkins on the day of publication to monitor reviews : `` Any news ? '' `` Sales situation doubtful , '' read a wire from Perkins on April 20 , `` ( but ) excellent reviews . '' Fitzgerald responded on April 24 , saying the cable `` depressed '' him , closing the letter with `` Yours in great depression . '' Fitzgerald had hoped the novel would be a great commercial success , perhaps selling as many as 75,000 copies . By October , when the original sale had run its course , the book had sold fewer than 20,000 copies . Despite this , Scribner 's continually kept the book in print ; they carried the original edition on their trade list until 1946 , by which time Gatsby was in print in three other forms and the original edition was no longer needed . Fitzgerald received letters of praise from contemporaries T.S. Eliot , Edith Wharton , and Willa Cather regarding the novel ; however , this was private opinion , and Fitzgerald feverishly demanded the public recognition of reviewers and readers . The Great Gatsby received mixed reviews from literary critics of the day . Generally the most effusive of the positive reviews was Edwin Clark of The New York Times , who felt the novel was `` A curious book , a mystical , glamourous ( sic ) story of today . '' Similarly , Lillian C. Ford of the Los Angeles Times wrote , `` ( the novel ) leaves the reader in a mood of chastened wonder , '' calling the book `` a revelation of life '' and `` a work of art . '' The New York Post called the book `` fascinating ... His style fairly scintillates , and with a genuine brilliance ; he writes surely and soundly . '' The New York Herald Tribune was unimpressed , but referred to The Great Gatsby as `` purely ephemeral phenomenon , but it contains some of the nicest little touches of contemporary observation you could imagine - so light , so delicate , so sharp ... a literary lemon meringue . '' In The Chicago Daily Tribune , H.L. Mencken called the book `` in form no more than a glorified anecdote , and not too probable at that , '' while praising the book 's `` careful and brilliant finish . '' Several writers felt that the novel left much to be desired following Fitzgerald 's previous works and promptly criticized him . Harvey Eagleton of The Dallas Morning News believed the novel signaled the end of Fitzgerald 's success : `` One finishes Great Gatsby with a feeling of regret , not for the fate of the people in the book , but for Mr. Fitzgerald . '' John McClure of The Times - Picayune said that the book was unconvincing , writing , `` Even in conception and construction , The Great Gatsby seems a little raw . '' Ralph Coghlan of the St. Louis Post-Dispatch felt the book lacked what made Fitzgerald 's earlier novels endearing and called the book `` a minor performance ... At the moment , its author seems a bit bored and tired and cynical . '' Ruth Snyder of New York Evening World called the book 's style `` painfully forced '' , noting that the editors of the paper were `` quite convinced after reading The Great Gatsby that Mr. Fitzgerald is not one of the great American writers of to - day . '' The reviews struck Fitzgerald as completely missing the point : `` All the reviews , even the most enthusiastic , not one had the slightest idea what the book was about . '' Fitzgerald 's goal was to produce a literary work which would truly prove himself as a writer , and Gatsby did not have the commercial success of his two previous novels , This Side of Paradise and The Beautiful and Damned . Although the novel went through two initial printings , some of these copies remained unsold years later . Fitzgerald himself blamed poor sales on the fact that women tended to be the main audience for novels during this time , and Gatsby did not contain an admirable female character . According to his own ledger , now made available online by University of South Carolina 's Thomas Cooper library , he earned only $2,000 from the book . Although 1926 brought Owen Davis 's stage adaption and the Paramount - issued silent film version , both of which brought in money for the author , Fitzgerald still felt the novel fell short of the recognition he hoped for and , most importantly , would not propel him to becoming a serious novelist in the public eye . For several years afterward , the general public believed The Great Gatsby to be nothing more than a nostalgic period piece . Legacy and modern analysis ( edit ) In 1940 , Fitzgerald suffered a third and final heart attack , and died believing his work forgotten . His obituary in The New York Times mentioned Gatsby as Fitzgerald `` at his best '' . A strong appreciation for the book had developed in underground circles ; future writers Edward Newhouse and Budd Schulberg were deeply affected by it and John O'Hara showed the book 's influence . The republication of Gatsby in Edmund Wilson 's edition of The Last Tycoon in 1941 produced an outburst of comment , with the general consensus expressing the sentiment that the book was an enduring work of fiction . In 1942 , a group of publishing executives created the Council on Books in Wartime . The Council 's purpose was to distribute paperback books to soldiers fighting in the Second World War . The Great Gatsby was one of these books . The books proved to be `` as popular as pin - up girls '' among the soldiers , according to the Saturday Evening Post 's contemporary report . 155,000 copies of Gatsby were distributed to soldiers overseas , and it is believed that this publicity ultimately boosted the novel 's popularity and sales . By 1944 , full - length articles on Fitzgerald 's works were being published , and the following year , `` the opinion that Gatsby was merely a period piece had almost entirely disappeared . '' This revival was paved by interest shown by literary critic Edmund Wilson , who was Fitzgerald 's friend . In 1951 , Arthur Mizener published The Far Side of Paradise , a biography of Fitzgerald . He emphasized The Great Gatsby 's positive reception by literary critics , which may have influenced public opinion and renewed interest in it . By 1960 , the book was steadily selling 50,000 copies per year , and renewed interest led The New York Times editorialist Arthur Mizener to proclaim the novel `` a classic of twentieth - century American fiction '' . The Great Gatsby has sold over 25 million copies worldwide as of 2013 , annually sells an additional 500,000 copies , and is Scribner 's most popular title ; in 2013 , the e-book alone sold 185,000 copies . Scribner 's copyright is scheduled to expire in 2020 , according to Maureen Corrigan 's book about the making of The Great Gatsby , So We Read On . Adaptations ( edit ) Ballet ( edit ) In 2009 , BalletMet premiered a version at the Capitol Theatre in Columbus , Ohio . It was choreographed by Jimmy Orrante . In 2010 , The Washington Ballet premiered a version at the Kennedy Center . It was popularly demanded for an encore run the following year . In 2013 , the Northern Ballet premiered a version of The Great Gatsby at Leeds Grand Theatre in the UK , with choreography and direction by David Nixon , a musical score by Richard Rodney Bennett , and set designs by Jerome Kaplan . Nixon also created the scenario and costumes designs . Computer games ( edit ) In 2010 , Oberon Media released a casual hidden object game called Classic Adventures : The Great Gatsby . The game was released for iPad in 2012 . In 2011 , as a tribute to old NES games , developer Charlie Hoey and editor Pete Smith created an 8 - bit - style online game of The Great Gatsby . Ian Crouch of The New Yorker compared it to The Adventures of Tom Sawyer ( 1989 ) for the NES . Film and television ( edit ) The Great Gatsby has resulted in a number of film and television adaptations : The Great Gatsby ( 1926 ) , by Herbert Brenon -- a silent movie of a stage adaptation , starring Warner Baxter , Lois Wilson , and William Powell . It is a famous example of a lost film . Reviews suggest that it may have been the most faithful adaptation of the novel , but a trailer of the film at the National Archives is all that is known to exist . The Great Gatsby ( 1949 ) , by Elliott Nugent -- starring Alan Ladd , Betty Field , and Macdonald Carey . The Great Gatsby ( 1974 ) , by Jack Clayton -- starring Robert Redford , Mia Farrow , and Sam Waterston , with a script by Francis Ford Coppola . The Great Gatsby ( 2000 ) , by Robert Markowitz -- a made - for - TV movie starring Toby Stephens , Mira Sorvino , and Paul Rudd . The Great Gatsby ( 2013 ) , by Baz Luhrmann -- starring Leonardo DiCaprio , Carey Mulligan , and Tobey Maguire . Literature ( edit ) The Double Bind ( 2007 ) by Chris Bohjalian imagines the later years of Daisy and Tom Buchanan 's marriage as a social worker in 2007 investigates the possibility that a deceased elderly homeless person is Daisy 's son . Great ( 2014 ) by Sara Benincasa is a modern - day young adult fiction retelling of The Great Gatsby with a female Gatsby ( Jacinta Trimalchio ) . Opera ( edit ) The New York Metropolitan Opera commissioned John Harbison to compose an operatic treatment of the novel to commemorate the 25th anniversary of James Levine 's debut . The work , called The Great Gatsby , premiered on December 20 , 1999 . Radio ( edit ) On January 1 , 1950 , an hour - long adaptation was broadcast on CBS ' Family Hour of Stars starring Kirk Douglas as Gatsby . In October 2008 , the BBC World Service commissioned and broadcast an abridged 10 - part reading of the story , read from the view of Nick Carraway by Trevor White . In May 2012 , BBC Radio 4 broadcast The Great Gatsby , a Classic Serial dramatisation by Robert Forrest . Theater ( edit ) The 1926 stage adaptation of Owen Davis , subsequently developed , became the 1926 film version . The play , directed by George Cukor , opened on Broadway on February 2 , 1926 and ran for 112 performances . A successful tour later in the year included the performances Chicago , 1 August 20 through 2 October . In July 2006 , Simon Levy 's stage adaptation , the only one authorized and granted exclusive rights by the Fitzgerald Estate , had its world premiere at The Guthrie Theater to commemorate the opening of its new theatre , directed by David Esbjornson . It was subsequently produced by Seattle Repertory Theatre . In 2012 , a revised / reworked version was produced at Arizona Theatre Company and Grand Theatre in London , Ontario , Canada . Gatz by Elevator Repair Service earned the # 1 in the best in 2010 NYC theatre from The New York Times 's Ben Brantley . An award - winning Off - Broadway production . See also ( edit ) Novels portal 1920s portal Le Monde 's 100 Books of the Century Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ The spelling `` Wolfshiem '' appears throughout Fitzgerald 's original manuscript , while `` Wolfsheim '' was introduced by an editor ( Edmund Wilson ) in the second edition and appears in later Scribner 's editions . Jump up ^ The original edition used the anatomically incorrect word `` retinas '' , while some later editions have used the word `` irises '' . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Karolides , Nicholas J. ; Bald , Margaret ; Sova , Dawn B. ( 2011 ) . 120 Banned Books : Censorship Histories of World Literature ( Second ed . ) . Checkmark Books . p. 499 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8160 - 8232 - 2 . Rather than a celebration of such decadence , the novel functions as a cautionary tale in which an unhappy fate is inevitable for the poor and striving individual , and the rich are allowed to continue without penalty their careless treatment of others ' lives . Jump up ^ Hoover , Bob ( 10 May 2013 ) . `` ' The Great Gatsby ' still challenges myth of American Dream '' . Pittsburgh Post-Gazette . Retrieved 10 May 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Something Extraordinary '' . Letters of Note . Images by Gareth M. lettersofnote.com. 25 March 2013 . Retrieved 24 May 2013 . Jump up ^ `` 100 Best Novels '' . Modern Library . Retrieved 14 May 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Bruccoli 2000 , pp. 53 -- 54 Jump up ^ Gross , Dalton ( 1998 ) . Understanding the Great Gatsby : A Student Casebook to Issues , Sources , and Historical Documents . Westport , Connecticut : Greenwood Press . p. 167 . Jump up ^ Kellogg , Carolyn . `` Last gasp of the Gatsby house '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved 26 April 2013 . ^ Jump up to : SparkNotes Editors . `` The Great Gatsby : Context '' . SparkNotes . Retrieved 2013 - 11 - 25 . CS1 maint : Extra text : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Powers , Thomas ( July 4 , 2013 ) . `` The Road to West Egg '' . London Review of Books . 13 . pp. 9 -- 11 . Jump up ^ Sarah Churchwell ( June 17 , 2014 ) . `` Murder , Mayhem , and the Invention of The Great Gatsby '' . The Leonard Lopate Show . Jump up ^ David Holowka ( December 17 , 2009 ) . `` The Iron Triangle , part 1 / Wilson 's Garage '' . ArchiTakes . Jump up ^ McCullen , Bonnie Shannon ( 2007 ) . `` This Tremendous Detail : The Oxford Stone in the House of Gatsby '' . In Assadi , Jamal ; Freedman , William . A Distant Drummer : Foreign Perspectives on F. Scott Fitzgerald . New York : Peter Lang . ISBN 978 - 0820488516 . Jump up ^ Conor , Liz ( 22 June 2004 ) . The Spectacular Modern Woman : Feminine Visibility in the 1920s . Indiana University Press . p. 301 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 253 - 21670 - 0 . ^ Jump up to : Bruccoli 2000 , pp. 9 -- 11 Jump up ^ Fitzgerald , F. Scott ( 1991 ) . Bruccoli , Matthew J. , ed . The Great Gatsby . The Cambridge Edition of the Works of F. Scott Fitzgerald . Cambridge : Cambridge Univ . Press . p. 184 . ISBN 9780521402309 . This name combines two automobile makes : the sporty Jordan and the conservative Baker electric . Jump up ^ Fitzgerald , F. Scott ( 2006 ) . Bloom , Harold , ed . The Great Gatsby . New York : Chelsea House Publishers . p. 95 . ISBN 9781438114545 . Jump up ^ Fitzgerald , F. Scott ( 1997 ) . Tredell , Nicolas , ed. F. Scott Fitzgerald : The Great Gatsby . Columbia Critical Guides . New York : Columbia University Press . p. 184 . ISBN 9780231115353 . ISSN 1559 - 3002 . Jump up ^ F. Scott Fitzgerald : The Great Gatsby . Cambridge University Press . 1991 . p. liv . Jump up ^ F. Scott Fitzgerald : The Great Gatsby . Cambridge University Press . 1991 . p. 148 . Jump up ^ Bruccoli 2000 , p. 29 Jump up ^ Mizener , Arthur ( 24 April 1960 ) . `` Gatsby , 35 Years Later '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 29 July 2013 . He had begun to plan the novel in June , 1923 , saying to Maxwell Perkins , ' I want to write something new -- something extraordinary and beautiful and simple and intricately patterned . ' But that summer and fall was devoted to the production of his play , ' The Vegetable . ' Jump up ^ Curnutt , Kirk ( 2004 ) . A Historical Guide to F. Scott Fitzgerald . Oxford University Press . p. 58 . ISBN 0195153030 . Retrieved 11 October 2013 . The failure of The Vegetable in the fall of 1923 caused Fitzgerald , who was by then in considerable debt , to shut himself in a stuffy room over a garage in Great Neck , New York , and write himself out of the red by turning out ten short stories for the magazine market . ^ Jump up to : Mizener , Arthur ( 24 April 1960 ) . `` Gatsby , 35 Years Later '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 12 May 2013 . Jump up ^ Fitzgerald , F. Scott ( 1963 ) . Turnbull , Andrew , ed . The Letters of F. Scott Fitzgerald . Charles Scribner 's Sons . p. 189 . 3 . ' Winter Dreams ' ( a sort of first draft of the Gatsby idea from Metropolitan 1923 ) Jump up ^ Murphy , Mary Jo ( 30 September 2010 ) . `` Eyeing the Unreal Estate of Gatsby Esq '' . The New York Times . Jump up ^ Bruccoli 2000 , pp. 38 -- 39 Jump up ^ Bruccoli 2000 , p. 45 Jump up ^ Randall , Mónica ( 2003 ) . The Mansions of Long Island 's Gold Coast . Rizzoli . pp. 275 -- 277 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8478 - 2649 - 0 . Jump up ^ West , James L.W. , III ( 2000 ) . Trimalchio : An Early Version of The Great Gatsby . The Cambridge Edition of the Works of F. Scott Fitzgerald . Cover Design by Dennis M. Arnold . Cambridge University Press . p. xi . ISBN 0 - 521 - 89047 - 0 . Retrieved 27 July 2013 . He produces 18,000 words ; most of this material is later discarded , but he salvages the short story `` Absolution , '' published in June 1924 . Jump up ^ Haglund , David ( 7 May 2013 ) . `` The Forgotten Childhood of Jay Gatsby '' . Slate . Jump up ^ Eble , Kenneth ( Winter 1974 ) . `` The Great Gatsby '' . College Literature. 1 ( 1 ) : 37 . ISSN 0093 - 3139 . JSTOR 25111007 . consciously artistic achievement Jump up ^ Flanagan , Thomas ( 21 December 2000 ) . `` Fitzgerald 's ' Radiant World ' '' . The New York Review of Books . Retrieved 24 May 2013 . He may have been remembering Fitzgerald 's words in that April letter : So in my new novel I 'm thrown directly on purely creative work -- not trashy imaginings as in my stories but the sustained imagination of a sincere yet radiant world . Jump up ^ Leader , Zachary ( 21 September 2000 ) . `` Daisy packs her bags '' . London Review of Books . 22 ( 18 ) : 13 -- 15 . ISSN 0260 - 9592 . Retrieved 24 February 2013 . Jump up ^ Tate , Mary Jo ( 2007 ) . Critical Companion to F. Scott Fitzgerald : A Literary Reference to His Life and Work . Infobase Publishing . p. 326 . ISBN 9781438108452 . They lived in ROME from October 1924 to February 1925 ... Jump up ^ Perkins , Maxwell Evarts ( 2004 ) . Bruccoli , Matthew Joseph ; Baughman , Judith S. , eds . The Sons of Maxwell Perkins : Letters of F. Scott Fitzgerald , Ernest Hemingway , Thomas Wolfe , and Their Editor . Univ. of South Carolina Press . pp. 27 -- 30 . ISBN 9781570035487 . Jump up ^ Bruccoli 2000 , pp. 54 -- 56 Jump up ^ Fitzerald , F. Scott . `` F. Scott Fitzgerald 's ledger '' . Irvin Department of Rare Books and Special Collections . University of South Carolina . Retrieved 29 April 2013 . Jump up ^ Zuckerman , Esther . `` The Finances of F. Scott Fitzgerald , Handwritten by Fitzgerald '' . The Atlantic Wire . The Atlantic Media Company . Retrieved 29 April 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Scribner , Charles , III ( Winter 1992 ) . `` Celestial Eyes : From Metamorphosis to Masterpiece '' ( PDF ) . Princeton University Library Chronicle. 53 ( 2 ) : 140 -- 155 . Retrieved 27 July 2013 . ( originally published as a brochure on 24 October 1991 to celebrate the Cambridge Edition of The Great Gatsby ) Jump up ^ Scribner , Charles , III ( Winter 1992 ) . `` Celestial Eyes : From Metamorphosis to Masterpiece '' ( PDF ) . Princeton University Library Chronicle. 53 ( 2 ) : 140 -- 155 . Retrieved 27 July 2013 . We are left then with the enticing possibility that Fitzgerald 's arresting image was originally prompted by Cugat 's fantastic apparitions over the valley of ashes ; in other words , that the author derived his inventive metamorphosis from a recurrent theme of Cugat 's trial jackets , one which the artist himself was to reinterpret and transform through subsequent drafts . ( originally published as a brochure on 24 October 1991 to celebrate the Cambridge Edition of The Great Gatsby ) Jump up ^ Hemingway , Ernest ( 1964 ) . A Moveable Feast . New York : Scribner . p. 176 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 684 - 82499 - 4 . ^ Jump up to : Anderson , Kurt ( 25 November 2010 ) . `` American Icons : The Great Gatsby '' . Studio 360 . 14 : 26 . Archived from the original on 13 October 2013 . Retrieved 22 May 2013 . ( Donald Skemer ( introduced 12 : 59 ) speaking ) He went through many many titles , uh , including Under the Red , White , and Blue and Trimalchio and Gold - hatted Gatsby ... ( James West ( introduced at 12 : 11 ) speaking ) The High Bouncing Lover . And , uh , he in the end did n't think that The Great Gatsby was a very good title , was dissatisfied with it . Jump up ^ `` The girl at the Grand Palais '' . The Economist. 22 December 2012 . Retrieved 27 March 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Vanderbilt , Arthur T. ( 1999 ) . The Making of a Bestseller : From Author to Reader . McFarland . p. 96 . ISBN 0786406631 . A week later , in his next letter , he was floundering : ' I have not decided to stick to the title I put on the book , Trimalchio in West Egg . The only other titles that seem to fit it are Trimalchio and On the Road to West Egg . I had two others , Gold - hatted Gatsby and The High - bouncing Lover , but they seemed too slight . ' Jump up ^ Wulick , Dr. Anna . `` Understanding The Great Gatsby First Line and Epigraph '' . Retrieved 2016 - 12 - 15 . Jump up ^ F. Scott Fitzgerald , Chapter 7 opening sentence , The Great Gatsby Jump up ^ Tanner 's introduction to the Penguin edition ( 2000 ) , p. vii -- viii . Jump up ^ Hill , W. Speed ; Burns , Edward M. ; Shillingsburg , Peter L. ( 2002 ) . Text : An Interdisciplinary Annual of Textual Studies . 14 . University of Michigan Press . ISBN 0472112724 ... , because in early November he wrote Perkins that `` I have now decided to stick to the title I put on the book . Trimalchio in West Egg . Jump up ^ Fitzgerald , Francis Scott ; Perkins , Maxwell ( 1971 ) . Kuehl , John ; Bryer , Jackson R. , eds . Dear Scott / Dear Max : the Fitzgerald - Perkins correspondence . Macmillan Publishing Company . p. 87 . When Ring Lardner came in the other day I told him about your novel and he instantly balked at the title . ' No one could pronounce it , ' he said ; so probably your change is wise on other than typographical counts . Jump up ^ Bruccoli 2002 , pp. 206 -- 07 Jump up ^ Tate , Mary Jo ( 2007 ) . Critical Companion to F. Scott Fitzgerald : A Literary Reference to His Life and Work . Infobase Publishing . p. 87 . ISBN 9781438108452 . He settled on The Great Gatsby in December 1924 , but in January and March 1925 he continued to express his concern to Perkins about the title , cabling from CAPRI on March 19 : ' CRAZY ABOUT TITLE UNDER THE RED WHITE AND BLUE STOP WHART ( sic ) WOULD DELAY BE ' Jump up ^ Lipton , Gabrielle . `` Where Is Jay Gatsby 's Mansion ? '' . slate.com . The Slate Group , a Division of the Washington Post Company . Retrieved 6 May 2013 . However , nearing the time of publication , Fitzgerald , who despised the title The Great Gatsby and toiled for months to think of something else , wrote to Perkins that he had finally found one : Under the Red , White , and Blue . Unfortunately , it was too late to change . Jump up ^ Churchwell , Sarah ( 3 May 2013 ) . `` What makes The Great Gatsby great ? '' . The Guardian . Retrieved 11 October 2013 . At the last minute , he had asked his editor if they could change the new novel 's title to Under the Red , White and Blue , but it was too late . Jump up ^ Lazo , Caroline Evensen ( 2003 ) . F. Scott Fitzgerald : Voice of the Jazz Age . Twenty - First Century Books . p. 75 . ISBN 0822500744 . When the book was published on April 10 , 1924 , the critics raved . Jump up ^ Bruccoli 2002 , pp. 215 -- 17 Jump up ^ West , James L.W. , III ( 2000 ) . Trimalchio : An Early Version of The Great Gatsby . The Cambridge Edition of the Works of F. Scott Fitzgerald . Cover Design by Dennis M. Arnold . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 - 521 - 89047 - 0 . Retrieved 27 July 2013 . Jump up ^ West , James L.W. , III ( 10 April 2013 ) . `` What Baz Luhrmann Asked Me About The Great Gatsby '' . The Huffington Post . Retrieved 27 July 2013 . Luhrmann was also interested in Trimalchio , the early version of The Great Gatsby that I published in 2000 as a volume in the Cambridge Edition . Jump up ^ Alter , Alexandra ( 19 April 2013 ) . `` A Darker , More Ruthless Gatsby '' . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on 3 July 2013 . Retrieved 11 July 2013 . Gatsby comes across as more confident and aggressive in ' Trimalchio ' during a confrontation with romantic rival Tom Buchanan at the Plaza Hotel , challenging Tom 's assertion that Gatsby and Daisy 's affair is ' a harmless little flirtation . ' Jump up ^ Fitzgerald , F. Scott . The Great Gatsby . New York : Scribner , 2004 . Print . Jump up ^ Churchwell , Sarah ( 3 May 2013 ) . `` What makes The Great Gatsby great ? '' . The Guardian . Retrieved 11 October 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Symkus , Ed ( 4 May 2013 ) . `` ' Gatsby ' : What 's so great ? '' . Boston Globe . Retrieved 5 May 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Gillespie , Nick ( 2 May 2013 ) . `` The Great Gatsby 's Creative Destruction '' . Reason . Retrieved 12 May 2013 . Jump up ^ Pearson , Roger L. `` Gatsby : False Prophet of the American Dream . '' The English Journal 59.5 ( 1970 ) : n . pag . JSTOR . Web . 12 Apr. 2015 . Jump up ^ Leland , Person S. `` ' Herstory ' and Daisy Buchanan . '' American Literature , Vol. 50 , No. 2 , ( May , 1978 ) , pp. 250 -- 257 . Web . ^ Jump up to : O'Meara , Lauraleigh ( 2002 ) . Lost City : Fitzgerald 's New York ( 1st paperback ed . ) . Routledge . ISBN 978 - 0 - 415 - 86701 - 6 . Retrieved 21 May 2013 . Jump up ^ Clark , Edwin ( 19 April 1925 ) . `` Scott Fitzgerald Looks Into Middle Age '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 11 May 2013 . Jump up ^ Ford , Lillian C. ( 10 May 1925 ) . `` The Seamy Side of Society '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved 11 May 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Books On Our Table '' . The New York Post . 5 May 1925 . Jump up ^ `` Turns with a Bookworm '' . New York Herald Tribune . 12 April 1925 . Jump up ^ Mencken , H.L. ( 3 May 1925 ) . `` Scott Fitzgerald and His Work '' . The Chicago Daily Tribune . Jump up ^ Eagleton , Harvey ( 10 May 1925 ) . `` Profits of the New Age III . F. Scott Fitzgerald '' . The Dallas Morning News . Jump up ^ McClure , John ( 31 May 1925 ) . `` Literature - And Less '' . The Times - Picayune . Jump up ^ Coghlan , Ralph ( 25 April 1925 ) . `` F. Scott Fitzgerald '' . St. Louis Post-Dispatch . Jump up ^ Snyder , Ruth ( 15 April 1925 ) . `` A Minute or Two with Books - F. Scott Fitzgerald Ventures '' . New York Evening World . Jump up ^ Mizener 1951 , p. 167 ^ Jump up to : Bruccoli 2000 , p. 175 Jump up ^ Howell , Peter ( 5 May 2013 ) . `` Five things you did n't know about The Great Gatsby '' . The Star . Retrieved 5 May 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Donahue , Deirdre ( 7 May 2013 ) . `` The Great Gatsby by the numbers '' . USA Today . Retrieved 12 May 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Scott Fitzgerald , Author , Dies at 44 '' . New York Times . 23 December 1940 . Retrieved 30 August 2010 . Jump up ^ Mizener , Arthur ( 24 April 1960 ) . `` Gatsby , 35 Years Later '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 12 May 2013 . Writers like John O'Hara were showing its influence and younger men like Edward Newhouse and Budd Schulberg , who would presently be deeply affected by it , were discovering it . Jump up ^ Wittels , David ( 23 June 1945 ) . `` What the G.I. Reads '' . The Saturday Evening Post . Jump up ^ Cole , John Y. , ed. ( 1984 ) . Books in Action : the Armed Services Editions . Washington : Library of Congress . p. 28 . ISBN 0844404667 . Retrieved 22 May 2013 . One hundred fifty - five thousand ASE copies of The Great Gatsby were distributed - as against the twenty - five thousand copies of the novel printed by Scribners between 1925 and 1942 . Jump up ^ Beckwith , Ryan Teague ( 12 May 2013 ) . `` A novel fact : Wartime -- and the U.S. military -- boosted sales of ' The Great Gatsby ' from good to ' Great ' '' . The Denver Post . Retrieved 22 May 2013 . Jump up ^ Verghis , Sharon ( 4 May 2013 ) . `` Careless people of F Scott Fitzgerald 's Great Gatsby have a modern equivalent '' . The Australian . Retrieved 5 May 2013 . Jump up ^ Bruccoli 2000 , p. 217 Jump up ^ Mizener 1951 , p. 183 Jump up ^ Corrigan , Maureen ( 2014 ) . So We Read On : How the Great Gatsby Came to Be and Why It Endures . New York : Little , Brown . p. 265 . ISBN 9780316230070 . Jump up ^ Grossberg , Michael ( 20 April 2009 ) . `` Literary classic ' Great Gatsby ' to come to life on BalletMet stage '' . The Columbus Dispatch . Retrieved 28 August 2016 . Jump up ^ `` The Washington Ballet : The Great Gatsby '' . Kennedy Center . Retrieved 2014 - 04 - 01 . Jump up ^ Aguirre , Abby ( 2011 - 11 - 04 ) . `` Gatsby En Pointe '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 2014 - 04 - 01 . Jump up ^ Norman , Neil ( 2013 - 05 - 17 ) . `` Dance Review : The Great Gatsby '' . The Sunday Express . Retrieved 2014 - 09 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` The Great Gatsby 's Ballet Makeover '' . Vogue. 2013 - 03 - 07 . Retrieved 2014 - 09 - 19 . Jump up ^ Carter , Vanessa ( 15 July 2010 ) . `` Classic Adventures : The Great Gatsby '' . gamezebo.com . Retrieved 20 April 2013 . The game loosely follows the narrative of the F. Scott Fitzgerald classic , ... Jump up ^ Paskin , Willa ( 15 July 2010 ) . `` The Great Gatsby , Now a Video Game -- Vulture '' . Nymag.com . Retrieved 30 August 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Classic Adventures : The Great Gatsby for iPhone / iPad Reviews '' . Metacritic. 2012 - 12 - 08 . Retrieved 2013 - 11 - 25 . Jump up ^ Bell , Melissa ( 15 February 2011 ) . `` Great Gatsby ' Nintendo ' game released online '' . The Washington Post . Retrieved 15 February 2011 . Jump up ^ Crouch , Ian ( 16 February 2011 ) . `` Nintendo Lit : Gatsby and Tom Sawyer '' . The New Yorker . Retrieved 24 February 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Dixon , Wheeler Winston ( 2003 ) . `` The Three Film Versions of The Great Gatsby : A Vision Deferred '' . Literature / Film Quarterly . Salisbury , Maryland . 31 ( 4 ) . Archived from the original on 13 October 2013 . Retrieved 11 October 2013 . Jump up ^ Goldberg , Carole ( 18 March 2007 ) . `` The Double Bind By Chris Bohjalian '' . Houston Chronicle . Retrieved 22 May 2013 . Jump up ^ Wakeman , Jessica ( 8 April 2014 ) . `` FRISKY Q&A : GREAT AUTHOR SARA BENINCASA TALKS YOUNG ADULT FICTION , ZELDA FITZGERALD & WOMEN IN COMEDY '' . Retrieved 29 November 2014 . Jump up ^ Stevens , David ( 29 December 1999 ) . `` Harbison Mixes Up A Great ' Gatsby ' '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 8 April 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Family Hour Of Stars '' . radioechoes.com . Jump up ^ `` BBC World Service programmes -- The Great Gatsby '' . Bbc.co.uk. 2007 - 12 - 10 . Retrieved 30 August 2010 . Jump up ^ `` BBC Radio 4 -- Classic Serial , The Great Gatsby , Episode 1 '' . Bbc.co.uk. 2012 - 05 - 12 . Retrieved 2013 - 11 - 25 . Jump up ^ Playbill , reproduction of original program , Ambassador Theatre 1926 . http://www.playbill.com/production/the-great-gatsby-ambassador-theatre-vault-0000001115 Jump up ^ The Great Gatsby -- A Reader 's Guide -- The Play ( 1926 ) . ^ Jump up to : Levy , Simon . `` The Great Gatsby Play Official Website '' . Thegreatgatsbyplay.com . Retrieved 2013 - 11 - 25 . Jump up ^ `` Arizona Theatre Company '' . Arizonatheatre.org . Retrieved 2013 - 11 - 25 . Jump up ^ Brantley , Ben ( 2010 - 12 - 16 ) . `` Hath Not a Year Highlights ? Even This One ? '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 2014 - 04 - 01 . Bibliography ( edit ) Batchelor , Bob ( 2013 ) . Gatsby : The Cultural History of the Great American Novel . Lanham , Maryland : Rowman & Littlefield Publishers . ISBN 978 - 0810891951 . Retrieved 15 July 2014 . Bruccoli , Matthew Joseph , ed. ( 2000 ) . F. Scott Fitzgerald 's The Great Gatsby : A Literary Reference . New York : Carroll & Graf Publishers . ISBN 0 - 7867 - 0996 - 0 . Bruccoli , Matthew Joseph ( 2002 ) . Some Sort of Epic Grandeur : The Life of F. Scott Fitzgerald ( 2nd rev . ed . ) . Columbia , SC : University of South Carolina Press . ISBN 1 - 57003 - 455 - 9 . Retrieved 25 February 2013 . Mizener , Arthur ( 1951 ) . `` The Far Side of Paradise : A Biography of F. Scott Fitzgerald '' . Boston : Houghton Mifflin Harcourt . Drudzina , Douglas ( 2006 ) . Teaching F. Scott Fitzgerald 's The Great Gatsby from Multiple Critical Perspectives . Prestwick House , Inc . ISBN 978 - 1 - 58049 - 174 - 7 . External links ( edit ) Bibliowiki has original media or text related to this article : The Great Gatsby ( in the public domain in Canada ) Wikiquote has quotations related to : The Great Gatsby The Great Gatsby overview Fitzgerald , F. Scott . The Great Gatsby ( plain text ed . ) . Project Gutenberg Australia . `` In Gatsby 's Tracks -- Locating the Valley of Ashes '' . litkicks.com . The Great Gatsby Play -- Authorized and Granted Exclusive Rights by the Fitzgerald Estate Conversations from Penn State : Writers of the Lost Generation with Linda Patterson Miller discussing F. Scott Fitzgerald and his relationships with other writers of the `` Lost Generation '' Oloizia , Jeff ; Dhanraj , Emanuel ( 9 April 2013 ) . `` A Book by Its Covers '' ( interactive photo gallery ) . T : The New York Times Style Magazine . An Index to The Great Gatsby The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald Characters Jay Gatsby Nick Carraway Daisy Buchanan Films The Great Gatsby ( 1926 ) The Great Gatsby ( 1949 ) The Great Gatsby ( 1974 ) The Great Gatsby ( 2000 ) The Great Gatsby ( 2013 ) Other The Great Gatsby : Music from Baz Luhrmann 's Film The Great Gatsby ( opera ) Francis Cugat Works by F. Scott Fitzgerald Novels This Side of Paradise ( 1920 ) The Beautiful and Damned ( 1922 ) The Great Gatsby ( 1925 ) Tender Is the Night ( 1934 ) The Last Tycoon ( unfinished ) ( 1941 ) Short story collections Flappers and Philosophers ( 1920 ) `` The Offshore Pirate '' `` The Ice Palace '' `` Head and Shoulders '' `` The Cut - Glass Bowl '' `` Bernice Bobs Her Hair '' `` Benediction '' Tales of the Jazz Age ( 1922 ) `` May Day '' The Diamond as Big as the Ritz `` The Curious Case of Benjamin Button '' All the Sad Young Men ( 1926 ) `` The Rich Boy '' `` Winter Dreams '' `` The Baby Party '' `` Absolution '' `` The Adjuster '' Taps at Reveille ( 1935 ) `` The Freshest Boy '' `` First Blood '' `` Crazy Sunday '' `` Babylon Revisited '' Posthumous works Babylon Revisited and Other Stories ( 1960 ) The Basil and Josephine Stories ( 1962 ) The Pat Hobby Stories ( 1973 ) The Short Stories of F. Scott Fitzgerald ( 1989 ) Plays The Vegetable , or From President to Postman ( 1923 ) Essay collections The Crack - Up ( 1945 ) Bibliography of F. Scott Fitzgerald BNF : cb119466792 ( data ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Great_Gatsby&oldid=821432789 '' Categories : The Great Gatsby 1925 American novels Charles Scribner 's Sons books 1922 in fiction Modernist novels Adultery in novels American novels adapted into films Metafictional novels Novels by F. 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where does the story the great gatsby take place

the fictional town of West Egg on prosperous Long Island

The Great Gatsby

List of Dallas Cowboys seasons - wikipedia List of Dallas Cowboys seasons Jump to : navigation , search For complete team history , see History of the Dallas Cowboys . This article is a list of seasons completed by the Dallas Cowboys American football franchise of the National Football League ( NFL ) . The list documents the season - by - season records of the Cowboys ' franchise from 1960 to present , including postseason records , and league awards for individual players or head coaches . The Cowboys franchise was founded in 1960 as an expansion team . The team has earned 31 postseason appearances , tied for second place with the Pittsburgh Steelers , the longest consecutive streak of winning seasons with 20 , the second-most appearances in the NFC Championship Game ( 14 , behind the San Francisco 49ers ' 15 ) and the second-most Super Bowl appearances ( 8 with the Denver Broncos and Steelers ) . The Cowboys have played for 10 NFL Championships and have won 5 , all five being Super Bowls . The Cowboys won Super Bowl VI , XII , XXVII , XXVIII and XXX . They also played in and lost Super Bowl V , X , and XIII . The franchise has experienced two major periods of continued success in their history . The first period of success came from 1966 -- 1985 when the Cowboys played in the postseason 18 times . During this period , they played in two NFL Championships and five Super Bowls , winning two of them , winning a total of 20 playoff games . The second period of success was between 1991 -- 1996 when the Cowboys captured five straight NFC East Division titles and won three Super Bowls going 11 -- 2 in the postseason . The Cowboys have also experienced failure in their history . The most notable period of failure was from their 1960 inaugural season to 1965 , during which the Cowboys did not have a single postseason appearance . They did not win a single game during their first season , compiling an 0 -- 11 -- 1 record that is still the worst in franchise history . Also , they did not have a single winning record in this period . Between 1986 and 1990 the Cowboys had losing records in each season as veteran coach Landry retired and the team was radically overhauled , with the low point being the NFL 's second 15 - loss season ( after the 1980 Saints ) in 1989 . After losing a Divisional playoff Game in 1996 , the Cowboys between 1997 and 2008 lost five consecutive playoff games , one after a franchise - record 13 -- 3 season in 2007 , during which most predicted the Cowboys would break this streak . This streak finally came to an end when the Cowboys finally beat their bitter rival , the Philadelphia Eagles 34 -- 14 after an 11 -- 5 season in 2009 . Seasons ( edit ) NFL Champions ( 1920 -- 1969 ) Super Bowl Champions ( 1970 -- present ) Conference Champions Division Champions Wild Card Berth Season Team League Conference Division Regular season Postseason Results Awards Head coaches Finish Wins Losses Ties 1960 1960 NFL Western 7th 0 11 Tom Landry 1961 1961 NFL Eastern 6th 9 Tom Landry 1962 1962 NFL Eastern 5th 5 8 Tom Landry 1963 1963 NFL Eastern 5th 10 0 Tom Landry 1964 1964 NFL Eastern 5th 5 8 Tom Landry 1965 1965 NFL Eastern 2nd 7 7 0 Tom Landry 1966 1966 NFL Eastern 1st 10 Lost NFL Championship Game ( Packers ) 34 -- 27 Tom Landry ( COY ) Tom Landry 1967 1967 NFL Eastern Capitol 1st 9 5 0 Won Conference Playoffs ( Browns ) 52 -- 14 Lost NFL Championship Game ( Packers ) 21 -- 17 Tom Landry 1968 1968 NFL Eastern Capitol 1st 12 0 Lost Conference Playoffs ( Browns ) 31 -- 20 Tom Landry 1969 1969 NFL Eastern Capitol 1st 11 Lost Conference Playoffs ( Browns ) 38 -- 14 Calvin Hill ( OROY ) Tom Landry 1970 1970 NFL NFC East 1st 10 0 Won Divisional Playoffs ( Lions ) 5 -- 0 Won Conference Championship ( 49ers ) 17 -- 10 Lost Super Bowl V ( Colts ) 16 -- 13 Chuck Howley ( SB MVP ) Tom Landry 1971 1971 NFL NFC East 1st 11 0 Won Divisional Playoffs ( Vikings ) 20 -- 12 Won Conference Championship ( 49ers ) 14 -- 3 Won Super Bowl VI ( 1 ) ( Dolphins ) 24 -- 3 Roger Staubach ( SB MVP ) Tom Landry 1972 1972 NFL NFC East 2nd 10 0 Won Divisional Playoffs ( 49ers ) 30 -- 28 Lost Conference Championship ( Redskins ) 26 -- 3 Tom Landry 1973 1973 NFL NFC East 1st 10 0 Won Divisional Playoffs ( Rams ) 27 -- 26 Lost Conference Championship ( Vikings ) 27 -- 10 Tom Landry NFL NFC East 3rd 8 6 0 Tom Landry NFL NFC East 2nd 10 0 Won Divisional Playoffs ( Vikings ) 17 -- 14 Won Conference Championship ( Rams ) 37 -- 7 Lost Super Bowl X ( Steelers ) 21 -- 17 Tom Landry 1976 1976 NFL NFC East 1st 11 0 Lost Divisional Playoffs ( Rams ) 14 -- 12 Tom Landry 1977 1977 NFL NFC East 1st 12 0 Won Divisional Playoffs ( Bears ) 37 -- 7 Won Conference Championship ( Vikings ) 23 -- 6 Won Super Bowl XII ( 2 ) ( Broncos ) 27 -- 10 Tony Dorsett ( OROY ) Harvey Martin ( DPOY , SB MVP ) Randy White ( SB MVP ) Tom Landry 1978 1978 NFL NFC East 1st 12 0 Won Divisional Playoffs ( Falcons ) 27 -- 20 Won Conference Championship ( Rams ) 28 -- 0 Lost Super Bowl XIII ( Steelers ) 35 -- 31 Tom Landry 1979 1979 NFL NFC East 1st 11 5 0 Lost Divisional Playoffs ( Rams ) 21 -- 19 Tom Landry 1980 1980 NFL NFC East 2nd 12 0 Won Wild Card Playoffs ( Rams ) 34 -- 17 Won Divisional Playoffs ( Falcons ) 30 -- 27 Lost Conference Championship ( Eagles ) 20 -- 7 Tom Landry 1981 1981 NFL NFC East 1st 12 0 Won Divisional Playoffs ( Buccaneers ) 38 -- 0 Lost Conference Championship ( 49ers ) 28 -- 27 Tom Landry 1982 1982 NFL NFC 2nd 6 0 Won Wild Card Playoffs ( Buccaneers ) 30 -- 17 Won Divisional Playoffs ( Packers ) 37 -- 26 Lost Conference Championship ( Redskins ) 31 -- 17 Tom Landry NFL NFC East 2nd 12 0 Lost Wild Card Playoffs ( Rams ) 24 -- 17 Tom Landry 1984 1984 NFL NFC East 4th 9 7 0 Tom Landry 1985 1985 NFL NFC East 1st 10 6 0 Lost Divisional Playoffs ( Rams ) 20 -- 0 Tom Landry 1986 1986 NFL NFC East 3rd 7 9 0 Tom Landry NFL NFC East 4th 7 8 0 Tom Landry 1988 1988 NFL NFC East 5th 13 0 Tom Landry 1989 1989 NFL NFC East 5th 15 0 Jimmy Johnson 1990 1990 NFL NFC East 4th 7 9 0 Emmitt Smith ( OROY ) Jimmy Johnson ( COY ) Jimmy Johnson 1991 1991 NFL NFC East 2nd 11 5 0 Won Wild Card Playoffs ( Bears ) 17 -- 13 Lost Divisional Playoffs ( Lions ) 38 -- 6 Jimmy Johnson 1992 1992 NFL NFC East 1st 13 0 Won Divisional Playoffs ( Eagles ) 34 -- 10 Won Conference Championship ( 49ers ) 30 -- 20 Won Super Bowl XXVII ( 3 ) ( Bills ) 52 -- 17 Troy Aikman ( SB MVP ) Jimmy Johnson 1993 1993 NFL NFC East 1st 12 0 Won Divisional Playoffs ( Packers ) 27 -- 17 Won Conference Championship ( 49ers ) 38 -- 21 Won Super Bowl XXVIII ( 4 ) ( Bills ) 30 -- 13 Emmitt Smith ( MVP , SB MVP ) Jimmy Johnson 1994 1994 NFL NFC East 1st 12 0 Won Divisional Playoffs ( Packers ) 35 -- 9 Lost Conference Championship ( 49ers ) 38 -- 28 Barry Switzer 1995 1995 NFL NFC East 1st 12 0 Won Divisional Playoffs ( Eagles ) 30 -- 11 Won Conference Championship ( Packers ) 38 -- 27 Won Super Bowl XXX ( 5 ) ( Steelers ) 27 -- 17 Larry Brown ( SB MVP ) Barry Switzer NFL NFC East 1st 10 6 0 Won Wild Card Playoffs ( Vikings ) 40 -- 15 Lost Divisional Playoffs ( Panthers ) 26 -- 17 Barry Switzer 1997 1997 NFL NFC East 4th 6 10 0 Barry Switzer 1998 1998 NFL NFC East 1st 10 6 0 Lost Wild Card Playoffs ( Cardinals ) 20 -- 7 Chan Gailey 1999 1999 NFL NFC East 2nd 8 8 0 Lost Wild Card Playoffs ( Vikings ) 27 -- 10 Chan Gailey 2000 2000 NFL NFC East 4th 5 11 0 Dave Campo 2001 2001 NFL NFC East 5th 5 11 0 Dave Campo 2002 2002 NFL NFC East 4th 5 11 0 Dave Campo 2003 2003 NFL NFC East 2nd 10 6 0 Lost Wild Card Playoffs ( Panthers ) 29 -- 10 Bill Parcells NFL NFC East 3rd 6 10 0 Bill Parcells 2005 2005 NFL NFC East 3rd 9 7 0 Bill Parcells 2006 2006 NFL NFC East 2nd 9 7 0 Lost Wild Card Playoffs ( Seahawks ) 21 -- 20 Bill Parcells 2007 2007 NFL NFC East 1st 13 0 Lost Divisional Playoffs ( Giants ) 21 -- 17 Greg Ellis ( CBPOY ) Wade Phillips 2008 2008 NFL NFC East 3rd 9 7 0 Wade Phillips 2009 2009 NFL NFC East 1st 11 5 0 Won Wild Card Playoffs ( Eagles ) 34 -- 14 Lost Divisional Playoffs ( Vikings ) 34 -- 3 Wade Phillips NFL NFC East 3rd 6 10 0 Wade Phillips ( 1 -- 7 ) Jason Garrett ( 5 -- 3 ) 2011 2011 NFL NFC East 3rd 8 8 0 Jason Garrett 2012 2012 NFL NFC East 3rd 8 8 0 Jason Witten ( WP MOY ) Jason Garrett 2013 2013 NFL NFC East 2nd 8 8 0 Jason Garrett 2014 2014 NFL NFC East 1st 12 0 Won Wild Card Playoffs ( Lions ) 24 -- 20 Lost Divisional Playoffs ( Packers ) 26 -- 21 DeMarco Murray ( OPOY ) Jason Garrett 2015 2015 NFL NFC East 4th 12 0 Jason Garrett 2016 2016 NFL NFC East 1st 13 0 Lost Divisional Playoffs ( Packers ) 34 -- 31 Dak Prescott ( OROY ) Jason Garrett ( COY ) Jason Garrett 2017 2017 NFL NFC East 2nd 9 7 0 Jason Garrett Total 502 374 6 All - time regular season record ( 1960 -- 2017 ) 34 27 0 All - time postseason record ( 1960 -- 2017 ) 536 401 6 All - time regular season and postseason record ( 1960 -- 2017 ) 5 NFL Championships , 10 Conference Championships , 22 Divisional Championships Footnotes ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` 1960 Dallas Cowboys '' . Dallas Cowboys ' Official Website . Archived from the original on 2007 - 12 - 29 . Retrieved 2008 - 01 - 12 . ^ Jump up to : `` Dallas Cowboys ' Championship History '' . NFLTeamHistory.com . Retrieved 2008 - 01 - 12 . ^ Jump up to : `` Dallas Cowboys Championship History '' . NFLTeamHistory.com . Retrieved 2008 - 01 - 28 . ^ Jump up to : `` Dallas Cowboys History '' . CBS Sports . Retrieved 2008 - 01 - 27 . ^ Jump up to : `` Dallas Cowboys Franchise History '' . SportsEncyclopedia.com . Retrieved 2011 - 12 - 17 . Jump up ^ The 1967 NFL season marks the first season in the league 's history where the league was divided into two conferences which were subdivided into two divisions . Up to 1967 , the league was either divided into two divisions , two conferences , or neither . Jump up ^ At the end of the 1973 season , the Cowboys and the Redskins finished the season with identical 10 -- 4 records . Using the NFL 's tie - breaking procedures , Dallas finished ahead of Washington in the NFC East based on better point differential in head - to - head games . Jump up ^ For the 1978 season , the NFL expanded from a 14 - game season to a 16 - game season . Jump up ^ At the end of the 1978 season , the Cowboys and the Los Angeles Rams finished the season with identical 12 -- 4 records . Using the NFL 's tie - breaking procedures , Los Angeles was the top NFC seed over Dallas based on a better head - to - head record . Jump up ^ At the end of the 1979 season , the Cowboys and the Eagles finished the season with identical 11 -- 5 records . Using the NFL 's tie - breaking procedures , Dallas finished ahead of Philadelphia in the NFC East based on a better conference record . Jump up ^ At the end of the 1980 season , the Cowboys and the Eagles finished the season with identical 12 -- 4 records . Using the NFL 's tie - breaking procedures , Philadelphia finished ahead of Dallas in the NFC East based on better net points in division games . Jump up ^ The 1982 NFL season was shortened from 16 games per team to 9 games because of a players ' strike . The NFL adopted a special 16 - team playoff tournament ; eight teams from each conference were seeded 1 -- 8 , and division standings were ignored . Jump up ^ At the end of the 1985 season , the Cowboys , Redskins , and the Giants finished the season with identical 10 -- 6 records . Using the NFL 's tie - breaking procedures , Dallas finished ahead of New York and Washington based on a better head - to - head record . Jump up ^ The 1987 NFL season was shortened from 16 games per team to 15 games because of a players ' strike . Games to be played during the third week of the season were canceled , and replacement players were used to play games from weeks 4 through 6 . Jump up ^ At the end of the 1991 season , the Cowboys and the Bears finished the season with identical 11 -- 5 records . Using the NFL 's tie - breaking procedures , Chicago was the first NFC Wild Card based on better conference record than Dallas . Jump up ^ At the end of the 1996 season , the Cowboys and the Eagles finished the season with identical 10 -- 6 records . Using the NFL 's tie - breaking procedures , Dallas finished ahead of Philadelphia in the NFC East based on better record against common opponents . Jump up ^ At the end of the 1999 season , the Cowboys , Lions , and the Panthers finished the season with identical 8 -- 8 records . Using the NFL 's tie - breaking procedures , Dallas was the second NFC Wild Card based on a better record than Detroit against common opponents and a better conference record than Carolina . Jump up ^ At the end of the 2009 season , the Cowboys and the Eagles finished with identical 11 -- 5 records . Using the NFL 's tie - breaking procedures , Dallas finished ahead of Philadelphia in the NFC East based on better head - to - head record . References ( edit ) `` Dallas Cowboys History '' . CBS Sportsline . Retrieved January 2007 . Check date values in : access - date = ( help ) `` NFL.com -- History -- Yearly Standings '' . National Football League Official website . Retrieved January 12 , 2008 . `` Pro Football Hall of Fame -- Dallas Cowboys '' . Pro Football Hall of Fame Website . Retrieved January 12 , 2008 . `` Dallas Cowboys ( 1960 -- ) '' . databasefootball.com . Archived from the original on January 19 , 2008 . Retrieved January 12 , 2008 . `` Dallas Cowboys ( 1960 -- Present ) '' . Sports E-Cyclopedia . Retrieved January 12 , 2008 . `` Dallas Cowboys History '' . JT-SW.com . Retrieved January 12 , 2008 . `` History -- Dallas Cowboys '' . Hickoksports.com . Retrieved January 12 , 2008 . `` Franchise page -- Dallas Cowboys '' . Pro football reference.com . Retrieved April 14 , 2012 . `` Dallas Cowboys Live -- Dallas Cowboys '' . cowboysgames.net . Retrieved July 1 , 2016 . Dallas Cowboys Founded in 1960 Based in Arlington , Texas Headquartered in Frisco , Texas Franchise Franchise History Coaches Players Seasons Expansion draft Draft history Starting quarterbacks First - round draft picks The Ford Center at The Star Stadiums Cotton Bowl Texas Stadium AT&T Stadium Culture NFL on Thanksgiving Day America 's Team Cheerleaders Doomsday Defense Crazy Ray Rowdy Jerry Jones Black Sunday ( film ) King of the Hill Lore Tom Landry Tex Schramm Captain Comeback Ice Bowl Hail Mary The Catch Herschel Walker trade Dirty Dozen Ring of Honor Bounty Bowl series Rivalries New York Giants Philadelphia Eagles Washington Redskins Green Bay Packers San Francisco 49ers Pittsburgh Steelers Houston Oilers / Texans Division championships ( 23 ) 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1976 1977 1978 1979 1981 1985 1992 1993 1994 1995 1998 2007 2009 2014 2016 Conference championships ( 10 ) 1966 1967 1970 1971 1977 1978 1992 1993 1995 League Championships ( 5 ) 1971 ( VI ) 1977 ( XII ) 1992 ( XXVII ) 1993 ( XXVIII ) 1995 ( XXX ) Media Broadcasters Radio network KRLD - FM Brad Sham Babe Laufenberg Current league affiliations League : National Football League Conference : National Football Conference Division : East Division Seasons ( 58 ) 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1984 1985 1986 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Championship seasons in bold Dallas Cowboys seasons 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1984 1985 1986 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 Bold indicates Super Bowl victory Italics indicates Super Bowl appearance NFL team season lists American Football Conference AFC East AFC North AFC South AFC West Buffalo Bills Miami Dolphins New England Patriots New York Jets Baltimore Ravens Cincinnati Bengals Cleveland Browns Pittsburgh Steelers Houston Texans Indianapolis Colts Jacksonville Jaguars Tennessee Titans Denver Broncos Kansas City Chiefs Los Angeles Chargers Oakland Raiders National Football Conference NFC East NFC North NFC South NFC West Dallas Cowboys New York Giants Philadelphia Eagles Washington Redskins Chicago Bears Detroit Lions Green Bay Packers Minnesota Vikings Atlanta Falcons Carolina Panthers New Orleans Saints Tampa Bay Buccaneers Arizona Cardinals Los Angeles Rams San Francisco 49ers Seattle Seahawks Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dallas_Cowboys_seasons&oldid=836461504 '' Categories : National Football League teams seasons Dallas Cowboys seasons Dallas Cowboys lists Hidden categories : CS1 errors : dates Talk About Wikipedia Italiano Magyar Português Edit links This page was last edited on 14 April 2018 , at 23 : 28 . 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Rogue ( Comics ) - Wikipedia Rogue ( Comics ) Jump to : navigation , search Rogue Rogue on a textless variant cover of Uncanny Avengers Vol. 3 # 7 Publication information Publisher Marvel Comics First appearance Avengers Annual # 10 ( November 1981 ) In - story information Alter ego Anna Marie Species Human mutant Place of origin Caldecott County , Mississippi , United States Team affiliations X-Men Brotherhood of Evil Mutants Avengers Unity Division X-Treme X-Men The Lights X.S.E Notable aliases Anna Raven Abilities Absorption of abilities , memories , personality , and physical characteristics of others via touch Superhuman strength Flight Rogue Series publication information Schedule Vol. 1 - 3 : Monthly Format Vol. 1 - 2 Limited series . Vol. 3 Ongoing series Genre see below Publication date ( Vol. 1 ) January -- April 1995 ( Vol. 2 ) September -- December 2001 ( Vol. 3 ) September 2004 -- August 2005 Number of issues Vol. 1 : 4 Vol. 2 : 4 Vol. 3 : 12 Creative team Writer ( s ) Vol. 1 Howard Mackie Vol. 2 Fiona Avery Vol. 3 Robert Rodi ( # 1 -- 6 ) Tony Bedard ( # 7 -- 12 ) Penciller ( s ) Vol. 1 Mike Wieringo Vol. 2 Aaron Lopresti Vol. 3 Cliff Richards ( # 1 -- 6 ) Karl Moline ( # 7 -- 12 ) Inker ( s ) Vol. 1 Terry Austin Vol. 2 Randy Emberlin Vol. 3 Norm Rapmund ( # 1 -- 6 ) Rogue is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics , commonly in association with the X-Men . The character debuted in Avengers Annual # 10 ( November 1981 ) as a villain , but then soon after she joined the X-Men . Rogue is part of a subspecies of humans called mutants , who are born with superhuman abilities . Rogue has the involuntary ability to absorb and sometimes also remove the memories , physical strength , and superpowers of anyone she touches . Therefore , Rogue considers her powers to be a curse . For most of her life , she limited her physical contact with others , including her on - off love interest , Gambit . However , after many years , Rogue finally gained full control over her mutant ability . Hailing from the fictional Caldecott County , Mississippi , Rogue is the X-Men's self - described southern belle . A runaway , she was adopted by Mystique of the Brotherhood of Evil Mutants and grew up as a villain . After Rogue permanently absorbs Ms. Marvel 's psyche and Kree powers , she reforms and turns to the X-Men , fearing for her sanity . Rogue 's real name and early history were not revealed until nearly 20 years after her introduction . Until the back story provided by Robert Rodi in the ongoing Rogue series , which began in September 2004 , Rogue 's background was only hinted at . Her name was revealed as Anna Marie , although her surname is still unknown . She has sometimes adopted the name Raven , which is the first name of her foster mother , Mystique . Rogue has been one of the most prominent members of the X-Men since the 1980s . She was # 5 on IGN 's Top 25 X-Men list for 2006 , # 4 on their Top Ten X-Babes list for 2006 , # 3 on Marvel 's list of Top 10 Toughest Females for 2009 and was given title of # 1 X-Man on CBR 's Top 50 X-Men of All Time for 2008 . She was ranked tenth in Comics Buyer 's Guide 's `` 100 Sexiest Women in Comics '' list . Rogue has been featured in most of the X-Men animated series , and various video games . In the X-Men film series , she is portrayed by Anna Paquin . Her visual cue is often the white streak that runs through her hair . Contents ( hide ) 1 Publication history 2 Fictional character biography 2.1 Early life 2.2 Brotherhood of Evil Mutants 2.3 X-Men 2.4 Return 2.5 X-Treme X-Men team 2.6 Back to the X-Men 2.7 Blood of Apocalypse 2.8 Endangered Species : Rogue 's X-Men 2.9 Messiah Complex 2.10 Being cured 2.11 Utopia 2.12 Nation - X 2.13 Necrosha 2.14 Post-Siege 2.15 Second Coming 2.16 Post `` Age of X '' 2.17 Avengers vs. X-Men 2.18 Uncanny Avengers 2.19 X-Men ( Volume 4 ) 2.20 AXIS and return to Uncanny Avengers 2.21 All - New , All - Different Marvel 3 Powers and abilities 3.1 Mutant powers 3.2 Fully developed mutant abilities 3.3 Ms. Marvel powers 3.4 X-Treme abilities 3.5 Powerless 3.6 Sunfire powers 3.7 Wonder Man powers 3.8 Natural skills 4 Rogue 's real name 5 Collected editions 6 Other versions 7 In other media 8 References 9 External links Publication history ( edit ) Rogue was first slated to appear in Ms. Marvel # 25 ( 1979 ) ( and artwork for the first half of the story was completed ) , but the book 's abrupt cancellation left her original introduction story unpublished for over a decade , before it was printed in Marvel Super Heroes # 11 in 1992 . Rogue 's first published appearance was in Avengers Annual # 10 ( 1981 ) . She made her first X-Book appearance in Uncanny X-Men # 158 ( 1982 ) and joined the X-Men in Uncanny X-Men # 171 ( 1983 ) . Rogue has also had two miniseries and one ongoing title . Rogue 's real name and early history were not revealed until more than 20 years after her introduction . Until the back story provided by Robert Rodi in the ongoing Rogue series , begun in September 2004 , her background was only hinted at . This resulted in Rodi 's version of Rogue 's origins inadvertently conflicting with earlier information . In X-Men Unlimited # 4 , Scott Lobdell indicates that Rogue ran away from her father after her mutant powers manifested , but in Uncanny X-Men # 182 , Rogue reflects that she never knew her father because he 'd left before she was born , and several issues , including Uncanny X-Men # 178 and X-Men # 93 , indicate that Rogue was taken in by Mystique and Destiny before her mutation became active . Rogue is a regular character in Uncanny Avengers ( 2012 ) , beginning with issue # 1 . Fictional character biography ( edit ) Early life ( edit ) Her parents , Owen and Priscilla , married early in their relationship and lived in a back - to - nature hippie commune in Caldecott County , Mississippi . Born as Anna Marie , she also enjoyed the attentions of her Aunt Carrie , on her mother 's side . Anna Marie was raised speaking colloquial English and French , common to the Mississippi bayou area . The commune 's failed attempt to use Native American mysticism to reach the `` Far Banks '' resulted in Priscilla 's disappearance . Carrie took over Anna 's care , and in her grief at the loss of her sister , was a strict and authoritarian guardian . Anna Marie was a rebellious child and , at some point , the exact event or reasons still unclear , she ran away from home as a young teenager . At some point , Rogue grew close to a boy named Cody Robbins . During their flirtation , Cody impulsively kissed her , at which point her latent mutant power to absorb the life energy and psyche of others with skin - to - skin contact emerged . Rogue was traumatized by the experience , and Cody was left in a permanent coma . Hence , Rogue wore body - concealing clothing that eliminated the possibility of accidental skin contact . She wished she `` did not have to cover up so much around folks '' to protect them from her . She thought her power was a curse . Not long after , she was approached by Mystique , who sought her out on the advice of her precognitive partner Destiny . Mystique ultimately takes Rogue in as a daughter . In time , however , Mystique turned Rogue 's loneliness , envy , bitterness , and despair into anger , thus recruiting her into the Brotherhood of Mutants . Chris Claremont said in June 2016 that had he not left Marvel in 1991 , Mystique would have been Rogue 's real mother . It is a story line that appeared in a 2009 run of the series `` X-Men Forever '' . Brotherhood of Evil mutants ( edit ) After Rogue 's mutation emerges , Mystique begins coaxing Rogue into taking part in her terrorist activities as a member of the Brotherhood of Mutants . Rogue initially wants only a normal life , but after she kisses a boy named Cody , unintentionally rendering him unconscious with her power , she gives up on normality and begins taking part in Mystique 's plans . Rogue and Mystique associate briefly with a mutant named Blindspot , whose power to erase the memories of others by touch somehow counteracts Rogue 's mutation enough to allow them to make physical contact safely . Blindspot and Rogue become good friends , but when Mystique decides to sever professional ties with Blindspot , Blindspot erases all memory of her from both Mystique and Rogue . When Mystique debuts her Brotherhood of Evil Mutants , Destiny advises her to keep Rogue out of the action , advice which proves important when several members of the new Brotherhood are arrested and imprisoned . Mystique concocts a plan to free the other members of the Brotherhood by having Rogue absorb Ms. Marvel 's formidable powers . Rogue attacks Ms. Marvel on her front doorstep as she is returning home from grocery shopping . Due to Ms. Marvel 's formidable persona , Rogue 's struggle to absorb her powers is prolonged , and the transfer of Ms. Marvel 's psyche and powers is permanent . Rogue then throws her off the Golden Gate Bridge . She battles the Avengers using her newly acquired powers . While at the Pentagon , she literally bumps into Carol Danvers , leading into a fight with Storm and Wolverine of the X-Men . Though Rogue proves more than a match for them , the three of them escape the Pentagon . Later , with Mystique and Destiny , Rogue attacks Angel and Dazzler , but is overpowered by Dazzler . Rogue develops a grudge against Dazzler for her controllable mutation and her relationship with Angel of the X-Men . Rogue is defeated by Dazzler a few times before Dazzler is publicly revealed to be a mutant and goes into hiding . Sometime after this , Rogue , Mystique and Destiny encountered the half - human , half Dire Wraith entity called Hybrid , with whom the three formed an alliance with against the Spaceknight , Rom . However , when Rogue seized an opportunity to use her power on him , she experienced both his loneliness and his nobility . This moment had a profound effect on her and served as a crucial turning point in her life . X-Men ( edit ) The more Rogue uses her mutant power , the more her mind becomes filled with fragmentary psychic echoes of the people she absorbs . The permanently absorbed Carol Danvers ( Ms. Marvel ) is a completely distinct , albeit dormant , personality in her head , and Mastermind subtly exacerbates Rogue 's psychological distress as a means of revenge against Mystique . Desperate , Rogue turns to Professor Charles Xavier and the X-Men for help . The Professor is unable to do a psychic scan of her , due to the clashing human and Kree portions of her psyche , but nonetheless decides to not only welcome her into the school , but make her a probationary member of the X-Men . The X-Men threaten to leave the school should Rogue be accepted , even though none of the active members aside from Storm and Nightcrawler had even met Rogue before . However , Xavier is adamant and convinces the X-Men to stay . The team meets up with Wolverine in Tokyo , where his betrothed , Mariko Yashida , greets Rogue with greater warmth than she had received from her own teammates . This kindness later motivates Rogue to take a fatal laser blast in order to shield Mariko . Feeling indebted to her for saving his fiancée , Wolverine offers to transfer his healing power to her in order to save her life . She refuses , arguing that it might kill him , but this only serves to gain his trust , and Wolverine touches her to transfer his power anyway . Soon after , she gains the full trust of the rest of the team by using her power on a severely injured Colossus , willingly leaving herself in the same rigid , melted form as he was to allow Healer to heal his wounds . Overhearing a frantic message from Carol Danvers ' former lover Michael Rossi causes the Danvers persona to become active . Under Danvers ' control , Rogue invades the S.H.I.E.L.D. Helicarrier to rescue Rossi . Her natural persona begins fighting to regain control , and for several minutes Rogue rapidly switches back and forth between the two personalities . Though she ultimately regains control , the incident leaves the Anna Marie persona wracked with guilt over what she did to Carol Danvers . To defeat the Adversary , the X-Men's physical and spiritual essences are used as fuel for Forge 's energy star , which closes the doorway to the Adversary 's plane of existence . Roma , a prisoner of the Adversary and guardian of the multiverse , recreates the fallen X-Men from scratch , making her own minor alterations . Now invisible to cameras and all forms of detection equipment , the X-Men resettle to Australia , defeating the Reavers and claiming their base in the Outback as a new base of operations . The X-Men use their new status to attack anti-mutant threats around the world . The island nation of Genosha 's super powered agents , the Press Gang , capture Rogue and Wolverine , and Wipeout fully cancels their abilities . Rogue is then sexually molested by her guards . She withdraws into her subconscious , and the Carol Danvers persona takes advantage of her distress by assuming control . The Danvers personality eventually grows so strong that Carol replaces Rogue 's standard X-Men costume with Ms. Marvel 's uniform during battle , as well as redecorating Rogue 's room to her own tastes without her permission . Return ( edit ) Rogue vs. the Ms. Marvel persona on the cover of Uncanny X-Men # 269 . Art by Jim Lee . Sacrificing herself to stop the Master Mold , Rogue is pulled through the Siege Perilous , where she is judged by other - dimensional forces with the promise of a `` new life . '' Rogue is purged of the remaining portions of Carol Danvers 's personality , as well as Carol 's powers , and teleported back to the X-Men's Outback base . She finds it has been taken over by the Reavers in her absence , and the now physically separate Danvers persona attacks her . Rogue flees , absorbing the powers of the mutant Gateway in order to teleport herself to safety . She ends up in the Savage Land , and spends the ensuing days learning how to survive in the inhospitable land . She is eventually attacked again by Danvers , who is now under the mental enslavement of the Shadow King . There is not enough life - force between the two to sustain both Rogue and Danvers physically as a result of the separation , and Rogue is unwilling to kill Danvers . With Danvers on the verge of draining Rogue 's life completely , Magneto intervenes and kills the Ms. Marvel persona . Rogue and Magneto join forces with Ka - zar and Nick Fury to battle Zaladane , who is trying to conquer the Savage Land . Rogue and Magneto have a brief moment of romantic tension during this war . Once Zaladane is defeated and helpless , Magneto kills her , against Rogue and Fury 's protests , parting ways with the X-Men's ideals and methods before flying away . Rogue then flies to Muir Island to rejoin the rest of the X-Men , the powers she absorbed from Ms. Marvel now returned . Rogue received her own miniseries in 1995 , whose story revisited the accident with Cody Robbins . Art by Mike Wieringo and Terry Austin . The X-Men later divides into two teams to make better use of their large number of active members ; Rogue is assigned to the Blue Team , under the leadership of Cyclops and alongside new X-Man Gambit . Upon his arrival , Gambit flirts with each of the female members of the team , however Rogue immediately catches his eye , and he makes no secret of his romantic desire for her . The development of Rogue and Gambit 's relationship is slow and rocky , partly as a result of her inability to control her powers and partly as a result of long - term issues with previous relationships on Gambit 's part . As an act of penance , Rogue continues to visit Cody Robbins ' hospital bed annually , a decade after she placed him in a coma . He is later killed by assassins sent by Gambit 's ex-lover , Bella Donna Boudreaux , as part of a revenge plot against Rogue . Through a spiritual leader , Rogue is able to make amends with Cody 's spirit . Cody holds no hard feelings against her , knowing what happened was an accident , and urges her to move on . It is eventually revealed that Mystique had two sons : the now - deceased anti-mutant politician Graydon Creed and Rogue 's long - time teammate , Nightcrawler . Rogue and Nightcrawler consider themselves to be siblings , although the revelation has not particularly altered their friendship . Following the supposed ' death ' of Cyclops , the X-Men team undergoes major changes , among them Rogue being made the team 's new field commander . Her even temper and years of X-Men service make her an ideal leader and she continues to lead the team until Storm returns . When the Galactic Council transforms Earth into a maximum - security penal colony for hundreds of extraterrestrial criminals , Rogue absorbs the attributes of Z'Cann ; a mutant , telepathic Skrull who had joined Cadre K , Xavier 's Skrull equivalent to the X-Men . Z'Cann purposely touches Rogue to activate the mutant 's abilities as the two evade bounty hunters . Z'Cann uses her telepathy to amplify Rogue 's capacity to assimilate memories , causing her powers to mutate . Henceforth , Rogue is able to `` recall '' previously absorbed powers , but also finds it increasingly difficult to control which powers manifest when , typically possessing Wolverine 's healing factor and claws , and Cyclops ' optic blasts along with her usual strength . X-Treme X-Men team ( edit ) Rogue was part of the X-Treme X-Men team led by Storm . The team 's first mission was in search of Destiny 's Diaries ( which prophesied future events ) . During an invasion of Khan ( an alien conqueror from another dimension ) of the island nation of Madripoor , Rogue requested that Sage use her power of jump - starting abilities to evolve Rogue to a point where she could control all of the various powers that she has ever imprinted . Sage agreed , and Rogue became a one - woman army , able to use the powers of anyone she had absorbed in the past all at once . During Khan 's invasion , Rogue was also confronted by Vargas who was said to be `` a new species altogether '' . Vargas foresaw himself being killed by Rogue in Destiny 's diaries and , despite his belief in the prophecies , attempted to stop this occurrence from happening . Thus , in the midst of the invasion battle , Vargas ambushed Rogue as she was trying to rescue Gambit ( see X-Treme X-Men ) , spearing both Rogue and Gambit with his blade before escaping . Rogue survived due to possessing both Wolverine 's and Hulk 's powers . Returning to the city shortly after the battle to recover his sword , Vargas was surprised in turn by Rogue dressed in Psylocke 's costume ( Vargas having killed Psylocke earlier for sport ) . After a lengthy battle , Rogue `` fulfilled her destiny '' by seemingly finishing Vargas off with his own weapon . Returning to Gambit , Rogue , with the help of Jean Grey , forced him from near death . Following the repulsion of the invasion , Rogue realized that Destiny 's Prophecies were only possibilities and that trying to follow them was more dangerous than ignoring them . She also learned that she had inherited a mansion in New Orleans from Destiny , as well as a sizable fortune , and the X-Treme X-Men team retired there to recuperate . Rogue soon left the team with Gambit , since they both emerged powerless from their ordeals and wanted to explore their relationship further . After life on the road with Gambit , Rogue ended up living in a beach house in Valle Soleada , a town where mutants and humans coexisted peacefully . She subsequently received a visit from Bishop and Sage and , after a series of events involving an investigation into the murder of a human girl 's family , Rogue and Gambit signed up with Bishop and Sage to help Storm 's X-Treme X-Men stop Sage 's enemy and former boss Elias Bogan . After the battle , Rogue asked Sage to restore Gambit 's abilities , which she did . Gambit asked if the same could be done for Rogue 's powers , but it was never revisited after Rogue quickly dismissed his comment . Back to the X-Men ( edit ) Rogue and Gambit returned to the X-Men as part of Marvel 's ReLoad . Over time , Rogue 's own abilities returned , although exactly how and when was never revealed or discussed . However , she no longer possessed the abilities she had absorbed from Ms. Marvel . Rogue and Gambit were both put on Havok 's team and participated in various missions . As described in her own miniseries , Rogue then traveled down south to save a young mutant girl from her powers . While there , she met Campbell St. Ange , a young man who was immune to Rogue 's lethal touch . Also while there , Rogue forcibly absorbed knowledge from her Aunt Carrie that explained that Rogue 's mother had traveled to the Far Banks , a dream - realm , to stop her father from getting there himself . Rogue encountered the incorporeal spirit of her mother therein , and absorbed her memories . After the reunion , her mother 's trapped spirit could finally move on . Rogue subsequently went back to her Aunt Carrie and made amends with her . Rogue then returned to the X-Men and confronted the monstrous Golgotha ( large space creatures with telepathic abilities that induce insanity in some by bringing out and , to some extent , amplifying people 's emotions ) . During this ordeal , as the result of Golgotha influence , Rogue and Gambit got into a fight about the reality of their relationship with Rogue 's uncontrollable powers . Gambit claimed they would have parted much sooner if they were always able to touch , that Rogue would have been `` just another one - night stand '' . Gambit left , and Wolverine , his hidden emotions also coming out amplified under the influence of Golgotha , then revealed to Rogue he desired her in a romantic / sexual way , and that he in fact always had . He and Rogue then started passionately kissing each other until her power began to affect him and Emma Frost telepathically interrupted . While on a trip to Japan to investigate an incriminating photo of her and Sunfire engaged in criminal activities , both Rogue and Sunfire learned that Rogue 's former friend and teammate of the Brotherhood , Blindspot , has erased both their memories of the event . In this storyline , Rogue accidentally and permanently absorbed Sunfire 's fire abilities ( who has lost his legs to Lady Deathstrike and did not want to live ) . Back at the X-Mansion , Emma Frost tried to help Rogue and Gambit by providing telepathic relationship counseling , but their relationship continued to be problematic . Rogue then discovered that Gambit was being seduced by the student called Foxx . It is later revealed , however , that Mystique , displeased with Rogue 's choice of lovers , infiltrated the Xavier Institute by shapeshifting into Foxx and joined Gambit 's squad in an attempt to ruin his relationship with Rogue . After Gambit resisted her charms , Mystique reverted to her true form and offered Gambit something more difficult to refuse : she transformed into Rogue and offered Gambit a Rogue with whom he could have a physical relationship . Whether or not they actually engaged in a sexual relationship is uncertain ( although Gambit insists that nothing happened ) . Rogue eventually discovered her foster mother 's presence in the school and her attempts to seduce Gambit , becoming furious with both parties . Because Gambit failed to tell Rogue of Mystique 's presence in the Institute , their relationship developed the exact rift Mystique was hoping for and allowed her to set up her daughter with her accomplice , Pulse . After being discovered , Mystique asked the X-Men for permission to stay at the mansion . The X-Men voted and Mystique was allowed to be a probationary member of the X-Men , a decision neither Rogue nor Gambit were happy with . Blood of Apocalypse ( edit ) In the events that followed M - Day , the mutant Apocalypse was reawakened . Gambit , seeking redemption from Rogue and his fellow X-Men , volunteered to be transformed into his horseman , Death . Gambit believed he could control whatever Apocalypse would do to him , in hopes of only gaining more power to protect Rogue and the X-Men from the villain . However , having been brain - washed , Gambit tried to kill Rogue ( the only part of Gambit 's past life that remains ) . After Apocalypse 's defeat , Sunfire ( who was granted new legs and transformed into the horseman Famine ) and Gambit left the X-Men . Endangered species : Rogue 's X-Men ( edit ) As Professor Xavier went into space with Havok and several other X-Men to go after the villain Vulcan , Cyclops gave Rogue the authority to form her own team , complimenting her inspired improvisation in battle situations . She was hesitant at first because of Gambit 's recent disappearance with Sunfire , but accepted the position , saying that when he comes back she 'd still be at the school . She chose Iceman , Cannonball , Cable , Sabretooth , Lady Mastermind , Karima Shapandar ( Omega Sentinel ) , and Mystique , a line - up Cyclops did not agree with . Mystique seemingly tried to repair her relationship with Rogue , but was rebuffed . Rogue 's team defeated the group known as the Children of the Vault . Afterward , Rogue declared that her team would leave the X-Mansion . Rogue was hospitalized after a battle with Pandemic . Cable , desiring Rogue 's help in defeating the Hecatomb , forced Rogue awake . Pandemic infected Rogue with a virus , Strain 88 , altering her powers by amplifying them into an instantaneous death - touch . In defeating Hecatomb , Rogue absorbed psyches of eight billion entities that had been stored inside it . The team moved to Rogue 's hometown of Caldecott for Rogue to recover . As Cyclops and Emma Frost arrived to help Rogue cope with the immensity of the voices in her mind , Marauders arrived , seeking the Destiny diaries . As part of the attack , it was revealed that Mystique was working with the Marauders and for Mister Sinister . Mystique shot Rogue and took her back to Mr. Sinister 's base , who only kept Rogue alive because she held all the information of Destiny 's Diaries within her mind . Gambit , who had joined the Marauders and Mr. Sinister again , was protective of Rogue and accused Mystique of being too careless in how she captured her . Gambit was shown standing over Rogue trying to get her to wake up ( after she had fallen into a trance overcome by the minds she absorbed ) , and expressed his apologies for what he had done before rejoining Sinister . Rogue had flashes of memories , both of she and Gambit during the time that they had known each other , and of the millions of minds she absorbed , while in her coma - like state before she briefly woke up and recognized Gambit . She told him she had a nightmare , before spouting incoherent words and mysterious coordinates . Messiah Complex ( edit ) Main article : X-Men : Messiah Complex The X-Men attacked the Marauders ' Antarctic base in order to rescue Rogue and the mysterious mutant baby who was at the center of Messiah Complex . However the baby eventually took precedence and the X-Men did not recover ( or even see ) Rogue . Mister Sinister , now in possession of the mutant baby , relocated the Marauders to Muir Island . While standing by Rogue 's bedside , Mystique was visited by Mister Sinister who told her that there will be no cure for Rogue and she will eventually die . Without warning , Mystique ambushed Sinister and shoved his face onto Rogue 's . The instant contact seemingly killed Sinister . Mystique , in keeping with the words of the Destiny Diaries , placed the baby 's face in direct contact with Rogue 's , with the understanding that Rogue would awaken from her comatose state . The baby was not affected by Rogue 's power , and Rogue awakens shortly after . Realizing what Mystique had done at the risk of killing the baby , Rogue said she 's tired of people 's lives being destroyed by Mystique and grabbed Mystique 's face barehanded , fully absorbing her powers and consciousness and incapacitating her . However , she immediately regrets her action when she realizes that the baby had deleted all the consciousnesses she had previously absorbed , along with Strain 88 , so that now Mystique was the only one in her head . She said she needed to be alone and told Gambit not to follow her . Being cured ( edit ) Rogue takes some time out from the X-Men and travels around the Australian outback on a motorcycle . She returns to the X-Men's former headquarters in Maynards Plains , Australia . Once there , she has a conversation with Mystique ( a part of Rogue 's psyche ) , telling her that no one else can help her with her powers and that it was down to her to figure out how to control them . One day , a woman appears in town claiming to be an anthropologist from Melbourne University . Rogue made it clear she could stay as long as she wants , but to keep out of her way . The anthropologist approached Rogue with questions about some of the remains she has found in the town . Rogue said she does not know anything about the remains and to leave her alone . The anthropologist follows Rogue and explains she actually has a different identity . The anthropologist was then targeted by a low flying Shi'ar spaceship and revealed that she was actually Danger in disguise . She informs Rogue she planned to get revenge on Professor Xavier by using her as a conduit . Danger created an amalgamation of several past events in the X-Men's history prominently involving Rogue in the town using her hard light capabilities . As Professor Xavier and Gambit searched for her , Rogue evaded old versions of the X-Men and the Marauders that were part of Danger 's creation . She was finally cornered by the Marauders , and refused to let Mystique 's psyche take control of Rogue 's body and save her as the fake Marauder Scalphunter shot at her . Mystique then forcibly took over Rogue 's body to save her and fought off the Marauders , then returned control of Rogue 's body to her . Rogue then wandered to the fake Tokyo Tower and tried to find the Institute , deducing that the projections around her were changing at ten - minute intervals , altering the environment around her . However , Rogue did not get far as she ended up in Antarctica , witnessing the moment she abandoned Gambit after his trial . She regretted her decisions there , telling Mystique that she really had not moved on . It was at that point that Cody Robbins appeared before Rogue , repeating his greeting from the night her powers manifested . Rogue just stared at him in shock . Eventually the Professor , Gambit , and a group of Shi'ar pirates managed to shut down Danger . However , the Professor reactivated her and she defeated the pirates in turn . After this , it was revealed that Rogue 's powers never truly developed past their initial `` nascent '' stage , which was the reason why her powers never functioned properly . The Professor , now aware of this fact , used his telepathy to tear down the mental walls that kept Rogue 's powers from developing ( the walls were created as a side effect every time she absorbed other people starting with Cody , and even more so with Ms. Marvel ) , and removed the mental echo of Mystique . Finally , Rogue kissed Gambit , with no ill side effect , revealing that she was finally in control of her absorption power . Utopia ( edit ) Rogue , Gambit , and Danger decide to go to San Francisco in order to regroup with the other X-Men . On their way there they are intercepted by Pixie who teleports them into the city , which is in a state of chaos due to the anti-mutant and pro-mutant movements . Cyclops sends all three out in order to locate several missing students and bring them home . During their mission Rogue faces off against the new Ms. Marvel ; finding that she can not touch her opponent , Rogue resorts to a trick and flees the site . Later on she joins Gambit , who has been injured by Ares , along with Danger . Ares does not take her seriously and dismisses her both as an opponent and her attempts to calm things down . Rogue grabs Ares and absorbs his powers . Ares is dismissive of her attempt and claims that she can not absorb him , a boast that proves wrong as she weakens him enough for Gambit to blast him , leaving him bloody and stunned . Having for the moment absorbed some of Ares ' power she easily dispatches a small group of H.A.M.M.E.R. agents with superhuman strength and proceeds to steal their tank , along with Gambit and Danger , in order to find the rest of the students . Rogue finds Trance as her powers are flaring out of control creating powerful uncontrollable bio-electric blasts . Rogue tries to help calm Trance and help her gain control when Ms. Marvel appears . After taking out Gambit and Danger , Rogue and Ms. Marvel fight ; Rogue is losing until Trance regains control and jumps in to help Rogue . Trance learns that her astral form is able to punch Ms. Marvel when they are both intangible . After Gambit stuns Ms. Marvel , they teleport back to base where Trance receives medical attention . Nation - X ( edit ) As Utopia has become a safe haven for mutants , the entire population had to be on high alert following an attack on the X-Men by Emplate , who feeds on mutant bone marrow for sustenance . The X-Men instruct everyone to stay close to each other and report anything out of the ordinary . Bling goes to check out an old amphitheatre on her own when Emplate captures her to use as a food source . Unable to enter Emplate 's cross-dimensional base , Rogue absorbs Trance 's astral projection ability to save Bling . As she investigates his home for clues to Bling 's whereabouts , Rogue was attacked by psychoplasmic ghosts . After fighting them off , she rescues Bling from Emplate . Rogue also protects the students during an attack by a Predator X herd by absorbing the powers of multiple students . Necrosha ( edit ) In an attempt to finally achieve godhood , Selene along with her servant Eli Bard , resurrected many of the X-Men's greatest deceased allies and villains under her control . Among the resurrected is Rogue 's foster mother , Destiny , who attempts to contact Rogue but instead contacts Blindfold . However , Proteus had possessed Destiny when she came back . When she makes contact , he leaves her to possess the body of Blindfold , so he can trick her into convincing a team of X-Men to go to Muir Island , where he hopes to kill them . Eventually Rogue and a team of X-Men manage to defeat Proteus and Rogue tearfully says goodbye to her foster mother as Destiny once more dies . Post-siege ( edit ) Following the Siege of Asgard , Rogue was present at the funeral of Robert Reynolds , the Sentry . She stated that Reynolds was immune to the ill effects of her power , and that a time in her past when she could touch no one else , she had at least one intimate encounter with him . However , between two episodes of psychic blocks that caused Reynolds to completely forget his life as the Sentry , when he regained those memories for a few days , he contacted Charles Xavier telepathically , and did not recognize Rogue when he `` saw '' her through that telepathic bond . Second coming ( edit ) During the event in which Cable and Hope return to the present timeline Rogue is able to sense Hope 's presence , like Destiny prophesied , although neither she nor Emma Frost can explain it . After a short confrontation with some of Bastion 's men , the X-Men and Cable decide for a diversionary tactic . Cable along with some of the X-Men stays behind ( since it was him they were tracking ) while Rogue , Nightcrawler , and Hope leave in order to protect the girl . To that end , Rogue absorbs the power sets of Colossus , Wolverine , X-23 , Archangel , and Psylocke . Rogue as seen in X-Men : Second Coming after absorbing the powers of 5 teammates to protect Hope . For a while their tactic works , leaving Cable along with some of the X-Men to fend off Bastion 's troops . In the mean time Kurt , along with Rogue and Hope , teleports across the United States towards Utopia . This , however , exerts him to such a degree that he has to rest for a moment ; they are soon confronted by Bastion himself . Seeing no alternative , Rogue attacks him hoping to buy enough time for Kurt and Hope to flee , but Bastion is able to hit Kurt with an energy blast that knocks him out . Channeling Colossus 's strength , further enhancing it with Betsy 's telekinesis and using the individual claw sets of Logan and X-23 along with their healing factors , Rogue is able to inflict massive damage to Bastion . However , Bastion is able to repair himself and overpower Rogue with an energy discharge which briefly incapacitates her . Unable to do anything , she watches with horror as Bastion fatally impales Kurt with his arm . Rogue is appointed Hope 's protector while on Utopia and allows her to participate in the final battle , where Hope eventually destroys Bastion . Her actions and choices put Hope in danger and ultimately results in Cyclops suspending Rogue from active duty . She will , however , remain as Hope 's protector and accompanies her to Alaska in search of her real family . Post `` Age of X '' ( edit ) After the events of the `` Age of X '' storyline , Rogue becomes torn between her feelings for Gambit and Magneto . Gambit states that she has to be ready for him for good before he could be with her again , and that he would be waiting for her when she is ready . After Rogue confronts Magneto about his past , she spends a night with him , promising nothing else . Afterwards , Rogue joins Professor X , Frenzy , Legion , Magneto , and Gambit on a mission to capture several of Legion 's personalities that escaped after Age of X . The final battle with Legion 's personality Styx results in Rogue temporarily absorbing many of Legion 's powers , which led her to finding the location of Havok , Polaris , and Marvel Girl ; the mutants that were left in space after the X-Men's mission to stop Vulcan . After the events of `` Schism '' , Rogue chooses to be on Wolverine 's team , noting to Cyclops that he has reached a point where his previous willingness to question his decisions has been replaced by an inability to accept when he might be wrong . She returns to Westchester , New York with Wolverine 's team to start the Jean Grey School for Higher Learning . Avengers vs. X-Men ( edit ) Rogue fighting She - Hulk on the cover of X-Men Legacy 266 during the Avengers vs. X-Men event . Although Rogue was initially neutral in the war between the Avengers and the X-Men , when the Jean Grey School was surrounded by She - Hulk , Moon Knight , and Falcon to stop other X-Men from joining Cyclops ' team , Rogue was forced into action when some students attacked She - Hulk , declaring her allegiance to Cyclops after Iron Man sent a remote - controlled armor to attack the school . However , Rogue swiftly changed sides again when she witnessed Magik -- now empowered by one - fifth of the Phoenix Force -- imprison Ms. Marvel in a portion of Limbo that she had brought to Earth . Magik briefly banished Rogue to another world for her defiance , but Rogue was able to return home after helping to resolve a conflict between two alien races , having learned that the leaders of both sides were prolonging the war to keep their populations down to a manageable level . Having returned to Earth , Rogue served as the X-Men's representative when appealing to the Avengers for asylum from the increasingly dictatorial Cyclops . In the aftermath , she helped rescue civilians caught in the crossfire , but finally ended her relationship with Magneto . Uncanny Avengers ( edit ) Rogue attends Xavier 's funeral alongside Wolverine . Later , after seeing the Scarlet Witch placing flowers on Xavier 's grave , Rogue confronts her and orders her to leave , blaming her for his death ; the two begin a verbal conflict that results in Rogue punching her in the face , though the Scarlet Witch refuses to fight back . Rogue intends to absorb her powers , but it fails . They are then attacked by five mysterious assailants . During this conflict , the Scarlet Witch is impaled while defending Rogue , and the two are both seemingly defeated . The team makes their debut as the Avengers Unity Squad ( which also contains Sunfire , Wasp , and Wonder Man as the team 's latest recruits ) during a press conference that debuts them . The press conference is then crashed by a resurrected Grim Reaper who attacks the Avengers Unity Squad while claiming that he is now unable to die . During the fight , Rogue absorbs some of Wonder Man 's powers and seemingly punches Grim Reaper harder than normal which apparently kills the Grim Reaper again . It is later revealed that the instigator behind the attack on Rogue and Scarlet Witch was the Red Skull , who has since fused his and Xavier 's brains to give him access to his tremendous mental powers . Despite the Skull 's attempts to control them , he is eventually defeated by the ' Avengers Unity ' team -- including Captain America , Thor , Wolverine and Havok -- but manages to escape . In the aftermath , Rogue accepts membership of the team , seeing it as the best way to continue Xavier 's dream , but notes that she will still not forgive the Scarlet Witch for her actions . She was later seen fighting alongside Captain America with the Avengers A.I. Rogue absorbs Wolverine 's powers and is told to stop the Scarlet Witch , who is seemingly helping the Apocalypse Twins , but in reality , she plans to use her powers to bring as many of Earth 's heroes as she possibly can to defeat the Twins . Wolverine tells her that nobody is to be killed if it can be helped , but upon seeing Wanda , Rogue goes into a berserker rage and murders her . Rogue is then killed by the recently re-resurrected Grim Reaper , who had been revived once again by the Apocalypse Twins to be one of their four horsemen of death . Her death was undone when Havok and the surviving members of the Unity Squad were sent from the future by Kang to stop the twins from destroying Earth , their minds projected back into their past selves so that they could not only warn Rogue what was to come , but then arranged for her to absorb the powers of numerous superheroes to give her the strength to hold the Celestial back . Rogue also finally made peace with Wanda and forgave her . After the crisis was over , Rogue was in the process of being driven mad by all the heroes Rogue had absorbed ( all of the Avengers and X-Men ) . The Scarlet Witch cast a spell to return those powers to their owners , although Rogue still retained the powers and the very essence she absorbed from Wonder Man . She has also lost her ability to freely touch others . X-Men ( volume 4 ) ( edit ) In 2013 , Marvel revealed a new comic book simply named X-Men . Written by Brian Wood , X-Men features an all - female cast including Storm , Jubilee , Rogue , Kitty Pryde , Rachel Grey , and Psylocke . Rogue was removed from this series ' cast after the Battle of the Atom crossover , to avoid contradicting her death in Uncanny Avengers . AXIS and return to Uncanny Avengers ( edit ) After her resurrection , Rogue took part in AXIS with the X-Men , her powers allowing her to sense the aspect of Professor X that remained within the Red Skull . During this time , the AUD was disbanded when various heroes underwent a moral inversion due to a spell cast by Doctor Doom and the Scarlet Witch to stop the telepathic Red Skull . In the aftermath , the Unity Division was reformed with Rogue as leader of the team . All - new , all - different Marvel ( edit ) Variant cover of Uncanny Avengers Vol. 3 # 1 showing Rogue with her team , art by Scott Campbell . Following the Incursions , Rogue remains as the field leader of the Avengers Unity Squad , although she accepts Steve Rogers ' official oversight and recommendations for membership , such as Deadpool . She is also depicted as suffering side - effects from the mass terrigenesis , requiring regular injections to stop herself becoming ill or dying . When various Avengers are brainwashed into civilian lives in the community of Pleasant Hill -- a S.H.I.E.L.D. project to ' reprogram ' supervillains into regular civilians using fragments of a Cosmic Cube that has since gained sentience -- Rogue 's new identity of Claire sees through the deception thanks to telepathic training provided by Professor X , allowing her mind to plant various clues that lead her to the rest of the team . Later on , the Red Skull attempts to mount a new attack on the team , but Deadpool is able to resist the telepathic attack long enough to get Magneto 's old helmet on Rogue so that she can resist the Skull 's telepathy . Rogue subsequently takes the Skull to a new facility where Beast is able to extract the uniquely Xavier elements from the Skull 's brain , depriving him of Xavier 's telepathy , while Rogue and Johnny Storm incinerate the brain . Powers and abilities ( edit ) This section relies too much on references to primary sources . Please improve this section by adding secondary or tertiary sources . ( March 2015 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) This section describes a work or element of fiction in a primarily in - universe style . Please help rewrite it to explain the fiction more clearly and provide non-fictional perspective . ( March 2015 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Due to the nature of her unique mutant powers , Rogue has had several different abilities over the decades . Mutant powers ( edit ) Cover art of Rogue vol. 3 , # 3 ( September 2004 ) ; art by Rodolfo Migliari . Rogue possesses the mutant ability to absorb the psyche and abilities of another human being ( or members of some sapient alien races ) through skin contact . Rogue can absorb the memories , knowledge , talents , personality and physical abilities ( whether superhuman or not ) of the person she touches , as well as occasionally duplicating in herself physical characteristics of her victim . The victim loses those abilities and memories for exactly the amount of time that Rogue possesses them . This absorption usually leaves the victim weakened and sometimes renders them unconscious . Their powers may also be temporarily weakened or removed . Rogue 's power is constantly active , rendering her incapable of touching others without the absorption process taking place . However , evidence suggests that Rogue 's inability to control her powers is psychological in nature . During the times when the Ms. Marvel personality would overtake her psyche , she was able to touch people freely . This fact has since been corroborated by the discovery that Rogue 's absorption power never developed beyond the stage of its original manifestation . Xavier later rectified this by telepathically removing the psychological barriers stunting it . The transfer of abilities is usually temporary , lasting for a period of time relative to how long contact is maintained , but if Rogue holds on to her victim for too long , the transfer may become permanent , leaving the victim nearly dead , as was the case with Ms. Marvel . However , it must also be noted that Ms. Marvel fought the transfer process , which Rogue attested to sometime after the incident occurred . Most often this process happens instantly when Rogue touches someone , but certain extraordinarily powerful beings have proven resistant to Rogue 's power , and she may only share part of their memories and power , as was the case when Rogue once attempted to absorb power from the alien Magus . However , in the process of doing so she gained an immunity to the Technarch transmode virus . After coming into contact with the supervillain Pandemic , Rogue 's powers were upgraded for a brief time into an instant death touch . Using her upgraded powers , Rogue absorbed the Hecatomb and the psyches within it , putting her into a coma . As Rogue is absorbing the total psyche of a person , there is a risk of a personality overwhelming her and taking control of her body . It has also been shown that even though the memories she has absorbed eventually fade when a psyche returns to its body , remnants , or `` echoes '' , of the personalities of victims whose memories she has absorbed remain buried in her subconscious indefinitely , and while there is little to no risk of those personalities overwhelming her like the Ms. Marvel personality could , they can occasionally make their presences known . Fully developed mutant abilities ( edit ) Following the conclusion of Messiah Complex , Rogue 's slate was wiped clean . The mutant baby 's touch mysteriously erased all of the previous memories and abilities Rogue had absorbed , including those of the Hecatomb . It also cured her of the Strain 88 virus . Rogue 's touch now simply steals the memories and abilities of individuals with whom she comes in direct skin - to - skin contact . The longer the contact , the longer Rogue retains the absorbed information , powers , and also the abilities of the individuals she absorbs . She can now control her powers , making her touch lethal -- or non-lethal -- at will . Following the events of X-Men : Legacy , Rogue appears to be able to activate her powers at will , as opposed to them being constantly active , as demonstrated when she kisses Gambit without incident . Her inability to control her powers stemmed from mental blocks within her mind which formed each time she used her abilities , crippling the development of her powers from their nascent stage . When Professor Xavier removes the blocks , her powers are allowed to develop normally . With this new control , Rogue demonstrates the ability to absorb and collectively utilize all the powers of the New X-Men , in order to defeat a rogue Predator X , with no apparent harm to either them or herself . Her power also affects aliens , such as when she was transferred to a planet in another dimension by Magik , and one of the aliens involuntarily touches her and she gains the ability to communicate in their language , along with their knowledge . She later uses a more lethal version of her powers against the Avengers during her fight with them , even making Falcon and She - Hulk immediately unconscious without any negative feedback on her physical self ( besides She - Hulk 's green skin ) but she can not control the minds of the ones she absorbs . She absorbs their powers and renders them unconscious for a long time . The new twist in Rogue 's powers consists of prompting her victims of her skin - to - skin contact , for a consent on the process . Rogue 's victim can either resist the absorption and suffer , like originally with Rogue 's powers , or instead submit to the absorption , and so the process instead becomes entirely fluent without consequences . Rogue has used this twist extensively in the Legacy series ; just two examples of it are when aiding the victims of a subway collapse absorbing all rescuers ' abilities in X-Men Legacy 274 , and also when quenching a riot in a prison of mutants absorbing the existence of some mutant - volunteers in X-Men Legacy 275 . During Uncanny Avengers , Rogue used her powers to absorb the energies of numerous superheroes to oppose the Celestial Executioner , stating that she 'd `` been practicing '' ; she was even able to absorb the ionic energy based powers of Wonder Man ( whom she 'd been previously unable to absorb ) . However , apparently due to the scale of the energies she absorbed in the process , Rogue 's powers have reverted to their original state , unable to touch anyone without absorbing them automatically , and she retains Wonder Man 's psyche and powers . Ms. Marvel powers ( edit ) As a young woman , Rogue permanently absorbed the superhuman powers and the psyche of Carol Danvers , the original Ms. Marvel . This provided her with superhuman strength , stamina , durability , reflexes , speed and a 7th sense . She was able to repel bullets and fly at sub-sonic speeds , much like Ms. Marvel could . In addition , she possessed an amalgamated mutant human / Kree physiology that rendered her resistant to most toxins and poisons , with the added effect of making her virtually invulnerable . Rogue on the cover of Rogue vol 3 # 7 ( March 2005 ) ; art by Frank G. D'Armata , Scot Eaton , and Don Hillsman Rogue also gained a precognitive `` seventh sense '' that enables her to predict an enemy 's move subconsciously during battle . She used this ability to predict where Nightcrawler would teleport and from which direction Magus of the Technarchy would attack . This ability was not always reliable , however , and would randomly and sporadically activate . When she possessed Carol Danvers ' psyche , her `` double '' consciousness made her highly resistant to telepathic probes , even those of Charles Xavier , which was said to have been a byproduct of two minds existing in one body and / or Carol Danvers ' Kree physiology . The Ms. Marvel psyche was eventually torn out of Rogue in a subsequent issue , and it was destroyed by Magneto . X-Treme abilities ( edit ) During the Maximum Security miniseries , Rogue absorbed an injured Cadre K girl named Z'Cann . The girl held on longer than necessary , using her mind control to boost the process and because of this ( perhaps because she had absorbed a fluid Skrull physiology ) Rogue mutated further , gaining the ability to ' recall ' the powers of anyone she had ever absorbed before , though she could not control when or which of these powers surfaced . For a short time Rogue also had a Skrull appearance , scanned as though she had Skrull DNA , and had their shapeshifting powers , but these soon faded and she returned to her normal appearance . Through meditation , Rogue learned how to suppress the random manifestations of most of these abilities , but found herself with a new ' default ' state for a time , where she possessed Wolverine 's claws and healing factor , Cyclops ' optic blasts - requiring her to wear ruby quartz glasses - while also still retaining her mutant and Ms. Marvel powers . Later , Sage used her own mutant abilities to ' jump - start ' Rogue 's power , giving her the control to manifest any ability she had ever absorbed , whenever she wished to . It is generally accepted that after regaining her abilities after X-Treme X-Men , she has lost this ability . Though Z'Cann was a telepath , Rogue never displayed this power ( though she did manifest telepathy , it was with the Phoenix energy form , so it was most likely an echo of Jean Grey 's powers ) . Powerless ( edit ) For a time Rogue lost all of her powers , including her original mutant ones , after she was fatally injured in a fight with the mysterious warrior Vargas . During this period , she displayed exceptional fighting skills and agility , though it was said these were not superhuman in nature . She also still possessed a `` fluid genome '' that enabled Sage to use her as a conduit through which to channel the mutant powers of the X-Treme X-Men team in a fight against Bogan . Sunfire powers ( edit ) In the short - lived volume three of her self - entitield series ( 2004 -- 2005 ) , Rogue absorbed a large portion of the mutant Sunfire 's solar - absorption based powers . In addition to her own natural mutant abilities Rogue could then project intense heat and flame , envelop her body in a fiery aura , fly by focusing her power downwards in a tight stream to propel her like a rocket , focus her power inward to increase her strength ( though not at her Ms. Marvel levels ) , exercise immunity to heat and radiation , and see the infra - red spectrum . Rogue was eventually purged of these abilities when she came into contact with Hope Summers . Wonder Man powers ( edit ) Rogue currently possesses Wonder Man 's essence , including his powers and psyche . Her organic tissues have been permeated with ionic energy , granting her an array of superhuman abilities . She possesses superhuman strength sufficient enough to lift well over 100 tons , as well as some degree of superhuman speed , agility , and reflexes . In addition , Rogue is virtually invulnerable to damage and is capable of flying at high speeds . Rogue 's eyes glow in darkness and her vision extends somewhat into the infrared spectrum , allowing her to see in the dark . Her new ionic physiology also grants her a form of immortality , protecting her from age and disease . Natural skills ( edit ) Rogue has shown a fair knowledge of unarmed combat when in a position where she has to fight in situations where she can not simply use her powers to knock her foe out . She has also received a degree of training from Professor X to protect herself against even subtle telepathic attacks , this training allowing her to escape Kobik 's reprogramming of various Avengers and villains to reassemble her teammates against this new threat when even experienced telepaths like Cable were trapped in the illusion . Rogue 's real name ( edit ) In the Going Rogue arc of her 2004 ongoing series , Rogue 's real name is finally established as Anna Marie . Rogue reaches her childhood home of Caldecott County , where her surviving maternal aunt and the shamanistic incarnation of her mother repeatedly refer to her as `` Anna Marie '' ; Gambit also refers to her as `` Anna '' instead of `` Rogue '' . Rogue learns her true given name at birth was `` Anna Marie '' from the absorbed memories of her aunt , who helped raise Rogue with Rogue 's father after Rogue 's mother vanished from their home . Rogue acknowledges the name uttering : `` ( Anna Marie ) Th - that 's my name ... , '' right after a shamanistic doppelgänger of Rogue mentions it , and later she says : `` I - It 's me . Anna , '' once after finding Gambit in the dream world . Throughout the X-Men Legacy series , Rogue is repeatedly called `` Anna '' by Mystique , in childhood memories of Caldecott County ( X-Men 200 , August 2007 ) , after healing in Muir Island ( X-Men 207 , March 2008 ) , and in moments of solitude at the Australian desert ( X-Men 215 , 220 -- 222 , 224 ) . Uncanny X-Men 517 and 526 use the complete name of Anna Marie Rogue when describing her fighting against Predator 006 at Utopia and before a mission aboard the X-Jet to Alaska ; X-Force 26 also does so , and `` Secrets of the House of M '' ( 2005 ) states for Rogue 's file the first name of `` Anna Marie '' and the last name of Darkholme , although the latter is referring to Mystique 's last name , since Mystique is her foster mother since her childhood in Caldecott County . In X-Men Legacy 238 , Rogue is identified as `` Anna Marie , aka Rogue , '' overflying Mumbai aboard an airliner together with Magneto , and then Rogue also introduces herself as `` Anna Marie '' to Indra 's parents , whereas in X-Men Legacy 239 Rogue is identified as `` Anna Marie '' by a squadron of Sentinels . In Uncanny Avengers 4 , after fighting Red Skull 's clone , Rogue is interrupted in her convalescence again being called `` Anna Marie '' by Wanda Maximoff . In X-Men 2 ( 2013 ) , Rogue is referred to as `` Anna Marie '' , while being restrained in the basement of the X-Mansion by the invading Arkea entity . In the films X-Men , X2 : X-Men United , and X-Men : The Last Stand , Rogue 's real first name is Marie . According to the official novelization of X-Men , her surname in the film series is `` D'Ancanto '' . In the comics , her chosen name ( according to X-Treme X-Men # 31 ) is Anna Raven when her powers are inactive ( Raven Darkholme is Mystique 's name ) . In X-Men # 24 she tries to reveal it to Gambit on a date , but he stops her . Her profile in the latest edition of the Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe lists her real name as Anna Marie . Chris Claremont has also used the name `` Anna - Marie Raven '' in reference to Rogue in non-diegetic establishing text in X-Men Forever , although it is not clear whether or not the team knows her name , as they do uniformly refer to her as `` Rogue . '' Collected editions ( edit ) Rogue ( Rogue # 1 -- 4 ; 96 pages , November 1995 , ISBN 0 - 7851 - 0140 - 3 ) Gambit Classic Vol. 2 ( Rogue # 1 -- 4 ; Gambit Vol. 2 # 1 -- 4 ; 208 pages , February 2013 , ISBN 0 - 7851 - 6790 - 0 ) Astonishing X-Men : Rogue Vol. 1 -- Going Rogue ( Rogue Vol. 3 # 1 -- 6 ; 144 pages , March 2005 , ISBN 0 - 7851 - 1336 - 3 ) Astonishing X-Men : Rogue Vol. 2 -- Forget Me Not ( Rogue Vol. 3 # 7 -- 12 ; 144 pages , October 2005 , ISBN 978 - 0 - 7851 - 1734 - 6 ) Rogue : The Complete Collection ( Rogue Vol. 3 # 1 -- 12 ; 288 pages , September 2015 , ISBN 0 - 7851 - 9721 - 4 ) Other versions ( edit ) Main article : Alternative versions of Rogue In other media ( edit ) Main article : Rogue in other media References ( edit ) Jump up ^ http://marvel.com/universe/Rogue Jump up ^ Tony Bedard ( w ) , Karl Moline ( p ) , Rick Magyar ( i ) . `` Forget - Me - Not '' Rogue 2 ( August 2004 ) , Marvel Comics Jump up ^ Goldstein , Hilary ; Richard George ( May 15 , 2006 ) . `` The Top 25 X-Men : They 're the best at what they do , but some do it better than others '' . IGN . Retrieved February 25 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Goldstein , Hilary ( May 5 , 2006 ) . `` Top Ten X-Babes : Counting down the lovely ladies who wear X and little else '' . IGN . Retrieved February 25 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Secret Cabal ( February 4 , 2009 ) . `` Take 10 : Girl Power '' . Marvel.com . Retrieved February 24 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Cronin , Brian ( September 27 , 2008 ) . `` CBR 's Top 50 X-Men '' . Comic Book Resources . p. 3 . Retrieved February 25 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Frankenhoff , Brent ( 2011 ) . Comics Buyer 's Guide Presents : 100 Sexiest Women in Comics . Krause Publications . p. 16 . ISBN 1 - 4402 - 2988 - 0 . ^ Jump up to : Rogue ( vol. 3 ) # 1 -- 6 ( September 2004 -- February 2005 ) . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ X-Men / Alpha Flight # 1 ( December 1985 ) . Marvel Comics ^ Jump up to : X-Men Unlimited # 4 Jump up ^ `` X-Men's Rogue : From Mississippi and proud of it '' . The Clarion - Ledger . clarionledger.com . Retrieved June 23 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Ann Nocenti 's `` Her First and Last '' , Classic X-Men # 44 ( February 1990 ) . Marvel Comics ^ Jump up to : Chris Claremont ( w ) , Michael Golden ( p ) . Avengers Annual 10 ( November 1981 ) , Marvel Comics Jump up ^ Uncanny X-Men # 158 ( June 1982 ) Jump up ^ Dazzler # 22 -- 24 , 28 ( December 1982 -- February 1983 , September 1983 ) . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ Rom # 31 -- 32 ( June -- July 1982 ) . Marvel Comics ^ Jump up to : Uncanny X-Men # 236 . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ Uncanny X-Men # 170 ^ Jump up to : Uncanny X-Men # 171 ( July 1983 ) . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ Uncanny X-Men # 172 ( August 1983 ) . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ Uncanny X-Men # 173 ( September 1983 ) . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ Uncanny X-Men # 179 ( March 1984 ) . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ Uncanny X-Men # 182 ( June 1984 ) . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ Uncanny X-Men # 220 -- 227 . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ Uncanny X-Men # 244 . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ Uncanny X-Men # 246 Jump up ^ Uncanny X-Men # 269 ( October 1990 ) . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ Uncanny X-Men # 274 ( March 1991 ) . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ Uncanny X-Men # 275 ( April 1991 ) Jump up ^ Uncanny X-Men # 278 ( July 1991 ) . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ X-Men ( vol. 2 ) # 3 -- 4 . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ Rogue # 1 -- 4 ( January -- April 1995 ) . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ X-Men Unlimited # 4 . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ X-Men ( vol. 2 ) # 103 . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ X-Men ( vol. 2 ) # 107 ( December 2000 ) . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ X-Treme X-Men # 13 ( July 2002 ) . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ X-Treme X-Men # 17 ( October 2002 ) . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ X-Treme X-Men # 19 ( December 2002 ) . Marvel Comics ^ Jump up to : X-Treme X-Men # 46 ( June 2004 ) . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ X-Men ( vol. 2 ) # 157 ( July 2004 ) . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ Rogue ( vol. 3 ) # 6 ( February 2005 ) . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ X-Men ( vol. 2 ) # 169 ( June 2005 ) . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ Rogue ( vol. 3 ) # 11 ( July 2005 ) . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ X-Men ( vol. 2 ) # 174 ( October 2005 ) . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ X-Men ( vol. 2 ) # 184 Epilogue : Riddle of the Sphinx Jump up ^ X-Men ( vol. 2 ) # 187 . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ X-Men ( vol. 2 ) # 192 ( December 2006 ) . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ X-Men ( vol. 2 ) # 199 ( July 2007 ) . Marvel Comics ^ Jump up to : X-Men ( vol. 2 ) # 200 ( August 2007 ) . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ X-Men ( vol. 2 ) # 204 ( December 2007 ) . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ New X-Men ( Vol 2 ) # 46 . Marvel Comics . ^ Jump up to : ' X-Men ( vol. 2 ) # 207 ( March 2008 ) Jump up ^ X-Men : Legacy # 210 ( June 2008 ) . Marvel Comics ^ Jump up to : X-Men ( vol. 2 ) # 220 ( March 2009 ) . Marvel Comics ^ Jump up to : ' X-Men ( vol. 2 ) # 221 ( April 2009 ) . Marvel Comics ^ Jump up to : X-Men : Legacy # 222 ( May 2009 ) . Marvel Comics ^ Jump up to : X-Men : Legacy # 224 ( July 2009 ) . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ X-Men : Legacy # 226 ( September 2009 ) . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ X-Men : Legacy # 227 ( October 2009 ) . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ X-Men : Legacy # 228 -- 230 ( November 2009 -- January 2010 ) . Marvel Comics ^ Jump up to : Uncanny X-Men # 517 ( January 2010 ) . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ X-Necrosha # 1 ( December 2009 ) . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ X-Men : Legacy # 231 ( February 2010 ) . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ X-Men : Legacy # 233 ( April 2010 ) . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ Sentry : Fallen Sun ( July 2010 ) . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ X-Men : Legacy # 235 ( June 2010 ) . Marvel Comics ^ Jump up to : X-Force ( vol. 3 ) # 26 ( June 2010 ) . Marvel Comics ^ Jump up to : Uncanny X-Men # 526 ( September 2010 ) . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ X-Men : Legacy # 248 ( July 2011 ) . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ X-Men : Legacy # 253 ( October 2011 ) . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ X-Men : ReGenesis # 1 . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ Gage , Christos ( w ) , Sandoval , Rafa ( p ) , Tarragona , Jordi ( i ) , Rosenberg , Rachelle ( col ) . X-Men : Legacy 266 ( May 2012 ) , Marvel Comics Jump up ^ Gage , Christos ( w ) , Sandoval , Rafa ( p ) , Tarragona , Jordi ( i ) , Rosenberg , Rachelle ( col ) . X-Men : Legacy 267 ( May 2012 ) , Marvel Comics Jump up ^ Gage , Christos ( w ) , Baldeon , David ( p ) , Tarragona , Jordi ( i ) , Reber , Brian ( col ) . X-Men : Legacy 268 ( June 2012 ) , Marvel Comics Jump up ^ Gage , Christos ( w ) , Baldeon , David ( p ) , Tarragona , Jordi ( i ) , Reber , Brian ( col ) . X-Men : Legacy 270 ( July 2012 ) , Marvel Comics Jump up ^ X-Men : Legacy # 271 - # 273 Jump up ^ Avengers VS X-Men # 11 . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ Remender , Rick ; Cassaday , John . `` Uncanny Avengers '' ( 1 ) . Jump up ^ Uncanny Avengers # 5 . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ Uncanny Avengers # 4 . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ Avengers A.I. # 10 . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ Uncanny Avengers # 13 . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ Uncanny Avengers # 14 . Marvel Comics ^ Jump up to : Uncanny Avengers # 21 . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ Uncanny Avengers # 22 . Marvel Comics ^ Jump up to : Uncanny Avengers # 23 . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ Esposito , Joey . `` Marvel Debuts All - Female X-Men '' . IGN . Jump up ^ Uncanny Avengers # 25 Jump up ^ Avengers / X-Men : AXIS # 9 Jump up ^ Uncanny Avengers vol. 2 # 1 Jump up ^ Uncanny Avengers Vol. 3 # 1 ^ Jump up to : Uncanny Avengers Vol. 3 # 8 Jump up ^ Uncanny Avengers Vol. 3 # 21 Jump up ^ Uncanny Avengers Vol. 3 # 22 Jump up ^ Uncanny X-Men # 239 ( December 1988 ) . Marvel Comics ^ Jump up to : Uncanny X-Men # 192 ( April 1985 ) . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ Uncanny X-Men # 242 ( March 1989 ) . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ X-Men : Legacy # 271 ( October 2012 ) . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ X-Men Legacy # 274 ( September 2012 ) Jump up ^ X-Men Legacy # 275 ( October 2012 ) Jump up ^ Uncanny X-Men # 172 - 173 ( August -- September 1983 ) . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ X-Men # 107 ( December 2000 ) Jump up ^ Extreme X-Men Volume 1 ( 2002 ) Jump up ^ X-Treme X-Men # 21 Jump up ^ X-Men ( vol. 2 ) # 215 ( October 2008 ) . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ Secrets of the House of M ( 2005 ) . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ X-Men : Legacy # 238 ( September 2010 ) . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ X-Men : Legacy # 239 ( October 2010 ) . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ Uncanny Avengers # 4 ( April 2013 ) . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ X-Men ( vol. 4 ) # 2 ( June 2013 ) . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ X-Men Forever Alpha ( May 2009 ) . Marvel Comics External links ( edit ) 1980s portal Fictional characters portal Superhero fiction portal Comics portal Wikimedia Commons has media related to Rogue ( comics ) . Wikiquote has quotations related to : Rogue Rogue at the Marvel Universe wiki Rogue Shrine Comprehensive appearance list and chronology , etc . 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how did rogue get super strength and flight

Rogue permanently absorbed the superhuman powers and the psyche of Carol Danvers, the original Ms. Marvel

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IRS penalties - wikipedia IRS penalties Jump to : navigation , search This article is part of a series on Taxation in the United States of America Federal taxation ( show ) Alternative minimum tax Capital gains tax Corporate tax Estate tax Excise tax Gift tax Income tax Payroll tax Internal Revenue Service ( IRS ) Internal Revenue Code ( IRC ) IRS tax forms Revenue by state History Constitutional authority Taxpayer standing Court Protest Evasion State and local taxation ( show ) State income tax Property tax Sales tax Use tax Land value tax State tax levels Federal tax reform ( show ) Automated payment transaction tax 9 -- 9 -- 9 Competitive Tax Plan Efficient Taxation of Income FairTax Flat tax Hall -- Rabushka flat tax Kemp Commission Taxpayer Choice Act USA Tax Value added tax Border - adjustment tax United States portal Taxpayers in the United States may face various penalties for failures related to Federal , state , and local tax matters . The Internal Revenue Service ( IRS ) is primarily responsible for charging these penalties at the Federal level . The IRS can assert only those penalties specified imposed under Federal tax law . State and local rules vary widely , are administered by state and local authorities , and are not discussed herein . Penalties may be monetary or may involve forfeiture of property . Criminal penalties may include jail time , but are imposed only by a federal judge after a defendant is convicted . Most monetary penalties are based on the amount of tax not properly paid . Penalties may increase with the period of nonpayment . Some penalties are fixed dollar amounts or fixed percentages of some measure required to be reported . Excise taxes used as penalties are imposed in the Code sections relating to particular kinds of transactions . Some penalties may be waived or abated where the taxpayer shows reasonable cause for the failure . Penalties apply for failures to file income tax returns or information returns , or for filing incorrect returns . Some penalties may be very minor . Penalties apply for certain types of errors on tax returns , and may be substantial . Some penalties are imposed as excise taxes on particular transactions . Certain other penalties apply for other types of failures . Certain acts may result in forfeiture of property of the taxpayer . There are over 150 kinds of civil penalties in the U.S. Internal Revenue Code , ranging in severity which is reflected in the amount of the applicable fines . Contents ( hide ) 1 Underestimate and late payment penalties 2 Penalties for failure to timely file returns or timely pay tax 3 Accuracy related penalties 4 Penalties in connection with information returns 5 100 % penalty on unpaid withholding taxes 6 Penalties for failure to provide foreign information 7 Excise taxes as penalties 8 Tax fraud penalties 9 Tax adviser penalties 10 Judicial appeal of penalties 11 Further reading 12 References Underestimate and late payment penalties ( edit ) Taxpayers are required to have withholding of tax or make quarterly estimated tax payments before the end of the tax year . Because accurate estimation requires accurate prediction of the future , taxpayers sometimes underestimate the amount due . The penalty for paying too little estimated tax or having too little tax withheld is computed with interest on the amount that should have been , but was not , paid . Where a taxpayer has filed an income or excise tax return that shows a balance due but does not pay that balance by the due date of the return ( without extensions ) , a different charge applies . This charge has two components : an interest charge , computed as described above , and second a penalty of 0.5 % per month applied to the unpaid balance of tax and interest . The 0.5 % penalty is capped at 25 % of the total unpaid tax . The underestimate penalty and interest on late payment are automatically assessed . Penalties for failure to timely file returns or timely pay tax ( edit ) Penalty for Failure to Timely File Return : If a taxpayer is required to file an income or excise tax return and fails to timely do so , a late filing penalty may be assessed . The penalty is 5 % of the amount of unpaid tax per month ( or partial month ) the return is late , up to a maximum of 25 % . A minimum penalty of $205 may apply for returns over 60 days late . The minimum penalty is the lesser of $205 or 100 % of the tax due on the return . Penalty for Failure to Timely Pay Tax : If a taxpayer fails to pay the balance due shown on the tax return by the due date ( even if the reason of nonpayment is a bounced check ) , there is a penalty of 0.5 % of the amount of unpaid tax per month ( or partial month ) , up to a maximum of 25 % . Penalty for Failure to Timely Pay After Issuance of Notice : If a taxpayer fails to pay any additional tax assessed by the IRS ( usually as a result of an audit ) the taxpayer may be liable for a penalty equal to 0.5 % for each month ( or partial month ) during which the failure continues , if the amount is not paid within 21 calendar days after the date of an IRS notice demanding the payment . If both the failure to file and the failure to pay penalties apply during the same month , then the failure to file penalty is reduced by 0.5 % each month . The 25 % cap above applies to the 5 % late filing penalty and the 0.5 % late payment penalty together . The late filing penalty may be waived or abated on showing of reasonable cause for failure . The failure to file penalty is imposed and starts to accrue interest from the due date of the return . The failure to pay penalty is imposed when a taxpayer pays the taxes after payment was due , computed from the date prescribed for paying the tax . The Internal Revenue Service advises that if the taxpayer wants to compute the penalty for failure to timely file and the penalty for failure to timely pay the tax shown on the return , or the interest , and to pay those items at the time the return is filed , the taxpayer can `` identify and enter the amount in the bottom margin '' on the second page of Form 1040 . The IRS advises that the taxpayer `` not include interest or penalties ( other than the estimated tax penalty ) '' in the `` Amount Owed '' line of the form . Accuracy related penalties ( edit ) If amounts reported on an income tax return are later adjusted by the IRS and a tax increase results , an additional penalty may apply . This penalty of 20 % or 40 % of the increase in tax is due in the case of substantial understatement of tax , substantial valuation misstatements , transfer pricing adjustments , or negligence or disregard of rules or regulations . For example , a valuation overstatement can result in a 30 % penalty on the amount of tax owed . Special rules apply for each of these types of errors under which the penalty may be waived . Penalties in connection with information returns ( edit ) Certain types of returns , called `` information returns , '' do not require payment of tax . These include forms filed by employers to report wages ( Form W - 2 ) and businesses to report certain payments ( Form 1099 series instructions ) . The penalty for failures related to these forms is a dollar amount per form not timely filed , and the amount of penalty increases with the degree of lateness . The current maximum penalty for these forms is $50 . Many of the forms must be filed electronically , and filing on paper is considered non-filing . Late filing of returns of partnership income ( Form 1065 ) can result in penalties of $195 per month per partner , up to a maximum of 12 months . Similar penalties may apply to an income tax return ( Form 1120S ) for an S corporation return . 100 % penalty on unpaid withholding taxes ( edit ) Employers are required to withhold income and social security taxes from wages paid to employees , and to pay these amounts promptly to the government . A penalty of 100 % of the amount not paid over ( plus liability for paying the withheld amounts ) may be collected without judicial proceedings from each and every person who had custody and control of the funds and did not make the payment to the government . This applies to company employees and officers as individuals , as well as to companies themselves . There have been reported cases of the IRS seizing houses of those failing to pay over employee taxes . Penalties for failure to provide foreign information ( edit ) Taxpayers who are shareholders of controlled foreign corporations must file Form 5471 with respect to each such controlled foreign corporation . Penalties for failure to timely file are $10,000 to $50,000 per form , plus possible loss of foreign tax credits . U.S. corporations more than 25 % owned , directly or indirectly , by foreign persons must file Form 5472 to report such ownership and all transactions with related parties . Failure to timely file carries a $10,000 penalty per required form . This penalty may be increased by $10,000 per month per form for continued failure to file . In addition , taxpayers who fail to report changes in foreign taxes used as credits against Federal income tax may be subject to penalties . U.S. citizen or resident taxpayers ( including entities ) who are beneficiaries of a foreign trust or make transfers of property to a foreign trust must report information about the transfer and the trust or corporation . Failure to timely report on Form 3520 or Form 3520 - A may result in penalties of up to 35 % . Similar transferors to foreign corporations failing to file Form 926 may face penalties of 10 % of the value of the transfer , up to $100,000 . Excise taxes as penalties ( edit ) Federal excise taxes are imposed on a variety of goods and services . Some of these taxes require purchase of tax stamps or other evidence of advance payment of tax . Some require collection of the tax by retailers . An assortment of penalties apply to manufacturers and retailers not complying with the particular rules . In addition , certain penalties are imposed in the form of an excise tax . Pension and benefit plans must pay a tax for a variety of failures . Charities and private foundations must pay an excise tax on prohibited transactions and other failures . Tax fraud penalties ( edit ) Intentional filing of materially false tax returns is a criminal offence . A person convicted of committing tax fraud , or aiding and abetting another in committing tax fraud , may be subject to forfeiture of property and / or jail time . Conviction and sentencing is through the court system . Responsibility for prosecution falls to the U.S. Department of Justice , not the Internal Revenue Service . Penalties may be assessed against tax protesters who raise arguments that income tax laws are not valid , or who otherwise file frivolous returns or court petitions . Tax adviser penalties ( edit ) Penalties also apply to people who promote tax shelters or who fail to maintain and disclose lists of reportable transactions their customers or clients for those transactions . These monetary penalties can be severe . Judicial appeal of penalties ( edit ) Most penalties are subject to judicial review . However , the courts rarely modify assessment of the penalties and interest for underestimate or late payment . Further reading ( edit ) Meldman , Robert E. , Federal Taxation Practice and Procedure , ISBN 978 - 0 - 8080 - 1647 - 2 , Chapters 9 and 18 Shafiroff , Ira L. , Internal Revenue Service Practice and Procedure Deskbook , Kindle edition ( no ISBN ) , or hardcover ISBN 978 - 0 - 87224 - 109 - 1 Pratt , Kulsrud , et al , Federal Taxation , 2006 Edition ISBN 978 - 0 - 7593 - 5175 - 2 , pages 2 -- 6 through 2 - 15 . Willis , Hoffman , et al , South - Western Federal Taxation , 2009 Edition ISBN 978 - 0 - 324 - 66052 - 4 , pages 26 -- 13 through 26 - 19 . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Most of the penalty rules are in Chapters 68 through 75 of the Internal Revenue Code , sections 6651 through 7344 . 26 USC Subtitle F . Jump up ^ Alan J. Tarr , J.D. , LL. M. ( Taxation ) & Pamela Jensen Drucker , J.D. , LL. M. ( Taxation ) , Civil Tax Penalties , U.S. Income Portfolios , Vol. 634 ( 2d ed. 2012 ) , Bloomberg BNA . Jump up ^ 26 USC 6654 . Jump up ^ 26 USC 6651 ( a ) ( 3 ) . Jump up ^ See IRS Tax Topic 653 . Jump up ^ 26 USC 6651 ( a ) ( 1 ) . Jump up ^ IRC § 6651 ( a ) ( 1 ) Jump up ^ IRC § 6651 ( a ) ( 2 ) Jump up ^ `` 1040 ( 2015 ) '' . Internal Revenue Service . Retrieved June 28 , 2016 . Jump up ^ 26 USC 6662 . Jump up ^ 26 USC 6721 . Jump up ^ 26 CFR 301 - 6721 - 1 ( a ) ( 2 ) ( ii ) . Jump up ^ 26 USC 6698 . Jump up ^ 26 USC 6699 . Jump up ^ Technically , the Form 1120S is an income tax return , not an information return . Jump up ^ 26 USC 3101 - 3406 . Jump up ^ 26 USC 6672 . Jump up ^ 26 USC 3504 . Jump up ^ See , e.g. , United States v. St. Clair , 45 Amer . Fed . Tax Rep. 2d 80 - 1528 , 80 - 1 U.S. Tax Cas . ( CCH ) ¶ 9364 , ( N.D. Texas 1980 ) , in which the court upheld seizure of the taxpayer 's personal residence for failure to pay over withholding taxes payable by the company . Jump up ^ 26 USC 6038 . Jump up ^ 26 USC 6038A . Jump up ^ 26 USC 6689 . Jump up ^ 26 USC 6677 . Jump up ^ 26 USC 6038B . Jump up ^ Subtitle D of 26 USC . Jump up ^ Manufacturers Taxes , IRS Jump up ^ 26 USC 4971 - 4980G Jump up ^ 26 USC 4911 , 4912 and 26 USC 4940 - 4948 . Jump up ^ 26 USC 7301 - 7328 . Jump up ^ 26 USC 7201 - 7217 . Jump up ^ 26 USC 6702 26 USC 6673 . Jump up ^ 26 USC 6700 . Jump up ^ 26 USC 6707A . Jump up ^ See the discussions in IRS Publication 5 . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IRS_penalties&oldid=806448986 '' Categories : Taxation in the United States Tax evasion in the United States Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 22 October 2017 , at 02 : 49 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

who may be affected by monetary penalties imposed by the irs

Taxpayers in the United States

based on the amount of tax not properly paid

The Mother ( How I Met Your Mother ) - wikipedia The Mother ( How I Met Your Mother ) Jump to : navigation , search Tracy McConnell How I Met Your Mother character The Mother appearing in `` The Locket '' First appearance `` Lucky Penny ( unseen ) '' `` Something New '' ( seen ) Last appearance `` Last Forever '' Created by Carter Bays Craig Thomas Portrayed by Cristin Milioti Information Aliases The Mother Gender Female Spouse ( s ) Ted Mosby Significant other ( s ) Max ( deceased former boyfriend ) Louis ( ex-boyfriend ) Children Penny Mosby ( daughter , born in 2015 , played by Lyndsy Fonseca ) Luke Mosby ( son , born in 2017 , played by David Henrie ) Nationality American Tracy McConnell , better known as `` The Mother '' , is the title character from the CBS television sitcom How I Met Your Mother . The show , narrated by Future Ted , tells the story of how Ted Mosby met The Mother . Tracy McConnell appears in 8 episodes from `` Lucky Penny '' to `` The Time Travelers '' as an unseen character ; she was first seen fully in `` Something New '' and was promoted to a main character in season 9 . The Mother is played by Cristin Milioti . The story of how Ted met The Mother is the framing device behind the series ; many facts about her are revealed throughout the series , including the fact that Ted once unwittingly owned her umbrella before accidentally leaving it behind in her apartment . Ted and The Mother meet at the Farhampton train station following Barney Stinson and Robin Scherbatsky 's wedding ; this scene is shown in `` Last Forever '' , the series finale . The Mother 's death from an unspecified terminal illness in 2024 , also revealed in the series finale , received a mixed reaction from fans . An alternate ending was released in the ninth season DVD . In the alternate ending , Tracy Mosby is still living when Ted is telling the story in 2030 . In the video , future Ted is heard saying , `` ... When I think how lucky I am to wake up next to your mom every morning , I ca n't help but be amazed how easy it all really was ... '' , indirectly stating that The Mother is alive . The video ends right after the train passes at Farhampton station and credits start rolling , implying that Ted never went back to Robin as he lived a successful married life with Tracy Mosby . Contents ( hide ) 1 Casting 2 Character history 2.1 Name 3 Death 4 Notes 5 References Casting ( edit ) During its first eight seasons , the successful sitcom How I Met Your Mother often hinted at the unseen character of The Mother . Well - known actresses often made guest appearances on the show . Many fans expected that another would play one of the most - wanted roles in Hollywood , but creators Carter Bays and Craig Thomas wanted an unknown . Using Anne Hathaway and Amy Adams as examples , Thomas said that `` We did n't want it to be a big famous star because we did n't want the wider audience to have associations with whatever actress this would be ... The whole idea is that Ted 's never seen this woman before , so it better feel that way to the audience '' , similar to how Cobie Smulders being cast as Robin Scherbatsky had `` kept the show alive '' when it began . Bays and Thomas also did not want a large casting call . They chose Cristin Milioti after seeing her on 30 Rock and Once ; her musical ability was also helpful , as The Mother had been described as a band member . After competing for the role against at least two others , Milioti filmed her first scene -- for the last episode of season 8 -- having never watched How I Met Your Mother ; she recalled , `` I had ignorance on my side . So I did n't know what it meant . '' Milioti learned of the character 's importance only after binge watching the show during the summer . Character history ( edit ) The Mother was born on September 19 , 1984 . The Mother , joined by her roommate Kelly awaits the arrival of her boyfriend Max only to receive a call informing her of his death . After the funeral service , she returns to the apartment to open Max 's last gift to her -- a ukulele . The Mother spends the next few years grieving the passing of the man she believes was her one true love . In `` Wait for It '' , it is revealed that the short story of how they met involved her yellow umbrella . In `` No Tomorrow '' , Ted finds the umbrella at a club and takes it home after attending a St. Patrick 's Day party which she also attended , as it had been two and a half years since the death of Max , her late boyfriend . She is still grieving , but her roommate Kelly encourages her to go out and date again , bringing her to the same bar where Ted and Barney are celebrating . The two women run into Mitch , her old orchestra instructor ; The Mother offers to give Mitch her cello for his work at a school and they head to her apartment . After they start talking , Mitch encourages her to pursue her dreams . The Mother expresses her desire to end poverty by taking up economics in college . On his first day of teaching as Professor Mosby , as seen in the season 4 finale `` The Leap '' , he is seen in front of the classroom of students , one of which Future Ted says is the titular mother . But in the first episode of season 5 , `` Definitions '' , it is revealed that he was actually in the wrong classroom -- Economics instead of Architecture . At the same time in `` How Your Mother Met Me '' , the Mother sits her first session in Economics 305 and meets another graduate student named Cindy ( Rachel Bilson ) , whom she offers to move in with her as her roommate . They see Ted enter the room , but when he announces the subject , The Mother thinks she is in the wrong room and runs off . She heads back to the room after seeing Ted scramble to his actual classroom . Later , in `` Girls Versus Suits '' , Ted dates Cindy , not knowing that her roommate is his future wife . Throughout the episode , Ted notes that Cindy had spent most of their first date talking jealously about her roommate . When in Cindy and the mother 's apartment he picks up many of The Mother 's belongings , attempting to show how compatible he and Cindy are ( thinking the items are Cindy 's ) and glimpses the mother 's foot as she disappears into her room after taking a shower . Ted finds out at this time that she plays bass guitar in a band . Ted forgets to take the yellow umbrella with him when he goes out and Future Ted mentions , `` this is how your mother got her yellow umbrella back . '' In `` How Your Mother Met Me '' , it is revealed that , after Ted left the apartment , the Mother had discovered the umbrella and , upon going to question Cindy , finds her in a state . As she tried to console her , Cindy said that she was a much better match for Ted , and began to lovingly list all of the reasons that Ted would find the mother attractive , before spontaneously kissing her , revealing that her jealousy towards her roommate was actually a crush . While this incident made Cindy realise that she is a lesbian , it also made the Mother decide to go back into dating , as the kiss was her first in a long time . Some time after this , a man named Darren approaches The Mother and is welcomed into her band named Superfreakonomics . Darren gradually takes over the band . In the season 6 opener `` Big Days '' it is revealed Ted meets his future wife `` the day of '' the wedding at which he is the best man . In the episode `` False Positive '' Robin asks Ted to be her future best man , should she ever get married . In the episode `` Challenge Accepted '' , it is revealed that Ted meets the mother of his children the day of Barney 's wedding . In the last episode of season 7 , `` The Magician 's Code '' it is shown that Barney will marry Robin , and Ted will meet the mother `` the day of '' their wedding . On the premiere of season 8 , Ted 's wife appears after Barney and Robin 's wedding , outside at the `` Farhampton '' station while holding a yellow umbrella and her bass guitar . In the season 8 episode `` Band or DJ ? , '' Ted runs into Cindy on the subway and tells her that the band Barney and Robin hired to play at their wedding cancelled at the last minute . The end result of the encounter is that Cindy 's ( now ex - ) roommate 's band plays at Barney and Robin 's wedding . The Mother is first shown meeting Louis in `` How Your Mother Met Me '' as she is left to carry the band equipment while the now - lead band member Darren talks to his fans . Later at MacLaren 's Pub , she tells him she 's not yet ready to date . Louis asks her to give him a call if she changes her mind and they begin dating not long after . The Mother meets all of Ted 's best friends ( Barney , Lily , Marshall and Robin ) before she meets him . The Mother is responsible for convincing Barney to pursue Robin , as revealed through a flashback in `` Platonish '' . In `` The Locket '' , Tracy meets Lily on a train journey . In `` Bass Player Wanted '' , the Mother picks up a hitchhiking Marshall , carrying his son Marvin , on her way to Farhampton Inn . On their way , it is revealed that the Mother is a bass player in the band , that is scheduled to play at the wedding reception . But the band 's leader , Darren , forced her to quit . The Mother ultimately decides to confront Darren and retake the band . She ends up alone at the bar , and while practicing a speech to give Darren , Darren walks up to her furious the groom 's best man punched him for `` no reason . '' Amused by this , the Mother laughs , and Darren quits the band in anger . In `` How Your Mother Met Me '' , it is shown that after this incident , the Mother returns to Louis ' summer cottage not far from the Farhampton Inn where she has been staying for the duration of the wedding weekend . As she walks in the door , Louis proposes to her , but she goes outside to think about it for a few minutes . She declines Louis ' proposal and leaves his cottage , going to check in at Farhampton Inn . On her room 's balcony , she plays the ukulele and sings `` La Vie en Rose '' . Ted hears her singing from his room next door . In `` Gary Blauman '' , Ted and the Mother are on their first date . Ted picks her up at her New York City apartment and they proceed to walk to a Scottish - Mexican fusion restaurant for dinner . On the way there , Ted is telling her a story when they nearly have a run - in with Louis . She says that she is in the `` weirdest place on earth '' right now and that it is too soon for her to be dating . Ted walks her back to her apartment . They say goodnight and Ted begins to walk away . The Mother then stops him and asks him to finish the story he was telling her . When the story is over , they say goodnight again . The Mother takes a step towards Ted and they kiss for the first time , before deciding to carry on their date . In a flashforward in `` The Lighthouse '' , Ted proposes to the Mother at the top of the lighthouse near Farhampton Inn . She immediately accepts . In another flashfoward in `` Unpause '' , the Mother is revealed to be pregnant with their second child , Luke , in the year 2017 . She goes into labor while she and Ted are staying at Farhampton . Name ( edit ) The Mother 's real name is not revealed until the series finale , `` Last Forever '' . When Ted meets her at the Farhampton train station , she reveals that her name is Tracy McConnell . In the season 1 episode `` Belly Full of Turkey '' , Ted meets a stripper named Tracy and says `` ... that , kids , is the true story of how I met your mother '' . The children react in surprise and appear to believe Ted before he admits he is joking , which led some fans to correctly guess that The Mother 's name is Tracy . Death ( edit ) See also : Last Forever In the series finale , it is revealed that six years prior to Ted telling the story to his children , Tracy died in 2024 from an undisclosed illness . In the finale the characters do not directly state that the mother is dead . Ted says that she `` became sick '' and his children saying that she has been `` gone '' for six years . Many fans expressed considerable disappointment to The Mother 's death . Milioti cried when she learned her character was supposed to die , but came to accept the ending was what the writers had planned from the beginning . Bill Kuchman from Popculturology said that The Mother was `` an amazing character '' and that `` over the course of this final season HIMYM made us care about Tracy . Kuchman said that `` asking fans to drop all of that with a simple line about The Mother getting sick and passing away was a very difficult request '' , that the finale `` advanced too quickly '' and that `` HIMYM was a victim of its own success on this issue '' . A petition was started , aiming to rewrite and reshoot the finale . The petition has over 20,000 signatures and considerable online news coverage . On April 5 , 2014 , Carter Bays announced on Twitter that an alternate ending would be included on the Season 9 DVD . No new material was shot for this scene . In the alternate ending , the mother is still living when Ted is telling the story in 2030 . Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ The Mother celebrates her 21st birthday on the day that `` Pilot '' is set . The pilot is set on September 19 , 2005 . References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Debnath , Neela ( 7 September 2014 ) . `` How I Met Your Mother alternative finale leaks online ahead of DVD release '' . The Independent . Retrieved 15 February 2015 . Jump up ^ Kreps , Daniel ( September 6 , 2014 ) . `` Watch the Happier ' How I Met Your Mother ' Alternate Ending '' . Rolling Stone . Jump up ^ MacGregor , Rachel ( September 23 , 2014 ) . `` 8 reasons why How I Met Your Mother should 've used its alternative ending '' . Metro UK . Jump up ^ Stransky , Tanner ( 2013 - 05 - 13 ) . `` ' How I Met Your Mother ' : Burning questions about the mother '' . Entertainment Weekly . ^ Jump up to : Fallon , Kevin ( 2013 - 05 - 14 ) . `` ' How I Met Your Mother ' Mother Revealed : Meet Cristin Milioti '' . The Daily Beast . Jump up ^ Fallon , Kevin ( 2015 - 11 - 03 ) . `` How Cristin Milioti Met ' Fargo ' -- And Left ' How I Met Your Mother ' Behind '' . The Daily Beast . ^ Jump up to : `` How Your Mother Met Me '' . How I Met Your Mother . Season 9 . Episode 16 . January 27 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Pilot '' . How I Met Your Mother . Season 1 . Episode 1 . September 19 , 2005 . CBS . ^ Jump up to : Kuchman , Bill ( April 4 , 2014 ) . `` ' How I Met Your Mother ' ' Last Forever ' Recap : A Divisive Finale and What It Means for ' HIMYM ' '' . Retrieved July 7 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Rullo , Samantha ( 10 March 2014 ) . `` What is The Mother 's Name on ' How I Met Your Mother ' ? Episode Title Might Hold the Secret '' . Retrieved July 7 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` HIMYM Tomatometer Watch : Series Finale Currently Rotten - Majority of critics disappointed by ' Last Forever ' '' . Rotten Tomatoes. April 2 , 2014 . Retrieved April 3 , 2014 . Jump up ^ http://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/cristin-milioti-sobbed-found-characters-fate-met-mother/story?id=25947923 Jump up ^ Kuchman , Bill ( March 31 , 2014 ) . `` ' HIMYM ' Finale Instant Reaction '' . Retrieved July 7 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Guerrero , Danger ( April 4 , 2014 ) . `` Now There 's A Petition To ' Rewrite And Reshoot ' The ' How I Met Your Mother ' Ending '' . Retrieved July 7 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Maresca , Rachel ( April 3 , 2014 ) . `` ' How I Met Your Mother ' series finale sparks online petition from fans who want ending changed '' . New York Daily News . Retrieved July 7 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Update for those who 've been asking : Alt # himym ending will be on s9 DVD and also in the series box set . https://twitter.com/CarterBays/status/452299544995184640 Jump up ^ James , Lauren ( April 5 , 2014 ) . `` ' How I Met Your Mother ' May Get Alternate Ending After Petition , Says Carter Bays '' . Contact Music . Retrieved July 7 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Kreps , Daniel ( September 6 , 2014 ) . `` Watch the Happier ' How I Met Your Mother ' Alternate Ending '' . Rolling Stone . Retrieved November 16 , 2014 . ( hide ) How I Met Your Mother Episodes Season 1 Season 2 Season 3 Season 4 Season 5 Season 6 Season 7 Season 8 Season 9 Characters Ted Mosby Marshall Eriksen Lily Aldrin Barney Stinson Robin Scherbatsky The Mother ( Tracy McConnell ) Soundtracks How I Met Your Music Related articles Awards and nominations The Bro Code Cheerleader effect `` Nothing Suits Me Like a Suit '' Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Mother_(How_I_Met_Your_Mother)&oldid=802354471 '' Categories : How I Met Your Mother characters Fictional characters introduced in 2013 Fictional female musicians Hidden categories : Pages using deprecated image syntax Pages using infobox character with unknown parameters Talk Contents About Wikipedia Español Italiano Magyar Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 25 September 2017 , at 17 : 03 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

who turned out to be the mother on how i met your mother

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Batman : Knightfall - wikipedia Batman : Knightfall Jump to : navigation , search This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( March 2016 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) `` Knightfall '' Cover to Batman # 497 : The breaking of the bat . Art by Kelley Jones . Publisher DC Comics Publication date April 1993 -- August 1994 Genre Superhero Crossover ( show ) Title ( s ) Batman # 492 - 510 Batman : Shadow of the Bat # 16 - 30 Catwoman # 6 - 7 , 12 - 13 Detective Comics # 659 - 677 Justice League Task Force # 5 - 6 Batman : Legends of the Dark Knight # 59 - 63 Robin # 7 - 9 Showcase ' 93 # 7 - 8 Showcase ' 94 # 10 Main character ( s ) Batman , Bane , Azrael Creative team Writer ( s ) Chuck Dixon , Jo Duffy , Alan Grant , Dennis O'Neil , Doug Moench Penciller ( s ) Jim Aparo , Jim Balent , Eduardo Barreto , Bret Blevins , Norm Breyfogle , Vincent Giarrano , Tom Grummett , Klaus Janson , Barry Kitson , Mike Manley , Graham Nolan , Sal Velluto , Mike Vosburg , Ron Wagner Inker ( s ) Jeff Albrecht , Jim Aparo , Terry Austin , Eduardo Barreto , John Beatty , Bret Blevins , Norm Breyfogle , Rick Burchett , Steve George , Vince Giarrano , Dick Giordano , Scott Hanna , Klaus Janson , Ray Kryssing , Tom Mandrake , Mike Manley , Ron McCain , Frank McLaughlin , Josef Rubinstein , Bob Smith , Bob Wiacek Vol. 1 ISBN 978 - 1401233792 Vol. 2 : Knightquest ISBN 978 - 1401235369 Vol. 3 : KnightsEnd ISBN 978 - 1401237219 `` Knightfall '' is a 1993 - 1994 Batman story arc published by DC Comics . It consists of a trilogy of storylines that ran from 1993 to 1994 , consisting of `` Knightfall '' , `` Knightquest '' , and `` KnightsEnd '' . The story takes place over approximately six months . Bruce Wayne ( Batman ) suffers burnout and is systematically assaulted and crippled by a `` super steroid '' - enhanced genius named Bane . Wayne is replaced as Batman by an apprentice named Jean - Paul Valley ( a.k.a. Azrael ) , who becomes increasingly violent and unstable , tarnishing Batman 's reputation . Eventually , Wayne is healed through paranormal means , and reclaims his role as Batman . `` Knightfall '' resulted in long - term ramifications for the Batman continuity , as Batman 's trust from the police , the public , and fellow superheroes had to be rebuilt , due to Azrael 's violence . Additionally , Wayne realizes the peril and burden of attempting to work in solitude , leading to the eventual creation of the modern incarnation of the Batman family . The events of Knightfall also led to the resignation of Wayne 's loyal butler , Alfred Pennyworth . The entire `` Knightfall '' storyline took over a year to complete in the comic book serials . In later years , the comics were reprinted several times , though never in full , as the Knightquest : The Search arc had not been collected until the second omnibus edition in 2017 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Publication 2 Storyline 2.1 Prelude 2.2 `` Knightfall '' 2.3 `` Knightquest '' 2.4 `` KnightsEnd '' 2.5 Aftermath 2.6 `` Prodigal '' 2.7 `` Troika '' 2.8 Nightwing : Alfred 's Return 2.9 Azrael 2.10 `` Batman : Legacy '' 2.11 `` Bough Breaks '' 2.12 `` Angel and the Bane '' 3 Reading order and release dates 4 Influence and legacy 5 Reception 6 Continuity 7 Adaptations 7.1 Novels 7.2 Television 7.3 Animation 7.4 Film 7.5 Video Games 7.6 Radio 7.7 Action figures 8 Collected editions 8.1 2012 new editions 8.2 2017 - 2018 Omnibus editions 9 Notes 10 References Publication ( edit ) The initial idea for the character of Azrael stemmed from a two - part story idea pitched by Detective Comics writer Peter Milligan circa 1991 , as he was leaving that position . After line editor Dennis O'Neil decided to expand it into a larger epic , he and the Batman line writers Chuck Dixon , Doug Moench and Alan Grant convened an authors ' summit over a long weekend to flesh out the details and story points . At the same time , the Superman team was planning for a similar character - altering storyline , and neither they nor the Batman group initially had any knowledge of each other 's plans . Dennis O'Neil denies the Knightfall storyline was in any way inspired by the Death of Superman and states that it was already in development by as much as three years , saying that if the Batman staff had known , the storyline would likely have been pushed down a year . The serial stories of the monthly Batman comics titles began slowly building toward the `` Knightfall '' arc several months prior , in conjunction with the publication of the Sword of Azrael miniseries and Vengeance of Bane one - shot which also laid foundation for the larger story . `` Knightfall '' ran from April to October 1993 , Batman issues 492 through 500 and Detective Comics issues 659 through 666 , with the two titles sharing a single narrative during this time . The massive story was quickly collected into two volumes of trade paperbacks . Volume one was subtitled Broken Bat and the second Who Rules the Night . Knightfall was the first time that multiple Batman titles had shared a single narrative for an extended period since Crisis on Infinite Earths . `` Knightfall '' was immediately followed by `` Knightquest '' in the monthly serials . `` Knightquest '' is divided into two storylines , one following Bruce Wayne ( `` Knightquest : The Search '' ) and the other on the new Batman ( `` Knightquest : The Crusade '' ) . The stories were not treated as crossovers and the Batman titles continued as they had before `` Knightfall '' where the creative teams each pursued its own storyline . Instead of a crossover , `` Knightquest '' was more of an umbrella title that also encompassed some issues of Batman : Shadow of the Bat . ( To avoid giving away their plans , the publishers treated it as though it were the new status quo , so issues were not numbered as chapters . ) Additionally , The Crusade served as a launching point for the first ongoing monthly series featuring Robin in solo adventures . Although previous parts of the `` KnightSaga '' had taken considerable time to run their course , the entirety of `` KnightsEnd '' was published within two months , as the Batman books had to prepare themselves for DC 's impending company - wide crossover Zero Hour , which would immediately follow the `` KnightSaga '' . Nothing was truncated as the Batman editorial line made use of all of the Batman - related titles at their disposal , such as Catwoman , Robin and Batman : Legends of the Dark Knight ( normally an anthology title with stories set in the past ) . `` KnightsEnd '' was later collected in trade paperback as Knightfall Volume 3 . The serial nature of the Batman titles continued beyond the end of KnightsEnd , with the Prodigal storyline , and into subsequent unbannered stories . This continued in later arcs such as `` Contagion '' , `` Legacy '' , `` Cataclysm '' , `` No Man 's Land '' , and `` War Games '' , and has on occasion continued into the present . The intent of the writers was to counter the then - popular style of violent heroes in comics , and demonstrate that the traditional Batman made for a better hero . The issues featuring Jean - Paul Valley as Batman on the cover depict him with highly exaggerated musculature and legs which taper into disproportionally tiny feet , mimicking the styles of contemporary `` violent hero '' artists such as Rob Liefeld . Storyline ( edit ) Prelude ( edit ) The prelude to `` Knightfall '' began with the introduction of two new characters key to its storyline in issues prior to the release of `` Knightfall '' : Azrael , a.k.a. Jean - Paul Valley ( introduced in Batman : Sword of Azrael # 1 - 4 ( October 1992 to January 1993 ) by Dennis O'Neil and Joe Quesada ) , a graduate student at Gotham University who discovers he has been unconsciously trained since birth as an assassin for an ancient religious order . Bane , introduced in Batman : Vengeance of Bane # 1 ( January 1993 ) by Chuck Dixon and Graham Nolan , an orphan born and raised in a Central American island prison , self - taught and ruthless , who underwent an involuntary experimental operation to become a new type of supersoldier , before breaking free and deciding to take Gotham City from its `` king , '' Batman . The two characters were quickly added to the cast in the monthly Batman titles , with Azrael being a superhero - in - training who fights alongside Batman , while Bane was introduced as a supervillain . Within the regular series , the buildup to `` Knightfall '' begins with a six - issue run in Batman # 484 - 489 ( September 1992 - February 1993 ) , in which Batman ( at the onset of a personal psychological mid-life crisis ) is forced to deal , in rapid succession , with the returning villain Black Mask and his gang ( who target Bruce Wayne and Lucius Fox ) , a crazed killer called Metalhead , and a sharpshooter assassin hired by an imprisoned mobster to murder Commissioner Gordon . Batman begins to feel he has lost his edge , especially after his failure to capture Black Mask . He finds himself unable to meditate or even focus . As Bruce Wayne , he contacts holistic therapist Shondra Kinsolving for treatment . He also assigns Robin ( Tim Drake ) to train Jean - Paul Valley in detective work to aid them as an ally , hoping to guide Valley 's brainwashing away from making him a villainous threat . Despite the advice of everyone in his life , including Dr. Kinsolving , Bruce refuses to rest , and continues to pursue his self - imposed duty despite his worsening condition ( although not explicitly noted as a cause , these events take place immediately after the death of Superman , Batman 's peer , elsewhere in the DC Universe ) . The next storyline , in Detective Comics # 654 - 656 ( December 1992 - February 1993 ) , involves a young military student usurping power in Gotham 's underworld and assaulting a police station , with Bruce 's fatigue continuing to worsen . At the conclusion of this story , Bane and his henchman are shown monitoring Batman 's performance . Bane begins a series of encounters letting Batman know of his presence and his intentions . In the following issues , Bane interferes with encounters pitting villains Killer Croc and Riddler against Batman , and , to test Batman 's limits , goes so far as to inject Riddler with the Venom drug . This escalation culminates in an assault on Arkham Asylum in Batman # 491 ( April 1993 ) , where Bane breaks the inmates free and supplies them with numerous weapons to escape . Meanwhile , Robin finds it difficult to work with Jean - Paul , due to the man 's violent subconscious training and lack of social skills , and also finds himself being shut out from working alongside Batman . `` Knightfall '' ( edit ) The plot of `` Knightfall '' begins with the master criminal Bane freeing all of the maximum - security inmates of Arkham Asylum , a notorious psychiatric facility in Gotham City . Aware that he would lose in a direct assault against Batman , Bane 's plan consists of weakening Batman by forcing him to deal with the deadly villains simultaneously . Among the freed inmates , there are numerous high - profile villains , such as the Joker ( who trapped Arkham 's administrator Jeremiah Arkham ) , the Scarecrow , the Riddler , and Poison Ivy , as well as many lesser - known villains , such as the Mad Hatter , the Ventriloquist , the Firefly , the Cavalier , the Film Freak , Mr. Zsasz , Cornelius Stirk , Abattoir , and Amygdala . The scenario creates a rift in the relationship between Robin and Batman , as Batman irrationally seeks to face the outbreak alone -- in later issues , Robin asks Batman if he is even needed as his sidekick anymore . A later flashback to this time period ( Showcase ' 93 # 7 - 8 ) shows Batman pursuing Two - Face alone , being trapped and kidnapped to stand a mock trial ; he is saved only by a rescue attempt from Robin . Bane breaks Batman 's back in a splash page from Batman # 497 ( July 1993 ) . Art by Jim Aparo . Over the next few issues , Batman becomes weaker and weaker as each criminal is put away . The rescue of Mayor Krol from the teaming of the Joker and Scarecrow pushes Batman to his mental and physical limits : a dose of Scarecrow 's fear gas makes him relive the murder of Jason Todd , which he considers to be his greatest failure . After this encounter , Bane 's men assault Batman before he himself makes his move and attacks him at Wayne Manor , his home as his alter - ego -- by this time ; Bane had deduced the secret identity of Batman . The fight between Bruce Wayne and Bane is detailed in Batman # 497 . By this time , Batman is so exhausted from the exertion of catching the escaped criminals that he can not even defend himself ; Bane beats him mercilessly before breaking Wayne 's back over his knee inside the Batcave below the manor , symbolically `` breaking '' Batman . Bane takes the grievously - wounded Wayne ( still costumed in the Batman outfit ) downtown to Gotham Square and throws him from a rooftop to demonstrate his superiority to the populace . Quick action by Robin and Alfred spares Batman 's life , but at great cost - he is left a paraplegic . With Batman incapacitated , Bane assumes control of Gotham City 's underworld and takes over several illegal operations within it . After his defeat , Bruce Wayne enlists the aid of Dr. Shondra Kinsolving to rehabilitate him and asks Jean - Paul Valley to take up the mantle of Batman so that Gotham has a protector . Tim Drake argues with Bruce to allow Dick Grayson ( the former Robin and then - current Nightwing ) to become Batman , as he is more experienced and mentally competent . Bruce replies that Grayson has his own responsibilities and would only take up the mantle of the Bat reluctantly ( Dick later expressed resentment at not being asked to stand in as Batman ) . Bruce 's rationale for this decision is revealed in later issues - secretly , he does not want Dick to have to face Bane , as he knows Dick 's character will compel him to try . Indeed , Bruce gives Jean - Paul strict orders never to engage Bane in combat -- and when Jean - Paul does face Bane , only his modified gloves save Jean - Paul from being thrown to his death . Soon after , Kinsolving and Tim 's father Jack Drake are kidnapped and Bruce and Alfred leave the country to find them - their story is continued in `` Knightquest : The Search '' , while the happenings in Gotham are recorded in `` Knightquest : The Crusade '' . Jean - Paul is shown to be a different , but not dangerous , Batman until an encounter with the Scarecrow , which results in Jean - Paul being infected by Scarecrow 's fear gas and `` The System '' -- his programming as Azrael -- taking over , in order to combat Jean - Paul 's fear . Following this , Jean - Paul is unable to shake the influence of the System , giving in to it completely after his first defeat at Bane 's hands and being increasingly influenced by it during the rest of his tenure as Batman . Gradually , Jean - Paul alienates Robin with his paranoia and arrogance . In Batman # 500 , Jean - Paul , in his new mechanical Batsuit ( which is an amalgam of the Azrael costume with the Batman 's ) confronts Bane in an arduous battle and prevails , although many bystanders are put at risk . Jean - Paul leaves Bane broken mentally and physically , though he struggles with the choice of whether to simply kill Bane or hand him over to the police . He decides that he will let Bane go to Blackgate Prison . Jean - Paul continues to watch over Gotham after the fight , but grows increasingly unstable . `` Knightquest '' ( edit ) Jean - Paul Valley as Batman , during The Crusade arc . Cover to Detective Comics # 667 . Art by Kelley Jones . A paraplegic Bruce Wayne , traveling across the globe on a rescue mission , with help from his allies including members of the Justice League Task Force in The Search arc . Cover of Justice League Task Force vol. 1 , Oct 1993 . Art by Sal Velluto . At the onset of `` Knightquest '' , Jean - Paul Valley has been established as Batman , and Bruce Wayne is out of the country . Instead of a crossover with a definite ending , the publishers treated the scenario as though it were the new status quo , leaving it open - ended . `` Knightquest : The Crusade '' follows the story of Jean - Paul Valley during his tenure as Batman . He becomes increasingly violent and mentally unbalanced . During this time , he drives Robin away because he believes Gotham to be so tough that only violence could answer its criminals . In several issues Robin is left horrified as Jean - Paul ferociously attacks common criminals , often with a weapon and sometimes nearly to death . This surge of violence from Gotham 's defender puts pressure on Batman 's relationship with Police Commissioner Gordon , who begins to distrust and even fear the new Batman and eventually comes to realize he is not the same man he has known . All of Jean - Paul 's actions are compelled by `` The System '' ; on numerous occasions , he experiences the ghosts of his father and the patriarch Saint Dumas giving him guidance and he is driven to near insanity by the time the saga ends . He repeatedly redesigns his Batman costume , adding more gadgets and lethal weapons , including metal claws , a laser , razor - sharp Batarangs and a flame - thrower . Eventually , he also adds a Bat - symbol , matching the one used for the series ' logo . Valley becomes compelled by a desire to be a better Batman than Bruce Wayne , especially when he discovers his lack of interest in detective work caused him to make false assumptions about Catwoman ( he thought she would sell a powerful nerve gas to terrorists when she merely wanted to dispose of it so it could not be used to hurt anyone ) . His questionable behavior climaxes when he encounters the serial killer Abattoir , who is keeping an innocent prisoner in a secret torture chamber : Jean - Paul purposely lets Abattoir die , thereby condemning the prisoner to death as well . Other villains Jean - Paul faces include Mr. Freeze , the Trigger Twins , Gunbunny & Gunhawk , the Tally Man and Clayface III and IV ; the most notable encounters are with Catwoman and the Joker , both of whom could tell Valley was not the original Batman . `` Knightquest : The Search '' follows Bruce Wayne and Alfred Pennyworth 's search for Jack Drake and Shondra Kinsolving , the father of the current Robin and the physical therapist with whom Bruce Wayne had fallen in love during his rehabilitation sessions respectively . Their investigation leads them to the Caribbean and then Great Britain . Kinsolving 's brother - by - adoption Benedict Asp kidnapped her to use her special powers to kill people at a distance . Asp demonstrates this new form of mass murder on a small English village . When Bruce Wayne finds Kinsolving , he finds himself caught in the middle of a telekinetic tug - of - war between Asp and Kinsolving . The battle climaxes with her refocusing her energy to defeat Asp ; as a side effect of the energy , Bruce 's broken spine becomes healed . However , the drugs forced onto her by Asp , combined with the effects of the fight with Asp , reduce her mind to that of a child as Shondra 's traumatised mind regresses to the past to escape her unhappy present , and Wayne reluctantly puts her into a mental institution . Bruce eventually leaves England to return home to a civilian life in Gotham , but Alfred remains in England , not wanting to see Bruce Wayne damage his body further . He does not return to Gotham until a while later , when Dick Grayson persuades him to do so in later issues . `` KnightsEnd '' ( edit ) Bruce Wayne returns to Gotham City , battles to reclaim his mantle from Jean - Paul Valley . Artwork for the cover of Batman : Shadow of the Bat vol. 1 , 30 ( August , 1994 DC Comics ) . Art by Brian Stelfreeze . Jean - Paul Valley sees visions of his dead father , who had programmed him at birth to be a deadly weapon . These visions tell Jean - Paul to avenge his father 's death , and Jean - Paul searches Gotham for his father 's killer . Though the killer , Carlton LeHah , had already been encountered and defeated ( in Batman : Sword of Azrael ) , Jean - Paul 's conditioning had warped his mind to the extent that he no longer remembered the incident . He eventually comes to believe that Penn Selkirk , a Gotham mobster turned weapons dealer who has taken over the remnants of LeHah 's organization , is his father 's murderer . Valley now spends his time doggedly pursuing him . Returning to Gotham , Bruce meets with Tim . Even though Jean - Paul disobeyed Bruce 's order to refrain from attacking Bane , Bruce is sufficiently impressed with Jean - Paul 's results . Bruce decides to retire and allow Jean - Paul to continue as Batman . But when Robin tells Bruce of the circumstances surrounding Abattoir 's death , Bruce sneaks into the Batcave and demands that Jean - Paul step down . Jean - Paul refuses and tells Bruce to leave the cave and never come back . To rehabilitate his skills due to his lost reflexes after so long out of action , Bruce asks the famed assassin Lady Shiva to retrain him ( using a mask to conceal his identity and arguing that she will do it for the same reason that she does anything ; it might be interesting ) . Instead , Shiva pits Bruce against several vengeful expert martial artists , having killed their master while wearing a distinctive tengu mask that carries a motif of a bat that she subsequently gives to Batman . Shiva 's caveat is that these attacks will continue indefinitely until Bruce Wayne breaks his vow to never kill . Finally , in the midst of an attack by the final martial artist , Bruce feigns using the `` Leopard Blow '' fatal maneuver Shiva had taught him , leaving his would - be assailant apparently dead . Shiva finally declares him worthy of fighting her at some point in the future , with Bruce only revealing his adversary 's survival after her departure . Now back in fighting shape , Bruce returns to the Batcave and resumes his role as Batman . Along with Robin and Nightwing , he tracks Valley down to Selkirk 's penthouse . Coincidentally , Catwoman is chasing the same man because he owns a neural enabler which might allow her paraplegic friend to walk again . Selkirk already wants to kill Jean - Paul for destroying a valuable weapons cache in Gotham Harbor . When they eventually all meet , mass fighting and gunfire ensue . The battle ends with Selkirk 's helicopter crashing into the Gotham Narrows Bridge while Bruce and Jean - Paul fight on the attached Batrope ; Jean - Paul falls aflame into the Gotham River . Bruce and Catwoman save Selkirk and his aides just before the helicopter explodes from the leaking fuel , his decision to protect criminals affirming to Catwoman that the true Batman has returned . When Bruce tries to find Jean - Paul using the Batmobile , it explodes due to a planted booby - trap . Nightwing fears Bruce dead and takes his vengeance out on Jean - Paul on a party boat . The police arrive in time to prevent Nightwing from committing murder , but Jean - Paul escapes . However , to his shock , Jean - Paul finds Bruce waiting at Wayne Manor ; Bruce had managed to escape the Batmobile before Jean - Paul 's trap destroyed it , reasoning that he would have done the same thing with a less dangerous trap . The final battle of the `` Knightfall '' saga takes place between Jean - Paul Valley and Bruce Wayne in the caverns surrounding the Batcave below Wayne Manor : rather than beating Jean - Paul at hand - to - hand combat , Bruce outwits him by escaping into a passage too narrow for Jean - Paul to go through in his armor , thus forcing Jean - Paul to remove most of it . Bruce then opens a hatch to the outside , which covered the very hole he fell into as a child , allowing sunlight to enter the night lenses in Jean - Paul 's helmet . After being momentarily blinded , Jean - Paul removes his cowl , sees Bruce standing over him in the original Batman costume and concedes defeat , saying `` You are the Batman ... You 've always been the Batman ... and I am nothing ... '' Bruce comforts Jean - Paul , who leaves to wander the streets of Gotham , homeless and destitute . Bruce decides not to take Jean - Paul to the police because it was his decision to make Jean - Paul the Batman , leading to his subsequent breakdown . `` KnightsEnd '' was collected into a trade paperback about a year later . Originally released as Batman : KnightsEnd , recent editions retitled it as Knightfall Volume 3 . Aftermath ( edit ) `` Prodigal '' ( edit ) Dick Grayson assuming the role of Batman during the `` Prodigal '' storyline from Batman # 513 ( Dec. 1994 ) , a homage to Dick 's first appearance as Robin in Detective Comics # 38 ( 1940 ) . Art by Mike Gustovich . Bruce reaffirms his partnership with Tim , resolving the tension caused by Bruce 's unwillingness to accept help during the Arkham prison break . Bruce passes the mantle of Batman to Grayson so he can re-evaluate what it will take to restore his aura of invincibility . This begins the Prodigal storyline , a reference to Dick Grayson essentially being Bruce 's prodigal son ; Bruce had adopted Dick after his parents were murdered . Because of the events of the entire arc , considerable time passes before Commissioner Gordon restores his trust in the idea of a Batman working for good . Gordon can tell that he is not looking at the original Batman ( based on Jean - Paul 's costume and Dick 's height , and the fact that Jean - Paul was more than ready to kill people ) , and he refuses to place blind trust in a costume after spending so long learning to trust the man . `` Prodigal '' was utilized as a way of tying up the numerous loose ends that `` Knightfall '' left , with Killer Croc , the Ventriloquist , the Ratcatcher and Two - Face , along with many other , less notorious escaped inmates being returned to prison . In doing so , Dick avenges his worst mistake from his days as Robin , when a mistake in a confrontation with Two - Face caused a man to die and nearly killed Bruce . He also comes to appreciate the incredible physical and mental burden Bruce places on himself in donning the Batsuit . During the story , a firm bond arises between Dick and Tim as they share Wayne Manor together in Bruce 's and Alfred 's absence . It is revealed later in `` No Man 's Land '' that Bruce also used this time to set up contingency bases throughout Gotham . `` Troika '' ( edit ) Batman 's costume 's debut during `` Troika . '' When Bruce finally returns for good , he wears a sturdier , all - black Batsuit made of Kevlar ( inspired by the costume of the Tim Burton Batman films ) , and drives a new , state - of - the - art Batmobile . He fights former Soviet agents Colonel Vega ( who teamed with Asp in `` Knightquest : The Search '' ) , KGBeast , and Dark Rider , in order to foil a plot to nuke Gotham City with a device the size and shape of a baseball . ( Troika is the Russian word for `` trio '' . ) The saga also shows how Batman makes changes to his life as Bruce Wayne , his relationships with his `` family '' , plans to live without Alfred , and copes with the decision of making Jean - Paul his replacement . Nightwing : Alfred 's return ( edit ) A one - shot that features the return of Alfred after his resignation during `` KnightQuest : The Search '' . It has Nightwing going to England in order to track Alfred down . Azrael ( edit ) Main article : Azrael ( comic book ) A new series following Jean - Paul Valley was begun in April 1995 , titled Azrael . In it , he is found on the street by Bruce Wayne , and given money to leave Gotham to travel the world and find his purpose as had Bruce . His journeys take him to Europe , where he uncovers conspiracies within the Sacred Order of Saint Dumas which had brainwashed him . Later , he returns to Gotham City to aid Batman , and the series was retitled Azrael : Agent of the Bat at issue 47 . The series ended after one hundred issues , with Valley 's apparent death . Each issue was written by Dennis O'Neil . Azrael 's demise occurred at the same time as the Batman : Hush storyline , which focused on how Bruce Wayne as Batman interacted with his various friends , allies , loved ones , and enemies ; oddly enough though , Jean - Paul Valley was neither mentioned , alluded to , or appeared during this time . `` Batman : Legacy '' ( edit ) This crossover event involves a rematch between Batman and Bane , who is now allied with Ra 's al Ghul . It is followed by the one - shot graphic novel Batman : Bane . `` Bough breaks '' ( edit ) Batman Annual # 22 featured the return of Arnold Etchison ( Abbatoir ) 's spirit , wishing to take revenge on Batman ( specifically , Azrael - Batman ) for his death . Now calling himself Etkar , he possesses Azrael 's former Batsuit and returns to the site of his own death , with a hostage . `` Angel and the Bane '' ( edit ) In Azrael issues # 36 - 40 , a final thread of the `` Knightfall '' plot is resolved in the four - part storyline `` Angel and the Bane '' and its following issue , `` Hour of the Quake '' . After the events of Batman : Bane , Azrael is tasked by Batman to track down the recently resurfaced Bane . After meeting , the two men struggle , and Bane gets the upper hand with the aid of a small band of Santa Priscan soldiers and his old henchman Bird . He restrains Azrael and injects him with Venom , with the plan of using him as a super soldier to take over Santa Prisca . Azrael is able to resist addiction to the drug and eventually conquers Bane and flies him back to Gotham City . They arrive just as the massive earthquake occurs . Bane attempts escape but is unable ; as a last - ditch effort he unsuccessfully tries to convince Azrael to form a partnership . Instead , Azrael reaffirms his dedication to Bruce Wayne . The cover of issue 37 depicts Bane breaking Azrael over his knee in a recreation of the famous cover of Batman # 497 , `` Knightfall '' part 11 . Reading order and release dates ( edit ) Each story arc of the `` Knightfall '' saga ran across a number of Gotham City - related comics . This created a fairly complex reading order , which is summarized below . Knightfall Knightquest KnightsEnd Aftermath `` Broken Bat '' ( Apr - Late July 1993 ) `` The Crusade '' ( Oct 1993 - June 1994 ) `` The Search '' ( Oct 1993 - June 1994 ) ( July - Aug 1994 ) ( Nov 1994 - Feb 1995 ) Batman # 491 1 : Batman # 492 2 : Detective Comics # 659 3 : Batman # 493 4 : Detective Comics # 660 5 : Batman # 494 6 : Detective Comics # 661 7 : Batman # 495 8 : Detective Comics # 662 9 : Batman # 496 10 : Detective Comics # 663 11 : Batman # 497 Detective Comics # 667 - 668 Batman : Shadow of the Bat # 19 - 20 Batman # 501 - 502 Detective Comics # 669 - 670 Catwoman # 6 Batman # 503 - 504 Catwoman # 7 Detective Comics # 671 - 673 Batman : Shadow of the Bat # 24 Batman # 505 Batman : Shadow of the Bat # 25 Batman # 506 - 507 Batman : Shadow of the Bat # 26 - 27 Detective Comics # 674 Batman # 508 Batman : Shadow of the Bat # 28 Detective Comics # 675 Justice League Task Force # 5 - 6 Batman : Shadow of the Bat # 21 - 23 Batman : Legends of the Dark Knight # 59 - 61 Robin # 7 1 : Batman # 509 2 : Batman : Shadow of the Bat # 29 3 : Detective Comics # 676 4 : Batman : Legends of the Dark Knight # 62 5 : Robin # 8 6 : Catwoman # 12 7 : Batman # 510 8 : Batman : Shadow of the Bat # 30 9 : Detective Comics # 677 10 : Batman : Legends of the Dark Knight # 63 Aftermath : Robin # 9 Aftermath : Catwoman # 13 Showcase ' 94 # 10 `` Prodigal '' ( Nov 1994 - Jan 1995 ) 1 : Batman # 512 2 : Batman : Shadow of the Bat # 32 3 : Detective Comics # 679 4 : Robin # 11 5 : Batman # 513 6 : Batman : Shadow of the Bat # 33 7 : Detective Comics # 680 8 : Robin # 12 9 : Batman # 514 10 : Batman : Shadow of the Bat # 34 11 : Detective Comics # 681 12 : Robin # 13 `` Who Rules the Night '' ( Late July - Oct 1993 ) `` Troika '' ( Feb 1995 ) 12 : Detective Comics # 664 13 : Showcase ' 93 # 7 14 : Showcase ' 93 # 8 15 : Batman # 498 Batman : Shadow of the Bat # 16 - 18 16 : Detective Comics # 665 17 : Batman # 499 18 : Detective Comics # 666 19 : Batman # 500 Batman # 515 Batman : Shadow of the Bat # 35 Detective Comics # 682 Robin # 14 The following annuals , special issues and guest appearances take place during `` Knightquest '' with Jean - Paul Valley as Batman , but are not vital to the plot : Batman Annual # 17 Detective Comics Annual # 6 Showcase ' 93 # 10 Superman vol. 2 # 83 Chain Gang War # 6 - 7 , # 10 - 12 Batman : Legends of the Dark Knight Annual # 3 Catwoman # 5 Showcase ' 94 # 5 - 7 Robin # 1 Outsiders # 7 - 9 Bloodlines : Bloodbath # 1 - 2 Batman / Punisher : Lake of Fire ( this has a direct sequel , Punisher / Batman : Deadly Knights , which takes place during `` KnightsEnd '' and features Bruce Wayne as Batman ) Batman : Turning Points # 4 During his incapacitation , Bruce Wayne appears in : Justice League Task Force # 4 Catwoman # 4 Batman # 506 Bane and his henchmen appear in Catwoman # 1 - 4 , in the lead - up to and aftermath of his defeat by the new Batman . Influence and Legacy ( edit ) DC Comics published `` Knightfall '' around the same time as `` The Death of Superman '' storyline . `` Knightfall '' started almost immediately after the `` Funeral For a Friend '' storyline in the Superman books . During the breakout at Arkham Asylum , Batman and Robin both wear a black arm band with the S - shield engraved on it . The two stories involved DC Comics 's most prominent characters . Similar stories followed for Green Lantern , Wonder Woman , Aquaman , and Green Arrow , with Green Lantern Hal Jordan being driven insane and replaced with Kyle Rayner , a new Wonder Woman being appointed by Hippolyta , Aquaman losing his hand , and Green Arrow dying in a plane crash as his long - lost son took over the role . In the opening of the novelisation , KnightFall , Dennis O'Neil stated that part of the reason `` Knightfall '' was written was due to the recent popularity of more `` ruthless '' heroes such as the Terminator and James Bond in films , as editors were starting to wonder if readers would prefer a Batman who was willing to kill his opponents . During DC vs. Marvel , Bane attempts to break Captain America 's back in a fight in a similar maneuver , but is caught off - guard when Captain America 's shield returns to its owner to strike Bane in the back of the head and knock him out . In the climax to Year One of Injustice : Gods Among Us , Superman confronts Batman in the Batcave as Batman is downloading the formula to a pill that can grant the user superhuman strength and durability , stolen from the Fortress of Solitude . While Superman does not want to kill Batman , he chooses to paralyze him by breaking his back in a similar fashion to Bane ( albeit by standing on Batman 's back instead of slamming him over his knee as Bane did ) . This puts Batman out of commission for much of Year Two as he heals . Reception ( edit ) IGN Comics # 15 ranked Batman : Knightfall Part One - Broken Bat on a list of the 25 greatest Batman graphic novels , saying : `` What makes ' Knightfall , Part One ' so memorable is not the actually snapping of Batman 's back . It 's the quick fall into despair that proves most shocking . The ending is a foregone conclusion as Batman is worn down both physically and mentally . The Batman 's spirit is broken before his vertebrae and that 's a feat you 'll never see accomplished anywhere else . '' Continuity ( edit ) The bulk of the events in the Knightfall saga are estimated to take place in the tenth or eleventh year of Batman 's career by most reckonings , including official DC timelines . It begins within a few months of Tim Drake assuming the role of the third Robin . Dick Grayson 's wedding to Starfire occurs very shortly after Bruce Wayne 's injury . It is an election year , and Armand Krol is campaigning for re-election as mayor both before and after the story arc . The initial scenes of the prelude mini-series Batman : Sword of Azrael # 1 - 4 take place during the Gotham City `` Founders Day '' parade . A meeting between Selina Kyle and Bruce Wayne on his airplane is explicitly described as the first Post-Crisis out - of - costume interaction between the two . As the contemporary Batmobile was destroyed in `` KnightsEnd '' , the original Batmobile ( with the large hood ornament ) was used by Batman and Robin for several issues following . `` Knightquest '' also introduces Batman 's rocket railcar linking the Batcave to the Gotham subway system ; it was designed and completed by Harold Allnut after his discovery of the cavern passages in Detective Comics # 650 ( `` The Dragon '' ) . In `` KnightsEnd '' , Jean - Paul Valley references his defeat of Marvel Comics ' Jigsaw during the crossover issue Batman / Punisher : Lake of Fire . This is a very rare mention of a character from another company in a non-intercompany capacity , made possible by the insanity of Jean - Paul . Adaptations ( edit ) Novels ( edit ) Dennis O'Neil adapted the entire storyline trilogy into a 1994 novel which was released by Warner Books in hardcover form and then in mass paperback later on ( Hardcover ISBN 0 - 553 - 09673 - 7 , Paperback ISBN 0 - 553 - 57260 - 1 ) . A young adults book version was also released , this one written by Alan Grant and titled Batman : Knightfall and Beyond ( ISBN 0 - 553 - 48187 - 8 ) . Television ( edit ) The Flash alluded to Knightfall in the episode `` Enter Zoom . '' The Flash 's enemy Zoom overpowers Barry in their battle and breaks his back . He then goes to Central City News and the police department holding Barry 's broken body while taunting Central City of his victory similar to what Bane did to Batman . After Zoom escapes , Barry 's accelerated healing allows him to heal from his damaged back , although he takes some time to recover from the psychological effects of the beating . Animation ( edit ) The character Bane was quickly added to the roster of villains in Batman : The Animated Series . He appeared in the episode `` Bane '' as an assassin rather than the mastermind as he was in the comics . He was hired by the mobster Rupert Thorne to eliminate Batman , and in turn by Thorne 's moll to eliminate Thorne afterwards . Bane eventually fought Batman on board a boat ( where Robin had been kidnapped and tied up ) , but before he could break his back as he did in the comics , Batman thrusts a crumpled batarang into the controls that inject Bane with Venom . This action caused a rapid and uncontrollable feed into Bane 's body before Batman pulls out the tube , stopping a fatal overdose of the drug . The Knightfall saga was loosely adapted in The Batman episode Traction . In this version , Bane lures the Batman into a trap . Batman overpowers Bane in his normal form , but when Bane unleashed his more bestial side , he severely injures Batman and breaks his back off screen . Believing him to be dead , Bane attempts to take over Gotham City . Three weeks after crippling Batman , Bane goes on a rampage through Gotham and knocks out Detective Ellen Yin . As he prepares to kill her , Batman interferes wearing a new mechanical Batsuit and battles Bane . As Bane attempts to unmask Batman and kill him , Batman uses an electrical wire and knocks out Bane with it . Film ( edit ) In Justice League : Doom , Bane makes reference to the storyline when he confronts Bruce Wayne above his parents ' empty graves , stating : `` When we fought before , I broke the bat . Today ... I break the man . '' The Dark Knight Rises is partially based on the `` Knightfall '' story arc . In it , Alfred resigns as Bruce 's butler , Bane releases hundreds of criminals ; and when Bane and Batman first meet , Bane brutally defeats and cripples him by striking Batman 's back with his knee , mirroring the events of the Knightfall saga . Video Games ( edit ) The video game adaptation of Batman Forever pays homage to the initial confrontation between Batman and Bane . During the final boss battle , The Riddler initially appears wearing a hulking suit of armor ( based upon the costume worn during the film 's climax ) which gives his physique a muscular appearance akin to that of Bane 's . As such , Riddler will attack the player with an identical back breaker move to the one seen in Knightfall . However , once the player manages to diminish his health bar , The Riddler 's true feeble form will appear , allowing the player to eliminate him with ease . In the video game Batman : Rise of Sin Tzu Bane breaks into the batcave to challenge Batman . During this fight , if the player is caught by Bane he executes the infamous back breaker . The famous back - breaking scene was referenced in Batman : Arkham Asylum , where if the player loses the fight with Bane , one of the death scenes shows Bane breaking Batman over his knee . Another reference is where Batman threatens , `` No , Bane . This time , I break you ! '' before knocking Bane down with the Batmobile . In Lego Batman : The Videogame for the Xbox 360 , the achievement Atomic Backbreaker is acquired by using Bane to give Batman the famous back - breaker . An alternate skin for Bane inspired by `` Knightfall '' can be unlocked in Injustice : Gods Among Us by rating the mobile app version . Also , Bane 's super move is known as `` Break the Bat '' , which involves striking his opponent 's back over his knee . In the video game , Batman : Arkham Origins , exclusive DLC for the PlayStation 3 includes a Batman skin based on the `` Knightfall '' storyline . It also includes a selection of challenge maps featuring characters and enemies from the storyline . Bane makes reference to `` breaking the bat '' on a few occasions and in multiplayer , Bane can perform the backbreaker to instantly kill Batman or Robin . In Batman : Arkham Knight , Azrael appears in a sidequest in which he expresses his interest in becoming Batman 's successor ( though this is the Michael Lane version ) , referencing Azrael replacing Batman in the Knightfall storyline . In the game 's ending , Batman activates the Knightfall protocol after Scarecrow reveals to the world he 's Bruce Wayne . He is supposedly killed when he arrives home and Wayne Manor explodes ( though a likely scenario is that he faked his death ) and a new Batman emerged protecting Gotham 's streets afterwards . Whether this is Bruce or a successor is never shown . Radio ( edit ) Batman : Knightfall Studio album ( radio broadcast ) Released March 5 , 2007 ( 2007 - 03 - 05 ) Length Disc 1 : ~ 80 min Disc 2 : ~ 60 min Disc 3 : ~ 80 min Label BBC Audio Producer Dirk Maggs In 1994 , BBC Radio 1 broadcast a radio - play adaptation , later also released on audio - tape ( ISBN 0 - 563 - 39520 - 6 ) and CD by BBC Audiobooks on March 5 , 2007 . It was adapted , produced and directed by Dirk Maggs , with music composed by Mark Russell , who had recently made Superman : Doomsday & Beyond on BBC Radio 5 . This show , however was not commissioned of its own , but rather to be three - minute episodes on the Mark Goodier Show . This meant it was written with a sense of immediacy ; having to make an instant effect and each three - minute segment contains a major plot development or sound effect stunt and end on a cliffhanger . DC acknowledged the effort in an issue Shadow of The Bat by having villains jump past a sign that read Dirk Maggs Radio . The radio - play itself contained similar minor allusions to Batman - the host of a TV show called Chuck Dixon and Dennis O'Neil an author of a book . `` Knightfall '' was a sequel to Batman : The Lazarus Syndrome also produced for BBC radio by Dirk Maggs . Its performers are : Bob Sessions as Batman Michael Gough as Alfred Pennyworth Daniel Marinker as Robin Peter Marinker as Bane , Jack Drake Kerry Shale as Jean Paul Valley , The Joker , The Cavalier , Thomas Wayne William Roberts as Commissioner James Gordon , Amygdala , Carlton LeHa , Tough Tony Lorelei King as Renee Montoya , Leslie Thompkins , Lady Shiva , Young Bruce , Martha Wayne , Sarah Essen Eric Meyers as Harvey Bullock , Colonel Vega , Batcave Computer , Joe Chill , Bird , Jeremiah Arkham , Firefly , Nomoz Michael Roberts as The Ventriloquist , Film Freak , Simpson Flanders , Benedict Asp , Hood Alibe Parsons as Shondra Kinsolving James Goode as Nightwing , The Scarecrow Stuart Milligan as Riddler , Maxie Zeus Chris Emmett as Mad Hatter Vincent Marzello as Armand Krol , Abattoir , Mr. Zsasz Action figures ( edit ) In 1994 , Kenner released the Legends of Batman action figure collection . This revolved primarily around Elseworlds stories and the modern `` Knightfall '' era ; although it strangely did not include a Bane figure . The collection lasted two series and corresponded with the Superman : Man of Steel figure line based on `` The Death of Superman '' . In 2006 , DC Direct released a series of figures specifically based on the `` Knightfall '' saga . This included Jean Paul Valley as Batman , Nightwing , Bane , Catwoman , and the unique `` Mask of Tengu '' Batman figure . Collected editions ( edit ) Part of the storyline has been collected into a few trade paperbacks . Earlier printings of the `` Knightfall '' books had covers by Kelley Jones were under the `` Knightfall '' name and book three was under the `` Knightsend '' name ( with this volume featuring a new cover by Graham Nolan and Brian Stelfreeze ) . These earlier editions also featured the original cover art / DC Comics monthly ads of the storyline as the chapter headings . The later printings of these three books do not have these cover / ads and solely title the three books under the `` Knightfall '' name with a similar cover dressing design . These new editions have covers by Mike Deodato . Batman : Knightfall , Part One : Broken Bat ( collects Batman vol. 1 # 491 -- 497 and Detective Comics vol. 1 # 659 -- 663 , 272 pages , paperback , September 1993 , ISBN 1 - 56389 - 142 - 5 ) Batman : Knightfall , Part Two : Who Rules the Night ( collects Batman vol. 1 # 498 -- 500 , Detective Comics vol. 1 # 664 -- 666 , Batman : Shadow of the Bat # 16 -- 18 , and stories from Showcase ' 93 # 7 -- 8 ; 288 pages , paperback , 1993 , ISBN 1 - 56389 - 148 - 4 ) Batman : Knightfall , Part Three : KnightsEnd ( collects Batman vol. 1 # 509 -- 510 , Batman : Shadow of the Bat # 29 -- 30 , Detective Comics vol. 1 # 676 -- 677 , Batman : Legends of the Dark Knight # 62 -- 63 , and Catwoman vol. 2 # 12 ; 304 pages , paperback , June 1995 , ISBN 1 - 56389 - 191 - 3 ) Parts of the Aftermath storyline had been collected in a trade paperback : Batman : Prodigal ( collects Batman vol. 1 # 512 -- 514 , Detective Comics vol. 1 # 679 -- 681 , Batman : Shadow of the Bat # 32 -- 34 , and Robin vol. 4 # 11 -- 13 ; 271 pages , paperback , January 1998 , ISBN 1 - 56389 - 334 - 7 ) 2012 new editions ( edit ) Accompanying the release of the movie The Dark Knight Rises in 2012 , DC Comics released a new edition of trade paperbacks collecting the Knightfall storyline . While the 1993 editions omitted the complete Knightsquest story arc , the 2012 editions re-release `` The Crusade '' part of this arc in volume 2 , leaving `` The Search '' part still uncollected . In addition , Bane 's back story from the one - shot publication Vengeance of Bane is included in the first volume , providing a proper introduction of the character , and volume 3 sees the `` KnightsEnd '' and `` Prodigal '' arcs released in a single volume . Batman : Knightfall , Vol. 1 ( includes all the material collected in 1993s Batman : Knightfall , Part One : Broken Bat and Batman : Knightfall , Part Two : Who Rules the Night with the addition of Vengeance of Bane , 640 pages , paperback 2012 , ISBN 978 - 1401233792 ) Batman : Knightfall , Vol. 2 : Knightquest ( includes Detective Comics vol. 1 # 667 - 675 , Batman : Shadow of the Bat # 19 - 20 , 24 - 28 , Batman vol. 1 # 501 - 508 , Catwoman vol. 2 # 6 - 7 and Robin vol. 4 # 7 , 656 pages , paperback 2012 , ISBN 978 - 1401235369 ) Batman : Knightfall , Vol. 3 : KnightsEnd ( includes all material collected in 1993s Batman : Knightfall , Part Three : KnightsEnd and 1998s Batman : Prodigal , 652 pages , ISBN 978 - 1401237219 ) 2017 - 2018 omnibus editions ( edit ) Batman : Knightfall Omnibus Vol. 1 ( ISBN 978 - 1401270421 ) was released in April 2017 in hardcover format , featuring a new cover by artist Kelley Jones . At 960 pages , this edition contains the entire contents of the 2012 edition of Batman : Knightfall , Vol. 1 , and in addition also contains several never before re-printed prelude issues to Knightfall . These extra issues include Batman # 484 - 490 and Detective Comics # 654 - 658 . Other new features in this edition include a two - page intro written by Doug Moench , a two - page afterword written by Chuck Dixon , a short story from Batman Villains : Secret Files and Origins ( 1998 ) titled `` Lost Pages : How Bane Infiltrated Wayne Manor '' , and other various concept art and covers . Batman : Knightfall Omnibus Vol. 2 : Knightquest ( ISBN 978 - 1401274368 ) was released in hardcover in October 2017 . This edition includes `` The Crusade '' , which was included in the 2012 edition Batman : Knightfall , Vol. 2 : Knightquest , as well as `` The Search '' , which had never before been reprinted . Batman : Knightfall Omnibus Vol. 3 - KnightsEnd ( ISBN 978 - 1401278496 ) is expected to be released in May 2018 in hardcover . Batman : Prelude to Knightfall ( ISBN 978 - 1401284220 ) is expected to be released in September 2018 in paperback . It will contain BATMAN : VENGEANCE OF BANE # 1 , BATMAN # 484 - 491 and DETECTIVE COMICS # 654 - 658 . Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ On the comic book covers , only the third part had its title written in CamelCase . ^ Jump up to : Batman # 491 was the final prelude issue and therefore not an official part of Knightfall . However , this issue was included in the original trade paperback edition `` Broken Bat '' , as well as the 2012 and 2017 re-printings . Jump up ^ Detective Comics # 670 was mislabeled on its cover as `` The Search '' . It is in fact part of `` The Crusade '' . This was confirmed in the letters page in Detective Comics # 674 . Per editor Scott Peterson , `` we printed the wrong story title on the cover of DETECTIVE # 670 ( it said `` The Search '' when it should have said `` The Crusade '' ) , and are extremely embarrassed . '' Jump up ^ Catwoman # 6 was mis - labeled on its cover as `` The Search '' . It is in fact part of `` The Crusade '' . This was confirmed in the letters page in Catwoman # 10 . Per assistant editor Jordan Gorfinkel , `` The banner identifying CATWOMAN # 6 as `` Knightquest : The Search '' was our mistake . The banner should have read `` Knightquest : The Crusade '' , as it did on the cover of CATWOMAN # 7 . '' ^ Jump up to : These issues were not included in the 2012 Knightquest trade paperback , but they are included in the 2017 omnibus edition . Jump up ^ Batman : Shadow of the Bat # 16 - 18 is a non-numbered tie - in story to Knightfall . In both the original trade paperback release as well as the 2012 reissue edition , this story was incorrectly placed between Detective Comics # 665 ( part 16 ) and Batman # 499 ( part 17 ) . This created a problem with the flow of the story , as Knightfall part 16 flows directly into part 17 . In the 2017 omnibus edition of Knightfall , the Batman : Shadow of the Bat story is correctly placed after Batman # 498 ( part 15 ) . References ( edit ) 1990s portal Jump up ^ `` The Bat Signal : Peter Milligan '' . Comic Book Resources . Retrieved 2016 - 03 - 10 . ^ Jump up to : `` An interview with Dennis O ' Neil '' . Knightfallsaga.angelfire.com . Retrieved 2016 - 03 - 10 . Jump up ^ Wizard : The Guide to Comics # 35 - publication date July 1994 ^ Jump up to : Beatty , Scott ( 2008 ) , `` Batman '' , in Dougall , Alastair , The DC Comics Encyclopedia , London : Dorling Kindersley , pp. 40 -- 44 , ISBN 0 - 7566 - 4119 - 5 Jump up ^ depicted in Batman : The Man Who Falls , et al . Jump up ^ `` Secret Wars on Infinite Earths : The Comic Book Fight Club '' . Secretearths.blogspot.com. 2006 - 05 - 22 . Retrieved 2016 - 03 - 10 . Jump up ^ Yehl , Joshua ( 2014 - 04 - 09 ) . `` The 25 Greatest Batman Graphic Novels - IGN '' . Comics.ign.com . Retrieved 2016 - 03 - 10 . Batman publications and storylines Current series Batgirl Batman Batman Beyond Batwoman Detective Comics Nightwing Harley Quinn Red Hood and the Outlaws Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Completed ongoing series Azrael Batman : Arkham Unhinged Batman : The Dark Knight Batman : Gotham Knights Batman : Legends of the Dark Knight Batman : Shadow of the Bat Batman : Streets of Gotham The Batman Adventures Batman and Robin Batman and The Outsiders The Batman Chronicles Batman Confidential Batman Family Batman Incorporated Batman / Superman Batwing Birds of Prey The Brave and the Bold Gotham Academy Gotham by Midnight Gotham Central Gotham City Sirens The Huntress The Joker Man - Bat Red Hood / Arsenal Red Robin Robin Robin : Son of Batman Superman / Batman We Are ... Robin World 's Finest Comics Completed limited series Anarky Batgirl : Year One Batman / Superman / Wonder Woman : Trinity Batman : Arkham City Batman : Battle for the Cowl Batman : Cacophony Batman : The Cult Bat - Mite The Dark Knight Returns The Dark Knight Strikes Again The Dark Knight III : The Master Race Batman : Dark Victory Batman Eternal Batman : Gates of Gotham Batman : GCPD Batman : Gotham County Line Batman : The Long Halloween Batman : Nosferatu Batman : Orpheus Rising Batman : The Return of Bruce Wayne Batman : Turning Points Batman : The Widening Gyre Batman : Year 100 Batman and the Mad Monk Batman and the Monster Men Batman and Robin Eternal Batman Black and White First Wave Gotham Underground Man - Bat Robin : Year One Section 8 Superman & Batman : Generations Trinity The Untold Legend of the Batman One - shots Arkham Asylum : A Serious House on Serious Earth The 12 Cent Adventure Castle of the Bat Dark Knight Dynasty Dark Night : A True Batman Story Digital Justice Earth One Holy Terror In Darkest Knight The Killing Joke Knight Gallery Death of Innocents The Man Who Laughs Nine Lives Noël Son of the Demon Two Faces Batman / Houdini : The Devil 's Workshop The Batman Adventures : Mad Love Batman & Dracula trilogy Leatherwing The Berlin Batman Gotham by Gaslight Joker Batman : Thrillkiller Batman : Gotham Noir Storylines `` The Case of the Chemical Syndicate '' `` Dark Moon Rising '' `` The Man Behind the Red Hood ! '' `` Joker 's Millions '' `` Year One '' `` Year Two '' `` A Death in the Family '' `` Year Three '' `` The Man Who Falls '' `` Anarky in Gotham City '' `` Gothic '' `` The Return of the Joker '' `` Prey '' `` The Last Arkham '' `` Knightfall '' `` Contagion '' `` Legacy '' `` Cataclysm '' `` No Man 's Land '' `` Joker : Last Laugh '' `` Bruce Wayne : Fugitive '' `` Hush '' `` Broken City '' `` War Games '' `` City of Crime '' `` Under the Hood '' `` War Crimes '' `` Face the Face '' `` Batman and Son '' `` The Resurrection of Ra 's al Ghul '' `` Batman R.I.P. '' `` Whatever Happened to the Caped Crusader ? '' `` Batwoman : Elegy '' `` Bruce Wayne : The Road Home '' `` Night of the Owls '' `` Death of the Family '' `` Zero Year '' `` Endgame '' `` Robin War '' Inter-company crossovers Batman / Aliens Batman / Hellboy / Starman Batman / Daredevil : King of New York Batman / Judge Dredd : Judgment on Gotham Batman & Spider - Man : New Age Dawning Batman / Tarzan : Claws of the Cat - woman Batman / Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Batman / The Spirit Batman versus Predator Daredevil / Batman : Eye for an Eye Spawn / Batman Batman - Spawn : War Devil Superman and Batman versus Aliens and Predator Spider - Man and Batman : Disordered Minds Incomplete All Star Batman & Robin , the Boy Wonder Batman : The Dark Prince Charming Batman : White Knight Related topics Batman : Anarky Batman : Child of Dreams Batman : Haunted Knight The Batman Chronicles Batman Legends Elseworlds Publications are listed alphabetically by published titles . Storylines are listed in publication order . Compiled without respect for canon or `` current '' continuity . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Batman:_Knightfall&oldid=836456522 '' Categories : Batman storylines 1993 in comics Crossover comics 1994 novels 1994 audio plays Comics adapted into radio series British radio dramas Batman radio series Hidden categories : Articles needing additional references from March 2016 All articles needing additional references Comics infobox image less alt text Story arc pop Duration without hAudio microformat Articles with hAudio microformats Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch Español Français Italiano עברית Português Edit links This page was last edited on 14 April 2018 , at 22 : 48 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . 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Jean-Paul Valley (a.k.a. Azrael)

Kelley Jones

United Kingdom corporation tax - wikipedia United Kingdom corporation tax Jump to : navigation , search Throughout this article , the unqualified term `` pound '' and the £ symbol refer to the Pound sterling . UK Corporation Tax Receipts from 1999 - 2016 , both in absolute terms and as % of GDP . Taxation in the United Kingdom UK Government Departments HM Treasury HM Revenue and Customs UK Government VAT Income tax National Insurance Corporation tax Capital gains tax Motoring taxes Inheritance tax Stamp duty Insurance Premium Tax Air Passenger Duty PAYE Scottish Government Revenue Scotland Scottish income tax Land and Buildings Transaction Tax Scottish Landfill Tax Air Departure Tax Welsh Government Welsh Revenue Authority Land Transaction Tax Landfill Disposals Tax Local Government Council Tax Domestic rates in Northern Ireland Business rates in England Business rates in Wales Business rates in Scotland Business rates in Northern Ireland In the United Kingdom , corporation tax is a corporate tax levied in the United Kingdom on the profits made by UK - resident companies and on the profits of entities registered overseas with permanent establishments in the UK . Until 1 April 1965 , companies were taxed at the same income tax rates as individual taxpayers , with an additional profits tax levied on companies . Finance Act 1965 replaced this structure for companies and associations with a single corporate tax , which took its basic structure and rules from the income tax system . Since 1997 , the UK 's Tax Law Rewrite Project has been modernising the UK 's tax legislation , starting with income tax , while the legislation imposing corporation tax has itself been amended , the rules governing income tax and corporation tax have thus diverged . Corporation tax was governed by the Income and Corporation Taxes Act 1988 ( as amended ) prior to the rewrite project . Originally introduced as a classical tax system , in which companies were subject to tax on their profits and companies ' shareholders were also liable to income tax on the dividends that they received , the first major amendment to corporation tax saw it move to a dividend imputation system in 1973 , under which an individual receiving a dividend became entitled to an income tax credit representing the corporation tax already paid by the company paying the dividend . The classical system was reintroduced in 1999 , with the abolition of advance corporation tax and of repayable dividend tax credits . Another change saw the single main rate of tax split into three . Tax competition between jurisdictions reduced the main corporate tax rate from 28 % in 2008 - 2010 to a flat rate of 20 % as of April 2015 . The UK government faced problems with its corporate tax structure , including European Court of Justice judgements that aspects of it are incompatible with EU treaties . Tax avoidance schemes marketed by the financial sector have also proven an irritant , and been countered by complicated anti-avoidance legislation . The complexity of the corporation tax system is a recognised issue . The Labour government , supported by the Opposition parties , carried through wide - scale reform from the Tax Law Rewrite project , resulting in the Corporation Tax Act 2010 . The tax has slowly been integrating generally accepted accounting practice , with the corporation tax system in various specific areas based directly on the accounting treatment . Total net corporation tax receipts in 2014 - 15 were £ 43.0 billion , which was an increase of 7 % from £ 40.3 billion in 2013 - 14 . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 1.1 Finance Act 1965 1.2 Advance Corporation Tax 1.2. 1 Abolition of Advance Corporation Tax 1.3 Rates 1.4 Historic tax revenues 1.5 Taxable profits and accounting profits 1.5. 1 International Financial Reporting Standards 1.6 Avoidance 1.7 Need for greater revenues 2 Method of charge 2.1 Assessment 2.2 Schedular system 2.2. 1 Relief for expenses 2.3 Rates and payment 2.4 HM Revenue and Customs powers of enquiry 3 Relief from double taxation 4 Loss relief 4.1 Group relief 5 Example computation 6 Interaction with European law 7 Recent developments 7.1 Corporation tax reform 7.2 Other enactments 8 See also 9 References 10 External links History ( edit ) Jim Callaghan , the Chancellor of the Exchequer who introduced corporation tax in 1965 . Until 1965 , companies were subject to income tax on their profits at the same rates as was levied on individual taxpayers . A dividend imputation system existed , whereby the income tax paid by a company was offset against the income tax liability of a shareholder who received dividends from the company . The standard rate of income tax in 1949 was 50 % . If the company paid a £ 100 dividend , the recipient would be treated as if he had earned £ 200 and had paid £ 100 in income tax on it -- the tax paid by the company fully covered the tax due from the individual on the dividend paid . If , however , the individual was subject to tax at a higher rate ( known as `` surtax '' ) , he ( not the company ) would be liable to pay the additional tax . In addition to income tax , companies were also subject to a profits tax , which was deducted from company profits when determining the income tax liability . It was a differential tax , with a higher tax rate on dividends ( profits distributed to shareholders ) than on profits retained within the company . By penalising the distribution of profits , it was hoped companies would retain profits for investment , which was considered a priority after the Second World War . The tax did not have the desired effect , so the distributed profits tax was increased by 20 % by the post-war Labour government to encourage companies to retain more of their profits . At the time of Hugh Gaitskell 's 1951 budget , the profits tax was 50 % for distributed profits and 10 % for undistributed profits . A series of reductions in the profits tax were brought in from 1951 onwards by the new Conservative government . The tax rates fell to 22.5 % on distributed profits and 2.5 % on undistributed profits by 1957 , but the profits tax was no longer income tax - deductible . Derick Heathcoat - Amory 's Budget of March 1958 replaced the differential profits tax with a single profits tax measure , applicable to both retained and distributed profits . This gradual decrease , and final abolition , of taxes on capital distributions reflected ideological differences between the Conservative and Labour parties : the Conservative approach was to distribute profits to capital holders for investment elsewhere , while Labour sought to force companies to retain profits for reinvestment in the company in the hope this would benefit the company 's workforce . Finance Act 1965 ( edit ) Finance Act 1965 replaced the system of income tax and profits tax from 1 April 1965 with the Corporation Tax , which re-introduced aspects of the old system . Corporation Tax was charged at a uniform rate on all profits , but additional tax was then payable if profits were distributed as a dividend to shareholders . In effect , dividends suffered double taxation . This method of corporation tax is known as the classical system and is similar to that used in the United States . The effect of the tax was to revert to the distribution tax in operation from 1949 to 1959 : dividend payments were subject to higher tax than profits retained within the company . Finance Act 1965 also introduced a capital gains tax , at a rate of 30 % , charged on the gains arising on the disposal of capital assets by individuals . While companies were exempted from capital gains tax , they were liable to corporation tax on their `` chargeable gains '' , which were calculated in substantially the same way as capital gains for individuals . The tax applied to company shares as well as other assets . Before 1965 , capital gains were not taxed , and it was advantageous for taxpayers to argue that a receipt was non-taxable `` capital '' rather than taxable `` revenue '' . Advance corporation tax ( edit ) Main article : Advance corporation tax The basic structure of the tax , where company profits were taxed as profits , and dividend payments were then taxed as income , remained unchanged until 1973 , when a partial imputation system was introduced for dividend payments . Unlike the previous imputation system , the tax credit to the shareholder was less than the corporation tax paid ( corporation tax was higher than the standard rate of income tax , but the imputation , or set - off , was only of standard rate tax ) . When companies made distributions , they also paid the advance corporation tax ( known as ACT ) , which could be set off against the main corporation tax charge , subject to certain limits ( the full amount of ACT paid could not be recovered if significantly large amounts of profits were distributed ) . Individuals and companies who received a dividend from a UK company received a tax credit representing the ACT paid . Individuals could set off the tax credit against their income tax liability . On introduction , ACT was set at 30 % of the gross dividend ( the actual amount paid plus the tax credit ) . If a company made a £ 70 dividend payment to an individual , the company would pay £ 30 of advance corporation tax . The shareholder would receive the £ 70 cash payment , plus a tax credit of £ 30 ; thus , the individual would be deemed to have earned £ 100 , and to have already paid tax of £ 30 on it . The ACT paid by the company would be deductible against its final `` mainstream '' corporation tax bill . To the extent that the individual 's tax on the dividend was less than the tax credit -- for example , if his income was too low to pay tax ( below £ 595 in 1973 -- 1974 ) -- he would be able to reclaim some or all of the £ 30 tax paid by the company . The set - off was only partial , since the company would pay 52 % tax ( small companies had lower rates , but still higher than the ACT rate ) , and thus the £ 70 received by the individual actually represented pre-tax profits of £ 145.83 . Accordingly , only part of the double taxation was relieved . ACT was not payable on dividends from one UK company to another ( unless the payor company elected to pay it ) . Also , the recipient company was not taxed on that dividend receipt , except for dealers in shares and life assurance companies in respect of some of their profits . As the payor company would have suffered tax on the payments it made , the company that received the dividend also received a credit that it could use to reduce the amount of ACT it itself paid , or , in certain cases , apply to have the tax credit repaid to them . Gordon Brown , the Chancellor of the Exchequer who abolished ACT and introduced the quarterly instalment regime in 1999 . The level of ACT was linked to the basic rate of income tax between 1973 and 1993 . The March 1993 Budget of Norman Lamont cut the ACT rate and tax credit to 22.5 % from April 1993 , and 20 % from April 1994 . These changes were accompanied with a cut of income tax on dividends to 20 % , while the basic rate of income tax remained at 25 % . Persons liable for tax were lightly affected by the change , because income tax liability was still balanced by the tax credit received , although higher rate tax payers paid an additional 25 % tax on the amount of the dividend actually received ( net ) , as against 20 % before the change . The change had bigger effects on pensions and non-taxpayers . A pension fund receiving a £ 1.2 m dividend income prior to the change would have been able to reclaim £ 400,000 in tax , giving a total income of £ 1.6 m . After the change , only £ 300,000 was reclaimable , reducing income to £ 1.5 m , a fall of 6.25 % . Gordon Brown 's summer Budget of 1997 ended the ability of pension funds and other tax - exempt companies to reclaim tax credits with immediate effect , and for individuals from April 1999 . This tax change has been blamed for the poor state of British pension provision , while usually ignoring the more significant effect of the dot - com shareprice crash of 2000 onwards when the FTSE - 100 lost half its value to fall from 6930 at the beginning of 2000 to just 3490 by March 2003 . Despite this , critics such as Member of Parliament Frank Field described it as a `` hammer blow '' and the Sunday Times described it as a swindle , with the hypothetical £ 1.5 m income described above falling to £ 1.2 m , a fall in income of 20 % , because no tax would be reclaimable . Abolition of advance corporation tax ( edit ) From 6 April 1999 ACT was abolished , and the tax credit on dividends was reduced to 10 % . There was a matching reduction in the basic income tax rate on dividends to 10 % , while a new higher - rate of 32.5 % was introduced which led to an overall effective 25 % tax rate for higher rate taxpayers on dividends ( after setting this `` notional '' tax credit against the tax liability ). While non-taxpayers were no longer able to claim this amount from the treasury ( as opposed to taxpayers who could deduct it from their tax bill ) , the 20 % ACT ( which would have previously been deducted from the dividend before payment ) was no longer levied . The abolition of ACT was actually one of the biggest tax grabs ever by a Chancellor , as pension companies could no longer recover the tax paid on dividends ( along with pensioners and other reliant on the income ) . This now costs over £ 10bn a year and was one of the factors that lead to the death of the final salary pension scheme . ( ref : http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/personalfinance/pensions/10798785/True-cost-of-Labours-pension-tax-raid-and-others-since-Seventies.html ) . It is one of the biggest tax grabs ever , sold as ' the abolition of a tax ' . ACT that had been incurred prior to 1999 could still be set off against a company 's tax liability , provided it would have been able to set it off under the old imputation system . In order to keep the stream of payments associated with advance corporation tax payment , ' large ' companies ( comprising the majority of corporation tax receipts ) were subjected to a quarterly instalments scheme for tax payment . Rates ( edit ) On its introduction in 1965 , corporation tax was charged at 40 % , rising to 45 % in the 1969 Budget . The rate then fell to 42.5 % in the second Budget of 1970 and 40 % in 1971 . In 1973 , alongside the introduction of advance corporation tax ( ACT ) , Conservative chancellor Anthony Barber created a main rate of 52 % , together with a smaller companies ' rate of 42 % . This apparent increase was negated by the fact that under the ACT scheme , dividends were no longer subject to income tax . The 1979 Conservative Budget of Geoffrey Howe cut the small companies ' rate to 40 % , followed by a further cut in the 1982 Budget to 38 % . The Budgets of 1983 -- 1988 saw sharp cuts in both main and small companies ' rates , falling to 35 % and 25 % respectively . Budgets between 1988 and 2001 brought further falls to a 30 % main rate and 19 % small companies ' rates . From April 1983 to March 1997 the small companies ' rate was pegged to the basic rate of income tax . During the 1980s there was briefly a higher rate of tax imposed for capital profits . Chancellor Gordon Brown 's 1999 Budget introduced a 10 % starting rate for profits from £ 0 to £ 10,000 , effective from April 2000 . Marginal relief applied meaning companies with profits of between £ 10,000 and £ 50,000 paid a rate between the starting rate and the small companies ' rate ( 19 % in 2000 ) . The 2002 Budget cut the starting rate to zero , with marginal relief applying in the same way . This caused a significant increase in the number of companies being incorporated , as businesses that had operated as self - employed , paying income tax on profits from just over £ 5,000 , were attracted to the corporation tax rate of 0 % on income up to £ 10,000 . Previously self - employed individuals could now distribute profits as dividend payments rather than salaries . For companies with profits under £ 50,000 the corporation tax rate varied between 0 % and 19 % . Because dividend payments come with a basic rate tax credit , provided the recipient did not earn more than the basic rate allowance , no further tax would be paid . The number of new companies being formed in 2002 -- 2003 reached 325,900 , an increase of 45 % on 2001 -- 2002 . The fact that individuals operating in this manner could potentially pay no tax at all was felt by the government to be unfair tax avoidance , and the 2004 Budget introduced a Non-Corporate Distribution Rate . This ensured that where a company paid below the small companies ' rate ( 19 % in 2004 ) , dividend payments made to non-corporates ( for example , individuals , trusts and personal representatives of deceased persons ) would be subject to additional corporation tax , bringing the corporation tax paid up to 19 % . For example , a company making £ 10,000 profit , and making a £ 6,000 dividend distribution to an individual and £ 4,000 to another company would pay 19 % corporation tax on the £ 6,000 . Although this measure substantially reduced the number of small businesses incorporating , the Chancellor in the 2006 Budget said tax avoidance by small businesses through incorporation was still a major issue , and scrapped the starting rate entirely . Historic tax revenues ( edit ) UK Corporation Tax Revenue 1999 to 2016 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 Taxable profits and accounting profits ( edit ) The starting point for computing taxable profits is profits before tax ( except for a life assurance company ) . The rules for calculating corporation tax generally ran in parallel with income tax until 1993 , when the first statutory rule to move profit reporting into line with generally accepted accounting practice was introduced , although the courts were already moving towards requiring trading profits to be computed using general accountancy rules . Finance Act 1993 introduced rules to make tax on exchange gains and losses mimic their treatment in a company 's financial statements in most instances . Finance Act 1994 saw similar rules for financial instruments , and in Finance Act 1996 the treatment of most loan relationships was also brought into line with the accounting treatment . Finance Act 1997 saw something similar with rental premiums . A year later , Finance Act 1998 went even further , making it clear that taxable trading profits ( apart from those accruing to a Lloyd 's corporate name or to a life assurance company ) and profits from a rental business are equal to profits calculated under generally accepted accounting practice ( `` GAAP '' ) unless there is a specific statutory or case law rule to the contrary . This was followed up by Finance Act 2004 , which provided that where a company with investment business could make deductions for management expenses , they were calculated by reference to figures in the financial statements . International financial reporting Standards ( edit ) From 2005 , all European Union listed companies have to prepare their financial statements using the `` International Financial Reporting Standards '' ( `` IFRS '' ) , as modified by the EU . Other UK companies may choose to adopt IFRS . Corporation tax law is changing so that , in the future , IFRS accounting profits are largely respected . The exception is for certain financial instruments and certain other measures to prevent tax arbitrage between companies applying IFRS and companies applying UK GAAP . Avoidance ( edit ) Tax avoidance is the legitimate reduction of tax through tax planning and / or usage of legal provisions . Unlike most other countries , most UK tax professionals are accountants rather than lawyers by training . Until 2013 , the UK had no general anti-avoidance rule ( `` GAAR '' ) for corporation tax . However , it inherited an anti-avoidance rule from income tax relating to transactions in securities , and since then has had various `` mini-GAARs '' added to it . The best known `` mini-GAAR '' prevents a deduction for interest paid when the loan to which it relates is made for an `` unallowable purpose '' . In 2013 , the government introduced a General Anti-Avoidance Rule to manage the risk of tax avoidance . Finance Act 2004 introduced disclosure rules requiring promoters of certain tax avoidance schemes that are financing - or employment - related to disclose the scheme . Taxpayers who use these schemes must also disclose their use when they submit their tax returns . This is the first provision of its kind in the UK , and Finance Act 2005 has shown a number of tax avoidance schemes being blocked earlier than would have been expected prior to the disclosure rules . Need for greater revenues ( edit ) In the early twenty - first century the government sought to raise more revenues from corporation tax . In 2002 it introduced a separate 10 % supplementary charge on profits from oil and gas extraction businesses , and Finance Act 2005 contained measures to accelerate when oil and gas extraction business have to pay tax . Instead of paying their tax in four equal instalments in the seventh , tenth , thirteenth and sixteenth month after the accounting period starts , they will be required to consolidate their third and fourth payments and pay them in the thirteenth month , creating a cash flow advantage for the government. Finance ( No. 2 ) Act 2005 continued measures specifically relating to life assurance companies . When originally announced ( as Finance ( No. 3 ) Bill 2005 ) Legal & General told the Stock Exchange that £ 300 m had been wiped off its value , and Aviva ( Norwich Union ) announced that the tax changes would cost its policy holders £ 150 m . Method of charge ( edit ) Powers to collect corporation tax must be passed annually by parliament , otherwise there is no authority to collect it . The charge for the financial year ( beginning 1 April each year ) is imposed by successive finance acts . The tax is charged in respect of the company 's accounting period , which is normally the 12 - month period for which the company prepares its accounts . Corporation tax is administered by Her Majesty 's Revenue and Customs ( HMRC ) . Assessment ( edit ) Corporation tax is levied on the net profits of a company . Except for certain life assurance companies , it is borne by the company as a direct tax . Up until 1999 no corporation tax was due unless HMRC raised an assessment on a company . Companies were , however , obliged to report certain details to HMRC so that the right amount could be assessed . This changed for accounting periods ending on or after 1 July 1999 , when self - assessment was introduced . Self - assessment means that companies are required to assess themselves and take full responsibility for that assessment . If the self - assessment is wrong through negligence or recklessness , the company can be liable to penalties . The self - assessment tax return needs to be delivered to HMRC 12 months after the end of the period of account in which the accounting period falls ( although the tax must be paid before this date ) . If a company fails to submit a return by then , it is liable to penalties . HMRC may then issue a determination of the tax payable , which can not be appealed -- however , in practice they wait until a further six months have elapsed . Also , the most common claims and elections that may be made by a company have to be part of its tax return , with a time limit of two years after the end of the accounting period . This means that a company submitting its return more than one year late suffers not only from the late filing penalties , but also from the inability to make these claims and elections . From 2004 there has been a requirement for new companies to notify HM Revenue & Customs of their formation , although HMRC receives notifications of new company registrations from Companies House . Companies will then receive an annual notice CT603 , approximately 1 -- 2 months after the end of the company 's financial period , notifying it to complete an annual return . This must also include the company 's annual accounts , and possibly other documents , such as auditors ' reports , that are required for certain companies . Schedular system ( edit ) Main article : Schedular system of taxation In the United Kingdom the source rule applies . This means that something is taxed only if there is a specific provision bringing it within the charge to tax . Accordingly , profits are only charged to corporation tax if they fall within one of the following , and are not otherwise exempted by an explicit provision of the Taxes Acts : Scope Schedule A Income from UK land Schedule D Taxable income not falling within another Schedule Schedule F Income from UK dividends Chargeable gains Gains as defined by legislation that are not taxed as income CFC charge Profits made by controlled foreign companies where no exemption applies Notes : In practice companies do not get taxed under Schedule F. Most companies are exempted from Schedule F and there is a provision for those companies which are taxed on UK dividends ( i.e. dealers in shares ( stock ) ) that removes the charge from Schedule F to Schedule D . A Controlled Foreign Company ( `` CFC '' ) is a company controlled by a UK resident that is not itself UK resident and is subject to a lower rate of tax in the territory in which it is resident . Under certain circumstances , UK resident companies that control a CFC pay corporation tax on what the UK tax profits of that CFC would have been . However , because of a wide range of exemptions , very few companies suffer a CFC charge . Schedules B , C and E used to , but no longer , exist . Authorised unit trusts and OEICs are not liable to tax on their chargeable gains . Schedule D is itself divided into a number of cases : Scope Case I Profits from a UK trade Case III Interest - type income and gains / losses on loans , derivatives , financial instruments and intangibles Case V Overseas income Case VI Annual income not falling within Cases I , III and V , and other income / gains specifically taxed under Case VI Notes : Cases II and IV only apply to income tax and not corporation tax . Strictly speaking , Corporation Tax Act 2010 replaces the historic terminology `` Schedule A '' , `` Schedule D Case I '' etc. with more descriptive terms but this does not affect the substantive application of the schedular system so that , for example , different rules apply for utilising tax losses depending upon the nature of the income under which the losses arises . Relief for expenses ( edit ) Most direct expenses are deductible when calculating taxable income and chargeable gains . Notable exceptions include any costs of entertaining clients . Companies with investment business may deduct certain indirect expenses known as `` expenses of management '' when calculating their taxable profits . A similar relief is available for expenses of a life assurance company taxed on the I minus E basis which relate to the company 's basic life assurance and general annuity business . Donations made to charities are also normally deducted in calculating taxable income if made under Gift Aid . Rates and payment ( edit ) The 2007 Budget announced a main rate cut from 30 % to 28 % , effective from April 2008 . At the same time , the small companies ' rate was increased from 19 % to 20 % from April 2007 , 21 % in April 2008 , to stop `` individuals artificially incorporating as small companies to avoid paying their due share of tax , a practice if left unaddressed would cost the rest of the taxpaying population billions of pounds '' . The rate of corporation tax is determined by the financial year , which runs from 1 April to the following 31 March . Financial year FY17 started on 1 April 2017 and ends on 31 March 2018 . Where a company 's accounting period straddles a financial year in which the corporation tax rate has changed , the company 's profits for that period are split . For example , a company paying small companies ' rate with its accounting period running from 1 January to 31 December , and making £ 100,000 of profit in 2007 , would be deemed to have made 90 / 365 * £ 100,000 = £ 24,657.53 in FY06 ( there are 90 days between 1 January and 31 March ) , and 275 / 365 * £ 100,000 = £ 75 , 34.47 in FY07 , and would pay 19 % on the FY06 portion , and 20 % on the FY07 portion . From 1 April 2010 HM Revenue & Customs updated their terminology and the former Small Companies ' Rate is now called Small Profits Rate . Corporate Tax rates for Financial Years 2008 -- 2014 2008 -- 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Small profits rate 21 % 20 % 20 % 20 % 20 % Small profits upper limit £ 300,000 £ 300,000 £ 300,000 £ 300,000 £ 300,000 Marginal relief limits £ 300,001 -- £ 1,500,000 £ 300,001 -- £ 1,500,000 £ 300,001 -- £ 1,500,000 £ 300,001 -- £ 1,500,000 £ 300,001 -- £ 1,500,000 Main rate 28 % 26 % 24 % 23 % 21 % Notes : The bands shown on the right hand side are divided by one plus the number of associates ( usually the only associates a company has are fellow group companies , but the term is more widely defined ) The reduced rates do not apply to close investment holding companies ( companies controlled by fewer than 5 people ( plus associates ) or by their directors / managers , whose main activity is the holding of investments ) . Nor do they apply to companies in liquidation after the first 12 months . Authorised unit trusts and open - ended investment companies are taxed at the basic rate of income tax which is 20 % as of 2010 Life assurance companies are taxed using the above rates on shareholder profits and 20 % on policy holder profits Companies active in the oil and gas extraction industry in the UK or on the UK Continental Shelf are subject to an additional 10 % charge on their profits from those activities Most companies are required to pay tax nine months and a day after the end of an accounting period . Larger companies are required to pay quarterly instalments , in the seventh , tenth , thirteenth and sixteenth months after a full accounting period starts . These times are modified where an accounting period lasts for less than twelve months . From 2005 onwards , for tax payable on oil and gas extraction profits , the third and fourth quarterly instalments are merged , including the supplementary 10 % charge . In the financial year 2004 -- 2005 , approximately 39,000 companies paid corporation tax at the main rate . These 4.7 % of active companies are responsible for 75 % of all corporation tax receipts . Around 224,000 companies paid the small companies rate , with 34,000 benefiting from marginal relief . 264,000 were in the starting rate , with 269,000 benefiting from the lower band of marginal relief . The total revenue was £ 41.9 bn from 831,885 companies . Only 23480 companies had a liability in excess of £ 100,000 . HM Revenue and Customs powers of enquiry ( edit ) HMRC has one year from the normal filing date , which is itself one year after the end of the period of account , to open an enquiry into the return . This period is extended if the return is filed late . The enquiry continues until all issues that HMRC wish to enquire about a return are dealt with . However , a company can appeal to the Commissioners of Income Tax to close an enquiry if they feel there is undue delay . If either side disputes the amount of tax that is payable , they may appeal to either the General or Special Commissioners of Income Tax . Appeals on points of law may be made to the High Court ( Court of Session in Scotland ) , then the Court of Appeal , and finally , with leave , to the House of Lords . However , decisions of fact are binding and can only be appealed if no reasonable Commissioner could have made that decision . Once an enquiry is closed , or the time for opening an enquiry has passed , HMRC can only re-open a prior year if they become aware of an issue which they could not reasonably have known about at the time , or in instances of fraud or negligence . In fraud or negligence cases , they can re-open cases from up to 20 years ago . After an HMRC enquiry closes , or after final determination of an issue by the courts , the taxpayer has 30 days to amend their return , and make additional claims and elections , if appropriate , before the assessment becomes final and conclusive . If there is no enquiry , the assessment becomes final and conclusive once the period in which the Revenue may open an enquiry passes . Relief from double taxation ( edit ) There is a risk of double taxation whenever a company receives income that has already been taxed . This could be dividend income , which will have been paid out of the post-tax profits of another company and which may have suffered withholding tax . Or it could be because the company itself has suffered foreign tax , perhaps because it conducts part of its trade through an overseas permanent establishment , or because it receives other types of foreign income . Double taxation is avoided for UK dividends by exempting them from tax for most companies : only dealers in shares suffer tax on them . Where double taxation arises because of overseas tax suffered , relief is available either in the form of expense or credit relief . Expense relief allows the overseas tax to be treated as a deductible expense in the tax computation . Credit relief is given as a deduction from the UK tax liability , but is restricted to the amount of UK tax suffered on the foreign income . There is a system of onshore pooling , so that overseas tax suffered in high tax territories may be set off against taxable income arising from low tax territories . From 1 July 2009 , new rules were introduced to exempt most non-UK dividends from corporation tax so these double taxation rules in respect of non-UK dividends will be of less common application in practice after that date . Loss relief ( edit ) Detailed and separate rules apply to how all the different types of losses may be set off within the computations of a company . A detailed explanation of these can be found in : United Kingdom corporation tax loss relief . Group relief ( edit ) The UK does not permit tax consolidation , where companies in a group are treated as though they are a single entity for tax purposes . One of the main benefits of tax consolidation is that tax losses in one entity in a group are automatically relievable against the tax profits of another . Instead , the UK permits a form of loss relief called `` group relief '' . Where a company has losses arising in an accounting period ( other than capital losses , or losses arising under Case V or VI of Schedule D ) in excess of its other taxable profits for the period , it may surrender these losses to a group member with sufficient taxable profits in the same accounting period . The company receiving the losses may offset them against their own taxable profits . Exceptions include that a company in the oil and gas extraction industry may not accept group relief against the profits arising on its oil and gas extraction business , and a life assurance company may only accept group relief against its profits chargeable to tax at the standard shareholder rate applicable to that company . Separate rules apply for dual resident companies . Full group relief is permitted between companies subject to UK corporation tax that are in the same 75 % group , where companies have a common ultimate parent , and at least 75 % of the shares in each company ( other than the ultimate parent ) are owned by other companies in the group . The companies making up a 75 % group do not all need to be UK - resident or subject to UK corporation tax relief . An open - ended investment company can not form part of a group . Consortium relief is permitted where a company subject to UK corporation tax is owned by a consortium of companies that each own at least 5 % of the shares and together own at least 75 % of the shares . A consortium company can only surrender or accept losses in proportion to how much of that company is owned by each consortium group . Example computation ( edit ) This is an example computation involving a company that has one associate from which it receives £ 50,000 group relief . Example Company Ltd £ £ Schedule A ( UK land ) 100,000 Schedule D -- Case I ( UK trade ) 200,000 -- Case I losses brought forward ( 100,000 ) 100,000 -- Case III ( loan relationships , derivatives , financial instruments ) 100,000 -- Case V ( overseas ) 300,000 -- Case VI ( other annual profits ) 10,000 Chargeable gains ( capital gains ) 150,000 Allowable ( capital ) losses brought forward ( 50,000 ) 100,000 Less : Non-trading debits brought forward 2 ( 50,000 ) Less : Management expense deduction 3 ( 20,000 ) Less : Charges ( donations to UK charities ) ( 10,000 ) Less : Group relief accepted ( 50,000 ) Profits chargeable to corporation tax 580,000 Tax @ 30 % 174,000 Less : Marginal relief ( 46,750 ) Less : Double tax relief ( 30,000 ) Tax liability for the period 97,250 Notes : UK trading losses brought forward from previous accounting periods must be relieved as fully as possible against any trading profits in the current accounting period . They can not be relieved against non-trading profits . 2 Brought forward non-trading debits can be utilised against non-trading profits ; they can not reduce the trading profits 3 The management expense deduction is in relation to expenses incurred on managing the company 's investments . The marginal relief computation is as follows : Marginal relief fraction x ( Upper limit / ( Number of associates plus one ) -- Profit ) 1 / 40 x ( 1,500,000 / 2 -- 580,000 ) The £ 30,000 overseas tax has been included in the taxable Schedule D Case V figure . Double tax relief is available on the lower of overseas tax suffered and UK corporation tax suffered on the overseas income . Interaction with European law ( edit ) Although there are no European Union directives dealing with direct taxes , UK laws must comply with European legislation . In particular , legislation should not be discriminatory under the EC treaty . A number of cases where UK tax laws are believed to be discriminatory have been brought to the European Court of Justice , usually with respect to freedom of establishment and freedom of movement of capital . Key cases which have been decided include : Hoechst -- where the Court found that the way the partial imputation system operated prior to its abolition in 1999 was discriminatory ; Lankhorst - Hohorst -- a German case which implied that the UK 's transfer pricing and thin capitalisation legislation may have been contrary to EU legislation ( the 2004 Finance Act made changes to counter this threat ) ; Marks and Spencer -- where it was claimed that UK parents should be able to relieve the losses of overseas subsidiaries against the tax profits of their UK subgroup ( On 7 April 2005 , the Advocate - General gave an opinion supporting the claim of a UK parent to offset losses of its EU subsidiaries , where no effective loss relief was available in the EU Member States the subsidiaries were resident in ) . However , in the final judgment , a compromise agreement was reached in which the national interest to prevent excessive loss of tax was held to outweigh in most circumstances the restriction on the freedom of movement of capital . Accordingly , although no specific new legislation has been introduced , relief for overseas losses will only be available where they may not be utilised in the overseas jurisdiction ; Cadbury Schweppes -- where it was ruled that CFC rules are only acceptable if they relate to wholly artificial arrangements intended to escape the UK tax normally payable . Also , the case of ICI v Colmer led to the UK amending its definition of a group , for group relief purposes . Previously , the definition required that all companies and intermediate parent companies in a group to be UK resident . There are also a number of other cases making their way , slowly , up to the European Court . In particular : A Group Litigation Order arguing that dividends received from overseas companies should be exempt from tax in the same way as dividends received from UK companies are exempted from tax ; Claims that the UK CFC legislation is contrary to EU law ( notably Vodafone ) . Recent developments ( edit ) Corporation tax reform ( edit ) There have been a number of proposals for corporation tax reform , although only a few have been enacted . In March 2001 , the government published a technical note A Review of Small Business Taxation , which considered simplification of corporation tax for small companies through the closer alignment of their profits for tax purposes with those reported in their accounts . In July of that year , the government also published a consultation document , Large Business Taxation : the Government 's strategy and corporate tax reforms . It set out the strategy for modernising corporate taxes and proposals for relief for capital gains on substantial shareholdings held by companies . In August 2002 , Reform of corporation tax -- A consultation document was published , outlining initial proposals for the abolition of the Schedular system . This was followed up in August 2003 by Corporation tax reform -- A consultation document , which further discussed the possible abolition of the Schedular system , and also whether the capital allowances ( tax depreciation ) system should be abolished . It also made proposals that were ultimately enacted in Finance Act 2004 . ( The first two of these listed below were in response to threats to the UK tax base arising from recent European Court of Justice judgments . ) The changes were to : Introduction of transfer pricing rules for UK - to - UK transactions . Transfer pricing rules require certain transactions to be deemed to have taken place at arm 's length prices for tax purposes where they did not in fact take place as such . Merging thin capitalisation rules with the transfer pricing rules . Thin capitalisation rules limit the amount a company can claim as a tax deduction on interest when it receives loans at non-commercial rates ( from connected parties , for example ) . Extension of the deduction for management expenses to all companies with an investment business . Previously a company had to be wholly or mainly engaged in an investment business to qualify . In December 2004 , Corporation tax reform -- a technical note was published . It outlined the government 's decision to abolish the schedular system , replacing the numerous schedules and cases with two pools : a trading and letting pool ; and an `` everything else '' pool . The Government had decided that capital allowances would remain , though there would be some reforms , mostly affecting the leasing industry . Other enactments ( edit ) Other main reforms enacted , include : Relief from tax on chargeable gains on disposals of substantial shareholdings in trading companies and groups ( enacted by Finance Act 2002 ) . Introduction of UK to UK transfer pricing rules , coupled with the merging of the thin capitalisation rules with the transfer pricing rules ( enacted by Finance Act 2004 ) . Extension of management expenses rules so that companies do not need to be investment companies to receive them , coupled with a specific rule preventing capital items being deductible as management expenses ( enacted by Finance Act 2004 ) . See also ( edit ) Taxation in the United Kingdom Corporate tax UK company law Corporation tax in the Republic of Ireland References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' ( PDF ) . 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Finance Acts ( 1965 -- ) , HMSO . From 1998 onwards , consolidation took place , into the Income and Corporation Taxes Act 1988 , the Taxation of Chargeable Gains Act and the Capital Allowances Act 2001 . `` Reform of corporation tax -- A consultation document '' ( PDF ) . Inland Revenue ( now HMRC ) , and HM Treasury . August 2002 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 6 February 2007 . Retrieved 17 May 2007 . `` Corporation tax reform -- A consultation document '' ( PDF ) . Inland Revenue ( now HMRC ) , and HM Treasury . August 2003 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 12 April 2007 . Retrieved 17 May 2007 . `` Corporation tax reform -- Technical note '' ( PDF ) . Inland Revenue ( now HMRC ) . December 2004 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 21 February 2007 . Retrieved 17 May 2007 . `` Key economic events 1955 -- 1979 '' . biz / ed . Retrieved 17 May 2007 . `` Rates of Coorporation Tax '' ( PDF ) . HMRC . March 2007 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 9 June 2007 . 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Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=United_Kingdom_corporation_tax&oldid=811063149 '' Categories : Corporate taxation in the United Kingdom Taxation in the United Kingdom Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links Webarchive template archiveis links Pages containing links to subscription - only content All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from September 2017 Articles with permanently dead external links Articles with dead external links from July 2016 Wikipedia indefinitely move - protected pages Use British English from January 2013 Use dmy dates from January 2013 Featured articles Talk Contents About Wikipedia Français Italiano Edit links This page was last edited on 19 November 2017 , at 08 : 45 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

what is the corporate tax rate in great britain

a flat rate of 20%

% of GDP

Sinéad - wikipedia Sinéad Jump to : navigation , search Sinéad ( / ʃɪˈneɪd / shi - NADE ; Irish pronunciation : ( ˈʃɪnjeːd̪ɣ ) or ( ʃɪˈnjeːd̪ɣ ) ) , is an Irish feminine name . It is derived from the French Jeanette , which is cognate to the English Janet , itself a feminine form of the Hebrew Yohannan , `` God forgave / God gratified '' . In English , Sinéad is also commonly spelled Sinead . The name is generally translated into English as either Jane or Jennifer , or as the female version of the Scottish name Jean . Sinéad may refer to : Contents ( hide ) 1 People 2 Fiction 3 See also 4 References People ( edit ) Sports Sinéad Cahalan , camogie player Sinead Jennings , rower Sinead Kerr , ice dancer Sinéad Millea , former camogie player Sinead Miller , cyclist Sinead Russell , Olympic Swimmer Music `` Sinéad '' , a song by Within Temptation from their album The Unforgiving , and the name of a character in the album 's tie - in comic book Sinead Harnett , singer / songwriter Sinéad Lohan , singer / songwriter Sinéad Madden , singer / songwriter Sinéad Mulvey , singer , air hostess Sinéad O'Carroll , singer with Irish pop band B * Witched Sinéad O'Connor , singer / songwriter Sinéad Quinn , recording artist , reality show contestant Film and television Sinéad Cusack , actress Sinead Desmond , TV presenter Sinead Keenan , actress Sinead Matthews , actress Sinéad Moynihan , model and actress Sinéad Noonan , model and actress Other Sinéad de Valera , children 's book author Sinéad Morrissey , poet Sinéad Ní Loideáin , presenter Sinéad Ní Neachtain , magazine editor Sinéad Sheppard , dancer Fiction ( edit ) Sinead O'Connor ( Hollyoaks ) , a character on the TV series Hollyoaks , played by Stephanie Davis Sinead Starling is a fictional character from The 39 Clues . Sinéad Ní Shúilleabháin , a fictional character in The Wind That Shakes the Barley See also ( edit ) Siobhán , feminine Irish - language name ultimately derived from the same Hebrew name References ( edit ) ( hide ) Gaelic given names Native masculine names Aodh Aodhán Aonghus Art Breandán Breasal Brian Cailean Cainnech Caoimhín Cathal Cearbhall Cian Cianán Ciarán Cinnéididh Colm Conall Conán Conchobhar Cormac Criofan Dáire Déaglán Diarmaid Domhnall Donn Donnchadh Eachann Éibhear Eochaidh Eóghan Fearghal Fearghus Féilim Fiach Fínghin Fionn Fionnbharr Fionnlagh Fionntán Flann Garaidh Iarlaith Lorcan Lughaidh Muircheartach Muiredach Muirgheas Murchadh Niall Oisín Rían Rónán Ruairí Searbhreathach Tadhg Toirdelbach Native feminine names Aíbinn Aifric Áine Aisling Aoife Barrdhubh Bébinn Bríd Cacht Caoimhe Ciara Clíona Clodagh Cobhlaith Dearbhail Dearbhfhorghaill Deirbhile Deirdre Dubhchobhlaigh Eithne Éadaoin Feidhelm Fíona Fionnuala Forbflaith Fíneamhain Gormflaith Gráinne Íde Lasairfhíona Meabh Mór Muirgheal Muirenn Niamh Nuala Órlaith Sadhbh Saoirse Síthmaith Sláine Sorcha Úna Germanic - derived masculine names Amhlaoibh Annraoi Dubhghall Éamonn Gearóid Gofraid Ímar Lachlann Liam Maghnus Raghnall Risteárd Roibeárd Séarlas Somhairle Tiobóid Tormond Ualtar Ùisdean Bible - derived masculine names Abracham Adhamh Árón Biniáimin Daibhí Dainéal Eafráim Gaibrial Íosac Maitiú Maois Mícheál ( Maidhc ) Nóe Seán Séamus Seosamh Síomón Solamh Tomás Bible - derived feminine names Abigeál Ánna Eábha Eilís Léá Madailéin Máire Mallaidh Náoimí Ráichéal Ríobhca Rút Sinéad Siobhán Seacailín Seosaimhín Latin / Greek - derived masculine names Aindréas Antóin Críostóir Damhnaic Pádraig Proinsias Giolla Críost Gréagóir Labhrás León Máirtín Nioclás Nollaig Peadar Pilib Pól Seoirse Stíofán Téodóir Uinseann See also Goidelic languages Irish language Scottish Gaelic language Manx language Irish name List of Scottish Gaelic given names Scottish Gaelic name Irish genealogy This page or section lists people that share the same given name . If an internal link led you here , you may wish to change that link to point directly to the intended article . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= Sinéad&oldid = 792745813 '' Categories : Given names Irish feminine given names Irish - language feminine given names Hidden categories : All set index articles Talk Contents About Wikipedia Čeština Deutsch Español Français Italiano 日本 語 Edit links This page was last edited on 28 July 2017 , at 11 : 52 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

what is the meaning of the name sinead

God forgave/God gratified

Irish pronunciation : ( njed / shi - NADE ; Irish pronunciation : ( njed ) or ( njed )

Monday Night Football - Wikipedia Monday Night Football Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see Monday Night Football ( disambiguation ) . `` NFL on ESPN '' redirects here . For the program aired between 1987 and 2005 , see ESPN Sunday Night Football . An automated process has detected links on this page on the local or global blacklist . If the links are appropriate you may request whitelisting by following these instructions ; otherwise consider removing or replacing them with more appropriate links . ( To hide this tag , set the `` invisible '' field to `` true '' ) List of blacklisted links : ( show ) http://nfllabor.files.wordpress.com/2013/12/week-161.pdf Triggered by \ bfiles \. wordpress \. com \ b on the global blacklist https://web.archive.org/web/20131224083130/http://nfllabor.files.wordpress.com/2013/12/week-161.pdf Triggered by \ bfiles \. wordpress \. com \ b on the global blacklist ESPN Monday Night Football Genre NFL game telecasts Created by Roone Arledge Directed by Chet Forte ( 1970 -- 1986 ) Larry Kamm ( 1987 ) Craig Janoff ( 1988 -- 1999 ) Drew Esocoff ( 2000 -- 2005 ) Chip Dean ( 2006 -- present ) Presented by Commentators : Sean McDonough Lisa Salters Studio hosts : Suzy Kolber Steve Young Randy Moss Matt Hasselbeck Charles Woodson Opening theme `` Score '' by Bob 's Band ( 1970 -- 1975 ) `` All My Rowdy Friends Are Here on Monday Night '' by Hank Williams , Jr. ( 1989 -- 2011 ; 2017 -- present ) `` Heavy Action '' by Johnny Pearson ( 1976 -- 1988 ; 2011 -- 2016 ) ( used as secondary theme from 1989 to 2011 and again from 2017 -- present ) Country of origin United States Original language ( s ) English No. of seasons 47 ( NFL seasons ) No. of episodes 718 ( games ) Production Executive producer ( s ) Norby Williamson ( 2006 -- present ) Producer ( s ) Roger Lewin Jay Rothman Suzy Kolber ( uncredited ; 2006 -- present ) Location ( s ) Various NFL stadiums ( game telecasts ) ESPN Center , Bristol , Connecticut ( studio segments ) Camera setup Multi-camera Running time 3 - 4 hours Production company ( s ) National Football League ABC Sports ( 1970 -- 2005 ) ESPN ( 2006 -- present ) Release Original network ABC ( 1970 -- 2005 ) ESPN ( 2006 -- present ) Picture format 480i ( SDTV ) ( 1970 -- 2010 ) , 480i ( 16 : 9 SDTV ) ( 2011 -- present ) , 720p ( HDTV ) ( 2011 -- present ) Original release September 21 , 1970 ( 1970 - 09 - 21 ) -- present Chronology Related shows Monday Night Countdown External links Website espn.go.com/nfl/mnf ESPN Monday Night Football ( abbreviated as MNF and also known as ESPN Monday Night Football on ABC for rare live special broadcast ) is a live television broadcast of weekly National Football League ( NFL ) games on ESPN in the United States . From 1970 to 2005 , it aired on sister broadcast network ABC . Monday Night Football was , along with Hallmark Hall of Fame and the Walt Disney anthology television series , one of the longest - running prime time programs ever on commercial network television , and one of the highest - rated , particularly among male viewers . MNF is preceded on air by Monday Night Countdown served by Applebee 's . Monday Night Football is also broadcast in Canada on TSN and RDS , and in most of Europe . On September 7 , 2013 , the NFL announced that British Eurosport would show Monday Night Football games live in the United Kingdom for the 2013 and 2014 seasons . The telecasts are also seen in most of Australia on ESPN Australia , in Portugal on SportTV 3 and SportTV HD and on TV 2 Sport in Denmark , and in some other regions of the world outside the U.S. on ESPN International . A Spanish - language version airs on ESPN Deportes in the U.S. and on ESPN International in Latin America , while a Portuguese version airs on ESPN Brasil . Per an NFL broadcasting policy intended to allow those who do not subscribe to cable or satellite television to see games televised by a pay television network , the games are also made available on over-the - air television stations in each participating team 's local market . On September 8 , 2011 , the first day of the 2011 regular season , ESPN extended its contract for Monday Night Football for eight additional seasons , giving it rights to the broadcasts until 2021 . The new deal , valued between $14.2 billion and $15.2 billion , also gives ESPN rights to expanded highlights , international and streaming rights , and possibly a wild - card playoff game . Cable television providers condemned the new contract , noting that ESPN has the highest retransmission consent fees of any national cable television channel , nearly seven times higher than the nearest competitor ( TNT ) , and raises fees on an annual basis . Contents ( hide ) 1 Overview 1.1 Scheduling problems 1.2 Franchises with the most appearances 2 As entertainment 2.1 2000s 2.1. 1 2006 summary 2.1. 2 2007 summary 2.1. 3 2008 summary 2.1. 4 2009 summary 2.2 2010s 2.2. 1 2010 summary 2.2. 2 2011 summary 2.2. 3 2012 summary 2.2. 4 2013 -- 14 summary 2.2. 5 2015 summary 2.2. 6 2016 summary 2.2. 7 2017 summary 3 Theme music 4 Digital on - screen graphics 4.1 1997 -- 2005 4.2 2006 -- present 5 Scoring records 6 Scheduling on local stations 7 Commentators 8 Foreign - language versions 8.1 Spanish version 8.2 Portuguese version 9 Radio broadcasts 10 Nielsen ratings 11 Additional NFL game rights 11.1 Playoff games 11.2 Pro Bowl 12 See also 13 Footnotes 14 References 15 Further reading 16 External links Overview ( edit ) This section needs expansion . You can help by adding to it . ( November 2010 ) See also : History of Monday Night Football After 45 seasons , there now have been a total of 730 games televised by the Monday Night Football franchise . Scheduling problems ( edit ) To avoid any scheduling unfairness where , just before the first playoff game , a team may have five days off and others six , there is no Monday night game during the final week of the regular season . From 2003 to 2005 , one game was played on Thursday and another Monday under the Monday Night Football banner . Starting in 2006 , when the series moved to cable , two games are played on the opening Monday night to capitalize on fan interest during `` NFL Kickoff Weekend '' . Monday night games early in the season are often highly anticipated since records are new , teams usually are showcasing fresh talent and potential , and storylines coming into the season are often played out as fans try to see if these hyped teams are up to form . Since no one knows during the first month of the season if a team is indeed good , or will rebound from a difficult start , interest is usually high for the first few weeks of the MNF season . Since the MNF schedule is set in April and can not be changed , the league and network can not guarantee a late season matchup will have any significance or be highly anticipated . Teams thought to be good during the off - season could be out of playoff contention by the middle of the season ; a prime example occurred in 1999 , when the San Francisco 49ers and Atlanta Falcons both entered the season 's final MNF game with 4 -- 11 records . It had seemed like a good pre-season matchup since the Falcons had played in the previous season 's Super Bowl and the 49ers coming into the 1999 season had posted 16 consecutive 10 - win seasons . It is also possible for a team like the 1999 St. Louis Rams not to be scheduled for a Monday night game because of its dismal record the year before , and many other NFL teams ( such as the 2004 San Diego Chargers , with zero primetime games ) have had huge unforeseen turnarounds that result in lack of MNF attention ( these teams generally receive multiple MNF spots the year after their breakout success , which is great for viewers if those teams continue to play well , and not so great if they return to mediocrity or worse ) . However , the forecasting abilities of the NFL 's scheduling officials have exhibited uncanny proficiency . Many MNF games occurring later in the season feature at least one team that is either headed to the playoffs or must win the MNF game to clinch a playoff spot . The problem of having a national spotlight game which during the season 's most critical weeks late in the year probably would not show the most important game of the week was long known by the league and network . As a result of this , the NFL wished to move the `` Game of the Week '' idea to Sunday nights as to make flex scheduling possible . This was a move which would ultimately mean the end of Monday Night Football on ABC ( cable games are protected from the NFL 's flexible scheduling rule adopted for the 2006 -- 07 season ; the new rule applies only to CBS , Fox , and NBC 's Sunday night games ) . The league currently has no interest in expanding flexible scheduling to include Monday Night Football , citing the logistical issues of moving games back and forth between Sundays and Mondays . Franchises with the most appearances ( edit ) The franchise with the most Monday night appearances is the Miami Dolphins . The San Francisco 49ers won their record 48th Monday Night game with a 28 -- 0 win over the Los Angeles Rams on September 12 , 2016 . The most common Monday Night Football pairings are Broncos vs. Raiders ( 17 match - ups as of 2013 ) and Cowboys vs. Redskins ( met for a 17th time in 2015 ) . The defunct Candlestick Park in San Francisco currently holds the record for hosting the most Monday Night Football games , including its 36th and final Monday night game on December 23 , 2013 . Among the active stadiums following the conclusion of the 2013 season , Miami Gardens , Florida 's Hard Rock Stadium has hosted the most games with 32 . As entertainment ( edit ) Monday Night Football has continued to provide as much entertainment as sports throughout its run . In addition to the extra cameras , the program has also pioneered technological broadcast innovations , such as the use of enhanced slow motion replays and computerized graphics . Celebrity guests -- such as former Vice President Spiro Agnew , singers Plácido Domingo and former Beatle John Lennon , President Bill Clinton , and even Kermit the Frog -- were often featured during the game to `` liven up '' the broadcast . The December 9 , 1974 contest featured a rare instance of two celebrities entering the booth , with Lennon being interviewed by Howard Cosell and California governor Ronald Reagan speaking with Frank Gifford , with Reagan explaining the rules of American football ( off - camera ) to Lennon as the game went along . However , the late 1990s and early 2000s saw an even more increased reliance on the entertainment factor . Some halftime shows , featuring popular music stars , were broadcast in their entirety rather than being ignored in favor of analysis of the game by the commentators , as in previous seasons . In December 1980 , one of the most memorable moments of MNF occurred when Cosell announced in a news flash that Lennon had been shot and killed in New York City . Monday Night Football was the first national broadcast to announce his death . An advertisement during halftime on the October 19 , 2015 game featured the world premiere of the third trailer of the 2015 film Star Wars : The Force Awakens . 2000s ( edit ) 2006 summary ( edit ) For its 2006 debut on ESPN , Williams , Jr. re-recorded the MNF opening theme with an all - star jam band that included among others Brian Setzer , Little Richard , Questlove , Joe Perry , Clarence Clemons , Rick Nielsen , Bootsy Collins , Charlie Daniels and Steven Van Zandt . The 2006 telecast generally began with a cinematic tease produced by Rico Labbe , Michael Sciallis and Jason Jobes . It was during one of these teases that Barack Obama spoofed his announcement for the 2008 Presidential candidacy in favor of his hometown Chicago Bears in their game against the St. Louis Rams . That year , the tease was followed by the show open produced by Los Angeles - based The Syndicate called `` Transformation '' . It features computer - generated imagery showing a city being transformed into a football stadium and passers - by on the street turning into players , coaches , fans and officials set to an updated orchestral treatment of the `` Heavy Action '' theme song . The sequence began every week with a different celebrity walking down the street , picking up a glowing football helmet with the ESPN logo on the side and saying , `` I 'm ready for some football ! Are you ? '' , thus beginning the transformation process . Celebrities for 2006 included Arnold Schwarzenegger , Matthew Fox , Hugh Hefner , Paris Hilton , Spike Lee , Ashton Kutcher , Samuel L. Jackson , Ludacris , Jack Black , Kiefer Sutherland , James Belushi , Ben Stiller , Tyra Banks , Carmen Electra and Eva Longoria . In addition , celebrities returned in full force to the booth , though this proved to be the major criticism of ESPN 's first MNF season . On the opening weekend , Arnold Schwarzenegger , another celebrity - turned - California governor , was in the booth at McAfee Coliseum in Oakland , California ; before that , Jamie Foxx appeared at FedExField in suburban Washington , D.C. Following them , celebrity appearances included NBA basketball superstar Dwyane Wade , Basketball Hall of Fame player Charles Barkley , NASCAR Cup Series driver Jeff Gordon , comedian Jimmy Kimmel ( whose opening words to Joe Theismann were `` how 's the leg ? '' ) , actor Sylvester Stallone , film director Spike Lee , hip hop artist Jay - Z , and MNF theme singer Hank Williams Jr . 2007 summary ( edit ) ESPN scaled back to only one opening tease for the 2007 season . Williams Jr. and the all - star band returned , only this time they played in a `` juke joint '' set on a country road . The lead singer arrives in a GMC Yukon truck ( GMC paid for product placement ) with the license plate `` BOCEPHUS '' , which is Williams ' nickname . The Syndicate 's computer - generated tease was dropped and replaced by short pre-taped films focusing on a team or player in the game . Some of them have featured actor Jamie Foxx . The guest visits continued : Barkley returned to the booth on September 17 in Philadelphia . Other guests throughout the season included Kimmel ( another returnee ) , Drew Carey , Miley Cyrus , Russell Crowe and Terry Bradshaw . In addition , Gordon was a halftime guest on the game just before the season - ending Ford 400 and was joined by teammate Jimmie Johnson . At the end of each game , Williams returned to say , `` See you in ( city that is the site of the next week 's game ) . '' Both the open and close contain helmets of the participating teams , organized in the style of a concert poster . 2008 summary ( edit ) Despite the de-emphasis on entertainment on the overall telecast , ESPN did bring back Hank Williams , Jr. for his 20th season as part of the opening . This time , the opening sequence was set in a private residence . At the end of the song , Williams Jr. touched a foot pump , which supposedly contained the helmets of that night 's participating teams . The helmets were launched from the home toward the stadium at which the game was held . Through computer - generated imagery , the helmets `` land '' at midfield during a live shot , and then explode . The `` exploding helmets '' gimmick was also used at various times in the 1980s and 1990s during the pre-game tease . Williams Jr. then appeared again at the end of the game to promote the next week 's matchup . ESPN also continued to promote upcoming albums through its use in bumper music . On September 29 ( Baltimore Ravens at Pittsburgh Steelers ) , ESPN used `` Another Way to Die '' , a duet between Alicia Keys and Jack White of the White Stripes -- the song was part of the soundtrack for the 2008 film Quantum of Solace , then the latest in the James Bond series . Monday Night Football celebrated its 600th game broadcast on October 20 , 2008 in a game which the New England Patriots defeated the Denver Broncos , 41 -- 7 . The 39th season of MNF ended on December 22 , 2008 , when the Bears beat the Green Bay Packers , 20 -- 17 , in overtime at home at Soldier Field in Chicago . 2009 summary ( edit ) The title sequence for the 40th season of Monday Night Football featured Hank Williams , Jr. seen on the steps of a building ( presumably a museum ) , surrounded by dancers , football fans , and statues / busts -- which , along with everyone else in the scene , begin to move and dance -- patterned after those at the Pro Football Hall of Fame . The transition to Williams Jr. is a book , with the chapter number ( in Roman numerals , sequentially with each week ) and a tag line about the game to be played that night . At the end of the song , Williams Jr. plugged in the cords , thereby launching animated `` helmets '' into space , from the building toward the stadium at which the game was held ( with the exception of October 5 , 2009 , when the helmets zoomed towards Brett Favre instead ) , passing the International Space Station . As with the previous season ( as mentioned above ) , the helmets `` land '' at midfield during a live shot and then crashed into each other . Williams Jr. appeared again at the end of the telecast to promote the following week 's matchup . After that , the picture was freezeframed and the shot zoomed out to the book , which showed the freezeframed picture as part of a page . As this happened , the NFL end - of - game bumper music was played and the book closed , revealing a golden NFL logo on the back cover and signifying the end of the `` chapter '' , or game . The scene was filmed in the summer of 2009 at The Parthenon in Nashville , Tennessee . Before Williams Jr. appears , Frank Gifford gave a short vignette about a memorable moment in the history of Monday Night Football featuring one or both of the teams playing that night 's game . The 40th season of Monday Night Football ended on December 28 , 2009 with the Minnesota Vikings -- Chicago Bears game in Chicago , in which the Bears won in overtime , 36 -- 30 . The telecast ended with a vignette that featured Gifford taking a look back at highlights from the previous four decades -- and the 40th season -- of MNF , after which the book closed , signifying the end of the season . The 40th season had the highest season viewership for MNF since ESPN acquired the rights to the broadcast . 2010s ( edit ) 2010 summary ( edit ) The opening for the 2010 season was identical to that used in 2009 , except for the final scenes . This time , Williams Jr. turns a wheel filled with paint , with CGI colors blasting into the air , revealing the helmets containing logos of the participating teams -- which stay on top of the building . In one other minor difference , the chapter numbers in the `` book '' were changed from Roman to Arabic numerals . Gifford provided new vignettes and the Parthenon scenes were repeated from the year before . The 2010 season marked Williams ' 22nd as part of the telecast 's open . In an unusual coincidence , both games which had the New York Jets as a home team at New Meadowlands Stadium ( now MetLife Stadium ) were delayed because of heavy rain and lightning in the area . In the first instance , the September 13 game against the Baltimore Ravens , it was delayed 25 minutes ; the second delay , prior to the October 11 contest against the Minnesota Vikings , lasted for 40 minutes . Prior to the September 13 game , the last ESPN telecast to encounter weather problems was on October 4 , 1998 ( a Sunday night ) when lightning halted a game between the Seattle Seahawks and Kansas City Chiefs during the second quarter . The first delay forced ESPN to use ESPN2 for a game telecast , this time for the Chiefs ' home opener against the San Diego Chargers . As in 2007 , the broadcast was shifted to ESPN once the first game was over . The game between the Jets and the Vikings was both Brett Favre 's first game in East Rutherford since his only season there in 2008 and marked Randy Moss 's return to the Vikings . Moss played only four games for Minnesota until he was waived on November 2 . 2011 summary ( edit ) The opening sequence for the 2011 season was set in a closed - studio setting , with Hank Williams Jr. ( in his 23rd year ) performing with a band in front of a live audience with large video screens in the background . The end of the opening sequence featured the team logos of that night 's participants transitioning into the new ESPN Monday Night Football logo before going to a live shot . On October 3 , 2011 , ESPN pulled the theme song after Williams appeared on the Fox News Channel program , Fox & Friends , where he compared a golf outing involving Barack Obama , John Boehner , Joe Biden and John Kasich to `` Hitler playing golf with Netanyahu . '' On October 6 , 2011 , it was announced that Williams would no longer be singing the theme song , and that `` All My Rowdy Friends '' would no longer be used as its theme , as Williams still owns the song . A statement from ESPN said that the network has `` decided to part ways with Hank Williams Jr . We appreciate his contributions over the past years . The success of Monday Night Football has always been about the games and that will continue . '' Williams commented on the matter : `` After reading hundreds of e-mails , I have made my decision ... By pulling my opening October 3 , ( ESPN ) stepped on the toes of the First Amendment Freedom of Speech , so therefore me , my song , and All My Rowdy Friends are out of here . It 's been a great run . '' MNF did not have an opening sequence at all from Week 4 through the end of that season . With Suzy Kolber reassigned to the new studio show NFL32 , and Michele Tafoya having left ESPN for NBC Sunday Night Football , the sideline reporter position rotated between various reporters for the season . For the second year in a row , and the third time overall , the beginning of the 10 : 15 p.m. Eastern Time game ( Oakland Raiders at Denver Broncos ) was shown on ESPN2 as the game that began at 7 : 00 p.m. Eastern Time ( New England Patriots at Miami Dolphins ) ran past the scheduled time period . 2012 summary ( edit ) Lisa Salters was named the permanent solo sideline reporter for the 2012 season . In addition , color commentator Ron Jaworski did not return to the program . As a result , Jon Gruden became the solo color commentator , with MNF going back to a two - man booth for the first time since its final season on ABC ( 2005 ) . MNF 's opening graphic sequence , which showed the helmet logos of the game 's two participating NFL teams and then the program 's logo , was seen before the Monday Night Football Launch segment . 2013 -- 14 summary ( edit ) The opening animation sequence begins with an image of a 2014 GMC Sierra ( GMC paid for product placement ) and then goes into a timeline of historical events that occurred during the Monday Night Football era , including some highlights of MNF games from the previous 43 seasons up to 2012 . At the end of the sequence , helmets featuring logos of that night 's two participating teams are shown , followed by the various Monday Night Football logos used since the program 's debut in 1970 . The 80 - second opening animation sequence , which also featured Pac - Man , Darth Vader and President Ronald Reagan , was created by actor / filmmaker Peter Berg . A revision of the opening sequence was used for the 2014 season . Among the few changes , GMC 's product placement promoted the automaker 's line of Denali vehicles , while the sequence itself included some additional highlights of MNF games from the previous 44 seasons up to 2013 . 2015 summary ( edit ) A 3D opening animation sequence is used for the 2015 season ( 46th season overall and tenth on ESPN ) . GMC 's product placement once again promoted the automaker 's line of Denali vehicles , including the Yukon Denali that is seen at the beginning . Also among the many changes is the highlights of MNF games -- this time , they are set inside a computer - generated stadium using 3D imagery -- from the previous 45 seasons up to 2014 . 2016 summary ( edit ) After three years of using the timeline - themed open , MNF debuted a new 75 - second , Hollywood - themed open on September 12 , 2016 and it features ESPN 's new MNF broadcast team -- Sean McDonough ( play - by - play ) , Jon Gruden ( color ) and Lisa Salters ( sideline reporter ) -- and more than 20 current NFL stars and Pro Football Hall of Famers walking along a red carpet entrance lined by cheering fans and photographers taking pictures . It begins with a shot of a downtown stadium surrounded by skyscrapers , with a 2017 GMC Acadia ( product placement again provided by GMC ) displaying the location for that week 's MNF game on its navigation system . The Acadia then heads to a glitzy red carpet at the stadium 's entrance , where McDonough , Gruden and Salters exit the car , followed on the carpet by a flood of NFL players representing the past and present of MNF . Players then pose for pictures and wave to the crowd as they reach the stadium entrance . Josh Norman ( Redskins ) , Larry Fitzgerald ( Cardinals ) and Rob Gronkowski ( Patriots ) are among the current players being represented in the open , with Franco Harris ( Steelers ) , Jerry Rice ( 49ers ) , Barry Sanders ( Lions ) and Bruce Smith ( Bills ) among the past players being represented . For the Spanish - language version of the Hollywood - themed open , it features ESPN 's Spanish - language MNF broadcast team -- Álvaro Martín ( play - by - play ) , Raúl Allegre ( color ) and John Sutcliffe ( sideline reporter ) as well as the current Hispanic NFL players and the team of the Latin American version of NFL Live led by Ciro Procuna . 2017 summary ( edit ) MNF returned to two teases for the first time since its first season on ESPN ( 2006 ) . The Hollywood - themed open was repeated from the previous season , this time with the 2018 GMC Terrain being used as the automaker 's product placement . Also , Hank Williams , Jr. returned to MNF on September 11 , 2017 with an all - new version of the iconic opening theme song , `` All My Rowdy Friends Are Here on Monday Night '' ( used from 1989 to Week 3 of the 2011 season ) and it appeared just before that night 's New Orleans Saints - Minnesota Vikings game . The new version , which is seen just before the kickoff of each game , is a collaboration of Williams , Jr , country duo Florida Georgia Line , and R&B singer Jason Derulo . Theme music ( edit ) Hank Williams Jr. reworked his country music hit `` All My Rowdy Friends Are Coming Over Tonight '' to be included in the telecast 's introduction as `` All My Rowdy Friends Are Here on Monday Night '' ( the original introduction music was an organ - based piece called `` Score '' , written by Charles Fox and recorded by Bob 's Band ) . In addition , Edd Kalehoff modernized the classic `` Heavy Action '' theme in 1989 . For ABC 's last MNF game in 2005 , Williams Jr. 's rendition of `` Turn Out the Lights , The Party 's Over '' , closed the broadcast . Digital on - screen graphics ( edit ) Some of this article 's listed sources may not be reliable . Please help this article by looking for better , more reliable sources . Unreliable citations may be challenged or deleted . ( September 2012 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Prior to 1997 , Monday Night Football had a limited graphics package . A CGI - based intro began being used in 1984 , with on - screen graphics still limited to basic text . In 1988 , the entire graphics package was updated significantly to be more in line with the rest of ABC Sports ' presentations . That year , it introduced the `` clashing helmets '' intro , with on - screen graphics consisting of italicized text underlined in red . It was updated in 1994 , the year the network hosted Super Bowl XXIX , with a more box - like design . A permanent score bug would not be introduced until 1997 . 1997 -- 2005 ( edit ) Monday Night Football began using a score bug in 1997 , the second network to do so after Fox introduced the first regular on - screen scoring bug when it began airing NFL games in 1994 . Prior to this , the graphics package was limited , but followed a basic `` ketchup and mustard '' color scheme of red and yellow . The first scorebug included team names , scores , time remaining , and displayed which quarter the game was in . This design was used through the 1998 season . ABC hosted Super Bowl XXXIV for 1999 , and updated its graphics package to more closely resemble those of sister cable network ESPN . ABC began using extended abbreviations for team names ( for example , `` TENN '' , `` VIKES '' , `` PACK '' , and `` FINS '' instead of `` TEN '' , `` MIN '' , `` GB '' , and `` MIA '' ) , as four - letter and five - letter abbreviations were used on ESPN coverage . The result was a larger scorebug with a more conventional font . It was slightly modified in 2000 to have a border that was more in line with the red and yellow color scheme . The graphics for Monday Night Football were changed in the 2002 season , the year the network hosted Super Bowl XXXVII . The scorebug was a solid color , with a more rounded shape , and a horizontally compressed font . ESPN 's graphics were no longer similar to those of ABC 's ( with ESPN instead using a gray and black design with rounded corners ) . In 2005 , the broadcast 's final year on ABC , Monday Night Football began using a horizontal bar on the bottom of the screen rather than a scorebug , with all information being contained on a single line . 2006 -- present ( edit ) After Monday Night Football moved to ESPN in 2006 ( around the same time that ABC Sports rebranded as ESPN on ABC ) , ESPN changed its entire graphics package to a red and black design , while NFL coverage used a separate design . For NFL telecasts in 2006 and 2007 , a dark gray , metallic scorebug was used , located in an unorthodox placement at the center of the bottom of the screen . For the 2008 season , a new graphics scheme was introduced that was built around a new display known as the `` dashboard '' ; the scoreboard , which now took the form of a horizontal bar , was mounted in a dedicated area spanning across the bottom the screen . All lower - third graphics were also displayed within the dashboard , replacing the scorebar when in use . For the 2009 and 2010 seasons , a revamped version of the 2008 design was used , incorporating a new , metallic silver design . Timeout indicators were added to the score bar in Week 4 of the 2009 season . For the 2009 season only , a `` 40th anniversary '' logo was incorporated into the bar in celebration of Monday Night Football 's 40th season . The `` silver '' graphics scheme would later be adopted by other ESPN properties , such as its college football games in December 2009 . In the 2011 season , the banner was restructured as a black , metallic design , which was considerably larger than most scorebars -- including the previous one ( although its sizes has varied , becoming significantly wider , though thinner in 2012 ) . For ESPN 's first pre-season game of 2012 , the timeout indicators were also accompanied by two smaller red lamps to the right , indicating the number of play challenges remaining , but these were unexpectedly removed the following game . On September 10 , 2012 , Monday Night Countdown began using MNF 's graphics scheme . For the 2015 season , the graphics were completely overhauled to match the motif that has been used for ESPN 's NFL studio programming since the year prior . However , the studio programming uses the new motif only for introductions and transitions , while the actual insert graphics use the standard ESPN package used for SportsCenter and all other sports . Meanwhile , MNF uses the NFL motif for all insert graphics , not just introductions and transitions . Most notably , the NFL motif uses a horizontal score bar across the bottom of the screen , whereas the standard graphics package uses a score box . The layout is standard , with teams on the background of their color , with timeout indicators also displaying in team colors . Experimentally , the score bar `` auto - hides '' itself during plays , though it is shown permanently during the final two minutes of each half and , if necessary , overtime . This is also the first time that ESPN has used the full 16 : 9 frame for its NFL graphics . Scoring records ( edit ) See also : List of Monday Night Football results ( 1970 -- 89 ) , List of Monday Night Football results ( 1990 -- 2009 ) , and List of Monday Night Football results ( 2010 -- present ) Most points 59 -- Philadelphia Eagles , November 15 , 2010 vs. Washington Redskins 55 -- Indianapolis Colts , October 31 , 1988 vs. Denver Broncos 52 -- San Francisco 49ers , December 23 , 1991 vs. Chicago Bears 52 -- San Diego Chargers , December 20 , 1982 vs. Cincinnati Bengals 51 -- New Orleans Saints , November 24 , 2008 vs. Green Bay Packers 49 -- Philadelphia Eagles , November 15 , 2004 vs. Dallas Cowboys 49 -- Kansas City Chiefs , December 13 , 2004 vs. Tennessee Titans 48 -- Detroit Lions , October 19 , 1981 vs. Chicago Bears 48 -- Green Bay Packers , October 17 , 1983 vs. Washington Redskins 48 -- Baltimore Ravens , December 19 , 2005 vs. Green Bay Packers 48 -- Tennessee Titans , October 11 , 2004 vs. Green Bay Packers Most one - sided games 45 points -- Baltimore 48 , Green Bay 3 -- December 19 , 2005 42 points -- New England 45 , N.Y. Jets 3 -- December 6 , 2010 42 points -- Miami 45 , N.Y. Jets 3 -- November 24 , 1986 42 points -- Seattle 42 , Philadelphia 0 -- December 5 , 2005 ( largest margin of victory by an MNF road team ) 41 points -- San Francisco 41 , Chicago 0 -- December 14 , 1987 39 points -- Los Angeles 42 , Philadelphia 3 -- November 3 , 1975 38 points -- Green Bay 45 , Minnesota 7 -- November 14 , 2011 38 points -- San Francisco 52 , Chicago 14 -- December 23 , 1991 38 points -- San Francisco 41 , Atlanta 3 -- November 9 , 1992 38 points -- St. Louis Cardinals 38 , Dallas 0 -- November 16 , 1970 Highest scoring games 95 points -- Green Bay 48 , Washington 47 -- October 17 , 1983 87 points -- Kansas City 49 , Tennessee 38 -- December 13 , 2004 87 points -- Philadelphia 59 , Washington 28 -- November 15 , 2010 86 points -- San Diego 52 , Cincinnati 34 -- December 20 , 1982 82 points -- Dallas 43 , Seattle 39 -- December 6 , 2004 80 points -- New Orleans 51 , Green Bay 29 -- November 24 , 2008 80 points -- Green Bay 43 , Atlanta 37 -- December 8 , 2014 79 points -- Oakland 45 , Pittsburgh 34 -- October 20 , 1980 78 points -- Indianapolis Colts 55 , Denver Broncos 23 -- October 31 , 1988 78 points -- Dallas 41 , Philadelphia 37 -- September 15 , 2008 78 points -- Oakland 40 , Dallas 38 -- October 23 , 1983 Lowest scoring games 3 points -- Pittsburgh 3 , Miami 0 -- November 26 , 2007 9 points -- Jacksonville 9 , Pittsburgh 0 -- September 18 , 2006 10 points -- San Francisco 7 , N.Y. Giants 3 -- December 3 , 1990 12 points -- Oakland 9 , Denver 3 -- December 1 , 1980 13 points -- Baltimore 10 , Washington 3 -- November 7 , 1977 13 points -- Los Angeles 10 , Pittsburgh 3 -- December 20 , 1975 14 points -- Washington 9 , Dallas 5 -- October 2 , 1978 15 points -- Buffalo 9 , Indianapolis 6 -- October 20 , 1997 15 points -- Detroit 13 , Minnesota 2 -- December 5 , 1983 15 points -- Houston 9 , Miami 6 -- November 5 , 1979 Ties Detroit 14 , Green Bay 14 -- November 1 , 1971 Oakland 23 , Denver 23 -- October 22 , 1973 N.Y. Giants 20 , St. Louis 20 ( OT ) -- October 24 , 1983 Scheduling on local stations ( edit ) From 1970 to 1997 , ABC 's Monday Night Football coverage began at 9 : 00 p.m. Eastern Time , with game kickoff typically occurring at seven minutes past the hour . Coverage was moved one hour earlier to 8 : 00 p.m. Eastern Time in 1998 , with a pre-game show titled Monday Night Blast , hosted by Chris Berman from the ESPN Zone restaurant in Baltimore preceding the start of the game at 8 : 20 p.m. This was done mainly to address ABC 's inability to find a suitable 8 : 00 p.m. lead - in program for MNF since MacGyver ended its run in 1992 ( not even two other series from MacGyver 's production company Paramount Television -- The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles and The Marshal -- saw success , despite the former 's ties to Paramount 's Indiana Jones film series ) , and to allow stations to start their late local newscasts nearer to their regular times . Poor ratings caused this experiment to be dropped after one season , with MNF once again moving to 9 : 00 p.m. in 1999 , though in many NFL markets , the 8 : 00 p.m. ( Eastern Time ) hour from 1999 to 2006 was replaced by affiliates with locally produced and programmed sports discussion and coaches shows , with ABC programming in that hour moved to late night or weekend slots ; by the end of the ABC run , the 8 : 00 p.m. timeslot was filled with either newsmagazines and short - lived reality television programs which failed to make any ratings headways due to affiliate pre-emptions . From 1970 to 1995 , Fisher Broadcasting 's ABC affiliates in Seattle ( KOMO - TV ) and Portland ( KATU ) aired MNF games on a one - hour tape delay starting at 7 : 00 p.m. Pacific Time ( games normally started in the Pacific Time Zone at 6 : 00 p.m. , corresponding to 9 : 00 Eastern ) in order to accommodate local newscasts ( unless the Seattle Seahawks were playing , in which case the game would be shown live ) . The practice , long opposed by viewers and ABC , ended in 1996 . KOMO then tried to accommodate having to air its local newscasts earlier than its local station competitors by marketing it as KOMO 4 News Primetime , touting it as a way to watch the news at a more convenient time than during evening rush hour . Additionally , this practice was done in Hawaii , where Honolulu ABC affiliate KITV delayed the game until 6 : 00 p.m. Hawaii - Aleutian Time , corresponding to 11 : 00 p.m. or midnight Eastern during daylight saving time on the mainland . Thus , the game , which was broadcast live on local radio starting at 3 : 00 or 4 : 00 p.m. , was almost over before it aired on television . In the case of Guam , KTGM , the ABC affiliate in that U.S. territory , aired MNF live on Tuesdays at 11 : 00 a.m. , as Guam is a day ahead of the United States due to being located on the other side of International Date Line . The demand to broadcast Monday Night Football games live across the United States over ABC was difficult to reconcile with other prime time programming , which is usually set to begin at a certain local time regardless of time zone . On the East Coast , with MNF beginning at 9 : 00 p.m. Eastern Time , there was an hour of primetime in which to schedule regular programming . However , on the West Coast , the games lasted from 6 : 00 to 9 : 30 p.m. Pacific Time ( or in the case of Seattle and Portland from 1970 to 1995 , 7 : 00 to 10 : 30 p.m. ) , leaving little or no time for additional network programming on Monday . As a result , network programs scheduled for prime time on the East Coast were broadcast at various hours on the West Coast . Most affiliates pushed the network shows to immediately after the game ; however , Los Angeles owned - and - operated station KABC - TV postponed them until 10 : 00 p.m. from at least the mid-1990s until 2005 to show trivia contests and other sports shows produced locally ( the longest - tenured such show was Monday Night Live , hosted by sports anchor Todd Donoho ) . Meanwhile , KOMO , one of the stations that tape - delayed MNF in most cases , broadcast new episodes of the sitcom Coach on Saturday afternoons ( usually reserved , coincidentally enough , for college football telecasts ; much of the series took place on a fictional college campus ) . Except for Seattle and Portland from 1970 to 1995 , ABC World News Tonight was routinely preempted on most West Coast affiliates , though the ABC network - owned stations ( e.g. Los Angeles ) aired the program earlier in the afternoon . Since ESPN took over the coverage in 2006 , games normally have a kickoff time of 8 : 30 p.m. Eastern . However , when ESPN airs a doubleheader during the first week of the season , the games respectively start at 7 : 00 and 10 : 15 p.m. Eastern . There have been issues with local stations in the ESPN era , where stations in each team 's home market that air the ESPN simulcast are in most cases ABC affiliates , which must pre-empt Dancing with the Stars to air NFL . This both forces the affiliate to air that program immediately after late - evening local newscasts , and has resulted in the program 's telephone and Internet voting coordinators keeping a late - night voting window open for the market or markets where Dancing with the Stars was pre-empted . In some cases , the program is moved to a sister station of the ABC affiliate to air live instead ( for example , until 2011 in the Minneapolis -- St. Paul market , when NBC affiliate KARE took over as the local broadcaster of MNF games , if the Minnesota Vikings were playing a game being simulcast on local ABC affiliate KSTP - TV , sister independent station KSTC - TV aired DWTS live ) . In 2016 , for the opening week Monday night game ( the second in a doubleheader ) between the Los Angeles Rams and San Francisco 49ers , the ABC - owned stations in both markets ( KABC - TV and KGO - TV ) would broadcast World News Tonight and DWTS in their live Eastern Time Zone slots , thus airing at 3 : 30 and 5pm PT respectively . Commentators ( edit ) Main article : List of Monday Night Football commentators Foreign - language versions ( edit ) Spanish version ( edit ) Since 2006 , a Spanish - language telecast is also broadcast on ESPN Deportes , the Spanish version of ESPN and on ESPN Latin América featuring NBA and NFL play - by - play announcer Álvaro Martín , Super Bowl winner Raul Allegre as color commentator and John Sutcliffe as the field reporter . This is the same crew of La NFL Dominical , the Spanish version of ESPN Sunday Night Football , until 2005 . The announcers of the second game of the 2006 doubleheader were Eduardo Varela ( play - by - play ) , Robert Abramowitz ( color ) and Georgina Ruiz Sandoval ( field reporter ) . Preceding the game NFL Esta Noche ( NFL Tonight ) , the 30 - minute pre-game show , can be seen on both networks . The four booth announcers called the 2007 season opening games from ESPN 's Bristol , Connecticut headquarters while watching games on monitors . None of them traveled to the game sites and there were no sideline reporters in the early weeks . Sutcliffe would later report from the game sites . Allegre did not work the season finale between the Broncos and Chargers ; he was replaced by Abramovitz . In 2008 , Martin and Allegre only travelled to the Cowboys - Eagles game , during the NFL 's celebrations of the Hispanic Heritage Month . As part of ESPN 's agreement to simulcast their Wild Card game on ABC , Martin and Allegre 's Spanish - language commentary is carried over the SAP channel on ABC , equivalent to the rest of the NFL 's over-the - air broadcast partners . In 2016 , ESPN Deportes served as the official Spanish - language broadcaster of Super Bowl 50 in parallel with CBS 's English - language broadcast , with Martin and Allegre commentating . During the first 9 weeks of the 2017 NFL season , ESPN2 will simulcast ESPN Deportes ' broadcast , NFL Esta Noche , and the Spanish version of SportsCenter . Portuguese version ( edit ) Since the 1990s , ESPN Latin America has a feed in Portuguese language targeted to their viewers in Brazil . Ivan Zimmermann ( play - by - play ) , André José Adler ( play - by - play ) , Roberto Figueroa ( color ) , Marco Alfaro ( color ) among others , were the announcers broadcasting from ESPN 's headquarters . Since 2006 , the structure of the Brazilian feed was merged with ESPN Brasil and the broadcasting is made from São Paulo . The current announcers are Everaldo Marques ( play - by - play ) and Paulo Antunes ( color ) . Ari Aguiar ( play - by - play ) , Rômulo Mendonça ( play - by - play ) , Paulo Mancha ( color ) and Antony Curti ( color ) occasionally fill - in . Radio broadcasts ( edit ) Main articles : NFL on Westwood One Sports and NFL on NBC Radio Monday Night Football has also been carried on national radio networks over the years . The Mutual Broadcasting System aired the games initially , with Van Patrick ( 1972 -- 1973 ) , Lindsey Nelson ( 1974 -- 1977 ) and Al Wester announcing . CBS Radio took over the rights in 1978 with Jack Buck and Hank Stram commentating . After a two - year stint ( 1985 -- 1986 ) with Don Criqui and Bob Trumpy calling the games on NBC Radio , Buck and Stram resumed with CBS Radio in 1987 . In 1996 , Howard David and Matt Millen replaced Buck and Stram . Marv Albert and Boomer Esiason were the MNF radio voices from 2002 to 2009 , with Kevin Harlan replacing Albert in 2010 . Kurt Warner joined the crew in 2014 for games when Esiason is unavailable . In the 1990s , CBS Radio purchased a controlling stake in Westwood One , which in turn had bought out both the NBC and Mutual networks . As of 2008 , Westwood One was no longer controlled by CBS , but the network retained its NFL broadcast rights . In 2011 , Westwood One was purchased by Dial Global . Then in 2014 , Dial Global , including Westwood One , was acquired by Cumulus Media . The Spanish - language broadcast is carried on ESPN Deportes Radio . Nielsen ratings ( edit ) This article needs to be updated . Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information . ( December 2016 ) The highest - rated Monday Night Football telecast on ABC was the Miami Dolphins ' victory over the previously undefeated Chicago Bears on December 2 , 1985 , which drew a national Nielsen rating of 29.6 and a share of 46 . ABC 's lowest - rated MNF game was the St. Louis Rams ' defeat of the Tampa Bay Buccaneers on October 18 , 2004 , which drew a 7.7 rating . During the 1995 -- 1996 television season , Monday Night Football averaged a 17.1 household rating . Its main competitor , Murphy Brown on CBS , averaged a 12.3 rating . The highest - rated Monday Night Football game on ESPN , and the highest - rated program in U.S. cable television history at that time , was the Minnesota Vikings ' defeat of the Green Bay Packers 30 -- 23 on October 5 , 2009 , with a rating of 15.3 . The game featured the much - hyped matchup of Vikings quarterback Brett Favre facing his longtime former Green Bay team . In a press release , ESPN noted that the telecast `` was watched by more than 16.8 million people . The previous record was more than 13.6 million viewers for 2008 's Monday night game between the Philadelphia Eagles and Dallas Cowboys . This was subsequently beaten by ESPN 's coverage of the 2011 BCS National Championship Game . ESPN also stated that the game drew the highest rating in the network 's 30 - year history . The 15.3 rating beat the 14.4 for a Bears - Vikings game on Dec. 6 , 1987 , during ESPN 's first season of televising NFL games '' . ESPN 's lowest - rated MNF game to date was the New York Giants ' defeat of the Atlanta Falcons on October 15 , 2007 , which drew a 5.7 rating . ESPN 's third season of Monday Night Football was the most - watched program on cable television in 2008 , setting an all - time cable viewership record for the third straight year and drawing that year 's three largest cable household audiences and 13 of the top 15 . In three seasons on ESPN , Monday Night Football has registered seven of the top 10 all - time largest household audiences in cable history , led by the Eagles - Cowboys telecast on September 15 , 2008 , which attracted cable 's largest household audience ever ( an average of 12,953,000 homes ) . ESPN 's 17 MNF telecasts in 2008 averaged an 8.9 rating , representing an average of 8,679,000 households ( 11,962,000 viewers ) , increases of 3 % , 5 % and 7 % , respectively , vs. 2007 ( 8.6 ; 8,277,000 and 11,230,000 ) . Additional NFL game rights ( edit ) Playoff games ( edit ) When ABC first acquired the rights to air MNF in 1970 , it did not include any playoff games . The network was eventually allowed into the rotation of airing the Super Bowl , starting with Super Bowl XIX in January 1985 . When the league expanded the playoffs from a 10 - team to a 12 - team tournament in 1990 , ABC was then given the rights to air the first two Wild Card Playoff games . After MNF was awarded to ESPN and Sunday Night Football was acquired by NBC in 2006 , the Wild Card doubleheader that had aired on ABC , as well as a share of the rotating rights to the Super Bowl , was also given to NBC . On April 22 , 2014 , the NFL announced that it had exercised an option in ESPN 's recent contract extension for Monday Night Football rights to air a first - round Wild Card playoff game on the channel after the conclusion of the 2014 season . This was the first time that an NFL playoff game was ever broadcast exclusively on cable television in the United States , in lieu of any of the league 's broadcast network partners . The MNF broadcast team of Mike Tirico , Jon Gruden and sideline reporter Lisa Salters called the game , the first of the 2014 -- 15 NFL playoffs . The Carolina Panthers defeated the Arizona Cardinals 27 -- 16 . As with all MNF games , the matchup was simulcast on WJZY in Charlotte and KASW in the Phoenix market to allow local viewers over-the - air access to the game . However , the cable - only playoff game experiment would only last one season . On May 11 , 2015 , it was announced that ABC would simulcast a Wild Card playoff game with ESPN for the 2015 season . This was the first NFL game broadcast nationally on ABC since MNF left the network at the end of the 2005 season . The game , announced by the broadcast team of Tirico , Gruden and Salters , was the first of the 2015 -- 16 NFL playoffs . The Kansas City Chiefs defeated the Houston Texans 30 -- 0 . The ESPN / ABC simulcast continued for the 2016 season as well . Pro Bowl ( edit ) ABC televised the Pro Bowl from 1975 to 1987 , and again from 1995 to 2003 . As part of their 2011 rights agreement , ESPN was given the exclusive rights to the Pro Bowl from 2015 through 2022 . Starting in 2018 , it will be simulcast on ABC . See also ( edit ) NFL on CBS Fox NFL NBC Sunday Night Football Monday night games before 1970 Monday Night Mayhem , a 2002 television film about the origin of Monday Night Football Footnotes ( edit ) Jump up ^ Does not include the game on December 3 , 1978 , which occurred on a Sunday , but was televised by ABC 's Monday Night Football television crew . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` British Eurosport to air NFL 's Monday Night Football in UK '' . NFL UK . September 7 , 2013 . Retrieved September 7 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Leonard Shapiro ; Mark Maske ( April 19 , 2005 ) . `` ' Monday Night Football ' Changes the Channel '' . The Washington Post . The Washington Post Company . p . A1 . Jump up ^ `` Updated : ESPN Kicks Off New Eight - Year , $14 Billion NFL Deal '' . Multichannel News . NewBay Media . September 8 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Claire Atkinson ( September 10 , 2011 ) . `` Cable operators rip ESPN 's $15 B rights deal with NFL '' . New York Post . News Corp . Retrieved September 11 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` What to Look For -- A Look Back ( Week 5 ) '' ( PDF ) . National Football League . December 23 , 2013 . Archived ( PDF ) from the original on December 24 , 2013 . Retrieved April 1 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Zachary A. Goldfarb ( December 17 , 2006 ) . `` On ' Monday Night Football , ' An Announcement From Obama '' . The Washington Post . The Washington Post Company . Archived from the original on October 10 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` ESPN 's Highest - Rated and Most - Viewed Season of Monday Night Football '' . The Futon Critic . December 29 , 2009 . Retrieved April 30 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Michael Martinez ( October 5 , 2011 ) . `` Hank Williams Jr. apologizes for Hitler - Obama comparison '' . CNN.com . Turner Broadcasting System . Retrieved October 7 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` ESPN pulls Williams from MNF opening '' . ESPN.com . October 4 , 2011 . Retrieved October 7 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : `` Hank Williams Jr . out on Monday Night Football '' . Yahoo ! News . Yahoo !. Associated Press . October 6 , 2011 . Jump up ^ NBC Sports . NBC Sports Group https://web.archive.org/web/20121012025010/http://nbcsports.msnbc.com/id/10612536/ns/sports-nfl/ . Archived from the original on October 12 , 2012 . Missing or empty title = ( help ) Jump up ^ 1983 Monday Night Football intro on YouTube Jump up ^ 1984 Monday Night Football intro on YouTube Jump up ^ 1988 Monday Night Football intro on YouTube Jump up ^ Monday Night Football , 1994 on YouTube Jump up ^ Monday Night Football , 1997 on YouTube Jump up ^ Super Bowl XXXIV on YouTube Jump up ^ Monday Night Football , 2000 on YouTube Jump up ^ `` Super Bowl XXXVII '' . Jump up ^ Super Bowl XL on YouTube Jump up ^ `` ESPN Rethinks Lower - Third Graphics for ' Monday Night Football ' '' . Sports Video Group . Retrieved September 5 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` ESPN Deportes to carry Spanish - language telecast of Super Bowl 50 '' . Los Angeles Times . Tribune Publishing . February 5 , 2016 . Retrieved 10 February 2016 . Jump up ^ `` CBS Goes Out of House , Taps ESPN Deportes to Simulcast Super Bowl 50 '' . Advertising Age . Crain Communications . Retrieved January 17 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` ESPN Deportes To Air Spanish - Language Broadcast Of Super Bowl 50 '' . Deadline.com . Penske Media Corporation . Retrieved December 29 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Super Bowl 50 : CBS , NFL Set Spanish Simulcast with ESPN Deportes '' . Variety . Penske Media Corporation . Retrieved January 13 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Spanish - language ' MNF ' coming to ESPN2 '' . Sports Business Daily . Retrieved 2017 - 09 - 04 . Jump up ^ `` Complete TV Ratings 1995 -- 1996 '' . Jump up ^ `` Favre 's matchup with Packers draws record television audience '' . NFL.com . National Football League . Jump up ^ `` Breaking News -- Monday Night Football : Most - Watched Series on Cable '' . The Futon Critic . December 23 , 2008 . ^ Jump up to : `` ESPN to air 1st NFL playoff game in 2015 '' . ESPN.com . ESPN Inc . April 22 , 2014 . Retrieved April 22 , 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Chris Chase ( April 22 , 2014 ) . `` ESPN to broadcast first ever NFL playoff game in 2015 '' . USA Today . Gannett Company . Retrieved April 22 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Pro Bowl # Television Jump up ^ Coelho , Ana Livia ( May 11 , 2015 ) . `` NFL Wild Card Playoff Game Will Return to ESPN -- and Be Simulcast for the First Time on ABC '' ( Press release ) . ESPN MediaZone . Retrieved August 24 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Stoneberg , Allie ( May 17 , 2016 ) . `` NFL Wild Card Playoff Game Will Return to ESPN and ABC '' . ESPN Media Zone . Retrieved August 8 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Fang , Ken ( May 17 , 2016 ) . `` ESPN TO AGAIN SIMULCAST ITS NFL WILD CARD PLAYOFF GAME ON ABC '' . Awful Announcing . Retrieved May 17 , 2016 . Further reading ( edit ) Gunther , Marc , and Bill Carter . ( 1988 ) . Monday Night Mayhem : The Inside Story of ABC 's Monday Night Football . New York : Beech Tree Books . ISBN 0 - 688 - 07553 - 3 Hyatt , Wesley. ( 2007 ) . Kicking Off the Week : A History of Monday Night Football on ABC Television , 1970 -- 2005 . Jefferson , North Carolina : McFarland & Co . ISBN 0 - 786 - 42969 - 0 . 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Symphony No. 40 ( Mozart ) - wikipedia Symphony No. 40 ( Mozart ) Jump to : navigation , search Symphony No. 40 in G minor , KV. 550 was written by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart in 1788 . It is sometimes referred to as the `` Great G minor symphony '' , to distinguish it from the `` Little G minor symphony '' , No. 25 . The two are the only extant minor key symphonies Mozart wrote . Contents ( hide ) 1 Composition 2 Premiere 3 The music 4 Reception 5 Influence 6 First recording 7 Media 8 Notes 9 References 10 External links Composition ( edit ) The date of completion of this symphony is known exactly , since Mozart in his mature years kept a full catalog of his completed works ; he entered the 40th Symphony into it on 25 July 1788 . Work on the symphony occupied an exceptionally productive period of just a few weeks during which time he also completed the 39th and 41st symphonies ( 26 June and 10 August , respectively ) . Nikolaus Harnoncourt conjectured that Mozart composed the three symphonies as a unified work , pointing , among other things , to the fact that the Symphony No. 40 , as the middle work , has no introduction ( unlike No. 39 ) and does not have a finale of the scale of No. 41 's . The 40th symphony exists in two versions , differing primarily in that one includes parts for a pair of clarinets ( with suitable adjustments made in the other wind parts ) . Most likely , the clarinet parts were added in a revised version . The autograph scores of both versions were acquired in the 1860s by Johannes Brahms , who later donated the manuscripts to the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde in Vienna , where they reside today . Premiere ( edit ) As Neal Zaslaw has pointed out , writers on Mozart have often suggested -- or even asserted -- that Mozart never heard his 40th Symphony performed . Some commentators go further , suggesting that Mozart wrote the symphony ( and its companions , Nos. 39 and 41 ) without even intending it to be performed , but rather for posterity ; as ( to use Alfred Einstein 's words ) , an `` appeal to eternity '' . Modern scholarship suggests that these conjectures are not correct . First , in a recently discovered 10 July 1802 letter by the musician Johann Wenzel ( 1762 -- 1831 ) to the publisher Ambrosius Kühnel in Leipzig , Wenzel refers to a performance of the symphony at the home of Baron Gottfried van Swieten with Mozart present , but the execution was so poor that the composer had to leave the room . There is strong circumstantial evidence for other , probably better , performances . On several occasions between the composition of the symphony and the composer 's death , symphony concerts were given featuring Mozart 's music for which copies of the program have survived , announcing a symphony unidentified by date or key . These include : Dresden , 14 April 1789 , during Mozart 's Berlin journey Leipzig , 12 May 1789 , on the same trip Frankfurt , 15 October 1790 Copies survive of a poster for a concert given by the Tonkünstlersocietät ( Society of Musicians ) 17 April 1791 in the Burgtheater in Vienna , conducted by Mozart 's colleague Antonio Salieri . The first item on the program was billed as `` A Grand Symphony composed by Herr Mozart '' . Most important is the fact that Mozart revised his symphony ( see above ) . As Zaslaw says , this `` demonstrates that ( the symphony ) was performed , for Mozart would hardly have gone to the trouble of adding the clarinets and rewriting the flutes and oboes to accommodate them , had he not had a specific performance in view '' . The orchestra for the 1791 Vienna concert included the clarinetist brothers Anton and Johann Nepomuk Stadler ; which , as Zaslaw points out , limits the possibilities to just the 39th and 40th symphonies . Zaslaw adds : `` The version without clarinets must also have been performed , for the reorchestrated version of two passages in the slow movement , which exists in Mozart 's hand , must have resulted from his having heard the work and discovered an aspect needing improvement '' . Regarding the concerts for which the Symphony was originally intended when it was composed in 1788 , Otto Erich Deutsch suggests that Mozart was preparing to hold a series of three `` Concerts in the Casino '' , in a new casino in the Spiegelgasse owned by Philipp Otto . Mozart even sent a pair of tickets for this series to his friend Michael Puchberg . But it seems impossible to determine whether the concert series was held , or was cancelled for lack of interest . Zaslaw suggests that only the first of the three concerts was actually held . The Music ( edit ) The symphony is scored ( in its revised version ) for flute , 2 oboes , 2 clarinets , 2 bassoons , 2 horns , and strings . The work is in four movements , in the usual arrangement for a classical - style symphony ( fast movement , slow movement , minuet , fast movement ) : Molto allegro , Andante , Menuetto . Allegretto -- Trio , Finale . Allegro assai , The first movement begins darkly , not with its first theme but with accompaniment , played by the lower strings with divided violas . The technique of beginning a work with an accompaniment figure was later used by Mozart in his last piano concerto ( KV. 595 ) and later became a favourite of the Romantics ( examples include the openings of Mendelssohn 's Violin Concerto and Sergei Rachmaninoff 's Third Piano Concerto ) . The first theme is as follows . The second movement is a lyrical work in time . It is in the subdominant key of the relative major of G minor ( B ♭ major ) : E ♭ major . The contrapuntal opening bars of this movement appear thus in keyboard reduction : The minuet begins with an angry , cross-accented hemiola rhythm and a pair of three - bar phrases , as shown in the following piano reduction : Various commentators have asserted that while the music is labelled `` minuet '' , it would hardly be suitable for dancing . The contrasting gentle trio section , in G major , alternates the playing of the string section with that of the winds . The fourth movement opens with a series of rapidly ascending notes outlining the tonic triad illustrating what is commonly referred to as the Mannheim rocket . The movement is written largely in eight - bar phrases , following the general tendency toward rhythmic squareness in the finales of classical - era symphonies . A remarkable modulating passage in which every tone in the chromatic scale but one is played , strongly destabilising the key , occurs at the beginning of the development section . The single note left out is in fact a G ( the tonic ) . The symphony typically has a duration of about 25 minutes . Reception ( edit ) This work has elicited varying interpretations from critics . Robert Schumann regarded it as possessing `` Grecian lightness and grace '' . Donald Francis Tovey saw in it the character of opera buffa . Almost certainly , however , the most common perception today is that the symphony is tragic in tone and intensely emotional ; for example , Charles Rosen ( in The Classical Style ) has called the symphony `` a work of passion , violence , and grief '' . Although interpretations differ , the symphony is unquestionably one of Mozart 's most greatly admired works , and it is frequently performed and recorded . Influence ( edit ) Ludwig van Beethoven knew the symphony well , copying out 29 bars from the score in one of his sketchbooks . As Gustav Nottebohm observed in 1887 , the copied bars appear amid the sketches for Beethoven 's Fifth Symphony , whose third movement begins with a pitch sequence similar to that of Mozart 's finale ( see example above ) . Franz Schubert likewise copied down the music of Mozart 's minuet , and the minuet of his Fifth Symphony strongly evokes Mozart 's . Zaslaw has suggested that a passage late in Joseph Haydn 's oratorio The Seasons ( 1801 ) , a meditation on death , quotes the second movement of the 40th Symphony and was included by Haydn as a memorial to his long - dead friend . First recording ( edit ) The first known recording of the 40th Symphony is by the Victor Recording Company and issued in 1915 under the title `` Symphony in G Minor '' . The Victor Concert Orchestra performed under the direction of conductor Walter B. Rogers . Media ( edit ) The following files contain a digital recording of a performance of the 40th Symphony by the Fulda Symphonic Orchestra . The performance took place on March 18 , 2001 in the Orangerie in Fulda , Germany . 1st movement Molto allegro 2nd movement Andante 3rd movement Menuetto , Allegretto - Trio 4th movement Allegro assai Problems playing these files ? See media help . Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ A possible exception is the so - called `` Odense Symphony '' , whose attribution to Mozart is doubtful ; see Mozart symphonies of spurious or doubtful authenticity . Jump up ^ Heartz 2009 , p. 207 . ^ Jump up to : Deutsch 1965 , p. 320 . Jump up ^ Clements , Andrew ( 23 July 2014 ) . `` Mozart : The Last Symphonies review -- a thrilling journey through a tantalising new theory '' . The Guardian . Jump up ^ Zaslaw 1983 , p. 10 . Jump up ^ See Zaslaw ( 1983 , p. 10 ) , Swafford ( 1997 , p. 287 ) , and ( 1 ) . Jump up ^ For discussion of claims of this sort , see Zaslaw 1994 ; the quotation from Einstein is taken from this source . Jump up ^ Milada Jonášová : `` Eine Aufführung der g - moll - Sinfonie KV 550 bei Baron van Swieten im Beisein Mozarts '' , in : Mozart Studien 20 , Tutzing 2011 , pp. 253 -- 268 . An abridged English translation was published in the Newsletter of the Mozart Society of America 16.1 ( 2012 ) , currently available on line at ( 2 ) . The letter reads `` im Wien habe ich selbst es von verstorbenem Mozart gehört , als Er sie bei Baron Wanswiten ( sic ) hat produciren lassen , das ( s ) er wärend der production aus dem Zimmer sich hat entfernen müssen , wie man Sie unrichtig aufgeführt hat '' , meaning `` and in Vienna I have heard myself from the departed Mozart , that when he had it performed in Baron Wanswiten 's rooms , he had to leave the room during the performance because it was being played so incorrectly '' . Jump up ^ List from Zaslaw 1983 . Jump up ^ The text of the poster is given in Deutsch 1965 , p. 393 . ^ Jump up to : Zaslaw 1983 , p. 9 . Jump up ^ Zaslaw 1983 , 9 -- 10 . Jump up ^ Though quoted heavily above , Zaslaw is not alone in denigrating the old view that the symphony was never performed : Otto Biba ( 2009 ) writes `` Since there is no known date of a premiere performance , there developed the long standing legend among Mozart biographers of a romantic persuasion , who wished to portray primarily the brilliance and tragedy of a genius ' life , that Mozart never heard performances of ( his last ) three symphonies . This arrogant assumption , which equates missing information with the theory that the event never happened , is not serious scholarship and must be rejected '' . Jump up ^ Burnett 1967 , p. 33 . Jump up ^ Rosen 1997 , p. 334 . Jump up ^ Hopkins 1981 . Jump up ^ Nottebohm 1887 , p. 531 . Jump up ^ Zaslaw and Cowdery 1990 , p. 210 . Jump up ^ See No. 38 , the aria `` Erblicke hier , bethörter Mensch '' . Source : Zaslaw and Cowdery 1990 , p. 210 ) . Jump up ^ `` Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart - Symphony in G Minor '' . Discography of American Historical Recordings . References ( edit ) Biba , Otto ( 2009 ) . `` Kommentar '' , Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart . Sinfonie g - moll , KV 550 . Autographe Partitur . Erste und zweite Fassung . Faksimile - Ausgabe . Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde in Wien , p. 8 . Deutsch , Otto Erich ( 1965 ) . Mozart : A Documentary Biography . Stanford , CA : Stanford University Press . Heartz , Daniel ( 2009 ) . Mozart , Haydn and Early Beethoven , 1781 -- 1802 . New York : W.W. Norton & Company . Extracts on line at Google Books : ( 3 ) . Hopkins , Antony ( 1981 ) . The Nine Symphonies of Beethoven . Heineman . James , Burnett ( 1967 ) . An Adventure in Music . London : Baker . Retrieved 25 September 2016 . Nottebohm , Gustav ( 1887 ) . Zweite Beethoviana . Leipzig : C.F. Peters . Available on line : ( 4 ) Rosen , Charles ( 1997 ) . The Classical Style : Haydn , Mozart , Beethoven , expanded edition . New York and London : W.W. Norton & Company . Passage quoted may be viewed on line at Google Books : ( 5 ) . Schoenberg , Arnold ( 1954 , rvs. 1969 ) . Structural Functions of Harmony . New York : W.W. Norton & Company . Analyzes the wide - ranging development sections of both outer movements at some length . Swafford , Jan ( 1997 ) . Johannes Brahms : A Biography . New York : Alfred A. Knopf . Zaslaw , Neal ( 1983 ) . Introductory notes to a recording of the 31st and 40th Symphonies made by Christopher Hogwood and the Academy of Ancient Music , Oiseau - Lyre 410 - 197 - 2 . Zaslaw , Neal ( 1994 ) . `` Mozart as Working Stiff '' . In James M. Morris , ed . On Mozart , . Washington : Woodrow Wilson Center Press . Zaslaw , Neal , and William Cowdery ( 1990 ) . The Compleat Mozart : A Guide to the Musical Works of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart . New York : W.W. Norton & Company . Extracts cited are viewable online at Google Books : ( 6 ) . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Symphony No. 40 ( Mozart ) . Versions of the score : Sinfonie in g minor K. 550 ( 1st version ) : Score and critical report ( in German ) in the Neue Mozart - Ausgabe Sinfonie in g minor K. 550 ( 2nd version ) : Score in the Neue Mozart - Ausgabe Symphony No. 40 : Scores at the International Music Score Library Project ( IMSLP ) Kalmus miniature editions , from the William and Gayle Cook Music Library at the Indiana University Jacobs School of Music A Public Domain version by the Columbia University Orchestra at TEOC Classical Music Radio : Symphony No. 40 The apartment where Mozart wrote his last three Symphonies : Michael Lorenz , `` Mozart 's Apartment on the Alsergrund '' Article online Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart Biography Biographies Birthplace Grand tour Name Nationality Scatology Smallpox Italy Berlin Prague Death Music Köchel catalogue List of compositions Concert arias , songs , canons Dances Horn concertos Masses Operas Piano concertos Works for solo piano Sonatas Symphonies Compositional method Family Leopold Mozart Anna Maria Mozart Maria Anna Mozart ( Nannerl ) Constanze Mozart Maria Anna Thekla Mozart ( Bäsle ) Franz Xaver Wolfgang Mozart Karl Thomas Mozart Johann Georg Mozart Joseph Lange Cäcilia Weber Josepha Weber Aloysia Weber Sophie Weber Georg Nissen Family trees Influences Beethoven Catholic Church Freemasonry Haydn Salieri Related Mozart in popular culture Book ( hide ) Symphonies by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart Unnumbered K. 16a ( Odense ) K. 19a K. 45a ( Old Lambach ) K. 76 K. 45b K. 74g K. 81 K. 95 K. 97 K. 75 K. 98 K. 111 + 120 K. 96 K. 161 K. 135 + 61h K. 196 + 121 K. 208 + 102 Numbered No. 1 ( K. 16 ) No. 2 ( K. 17 ) No. 3 ( K. 18 ) No. 4 ( K. 19 ) No. 5 ( K. 22 ) No. 6 ( K. 43 ) No. 7 ( K. 45 ) No. 8 ( K. 48 ) No. 9 ( K. 73 ) No. 10 ( K. 74 ) No. 11 ( K. 84 ) No. 12 ( K. 110 ) No. 13 ( K. 112 ) No. 14 ( K. 114 ) No. 15 ( K. 124 ) No. 16 ( K. 128 ) No. 17 ( K. 129 ) No. 18 ( K. 130 ) No. 19 ( K. 132 ) No. 20 ( K. 133 ) No. 21 ( K. 134 ) No. 22 ( K. 162 ) No. 23 ( K. 181 ) No. 24 ( K. 182 ) No. 25 ( K. 183 ) No. 26 ( K. 184 ) No. 27 ( K. 199 ) No. 28 ( K. 200 ) No. 29 ( K. 201 ) No. 30 ( K. 202 ) No. 31 ( K. 297 , Paris ) No. 32 ( K. 318 ) No. 33 ( K. 319 ) No. 34 ( K. 338 ) No. 35 ( K. 385 , Haffner ) No. 36 ( K. 425 , Linz ) No. 37 ( K. 444 ) No. 38 ( K. 504 , Prague ) No. 39 ( K. 543 ) No. 40 ( K. 550 ) No. 41 ( K. 551 , Jupiter ) Lost K. 19b K. 66c K. 66d K. 66e K. Anh. C 11.07 K. Anh. C 11.08 No. 2 now attributed to Leopold Mozart . No. 3 now attributed to Carl Friedrich Abel . No. 37 now attributed to Michael Haydn . List of symphonies by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart List of spurious / doubtful Mozart symphonies LCCN : n81018421 GND : 300111150 BNF : cb13915276b ( data ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Symphony_No._40_(Mozart)&oldid=825476175 '' Categories : Symphonies by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart 1788 compositions Compositions in G minor Hidden categories : All articles with specifically marked weasel - worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel - worded phrases from September 2016 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from September 2016 Articles with hAudio microformats Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from September 2016 Articles with German - language external links Works with IMSLP links Articles with International Music Score Library Project links Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Català Čeština Deutsch Español Français 한국어 Հայերեն Italiano עברית ქართული Magyar Mirandés Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Suomi Svenska ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 17 more Edit links This page was last edited on 13 February 2018 , at 16 : 41 . 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Beijing - wikipedia Beijing Jump to : navigation , search `` Peking '' redirects here . For other uses , see Beijing ( disambiguation ) and Peking ( disambiguation ) . Beijing 北京 市 Municipality Beijing Municipality Clockwise from top : Beijing CBD skyline , Tiananmen , Temple of Heaven , National Center for the Performing Arts , and Beijing National Stadium Location of Beijing Municipality within China Coordinates : 39 ° 55 ′ N 116 ° 23 ′ E  /  39.917 ° N 116.383 ° E  / 39.917 ; 116.383 Coordinates : 39 ° 55 ′ N 116 ° 23 ′ E  /  39.917 ° N 116.383 ° E  / 39.917 ; 116.383 Country China Established date 1045 BCE ( Zhou Dynasty ) Divisions - County - level - Township - level 16 districts 289 towns and villages Government Type Municipality Party Secretary Cai Qi Mayor Chen Jining Congress Chairman Li Wei ( zh ) Conference Chairman Ji Lin Area Municipality 16,411 km ( 6,336 sq mi ) Land 16,801 km ( 6,487 sq mi ) Urban 1,368 km ( 528 sq mi ) Rural 15,042 km ( 5,808 sq mi ) Elevation 43.5 m ( 142.7 ft ) Population ( 2017 ) Municipality 21,707,000 Density 1,300 / km ( 3,400 / sq mi ) Urban 18,766,000 Metro ( 2017 ) 24,000,000 Ranks in China Population : 27th ; Density : 4th Major ethnic groups Han 95 % Manchu 2 % Hui 2 % Mongol 0.3 % Other 0.7 % Time zone CST ( UTC + 8 ) Postal code 100000 -- 102629 Area code ( s ) 10 GDP ( nominal ) 2017 - Total ¥ 2.8 trillion ( $414.8 billion ) - Per capita ¥ 129,032 ( $19,116 ) ( 2nd ) - Growth 6.7 % HDI ( 2014 ) 0.869 ( 1st ) -- very high License plate prefixes 京 A , C , E , F , H , J , K , L , M , N , P , Q , Y 京 B ( taxis ) 京 G ( outside urban area ) 京 O , D ( police and authorities ) Abbreviation BJ / 京 ( jīng ) City trees Chinese arborvitae ( Platycladus orientalis ) Pagoda tree ( Sophora japonica ) City flowers China rose ( Rosa chinensis ) Chrysanthemum ( Chrysanthemum morifolium ) Website Beijing Official Website International - eBeijing.gov.cn ( in English ) 首都 之 窗 - 北京 市 政务 门户 网站 ( in Chinese ) Beijing `` Běijīng '' in regular Chinese characters Chinese 北京 Hanyu Pinyin Běijīng Postal Peking Peiping ( 1368 -- 1403 ; 1928 -- 1937 ; 1945 -- 1949 ) Literal meaning `` Northern Capital '' ( show ) Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Běijīng Bopomofo ㄅ ㄟ ˇ ㄐ ㄧ ㄥ Gwoyeu Romatzyh Beeijing Wade -- Giles Pei - ching IPA ( pèi. tɕíŋ ) Wu Suzhounese Poh - cin Hakka Romanization Bet - gin Yue : Cantonese Yale Romanization Bākgìng or Bākgīng IPA ( pɐ́k̚. kêŋ ) or ( pɐ́k̚. kéŋ ) Jyutping Bak1ging1 Southern Min Hokkien POJ Pak - kian Tâi - lô Pak - kiann Eastern Min Fuzhou BUC Báe̤k - gĭng Beijing ( / beɪˈdʒɪŋ / ; Mandarin : ( pèi. tɕíŋ ) ( listen ) ) , formerly romanized as Peking , is the capital of the People 's Republic of China , the world 's second most populous city proper , and most populous capital city . The city , located in northern China , is governed as a direct - controlled municipality under the national government with 16 urban , suburban , and rural districts . Beijing Municipality is surrounded by Hebei Province with the exception of neighboring Tianjin Municipality to the southeast ; together the three divisions form the Jingjinji metropolitan region and the national capital region of China . As a city combining both modern and traditional architecture , Beijing is a megacity rich in history , exemplified in its global influence in politics , economy , education , history , culture , and technology . Beijing is the second largest Chinese city by urban population after Shanghai and is the nation 's political , cultural , and educational center . It is home to the headquarters of most of China 's largest state - owned companies and is a major hub for the national highway , expressway , railway , and high - speed rail networks . The Beijing Capital International Airport has been the second busiest in the world by passenger traffic since 2010 , and , as of 2016 , the city 's subway network is the busiest and second longest in the world , after Shanghai 's subway system . The city 's history dates back three millennia . As the last of the Four Great Ancient Capitals of China , Beijing has been the political center of the country for much of the past eight centuries . With mountains surrounding the inland city on three sides , in addition to the old inner and outer city walls , Beijing was strategically poised and developed to be the residence of the emperor and thus was the perfect location for the imperial capital . Beijing was the largest city in the world by population for much of the second millennium A.D. The city is renowned for its opulent palaces , temples , parks , gardens , tombs , walls and gates . Its art treasures and universities have made it center of culture and art in China . Encyclopædia Britannica notes that `` few cities in the world have served for so long as the political headquarters and cultural centre of an area as immense as China . '' Beijing has seven UNESCO World Heritage Sites -- the Forbidden City , Temple of Heaven , Summer Palace , Ming Tombs , Zhoukoudian , as well as parts of the Great Wall and the Grand Canal , all popular locations for tourism . Siheyuans , the city 's traditional housing style , and hutongs , the narrow alleys between siheyuans , are major tourist attractions and are common in urban Beijing . The city hosted the 2008 Summer Olympics and was chosen to host the 2022 Winter Olympics , making it the first city to ever host both Winter and Summer Olympics . Many of Beijing 's 91 universities consistently rank among the best in China , of which Peking University and Tsinghua University are ranked in the top 60 universities of the world . In 2015 , 52 companies of the Fortune Global 500 company headquarters were located in Beijing , more than any other city in the world , including state - owned enterprises State Grid , China National Petroleum , and Sinopec Group , ranked 2nd , 3rd , and 4th , respectively . Beijing CBD is quickly becoming the center for Beijing 's economic expansion , rapid modernization , and radically changing skyline , with the ongoing or recently completed construction of multiple skyscrapers . Beijing 's Zhongguancun area is also known as China 's Silicon Valley and China 's center of innovation and technology entrepreneurship . According to the 2016 InterNations Expat Insider Survey , Beijing ranked first in Asia in the subcategory `` Personal Finance Index , '' a measure of expats ' salaries versus cost of living in the city . Expats live primarily in urban districts such as Dongcheng and Chaoyang in the east , or in suburban districts such as Shunyi . Contents ( hide ) 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 Early history 2.2 Early Imperial China 2.3 Ming dynasty 2.4 Qing dynasty 2.5 Republic of China 2.6 People 's Republic of China 3 Geography 3.1 Cityscape 3.2 Architecture 3.3 Climate 3.4 Environmental problems 3.4. 1 Air quality 3.4. 1.1 Readings 3.4. 2 Dust storms 4 Politics and government 4.1 Administrative divisions 4.1. 1 Towns 4.1. 2 Neighborhoods 4.2 Judiciary and procuracy 4.3 Diplomatic missions 5 Economy 5.1 Sector composition 5.2 Economic zones 6 Demographics 6.1 Metropolitan area 7 Culture 7.1 Places of interest 8 Religion 8.1 Chinese folk religion and Taoism 8.2 Buddhism 8.3 Islam 8.4 Christianity 9 Media 9.1 Television and radio 9.2 Press 10 Sports 10.1 Events 10.2 Venues 10.3 Clubs 11 Transportation 11.1 Rail and high - speed rail 11.2 Roads and expressways 11.3 Air 11.4 Public transit 11.5 Taxi 11.6 Bicycles 12 Defense and aerospace 13 Nature and wildlife 14 See also 15 References 16 Further reading 17 External links Etymology See also : Names of Beijing Over the past 3,000 years , the city of Beijing has had numerous other names . The name Beijing , which means `` Northern Capital '' ( from the Chinese characters 北 for north and 京 for capital ) , was applied to the city in 1403 during the Ming dynasty to distinguish the city from Nanjing ( the `` Southern Capital '' ) . The English spelling is based on the pinyin romanization of the two characters as they are pronounced in Standard Mandarin . An older English spelling , Peking , is the postal romanization of the same two characters as they are pronounced in Chinese dialects spoken in the southern port towns first visited by European traders and missionaries . Those dialects preserve the Middle Chinese pronunciation of 京 as kjaeng , prior to a phonetic shift in the northern dialects to the modern pronunciation . Although Peking is no longer the common name for the city , some of the city 's older locations and facilities , such as Beijing Capital International Airport , with IATA Code PEK , and Peking University , still use the former romanization . The single Chinese character abbreviation for Beijing is 京 , which appears on automobile license plates in the city . The official Latin alphabet abbreviation for Beijing is `` BJ '' . History Main article : History of Beijing Early History The earliest traces of human habitation in the Beijing municipality were found in the caves of Dragon Bone Hill near the village of Zhoukoudian in Fangshan District , where Peking Man lived . Homo erectus fossils from the caves date to 230,000 to 250,000 years ago . Paleolithic Homo sapiens also lived there more recently , about 27,000 years ago . Archaeologists have found neolithic settlements throughout the municipality , including in Wangfujing , located in downtown Beijing . The first walled city in Beijing was Jicheng , the capital city of the state of Ji and was built in 1045 BC . Within modern Beijing , Jicheng was located around the present Guang'anmen area in the south of Xicheng District . This settlement was later conquered by the state of Yan and made its capital . Early Imperial China The Tianning Pagoda , built around 1120 during the Liao dynasty . After the First Emperor unified China , Jicheng became a prefectural capital for the region . During the Three Kingdoms period , it was held by Gongsun Zan and Yuan Shao before falling to Cao Cao 's Wei Kingdom . The AD 3rd - century Western Jin demoted the town , placing the prefectural seat in neighboring Zhuozhou . During the Sixteen Kingdoms period when northern China was conquered and divided by the Wu Hu , Jicheng was briefly the capital of the Xianbei Former Yan Kingdom . After China was reunified during the Sui dynasty , Jicheng , also known as Zhuojun , became the northern terminus of the Grand Canal . Under the Tang dynasty , Jicheng as Youzhou , served as a military frontier command center . During the An - Shi Rebellion and again amidst the turmoil of the late Tang , local military commanders founded their own short - lived Yan dynasties and called the city Yanjing , or the `` Yan Capital . '' Also in the Tang dynasty , the city 's name Jicheng was replaced by Youzhou or Yanjing . In 938 , after the fall of the Tang , the Later Jin ceded the entire northern frontier to the Khitan Liao dynasty , which treated the city as Nanjing , or the `` Southern Capital '' , one of four secondary capitals to complement its `` Supreme Capital '' , Shangjing ( modern Baarin Left Banner in Inner Mongolia ) . Some of the oldest surviving structures in Beijing date to the Liao period , including the Tianning Pagoda . Miaoying Temple and its White Stupa in Dadu which was built by Kublai Khan The Liao fell to the Jurchen Jin dynasty in 1122 , which gave the city to the Song dynasty and then retook it in 1125 during its conquest of northern China . In 1153 , the Jurchen Jin made Beijing their `` Central Capital '' , or Zhongdu . The city was besieged by Genghis Khan 's invading Mongolian army in 1213 and razed to the ground two years later . Two generations later , Kublai Khan ordered the construction of Dadu ( or Daidu to the Mongols , commonly known as Khanbaliq ) , a new capital for his Yuan dynasty to the northeast of the Zhongdu ruins . The construction took from 1264 to 1293 , but greatly enhanced the status of a city on the northern fringe of China proper . The city was centered on the Drum Tower slightly to the north of modern Beijing and stretched from the present - day Chang'an Avenue to the northern part of Line 10 subway . Remnants of the Yuan rammed earth wall still stand and are known as the Tucheng . Ming dynasty One of the corner towers of the Forbidden City , which was built by Emperor Yongle in Ming dynasty . In 1368 , soon after declaring the new Hongwu era of the Ming dynasty , the rebel leader Zhu Yuanzhang sent an army to Khanbaliq and conquered it . Since the Yuan continued to occupy Shangdu and Mongolia , however , Dadu was renamed to Beiping as used to supply the military garrisons in the area . And under the Hongwu Emperor 's feudal policies it was given to Zhu Di , one of his sons , who was created `` Prince of Yan '' . The early death of Zhu Yuanzhang 's heir led to a succession struggle on his death , one that ended with the victory of Zhu Di and the declaration of the new Yongle era . Since his harsh treatment of the Ming capital Yingtian ( modern Nanjing ) alienated many there , he established his fief as a new co-capital . The city of Beiping became Beijing ( northern capital ) or Shuntian in 1403 . The construction of the new imperial residence , the Forbidden City , took from 1406 to 1420 ; this period was also responsible for several other of the modern city 's major attractions , such as the Temple of Heaven and Tian'anmen . On 28 October 1420 , the city was officially designated the capital of the Ming dynasty in the same year that the Forbidden City was completed . Beijing became the empire 's primary capital and Yingtian , also called Nanjing ( southern capital ) , became the co-capital . ( A 1425 order by Zhu Di 's son , the Hongxi Emperor , to return the primary capital to Nanjing was never carried out : he died , probably of a heart attack , the next month . He was buried , like almost every Ming emperor to follow him , in an elaborate necropolis to Beijing 's north . ) By the 15th century , Beijing had essentially taken its current shape . The Ming city wall continued to serve until modern times , when it was pulled down and the 2nd Ring Road was built in its place . It is generally believed that Beijing was the largest city in the world for most of the 15th , 16th , 17th , and 18th centuries . The first known church was constructed by Catholics in 1652 at the former site of Matteo Ricci 's chapel ; the modern Nantang Cathedral was later built upon the same site . The capture of Beijing by Li Zicheng 's peasant army in 1644 ended the dynasty , but he and his Shun court abandoned the city without a fight when the Manchu army of Prince Dorgon arrived 40 days later . Qing dynasty Summer Palace is one of the several palatial gardens built by Qing emperors in the northwest suburb area Chongwenmen , a gate to the inner walled city , c. 1906 Dorgon established the Qing dynasty as a direct successor of the Ming ( delegitimising Li Zicheng and his followers ) and Beijing became China 's sole capital . The Qing emperors made some modifications to the Imperial residence but , in large part , the Ming buildings and the general layout remained unchanged . Facilities for Manchu worship were introduced , but the Qing also continued the traditional state rituals . Signage was bilingual or Chinese . This early Qing Beijing later formed the setting for the Chinese novel Dream of the Red Chamber . Northwest of the city , Qing emperors built several large palatial gardens including the Old Summer Palace and the Summer Palace . During the Second Opium War , Anglo - French forces captured the outskirts of the city , looting and burning the Old Summer Palace in 1860 . Under the Convention of Peking ending that war , Western powers for the first time secured the right to establish permanent diplomatic presences within the city . In 1900 , the attempt by the `` Boxers '' to eradicate this presence , as well as Chinese Christian converts , led to Beijing 's reoccupation by foreign powers . During the fighting , several important structures were destroyed , including the Hanlin Academy and the ( new ) Summer Palace . Republic of China A large portrait of Chiang Kai - shek was displayed above Tiananmen Gate after WWII . The fomenters of the Xinhai Revolution of 1911 sought to replace Qing rule with a republic and leaders like Sun Yat - sen originally intended to return the capital to Nanjing . After the Qing general Yuan Shikai forced the abdication of the last Qing emperor and ensured the success of the revolution , the revolutionaries accepted him as president of the new Republic of China . Yuan maintained his capital at Beijing and quickly consolidated power , declaring himself emperor in 1915 . His death less than a year later left China under the control of the warlords commanding the regional armies . Following the success of the Kuomintang 's Northern Expedition , the capital was formally removed to Nanjing in 1928 . On 28 June the same year , Beijing 's name was returned to Beiping ( written at the time as `` Peiping '' ) . On July 7 , 1937 , the 29th Army and the Japanese army in China exchanged fire at the Marco Polo Bridge near the Wanping Fortress southwest of the city . The Marco Polo Bridge Incident triggered the Second Sino - Japanese War , World War II as it is known in China . During the war , Beiping fell to Japan on 29 July 1937 and was made the seat of the Provisional Government of the Republic of China , a puppet state that ruled the ethnic - Chinese portions of Japanese - occupied northern China . This government was later merged into the larger Wang Jingwei government based in Nanjing . People 's Republic of China Mao Zedong proclaiming the establishment of the People 's Republic of China in 1949 In the final phases of the Chinese Civil War , the People 's Liberation Army seized control of the city peacefully on 31 January 1949 in the course of the Pingjin Campaign . On 1 October that year , Mao Zedong announced the creation of the People 's Republic of China from atop Tian'anmen . He restored the name of the city , as the new capital , to Beijing , a decision that had been reached by the Chinese People 's Political Consultative Conference just a few days earlier . In the 1950s , the city began to expand beyond the old walled city and its surrounding neighborhoods , with heavy industries in the west and residential neighborhoods in the north . Many areas of the Beijing city wall were torn down in the 1960s to make way for the construction of the Beijing Subway and the 2nd Ring Road . A scene from the opening ceremonies of the 2008 Summer Olympic Games . During the Cultural Revolution from 1966 to 1976 , the Red Guard movement began in Beijing and the city 's government fell victim to one of the first purges . By the fall of 1966 , all city schools were shut down and over a million Red Guards from across the country gathered in Beijing for eight rallies in Tian'anmen Square with Mao . In April 1976 , a large public gathering of Beijing residents against the Gang of Four and the Cultural Revolution in Tiananmen Square was forcefully suppressed . In October 1976 , the Gang was arrested in Zhongnanhai and the Cultural Revolution came to an end . In December 1978 , the Third Plenum of the 11th Party Congress in Beijing under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping reversed the verdicts against victims of the Cultural Revolution and instituted the `` policy of reform and opening up . '' Since the early 1980s , the urban area of Beijing has expanded greatly with the completion of the 2nd Ring Road in 1981 and the subsequent addition of the 3rd , 4th , 5th and 6th Ring Roads . According to one 2005 newspaper report , the size of newly developed Beijing was one - and - a-half times larger than before . Wangfujing and Xidan have developed into flourishing shopping districts , while Zhongguancun has become a major center of electronics in China . In recent years , the expansion of Beijing has also brought to the forefront some problems of urbanization , such as heavy traffic , poor air quality , the loss of historic neighborhoods , and a significant influx of migrant workers from less - developed rural areas of the country . Beijing has also been the location of many significant events in recent Chinese history , principally the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 . The city has also hosted major international events , including the 2008 Summer Olympics and the 2015 World Championships in Athletics . Geography Main article : Geography of Beijing Landsat 7 Satellite image of Beijing Municipality with the surrounding mountains in dark brown Jingshan , the highest point in the old walled city of Beijing . Remnants of the Great Wall of China in the mountains north of the city . Beijing is situated at the northern tip of the roughly triangular North China Plain , which opens to the south and east of the city . Mountains to the north , northwest and west shield the city and northern China 's agricultural heartland from the encroaching desert steppes . The northwestern part of the municipality , especially Yanqing County and Huairou District , are dominated by the Jundu Mountains , while the western part is framed by Xishan or the Western Hills . The Great Wall of China across the northern part of Beijing Municipality was built on the rugged topography to defend against nomadic incursions from the steppes . Mount Dongling , in the Western Hills and on the border with Hebei , is the municipality 's highest point , with an altitude of 2,303 metres ( 7,556 ft ) . Major rivers flowing through the municipality , including the Chaobai , Yongding , Juma , are all tributaries in the Hai River system , and flow in a southeasterly direction . The Miyun Reservoir , on the upper reaches of the Chaobai River , is the largest reservoir within the municipality . Beijing is also the northern terminus of the Grand Canal to Hangzhou , which was built over 1,400 years ago as a transportation route , and the South -- North Water Transfer Project , constructed in the past decade to bring water from the Yangtze River basin . The urban area of Beijing , on the plains in the south - central of the municipality with elevation of 40 to 60 metres ( 130 -- 200 feet ) , occupies a relatively small but expanding portion of the municipality 's area . The city spreads out in concentric ring roads . The Second Ring Road traces the old city walls and the Sixth Ring Road connects satellite towns in the surrounding suburbs . Tian'anmen and Tian'anmen Square are at the center of Beijing , directly to the south of the Forbidden City , the former residence of the emperors of China . To the west of Tian'anmen is Zhongnanhai , the residence of China 's current leaders . Chang'an Avenue , which cuts between Tiananmen and the Square , forms the city 's main east - west axis . Cityscape The skyline of the Imperial Palace , viewed from the Jingshan Hill Architecture See also : List of tallest buildings in Beijing Three styles of architecture are predominant in urban Beijing . First , there is the traditional architecture of imperial China , perhaps best exemplified by the massive Tian'anmen ( Gate of Heavenly Peace ) , which remains the People 's Republic of China 's trademark edifice , the Forbidden City , the Imperial Ancestral Temple and the Temple of Heaven . Next , there is what is sometimes referred to as the `` Sino - Sov '' style , with structures tending to be boxy and sometimes poorly constructed , which were built between the 1950s and the 1970s . Finally , there are much more modern architectural forms , most noticeably in the area of the Beijing CBD in east Beijing such as the new CCTV Headquarters , in addition to buildings in other locations around the city such as the Beijing National Stadium and National Center for the Performing Arts . Since 2007 , buildings in Beijing have received the CTBUH Skyscraper Award for best overall tall building twice , for the Linked Hybrid building in 2009 and the CCTV Headquarters in 2013 . The CTBUH Skyscraper award for best tall overall building is given to only one building around the world every year . In the early 21st century , Beijing has witnessed tremendous growth of new building constructions , exhibiting various modern styles from international designers , most pronounced in the CBD region . A mixture of both 1950s design and neofuturistic style of architecture can be seen at the 798 Art Zone , which mixes the old with the new . Beijing 's current completed tallest building is the 330 - meter China World Trade Center Tower III , but will be surpassed by the 528 - meter China Zun in 2018 when it is completed . Both buildings are in the Beijing CBD . Beijing is famous for its siheyuans , a type of residence where a common courtyard is shared by the surrounding buildings . Among the more grand examples are the Prince Gong Mansion and Residence of Soong Ching - ling . These courtyards are usually connected by alleys called hutongs . The hutongs are generally straight and run east to west so that doorways face north and south for good Feng Shui . They vary in width ; some are so narrow only a few pedestrians can pass through at a time . Once ubiquitous in Beijing , siheyuans and hutongs are rapidly disappearing , as entire city blocks of hutongs are replaced by high - rise buildings . Residents of the hutongs are entitled to live in the new buildings in apartments of at least the same size as their former residences . Many complain , however , that the traditional sense of community and street life of the hutongs can not be replaced , and these properties are often government owned . The Taihedian Square inside the Forbidden City Climate Beijing has a monsoon - influenced humid continental climate ( Köppen climate classification Dwa ) , characterized by hot , humid summers due to the East Asian monsoon , and cold , windy , dry winters that reflect the influence of the vast Siberian anticyclone . Spring can bear witness to sandstorms blowing in from the Gobi Desert across the Mongolian steppe , accompanied by rapidly warming , but generally dry , conditions . Autumn , like Spring , is a season of transition and minimal precipitation . The monthly daily average temperature in January is − 3.7 ° C ( 25.3 ° F ) , while in July it is 26.2 ° C ( 79.2 ° F ) . Precipitation averages around 570 mm ( 22 in ) annually , with close to three - fourths of that total falling from June to August . With monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 47 % in July to 65 % in January and February , the city receives 2,671 hours of bright sunshine annually . Extremes since 1951 have ranged from − 27.4 ° C ( − 17.3 ° F ) on 22 February 1966 to 41.9 ° C ( 107.4 ° F ) on 24 July 1999 ( unofficial record of 42.6 ° C ( 108.7 ° F ) was set on 15 June 1942 ) . ( show ) Climate data for Beijing ( normals 1971 -- 2000 , extremes 1951 -- present ) Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high ° C ( ° F ) 14.3 ( 57.7 ) 19.8 ( 67.6 ) 29.5 ( 85.1 ) 33.5 ( 92.3 ) 41.1 ( 106 ) 40.6 ( 105.1 ) 41.9 ( 107.4 ) 38.3 ( 100.9 ) 35.0 ( 95 ) 31.0 ( 87.8 ) 23.3 ( 73.9 ) 19.5 ( 67.1 ) 41.9 ( 107.4 ) Average high ° C ( ° F ) 1.8 ( 35.2 ) 5.0 ( 41 ) 11.6 ( 52.9 ) 20.3 ( 68.5 ) 26.0 ( 78.8 ) 30.2 ( 86.4 ) 30.9 ( 87.6 ) 29.7 ( 85.5 ) 25.8 ( 78.4 ) 19.1 ( 66.4 ) 10.1 ( 50.2 ) 3.7 ( 38.7 ) 17.9 ( 64.1 ) Average low ° C ( ° F ) − 8.4 ( 16.9 ) − 5.6 ( 21.9 ) 0.4 ( 32.7 ) 7.9 ( 46.2 ) 13.6 ( 56.5 ) 18.8 ( 65.8 ) 22.0 ( 71.6 ) 20.8 ( 69.4 ) 14.8 ( 58.6 ) 7.9 ( 46.2 ) 0.0 ( 32 ) − 5.8 ( 21.6 ) 7.2 ( 45.0 ) Record low ° C ( ° F ) − 22.8 ( − 9 ) − 27.4 ( − 17.3 ) − 15 ( 5 ) − 3.2 ( 26.2 ) 2.5 ( 36.5 ) 9.8 ( 49.6 ) 15.3 ( 59.5 ) 11.4 ( 52.5 ) 3.7 ( 38.7 ) − 3.5 ( 25.7 ) − 12.3 ( 9.9 ) − 18.3 ( − 0.9 ) − 27.4 ( − 17.3 ) Average precipitation mm ( inches ) 2.7 ( 0.106 ) 4.9 ( 0.193 ) 8.3 ( 0.327 ) 21.2 ( 0.835 ) 34.2 ( 1.346 ) 78.1 ( 3.075 ) 185.2 ( 7.291 ) 159.7 ( 6.287 ) 45.5 ( 1.791 ) 21.8 ( 0.858 ) 7.4 ( 0.291 ) 2.8 ( 0.11 ) 571.8 ( 22.51 ) Average precipitation days ( ≥ 0.1 mm ) 1.8 2.3 3.3 4.3 5.8 9.7 13.6 12.0 7.6 5.0 3.5 1.7 70.6 Average relative humidity ( % ) 44 44 46 46 53 61 75 77 68 61 57 49 56.8 Mean monthly sunshine hours 194.1 194.7 231.8 251.9 283.4 261.4 212.4 220.9 232.1 222.1 185.3 180.7 2,670.8 Percent possible sunshine 65 65 63 64 64 59 47 52 63 64 62 62 60 Source : China Meteorological Administration , China Meteorological Data Sharing Service System , all - time record high , May record high Environmental problems Beijing has a long history of environmental problems . Between 2000 and 2009 Beijing 's urban extent quadrupled , which not only strongly increased the extent of anthropogenic emissions , but also changed the meteorological situation fundamentally , even if emissions of human society are not included . For example , surface albedo , wind speed and humidity near the surface were decreased , whereas ground and near - surface air temperatures , vertical air dilution and ozone levels were increased . Because of the combined factors of urbanization and pollution caused by burning of fossil fuel , Beijing is often affected by serious environmental problems , which lead to health issues of many inhabitants . In 2013 heavy smog struck Beijing and most parts of northern China , in total 600 million people . After this `` pollution shock '' air pollution became an important economic and social concern in China . After that the government of Beijing announced measures to reduce air pollution , for example by lowering the share of coal from 24 % in 2012 to 10 % in 2017 , while the national government ordered heavily polluting vehicles to be removed from 2015 to 2017 and increased its efforts to transition the energy system to clean sources . Air quality Joint research between American and Chinese researchers in 2006 concluded that much of the city 's pollution comes from surrounding cities and provinces . On average 35 -- 60 % of the ozone can be traced to sources outside the city . Shandong Province and Tianjin Municipality have a `` significant influence on Beijing 's air quality '' , partly due to the prevailing south / southeasterly flow during the summer and the mountains to the north and northwest . Heavy air pollution has resulted in widespread smog . These photographs , taken in August 2005 , show the variations in Beijing 's air quality . In preparation for the 2008 Summer Olympics and to fulfill promises to clean up the city 's air , nearly 17 billion USD was spent . Beijing implemented a number of air improvement schemes for the duration of the Games , including halting work at all construction sites , closing many factories in Beijing permanently , temporarily shutting industry in neighboring regions , closing some gas stations , and cutting motor traffic by half by limiting drivers to odd or even days ( based on their license plate numbers ) , reducing bus and subway fares , opening new subway lines , and banning high - emission vehicles . The city further assembled 3,800 natural gas - powered buses , one of the largest fleets in the world . Beijing became the first city in China to require the Chinese equivalent to the Euro 4 emission standard . Coal burning accounts for about 40 % of the PM 2.5 in Beijing and is also the chief source of nitrogen and sulphur dioxide . Since 2012 , the city has been converting coal - fired power stations to burn natural gas and aims to cap annual coal consumption at 20 million tons . In 2011 , the city burned 26.3 million tons of coal , 73 % of which for heating and power generation and the remainder for industry . Much of the city 's air pollutants are emitted by neighboring regions . Coal consumption in neighboring Tianjin is expected to increase from 48 to 63 million tons from 2011 to 2015 . Hebei Province burned over 300 million tons of coal in 2011 , more than all of Germany , of which only 30 % were used for power generation and a considerable portion for steel and cement making . Power plants in the coal - mining regions of Shanxi , Inner Mongolia and Shaanxi , where coal consumption has tripled since 2000 , and Shandong also contribute to air pollution in Beijing . Shandong , Shanxi , Hebei and Inner Mongolia , respectively rank from first to fourth , among Chinese provinces by coal consumption . There were four major coal - fired power plants in the city to provide electricity as well as heating during the winter . The first one ( Gaojing Thermal Power Plant ) was shut down in 2014 . Another two were shut in March 2015 . The last one ( Huaneng Thermal Power Plant ) would be shut in 2016 . Between 2013 and 2017 , the city planned to reduce 13 million tons of coal consumption and cap coal consumption to 15 million tons in 2015 . The government sometimes uses cloud - seeding measures to increase the likelihood of rain showers in the region to clear the air prior to large events , such as prior to the 60th anniversary parade in 2009 as well as to combat drought conditions in the area . More recently , however , the government has increased its usage of such measures as closing factories temporarily and implementing greater restrictions for cars on the road , as in the case of `` APEC blue '' and `` parade blue , '' short periods during and immediately preceding the APEC China 2014 and the 2015 China Victory Day Parade , respectively . During and prior to these events , Beijing 's air quality improved dramatically , only to fall back to unhealthy levels shortly after . Beijing air quality is often poor , especially in winter . In mid-January 2013 , Beijing 's air quality was measured on top of the city 's US embassy at a PM2. 5 density of 755 micrograms per cubic meter , which went off the US Environmental Protection Agency 's air quality index . It was widely reported , originally through a Twitter account , that the category was `` crazy bad '' . This was later changed to `` beyond index '' . On 8 and 9 December 2015 Beijing had its first smog alert which shut down a majority of the industry and other commercial businesses in the city . Later in the month another smog `` red alert '' was issued . According to Beijing 's environmental protection bureau 's announcement in November 2016 , starting from 2017 highly polluting old cars wil be banned from being driven whenever Smog `` red alerts '' are issued in the city or neighboring regions . Readings Due to Beijing 's high - level of air pollution , there are various readings by different sources on the subject . Daily pollution readings at 27 monitoring stations around the city are reported on the website of the Beijing Environmental Protection Bureau ( BJEPB ) . The American Embassy of Beijing also reports hourly fine particulate ( PM2. 5 ) and ozone levels on Twitter . Since the BJEPB and US Embassy measure different pollutants according to different criteria , the pollution levels and the impact to human health reported by the BJEPB are often lower than that reported by the US Embassy . Air pollution in Beijing in 2016 , measured by Air Quality Index Severely Polluted Heavily Polluted Moderately Polluted Lightly Polluted Good Excellent Dust storms Dust from the erosion of deserts in northern and northwestern China results in seasonal dust storms that plague the city ; the Beijing Weather Modification Office sometimes artificially induces rainfall to fight such storms and mitigate their effects . In the first four months of 2006 alone , there were no fewer than eight such storms . In April 2002 , one dust storm alone dumped nearly 50,000 tons of dust onto the city before moving on to Japan and Korea . Politics and government Main article : Politics of Beijing Municipal government is regulated by the local Communist Party of China ( CPC ) , led by the Beijing CPC Secretary ( Chinese : 北京 市委 书记 ) . The local CPC issues administrative orders , collects taxes , manages the economy , and directs a standing committee of the Municipal People 's Congress in making policy decisions and overseeing the local government . Government officials include the mayor ( Chinese : 市 长 ) and vice-mayor . Numerous bureaus focus on law , public security , and other affairs . Additionally , as the capital of China , Beijing houses all of the important national governmental and political institutions , including the National People 's Congress . Administrative divisions Main articles : List of administrative divisions of Beijing and List of township - level divisions of Beijing Beijing Municipality currently comprises 16 administrative county - level subdivisions including 16 urban , suburban , and rural districts . On 1 July 2010 , Chongwen and Xuanwu were merged into Dongcheng and Xicheng , respectively . On 13 November 2015 Miyun and Yanqing were upgraded to districts . Administrative divisions of Beijing Dongcheng Xicheng Chaoyang Haidian Fengtai Shijingshan Mentougou Fangshan Tongzhou Shunyi Changping Daxing Pinggu Huairou Yanqing Miyun Color key Inner city inside the 2nd Ring Road ( former city walls ) Urban area between the 2nd and 5th Ring Road Inner suburbs linked by the 6th Ring Road Outer suburbs areas within city limits . Division code Division Area in km Population 2010 Seat Postal code Subdivisions Subdistricts Towns Townships Ethnic townships Residential communities Villages 110000 Beijing 16411.0 19,612,368 Dongcheng / Tongzhou 100000 128 167 19 2538 3857 110101 Dongcheng 40.6 919,253 Jingshan Subdistrict 100000 17 216 110102 Xicheng 46.5 1,243,315 Jinrong Street Subdistrict 100000 15 259 110105 Chaoyang 470.8 3,545,137 Chaowai Subdistrict 100000 21 20 358 5 110106 Fengtai 304.2 2,112,162 Fengtai Subdistrict 100000 14 254 73 110107 Shijingshan 89.8 616,083 Lugu Subdistrict 100000 9 130 110108 Haidian 426.0 3,280,670 Haidian Subdistrict 100000 22 5 603 84 110109 Mentougou 1331.3 290,476 Dayu Subdistrict 102300 9 124 179 110111 Fangshan 1866.7 944,832 Gongchen Subdistrict 102400 14 6 108 462 110112 Tongzhou 870.0 1,184,256 Beiyuan Subdistrict 101100 10 40 480 110113 Shunyi 980.0 876,620 Shengli Subdistrict 101300 6 19 61 449 110114 Changping 1430.0 1,660,501 Chengbei Subdistrict 102200 15 180 303 110115 Daxing 1012.0 1,365,112 Xingfeng Subdistrict 102600 14 64 547 110116 Huairou 2557.3 372,887 Longshan Subdistrict 101400 12 27 286 110117 Pinggu 1075.0 415,958 Binhe Subdistrict 101200 14 23 275 110118 Miyun 2335.6 467,680 Gulou Subdistrict 101500 18 57 338 110119 Yanqing 1980.0 317,426 Rulin Subdistrict 102100 11 34 376 ( show ) Divisions in Chinese and varieties of romanizations English Chinese Pinyin Beijing Municipality 北京 市 Běijīng Shì Dongcheng District 东 城区 Dōngchéng Qū Xicheng District 西 城区 Xīchéng Qū Chaoyang District 朝阳 区 Cháoyáng Qū Fengtai District 丰台 区 Fēngtái Qū Shijingshan District 石景山 区 Shíjǐngshān Qū Haidian District 海淀 区 Hǎidiàn Qū Mentougou District 门头沟 区 Méntóugōu Qū Fangshan District 房 山区 Fángshān Qū Tongzhou District 通州 区 Tōngzhōu Qū Shunyi District 顺义 区 Shùnyì Qū Changping District 昌平 区 Chāngpíng Qū Daxing District 大兴 区 Dàxīng Qū Huairou District 怀柔 区 Huáiróu Qū Pinggu District 平谷 区 Pínggǔ Qū Miyun District 密云 区 Mìyún Qū Yanqing District 延庆 区 Yánqìng Qū Jump up ^ Including `` area '' ( 地区 ) . Jump up ^ Including other township related subdivisions . Shichahai , in the Xicheng District , is traditionally considered one of Beijing 's most beautiful and charming scenic areas . Towns Main article : List of township - level divisions of Beijing Beijing 's 16 county - level divisions ( districts ) are further subdivided into 273 lower third - level administrative units at the township level : 119 towns , 24 townships , 5 ethnic townships and 125 subdistricts . Towns within Beijing Municipality but outside the urban area include ( but are not limited to ) : Changping 昌平 Huairou 怀柔 Miyun 密云 Liangxiang 良 乡 Liulimiao 琉璃 庙 Tongzhou 通州 Yizhuang 亦庄 Tiantongyuan 天通苑 Beiyuan 北 苑 Xiaotangshan 小 汤山 Several place names in Beijing end with mén ( 门 ) , meaning `` gate '' , as they were the locations of gates in the former Beijing city wall . Other place names end in cūn ( 村 ) , meaning `` village '' , as they were originally villages outside the city wall . Neighborhoods This section contains embedded lists that may be poorly defined , unverified or indiscriminate . Please help to clean it up to meet Wikipedia 's quality standards . Where appropriate , incorporate items into the main body of the article . ( October 2017 ) The Niujie Mosque is an important historical attraction Main article : Neighborhoods in Beijing Neighborhoods may extend across multiple districts . Major neighborhoods in urban Beijing include : Qianmen 前门 Tian'anmen 天安门 Di'anmen 地 安 门 Chongwenmen 崇文 门 Xuanwumen 宣武 门 Fuchengmen 阜 成 门 Xizhimen 西直门 Deshengmen 德 胜 门 Andingmen 安定 门 Sanlitun 三里屯 Dongzhimen 东直门 Chaoyangmen 朝阳 门 Yongdingmen 永定 门 Zuo'anmen 左 安 门 You'anmen 右 安 门 Guangqumen 广 渠 门 Guang'anmen 广安 门 Huashi 花市 Xibianmen 西 便门 Hepingmen 和平 门 Fuxingmen 复兴 门 Jianguomen 建国 门 Gongzhufen 公主 坟 Fangzhuang 方 庄 Guomao 国贸 Hepingli 和平 里 Ping'anli 平安 里 Beixinqiao 北新 桥 Jiaodaokou 交 道口 Kuanjie 宽 街 Wangjing 望京 Wangfujing 王府 井 Dengshikou 灯 市 口 Wudaokou 五道口 Xidan 西单 Dongdan 东单 Zhongguancun 中关村 Panjiayuan 潘 家园 Beijing CBD 北京 商务 中心 区 Yayuncun 亚运村 Shifoying 石 佛 营 Judiciary and procuracy The judicial system in Beijing consists of the Supreme People 's Court , the highest court in the country , the Beijing Municipal High People 's Court , the high people 's court of the municipality , three intermediate people 's courts , one intermediate railway transport court , 14 basic people 's court ( one for each of the municipality 's districts and counties ) , and one basic railway transport court . The Beijing No. 1 Intermediate People 's Court in Shijingshan oversees the basic courts of Haidian , Shijingshan , Mentougou , Changping and Yanqing . The Beijing No. 2 Intermediate People 's Court in Fengtai oversees the basic courts of Dongcheng , Xicheng , Fengtai , Fangshan and Daxing . The Beijing No. 3 Intermediate People 's Court in Laiguangying , is the newest of the three intermediate people 's courts and opened on 21 August 2013 . It oversees the district courts of Chaoyang , Tongzhou , Shunyi , Huairou , Pinggu and Miyun . Each court in Beijing has a corresponding people 's procuratorate . Diplomatic missions Main article : List of diplomatic missions in China About 163 countries have embassies in Beijing , which are concentrated in Jianguomenwai , Sanlitun and Liangmaqiao in Chaoyang District . Economy Main article : Economy of Beijing Xidan is one of the oldest and busiest shopping area in Beijing . As of 2016 , Beijing ' nominal GDP was US $ 386.45 billion ( CN ¥ 2.57 trilion ) , about 3.45 % of the country 's GDP and ranked 12th among province - level administrative units ; its nominal GDP per capita was US $17,795 ( CN ¥ 118,198 ) and ranked the 1st in the country . Due to the concentration of state owned enterprises in the national capital , Beijing in 2013 had more Fortune Global 500 Company headquarters than any other city in the world . Historical GDP of Beijing for 1978 -- present ( SNA2008 ) ( purchasing power parity of Chinese Yuan , as Int'l . dollar based on IMF WEO October 2017 ) year GDP GDP per capita ( GDPpc ) based on mid-year population Reference index GDP in millions real growth ( % ) GDPpc exchange rate 1 foreign currency to CNY CNY USD PPP ( Int'l $ . ) CNY USD PPP ( Int'l $ . ) USD 1 Int'l $. 1 ( PPP ) 2016 2,566,910 386,449 733,214 6.8 118,198 17,795 33,762 6.6423 3.5009 2015 2,368,570 380,285 667,297 6.9 109,602 17,597 30,878 6.2284 3.5495 2014 2,194,410 357,233 618,074 7.4 102,870 16,746 28,974 6.1428 3.5504 2013 2,033,010 328,265 568,372 7.7 97,178 15,691 27,168 6.1932 3.5769 2012 1,835,010 290,695 516,788 8.0 89,778 14,222 25,284 6.3125 3.5508 2011 1,662,790 257,446 474,337 8.1 83,547 12,935 23,833 6.4588 3.5055 1,444,160 213,333 436,223 10.4 75,572 11,164 22,827 6.7695 3.3106 2009 1,241,900 181,804 393,317 10.0 68,405 10,014 21,664 6.8310 3.1575 2008 1,139,200 164,029 358,600 9.0 66,098 9,517 20,807 6.9451 3.1768 2007 1,007,190 132,455 334,071 14.4 61,470 8,084 20,389 7.6040 3.0149 2006 831,260 104,275 288,863 12.8 52,963 6,644 18,405 7.9718 2.8777 2005 714,140 87,178 249,787 12.3 47,127 5,753 16,484 8.1917 2.8590 2000 321,280 38,809 118,148 12.0 24,517 2,962 9,016 8.2784 2.7193 1995 150,770 18,054 55,239 12.0 12,690 1,520 4,649 8.3510 2.7294 1990 50,080 10,470 29,414 5.2 4,635 969 2,722 4.7832 1.7026 1985 25,710 8,755 18,342 8.7 2,643 900 1,886 2.9366 1.4017 1980 13,910 9,283 9,301 11.8 1,544 1,030 1,032 1.4984 1.4955 1978 10,880 6,462 10.5 1,257 747 1.6836 Sector Composition The Taikoo Li Sanlitun shopping arcade is a popular destination among locals and visitors The city has a post-industrial economy that is dominated by the tertiary sector ( services ) , which generated 76.9 % of output , followed by the secondary sector ( manufacturing , construction ) at 22.2 % and the primary sector ( agriculture , mining ) at 0.8 % . The services sector is broadly diversified with professional services , wholesale and retail , information technology , commercial real estate , scientific research , and residential real estate each contributing at least 6 % to the city 's economy in 2013 . The single largest sub-sector remains industry , whose share of overall output has shrunk to 18.1 % in 2013 . The mix of industrial output has changed significantly since 2010 when the city announced that 140 highly - polluting , energy and water resource intensive enterprises would be relocated from the city in five years . The relocation of Capital Steel to neighboring Hebei province had begun in 2005 . In 2013 , output of automobiles , aerospace products , semiconductors , pharmaceuticals , and food processing all increased . In the farmland around Beijing , vegetables and fruits have displaced grain as the primary crops under cultivation . In 2013 , the tonnage of vegetable , edible fungus and fruit harvested was over three times that of grain . In 2013 , overall acreage under cultivation shrank along with most categories of produce as more land was reforested for environmental reasons . Economic zones Main article : List of economic and technological development zones in Beijing The skyline of Beijing CBD Zhongguancun is a technology hub in Haidian District In 2006 , the city government identified six high - end economic output zones around Beijing as the primary engines for local economic growth . In 2012 , the six zones produced 43.3 % of the city 's GDP , up from 36.5 % in 2007 . The six zones are : Zhongguancun , China 's silicon village in Haidian District northwest of the city , is home to both established and start - up tech companies . As of the second quarter of 2014 , of the 9,895 companies registered in one of the six zones , 6,150 were based in Zhongguancun . Beijing Financial Street , in Xicheng District on the west side of the city between Fuxingmen and Fuchengmen , is lined with headquarters of large state banks and insurance companies . The country 's financial regulatory agencies including the central bank , bank regulator , securities regulator , and foreign exchange authority are located in the neighborhood . Beijing Central Business District ( CBD ) , is actually located to the east of downtown , near the embassies along the eastern Third Ring Road between Jianguomenwai and Chaoyangmenwai . The CBD is home to most of the city 's skyscraper office buildings . Most of the city 's foreign companies and professional service firms are based in the CBD . Beijing Economic and Technological Development Area , better known as Yizhuang , is an industrial park the straddles the southern Fifth Ring Road in Daxing District . It has attracted pharmaceutical , information technology , and materials engineering companies . Beijing Airport Economic Zone was created in 1993 and surrounds the Beijing Capital International Airport in Shunyi District northwest of the city . In addition to logistics , airline services , and trading firms , this zone is also home to Beijing 's automobile assembly plants . Beijing Olympic Center Zone surrounds the Olympic Green due north of downtown and is developing into an entertainment , sports , tourism and business convention center . Shijingshan , on the western outskirts of the city , is a traditional heavy industrial base for steel - making . Chemical plants are concentrated in the far eastern suburbs . Less legitimate enterprises also exist . Urban Beijing is known for being a center of infringed goods ; anything from the latest designer clothing to DVDs can be found in markets all over the city , often marketed to expatriates and international visitors . Demographics Main article : Demographics of Beijing Historical population Year Pop . ± % p.a. 1953 2,768,149 -- 1964 7,568,495 + 9.57 % 1982 9,230,687 + 1.11 % 1990 10,819,407 + 2.00 % 2000 13,569,194 + 2.29 % 19,612,368 + 3.75 % 2013 21,150,000 + 2.55 % 2014 21,516,000 + 1.73 % Population size may be affected by changes on administrative divisions . In 2013 , Beijing had a total population of 21.148 million within the municipality , of which 18.251 million resided in urban districts or suburban townships and 2.897 million lived in rural villages . Within China , the city ranked second in urban population after Shanghai and the third in municipal population after Shanghai and Chongqing . Beijing also ranks among the most populous cities in the world , a distinction the city has held for much of the past 800 years , especially during the 15th to early 19th centuries when it was the largest city in the world . About 13 million of the city 's residents in 2013 had local hukou permits , which entitles them to permanent residence in Beijing . The remaining 8 million residents had hukou permits elsewhere and were not eligible to receive some social benefits provided by the Beijing municipal government . The population increased in 2013 by 455,000 or about 7 % from the previous year and continued a decade - long trend of rapid growth . The total population in 2004 was 14.213 million . The population gains are driven largely by migration . The population 's rate of natural increase in 2013 was a mere 0.441 % , based on a birth rate of 8.93 and a mortality rate of 4.52 . The gender balance was 51.6 % males and 48.4 % females . Working age people account for nearly 80 % of the population . Compared to 2004 , residents age 0 -- 14 as a proportion of the population dropped from 9.96 % to 9.5 % in 2013 and residents over the age of 65 declined from 11.12 % to 9.2 % . According to the 2010 census , nearly 96 % of Beijing 's population are ethnic Han Chinese . Of the 800,000 ethnic minorities living in the capital , Manchu ( 336,000 ) , Hui ( 249,000 ) , Korean ( 77,000 ) , Mongol ( 37,000 ) and Tujia ( 24,000 ) constitute the five largest groups . In addition , there were 8,045 Hong Kong residents , 500 Macau residents , and 7,772 Taiwan residents along with 91,128 registered foreigners living in Beijing . A study by the Beijing Academy of Sciences estimates that in 2010 there were on average 200,000 foreigners living in Beijing on any given day including students , business travellers and tourists are not counted as registered residents . From 2000 to 2010 , the percentage of city residents with at least some college education nearly doubled from 16.8 % to 31.5 % . About 22.2 % have some high school education and 31 % had reached middle school . In 2017 the Chinese Government implemented population controls for Beijing and Shanghai . Latest statistics show that from this policy , Beijings ' population declined by 20,000 Metropolitan area The encompassing metropolitan area was estimated by the OECD ( Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ) to have , as of 2010 , a population of 24.9 million . Culture The Beijing Ancient Observatory A scene from a Peking opera Royal collection of the Forbidden City People native to urban Beijing speak the Beijing dialect , which belongs to the Mandarin subdivision of spoken Chinese . This speech is the basis for putonghua , the standard spoken language used in mainland China and Taiwan , and one of the four official languages of Singapore . Rural areas of Beijing Municipality have their own dialects akin to those of Hebei province , which surrounds Beijing Municipality . Beijing or Peking opera ( 京剧 , Jīngjù ) is a traditional form of Chinese theater well known throughout the nation . Commonly lauded as one of the highest achievements of Chinese culture , Beijing opera is performed through a combination of song , spoken dialogue , and codified action sequences involving gestures , movement , fighting and acrobatics . Much of Beijing opera is carried out in an archaic stage dialect quite different from Modern Standard Chinese and from the modern Beijing dialect . Beijing cuisine is the local style of cooking . Peking Roast Duck is perhaps the best known dish . Fuling Jiabing , a traditional Beijing snack food , is a pancake ( bing ) resembling a flat disk with a filling made from fu ling , a fungus used in traditional Chinese medicine . Teahouses are common in Beijing . The cloisonné ( or Jingtailan , literally `` Blue of Jingtai '' ) metalworking technique and tradition is a Beijing art speciality , and is one of the most revered traditional crafts in China . Cloisonné making requires elaborate and complicated processes which include base - hammering , copper - strip inlay , soldering , enamel - filling , enamel - firing , surface polishing and gilding . Beijing 's lacquerware is also well known for its sophisticated and intrinsic patterns and images carved into its surface , and the various decoration techniques of lacquer include `` carved lacquer '' and `` engraved gold '' . Younger residents of Beijing have become more attracted to the nightlife , which has flourished in recent decades , breaking prior cultural traditions that had practically restricted it to the upper class . Today , Houhai , Sanlitun and Wudaokou are Beijing 's nightlife hotspots . Places of interest See also : Major National Historical and Cultural Sites ( Beijing ) and List of Beijing landmarks ... the city remains an epicenter of tradition with the treasures of nearly 2,000 years as the imperial capital still on view -- in the famed Forbidden City and in the city 's lush pavilions and gardens ... -- National Geographic Qianmen Avenue , a traditional commercial street outside Qianmen Gate along the southern Central Axis At the historical heart of Beijing lies the Forbidden City , the enormous palace compound that was the home of the emperors of the Ming and Qing dynasties ; the Forbidden City hosts the Palace Museum , which contains imperial collections of Chinese art . Surrounding the Forbidden City are several former imperial gardens , parks and scenic areas , notably Beihai , Shichahai , Zhongnanhai , Jingshan and Zhongshan . These places , particularly Beihai Park , are described as masterpieces of Chinese gardening art , and are popular tourist destinations with tremendous historical importance ; in the modern era , Zhongnanhai has also been the political heart of various Chinese governments and regimes and is now the headquarters of the Communist Party of China and the State Council . From Tiananmen Square , right across from the Forbidden City , there are several notable sites , such as the Tiananmen , Qianmen , the Great Hall of the People , the National Museum of China , the Monument to the People 's Heroes , and the Mausoleum of Mao Zedong . The Summer Palace and the Old Summer Palace both lie at the western part of the city ; the former , a UNESCO World Heritage Site , contains a comprehensive collection of imperial gardens and palaces that served as the summer retreats for the Qing imperial family . Beijing 's Temple of Heaven Ancient Hutongs outside Qianmen Gate Among the best known religious sites in the city is the Temple of Heaven ( Tiantan ) , located in southeastern Beijing , also a UNESCO World Heritage Site , where emperors of the Ming and Qing dynasties made visits for annual ceremonies of prayers to Heaven for good harvest . In the north of the city is the Temple of Earth ( Ditan ) , while the Temple of the Sun ( Ritan ) and the Temple of the Moon ( Yuetan ) lie in the eastern and western urban areas respectively . Other well - known temple sites include the Dongyue Temple , Tanzhe Temple , Miaoying Temple , White Cloud Temple , Yonghe Temple , Fayuan Temple , Wanshou Temple and Big Bell Temple . The city also has its own Confucius Temple , and a Guozijian or Imperial Academy . The Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception , built in 1605 , is the oldest Catholic church in Beijing . The Niujie Mosque is the oldest mosque in Beijing , with a history stretching back over a thousand years . Inside the Forbidden City Beijing contains several well - preserved pagodas and stone pagodas , such as the towering Pagoda of Tianning Temple , which was built during the Liao dynasty from 1100 to 1120 , and the Pagoda of Cishou Temple , which was built in 1576 during the Ming dynasty . Historically noteworthy stone bridges include the 12th - century Lugou Bridge , the 17th - century Baliqiao bridge , and the 18th - century Jade Belt Bridge . The Beijing Ancient Observatory displays pre-telescopic spheres dating back to the Ming and Qing dynasties . The Fragrant Hills ( Xiangshan ) is a popular scenic public park that consists of natural landscaped areas as well as traditional and cultural relics . The Beijing Botanical Garden exhibits over 6,000 species of plants , including a variety of trees , bushes and flowers , and an extensive peony garden . The Taoranting , Longtan , Chaoyang , Haidian , Milu Yuan and Zizhu Yuan parks are some of the notable recreational parks in the city . The Beijing Zoo is a center of zoological research that also contains rare animals from various continents , including the Chinese giant panda . There are 144 museums and galleries ( as of June 2008 ) in the city . In addition to the Palace Museum in the Forbidden City and the National Museum of China , other major museums include the National Art Museum of China , the Capital Museum , the Beijing Art Museum , the Military Museum of the Chinese People 's Revolution , the Geological Museum of China , the Beijing Museum of Natural History and the Paleozoological Museum of China . Located at the outskirts of urban Beijing , but within its municipality are the Thirteen Tombs of the Ming dynasty , the lavish and elaborate burial sites of thirteen Ming emperors , which have been designated as part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties . The archaeological Peking Man site at Zhoukoudian is another World Heritage Site within the municipality , containing a wealth of discoveries , among them one of the first specimens of Homo erectus and an assemblage of bones of the gigantic hyena Pachycrocuta brevirostris . There are several sections of the UNESCO World Heritage Site Great Wall of China , most notably Badaling , Jinshanling , Simatai and Mutianyu . Religion Religion in Beijing ( 2010s ) Chinese religion or not religious and atheists ( 86.26 % ) Buddhism ( 11.2 % ) Islam ( 1.76 % ) Christianity ( 0.78 % ) A Temple of the Goddess in Gubeikou . Fire God Temple in Di'anmen . The religious heritage of Beijing is rich and diverse as Chinese folk religion , Taoism , Buddhism , Confucianism , Islam and Christianity all have significant historical presence in the city . As the national capital , the city also hosts the State Administration for Religious Affairs and various state - sponsored institutions of the leading religions . In recent decades , foreign residents have brought other religions to the city . According to Wang Zhiyun of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences in 2010 there were 2.2 million Buddhists in the city , equal to 11.2 % of the total population . According to the Chinese General Social Survey of 2009 , Christians constitute 0.78 % of the city 's population . According to a 2010 survey , Muslims constitute 1.76 % of the population of Beijing . Rear hall of the Capital City God Temple of Beijing . Chinese folk religion and Taoism Beijing has many temples dedicated to folk religious and communal deities , many of which are being reconstructed or refurbished in the 2000s and 2010s . Yearly sacrifices to the God of Heaven ( 祭 天 jìtiān ) at the Temple of Heaven have been resumed by Confucian groups in the 2010s . There are temples dedicated to the worship of the Goddess ( 娘娘 Niángniáng ) in the city , one of them near the Olympic Village , and they revolve around a major cult center at Mount Miaofeng . There are also many temples consecrated to the Dragon God ( 龙 神 Lóngshén ) , to the Medicine Master ( 药 王 Yàowáng ) , to Divus Guan ( 关 帝 Guāndì ) , to the Fire God ( 火 神 Huǒshén ) , to the Wealth God ( 财神 Cáishén ) , temples of the City God ( 城隍 神 Chénghuángshén ) , and at least one temple consecrated to the Yellow Deity of the Chariot Shaft ( 轩辕 黄帝 Xuānyuán Huángdì ) in Pinggu District . Many of these temples are governed by the Beijing Taoist Association , such as the Fire God Temple of the Shicha Lake , while many others are not and are governed by popular committees and locals . A great Temple of Xuanyuan Huangdi will be built in Pinggu ( possibly as an expansion of the already existing shrine ) within 2020 , and the temple will feature a statue of the deity which will be amongst the tallest in the world . The national Chinese Taoist Association and Chinese Taoist College have their headquarters at the White Cloud Temple of Quanzhen Taoism , which was founded in 741 and rebuilt numerous times . The Beijing Dongyue Temple outside Chaoyangmen is the largest temple of Zhengyi Taoism in the city . The local Beijing Taoist Association has its headquarters at the Lüzu Temple near Fuxingmen . Buddhism This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( October 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The tomb pagodas at Tanzhe Temple Yonghe Lama Temple of Tibetan Buddhism . 11 % of the population of Beijing practices Buddhism . The Buddhist Association of China , the state 's supervisory organ overseeing all Buddhist institutions in mainland China , is headquartered in the Guangji Temple , a temple founded over 800 years ago during the Jin dynasty ( 1115 -- 1234 ) in what is now Fuchengmennei . The Beijing Buddhist Association along with the Buddhist Choir and Orchestra are based in the Guanghua Temple , which dates to the Yuan dynasty over 700 years ago . The Buddhist Academy of China and its library are housed in the Fayuan Temple near Caishikou . The Fayuan Temple , which dates to the Tang dynasty 1300 years ago , is the oldest temple in urban Beijing . The Tongjiao Temple inside Dongzhimen is the city 's only Buddhist nunnery . The West Yellow Temple originally dates to the Liao dynasty . In 1651 , the temple was commissioned by the Qing Emperor Shunzhi to host the visit of the Fifth Dalai Lama to Beijing . Since then , this temple has hosted the 13th Dalai Lama as well as the Sixth , Ninth and Tenth Panchen Lamas . The largest Tibetan Buddhist Temple in Beijing is the Yonghe Temple , which was decreed by the Qing Emperor Qianlong in 1744 to serve as the residence and research facility for his Buddhist preceptor of Rölpé Dorjé the third Changkya ( or living Buddha of Inner Mongolia ) . The Yonghe Temple is so - named because it was the childhood residence of the Yongzheng Emperor , and retains the glazed tiles reserved for imperial palaces . The Lingguang Temple of Badachu in the Western Hills also dates to the Tang dynasty . The temple 's Zhaoxian Pagoda was first built in 1071 during the Liao dynasty to hold a tooth relic of the Buddha . The pagoda was destroyed during the Boxer Rebellion and the tooth was discovered from its foundation . A new pagoda was built in 1964 . The six aforementioned temples : Guangji , Guanghua , Tongjiao , West Yellow , Yonghe and Lingguang have been designated National Key Buddhist Temples in Han Chinese Area . In addition , other notable temples in Beijing include the Tanzhe Temple ( founded in the Jin dynasty ( 265 -- 420 ) is the oldest in the municipality ) , Tianning Temple ( oldest pagoda in the city ) , Miaoying Temple ( famed for Yuan - era white dagoba ) , the Wanshou Temple ( home to the Beijing Art Museum ) and Big Bell Temple . Buddhist temples in Beijing Badachu Bailin Temple Big Bell Temple Changchun Temple Cheng'en Temple Dahui Temple Dajue Temple Fahai Temple Fayuan Temple Guanghua Temple Guangji Temple Hongluo Temple Jietai Temple Miaoying Temple Tanzhe Temple Temple of Azure Clouds Tianning Temple Wanshou Temple Wofo Temple Xifeng Temple Yonghe Temple Yunju Temple Zhenjue Temple Zhihua Temple Islam Niujie Mosque Beijing has about 70 mosques recognized by the Islamic Association of China , whose headquarters are located next to the Niujie Mosque , the oldest and most famous mosque in the city . The Niujie Mosque was founded in 996 during the Liao dynasty and is frequently visited by Muslim dignitaries . Other notable mosques in the old city include the Dongsi Mosque , founded in 1346 ; the Huashi Mosque , founded in 1415 ; Nan Douya Mosque , near Chaoyangmen ; Jinshifang Street Mosque , in Xicheng District ; and the Dongzhimen Mosque . There are large mosques in outlying Muslim communities in Haidian , Madian , Tongzhou , Changping , Changying , Shijingshan and Miyun . The China Islamic Institute is located in the Niujie neighborhood in Xicheng District . Christianity Church of the Saviour , also known as the Xishiku Church , founded in 1703 . Catholicism In 1289 , John of Montecorvino came to Beijing as a Franciscan missionary with the order from the Pope . After meeting and receiving the support of Kublai Khan in 1293 , he built the first Catholic church in Beijing in 1305 . The Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association ( CPCA ) , based in Houhai is the government oversight body for Catholics in mainland China . Notable Catholic churches in Beijing include : the Nantang or Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception also known as the Xuanwumen Church , which was founded in 1605 and whose current Archbishop Joseph Li Shan is one of the few bishops in China to have the support of both the Vatican and the CPCA . the Dongtang or St. Joseph 's Church , better known as the Wangfujing Church , founded in 1653 . the Beitang or Church of the Saviour , also known as the Xishiku Church , founded in 1703 . the Xitang or Church of Our Lady of Mount Carmel also known as the Xizhimen Church , founded in 1723 . The National Seminary of Catholic Church in China is located in Daxing District . Protestantism The earliest Protestant churches in Beijing were founded by British and American missionaries in the second half of the 19th century . Protestant missionaries also opened schools , universities and hospitals which have become important civic institutions . Most of Beijing 's Protestant churches were destroyed during the Boxer Rebellion and afterwards rebuilt . In 1958 , the 64 Protestant churches in the city are reorganized into four and overseen by the state through the Three - Self Patriotic Movement . Eastern Orthodox There were a significant amount of Orthodox Christians in Beijing . Orthodox has come to Beijing along with Russian prisoners from Albazino conflicts in the 17th century . In 1956 , Viktor , the bishop of Beijing returned to the Soviet Union , and the Soviet embassy took over the old cathedral and demolished it . In 2007 , Russian embassy has rebuilt a new church in its garden to serve the Russian Orthodox Christians in Beijing . Media Television and Radio The China Central Television Headquarters building Beijing Television broadcasts on channels 1 through 10 , and China Central Television , China 's largest television network , maintains its headquarters in Beijing . Three radio stations feature programmes in English : Hit FM on FM 88.7 , Easy FM by China Radio International on FM 91.5 , and the newly launched Radio 774 on AM 774 . Beijing Radio Stations is the family of radio stations serving the city . Press The well - known Beijing Evening News ( Beijing Wanbao , 北京 晚报 ) , covering news about Beijing in Chinese , is distributed every afternoon . Other newspapers include Beijing Daily , The Beijing News ( Xin Jing Bao , 新 京 报 ) , the Beijing Star Daily , the Beijing Morning News , and the Beijing Youth Daily ( Beijing Qingnian Bao ) , as well as English - language weeklies Beijing Weekend and Beijing Today . The People 's Daily , Global Times and the China Daily ( English ) are published in Beijing as well . Publications primarily aimed at international visitors and the expatriate community include the English - language periodicals Time Out Beijing , City Weekend , Beijing This Month , Beijing Talk , That 's Beijing , and The Beijinger . Sports Main articles : Sport in Beijing and Football in Beijing Events Fireworks above Olympic venues during the opening ceremony of the 2008 Summer Games Tai chi ( Taijiquan ) practitioners at the Fragrant Hills Park Beijing has hosted numerous international and national sporting events , the most notable was the 2008 Summer Olympic and Paralympic Games . Other multi-sport international events held in Beijing include the 2001 Universiade and the 1990 Asian Games . Single - sport international competitions include the Beijing Marathon ( annually since 1981 ) , China Open of Tennis ( 1993 -- 97 , annually since 2004 ) , ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating Cup of China ( 2003 , 2004 , 2005 , 2008 , 2009 and 2010 ) , WPBSA China Open for Snooker ( annually since 2005 ) , Union Cycliste Internationale Tour of Beijing ( since 2011 ) , 1961 World Table Tennis Championships , 1987 IBF Badminton World Championships , the 2004 AFC Asian Cup ( football ) , and 2009 Barclays Asia Trophy ( football ) . Beijing hosted the 2015 IAAF World Championships in Athletics . Beijing 's LeSports Center will be one of the main venues for the 2019 FIBA Basketball World Cup . The city hosted the second Chinese National Games in 1914 and the first four National Games of China in 1959 , 1965 , 1975 , 1979 , respectively , and co-hosted the 1993 National Games with Sichuan and Qingdao . Beijing also hosted the inaugural National Peasants ' Games in 1988 and the sixth National Minority Games in 1999 . In November 2013 , Beijing made a bid to host the 2022 Winter Olympics . On 31 July 2015 , the International Olympic Committee awarded the 2022 Winter Olympics to the city . Venues Major sporting venues in the city include the National Stadium , also known as the `` Birds ' Nest '' , National Aquatics Center , also known as the `` Water Cube '' , National Indoor Stadium , all in the Olympic Green to the north of downtown ; the MasterCard Center at Wukesong west of downtown ; the Workers ' Stadium and Workers ' Arena in Sanlitun just east of downtown and the Capital Arena in Baishiqiao , northeast of downtown . In addition , many universities in the city have their own sport facilities . Clubs Professional sports teams based in Beijing include : China Baseball League Beijing Tigers Chinese Basketball Association Beijing Ducks Beikong Fly Dragons Women 's Chinese Basketball Association Beijing Shougang Kontinental Hockey League HC Kunlun Red Star Chinese Super League Beijing Guoan Beijing Renhe China League One Beijing BG China League Two Beijing BIT Chinese Women 's National League Beijing BG The Beijing Olympians of the American Basketball Association , formerly a Chinese Basketball Association team , kept their name and maintained a roster of primarily Chinese players after moving to Maywood , California in 2005 . China Bandy Federation is based in Beijing , one of several cities in which the potential for bandy development is explored . Transportation Main article : Transport in Beijing Mobikes jamming sidewalks in Beijing Beijing Railway Station , one of several rail stations in the city Traffic jam in the Beijing CBD Terminal 3 of the Beijing Capital International Airport A Line 1 train on the Beijing Subway , which is among the longest and busiest rapid transit systems in the world . An articulated Beijing bus . Bicyclists during rush hour at the Chang'an Avenue . Typical Beijing traffic signage found at intersections . Beijing is an important transport hub in North China with five ring roads , nine expressways , eleven National Highways , nine conventional railways , and two high - speed railways converging on the city . Rail and high - speed rail Beijing serves as a large rail hub in China 's railway network . Ten conventional rail lines radiate from the city to : Shanghai ( Jinghu Line ) , Guangzhou ( Jingguang Line ) , Kowloon ( Jingjiu Line ) , Harbin ( Jingha Line ) , Baotou ( Jingbao Line ) , Qinhuangdao ( Jingqin Line ) , Chengde ( Jingcheng Line ) , Tongliao , Inner Mongolia ( Jingtong Line ) , Yuanping , Shanxi ( Jingyuan Line ) and Shacheng , Hebei ( Fengsha Line ) . In addition , the Datong -- Qinhuangdao Railway passes through the municipality to the north of the city . Beijing also has three high - speed rail lines : the Beijing - Tianjin Intercity Railway , which opened in 2008 ; the Beijing - Shanghai High - Speed Railway , which opened in 2011 ; and the Beijing -- Guangzhou High - Speed Railway , which opened in 2012 . The city 's main railway stations are the Beijing Railway Station , which opened in 1959 ; the Beijing West Railway Station , which opened in 1996 ; and the Beijing South Railway Station , which was rebuilt into the city 's high - speed railway station in 2008 . As of 1 July 2010 , Beijing Railway Station had 173 trains arriving daily , Beijing West had 232 trains and Beijing South had 163 . The Beijing North Railway Station , first built in 1909 and expanded in 2009 , had 22 trains . Smaller stations in the city including Beijing East Railway Station and Qinghuayuan Railway Station handle mainly commuter passenger traffic . The Fengtai Railway Station has been closed for renovation . In outlying suburbs and counties of Beijing , there are over 40 railway stations . From Beijing , direct passenger train service is available to most large cities in China . International train service is available to Mongolia , Russia , Vietnam and North Korea . Passenger trains in China are numbered according to their direction in relation to Beijing . Roads and expressways Further information : Expressways of Beijing and China National Highways of Beijing Beijing is connected by road links to all parts of China as part of the National Trunk Road Network . Nine expressways of China serve Beijing , as do eleven China National Highways . Beijing 's urban transport is dependent upon the five `` ring roads '' that concentrically surround the city , with the Forbidden City area marked as the geographical centre for the ring roads . The ring roads appear more rectangular than ring - shaped . There is no official `` 1st Ring Road '' . The 2nd Ring Road is located in the inner city . Ring roads tend to resemble expressways progressively as they extend outwards , with the 5th and 6th Ring Roads being full - standard national expressways , linked to other roads only by interchanges . Expressways to other regions of China are generally accessible from the 3rd Ring Road outward . A final outer orbital , the Capital Ring Expressway ( G95 ) , is being built and will extend into neighboring Tianjin and Hebei . Within the urban core , city streets generally follow the checkerboard pattern of the ancient capital . Many of Beijing 's boulevards and streets with `` inner '' and `` outer '' are still named in relation to gates in the city wall , though most gates no longer stand . Traffic jams are a major concern . Even outside of rush hour , several roads still remain clogged with traffic . Beijing 's urban design layout further exacerbates transportation problems . The authorities have introduced several bus lanes , which only public buses can use during rush hour . In the beginning of 2010 , Beijing had 4 million registered automobiles . By the end of 2010 , the government forecast 5 million . In 2010 , new car registrations in Beijing averaged 15,500 per week . Towards the end of 2010 , the city government announced a series of drastic measures to tackle traffic jams , including limiting the number of new license plates issued to passenger cars to 20,000 a month and barring cars with non-Beijing plates from entering areas within the Fifth Ring Road during rush hour . More restrictive measures are also reserved during major events or heavily polluted weather . Air Beijing 's primary airport is the Beijing Capital International Airport ( IATA : PEK ) about 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) northeast of the city centre . The airport is the second busiest airport in the world after Hartsfield - Jackson Atlanta International Airport . After renovations for the 2008 Olympics , the airport now boasts three terminals , with Terminal 3 being one of the largest in the world . Most domestic and nearly all international flights arrive at and depart from Capital Airport . It is the main hub for Air China and a hub for China Southern and Hainan Airlines . The airport links Beijing with almost every other Chinese city with regular air passenger service . The Airport Expressway links the airport to central Beijing ; it is a roughly 40 - minute drive from the city centre during good traffic conditions . Prior to the 2008 Olympics , the 2nd Airport Expressway was built to the airport , as well as a light rail system , which now connects to the Beijing Subway . Other airports in the city include Liangxiang , Nanyuan , Xijiao , Shahe and Badaling . These airports are primarily for military use and are less well known to the public . Nanyuan serves as the hub for only one passenger airline . A second international airport , to be called Beijing Daxing International Airport , is currently being built in Daxing District , and is expected to be open by September 2018 . As of 1 January 2013 , tourists from 45 countries are permitted a 72 - hour visa - free stay in Beijing . The 45 countries include Singapore , Japan , the United States , Canada , all EU and EEA countries ( except Norway and Liechtenstein ) , Switzerland , Brazil , Argentina and Australia . The programme benefits transit and business travellers with the 72 hours calculated starting from the moment visitors receive their transit stay permits rather than the time of their plane 's arrival . Foreign visitors are not permitted to leave Beijing for other Chinese cities during the 72 hours . Public transit The Beijing Subway , which began operating in 1969 , now has 22 lines , 370 stations , and 608 km ( 378 mi ) of lines . It is the second longest subway system in the world and first in annual ridership with 3.66 billion rides delivered in 2016 . In 2013 , with a flat fare of ¥ 2.00 ( 0.31 USD ) per ride with unlimited transfers on all lines except the Airport Express , the subway was also the most affordable rapid transit system in China . The subway is undergoing rapid expansion and is expected to reach 30 lines , 450 stations , 1,050 kilometres ( 650 mi ) in length by 2020 . When fully implemented , 95 % of residents inside the Fourth Ring Road will be able to walk to a station in 15 minutes . The Beijing Suburban Railway provides commuter rail service to outlying suburbs of the municipality . On 28 December 2014 , the Beijing Subway switched to a distance - based fare system from a fixed fare for all lines except the Airport Express . Under the new system a trip under 6 km will cost ¥ 3.00 ( 0.49 USD ) , an additional ¥ 1.00 will be added for the next 6 kilometres ( 3.7 miles ) and the next 10 kilometres ( 6.2 miles ) until the distance for the trip reaches 32 kilometres ( 20 miles ) . For every 20 kilometres ( 12 miles ) after the original 32 kilometres ( 20 miles ) an additional ¥ 1.00 is added . For example , a 50 kilometres ( 31 miles ) trip would cost ¥ 8.00 . There are nearly 1,000 public bus and trolleybus lines in the city , including four bus rapid transit lines . Standard bus fares are as low as ¥ 1.00 when purchased with the Yikatong metrocard . Taxi Metered taxi in Beijing start at ¥ 13 for the first 3 kilometres ( 1.9 mi ) , ¥ 2.3 Renminbi per additional 1 kilometre ( 0.62 mi ) and ¥ 1 per ride fuel surcharge , not counting idling fees which are ¥ 2.3 ( ¥ 4.6 during rush hours of 7 -- 9 am and 5 -- 7 pm ) per 5 minutes of standing or running at speeds lower than 12 kilometres per hour ( 7.5 mph ) . Most taxis are Hyundai Elantras , Hyundai Sonatas , Peugeots , Citroëns and Volkswagen Jettas . After 15 kilometres ( 9.3 mi ) , the base fare increases by 50 % ( but is only applied to the portion over that distance ) . Different companies have special colours combinations painted on their vehicles . Usually registered taxis have yellowish brown as basic hue , with another color of Prussian blue , hunter green , white , umber , tyrian purple , rufous , or sea green . Between 11 pm and 5 am , there is also a 20 % fee increase . Rides over 15 km ( 9 mi ) and between 23 : 00 and 06 : 00 incur both charges , for a total increase of 80 % . Tolls during trip should be covered by customers and the costs of trips beyond Beijing city limits should be negotiated with the driver . The cost of unregistered taxis is also subject to negotiation with the driver . Bicycles Beijing has long been well known for the number of bicycles on its streets . Although the rise of motor traffic has created a great deal of congestion and bicycle use has declined , bicycles are still an important form of local transportation . Large numbers of cyclists can be seen on most roads in the city , and most of the main roads have dedicated bicycle lanes . Beijing is relatively flat , which makes cycling convenient . The rise of electric bicycles and electric scooters , which have similar speeds and use the same cycle lanes , may have brought about a revival in bicycle - speed two - wheeled transport . It is possible to cycle to most parts of the city . Because of the growing traffic congestion , the authorities have indicated more than once that they wish to encourage cycling , but it is not clear whether there is sufficient will to translate that into action on a significant scale . Recently , cycling has seen a resurgence in popularity thanks to the emergence of a large number of dockless app based bikeshares such as Mobike , Bluegogo and Ofo . Defense and aerospace Chinese President Xi Jinping and a military honor guard welcomes South Korean president Park Geun - hye in June 2013 . The command headquarters of China 's military forces are based in Beijing . The Central Military Commission , the political organ in charge of the military , is housed inside the Ministry of National Defense , located next to the Military Museum of the Chinese People 's Revolution in western Beijing . The Second Artillery Corps , which controls the country 's strategic missile and nuclear weapons , has its command in Qinghe , Haidian District . The headquarters of the Beijing Military Region , one of seven nationally , is based further west in Gaojing . The Beijing Military Region oversees the Beijing Garrisons as well as the 27th , 38th and 65th Armies , which are based in Hebei . Military institutions in Beijing also include academies and thinktanks such as the PLA National Defence University and Academy of Military Science , military hospitals such as the 301 , 307 and the Academy of Military Medical Sciences , and army - affiliated cultural entities such as the 1 August Film Studios and the PLA Song and Dance Troupe . The China National Space Administration , which oversees country 's space program , and several space - related state owned companies such as CASTC and CASIC are all based in Beijing . The Beijing Aerospace Command and Control Center , in Haidian District tracks the country 's manned and unmanned flight and other space exploration initiatives . Nature and Wildlife Beijing Municipality has 20 nature reserves that have a total area of 1,339.7 km ( 517.3 sq mi ) . The mountains to the west and north of the city are home to a number of protected wildlife species including leopard , leopard cat , wolf , red fox , wild boar , masked palm civet , raccoon dog , hog badger , Siberian weasel , Amur hedgehog , roe deer , and mandarin rat snake . The Beijing Aquatic Wildlife Rescue and Conservation Center protects the Chinese giant salamander , Amur stickleback and mandarin duck on the Huaijiu and Huaisha Rivers in Huairou District . The Beijing Milu Park south of the city is home to one of the largest herds of Père David 's deer , now extinct in the wild . The Beijing barbastelle , a species of vesper bat discovered in caves of Fangshan District in 2001 and identified as a distinct species in 2007 , is endemic to Beijing . The mountains of Fangshan are also habitat for the more common Beijing mouse - eared bat , large myotis , greater horseshoe bat and Rickett 's big - footed bat . Each year , Beijing hosts 200 - 300 species of migratory birds including the common crane , black - headed gull , swan , mallard , common cuckoo and the endangered yellow - breasted bunting . In May 2016 , Common cuckoos nesting in the wetlands of Cuihu ( Haidian ) , Hanshiqiao ( Shunyi ) , Yeyahu ( Yanqing ) were tagged and have been traced to far as India , Kenya and Mozambique . In the fall of 2016 , the Beijing Forest Police undertook a month - long campaign to crack down on illegal hunting and trapping of migratory birds for sale in local bird markets . Over 1,000 rescued birds of protected species including streptopelia , Eurasian siskin , crested myna , coal tit and great tit were handed to the Beijing Wildlife Protection and Rescue Center for repatriation to the wild . The city flowers are the Chinese rose and chrysanthemum . The city trees are the Chinese arborvitae , an evergreen in the cypress family and the Pagoda Tree , also called the Chinese scholar tree , a deciduous tree of the Fabaceae family . The oldest scholar tree in the city was planted in what is now Beihai Park during the Tang dynasty , 1,300 years ago . 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Jump up ^ 中国 地面 国际 交换 站 气候 标准 值 月 值 数据 集 ( 1971 - 2000 年 ) ( in Chinese ) . China Meteorological Administration . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 04 . Jump up ^ `` Beijing '' . China Meteorological Data Sharing Service System . December 2013 . Retrieved January 1 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Burt , Christopher C. `` UPDATE June 1 : Record May Heat Wave in Northeast China , Koreas '' . Wunderground . Retrieved 2014 - 06 - 01 . Jump up ^ J.R. McNeill , Something New Under the Sun : An Environmental History of the 20th - Century World . New York : Norton , 2000 , ISBN 978 - 0 - 14 - 029509 - 2 . Jump up ^ Mark Z . Jacobson , Son V. Nghiem , Alessandro Sorichetta , Natasha Whitney , Ring of impact from the mega-urbanization of Beijing between 2000 and 2009 . In : Journal of Geophysical Research : Atmospheres 120 , Issue 12 , ( 2015 ) , 5740 -- 5756 , doi : 10.1002 / 2014JD023008 . Jump up ^ Peter Sheehan , Enjiang Cheng , Alex English , Fanghong Sun , China 's response to the air pollution shock . In : Nature Climate Change 4 , ( 2014 ) , 306 -- 309 , doi : 10.1038 / nclimate2197 . Jump up ^ David G. Streetsa , Joshua S. Fub , Carey J. Jangc , Jiming Haod , Kebin Hed , Xiaoyan Tange , Yuanhang Zhange , Zifa Wangf , Zuopan Lib , Qiang Zhanga , Litao Wangd , Binyu Wangc , Carolyne Yua , Air quality during the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games < ( 1 ) > accessed 23 April 2012 ^ Jump up to : `` Green Olympics Effort Draws UN Environment Chief to Beijing '' . Sundance Channel . Archived from the original on 20 March 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Beijing petrol stations to close '' . BBC News . 15 February 2008 . Archived from the original on 18 February 2008 . Retrieved 15 February 2008 . Jump up ^ Yardley , Jim ( 24 January 2008 ) . `` Smoggy Beijing Plans to Cut Traffic by Half for Olympics , Paper Says '' . New York Times . Retrieved 22 July 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Post-Olympics Beijing car restrictions to take effect next month '' . News.xinhuanet.com. 28 September 2008 . Retrieved 1 June 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Only ' green ' vehicles permitted to enter Beijing '' . Autonews.gasgoo.com. 22 May 2009 . Archived from the original on 27 May 2009 . Retrieved 1 June 2010 . Jump up ^ `` China : Beijing launches Euro 4 standards '' . Automotiveworld.com. 4 January 2008 . Archived from the original on 27 April 2010 . Retrieved 1 June 2010 . ^ Jump up to : James West , Mother Jones . 18 January 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` Beijing to switch from coal to gas to go green '' . China Daily . 8 March 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Li Jing , `` Beijing 's air quality will worsen without coal control , Greenpeace says '' . South China Morning Post . 5 February 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Detecting the Heavy Metal Concentration of PM2. 5 in Beijing '' , Greenpeace.org. 8 June 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Chang , Lyu ( 24 March 2015 ) . `` Beijing shuts two more coal - fired power plants '' . The China Daily . Retrieved 31 May 2016 . Jump up ^ Stanway , David ( 23 July 2014 ) . `` Beijing shuts big coal - fired power plant to ease smog - Xinhua '' . Reuters . Retrieved 31 May 2016 . Jump up ^ Demick , Barbara ( 2 October 2009 ) . `` Communist China celebrates 60th anniversary with instruments of war and words of peace '' . Los Angeles Times . Jump up ^ Liu , Charles ( 12 May 2016 ) . `` '' Parade Blue '' Joins `` APEC Blue '' as Distant Memories as Nasty Air Returns to Beijing `` . The Nanfang . Jump up ^ Wong , Edward ( 12 January 2013 ) . `` Beijing Air Pollution Off the Charts '' . The New York Times . Jump up ^ Wong , Edward ( 9 December 2015 ) . `` As Beijing Shuts Down Over Smog Alert , Worse - Off Neighbors Carry On '' . The New York Times . ISSN 0362 - 4331 . Retrieved 9 December 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Beijing issues second red alert for choking smog '' . ABC News . ABC . 18 December 2015 . Retrieved 18 December 2015 . Jump up ^ Reuters ( 22 November 2016 ) . `` Beijing to ban polluting cars during smog alerts '' . www.atimes.com . Retrieved 2 December 2016 . Jump up ^ `` 首页 '' . Beijing Municipal Web . Archived from the original on 29 December 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Barbara Demick ( 29 October 2011 ) . `` U.S. Embassy air quality data undercut China 's own assessment '' . Los Angeles Times . ( login required ) Jump up ^ `` China says it made rain to wash off sand '' . MSNBC. 5 May 2006 . Retrieved 22 July 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Beijing hit by eighth sandstorm '' . BBC News . 17 April 2006 . Retrieved 22 July 2009 . Jump up ^ Weaver , Lisa Rose ( 4 April 2002 ) . `` More than a dust storm in a Chinese teacup '' . CNN . Archived from the original on 13 January 2007 . Retrieved 7 February 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Beijing -- Administration and society -- Government '' . Britannica Online Encyclopedia . 2008 . Jump up ^ 国家 统计 局 统计 用 区划 代码 Archived 5 April 2013 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ 《 保定 经济 统计 年鉴 2011 》 Jump up ^ shi , Guo wu yuan ren kou pu cha ban gong ; council , Guo jia tong ji ju ren kou he jiu ye tong ji si bian = Tabulation on the 2010 population census of the people 's republic of China by township / compiled by Population census office under the state ; population , Department of ; statistics , employment statistics national bureau of ( 2012 ) . Zhongguo 2010 nian ren kou pu cha fen xiang , zhen , jie dao zi liao ( Di 1 ban . ed . ) . Beijing Shi : Zhongguo tong ji chu ban she . ISBN 978 - 7 - 5037 - 6660 - 2 . Jump up ^ 《 中国 民政 统计 年鉴 2012 》 ^ Jump up to : ( Chinese ) `` 北京 市 第 三 中级 人民 法院 、 北京 市 人民 检察院 第 三 分院 同日 成立 '' Xinhua Archived 29 September 2013 at the Wayback Machine . 6 August 2013 Jump up ^ ( Chinese ) `` 北京 市 高级 人民 法院 关于 我 市 中级 人民 法院 管辖 调整 有关 问题 的 规定 ( 暂行 ) '' 2 August 2013 ^ Jump up to : Historical GDP of Beijing published on Beijing Statistical Yearbook 2017 , ALSO see Beijing'GDP Revison ( Chinese ) ( 10 October 2017 ) Jump up ^ `` Jones Lang LaSalle Research Report -- Five years after the Olympics -- Growth in Beijing has continued , what to expect next ? '' August 2013 Jump up ^ Purchasing power parity ( PPP ) for Chinese yuan is estimate according to IMF WEO ( October 2017 ) data ; Exchange rate of CN ¥ to US $ is according to State Administration of Foreign Exchange , published on China Statistical Yearbook . ^ Jump up to : ( Chinese ) 国家 统计 局 北京 调查 总队 , `` 北京 市 2013 年 国民 经济 和 社会 发展 统计 公报 '' , 北京 市 统计 局 13 February 2014 Jump up ^ ( Chinese ) 北京 五 年 淘汰 140 余 家 `` 三 高 '' 企业 北京 商 报 17 November 2010 Jump up ^ `` Capital Steel opens new branch to step up eastward relocation '' . People 's Daily Online . 23 October 2005 . Jump up ^ Spencer , Richard ( 18 July 2008 ) . `` Beijing abandons Mao 's dream of workers ' paradise '' . The Daily Telegraph . London . Jump up ^ ( Chinese ) 六 大 功能 区 Archived 14 September 2013 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ ( Chinese ) 涂露芳 , 六 大 功能 区 创造 北京 四 成 多 GDP 北京 日报 9 October 2013 Archived 14 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ ( Chinese ) 北京 市 统计 局 六 大 高端 产业 功能 区 主要 经济 指标 Jump up ^ `` Statistical Communique on the 2003 National Economic and Social Development of the City of Beijing '' . Beijing Municipal Bureau of Statistics . 12 February 2004 . Archived from the original on 5 March 2008 . Retrieved 15 March 2008 . Jump up ^ `` ShiJingShan '' . Beijing Economic Information Center . Archived from the original on 20 November 2008 . Retrieved 22 June 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Pirates weave tangled web on ' Spidey ' '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Reuters. 27 April 2007 . Archived from the original on 29 April 2007 . Retrieved 15 March 2008 . Jump up ^ 北京 市 2014 年 国民 经济 和 社会 发展 统计 公报 ( Beijing Economic and Social Development Statistical Bulletin 2014 ) ( in Chinese ) . Beijing Bureau of Statistics . 12 February 2015 . Archived from the original on 1 March 2016 . Retrieved 1 May 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` Age Composition and Dependency Ratio of Population by Region ( 2004 ) in China Statistics 2005 '' . Retrieved 5 July 2010 . ^ Jump up to : ( Chinese ) 北京 市 2010 年 第 六 次 全国 人口 普查 主要 数据 情况 Jump up ^ ( Chinese ) 北京 市 少数 民族 人口 状况 30 May 2011 Jump up ^ ( Chinese ) 在 北京 外国 人 数量 或 已 达 20 万 人 超过 市 人口 总数 1 % 9 October 2010 Jump up ^ https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2018/mar/19/plan-big-city-disease-populations-fall-beijing-shanghai Jump up ^ CNBC.com , Justina Crabtree ; special to ( 20 September 2016 ) . `` A tale of megacities : China 's largest metropolises '' . CNBC . slide 4 Jump up ^ `` Jingxi '' . Britannica Online Encyclopedia . 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Beijing -- Chinese Cloisonné Enamelware '' . Archived from the original on 11 June 2008 . Jump up ^ Levin , Dan ( 15 June 2008 ) . `` Beijing Lights Up the Night '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 15 June 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Beijing , Places of a Lifetime '' . National Geographic Society . Archived from the original on 3 August 2008 . Retrieved 3 August 2008 . Jump up ^ `` The Imperial Palace of the Ming and Qing Dynasties '' ( PDF ) . UNESCO World Heritage Center . 29 December 1986 . Retrieved 22 July 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Beihai Park Behind Behai park locates Hou Hai , which is one of the most popular visited tourist places . Hou hai is the largest of the three lakes , along with Qianhai ( lit . the `` Front Lake '' ) and Xihai ( lit . the `` Western Lake '' ) , that comprise Shichahai , the collective name for the three northern-most lakes in central Beijing . Since the early 2000s , the hutong neighborhood around Houhai has become known for its nightlife as many residences along the lake shore have been converted into restaurants , bars , and cafes `` . UNECO World Heritage . Archived from the original on 2 July 2007 . Jump up ^ Littlewood , Misty and Mark Littlewood ( 2008 ) . Gateways to Beijing : a travel guide to Beijing . Armour Publishing Pte Ltd. p. 182 . ISBN 981 - 4222 - 12 - 7 . Jump up ^ `` Summer Palace , an Imperial Garden in Beijing '' . UNESCO World Heritage Center . Retrieved 4 August 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Temple of Heaven : an Imperial Sacrificial Altar in Beijing '' . UNESCO World Heritage Center . Archived from the original on 1 August 2008 . Retrieved 4 August 2008 . Jump up ^ ( Chinese ) ( 北京 地区 博物馆 名录 ( 截止 2008 年 6 月 ) ) 6 January 2009 Jump up ^ `` About Beijing '' . Archived from the original on 29 September 2008 . ^ Jump up to : `` Beijing 's Museums & Galleries '' . Jump up ^ `` Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties '' . UNESCO World Heritage Center . 10 December 2003 . Retrieved 22 July 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Peking Man Site at Zhoukoudian '' . UNESCO World Heritage Center . Archived from the original on 23 July 2008 . Retrieved 4 August 2008 . Jump up ^ `` The Great Wall '' . UNESCO World Heritage Center . Archived from the original on 31 July 2008 . Retrieved 4 August 2008 . ^ Jump up to : ( Chinese ) 北京 的 宗教 文化 china.com.cn 11 July 2008 Jump up ^ Lai , Hongyi . China 's Governance Model : Flexibility and Durability of Pragmatic Authoritarianism . Routledge , 2016 . ISBN 1 - 317 - 85952 - 9 . p. 167 Jump up ^ China General Social Survey ( CGSS ) 2009 . Report by : Xiuhua Wang ( 2015 , p. 15 ) Archived 25 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Min Junqing . The Present Situation and Characteristics of Contemporary Islam in China . JISMOR , 8 . 2010 Islam by province , page 29 . Data from : Yang Zongde , Study on Current Muslim Population in China , Jinan Muslim , 2 , 2010 . Jump up ^ 平谷 轩辕 山 国际 旅游 区 概念 性 规划 . Jump up ^ 2020 世界 休闲 大会 战略 规划 -- -- 北京 平谷 旅游 发展 重大 项目 储备 规划 Archived 21 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine ... Jump up ^ ( Chinese ) 北京 市 道教 协会 协会 简介 Jump up ^ ( Chinese ) 伊斯兰 教 简介 Archived 30 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine . Accessed 4 April 2016 Jump up ^ ( Chinese ) 北京 市 清真寺 文物 等级 Accessed 4 April 2016 Jump up ^ ( Chinese ) 北京 市 部分 清真寺 介绍 Accessed 4 April 2016 Jump up ^ Eric Widmer , The Russian Ecclesiastical Mission in Peking During the Eighteenth Century , pp23 , 1976 , ISBN 0 - 674 - 78129 - 5 Google Books Jump up ^ The Official website of the 2019 FIBA Basketball World Cup , FIBA.com , Retrieved 9 March 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Beijing and Zhangjiakou launch joint bid to host 2022 Winter Olympic Games '' . insidethegames.biz . Jump up ^ `` IOC awards 2022 Winter Olympics to Beijing '' . Jump up ^ Some 350,000 residents were expected to be relocated to make room for the constructions of stadiums for the 2008 Summer Games . Davis , Mike ( 2006 ) . Planet of Slums . Verso . p. 106 . ISBN 1844670228 . Retrieved 3 January 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Beijing Olympics Bird 's Nest ready '' . BBC News . 28 June 2008 . Archived from the original on 19 July 2008 . Retrieved 28 June 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Welcome '' . chinabandy.org . Jump up ^ ( Chinese ) `` 北京 市 火车 站 大全 '' Last Accessed 8 August 2011 Jump up ^ `` Beijingers spend lives on road as traffic congestion worsens '' . China Daily . Xinhua News Agency . 6 October 2003 . Retrieved 22 July 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Automobile numbers could be capped '' . China Daily . Retrieved 13 May 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Beijing city to have five mln cars on roads by year end '' . Gasgoo. 12 May 2010 . Archived from the original on 2 January 2013 . Retrieved 13 May 2010 . Jump up ^ `` To Tackle Traffic Jam , Beijing Sets New Car Plate Quota , Limits Out - of - Towners '' . ChinaAutoWeb.com . Jump up ^ `` China plans to build world 's biggest airport near Beijing '' . In.news.yahoo.com. 10 September 2011 . Retrieved 31 October 2011 . Jump up ^ `` 首都 新 机场 跑道 呈 三 纵 一 横 分布 规划 7 条 跑道 '' . news.carnoc.com . Retrieved 12 January 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Beijing grants three - day visa - free access '' . TTGmice. 6 December 2012 . Archived from the original on 5 June 2013 . Retrieved 7 December 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Beijing 72 - hour Visa - free '' ChinaTour.Net Accessed 6 June 2014 Jump up ^ `` 30 subway lines to cover Beijing by 2020 '' . China Daily . 28 May 2010 . Retrieved 30 May 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` Beijing to Increase Public Transportation Fare Prices Next Month '' . english.cri.cn . Retrieved 24 December 2015 . Jump up ^ Watts , Jonathan ( 24 January 2010 ) . `` Campaign to boost cycling in Beijing '' . The Guardian . UK . Retrieved 10 March 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Ofo , Mobike , BlueGogo : China 's Messy Bikeshare Market '' . What 's on Weibo . Retrieved 13 August 2017 . Jump up ^ 北京 市 自然 保护 区 名录 ( 截至 2011 年底 ) 24 August 2012 Jump up ^ ( Chinese ) 北京 一 级 保护 野生 动物 Beijing Wildlife Conservation Association Archived 16 April 2013 at the Wayback Machine . Accessed 4 April 2013 Jump up ^ ( Chinese ) Beijing Wildlife Conservation Association Accessed 4 April 2013 Jump up ^ Michael Rank , Wild leopards of Beijing , Danwei.org 31 July 2007 Jump up ^ ( Chinese ) Beijing Aquatic Wildlife Rescue and Conservation Center Accessed 5 April 2013 Archived 23 August 2011 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ ( Chinese ) 70 年 解密 大足 鼠 耳 蝠 吃 鱼 14 April 2007 Archived 19 March 2014 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ ( Chinese ) 北京 : 候鸟 翱翔 野鸭 湖 Xinhua 16 November 2016 ^ Jump up to : ( Chinese ) 北京 开始 `` 清 网 行动 '' 保护 候鸟 森林 公安 公布 举报 电话 , 北京 晚报 30 October 2016 Jump up ^ Beijing Cuckoo Project Accessed 28 November 2016 Jump up ^ `` With a Cuckoo 's Journey from China , a Mystery is Solved , and Cheers Go Up '' N.Y. Times 11 November 2016 Jump up ^ ( Chinese ) `` 北京 集中 一个 月 打击 非法 捕 售 鸟 抓获 36 名 违法 者 '' 新 京 报 31 October 2016 ^ Jump up to : `` 首都 之 窗 - 北京 市 政务 门户 网站 - 市 花 市 树 '' . eBeijing.gov.cn . Archived from the original on 13 April 2013 . Jump up ^ ( Chinese ) 北京 市 市 树 -- -- 国 槐 18 February 2004 Archived 13 April 2008 at the Wayback Machine . Further reading Cotterell , Arthur . ( 2007 ) . The Imperial Capitals of China : An Inside View of the Celestial Empire . London : Pimlico . pp. 304 pages . ISBN 978 - 1 - 84595 - 009 - 5 . Elliott , Mark C. ( 2001 ) . The Manchu Way : The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China . Palo Alto , California , United States : Stanford University Press . ISBN 0 - 8047 - 4684 - 2 . Retrieved 22 July 2009 . Li , Lillian ; Dray - Novey , Alison ; Kong , Haili ( 2007 ) . Beijing : From Imperial Capital to Olympic City . New York City , United States : Palgrave Macmillan . ISBN 1 - 4039 - 6473 - 4 . Bonino , Michele ; De Pieri , Filippo ( 2015 ) . Beijing Danwei : Industrial Heritage in the Contemporary City . Berlin : Jovis . ISBN 978 - 3 - 86859 - 382 - 2 . Cammelli , Stefano Storia di Pechino e di come divenne capitale della Cina , Bologna , Il Mulino , 2004 . ISBN 978 - 88 - 15 - 09910 - 5 Chen , Gaohua : The Capital of the Yuan Dynasty . ( Dadu or Khanbaliq ) . Silkroad Press , 2015 . ISBN 978 - 981 - 4332 - 44 - 6 ( Print ) ; ISBN 978 - 981 - 4339 - 55 - 1 ( eBook ) Harper , Damian , Beijing : City Guide , 7th Edition , Oakland , California : Lonely Planet Publications , 2007 . Harper , Damian , Beijing : City Guide , 6th Edition , Oakland , California : Lonely Planet Publications , 2005 . ISBN 1 - 74059 - 782 - 6 . MacKerras , Colin ; Yorke , Amanda ( 1991 ) . The Cambridge Handbook of Contemporary China . Cambridge , England , United Kingdom : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 - 521 - 38755 - 8 . Retrieved 22 July 2009 . External links Find more aboutBeijingat Wikipedia 's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Travel guide from Wikivoyage Learning resources from Wikiversity Economic profile for Beijing at HKTDC Visit Beijing Facebook Page Photograph of The approach to Peking -- outside the walls taken in 1890 by Sir Henry Norman Preceded by Lin'an ( Song dynasty ) Capital of China ( as Dadu of Yuan ) 1264 -- 1368 Succeeded by Nanjing ( Ming dynasty ) Preceded by Nanjing ( Ming dynasty ) Capital of China 1420 -- 1928 Succeeded by Nanjing ( ROC ) Preceded by Nanjing ( ROC ) Capital of the People 's Republic of China 1949 -- present Succeeded by present capital Places adjacent to Beijing Zhangjiakou , Hebei Chengde , Hebei Chengde , Hebei Zhangjiakou , Hebei Beijing Langfang , Hebei Baoding , Hebei Langfang , Hebei Tianjin Articles related to Beijing ( hide ) Beijing History Politics Geography Toponym Administration Districts Dongcheng Xicheng Chaoyang Haidian Fengtai Shijingshan Mentougou Fangshan Tongzhou Shunyi Changping Daxing Huairou Pinggu Miyun Yanqing Defunct Chongwen Xuanwu Yanshan Other Administrative divisions Township - level divisions Economic and technological development zones Education List of universities Peking University Tsinghua University Beijing Normal University Renmin University Transportation Ring roads Expressways Highways Subway Suburban Railway Bus Airports : Capital International , Nanyuan , Daxing ( under construction ) Railway stations : Beijing West , Beijing , Beijing East , Beijing South , Beijing North , Shahe , Fengtai Visitor attractions Landmarks ( Major National Historical and Cultural Sites ) List of hotels in Beijing Museums Parks and gardens Municipal agencies Administration of Prisons Commission of Education Public Security Bureau ( Police Department ) Portal Commons Provincial - level divisions of China Provinces Anhui Fujian Gansu Guangdong Guizhou Hainan Hebei Heilongjiang Henan Hubei Hunan Jiangsu Jiangxi Jilin Liaoning Qinghai Shaanxi Shandong Shanxi Sichuan Yunnan Zhejiang Autonomous regions Guangxi Inner Mongolia Ningxia Tibet Xinjiang Municipalities Beijing Chongqing Shanghai Tianjin Special administrative regions Hong Kong Macau Other Taiwan Note : Taiwan is claimed by the People 's Republic of China but administered by the Republic of China ( see Political status of Taiwan ) . Metropolitan cities of China Major Metropolitan regions Jingjinji ( JJJ ) Pearl River Delta ( PRD ) / Yuegang'ao Greater Bay Area Yangtze River Delta ( YRD ) Central Plain ( Zhongyuan ) Chengyu Cross-Strait Western Coast Guanzhong Mid-Southern Liaoning Shandong Peninsula Yangtze River Mid-Reaches ( Yangtze River Valley ) Major Cities National Central Cities Beijing Chongqing Guangzhou Shanghai Tianjin Special Administrative Regions Hong Kong Macau Regional Central Cities Chengdu Nanjing Shenyang Shenzhen Wuhan Xi'an Sub-provincial cities Changchun Chengdu Dalian Guangzhou Hangzhou Harbin Jinan Nanjing Ningbo Qingdao Shenyang Shenzhen Wuhan Xi'an Xiamen Provincial capitals ( Prefecture - level ) Changsha Fuzhou Guiyang Haikou Hefei Kunming Lanzhou Nanchang Shijiazhuang Taiyuan Xining Zhengzhou Taibei Autonomous regional capitals Hohhot Lhasa Nanning Ürümqi Yinchuan Comparatively large cities Anshan Baotou Benxi Datong Fushun Handan Huainan Jilin Luoyang Suzhou Tangshan Qiqihar Wuxi Xuzhou Zibo Prefecture - level cities by Province Hebei Shijiazhuang * Tangshan * Qinhuangdao Handan * Xingtai Baoding Zhangjiakou Chengde Cangzhou Langfang Hengshui Shanxi Taiyuan * Datong * Yangquan Changzhi Jincheng Shuozhou Jinzhong Yuncheng Xinzhou Linfen Lüliang Inner Mongolia Hohhot * Baotou * Wuhai Chifeng Tongliao Ordos Hulunbuir Bayannur Ulanqab Liaoning Shenyang * Dalian * Anshan * Fushun * Benxi * Dandong Jinzhou Yingkou Fuxin Liaoyang Panjin Tieling Chaoyang Huludao Jilin Changchun * Jilin Siping Liaoyuan Tonghua Baishan Songyuan Baicheng Heilongjiang Harbin * Qiqihar * Jixi Hegang Shuangyashan Daqing Yīchun Jiamusi Qitaihe Mudanjiang Heihe Suihua Jiangsu Nanjing * Wuxi * Xuzhou * Changzhou Suzhou * Nantong Lianyungang Huai'an Yancheng Yangzhou Zhenjiang Tàizhou Suqian Zhejiang Hangzhou * Ningbo * Wenzhou Jiaxing Huzhou Shaoxing Jinhua Quzhou Zhoushan Tāizhou Lìshui Anhui Hefei * Wuhu Bengbu Huainan * Ma'anshan Huaibei Tongling Anqing Huangshan Chuzhou Fùyang Sùzhou Lu'an Bozhou Chizhou Xuancheng Fujian Fúzhou * Xiamen * Putian Sanming Quanzhou Zhangzhou Nanping Longyan Ningde Jiangxi Nanchang * Jingdezhen Píngxiang Jiujiang Xinyu Yingtan Ganzhou Jí'ān Yíchun Fǔzhou Shangrao Shandong Jinan * Qingdao * Zibo * Zaozhuang Dongying Yantai Weifang Jĭning Tai'an Weihai Rizhao Laiwu Linyi Dezhou Liaocheng Binzhou Heze Henan Zhengzhou * Kaifeng Luoyang * Pingdingshan Anyang Hebi Xinxiang Jiaozuo Puyang Xuchang Luohe Sanmenxia Nanyang Shangqiu Xinyang Zhoukou Zhumadian Hubei Wuhan * Huangshi Shiyan Yichang Xiangyang Ezhou Jingmen Xiaogan Jinzhou Huanggang Xianning Suizhou Hunan Changsha * Zhuzhou Xiangtan Hengyang Shaoyang Yueyang Changde Zhangjiajie Yiyang Chenzhou Yongzhou Huaihua Loudi Guangdong Guangzhou * Shaoguan Shenzhen * Zhuhai Shantou Foshan Jiangmen Zhanjiang Maoming Zhaoqing Huizhou Meizhou Shanwei Heyuan Yangjiang Qingyuan Dongguan Zhongshan Chaozhou Jieyang Yunfu Guangxi Nanning * Liuzhou Guilin Wuzhou Beihai Fangchenggang Qinzhou Guigang Yùlin Baise Hezhou Hechi Laibin Chongzuo Hainan Haikou * Sanya Sansha Danzhou Sichuan Chengdu * Zigong Panzhihua Luzhou Deyang Mianyang Guangyuan Suining Neijiang Leshan Nanchong Meishan Yibin Guang'an Dazhou Ya'an Bazhong Ziyang Guizhou Guiyang * Liupanshui Zunyi Anshun Bijie Tongren Yunnan Kunming * Qujing Yuxi Baoshan Zhaotong Lìjiang Pu'er Lincang Tibet Lhasa * Shigatse Chamdo Nyingchi Shannan Shaanxi Xi'an * Tongchuan Baoji Xianyang Weinan Yan'an Hanzhong Yúlin Ankang Shangluo Gansu Lanzhou * Jiayuguan Jinchang Baiyin Tianshui Wuwei Zhangye Pingliang Jiuquan Qingyang Dingxi Longnan Qinghai Xining * Haidong Ningxia Yinchuan * Shizuishan Wuzhong Guyuan Zhongwei Xinjiang Ürümqi * Karamay Turpan Hami Taiwan ( none ) Other cities ( partly shown below ) Prefecture - level capitals ( County - level ) ( Inner Mongolia : Ulanhot Xilinhot ) Jiagedaqi , Heilongjiang Enshi , Hubei Jishou , Hunan ( Sichuan : Xichang Kangding Barkam ) ( Guizhou : Xingyi Kaili Duyun ) ( Yunnan : Chuxiong Mengzi Wenshan Jinghong Dali Mangshi Shangri - La Lushui ) ( Gansu : Linxia Hezuo ) ( Qinghai : Yushu Delingha ) ( Xinjiang : Changji Bole Korla Yining Artux Aksu Kashgar Hotan Tacheng Altay ) Province - governed cities ( Sub-prefecture - level ) Jiyuan , Henan ( Hubei : Xiantao Qiánjiang Tianmen Shennongjia ) ( Hainan : Wuzhishan Qionghai Wenchang Wanning Dongfang ) ( Xinjiang - XPCC ( Bingtuan ) cities : Shihezi Aral Tumxuk Wujiaqu Beitun Tiemenguan Shuanghe Kokdala Kunyu ) Former Prefecture - level cities Chaohu , Anhui Yumen , Gansu Dongchuan , Yunnan Shashi , Hubei ( Sichuan : Fuling Wanxian ) ( Jilin : Meihekou Gongzhuling ) Sub-prefecture - level cities ( Prefecture - governed ) Qian'an , Hebei Manzhouli , Inner Mongolia Erenhot , Inner Mongolia Golmud , Qinghai County - level cities by Province Hebei Xinji Jinzhou Xinle Zunhua Qian'an * Wu'an Nangong Shahe Zhuozhou Dingzhou Anguo Gaobeidian Botou Renqiu Huanghua Hejian Bazhou Sanhe Shenzhou Shanxi Gujiao Lucheng Gaoping Jiexiu Yongji Hejin Yuanping Houma Huozhou Xiaoyi Fenyang Inner Mongolia Holingol Manzhouli * Yakeshi Zhalantun Ergun Genhe Fengzhen Ulanhot * Arxan Erenhot * Xilinhot * Liaoning Xinmin Wafangdian Zhuanghe Haicheng Donggang Fengcheng Linghai Beizhen Gaizhou Dashiqiao Dengta Diaobingshan Kaiyuan Beipiao Lingyuan Xingcheng Jilin Yushu Dehui Jiaohe Huadian Shulan Panshi Gongzhuling Shuangliao Meihekou Ji'an Linjiang Fuyu Taonan Da'an Yanji Tumen Dunhua Hunchun Longjing Helong Heilongjiang Shangzhi Wuchang Nehe Hulin Mishan Tieli Tongjiang Fujin Fuyuan Suifenhe Hailin Ning'an Muling Dongning Bei'an Wudalianchi Anda Zhaodong Hailun Jiangsu Jiangyin Yixing Xinyi Pizhou Liyang Changshu Zhangjiagang Kunshan Taicang Qidong Rugao Haimen Dongtai Yizheng Gaoyou Danyang Yangzhong Jurong Jingjiang Taixing Xinghua Zhejiang Jiande Lin'an Yuyao Cixi Fenghua Rui'an Yueqing Haining Pinghu Tongxiang Zhuji Shengzhou Lanxi Yiwu Dongyang Yongkang Jiangshan Wenling Linhai Longquan Anhui Chaohu Jieshou Tongcheng Tianchang Mingguang Ningguo Fujian Fuqing Changle Yong'an Shishi Jinjiang Nan'an Longhai Shaowu Wuyishan Jian'ou Zhangping Fu'an Fuding Jiangxi Leping Ruichang Gongqingcheng Lushan Guixi Ruijin Jinggangshan Fengcheng Zhangshu Gao'an Dexing Shandong Zhangqiu Jiaozhou Jimo Pingdu Laixi Tengzhou Longkou Laiyang Laizhou Penglai Zhaoyuan Qixia Haiyang Qingzhou Zhucheng Shouguang Anqiu Gaomi Changyi Qufu Zoucheng Xintai Feicheng Rongcheng Rushan Laoling Yucheng Linqing Henan Gongyi Xingyang Xinmi Xinzheng Dengfeng Yanshi Wugang Ruzhou Linzhou Weihui Huixian Qinyang Mengzhou Yuzhou Changge Yima Lingbao Dengzhou Yongcheng Xiangcheng Jiyuan * Hubei Daye Danjiangkou Yidu Dangyang Zhijiang Laohekou Zaoyang Yicheng Zhongxiang Yingcheng Anlu Hanchuan Shishou Honghu Songzi Macheng Wuxue Chibi Guangshui Enshi * Lichuan Xiantao * Qianjiang * Tianmen * Hunan Liuyang Liling Xiangxiang Shaoshan Leiyang Changning Wugang Miluo Linxiang Jinshi Yuanjiang Zixing Hongjiang Lengshuijiang Lianyuan Jishou * Guangdong Lechang Nanxiong Taishan Kaiping Heshan Enping Lianjiang Leizhou Wuchuan Gaozhou Huazhou Xinyi Sihui Xingning Lufeng Yangchun Yingde Lianzhou Puning Luoding Guangxi Cenxi Dongxing Guiping Beiliu Jingxi Yizhou Heshan Pingxiang Hainan Wuzhishan * Qionghai * Wenchang * Wanning * Dongfang * Sichuan Dujiangyan Pengzhou Qionglai Chongzhou Jianyang Guanghan Shifang Mianzhu Jiangyou Emeishan Langzhong Huaying Wanyuan Barkam * Kangding * Xichang * Guizhou Qingzhen Chishui Renhuai Xingyi * Kaili * Duyun * Fuquan Yunnan Anning Xuanwei Tengchong Chuxiong * Mengzi * Gejiu Kaiyuan Mile Wenshan * Jinghong * Dali * Ruili Mangshi * Lushui * Shangri - La * Tibet ( none ) Shaanxi Xingping Hancheng Huayin Gansu Yumen Dunhuang Linxia * Hezuo * Qinghai Yushu * Golmud * Delingha * Ningxia Lingwu Qingtongxia Xinjiang Changji * Fukang Bole * Alashankou Korla * Aksu * Artux * Kashgar * Hotan * Yining * Kuytun Korgas Tacheng * Wusu Altay * Shihezi * Aral * Tumxuk * Wujiaqu * Beitun * Tiemenguan * Shuanghe * Kokdala * Kunyu * Taiwan ( none ) Notes * Indicates this city has already occurred above . Direct - controlled Municipalities . Sub-provincial cities as provincial capitals . Separate state - planning cities . Special Economic Zone Cities . Coastal development cities . Prefecture capital status established by Heilongjiang Province and not recognized by Ministry of Civil Affairs . Disputed by Oroqen Autonomous Banner , Hulunbuir , Inner Mongolia as part of it . Only administers islands and waters in South China Sea and have no urban core comparable to typical cities in China . The claimed province of Taiwan no longer have any internal division announced by Ministry of Civil Affairs of PRC , due to lack of actual jurisdiction . See Template : Administrative divisions of the Republic of China instead . All provincial capitals are listed first in prefecture - level cities by province . Largest cities or towns in China Sixth National Population Census of the People 's Republic of China ( 2010 ) Rank Name Province Pop . Rank Name Province Pop . Shanghai Beijing Shanghai Shanghai 20,217,700 11 Foshan Guangdong 6,771,900 Chongqing Guangzhou Beijing Beijing 16,858,700 12 Nanjing Jiangsu 6,238,200 Chongqing Chongqing 12,389,500 13 Shenyang Liaoning 5,890,700 Guangzhou Guangdong 10,641,400 14 Hangzhou Zhejiang 5,849,500 5 Shenzhen Guangdong 10,358,400 15 Xi'an Shaanxi 5,399,300 6 Tianjin Tianjin 10,007,700 16 Harbin Heilongjiang 5,178,000 7 Wuhan Hubei 7,541,500 17 Dalian Liaoning 4,222,400 8 Dongguan Guangdong 7,271,300 18 Suzhou Jiangsu 4,083,900 9 Chengdu Sichuan 7,112,000 19 Qingdao Shandong 3,990,900 10 Hong Kong Hong Kong 7,055,071 20 Zhengzhou Henan 3,677,000 Capitals of Asia Dependent territories and states with limited recognition are in italics North and Central Asia South Asia Southeast Asia West and Southwest Asia Ashgabat , Turkmenistan Astana , Kazakhstan * Bishkek , Kyrgyzstan Dushanbe , Tajikistan Moscow , Russia * Tashkent , Uzbekistan East Asia Beijing , China Hong Kong , Hong Kong ( China ) Macau , Macau ( China ) Pyongyang , North Korea Seoul , South Korea Taipei , Taiwan ( ROC ) Tokyo , Japan Ulaanbaatar , Mongolia Kabul , Afghanistan Dhaka , Bangladesh Diego Garcia , BIOT ( UK ) Islamabad , Pakistan Kathmandu , Nepal Kotte / Colombo , Sri Lanka Malé , Maldives New Delhi , India Thimphu , Bhutan Bandar Seri Begawan , Brunei Bangkok , Thailand Dili , East Timor Flying Fish Cove , Christmas Island ( Australia ) Hanoi , Vietnam Jakarta , Indonesia * Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia Manila , Philippines Naypyidaw , Myanmar Phnom Penh , Cambodia Singapore Vientiane , Laos West Island , Cocos ( Keeling ) Islands ( Australia ) Abu Dhabi , United Arab Emirates Amman , Jordan Ankara , Turkey * Baghdad , Iraq Baku , Azerbaijan * Beirut , Lebanon Cairo , Egypt * Doha , Qatar Jerusalem , Israel / Palestine † Kuwait City , Kuwait Manama , Bahrain Muscat , Oman Nicosia , Cyprus * North Nicosia , Northern Cyprus * Riyadh , Saudi Arabia Sana'a , Yemen Stepanakert , Artsakh * Sukhumi , Abkhazia * Tbilisi , Georgia * Tehran , Iran Tskhinvali , South Ossetia * Yerevan , Armenia * * Transcontinental country . † Disputed . See : Positions on Jerusalem . Summer Olympic Games host cities 1896 : Athens 1900 : Paris 1904 : St. Louis 1908 : London 1912 : Stockholm 1916 : None 1920 : Antwerp 1924 : Paris 1928 : Amsterdam 1932 : Los Angeles 1936 : Berlin 1940 : None 1944 : None 1948 : London 1952 : Helsinki 1956 : Melbourne 1960 : Rome 1964 : Tokyo 1968 : Mexico City 1972 : Munich 1976 : Montreal 1980 : Moscow 1984 : Los Angeles 1988 : Seoul 1992 : Barcelona 1996 : Atlanta 2000 : Sydney 2004 : Athens 2008 : Beijing 2012 : London 2016 : Rio de Janeiro 2020 : Tokyo 2024 : Paris 2028 : Los Angeles Cancelled due to World War I ; Cancelled due to World War II Summer Paralympic Games host cities 1960 : Rome 1964 : Tokyo 1968 : Tel Aviv 1972 : Heidelberg 1976 : Toronto 1980 : Arnhem 1984 : New York City / Stoke Mandeville 1988 : Seoul 1992 : Barcelona / Madrid 1996 : Atlanta 2000 : Sydney 2004 : Athens 2008 : Beijing 2012 : London 2016 : Rio de Janeiro 2020 : Tokyo 2024 : Paris 2028 : Los Angeles Winter Olympic Games host cities 1924 : Chamonix 1928 : St. Moritz 1932 : Lake Placid 1936 : Garmisch - Partenkirchen 1940 : Cancelled due to World War II 1944 : Cancelled due to World War II 1948 : St. Moritz 1952 : Oslo 1956 : Cortina d'Ampezzo 1960 : Squaw Valley 1964 : Innsbruck 1968 : Grenoble 1972 : Sapporo 1976 : Innsbruck 1980 : Lake Placid 1984 : Sarajevo 1988 : Calgary 1992 : Albertville 1994 : Lillehammer 1998 : Nagano 2002 : Salt Lake City 2006 : Turin 2010 : Vancouver 2014 : Sochi 2018 : Pyeongchang 2022 : Beijing 2026 : TBD 2030 : TBD Winter Paralympic Games host cities 1976 : Örnsköldsvik 1980 : Geilo 1984 : Innsbruck 1988 : Innsbruck 1992 : Albertville 1994 : Lillehammer 1998 : Nagano 2002 : Salt Lake City 2006 : Turin 2010 : Vancouver 2014 : Sochi 2018 : PyeongChang 2022 : Beijing Host cities of Asian Games Summer 1951 : Delhi 1954 : Manila 1958 : Tokyo 1962 : Jakarta 1966 : Bangkok 1970 : Bangkok 1974 : Tehran 1978 : Bangkok 1982 : Delhi 1986 : Seoul 1990 : Beijing 1994 : Hiroshima 1998 : Bangkok 2002 : Busan 2006 : Doha 2010 : Guangzhou 2014 : Incheon 2018 : Jakarta / Palembang 2022 : Hangzhou Winter 1986 : Sapporo 1990 : Sapporo 1996 : Harbin 1999 : Kangwon 2003 : Aomori 2007 : Changchun 2011 : Astana - Almaty 2017 : Sapporo Host cities of the IAAF World Championships in Athletics 1983 : Helsinki 1987 : Rome 1991 : Tokyo 1993 : Stuttgart 1995 : Gothenburg 1997 : Athens 1999 : Seville 2001 : Edmonton 2003 : Saint - Denis 2005 : Helsinki 2007 : Osaka 2009 : Berlin 2011 : Daegu 2013 : Moscow 2015 : Beijing 2017 : London 2019 : Doha 2021 : Eugene World 's twenty most populous metropolitan areas 1 Tokyo - Yokohama 2 Shanghai 3 Jakarta 4 Delhi 5 Seoul - Incheon 6 Karachi 7 Guangzhou 8 Beijing 9 Shenzhen 7 Mexico City 11 São Paulo 12 Lagos 13 Mumbai 14 Cairo 15 New York 16 Osaka 17 Moscow 18 Wuhan 19 Chengdu 20 Dhaka World 's fifty most - populous urban areas Tokyo -- Yokohama ( Keihin ) Jakarta ( Jabodetabek ) Delhi Manila ( Metro Manila ) Seoul -- Incheon ( Sudogwon ) Shanghai Karachi Beijing New York City Guangzhou -- Foshan ( Guangfo ) São Paulo Mexico City ( Valley of Mexico ) Mumbai Osaka -- Kobe -- Kyoto ( Keihanshin ) Moscow Dhaka Greater Cairo Los Angeles Bangkok Kolkata Greater Buenos Aires Tehran Istanbul Lagos Shenzhen Rio de Janeiro Kinshasa Tianjin Paris Lima Chengdu Greater London Nagoya ( Chūkyō ) Lahore Chennai Bangalore Chicago Bogotá Ho Chi Minh City Hyderabad Dongguan Johannesburg Wuhan Taipei - Taoyuan Hangzhou Hong Kong Chongqing Ahmedabad Kuala Lumpur ( Klang Valley ) Quanzhou VIAF : 312565158 LCCN : n79076155 GND : 4075971 - 4 BNF : cb11957264c ( data ) NDL : 00646810 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Beijing&oldid=838137684 '' Categories : Beijing Capitals in Asia Metropolitan areas of China North China Plain Hidden categories : Articles containing Chinese - language text CS1 uses Chinese - language script ( zh ) CS1 Chinese - language sources ( zh ) Articles with Chinese - language external links Webarchive template wayback links All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from December 2017 Articles with permanently dead external links Wikipedia pages semi-protected against vandalism Use dmy dates from March 2018 Coordinates on Wikidata Interlanguage link template link number Articles with hAudio microformats Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2016 All articles containing potentially dated statements Pages using div col with deprecated parameters Articles needing cleanup from October 2017 All pages needing cleanup Wikipedia list cleanup from October 2017 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2010 Articles needing additional references from October 2017 All articles needing additional references Pages using div col without cols and colwidth parameters Articles containing potentially dated statements from January 2013 Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Articles containing video clips Articles including recorded pronunciations Talk View source Contents About Wikipedia Wikibooks Wikinews Wikiquote Wikivoyage Acèh Адыгабзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Ænglisc Aragonés Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bamanankan বাংলা Bahasa Banjar Bân - 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The Divergent Series - Wikipedia The Divergent Series Jump to : navigation , search For the book series on which the film series is based , see Divergent trilogy . For the mathematical use , see Divergent series . The Divergent Series Produced by Lucy Fisher Douglas Wick Pouya Shabazian Based on The Divergent trilogy by Veronica Roth Starring Shailene Woodley Theo James Zoë Kravitz Miles Teller Ansel Elgort Production company Red Wagon Entertainment Summit Entertainment Distributed by Summit Entertainment Lionsgate Release date 1 : March 21 , 2014 ( 2014 - 03 - 21 ) 2 : 000000002015 - 03 - 20 - 0000 March 20 , 2015 3 : 000000002016 - 03 - 18 - 0000 March 18 , 2016 4 : Cancelled Running time 379 minutes ( 3 films ) Country United States Language English Budget Total ( 3 films ) : $305 million Box office Total ( 3 films ) : $765,409,015 The Divergent Series is a feature film trilogy based on the Divergent novels by the American author Veronica Roth . Distributed by Summit Entertainment and Lionsgate Films , the series consists of three science fiction films set in a dystopian society . They have been produced by Lucy Fisher , Pouya Shabazian , and Douglas Wick . The series star Shailene Woodley and Theo James as lead characters Beatrice Prior ( Tris ) and Tobias Eaton ( Four ) , respectively . The supporting cast includes Ansel Elgort , Zoë Kravitz , and Miles Teller . Kate Winslet played the main antagonist in the first two films . The first film in the series was directed by Neil Burger , while the second and third films were directed by Robert Schwentke . The Veronica Roth novels consist primarily of the trilogy ( ' Divergent ' , ' Insurgent ' , ' Allegiant ' ) . Development began in 2011 following Summit 's acquisition of the film rights to the Divergent novel in partnership with production company Red Wagon Entertainment . The studios announced production on the sequel following the first film 's strong performance in Thursday late - night screenings , where it grossed $4.9 million . They acquired film rights to the Allegiant novel in December 2013 , deciding in April 2014 to split the third novel into a two - part film adaptation . The first installment , Divergent ( 2014 ) , grossed over $288 million worldwide , while the second installment , The Divergent Series : Insurgent ( 2015 ) , grossed over $297 million worldwide . Insurgent was also the first Divergent film to be released in IMAX 3D . The third installment , The Divergent Series : Allegiant ( 2016 ) , grossed $179 million . Thus , the first three films of the series have grossed over $765 million worldwide . A fourth film , The Divergent Series : Ascendant was never made , due to Allegiant 's poor showing at the box office . Contents ( hide ) 1 Development 1.1 Casting the main roles 2 Production 2.1 Directors 2.2 Scripts 2.3 Cast 2.4 Filming 2.5 Music 3 Plot 3.1 Divergent ( 2014 ) 3.2 The Divergent Series : Insurgent ( 2015 ) 3.3 The Divergent Series : Allegiant ( 2016 ) 3.4 Cancelled film 3.5 Ascendant ( TV series ) 4 Recurring cast and characters 5 Crew 6 Reception 6.1 Box office performance 6.2 Critical and public response 7 See also 8 References 9 External links Development ( edit ) In March 2011 , Summit Entertainment picked up the rights for Divergent with Douglas Wick and Lucy Fisher 's production company Red Wagon Entertainment , while Lionsgate distributes the franchise . Neil Burger was announced as the director on August 23 , 2012 . Evan Daugherty , who co-wrote the screenplay with Vanessa Taylor , said , `` I get hung up on the toughness of the movie but of equal importance is the love story between Tris and Four . It 's inherently and inextricably linked to Tris ' character journey . There will be plenty of sexual tension and chemistry , but it 's important that all of that stuff does n't just feel like it 's thrown in , but that it all helps Tris grow as a character . '' Daugherty further added , `` It 's tricky because the book is a very packed read with a lot of big ideas . So , distilling that into a cool , faithful two - hour movie is challenging . Not only do you have to establish five factions , but you have to acknowledge that there 's a sixth entity , which is the divergent , and you also have the factionless . So there 's a world that really has to be built out for the big screen ... the movie is going to do it a little more efficiently . '' Author Veronica Roth said about the script of the film : `` Reading a script is a really interesting experience . I 'd never read a script before . I was really impressed by how closely it stuck to the general plot line of the book . '' Initially , the budget of the film was $40 million but later Lionsgate increased it to $80 million ( which finally changed to $85 million ) due to the success of The Hunger Games . Analyst Ben Mogil said , `` Divergent is more similar to Hunger Games in that the company owns the underlying economics ( i.e. production ) and the budget ( at $80 ( million ) ) is more manageable . '' In December 2013 , Summit Entertainment announced that a film adaptation of Insurgent , the second novel in the Divergent trilogy , would be released as The Divergent Series : Insurgent on March 20 , 2015 , as a sequel to the film adaptation of Divergent with Brian Duffield originally chosen to write the script for the film . On December 16 , 2013 , it was announced that Neil Burger , director of Divergent , would not return to direct Insurgent as he was still working on the first film . On February 13 , 2014 , it was announced that Robert Schwentke was offered the director position for the film and that Akiva Goldsman had been hired to re-write Duffield 's script . Also in December 2013 , Summit Entertainment announced that the film adaptation of Allegiant , the third and final novel in the Divergent trilogy , would be released in March 2016 , serving as the finale of the series , which at the time was planned as a trilogy , but on April 11 , 2014 , the studio decided to split the novel into a two - part film , much the like the Harry Potter , Twilight , and Hunger Games franchises did with the finales of their series . Lionsgate Motion Picture Group co-chairmen Rob Friedman and Patrick Wachsberger said in a statement that , `` Veronica Roth brings her captivating story to a masterful conclusion in ' Allegiant , ' a rich , action - packed book with material that is ideally suited to two strong and fulfilling movies . The storytelling arc and world of the characters lend themselves perfectly to two films , a storytelling strategy that has worked very well for us on the two Twilight Breaking Dawn films and about which we 're tremendously enthusiastic for the two upcoming Mockingjay films of The Hunger Games franchise '' . Noah Oppenheim was announced as the screenwriter for the first part of the Allegiant adaptation on July 9 , 2014 . On December 5 , 2014 , it was announced that Robert Schwentke will return to direct Part 1 . On September 10 , 2015 , it was announced that the two films would be re-titled , with Part 1 being renamed as The Divergent Series : Allegiant and Part 2 as The Divergent Series : Ascendant . Casting the main roles ( edit ) Shailene Woodley ( left ) and Theo James ( right ) at the Divergent LA Premiere on March 18 , 2014 . On October 22 , 2012 , it was announced that Shailene Woodley had landed the lead role of Beatrice `` Tris '' Prior . Lucas Till , Jack Reynor , Jeremy Irvine , Alex Pettyfer , Brenton Thwaites , Alexander Ludwig and Luke Bracey were all considered for the role of Tobias `` Four '' Eaton . On March 15 , 2013 , it was announced that Theo James had been cast as Four . Though James was 10 years older than the character when cast , Roth praised his casting `` I was sure within seconds : this was ' Four ' , no question . Theo is able to capture ' Four 's ' authority and strength , as well as his depth and sensitivity . '' She also mentions the chemistry between him and Shailene : `` He is a perfect match for Shailene 's incredibly strong presence as Tris . I 'm thrilled ! '' The producers said about his casting : `` We took our time to find the right actor to fill the role of Four , and Theo is definitely the perfect fit . Veronica has crafted a truly iconic character in Four and we can not wait to begin production and bring him and this story to life for millions of fans around the world . '' Production ( edit ) Filming for the franchise began on April 16 , 2013 . Film Producers Director Screenwriters Novel by Veronica Roth Divergent Fisher , Lucy Lucy Fisher Douglas Wick Pouya Shabazian Burger , Neil Neil Burger Evan Daugherty Vanessa Taylor Divergent The Divergent Series : Insurgent Schwentke , Robert Robert Schwentke Akiva Goldsman Brian Duffield Insurgent The Divergent Series : Allegiant Noah Oppenheim Adam Cooper Bill Collage Allegiant The Divergent Series : Ascendant Lee Toland Krieger Lucy Fisher , Douglas Wick , and Pouya Shabazian have been producers for all four films in the series . Veronica Roth and Neil Burger have acted as executive producers on the first two films . Summit Entertainment and Lionsgate collaborated on all four films . On April 11 , 2014 , the studio decided to split the final book , Allegiant , into two parts , much like Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Parts 1 and 2 , The Twilight Saga : Breaking Dawn -- Parts 1 and 2 , and The Hunger Games : Mockingjay -- Parts 1 and 2 . Directors ( edit ) Neil Burger directed the first film , Divergent , and was originally going to direct the sequel , The Divergent Series : Insurgent , but in December 2013 it was announced that Burger would not return , due to him still working on post-production work for the first film . Speaking on the subject the director stated , `` There was no breathing room . They were like , ' We 're holding to a March 2015 release date , and we have to start no later than May 2014 . ' It was a recipe for failure , at least with me on board . I would n't be able to do either thing right . I reluctantly let it go '' . In February 2014 , it was confirmed that Robert Schwentke would direct the sequel instead . On December 5 , 2014 , it was announced that Schwentke would return for The Divergent Series : Allegiant . Scripts ( edit ) Snow White and the Huntsman screenwriter Evan Daugherty and Hope Springs screenwriter Vanessa Taylor co-wrote the screenplay for Divergent . During the time that Neil Burger was originally going to direct the sequel , Brian Duffield was recruited to write the screenplay for The Divergent Series : Insurgent , but after Burger dropped out of the film and Robert Schwentke took over as director , he brought in Akiva Goldsman and Mark Bomback to rewrite Duffield 's script . The screenplay for the two - part finale , The Divergent Series : Allegiant and Ascendant , was written by Noah Oppenheim , Adam Cooper , Bill Collage , and Stephen Chbosky . Cast ( edit ) On March 11 , 2013 , it was announced that the roles of Tori , Christina , and Caleb had gone to Maggie Q , Zoë Kravitz , and Ansel Elgort , respectively . Ray Stevenson , Jai Courtney and Aaron Eckhart were announced to be in talks to join the cast on March 15 , 2013 , Stevenson and Courtney joined the cast as Marcus Eaton and Eric , respectively . That same day , Miles Teller was cast as Peter . The studio 's announcement included a bit of casting news : Mekhi Phifer will play Dauntless leader Max . Kate Winslet was announced to be in talks on January 24 , 2013 . Later it was confirmed that she would portray Jeanine Matthews . Talking about playing the negative character for the first time , Winslet said , `` I 'm no idiot . The idea went through my head that I have never played a baddie before , I was almost kind of surprised . '' Since Winslet joined the filming late , she used that distance from her co-stars to appear aloof on the first day of her shoot . `` I wanted to break it and say , ' It 's OK , I 'm really fun . I promise . ' But I thought , just for today , I 'd let them think that I am a complete bitch . '' On March 25 , 2013 , Ben Lamb was cast as Edward , Ben Lloyd - Hughes as Will , and Christian Madsen as Al . In April 2013 , Ashley Judd and Tony Goldwyn joined the cast as Natalie and Andrew Prior , Beatrice 's parents . In 2014 , the cast for the second film was announced . On May 12 , 2014 , it was announced that Octavia Spencer joined the cast as Amity representative Johanna Reyes . Late May 2014 , Suki Waterhouse and Jonny Weston were cast as Marlene and Edgar respectively . Early June 2014 , Stephanie Leigh Schlund announced that she was cast in the film as a member of the Amity , and Naomi Watts and Daniel Dae Kim joined the cast as Evelyn Johnson and Jack Kang . On June 9 , 2014 , Rosa Salazar joined the cast as Lynn . On June 10 , 2014 , Australian actor Keiynan Lonsdale joined the cast as Uriah . On June 11 , 2014 , Emjay Anthony joined the cast as Hector . On April 28 , 2015 , it was reported that Golden Globe nominee Jeff Daniels joined the cast for Allegiant as David , the leader of the Bureau of Genetic Welfare . On May 1 , 2015 , it was announced that Bill Skarsgård had joined the cast as Matthew . Filming ( edit ) Principal photography of Divergent began on April 16 , 2013 , and concluded on July 16 , 2013 . Almost all of the filming took place in Chicago with reshoots taking place from January 24 -- 26 , 2014 , in Los Angeles . Principal photography for The Divergent Series : Insurgent began on May 27 , 2014 , in Atlanta , Georgia and concluded on September 6 , 2014 . Filming took place at United States Penitentiary , Atlanta . A set was constructed for the Amity Compound at Serenbe Community South of Atlanta . In downtown Atlanta , a zip - line scene was filmed for which a set was constructed on the roof of Peachtree Center . For two days , production was moved to Chicago with scenes being filmed in Wells Street , Franklin Street , and Adams Street . Production was then moved back to Atlanta for reshoots . Principal photography for The Divergent Series : Allegiant began in Atlanta on May 18 , 2015 , with filming concluding on August 23 , 2015 . Music ( edit ) Junkie XL scored the first film in the film series , Divergent , while Joseph Trapanese scored the second and third entries , Insurgent and Allegiant . Plot ( edit ) Divergent ( 2014 ) ( edit ) Main article : Divergent ( film ) In a world where people are divided into distinct factions based on human virtues , Tris Prior is warned she is Divergent and will never fit into any one group . When she discovers a conspiracy by a faction leader to destroy all Divergents , Tris must learn to trust in the mysterious Four and together they must find out what makes being Divergent so dangerous before it 's too late . The Divergent Series : Insurgent ( 2015 ) ( edit ) Main article : The Divergent Series : Insurgent As they search for allies and answers in the wake of the uprising , Tris and Four are on the run . Hunted by Jeanine Matthews , leader of the Erudite faction , Tris and Four race against time as they try to figure out what Abnegation sacrificed their lives to protect , and why the Erudite leaders will do anything to stop them . Haunted by her past choices but desperate to protect the ones she loves , Tris faces one impossible challenge after another as she unlocks the truth about the past and ultimately the future of her world . The Divergent Series : Allegiant ( 2016 ) ( edit ) Main article : The Divergent Series : Allegiant On December 16 , 2013 , Summit Entertainment announced that the film adaptation of Allegiant would be released on March 18 , 2016 . On April 11 , 2014 , Lionsgate announced that the film adaptation would be split into two films with the first part titled , The Divergent Series : Allegiant -- Part 1 . The film was then re-titled as The Divergent Series : Allegiant . Tris must escape with Four and go beyond the wall enclosing Chicago . For the first time ever , they will leave the only city and family they have ever known in order to find a peaceful solution for their embroiled city . Once outside , old discoveries are quickly rendered meaningless with the revelation of shocking new truths . Tris must quickly decide who she can trust as a ruthless battle ignites beyond the walls of Chicago . In order to survive , Tris will be forced to make impossible choices about courage , allegiance , sacrifice and love . Cancelled film ( edit ) A Third sequel to the film was initially planned , with a March 2017 release , based on the latter half of the Allegiant book . The timing was changed to a June 2017 release , with Lee Toland Krieger then attached as the movie 's director . Ascendant ( TV Series ) ( edit ) In July 2016 , after the poor performance of the third film at the box office , the producers considered creating the fourth as a television film , which would add new characters to the story who could continue in a spinoff television series , moving beyond the books . In September 2016 , Shailene Woodley stated on Today that the film versus television decision was not finalized , and that it was `` a limbo waiting game '' . In the same interview Woodley spoke despairingly of the chances of her returning to the project in a television format , although noting she would be open to returning to it as a theatrical film . In February 2017 , with the producers having confirmed that it would be a television project , it was announced that Woodley had backed out of her starring role . In August 2017 , Starz and Lionsgate Television announced that they were beginning to develop the TV series . Recurring cast and characters ( edit ) See also : List of Divergent characters Character Films Divergent ( 2014 ) The Divergent Series : Insurgent ( 2015 ) The Divergent Series : Allegiant ( 2016 ) The Divergent Series : Ascendant ( TBA ) Beatrice `` Tris '' Prior Shailene Woodley TBA Tobias `` Four '' Eaton Theo James TBA Christina Zoë Kravitz TBA Peter Hayes Miles Teller TBA Caleb Prior Ansel Elgort TBA Marcus Eaton Ray Stevenson Tori Wu Maggie Q Jeanine Matthews Kate Winslet Natalie Prior Ashley Judd Eric Coulter Jai Courtney Max Mekhi Phifer Will Ben Lloyd - Hughes Andrew Prior Tony Goldwyn Lauren Justine Wachsberger Evelyn Johnson - Eaton Naomi Watts TBA Johanna Reyes Octavia Spencer Uriah Pedrad Keiynan Lonsdale Edgar Jonny Weston David Jeff Daniels TBA Matthew Bill Skarsgård TBA Al Christian Madsen Molly Amy Newbold Edward Ben Lamb Jack Kang Daniel Dae Kim Marlene Suki Waterhouse Lynn Rosa Salazar Hector Emjay Anthony Edith Prior Janet McTeer Crew ( edit ) Occupation Films Divergent ( 2014 ) The Divergent Series : Insurgent ( 2015 ) The Divergent Series : Allegiant ( 2016 ) The Divergent Series : Ascendant ( TBA ) Director Neil Burger Robert Schwentke Lee Toland Krieger Producer ( s ) Douglas Wick Lucy Fisher Pouya Shabazian N / A Writer ( s ) Evan Daugherty Vanessa Taylor Brian Duffield Akiva Goldsman Mark Bomback Noah Oppenheim Adam Cooper Bill Collage Based on Divergent by Veronica Roth Insurgent by Veronica Roth Allegiant by Veronica Roth Composer Junkie XL Joseph Trapanese N / A Cinematographer Alwin H. Küchler Florian Ballhaus Editor ( s ) Richard Francis - Bruce Nancy Richardson Nancy Richardson Stuart Levy Stuart Levy N / A Production companies Red Wagon Entertainment Summit Entertainment Red Wagon Entertainment Summit Entertainment Mandeville Films Red Wagon Entertainment Mandeville Films N / A Distributor Lionsgate Summit Entertainment N / A Running time 139 minutes 119 minutes 121 minutes TBA Release date March 21 , 2014 March 20 , 2015 March 18 , 2016 TBA Reception ( edit ) Further information on the reception of each film : Divergent ( film ) § Reception , The Divergent Series : Insurgent § Reception , and The Divergent Series : Allegiant § Reception Though the first two films were commercially successful , the series as a whole has not been well received by critics . Each successive film release has been rated lower than the previous release on review aggregator websites . Negative reviews of the third novel Allegiant and the studios ' decision to split it into two films have been blamed for the third film 's lackluster performance at the box office . Box office performance ( edit ) Film Release date Budget Box office gross Box office ranking Ref ( s ) North America Other territories Worldwide All time North America All time worldwide Divergent March 21 , 2014 ( 2014 - 03 - 21 ) $85 million $150,947,895 $137,937,923 $288,885,818 # 283 # 375 The Divergent Series : Insurgent March 20 , 2015 ( 2015 - 03 - 20 ) $110 million $130,179,072 $167,097,257 $297,276,329 # 392 # 372 The Divergent Series : Allegiant March 18 , 2016 ( 2016 - 03 - 18 ) $110 million $66,184,051 $113,062,817 $179,246,868 # 1,088 # TBA Total $305 million $347,311,018 $418,097,997 $765,409,015 Critical and public response ( edit ) Film Rotten Tomatoes Metacritic CinemaScore Divergent 41 % ( 203 reviews ) 48 ( 38 reviews ) The Divergent Series : Insurgent 28 % ( 184 reviews ) 42 ( 40 reviews ) A - The Divergent Series : Allegiant 12 % ( 171 reviews ) 33 ( 33 reviews ) See also ( edit ) 2010s portal Film in the United States portal Science fiction portal References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` Summit Entertainment 's Post - ' Twilight ' Plans Are ' Divergent ' '' . Retrieved June 6 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` ' Divergent ' Debuts to $4.9 Million , Lionsgate Greenlights ' Insurgent ' '' . Retrieved May 27 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Lionsgate Splitting Third ' Divergent ' Book ' Allegiant ' into Two Films , Allegiant ( 2016 ) and Ascendant ( 2017 ) '' . Variety . Jump up ^ `` Divergent ( 2014 ) '' . Box Office Mojo . IMDB . March 21 , 2014 . Retrieved October 2 , 2014 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Divergent Series : Insurgent ( 2015 ) '' . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved March 22 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` ' The Divergent Series : Insurgent ' to Open in 3D ; See the New Motion Posters '' . Retrieved October 28 , 2014 . Jump up ^ White , James ( August 23 , 2012 ) . `` Neil Burger Wants To Be Divergent '' . Empire . Retrieved May 24 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` ' Divergent ' Movie Scoop : Screenwriter Evan Daugherty Spills on the Adaptation '' . Retrieved June 8 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` ' Game of Thrones ' writer Vanessa Taylor joins ' Divergent ' to co-write script '' . Retrieved July 20 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Christina Radish ( May 2013 ) . `` Author Veronica Roth Talks DIVERGENT , the Film 's Casting , How Neil Burger 's Vision Compares to Her Own , the Final Book ALLEGIANT , and More '' . Archived from the original on 2013 - 06 - 19 . Retrieved June 6 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Vlessing , Etan ( March 13 , 2013 ) . `` Analysts Boost Lionsgate Price Target on ' Ender 's Game ' , ' Divergent ' Prospects '' . reelchicago.com . Retrieved June 8 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Trumbore , Dave ( December 16 , 2013 ) . `` Summit Sets Release Dates for DIVERGENT Threequel ALLEGIANT , Plus GODS OF EGYPT and STEP UP ALL IN '' . Collider.com . Retrieved December 17 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Trumbore , Dave ( May 7 , 2013 ) . `` Summit Sets Brian Duffield to Pen DIVERGENT Sequel , INSURGENT '' . Collider.com . Retrieved September 3 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Divergent Sequel Insurgent Adaptation Gets A Writer '' . Retrieved September 3 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` ' Divergent ' Director Neil Burger Wo n't Do Sequel ( EXCLUSIVE ) '' . Retrieved December 17 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` Robert Schwentke To Direct ' Divergent ' Sequel ' Insurgent ' '' . Retrieved February 13 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Summit announces director for ' Divergent ' sequel '' . Retrieved February 13 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Dave McNary . `` Lionsgate Splitting Third ' Divergent ' Book ' Allegiant ' into Two Films '' . Variety . Jump up ^ `` ' Divergent ' Threequel ' Allegiant ' Taps ' Maze Runner ' Writer ( Exclusive ) '' . Jump up ^ `` ' Insurgent ' Director Robert Schwentke Returning for ' Allegiant Part 1 ′ ( EXCLUSIVE ) '' . Variety . ^ Jump up to : Mia Galuppo ( September 10 , 2015 ) . `` Final Two ' Divergent ' Films Get New Titles , Logos '' . The Hollywood Reporter . ( Prometheus Global Media ) . Retrieved September 11 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Shailene Woodley Talks ' Divergent ' Movie Casting '' . Retrieved June 8 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Who Has ' Divergent ' Chemistry With Shailene Woodley ? '' . Retrieved June 8 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Kit , Borys . `` Jack Reynor Lands Starring Role in ' Transformers 4 ' '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved June 8 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` ' Divergent ' has found its ' Four ' ! Theo James talks about starring in the next big YA franchise '' . Retrieved June 8 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Veronica Roth and Lionsgate Movie Studio Respond to Theo James Casting in The Divergent Movie '' . Retrieved June 8 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` ' Divergent ' Director Neil Burger Explains Why He Wo n't Return for the Sequel '' . Jump up ^ `` ' Insurgent ' Director Robert Schwentke to Return for ' Allegiant : Part 1 ' '' . Retrieved December 5 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` ' Divergent ' movie casts Tori , Caleb , and Christina roles '' . Hypable . Jump up ^ White , James ( March 15 , 2013 ) . `` Aaron Eckhart May Be Divergent '' . Empire . Retrieved May 24 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` ' Die Hard 5 ' star Jai Courtney joins Shailene Woodley in ' Divergent ' '' . Retrieved June 8 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Follow - up : Miles Teller will play Peter in ' Divergent ' movie '' . Jump up ^ White , James ( January 24 , 2013 ) . `` Kate Winslet May Be Divergent '' . Empire . Retrieved May 24 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Kate Winslet cast in young adult film ' Divergent '' . Daily News ( New York ) . Retrieved June 8 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Alexander , Bryan . `` On set of ' Divergent , ' Kate Winslet is pregnant and mean '' . USA Today . Retrieved June 8 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Divergent Movie Casts Al , Edward And Will '' . Jump up ^ `` ' Divergent ' : Ashley Judd cast as Natalie Prior '' . Jump up ^ `` Tony Goldwyn joins ' Divergent ' -- EXCLUSIVE '' . Jump up ^ `` Octavia Spencer joins Insurgent '' . Retrieved June 4 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` ' Insurgent ' casts Suki Waterhouse , Jonny Weston ( updated ) '' . Retrieved June 4 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` ' Hunger Games ' actress Stephanie L. Schlund joins ' Insurgent ' '' . Retrieved June 11 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Naomi Watts Joins ' Insurgent , ' Two ' Allegiant ' Films ( Exclusive ) '' . Retrieved June 4 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` ' Insurgent ' : Daniel Dae Kim joins cast '' . Retrieved June 6 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` ' Parenthood ' Actress Rosa Salazar Joins ' Insurgent ' ( Exclusive ) '' . Retrieved June 10 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` ' Divergent ' Sequel ' Insurgent ' Casts Keiynan Lonsdale As Uriah '' . Retrieved June 11 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` ' Chef ' Actor Emjay Anthony Joins ' Insurgent ' Cast '' . Retrieved June 12 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Kit , Borys ( 28 April 2015 ) . `` Jeff Daniels Joining ' Divergent ' Series in Key Role ( Exclusive ) '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved 19 May 2015 . Jump up ^ Sneider , Jeff ; Ge , Linda ( 1 May 2015 ) . `` Hemlock Groves Bill Skarsgard to join Shailene Woodley in Divergent sequel Allegiant exclusive '' . The Wrap . Retrieved 19 May 2015 . Jump up ^ `` ' Divergent ' Sequel ' Insurgent ' Starts Filming in Atlanta May 27th ! '' . Retrieved 27 May 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Todd Lieberman Offers Updates on ALLEGIANT and Disney 's BEAUTY AND THE BEAST '' . Collider . Retrieved March 27 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` How to Audition for a Role on ' The Divergent : Allegiant Part 1 ′ '' . Retrieved March 27 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Zakarin , Jordan ( 11 April 2014 ) . `` ' Divergent ' Finale ' Allegiant ' Will Be Split Into Two Movies '' . thewrap.com . Retrieved 11 April 2014 . Jump up ^ McNary , Dave ( December 17 , 2015 ) . `` ' Power Rangers , ' Final ' Divergent ' Movie 's Release Dates Moved Back '' . Variety . Retrieved December 19 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` ' Divergent ' Finale to Skip Theaters , Launch as a TV Movie and Spinoff Series ( EXCLUSIVE ) '' . Variety . July 20 , 2016 . Retrieved July 21 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` The Divergent Series : Ascendant Movie ( Pre-Production ) : Dec. 29 , 2016 - added Lionsgate as a distributor '' . Movie Insider . Jump up ^ `` Lionsgate Offers Confident Outlook for ' Divergent ' TV Spinoff : ' There 's a Tremendous Fandom ' '' . variety . August 4 , 2016 . Retrieved 26 August 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` Shailene Woodley on Divergent Finale Ascendant : We 're in `` Limbo '' `` . September 12 , 2016 . Retrieved February 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Shailene Woodley Has Officially Exited The ' Divergent ' Franchise '' . Uproxx . February 8 , 2017 . Retrieved February 8 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Andreeva , Nellie ( 2 August 2017 ) . `` ' Ascendant ' : TV Series Based On the ' Divergent ' Movie Franchise In Works At Starz From Lionsgate '' . Deadline . Jump up ^ `` Divergent ( 2014 ) '' . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved July 1 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` The Divergent Series : Allegiant ( 2016 ) '' . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved March 25 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Divergent at the Box Office '' . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved March 29 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Divergent ( 2014 ) '' . Rotten Tomatoes . Flixster . Retrieved July 1 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Divergent : Reviews ( 2014 ) '' . Metacritic . CBS Interactive . Retrieved 2014 - 03 - 17 . Jump up ^ `` ' Divergent ' Scores $56 Million Box - Office Opening , ' A ' CinemaScore -- And a Franchise Is Born ( Video ) '' . Retrieved March 22 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Insurgent ( 2015 ) '' . Rotten Tomatoes . Flixster . Retrieved July 1 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` The Divergent Series : Insurgent -- Reviews ( 2015 ) '' . Metacritic . CBS Interactive . Retrieved March 19 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Box Office : YA Sequel ' Insurgent ' Tops Friday With $21.3 Million ; ' The Gunman ' Flops '' . Retrieved March 22 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` The Divergent Series : Allegiant ( 2016 ) '' . Rotten Tomatoes . Flixster . Retrieved July 1 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` The Divergent Series : Allegiant -- Reviews ( 2016 ) '' . Metacritic . CBS Interactive . Jump up ^ Anthony D'Alessandro ( March 18 , 2016 ) . `` ' Allegiant ' Posts Lowest Opening In ' Divergent Series ' : Was It Wise To Split The Last Novel Into Two Movies ? '' . Deadline.com . Retrieved March 19 , 2016 . External links ( edit ) Official website Divergent on IMDb Divergent at AllMovie Divergent at Box Office Mojo Divergent at Metacritic Divergent at Rotten Tomatoes ( hide ) Divergent series by Veronica Roth Book series Divergent Insurgent Allegiant Film series Divergent The Divergent Series : Insurgent The Divergent Series : Allegiant Music Divergent : Original Motion Picture Soundtrack The Divergent Series : Insurgent -- Original Motion Picture Soundtrack Spin - offs Four : A Divergent Collection `` Free Four '' The World of Divergent : The Path to Allegiant Other Characters Factions Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Divergent_Series&oldid=837818050 '' Categories : English - language films Divergent trilogy Action films by series Adventure films by series Science fiction films by series IMAX films Lions Gate Entertainment films Hidden categories : Official website different in Wikidata and Wikipedia Talk Contents About Wikipedia Français Italiano עברית Basa Jawa Кыргызча 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 23 April 2018 , at 06 : 41 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

when is the fourth movie of the divergent series coming out

never made

2016

Republic of Doyle - wikipedia Republic of Doyle Jump to : navigation , search Republic of Doyle Genre Comedy - drama Police procedural Created by Allan Hawco Malcolm MacRury Perry Chafe Starring Allan Hawco Seán McGinley Lynda Boyd Krystin Pellerin Mark O'Brien Marthe Bernard Bob Cole Opening theme `` Oh Yeah '' by Great Big Sea Original language ( s ) English No. of seasons 6 No. of episodes 77 ( list of episodes ) Production Executive producer ( s ) Allan Hawco , John Vatcher , Michael Levine Location ( s ) St. John 's , Newfoundland and Labrador , Canada Cinematography Malcolm Cross Running time 44 minutes Production company ( s ) Take the Shot Productions Fireworks ( seasons 1 - 2 ) Content Film ( season 3 - 6 ) Distributor Trifecta Entertainment & Media ( United States ) Release Original network CBC Television Picture format 1080i ( HDTV ) Original release January 6 , 2010 -- December 10 , 2014 External links Website Republic of Doyle is a Canadian comedy - drama television series set in St. John 's , Newfoundland and Labrador which aired on CBC Television from January 6 , 2010 to December 10 , 2014 . The show stars Allan Hawco as private investigator and former police officer Jake Doyle and Seán McGinley as his father , retired police officer Malachy Doyle . They partner as private investigators with Rose Doyle , Malachy 's second wife , played by Lynda Boyd , in St. John 's . Krystin Pellerin stars as Constable / Sergeant Leslie Bennett , with Mark O'Brien as Desmond `` Des '' Courtney , who works with the Doyles , and Marthe Bernard as Katrina `` Tinny '' Doyle , Jake 's niece and Malachy 's granddaughter . Their cases involve them in all sorts of dealings -- not all of them on the right side of the law . The show was renewed on April 4 , 2014 , for a sixth and final season . Contents ( hide ) 1 Cast 1.1 Main 1.2 Recurring 2 Characters 3 Production 4 Season synopses 4.1 Season One 4.2 Season Two 4.3 Season Three 4.4 Season Four 4.5 Season Five 4.6 Season Six 5 Episodes 6 Reception 6.1 Ratings 7 Awards and nominations 7.1 Canadian Cinema Editors Awards 7.2 Canadian Comedy Awards 7.3 Canadian Screen Awards 7.4 Gemini Awards 8 DVD releases 9 International broadcasters 10 References 11 External links Cast ( edit ) Main ( edit ) Allan Hawco -- Jake Doyle ( Seasons 1 -- 6 ) Seán McGinley -- Malachy Doyle ( Seasons 1 -- 6 ) Lynda Boyd -- Rose Miller ( Seasons 1 -- 6 ) Krystin Pellerin -- Leslie Bennett ( Seasons 1 -- 6 ) Rachel Wilson -- Dr. Nikki Renholds ( Main , Season 1 ; Recurring , Seasons 2 -- 6 ) Mark O'Brien -- Desmond `` Des '' Courtney ( Seasons 1 -- 6 ) Marthe Bernard -- Katrina `` Tinny '' Doyle ( Seasons 1 -- 6 ) Bob Cole -- Voice of the Republic ( Seasons 1 -- 6 ) Recurring ( edit ) Steve O'Connell -- Sergeant Daniel Hood ( Seasons 1 -- 6 ) Sean Panting -- Walter McLean ( Seasons 1 -- 6 ) Michelle Nolden -- Allison Jenkins ( Seasons 2 -- 5 ) Jonathan Goad -- Christian Doyle ( Seasons 1 -- 6 ) Krista Bridges - Kathleen Doyle ( Seasons 3 - 6 ) Lola Tash -- Sloan Daniels ( appears in 12 episodes from Seasons 5 -- 6 ) Rick Roberts -- Mayor William Cadigan Clarke ( Seasons 2 -- 5 ) Jonathan Keltz -- Grayson Mann ( Seasons 4 -- 5 ) Patricia Isaac -- Monica Hayward ( Season 4 ) Nicholas Campbell -- Martin Poole ( Seasons 1 -- 5 ) Paul Gross -- Kevin Crocker ( Seasons 2 -- 5 ) Gordon Pinsent -- Maurice Becker ( Seasons 1 -- 4 ) Victor Garber -- Garrison Steele ( Seasons 1 -- 5 ) Alan Doyle -- Wolf Redmond ( Seasons 2 -- 6 ) Scott Grimes -- Jimmy O'Rourke ( Seasons 3 -- 6 ) Characters ( edit ) Jake Doyle -- Jake is a 30 - year - old man living with his father Malachy because his ex-wife Nikki kicked him out . A former cop , he works as a private investigator with his father , Mal , and his father 's wife , Rose . He is over-protective of his 16 - year - old niece , Tinny . He is the second son and youngest child of Mal Doyle and his late wife Emily Ann . He drives a 1968 Pontiac GTO and wears a black leather jacket , both of which figure prominently and iconically throughout the series . After years of pursuit , in Season Four he and Leslie Bennett become a couple . He also discovers in Season Five that he has a sixteen - year - old daughter , Sloan . Near the end of the series Sloan reveals to Jake that it was all a scam and she forged the DNA test and is n't actually Jake 's daughter . In the series finale Leslie reveals to Jake that she is pregnant and after being shot by Inspector Pickard and she is in the hospital it is revealed to Jake that she is going to have twins . Leslie Bennett -- Leslie is an Inspector in the Royal Newfoundland Constabulary who is friends / lovers with Jake and gives him information to help with his cases . Leslie is Jake 's source of distraction from his cases and personal life . She is a sharp shooter , very intelligent and a great match for Jake . She and Jake have real feelings for each other , but seem to show them the wrong way , making their relationship complicated but very interesting . From season four onwards their relationship has been growing stronger , until a secret from her past resurfaces . She is the mother of two with another baby on the way . Malachy Doyle -- Malachy , known as Mal or Skipper and Poppy , is a private investigator with his son , Jake in their business `` Doyle and Doyle . '' He is 56 and has 3 `` grown '' children : Christian , Kathleen and Jake . He also has a granddaughter named Tinny , who is living with him while her mother ( Kathleen Doyle ) is away working in Alberta . His wife Rose lives with him , his granddaughter , and his youngest son Jake . He pokes fun at Jake 's somewhat ' unsuccessful ' relationships with women . He has since discovered he has a second granddaughter . Rose Miller -- Rose is Mal 's wife , stepmother to Jake , Christian , and Kathleen , and step - grandmother to Tinny and Sloan . She works as the office manager / secretary for Doyle and Doyle . She seems to have a love / hate relationship with her husband 's granddaughter Tinny and his son Jake , which has evolved over the series into motherly affection . Rose 's criminal ex-husband , Martin Poole , keeps turning up . Nikki Renholds -- Nikki is Jake 's ex-wife . Nikki was a physician at a St. John 's hospital . Nikki helped out with different cases in the first few episodes . She has since remarried , moved away , and has a son . Katrina ' Tinny ' Doyle - Courtney -- Tinny is the daughter of Kathleen Doyle . She lives with her grandfather , Mal or Poppy as she calls him , Uncle Jake and grandfather 's wife , Rose . She is 16 and ca n't stand her grandfather and uncle 's over-protective nature . She has a love / hate relationship with her grandfather 's girlfriend , Rose and one of the employees and main characters , Des Courtney . Tinny has since become a Constable with the Constabulary , and has begun dating Des . She is now Katrina ' Tinny ' Doyle - Courtney after marrying Des . Des Courtney -- Des is the fashion - challenged and delinquent graffiti artist who tags the town and Jake 's beloved Pontiac GTO until Jake brings him to heel -- and into the employ of Doyle and Doyle Investigations . He is 19 and has a crush on Tinny , leading Jake to dislike him . His real name is Pierce Redmond , and he is the son of the infamous , yet equally as dopey , Jody Redmond . Not wanting to be associated with his father , Des conceals his identity . He has grown from a delinquent to a valued member of Doyle & Doyle , specializing in the technological side of investigations . After a failed relationship with a medical student and surviving getting shot , he has begun dating Tinny . He is now married to Tinny Doyle - Courtney . Walter McLean -- Walter has been Jake 's best friend since kindergarten and his wing - man that used to be right behind Jake in a fight . Walter was Jake 's lawyer in his divorce from his wife Nikki . Walter appears only sporadically . In season three he becomes romantically involved with Tinny 's mother Kathleen . The status of their relationship is unknown , but presumed to be over . Allison Jenkins ( season 2 , guest starring in season 4 ) -- Allison is the crown attorney and has all the things that turn Jake 's head . What was once strictly professional turned into a romantic relationship , which ended when she realized Jake 's feelings for Leslie were stronger than his feelings for her . She appeared briefly in season four . Sloan Daniels ( season 5 - season 6 ) - Initially believed to be Jake 's sixteen - year - old daughter that he had with high school flame Ellen Daniels , Sloan spent her time in group homes before meeting the Doyles . In `` Whistleblower '' her half - sister arrives and reveals to the Doyles that she is not Jake 's daughter after all and was simply conning them . She is responsible for bankrupting the Doyles , and eventually attempts to turn herself in to the police to make things right before Jake stops her . She leaves to go to Gander to live with her aunt . Kevin Crocker ( guest starring in seasons 2 , 4 and 5 ) - Jake 's former partner on the force , and Tinny 's biological father . Crocker was dismissed from the force for the presumed murder of a call girl , and has been on the run ever since . In Season Four he discovers that he is Tinny 's father , much to Jake 's initial dismay . The character name is evocative of the character name , Bobby Crocker , and the actor who played him , Kevin Dobson , in the classic television series Kojak ( 1973 -- 78 ) , starring Telly Savalas . Production ( edit ) The show is filmed in and around St. John 's , Newfoundland and Labrador . The show 's star , Allan Hawco , is also executive producer / showrunner / co-creator and head writer of the show . Other producers include John Vatcher ( exec producer ) , Rob Blackie , Perry Chafe ( co-creator and writer ) and Michael Levine . In 2013 , Republic of Doyle aired a fictional crossover with another CBC Television crime drama , Murdoch Mysteries . With the two shows set over 100 years apart , Hawco appeared on the November 25 , 2013 episode of Murdoch Mysteries as Jacob Doyle , a 19th - century ancestor of Jake Doyle , while Yannick Bisson appeared on the January 29 , 2014 episode of Republic of Doyle as Detective Bill Murdoch , a 21st - century descendant of his regular character Detective William Murdoch . Season synopses ( edit ) Season one ( edit ) Premiering on January 6 , 2010 , the show introduces Allan Hawco as Jake Doyle and Sean McGinley as Mal Doyle as a father and son pair of private investigators . The debut show also reveals relationship complications with Jake and his ex-wife Nikki and his new infatuation : Leslie , the Inspector who works at the Royal Newfoundland Constabulary . While Jake tries to improve his relationship with Leslie , he discovers he may have impregnated his ex-wife , but soon discovers the positive pregnancy test he found in her garbage can did not belong to her . After he realizes he is free from the burden of having to deal with child - support , his relationship with Leslie develops as Nikki 's relationship with her new boyfriend grows . However , Leslie soon begins to decide whether her relationship with Jake will prove beneficial in the future . As Jake finalizes his divorce with Nikki , his relationship status with Leslie improves to good friends . Yet Leslie 's focus quickly shifts to her new title as Sergeant after being promoted to the position . Jake realizes he has other problems too ; his mischievous older brother , Christian makes an unexpected visit to his house , greeting him in the kitchen . After Christian offends Jake , their relationship swiftly intensifies . The last episode of the season shows the characters ' struggle to keep their republic strong as their relationships fall apart . Season two ( edit ) Season Two begins with Rose , Mal 's partner , dealing with the consequences of his recent heart attack . Meanwhile , Jake and Leslie take initiatives to move past the hiccups in their relationship and move on from one another . Tinny , Jake 's niece , embarks on an investment in order to raise personal funds , meanwhile , Mal discovers a secret that Rose has kept from him ; her mother stole her engagement ring . Jake learns what Leslie sees their relationship as . As the season progresses , so does Tinny 's income business along with the amount of friends she makes . Jake as well as the viewers are introduced to Allison , the crown attorney . Meanwhile , Mal and Rose experience issues in their marriage but are quickly able to recover and move forward . As Mal 's relationship with Rose strengthens , so does Jake 's relationship with Allison when they move past the boundaries of friendship . Des , an admirer of Tinny yet an enemy of Jake , exploits Tinny 's business yet saves it in the process . Adding to the drama , Jake finds himself bailing his delinquent brother out of jail and finds himself dealing with issues concerning money . Like all his previous relationships , Jake ill - manages to maintain his relationship with Allison . When Jake receives a new job offer , his relationship with Allison struggles even further . Meanwhile , the relationship of Des and Tinny becomes more intimate . After further complications with Allison , Jake decides to break up with Allison . Season three ( edit ) In the opening episode of Season Three , the viewers are informed that Tinny travels to London . However , it is revealed by Des that her trip did not go smoothly but Des promises to keep the hiccup a secret . Jake finds himself interacting with Nikki again by doing a favor of which he is not fond . Jake struggles to avoid Nikki and win back the unimpressed Allison . Rose gets in trouble with the police for carrying a gun . Tinny is bothered by the quickly growing relationship between Des and Chandra , a university student of medicine . Kathleen , a newly introduced character that serves as Jake 's sister , is helped with her mothering issues by Rose . The two begin to progress in their friendship . Des finds himself in a precarious position -- choosing between Tinny and Chandra . He decides to break up with Chandra and pursue a romance with Tinny . Kathleen faces parenting issues at home . Des attempts to impress Jake by helping him in an investigation using his various connections , while Allison jeopardizes the safety of the Doyle household with a mistake from her past . Mal becomes tied up in complications with his former wife while Tinny obsesses over her death and Kathleen experiences troubles in their relations as a result of a poor decision in Kathleen 's history . George , an unappreciated individual in the Republic , bothers Kathleen by scamming her , but Jake comes to the rescue and saves her from his tricks . The season ends with Tinny discovering the identity of her father , which is not revealed to the viewers . Season four ( edit ) The season kicks off with relatives from Ireland paying the Doyles a visit a bringing some drama along with them . As in the previous season , Tinny still tries to unravel hidden secrets about her dad and succeeds in doing so ; she discovers her mother , Kathleen conceived her with a current prisoner , Kevin Crocker . Tinny attempts to associate with Crocker by revealing her true identity as his daughter . Jake tries to redefine his relationship with Leslie by reintroducing her into his world , and by doing so , he is able to once again gain her trust , as well as her affection . However ; disaster strikes and Jake searches for the missing Leslie , who disappeared as a result of working a precarious case . Jake soon comes to the rescue , and saves Leslie from her kidnapper . Soon after the major incident , Leslie is hit by personal issues regarding family : her father dies . Meanwhile , Tinny 's relations with Crocker grow and Jake is troubled by the fact that Tinny is spending so much time with the con . Jake takes another hit after being kidnapped as his kidnapper nearly takes his life by burning him to death . After being hit by a car in a parking garage , the medication used to mend Jake 's injuries from the incident , gives him some peculiar dreams . The season comes to an end with Crocker and Jake being forced to collaborate in order to save the kidnapped Tinny . Season Five ( edit ) After the wild adventure Jake took in the previous season by saving Tinny , his rescue mission leads to his kidnapping . The Doyles have been anxiously searching for him for the past two months and Tinny risks her career as a police officer and becomes unprofessional by involving her personal life in her police work and helping Jake . As a result , Tinny gets suspended . Meanwhile , Des overcomes his sorrow over losing Tinny . Jake experiences more complications in returning to St. John 's , but eventually makes it home safe with the help of his niece . Jake and Leslie 's relationship heats up with Jake nearly impregnating her . When Leslie is being followed and nearly gets shot , Jake is extremely worried for her safety but soon finds out her pursuer is actually her long - lost husband . Jake and Leslie try but fail to smooth their relationship with the shocking news . Leslie and Jake are finally forced to define their relationship and decide not to see each other due to the recent complications , even after Jake confesses his love . After Des hooks up with a troubled young woman , Sloan , he must avoid Tinny . Jake finds it hard to avoid Leslie when he gets tied up in her ex-husband's business . Meanwhile , Tinny gets the chance of her career on a big case . To make matters worse for Jake , Nikki pays him a visit . The season ends with Jake being tried and arrested for murder but is then kidnapped by one of Leslie 's pursuers ; the kidnapper forces Jake to make several unwarranted missions . Season six ( edit ) After being accused of murder , Jake must confront his enemies as he comes to terms with what happened to Leslie and try to clear his own name in the process . Leslie goes back to work a couple episodes in , but with conditions , and she must meet with the force therapist . Sloan gets into trouble and Jake must bail her out by making a deal with Vick Saul . Even though she was not cleared by her therapist after having a panic attack on duty , Leslie lends a hand to the Doyle clan to try and clear Jake 's name before it is too late . When Leslie 's past disobedience on the force comes to light , she must work harder than ever to save her job . Jake 's murder conviction comes front and center as the season comes to a final close with all the Doyle family trying to clear his name . Episodes ( edit ) Main article : List of Republic of Doyle episodes Season Episodes Originally aired First aired Last aired 12 January 6 , 2010 ( 2010 - 01 - 06 ) April 7 , 2010 ( 2010 - 04 - 07 ) 13 January 12 , 2011 ( 2011 - 01 - 12 ) April 6 , 2011 ( 2011 - 04 - 06 ) 13 January 11 , 2012 ( 2012 - 01 - 11 ) April 4 , 2012 ( 2012 - 04 - 04 ) 13 January 6 , 2013 ( 2013 - 01 - 06 ) April 21 , 2013 ( 2013 - 04 - 21 ) 5 16 October 2 , 2013 ( 2013 - 10 - 02 ) February 5 , 2014 ( 2014 - 02 - 05 ) 6 10 October 15 , 2014 ( 2014 - 10 - 15 ) December 10 , 2014 ( 2014 - 12 - 10 ) Reception ( edit ) Ratings ( edit ) Season Timeslot ( ET ) # Ep . Premiered Ended TV season Viewers Date Premiere viewers Date Finale viewers Wednesday 9 : 00pm 12 January 6 , 2010 969,000 April 7 , 2010 ? ? 13 January 12 , 2011 1,038,000 April 6 , 2011 ? 2011 ? 13 January 11 , 2012 ? April 4 , 2012 968,000 2012 ? Sunday 9 : 00pm 13 January 6 , 2013 802,000 April 21 , 2013 ? 2013 ? 5 Wednesday 9 : 00pm 16 October 2 , 2013 ? February 5 , 2014 ? 2014 ? 6 10 October 15 , 2014 ? December 10 , 2014 ? 2015 ? Awards and nominations ( edit ) Canadian Cinema Editors Awards ( edit ) Year Category Nominee Result Ref 2011 Best Editing in Long Form Television Series Michael Pacek Nominated Canadian Comedy Awards ( edit ) Year Category Nominee Result Ref 2011 Best Performance by a Male in a Television Series Mark O'Brien Nominated 2014 Best Performance by a Male in a Television Series Mark O'Brien Nominated Canadian Screen Awards ( edit ) Year Category Nominee Result Ref 2013 Best Performance in a Guest Role , Dramatic Series Gordon Pinsent Won 2014 Best Cross-Platform Project , Fiction - The Republic of Doyle Ride - Along App Allen Martin , Eva Riinitze , Fergus Heywood , Helen Asimakis , John Vatcher , Mike Evans , Rose Paton Nominated Gemini Awards ( edit ) Year Category Nominee Result Ref Best Dramatic Series Allan Hawco , John Vatcher , Rob Blackie , Michael Levine Nominated Best Performance by an Actor in a Continuing Leading Dramatic Role Allan Hawco Nominated Best Performance by an Actress in a Continuing Leading Dramatic Role Lynda Boyd Nominated Best Performance by an Actress in a Featured Supporting Role in a Dramatic Series Rachel Wilson Nominated Best Photography in a Dramatic Program or Series Michael Storey Nominated 2011 Best Performance by an Actress in a Continuing Leading Dramatic Role Krystin Pellerin Nominated Best Production Design or Art Direction in a Fiction Program or Series Gordon Barnes Nominated Best Sound in a Dramatic Series Scott Yates , Peter Clements , Harvey Hyslop , Andrew Tay , Paul Steffler , Mark Shnuriwsky , Lori Clarke Nominated DVD releases ( edit ) Entertainment One has released all six seasons on DVD in Canada . On September 6 , 2016 , eOne will release Republic of Doyle - The Complete Series on DVD in Canada . Acorn Media has released the first two seasons on DVD in the USA . In Region 4 , Beyond Home Entertainment has released the first two seasons on DVD in Australia . DVD name Ep # Release dates Region 1 ( CAN ) Region 4 The Complete First Season 12 November 16 , 2010 May 4 , 2011 The Complete Second Season 13 July 19 , 2011 April 4 , 2012 The Complete Third Season 13 November 20 , 2012 TBA The Complete Fourth Season 13 October 1 , 2013 TBA The Complete Fifth Season 16 September 30 , 2014 TBA The Complete Sixth Season 10 April 21 , 2015 TBA The Complete Series 77 September 6 , 2016 TBA International broadcasters ( edit ) Country Channel Premiere date South Africa Fox Entertainment 1 August 2010 United Kingdom Alibi 27 October 2010 Australia ABC2 ( season one ) 13th Street ( season two -- ) 6 November 2010 Brazil Globosat HD 11 November 2010 Estonia Fox Crime 11 September 2010 Serbia Fox Crime 14 October 2010 Bulgaria Fox Crime 4 December 2010 Poland TVP2 25 December 2012 Germany 13th Street 16 October 2013 United States CW Every Saturday and Sunday Netherlands 13th Street Until Friday 13 March 2015 , daily Monday - Friday Republic of Doyle is aired in the USA on various stations via syndication . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` CBC winter season brings 3 new shows '' . cbc.ca , November 25 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Full Cast & Crew . '' IMDb . IMDb.com , n.d. Web . 17 Feb. 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Republic of Doyle renewed for 6th season '' . CBC News . 2014 - 04 - 04 . Retrieved 2014 - 11 - 23 . Jump up ^ Laura Kane ( 2014 - 10 - 12 ) . `` ' Republic of Doyle ' star Allan Hawco and cast on the final season '' . Edmonton Journal . Retrieved 2014 - 11 - 23 . Jump up ^ Allan Hawco ( @ allanhawco ) ( 1 May 2013 ) . `` '' Last time on Republic of Doyle '' - that 's Bob 's voice . RT @ thefutureyousee : @ allanhawco you should get Bob Cole to guest on RoD '' ( Tweet ) -- via Twitter . Jump up ^ `` Republic of Doyle : A rogue P.I. with Newfie smarts '' . Toronto Star , January 6 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` CBC renews 14 shows for coming season '' . CBC News . April 19 , 2012 . Retrieved April 19 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Celebrating the Can - combo of Republic of Doyle and Murdoch Mysteries '' Archived 2013 - 12 - 12 at Archive.is . National Post , November 25 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` List of Republic of Doyle Episodes . '' Wikipedia . Wikimedia Foundation , 13 Feb. 2014 . Web . 17 Feb. 2014 . Jump up ^ `` List of Republic of Doyle episodes '' Wikipedia , Wikimedia Foundation Sunday June 21 , 2015 Jump up ^ `` Republic of Doyle episode list '' IMDB Sunday June 21 , 2015 Jump up ^ Wild , Diane ( January 7 , 2010 ) . `` Ratings : Republic of Doyle , 18 to Life , Dragons ' Den , Heartland '' . TV Eh ? . Retrieved January 22 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Brioux , Bill ( January 13 , 2011 ) . `` Doyle & Dragons roar back on CBC '' . TV Feeds My Family . Retrieved January 14 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Brioux , Bill ( January 18 , 2012 ) . `` The Brioux Report : Big Bang beats Globes ; new CBC season soars '' . The Brioux Report . Torstar . Archived from the original on February 16 , 2013 . Retrieved January 19 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Brioux , Bill ( April 11 , 2012 ) . `` The Brioux Report : Big Bang 's Easter Miracle '' . The Brioux Report . Retrieved April 12 , 2012 . Jump up ^ http://tvfeedsmyfamily.blogspot.ca/2013/01/murdoch-mysteries-lifts-cbcs-premiere.html Jump up ^ Eng , David . `` 1st Annual Canadian Cinema Editors ( CCE ) Awards - nominations '' . chinokino.com . Retrieved 25 November 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Canadian Comedy Awards nominations '' . Third Beat. 8 June 2011 . Retrieved 25 November 2016 . Jump up ^ `` 2014 Canadian Comedy Awards nominees announced '' . www.thecomedynetwork.ca . Retrieved 25 November 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` awards database '' . academy.ca . Archived from the original on 26 November 2016 . Retrieved 25 November 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Republic of Doyle DVD news : Announcement for Republic of Doyle -- Season 1 '' . TVShowsOnDVD.com . Retrieved 2011 - 07 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` Republic of Doyle DVD news : Announcement for Republic of Doyle -- Season 2 '' . TVShowsOnDVD.com . Retrieved 2011 - 07 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` Republic of Doyle DVD news : Announcement for Republic of Doyle - Season 3 '' . TVShowsOnDVD.com . Retrieved 2012 - 11 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` Republic of Doyle : The Complete Fourth Season : Amazon.ca : Allan Hawco : DVD '' . Amazon.ca . Retrieved 2014 - 07 - 23 . Jump up ^ `` ' Season 5 ' DVDs Are Coming Soon to Canada '' . Tvshowsondvd.com. 2014 - 08 - 29 . Retrieved 2017 - 10 - 04 . Jump up ^ `` It 's the End of the Republic with ' Season 6 : The Final Season ' '' . Tvshowsondvd.com. 2015 - 02 - 19 . Retrieved 2017 - 10 - 04 . Jump up ^ `` Front Cover Art for ' The Complete Series ' 19 - DVD Set '' . Tvshowsondvd.com. 2016 - 02 - 17 . Retrieved 2017 - 10 - 04 . Jump up ^ `` Acorn to Deliver a State - Side Release of Season 1 DVDs '' . Tvshowsondvd.com. 2014 - 04 - 21 . Retrieved 2014 - 07 - 23 . Jump up ^ `` Republic of Doyle , Season 2 '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved 2017 - 10 - 04 . Jump up ^ `` REPUBLIC OF DOYLE - SEASON 1 Television Series Drama Comedy '' . Beyondhomeentertainment.com.au . Retrieved 2012 - 11 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` REPUBLIC OF DOYLE - SEASON 2 Television Series Drama Comedy '' . Beyondhomeentertainment.com.au . Retrieved 2012 - 11 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` Republic of Doyle '' . TVSA. 2010 - 08 - 01 . Retrieved 2010 - 08 - 01 . Jump up ^ `` UKTV enters Republic of Doyle '' ( Press release ) . C21 Media . 2010 - 08 - 26 . Retrieved 2010 - 08 - 26 . Jump up ^ `` ABC2 Programming Airdate : Republic of Doyle ( episode one ) '' . ABC Television Publicity. 2010 - 11 - 20 . Jump up ^ Newsome , Brad ( 6 January 2012 ) . `` Republic of Doyle , Friday , January 6 '' . The Sydney Morning Herald . Retrieved 17 January 2012 . Jump up ^ Daniel MacEachern ( 2013 - 04 - 17 ) . `` ' Republic of Doyle ' headed for U.S. '' The Telegram . Retrieved 2014 - 11 - 21 . External links ( edit ) Television in Canada portal Official website Republic of Doyle on IMDb Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Republic_of_Doyle&oldid=837889899 '' Categories : 2010 Canadian television series debuts CBC Television shows Culture of St. John 's , Newfoundland and Labrador Irish - Canadian culture Television shows set in Newfoundland and Labrador Television series produced in Newfoundland and Labrador 2014 Canadian television series endings 2010s Canadian comedy - drama television series Television series by Entertainment One Fictional Canadian people of Irish descent Hidden categories : Webarchive template archiveis links Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch Français Polski Português Edit links This page was last edited on 23 April 2018 , at 17 : 01 . About Wikipedia

where is republic of doyle supposed to take place

St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador

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Sentencing Reform Act - Wikipedia Sentencing Reform Act Jump to : navigation , search The Sentencing Reform Act , part of the Comprehensive Crime Control Act of 1984 , was a U.S. federal statute intended to increase consistency in United States federal sentencing . It established the United States Sentencing Commission . It also abolished federal parole , except for persons convicted under federal law before November 1 , 1987 , persons convicted under District of Columbia law , `` transfer treaty '' inmates , persons who violated military law who are in federal civilian prisons , and persons who are defendants in state cases and who are under the U.S. Marshals Service Witness Protection Program . The act was passed by large majorities in both houses of Congress . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` An Overview of the United States Sentencing Commission '' ( PDF ) . United States Sentencing Commission . United States Sentencing Commission . Retrieved 9 August 2011 . Jump up ^ Barry L. Johnson . `` Sentencing Reform Act ( 1984 ) '' . eNotes . Retrieved 9 August 2011 . Jump up ^ `` FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS ABOUT THE LACK OF PAROLE FOR FEDERAL PRISONERS '' ( Archive ) . Families Against Mandatory Minimums . p. 2 / 4 . Retrieved on December 13 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Stith , Kate ; Koh , Steve Y. ( 1993 ) . `` The Politics of Sentencing Reform : The Legislative History of the Federal Sentencing Guidelines '' . Faculty Scholarship Series . Yale Law School . Retrieved 9 August 2011 . This United States federal legislation article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sentencing_Reform_Act&oldid=813388767 '' Categories : United States federal criminal legislation Penal system in the United States United States sentencing law 1984 in law 1984 in the United States United States federal legislation stubs Hidden categories : Use dmy dates from August 2011 All stub articles Talk About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 3 December 2017 , at 12 : 21 . About Wikipedia

what is the sentencing reform act of 1984

U.S. federal statute intended to increase consistency in United States federal sentencing

Comprehensive Crime Control Act

Succession to the British throne - wikipedia Succession to the British throne This is the latest accepted revision , reviewed on 27 April 2018 . Jump to : navigation , search The Sovereign 's Throne in the House of Lords , from which the speech is delivered at State Openings of Parliament Succession to the British throne is determined by descent , gender ( for people born before October 2011 ) , legitimacy , and religion . Under common law , the Crown is inherited by a sovereign 's children or by a childless sovereign 's nearest collateral line . The Bill of Rights 1689 and the Act of Settlement 1701 , restrict succession to the throne to the legitimate Protestant descendants of Sophia of Hanover that are in `` communion with the Church of England '' . Spouses of Roman Catholics were disqualified from 1689 until the law was amended in 2015 . Protestant descendants of those excluded for being Roman Catholics are eligible . Queen Elizabeth II is the sovereign , and her heir apparent is her eldest son , Charles , Prince of Wales . Next in line after him is Prince William , Duke of Cambridge , the Prince of Wales 's elder son . Third in line is Prince George , the eldest child of the Duke of Cambridge , followed by his sister , Princess Charlotte and younger brother , Prince Louis . Sixth in line is Prince Henry of Wales , the younger son of the Prince of Wales . Any of the first six in line marrying without the sovereign 's consent would be disqualified from succession . The first four individuals in the line of succession who are over 21 , and the sovereign 's consort , may be appointed Counsellors of State . Counsellors of State perform some of the sovereign 's duties in the United Kingdom while he or she is out of the country or temporarily incapacitated . Otherwise , individuals in the line of succession need not have specific legal or official roles . The United Kingdom is one of the 16 Commonwealth realms . Each of those countries has the same person as monarch and the same order of succession . In 2011 , the prime ministers of the realms agreed unanimously to adopt a common approach to amending the rules on the succession to their respective Crowns so that absolute primogeniture would apply for persons born after the date of the agreement , instead of male - preference primogeniture , and the ban on marriages to Roman Catholics would be lifted , but the monarch would still need to be in communion with the Church of England . After the necessary legislation had been enacted in accordance with each realm 's constitution , the changes took effect on 26 March 2015 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Current line of succession 2 History 2.1 England 2.2 Scotland 2.3 After the union of the crowns 2.3. 1 Stuarts 2.3. 2 Hanoverians and Windsors 2.4 Commonwealth realms 3 Current rules 3.1 Marriages 3.2 Religion 3.3 Treason 4 Accession 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 Sources 9 External links Current line of succession ( edit ) First six in line from 23 April 2018 1 . The Prince of Wales 2 . The Duke of Cambridge 3 . Prince George of Cambridge 4 . Princess Charlotte of Cambridge 5 . Prince Louis of Cambridge 6 . Prince Henry of Wales No official , complete version of the line of succession is currently maintained . The exact number , in remoter collateral lines , of the persons who would be eligible is uncertain . In 2001 genealogist William Addams Reitwiesner compiled a list of 4,973 living descendants of the Electress Sophia in order of succession , but did so disregarding Roman Catholic status . When updated in January 2011 , the number was more than five thousand . The annotated list below covers the first part of this line of succession , being limited to descendants of the sons of George V ( the present Queen 's grandfather ) . The order of the first seventeen numbered in the list is given on the official website of the British Monarchy ; other list numbers and exclusions are explained by annotations ( Notes and sources below ) and footnotes . Persons named in italics are unnumbered either because they are deceased or because sources report them to be excluded from the succession . King George V ( 1865 -- 1936 ) King Edward VIII ( 1894 -- 1972 ) King George VI ( 1895 -- 1952 ) Queen Elizabeth II ( born 1926 ) ( 1 ) Charles , Prince of Wales ( b . 1948 ) ( 2 ) Prince William , Duke of Cambridge ( b . 1982 ) ( 3 ) Prince George of Cambridge ( b . 2013 ) ( 4 ) Princess Charlotte of Cambridge ( b . 2015 ) ( 5 ) Prince Louis of Cambridge ( b . 2018 ) ( 6 ) Prince Henry of Wales ( Prince Harry ) ( b . 1984 ) ( 7 ) Prince Andrew , Duke of York ( b . 1960 ) ( 8 ) Princess Beatrice of York ( b . 1988 ) ( 9 ) Princess Eugenie of York ( b . 1990 ) ( 10 ) Prince Edward , Earl of Wessex ( b . 1964 ) ( 11 ) James , Viscount Severn ( b . 2007 ) ( 12 ) Lady Louise Windsor ( b . 2003 ) ( 13 ) Anne , Princess Royal ( b . 1950 ) ( 14 ) Peter Phillips ( b . 1977 ) ( 15 ) Savannah Phillips ( b . 2010 ) ( 16 ) Isla Phillips ( b . 2012 ) ( 17 ) Zara Tindall ( née Phillips ; b . 1981 ) ( 18 ) Mia Tindall ( b . 2014 ) Princess Margaret , Countess of Snowdon ( 1930 -- 2002 ) ( 19 ) David Armstrong - Jones , 2nd Earl of Snowdon ( b . 1961 ) ( 20 ) Charles Armstrong - Jones , Viscount Linley ( b . 1999 ) ( 21 ) Lady Margarita Armstrong - Jones ( b . 2002 ) ( 22 ) Lady Sarah Chatto ( née Armstrong - Jones ; b . 1964 ) ( 23 ) Samuel Chatto ( b . 1996 ) ( 24 ) Arthur Chatto ( b . 1999 ) Prince Henry , Duke of Gloucester ( 1900 -- 1974 ) ( 25 ) Prince Richard , Duke of Gloucester ( b . 1944 ) ( 26 ) Alexander Windsor , Earl of Ulster ( b . 1974 ) ( 27 ) Xan Windsor , Lord Culloden ( b . 2007 ) ( 28 ) Lady Cosima Windsor ( b . 2010 ) ( 29 ) Lady Davina Lewis ( née Windsor ; b . 1977 ) ( 30 ) Senna Lewis ( b . 2010 ) ( 31 ) Tāne Lewis ( b . 2012 ) ( 32 ) Lady Rose Gilman ( née Windsor ; b . 1980 ) ( 33 ) Lyla Gilman ( b . 2010 ) ( 34 ) Rufus Gilman ( b . 2012 ) Prince George , Duke of Kent ( 1902 -- 1942 ) ( 35 ) Prince Edward , Duke of Kent ( b . 1935 ) ( 36 ) George Windsor , Earl of St Andrews ( b . 1962 ) Edward Windsor , Lord Downpatrick ( b . 1988 ) Lady Marina Charlotte Windsor ( b . 1992 ) ( 37 ) Lady Amelia Windsor ( b . 1995 ) Lord Nicholas Windsor ( b . 1970 ) ( 38 ) Albert Windsor ( b . 2007 ) ( 39 ) Leopold Windsor ( b . 2009 ) ( 40 ) Louis Windsor ( b . 2014 ) ( 41 ) Lady Helen Taylor ( née Windsor ; b . 1964 ) ( 42 ) Columbus Taylor ( b . 1994 ) ( 43 ) Cassius Taylor ( b . 1996 ) ( 44 ) Eloise Taylor ( b . 2003 ) ( 45 ) Estella Taylor ( b . 2004 ) ( 46 ) Prince Michael of Kent ( b . 1942 ) ( 47 ) Lord Frederick Windsor ( b . 1979 ) ( 48 ) Maud Windsor ( b . 2013 ) ( 49 ) Isabella Windsor ( b . 2016 ) ( 50 ) Lady Gabriella Windsor ( b . 1981 ) ( 51 ) Princess Alexandra , The Honourable Lady Ogilvy ( b . 1936 ) ( 52 ) James Ogilvy ( b . 1964 ) ( 53 ) Alexander Ogilvy ( b . 1996 ) ( 54 ) Flora Ogilvy ( b . 1994 ) ( 55 ) Marina Ogilvy ( b . 1966 ) ( 56 ) Christian Mowatt ( b . 1993 ) ( 57 ) Zenouska Mowatt ( b . 1990 ) Notes and sources Mark Source for listing or note on exclusion from succession 1952 Succession published on the accession of Queen Elizabeth II in 1952 Listed by the official website of the British Monarchy , `` Succession '' , retrieved 27 April 2018 . Listed on Debrett 's website ( as of 27 April 2018 ) : `` The Line of Succession '' Listed by Whitaker 's Almanack 2015 , London : Bloomsbury , ISBN 978 - 1 - 4729 - 0929 - 9 , p. 22 These people had been excluded through marriage to a Roman Catholic . This exclusion was repealed on 26 March 2015 , restoring them to the line of succession , when the Perth Agreement came into effect . X Excluded as Roman Catholics . This exclusion is not affected by changes subsequent to the Perth Agreement . History ( edit ) This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( May 2015 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The current succession law in the United Kingdom evolved from succession law in both England and Scotland . Originally in both countries , there were no fixed rules governing succession to the throne . The individual could have relied on inheritance , statute , election ( by Parliament or by another body ) , nomination ( by a reigning sovereign in his or her will ) , conquest or prescription ( de facto possession of the Crown ) . It was often unclear which of these bases should take precedence ; often , the outcome depended not on the legal strength of the claims , but on the political or military power of the claimants . However , over time , the default rule became male primogeniture : later monarchs coming to the throne by exception to this rule went to great lengths to explain and justify going against these rules , and to prove their rivals illegitimate . Eventually , Parliament asserted control of succession . England ( edit ) In 1485 , Henry Tudor , a female - line descendant of a legitimated branch of the royal house of Lancaster , the House of Beaufort , assumed the English crown as Henry VII , after defeating Richard III , who was killed at the battle of Bosworth when leading a charge against Henry 's standard . Richard was the last king of the House of York , and the last of the Plantagenet dynasty . Henry declared himself king retroactively from 21 August 1485 , the day before his victory over Richard at Bosworth Field , and caused Richard 's Titulus Regius to be repealed and expunged from the Rolls of Parliament . After Henry 's coronation in London in October that year , his first parliament , summoned to meet at Westminster in November , enacted that `` the inheritance of the crown should be , rest , remain and abide in the most royal person of the then sovereign lord , King Henry VII , and the heirs of his body lawfully coming . '' Henry VII was followed by his son , Henry VIII . Though his father descended from the Lancastrians , Henry VIII could also claim the throne through the Yorkist line , as his mother Elizabeth was the sister and heiress of Edward V. In 1542 Henry also assumed the title King of Ireland ; this would pass down with the monarchs of England , and later Great Britain , until the Acts of Union 1800 merged the separate crowns into that of the United Kingdom . Henry VIII 's numerous marriages led to several complications over succession . Henry VIII was first married to Catherine of Aragon , by whom he had a daughter named Mary . His second marriage , to Anne Boleyn , resulted in a daughter named Elizabeth . Henry VIII had a son , Edward , by his third wife , Jane Seymour . An Act of Parliament passed in 1533 declared Mary illegitimate ; another passed in 1536 did the same for Elizabeth . Though the two remained illegitimate , an Act of Parliament passed in 1544 allowed reinserting them , providing further `` that the King should and might give , will , limit , assign , appoint or dispose the said imperial Crown and the other premises ... by letters patent or last will in writing . '' Mary and Elizabeth , under Henry VIII 's will , were to be followed by descendants of the King 's deceased sister Mary Tudor , Duchess of Suffolk ( he however excluded his niece Frances Brandon , Duchess of Suffolk ) . This will also excluded from the succession the descendants of Henry 's eldest sister Margaret Tudor , who were the rulers of Scotland . Queen Elizabeth I enthroned in Parliament When Henry VIII died in 1547 , the young Edward succeeded him , becoming Edward VI . Edward VI was the first Protestant Sovereign to succeed to the rule of England . He attempted to divert the course of succession in his will to prevent his Catholic half - sister , Mary , from inheriting the throne . He excluded Mary and Elizabeth , settling on the Duchess of Suffolk 's daughter , Lady Jane Grey . Jane was also originally excluded on the premise that no woman could reign over England . Nonetheless , the will , which originally referred to Jane 's heirs - male , was amended to refer to Jane and her heirs - male . Upon Edward VI 's death in 1553 , Jane was proclaimed Queen of England and Ireland . She was not universally recognised and after nine days she was overthrown by the popular Mary . As Henry VIII 's will had been approved by an Act of Parliament in 1544 , Edward 's contravening will was unlawful and ignored . Mary was succeeded by her half - sister , Elizabeth , who broke with the precedents of many of her predecessors , and refused to name an heir . Whilst previous monarchs ( including Henry VIII ) had specifically been granted authority to settle uncertain successions in their wills , the Treasons Act 1571 asserted that Parliament had the right to settle disputes , and made it treason to deny Parliamentary authority . Wary of threats from other possible heirs , Parliament further passed the Act of Association 1584 , which provided that any individual involved in attempts to murder the Sovereign would be disqualified from succeeding . ( The Act was repealed in 1863 . ) Scotland ( edit ) The House of Stewart ( later Stuart ) had ruled in Scotland since 1371 . It had followed strict rules of primogeniture until the deposition and exile of Mary I in 1567 ; even then she was succeeded by her son , James VI . After the Union of the Crowns ( edit ) Stuarts ( edit ) Elizabeth I of England and Ireland was succeeded by King James VI of Scotland , her first cousin twice removed , even though his succession violated Henry VIII 's will , under which Lady Anne Stanley , heiress of Mary Tudor , Duchess of Suffolk , was supposed to succeed . James asserted that hereditary right was superior to statutory provision , and as King of Scotland was powerful enough to deter any rival . He reigned as James I of England and Ireland , thus effecting the Union of the Crowns , although England and Scotland remained separate sovereign states until 1707 . His succession was rapidly ratified by Parliament . center James 's eldest surviving son and successor , Charles I , was overthrown and beheaded in 1649 . The monarchy itself was abolished . A few years later , it was replaced by the Protectorate under Oliver Cromwell , effectively a monarch with the title of Lord Protector rather than King . Cromwell had the right to name his own successor , which he exercised on his deathbed by choosing his son , Richard Cromwell . Richard was ineffective , and was quickly forced from office . Shortly afterwards , the monarchy was restored , with Charles I 's son Charles II as King . After the death of her last child in 1700 , Princess Anne became the last individual left in the line of succession determined by the Bill of Rights . James II and VII , a Roman Catholic , followed his brother Charles II , despite efforts in the late 1670s to exclude him in favour of Charles 's illegitimate Protestant son , the Duke of Monmouth . James was deposed when his Protestant opponents forced him to flee from England in 1688 . Parliament then deemed that James had , by fleeing the realms , abdicated the thrones and offered the Crowns not to the King 's infant son James but to his Protestant daughter Mary and to her husband William , who as James 's nephew was the first person in the succession not descended from him . The two became joint Sovereigns ( a unique circumstance in British history ) as William III of England and Ireland ( and II of Scotland ) and Mary II of England , Scotland and Ireland . William had insisted on this unique provision as a condition of his military leadership against James . The English Bill of Rights passed in 1689 determined succession to the English , Scottish and Irish Thrones . First in the line were the descendants of Mary II . Next came Mary 's sister Princess Anne and her descendants . Finally , the descendants of William by any future marriage were added to the line of succession . Only Protestants were allowed to succeed to the Thrones , and those who married Roman Catholics were excluded . After Mary II died in 1694 , her husband continued to reign alone until his own death in 1702 . The line of succession provided for by the Bill of Rights was almost at an end ; William and Mary never had any children , and Princess Anne 's children had all died . Therefore , Parliament passed the Act of Settlement . The Act maintained the provision of the Bill of Rights whereby William would be succeeded by Princess Anne and her descendants , and thereafter by his own descendants from future marriages . The Act , however , declared that they would be followed by James I & VI 's granddaughter Sophia , Electress Dowager of Hanover ( the daughter of James 's daughter Elizabeth Stuart ) , and her heirs . As under the Bill of Rights , non-Protestants and those who married Roman Catholics were excluded . Electress Sophia of Hanover ( 1630 -- 1714 ) Upon William 's death , Anne became Queen of England , Scotland and Ireland . Because the Parliament of England settled on Sophia as Anne 's heir - presumptive without consulting Scottish leaders , the Estates of Scotland retaliated by passing the Scottish Act of Security . The Act provided that , upon the death of Anne , the Estates would meet to select an heir to the throne of Scotland , who could not be the same person as the English Sovereign unless numerous political and economic conditions were met . Anne originally withheld the Royal Assent , but was forced to grant it when the Estates refused to raise taxes and sought to withdraw troops from the Queen 's army . England 's Parliament responded by passing the Alien Act 1705 , which threatened to cripple Scotland 's economy by cutting off trade with them . Thus , Scotland had little choice but to unite with England to form the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707 ; the Crown of the new nation ( along with the Crown of Ireland ) was subject to the rules laid down by the English Act of Settlement . Hanoverians and windsors ( edit ) Benjamin Harris 's Protestant Tutor , a primer popular for decades and the source for the New England Primer . Edition of 1713 . Hanoverian propaganda extended to books for children 's education . Anne was predeceased by Sophia , Electress Dowager of Hanover , and was therefore succeeded by the latter 's son , who became George I in 1714 . Attempts were made in the risings of 1715 and 1745 to restore Stuart claimants to the Throne , supported by those who recognised the Jacobite succession . The House of Hanover nonetheless remained undeposed , and the Crown descended in accordance with the appointed rules . In 1801 , following the Acts of Union 1800 , the separate crowns of Great Britain and Ireland were merged and became the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland . Between 1811 and 1820 , when George III was deemed unfit to rule , the Prince of Wales ( later George IV ) acted as his regent . Some years later the Regency Act 1830 made provision for a change in the line of succession had a child been born to William IV after his death , but this event did not come about . George VI receiving homage at his coronation in 1937 In 1936 Edward VIII abdicated 11 months after he succeeded to the throne immediately on his father 's death . Edward was proclaimed King in January 1936 , and opened ( for the only time ) Parliament in November 1936 . Edward VIII had desired to marry Wallis Simpson , a divorcee , but the Church of England , of which the British Sovereign is Supreme Governor , would not authorize the marriage of divorcees . Consequently , Parliament passed His Majesty 's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936 , by which Edward VIII ceased to be Sovereign `` immediately upon '' his royal assent as King being signified in Parliament on 11 December . The Act provided that he and his descendants , if any , were not to have any `` right , title or interest in or to the succession to the Throne '' . Edward died childless in 1972 . Edward 's abdication was `` a demise of the Crown '' ( in the words of the Act ) , and the Duke of York , his brother who was then next in the line , immediately succeeded to the throne and to its `` rights , privileges , and dignities '' , taking the regnal name George VI . He in turn was succeeded in 1952 by his own elder daughter , Elizabeth II . By that time the monarch of the United Kingdom no longer reigned in the greater part of Ireland ( which had become a republic in 1949 ) , but was the monarch of a number of independent sovereign states ( Commonwealth realms ) . Commonwealth realms ( edit ) Further information : Perth Agreement Elizabeth II at her coronation in 1953 , passing to the left of the Coronation Chair Each of the Commonwealth realms has the same person as monarch and , to maintain that arrangement , they have agreed to continue the same line of succession ; some realms do so through domestic succession laws , while others stipulate whoever is monarch of the United Kingdom will also be monarch of that realm . In February 1952 , on her accession , Elizabeth II was proclaimed as sovereign separately throughout her realms . In October 2011 , the heads of government of all 16 realms agreed unanimously at a meeting held in Perth , Australia , to proposed changes to the royal succession laws that would see the order of succession for people born after 28 October 2011 governed by absolute primogeniture -- wherein succession passes to an individual 's children according to birth order , regardless of gender -- instead of male - preference primogeniture . They also agreed to lift a ban on those who marry Roman Catholics . The ban on Catholics themselves was retained to ensure that the monarch would be in communion with the Church of England . The changes came into effect across the Commonwealth realms on 26 March 2015 , after legislation was made according to each realm 's constitution . Following the changes coming into effect , the positions of the first 27 in line remained unchanged , including Princess Anne and her children and grandchildren , until the birth of Princess Charlotte of Cambridge on 2 May 2015 . The first to be affected by the changes , on the day they came into effect in March , were the children of Lady Davina Lewis -- her son Tāne ( born 2012 ) and her daughter Senna ( born 2010 ) -- who were reversed in the order of succession , becoming 29th and 28th in line respectively . Current rules ( edit ) The Bill of Rights and the Act of Settlement ( restated by the Acts of Union ) still govern succession to the throne . They were amended in the United Kingdom by the Succession to the Crown Act 2013 , which was passed mainly `` to make succession to the Crown not depend on gender '' and `` to make provision about Royal Marriages '' ( according to its long title ) , thereby implementing the Perth Agreement in the UK and in those realms that , by their laws , have as their monarch automatically whoever is monarch of the UK . Other realms passed their own legislation . Anyone ineligible to succeed is treated as if they were `` dead '' . That individual 's descendants are not also disqualified , unless they are personally ineligible . Marriages ( edit ) The Act of Settlement 1701 provides that Protestant `` heirs of the body '' ( that is , legitimate descendants ) of Sophia , Electress of Hanover , are eligible to succeed to the throne , unless otherwise disqualified . The meaning of heir of the body is determined by the common law rules of male preference primogeniture ( the `` male - preference '' criterion is no longer applicable , in respect of succession to the throne , to persons born after 28 October 2011 ) , whereby older children and their descendants inherit before younger children , and a male child takes precedence over a female sibling . Children born out of wedlock and adopted children are not eligible to succeed . Illegitimate children whose parents subsequently marry are legitimated , but remain ineligible to inherit the Crown . The Royal Marriages Act 1772 ( repealed by the Succession to the Crown Act 2013 ) further required descendants of George II to obtain the consent of the reigning monarch to marry . ( The requirement did not apply to descendants of princesses who married into foreign families , as well as , from 1936 , any descendants of Edward VIII , of which there are none . ) The Act provided , however , that if a dynast older than twenty - five years notified the Privy Council of his or her intention to marry without the consent of the Sovereign , then he or she may have lawfully done so after one year , unless both houses of Parliament expressly disapproved of the marriage . A marriage that contravened the Royal Marriages Act was void , and the resulting offspring illegitimate and thus ineligible to succeed , though the succession of the dynast who failed to obtain consent was not itself affected . This also had the consequence that marriage to a Roman Catholic without permission was void , so that the dynast was not disqualified from succeeding on account of being married to a Roman Catholic . Thus when the future George IV attempted to marry the Roman Catholic Maria Fitzherbert in 1785 without obtaining permission from George III he did not disqualify himself from inheriting the throne in due course . A marriage voided by the 1772 act prior to its repeal remains void `` for all purposes relating to the succession to the Crown '' under the 2013 act . The constitutional crisis arising from Edward VIII 's decision to marry a divorcee in 1936 led to His Majesty 's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936 , which provided that Edward VIII and his descendants would have no claim to the throne . The Act is no longer applicable , because Edward died in 1972 without issue . Under the 2013 Succession to the Crown Act , the first six persons in line to the throne must obtain the sovereign 's approval before marrying . Marriage without the Sovereign 's consent disqualifies the person and the person 's descendants from the marriage from succeeding to the Crown , but the marriage is still legally valid . Religion ( edit ) Rules relating to eligibility established by the Bill of Rights are retained under the Act of Settlement . The preamble to the Act of Settlement notes that the Bill of Rights provides `` that all and every person and persons that then ( at the time of the Bill of Right 's passage ) were , or afterwards should be reconciled to , or shall hold communion with the See or Church of Rome , or should profess the popish religion , or marry a papist , should be excluded . '' The Act of Settlement continues , providing `` that all and every Person and Persons who shall ... is , are or shall be reconciled to or shall hold Communion with the See or Church of Rome or shall profess the Popish religion or shall marry a papist shall be subject to such Incapacities '' as the Bill of Rights established . The precise meaning of the aforementioned clauses is subject to contention . Under one interpretation , the religion of an individual at the precise moment of succession is relevant . Under another interpretation , anyone who has been a Roman Catholic at any time since 1689 ( `` then ... or afterwards '' ) is forever ineligible to succeed . The former interpretation allows a Roman Catholic to convert to Protestantism and succeed to the Throne just before a vacancy on the throne occurs devolving the crown on the first dynast in the line of succession ; the latter does not . In either case , however , other denominations of faith are not affected ; it is clear that any non-Catholic may convert to Protestantism and succeed to the Throne . It is a requirement that the monarch must be a Protestant . The Act of Settlement further provided that anyone who married a Roman Catholic was ineligible to succeed . The Act did not require that the spouse be Protestant ; it only barred those who marry Roman Catholics . Since the passage of the Act it has been determined ( in the case of Prince Edward , Duke of Kent ) that an individual is not barred because his or her spouse later converts to Roman Catholicism after their marriage . The Succession to the Crown Act 2013 removed the bar on individuals married to Roman Catholics , though not on Roman Catholics themselves . Treason ( edit ) Under the Treason Act 1702 and the Treason ( Ireland ) Act 1703 , it is treason to `` endeavour to deprive or hinder any person who shall be the next in succession to the crown ... from succeeding ... to the imperial crown of this realm '' . Since the Crime and Disorder Act 1998 , the maximum penalty has been life imprisonment . Accession ( edit ) The Accession Council normally meets in St James 's Palace to proclaim the new sovereign . In the Commonwealth realms , upon the death of a sovereign , the heir apparent or heir presumptive succeeds to the throne immediately , with no need for confirmation or further ceremony . Nevertheless , the Accession Council meets and decides upon the making of the accession proclamation , which by custom has for centuries been ceremonially proclaimed in public places , in London , York , Edinburgh and other cities . The anniversary is observed throughout the sovereign 's reign as Accession Day , including royal gun salutes in the United Kingdom . Formerly , a new sovereign proclaimed his or her own accession . But on the death of Elizabeth I an Accession Council met to proclaim the accession of James I to the throne of England . James was then in Scotland and reigning as King James VI of Scotland . This precedent has been followed since . Now , the Accession Council normally meets in St James 's Palace . Proclamations since James I 's have usually been made in the name of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal , the Privy Council , the Lord Mayor , Aldermen and citizens of the City of London and `` other principal Gentlemen of quality '' , though there have been variations in some proclamations . The proclamation of accession of Elizabeth II was the first to make mention of representatives of members of the Commonwealth . Upon his or her accession , a new sovereign is required by law to make and subscribe several oaths . The Bill of Rights of 1689 first required the sovereign to make a public declaration of non-belief in Roman Catholicism . This declaration , known as the Accession Declaration , is required to be taken at either the first meeting of parliament of his or her reign ( i.e. during the State Opening of Parliament ) or at his or her coronation , whichever occurs first . The current wording of this declaration was adopted in 1910 as the previous wording was deemed to be controversial and overtly anti-Catholic . Rather than denouncing Roman Catholicism , the sovereign now declares him or herself to be a Protestant and that he or she will `` uphold and maintain '' the Protestant succession . In addition to the Accession Declaration , the new sovereign is required by the Acts of Union 1707 to make an oath to `` maintain and preserve '' the Church of Scotland . This oath is normally made at the sovereign 's first meeting of the Privy Council following his or her accession . According to the Regency Act 1937 , should the sovereign be under the age of 18 , such oaths and declarations required to be taken by the sovereign shall be made upon his attainment of that age . After a period of mourning , the new sovereign is usually consecrated and crowned in Westminster Abbey . Normally , the Archbishop of Canterbury officiates , though the sovereign may designate any other bishop of the Church of England . A coronation is not necessary for a sovereign to reign ; for example , Edward VIII was never crowned , yet during his short reign was the undoubted king . See also ( edit ) Biography portal Royalty portal United Kingdom portal Accession Declaration Act 1910 Alternative successions of the English crown British prince British princess Family tree of the British royal family Jacobite succession List of descendants of George V List of heirs to the British throne List of heirs to the English throne List of heirs of Scotland List of monarchs in the British Isles Patrilineal descent of Elizabeth II Posthumous birth Royal Succession Act 2013 ( New Zealand ) Royal Succession Bills and Acts Succession to the Crown Act 2013 ( United Kingdom ) Succession to the Crown Act 2015 ( Australia ) Succession to the Throne Act , 2013 ( Canada ) Perth Agreement 2011 and other articles , linked directly or indirectly -- Wikipedia book Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ Succession to the Crown Act 2013 , s . 3 : `` A person who ( when the person marries ) is one of the 6 persons next in the line of succession to the Crown must obtain the consent of Her Majesty before marrying . '' Jump up ^ Most sources , including Whitaker 's Almanack , exclude her as a confirmed Catholic , but Debrett 's includes her in line . Jump up ^ Albert and Leopold Windsor were listed on The Official Website of the British Monarchy until 2015 and in the 2013 edition of Whitaker 's Almanack as following Estella Taylor ( b 2004 ) and eligible to succeed ; MSN News , Debrett 's and Whitaker 's Almanack 2015 lists them after Lady Amelia Windsor and before Lady Helen Taylor . They were baptised as Catholics , and are not listed in line in editions of Whitaker 's earlier than 2012 . Jump up ^ Neither the Legitimacy Act 1926 nor the Legitimacy Act 1959 changed the Law of Succession . Jump up ^ Per the His Majesty 's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936 . Jump up ^ A letter from Tony Newton as Lord President of the Council to Tony Benn indicated this was the effect of the Act of Settlement after Benn had indicated he intended to block the next accession at the Privy Council . Jump up ^ This declaration was similar to what members of both Houses of Parliament were originally required to take by the Test Acts . Eventually , by the time it was changed in 1910 , the monarch was the only one left required to make the declaration . References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` Succession '' . Official website of the British Monarchy . Retrieved 27 April 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Bogdanor ( 1995 ) , p. 55 . Jump up ^ Reitwiesner , W.A. `` Persons eligible to succeed to the British Throne as of 1 Jan 2001 '' . wargs.com . Archived from the original on 18 January 2011 . Jump up ^ Lewis , David . `` Persons eligible to succeed to the British Throne as of 1 Jan 2011 '' . wargs.com . Archived from the original on 17 May 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Line of succession to the throne '' . The Sydney Morning Herald . 7 February 1952 . p. 6 . Jump up ^ Chrimes , S.B. ( 1999 ) . Henry VII . Yale University Press . p. 50 . ISBN 9780300078831 . Jump up ^ `` Rotuli Parliamentorum A.D. 1485 1 Henry VII '' . Jump up ^ Smith , G. Barnett ( 1892 ) . History of the English Parliament . Ward , Lock , Bowden & Co. p. 298 . Jump up ^ `` Succession to the Crown Act 1603 '' . Jump up ^ UPI , London , 21 January 1936http://www.upi.com/Archives/1936/01/21/Prince-of-Wales-proclaimed-King-Edward-VIII/7807693511214/ ) Jump up ^ `` Girls equal in British throne succession '' . BBC News . 28 October 2011 . Jump up ^ The Succession to the Crown Act 2013 ( Commencement ) Order 2015 legislation.gov.uk Jump up ^ Clegg , Nick ( 26 March 2015 ) . `` Commencement of Succession to the Crown Act 2013 : Written statement '' . UK Parliament . Jump up ^ `` What do the new royal succession changes mean ? '' . Royal Central . 26 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Blackstone ( 1765 ) . ^ Jump up to : `` Succession to the Crown Act 2013 '' . UK Parliament . Section 3 . Jump up ^ His Majesty 's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936 , section 2 Jump up ^ Act of Settlement , preamble Jump up ^ Act of Settlement , section 2 Jump up ^ `` Accession '' . Official website of the British Monarchy . Retrieved 7 May 2016 . Jump up ^ Bogdanor ( 1995 ) , p. 45 . Jump up ^ `` Gun Salutes '' . Official website of the British Monarchy . Retrieved 7 May 2016 . Jump up ^ Accession Declaration Act 1910 , schedule Jump up ^ Union with Scotland Act 1706 , article XXV . `` ... And Lastly that after the Decease of Her Present Majesty ( whom God long preserve ) the Soveraign succeeding to her in the Royal Government of the Kingdom of Great Britain shall in all time comeing at his or her accession to the Crown Swear and Subscribe That they shall inviolably maintain and preserve the foresaid settlement of the True Protestant Religion with the Government Worship Discipline Right and Priviledges of this Church as above established by the Laws of this Kingdom in prosecution of the Claim of Right ... '' Jump up ^ Regency Act 1937 , section 1 ( 2 ) Jump up ^ `` Coronation '' . Official website of the British Monarchy . Retrieved 7 May 2016 . Sources ( edit ) Blackstone , William ( 1765 ) . `` Chapter 3 : Of The King , and His Title '' . Commentaries on the Laws of England , Vol. 1 . Oxford : Clarendon Press . Bogdanor , Vernon ( 1995 ) . The Monarchy and the Constitution . Oxford : Clarendon Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 829334 - 7 . Bryant , A. ( 1975 ) . A Thousand Years of British Monarchy . London : Collins . Cox , Noel ( 1999 ) . `` The Law of Succession to the Crown in New Zealand '' . Waikato Law Review . 7 : 49 -- 72 . External links ( edit ) Text of the Bill of Rights 1689 Text of the Act of Settlement 1701 Full text of the Succession to the Crown Act 2013 . Succession to the British throne Legislation Succession Act 1533 Succession Act 1536 Succession Act 1543 Coronation Oath Act 1688 Bill of Rights 1689 Act of Settlement 1701 Act of Union 1706 Accession Declaration Act 1910 Perth Agreement 2011 Succession to the Crown Act 2013 Regency Acts Orders of succession Monarchies Bahrain Belgium Bhutan Brunei Denmark Japan Jordan Liechtenstein Luxembourg Malaysia Monaco Morocco Netherlands Norway Saudi Arabia Spain Swaziland Sweden Thailand Tonga United Kingdom and other Commonwealth realms Presidencies Argentina Austria Brazil Colombia D.R. Congo Dominican Republic France Finland Germany Iceland India Indonesia Ireland Italy South Korea Mexico Pakistan Peru Philippines Poland Portugal Romania Russia Sri Lanka Taiwan United States Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Succession_to_the_British_throne&oldid=838504174 '' Categories : British monarchy Succession to the British crown Constitution of the United Kingdom British royalty British royal family Lines of succession Hidden categories : All articles lacking reliable references Articles lacking reliable references from March 2015 Use dmy dates from November 2011 Use British English from November 2011 Articles needing additional references from May 2015 All articles needing additional references Talk Contents About Wikipedia Afrikaans Bosanski Čeština Deutsch Eesti Español Français 한국어 हिन्दी Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Magyar Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский Scots සිංහල Simple English Suomi Svenska ไทย 中文 21 more Edit links This page was last edited on 27 April 2018 , at 12 : 53 . 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21 Guns ( song ) - wikipedia 21 Guns ( song ) Jump to : navigation , search `` 21 Guns '' Single by Green Day from the album 21st Century Breakdown Released May 25 , 2009 ( digital download ) July 14 , 2009 ( CD single ) Format Digital download , CD single , vinyl Recorded 2008 Genre Alternative rock Length 5 : 21 Label Reprise Songwriter ( s ) Billie Joe Armstrong , David Bowie , Mike Dirnt , and Tré Cool Producer ( s ) Butch Vig and Green Day Green Day singles chronology `` Know Your Enemy '' ( 2009 ) `` 21 Guns '' ( 2009 ) `` East Jesus Nowhere '' ( 2009 ) `` Know Your Enemy '' ( 2009 ) `` 21 Guns '' ( 2009 ) `` East Jesus Nowhere '' ( 2009 ) Audio sample file help `` 21 Guns '' is a song by American punk rock band Green Day . It was released as the second single from their eighth album , 21st Century Breakdown . The single was released through Reprise Records on May 25 , 2009 as a digital download and July 14 , 2009 as a CD single . The song has been a success on the Billboard Hot 100 chart , peaking at No. 22 , which has become their highest charting single since 2005 . It was nominated for a Grammy for Best Rock Performance by a Duo / Group with Vocals and Best Rock Song in 2010 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Background and composition 2 Critical reception 3 Chart performance 4 Release and media appearance 5 Music video 6 Musical cast version 7 Live EP 8 Track listing 9 Charts and certifications 9.1 Weekly charts 9.2 Year - end charts 9.3 Certifications 10 Personnel 11 References 12 External links Background and composition `` 21 Guns '' addresses the topic of patriotism . Frontman and chief songwriter Billie Joe Armstrong told Q magazine , in May 2009 : `` It brings up 21st Century Breakdown in a lot of ways , and the 21 - gun salute for someone that 's fallen , but done in an arena rock ' n ' roll sort of way . '' According to Q , the song is `` a mammoth power ballad with a chorus like Mott the Hoople 's All the Young Dudes . '' William Goodman from Spin agreed , also comparing the song to All The Young Dudes . Entertainment Weekly 's Simon Vozick - Levinson described it as a `` sensitive arena rock cut that made us think of Toto 's ' Africa ' . While the chorus sounded more like ELO 's ' Telephone Line . ' A Rolling Stone article commented that it `` has a dash of ' Boulevard of Broken Dreams ' to it . '' Spin 's Goodman agreed , writing : `` This track covers a lot of territory in its five minutes , from a solo acoustic guitar ( reminiscent of `` Boulevard of Broken Dreams '' ) to Brian May - worthy electric riffage . But the chorus holds the killer hook , as Armstrong hits highs with his voice in a thrilling moment . '' Critical reception The song has received critical acclaim . Chris Fallon writing for AbsolutePunk commented that `` it is arguably the album 's highlight , presenting an anti-war ballad that is both monumentally enduring and also sophisticated protest . '' James Montgomery of MTV News described it as `` a cell - phones - in - the - air anthem , starting with more sharply strummed acoustic guitars . '' Colin Moriarty from IGN wrote that the track is `` perhaps the best song on the album as a whole , is a multi-faceted song with a pretty poignant message to boot . '' Jordan Richardson of Blogcritics commented : `` It 's the album 's anti-war hymn , reaching heroic heights with a sleek sort of sappiness that fits flawlessly . The range and sentiment may dishearten those looking for a little more Dookie from their Green Day , but I 've never heard Billie Joe sound so good and so earnest as he pulls his frail voice upwards to knock out some stunning high notes . '' Mayer Nissim gave the song 3 out of 5 stars , writing : `` It combines verses reminiscent of Neil Young 's ' Heart of Gold ' with big power - pop chord changes and choruses that soar in all the right places . The jerky charm of the band 's earlier work may be missing , but there 's still lots to enjoy here . '' However , Adam Downer from Sputnikmusic gave a negative review , commenting that `` it sounds like a terrible rewrite of something John Lennon never released . '' Chart Performance The song debuted at No. 55 on the Billboard Hot 100 , peaking at No. 22 ( becoming their highest peaking song since the 2005 hit `` Wake Me Up When September Ends '' ) , and No. 81 on the Canadian Hot 100 , reaching # 15 . It reached No. 3 on the Alternative Songs chart and No. 17 on the Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks chart . Also , on the Billboard Pop Songs it reached # 7 . On the Australian ARIA Singles Chart , the song peaked at # 4 . On the UK Singles Chart , it debuted at No. 100 and rose to # 36 . In New Zealand , the song debuted at No. 23 and peaked at No. 3 in its seventh week on the chart . In New Zealand , it was certified Platinum after 13 weeks on the chart , selling over 15,000 copies . It was certified Platinum by the RIAA . The single was also certified Platinum in Italy . Release and Media appearance `` 21 Guns '' was released to modern punk radio stations on May 25 , 2009 , although it had already been played on some radio stations , such as KROQ in Los Angeles and 101.9 in New York City . In the radio edit , the song is over forty seconds shorter than the album version due to the bridge being shortened and the intro being taken out . The CD single and clear 7 '' single were released on July 14 , 2009 . The song is featured heavily in Transformers : Revenge of the Fallen and appears on the soundtrack , which was released on June 12 , 2009 . It became available for download on the music video game series Rock Band on July 7 , 2009 , along with the songs `` East Jesus Nowhere '' and `` Know Your Enemy . The song was featured in episode 6 of The Vampire Diaries . The song is featured in the video game Green Day : Rock Band and is downloadable content for the Rock Band series . A live version was also released on 21 Guns Live EP in September 2009 . Music video A music video was directed by Marc Webb and filmed in Los Angeles on June 6 , 2009 . It premiered on MySpace on Monday , June 22 , 2009 at midnight EDT . A shorter version of the video also exists , which is set to the radio edit of the song . It is the third Green Day video to feature touring guitarist Jason White performing with the band , following `` Wake Me Up When September Ends '' and `` Working Class Hero '' . He is also seen briefly in the music videos for `` When I Come Around '' and `` Jesus of Suburbia '' but he is not performing with the band . After spending the previous week at number 3 , the video peaked at number one on VH1 Top 20 Countdown on August 22 , 2009 and again on September 19 , 2009 . It also won `` Best Rock Video '' , `` Best Direction in a Video '' and `` Best Cinematography in a Video '' for the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards . The video takes place with the band and the album 's two protagonists Christian ( Josh Boswell ) and Gloria ( Lisa Stelly ) taking refuge in a white room after robbing a bank . The police arrive outside the room and open fire through the window , to the couple 's terror . As bullets rain through the room , the band continues playing . Gloria picks up the phone and throws it into a fish tank . As the bullets continue to fly and tear apart the room , Christian and Gloria become calm and walk toward each other , unharmed by the bullets . They embrace and kiss as the room goes dark , recreating the 21st Century Breakdown cover art . As the song ends , the room lights up again , and they are still uninjured . After the room lights up , there are various shots of destruction in the room , including a shot of some of the writing on the walls . The writing includes an excerpt of the lyrics to `` 21 Guns '' , as well as those of the song `` See The Light '' which also appears on `` 21st Century Breakdown '' . The video may represent the meaning of the song in the 21st Century Breakdown story . Musical cast version `` 21 Guns '' Single by Green Day and the cast of American Idiot from the album American Idiot : The Original Broadway Cast Recording B - side `` Like a Rolling Stone ( Bob Dylan Cover ) '' Released December 3 , 2009 Format Digital download , CD single Recorded 2009 Genre Alternative rock Length 4 : 41 Label Reprise Songwriter ( s ) Billie Joe Armstrong , David Bowie , Mike Dirnt , and Tré Cool Producer ( s ) Green Day Green Day and the cast of American Idiot singles chronology `` 21 Guns '' ( 2009 ) `` When It 's Time '' ( 2010 ) `` 21 Guns ( Musical Cast Version ) '' ( 2010 ) `` When It 's Time '' ( 2010 ) Green Day has recorded two versions of `` 21 Guns '' with the cast of American Idiot . The recording was produced by Billie Joe Armstrong . The recording with Armstrong singing the male solo parts was released on December 3 to Spinner.com and also released for digital download on December 22 . The video was released February 1 . The second version of the song with the cast of American Idiot features Stark Sands , John Gallagher Jr. , and Michael Esper singing their respective solos instead of Armstrong . It was performed with Armstrong singing lead male vocals at the 52nd Grammy Awards . Live EP 21 Guns Live EP EP by Green Day Released September 4 , 2009 Recorded July 25 , 2009 in Albany , New York ; July 28 , 2009 Madison Square Garden , New York Genre Pop punk , punk rock , alternative rock Length 17 : 52 Label Reprise Producer Green Day Green Day released a live EP for the song including live performances of `` Welcome to Paradise '' , `` Brain Stew / Jaded '' and `` F.O.D. '' recorded live in Albany , New York and Madison Square Garden . This EP was released on the Australian iTunes store , Amazon UK , and Napster . Track listing Original version : Digital download / Maxi CD No . Title Length 1 . `` 21 Guns '' 5 : 21 2 . `` Favorite Son '' ( Green Day 's contribution to the Rock Against Bush Vol. 2 compilation ) 2 : 13 3 . `` 21 Guns '' ( Studio 880 version ) 5 : 17 CD single / 7 '' single No . Title Length 1 . `` 21 Guns '' 5 : 21 2 . `` Favorite Son '' ( From `` Rock Against Bush Vol. 2 '' ) 2 : 13 Promo CD No . Title Length 1 . `` 21 Guns '' ( Radio Edit ) 4 : 37 Musical cast version : Digital download / CD single No . Title Length 1 . `` 21 Guns '' ( Green Day with the cast of American Idiot version ) 4 : 41 21 Guns EP No . Title Length 1 . `` 21 Guns '' ( Green Day with the cast of American Idiot version ) 4 : 41 2 . `` 21 Guns '' ( Original version ) 5 : 21 3 . `` 21 Guns '' ( Live in Japan ) 5 : 01 Live EP : 21 Guns Live EP No . Title Length 1 . `` 21 Guns '' ( live in Albany , New York , 2009 ) 5 : 45 2 . `` Welcome to Paradise '' ( live in Albany , New York , 2009 ) 3 : 45 3 . `` Brain Stew / Jaded '' ( live in Albany , New York , 2009 ) 5 : 33 4 . `` F.O.D. '' ( live in Madison Square Garden , New York , 2009 ) 2 : 50 Other : 21 Guns ( Live in Tokyo ) Promo CD No . Title Length 1 . `` 21 Guns '' ( live in Tokyo ) 5 : 56 Charts and certifications Weekly charts Chart ( 2009 ) Peak position Australia ( ARIA ) 14 Austria ( Ö3 Austria Top 40 ) 10 Belgium ( Ultratop 50 Flanders ) 38 Belgium ( Ultratop 50 Wallonia ) 19 Brazil ( ABPD ) 12 Canada ( Canadian Hot 100 ) 15 Czech Singles Chart 12 Denmark ( Tracklisten ) 37 European Hot 100 Germany ( Official German Charts ) 13 Iceland Singles Chart Ireland ( IRMA ) 21 Israel Singles Chart Italy ( FIMI ) 15 Netherlands ( Dutch Top 40 ) 21 Netherlands ( Single Top 100 ) 89 New Zealand ( Recorded Music NZ ) Polish Singles Chart Spain ( PROMUSICAE ) 17 Sweden ( Sverigetopplistan ) 8 Switzerland ( Schweizer Hitparade ) 13 UK Singles ( Official Charts Company ) 36 US Billboard Hot 100 22 US Mainstream Top 40 ( Billboard ) 30 US Adult Top 40 ( Billboard ) 9 US Hot Rock Songs ( Billboard ) 5 US Mainstream Rock ( Billboard ) 17 US Alternative Songs ( Billboard ) Year - end charts End of year chart ( 2009 ) Position Australian Singles Chart 72 Italian Singles Chart 75 New Zealand Singles Chart 38 Swiss Singles Chart 60 U.S. Billboard Hot 100 78 Certifications Region Certification Certified units / Sales Australia ( ARIA ) Platinum 70,000 New Zealand ( RMNZ ) Platinum 15,000 United Kingdom ( BPI ) Silver 200,000 United States ( RIAA ) Platinum 1,000,000 sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone Personnel Billie Joe Armstrong -- lead vocals , acoustic and electric guitars , piano Mike Dirnt -- bass guitar , backing vocals Tré Cool -- drums , percussion References Jump up ^ `` Articles > Q > `` Viva La Revolution ! '' - Page 7 `` . Q Magazine . Retrieved June 16 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Articles > Q > `` Viva La Revolution ! - Page 3 '' . Q Magazine . Retrieved June 16 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Goodman , William ( February 13 , 2009 ) . `` First Listen : Green Day 's `` 21st Century Breakdown '' `` . Spin . Retrieved May 7 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Green Day 's 21st Century Breakdown : We heard ( some of ) it ! PopWatch Blog '' . Entertainment Weekly . February 11 , 2009 . Retrieved May 7 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` First Listen : Green Day Revive Dramatic Political Punk on `` 21st Century Breakdown '' `` . Rolling Stone . February 11 , 2009 . Archived from the original on June 16 , 2009 . Retrieved June 16 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Fallon , Chris ( May 14 , 2009 ) . `` Green Day -- 21st Century Breakdown -- Album Review '' . AbsolutePunk . Archived from the original on May 21 , 2009 . Retrieved May 25 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Montgomery , James ( February 12 , 2009 ) . `` We Preview Green Day 's 21st Century Breakdown -- News Story '' . MTV . Retrieved June 16 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Moriarty , Colin ( May 18 , 2009 ) . `` Green Day : 21st Century Breakdown Review '' . IGN . Archived from the original on April 1 , 2012 . Retrieved June 16 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Richardson , Jordan ( May 10 , 2009 ) . `` Music Review : Green Day -- 21st Century Breakdown -- Page 2 '' . Blogcritics . Archived from the original on April 14 , 2013 . Retrieved June 16 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Nassim , Mayer ( July 12 , 2009 ) . `` Green Day : ' 21 Guns ' -- Music Singles Review -- Digital Spy '' . Digital Spy . Retrieved June 16 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Downer , Adam ( May 11 , 2009 ) . `` Green Day 21st Century Breakdown '' . Sputnikmusic . Archived from the original on May 19 , 2009 . Retrieved May 13 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Green Day -- 21 Guns '' . charts.org.nz . September 22 , 2009 . Retrieved September 22 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` September 13 , 2009 : New Zealand Gold Certification '' . radioscope.net.nz . Archived from the original on July 24 , 2011 . Retrieved September 22 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Italian single certifications -- Green Day -- 21 Guns '' ( in Italian ) . Federazione Industria Musicale Italiana . Jump up ^ `` FMQB : Radio Industry News ... '' FMQB . Archived from the original on September 21 , 2013 . Retrieved June 16 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Green Day -- 21 Guns ( CD ) at Discogs '' . Discogs . Retrieved June 16 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Transformers : Revenge of the Fallen Soundtrack '' . digiRAMA . Archived from the original on June 29 , 2009 . Retrieved July 12 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` MTV Games , Harmonix & Warner Bros. / Reprise Records Partner With Green Day to Bring Their Music Exclusively to Rock Band / / News / / Rock Band '' . Rockband.com . Retrieved August 21 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` SkinnyLove21 's Journal -- The Vampire Diaries Soundtrack , Season 1 '' . last.fm. April 16 , 2010 . Archived from the original on August 18 , 2010 . Retrieved July 12 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` '' 21 Guns '' -- Green Day `` . rockband.com . Archived from the original on April 25 , 2010 . Retrieved July 12 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` 21 Guns Live EP '' . GreenDay.com . September 20 , 2009 . Archived from the original on April 13 , 2010 . Retrieved July 12 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` 21 Guns Video '' . Green Day.com . June 5 , 2009 . Archived from the original on June 8 , 2011 . Retrieved July 12 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` 2009 MTV Video Music Awards Winners '' . MTV . Retrieved July 12 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Green Day -- making of 21 Guns video '' . MySpace Video . June 23 , 2009 . Archived from the original on July 2 , 2009 . Retrieved July 12 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Press Release '' . GreenDay.com . November 13 , 2009 . Archived from the original on April 13 , 2010 . Retrieved July 12 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Press Release '' . GreenDay.com . December 2 , 2009 . Archived from the original on June 8 , 2011 . Retrieved July 12 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Officially released video Green Day -- 21 Guns ( Cast Version ) on YouTube Jump up ^ `` Get The New 21 Guns EP In Itunes Now '' . GreenDay.com . February 2 , 2010 . Archived from the original on June 8 , 2011 . Retrieved July 12 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Australian-charts.com -- Green Day -- 21 Guns '' . ARIA Top 50 Singles . Retrieved October 27 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Austriancharts.at -- Green Day -- 21 Guns '' ( in German ) . Ö3 Austria Top 40 . Retrieved October 27 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Ultratop.be -- Green Day -- 21 Guns '' ( in Dutch ) . Ultratop 50 . Retrieved October 27 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Ultratop.be -- Green Day -- 21 Guns '' ( in French ) . Ultratop 50 . Retrieved October 27 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Brazil '' ( PDF ) . ABPD . October 6 , 2001 . Retrieved April 1 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Green Day Chart History ( Canadian Hot 100 ) '' . Billboard . Retrieved October 27 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Danishcharts.com -- Green Day -- 21 Guns '' . Tracklisten . Retrieved October 27 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Musicline.de -- Green Day Single - Chartverfolgung '' ( in German ) . Media Control Charts . PhonoNet GmbH . Retrieved October 27 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Green Day Chart History '' . RÚV . Retrieved June 19 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` The Irish Charts -- Search Results -- 21 Guns '' . Irish Singles Chart . Retrieved October 27 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Media Forest : Airplay chart '' . mediaforest.biz . Archived from the original on July 22 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Italiancharts.com -- Green Day -- 21 Guns '' . Top Digital Download . Retrieved October 27 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Nederlandse Top 40 -- Green Day '' ( in Dutch ) . Dutch Top 40 . Retrieved October 27 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Dutchcharts.nl -- Green Day -- 21 Guns '' ( in Dutch ) . Single Top 100 . Retrieved October 27 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Charts.org.nz -- Green Day -- 21 Guns '' . Top 40 Singles . Retrieved October 27 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Green Day -- 21 Guns . Polish Singles Chart '' . Jump up ^ `` Spanishcharts.com -- Green Day -- 21 Guns '' Canciones Top 50 . Retrieved October 27 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Swedishcharts.com -- Green Day -- 21 Guns '' . Singles Top 100 . Retrieved October 27 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Swisscharts.com -- Green Day -- 21 Guns '' . Swiss Singles Chart . Retrieved October 27 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Green Day : Artist Chart History '' . Official Charts Company . Retrieved October 27 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Green Day Chart History ( Hot 100 ) '' . Billboard . Retrieved October 27 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Green Day Chart History ( Pop Songs ) '' . Billboard . Retrieved October 27 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Green Day Chart History ( Adult Pop Songs ) '' . Billboard . Retrieved October 27 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Green Day Chart History ( Hot Rock Songs ) '' . Billboard . Retrieved October 27 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Green Day Chart History ( Mainstream Rock ) '' . Billboard . Retrieved October 27 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Green Day Chart History ( Alternative Songs ) '' . Billboard . Retrieved October 27 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Australia year end -- 2009 '' . ARIA . January 19 , 2010 . Retrieved December 18 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` FIMI -- Federazione Industria Musicale Italiana -- Ricerche e dati di mercato '' . Fimi.it . January 19 , 2010 . Archived from the original on January 23 , 2010 . Retrieved December 18 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` RIANZ '' . RIANZ . Archived from the original on July 24 , 2011 . Retrieved September 1 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` 2009 Year End Swiss Singles Chart '' . Swiss Music Charts. 2009 . Retrieved July 16 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Billboard year end -- 2009 '' . Billboard . January 19 , 2010 . Retrieved December 18 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` ARIA Charts -- Accreditations -- 2009 Singles '' . Australian Recording Industry Association . Retrieved October 13 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` New Zealand single certifications -- Green Day -- 21 Guns '' . Recorded Music NZ . Archived from the original on October 13 , 2015 . Retrieved October 13 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` British single certifications -- Green Day -- 21 Guns '' . British Phonographic Industry . Enter 21 Guns in the search field and then press Enter . Jump up ^ `` American single certifications -- Green Day -- 21 Guns '' . Recording Industry Association of America . Retrieved October 13 , 2015 . If necessary , click Advanced , then click Format , then select Single , then click SEARCH External links Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics ( hide ) Green Day Billie Joe Armstrong Mike Dirnt Tré Cool Jason White John Kiffmeyer Studio albums 39 / Smooth Kerplunk Dookie Insomniac Nimrod Warning American Idiot 21st Century Breakdown ¡ Uno ! ¡ Dos ! ¡ Tré ! Revolution Radio Live albums Live Tracks Tune In , Tokyo ... Bullet in a Bible Awesome as Fuck Compilation albums 1,039 / Smoothed Out Slappy Hours International Superhits ! Shenanigans Green Day Demolicious Greatest Hits : God 's Favorite Band EPs 1,000 Hours Slappy Sweet Children Last Night on Earth : Live in Tokyo Singles `` Longview '' `` Welcome to Paradise '' `` Basket Case '' `` When I Come Around '' `` She '' `` J.A.R. '' `` Geek Stink Breath '' `` Stuck with Me '' `` Brain Stew / Jaded '' `` Walking Contradiction '' `` Hitchin ' a Ride '' `` Good Riddance ( Time of Your Life ) '' `` Redundant '' `` Nice Guys Finish Last '' `` Minority '' `` Warning '' `` Waiting '' `` Macy 's Day Parade '' `` American Idiot '' `` Boulevard of Broken Dreams '' `` Holiday '' `` Wake Me Up When September Ends '' `` Jesus of Suburbia '' `` Know Your Enemy '' `` 21 Guns '' `` East Jesus Nowhere '' `` 21st Century Breakdown '' `` Last of the American Girls '' `` When It 's Time '' `` Oh Love '' `` Kill the DJ '' `` Let Yourself Go '' `` Stray Heart '' `` The Forgotten '' `` X-Kid '' `` Xmas Time of the Year '' `` Bang Bang '' `` Still Breathing '' `` Revolution Radio '' Tours Pop Disaster Tour American Idiot World Tour 21st Century Breakdown World Tour 99 Revolutions Tour Revolution Radio Tour Associated acts Foxboro Hot Tubs The Network Pinhead Gunpowder The Frustrators The Lookouts The Big Cats The Influents Related articles Discography List of songs Awards and nominations Adeline Records Cigarettes and Valentines Money Money 2020 Stop Drop and Roll ! ! ! American Edit Green Day 's American Idiot soundtrack Green Day : Rock Band songs ¡ Cuatro ! Foreverly Book Portal Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=21_Guns_(song)&oldid=820470590 '' Categories : 2000s ballads 2009 singles Green Day songs Rock ballads Songs written by Billie Joe Armstrong Song recordings produced by Butch Vig Music videos directed by Marc Webb Songs written by Mike Dirnt 2008 songs 2009 songs Number - one singles in Poland Reprise Records singles Hidden categories : CS1 Italian - language sources ( it ) Wikipedia pages semi-protected from banned users Use mdy dates from March 2012 Articles with hAudio microformats All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from October 2010 Music infoboxes with deprecated parameters Singlechart usages for Australia Singlechart usages for Austria Singlechart usages for Flanders Singlechart usages for Wallonia Singlechart usages for Billboardcanadianhot100 Singlechart called without song Singlechart usages for Denmark Singlechart usages for Germany Singlechart usages for Ireland2 Singlechart usages for Italy Singlechart usages for Dutch40 Singlechart usages for Dutch100 Singlechart usages for New Zealand Singlechart usages for Spain Singlechart usages for Sweden Singlechart usages for Switzerland Singlechart usages for UKsinglesbyname Singlechart usages for Billboardhot100 Singlechart usages for Billboardpopsongs Singlechart usages for Billboardadultpopsongs Singlechart usages for Billboardrocksongs Singlechart usages for Billboardmainstreamrock Singlechart usages for Billboardalternativesongs Certification Table Entry usages for Australia Certification Table Entry usages for New Zealand Certification Table Entry usages for United Kingdom Certification Table Entry usages for United States Talk View source Contents About Wikipedia Català Español فارسی Français Հայերեն Italiano Latviešu Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Русский Simple English Slovenčina Svenska Türkçe Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 14 January 2018 , at 22 : 20 . 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who is the girl in green day 21 guns

Lisa Stelly

Butch Vig

Mighty Morphin Power Rangers : the Movie - wikipedia Mighty Morphin Power Rangers : the Movie Jump to : navigation , search `` Power Rangers : The Movie '' redirects here . For the 2015 fan film , see Power / Rangers . For the 2017 film , see Power Rangers ( film ) . Mighty Morphin Power Rangers : The Movie Theatrical release poster Directed by Bryan Spicer Produced by Haim Saban Shuki Levy Suzanne Todd Screenplay by Arne Olsen Story by John Kamps Arne Olsen Starring Karan Ashley Johnny Yong Bosch Steve Cardenas Jason David Frank Amy Jo Johnson David Yost Jason Narvy Paul Schrier Paul Freeman Music by Graeme Revell Cinematography Paul Murphy Edited by Wayne Wahrman Production company Saban Entertainment Toei Company Distributed by 20th Century Fox Release date June 30 , 1995 ( 1995 - 06 - 30 ) Running time 95 minutes Country United States Language English Budget $15 million Box office $66.4 million Mighty Morphin Power Rangers : The Movie ( also known as Power Rangers : The Movie ) is a 1995 American superhero film based on the television series Mighty Morphin Power Rangers . It stars the ensemble cast of Karan Ashley , Johnny Yong Bosch , Steve Cardenas , Jason David Frank , Amy Jo Johnson , and David Yost alongside the villains cast from the original series and Paul Freeman as Ivan Ooze . Much like the television season that followed the release , it used concepts from the Japanese Super Sentai series Kyoryu Sentai Zyuranger , Ninja Sentai Kakuranger . It is the first Power Rangers production from Saban Entertainment not to feature any archived footage from Super Sentai . Filming took place in and around Sydney and Queensland , Australia . It was released by 20th Century Fox on June 30 , 1995 . The film grossed $66.43 million worldwide , but received middling and polarizing reviews from critics . Contents ( hide ) 1 Plot 2 Cast 2.1 Voices 3 Music 4 Adaptations in other media 5 Release 5.1 Critical reception 6 Home media 7 References 8 External links Plot ( edit ) The Power Rangers participate with Bulk and Skull in a charity skydive for the Angel Grove observatory , in anticipation of Ryan 's Comet which is scheduled to pass by in two days . Bulk and Skull miss the target landing zone and accidentally land on a construction site where a giant egg has been unearthed . Lord Zedd , Rita Repulsa , Goldar , and Mordant arrive at the construction site and crack open the egg , releasing Ivan Ooze after 6,000 years , a morphological being who ruled Earth with an iron fist before he was overthrown by Zordon and a group of young warriors . Ivan lays siege to the Rangers ' Command Center and incapacitates Zordon , robbing the Rangers of their powers . As the Rangers return to the Command Center , they find it destroyed and Zordon dying . Zordon 's assistant Alpha 5 sends the Rangers to the distant planet Phaedos to obtain the Great Power and save Zordon . On the Moon , Ivan usurps Rita and Zedd , trapping them in a snow globe , then sends his Tengu warriors to Phaedos and begins building an army . He uses children to bring his ooze to their parents , and it hypnotizes them into becoming his workforce to dig up his Ecto - Morphicon Titans , twin war machines built during his reign . When Fred Kelman , a friend of the Rangers ' , discovers his father missing , he finds him working at the construction site and discovers Ivan 's plans . On Phaedos , the Rangers are almost killed by the Tengu , but are rescued by Dulcea , Phaedos ' Master Warrior . She initially tells them to leave for their own safety , but after hearing of Zordon 's plight , she agrees to help them and takes them to an ancient ruined temple where the Rangers will have to overcome obstacles to acquire the power of the Ninjetti . Dulcea awakens each Rangers ' animal spirit : Aisha is the bear , Rocky is the ape , Billy is the wolf , Kimberly is the crane , Adam is the frog and Tommy is the falcon . The Rangers make their way to the Monolith housing the Great Power , defeating its guardians , and retrieve the Great Power . On Earth , Ivan 's Ecto - Morphicons are completely unearthed , and he unleashes them on Angel Grove , ordering the parents to commit suicide at the construction site . Fred , Bulk , Skull and the other kids head to the construction site to save their parents . The Rangers return with their new animal - themed Ninja Zords and destroy one of Ivan 's Ecto - Morphicons . Ivan takes control of the other and battles the Rangers himself . The Rangers lead Ivan into space right into the path of Ryan 's Comet , which destroys him . His destruction breaks the hypnosis and the parents are reunited with their children . The Rangers then use the Great Power to restore the Command Center and resurrect Zordon . In a mid-credits scene , Goldar briefly lounges in Zedd 's throne being served by Mordant only to panic when Zedd and Rita appear having been released after Ivan was destroyed . Cast ( edit ) Karan Ashley as Aisha Campbell , The Yellow Ranger Johnny Yong Bosch as Adam Park , The Black Ranger Steve Cardenas as Rocky DeSantos , The Red Ranger Jason David Frank as Tommy Oliver , The White Ranger Amy Jo Johnson as Kimberly Hart , The Pink Ranger David Yost as Billy Cranston , The Blue Ranger Paul Schrier as Farkas `` Bulk '' Bulkmeier Jason Narvy as Eugene `` Skull '' Skullovitch Paul Freeman as Ivan Ooze Gabrielle Fitzpatrick as Dulcea Nicholas Bell as Zordon Peta - Maree Rixon as Alpha 5 Jean Paul Bell as Mordant Kerry Casey as Goldar Mark Ginther as Lord Zedd Julia Cortez as Rita Repulsa Jamie Croft as Fred Kelman Paul Goddard and Robert Simper as Construction workers Voices ( edit ) Kerrigan Mahan as Goldar Robert L. Manahan as Zordon Robert Axelrod as Lord Zedd Barbara Goodson as Rita Repulsa Richard Wood as Alpha 5 Martin G. Metcalf as Mordant Music ( edit ) See also : Mighty Morphin Power Rangers The Movie : Original Soundtrack Album and Mighty Morphin Power Rangers The Movie : Original Motion Picture Score Adaptations in other media ( edit ) This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( May 2015 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Four different video game titles based on the film were released for the Super NES , Sega Genesis , Game Boy , and Game Gear . Marvel Comics released a comic book adaptation and a photo comic book adaptation of the film in September 1995 . The comic book was printed with two different covers : one featuring fully morphed Rangers and the other featuring them in their Ninjetti uniforms . Release ( edit ) In its opening weekend , the film earned $13,104,788 , coming in fourth behind Apollo 13 and holdovers Pocahontas and Batman Forever . It ultimately grossed $66,433,194 against a $15 million budget , making it a financial success . Critical reception ( edit ) The film holds a 41 % `` Rotten '' rating based on 34 reviews on the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes , though there is no summarized consensus given for it . Kevin Thomas of the Los Angeles Times thought it was characterized by `` a barrage of spectacular special effects , a slew of fantastic monsters , a ferociously funny villain -- and , most important , a refreshing lack of pretentiousness . '' Thomas lauded director Bryan Spicer for raising the quality of production values for a feature film adaptation of the TV series while maintaining a likable `` comic - book look and sense of wonder '' and wholesome high school characters parents would approve of . Caryn James of The New York Times thought that story-wise , it resembles multiple episodes of the television series stringed together with slightly better special effects , and that the result was loud , headache - inducing and boring for adults but that children would enjoy it . James further stated that too much of its running time is spent showing the Rangers without their powers . Roger Ebert gave it only half a star out of a possible four stars , saying that it is `` as close as you can get to absolute nothing and still have a product to project on the screen , '' comparing it to synthetic foods in brightly marketed packaging with no nutritional content . He felt that the characters , with the exception of Ivan Ooze , lacked personalities , and that the scenes of monsters rampaging through the city hearkened back to the worst Japanese monster films . Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle found the fights `` only adequately choreographed , '' called the battle in the climax `` a complete disaster '' and stating that it made no sense in timing , that protagonists were not very intelligent , and the actors playing them unremarkable . Home media ( edit ) This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( May 2015 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The film was released on VHS and LaserDisc in late 1995 and then as a double feature with 1997 's Turbo : A Power Rangers Movie on a double - sided DVD in 2001 by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment . Bonus features included a theatrical trailer and a `` Making Of '' featurette . The film was then released separately on a single - sided DVD in 2003 . / Blu - ray The film was re-released with different packaging on DVD in 2011 . The film was then re-released in 2017 in a bundled set with Turbo : A Power Rangers Movie ( this time as two single - sided DVD discs ) to coincide with the reboot film Power Rangers . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` MIGHTY MORPHIN POWER RANGERS ( PG ) ( ! ) '' . British Board of Film Classification . 1995 - 07 - 11 . Retrieved 2013 - 03 - 19 . ^ Jump up to : Mighty Morphin Power Rangers : The Movie at Box Office Mojo Jump up ^ Gritten , David ( 1995 - 06 - 28 ) . `` Oberon to Ooze -- It 's All in a Day 's Work '' . The Los Angeles Times . Retrieved 2010 - 08 - 22 . Jump up ^ Dutka , Elaine ( 1995 - 07 - 06 ) . `` The Sky 's the Limit at Box Office Movies : A total of about $154 million in receipts sets a five - day record . ` Apollo 13 ' is atop the field with $38.5 million '' . The Los Angeles Times . Retrieved 2010 - 10 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` Mighty Morphin Power Rangers : The Movie ( 1995 ) '' . Rotten Tomatoes . Retrieved 2015 - 12 - 21 . Jump up ^ Thomas , Kevin ( 1995 - 06 - 30 ) . `` A Dazzling Leap From TV to Big Screen for ' Rangers ' '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved 2010 - 08 - 22 . Jump up ^ James , Caryn ( 1995 - 06 - 30 ) . `` FILM REVIEW ; For Power Rangers , Bikinis Are Not The Issue '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 2010 - 08 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Mighty Morphin Power Rangers : The Movie '' . RogerEbert.com . June 30 , 1995 . Retrieved 2010 - 08 - 07 . Jump up ^ Lasalle , Mick ( 1995 - 06 - 30 ) . `` Mighty Mindless ' Rangers ' '' . San Francisco Chronicle . Retrieved 2010 - 08 - 25 . External links ( edit ) Mighty Morphin Power Rangers : The Movie on IMDb Power Rangers Media TV series Saban Entertainment Mighty Morphin Power Rangers ( 1993 -- 1995 ; 2010 ) Season 1 2010 re-version Alien Rangers ( 1996 ) Zeo ( 1996 ) Episodes Turbo ( 1997 ) Episodes in Space ( 1998 ) Episodes Lost Galaxy ( 1999 ) Episodes Lightspeed Rescue ( 2000 ) Episodes Time Force ( 2001 ) Episodes Disney Wild Force ( 2002 ) Episodes Ninja Storm ( 2003 ) Episodes Dino Thunder ( 2004 ) Episodes S.P.D. ( 2005 ) Episodes Mystic Force ( 2006 ) Episodes Operation Overdrive ( 2007 ) Episodes Jungle Fury ( 2008 ) Episodes RPM ( 2009 ) Episodes Saban Brands Samurai & Super Samurai ( 2011 -- 2012 ) Season 1 Megaforce & Super Megaforce ( 2013 -- 2014 ) Season 1 Dino Charge & Dino Super Charge ( 2015 -- 2016 ) Season 1 Ninja Steel & Super Ninja Steel ( 2017 -- 2018 ) Season 1 Beast Morphers ( 2019 ) Films Mighty Morphin Power Rangers : The Movie ( 1995 ) Turbo : A Power Rangers Movie ( 1997 ) Saban 's Power Rangers ( 2017 ) Web series Power Rangers Hyperforce ( 2017 -- 2018 ) Video games Mighty Morphin Power Rangers ( 1994 ) The Movie ( 1995 ) The Fighting Edition ( 1995 ) Zeo : Battle Racers ( 1996 ) Lightspeed Rescue ( 2000 ) Time Force ( 2001 ) Wild Force ( 2002 ) Ninja Storm ( 2003 ) Dino Thunder ( 2004 ) S.P.D. ( 2005 ) Super Legends ( 2007 ) Legacy Wars ( 2017 ) Others `` Day of the Dumpster '' ( series premiere ) `` Go Go Power Rangers '' ( theme song ) `` Power Rangers '' ( song ) A Rock Adventure World Tour Live on Stage Collectible Card Game Comics Mighty Morphin Justice League / Power Rangers Home video Mighty Morphin Universe Rangers Planets Races Villains Zords Related articles Cast members Power / Rangers Super Sentai Power Rangers ( South Korea ) Power Rangers Dino Force Brave Corporate Haim Saban Saban Entertainment Saban Brands Shuki Levy Tony Oliver Disney Bandai Namco Entertainment Bandai Hasbro Related Saban series VR Troopers Masked Rider Beetleborgs ( Big Bad & Metallix ) Ninja Turtles : The Next Mutation Mystic Knights of Tir Na Nog Related DIC series Superhuman Samurai Syber - Squad Tattooed Teenage Alien Fighters from Beverly Hills Related Adness series Kamen Rider : Dragon Knight Films directed by Bryan Spicer Mighty Morphin Power Rangers : The Movie ( 1995 ) McHale 's Navy ( 1997 ) For Richer or Poorer ( 1997 ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mighty_Morphin_Power_Rangers:_The_Movie&oldid=836236492 '' Categories : 1995 films English - language films 1990s action films 1990s martial arts films 1990s science fiction films 1990s superhero films 20th Century Fox films American films American fantasy adventure films American children 's adventure films American children 's fantasy films American science fiction action films American superhero films Comets in fiction Directorial debut films Films based on television series Films scored by Graeme Revell Films set in California Films shot in Queensland Films shot in Sydney Martial arts science fiction films Mighty Morphin Power Rangers Ninja films Power Rangers films Saban Entertainment films Teen superhero films Mecha films Hidden categories : Film articles using image size parameter Articles needing additional references from May 2015 All articles needing additional references Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikiquote Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français 한국어 Italiano Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Polski Português Română Русский Suomi Svenska ไทย 7 more Edit links This page was last edited on 13 April 2018 , at 14 : 29 . 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what are the zords in the power rangers movie

animal-themed Ninja Zords

power / Rangers

Sing ( 2016 American film ) - wikipedia Sing ( 2016 American film ) Jump to : navigation , search Sing Theatrical release poster Directed by Garth Jennings Produced by Chris Meledandri Janet Healy Written by Garth Jennings Starring Matthew McConaughey Reese Witherspoon Seth MacFarlane Scarlett Johansson John C. Reilly Taron Egerton Tori Kelly Music by Joby Talbot Edited by Gregory Perler Production company Illumination Entertainment Distributed by Universal Pictures Release date September 11 , 2016 ( 2016 - 09 - 11 ) ( TIFF ) December 21 , 2016 ( 2016 - 12 - 21 ) ( United States ) Running time 108 minutes Country United States Language English Budget $75 million Box office $634.1 million Sing is a 2016 American computer - animated musical comedy - drama film produced by Illumination Entertainment . It was directed and written by Garth Jennings , co-directed by Christophe Lourdelet and starring the voices of Matthew McConaughey , Reese Witherspoon , Seth MacFarlane , Scarlett Johansson , John C. Reilly , Taron Egerton , and Tori Kelly . The film is about a group of anthropomorphic animals that enter a singing competition , hosted by a koala hoping to save his theater . The film includes more than 60 songs from famous artists and also has an original song by Stevie Wonder and Ariana Grande called `` Faith , '' which was nominated for a Golden Globe . It screened on the Toronto International Film Festival on September 11 , 2016 , premiered at Microsoft Theater on December 3 , 2016 and was released in the United States on December 21 , 2016 , by Universal Pictures . The film received generally positive reviews and grossed $634 million worldwide . Along with The Secret Life of Pets , it marked the first time that Illumination Entertainment released two feature films in the same year . A sequel , entitled Sing 2 , has been announced for a release on December 25 , 2020 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Plot 2 Voice cast 3 Production 4 Soundtrack 5 Release 5.1 Home media 6 Reception 6.1 Box office 6.2 Critical response 6.3 Accolades 7 Sequel 8 References 9 External links Plot ( edit ) In a world of anthropomorphic animals , koala Buster Moon owns a theater , having been interested in show business since his father took him to his first music show as a child . Following financial problems brought up by the bank representative Judith , he tells his wealthy friend Eddie that he will host a singing competition with a prize of $1,000 . But Buster 's assistant , Miss Crawly , accidentally appends two extra zeroes , and the promotional fliers showing $100,000 are blown out of Buster 's office into the city streets . Animals from all around the city gather for auditions . Those selected include housewife and mother of 25 piglets Rosita ; street musician mouse Mike ; mobster 's son gorilla Johnny ; and punk - rock porcupine Ash . Shy teenage elephant Meena fails her audition out of stage fright , while Ash 's boyfriend Lance is dismissed from the contest . Rosita is paired with another contestant , an exuberant pig named Gunter , for a dance routine . Although Buster discovers the flyers show a prize of $100,000 ( money he does not have ) , he remains optimistic . Buster convinces Eddie to arrange a visit with Eddie 's grandmother , former opera singer and theater actress Nana Noodleman , to persuade her to sponsor the prize money . She is hesitant to contribute but agrees to see a private screening of the show . Encouraged by her grandfather , Meena tries to ask Buster for another chance , but becomes his stage hand instead . When one of the acts quits , and another is injured , Meena is added as an act . The performers ' individual problems begin to hinder rehearsals : Rosita flounders in her dance routine with Gunter , after having been distracted by her parenting duties that have fallen into disarray . After discovering Lance with a new girlfriend and evicting them from her apartment , Ash is devastated and can no longer sing her assigned song , Carly Rae Jepsen 's `` Call Me Maybe . '' Johnny is torn between having to help his father as the driver of a getaway car in a heist and making the practices . When he tries to do both , he does not show up for the planned pickup in time , and his father and his gang are arrested . Meena does not get any help in overcoming her stage fright , and Mike , certain that the prize money is as good as his , buys a fancy car to impress a female mouse , and then swindles a group of bears in a card game at a nightclub . The day of the screening , the bears interrupt the show , demanding the money from Mike , who in turn , points to Buster . The bears open the chest containing the prize money , but it is nowhere near $100,000 . The glass tank full of luminescent squids that Buster got to light up the theater breaks under all their weight , flooding the theater , which then comes crashing down . With the lot repossessed by Judith , Buster , who had been living in his theater 's office desk , takes up residence at Eddie 's place ( his parents ' pool house ) . Although the contestants ( besides Mike , who saw Buster as a fraud ) visit him and try to cheer him up , Buster is too despondent to listen to them . He tries to start over by opening a car wash , using the same bucket that his father had used to earn money for Buster 's theater . When Meena goes to the theater 's rubble lot and sings Leonard Cohen 's `` Hallelujah , '' Buster hears her and is inspired to reinstate the show without the prize money . They perform on a makeshift stage on the lot in front of Rosita and Meena 's family members . As Rosita and Gunter perform Taylor Swift 's `` Shake It Off , '' more animals are attracted to the scene as the show is broadcast on the news . Johnny 's rendition of Elton John 's `` I 'm Still Standing '' impresses his father , who then escapes from prison to reconcile with him . Despite an interruption by Judith , Ash sings her original rock song `` Set It All Free . '' Mike returns to the show and sings Frank Sinatra 's `` My Way . '' Meena finally overcomes her fears and sings Stevie Wonder 's `` Do n't You Worry ' bout a Thing , '' which literally brings down the house . The show becomes a success and impresses Nana , who was in the audience . Nana buys the lot and the theater is rebuilt and reopened . Voice cast ( edit ) Matthew McConaughey , Reese Witherspoon , Scarlett Johansson , Tori Kelly , Taron Egerton , and Nick Kroll at the film 's premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival . Matthew McConaughey as Buster Moon , an optimistic koala who plans to save his theater from closure by holding a singing competition . Reese Witherspoon as Rosita , a pig who gave up her teenage music dreams to become a devoted wife to Norman , and mother to their 25 piglets . Seth MacFarlane as Mike , an arrogant street musician mouse with a big Frank Sinatra-esque voice . Scarlett Johansson as Ash , a teenage porcupine punk rocker who takes part in an alternative - rock music duo with her boyfriend Lance . John C. Reilly as Eddie Noodleman , a sheep and Buster 's friend who doubts the future of the theater . Tori Kelly as Meena , a teenage elephant with an exquisite singing voice and severe stage fright . Taron Egerton as Johnny , a teenage gorilla who wants to sing , though his father would rather have him follow his criminal footsteps . Jennifer Saunders as Nana Noodleman , a sheep and Eddie 's grandmother who was a singer in her glory days . Jennifer Hudson as Young Nana Garth Jennings as Miss Crawly , an elderly iguana with a glass eye who is Buster 's administrative assistant . Peter Serafinowicz as Big Daddy , a gorilla gang leader who wants his son Johnny to follow in his crime business . Nick Kroll as Gunter , a passionate dancing pig who is partnered with Rosita for the show . Beck Bennett as Lance , a porcupine and Ash 's boyfriend . Jay Pharoah as Meena 's grandfather who pressures her to overcome her stage fright . Nick Offerman as Norman , a pig and Rosita 's husband . Leslie Jones as Meena 's mother Rhea Perlman as Judith , a brown llama from the bank who warns Buster that his theater will be repossessed if he does not pay . Laraine Newman as Meena 's grandmother Adam Buxton as Stan , a gorilla who is a member of Big Daddy 's gang . Brad Morris as Baboon , whom Mike attacks for not donating more money to his street performances . Bill Farmer as News Reporter Dog , who documents Buster 's singing competition . The voices of Rosita 's piglet children were provided by Oscar , Leo , Caspar , and Asa Jennings , the children of Garth Jennings , the film 's writer and director . Jennings had directors Edgar Wright and Wes Anderson provide `` additional voices '' , continuing a tradition of the three friends appearing in each other 's films . Production ( edit ) In January 2014 , it was announced that Garth Jennings would write and direct an animated comedy film for Universal Pictures and Illumination Entertainment , about `` courage , competition and carrying a tune , '' which was originally titled Lunch , and then retitled as Sing . On January 14 , 2015 , Matthew McConaughey was cast in the film 's lead voice role . Chris Meledandri and Janet Healy produced the film . On June 17 , 2015 , it was confirmed that McConaughey 's character is named Buster and that John C. Reilly would voice Eddie , a sheep and Buster 's best friend . In November 2015 , it was announced that Reese Witherspoon , Seth MacFarlane , Scarlett Johansson , Tori Kelly and Taron Egerton had joined the cast of the film . The film features 65 pop songs , the rights to which cost 15 percent of the film 's $75 million budget . The animation was created entirely in France by Illumination MacGuff . Soundtrack ( edit ) Main article : Sing : Original Motion Picture Soundtrack A soundtrack album for the film was released on December 21 , 2016 . Release ( edit ) The almost complete film was screened as a work in progress beginning September 11 , 2016 at the Toronto International Film Festival . Universal Studios released the film on December 21 , 2016 . Home Media ( edit ) Sing was released on Blu - ray , Blu - ray 3D , Ultra HD Blu - ray and DVD on March 21 , 2017 . It includes three short films : Gunter Babysits , Love at First Sight , and Eddie 's Life Coach . In Gunter Babysits , Gunter offers to watch over Rosita and Norman 's piglets while they are away as he works to prove himself to be a good babysitter . In Love at First Sight , Johnny sets Miss Crawly up with an online dating website where she manages to score a date with a lizard named Herman . In Eddie 's Life Coach , Eddie 's mother sets Eddie up for a digital training seminar where he will be assigned to a dachshund named Garry `` The Winner '' Wishman . Reception ( edit ) Box office ( edit ) Sing grossed $270.3 million in the United States and Canada , and $363.8 million in other territories , for a worldwide total of $634.1 million , against a production budget of $75 million . Deadline.com calculated the net profit of the film to be $194.2 million , when factoring together all expenses and revenue for the film , making it the 7th most profitable release of 2016 . In North America , the film opened alongside Passengers and Assassin 's Creed , and was expected to gross around $70 million from 4,022 theaters over its first six days of release . The film made $1.7 million during its Tuesday night previews . It went on to gross $35.2 million in its opening weekend ( a six - day total of $75.5 million ) , finishing second at the box office behind Rogue One : A Star Wars Story , which was in its second week . Sing holds the record for being the highest - grossing film to never finish first at the North American box office , besting My Big Fat Greek Wedding ( $241.4 million in 2002 ) . Critical response ( edit ) On the aggregate site Rotten Tomatoes , the film has an approval rating of 73 % based on 168 reviews , and an average rating of 6.5 / 10 . The site 's critical consensus reads , `` Sing delivers colorfully animated , cheerfully undemanding entertainment with a solid voice cast and a warm - hearted -- albeit familiar -- storyline that lives up to its title . '' On Metacritic , the film has a weighted average score of 59 out of 100 based on 37 critics , indicating `` mixed or average reviews . '' Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of `` A '' on an A+ to F scale . Brian Truitt of USA Today gave the film three - and - a-half out of four stars and wrote , `` In a year full of talking - animal hits , Sing is n't quite as strong a number . It 's a tale that might not be particularly thought - provoking but sure is toe - tapping . '' In her review for the Los Angeles Times , Katie Walsh called Sing , `` a cute movie with genuinely funny moments ( keep an eye out for the koala car wash ) , and some great tunes to boot . '' The Arizona Republic 's Bill Goodykoontz was rather mixed about the movie in his review and overall said , `` Sing is like an album with a good song here and there , but too much filler and not enough hits . '' Reviewing the version of the film screened at the Toronto International Film Festival , Stefan Pape of the British website HeyUGuys gave the film a mixed review of 2 / 5 , stating that `` Garth Jennings 's Sing effectively acknowledges early on that it 's following a completely unoriginal formula , and yet carries on regardless . '' While Peter Debruge of Variety , who also saw the film during the same festival , did not find the subplots to have any `` profound life lessons , '' he overall praised Jennings ' direction , the cast 's voice performances and the film 's silliness . Accolades ( edit ) List of awards and nominations Award Date of ceremony Recipient ( s ) Result Ref ( s ) AARP Annual Movies for Grownups Awards February 6 , 2017 Best Movie for Grownups who Refuse to Grow Up Sing Nominated Annie Awards February 4 , 2017 Outstanding Achievement , Music in an Animated Feature Production Joby Talbot Golden Globe Awards January 8 , 2017 Best Animated Feature Film Sing Best Original Song `` Faith '' -- Ryan Tedder , Stevie Wonder and Francis Farewell Starlite Hollywood Music in Media Awards November 17 , 2016 Best Song -- Animated Film Best Soundtrack Album Sing : Original Motion Picture Soundtrack Outstanding Music Supervision -- Film Jojo Villanueva Won Nickelodeon Kids ' Choice Awards March 11 , 2017 Favorite Animated Movie Sing Nominated Favorite Voice From an Animated Movie Reese Witherspoon Most Wanted Pet Favorite Soundtrack Sing Saturn Awards June 28 , 2017 Best Animated Film Nominated Sequel ( edit ) Universal and Illumination have announced plans for a sequel , tentatively titled Sing 2 , slated for December 25 , 2020 . References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Felperin , Leslie ( September 11 , 2016 ) . `` ' Sing ' : Film Review '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved September 12 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` Sing ( 2016 ) '' . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved July 10 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Kit , Borys ( January 14 , 2015 ) . `` Matthew McConaughey to Star in Illumination Animated Film ( Exclusive ) '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved August 3 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Amidi , Amid ( September 9 , 2016 ) . `` A Complete List of Every Song in Illumination 's ' Sing ' '' . Cartoon Brew . Retrieved December 28 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Truitt , Brian ( November 10 , 2015 ) . `` Sneak peek : A-list animals ' SING ' together '' . USA Today . Retrieved November 11 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Hopewell , John ( June 17 , 2015 ) . `` Annecy : Chris Meledandri on Matthew McConaughey as a Koala Legit Theater Owner , ' The Grinch ' '' . Variety . Retrieved August 3 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Trumbore , Dave ( November 11 , 2015 ) . `` Meet the Animated Animals of Illumination Entertainment 's 2016 Musical Comedy , ' Sing ' '' . Collider . Retrieved November 12 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Buxton , Adam ( April 14 , 2016 ) . `` EP. 16 - Pub Walk With Garth Jennings '' . soundcloud.com . Retrieved April 17 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Yuen , Jenny ( September 11 , 2016 ) . `` TIFF 2016 : Matthew McConaughey optimistic about ' Sing ' '' . Toronto Sun . Retrieved September 12 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Sing - Full Cast and Credits '' . Hollywood.com . Retrieved November 30 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Weintraub , Steve ' Frosty ' ( 2016 - 12 - 19 ) . `` Garth Jennings on Getting Edgar Wright and Wes Anderson to Provide Voices in ' Sing ' '' . Collider . Retrieved 2017 - 11 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` ' Despicable Me 3 ′ Set For June 2017 Release ; ' Dr. Seuss ' How The Grinch Stole Christmas ' Arrives Five Months Later '' . Deadline . January 15 , 2014 . Retrieved January 16 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Hopewell , John ( January 8 , 2014 ) . `` France Fights Bidding War to Lure Hollywood Filmmakers '' . Variety . Retrieved January 9 , 2014 . Universal now has `` Max '' and `` Lunch '' set up at Illumination MacGuff . Jump up ^ Kilday , Gregg ( December 9 , 2016 ) . `` Illumination 's Chris Meledandri Talks Success Secrets , Rumors He 'll Head DreamWorks '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved January 22 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Keslassy , Elsa ( 2 December 2016 ) . `` Oscar 's French Animation Connection Draws on Deep Talent Pool '' . Jump up ^ Grobar , Matt ( December 5 , 2016 ) . `` ' Sing ' Director Garth Jennings On Working With `` Wizards , '' The Learning Curve Of His Feature Animation Debut `` . Deadline . Retrieved December 7 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Hammond , Pete ( August 23 , 2016 ) . `` Universal & Illumination To Launch ' Sing ' With Live Jennifer Hudson And Tori Kelly Performances At Toronto '' . Deadline . Retrieved September 11 , 2016 . Jump up ^ McClintock , Pamela ( January 15 , 2014 ) . `` Universal Dates ' Despicable Me 3 , ' New ' Grinch Who Stole Christmas ' '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved August 3 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Wolfe , Jennifer ( February 14 , 2017 ) . `` Illumination Entertainment 's ' Sing ' Headed to Retail '' . Animation World Network . Retrieved February 15 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Fleming Jr , Mike ( March 28 , 2017 ) . `` No. 7 ' Sing ' Box Office Profits -- 2016 Most Valuable Movie Blockbuster Tournament '' . Deadline.com . Retrieved March 28 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Will ' Rogue One ' Vanquish The Christmas B.O. Competition ? '' . Deadline.com . Jump up ^ `` ' Sing 's ' Box - Office Debut Tops ' Assassin 's Creed , ' ' Passengers ' in Tuesday Night Previews '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Jump up ^ `` With ' Fences , ' ' La La Land ' Enter Top 10 As ' Rogue One ' & ' Sing ' Rule Holiday -- Monday AM Update '' . Deadline.com . December 27 , 2016 . Sing * ( Ill / Uni ) 4,022 locations , 4 - day $54.9 M , 3 - day : $35.2 M , 4 - day : $13 , 7K average , Total : $75.5 M , 1 wk Jump up ^ `` Top Grossing Movies that never hit # 1 '' . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved 2017 - 01 - 31 . Jump up ^ `` Sing ( 2016 ) '' . Rotten Tomatoes . Retrieved March 22 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Sing reviews '' . Metacritic . Retrieved February 11 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` CinemaScore '' . CinemaScore . Search `` Sing '' . Jump up ^ Brian Truitt ( December 20 , 2016 ) . `` Review : Animated ' Sing ' is a poppy treat ( and Matthew McConaughey sings ! ) '' . USA Today . Retrieved March 19 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Katie Walsh ( December 20 , 2016 ) . `` Packed with pop tunes , ' Sing ' discovers the simple fun in putting on a show '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved March 19 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Bill Goodykoontz ( December 21 , 2016 ) . `` ' Sing ' has too much filler , not enough hits '' . The Arizona Republic . Retrieved March 19 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` TIFF 2016 : Sing Review - HeyUGuys '' . Retrieved September 21 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Peter Debruge ( September 11 , 2016 ) . `` Film Review : ' Sing ' '' . Variety . Retrieved March 19 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Rahman , Abid ( December 15 , 2016 ) . `` Denzel Washington 's ' Fences ' Leads Nominations for AARP 's Movies for Grownups Awards '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved December 26 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` 44th Annie Award Nominees '' . International Animated Film Society . November 28 , 2016 . Retrieved November 29 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Golden Globes 2017 : The Complete List of Nominations '' . The Hollywood Reporter . December 12 , 2016 . Retrieved December 12 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Justin Timberlake & Alexandre Desplat Among Winners At Hollywood Music In Media Awards '' . Deadline . November 18 , 2016 . Retrieved November 18 , 2016 . Jump up ^ McNary , Dave ( November 2 , 2016 ) . `` ' La La Land ' Scores Three Hollywood Music in Media Nominations '' . Variety . Retrieved November 3 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Justin Timberlake and Kevin Hart Lead Nickelodeon 's Kids ' Choice Awards Nominations '' . Variety . February 24 , 2017 . Retrieved February 24 , 2017 . Jump up ^ McNary , Dave ( March 2 , 2017 ) . `` Saturn Awards Nominations 2017 : ' Rogue One , ' ' Walking Dead ' Lead '' . Variety . Retrieved March 3 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Kilday , Gregg ( January 25 , 2017 ) . `` ' Sing ' Sequel Coming From Illumination and Universal '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved January 25 , 2017 . External links ( edit ) Find more aboutSing ( 2016 American film ) at Wikipedia 's sister projects Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Data from Wikidata Official website Sing on IMDb Sing at The Big Cartoon DataBase Illumination Entertainment Feature films Released Despicable Me ( 2010 ) Hop ( 2011 ) Dr. Seuss ' The Lorax ( 2012 ) Despicable Me 2 ( 2013 ) Minions ( 2015 ) The Secret Life of Pets ( 2016 ) Sing ( 2016 ) Despicable Me 3 ( 2017 ) Upcoming Dr. Seuss ' The Grinch ( 2018 ) Franchises Despicable Me ( 2010 -- present ) People Chris Meledandri See also Despicable Me Minion Mayhem Mac Guff Illumination Mac Guff Films directed by Garth Jennings The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy ( 2005 ) Son of Rambow ( 2007 ) Sing ( 2016 ) 2010s portal Cartoon portal Animation portal Film in the United States portal Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sing_(2016_American_film)&oldid=837851173 '' Categories : 2016 films English - language films 2016 3D films 2016 computer - animated films 2010s American animated films 2010s musical comedy films American children 's animated comedy films American computer - animated films American musical comedy films American films Animated films about animals Films about competitions Films set in a theatre Films featuring anthropomorphic characters Films directed by Garth Jennings Jukebox musical films Illumination Entertainment animated films Universal Pictures films Universal Pictures animated films Hidden categories : Pages using multiple image with manual scaled images Pages using div col without cols and colwidth parameters Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikiquote Català Čeština Deutsch Español فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Magyar Македонски Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Русский Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 19 more Edit links This page was last edited on 23 April 2018 , at 12 : 20 . 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who plays the voice of johnny in sing

Taron Egerton

Matthew McConaughey

Five - Year plans of India - Wikipedia Five - Year plans of India Jump to : navigation , search From 1947 to 2017 , the Indian economy was premised on the concept of planning . This was carried through the Five - Year Plans , developed , executed , and monitored by the Planning Commission ( 1951 - 2014 ) and the NITI Aayog ( 2015 - 2017 ) . With the prime minister as the ex-officio chairman , the commission has a nominated deputy chairman , who holds the rank of a cabinet Minister . Montek Singh Ahluwalia is the last deputy chairman of the commission ( resigned on 26 May 2014 ) . The Twelfth Plan completed its term in March 2017 . Prior to the Fourth Plan , the allocation of state resources was based on schematic patterns rather than a transparent and objective mechanism , which led to the adoption of the Gadgil formula in 1969 . Revised versions of the formula have been used since then to determine the allocation of central assistance for state plans . The new government led by Narendra Modi , elected in 2014 , has announced the dissolution of the Planning Commission , and its replacement by a think tank called the NITI Aayog ( an acronym for National Institution for Transforming India ) . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 2 First Plan ( 1951 -- 1956 ) 3 Second Plan ( 1956 -- 1961 ) 4 Third Plan ( 1961 -- 1966 ) 5 Fourth Plan ( 1969 -- 1974 ) 6 Fifth Plan ( 1974 -- 1978 ) 7 Rolling Plan ( 1978 -- 1980 ) 8 Sixth Plan ( 1980 -- 1985 ) 9 Seventh Plan ( 1985 -- 1990 ) 10 Annual Plans ( 1990 -- 1992 ) 11 Eighth Plan ( 1992 -- 1997 ) 12 Ninth Plan ( 1997 -- 2002 ) 13 Tenth Plan ( 2002 -- 2007 ) 14 Eleventh Plan ( 2007 -- 2012 ) 15 Twelfth Plan ( 2012 -- 2017 ) 16 See also 17 References 18 External links History ( edit ) Five - Year Plans ( FYPs ) are centralized and integrated national economic programs . Joseph Stalin implemented the first Five Year Plan in the Soviet Union in the late 1920s . Most communist states and several capitalist countries subsequently have adopted them . China and India both continue to use FYPs , although China renamed its Eleventh FYP , from 2006 to 2010 , a guideline ( guihua ) , rather than a plan ( jihua ) , to signify the central government 's more hands - off approach to development . India launched its First FYP in 1951 , immediately after independence under socialist influence of first Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru . The First Five - Year Plan was one of the most important because it had a great role in the launching of Indian development after Independence . Thus , it strongly supported agriculture production and it also launched the industrialization of the country ( but less than the Second Plan , which focused on heavy industries ) . It built a particular system of mixed economy , with a great role for the public sector ( with an emerging welfare state ) , as well as a growing private sector ( represented by some personalities as those who published the Bombay Plan ) . First Plan ( 1951 -- 1956 ) ( edit ) This article does not cite any sources . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( June 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The first Indian Prime Minister , Jawaharlal Nehru presented the First Five - Year Plan to the Parliament of India and needed urgent attention . The First Five - year Plan was launched in 1951 which mainly focused in development of the primary sector . The First Five - Year Plan was based on the Harrod -- Domar model with few modifications . The total planned budget of Rs. 2069 crore ( 2378 crore later ) was allocated to seven broad areas : irrigation and energy ( 27.2 % ) , agriculture and community development ( 17.4 % ) , transport and communications ( 24 % ) , industry ( 8.4 % ) , social services ( 16.6 % ) , rehabilitation of landless farmers ( 4.1 % ) , and for other sectors and services ( 2.5 % ) . The most important feature of this phase was active role of state in all economic sectors . Such a role was justified at that time because immediately after independence , India was facing basic problems -- deficiency of capital and low capacity to save . The target growth rate was 2.1 % annual gross domestic product ( GDP ) growth ; the achieved growth rate was 3.6 % the net domestic product went up by 15 % . The monsoon was good and there were relatively high crop yields , boosting exchange reserves and the per capita income , which increased by 8 % . National income increased more than the per capita income due to rapid population growth . Many irrigation projects were initiated during this period , including the Bhakra , Hirakud , Mettur Dam and Damodar Valley dams . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) , with the Indian government , addressed children 's health and reduced infant mortality , indirectly contributing to population growth . At the end of the plan period in 1956 , five Indian Institutes of Technology ( IITs ) were started as major technical institutions . The University Grants Commission ( UGC ) was set up to take care of funding and take measures to strengthen the higher education in the country . Contracts were signed to start five steel plants , which came into existence in the middle of the Second Five - Year Plan . The plan was quasi successful for the government . Second Plan ( 1956 -- 1961 ) ( edit ) The Second Plan was particularly in the development of the public sector and `` rapid Industrialisation '' . The plan followed the Mahalanobis model , an economic development model developed by the Indian statistician Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis in 1953 . The plan attempted to determine the optimal allocation of investment between productive sectors in order to maximise long - run economic growth . It used the prevalent state of art techniques of operations research and optimization as well as the novel applications of statistical models developed at the Indian Statistical Institute . The plan assumed a closed economy in which the main trading activity would be centred on importing capital goods . Hydroelectric power projects and five steel plants at Bhilai , Durgapur , and Rourkela were established with the help of Russia , Britain ( the U.K ) and West Germany respectively . Coal production was increased . More railway lines were added in the north east . The Tata Institute of Fundamental Research and Atomic Energy Commission of India was established as research institutes . In 1957 a talent search and scholarship program was begun to find talented young students to train for work in nuclear power . The total amount allocated under the Second Five - Year Plan in India was Rs. 48 billion . This amount was allocated among various sectors : power and irrigation , social services , communications and transport , and miscellaneous . `` The target growth rate was 4.5 % and the actual growth rate was 4.27 % . '' Third Plan ( 1961 -- 1966 ) ( edit ) The Third Five - year Plan , stressed agriculture and improvement in the production of wheat , but the brief Sino - Indian War of 1962 exposed weaknesses in the economy and shifted the focus towards the defence industry and the Indian Army . In 1965 -- 1966 , India fought a War with Pakistan . There was also a severe drought in 1965 . The war led to inflation and the priority was shifted to price stabilisation . The construction of dams continued . Many cement and fertilizer plants were also built . Punjab began producing an abundance of wheat . Many primary schools were started in rural areas . In an effort to bring democracy to the grass - root level , Panchayat elections were started and the states were given more development responsibilities . State electricity boards and state secondary education boards were formed . States were made responsible for secondary and higher education . State road transportation corporations were formed and local road building became a state responsibility . The target growth rate was 5.6 % , but the actual growth rate was 2.4 % . Due to miserable failure of the Third Plan the government was forced to declare `` plan holidays '' ( from 1966 -- 67 , 1967 -- 68 , and 1968 -- 69 ) . Three annual plans were drawn during this intervening period . During 1966 -- 67 there was again the problem of drought . Equal priority was given to agriculture , its allied activities , and industrial sector . The government of India declared `` Devaluation of Rupee '' to increase the exports of the country . The main reasons for plan holidays were the war , lack of resources , and increase in inflation after that plan holiday was created . Fourth Plan ( 1969 -- 1974 ) ( edit ) At this time Indira Gandhi was the Prime Minister . The Indira Gandhi government nationalised 14 major Indian banks and the Green Revolution in India advanced agriculture . In addition , the situation in East Pakistan ( now Bangladesh ) was becoming dire as the Indo - Pakistan War of 1971 and Bangladesh Liberation War took funds earmarked for industrial development . India also performed the Smiling Buddha underground nuclear test ( Pokhran - 1 ) in Rajasthan on May 18 , 1974 , partially in response to the United States deployment of the Seventh Fleet in the Bay of Bengal . The fleet had been deployed to warn India against attacking West Pakistan and extending the war . The target growth rate was 5.6 % , but the actual growth rate was 3.3 % . Fifth Plan ( 1974 -- 1978 ) ( edit ) The Fifth Five - Year Plan laid stress on employment , poverty alleviation ( Garibi Hatao ) , and justice . The plan also focused on self - reliance in agricultural production and defence . In 1978 the newly elected Morarji Desai government rejected the plan . The Electricity Supply Act was amended in 1975 , which enabled the central government to enter into power generation and transmission . The Indian national highway system was introduced and many roads were widened to accommodate the increasing traffic . Tourism also expanded . The twenty - point programme was launched in 1975 . It was followed from 1974 to 1979 . The Minimum Needs Programme ( MNP ) was introduced in the first year of the Fifth Five Year Plan ( 1974 -- 78 ) . The objective of the programme is to provide certain basic minimum needs and thereby improve the living standards of the people . The target growth rate was 4.4 % and the actual growth rate was 4.8 % . Rolling Plan ( 1978 -- 1980 ) ( edit ) The Janata Party government rejected the Fifth Five - Year Plan and introduced a new Sixth Five - Year Plan ( 1978 -- 1980 ) . This plan was again rejected by the Indian National Congress government in 1980 and a new Sixth Plan was made. The Rolling Plan consists of three kind of plans that were proposed . The First Plan is for the present year which comprises the annual budget and Second is a plan for a fixed number of years , which may be 3 , 4 or 5 years . Plan number two is kept changing as per the requirements of the Indian economy . The Third Plan is a perspective plan which is for long terms i.e. for 10 , 15 or 20 years . Hence there is no fixation of dates in for the commencement and termination of the plan in the rolling plans . The main advantage of the rolling plans is that they are flexible and are able to overcome the rigidity of fixed five year plans by mending targets , the object of the exercise , projections and allocations as per the changing conditions in the country 's economy . The main disadvantage of this plan is that if the targets are revised each year , it becomes very difficult to achieve them which are laid down in the five - year period and it turned out to be a complex plan . Frequent revisions resulted in lack of stability in the economy which is essential for its balanced development and progress . Sixth Plan ( 1980 -- 1985 ) ( edit ) The Sixth Five - Year Plan marked the beginning of economic liberalisation . Price controls were eliminated and ration shops were closed . This led to an increase in food prices and an increase in the cost of living . This was the end of Nehruvian socialism . The National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development was established for development of rural areas on 12 July 1982 by recommendation of the Shivaraman Committee . Family planning was also expanded in order to prevent overpopulation . In contrast to China 's strict and binding one - child policy , Indian policy did not rely on the threat of force . More prosperous areas of India adopted family planning more rapidly than less prosperous areas , which continued to have a high birth rate . The Sixth Five - Year Plan was a great success to the Indian economy . The target growth rate was 5.2 % and the actual growth rate was 5.7 % . The only Five - Year Plan which was done twice . Seventh Plan ( 1985 -- 1990 ) ( edit ) The Seventh Five - Year Plan was led by the Congress Party with Rajiv Gandhi as the prime minister . The plan laid stress on improving the productivity level of industries by upgrading of technology . The main objectives of the Seventh Five - Year Plan were to establish growth in areas of increasing economic productivity , production of food grains , and generating employment through `` Social Justice '' . As an outcome of the Sixth Five - Year Plan , there had been steady growth in agriculture , controls on the rate of inflation , and favourable balance of payments which had provided a strong base for the Seventh Five - Year Plan to build on the need for further economic growth . The Seventh Plan had strived towards socialism and energy production at large . The thrust areas of the Seventh Five - Year Plan were : social justice , removal of oppression of the weak , using modern technology , agricultural development , anti-poverty programmes , full supply of food , clothing , and shelter , increasing productivity of small - and large - scale farmers , and making India an independent economy . Based on a 15 - year period of striving towards steady growth , the Seventh Plan was focused on achieving the prerequisites of self - sustaining growth by the year 2000 . The plan expected the labour force to grow by 39 million people and employment was expected to grow at the rate of 4 % per year . Some of the expected outcomes of the Seventh Five - Year Plan India are given below : Balance of payments ( estimates ) : Export -- ₹ 330 billion ( US $5.1 billion ) , Imports -- ( - ) ₹ 540 billion ( US $8.3 billion ) , Trade Balance -- ( - ) ₹ 210 billion ( US $3.2 billion ) Merchandise exports ( estimates ) : ₹ 606.53 billion ( US $9.3 billion ) Merchandise imports ( estimates ) : ₹ 954.37 billion ( US $14.6 billion ) Projections for balance of payments : Export -- ₹ 607 billion ( US $9.3 billion ) , Imports -- ( - ) ₹ 954 billion ( US $14.6 billion ) , Trade Balance - ( - ) ₹ 347 billion ( US $5.3 billion ) Under the Seventh Five - Year Plan , India strove to bring about a self - sustained economy in the country with valuable contributions from voluntary agencies and the general populace . The target growth rate was 5.0 % and the actual growth rate was 6.01 % . and the growth rate of per capita income was 3.7 % . Annual plans ( 1990 -- 1992 ) ( edit ) The Eighth Plan could not take off in 1990 due to the fast changing political situation at the centre and the years 1990 -- 91 and 1991 -- 92 were treated as Annual Plans . The Eighth Plan was finally formulated for the period 1992 -- 1997 . Eighth Plan ( 1992 -- 1997 ) ( edit ) 1989 -- 91 was a period of economic instability in India and hence no five - year plan was implemented . Between 1990 and 1992 , there were only Annual Plans . In 1991 , India faced a crisis in foreign exchange ( forex ) reserves , left with reserves of only about US $ 1 billion . Thus , under pressure , the country took the risk of reforming the socialist economy . P.V. Narasimha Rao was the tenth Prime Minister of the Republic of India and head of Congress Party , and led one of the most important administrations in India 's modern history , overseeing a major economic transformation and several incidents affecting national security . At that time Dr. Manmohan Singh ( later Prime Minister of India ) launched India 's free market reforms that brought the nearly bankrupt nation back from the edge . It was the beginning of liberalization , privatisation and globalization ( LPG ) in India . Modernization of industries was a major highlight of the Eighth Plan . Under this plan , the gradual opening of the Indian economy was undertaken to correct the burgeoning deficit and foreign debt . Meanwhile , India became a member of the World Trade Organization on 1 January 1995 . The major objectives included , controlling population growth , poverty reduction , employment generation , strengthening the infrastructure , institutional building , tourism management , human resource development , involvement of Panchayati rajs , Nagar Palikas , NGOs , decentralisation and people 's participation . Energy was given priority with 26.6 % of the outlay . The target growth rate was 5.6 % and the actual growth rate was 6.8 % . To achieve the target of an average of 5.6 % per annum , investment of 23.2 % of the gross domestic product was required . The incremental capital ratio is 4.1 . The saving for investment was to come from domestic sources and foreign sources , with the rate of domestic saving at 21.6 % of gross domestic production and of foreign saving at 1.6 % of gross domestic production . Ninth Plan ( 1997 -- 2002 ) ( edit ) The Ninth Five - Year Plan came after 50 years of Indian Independence . Atal Bihari Vajpayee was the Prime Minister of India during the Ninth Five - Year Plan . The Ninth Five - Year Plan tried primarily to use the latent and unexplored economic potential of the country to promote economic and social growth . It offered strong support to the social spheres of the country in an effort to achieve the complete elimination of poverty . The satisfactory implementation of the Eighth Five - Year Plan also ensured the states ' ability to proceed on the path of faster development . The Ninth Five - Year Plan also saw joint efforts from the public and the private sectors in ensuring economic development of the country . In addition , the Ninth Five - Year Plan saw contributions towards development from the general public as well as governmental agencies in both the rural and urban areas of the country . New implementation measures in the form of Special Action Plans ( SAPs ) were evolved during the Ninth Five - Year Plan to fulfill targets within the stipulated time with adequate resources . The SAPs covered the areas of social infrastructure , agriculture , information technology and Water policy . Budget The Ninth Five - Year Plan had a total public sector plan outlay of ₹ 859,200 crore ( US $130 billion ) . The Ninth Five - Year Plan also saw a hike of 48 % in terms of plan expenditure and 33 % in terms of the plan outlay in comparison to that of the Eighth Five - Year Plan . In the total outlay , the share of the center was approximately 57 % while it was 43 % for the states and the union territories . The Ninth Five - Year Plan focused on the relationship between the rapid economic growth and the quality of life for the people of the country . The prime focus of this plan was to increase growth in the country with an emphasis on social justice and equity . The Ninth Five - Year Plan placed considerable importance on combining growth oriented policies with the mission of achieving the desired objective of improving policies which would work towards the improvement of the poor in the country . The Ninth Five - Year Plan also aimed at correcting the historical inequalities which were still prevalent in the society . Objectives The main objective of the Ninth Five - Year Plan was to correct historical inequalities and increase the economic growth in the country . Other aspects which constituted the Ninth Five - Year Plan were : Population control . Generating employment by giving priority to agriculture and rural development . Reduction of poverty . Ensuring proper availability of food and water for the poor . Availability of primary health care facilities and other basic necessities . Primary education to all children in the country . Empowering the socially disadvantaged classes like Scheduled castes , Scheduled tribes and other backward classes . Developing self - reliance in terms of agriculture . Acceleration in the growth rate of the economy with the help of stable prices . Strategies Structural transformations and developments in the Indian economy . New initiatives and initiation of corrective steps to meet the challenges in the economy of the country . Efficient use of scarce resources to ensure rapid growth . Combination of public and private support to increase employment . Enhancing high rates of export to achieve self - reliance . Providing services like electricity , telecommunication , railways etc . Special plans to empower the socially disadvantaged classes of the country . Involvement and participation of Panchayati Raj institutions / bodies and Nagar Palikas in the development process . Performance The Ninth Five - Year Plan achieved a GDP growth rate of 5.4 % against a target of 6.5 % The agriculture industry grew at a rate of 2.1 % against the target of 4.2 % The industrial growth in the country was 4.5 % which was higher than that of the target of 3 % The service industry had a growth rate of 7.8 % . An average annual growth rate of 6.7 % was reached . The Ninth Five - Year Plan looks through the past weaknesses in order to frame the new measures for the overall socio - economic development of the country . However , for a well - planned economy of any country , there should be a combined participation of the governmental agencies along with the general population of that nation . A combined effort of public , private , and all levels of government is essential for ensuring the growth of India 's economy . The target growth was 7.1 % and the actual growth was 6.8 % . Tenth Plan ( 2002 -- 2007 ) ( edit ) The main objectives of the Tenth Five - Year Plan : Attain 8 % GDP growth per year . Reduction of poverty rate by 5 % by 2007 . Providing gainful and high - quality employment at least to the addition to the labour force . Reduction in gender gaps in literacy and wage rates by at least 50 % by 2007 . 20 - point program was introduced . Target growth : 8.1 % -- growth achieved : 7.7 % . The Tenth Plan was expected to follow a regional approach rather than sectoral approach to bring down regional inequalities . Expenditure of ₹ 43,825 crore ( US $6.7 billion ) for tenth five years . Out of total plan outlay , ₹ 921,291 crore ( US $140 billion ) ( 57.9 % ) was for central government and ₹ 691,009 crore ( US $110 billion ) ( 42.1 % ) was for states and union territories . Eleventh Plan ( 2007 -- 2012 ) ( edit ) it was in the period of Manmohan Singh as a prime minister . It aimed to increase the enrolment in higher education of 18 - 23 years of age group by 2011 - 12 . It focused on distant education , convergence of formal , non-formal , distant and IT education institutions . Rapid and inclusive growth ( poverty reduction ) . Emphasis on social sector and delivery of service therein . Empowerment through education and skill development . Reduction of gender inequality . Environmental sustainability . To increase the growth rate in agriculture , industry and services to 4 % , 10 % and 9 % respectively . Reduce total fertility rate to 2.1 . Provide clean drinking water for all by 2009 . Increase agriculture growth to 4 % . Twelfth Plan ( 2012 -- 2017 ) ( edit ) Main article : 12th Five - Year Plan ( India ) The Twelfth Five - Year Plan of the Government of India has been decided to achieve a growth rate of 8.2 % but the National Development Council ( NDC ) on 27 December 2012 approved a growth rate of 8 % for the Twelfth Five - Year Plan . With the deteriorating global situation , the Deputy Chairman of the Planning Commission Montek Singh Ahluwalia has said that achieving an average growth rate of 9 percent in the next five years is not possible . The Final growth target has been set at 8 % by the endorsement of the plan at the National Development Council meeting held in New Delhi . `` It is not possible to think of an average of 9 % ( in the 12th plan ) . I think somewhere between 8 and 8.5 percent is feasible , '' Ahluwalia said on the sidelines of a conference of State Planning Boards and departments . The approached paper for the 12th Plan , approved last year , talked about an annual average growth rate of 9 % . `` When I say feasible ... that will require major effort . If you do n't do that , there is no God given right to grow at 8 percent . I think given that the world economy deteriorated very sharply over the last year ... the growth rate in the first year of the 12th Plan ( 2012 -- 13 ) is 6.5 to 7 percent . '' He also indicated that soon he should share his views with other members of the Commission to choose a final number ( economic growth target ) to put before the country 's NDC for its approval . The government intends to reduce poverty by 10 % during the 12th Five - Year Plan . Ahluwalia said , `` We aim to reduce poverty estimates by 9 % annually on a sustainable basis during the Plan period '' . Earlier , addressing a conference of State Planning Boards and Planning departments , he said the rate of decline in poverty doubled during the 11th Plan . The commission had said , while using the Tendulkar poverty line , the rate of reduction in the five years between 2004 -- 05 and 2009 -- 10 , was about 1.5 % points each year , which was twice that when compared to the period between 1993 -- 95 to 2004 -- 05 . The plan aims towards the betterment of the infrastructural projects of the nation avoiding all types of bottlenecks . The document presented by the planning commission is aimed to attract private investments of up to US $1 trillion in the infrastructural growth in the 12th five - year plan , which will also ensure a reduction in the subsidy burden of the government to 1.5 percent from 2 percent of the GDP ( gross domestic product ) . The UID ( Unique Identification Number ) will act as a platform for cash transfer of the subsidies in the plan . The objectives of the Twelfth Five - Year Plan were : To create 50 million new work opportunities in the non farm sector . To remove gender and social gap in school enrolment . To enhance access to higher education . To reduce malnutrition among children aged 0 - 3 years . To provide electricity to all villages . To ensure that 50 % of the rural population have accesses to proper drinking water . To increase green cover by 1 million hectare every year . To provide access to banking services to 90 % of households . See also ( edit ) Five - year plans of China Five - Year Plans of Romania Five - Year Plans for the National Economy of the Soviet Union Common minimum programme References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Planning Commission , Government of India : Five Year Plans . Planningcommission.nic.in . Retrieved on 2012 - 03 - 17 . Jump up ^ Planning Commission ( 24 February 1997 ) . `` A Background Note on Gadgil Formula for distribution of Central Assistance for State Plans '' ( PDF ) . Retrieved 2010 - 09 - 17 . Jump up ^ Sony Pellissery and Sam Geall `` Five Year Plans '' in Encyclopedia of Sustainability , Vol. 7 pp. 156 -- 160 Jump up ^ Jalal Alamgir , India 's Open - Economy Policy : Globalism , Rivalry , Continuity ( London and New York : Routledge 2008 ) , Chapter 2 . Jump up ^ Baldev Raj Nayar , Globalization And Nationalism : The Changing Balance Of India 's Economic Policy , 1950 -- 2000 ( New Delhi : Sage , 2001 ) . ^ Jump up to : L.N. Dash ( 2000 ) . World bank and economic development of India . APH Publishing . p. 375 . ISBN 81 - 7648 - 121 - 1 . Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' ( PDF ) . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 22 September 2013 . Retrieved 21 September 2013 . Jump up ^ http://planningcommission.nic.in/plans/planrel/fiveyr/9th/vol1/v1c2-1.htm Jump up ^ Agrawal , AN ( 1995 ) . Indian Economy : Problems of development and planning . pune : Wishwa Prakashan . p. 676 . Jump up ^ `` National Development Council approves 12th Five Year Plan '' . Indian Express . 2012 - 12 - 27 . Retrieved 2013 - 07 - 10 . 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Indian High Courts Act 1861 - wikipedia Indian High Courts Act 1861 Jump to : navigation , search This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( February 2015 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The Indian High Courts Act of 1861 ( 24 & 25 Vict . c. 104 ) was an act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom to authorize the Crown to create High Courts in the Indian colony . Queen Victoria created the High Courts in Calcutta , Madras , and Bombay by Letters Patent in 1865 . These High Courts would become the precursors to the High Courts in the modern day India , Pakistan , and Bangladesh . The Act was passed after the Indian Rebellion of 1857 and consolidated the parallel legal system of the Crown and the East India Company . Contents ( hide ) 1 Abolishing Existing Courts 2 Qualifications of High Court Judges 3 Judicial Tenure and Seniority 4 Jurisdiction 5 References Abolishing existing Courts ( edit ) The Act abolished the Supreme Courts at Calcutta , Madras , and Bombay ; the Sadar Diwani Adalat and the Sadar Nizamat Adalat at Calcutta ; Sadar Adalat and Faujdari Adalat at Madras ; Sadar Diwani Adalat and Faujdari Adalat at Bombay ( § 8 ) . Qualifications of High Court judges ( edit ) Each High Court could consist of a chief justice and up to 15 judges . Under § 3 of the Act , judges could be selected from barristers ( with 5 years of experience ) , civil servants ( with 10 years of experience including 3 years as a zillah judge ) , judges of small cause courts or sudder ameen ( with 5 years of experience ) , or pleaders of lander courts or High Courts ( with 05 years of experience ) . The High Court of a State is the highest court of the State and all other courts of the State work under it . Normally there is one High Court in every State but there can be only one High Court for two or more States as well , according to the constitution . There is one High Court at Chandigarh for Punjab , Haryana and Union Territory of Chandigarh . Similarly there is one High Court at Guwahati which serves Assam , Arunachal Pradesh , Mizoram and Nagaland . Composition : In every High Court , there is a Chief Justice and many other judges whose number is defined by the President of India . Appointment of the Judges : The Chief Justice of a High Court is appointed by the President with the consultation of the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court and the Governor of the State . The other judges are appointed by the will of President , Governor and the Chief Justice of High Court . Qualifications for the Judges ( a ) He should be a citizen of India . ( b ) He should have been ( I ) a judge for 10 years of Subordinate court under the Judicial Service of the State or ( ii ) an Advocate for 10 years in a High Courts in India ( Article 217 ) . Tenure : Originally the age of the retirement of the judges of the High Courts was fixed at 60 but it was raised to 62 in 1963 according to the 15th amendment of the Constitution . Removal of the Judges : A judge may leave his office by resigning . He will send his letter of resignation to the President . His office would be considered to have been vacated if he is appointed as a judge of the Supreme Court or is transferred to some other High Court . A judge of a High Court may also be removed like a judge of the Supreme Court . A judge of High Court may be removed by the President if the Parliament passes a motion against him by an absolute majority and 2 / 3rd majority of the members present and voting , both the Houses sitting separately . Salary : The pay of the Chief Justice of a High Court is rupees 90,000 / - per month and that of the other judges is rupees 85,000 / - per month . Powers and Functions Original Jurisdiction : The original jurisdiction of the High Court is restricted . ( a ) Every High Court under Article 226 is empowered to issue writs , orders , directions including writs in the nature of Habeas Corpus , Mandamus , Prohibition , Quo - warranto and Certiorari or any of them to any person or authority with in its territory for the enforcement of the Fundamental Rights and for any other purpose . ( b ) The original jurisdiction of High Court extends to matters of admiralty , matrimonial , contempt of court and cases ordered to be transferred to High Court by lower court . ( c ) The High Courts of Mumbai , Kolkata and Chennai have original jurisdiction on hearing straightway cases involving the Christians and Parsies . ( d ) The High Courts of Mumbai , Kolkata and Chennai exercise original civil jurisdiction when the amount involved is more than two thousand rupees . Appellate Jurisdiction : The appellate jurisdiction of the High Courts extends so : ( a ) The High Court can hear appeals in civil cases if the amount involved in the case is at least Rs. 5000 . ( b ) The High Court in criminal cases hears the appeal in which the accused has been sentenced to four years imprisonment by the Sessions Judge . v ( c ) The death sentence awarded by Sessions Judge is subject to approval by the High Court . ( d ) The High Court hear the cases involving interpretation of the Constitution or Law . ( e ) The High Court hears the cases on income tax , sales tax etc . Power of Judicial Review : The States High Courts like the Supreme Court has the power of Judicial Review . A High Court has the power to strike down any law of the State or any order of the executive if it violates any provision of the constitution or curtails or takes any of the Fundamental Rights of the people . Administrative and Supervisory Power : The State High Court performs many administrative functions within its Territorial Jurisdiction . It exercises the power of superintendence and control over all courts and tribunals throughout the territory except the military tribunals . Judicial tenure and seniority ( edit ) Under § 5 of the Act , judges served at the pleasure of Her Majesty . The chief justice had precedence over judges , whereas judges had seniority based on appointment . Under § 14 , the chief justice had the power to form divisions of two or more judges to hear cases . Jurisdiction ( edit ) Under article 9 of the Act , each High Court had `` all such powers and authority for and in relation to the administration of justice '' including original and appellate jurisdiction over civil , criminal , admiralty , vice-admiralty , testamentary , intestate , and matrimonial matters . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Indian High Courts Act 1861 '' . GKToday. 2011 - 10 - 17 . Retrieved 2017 - 03 - 20 . Jump up ^ Criminal Justice India Series : Punjab , 2002 . Allied Publishers . 2002 . p. 233 . ISBN 978 - 81 - 7764 - 490 - 6 . ( hide ) Indian legislation Constitution of India ( amendments ) Indian Penal Code Code of Criminal Procedure , 1973 Acts of the Parliament Ordinance In Force Consumer Real Estate ( Regulation and Development ) Act , 2016 Consumer Protection Act , 1986 Essential Commodities Act Essential Services Maintenance Act Corruption Benami Transactions ( Prohibition ) Act , 1988 Black Money ( Undisclosed Foreign Income and Assets ) and Imposition of Tax Act , 2015 Prevention of Corruption Act , 1988 The Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act , 2013 Mines and Minerals ( Development and Regulation ) Act , 1957 Prevention of Money Laundering Act , 2002 Whistle Blowers Protection Act , 2011 Criminal Armed Forces ( Special Powers ) Act Armed Forces Tribunal Act , 2007 Arms Act , 1959 Army Act , 1950 Criminal Law ( Amendment ) Act , 2013 Cigarettes and Other Tobacco Products Act Indian Evidence Act Juvenile Justice ( Care and Protection of Children ) Act , 2015 National Security Act ( India ) Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act , 2005 Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe ( Prevention of Atrocities ) Act , 1989 Education Indian Institutes of Management Act , 2017 Institutes of Technology Act , 1961 National Institutes of Technology Act , 2007 Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act , 2009 University Grants Commission Act , 1956 Environment Air ( Prevention and Control of Pollution ) Act Biological Diversity Act , 2002 CAMPA bill Environment Protection Act , 1986 Indian Forest Act , 1927 National Green Tribunal Act Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers ' Rights Act , 2001 Wildlife Protection Act , 1972 Financial Aadhaar ( Targeted Delivery of Financial and other Subsidies , benefits and services ) Act , 2016 Banking Regulation Act , 1949 Conservation of Foreign Exchange and Prevention of Smuggling Activities Act Depositories Act The Electricity Act , 2003 Expenditure Tax Act , 1987 Finance Act ( India ) Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management Act , 2003 Foreign Contribution Regulation Act Foreign Exchange Management Act Geographical Indications of Goods ( Registration and Protection ) Act , 1999 Government Securities Act , 2006 Indian Contract Act , 1872 Indian Stamp Act , 1899 Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code , 2016 Insurance Act , 1938 Negotiable Instruments Act , 1881 Securities Laws ( Amendment ) Act , 2014 Securitisation and Reconstruction of Financial Assets and Enforcement of Security Interest Act , 2002 The Competition Act , 2002 The High Denomination Bank Notes ( Demonetisation ) Act , 1978 The Income - tax Act , 1961 Transfer of Property Act 1882 Urban Land ( Ceiling and Regulation ) Act , 1976 Healthcare Central Council of Homoeopathy Act , 1973 Clinical Establishments ( Registration and Regulation ) Act , 2010 Dentist Act Drugs and Cosmetics Act , 1940 Drugs and Magic Remedies ( Objectionable Advertisements ) Act , 1954 Indian Medical Council Act Mental Health Act , 1987 Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act , 1985 Labour Bonded Labor System ( Abolition ) Act , 1976 Factories Act , 1948 , India Industrial Disputes Act , 1947 Interstate Migrant Workmen Act 1979 Maternity Benefit ( Amendment ) Act , 2017 Minimum Wages Act 1948 National Rural Employment Guarantee Act , 2005 Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace ( Prevention , Prohibition and Redressal ) Act , 2013 Unorganised Workers ' Social Security Act 2008 Personal Hindu Adoptions and Maintenance Act ( 1956 ) Majority Act ( India ) Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act Hindu Succession Act , 1956 Special Marriage Act , 1954 The Hindu Marriage Act , 1955 The Muslim Women ( Protection of Rights on Divorce ) Act 1986 Social Child Labour ( Prohibition and Regulation ) Act Indecent Representation of Women ( Prohibition ) Act National Food Security Act , 2013 Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques Act , 1994 The Prohibition of Child Marriage Act , 2006 The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers ( Recognition of Forest Rights ) Act , 2006 Street Vendors Act , 2014 State Laws Anti-Superstition and Black Magic Act The Bombay Prohibition Act , 1949 Bombay Prohibition ( Gujarat Amendment ) 2009 Chhattisgarh Food Security Act , 2012 Maharashtra Control of Organised Crime Act The Gujarat Local Authorities Laws ( Amendment ) Bill , 2009 Puducherry Prevention of Anti-Social Activities Act State Reorganisation Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act , 2014 Bihar Reorganisation Act , 2000 Madhya Pradesh Reorganisation Act , 2000 Punjab Reorganisation Act , 1966 States Reorganisation Act , 1956 Uttar Pradesh Reorganisation Act , 2000 Terrorism Unlawful Activities ( Prevention ) Act Transport Aircraft Act Motor Vehicles Act , 1988 National Waterways Act , 2016 Inland Vessels Act Metro Railways Act , 1978 Metro Railway Act , 2002 Organisation / Body Chartered Accountants Act , 1949 Companies Act 2013 Gram Nyayalayas Act , 2008 Indian Trusts Act , 1882 Panchayats ( Extension to Scheduled Areas ) Act 1996 Reserve Bank of India Act , 1934 The Indian Partnership Act , 1932 Societies Registration Act , 1860 The Limited Liability Partnership Act , 2008 Repeal Repealing and Amending Act , 2015 Repealing and Amending ( Second ) Act , 2015 Repealing and Amending Act , 2016 Repealing and Amending Act , 2017 Repealing and Amending ( Second ) Act , 2017 Other All India Services Act , 1951 Delimitation Act Enemy Property Act , 1968 Information Technology Act , 2000 Nuclear Liability Act Official Secrets Act ( India ) Representation of the People Act , 1951 Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition , Rehabilitation and Resettlement Act , 2013 Right to Information Act , 2005 State Emblem of India ( Prohibition of Improper Use ) Act , 2005 The Foreigners Act , 1946 Repealed Pre-Independence Age of Consent Act , 1891 Caste Disabilities Removal Act , 1850 Criminal Tribes Act Hindu Widows ' Remarriage Act , 1856 English Education Act 1835 Prevention of Seditious Meetings Act , 1907 Post-Independence Anti-Copying Act , 1992 Foreign Exchange Regulation Act Gift Tax Act , 1958 Illegal Migrants ( Determination by Tribunal ) Act , 1983 Interest Tax Act , 1974 Maintenance of Internal Security Act Prevention of Terrorism Act , 2002 Terrorist and Disruptive Activities ( Prevention ) Act The Gold ( Control ) Act , 1968 Wealth Tax Act , 1957 Bills Proposed Foreign Education Providers Bill , 2013 Geospatial Information Regulation Bill Gujarat Control of Organised Crime Act Marriage Laws Amendment Bill Road Transport and Safety Bill Uniform civil code Lapsed Judges Assets Bill Women 's Reservation Bill Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indian_High_Courts_Act_1861&oldid=813167323 '' Categories : Acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom concerning India United Kingdom Acts of Parliament 1861 Hidden categories : Articles needing additional references from February 2015 All articles needing additional references Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 2 December 2017 , at 05 : 07 . 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Human fertilization - wikipedia Human fertilization Jump to : navigation , search Part of a series on Human growth and development Stages Human embryogenesis Fetus Infant Toddler Early childhood Child Preadolescence Adolescence Adult Middle age Old age Biological milestones Fertilization Childbirth Walking Language acquisition Puberty Menopause Ageing Death Development and psychology Pre - and perinatal Infant and child Adolescent Youth Young adult Adult Maturity Developmental stage theories Attachment Ecological Psychosocial Psychosexual development Moral Cognitive Cultural - historical Evolutionary Human body portal The acrosome reaction for a sea urchin , a similar process . Note that the picture shows several stages of one and the same spermatozoon - only one penetrates the ovum Illustration depicting ovulation and fertilization . Human fertilization is the union of a human egg and sperm , usually occurring in the ampulla of the fallopian tube . The result of this union is the production of a zygote cell , or fertilized egg , initiating prenatal development . Scientists discovered the dynamics of human fertilization in the nineteenth century . The process of fertilization involves a sperm fusing with an ovum . The most common sequence begins with ejaculation during copulation , follows with ovulation , and finishes with fertilization . Various exceptions to this sequence are possible , including artificial insemination , in vitro fertilization , external ejaculation without copulation , or copulation shortly after ovulation . Upon encountering the secondary oocyte , the acrosome of the sperm produces enzymes which allow it to burrow through the outer jelly coat of the egg . The sperm plasma then fuses with the egg 's plasma membrane , the sperm head disconnects from its flagellum and the egg travels down the Fallopian tube to reach the uterus . In vitro fertilization ( IVF ) is a process by which egg cells are fertilized by sperm outside the womb , in vitro . Contents ( hide ) 1 Anatomy 1.1 Corona radiata 1.2 Cone of attraction and perivitelline membrane 1.3 Sperm preparation 1.4 Zona pellucida 1.4. 1 Cortical reaction 2 Fusion 2.1 Cell membranes 2.2 Transformations 2.3 Replication 2.4 Mitosis 3 Fertilization age 4 Diseases 5 See also 6 References 7 External links Anatomy ( edit ) Corona radiata ( edit ) The sperm binds through the corona radiata , a layer of follicle cells on the outside of the secondary oocyte . Fertilization occurs when the nucleus of both a sperm and an egg fuse to form a diploid cell , known as zygote . The successful fusion of gametes forms a new organism . Cone of attraction and perivitelline membrane ( edit ) Where the spermatozoon is about to pierce , the yolk ( ooplasm ) is drawn out into a conical elevation , termed the cone of attraction or reception cone . Once the spermatozoon has entered , the peripheral portion of the yolk changes into a membrane , the perivitelline membrane , which prevents the passage of additional spermatozoa . Sperm preparation ( edit ) Further information : Acrosome reaction At the beginning of the process , the sperm undergoes a series of changes , as freshly ejaculated sperm is unable or poorly able to fertilize . The sperm must undergo capacitation in the female 's reproductive tract over several hours , which increases its motility and destabilizes its membrane , preparing it for the acrosome reaction , the enzymatic penetration of the egg 's tough membrane , the zona pellucida , which surrounds the oocyte . Zona pellucida ( edit ) After binding to the corona radiata the sperm reaches the zona pellucida , which is an extra-cellular matrix of glycoproteins . A special complementary molecule on the surface of the sperm head binds to a ZP3 glycoprotein in the zona pellucida . This binding triggers the acrosome to burst , releasing enzymes that help the sperm get through the zona pellucida . Some sperm cells consume their acrosome prematurely on the surface of the egg cell , facilitating the penetration by other sperm cells . As a population , sperm cells have on average 50 % genome similarity so the premature acrosomal reactions aid fertilization by a member of the same cohort . It may be regarded as a mechanism of kin selection . Recent studies have shown that the egg is not passive during this process . Cortical reaction ( edit ) Once the sperm cells find their way past the zona pellucida , the cortical reaction occurs . Cortical granules inside the secondary oocyte fuse with the plasma membrane of the cell , causing enzymes inside these granules to be expelled by exocytosis to the zona pellucida . This in turn causes the glyco - proteins in the zona pellucida to cross-link with each other -- i.e. the enzymes cause the ZP2 to hydrolyse into ZP2f -- making the whole matrix hard and impermeable to sperm . This prevents fertilization of an egg by more than one sperm . The cortical reaction and acrosome reaction are both essential to ensure that only one sperm will fertilize an egg . Fusion ( edit ) Fertilization and implantation in humans . After the sperm enters the cytoplasm of the oocyte ( also called ovocyte ) , the tail and the outer coating of the sperm disintegrate and the cortical reaction takes place , preventing other sperm from fertilizing the same egg . The oocyte now undergoes its second meiotic division producing the haploid ovum and releasing a polar body . The sperm nucleus then fuses with the ovum , enabling fusion of their genetic material . Cell membranes ( edit ) The fusion of cell membranes of the secondary oocyte and sperm takes place . Transformations ( edit ) In preparation for the fusion of their genetic material both the oocyte and the sperm undergo transformations as a reaction to the fusion of cell membranes . The oocyte completes its second meiotic division . This results in a mature ovum . The nucleus of the oocyte is called a pronucleus in this process , to distinguish it from the nuclei that are the result of fertilization . The sperm 's tail and mitochondria degenerate with the formation of the male pronucleus . This is why all mitochondria in humans are of maternal origin . Still , a considerable amount of RNA from the sperm is delivered to the resulting embryo and likely influences embryo development and the phenotype of the offspring . Replication ( edit ) The pronuclei migrate toward the center of the oocyte , rapidly replicating their DNA as they do so to prepare the zygote for its first mitotic division . Mitosis ( edit ) Usually 23 chromosomes from spermatozoon and 23 chromosomes from egg cell fuse ( half of spermatozoons carry X chromosome and the other half Y chromosome ) . Their membranes dissolve , leaving no barriers between the male and female chromosomes . During this dissolution , a mitotic spindle forms between them . The spindle captures the chromosomes before they disperse in the egg cytoplasm . Upon subsequently undergoing mitosis ( which includes pulling of chromatids towards centrioles in anaphase ) the cell gathers genetic material from the male and female together . Thus , the first mitosis of the union of sperm and oocyte is the actual fusion of their chromosomes . Each of the two daughter cells resulting from that mitosis has one replica of each chromatid that was replicated in the previous stage . Thus , they are genetically identical . Fertilization age ( edit ) Fertilization is the event most commonly used to mark the zero point in descriptions of prenatal development of the embryo or fetus . The resultant age is known as fertilization age , fertilizational age , embryonic age , fetal age or ( intrauterine ) developmental ( IUD ) age . Gestational age , in contrast , takes the beginning of the last menstrual period ( LMP ) as the zero point . By convention , gestational age is calculated by adding 14 days to fertilization age and vice versa . In fact , however , fertilization usually occurs within a day of ovulation , which , in turn , occurs on average 14.6 days after the beginning of the preceding menstruation ( LMP ) . There is also considerable variability in this interval , with a 95 % prediction interval of the ovulation of 9 to 20 days after menstruation even for an average woman who has a mean LMP - to - ovulation time of 14.6 . In a reference group representing all women , the 95 % prediction interval of the LMP - to - ovulation is 8.2 to 20.5 days . The average time to birth has been estimated to be 268 days ( 38 weeks and two days ) from ovulation , with a standard deviation of 10 days or coefficient of variation of 3.7 % . Fertilization age is sometimes used postnatally ( after birth ) as well to estimate various risk factors . For example , it is a better predictor than postnatal age for risk of intraventricular hemorrhage in premature babies treated with extracorporeal membrane oxygenation . Diseases ( edit ) Various disorders can arise from defects in the fertilization process . Polyspermy results from multiple sperm fertilizing an egg . However , some researchers have found that in rare pairs of fraternal twins , their origin might have been from the fertilization of one egg cell from the mother and eight sperm cells from the father . This possibility has been investigated by computer simulations of the fertilization process . See also ( edit ) Spontaneous conception , the unassisted conception of a subsequent child after prior use of assisted reproductive technology References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Garrison , Fielding . An Introduction to the History of Medicine , pages 566 - 567 ( Saunders 1921 ) . Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on 2011 - 12 - 22 . Retrieved 2016 - 01 - 24 . Jump up ^ http://www.americanpregnancy.org/preventingpregnancy/pregnancyfaqmyths.html Jump up ^ Lawyers Guide to Forensic Medicine SBN 978 - 1 - 85941 - 159 - 9 By Bernard Knight - Page 188 `` Pregnancy is well known to occur from such external ejaculation ... '' Jump up ^ `` Fertilization of the Ovum '' . Gray 's Anatomy . Retrieved 2010 - 10 - 16 . Jump up ^ `` Fertilization '' . Retrieved 28 July 2010 . Jump up ^ Angier , Natalie ( 2007 - 06 - 12 ) . `` Sleek , Fast and Focused : The Cells That Make Dad Dad '' . The New York Times . Jump up ^ Suzanne Wymelenberg , Science and Babies , National Academy Press , page 17 Jump up ^ Richard E. Jones and Kristin H. Lopez , Human Reproductive Biology , Third Edition , Elsevier , 2006 , page 238 Jump up ^ `` Fertilization : The Cortical Reaction '' . Boundless . Boundless . Retrieved 14 March 2013 . Jump up ^ Jodar , M. ; Selvaraju , S. ; Sendler , E. ; Diamond , M.P. ; Krawetz , S.A. ; for the Reproductive Medicine Networks ( 2013 ) . `` The presence , role and clinical use of spermatozoal RNAs '' . Human Reproduction Update. 19 ( 6 ) : 604 -- 624 . doi : 10.1093 / humupd / dmt031 . PMC 3796946 . PMID 23856356 . ^ Jump up to : Marieb , Elaine M. Human Anatomy and Physiology , 5th ed . pp. 1119 - 1122 ( 2001 ) . ISBN 0 - 8053 - 4989 - 8 Jump up ^ https://www.genderselectionauthority.com/blog/five-facts-about-xx-or-xy Jump up ^ Wagner F , Erdösová B , Kylarová D ( December 2004 ) . `` Degradation phase of apoptosis during the early stages of human metanephros development '' . Biomed Pap Med Fac Univ Palacky Olomouc Czech Repub. 148 ( 2 ) : 255 -- 6 . doi : 10.5507 / bp. 2004.054 . PMID 15744391 . Jump up ^ Robinson , H.P. ; Fleming , J.E.E. ( 1975 ) . `` A Critical Evaluation of Sonar `` crown - Rump Length '' Measurements `` . BJOG : an International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology. 82 ( 9 ) : 702 -- 710 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1471 - 0528.1975. tb00710. x . ^ Jump up to : Geirsson RT ( May 1991 ) . `` Ultrasound instead of last menstrual period as the basis of gestational age assignment '' . Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 1 ( 3 ) : 212 -- 9 . doi : 10.1046 / j. 1469 - 0705.1991. 01030212. x . PMID 12797075 . ( 1 ) Jump up ^ Derived from a standard deviation in this interval of 2.6 , as given in : Fehring RJ , Schneider M , Raviele K ( 2006 ) . `` Variability in the phases of the menstrual cycle '' . J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs. 35 ( 3 ) : 376 -- 84 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1552 - 6909.2006. 00051. x . PMID 16700687 . Jump up ^ Jukic AM , Baird DD , Weinberg CR , McConnaughey DR , Wilcox AJ ( 2013 ) . `` Length of human pregnancy and contributors to its natural variation '' . Hum . Reprod. 28 ( 10 ) : 2848 -- 55 . doi : 10.1093 / humrep / det297 . PMC 3777570 . PMID 23922246 . Jump up ^ Alan H. Jobe , MD , PhD . Post-fertilizational age and IVH in ECMO patients . RadiologySource Volume 145 , Issue 2 , Page A2 ( August 2004 ) . PII : S0022 - 3476 ( 04 ) 00583 - 9 . doi : 10.1016 / j. jpeds. 2004.07. 010 . External links ( edit ) Fertilization ( Conception ) ( hide ) Human physiology of sexual reproduction Menstrual cycle Menarche Menstruation Follicular phase Ovulation Luteal phase Gametogenesis Spermatogenesis ( spermatogonium spermatocyte spermatid sperm ) Oogenesis ( oogonium oocyte ootid ovum ) Germ cell ( gonocyte gamete ) Human sexual behavior Sexual arousal Sexual intercourse Masturbation Erection Orgasm Ejaculation Insemination Fertilisation / Fertility Implantation Pregnancy Postpartum period Mechanics of sex Life span Prenatal development / Sexual dimorphism / Sexual differentiation ( Feminization Virilization ) Puberty ( Gonadarche Pubarche Menarche Spermarche Adrenarche ) Maternal age / Paternal age Climacteric ( Menopause Late - onset hypogonadism ) Tanner scale Egg Ovum Oviposition Oviparity Ovoviviparity Vivipary Reproductive endocrinology and infertility Hypothalamic -- pituitary -- gonadal axis Hypothalamic -- pituitary -- prolactin axis Andrology Hormone Breast Thelarche Breast development Lactation Breastfeeding Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_fertilization&oldid=816596335 '' Categories : Fertility Hidden categories : All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from June 2014 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Bosanski Čeština فارسی Français Hrvatski Latviešu नेपाली Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Edit links This page was last edited on 22 December 2017 , at 10 : 56 . 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2018 College football Playoff national championship - wikipedia 2018 College football Playoff national championship Jump to : navigation , search 2018 College Football Playoff National Championship Alabama Crimson Tide Georgia Bulldogs ( 12 -- 1 ) ( 13 -- 1 ) SEC SEC 26 23 Head coach : Nick Saban Head coach : Kirby Smart AP Coaches CFP AP Coaches CFP OT Total Alabama 0 0 10 10 6 26 Georgia 0 13 7 0 23 Date January 8 , 2018 Season 2017 Stadium Mercedes - Benz Stadium Location Atlanta , Georgia MVP Offensive : # 13 QB Tua Tagovailoa , Fr . Alabama Defensive : # 94 DT Da'Ron Payne , Jr . Alabama Favorite Alabama by 3.5 National anthem Zac Brown Band Referee Dan Capron ( Big Ten ) Halftime show Georgia Redcoat Marching Band Million Dollar Band Attendance 77,430 United States TV coverage Network ESPN / ESPN Radio / ESPN Deportes Announcers Chris Fowler , Kirk Herbstreit , Maria Taylor and Tom Rinaldi ( ESPN ) Sean McDonough , Todd Blackledge , Holly Rowe and Ian Fitzsimmons ( ESPN Radio ) College Football Playoff National Championship < 2017 2019 > The 2018 College Football Playoff National Championship was a college football bowl game that determined the national champion in the NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision for the 2017 season . The Alabama Crimson Tide defeated the Georgia Bulldogs 26 -- 23 in overtime . Alabama overcame a 13 -- 0 deficit at halftime . Tua Tagovailoa and Da'Ron Payne were respectively named the offensive and defensive players of the game . The College Football Playoff selection committee chose the semifinalists following the conclusion of the 2017 regular season . Alabama and Georgia advanced to the national championship after winning the semifinal games hosted by the Sugar Bowl and the Rose Bowl , respectively , on January 1 , 2018 . The championship game was played at Mercedes - Benz Stadium in Atlanta , Georgia on January 8 , 2018 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Background 2 2018 College Football Playoff 3 Teams 3.1 Alabama 3.2 Georgia 4 Game summary 4.1 Scoring summary 4.2 Statistics 5 Broadcasting 6 Dispute 7 See also 8 References 9 External links Background ( edit ) The Mercedes - Benz Stadium in Atlanta , Georgia was announced as the host site for the fourth College Football National Championship on November 4 , 2015 . 2018 College football Playoff ( edit ) Semifinals Championship January 1 -- Sugar Bowl Mercedes - Benz Superdome , New Orleans 1 Clemson 6 4 Alabama 24 January 8 -- National Championship Mercedes - Benz Stadium , Atlanta 4 Alabama ( OT ) 26 January 1 -- Rose Bowl Rose Bowl , Pasadena 3 Georgia 23 2 Oklahoma 48 3 Georgia ( 2OT ) 54 This bracket : view talk edit The College Football Playoff ( CFP ) selected four teams to advance to the playoff : the Clemson Tigers , Oklahoma Sooners , Georgia Bulldogs , and Alabama Crimson Tide . Teams ( edit ) Alabama ( edit ) See also : 2017 Alabama Crimson Tide football team The Alabama Crimson Tide defeated the Clemson Tigers in the 2018 Sugar Bowl by a score of 24 -- 6 to reach the championship game . The Tide had a 12 -- 1 season , becoming the SEC West Division co-champions with the Auburn Tigers . The Crimson Tide were coached by Nick Saban . Georgia ( edit ) See also : 2017 Georgia Bulldogs football team The Georgia Bulldogs defeated the Oklahoma Sooners in the 2018 Rose Bowl by a score of 54 -- 48 in double overtime to reach the championship game . The Bulldogs had a 13 -- 1 season claiming their 13th Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) championship with a win over Auburn Tigers , 28 -- 7 . The Bulldogs were coached by Kirby Smart . Game summary ( edit ) After winning the coin toss , Alabama deferred to the second half and Georgia received the ball to begin the game . After two plays , quarterback Jake Fromm attempted a pass downfield and was intercepted by Tony Brown . Alabama began their first drive of the game , and , after eleven plays , that drive ended with kicker Andy Pappanastos missing a 40 - yard field goal . The teams each had three - and - outs for the game 's first two punts . During Georgia 's ensuing drive , the quarter ended , with no score . After a failed third down conversion , on the second play of the second quarter , Georgia kicker Rodrigo Blankenship hit a 41 - yard field goal to open the scoring and put Georgia in the lead by three . Alabama 's ensuing drive went nowhere , as they gained four yards on three plays and punted . Georgia took the ball and drove down the field , and found themselves with a first and goal at the Alabama 10 - yard - line ; the Tide defense held , however , and the Bulldogs settled for a second field goal and took a 6 -- 0 lead with just over seven and a half minutes until half . On Alabama 's next drive , the Georgia defense held yet again and Alabama 's JK Scott punted for the third time . Just prior to the punt , Georgia wide receiver Javon Wims was shown walking to the locker room , reportedly with a left shoulder injury . Both defenses then forced punts , and Georgia took back over with 1 : 19 remaining in the half on their own 31 - yard - line . Nine plays later , on Alabama 's 1 - yard - line , Mecole Hardman took a direct snap , faked a handoff , and ran into the end zone for the game 's first touchdown , putting Georgia up 13 -- 0 going into halftime . Because they deferred the coin toss , Alabama received the ball first in the second half . They started their drive on their own 22 - yard - line . Tua Tagovailoa , Alabama 's backup quarterback , started the second half for the Tide ; that drive quickly resulted in a three - and - out . The initial punt was blocked , but an offside call gave the Tide another chance to punt . Georgia started their drive on their own 36 - yard - line , but punted on 4th & 17 . Alabama took over on their own 44 - yard - line . The teams then traded touchdowns on consecutive drives ; Alabama scored their first points of the game on a 6 - yard pass from Tagovailoa to Ruggs , but Georgia immediately responded with an 80 - yard touchdown connection from Fromm to Mecole Hardman , putting Georgia up 20 -- 7 . On the second play of Alabama 's ensuing drive , Tagovailoa , while scrambling to the left , threw into traffic and was intercepted by Georgia 's Deandre Baker . Up 13 , the Bulldogs took over possession of the ball on Alabama 's 39 - yard - line . The Tide defense responded immediately , however , as Raekwon Davis intercepted a Jake Fromm pass on the first play of Georgia 's drive , returning the pick to the UGA 40 - yard - line . The Tide gained fifteen yards on six plays and kicker Andy Pappanastos avenged his earlier miss with a 43 - yard field goal that put Bama within ten . The teams then traded punts . Just prior to Alabama 's punt , it was announced that an Alabama defensive back , Kyriq McDonald , had collapsed on the sideline ; the situation was described as a `` serious medical emergency '' . He was loaded onto a medical stretcher awake and conscious . Georgia could not muster anything on offense that drive , and punted . The fourth quarter saw Tagovailoa lead the Tide to come back and tie the game at 20 with 3 : 49 . With three seconds remaining in the game , Andy Pappanastos missed a potential game - winning 36 - yard field goal to the left , sending the game to overtime . In overtime , Georgia scored on a 51 - yard field goal . On Alabama 's first offensive play in overtime , Tagovailoa was sacked for a 16 - yard loss , but immediately followed that with a game - winning 41 - yard touchdown pass to DeVonta Smith . Tagovailoa was named the offensive player of the game , and Da'Ron Payne was named the defensive player of the game . Scoring summary ( edit ) ( hide ) Scoring summary Quarter Time Drive Team Scoring information Score Plays Yards TOP Alabama Georgia 14 : 14 14 55 7 : 40 Georgia 41 - yard field goal by Rodrigo Blankenship 0 7 : 33 13 70 5 : 19 Georgia 27 - yard field goal by Rodrigo Blankenship 0 6 0 : 07 9 69 1 : 12 Georgia Mecole Hardman 1 - yard touchdown run , Rodrigo Blankenship kick good 0 13 8 : 52 7 56 1 : 59 Alabama Henry Ruggs III 6 - yard touchdown reception from Tua Tagovailoa , Andy Pappanastos kick good 7 13 6 : 52 93 1 : 55 Georgia Mecole Hardman 80 - yard touchdown reception from Jake Fromm , Rodrigo Blankenship kick good 7 20 5 : 20 6 15 1 : 06 Alabama 43 - yard field goal by Andy Pappanastos 10 20 9 : 24 8 71 2 : 15 Alabama 30 - yard field goal by Andy Pappanastos 13 20 3 : 49 8 66 3 : 21 Alabama Calvin Ridley 7 - yard touchdown reception from Tua Tagovailoa , Andy Pappanastos kick good 20 20 OT - 9 Georgia 51 - yard field goal by Rodrigo Blankenship 20 23 OT 25 Alabama DeVonta Smith 41 - yard touchdown reception from Tua Tagovailoa 26 23 `` TOP '' = time of possession . For other American football terms , see Glossary of American football . 26 23 Statistics ( edit ) OT Total No. 4 Crimson Tide 0 0 10 10 6 26 No. 3 Bulldogs 0 13 7 0 23 Statistics Alabama Georgia First downs 20 22 Plays -- yards 71 -- 371 77 -- 365 Rushes -- yards 39 -- 184 45 -- 133 Passing yards 187 232 Passing : Comp -- Att -- Int 17 -- 32 -- 1 16 -- 32 -- 2 Time of possession 26 : 17 33 : 43 Sources : ESPN , StatBroadcast Team Player Statistics Alabama Passing Tua Tagovailoa 14 / 24 , 166 yds , 3 TD , 1 INT Rushing Najee Harris 6 car , 64 yds Receiving Calvin Ridley 4 rec , 32 yds , 1 TD Georgia Passing Jake Fromm 16 / 32 , 232 yds , 1 TD , 2 INT Rushing Sony Michel 14 car , 98 yds Receiving Riley Ridley 6 rec , 82 yds Sources : ESPN , StatBroadcast Broadcasting ( edit ) The game was televised nationally by ESPN . On January 8 , 2018 , the network announced that its broadcast would feature a live performance by Kendrick Lamar during halftime . This performance was separate from the event proper at Mercedes - Benz Stadium ( which featured a traditional halftime show with the marching bands of the participating teams ) , and originated from Centennial Olympic Park . Dispute ( edit ) Following an undefeated season in the American Athletic Conference and their victory over the Auburn Tigers -- who had beaten both the Alabama Crimson Tide and the Georgia Bulldogs in the regular season before losing to Georgia in the 2017 SEC Championship Game -- in the 2018 Peach Bowl , the UCF Knights claimed to have won the national championship by virtue of being the only undefeated team in the FBS level of college football . This claim , however , is not recognized by any major poll . The selection committee ranked UCF 12th at the end of the regular season , below a number of two - loss teams from the Power Five conferences , which left them out of the CFP . UCF announced plans for a victory parade at Disney World and to hang a national championship banner at their stadium to celebrate this achievement . The school also paid national championship bonuses to all of its assistant coaches , many of whom left UCF after the Peach Bowl to follow head coach Scott Frost to his new head coaching job at Nebraska ; Frost himself ( who coached UCF in the game ) did not receive such a bonus because he had already been paid all of the bonuses allowed by his UCF contract . The AP Poll ranked Alabama No. 1 in its final poll , receiving 57 first - place votes , while UCF was ranked No. 6 and received four first - place votes . Alabama was unanimously ranked No. 1 in the Coaches Poll . See also ( edit ) College football national championships in NCAA Division I FBS References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Kirshner , Alex ( January 8 , 2018 ) . `` A Big Ten officiating crew is working the all - SEC National Championship '' . sbnation.com . SB Nation . Retrieved January 8 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Alex Scarbrough ( November 4 , 2015 ) . `` Atlanta , Santa Clara and New Orleans land CFP title games for 2018 -- 20 '' . ESPN.com . Retrieved November 4 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` Selection Committee Rankings : Final Top 25 Rankings '' ( PDF ) . College Football Playoff . December 3 , 2017 . Retrieved December 3 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Alabama 's Sugar Bowl win against Clemson sets up all - SEC final : Final score , stats , analysis '' . nola.com . January 1 , 2018 . Retrieved January 2 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Emerson , Seth ( January 1 , 2018 ) . `` Georgia to play for national championship after Rose Bowl win in 2 OT '' . ajc.com . Retrieved January 2 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Hoffman , Benjamin ; Drape , Joe ; Tracy , Marc ( January 8 , 2018 ) . `` National Championship Game : Georgia vs. Alabama Live Score '' . The New York Times . Retrieved January 8 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Perez , A.J. ( January 9 , 2018 ) . `` CFP players of the game : Alabama 's Tua Tagovailoa and Da'Ron Payne '' . USA Today . Retrieved January 9 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Kendrick Lamar to Perform at College Football Playoff Title Game '' . Billboard . Retrieved December 20 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Baker , Matt ( January 3 , 2018 ) . `` UCF is really claiming a national championship '' . tampabay.com . Retrieved January 7 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Rollins , Khadrice ( January 2 , 2018 ) . `` UCF Is Having a Parade at Disney World for National Championship Caliber Season '' . Sports Illustrated . Retrieved January 10 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Gartland , Dan ( January 3 , 2018 ) . `` UCF Is Hanging a National Championship Banner at Its Stadium '' . Sports Illustrated . Retrieved January 10 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Chavez , Chris ( January 3 , 2018 ) . `` UCF AD Says Coaches Will Be Paid National Championship Bonuses '' . SI.com . Retrieved January 11 , 2018 . Jump up ^ September 1 , 2018 ( January 9 , 2018 ) . `` Alabama is No. 1 in final AP poll for 11th time ; UCF 6th '' . Msn.com . Retrieved January 16 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Kercheval , Ben ( January 9 , 2018 ) . `` Coaches Poll Top 25 : Alabama unanimous No. 1 , UCF finishes outside top five '' . CBSSports.com . Retrieved January 16 , 2018 . 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where is the national championship for college football played

Mercedes-Benz Stadium in Atlanta, Georgia on January 8, 2018

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Uvea - wikipedia Uvea Jump to : navigation , search For the Pacific island and chiefdom in Wallis and Futuna , see Wallis ( island ) and Uvea ( Wallis and Futuna ) . For the Pacific commune and island in New Caledonia , see Ouvéa and Ouvéa Island . This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( February 2014 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Uvea Horizontal section of the eyeball . The constituents of the uvea follow : iris labeled at top , ciliary body labeled at upper right , and choroid labeled at center right . ) Details Identifiers Latin tunica vasculosa bulbi MeSH D014602 TA A15. 2.03. 001 FMA 58103 Anatomical terminology ( edit on Wikidata ) The uvea ( / ˈjuːvɪə / ) ( Lat . uva , grape ) , also called the uveal layer , uveal coat , uveal tract , or vascular tunic , is the pigmented middle of the three concentric layers that make up an eye . The name is possibly a reference to its reddish - blue or almost black colour , wrinkled appearance and grape - like size and shape when stripped intact from a cadaveric eye . Its use as a technical term in anatomy and ophthalmology is relatively modern . Contents ( hide ) 1 Structure 1.1 Regions 2 Function 3 Pharmacology 4 Immunology 5 Clinical significance 6 References 7 External links Structure ( edit ) Regions ( edit ) The uvea is the vascular middle layer of the eye . It is traditionally divided into three areas , from front to back , the : Iris Ciliary body Choroid Function ( edit ) The prime functions of the uveal tract as a unit are : Nutrition and gas exchange : uveal vessels directly perfuse the ciliary body and iris , to support their metabolic needs , and indirectly supply diffusible nutrients to the outer retina , sclera , and lens , which lack any intrinsic blood supply . ( The cornea has no adjacent blood vessels and is oxygenated by direct gas exchange with the environment . ) Light absorption : the uvea improves the contrast of the retinal image by reducing reflected light within the eye ( analogous to the black paint inside a camera ) , and also absorbs outside light transmitted through the sclera , which is not fully opaque . In addition some uveal regions have special functions of great importance , including secretion of the aqueous humour by the ciliary processes , control of accommodation ( focus ) by the ciliary body , and optimisation of retinal illumination by the iris 's control over the pupil . Many of these functions are under the control of the autonomic nervous system . Pharmacology ( edit ) The pupil provides a visible example of the neural feedback control in the body . This is subserved by a balance between the antagonistic sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system . Informal pharmacological experiments have been performed on the pupil for centuries , since the pupil is readily visible , and its size can be readily altered by applying drugs -- even crude plant extracts -- to the cornea . Pharmacological control over pupil size remains an important part of the treatment of some ocular diseases . Drugs can also reduce the metabolically active process of secreting aqueous humour , which is important in treating both acute and chronic glaucoma . Immunology ( edit ) The normal uvea consists of immune competent cells , particularly lymphocytes , and is prone to respond to inflammation by developing lymphocytic infiltrates . A rare disease called sympathetic ophthalmia may represent ' cross-reaction ' between the uveal and retinal antigens ( i.e. , the body 's inability to distinguish between them , with resulting misdirected inflammatory reactions ) . Clinical significance ( edit ) See uveitis , choroiditis , iritis , iridocyclitis , anterior uveitis , sympathetic ophthalmia , and uveal melanoma . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/uvea Jump up ^ eye , human. `` Encyclopædia Britannica from Encyclopædia Britannica 2006 Ultimate Reference Suite DVD 2009 External links ( edit ) MedlinePlus Encyclopedia 002337 Diagram at visionweb.com ( hide ) Anatomy of the globe of the human eye Fibrous tunic ( outer ) Sclera Episcleral layer Schlemm 's canal Trabecular meshwork Cornea Limbus layers Epithelium Bowman 's Stroma Dua 's layer Descemet 's Endothelium Uvea / vascular tunic ( middle ) Choroid Capillary lamina of choroid Bruch 's membrane Sattler 's layer Ciliary body Ciliary processes Ciliary muscle Pars plicata Pars plana Iris Stroma Pupil Iris dilator muscle Iris sphincter muscle Retina ( inner ) Layers Inner limiting membrane Nerve fiber layer Ganglion cell layer Inner plexiform layer Inner nuclear layer Outer plexiform layer Outer nuclear layer External limiting membrane Layer of rods and cones Retinal pigment epithelium Cells Photoreceptor cells ( Cone cell , Rod cell ) → ( Horizontal cell ) → Bipolar cell → ( Amacrine cell ) → Retina ganglion cell ( Midget cell , Parasol cell , Bistratified cell , Giant retina ganglion cells , Photosensitive ganglion cell ) → Diencephalon : P cell , M cell , K cell , Muller glia Other Macula Perifoveal area Parafoveal area Fovea Foveal avascular zone Foveola Optic disc Optic cup Ora serrata Anatomical regions of the eye Anterior segment Adnexa Fibrous tunic Anterior chamber Aqueous humour Iris Posterior chamber Ciliary body Lens Capsule of lens Zonule of Zinn Posterior segment Vitreous chamber Vitreous body Retina Choroid Other Keratocytes Ocular immune system Optical coherence tomography Eye care professional Eye disease Refractive error Accommodation Physiological Optics Visual perception Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Uvea&oldid=825197542 '' Categories : Human eye anatomy Hidden categories : Pages with unresolved properties Articles needing additional references from February 2014 All articles needing additional references All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from December 2013 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge 한국어 Ido Italiano עברית Nederlands 日本 語 Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Татарча / tatarça Українська 中文 16 more Edit links This page was last edited on 12 February 2018 , at 00 : 56 . 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the vascular layer of the eye is the

The uvea

The uvea is the vascular middle layer of the eye

Cuban war of independence - wikipedia Cuban war of independence Jump to : navigation , search The neutrality of this article is disputed . Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page . Please do not remove this message until conditions to do so are met . ( March 2014 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Cuban War of Independence An estimated 200,000 Cubans died in Spanish concentration camps . Date February 24 , 1895 -- February 15 , 1898 ( 2 years , 11 months , 3 weeks and 1 day ) Location Cuba ( Caribbean ) Result Cuban victory American Intervention ; Expulsion of the Spanish colonial government during Spanish -- American War ( 1898 ) . Treaty of Paris United States Military Government in Cuba Cuban independence Belligerents Spain Spanish Cuba Spanish Philippines Cuban nationalists United States Commanders and leaders Arsenio Linares Manuel Macías Ramón Blanco Valeriano Weyler Patricio Montojo Pascual Cervera Máximo Gómez Calixto García José Martí † Antonio Maceo † Nelson A. Miles William Shafter George Dewey William T. Sampson Strength 196,000 53,774 rebels 28,000 -- 60,000 US regulars and 200,000 + volunteers Casualties and losses 786 killed in action 8,627 DOW 53,313 dead from disease 900 killed in action ( 1898 ) 5,180 Cuban insurgents died in combat 3,437 Cuban insurgents dead from disease 385 US soldiers died in combat 2,061 US soldiers dead from disease 300,000 total Cubans dead ( most of them civilian fatalities in the concentration camps ) Spanish colonial campaigns Canary Islands ( 1402 -- 96 ) Guinea ( 1478 ) Morocco ( 1497 ) Orán ( 1509 ) Bugia ( 1510 ) Tripoli ( 1510 ) Djerba ( 1510 ) Algeria ( 1516 ) Algeria ( 1517 -- 18 ) Djerba ( 1520 ) Mexico ( 1519 -- 1821 ) Mexico ( 1519 -- 21 ) Chiapas ( 1523 -- 1695 ) Guatemala ( 1524 -- 1697 ) Petén ( 1618 -- 97 ) El Salvador ( 1524 - 39 ) Honduras ( 1524 -- 39 ) Yucatán ( 1527 -- 1697 ) Algeria ( 1529 ) Peru ( 1531 -- 72 ) Tunisia ( 1534 ) Tunisia ( 1535 ) Chile ( 1536 -- 1810 ) Colombia ( 1537 - 1540 ) Algeria ( 1541 ) Tunisia ( 1550 ) Libya ( 1551 ) Algeria ( 1555 ) Algeria ( 1556 ) Algeria ( 1558 ) Tunisia ( 1560 ) Algeria ( 1563 ) Philippines ( 1565 -- 1900 ) Philippines ( 1567 -- 1872 ) Tunisia ( 1574 ) Puerto Rico ( 1595 ) Cuba ( 1596 ) Puerto Rico ( 1598 ) Morocco ( 1614 ) Formosa ( 1626 ) St. Kitts ( 1629 ) Philippines ( 1646 ) Hispaniola ( 1655 ) Jamaica ( 1655 ) Canary Islands ( 1657 ) Jamaica ( 1657 ) Jamaica ( 1658 ) North America ( 1702 -- 13 ) Chiloé ( 1712 ) Bahamas ( 1720 ) Banda Oriental ( 1735 -- 37 ) North America ( 1739 -- 48 ) Sacramento ( 1762 -- 63 ) Cuba ( 1762 ) Nicaragua ( 1762 ) Philippines ( 1762 ) Sacramento ( 1776 -- 77 ) North America ( 1779 -- 83 ) Americas ( 1796 -- 1808 ) Río de la Plata ( 1806 -- 07 ) Ecuador ( 1809 ) Peru ( 1811 -- 24 ) Bolivia ( 1809 -- 25 ) Florida ( 1810 ) Paraguay ( 1810 -- 11 ) Argentina ( 1810 -- 18 ) Mexico ( 1810 -- 21 ) Chile ( 1810 -- 26 ) El Salvador ( 1811 ) Uruguay ( 1811 ) Venezuela ( 1811 -- 23 ) Colombia ( 1815 -- 16 ) Colombia ( 1819 -- 20 ) Ecuador ( 1820 -- 22 ) Mexico ( 1821 -- 29 ) Balanguingui ( 1848 ) Cochinchina ( 1858 -- 62 ) Morocco ( 1859 -- 60 ) Dominican Republic ( 1863 -- 65 ) Chile / Peru ( 1864 -- 66 ) Cuba ( 1868 -- 78 ) Cuba ( 1879 -- 80 ) Cuba ( 1895 -- 98 ) Philippines ( 1896 -- 98 ) Puerto Rico ( 1898 ) Guam ( 1898 ) Morocco ( 1920 -- 26 ) Morocco ( 1957 -- 58 ) Part of a series on the History of Cuba Governorate of Cuba ( 1511 -- 1519 ) Viceroyalty of New Spain ( 1535 -- 1821 ) Captaincy General of Cuba ( 1607 -- 1898 ) Cuban War of Independence Spanish -- American War Treaty of Paris US Military Government ( 1898 -- 1902 ) Republic of Cuba ( 1902 -- 1959 ) Cuban Pacification ( 1906 -- 1909 ) Negro Rebellion ( 1912 ) Sugar Intervention ( 1917 -- 1922 ) Cuban Revolution ( 1953 -- 1959 ) Republic of Cuba ( 1959 -- ) Bay of Pigs Invasion Cuban Missile Crisis Intervention in Angola Special Period Cuban Thaw Timeline Topical Military history Cuba portal The Cuban War of Independence ( Spanish : Guerra de Independencia cubana , 1895 -- 98 ) was the last of three liberation wars that Cuba fought against Spain , the other two being the Ten Years ' War ( 1868 -- 1878 ) and the Little War ( 1879 -- 1880 ) . The final three months of the conflict escalated to become the Spanish -- American War , with United States forces being deployed in Cuba , Puerto Rico , and the Philippine Islands against Spain . Historians disagree as to the extent that United States officials were motivated to intervene for humanitarian reasons but agree that yellow journalism exaggerated atrocities attributed to Spanish forces against Cuban civilians . Contents ( hide ) 1 Background 2 War 3 The Maine incident 4 The Spanish -- American War 5 Peace 6 Analysis 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading Background During the years 1869 -- 1888 of the so - called `` Rewarding Truce '' , lasting for 17 years from the end of the Ten Years ' War in 1878 , there were fundamental social changes in Cuban society . With the abolition of slavery in October 1886 , freedmen joined the ranks of farmers and the urban working class . The economy could no longer sustain itself with the shift and changes ; therefore , many wealthy Cubans lost their property , and joined the urban middle class . The number of sugar mills dropped and efficiency increased : only companies , and the most powerful plantation owners , remained in business followed by the Central Board of Artisans in 1879 , and many more across the island . After his second deportation to Spain in 1878 , José Martí moved to the United States in 1881 . There he mobilized the support of the Cuban exile community , especially in Ybor City ( Tampa area ) and Key West , Florida . His goal was revolution in order to achieve independence from Spain . Martí lobbied against the U.S. annexation of Cuba , which was desired by some politicians in both the U.S. and Cuba . After deliberations with patriotic clubs across the United States , the Antilles and Latin America , `` El Partido Revolucionario Cubano '' ( The Cuban Revolutionary Party ) was in a state of pendency and was affected by a growing fear that the U.S. government would try to annex Cuba before the revolution could liberate the island from Spain '' . A new trend of aggressive U.S. `` influence '' was expressed by Secretary of State James G. Blaine 's suggestion that all of Central and South America would some day fall to the U.S. : `` That rich island '' , Blaine wrote on 1 December 1881 , `` the key to the Gulf of Mexico , is , though in the hands of Spain , a part of the American commercial system ... If ever ceasing to be Spanish , Cuba must necessarily become American and not fall under any other European domination '' . Blaine 's vision did not allow the existence of an independent Cuba . `` Martí noticed with alarm the movement to annex Hawaii , viewing it as establishing a pattern for Cuba ... '' War This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( February 2012 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) On December 25 , 1894 , three ships ; the Lagonda , the Almadis and the Baracoa , set sail for Cuba from Fernandina Beach , Florida , loaded with soldiers and weapons . Two of the ships were seized by US authorities in early January , but the proceedings went ahead . Not to be dissuaded , on March 25 , Martí presented the Manifesto of Montecristi , which outlined the policy for Cuba 's war of independence : The war was to be waged by blacks and whites alike ; Participation of all blacks was crucial for victory ; Spaniards who did not object to the war effort should be spared , Private rural properties should not be damaged ; and The revolution should bring new economic life to Cuba . The insurrection began on February 24 , 1895 , with uprisings all across the island . In Oriente , the most important ones took place in Santiago , Guantánamo , Jiguaní , San Luis , El Cobre , El Caney , Alto Songo , Bayate , and Baire . The uprisings in the central part of the island , such as Ibarra , Jagüey Grande , and Aguada , suffered from poor coordination and failed ; the leaders were captured , some of them deported and some executed . In the province of Havana , the insurrection was discovered before it was underway , and authorities detained its leaders . The insurgents further west in Pinar del Río were ordered by rebel leaders to wait . On April 1 and 11 , 1895 , the main Mambi leaders landed on two expeditions in Oriente : Major General Antonio Maceo along with 22 members near Baracoa , and José Martí , Máximo Gómez and 4 other members in Playitas . Around that time , Spanish forces in Cuba numbered about 80,000 , of which 20,000 were regular troops and 60,000 were Spanish and Cuban volunteer militia . The latter were a locally enlisted force that took care of most of the `` guard and police '' duties on the island . Wealthy landowners would `` volunteer '' a number of their slaves to serve in this force , which was under local control as militia and not under official military command . By December , Spain had sent 98,412 regular troops to the island , and the colonial government increased the Volunteer Corps to 63,000 men . By the end of 1897 , there were 240,000 regulars and 60,000 irregulars on the island . The revolutionaries were far outnumbered . The Mambises were named after the Negro Spanish officer , Juan Ethninius Mamby who joined the Dominican fight for independence in 1844 . The Spanish soldiers referred to the insurgents in the Dominican Republic as `` the men of Mamby '' or `` Mambies '' . When Cuba 's first war of independence broke out in 1868 , some of those same soldiers were assigned to Cuba ; they brought along what by then become a derogatory Spanish slur for insurgents . The Cubans adopted the name with pride . After the Ten Years ' War , the government had forbidden possession of weapons by private individuals . From the beginning of the uprising , the rebels were hampered by the lack of suitable weapons . They compensated by using guerrilla - style fighting , based on quick raids and fades to the environment , the element of surprise , mounting their forces on fast horses , and using machetes against regular troops on the march . They acquired most of their weapons and ammunition in raids on the Spaniards . Between June 11 , 1895 , and November 30 , 1897 , out of sixty attempts to bring weapons and supplies to the rebels from outside the country , only one succeeded through the protection of the British . Twenty - eight ships were intercepted within U.S. territory ; five were intercepted at sea by the U.S. Navy , and four by the Spanish Navy ; two were wrecked ; one was driven back to port by storm ; the fate of another is unknown . Martí was killed shortly after landing on May 19 , 1895 , at Dos Rios , but Máximo Gomez and Antonio Maceo fought on , taking the war to all parts of Oriente . By the end of June , all of Camagüey was at war . Based on new research in Cuban sources , historian John Lawrence Tone demonstrated that Gomez and Maceo were the first to force the civilian forces to choose sides . `` Either they relocated to the east side of the islands , where the Cubans controlled the mountainous terrain , or they would be accused of supporting the Spanish and be subject to immediate trial and execution . '' Continuing west , they were joined by 1868 war veterans , such as Polish internationalist General Carlos Roloff and Serafín Sánchez in Las Villas , who brought weapons , men and experience to the revolutionaries ' arsenal . In mid-September , representatives of the five Liberation Army Corps assembled in Jimaguayú , Camagüey to approve the `` Jimaguayú Constitution . '' They established a central government , which grouped the executive and legislative powers into one entity named `` Government Council '' , headed by Salvador Cisneros and Bartolomé Masó . After some time of consolidation in the three eastern provinces , the liberation armies headed for Camagüey and then Matanzas , outmaneuvering and deceiving the Spanish Army several times . They defeated Spanish Gen. Arsenio Martínez - Campos y Antón , who had gained victory in the Ten - Year War , and killed his most trusted general at Peralejo . Campos tried the same strategy he had employed in the Ten Years ' War , constructing a broad belt across the island , called the trocha , about 80 km long and 200 m wide . This defense line was to confine rebel activities to the eastern provinces . The belt was developed along a railroad from Jucaro in the south to Morón in the north . Campos built fortifications along this railroad at various points , and at intervals , 12 meters of posts and 400 meters of barbed wire . In addition , booby traps were placed at locations most likely to be attacked . The rebels believed they had to take the war to the western provinces of Matanzas , Havana and Pinar del Rio , where the island 's government and wealth were located . The Ten - Year War had failed because it had not managed to proceed beyond the eastern provinces . In a successful cavalry campaign overcoming the trochas , the revolutionaries invaded every province . Surrounding all larger cities and well - fortified towns , they arrived at the westernmost tip of the island on January 22 , 1896 , exactly three months after the invasion near Baraguá . Campos was replaced by Gen. Valeriano Weyler . He reacted to the rebels ' successes by introducing terror methods : periodic executions , mass exile of residents and forced concentration of them in certain cities or areas , and destruction of farms and crops . Weyler 's methods reached their height on October 21 , 1896 , when he ordered all countryside residents and their livestock to gather within eight days in various fortified areas and towns occupied by his troops . Death of Maceo in 1896 Hundreds of thousands of people had to leave their homes and were subjected to appalling and inhumane conditions in the crowded towns and cities . Together with the forced reconcentrations done by the rebels in the eastern provinces , it is estimated that 25 to 30 percent of the civilian population subjected to it died during the three years of warfare . Using a variety of sources , Tone estimates that civilian losses totaled 155,000 to 170,000 deaths , representing nearly 10 percent of the total population . Starting in the early 1880s , Spain had also suppressed an independence movement in the Philippines , which was intensifying . In effect , Spain was now fighting two wars , a heavy burden on its economy . In 1896 it turned down offers in secret negotiations by the United States to buy Cuba from Spain . Maceo was killed December 7 , 1896 , in Havana province while returning from the west . As the war went on , the major obstacle to Cuban success was weapons supply . Although weapons and funding came from within the Cuban exile community and supporters in the United States , the supply operation violated American laws . These were enforced by the U.S. Coast Guard : of 71 attempted re-supply missions , only 27 got through ; 5 were stopped by the Spanish , but 33 were stopped by the U.S. Coast Guard . In 1897 , the liberation army maintained a privileged position in Camagüey and Oriente , where the Spanish controlled only a few cities . Spanish Liberal leader Práxedes Mateo Sagasta admitted in May 1897 : `` After having sent 200,000 men and shed so much blood , we do n't own more land on the island than what our soldiers are stepping on '' . The rebel force of 3,000 defeated the Spanish in various encounters , such as the Battle of La Reforma , and forcing the surrender of Las Tunas on August 30 . The Spaniards were kept on the defensive . Las Tunas had been guarded by over 1,000 well - armed and well - supplied men . As stipulated at the Jimaguayü Assembly two years earlier , a second Constituent Assembly met in La Yaya , Camagüey , on October 10 , 1897 . The newly adopted constitution provided that military command was to be subordinated to civilian rule . The government was confirmed , naming Bartolomé Masó President and Domingo Méndez Capote Vice President . Madrid decided to change its policy towards Cuba , and replaced Weyler . It also drew up a colonial constitution for Cuba and Puerto Rico , and installed a new government in Havana . But with half the country out of its control and the other half in arms , the colonial government was powerless and these changes were rejected by the rebels . The Maine incident Main article : USS Maine ( ACR - 1 ) Wreckage of the Maine , 1898 The Cuban struggle for independence had captured the American imagination for years . Some newspapers had agitated for US intervention , especially because of its large financial investment , and featured sensational stories of Spanish atrocities against the native Cuban population , which were exaggerated for propaganda . Such coverage continued after Spain had replaced Weyler and changed its policies . American public opinion was very much in favor of intervening on behalf of the Cubans . In January 1898 , a riot by Cuban Spanish loyalists against the new autonomous government broke out in Havana . They destroyed the printing presses of four local newspapers that had published articles critical of Spanish Army atrocities . The U.S. Consul - General cabled Washington with fears for the lives of Americans living in Havana . In response , the battleship USS Maine was sent to Havana in the last week of January . On February 15 , 1898 , the Maine was rocked by an explosion , killing 258 of the crew and sinking the ship in the harbor . At the time , a military Board of Investigations decided that the Maine had exploded due to the detonation of a mine underneath the hull . However , later investigations decided that it was likely something inside the ship , though the cause of the explosion has not been clearly established to this day . In an attempt to appease the United States , the colonial government took two steps that had been demanded by President William McKinley : it ended forced relocation of residents from their homes and offered negotiations with the independence fighters . But the truce was rejected by the rebels . The Spanish -- American war Main article : Spanish -- American War The sinking of the Maine sparked a wave of public indignation in the United States . Newspaper owners such as William R. Hearst leaped to the conclusion that Spanish officials in Cuba were to blame , and they widely publicized the conspiracy . Realistically , Spain could have had no interest in drawing the United States into the conflict . Yellow journalism fueled American anger by publishing `` atrocities '' committed by Spain in Cuba . Hearst , when informed by Frederic Remington , whom he had hired to furnish illustrations for his newspaper , that conditions in Cuba were not bad enough to warrant hostilities , allegedly replied , `` You furnish the pictures and I 'll furnish the war '' . President McKinley , Speaker of the House Thomas Brackett Reed , and the business community opposed the growing public demand for war , which was lashed to fury by the yellow journalism . The American cry of the hour became , Remember the Maine , To Hell with Spain ! The decisive event was probably the speech of Senator Redfield Proctor , delivered on March 17 , 1898 , analyzing the situation and concluding that war was the only answer . The business and religious communities switched sides , leaving McKinley and Reed almost alone in their opposition to the war . `` Faced with a revved up , war - ready population , and all the editorial encouragement the two competitors could muster , the United States jumped at the opportunity to get involved and showcase its new steam - powered Navy '' . On April 11 , McKinley asked Congress for authority to send American troops to Cuba for the purpose of ending the civil war there . On April 19 , Congress passed joint resolutions ( by a vote of 311 to 6 in the House and 42 to 35 in the Senate ) supporting Cuban independence and disclaiming any intention to annex Cuba , demanding Spanish withdrawal , and authorizing the president to use as much military force as he thought necessary to help Cuban patriots gain independence from Spain . This was adopted by resolution of Congress and included the Teller Amendment , named after Colorado Senator Henry Moore Teller , which passed unanimously , stipulating that `` the island of Cuba is , and by right should be , free and independent '' . The amendment disclaimed any intention on the part of the United States to exercise jurisdiction or control over Cuba for other than pacification reasons , and confirmed that the armed forces would be removed once the war is over . The amendment , pushed through at the last minute by anti-imperialists in the Senate , made no mention of the Philippines , Guam , or Puerto Rico . Congress formally declared war on April 25 . The Senate and House passed the amendment April 19 , McKinley signed the joint resolution on April 20 , and the ultimatum was forwarded to Spain . War was declared on April 20 / 21 , 1898 . `` It 's been suggested that a major reason for the U.S. war against Spain was the fierce competition emerging between Joseph Pulitzer 's New York World and William Randolph Hearst 's New York Journal '' . Joseph E. Wisan wrote in an essay titled `` The Cuban Crisis As Reflected In The New York Press '' , published in `` American Imperialism '' in 1898 : `` In the opinion of the writer , the Spanish -- American War would not have occurred had not the appearance of Hearst in New York journalism precipitated a bitter battle for newspaper circulation . '' It has also been argued that the main reason the United States entered the war was its failed attempt to purchase Cuba from Spain . Further information : Propaganda of the Spanish -- American War Hostilities started hours after the declaration of war when a contingent of US Navy ships under Admiral William T. Sampson blockaded several Cuban ports . The Americans decided to invade Cuba and to start in Oriente , where the Cubans had almost absolute control . They cooperated by establishing a beachhead and protecting the U.S. landing in Daiquiri . The first U.S. objective was to capture the city of Santiago de Cuba in order to destroy Linares ' army and Cervera 's fleet . To reach Santiago , the Americans had to pass through concentrated Spanish defences in the San Juan Hills and a small town in El Caney . Between June 22 and 24 , 1898 , the Americans landed under General William R. Shafter at Daiquirí and Siboney , east of Santiago , and established a base . The port of Santiago became the main target of naval operations . The U.S. fleet attacking Santiago needed shelter from the summer hurricane season , thus nearby Guantánamo Bay , with its excellent harbor , was chosen for this purpose and attacked on June 6 ( 1898 invasion of Guantánamo Bay ) . The Battle of Santiago de Cuba on July 3 , 1898 was the largest naval engagement during the Spanish -- American War , resulting in the destruction of the Spanish Caribbean Squadron ( Flota de Ultramar ) . Resistance in Santiago consolidated around Fort Canosa , All the while , major battles between Spaniards and Americans took place at Las Guasimas on June 24 , El Caney and San Juan Hill on July 1 , 1898 , outside of Santiago . after which the American advance ground to a halt . Spanish troops successfully defended Fort Canosa , allowing them to stabilize their line and bar the entry to Santiago . The Americans and Cubans forcibly began a bloody , strangling siege of the city which eventually surrendered on July 16 , after the defeat of the Spanish Caribbean Squadron . Thus , Oriente was under control of Americans , but U.S. General Nelson A. Miles would not allow Cuban troops to enter Santiago , claiming that he wanted to prevent clashes between Cubans and Spaniards . Thus , Cuban General Calixto García , head of the Mambi forces in the Eastern department , ordered his troops to hold their respective areas . He resigned over being excluded from entering Santiago , writing a letter of protest to General Shafter . Peace After losing the Philippines and Puerto Rico , which had also been invaded by the United States , and with no hope of holding on to Cuba , Spain sued for peace on July 17 , 1898 . On August 12 , the United States and Spain signed a protocol of Peace , in which Spain agreed to relinquish all claim of sovereignty and title over Cuba . On December 10 , 1898 , the United States and Spain signed the Treaty of Paris , which recognized Cuban independence . Although the Cubans had participated in the liberation efforts , the United States prevented Cuba from participating in the Paris peace talks and signing the treaty . The treaty set no time limit for U.S. occupation and the Isle of Pines was excluded from Cuba . The treaty officially granted Cuba 's independence , but U.S. General William R. Shafter refused to allow Cuban General Calixto García and his rebel forces to participate in the surrender ceremonies in Santiago de Cuba . Analysis Most Spanish historians argue that the insurgency could not have succeeded on its own . Cuban historians argue the Cubans were on the verge of winning in 1898 and needed no outside help . See also José Semidei Rodríguez Juan Ríus Rivera References Jump up ^ `` Liberty , Equality , Power : A History of the American People , Volume II : Since 1863 , Concise Edition '' ^ Jump up to : Clodfelter ( 2017 ) . Warfare and Armed Conflicts : A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures , 1492 - 2015 . Jump up ^ Clodfelter , Michael , Warfare and Armed Conflict : A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures , 1618 -- 1991 Jump up ^ Dept. of Defense , 1991 Information Please , World Almanac 1984 Jump up ^ Sheina , Robert L. , Latin America 's Wars : The Age of the Caudillo , 1791 -- 1899 ( 2003 ) Jump up ^ COWP : Correlates of War Project , University of Michigan Jump up ^ Navarro ( 1998 ) . History of Cuba . Havana . pp. 55 -- 57 ^ Jump up to : Foner , Philip : The Spanish -- Cuban -- American War and the Birth of American Imperialism quoted in : ( 1 ) , History of Cuba ^ Jump up to : Spanish -- Cuban -- American War -- History of Cuba ^ Jump up to : Krohn , Jonathan . ( May 2008 ) Review : `` Caught in the Middle '' John Lawrence Tone . War and Genocide in Cuba 1895 -- 1898 ( 2006 ) , H - Net , accessed 26 December 2014 Jump up ^ Navarro , José Cantón 1998 . History of Cuba . Havana . p69 Jump up ^ PBS , Crucible of Empire : The Spanish -- American War , pbs.org , retrieved 2007 - 12 - 15 Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on 2007 - 08 - 18 . Retrieved 2007 - 08 - 20 . ^ Jump up to : Navarro , José Cantón : History of Cuba , Havana , Cuba , 1998 , p. 71 Jump up ^ W. Joseph Campbell ( Summer 2000 ) . `` Not likely sent : The Remington -- Hearst `` telegrams '' `` . Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly . Jump up ^ Offner 1992 pp. 131 -- 35 Jump up ^ Davis , Michelle Bray & Quimby , Rollin W. ( 1969 ) , `` Senator Proctor 's Cuban Speech : Speculations on a Cause of the Spanish -- American War '' , Quarterly Journal of Speech , 55 ( 2 ) : 131 -- 41 , doi : 10.1080 / 00335636909382938 , ISSN 0033 - 5630 . Jump up ^ Daley # , L. 2000 . El Fortin Canosa en la Cuba del 1898 . in Los Ultimos Dias del Comienzo . Ensayos sobre la Guerra Hispano - Cubana - Estadounidense . B.E. Aguirre and E. Espina eds . RiL Editores , Santiago de Chile pp. 161 -- 71 . Jump up ^ The Battles at El Caney and San Juan Hills , HomeOfHeroes.com . Jump up ^ Daley 2000 , pp. 161 -- 71 Jump up ^ The Spanish -- American War Centennial Website ! , spanamwar.com , retrieved 2007 - 11 - 02 Jump up ^ Protocol of Peace Embodying the Terms of a Basis for the Establishment of Peace Between the Two Countries , Washington , D.C. , August 12 , 1898 , retrieved 2007 - 10 - 30 Jump up ^ Treaty of peace between the United States and Spain , The Avalon project at Yale law School , December 10 , 1898 , archived from the original on November 6 , 2007 , retrieved 2007 - 10 - 30 Jump up ^ Navarro , José Cantón : History of Cuba , Havana , Cuba , 1998 , p. 77 Further reading Kagan , Robert , ( 2006 ) Dangerous Nation ( New York : Alfred A. Knopf ) , pp. 357 -- 416 Krohn , Jonathan . ( May 2008 ) Review : `` Caught in the Middle '' John Lawrence Tone . War and Genocide in Cuba 1895 -- 1898 ( 2006 ) ( 2 ) , H - Net , May 2008 McCartney , Paul T. ( 2006 ) Power and Progress : American National Identity , the War of 1898 , and the Rise of American Imperialism ( Baton Rouge : Louisiana State University Press ) , 87 -- 142 Rice , Donald Tunnicliff . Cast in Deathless Bronze : Andrew Rowan , the Spanish -- American War , and the Origins of American Empire . Morgantown WV : West Virginia University Press , 2016 . Silbey , David J. ( 2007 ) A War of Frontier and Empire : The Philippine -- American War , 1899 -- 1902 ( New York : Hill and Wang ) , pp. 31 -- 34 . Tone , John Lawrence . ( 2006 ) War and Genocide in Cuba 1895 -- 1898 , Chapel Hill : University of North Carolina excerpt and text search Trask , David F. The War with Spain in 1898 ( 1996 ) ch 1 excerpt and text search Cuba topics History Pre-Revolution Timeline Colonial governors Slavery Ten Years ' War Little War Cuban War of Independence Sinking of the USS Maine Spanish -- American War Platt Amendment World War I Republic 1932 hurricane World War II Revolution Post-Revolution Escambray Rebellion Bay of Pigs Invasion Cuban Missile Crisis Cuban intervention in Angola Mariel boatlift Special Period Fidel 's transfer of power United States -- Cuban thaw Cities History of Havana Timeline Other cities Timelines : Camagüey , Cienfuegos , Guantánamo , Holguín , Matanzas , Santiago de Cuba Geography Cities Bayamo Camagüey Ciego de Ávila Cienfuegos Guantánamo Havana Holguín Las Tunas Matanzas Pinar del Río Sancti Spíritus Santa Clara Santiago de Cuba Provinces Artemisa Camagüey Ciego de Ávila Cienfuegos Ciudad de La Habana Granma Guantánamo Holguín Isla de la Juventud Las Tunas Matanzas Mayabeque Pinar del Río Sancti Spíritus Santiago de Cuba Villa Clara Other Almendares River Earthquakes List of islands Sierra Maestra Tropical cyclones World Heritage Sites Governance Security Economy Governance Armed Forces Castroism Constitution Elections Foreign relations Law Politics Presidency Cuba -- United States relations Bay of Pigs Invasion Brothers to the Rescue Commission for Assistance to a Free Cuba Coordination of United Revolutionary Organizations Cuban American Cuban - American lobby Cuban dissident movement Cuban Five Cuban Missile Crisis Elián González affair Fair Play for Cuba Committee Guantanamo Bay Naval Base Helms -- Burton Act Cuba -- United States hijackings Luis Posada Carriles Mariel boatlift Orlando Bosch Operation Northwoods Operation Peter Pan Platt Amendment Spanish -- American War United States ambassador United States embargo United States Interests Section Political parties Current Communist Party Christian Democratic Democratic Social - Revolutionary Democratic Socialist Current Democratic Solidarity Liberal Liberal Movement Social Democratic Co-ordination Former Auténtico Cuban National Democratic Union Independent Republican Ortodoxo Popular Socialist Republican ( Havana ) Security Military Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces ( MINFAR ) Air Force Army Navy Territorial Troops Militia Law enforcement National Revolutionary Police Force Intelligence Dirección General de Inteligencia Military Counterintelligence Directorate Economy Agriculture Agrarian reform Cooperatives Central bank Peso ( currency ) Convertible peso International rankings Telecommunications Tourism Transport airline Society Culture Society Censorship Committees for the Defense of the Revolution Education Health care Human rights LGBT LGBT history Women Language Rationing Scouting and Guiding Sociolismo Culture Art Cinema Cuisine Internet Literature Media Newspapers TV Music Musical theater Festivals Public holidays Radio Religion Santería Sport baseball boxing football Universities Demographics People Demographics Cubans Afro - Cubans Americans Cape Verdean Chinese Ciboney Filipino French German Haitian Isleños Italian Japanese Jews Koreans Lebanese Mexicans Spanish White People By name Desi Arnaz Fulgencio Batista Leo Brouwer Fidel Castro Raúl Castro Celia Cruz Ibrahim Ferrer Osmani García Máximo Gómez Elián González Nicolás Guillén José Martí Pablo Milanés Omara Portuondo Silvio Rodríguez Compay Segundo Félix Varela By occupation Architects Artists Athletes baseball players Painters abstract Writers women Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cuban_War_of_Independence&oldid=832765040 '' Categories : Conflicts in 1895 Conflicts in 1896 Conflicts in 1897 Conflicts in 1898 History of Cuba Spanish colonial period of Cuba 19th century in Cuba Spanish American wars of independence 1895 in Cuba 1896 in Cuba 1897 in Cuba 1898 in Cuba Spanish -- American War Hidden categories : CS1 : Julian -- Gregorian uncertainty Wikipedia semi-protected pages NPOV disputes from March 2014 All NPOV disputes Articles containing Spanish - language text Articles needing additional references from February 2012 All articles needing additional references All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February 2018 Articles with unsourced statements from December 2014 Talk View source Contents About Wikipedia Asturianu Brezhoneg Català Deutsch Español Euskara Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia ქართული Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Occitan Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Türkçe 12 more Edit links This page was last edited on 27 March 2018 , at 21 : 42 . 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Forensic firearm examination - wikipedia Forensic firearm examination Jump to : navigation , search Part of a series on Forensic science Physiological ( show ) Anthropology Biology Bloodstain pattern analysis Botany Dentistry DNA phenotyping DNA profiling Entomology Epidemiology Medicine Palynology Pathology Podiatry Toxicology Social ( show ) Psychiatry Psychology Psychotherapy Social work Criminalistics ( hide ) Accounting Body identification Chemistry Facial reconstruction Fingerprint analysis Firearm examination Footwear evidence Forensic arts Profiling Gloveprint analysis Palmprint analysis Questioned document examination Vein matching Digital forensics ( show ) Computer exams Data analysis Database study Mobile devices Network analysis Photography Video analysis Audio analysis Related disciplines ( show ) Electrical engineering Engineering Fire investigation Fire accelerant detection Fractography Linguistics Materials engineering Polymer engineering Statistics Traffic collision reconstruction Related articles ( show ) Crime scene CSI effect Perry Mason syndrome Pollen calendar Skid mark Trace evidence Use of DNA in forensic entomology Outline Forensic firearm examination is the forensic process of examining the characteristics of firearms as well as any cartridges or bullets left behind at a crime scene . Specialists in this field are tasked with linking bullets and cartridges to weapons and weapons to individuals . Obliterated serial numbers can be raised and recorded in an attempt to find the registered owner of the weapon . Examiners can also look for fingerprints on the weapon and cartridges , and then viable prints can be processed through fingerprint databases for a potential match . By examining unique striations , or markings , left behind on the bullet as it passes through the barrel and on the cartridge as it is hit by the firing pin , individual spent rounds can be linked back to a specific weapon . Known exemplars taken from a seized weapon can be directly compared to samples recovered from the scene using a comparison microscope . Striation images can also be uploaded to any existing national databases . Furthermore , these markings can be compared to other images in an attempt to link one weapon to multiple crime scenes . Like all forensic specialties , forensic firearm examiners are subject to being called to testify in court as expert witnesses . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 2 Examination of the firearm 2.1 Fingerprint recovery 2.2 Serial number recovery 2.2. 1 Magnetic particle inspection 2.2. 2 Chemical restoration 3 Examination of cartridges 4 Examination of bullets 4.1 Class characteristics 4.2 Individual characteristics 5 Striation databasing 6 Criticisms 7 See also 8 References History ( edit ) The ability to compare ammunition is a direct result of the invention of rifling around the turn of the 16th century . By forcing the bullet to spin as it travels down the barrel of the weapon the bullet 's accuracy greatly increases . At the same time , the rifling leaves marks on the bullet that are indicative of that particular barrel . Prior to mass production of firearms , each barrel and bullet mold was hand made by gunsmiths making them unique . The first successful documented case of forensic firearm examination occurred in 1835 when a member of the Bow Street Runners in London matched a recovered bullet from a murder victim to a specific mold in a suspect 's home confirming that he made the bullet . Further evidence that the bullet maker was the perpetrator was found in his home and he was convicted . As manufacturing and automation replaced hand tools , the ability to compare bullets became impossible due to the standardization of molds within a specific company . However , experts in the field postulated that there were microscopic differences on each barrel left during the manufacturing process . These differences were a result of wear on the machines and since each new weapon caused a tiny amount of wear , each barrel would be slightly different from every other barrel produced by that company . Also , each bullet fired from a specific barrel would be printed with the same marks , allowing investigators to identify the weapon that fired a specific bullet . One of the first uses of this knowledge was in 1915 to exonerate Charles Stielow of the murder of his neighbors . Stielow was sentenced to death and appealed to Charles S. Whitman , the Governor of New York , who was not convinced by the evidence used to convict Stielow . Whitman halted the execution until an inquiry could be conducted and after further examination it was shown that Stielow 's firearm could not have fired the bullets recovered from the victims . The invention of the comparison microscope by Calvin Goddard and Phillip O. Gravelle in 1925 modernized the forensic examination of firearms . Simultaneous comparison of two different objects at the same time allowed to closely examine striations for matches and therefore make a more definitive statement as to whether or not they matched . One of the first true tests of this new technology was in the aftermath of the Saint Valentine 's Day Massacre in 1929 . During the Prohibition Era , competing gang members were fighting over bootlegging operations within the city of Chicago . Members of the Chicago Outfit and the Egan 's Rats led by Al Capone attempted to remove all competition from Chicago by eliminating the North Side Gang leader Bugs Moran . The massacre missed Moran , who was not present , but killed seven members of the North Side Gang . The murderers attempted to cover up their crime by posing as police officers , even dressing in police uniforms . Witnesses saw two `` officers '' leaving the scene , which implicated the Chicago police department as the perpetrators of the massacre . High levels of police corruption during that time period made it seem likely that the police department committed the killings . The investigation stalled until December 1929 when Fred Burke , a member of the Egan 's Rats , shot and killed a police officer in St. Joseph , Michigan . Officers searching for Burke were led to a home in nearby Stevensville . While Burke was not there , inside officers found an arsenal of weapons including two Thompson submachine guns . The Chicago police department was contacted and the weapons were brought back to Chicago for testing . Goddard was asked to compare the weapons to collected evidence found at the massacre using his new `` ballistic - forensics '' technique . After test firing the guns , Goddard proved that the weapons were those used to kill the members of the North Side Gang , absolving the Chicago police department of all involvement . The successful use of Goddard 's technique resulted in the solidification of his place as the father of forensic firearm examination . Examination of the firearm ( edit ) Multiple serial numbers provide redundancy and make it difficult to fully remove the numbers from a weapon . Any firearm collected during the course of an investigation could yield viable evidence if examined . For forensic firearm examination specific evidence that can be recovered include weapon serial numbers and potentially fingerprints left on the weapon 's surface . Fingerprint recovery ( edit ) Fingerprint recovery from the surface of firearms is done with cyanoacrylate ( more commonly known as superglue ) fuming . Firearms are placed in a specially designed fume hood designed to evenly distribute fumes instead of removing them . Liquid superglue is placed in a container and heated until it is in a gaseous state . The circulating fumes adhere to the oils left behind by the fingerprint , turning the print white . The resulting white print can be enhanced with fingerprint powder to increase the contrast of the white print against the weapon 's finish . While using the fuming technique on recovered guns is commonplace , the recovery of fingerprints from the surfaces of a firearm is challenging due to the textured grip and the general condition of recovered weapons . If fingerprints are recovered , they can be processed through fingerprint databases such as the Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System ( IAFIS ) . Various parts of the recovered weapon can also be tested for touch DNA left by whomever handled it . However , the low levels of DNA that can be recovered presents numerous issues such as contamination and analysis anomalies such as allele drop - out and drop - in . Serial number recovery ( edit ) Serial numbers became commonplace after the United States passed the Gun Control Act of 1968 . This law mandated that all guns manufactured or imported into the country have a serial number . Prior to 1968 , many firearms either did not have a serial number or the serial numbers were not unique and were reused by a manufacturer on multiple firearms . If a recovered weapon has had the serial numbers altered or destroyed , examiners can attempt to recover the original numbers . The two main methods for the restoration of serial numbers are magnetic particle inspection and chemical restoration . It is recommended that magnetic particle inspection be performed first due to the nondestructive nature of the method . If magnetic particle inspection fails , chemical restoration is the next step in the forensic analysis . If the serial number is successfully restored it can be used to help investigators track the weapon 's history , as well as potentially determine who owns the weapon . Firearm databases such as the National Crime Information Center of the United States and INTERPOL 's Firearm Reference Table can be used by investigators to track weapons that have been lost , stolen , or used previously in other crimes . Magnetic particle inspection ( edit ) Originally developed as a method to detect flaws or irregularities in magnetic materials , magnetic particle inspection can be used on firearms to visualize the serial number underneath the obliterated area . When performing this technique , examiners place the weapon in a magnetic field . The irregularities in the metal , in this case the serial number , cause the field to deform . When a solution of ferrous particles is added to the weapon 's magnetized surface they will be attracted to the area where the magnetic field has deformed and will build up in the area . If fluorescent particles are added to the ferrous solution , ultraviolet light can be used to make it easier to visualize any recovered serial number . Chemical restoration ( edit ) Chemical restoration is a type of chemical milling . Typically , chemical milling is used to slowly remove material to create a desired shape . In serial number restoration , small amounts of metal are removed until the serial number is brought back to the surface . This can be performed due to the depth that serial numbers are engraved into the weapon . However , chemical restoration is limited by that depth and is only successful when the obliteration of the serial number is superficial . Examiners performing a restoration first sand the area where the serial number used to be . This removes any debris from the area left when the serial number was obliterated . The examiner then chooses a chemical , usually an acid , that will be used to slowly bring the number back to the surface . The type of chemical that is used depends on the material the weapon is made of . These acids can range from Fry 's Reagent for a magnetic metal , which is a mixture of hydrochloric acid , cupric chloride , and distilled water , to an acidic ferric chloride solution for a non-magnetic , non-aluminum material . Examination of cartridges ( edit ) Two test - fired cartridges under magnification . Matching striations can be seen . Spent cartridges found at a scene can be examined for physical evidence such as fingerprints or compared to samples that match them to a weapon . The examination of the cartridge relies on the unique tool marks left by the various parts of the weapon including the firing pin and the ejector in semi and fully automatic firearms . These markings can be compared and matched to known exemplars fired from the same weapon using the same parts . The examination of the marks left on the cartridge is done using a comparison microscope . Examiners view the questioned cartridge and the known exemplar simultaneously , looking for similar microscopic marks left during the firing process . Example of microstamping . Insert shows a close up of the serial number imprinted into the cartridge . Cartridges are also routinely examined for fingerprints as the act of loading the ammunition into the magazine , or chamber , leaves recoverable impressions . These fingerprints can survive the firing processes and , while a rare occurrence , fingerprints have been obtained from cartridges recovered from the scene . Cartridges are subjected to cyanoacrylate fuming and examined for any usable prints . Usable prints are photographed and can be uploaded to fingerprint databases such as IAFIS for comparison with known exemplars . Cartridges can also be swabbed for trace DNA left by the individual who loaded the magazine . The extremely low levels of recoverable DNA present the same issues as swabbing a firearm for DNA . Advancements in microscopic stamping have led to a push for the inclusion of firing pin microstamping . The microstamp is etched onto the firing pin and is transferred to the cartridge during the firing process . Each firing pin would have a unique serial number allowing investigators to trace casings found at a crime scene to a known firearm . The practice is not in use as of 2018 , although California has enacted legislation that requires microstamping on all newly sold firearms . The law , and microstamping in general , has received significant opposition from gun manufacturers due to increased costs associated with introducing the microstamps into the manufacturing lines . Examination of bullets ( edit ) Rifing pattern for a Remington rifle showing a clockwise ( right - handed ) twist . Class characteristics ( edit ) Preliminary examination of the bullet can exclude a large number of weapons by examining the general characteristics of a recovered bullet . By determining general aspects of the fired ammunition , a number of weapons can be immediately excluded as being incapable of firing that type of bullet . The make and model of the weapon can also be inferred from the combination of different class characteristics that are common to specific manufactures . The three main class characteristics of all bullets are the lands and grooves , the caliber of the bullet , and the rifling twist . All three can be tied directly to the type of barrel that was used to fire the bullet . The lands and grooves of barrel are the bumps and valleys created when the rifling is created . The caliber is the diameter of the barrel . The twist is the direction of the striations left by the barrel 's rifling , clockwise ( right - handed ) or counterclockwise ( left - handed ) . Most barrels will have a right - handed twist with the exception of weapons created by the Colt 's Manufacturing Company which uses left - handed twists . Weapon barrels that match the class characteristics of recovered bullets can be examined further for individual characteristics to determine if the bullet came from that particular weapon . Individual characteristics ( edit ) In order to compare individual striations , examiners must obtain a known sample using the seized weapon . For slower - traveling bullets , such as pistols or revolvers , known bullet exemplars are created by firing the weapon into a water tank . The spent bullet can be recovered , intact , as the water slows down the bullet before it can reach the tank walls , allowing for it to be recovered . For faster traveling bullets , such as those fired from high - powered rifles and military style weapons , water tanks can not be used as the tank will not provide enough stopping power for the projectiles . To examine these weapons , investigators must fire them at a target at a controlled range with enough backing to stop the bullet and collect the spent round after it has been fired . Once a known exemplar is produced , the evidence sample can be compared to the known by examining both at the same time with a comparison microscope . Striations that line up are examined more closely , looking for multiple consecutive matches . There is no set number of consecutive matches that equates to a match declaration , and examiners are trained to use the phrase `` sufficient agreement '' when testifying . The degree to which an examiner can make that determination is based on their training and expertise . All findings by examiners are subject to questioning by both sides , prosecution and defense , during testimony in court . Striation databasing ( edit ) Bullets and casings found at a scene require a known example to compare to in order to match them to a weapon . Without a weapon , the striation pattern can be uploaded to a database such as the National Integrated Ballistic Identification Network ( NIBIN ) maintained by the ATF or the United Kingdom 's National Ballistics Intelligence Service ( NABIS ) . Information uploaded to these databases can be used to track gun crimes and to link crimes together . Maintainers of these databases recommend that every recovered firearm be test fired and the resulting known exemplar be uploaded into the database . Criticisms ( edit ) Firearm examiners have attempted to determine the shooter 's position by the location of spent bullet casings . The use of ejection pattern studies were originally part of incident reconstruction and methods for determining shooter location continue to be explained in major crime scene examination books . However , the validity of ejection pattern analysis has been brought into question by multiple studies that look at the reproducibility and end determination of shooter position by qualified examiners . Studies have shown that over 25 % of spent casings land somewhere other than to the right and rear of the shooter . This is the most commonly accepted location for where spent cartridge casings should fall , and the large percentage of casings that end up somewhere else raises concerns for the validity of the examination technique . Investigators should only present a location gained from an ejection pattern study as a tentative estimate when using the information in a courtroom setting . Prior to September 2005 , comparative bullet - lead analysis was performed on bullets found at a scene that were too destroyed for striation comparison . The technique would attempt to determine the unique elemental breakdown of the bullet and compare it to seized bullets possessed by a suspect . Review of the method found that the breakdown of elements found in bullets could be significantly different enough to potentially allow for two bullets from separate sources to be correlated to each other . However , there are not enough differences to definitely match a bullet from a crime scene to one taken from a suspect 's possession . An additional report in 2004 from the National Academy of Sciences ( NAS ) found that the testimony given regarding comparative bullet - lead analysis was overstated and potentially `` misleading under the federal rules of evidence '' . In 2005 , the Federal Bureau of Investigation indicated that they would no longer be performing this type of analysis . Further criticism came from the 2009 NAS report on the current state of various forensic fields in the United States . The report 's section on firearm examination focused on the lack of defined requirements that are necessary in order to determine `` matches '' between known and unknown striations . The NAS stated that , `` sufficient studies have not been done to understand the reliability and repeatability of the methods . '' Without defined procedures on what is and what is n't considered `` sufficient agreement '' the report states that forensic firearm examination contains fundamental problems that need to be addressed by the forensic community through a set of repeatable scientific studies that outline standard operating procedures that should be adopted by all firearm examiners . Another report issued in 2016 by the United States President 's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology confirmed the NAS 's findings , finding only one appropriately designed study that examined the rate of false positives and reliability amongst firearm examiners . See also ( edit ) Ballistics Crime reconstruction References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Hamby , James ( Summer 1999 ) . `` The History of Firearm and Toolmark Identification '' . Association of Firearm and Tool Mark Examiners Journal . 31 ( 3 ) . Retrieved January 16 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Steele , Lisa ( 2008 ) . `` Ballistics '' ( PDF ) . Science for Lawyers . American Bar Association . Retrieved January 19 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Thompson , Robert ( 2010 ) . `` Firearm Identification in the Forensic Science Laboratory '' ( PDF ) . National District Attorneys Association . Retrieved January 19 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Borchard , Edwin ( 1932 ) . `` Stielow and Green '' ( PDF ) . Convicting the Innocent : Errors of Criminal Justice . New Haven Yale University Press . Retrieved January 20 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Comparison Microscopy '' . National Forensic Science Technology Center . Retrieved June 25 , 2016 . Jump up ^ O'Brien , John ( February 14 , 2014 ) . `` The St. Valentine 's Day Massacre '' . The Chicago Tribune . Archived from the original on March 5 , 2016 . Retrieved June 25 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Ashcroft , Brent . `` St. Valentine 's Day Massacre : Tale of two guns '' . WZZM13 . Retrieved June 25 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Rasmussen , Frederick N. ( February 12 , 2011 ) . `` Baltimore native helped solve 1929 St. Valentine 's Day Massacre '' . The Baltimore Sun . Retrieved June 25 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` In the Public Eye : Finding Fingerprints on Firearms is Actually Very Rare '' . Forensic Magazine . September 2 , 2015 . Retrieved May 31 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` CYANOACRYLATE ( SUPERGLUE ) FUMING '' . Minnesota Bureau of Criminal Apprehension . Retrieved May 31 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Gulick , Gary ( May -- June 2008 ) . `` Lifting Latent Fingerprints from Difficult Surfaces '' . Evidence Technology Magazine . 6 ( 3 ) . Retrieved January 9 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` Development of STR profiles from firearms and fired cartridge cases '' . Forensic Science International : Genetics . 3 ( 4 ) : 242 -- 250 . September 2009 . doi : 10.1016 / j. fsigen. 2009.02. 007 . Jump up ^ `` Public Law 90 - 618 : To amend title 18 , United States Code , to provide for better control of the interstate traffic in firearms '' ( PDF ) . October 22 , 1968 . pp. 1213 -- 1236 . Retrieved May 31 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Firearms Tracing Guide '' . Bureau of Alcohol , Tobacco , Firearms , and Explosives . November 2011 . Retrieved January 9 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` Technical Procedure for Serial Number Restoration '' . North Carolina State Crime Laboratory . September 5 , 2014 . Retrieved January 10 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Walker , Robert E. ( 2013 ) . Cartridges and Firearm Identification . CRC Press . Retrieved July 3 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` INTERPOL Firearms Reference Table ( IFRT ) '' . INTERPOL . Retrieved January 12 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` NCIC Files '' . Federal Bureau of Investigation . Archived from the original on February 20 , 2016 . Retrieved January 12 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Utrata , Dave ; Johnson , Marcus ( October 2003 ) . `` Magnetic Particle Recovery of Serial Numbers '' . Midwest Forensics Resource Center . Retrieved July 4 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Iowa Division of Criminal Investigation Criminalistics Laboratory Firearm & Toolmark Section Restoration of Obliterated Serial Numbers '' . Iowa Division of Criminal Investigation . Retrieved July 2 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` Serial Number Restoration '' . Minnesota Bureau of Criminal Apprehension . Retrieved July 2 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` FEU08 -- SOP for Serial Number Restoration of Obliterated Stampings in Various Metal Surfaces '' ( PDF ) . District of Columbia Department of Forensic Sciences . November 26 , 2013 . p. 2 . Retrieved December 17 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : National Research Council ( 2009 ) . Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States : A Path Forward ( PDF ) . National Academies Press . ISBN 0 - 309 - 13131 - 6 . Retrieved June 12 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Randerson , James ( June 3 , 2008 ) . `` Forensics : Fingerprints can be recovered from fired bullet casings '' . The Guardian . Retrieved June 18 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Cracking the Case : The Crime - Solving Promise of Ballistic Identification ( PDF ) ( Report ) . The Education Fund to Stop Gun Violence . June 2004 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on April 14 , 2008 . Retrieved June 18 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Crime Gun Identification , Bill No. 1471 of 2007 . Retrieved on June 18 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Mather , Kate ( January 23 , 2014 ) . `` Smith & Wesson says it wo n't follow California ' microstamping ' law '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved June 18 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : DiMaio , Vincent J.M. ( 2016 ) . Gunshot Wounds : Practical Aspects of Firearms , Ballistics , and Forensic Techniques ( 3rd ed . ) . CRC Press . Retrieved June 4 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` Firearms & Tool Mark '' . North Carolina Department of Justice . Retrieved June 4 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` Firearms and Toolmarks in the FBI Laboratory '' . Forensic Science Communications . 2 ( 2 ) . April 2000 . Archived from the original on September 20 , 2015 . Retrieved June 5 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Fisher , Barry A.J. ; Tilstone , William J. ; Woytowicz , Catherine ( 2009 ) . Introduction to Criminalistics : The Foundation of Forensic Science . Elsevier Academic Press . p. 39 . Retrieved June 5 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Thomas , Dylan ( February 25 , 2016 ) . `` A high - tech approach to tracking gun crimes '' . Southwest Journal . Retrieved June 20 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Intelligence service links 350 guns to crimes '' . BBC News . January 11 , 2010 . Retrieved June 20 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Bullets , Casings , and You '' . Bureau of Alcohol , Tobacco , Firearms and Explosives . Retrieved June 21 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Gardner , Ross ( 2012 ) . Practical Crime Scene Processing and Investigation ( 2nd ed . ) . CRC Press . pp. 300 -- 301 . Retrieved May 28 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Lewinski , William ; Hudson , William ; Karwoski , David ; Redmann , Christa ( November 2010 ) . `` Fired Cartridge Case Ejection Patterns From Semi-Automatic Firearms '' ( PDF ) . Investigative Sciences Journal . 2 ( 3 ) . Retrieved May 28 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Solomon , John ( November 18 , 2007 ) . `` FBI 's Forensic Test Full of Holes '' . The Washington Post . Retrieved December 28 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Randich , Erik ; Duerfeldt , Wayne ; McLendon , Wade ; Tobin , William ( July 17 , 2002 ) . `` A Metallurgical Review of the Interpretation of Bullet Lead Compositional Analysis '' . Forensic Science International . 127 ( 3 ) : 174 -- 191 . doi : 10.1016 / S0379 - 0738 ( 02 ) 00118 - 4 . Jump up ^ `` FBI Laboratory Announces Discontinuation of Bullet Lead Examinations '' ( Press release ) . FBI National Press Office . September 1 , 2005 . Retrieved December 28 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Forensic Science in Criminal Courts : Ensuring Scientific Validity of Feature - Comparison Methods ( PDF ) ( Report ) . President 's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology . September 2016 . pp. 104 -- 114 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on January 12 , 2017 . Retrieved December 31 , 2016 . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Forensic_firearm_examination&oldid=835623412 '' Categories : Forensic techniques Hidden categories : Good articles Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2018 All articles containing potentially dated statements Talk Contents About Wikipedia हिन्दी Edit links This page was last edited on 9 April 2018 , at 20 : 15 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

when was the first documented case of tool mark identification

1835

Forensic firearm examination

2018 Australian Open -- men 's singles - wikipedia 2018 Australian Open -- men 's singles Jump to : navigation , search Men 's Singles 2018 Australian Open Champion Roger Federer Runner - up Marin Čilić Final score 6 -- 2 , 6 -- 7 , 6 -- 3 , 3 -- 6 , 6 -- 1 Details Draw 128 ( 16 Q / 8 WC ) Seeds 32 Events Singles men women boys girls Doubles men women mixed boys girls Legends men women mixed WC Singles men women quad WC Doubles men women quad ← 2017 Australian Open 2019 → Main article : 2018 Australian Open Roger Federer was the defending champion and successfully defended his title , defeating Marin Čilić in the final , 6 -- 2 , 6 -- 7 , 6 -- 3 , 3 -- 6 , 6 -- 1 . It was Federer 's 20th Grand Slam singles title and record - equalling sixth Australian Open men 's singles title ( tied with Roy Emerson and Novak Djokovic ) . With the win , Federer became the first male player to win at least six titles at two Grand Slam tournaments ( six at the Australian Open and eight at Wimbledon ) . Federer became the oldest man to win a Grand Slam singles title in the Open era since Ken Rosewall in 1972 . The time span between Federer 's first Grand slam glory at Wimbledon and this latest , almost 15 years , is an Open era record in the men 's singles field . This was also the 10th time that Federer has defended a Grand Slam title , with the previous time being at the 2008 US Open . Čilić became the first Croatian player to reach a singles final at the Australian Open . Federer and Rafael Nadal were in contention for the ATP no . 1 singles ranking at the start of the tournament . Nadal retained the top ranking by reaching the quarterfinals . This was the first time since the 2008 Wimbledon Championships that two unseeded players ( Chung Hyeon and Kyle Edmund ) reached the semifinals of the men 's singles event at a Grand Slam tournament , and the first time at the Australian Open since 1999 . Chung became the first South Korean player to reach the quarterfinals and semifinals of a Grand Slam event . Djokovic 's fourth - round loss to Chung was his first straight - sets loss at the Australian Open since 2007 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Seeds 2 Qualifying 3 Wildcards 4 Draw 4.1 Key 4.2 Finals 4.3 Top half 4.3. 1 Section 1 4.3. 2 Section 2 4.3. 3 Section 3 4.3. 4 Section 4 4.4 Bottom half 4.4. 1 Section 5 4.4. 2 Section 6 4.4. 3 Section 7 4.4. 4 Section 8 5 References Seeds ( edit ) 01 . Rafael Nadal ( Quarterfinals , retired ) 02 . Roger Federer ( Champion ) 03 . Grigor Dimitrov ( Quarterfinals ) 04 . Alexander Zverev ( Third round ) 05 . Dominic Thiem ( Fourth round ) 06 . Marin Čilić ( Final ) 07 . David Goffin ( Second round ) 08 . Jack Sock ( First round ) 09 . Stan Wawrinka ( Second round ) 10 . Pablo Carreño Busta ( Fourth round ) 11 . Kevin Anderson ( First round ) 12 . Juan Martín del Potro ( Third round ) 13 . Sam Querrey ( Second round ) 14 . Novak Djokovic ( Fourth round ) 15 . Jo - Wilfried Tsonga ( Third round ) 16 . John Isner ( First round ) 17 . Nick Kyrgios ( Fourth round ) 18 . Lucas Pouille ( First round ) 19 . Tomáš Berdych ( Quarterfinals ) 20 . Roberto Bautista Agut ( First round ) 21 . Albert Ramos - Viñolas ( Third round ) 22 . Milos Raonic ( First round ) 23 . Gilles Müller ( Third round ) 24 . Diego Schwartzman ( Fourth round ) 25 . Fabio Fognini ( Fourth round ) 26 . Adrian Mannarino ( Third round ) 27 . Philipp Kohlschreiber ( First round ) 28 . Damir Džumhur ( Third round ) 29 . Richard Gasquet ( Third round ) 30 . Andrey Rublev ( Third round ) 31 . Pablo Cuevas ( Second round ) 32 . Mischa Zverev ( First round , retired ) Click on the seed number of a player to go to their draw section . Qualifying ( edit ) Main article : 2018 Australian Open -- Men 's Singles Qualifying Wildcards ( edit ) Main article : 2018 Australian Open -- Main Draw Wildcard Entries Draw ( edit ) Key ( edit ) Q = Qualifier WC = Wild Card LL = Lucky Loser Alt = Alternate SE = Special Exempt PR = Protected Ranking w / o = Walkover r = Retired d = Defaulted Finals ( edit ) Quarterfinals Semifinals Final Rafael Nadal 6 7 0 6 Marin Čilić 6 6 6 6 Marin Čilić 6 7 6 Kyle Edmund 6 Grigor Dimitrov 6 Kyle Edmund 6 6 6 6 Marin Čilić 7 6 Roger Federer 6 6 6 6 Tennys Sandgren 6 Chung Hyeon 6 7 6 Chung Hyeon Roger Federer 6 5 19 Tomáš Berdych 6 Roger Federer 7 6 6 Top half ( edit ) Section 1 ( edit ) First Round Second Round Third Round Fourth Round R Nadal 6 6 6 V Estrella Burgos R Nadal 6 6 7 N Jarry 6 L Mayer 6 L Mayer 6 7 6 R Nadal 6 6 6 PR J Millman 7 6 6 28 D Džumhur B Ćorić 5 PR J Millman 5 6 P Lorenzi 6 6 6 28 D Džumhur 7 6 6 28 D Džumhur 7 6 6 R Nadal 6 6 6 6 24 D Schwartzman 6 5 6 11 24 D Schwartzman 7 D Lajović 6 7 9 24 D Schwartzman 6 6 6 Q C Ruud 6 6 7 11 Q C Ruud Q Q Halys 6 7 5 9 24 D Schwartzman 6 6 6 6 A Dolgopolov 7 6 6 A Dolgopolov 7 PR A Haider - Maurer 6 A Dolgopolov 7 6 6 M Ebden 6 6 6 M Ebden 6 16 J Isner 6 Section 2 ( edit ) First Round Second Round Third Round Fourth Round 10 P Carreño Busta 7 7 6 WC J Kubler 5 6 5 10 P Carreño Busta 6 G Simon 7 6 6 G Simon 0 M Copil 5 10 P Carreño Busta 7 7 7 Q S Caruso 7 6 5 23 G Müller 6 6 5 5 M Jaziri 6 6 7 6 M Jaziri 5 7 6 F Delbonis 5 23 G Müller 7 6 6 6 23 G Müller 7 6 6 10 P Carreño Busta 7 6 6 31 P Cuevas 7 6 7 6 M Čilić 6 6 7 7 M Youzhny 6 5 31 P Cuevas 6 D Sela 7 6 5 R Harrison 6 7 6 R Harrison 6 5 7 6 R Harrison 6 6 Q D Brown 6 7 6 M Čilić 7 6 7 J Sousa 6 6 6 6 J Sousa 5 Q V Pospisil 6 6 6 M Čilić 6 7 6 6 M Čilić 6 6 7 Section 3 ( edit ) First Round Second Round Third Round Fourth Round G Dimitrov 6 6 6 Q D Novak G Dimitrov 6 6 0 8 Q M McDonald 6 6 6 Q M McDonald 6 6 6 Q E Ymer 6 G Dimitrov 6 6 6 M Baghdatis 7 6 6 30 A Rublev 6 Q Y Bhambri 6 M Baghdatis 7 D Ferrer 5 7 7 30 A Rublev 6 6 6 6 30 A Rublev 7 6 6 6 6 G Dimitrov 7 7 7 17 N Kyrgios 6 6 6 17 N Kyrgios 6 6 6 6 R Dutra Silva 17 N Kyrgios 7 6 7 V Troicki 6 6 6 6 V Troicki 5 6 WC A Bolt 7 6 17 N Kyrgios 7 7 7 S Tsitsipas 6 15 J-W Tsonga 6 6 6 6 D Shapovalov 6 6 7 D Shapovalov 6 6 6 5 Q K King 15 J-W Tsonga 6 7 7 15 J-W Tsonga 6 6 6 Section 4 ( edit ) First Round Second Round Third Round Fourth Round 11 K Anderson 7 6 K Edmund 6 6 6 6 K Edmund 6 6 6 P-H Herbert 7 6 D Istomin D Istomin 6 6 5 7 K Edmund 7 6 7 G Melzer 6 N Basilashvili 6 6 6 0 5 N Basilashvili 6 6 6 N Basilashvili 7 6 6 Q R Bemelmans 6 6 6 7 Q R Bemelmans 5 18 L Pouille 7 6 K Edmund 6 7 6 6 27 P Kohlschreiber 6 0 6 A Seppi 7 5 PR Y Nishioka 6 6 6 PR Y Nishioka A Seppi 6 6 6 A Seppi 6 6 6 WC C Moutet 6 A Seppi 6 7 6 6 9 I Karlović 7 6 7 I Karlović 6 7 7 7 L Đere 6 6 I Karlović 7 6 7 12 Y Sugita 6 7 5 6 Y Sugita 6 7 5 6 10 8 J Sock 6 7 Bottom half ( edit ) Section 5 ( edit ) First Round Second Round Third Round Fourth Round 5 D Thiem 6 6 6 G Pella 5 D Thiem 6 6 6 6 S Johnson 7 6 Q D Kudla 7 6 Q D Kudla 6 6 7 6 5 D Thiem 6 6 7 Q V Šafránek 26 A Mannarino 5 J Veselý 6 6 6 J Veselý 6 7 LL M Berrettini 26 A Mannarino 6 7 5 6 26 A Mannarino 6 6 6 5 D Thiem 6 6 7 20 R Bautista Agut 5 5 T Sandgren 6 7 6 6 F Verdasco 6 7 7 F Verdasco 6 6 6 C-M Stebe 0 M Marterer 6 7 6 M Marterer 6 6 6 M Marterer 7 5 6 J Chardy 6 T Sandgren 5 6 7 7 T Sandgren 6 7 6 T Sandgren 6 6 6 PR R Berankis 6 6 9 S Wawrinka 9 S Wawrinka 6 6 7 Section 6 ( edit ) First Round Second Round Third Round Fourth Round 14 N Djokovic 6 6 6 D Young 14 N Djokovic 6 6 6 G Monfils 6 7 6 G Monfils 6 Q J Munar 6 14 N Djokovic 6 6 6 WC T Smyczek 6 6 6 6 21 A Ramos Viñolas WC A Popyrin 7 WC T Smyczek 6 J Donaldson 21 A Ramos Viñolas 6 6 7 21 A Ramos Viñolas 6 6 6 14 N Djokovic 6 5 6 32 M Zverev H Chung 7 7 7 H Chung 6 H Chung 7 6 6 WC T Kokkinakis 7 6 D Medvedev 6 D Medvedev 6 6 7 6 H Chung 5 7 6 6 M Kukushkin A Zverev 7 6 6 0 P Gojowczyk 6 6 6 P Gojowczyk 6 T Fabbiano 6 5 A Zverev 6 6 6 A Zverev 6 7 7 Section 7 ( edit ) First Round Second Round Third Round Fourth Round 7 D Goffin 6 6 6 6 Q M Bachinger 7 7 D Goffin 6 6 6 J Benneteau 6 7 6 6 J Benneteau 7 6 7 T Daniel 7 6 J Benneteau 6 6 E Donskoy 6 6 6 25 F Fognini 6 6 6 F Mayer E Donskoy 6 H Zeballos 5 25 F Fognini 6 6 6 25 F Fognini 6 6 7 25 F Fognini 19 T Berdych 6 6 6 19 T Berdych 6 6 6 WC A de Minaur 6 0 19 T Berdych 6 6 6 G García López 6 6 6 6 G García López 6 B Paire 0 7 19 T Berdych 6 6 6 K Khachanov 7 7 6 12 JM del Potro LL P Polansky 6 6 K Khachanov 6 7 F Tiafoe 12 JM del Potro 6 7 6 6 12 JM del Potro 6 6 6 Section 8 ( edit ) First Round Second Round Third Round Fourth Round 13 S Querrey 6 6 6 F López 13 S Querrey 6 6 R Albot 6 5 M Fucsovics 6 7 6 M Fucsovics 6 6 7 M Fucsovics 6 6 6 N Kicker 6 6 6 N Kicker J Thompson 6 6 N Kicker 6 7 7 L Lacko 6 7 6 7 L Lacko 5 6 5 22 M Raonic 7 5 6 M Fucsovics 6 29 R Gasquet 6 6 7 R Federer 6 7 6 B Kavčič 5 29 R Gasquet 6 6 6 Q L Sonego 6 7 6 7 Q L Sonego R Haase 5 7 5 29 R Gasquet 5 WC S-w Kwon R Federer 6 7 6 J-L Struff 6 6 6 J-L Struff 6 A Bedene R Federer 6 6 7 R Federer 6 6 6 References ( edit ) General Draw Specific Jump up ^ `` Roger Federer wins sixth Australian Open and 20th Grand Slam title '' . BBC Sport. 28 January 2018 . Retrieved 7 February 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Federer wins record 20th Grand Slam title with five - set win over Cilic '' . tennis.com. 28 January 2018 . Retrieved 28 January 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Roger Federer wins Australian Open and 20th major after beating Marin Cilic '' . CNN.com. 29 January 2018 . Retrieved 7 February 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Roger Federer beats Marin Cilic to win Australian Open 2018 men 's singles final -- as it happened '' . Guardian . 28 January 2018 . Retrieved 7 February 2018 . Jump up ^ `` From Milan To Melbourne , Chung Keeps Surging '' . atpworldtour.com. 24 January 2018 . Retrieved 24 January 2018 . Jump up ^ Ryan , Peter ( 2018 - 01 - 23 ) . `` Hyeon Chung takes South Korean tennis to the world '' . The Sydney Morning Herald . Retrieved 2018 - 01 - 24 . Jump up ^ `` Five takeaways from Hyeon Chung 's Aussie Open win over Novak Djokovic '' . Tennis.com. 22 January 2018 . Retrieved 23 January 2018 . Australian Open ( Open Era ) singles drawsheets Men 's singles 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1976 1977 Jan Dec 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1984 1985 1986 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 Women 's singles 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1976 1977 Jan Dec 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1984 1985 1986 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 Australian Open men 's singles drawsheets Pre-Open era 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 -- 1918 ( WWI ) 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940 1941 -- 1945 ( WWII ) 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 Open era 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1976 1977 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1984 1985 1986 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 Australian Open men 's singles champions ( 1969 ) Rod Laver ( 1970 ) Arthur Ashe ( 1971 ) Ken Rosewall ( 1972 ) Ken Rosewall ( 1973 ) John Newcombe ( 1974 ) Jimmy Connors ( 1975 ) John Newcombe ( 1976 ) Mark Edmondson ( 1977 ( Jan ) ) Roscoe Tanner ( 1977 ( Dec ) ) Vitas Gerulaitis ( 1978 ) Guillermo Vilas ( 1979 ) Guillermo Vilas ( 1980 ) Brian Teacher ( 1981 ) Johan Kriek ( 1982 ) Johan Kriek ( 1983 ) Mats Wilander ( 1984 ) Mats Wilander ( 1985 ) Stefan Edberg ( 1986 ) Not Held ( 1987 ) Stefan Edberg ( 1988 ) Mats Wilander ( 1989 ) Ivan Lendl ( 1990 ) Ivan Lendl ( 1991 ) Boris Becker ( 1992 ) Jim Courier ( 1993 ) Jim Courier ( 1994 ) Pete Sampras ( 1995 ) Andre Agassi ( 1996 ) Boris Becker ( 1997 ) Pete Sampras ( 1998 ) Petr Korda ( 1999 ) Yevgeny Kafelnikov ( 2000 ) Andre Agassi ( 2001 ) Andre Agassi ( 2002 ) Thomas Johansson ( 2003 ) Andre Agassi ( 2004 ) Roger Federer ( 2005 ) Marat Safin ( 2006 ) Roger Federer ( 2007 ) Roger Federer ( 2008 ) Novak Djokovic ( 2009 ) Rafael Nadal ( 2010 ) Roger Federer ( 2011 ) Novak Djokovic ( 2012 ) Novak Djokovic ( 2013 ) Novak Djokovic ( 2014 ) Stanislas Wawrinka ( 2015 ) Novak Djokovic ( 2016 ) Novak Djokovic ( 2017 ) Roger Federer ( 2018 ) Roger Federer 2018 ATP World Tour `` 2017 2019 '' Grand Slam events Australian Open ( S , D , X ) French Open ( S , D , X ) Wimbledon ( S , D , X ) US Open ( S , D , X ) ATP World Tour Masters 1000 Indian Wells ( S , D ) Miami ( S , D ) Monte Carlo ( S , D ) Madrid ( S , D ) Rome ( S , D ) Montreal ( S , D ) Cincinnati ( S , D ) Shanghai ( S , D ) Paris ( S , D ) ATP World Tour 500 series Rotterdam ( S , D ) Rio de Janeiro ( S , D ) Dubai ( S , D ) Acapulco ( S , D ) Barcelona ( S , D ) London ( S , D ) Halle ( S , D ) Hamburg ( S , D ) Washington D.C. ( S , D ) Beijing ( S , D ) Tokyo ( S , D ) Vienna ( S , D ) Basel ( S , D ) ATP World Tour 250 series Brisbane ( S , D ) Doha ( S , D ) Pune ( S , D ) Auckland ( S , D ) Sydney ( S , D ) Montpellier ( S , D ) Sofia ( S , D ) Quito ( S , D ) Buenos Aires ( S , D ) Uniondale ( S , D ) Delray Beach ( S , D ) Marseille ( S , D ) São Paulo ( S , D ) Houston ( S , D ) Marrakesh ( S , D ) Budapest ( S , D ) Estoril ( S , D ) Istanbul ( S , D ) Munich ( S , D ) Geneva ( S , D ) Lyon ( S , D ) ' s - Hertogenbosch ( S , D ) Stuttgart ( S , D ) Antalya ( S , D ) Eastbourne ( S , D ) Båstad ( S , D ) Newport ( S , D ) Umag ( S , D ) Atlanta ( S , D ) Gstaad ( S , D ) Kitzbühel ( S , D ) Los Cabos ( S , D ) Winston - Salem ( S , D ) Metz ( S , D ) St. Petersburg ( S , D ) Chengdu ( S , D ) Shenzhen ( S , D ) Antwerp ( S , D ) Moscow ( S , D ) Stockholm ( S , D ) Team events Davis Cup ( World Group + Play - offs Americas Asia / Oceania Europe / Africa ) ATP Finals , London ( S , D ) Next Generation ATP Finals , Milan Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=2018_Australian_Open_ -- _Men % 27s_Singles&oldid = 833748370 '' Categories : 2018 Australian Open Australian Open ( tennis ) by year -- Men 's Singles 2018 ATP World Tour Hidden categories : Pages using div col without cols and colwidth parameters Pages using Columns - list with deprecated parameters Talk Contents About Wikipedia Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español Français Italiano Magyar Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Polski Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Suomi Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 11 more Edit links This page was last edited on 2 April 2018 , at 06 : 44 . 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who has won the mens singles title in the australian open tennis tournament

Roger Federer

Roger Federer

FIFA World rankings - wikipedia FIFA World rankings This is the latest accepted revision , reviewed on 25 October 2017 . Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the men 's rankings . For the women 's rankings , see FIFA Women 's World Rankings . Top 20 rankings as of 16 October 2017 Rank Change Team Points Germany 1631 Brazil 1619 Portugal 1446 Argentina 1445 5 Belgium 1333 6 Poland 1323 7 France 1226 8 Spain 1218 9 Chile 1173 10 Peru 1160 11 Switzerland 1134 12 England 1116 13 Colombia 1095 14 Wales 1072 15 Italy 1066 16 Mexico 1060 17 Uruguay 1034 18 Croatia 1013 19 7 Denmark 1001 20 9 Netherlands 931 * Change from 14 September 2017 Complete rankings at FIFA.com The FIFA World Ranking is a ranking system for men 's national teams in association football , currently led by Germany . The teams of the member nations of FIFA , football 's world governing body , are ranked based on their game results with the most successful teams being ranked highest . The rankings were introduced in December 1992 , and eight teams ( Argentina , Belgium , Brazil , France , Germany , Italy , the Netherlands and Spain ) have held the top position , of which Brazil have spent longest ranked first . A points system is used , with points being awarded based on the results of all FIFA - recognised full international matches . Under the existing system , rankings are based on a team 's performance over the last four years , with more recent results and more significant matches being more heavily weighted to help reflect the current competitive state of a team . The ranking system was most recently revamped after the 2006 World Cup , with the first edition of the new series of rankings issued on 12 July 2006 . The most significant change is that the rankings are now based on results over the previous four years instead of the previous eight years . The change is perceived to respond to criticisms that the FIFA World Rankings , based upon the previous calculation method in use from January 1999 to June 2006 , did not effectively reflect the relative strengths of the national teams . Alternative systems have been devised , such as the World Football Elo Ratings , based on the Elo rating system used in chess and Go , ranking teams . In September 2017 , FIFA announced they were reviewing the ranking system and will decide after the end of the 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification if any changes are to be made to improve the ranking . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 1.1 1993 -- 1998 calculation method 1.2 1999 ranking system update 1.3 1999 -- 2006 calculation method 1.4 2006 ranking system update 2 Rank leaders 3 Uses of the rankings 4 Criticism 5 Current calculation method 5.1 International `` A '' matches 5.2 Win , draw or defeat 5.3 Match status 5.4 Opponent strength 5.5 Regional strength 5.6 Assessment period 5.7 Ranking formula 5.8 Examples 6 Awards 6.1 Team of the Year 6.1. 1 Performances by countries 6.2 Best Mover of the Year 7 Ranking schedule 8 See also 9 Notes and references 10 External links History ( edit ) In December 1992 , FIFA first published a listing in rank order of its member associations to provide a basis for comparison of the relative strengths of these teams . From the following August , this list was more frequently updated , to be published most months . Significant changes were implemented in January 1999 and again in July 2006 , as a reaction to criticisms of the system . Historical records of the rankings , such as listed at FIFA.com , reflect the method of calculation in use at the time , as the current method has not been applied retrospectively to rankings prior to July 2006 . Membership of FIFA has expanded from 167 to 209 since the rankings began ; all 209 members are currently included in the rankings . 1993 -- 1998 calculation method ( edit ) The ranking formula used from August 1993 until December 1998 was very simplistic and quickly became noticed for its lack of supporting factors . When the rankings were initially introduced , a team received one point for a draw or three for a victory in FIFA - recognised matches -- much the same as a traditional league scoring system . This was a quite simplistic approach , however , and FIFA quickly realised that there were many factors affecting international matches . 1999 ranking system update ( edit ) In order to meet the objective of fairly and accurately comparing the relative strengths of various national sides , the system was updated in 1999 . The major changes were as follows : the point ranking was scaled up by a factor of ten the method of calculation was changed to take into account factors including : the number of goals scored or conceded whether the match was played at home or away the importance of a match or competition regional strength a fixed number of points were no longer necessarily awarded for a victory or a draw match losers were able to earn points Two new awards were introduced as part of the system : Team of the Year Best Mover of the Year The changes made the ranking system more complex , but helped improve its accuracy by making it more comprehensive . 1999 -- 2006 calculation method ( edit ) Main article : FIFA World Ranking system ( 1999 -- 2006 ) In January 1999 , FIFA introduced a revised system of ranking calculation , incorporating many changes in response to criticism of inappropriate rankings . For the ranking all matches , their scores and importance were all recorded , and were used in the calculation procedure . Only matches for the senior men 's national team were included . Separate ranking systems were used for other representative national sides such as women 's and junior teams , for example the FIFA Women 's World Rankings . The women 's rankings were , and still are , based on a procedure which is a simplified version of the Football Elo Ratings . 2006 ranking system update ( edit ) FIFA announced that the ranking system would be updated following the 2006 World Cup . The evaluation period was cut from eight to four years , and a simpler method of calculation is now used to determine rankings . Goals scored and home or away advantage are no longer taken into account , and other aspects of the calculations , including the importance attributed to different types of match , have been revised . The first set of revised rankings and the calculation methodology were announced on 12 July 2006 . This change is rooted at least in part in widespread criticism of the previous ranking system . Many football enthusiasts felt it was inaccurate , especially when compared to other ranking systems and that it was not sufficiently responsive to changes in the performance of individual teams . Rank leaders ( edit ) FIFA World Ranking Leaders When the system was introduced , Germany débuted as the top - ranked team following their extended period of dominance in which they had reached the three previous FIFA World Cup finals , winning one of them . Brazil took the lead in the run up to the 1994 FIFA World Cup after winning eight and losing only one of nine qualification matches , while on the way scoring twenty goals and conceding just four . Italy then led for a short time on the back of their own equally successful World Cup qualifying campaign , after which the top place was re-claimed by Germany . Brazil 's success in their lengthy qualifying campaign returned them to the lead for a brief period . Germany led again during the 1994 World Cup , until Brazil 's victory in that competition gave them a large lead that would stand up for nearly seven years , until they were surpassed by a strong France team that captured both the 1998 FIFA World Cup and the 2000 European Football Championship . Success at the 2002 FIFA World Cup restored Brazil to the top position , where they remained until February 2007 , when Italy returned to the top for the first time since 1993 following their 2006 FIFA World Cup win in Germany . Just one month later , Argentina replaced them , reaching the top for the first time , but Italy regained its place in April . After winning the Copa América 2007 in July , Brazil returned to the top , but were replaced by Italy in September and then Argentina in October . In July 2008 , Spain took over the lead for the first time , having won UEFA Euro 2008 . Brazil began a sixth stint at the top of the rankings in July 2009 after winning the 2009 Confederations Cup , and Spain regained the title in November 2009 after winning every match in qualification for the 2010 FIFA World Cup . In April 2010 , Brazil returned to the top of the table . After winning the 2010 World Cup , Spain regained the top position and held it until August 2011 , when The Netherlands reached the top spot for the first time , only to relinquish it the following month . In July 2014 , Germany took over the lead once again , having won the 2014 FIFA World Cup . In July 2015 , Argentina reached the top spot for the first time since 2008 , after reaching both the 2014 FIFA World Cup Final , as well as the 2015 Copa America Final . In November 2015 , Belgium became the leader in the FIFA rankings for the first time , after topping their Euro 2016 qualifying group . Belgium led the rankings until April 2016 , when Argentina returned to the top . On April 6 , 2017 , Brazil returned to the No. 1 spot for the first time since just prior to the 2010 World Cup , but Germany regained the top spot in July after winning the Confederations Cup . Uses of the rankings ( edit ) The rankings are used by FIFA to rank the progression and current ability of the national football teams of its member nations , and claims that they create `` a reliable measure for comparing national A-teams '' . They are used as part of the calculation , or the entire grounds to seed competitions . In the 2010 FIFA World Cup qualification tournament , the rankings were used to seed the groups in the competitions involving CONCACAF members ( using the May rankings ) , CAF ( with the July set of data ) , and UEFA , using the specially postponed November 2007 ranking positions . The October 2009 ranking was used to determine the seeds for the 2010 FIFA World Cup final draw . The March 2011 ranking was used to seed the draw for the 2012 CAF Men 's Pre-Olympic Tournament second qualifying round . The rankings are also used to determine the winners of the two annual awards national teams receive on the basis of their performance in the rankings . Criticism ( edit ) Since their introduction in 1992 , the FIFA World Rankings have been the subject of much debate , particularly regarding the calculation procedure and the resulting disparity between generally perceived quality and world ranking of some teams . For example , Norway was ranked second in October 1993 and July -- August 1995 , and the United States reached fourth in 2006 , to the surprise of even their own players . However , criticism regarding the unrealistic ranking continued even after the introduction of the new formula . Israel 's climb to 15th in November 2008 raised a few eyebrows even in the Israeli press , with the team missing a huge opportunity to break into the top 10 after conceding a last gasp equaliser against Latvia . Similarly , Belgium 's rank of world number 1 in November 2015 was met with skepticism in the press , given that Belgium had only played in one tournament final stage in the past 13 years . Prior to July 2006 , one of the main criticisms was that the rankings considered the performances of teams over an eight - year period , and that teams ' ranking positions did not correlate to their recent performances . This criticism has lessened somewhat with the introduction of a new formula , reflecting results over a four - year period , introduced in July 2006 . However , problems remain , particularly that hosts of some major tournaments do not take part in qualifying rounds , and instead participate only in friendlies which offer fewer points . This has been a factor which has resulted in 2014 World Cup hosts Brazil falling to a record low ranking of 22nd in the world . The perceived flaws in the FIFA system have led to the creation of a number of alternative rankings from football statisticians , including the World Football Elo Ratings and the rec. sport. soccer Statistics Foundation rankings . The current system has been criticised for being open to abuse . National teams can maintain a higher average score by playing fewer friendly matches , particularly against weaker opponents . For example , Switzerland were seeded for the 2014 World Cup draw , largely thanks to only playing three friendly matches in the previous year . Switzerland would have reduced their rating if they had played any more friendlies , as their average score was greater than the maximum possible score from winning a friendly match against the top - ranked nation . Romania were one of the surprise seeds for the 2018 World Cup preliminary draw after taking advice from a consultant and playing only one friendly in the year before the draw . Lastly , the use of regional strength multiplier in the ranking determination formula has been accused of further reinforcing and perpetuating the bias for and against certain regions . FIFA 's use of regional multiplier has been cited as a primary reason why most teams in AFC and CONCACAF have significantly lower FIFA rankings compared to their Elo rating based rankings . Current calculation method ( edit ) After the 2006 FIFA World Cup , a revised calculation procedure for the FIFA rankings was introduced , with a significantly simplified procedure . The new rankings were compiled in response to criticism from the media . Meetings were attended by FIFA staff and external experts and a large amount of research was conducted by this group , resulting in the new ranking system . The new system was confirmed in Leipzig on 7 December 2005 by a committee of FIFA executives . Notable changes include the dropping of the home or away advantage and number of goals from the calculation , and the simplification of many aspects of the system . The system , like the previous ones , is extremely similar to that of a league , though with changes made to ensure that it is still representative of the teams ' performance despite playing differing numbers of matches per annum , and the differing strength of opposition that teams have to face . The factors taken into account are as follows : Match result Match status Opposition strength Regional strength Teams ' actual scores are a result of the average points gained over each calendar year ; matches from the previous four years are considered , with more weight being given to recent ones . International `` a '' matches ( edit ) In October 2012 , FIFA released a press circular defining what is considered to be an international `` A '' match . For the purposes of the ranking , FIFA defines an international `` A '' match as a match between two FIFA members for which both members field their first representative team ( `` A '' team ) . The FIFA / Coca - Cola World Ranking is based on a list of all international `` A '' matches that are recognised by FIFA . International `` A '' matches include matches played as part of the FIFA World Cup , FIFA World Cup qualifiers , FIFA Confederations Cup , continental final tournaments , continental qualifying competitions and international friendlies . -- Jérôme Valcke , FIFA.com Win , draw or defeat ( edit ) In previous years a complicated system of points allocation was used , depending on how strong the opponent was , and how large the loss margin , which allowed weaker losing teams to gain points when playing a much stronger opposition , if they managed to put up a decent match . With the new system , the points allocation is simpler : three points for a win , one point for a draw , and zero points for a loss , in line with most league systems around the world . In the event of a match being decided by a penalty shootout , the winning team receives two points , and the losing team one point . Result Points Win ( no penalty shootout ) Win ( penalty shootout ) Draw Loss ( penalty shootout ) Loss ( no penalty shootout ) 0 Until November 2012 , in two - legged play - offs , if Team A lost the first leg 2 -- 0 , then matched the result in the return leg and won after a penalty shootout , it received two points . However , if Team A won the return leg by one goal only , being eliminated in the process , it received 3 points . FIFA fixed this flaw starting with the November 2012 ranking . Match status ( edit ) Different matches have different importance to teams , and FIFA has tried to respect this by using a weighting system , where the most significant matches are in the World Cup finals , and the lowest weighted are friendly matches . FIFA states that it wishes to recognise that friendlies are still important , since they make up half of the competitive matches counted in the rankings . FIFA also stated , however , that it did not plan to make any adjustment for teams that qualify directly for major tournaments . The match status multipliers are as follows : Match status Multiplier Friendly match x 1.0 FIFA World Cup and Continental cup qualifiers x 2.5 Continental cup and Confederations Cup finals x 3.0 World Cup finals match x 4.0 Opponent strength ( edit ) A win against a very highly ranked opponent is a considerably greater achievement than a win against a low - rated opponent , thus the strength of the opposing team is an important factor . The new system uses an opposition strength factor based on team rankings . The previous system was based on points difference . The formula used is : Opposition strength multiplier = ( 200 − ranking position ) / 100 ( \ displaystyle ( \ text ( Opposition strength multiplier ) ) = ( ( 200 - ( \ text ( ranking position ) ) ) / 100 ) ) with the exceptions that the team ranked # 1 is given a multiplier of 2 , and teams ranked 150th and below are assigned the minimum multiplier of 0.5 . The ranking position is taken from the opposition 's ranking in the most recently published FIFA World Ranking before the match is included in the ranking calculation . The rankings published before July 2006 are purely historical and are not used for the new ranking calculation . Instead , FIFA went back as far as 1996 to apply the new formula and is using those new rankings for the current calculations . See the detailed break - down of point totals for teams from the top 20 in the October 2007 rankings . Regional strength ( edit ) In addition to the opposition strength multiplier , FIFA considers the relative strength of entire confederations in the calculation . Each confederation is assigned a weighting between 0.85 and 1.0 , based on the relative performance of the confederations in the last three World Cups . Their values are as follows : Confederation After 2014 World Cup After 2010 World Cup After 2006 World Cup Up to and including 2006 World Cup UEFA ( Europe ) 0.99 1.00 1.00 1.00 CONMEBOL ( South America ) 1.00 1.00 0.98 1.00 CONCACAF ( North and Central America and Caribbean ) 0.85 0.88 0.85 0.88 AFC ( Asia ) 0.85 0.86 0.85 0.85 CAF ( Africa ) 0.85 0.86 0.85 0.85 OFC ( Oceania ) 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 The multiplier used in the calculation is the average of the regional strength weighting of the two teams : Regional strength multiplier = Team 1 regional weighting + Team 2 regional weighting 2 ( \ displaystyle ( \ text ( Regional strength multiplier ) ) = ( \ frac ( ( \ text ( Team 1 regional weighting ) ) + ( \ text ( Team 2 regional weighting ) ) ) ( 2 ) ) ) FIFA changed the formula used to compute the confederation weightings after the 2010 FIFA World Cup without public announcement . Without this modification , UEFA 's multiplier would have dropped for the first time below 1 , with CONMEBOL remaining the only confederation with a multiplier of 1 . The confederation weighting for AFC was increased in August 2011 from 0.85 to 0.86 after a computer programmer found an error in FIFA 's calculations . Assessment period ( edit ) Matches played over the last four years ( 48 months ) are included in the calculation , but there is a weighting to put more emphasis on recent results . Previously an eight - year period was used . The date weighting is as follows : Date of match Multiplier Within the last 12 months × 1.0 12 -- 24 months ago × 0.5 24 -- 36 months ago × 0.3 36 -- 48 months ago × 0.2 If a team exceeds the assessment period without playing a match , it is temporarily removed from the rankings , and is reinstated as soon as it plays a match again . The most recent team to be temporarily absent from the rankings is São Tomé and Príncipe ( reinstated in November 2011 , after having been removed in December 2007 ) . Ranking formula ( edit ) The final ranking points figure for a single match is multiplied by 100 and rounded to the nearest whole number . Ranking points = Result points × Match status × Opposition strength × Regional strength ( \ displaystyle ( \ text ( Ranking points ) ) = ( \ text ( Result points ) ) \ times ( \ text ( Match status ) ) \ times ( \ text ( Opposition strength ) ) \ times ( \ text ( Regional strength ) ) ) Results for all matches played in the year are averaged together ( assuming at least five matches have been played ) . The average ranking points for the four previous years , weighted by their multiplier mentioned above , are added together to arrive at the final ranking points . Examples ( edit ) The following examples use these hypothetical teams and confederations , and assume the games are played within the last 12 months : Amplistan is currently ranked 2nd in the world and is a member of confederation XYZ ( weighting 1.0 ) ; Bestrudia is currently ranked 188th in the world and is a member of confederation ABC ( weighting 0.88 ) ; Conesto is currently ranked 39th in the world and is a member of confederation QRS ( weighting 0.98 ) ; Delphiz is currently ranked 30th in the world and is a member of confederation HIJ ( weighting 0.94 ) . A friendly match is played between Amplistan and Bestrudia . Amplistan wins 2 -- 1 . Match Team Result points Match status Opposition strength Regional strength Ranking points Amplistan vs. Bestrudia ( friendly ) Result : 2 -- 1 Amplistan Bestrudia 0 1.0 1.0 0.50 1.98 0.94 0.94 141 0 Bestrudia gets no ranking points because it lost the game , so all factors are multiplied by zero . Amplistan 's 141 ranking points are calculated like this : 3 points for the win ; multiplied by 1.0 for match status ( friendly match ) ; multiplied by 0.50 for opposition strength ( Bestrudia is ranked 188th , so it has the minimum 0.50 weighting ) ; multiplied by 0.94 for regional strength ( the average of the weightings for the two teams ' confederations ) ; multiplied by 100 . More examples : Match Team Result points Match status Opposition strength Regional strength Ranking points Amplistan vs. Bestrudia ( friendly ) Result : 1 -- 2 Amplistan Bestrudia 0 1.0 1.0 0.50 1.98 0.94 0.94 0 558 Amplistan vs. Bestrudia ( friendly ) Result : 1 -- 1 Amplistan Bestrudia 1.0 1.0 0.50 1.98 0.94 0.94 47 186 Amplistan vs. Bestrudia ( World Cup finals ) Result : 2 -- 1 Amplistan Bestrudia 0 4.0 4.0 0.50 1.98 0.94 0.94 564 0 Amplistan vs. Bestrudia ( World Cup finals ) Result : 1 -- 1 ( Bestrudia wins on penalties ) Amplistan Bestrudia 4.0 4.0 0.50 1.98 0.94 0.94 188 1488 Amplistan vs. Conesto ( friendly ) Result : 1 -- 2 Amplistan Conesto 0 1.0 1.0 1.61 1.98 0.99 0.99 0 588 Conesto vs. Delphiz ( Continental cup qualifiers ) Result : 4 -- 0 Conesto Delphiz 0 2.5 2.5 1.70 1.61 0.96 0.96 1224 0 Conesto vs. Delphiz ( Continental cup qualifiers ) Result : 0 -- 1 Conesto Delphiz 0 2.5 2.5 1.70 1.61 0.96 0.96 0 1159 Conesto vs. Amplistan ( World Cup finals ) Result : 0 -- 0 ( Amplistan wins on penalties ) Conesto Amplistan 4.0 4.0 1.98 1.61 0.99 0.99 784 1275 Conesto gets more points than Bestrudia for defeating the same team ( Amplistan ) because of the higher weighting of its confederation . Awards ( edit ) Each year FIFA hands out two awards to its member nations , based on their performance in the rankings . They are : Team of the Year ( edit ) Team of the Year is awarded to the team that finishes top of the FIFA World Ranking . Argentina are the Team of the Year for the second time in the 23 - year history of the rankings . Brazil hold the records for most consecutive wins ( seven , between 1994 and 2000 ) and most wins overall ( twelve ) . The table below shows the three best teams of each year . Year First place Second place Third place 1993 Germany Italy Brazil 1994 Brazil Spain Sweden 1995 Brazil Germany Italy Brazil Germany France 1997 Brazil Germany Czech Republic 1998 Brazil France Germany 1999 Brazil Czech Republic France 2000 Brazil France Argentina 2001 France Argentina Brazil 2002 Brazil France Spain 2003 Brazil France Spain Brazil France Argentina 2005 Brazil Czech Republic Netherlands 2006 Brazil Italy Argentina 2007 Argentina Brazil Italy 2008 Spain Germany Netherlands 2009 Spain Brazil Netherlands Spain Netherlands Germany 2011 Spain Netherlands Germany 2012 Spain Germany Argentina 2013 Spain Germany Argentina 2014 Germany Argentina Colombia 2015 Belgium Argentina Spain 2016 Argentina Brazil Germany Performances by countries ( edit ) Team First place Second place Third place Brazil 12 ( 1994 , 1995 , 1996 , 1997 , 1998 , 1999 , 2000 , 2002 , 2003 , 2004 , 2005 & 2006 ) 3 ( 2007 , 2009 & 2016 ) 2 ( 1993 & 2001 ) Spain 6 ( 2008 , 2009 , 2010 , 2011 , 2012 & 2013 ) 1 ( 1994 ) 3 ( 2002 , 2003 & 2015 ) Germany 2 ( 1993 & 2014 ) 6 ( 1995 , 1996 , 1997 , 2008 , 2012 & 2013 ) 4 ( 1998 , 2010 , 2011 & 2016 ) Argentina 2 ( 2007 & 2016 ) 3 ( 2001 , 2014 & 2015 ) 5 ( 2000 , 2004 , 2006 , 2012 & 2013 ) France 1 ( 2001 ) 5 ( 1998 , 2000 , 2002 , 2003 & 2004 ) 2 ( 1996 & 1999 ) Belgium 1 ( 2015 ) 0 0 Netherlands 0 2 ( 2010 & 2011 ) 3 ( 2005 , 2008 & 2009 ) Italy 0 2 ( 1993 & 2006 ) 2 ( 1995 & 2007 ) Czech Republic 0 2 ( 1999 & 2005 ) 1 ( 1997 ) Sweden 0 0 1 ( 1994 ) Colombia 0 0 1 ( 2014 ) Best Mover of the year ( edit ) The Best Mover of the Year was awarded to the team who made the best progress up the rankings over the course of the year . In the FIFA rankings , this is not simply the team that has risen the most places , but a calculation is performed in order to account for the fact that it becomes progressively harder to earn more points the higher up the rankings a team is . The calculation used is the number of points the team has at the end of the year ( z ) multiplied by the number of points it earned during the year ( y ) . The team with the highest index on this calculation received the award . The table below shows the top three best movers from each year . The award has not been an official part of the awards since 2006 . Year First place Second place Third place 1993 Colombia Portugal Morocco 1994 Croatia Brazil Uzbekistan 1995 Jamaica Trinidad and Tobago Czech Republic South Africa Paraguay Canada 1997 Yugoslavia Bosnia and Herzegovina Iran 1998 Croatia France Argentina 1999 Slovenia Cuba Uzbekistan 2000 Nigeria Honduras Cameroon 2001 Costa Rica Australia Honduras 2002 Senegal Wales Brazil 2003 Bahrain Oman Turkmenistan China PR Uzbekistan Ivory Coast 2005 Ghana Ethiopia Switzerland 2006 Italy Germany France While an official award has not been made for movements since 2006 , FIFA has released a list of the ' Best Movers ' in the rankings since 2007 . An example of the informal on - going `` Mover of the Year '' award is the recognition made by FIFA to Colombia in 2012 in an official press release . However , the calculation methodology had changed to the difference in ranking points over the course of the year ( rather than the methodology used in the official award from 1993 to 2006 ) . The results for latter years are based on a similar methodology . Year Best mover Second best Third best 2007 Mozambique Norway New Caledonia 2008 Spain Montenegro Russia 2009 Brazil Algeria Slovenia Netherlands Montenegro Botswana 2011 Wales Sierra Leone Bosnia and Herzegovina 2012 Colombia Ecuador Mali 2013 Ukraine Armenia United States 2014 Germany Slovakia Belgium 2015 Turkey Hungary Nicaragua 2016 France Peru Poland Ranking schedule ( edit ) Rankings are published monthly , usually on a Thursday . The deadline for the matches to be considered is usually the Thursday prior to the release date , but after major tournaments , all games up to the final are included . Rankings schedule 2017 Release date 12 January 9 February 9 March 6 April 4 May 1 June 6 July 10 August 14 September 16 October 23 November 21 December See also ( edit ) FIFA Women 's World Rankings World Football Elo Ratings Seeding for 2006 FIFA World Cup Statistical association football predictions Notes and references ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` The FIFA / Coca - Cola World Ranking - Ranking Table '' . FIFA . Retrieved 16 October 2017 . Jump up ^ Ben Rumsby ( 4 September 2017 ) . `` Fifa to review rankings system after friendlies harm England 's World Cup seeding '' . The Telegraph . Retrieved 4 October 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` FIFA / Coca - Cola World Ranking Procedure '' . FIFA . Retrieved 28 March 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Revised FIFA / Coca - Cola World Ranking '' . FIFA. 6 July 2006 . Archived from the original on 12 June 2008 . Retrieved 28 March 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Women 's World Ranking Procedure '' . FIFA . Retrieved 28 March 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Great expectations '' . FIFA. 17 May 2006 . Archived from the original on 12 June 2008 . Retrieved 28 March 2008 . Jump up ^ `` FIFA Ranking : Netherlands dethrone Spain '' . Football-Rankings.info. 12 August 2011 . Retrieved 24 August 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Brazil back on top of FIFA Ranking , Netherlands slump to record low '' . ESPN . 29 March 2017 . Retrieved 29 March 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Fifa rankings : Northern Ireland reach highest point as Germany lead the way '' . BBC news . 6 July 2017 . Retrieved 8 July 2017 . Jump up ^ `` FIFA Organising Committee approves Final Draw procedure '' . FIFA. 2 December 2009 . Archived from the original on 25 December 2011 . Retrieved 13 April 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Olympics -- updated draw procedure , with teams '' . CAFOnline.com . Confederation of African Football . 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 13 April 2011 . ^ Jump up to : `` The world rankings riddle '' . BBC Sport. 21 December 2000 . Jump up ^ `` FIFA adapting new world rankings '' ( PDF ) . Associated Press . 2 June 2006 . Retrieved 23 July 2017 . Jump up ^ `` FIFA chief praises IFA 's work '' . The Jerusalem Post . 29 August 2008 . Archived from the original on 27 April 2011 . Retrieved 13 February 2009 . Blatter was also asked about Israel 's unrealistic FIFA ranking . Despite failing to qualify for a major tournament in 38 years , the national team is currently ranked number 16 in the world , ahead of such team as Greece , Sweden and Denmark , and just two places below England . Jump up ^ `` Soccer : Quirky FIFA rankings system sees Israel climb to # 15 '' . The Jerusalem Post . 13 November 2008 . Archived from the original on 16 November 2008 . Retrieved 13 February 2009 . Israel continued its baffling rise up the FIFA rankings on Wednesday , climbing one more position to a best - ever 15th in the world . Amazingly , the national team , which has n't reached a major tournament since the 1970 World Cup , is ahead of such teams as Greece ( 18 ) , Nigeria ( 22 ) , Sweden ( 29 ) , Scotland ( 33 ) , Denmark ( 34 ) and the Republic of Ireland ( 36 ) Jump up ^ `` The Last Word : It 's time to get rid of the FIFA rankings '' . The Jerusalem Post . 14 November 2008 . Archived from the original on 16 November 2008 . Retrieved 13 February 2009 . So the news this week that Israel has risen another place to number 15 in the latest FIFA rankings , above Mexico ( 25 ) , Nigeria ( 22 ) , the US ( 24 ) and Colombia ( 40 ) , only serves to underline the futility of the ranking system . Jump up ^ `` FIFA Ranking : November 2008 preview ( II ) '' . Football-Rankings.info. 20 October 2008 . Retrieved 13 February 2009 . Israel will improve ( again ! ) their best ever ranking , climbing one place to 15th . With a win ( instead of a draw ) against Latvia they would have been tied for 8th place with Russia . Jump up ^ Alistair Tweedale ( 13 October 2015 ) . `` Belgium rise to No1 in Fifa world rankings after they beat Israel -- despite playing one tournament in 13 years '' . The Telegraph . Retrieved 14 November 2015 . Jump up ^ `` FIFA Rankings '' . Travour.com. 1 June 2006 . Archived from the original on 14 June 2006 . Jump up ^ Cummings , Michael . `` FIFA World Rankings Place Brazil 18th , Reinforce Flawed Nature of System '' . Retrieved 21 May 2013 . Jump up ^ Freitas , Paulo . `` Scolari blames FIFA for Brazil 's poor ranking '' . Retrieved 16 June 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Burnton , Simon ( 17 October 2013 ) . `` With a bit of planning England could have been seeded ahead of the Swiss '' . The Guardian . Retrieved 15 June 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Romania , Wales set to be surprise World Cup top seeds '' . USA Today . Associated Press . 23 July 2015 . Retrieved 29 July 2015 . Romania took advice from a consultant who decoded some mysteries of a ranking system used by FIFA since 1992 . Jump up ^ Gavril , Victor ( 5 July 2015 ) . `` Burleanu : `` Am consultat specialiști în clasamentul FIFA . '' Cum a urcat România în TOP 10 mondial '' ( Burleanu : `` We have consulted FIFA ranking specialists . '' How Romania climbed in the World Top 10 ) . România Liberă ( in Romanian ) . Retrieved 29 July 2015 . Jump up ^ `` 2018 FIFA World Cup : Preliminary draw pots for UEFA '' . Football-Rankings.info. 26 June 2015 . Retrieved 29 July 2015 . I 've told Romanian FA officials in the spring of 2014 to avoid playing friendlies . Surprisingly , they heeded my advice . Jump up ^ `` Soccer rankings : farewell FIFA , hello Elo ? '' . Retrieved 2016 - 07 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Circular no. 1324 '' ( PDF ) . FIFA.com . Retrieved 20 December 2012 . Jump up ^ `` FIFA Ranking : Flaw in the calculation '' . Football-Rankings.info. 14 September 2009 . Retrieved 9 October 2009 . Jump up ^ `` FIFA Ranking : November 2012 differences '' . Football-Rankings.info. 9 November 2012 . Retrieved 3 July 2013 . Jump up ^ `` FIFA Ranking : Penalty shoot - out matches '' . Football-Rankings.info. 2 November 2012 . Retrieved 3 July 2013 . Jump up ^ Finals is used in this sense to mean the ' final tournament ' ( as opposed to the qualifying tournament ) Jump up ^ `` FIFA / Coca - Cola World Ranking : In focus '' ( PDF ) . FIFA. 7 July 2006 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 29 June 2007 . Retrieved 21 June 2007 . Jump up ^ `` 2006 revision of the FIFA / Coca - Cola World Ranking : Frequently Asked Questions About the FIFA World Ranking '' ( PDF ) . Fédération Internationale de Football Association . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 29 June 2007 . Retrieved 21 June 2007 . Jump up ^ However , 2010 FIFA World Cup hosts South Africa competed in CAF qualifying despite automatically qualifying for the World Cup ; this is because CAF chose to combine the 2010 World Cup qualifying tournament with the qualifiers for the 2010 African Cup of Nations , an event for which South Africa had to separately qualify . South Africa failed to qualify for the 2010 African Cup of Nations . Jump up ^ `` FIFA Rankings : September 2008 errors ( II ) '' . Football-rankings.info . Retrieved 2016 - 06 - 20 . Jump up ^ `` FIFA miscalculated the rankings ... or did they ? '' . Football-rankings.info. 14 November 2007 . Retrieved 23 June 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Calculation FIFA Coca - Cola world ranking October 2007 '' ( PDF ) . Retrieved 23 June 2014 . Jump up ^ `` How are points calculated in the FIFA World Ranking ? '' ( PDF ) . Retrieved 23 June 2014 . Jump up ^ `` FIFA Fact Sheet : How are points calculated in the FIFA / Coca - Cola World Ranking ? '' ( PDF ) . Fifa.com . Retrieved 2016 - 06 - 20 . Jump up ^ `` FIFA Fact Sheet : How are points calculated in the FIFA / Coca - Cola World Ranking ? '' ( PDF ) . Fifa.com . Retrieved 2016 - 06 - 20 . ^ Jump up to : `` Confederation weightings : One answer , more questions '' . Football-Rankings.info. 26 August 2011 . Retrieved 26 August 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Confederation weighting : Are the official values wrong ? '' . Football-Rankings.info. 11 August 2011 . Retrieved 4 July 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Dutch dethrone Spain , Uruguay rise '' . FIFA. 24 August 2011 . Archived from the original on 25 September 2011 . Retrieved 26 August 2011 . Jump up ^ Team of the Year Award 2010 Archived 18 December 2010 at the Wayback Machine . on the FIFA website Jump up ^ Best Mover of the Year Archived 20 July 2008 at the Wayback Machine . on the FIFA website Jump up ^ Spain on top and Wales highest climber on the FIFA website Jump up ^ Top Team and the Best Mover of the Year on the FIFA website ( PDF ) Jump up ^ Spain finish 2012 on top , Colombia in fifth . FIFA.com . Retrieved on 12 August 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Spain on top , Ukraine highest climber '' . fifa.com. 19 December 2013 . Retrieved 19 December 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Germany conquer 2014 , Belgium , Slovakia impress '' . fifa.com. 18 December 2014 . Retrieved 18 December 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Belgium and Turkey claim awards , Hungary return '' . fifa.com. 3 December 2015 . Archived from the original on 21 July 2016 . Retrieved 15 December 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Argentina and France take Ranking awards '' . fifa.com. 22 December 2016 . Archived from the original on 22 December 2016 . Retrieved 12 December 2016 . Jump up ^ Men 's Ranking Procedure on the FIFA website External links ( edit ) FIFA World Ranking FIFA rankings : A Guide to the very first ' 93 revision ( RSSSF ) How the FIFA men 's rankings are calculated Interactive world map of the FIFA rankings FIFA History of FIFA FIFA Anthem FIFA Congress FIFA Council FIFA Ethics Committee FIFA headquarters Football at the Summer Olympics List of football federations International Football Association Board Timeline of association football Football codes Association football Beach soccer Futsal Confederations AFC CAF CONCACAF CONMEBOL OFC UEFA Men 's tournaments FIFA World Cup FIFA Confederations Cup FIFA U-20 World Cup FIFA U-17 World Cup FIFA Club World Cup FIFA Futsal World Cup FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup Blue Stars / FIFA Youth Cup Women 's tournaments FIFA Women 's World Cup FIFA U-20 Women 's World Cup FIFA U-17 Women 's World Cup FIFA Women 's Club World Cup Other tournaments FIFA Interactive World Cup Presidents Robert Guérin ( 1904 -- 1906 ) Daniel Burley Woolfall ( 1906 -- 1918 ) Jules Rimet ( 1921 -- 1954 ) Rodolphe Seeldrayers ( 1954 -- 1955 ) Arthur Drewry ( 1955 -- 1961 ) Stanley Rous ( 1961 -- 1974 ) João Havelange ( 1974 -- 1998 ) Sepp Blatter ( 1998 -- 2015 ) Issa Hayatou ( 2015 -- 2016 , acting ) Gianni Infantino ( 2016 -- present ) General Secretaries Louis Muhlinghaus ( 1904 -- 1906 ) Wilhelm Hirschman ( 1906 -- 1931 ) Ivo Schricker ( 1932 -- 1951 ) Kurt Gassmann ( 1951 -- 1960 ) Helmut Käser ( 1961 -- 1981 ) Sepp Blatter ( 1981 -- 1998 ) Michel Zen - 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Bed - wikipedia Bed This is the latest accepted revision , reviewed on 10 January 2018 . Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see Bed ( disambiguation ) . Bedroom on the Detmold Open - air Museum premises A bed is a piece of furniture which is used as a place to sleep or relax . Most modern beds consist of a soft , cushioned mattress on a bed frame , the mattress resting either on a solid base , often wood slats , or a sprung base . Many beds include a box spring inner - sprung base , which is a large mattress - sized box containing wood and springs that provide additional support and suspension for the mattress . Beds are available in many sizes , ranging from infant - sized bassinets and cribs , to small beds for a single person or adult , to large queen and king - size beds designed for two people . While most beds are single mattresses on a fixed frame , there are other varieties , such as the murphy bed , which folds into a wall , the sofa bed , which folds out of a sofa , and the bunk bed , which provides two mattresses on two tiers . Temporary beds include the inflatable air mattress and the folding camp cot . Some beds contain neither a padded mattress nor a bed frame , such as the hammock , which is considered one of the most comfortable places to rest while swaying side to side . Some beds are made especially for animals . Beds may have a headboard for resting against , and may have side rails and footboards ( or `` footers '' ) . `` Headboard only '' beds may incorporate a `` dust ruffle '' , `` bed skirt '' , or `` valance sheet '' to hide the bed frame . To support the head , a pillow made of a soft , padded material is usually placed on the top of the mattress . Some form of covering blanket is often used to insulate the sleeper , often bed sheets , a quilt , or a duvet , collectively referred to as bedding . Bedding is the removable non-furniture portion of a bed , which enables these components to be washed or aired out . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 1.1 Ancient world 1.2 Medieval Europe 1.3 Renaissance and modern Europe 2 Bed sizes 3 Notable examples 4 Types 5 Frames 6 See also 7 References 8 External links History Ancient world Tutankhamun 's gilded bed from the 14th century BC Early beds were little more than piles of straw or some other natural material ( e.g. a heap of palm leaves , animal skins , or dried bracken ) . An important change was raising them off the ground , to avoid drafts , dirt , and pests . Bedding dated around to 3600 BC was discovered in Sibudu Cave , South Africa . The bedding consists of sedge and other monocotyledons topped with the leaves of Cryptocarya woodii Engl . Beds found in a preserved northern Scottish village , which were raised boxes made of stone and likely topped with comfortable fillers , were dated to between 3200 BC and 2200 BC . The Egyptians had high bedsteads which were ascended by steps , with bolsters or pillows , and curtains to hang around . The elite of Egyptian society such as its pharaohs and queens even had beds made of wood , sometimes gilded . Often there was a head - rest as well , semi-cylindrical and made of stone , wood , or metal . Ancient Assyrians , Medes , and Persians had beds of a similar kind , and frequently decorated their furniture with inlays or appliques of metal , mother - of - pearl , and ivory . Headrest with Two Images of the God Bes , ca . 1539 - 1190 B.C.E. , 37.435 E , Brooklyn Museum The image to the right showcases a headrest . Headrests like this were used in life to support the head while sleeping . They are also found supporting a mummy 's head in the coffin . This headrest perhaps was made specifically for the tomb , since the offering prayer has been inscribed on the supporting column , although the prayer may have been added after the death of the owner . The oldest account of a bed is probably that of Odysseus : a charpoy woven of rope plays a role in the Odyssey . A similar bed can be seen at the St Fagans National History Museum in Wales . Odysseus also gives an account of how he crafted the nuptial bed for himself and Penelope , out of an ancient , huge olive tree trunk that used to grow on the spot before the bridal chamber was built . His detailed description finally persuades the doubting Penelope that the shipwrecked , aged man is indeed her long - lost husband . Homer also mentions the inlaying of the woodwork of beds with gold , silver , and ivory . The Greek bed had a wooden frame , with a board at the head and bands of hide laced across , upon which skins were placed . At a later period the bedstead was often veneered with expensive woods ; sometimes it was of solid ivory veneered with tortoise - shell and with silver feet ; often it was of bronze . The pillows and coverings also became more costly and beautiful ; the most celebrated places for their manufacture were Miletus , Corinth and Carthage . Folding beds , too , appear in the famous Ancient Greek vase paintings . Roman mattresses were stuffed with reeds , hay , or wool . Feathers were used towards the end of the Republic , when custom demanded luxury . Small cushions were placed at the head and sometimes at the back . The bedsteads were high and could only be ascended by the help of steps . They were often arranged for two people , and had a board or railing at the back , as well as the raised portion at the head . The counterpanes were sometimes very costly , generally purple embroidered with figures in gold ; and rich hangings fell to the ground masking the front . The bedsteads themselves were often of bronze inlaid with silver , and Elagabalus had one of solid silver . In the walls of some houses at Pompeii bed niches are found which were probably closed by curtains or sliding partitions . Ancient Romans had various kinds of beds for repose . These included : lectus cubicularis , or chamber bed , for normal sleeping lectus genialis , the marriage bed , it was much decorated , and was placed in the atrium opposite the door lectus discubitorius , or table bed , on which they ate -- for they ate while lying on their left sides -- there usually being three people to one bed , with the middle place accounted the most honorable position lectus lucubratorius , for studying and a lectus funebris , or emortualis , on which the dead were carried to the pyre Medieval Europe The ancient Germans lay on the floor on beds of leaves covered with skins , or in a kind of shallow chest filled with leaves and moss . In the early Middle Ages they laid carpets on the floor or on a bench against the wall , placed upon them mattresses stuffed with feathers , wool , or hair , and used skins as a covering . Curtains were hung from the ceiling or from an iron arm projecting from the wall . They appear to have generally lain naked in bed , wrapping themselves in large linen sheets which were stretched over the cushions . Southampton Medieval Merchant 's House bedroom In the 12th century , luxury increased and bedsteads were made of wood much decorated with inlaid , carved , and painted ornamentation . They also used folding beds , which served as couches by day and had cushions covered with silk laid upon leather . At night a linen sheet was spread and pillows placed , while silk - covered skins served as coverlets . The Carolingian manuscripts show metal bedsteads much higher at the head than at the feet , and this shape continued in use until the 13th century in France , many cushions being added to raise the body to a sloping position . In 12th - century manuscripts , the bedsteads appear much richer , with inlays , carving , and painting , and with embroidered coverlets and mattresses in harmony . Curtains were hung above the bed and a small hanging lamp is often shown . In the 14th century the woodwork became of less importance , generally being entirely covered by hangings of rich materials . Silk , velvet , and even cloth of gold were frequently used . Inventories from the beginning of the 14th century give details of these hangings lined with fur and richly embroidered . It was then that the Four poster bed ( also known as a tester bed ) made its first appearance , the bed being slung from the ceiling or fastened to the walls , a form which developed later into a room within a room , shut in by double curtains , sometimes even to exclude all drafts . The space between bed and wall was called the ruelle , and very intimate friends were received there . The 14th century is also the time when feather beds became highly prized possessions . In the 15th century beds became very large , reaching 7 to 8 feet ( 2.1 to 2.4 m ) by 6 to 7 feet ( 1.8 to 2.1 m ) . The mattresses were often filled with pea - shucks , straw , or feathers . At this time great personages were in the habit of carrying most of their property about with them , including beds and bed - hangings , and for this reason the bedsteads were for the most part mere frameworks to be covered up ; but about the beginning of the 16th century bedsteads were made lighter and more decorative , since the lords remained in the same place for longer periods . Renaissance and modern Europe In the 17th century , which has been called `` the century of magnificent beds '' , the style a la duchesse , with tester and curtains only at the head , replaced the more enclosed beds in France , though they lasted much longer in England . Louis XIV had an enormous number of sumptuous beds , as many as 413 being described in the inventories of his palaces . Some of them had embroideries enriched with pearls , and figures on a silver or golden ground . The great bed at Versailles had crimson velvet curtains on which `` The Triumph of Venus '' was embroidered . So much gold was used that the velvet scarcely showed . Napoleon I 's bed In the 18th century feather pillows were first used as coverings in Germany , which in the fashions of the bed and the curious etiquette connected with the bedchamber followed France for the most part . The beds were a la duchesse , but in France itself there was great variety both of name and shape . The custom of the `` bed of justice '' upon which the king of France reclined when he was present in parliament , the princes being seated , the great officials standing , and the lesser officials kneeling , was held to denote the royal power even more than the throne . Louis XI is credited with its first use and the custom lasted till the end of the monarchy . In the chambre de parade , where the ceremonial bed was placed , certain persons , such as ambassadors or great lords , whom it was desired to honour , were received in a more intimate fashion than the crowd of courtiers . At Versailles women received their friends in their beds , both before and after childbirth , during periods of mourning , and even directly after marriage -- in fact in any circumstances which were thought deserving of congratulation or condolence . During the 17th century this curious custom became general , perhaps to avoid the tiresome details of etiquette . Portable beds were used in high society in France till the end of the Ancien Régime . The earliest of which mention has been found belonged to Charles the Bold . They had curtains over a light framework , and were in their way as fine as the stationary beds . Iron beds appear in the 18th century ; the advertisements declare them as free from the insects which sometimes infested wooden bedsteads . Elsewhere , there was also the closed bed with sliding or folding shutters , and in England -- where beds were commonly quite simple in form -- the four poster was the usual citizen 's bed until the middle of the 19th century . Bed sizes Main article : Bed size Bed sizes vary considerably around the world , with most countries having their own standards and terminology . While the `` double '' size appears to be standard among English speaking countries , based on the imperial measurement of 4 ft 6 in by 6 ft 3 in ( 137 cm x 190 cm ) , the sizes for other bed types tend to vary . The mainland European sizes differ , not merely because of the use of the metric system . In the mid-1950s , the United States bedding industry introduced a new size : the king size . A king - sized bed differs from the other sizes in implementation , as it is not common to have a king - sized box spring ; rather , two smaller box - springs are used under a king - sized mattress . It is a common misconception that in a US `` standard '' or `` Eastern king '' , the box springs are identical in size to a `` twin extra-long '' ; however , `` twin extra-long '' mattresses next to each other add up to 78 inches ( 200 cm ) wide instead of the 76 inches ( 190 cm ) width that is standard for an `` eastern king '' . Another size variant in the United States is the `` California king '' , which measures 72 by 84 inches ( 180 cm × 210 cm ) long ( narrower but longer than the standard king ) . What is referred to as a `` single bed '' in many parts of the world may also be known in US terminology as a `` twin bed . '' In some countries , a `` twin bed '' may also be used to describe one of two single beds in the same room . As another example , in some cultures , the `` full mattress '' is referred to as a `` master size bed . '' When a mattress is available in fixed size ( for example , twin or queen ) , and the description does not specify the exact size , this table may be used . Mattress size Size in inches Size in cm Cot size 30 '' wide x 74 '' long 76x188 Twin 39 '' wide x 75 '' long 99x190 Twin extra long 39 '' wide x 80 '' long 99x203 Full size 54 '' wide x 75 '' long 137x190 Full extra long 54 '' wide x 80 '' long 137x203 Queen size 60 '' wide x 80 '' long 153x203 Cal - king 72 '' wide x 84 '' long 183x214 King size 76 '' wide x 80 '' long 193x203 All mattresses are made according to certain standards , but different brands sometimes have exceptions . Most often , the difference is 2 - 5 inches . Notable examples The Great Bed of Ware , one of the largest beds in the world One of the largest beds in the world is the Great Bed of Ware , made in about 1580 . It is 3.26 metres ( 10.7 ft ) wide , 3.38 metres ( 11.1 ft ) long . The bed is mentioned by Shakespeare in Twelfth Night . It is now in the Victoria and Albert Museum ( V&A ) in London . Another bed in the V&A is the Golden Bed created by William Burges in 1879 . In 1882 , an Indian Maharajah had a bed made of solid silver . At each corner of the bed there was a life - sized statue of a naked woman holding a fan . When the Maharajah lay on the bed , his weight started a mechanism that made the women wave their fans . In 1865 , a convertible bed in the form of an upright piano was available , which could provide home entertainment while saving space . Types This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( April 2015 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) See also : Category : Beds Lit à la Polonaise ( Polish style bed ) , Royal Castle in Warsaw , 18th century . Patent # 322,177 , on 14 July 1885 issued to Sarah E. Goode for a cabinet bed Drawing of a candle - lit mourning bed ( Trauergerüst ) for abbess Franziska Christine von Pfalz - Sulzbach , 1776 Chinese style beds There are many varieties of beds : An adjustable bed is a bed that can be adjusted to a number of different positions . Most hospital beds are adjustable , so that a patient can have different parts of her body elevated for medical reasons . Some people have adjustable beds in private homes . Some adjustable beds are designed for couples ; they use two separate mattresses and adjustment mechanisms . This permits one partner to be lying flat to sleep while the other has the head and shoulders elevated to watch television or read . Couple adjustable beds also permit partners with different medical conditions to select a mattress positioning that best suits them . An air bed uses an air - inflated mattress , sometimes connected to an electric air pump and having variable , firmness controls . The portable version of an air bed can also be rolled up and packed ; so is meant for travel or temporary guest use . A bassinet is a bed specifically for newborns . A box - bed is a bed having the form of a large box with wooden roof , sides , and ends , opening in front with two sliding panels or shutters ; often used in cottages in Scotland : sometimes also applied to a bed arranged to fold up into a box . A brass bed has a frame constructed from brass . A brass - plated bed is a cheaper bed of iron with a thin covering of brass , which with time peels off and the iron is exposed . A bunk bed is two or more beds one atop the other . Bunk beds are used for adults in military barracks and in some ski lodges . Bunk beds are used for children and teens in summer camps . Some inexpensive hostels provide bunk beds for guests . Bunk beds are used for children in private homes . A loft bed is similar to a bunk bed , except there is no lower bunk . This leaves space underneath for storage , other furniture , a desk etc . A captain 's bed ( also known as a `` captain bed '' , `` chest bed '' , or `` cabin bed '' ) is a platform bed with drawers and storage compartments built in underneath . A camp bed ( also `` cot '' ) is a simple , temporary , portable bed used by armies and by campers . Cots are also used to provide a sleeping surface for refugees and other homeless people during disasters , floods , or other crises . A canopy bed is similar to a four poster bed , but the posts usually extend higher and are adorned or draped with cloth , sometimes completely enclosing the bed . A curtained bed is a luxury bed with curtains . A daybed is a couch that is used as a seat by day and as a bed by night . Usually it has pop up trundle which is used as bed in the night . A futon is a traditional style of Japanese bed using a mattress on a wooden frame . Futons are also available in a larger Western style which can fold halfway for sitting . Futons were traditionally made with cotton , but in the 2000s , many futons include synthetic foam . A four poster bed is a bed with four posts , one in each corner , that support a tester . A hammock is a piece of suspended fabric or netting , used on ships and in some homes . A hideaway bed , invented by Sarah E. Goode in response to the needs of apartment - dwellers , folds up into another piece of furniture , such as a shelf or desk , when not in use . A hospital bed is specifically designed to facilitate convalescence , traditionally in a hospital or nursing facility , but increasingly in other settings , such as a private residence . Hospital beds are typically adjustable , so that the head or feet can be raised or lowered . Modern hospital beds commonly have wheels to assist in moderate relocation , but they are larger and generally more permanently placed than a trolley ( US : gurney ) . The `` hospital bed '' is also a common unit of measurement for the capacity of any type of inpatient medical facility , though it is just as common to shorten the term to `` bed '' in that usage ( e.g. The hospital has 250 beds ... ) . An infant bed ( also `` crib '' or `` cot '' ) is a small bed specifically for babies and infants . An iron bed , developed in the 1850s , is constructed of iron and steel . A kang bed - stove is a Chinese ceramic room heater used as the platform for a bed . A Manjaa is a traditional Punjabi bed made of tied ropes bordered by a wooden frame . A mourning bed ( `` illustration '' ) is a formal canopied bed , with the deceased , a wax effigy , or symbols of rank A Murphy bed or wallbed is a bed that can fold up into a wall or cabinet to save space . An Ottoman bed ( in the UK ) is a type of storage bed in which the storage area is placed underneath the mattress base and accessed by lifting the hinged mattress frame with the help of a spring or hydraulic mechanism . A pallet is a thin , lightweight mattress . A platform bed is a mattress resting on a solid , flat raised surface , either free - standing or part of the structure of the room . A roll - away bed is a bed whose frame folds in half and rolls in order to be more easily stored and moved . This is used in different settings , including hotels for either free or a nominal fee per night , where more people than expected may need to sleep in the same room , e.g. 5 people in a hotel room for 4 ( two twin beds ) . A rope bed is a pre-modern bed whose wooden frame includes crossing ropes to support the typically down - filled single mattress . A sofabed ( `` pull - out '' or `` pull - out bed '' ) is a folding bed that is stored inside a sofa . A state bed developed in Early Modern Europe from a hieratic canopy of state . A toddler bed is a small bed for young children . A trundle bed or `` truckle bed '' is a bed usually stored beneath a twin bed also sometimes referred to as a `` sleepover bed '' or `` daybed with pop up trundle '' A vibrating bed ( also known as a Magic Fingers bed ) is typically a coin - operated novelty found in a vintage ( c. 1960s - early 1980s ) motel . For a nominal fee , the mattress vibrates for a duration of time . Alternatively it is a modern bed which vibrates by use of an off - centre motor . It is controlled by electronics for varying time and amplitude settings and is used therapeutically to ease back pains or as an erotic aid . A waterbed is a flexible plastic mattress full of water . The plastic container needs a strong frame around it . Frames Main article : Bed frame Bed frames , also called bed steads , are made of wood or metal . The frame is made up of head , foot , and side rails . For heavy duty or larger frames ( such as for queen - and king - sized beds ) , the bed frame also includes a center support rail . These rails are assembled to create a box for the mattress or mattress / box spring to sit on . Types include : platform -- typically used without a box spring captain -- has drawers beneath the frame to make use of the space between the floor and the bed frame waterbed -- a heavy - duty frame built specifically to support the weight of the water in the mattress ( Mainly used on larger models ) Though not truly parts of a bed frame , headboards , footboards , and bed rails can be included in the definition . Headboards and footboards can be wood or metal . They can be stained , painted , or covered in fabric or leather . Bed rails are made of wood or metal and are attached to a headboard and footboard . Wooden slats are placed perpendicular to the bed rails to support the mattress / mattress box spring . Bed rails and frames are often attached to the bed post using knock - down fittings . A knock - down fitting enables the bed to be easily dismantled for removal . Primary knock - down fittings for bed rails are as follows : Pin - and - hook fastener . A mortise or slot is cut vertically in the bedpost . Pins are inserted horizontally in the bed post so that the pins perpendicularly intersect the mortise . For example , if one looked in the mortise , one might see part of one horizontal pin at the bottom of the mortise and a part of a second pin toward the top of the mortise . Hooks are installed at the end of the rail . Usually these hooks are part of a plate that is attached to the rail . The hooks then are inserted into the bed post mortise and hook over the pins . Plate - and - hook fastener . Instead of pins inserted horizontally into the bedpost , an eye plate ( post plate ) is installed on the bedpost . The hooks are installed on the rail , either as surface mount or recessed . Depending on the hardware , the bedpost may require a mortise in order to allow the hooks to fasten to the plate . This is also referred to as a keyhole fastener , especially if the connector is more of a `` plug '' than a `` hook '' . Bed bolts ( `` through - bolts '' ) are a different means of a knock - down connection . A hole is typically drilled through the bedpost . The bolt head is inset and covered with a plug . In the rail , a dowel nut or other type of nut receives the bolt . The springs are made from metal , which are swirled for maximum comfort Safety rails , or cot sides , can be added to the sides of a bed ( normally a child or elderly person 's bed ) to stop anyone falling out of the sides of the bed . A safety rail is normally a piece of wood that attaches to the side rails on one or both sides of the bed . They are made so that they can be easily removed when no longer required . See also Design portal Bed - In Co-sleeping Sleeping bag References Jump up ^ `` Bed '' . The Free Dictionary By Farlex . Retrieved 16 May 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Bed '' . Merriam - Webster . Retrieved 16 May 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Wadley L , Sievers C , Bamford M , Goldberg P , Berna F , Miller C. ( 2011 ) . Middle Stone Age Bedding Construction and Settlement Patterns at Sibudu , South Africa . Science 9 December 2011 : Vol. 334 no . 6061 pp. 1388 - 1391 Jump up ^ `` Skara Brae -- The Furniture '' . orkneyjar.com . Jump up ^ `` Headrest with Two Images of the God Bes '' . Retrieved 8 July 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Definition of CHARPOY '' . Retrieved 30 December 2016 . Jump up ^ This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain : Chambers , Ephraim , ed. ( 1728 ) . `` `` . Cyclopædia , or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences ( first ed . ) . James and John Knapton , et al. `` BED '' . History of Science and Technology . ^ Jump up to : `` Medieval Furniture & Home Decor '' . furniturestyles.net . Retrieved 26 November 2010 . Jump up ^ `` TCTerms - Standard - double vs. Standard - twin ( English ) '' . www.translatorscafe.com . Retrieved 2017 - 10 - 31 . Jump up ^ `` Even Beds Go King - Size '' Popular Mechanics , December 1954 , p. 128 , bottom of page . Jump up ^ `` The Golden Bed '' . Victoria and Albert Museum . Retrieved 26 May 2013 . Jump up ^ Independent . `` India 's royal riches : The maharajas ' opulent lifestyle '' . Retrieved 31 July 2017 . Jump up ^ Brooklyn Museum . `` Decorative Arts : Convertible Bed in Form of Upright Piano '' . Retrieved 11 March 2012 . Jump up ^ ( in English ) `` Bed ( Lit à la Polonaise ) '' . getty.edu . Archived from the original on 1 March 2009 . Retrieved 26 January 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Captain 's bed '' . Dictionary.com . Retrieved 26 May 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Historical Guide : Bed Hardware '' . whitechapel-ltd.com . Archived from the original on 2006 - 03 - 12 . Jump up ^ `` Bed Rail Fastener Options '' . home-improvement-and-financing.com . Jump up ^ `` Picture '' . srbworld.com . Archived from the original on 16 July 2011 . Retrieved 26 November 2010 . External links Wikiquote has quotations related to : Beds Look up bed in Wiktionary , the free dictionary . Wikimedia Commons has media related to Beds . Bedding Bed types ( Bed sizes ) Banig Bassinet Box - bed Bunk bed Cage bed Camp bed Canopy bed Couch bed Cradle ( bed ) Daybed Four - poster bed Futon Hammock Hospital bed Infant bed Kang bed - stove Lit a la turque Loft bed Charpai Murphy bed Petate Platform bed Sleigh bed Sofa bed Toddler bed Trundle bed Bed components Bed frame Bed sheet Bed skirt Cot side Footboard Headboard Mattresses Air mattress Featherbed Mattress pad Mattress protector Memory foam Orthopedic mattress Waterbed Bed bases Box - spring Bunkie board Blankets Afghan Comforter Duvet Duvet cover Electric blanket Hudson 's Bay point blanket Patchwork quilt Photo blanket Quilt Razai Security blanket Silk comforter Sleeping bag Pillows Acupressure pillow Bamboo wife Bolster Contour leg pillow Cushion Dakimakura Eye pillow Orthopedic pillow Phonetic pillow Sex pillow Speaker pillow Throw pillow Related items Bed warmer Couch Nightstand Psychophysiology : Sleep and sleep disorders ( F51 and G47 / 307.4 and 327 ) Sleep stages Rapid eye movement ( REM ) Non-rapid eye movement Slow - wave Brain waves Alpha wave Beta wave Delta wave Gamma wave K - complex Mu rhythm Sensorimotor rhythm Sleep spindle Theta wave Sleep disorders Dyssomnia Hypersomnia Insomnia Kleine -- Levin syndrome Narcolepsy Sleep apnea Central hypoventilation syndrome Obesity hypoventilation syndrome Sleep state misperception Circadian rhythm disorder Advanced sleep phase disorder Delayed sleep phase disorder Irregular sleep -- wake rhythm Jet lag Non-24 - hour sleep -- wake disorder Shift work sleep disorder Parasomnia Catathrenia Night terror Rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder Sleepwalking Somniloquy Other Bruxism Night eating syndrome Nocturia Nocturnal myoclonus Benign phenomena Dream Exploding head syndrome False awakening Hypnagogia / Sleep onset Hypnic jerk Lucid dream Nightmare Nocturnal clitoral tumescence Nocturnal emission Nocturnal penile tumescence Sleep paralysis Somnolence Related topics Bed Bunk bed Daybed Four - poster bed Futon Hammock Mattress Sleeping bag Bed bug Bedding Bedroom Bedtime Bedtime story Bedtime toy Biphasic and polyphasic sleep Chronotype Dream journal Excessive daytime sleepiness Hypnopompic state Lullaby Microsleep Nap Nightwear Polysomnography Power nap Second wind Siesta Sleep and creativity Sleep and learning Sleep debt Sleep deprivation Sleep diary Sleep hygiene Sleep induction Sleep inertia Sleep medicine `` Sleeping sickness '' Sleeping while on duty Sleepover Snoring Somnology Not a sleep disorder . GND : 4006250 - 8 NDL : 00576741 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bed&oldid=819667927 '' Categories : Beds Mattresses Sleep Human sexuality Hidden categories : Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1728 Cyclopaedia Wikipedia articles incorporating text from Cyclopaedia Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1728 Cyclopaedia without an article title parameter Wikipedia pending changes protected pages Use dmy dates from July 2014 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2014 All articles that may contain original research Articles that may contain original research from April 2015 Articles needing additional references from April 2015 All articles needing additional references Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Talk View source Contents About Wikipedia Wikiquote Acèh Afrikaans অসমীয়া Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Azərbaycanca বাংলা Bân - lâm - gú Беларуская Беларуская ( тарашкевіца ) ‎ Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština ChiShona Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Dolnoserbski Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Gaeilge Galego 한국어 हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Basa Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ Kaszëbsczi Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Livvinkarjala Lumbaart Magyar മലയാളം Bahasa Melayu Mìng - dĕ̤ng - ngṳ̄ Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाली नेपाल भाषा 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Nouormand Polski Português Română Runa Simi Русский Scots Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Soomaaliga Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Basa Sunda Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Тоҷикӣ Tsetsêhestâhese Türkçe Українська Vahcuengh Tiếng Việt Winaray ייִדיש 粵語 Žemaitėška 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 10 January 2018 , at 17 : 18 . 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when did beds become popular in france and germany

the 12th century

10 January 2018

The Glory of Love ( song ) - wikipedia The Glory of Love ( song ) Jump to : navigation , search This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( December 2015 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) For the song by Peter Cetera , see Glory of Love . `` The Glory of Love '' Single by Benny Goodman Released 1936 Format 78 rpm vinyl Recorded 1936 Genre Pop Songwriter ( s ) Billy Hill Benny Goodman singles chronology `` The Glory of Love ' '' ( 1936 ) The Glory of Love'1936 The Five Keys singles chronology `` The Glory of Love ' '' ( 1951 ) The Glory of Love'1951 `` Yes Sir , That 's My Baby '' ( 1952 ) Yes Sir , That 's My Baby1952 `` The Glory of Love '' is a song written by Billy Hill , recorded by Benny Goodman in 1936 , whose version was a number one pop hit . In 1951 , R&B vocal group , The Five Keys , had their biggest R&B hit with their version of the song , hitting number one on the R&B chart for four non-consecutive weeks . Although The Five Keys recording sold a reported million copies pressed recordings are very rare . Contents ( hide ) 1 Charts 1.1 Weekly charts 2 Otis Redding version 3 Charts 3.1 Weekly charts 4 References Charts ( edit ) Weekly charts ( edit ) Chart ( 1951 ) Peak position US Billboard Hot Rhythm & Blues Songs Otis Redding version ( edit ) `` The Glory of Love '' Single by Otis Redding from the album The Dock of the Bay B - side `` I 'm Coming Home '' Released 1967 Format 7 '' vinyl Recorded December , 1967 Genre Soul , Pop Length 2 : 38 Label Volt S419 Songwriter ( s ) Billy Hill Producer ( s ) Steve Cropper Otis Redding singles chronology `` Shake '' ( 1967 ) `` The Glory of Love '' ( 1967 ) `` Tramp '' ( 1967 ) `` Shake '' ( 1967 ) `` The Glory of Love '' ( 1967 ) `` Tramp '' ( 1967 ) In 1967 , Otis Redding recorded a cover version for his 1968 album , The Dock of the Bay . Redding 's cover became a top 20 hit and reached number nineteen on the Billboard R&B Songs chart and number sixty on the Billboard Hot 100 . Charts ( edit ) Weekly charts ( edit ) Chart ( 1967 ) Peak position US Billboard Hot 100 60 US Billboard Hot Rhythm & Blues Songs 19 References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Whitburn , Joel ( 2004 ) . Top R&B / Hip - Hop Singles : 1942 - 2004 . Record Research . p. 205 . Jump up ^ Propes , Steve ( 1973 ) . Those Oldies But Goodies : A Guide to 50 's Record Collecting . The Macmillan Company , New York . p. 42 . Jump up ^ Whitburn , Joel ( 2004 ) . Top R&B / Hip - Hop Singles : 1942 - 2004 . Record Research . p. 486 . Jump up ^ `` allmusic ( ( ( Otis Redding > Awards ) ) ) '' . Billboard . Retrieved 2012 - 11 - 22 . Jump up ^ `` Billboard R&B Singles Chart '' . Billboard . Retrieved 2016 - 01 - 27 . Preceded by `` Sixty Minute Man '' by The Dominoes Billboard Best Selling Retail Rhythm & Blues Records number - one single ( The Five Keys version ) September 22 , 1951 Succeeded by `` Sixty Minute Man '' by The Dominoes Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Glory_of_Love_(song)&oldid=814898703 '' Categories : 1936 songs 1951 singles Benny Goodman songs Otis Redding songs Songs written by Billy Hill ( songwriter ) Billboard Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs number - one singles Paul McCartney songs Hidden categories : Articles needing additional references from December 2015 All articles needing additional references Music infoboxes with deprecated parameters Articles with hAudio microformats Talk Contents About Wikipedia Norsk Edit links This page was last edited on 11 December 2017 , at 15 : 51 . About Wikipedia

who wrote the song the glory of love

Billy Hill

Peter Cetera

Brain - wikipedia Brain Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the brains of all types of animals , including humans . For information specific to the human brain , see Human brain . For other uses , see Brain ( disambiguation ) and Brains ( disambiguation ) . Not to be confused with Brane . Brain A chimpanzee brain Identifiers MeSH D001921 NeuroNames 21 TA A14. 1.03. 001 FMA 50801 Anatomical terminology ( edit on Wikidata ) The brain is an organ that serves as the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals . The brain is located in the head , usually close to the sensory organs for senses such as vision . The brain is the most complex organ in a vertebrate 's body . In a human , the cerebral cortex contains approximately 15 -- 33 billion neurons , each connected by synapses to several thousand other neurons . These neurons communicate with one another by means of long protoplasmic fibers called axons , which carry trains of signal pulses called action potentials to distant parts of the brain or body targeting specific recipient cells . Physiologically , the function of the brain is to exert centralized control over the other organs of the body . The brain acts on the rest of the body both by generating patterns of muscle activity and by driving the secretion of chemicals called hormones . This centralized control allows rapid and coordinated responses to changes in the environment . Some basic types of responsiveness such as reflexes can be mediated by the spinal cord or peripheral ganglia , but sophisticated purposeful control of behavior based on complex sensory input requires the information integrating capabilities of a centralized brain . The operations of individual brain cells are now understood in considerable detail but the way they cooperate in ensembles of millions is yet to be solved . Recent models in modern neuroscience treat the brain as a biological computer , very different in mechanism from an electronic computer , but similar in the sense that it acquires information from the surrounding world , stores it , and processes it in a variety of ways . This article compares the properties of brains across the entire range of animal species , with the greatest attention to vertebrates . It deals with the human brain insofar as it shares the properties of other brains . The ways in which the human brain differs from other brains are covered in the human brain article . Several topics that might be covered here are instead covered there because much more can be said about them in a human context . The most important is brain disease and the effects of brain damage , that are covered in the human brain article . Contents ( hide ) 1 Anatomy 1.1 Cellular structure 1.2 Evolution 1.2. 1 Generic bilaterian nervous system 1.2. 2 Invertebrates 1.2. 3 Vertebrates 1.2. 4 Mammals 1.2. 4.1 Primates 2 Development 3 Physiology 3.1 Neurotransmitters and receptors 3.2 Electrical activity 3.3 Metabolism 4 Functions 4.1 Perception 4.2 Motor control 4.3 Arousal 4.4 Homeostasis 4.5 Motivation 4.6 Learning and memory 5 Research 5.1 History 6 Other uses 6.1 As food 6.2 In rituals 6.3 For tanning 7 See also 8 References 9 External links Anatomy Cross section of the olfactory bulb of a rat , stained in two different ways at the same time : one stain shows neuron cell bodies , the other shows receptors for the neurotransmitter GABA . The shape and size of the brain varies greatly between species , and identifying common features is often difficult . Nevertheless , there are a number of principles of brain architecture that apply across a wide range of species . Some aspects of brain structure are common to almost the entire range of animal species ; others distinguish `` advanced '' brains from more primitive ones , or distinguish vertebrates from invertebrates . The simplest way to gain information about brain anatomy is by visual inspection , but many more sophisticated techniques have been developed . Brain tissue in its natural state is too soft to work with , but it can be hardened by immersion in alcohol or other fixatives , and then sliced apart for examination of the interior . Visually , the interior of the brain consists of areas of so - called grey matter , with a dark color , separated by areas of white matter , with a lighter color . Further information can be gained by staining slices of brain tissue with a variety of chemicals that bring out areas where specific types of molecules are present in high concentrations . It is also possible to examine the microstructure of brain tissue using a microscope , and to trace the pattern of connections from one brain area to another . Cellular structure Neurons generate electrical signals that travel along their axons . When a pulse of electricity reaches a junction called a synapse , it causes a neurotransmitter chemical to be released , which binds to receptors on other cells and thereby alters their electrical activity . The brains of all species are composed primarily of two broad classes of cells : neurons and glial cells . Glial cells ( also known as glia or neuroglia ) come in several types , and perform a number of critical functions , including structural support , metabolic support , insulation , and guidance of development . Neurons , however , are usually considered the most important cells in the brain . The property that makes neurons unique is their ability to send signals to specific target cells over long distances . They send these signals by means of an axon , which is a thin protoplasmic fiber that extends from the cell body and projects , usually with numerous branches , to other areas , sometimes nearby , sometimes in distant parts of the brain or body . The length of an axon can be extraordinary : for example , if a pyramidal cell , ( an excitatory neuron ) of the cerebral cortex were magnified so that its cell body became the size of a human body , its axon , equally magnified , would become a cable a few centimeters in diameter , extending more than a kilometer . These axons transmit signals in the form of electrochemical pulses called action potentials , which last less than a thousandth of a second and travel along the axon at speeds of 1 -- 100 meters per second . Some neurons emit action potentials constantly , at rates of 10 -- 100 per second , usually in irregular patterns ; other neurons are quiet most of the time , but occasionally emit a burst of action potentials . Axons transmit signals to other neurons by means of specialized junctions called synapses . A single axon may make as many as several thousand synaptic connections with other cells . When an action potential , traveling along an axon , arrives at a synapse , it causes a chemical called a neurotransmitter to be released . The neurotransmitter binds to receptor molecules in the membrane of the target cell . Neurons often have extensive networks of dendrites , which receive synaptic connections . Shown is a pyramidal neuron from the hippocampus , stained for green fluorescent protein . Synapses are the key functional elements of the brain . The essential function of the brain is cell - to - cell communication , and synapses are the points at which communication occurs . The human brain has been estimated to contain approximately 100 trillion synapses ; even the brain of a fruit fly contains several million . The functions of these synapses are very diverse : some are excitatory ( exciting the target cell ) ; others are inhibitory ; others work by activating second messenger systems that change the internal chemistry of their target cells in complex ways . A large number of synapses are dynamically modifiable ; that is , they are capable of changing strength in a way that is controlled by the patterns of signals that pass through them . It is widely believed that activity - dependent modification of synapses is the brain 's primary mechanism for learning and memory . Most of the space in the brain is taken up by axons , which are often bundled together in what are called nerve fiber tracts . A myelinated axon is wrapped in a fatty insulating sheath of myelin , which serves to greatly increase the speed of signal propagation . ( There are also unmyelinated axons ) . Myelin is white , making parts of the brain filled exclusively with nerve fibers appear as light - colored white matter , in contrast to the darker - colored grey matter that marks areas with high densities of neuron cell bodies . Evolution Main article : Evolution of the brain Generic bilaterian nervous system Nervous system of a generic bilaterian animal , in the form of a nerve cord with segmental enlargements , and a `` brain '' at the front . Except for a few primitive organisms such as sponges ( which have no nervous system ) and cnidarians ( which have a nervous system consisting of a diffuse nerve net ) , all living multicellular animals are bilaterians , meaning animals with a bilaterally symmetric body shape ( that is , left and right sides that are approximate mirror images of each other ) . All bilaterians are thought to have descended from a common ancestor that appeared early in the Cambrian period , 485 - 540 million years ago , and it has been hypothesized that this common ancestor had the shape of a simple tubeworm with a segmented body . At a schematic level , that basic worm - shape continues to be reflected in the body and nervous system architecture of all modern bilaterians , including vertebrates . The fundamental bilateral body form is a tube with a hollow gut cavity running from the mouth to the anus , and a nerve cord with an enlargement ( a ganglion ) for each body segment , with an especially large ganglion at the front , called the brain . The brain is small and simple in some species , such as nematode worms ; in other species , including vertebrates , it is the most complex organ in the body . Some types of worms , such as leeches , also have an enlarged ganglion at the back end of the nerve cord , known as a `` tail brain '' . There are a few types of existing bilaterians that lack a recognizable brain , including echinoderms and tunicates . It has not been definitively established whether the existence of these brainless species indicates that the earliest bilaterians lacked a brain , or whether their ancestors evolved in a way that led to the disappearance of a previously existing brain structure . Invertebrates Fruit flies ( Drosophila ) have been extensively studied to gain insight into the role of genes in brain development . This category includes tardigrades , arthropods , molluscs , and numerous types of worms . The diversity of invertebrate body plans is matched by an equal diversity in brain structures . Two groups of invertebrates have notably complex brains : arthropods ( insects , crustaceans , arachnids , and others ) , and cephalopods ( octopuses , squids , and similar molluscs ) . The brains of arthropods and cephalopods arise from twin parallel nerve cords that extend through the body of the animal . Arthropods have a central brain , the supraesophageal ganglion , with three divisions and large optical lobes behind each eye for visual processing . Cephalopods such as the octopus and squid have the largest brains of any invertebrates . There are several invertebrate species whose brains have been studied intensively because they have properties that make them convenient for experimental work : Fruit flies ( Drosophila ) , because of the large array of techniques available for studying their genetics , have been a natural subject for studying the role of genes in brain development . In spite of the large evolutionary distance between insects and mammals , many aspects of Drosophila neurogenetics have been shown to be relevant to humans . The first biological clock genes , for example , were identified by examining Drosophila mutants that showed disrupted daily activity cycles . A search in the genomes of vertebrates revealed a set of analogous genes , which were found to play similar roles in the mouse biological clock -- and therefore almost certainly in the human biological clock as well . Studies done on Drosophila , also show that most neuropil regions of the brain are continuously reorganized throughout life in response to specific living conditions . The nematode worm Caenorhabditis elegans , like Drosophila , has been studied largely because of its importance in genetics . In the early 1970s , Sydney Brenner chose it as a model organism for studying the way that genes control development . One of the advantages of working with this worm is that the body plan is very stereotyped : the nervous system of the hermaphrodite contains exactly 302 neurons , always in the same places , making identical synaptic connections in every worm . Brenner 's team sliced worms into thousands of ultrathin sections and photographed each one under an electron microscope , then visually matched fibers from section to section , to map out every neuron and synapse in the entire body . The complete neuronal wiring diagram of C. elegans -- its connectome was achieved . Nothing approaching this level of detail is available for any other organism , and the information gained has enabled a multitude of studies that would otherwise have not been possible . The sea slug Aplysia californica was chosen by Nobel Prize - winning neurophysiologist Eric Kandel as a model for studying the cellular basis of learning and memory , because of the simplicity and accessibility of its nervous system , and it has been examined in hundreds of experiments . Vertebrates The brain of a shark . The first vertebrates appeared over 500 million years ago ( Mya ) , during the Cambrian period , and may have resembled the modern hagfish in form . Sharks appeared about 450 Mya , amphibians about 400 Mya , reptiles about 350 Mya , and mammals about 200 Mya . Each species has an equally long evolutionary history , but the brains of modern hagfishes , lampreys , sharks , amphibians , reptiles , and mammals show a gradient of size and complexity that roughly follows the evolutionary sequence . All of these brains contain the same set of basic anatomical components , but many are rudimentary in the hagfish , whereas in mammals the foremost part ( the telencephalon ) is greatly elaborated and expanded . Brains are most simply compared in terms of their size . The relationship between brain size , body size and other variables has been studied across a wide range of vertebrate species . As a rule , brain size increases with body size , but not in a simple linear proportion . In general , smaller animals tend to have larger brains , measured as a fraction of body size . For mammals , the relationship between brain volume and body mass essentially follows a power law with an exponent of about 0.75 . This formula describes the central tendency , but every family of mammals departs from it to some degree , in a way that reflects in part the complexity of their behavior . For example , primates have brains 5 to 10 times larger than the formula predicts . Predators tend to have larger brains than their prey , relative to body size . The main subdivisions of the embryonic vertebrate brain , which later differentiate into the forebrain , midbrain and hindbrain . All vertebrate brains share a common underlying form , which appears most clearly during early stages of embryonic development . In its earliest form , the brain appears as three swellings at the front end of the neural tube ; these swellings eventually become the forebrain , midbrain , and hindbrain ( the prosencephalon , mesencephalon , and rhombencephalon , respectively ) . At the earliest stages of brain development , the three areas are roughly equal in size . In many classes of vertebrates , such as fish and amphibians , the three parts remain similar in size in the adult , but in mammals the forebrain becomes much larger than the other parts , and the midbrain becomes very small . The brains of vertebrates are made of very soft tissue . Living brain tissue is pinkish on the outside and mostly white on the inside , with subtle variations in color . Vertebrate brains are surrounded by a system of connective tissue membranes called meninges that separate the skull from the brain . Blood vessels enter the central nervous system through holes in the meningeal layers . The cells in the blood vessel walls are joined tightly to one another , forming the blood -- brain barrier , which blocks the passage of many toxins and pathogens ( though at the same time blocking antibodies and some drugs , thereby presenting special challenges in treatment of diseases of the brain ) . Neuroanatomists usually divide the vertebrate brain into six main regions : the telencephalon ( cerebral hemispheres ) , diencephalon ( thalamus and hypothalamus ) , mesencephalon ( midbrain ) , cerebellum , pons , and medulla oblongata . Each of these areas has a complex internal structure . Some parts , such as the cerebral cortex and the cerebellar cortex , consist of layers that are folded or convoluted to fit within the available space . Other parts , such as the thalamus and hypothalamus , consist of clusters of many small nuclei . Thousands of distinguishable areas can be identified within the vertebrate brain based on fine distinctions of neural structure , chemistry , and connectivity . Although the same basic components are present in all vertebrate brains , some branches of vertebrate evolution have led to substantial distortions of brain geometry , especially in the forebrain area . The brain of a shark shows the basic components in a straightforward way , but in teleost fishes ( the great majority of existing fish species ) , the forebrain has become `` everted '' , like a sock turned inside out . In birds , there are also major changes in forebrain structure . These distortions can make it difficult to match brain components from one species with those of another species . The main anatomical regions of the vertebrate brain , shown for shark and human . The same parts are present , but they differ greatly in size and shape . Here is a list of some of the most important vertebrate brain components , along with a brief description of their functions as currently understood : See also : List of regions in the human brain The medulla , along with the spinal cord , contains many small nuclei involved in a wide variety of sensory and involuntary motor functions such as vomiting , heart rate and digestive processes . The pons lies in the brainstem directly above the medulla . Among other things , it contains nuclei that control often voluntary but simple acts such as sleep , respiration , swallowing , bladder function , equilibrium , eye movement , facial expressions , and posture . The hypothalamus is a small region at the base of the forebrain , whose complexity and importance belies its size . It is composed of numerous small nuclei , each with distinct connections and neurochemistry . The hypothalamus is engaged in additional involuntary or partially voluntary acts such as sleep and wake cycles , eating and drinking , and the release of some hormones . The thalamus is a collection of nuclei with diverse functions : some are involved in relaying information to and from the cerebral hemispheres , while others are involved in motivation . The subthalamic area ( zona incerta ) seems to contain action - generating systems for several types of `` consummatory '' behaviors such as eating , drinking , defecation , and copulation . The cerebellum modulates the outputs of other brain systems , whether motor related or thought related , to make them certain and precise . Removal of the cerebellum does not prevent an animal from doing anything in particular , but it makes actions hesitant and clumsy . This precision is not built - in , but learned by trial and error . The muscle coordination learned while riding a bicycle is an example of a type of neural plasticity that may take place largely within the cerebellum. 10 % of the brain 's total volume consists of the cerebellum and 50 % of all neurons are held within its structure . The optic tectum allows actions to be directed toward points in space , most commonly in response to visual input . In mammals it is usually referred to as the superior colliculus , and its best - studied function is to direct eye movements . It also directs reaching movements and other object - directed actions . It receives strong visual inputs , but also inputs from other senses that are useful in directing actions , such as auditory input in owls and input from the thermosensitive pit organs in snakes . In some primitive fishes , such as lampreys , this region is the largest part of the brain . The superior colliculus is part of the midbrain . The pallium is a layer of gray matter that lies on the surface of the forebrain and is the most complex and most recent evolutionary development of the brain as an organ . In reptiles and mammals , it is called the cerebral cortex . Multiple functions involve the pallium , including smell and spatial memory . In mammals , where it becomes so large as to dominate the brain , it takes over functions from many other brain areas . In many mammals , the cerebral cortex consists of folded bulges called gyri that create deep furrows or fissures called sulci . The folds increase the surface area of the cortex and therefore increase the amount of gray matter and the amount of information that can be stored and processed . The hippocampus , strictly speaking , is found only in mammals . However , the area it derives from , the medial pallium , has counterparts in all vertebrates . There is evidence that this part of the brain is involved in complex events such as spatial memory and navigation in fishes , birds , reptiles , and mammals . The basal ganglia are a group of interconnected structures in the forebrain . The primary function of the basal ganglia appears to be action selection : they send inhibitory signals to all parts of the brain that can generate motor behaviors , and in the right circumstances can release the inhibition , so that the action - generating systems are able to execute their actions . Reward and punishment exert their most important neural effects by altering connections within the basal ganglia . The olfactory bulb is a special structure that processes olfactory sensory signals and sends its output to the olfactory part of the pallium . It is a major brain component in many vertebrates , but is greatly reduced in humans and other primates ( whose senses are dominated by information acquired by sight rather than smell ) . Mammals The most obvious difference between the brains of mammals and other vertebrates is in terms of size . On average , a mammal has a brain roughly twice as large as that of a bird of the same body size , and ten times as large as that of a reptile of the same body size . Size , however , is not the only difference : there are also substantial differences in shape . The hindbrain and midbrain of mammals are generally similar to those of other vertebrates , but dramatic differences appear in the forebrain , which is greatly enlarged and also altered in structure . The cerebral cortex is the part of the brain that most strongly distinguishes mammals . In non-mammalian vertebrates , the surface of the cerebrum is lined with a comparatively simple three - layered structure called the pallium . In mammals , the pallium evolves into a complex six - layered structure called neocortex or isocortex . Several areas at the edge of the neocortex , including the hippocampus and amygdala , are also much more extensively developed in mammals than in other vertebrates . The elaboration of the cerebral cortex carries with it changes to other brain areas . The superior colliculus , which plays a major role in visual control of behavior in most vertebrates , shrinks to a small size in mammals , and many of its functions are taken over by visual areas of the cerebral cortex . The cerebellum of mammals contains a large portion ( the neocerebellum ) dedicated to supporting the cerebral cortex , which has no counterpart in other vertebrates . Primates Encephalization Quotient Species EQ Human 7.4 -- 7.8 Chimpanzee 2.2 -- 2.5 Rhesus monkey Bottlenose dolphin 4.14 Elephant 1.13 -- 2.36 Dog 1.2 Horse 0.9 Rat 0.4 See also : Human brain The brains of humans and other primates contain the same structures as the brains of other mammals , but are generally larger in proportion to body size . The encephalization quotient ( EQ ) is used to compare brain sizes across species . It takes into account the nonlinearity of the brain - to - body relationship . Humans have an average EQ in the 7 - to - 8 range , while most other primates have an EQ in the 2 - to - 3 range . Dolphins have values higher than those of primates other than humans , but nearly all other mammals have EQ values that are substantially lower . Most of the enlargement of the primate brain comes from a massive expansion of the cerebral cortex , especially the prefrontal cortex and the parts of the cortex involved in vision . The visual processing network of primates includes at least 30 distinguishable brain areas , with a complex web of interconnections . It has been estimated that visual processing areas occupy more than half of the total surface of the primate neocortex . The prefrontal cortex carries out functions that include planning , working memory , motivation , attention , and executive control . It takes up a much larger proportion of the brain for primates than for other species , and an especially large fraction of the human brain . Development Main article : Neural development Brain of a human embryo in the sixth week of development . The brain develops in an intricately orchestrated sequence of stages . It changes in shape from a simple swelling at the front of the nerve cord in the earliest embryonic stages , to a complex array of areas and connections . Neurons are created in special zones that contain stem cells , and then migrate through the tissue to reach their ultimate locations . Once neurons have positioned themselves , their axons sprout and navigate through the brain , branching and extending as they go , until the tips reach their targets and form synaptic connections . In a number of parts of the nervous system , neurons and synapses are produced in excessive numbers during the early stages , and then the unneeded ones are pruned away . For vertebrates , the early stages of neural development are similar across all species . As the embryo transforms from a round blob of cells into a wormlike structure , a narrow strip of ectoderm running along the midline of the back is induced to become the neural plate , the precursor of the nervous system . The neural plate folds inward to form the neural groove , and then the lips that line the groove merge to enclose the neural tube , a hollow cord of cells with a fluid - filled ventricle at the center . At the front end , the ventricles and cord swell to form three vesicles that are the precursors of the forebrain , midbrain , and hindbrain . At the next stage , the forebrain splits into two vesicles called the telencephalon ( which will contain the cerebral cortex , basal ganglia , and related structures ) and the diencephalon ( which will contain the thalamus and hypothalamus ) . At about the same time , the hindbrain splits into the metencephalon ( which will contain the cerebellum and pons ) and the myelencephalon ( which will contain the medulla oblongata ) . Each of these areas contains proliferative zones where neurons and glial cells are generated ; the resulting cells then migrate , sometimes for long distances , to their final positions . Once a neuron is in place , it extends dendrites and an axon into the area around it . Axons , because they commonly extend a great distance from the cell body and need to reach specific targets , grow in a particularly complex way . The tip of a growing axon consists of a blob of protoplasm called a growth cone , studded with chemical receptors . These receptors sense the local environment , causing the growth cone to be attracted or repelled by various cellular elements , and thus to be pulled in a particular direction at each point along its path . The result of this pathfinding process is that the growth cone navigates through the brain until it reaches its destination area , where other chemical cues cause it to begin generating synapses . Considering the entire brain , thousands of genes create products that influence axonal pathfinding . The synaptic network that finally emerges is only partly determined by genes , though . In many parts of the brain , axons initially `` overgrow '' , and then are `` pruned '' by mechanisms that depend on neural activity . In the projection from the eye to the midbrain , for example , the structure in the adult contains a very precise mapping , connecting each point on the surface of the retina to a corresponding point in a midbrain layer . In the first stages of development , each axon from the retina is guided to the right general vicinity in the midbrain by chemical cues , but then branches very profusely and makes initial contact with a wide swath of midbrain neurons . The retina , before birth , contains special mechanisms that cause it to generate waves of activity that originate spontaneously at a random point and then propagate slowly across the retinal layer . These waves are useful because they cause neighboring neurons to be active at the same time ; that is , they produce a neural activity pattern that contains information about the spatial arrangement of the neurons . This information is exploited in the midbrain by a mechanism that causes synapses to weaken , and eventually vanish , if activity in an axon is not followed by activity of the target cell . The result of this sophisticated process is a gradual tuning and tightening of the map , leaving it finally in its precise adult form . Similar things happen in other brain areas : an initial synaptic matrix is generated as a result of genetically determined chemical guidance , but then gradually refined by activity - dependent mechanisms , partly driven by internal dynamics , partly by external sensory inputs . In some cases , as with the retina - midbrain system , activity patterns depend on mechanisms that operate only in the developing brain , and apparently exist solely to guide development . In humans and many other mammals , new neurons are created mainly before birth , and the infant brain contains substantially more neurons than the adult brain . There are , however , a few areas where new neurons continue to be generated throughout life . The two areas for which adult neurogenesis is well established are the olfactory bulb , which is involved in the sense of smell , and the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus , where there is evidence that the new neurons play a role in storing newly acquired memories . With these exceptions , however , the set of neurons that is present in early childhood is the set that is present for life . Glial cells are different : as with most types of cells in the body , they are generated throughout the lifespan . There has long been debate about whether the qualities of mind , personality , and intelligence can be attributed to heredity or to upbringing -- this is the nature and nurture controversy . Although many details remain to be settled , neuroscience research has clearly shown that both factors are important . Genes determine the general form of the brain , and genes determine how the brain reacts to experience . Experience , however , is required to refine the matrix of synaptic connections , which in its developed form contains far more information than the genome does . In some respects , all that matters is the presence or absence of experience during critical periods of development . In other respects , the quantity and quality of experience are important ; for example , there is substantial evidence that animals raised in enriched environments have thicker cerebral cortices , indicating a higher density of synaptic connections , than animals whose levels of stimulation are restricted . Physiology. The functions of the brain depend on the ability of neurons to transmit electrochemical signals to other cells , and their ability to respond appropriately to electrochemical signals received from other cells . The electrical properties of neurons are controlled by a wide variety of biochemical and metabolic processes , most notably the interactions between neurotransmitters and receptors that take place at synapses . Neurotransmitters and receptors Neurotransmitters are chemicals that are released at synapses when an action potential activates them -- neurotransmitters attach themselves to receptor molecules on the membrane of the synapse 's target cell , and thereby alter the electrical or chemical properties of the receptor molecules . With few exceptions , each neuron in the brain releases the same chemical neurotransmitter , or combination of neurotransmitters , at all the synaptic connections it makes with other neurons ; this rule is known as Dale 's principle . Thus , a neuron can be characterized by the neurotransmitters that it releases . The great majority of psychoactive drugs exert their effects by altering specific neurotransmitter systems . This applies to drugs such as cannabinoids , nicotine , heroin , cocaine , alcohol , fluoxetine , chlorpromazine , and many others . The two neurotransmitters that are used most widely in the vertebrate brain are glutamate , which almost always exerts excitatory effects on target neurons , and gamma - aminobutyric acid ( GABA ) , which is almost always inhibitory . Neurons using these transmitters can be found in nearly every part of the brain . Because of their ubiquity , drugs that act on glutamate or GABA tend to have broad and powerful effects . Some general anesthetics act by reducing the effects of glutamate ; most tranquilizers exert their sedative effects by enhancing the effects of GABA . There are dozens of other chemical neurotransmitters that are used in more limited areas of the brain , often areas dedicated to a particular function . Serotonin , for example -- the primary target of antidepressant drugs and many dietary aids -- comes exclusively from a small brainstem area called the raphe nuclei . Norepinephrine , which is involved in arousal , comes exclusively from a nearby small area called the locus coeruleus . Other neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine and dopamine have multiple sources in the brain , but are not as ubiquitously distributed as glutamate and GABA . Electrical activity Brain electrical activity recorded from a human patient during an epileptic seizure . As a side effect of the electrochemical processes used by neurons for signaling , brain tissue generates electric fields when it is active . When large numbers of neurons show synchronized activity , the electric fields that they generate can be large enough to detect outside the skull , using electroencephalography ( EEG ) or magnetoencephalography ( MEG ) . EEG recordings , along with recordings made from electrodes implanted inside the brains of animals such as rats , show that the brain of a living animal is constantly active , even during sleep . Each part of the brain shows a mixture of rhythmic and nonrhythmic activity , which may vary according to behavioral state . In mammals , the cerebral cortex tends to show large slow delta waves during sleep , faster alpha waves when the animal is awake but inattentive , and chaotic - looking irregular activity when the animal is actively engaged in a task . During an epileptic seizure , the brain 's inhibitory control mechanisms fail to function and electrical activity rises to pathological levels , producing EEG traces that show large wave and spike patterns not seen in a healthy brain . Relating these population - level patterns to the computational functions of individual neurons is a major focus of current research in neurophysiology . Metabolism All vertebrates have a blood -- brain barrier that allows metabolism inside the brain to operate differently from metabolism in other parts of the body . Glial cells play a major role in brain metabolism by controlling the chemical composition of the fluid that surrounds neurons , including levels of ions and nutrients . Brain tissue consumes a large amount of energy in proportion to its volume , so large brains place severe metabolic demands on animals . The need to limit body weight in order , for example , to fly , has apparently led to selection for a reduction of brain size in some species , such as bats . Most of the brain 's energy consumption goes into sustaining the electric charge ( membrane potential ) of neurons . Most vertebrate species devote between 2 % and 8 % of basal metabolism to the brain . In primates , however , the percentage is much higher -- in humans it rises to 20 -- 25 % . The energy consumption of the brain does not vary greatly over time , but active regions of the cerebral cortex consume somewhat more energy than inactive regions ; this forms the basis for the functional brain imaging methods PET , fMRI , and NIRS . The brain typically gets most of its energy from oxygen - dependent metabolism of glucose ( i.e. , blood sugar ) , but ketones provide a major alternative source , together with contributions from medium chain fatty acids ( caprylic and heptanoic acids ) , lactate , acetate , and possibly amino acids . Functions Model of a neural circuit in the cerebellum , as proposed by James S. Albus . Information from the sense organs is collected in the brain . There it is used to determine what actions the organism is to take . The brain processes the raw data to extract information about the structure of the environment . Next it combines the processed information with information about the current needs of the animal and with memory of past circumstances . Finally , on the basis of the results , it generates motor response patterns . These signal - processing tasks require intricate interplay between a variety of functional subsystems . The function of the brain is to provide coherent control over the actions of an animal . A centralized brain allows groups of muscles to be co-activated in complex patterns ; it also allows stimuli impinging on one part of the body to evoke responses in other parts , and it can prevent different parts of the body from acting at cross-purposes to each other . Perception Diagram of signal processing in the auditory system . The human brain is provided with information about light , sound , the chemical composition of the atmosphere , temperature , head orientation , limb position , the chemical composition of the bloodstream , and more . In other animals additional senses are present , such as the infrared heat - sense of snakes , the magnetic field sense of some birds , or the electric field sense of some types of fish . Each sensory system begins with specialized receptor cells , such as light - receptive neurons in the retina of the eye , or vibration - sensitive neurons in the cochlea of the ear . The axons of sensory receptor cells travel into the spinal cord or brain , where they transmit their signals to a first - order sensory nucleus dedicated to one specific sensory modality . This primary sensory nucleus sends information to higher - order sensory areas that are dedicated to the same modality . Eventually , via a way - station in the thalamus , the signals are sent to the cerebral cortex , where they are processed to extract the relevant features , and integrated with signals coming from other sensory systems . Motor control Motor systems are areas of the brain that are involved in initiating body movements , that is , in activating muscles . Except for the muscles that control the eye , which are driven by nuclei in the midbrain , all the voluntary muscles in the body are directly innervated by motor neurons in the spinal cord and hindbrain . Spinal motor neurons are controlled both by neural circuits intrinsic to the spinal cord , and by inputs that descend from the brain . The intrinsic spinal circuits implement many reflex responses , and contain pattern generators for rhythmic movements such as walking or swimming . The descending connections from the brain allow for more sophisticated control . The brain contains several motor areas that project directly to the spinal cord . At the lowest level are motor areas in the medulla and pons , which control stereotyped movements such as walking , breathing , or swallowing . At a higher level are areas in the midbrain , such as the red nucleus , which is responsible for coordinating movements of the arms and legs . At a higher level yet is the primary motor cortex , a strip of tissue located at the posterior edge of the frontal lobe . The primary motor cortex sends projections to the subcortical motor areas , but also sends a massive projection directly to the spinal cord , through the pyramidal tract . This direct corticospinal projection allows for precise voluntary control of the fine details of movements . Other motor - related brain areas exert secondary effects by projecting to the primary motor areas . Among the most important secondary areas are the premotor cortex , basal ganglia , and cerebellum . Major areas involved in controlling movement Area Location Function Ventral horn Spinal cord Contains motor neurons that directly activate muscles Oculomotor nuclei Midbrain Contains motor neurons that directly activate the eye muscles Cerebellum Hindbrain Calibrates precision and timing of movements Basal ganglia Forebrain Action selection on the basis of motivation Motor cortex Frontal lobe Direct cortical activation of spinal motor circuits Premotor cortex Frontal lobe Groups elementary movements into coordinated patterns Supplementary motor area Frontal lobe Sequences movements into temporal patterns Prefrontal cortex Frontal lobe Planning and other executive functions In addition to all of the above , the brain and spinal cord contain extensive circuitry to control the autonomic nervous system , which works by secreting hormones and by modulating the `` smooth '' muscles of the gut . Arousal See also : Sleep Many animals alternate between sleeping and waking in a daily cycle . Arousal and alertness are also modulated on a finer time scale by a network of brain areas . A key component of the arousal system is the suprachiasmatic nucleus ( SCN ) , a tiny part of the hypothalamus located directly above the point at which the optic nerves from the two eyes cross . The SCN contains the body 's central biological clock . Neurons there show activity levels that rise and fall with a period of about 24 hours , circadian rhythms : these activity fluctuations are driven by rhythmic changes in expression of a set of `` clock genes '' . The SCN continues to keep time even if it is excised from the brain and placed in a dish of warm nutrient solution , but it ordinarily receives input from the optic nerves , through the retinohypothalamic tract ( RHT ) , that allows daily light - dark cycles to calibrate the clock . The SCN projects to a set of areas in the hypothalamus , brainstem , and midbrain that are involved in implementing sleep - wake cycles . An important component of the system is the reticular formation , a group of neuron - clusters scattered diffusely through the core of the lower brain . Reticular neurons send signals to the thalamus , which in turn sends activity - level - controlling signals to every part of the cortex . Damage to the reticular formation can produce a permanent state of coma . Sleep involves great changes in brain activity . Until the 1950s it was generally believed that the brain essentially shuts off during sleep , but this is now known to be far from true ; activity continues , but patterns become very different . There are two types of sleep : REM sleep ( with dreaming ) and NREM ( non-REM , usually without dreaming ) sleep , which repeat in slightly varying patterns throughout a sleep episode . Three broad types of distinct brain activity patterns can be measured : REM , light NREM and deep NREM . During deep NREM sleep , also called slow wave sleep , activity in the cortex takes the form of large synchronized waves , whereas in the waking state it is noisy and desynchronized . Levels of the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and serotonin drop during slow wave sleep , and fall almost to zero during REM sleep ; levels of acetylcholine show the reverse pattern . Homeostasis Cross-section of a human head , showing location of the hypothalamus . For any animal , survival requires maintaining a variety of parameters of bodily state within a limited range of variation : these include temperature , water content , salt concentration in the bloodstream , blood glucose levels , blood oxygen level , and others . The ability of an animal to regulate the internal environment of its body -- the milieu intérieur , as pioneering physiologist Claude Bernard called it -- is known as homeostasis ( Greek for `` standing still '' ) . Maintaining homeostasis is a crucial function of the brain . The basic principle that underlies homeostasis is negative feedback : any time a parameter diverges from its set - point , sensors generate an error signal that evokes a response that causes the parameter to shift back toward its optimum value . ( This principle is widely used in engineering , for example in the control of temperature using a thermostat . ) In vertebrates , the part of the brain that plays the greatest role is the hypothalamus , a small region at the base of the forebrain whose size does not reflect its complexity or the importance of its function . The hypothalamus is a collection of small nuclei , most of which are involved in basic biological functions . Some of these functions relate to arousal or to social interactions such as sexuality , aggression , or maternal behaviors ; but many of them relate to homeostasis . Several hypothalamic nuclei receive input from sensors located in the lining of blood vessels , conveying information about temperature , sodium level , glucose level , blood oxygen level , and other parameters . These hypothalamic nuclei send output signals to motor areas that can generate actions to rectify deficiencies . Some of the outputs also go to the pituitary gland , a tiny gland attached to the brain directly underneath the hypothalamus . The pituitary gland secretes hormones into the bloodstream , where they circulate throughout the body and induce changes in cellular activity . Motivation Components of the basal ganglia , shown in two cross-sections of the human brain . Blue : caudate nucleus and putamen . Green : globus pallidus . Red : subthalamic nucleus . Black : substantia nigra . The individual animals need to express survival - promoting behaviors , such as seeking food , water , shelter , and a mate . The motivational system in the brain monitors the current state of satisfaction of these goals , and activates behaviors to meet any needs that arise . The motivational system works largely by a reward -- punishment mechanism . When a particular behavior is followed by favorable consequences , the reward mechanism in the brain is activated , which induces structural changes inside the brain that cause the same behavior to be repeated later , whenever a similar situation arises . Conversely , when a behavior is followed by unfavorable consequences , the brain 's punishment mechanism is activated , inducing structural changes that cause the behavior to be suppressed when similar situations arise in the future . Most organisms studied to date utilize a reward -- punishment mechanism : for instance , worms and insects can alter their behavior to seek food sources or to avoid dangers . In vertebrates , the reward - punishment system is implemented by a specific set of brain structures , at the heart of which lie the basal ganglia , a set of interconnected areas at the base of the forebrain . The basal ganglia are the central site at which decisions are made : the basal ganglia exert a sustained inhibitory control over most of the motor systems in the brain ; when this inhibition is released , a motor system is permitted to execute the action it is programmed to carry out . Rewards and punishments function by altering the relationship between the inputs that the basal ganglia receive and the decision - signals that are emitted . The reward mechanism is better understood than the punishment mechanism , because its role in drug abuse has caused it to be studied very intensively . Research has shown that the neurotransmitter dopamine plays a central role : addictive drugs such as cocaine , amphetamine , and nicotine either cause dopamine levels to rise or cause the effects of dopamine inside the brain to be enhanced . Learning and memory Almost all animals are capable of modifying their behavior as a result of experience -- even the most primitive types of worms . Because behavior is driven by brain activity , changes in behavior must somehow correspond to changes inside the brain . Already in the late 19th century theorists like Santiago Ramón y Cajal argued that the most plausible explanation is that learning and memory are expressed as changes in the synaptic connections between neurons . Until 1970 , however , experimental evidence to support the synaptic plasticity hypothesis was lacking . In 1971 Tim Bliss and Terje Lømo published a paper on a phenomenon now called long - term potentiation : the paper showed clear evidence of activity - induced synaptic changes that lasted for at least several days . Since then technical advances have made these sorts of experiments much easier to carry out , and thousands of studies have been made that have clarified the mechanism of synaptic change , and uncovered other types of activity - driven synaptic change in a variety of brain areas , including the cerebral cortex , hippocampus , basal ganglia , and cerebellum . Brain - derived neurotrophic factor ( BDNF ) and physical activity appear to play a beneficial role in the process . Neuroscientists currently distinguish several types of learning and memory that are implemented by the brain in distinct ways : Working memory is the ability of the brain to maintain a temporary representation of information about the task that an animal is currently engaged in . This sort of dynamic memory is thought to be mediated by the formation of cell assemblies -- groups of activated neurons that maintain their activity by constantly stimulating one another . Episodic memory is the ability to remember the details of specific events . This sort of memory can last for a lifetime . Much evidence implicates the hippocampus in playing a crucial role : people with severe damage to the hippocampus sometimes show amnesia , that is , inability to form new long - lasting episodic memories . Semantic memory is the ability to learn facts and relationships . This sort of memory is probably stored largely in the cerebral cortex , mediated by changes in connections between cells that represent specific types of information . Instrumental learning is the ability for rewards and punishments to modify behavior . It is implemented by a network of brain areas centered on the basal ganglia . Motor learning is the ability to refine patterns of body movement by practicing , or more generally by repetition . A number of brain areas are involved , including the premotor cortex , basal ganglia , and especially the cerebellum , which functions as a large memory bank for microadjustments of the parameters of movement . Research Main article : Neuroscience The Human Brain Project is a large scientific research project , starting in 2013 , which aims to simulate the complete human brain . The field of neuroscience encompasses all approaches that seek to understand the brain and the rest of the nervous system . Psychology seeks to understand mind and behavior , and neurology is the medical discipline that diagnoses and treats diseases of the nervous system . The brain is also the most important organ studied in psychiatry , the branch of medicine that works to study , prevent , and treat mental disorders . Cognitive science seeks to unify neuroscience and psychology with other fields that concern themselves with the brain , such as computer science ( artificial intelligence and similar fields ) and philosophy . The oldest method of studying the brain is anatomical , and until the middle of the 20th century , much of the progress in neuroscience came from the development of better cell stains and better microscopes . Neuroanatomists study the large - scale structure of the brain as well as the microscopic structure of neurons and their components , especially synapses . Among other tools , they employ a plethora of stains that reveal neural structure , chemistry , and connectivity . In recent years , the development of immunostaining techniques has allowed investigation of neurons that express specific sets of genes . Also , functional neuroanatomy uses medical imaging techniques to correlate variations in human brain structure with differences in cognition or behavior . Neurophysiologists study the chemical , pharmacological , and electrical properties of the brain : their primary tools are drugs and recording devices . Thousands of experimentally developed drugs affect the nervous system , some in highly specific ways . Recordings of brain activity can be made using electrodes , either glued to the scalp as in EEG studies , or implanted inside the brains of animals for extracellular recordings , which can detect action potentials generated by individual neurons . Because the brain does not contain pain receptors , it is possible using these techniques to record brain activity from animals that are awake and behaving without causing distress . The same techniques have occasionally been used to study brain activity in human patients suffering from intractable epilepsy , in cases where there was a medical necessity to implant electrodes to localize the brain area responsible for epileptic seizures . Functional imaging techniques such as functional magnetic resonance imaging are also used to study brain activity ; these techniques have mainly been used with human subjects , because they require a conscious subject to remain motionless for long periods of time , but they have the great advantage of being noninvasive . Design of an experiment in which brain activity from a monkey was used to control a robotic arm . Another approach to brain function is to examine the consequences of damage to specific brain areas . Even though it is protected by the skull and meninges , surrounded by cerebrospinal fluid , and isolated from the bloodstream by the blood -- brain barrier , the delicate nature of the brain makes it vulnerable to numerous diseases and several types of damage . In humans , the effects of strokes and other types of brain damage have been a key source of information about brain function . Because there is no ability to experimentally control the nature of the damage , however , this information is often difficult to interpret . In animal studies , most commonly involving rats , it is possible to use electrodes or locally injected chemicals to produce precise patterns of damage and then examine the consequences for behavior . Computational neuroscience encompasses two approaches : first , the use of computers to study the brain ; second , the study of how brains perform computation . On one hand , it is possible to write a computer program to simulate the operation of a group of neurons by making use of systems of equations that describe their electrochemical activity ; such simulations are known as biologically realistic neural networks . On the other hand , it is possible to study algorithms for neural computation by simulating , or mathematically analyzing , the operations of simplified `` units '' that have some of the properties of neurons but abstract out much of their biological complexity . The computational functions of the brain are studied both by computer scientists and neuroscientists . Computational neurogenetic modeling is concerned with the study and development of dynamic neuronal models for modeling brain functions with respect to genes and dynamic interactions between genes . Recent years have seen increasing applications of genetic and genomic techniques to the study of the brain and a focus on the roles of neurotrophic factors and physical activity in neuroplasticity . The most common subjects are mice , because of the availability of technical tools . It is now possible with relative ease to `` knock out '' or mutate a wide variety of genes , and then examine the effects on brain function . More sophisticated approaches are also being used : for example , using Cre - Lox recombination it is possible to activate or deactivate genes in specific parts of the brain , at specific times . History Illustration by René Descartes of how the brain implements a reflex response . See also : History of neuroscience The oldest brain to have been discovered was in Armenia in the Areni - 1 cave complex . The brain , estimated to be over 5,000 years old , was found in the skull of a 12 to 14 - year - old girl . Although the brains were shriveled , they were well preserved due to the climate found inside the cave . Early philosophers were divided as to whether the seat of the soul lies in the brain or heart . Aristotle favored the heart , and thought that the function of the brain was merely to cool the blood . Democritus , the inventor of the atomic theory of matter , argued for a three - part soul , with intellect in the head , emotion in the heart , and lust near the liver . Hippocrates , the `` father of medicine '' , came down unequivocally in favor of the brain . In his treatise on epilepsy he wrote : Men ought to know that from nothing else but the brain come joys , delights , laughter and sports , and sorrows , griefs , despondency , and lamentations ... And by the same organ we become mad and delirious , and fears and terrors assail us , some by night , and some by day , and dreams and untimely wanderings , and cares that are not suitable , and ignorance of present circumstances , desuetude , and unskillfulness . All these things we endure from the brain , when it is not healthy ... Hippocrates , On the Sacred Disease Andreas Vesalius ' Fabrica , published in 1543 , showing the base of the human brain , including optic chiasma , cerebellum , olfactory bulbs , etc . The Roman physician Galen also argued for the importance of the brain , and theorized in some depth about how it might work . Galen traced out the anatomical relationships among brain , nerves , and muscles , demonstrating that all muscles in the body are connected to the brain through a branching network of nerves . He postulated that nerves activate muscles mechanically by carrying a mysterious substance he called pneumata psychikon , usually translated as `` animal spirits '' . Galen 's ideas were widely known during the Middle Ages , but not much further progress came until the Renaissance , when detailed anatomical study resumed , combined with the theoretical speculations of René Descartes and those who followed him . Descartes , like Galen , thought of the nervous system in hydraulic terms . He believed that the highest cognitive functions are carried out by a non-physical res cogitans , but that the majority of behaviors of humans , and all behaviors of animals , could be explained mechanistically . The first real progress toward a modern understanding of nervous function , though , came from the investigations of Luigi Galvani , who discovered that a shock of static electricity applied to an exposed nerve of a dead frog could cause its leg to contract . Since that time , each major advance in understanding has followed more or less directly from the development of a new technique of investigation . Until the early years of the 20th century , the most important advances were derived from new methods for staining cells . Particularly critical was the invention of the Golgi stain , which ( when correctly used ) stains only a small fraction of neurons , but stains them in their entirety , including cell body , dendrites , and axon . Without such a stain , brain tissue under a microscope appears as an impenetrable tangle of protoplasmic fibers , in which it is impossible to determine any structure . In the hands of Camillo Golgi , and especially of the Spanish neuroanatomist Santiago Ramón y Cajal , the new stain revealed hundreds of distinct types of neurons , each with its own unique dendritic structure and pattern of connectivity . Drawing by Santiago Ramón y Cajal of two types of Golgi - stained neurons from the cerebellum of a pigeon . In the first half of the 20th century , advances in electronics enabled investigation of the electrical properties of nerve cells , culminating in work by Alan Hodgkin , Andrew Huxley , and others on the biophysics of the action potential , and the work of Bernard Katz and others on the electrochemistry of the synapse . These studies complemented the anatomical picture with a conception of the brain as a dynamic entity . Reflecting the new understanding , in 1942 Charles Sherrington visualized the workings of the brain waking from sleep : The great topmost sheet of the mass , that where hardly a light had twinkled or moved , becomes now a sparkling field of rhythmic flashing points with trains of traveling sparks hurrying hither and thither . The brain is waking and with it the mind is returning . It is as if the Milky Way entered upon some cosmic dance . Swiftly the head mass becomes an enchanted loom where millions of flashing shuttles weave a dissolving pattern , always a meaningful pattern though never an abiding one ; a shifting harmony of subpatterns . -- Sherrington , 1942 , Man on his Nature The invention of electronic computers in the 1940s , along with the development of mathematical information theory , led to a realization that brains can potentially be understood as information processing systems . This concept formed the basis of the field of cybernetics , and eventually gave rise to the field now known as computational neuroscience . The earliest attempts at cybernetics were somewhat crude in that they treated the brain as essentially a digital computer in disguise , as for example in John von Neumann 's 1958 book , The Computer and the Brain . Over the years , though , accumulating information about the electrical responses of brain cells recorded from behaving animals has steadily moved theoretical concepts in the direction of increasing realism . One of the most influential early contributions was a 1959 paper titled What the frog 's eye tells the frog 's brain : the paper examined the visual responses of neurons in the retina and optic tectum of frogs , and came to the conclusion that some neurons in the tectum of the frog are wired to combine elementary responses in a way that makes them function as `` bug perceivers '' . A few years later David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel discovered cells in the primary visual cortex of monkeys that become active when sharp edges move across specific points in the field of view -- a discovery for which they won a Nobel Prize . Follow - up studies in higher - order visual areas found cells that detect binocular disparity , color , movement , and aspects of shape , with areas located at increasing distances from the primary visual cortex showing increasingly complex responses . Other investigations of brain areas unrelated to vision have revealed cells with a wide variety of response correlates , some related to memory , some to abstract types of cognition such as space . Theorists have worked to understand these response patterns by constructing mathematical models of neurons and neural networks , which can be simulated using computers . Some useful models are abstract , focusing on the conceptual structure of neural algorithms rather than the details of how they are implemented in the brain ; other models attempt to incorporate data about the biophysical properties of real neurons . No model on any level is yet considered to be a fully valid description of brain function , though . The essential difficulty is that sophisticated computation by neural networks requires distributed processing in which hundreds or thousands of neurons work cooperatively -- current methods of brain activity recording are only capable of isolating action potentials from a few dozen neurons at a time . Furthermore , even single neurons appear to be complex and capable of performing computations . So , brain models that do n't reflect this are too abstract to be representative of brain operation ; models that do try to capture this are very computationally expensive and arguably intractable with present computational resources . However , the Human Brain Project is trying to build a realistic , detailed computational model of the entire human brain . The wisdom of this approach has been publicly contested , with high - profile scientists on both sides of the argument . In the second half of the 20th century , developments in chemistry , electron microscopy , genetics , computer science , functional brain imaging , and other fields progressively opened new windows into brain structure and function . In the United States , the 1990s were officially designated as the `` Decade of the Brain '' to commemorate advances made in brain research , and to promote funding for such research . In the 21st century , these trends have continued , and several new approaches have come into prominence , including multielectrode recording , which allows the activity of many brain cells to be recorded all at the same time ; genetic engineering , which allows molecular components of the brain to be altered experimentally ; genomics , which allows variations in brain structure to be correlated with variations in DNA properties and neuroimaging . Other uses As food Gulai otak , cattle 's brain curry from Indonesia Animal brains are used as food in numerous cuisines . In rituals Some archaeological evidence suggests that the mourning rituals of European Neanderthals also involved the consumption of the brain . The Fore people of Papua New Guinea are known to eat human brains . In funerary rituals , those close to the dead would eat the brain of the deceased to create a sense of immortality . A prion disease called kuru has been traced to this . 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Archived from the original ( pdf ) on 2011 - 09 - 28 . Jump up ^ Hubel , DH ; Wiesel , TN ( 2005 ) . Brain and visual perception : the story of a 25 - year collaboration . Oxford University Press US . pp. 657 -- 704 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 517618 - 6 . Jump up ^ Farah , MJ ( 2000 ) . The Cognitive Neuroscience of Vision . Wiley - Blackwell . pp. 1 -- 29 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 631 - 21403 - 8 . Jump up ^ Engel , AK ; Singer , W ( 2001 ) . `` Temporal binding and the neural correlates of sensory awareness '' . Trends in Cognitive Sciences . 5 ( 1 ) : 16 -- 25 . doi : 10.1016 / S1364 - 6613 ( 00 ) 01568 - 0 . PMID 11164732 . Jump up ^ Dayan , P ; Abbott , LF ( 2005 ) . `` Ch. 7 : Network models '' . Theoretical Neuroscience . MIT Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 262 - 54185 - 5 . Jump up ^ Averbeck , BB ; Lee , D ( 2004 ) . `` Coding and transmission of information by neural ensembles '' . Trends in Neurosciences. 27 ( 4 ) : 225 -- 230 . doi : 10.1016 / j. tins. 2004.02. 006 . PMID 15046882 . Jump up ^ Forrest , MD ( 2014 ) . `` Intracellular Calcium Dynamics Permit a Purkinje Neuron Model to Perform Toggle and Gain Computations Upon its Inputs '' . Frontiers in Computational Neuroscience. 8 : 86 . doi : 10.3389 / fncom. 2014.00086 . PMC 4138505 . PMID 25191262 . Jump up ^ Jones , EG ; Mendell , LM ( 1999 ) . `` Assessing the Decade of the Brain '' . Science . 284 ( 5415 ) : 739 . Bibcode : 1999Sci ... 284 ... 739J . doi : 10.1126 / science. 284.5415. 739 . PMID 10336393 . Jump up ^ Buzsáki , G ( 2004 ) . `` Large - scale recording of neuronal ensembles '' ( PDF ) . Nature Neuroscience. 7 ( 5 ) : 446 -- 451 . doi : 10.1038 / nn1233 . PMID 15114356 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2006 - 09 - 10 . Jump up ^ Geschwind , DH ; Konopka , G ( 2009 ) . `` Neuroscience in the era of functional genomics and systems biology '' . Nature . 461 ( 7266 ) : 908 -- 915 . Bibcode : 2009Natur. 461 ... 908G . doi : 10.1038 / nature08537 . PMC 3645852 . PMID 19829370 . Jump up ^ Connell , Evan S. ( 2001 ) . The Aztec Treasure House . Counterpoint Press . ISBN 1 - 58243 - 162 - 0 . Jump up ^ Collins , S ; McLean CA ; Masters CL ( 2001 ) . `` Gerstmann - Straussler - Scheinker syndrome , fatal familial insomnia , and kuru : a review of these less common human transmissible spongiform encephalopathies '' . Journal of Clinical Neuroscience. 8 ( 5 ) : 387 -- 97 . doi : 10.1054 / jocn. 2001.0919 . PMID 11535002 . Jump up ^ `` The History of Brain Tan : page 1 '' . Braintan.com . Retrieved 2013 - 12 - 07 . Jump up ^ Mammals ( 2008 - 08 - 26 ) . `` Brain Tanning : Animal Planet '' . Animal.discovery.com . Archived from the original on 2013 - 06 - 29 . Retrieved 2013 - 12 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Tanning Deer Hides and Small Fur Skins '' ( PDF ) . The Official Site of the Tennessee Government . Retrieved 2013 - 12 - 07 . External links Wikiquote has quotations related to : Brain Wikimedia Commons has media related to Brain . 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where does the brain get its energy from

most of its energy from oxygen-dependent metabolism of glucose (i.e., blood sugar),[73] but ketones provide a major alternative source, together with contributions from medium chain fatty acids (caprylic[78] and heptanoic[79] acids), lactate,[80] acetate,[81] and possibly amino acids

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On the Origin of species - wikipedia On the Origin of species Jump to : navigation , search `` Origin of Species '' redirects here . For other uses , see Origin of Species ( disambiguation ) . On the Origin of Species The title page of the 1859 edition of On the Origin of Species Author Charles Darwin Country United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland Language English Subject Natural selection Evolutionary biology Published 24 November 1859 ( John Murray ) Media type Print ( Hardback ) Pages 502 OCLC 352242 Preceded by On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties ; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection Followed by Fertilisation of Orchids Part of a series on Evolutionary biology Key topics ( show ) Introduction to evolution Common descent Evidence of common descent Processes and outcomes ( show ) Population genetics Variation Diversity Mutation Natural selection Adaptation Polymorphism Genetic drift Gene flow Speciation Adaptive radiation Co-operation Coevolution Divergence Convergence Parallel evolution Extinction Natural history ( show ) Origin of life History of life Timeline of evolution Human evolution Phylogeny Biodiversity Biogeography Classification Evolutionary taxonomy Cladistics Transitional fossil Extinction event History of evolutionary theory ( show ) Overview Renaissance Before Darwin Darwin Origin of Species Before synthesis Modern synthesis Molecular evolution Evo - devo Current research History of speciation History of paleontology ( timeline ) Fields and applications ( show ) Applications of evolution Biosocial criminology Ecological genetics Evolutionary aesthetics Evolutionary anthropology Evolutionary computation Evolutionary ecology Evolutionary economics Evolutionary epistemology Evolutionary ethics Evolutionary game theory Evolutionary linguistics Evolutionary medicine Evolutionary neuroscience Evolutionary physiology Evolutionary psychology Experimental evolution Phylogenetics Paleontology Selective breeding Speciation experiments Sociobiology Systematics Universal Darwinism Social implications ( show ) Evolution as fact and theory Social effects Creation -- evolution controversy Objections to evolution Level of support Evolutionary biology portal Category Book Related topics On the Origin of Species ( or more completely , On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection , or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life ) , published on 24 November 1859 , is a work of scientific literature by Charles Darwin which is considered to be the foundation of evolutionary biology . Darwin 's book introduced the scientific theory that populations evolve over the course of generations through a process of natural selection . It presented a body of evidence that the diversity of life arose by common descent through a branching pattern of evolution . Darwin included evidence that he had gathered on the Beagle expedition in the 1830s and his subsequent findings from research , correspondence , and experimentation . Various evolutionary ideas had already been proposed to explain new findings in biology . There was growing support for such ideas among dissident anatomists and the general public , but during the first half of the 19th century the English scientific establishment was closely tied to the Church of England , while science was part of natural theology . Ideas about the transmutation of species were controversial as they conflicted with the beliefs that species were unchanging parts of a designed hierarchy and that humans were unique , unrelated to other animals . The political and theological implications were intensely debated , but transmutation was not accepted by the scientific mainstream . The book was written for non-specialist readers and attracted widespread interest upon its publication . As Darwin was an eminent scientist , his findings were taken seriously and the evidence he presented generated scientific , philosophical , and religious discussion . The debate over the book contributed to the campaign by T. H. Huxley and his fellow members of the X Club to secularise science by promoting scientific naturalism . Within two decades there was widespread scientific agreement that evolution , with a branching pattern of common descent , had occurred , but scientists were slow to give natural selection the significance that Darwin thought appropriate . During `` the eclipse of Darwinism '' from the 1880s to the 1930s , various other mechanisms of evolution were given more credit . With the development of the modern evolutionary synthesis in the 1930s and 1940s , Darwin 's concept of evolutionary adaptation through natural selection became central to modern evolutionary theory , and it has now become the unifying concept of the life sciences . Contents ( hide ) 1 Summary of Darwin 's theory 2 Background 2.1 Developments before Darwin 's theory 2.2 Inception of Darwin 's theory 2.3 Further development 3 Publication 3.1 Time taken to publish 3.2 Events leading to publication : `` big book '' manuscript 3.3 Joint publication of papers by Wallace and Darwin 3.4 Abstract of Species book 3.5 Murray as publisher ; choice of title 3.6 Publication and subsequent editions 3.7 Publication outside Great Britain 4 Content 4.1 Title pages and introduction 4.2 Variation under domestication and under nature 4.3 Struggle for existence , natural selection , and divergence 4.4 Variation and heredity 4.5 Difficulties for the theory 4.6 Geologic record 4.7 Geographic distribution 4.8 Classification , morphology , embryology , rudimentary organs 4.9 Concluding remarks 5 Structure , style , and themes 5.1 Nature and structure of Darwin 's argument 5.2 Literary style 5.3 Human evolution 6 Reception 6.1 Impact on the scientific community 6.1. 1 Impact outside Great Britain 6.1. 2 Challenges to natural selection 6.2 Impact on economic and political debates 6.3 Religious attitudes 7 Modern influence 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Further reading 11.1 Contemporary reviews 12 External links Summary of Darwin 's theory ( edit ) Darwin pictured shortly before publication Darwin 's theory of evolution is based on key facts and the inferences drawn from them , which biologist Ernst Mayr summarised as follows : Every species is fertile enough that if all offspring survived to reproduce , the population would grow ( fact ) . Despite periodic fluctuations , populations remain roughly the same size ( fact ) . Resources such as food are limited and are relatively stable over time ( fact ) . A struggle for survival ensues ( inference ) . Individuals in a population vary significantly from one another ( fact ) . Much of this variation is heritable ( fact ) . Individuals less suited to the environment are less likely to survive and less likely to reproduce ; individuals more suited to the environment are more likely to survive and more likely to reproduce and leave their heritable traits to future generations , which produces the process of natural selection ( fact ) . This slowly effected process results in populations changing to adapt to their environments , and ultimately , these variations accumulate over time to form new species ( inference ) . Background ( edit ) See also : History of evolutionary thought and History of biology Developments before Darwin 's theory ( edit ) In later editions of the book , Darwin traced evolutionary ideas as far back as Aristotle ; the text he cites is a summary by Aristotle of the ideas of the earlier Greek philosopher Empedocles . Early Christian Church Fathers and Medieval European scholars interpreted the Genesis creation narrative allegorically rather than as a literal historical account ; organisms were described by their mythological and heraldic significance as well as by their physical form . Nature was widely believed to be unstable and capricious , with monstrous births from union between species , and spontaneous generation of life . Cuvier 's 1799 paper on living and fossil elephants helped establish the reality of extinction . The Protestant Reformation inspired a literal interpretation of the Bible , with concepts of creation that conflicted with the findings of an emerging science seeking explanations congruent with the mechanical philosophy of René Descartes and the empiricism of the Baconian method . After the turmoil of the English Civil War , the Royal Society wanted to show that science did not threaten religious and political stability . John Ray developed an influential natural theology of rational order ; in his taxonomy , species were static and fixed , their adaptation and complexity designed by God , and varieties showed minor differences caused by local conditions . In God 's benevolent design , carnivores caused mercifully swift death , but the suffering caused by parasitism was a puzzling problem . The biological classification introduced by Carl Linnaeus in 1735 also viewed species as fixed according to the divine plan . In 1766 , Georges Buffon suggested that some similar species , such as horses and asses , or lions , tigers , and leopards , might be varieties descended from a common ancestor . The Ussher chronology of the 1650s had calculated creation at 4004 BC , but by the 1780s geologists assumed a much older world . Wernerians thought strata were deposits from shrinking seas , but James Hutton proposed a self - maintaining infinite cycle , anticipating uniformitarianism . Charles Darwin 's grandfather Erasmus Darwin outlined a hypothesis of transmutation of species in the 1790s , and Jean - Baptiste Lamarck published a more developed theory in 1809 . Both envisaged that spontaneous generation produced simple forms of life that progressively developed greater complexity , adapting to the environment by inheriting changes in adults caused by use or disuse . This process was later called Lamarckism . Lamarck thought there was an inherent progressive tendency driving organisms continuously towards greater complexity , in parallel but separate lineages with no extinction . Geoffroy contended that embryonic development recapitulated transformations of organisms in past eras when the environment acted on embryos , and that animal structures were determined by a constant plan as demonstrated by homologies . Georges Cuvier strongly disputed such ideas , holding that unrelated , fixed species showed similarities that reflected a design for functional needs . His palæontological work in the 1790s had established the reality of extinction , which he explained by local catastrophes , followed by repopulation of the affected areas by other species . In Britain , William Paley 's Natural Theology saw adaptation as evidence of beneficial `` design '' by the Creator acting through natural laws . All naturalists in the two English universities ( Oxford and Cambridge ) were Church of England clergymen , and science became a search for these laws . Geologists adapted catastrophism to show repeated worldwide annihilation and creation of new fixed species adapted to a changed environment , initially identifying the most recent catastrophe as the biblical flood . Some anatomists such as Robert Grant were influenced by Lamarck and Geoffroy , but most naturalists regarded their ideas of transmutation as a threat to divinely appointed social order . Inception of Darwin 's theory ( edit ) See also : Charles Darwin 's education and Inception of Darwin 's theory Darwin went to Edinburgh University in 1825 to study medicine . In his second year he neglected his medical studies for natural history and spent four months assisting Robert Grant 's research into marine invertebrates . Grant revealed his enthusiasm for the transmutation of species , but Darwin rejected it . Starting in 1827 , at Cambridge University , Darwin learnt science as natural theology from botanist John Stevens Henslow , and read Paley , John Herschel and Alexander von Humboldt . Filled with zeal for science , he studied catastrophist geology with Adam Sedgwick . In mid-July 1837 Darwin started his `` B '' notebook on Transmutation of Species , and on page 36 wrote `` I think '' above his first evolutionary tree . In December 1831 , he joined the Beagle expedition as a gentleman naturalist and geologist . He read Charles Lyell 's Principles of Geology and from the first stop ashore , at St. Jago , found Lyell 's uniformitarianism a key to the geological history of landscapes . Darwin discovered fossils resembling huge armadillos , and noted the geographical distribution of modern species in hope of finding their `` centre of creation '' . The three Fuegian missionaries the expedition returned to Tierra del Fuego were friendly and civilised , yet to Darwin their relatives on the island seemed `` miserable , degraded savages '' , and he no longer saw an unbridgeable gap between humans and animals . As the Beagle neared England in 1836 , he noted that species might not be fixed . Richard Owen showed that fossils of extinct species Darwin found in South America were allied to living species on the same continent . In March 1837 , ornithologist John Gould announced that Darwin 's rhea was a separate species from the previously described rhea ( though their territories overlapped ) , that mockingbirds collected on the Galápagos Islands represented three separate species each unique to a particular island , and that several distinct birds from those islands were all classified as finches . Darwin began speculating , in a series of notebooks , on the possibility that `` one species does change into another '' to explain these findings , and around July sketched a genealogical branching of a single evolutionary tree , discarding Lamarck 's independent lineages progressing to higher forms . Unconventionally , Darwin asked questions of fancy pigeon and animal breeders as well as established scientists . At the zoo he had his first sight of an ape , and was profoundly impressed by how human the orangutan seemed . In late September 1838 , he started reading Thomas Malthus 's An Essay on the Principle of Population with its statistical argument that human populations , if unrestrained , breed beyond their means and struggle to survive . Darwin related this to the struggle for existence among wildlife and botanist de Candolle 's `` warring of the species '' in plants ; he immediately envisioned `` a force like a hundred thousand wedges '' pushing well - adapted variations into `` gaps in the economy of nature '' , so that the survivors would pass on their form and abilities , and unfavourable variations would be destroyed . By December 1838 , he had noted a similarity between the act of breeders selecting traits and a Malthusian Nature selecting among variants thrown up by `` chance '' so that `` every part of newly acquired structure is fully practical and perfected '' . Darwin now had the basic framework of his theory of natural selection , but he was fully occupied with his career as a geologist and held back from compiling it until his book on The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs was completed . As he recalled in his autobiography , he had `` at last got a theory by which to work '' , but it was only in June 1842 that he allowed himself `` the satisfaction of writing a very brief abstract of my theory in pencil '' . Further development ( edit ) See also : Development of Darwin 's theory Darwin continued to research and extensively revise his theory while focusing on his main work of publishing the scientific results of the Beagle voyage . He tentatively wrote of his ideas to Lyell in January 1842 ; then in June he roughed out a 35 - page `` Pencil Sketch '' of his theory . Darwin began correspondence about his theorising with the botanist Joseph Dalton Hooker in January 1844 , and by July had rounded out his `` sketch '' into a 230 - page `` Essay '' , to be expanded with his research results and published if he died prematurely . Darwin researched how the skulls of different pigeon breeds varied , as shown in his Variation of Plants and Animals Under Domestication of 1868 . In November 1844 , the anonymously published popular science book Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation , written by Scottish journalist Robert Chambers , widened public interest in the concept of transmutation of species . Vestiges used evidence from the fossil record and embryology to support the claim that living things had progressed from the simple to the more complex over time . But it proposed a linear progression rather than the branching common descent theory behind Darwin 's work in progress , and it ignored adaptation . Darwin read it soon after publication , and scorned its amateurish geology and zoology , but he carefully reviewed his own arguments after leading scientists , including Adam Sedgwick , attacked its morality and scientific errors . Vestiges had significant influence on public opinion , and the intense debate helped to pave the way for the acceptance of the more scientifically sophisticated Origin by moving evolutionary speculation into the mainstream . While few naturalists were willing to consider transmutation , Herbert Spencer became an active proponent of Lamarckism and progressive development in the 1850s . Hooker was persuaded to take away a copy of the `` Essay '' in January 1847 , and eventually sent a page of notes giving Darwin much needed feedback . Reminded of his lack of expertise in taxonomy , Darwin began an eight - year study of barnacles , becoming the leading expert on their classification . Using his theory , he discovered homologies showing that slightly changed body parts served different functions to meet new conditions , and he found an intermediate stage in the evolution of distinct sexes . Darwin 's barnacle studies convinced him that variation arose constantly and not just in response to changed circumstances . In 1854 , he completed the last part of his Beagle - related writing and began working full - time on evolution . He now realised that the branching pattern of evolutionary divergence was explained by natural selection working constantly to improve adaptation . His thinking changed from the view that species formed in isolated populations only , as on islands , to an emphasis on speciation without isolation ; that is , he saw increasing specialisation within large stable populations as continuously exploiting new ecological niches . He conducted empirical research focusing on difficulties with his theory . He studied the developmental and anatomical differences between different breeds of many domestic animals , became actively involved in fancy pigeon breeding , and experimented ( with the help of his son Francis ) on ways that plant seeds and animals might disperse across oceans to colonise distant islands . By 1856 , his theory was much more sophisticated , with a mass of supporting evidence . Publication ( edit ) Main article : Publication of Darwin 's theory Time taken to publish ( edit ) In his autobiography , Darwin said he had `` gained much by my delay in publishing from about 1839 , when the theory was clearly conceived , to 1859 ; and I lost nothing by it '' . On the first page of his 1859 book he noted that , having begun work on the topic in 1837 , he had drawn up `` some short notes '' after five years , had enlarged these into a sketch in 1844 , and `` from that period to the present day I have steadily pursued the same object . '' Various biographers have proposed that Darwin avoided or delayed making his ideas public for personal reasons . Reasons suggested have included fear of religious persecution or social disgrace if his views were revealed , and concern about upsetting his clergymen naturalist friends or his pious wife Emma . Charles Darwin 's illness caused repeated delays . His paper on Glen Roy had proved embarrassingly wrong , and he may have wanted to be sure he was correct . David Quammen has suggested all these factors may have contributed , and notes Darwin 's large output of books and busy family life during that time . A more recent study by science historian John van Wyhe has determined that the idea that Darwin delayed publication only dates back to the 1940s , and Darwin 's contemporaries thought the time he took was reasonable . Darwin always finished one book before starting another . While he was researching , he told many people about his interest in transmutation without causing outrage . He firmly intended to publish , but it was not until September 1854 that he could work on it full - time . His 1846 estimate that writing his `` big book '' would take five years proved optimistic . Events leading to publication : `` big book '' manuscript ( edit ) A photograph of Alfred Russel Wallace ( 1823 -- 1913 ) taken in Singapore in 1862 An 1855 paper on the `` introduction '' of species , written by Alfred Russel Wallace , claimed that patterns in the geographical distribution of living and fossil species could be explained if every new species always came into existence near an already existing , closely related species . Charles Lyell recognised the implications of Wallace 's paper and its possible connection to Darwin 's work , although Darwin did not , and in a letter written on 1 -- 2 May 1856 Lyell urged Darwin to publish his theory to establish priority . Darwin was torn between the desire to set out a full and convincing account and the pressure to quickly produce a short paper . He met Lyell , and in correspondence with Joseph Dalton Hooker affirmed that he did not want to expose his ideas to review by an editor as would have been required to publish in an academic journal . He began a `` sketch '' account on 14 May 1856 , and by July had decided to produce a full technical treatise on species as his `` big book '' on Natural Selection . His theory including the principle of divergence was complete by 5 September 1857 when he sent Asa Gray a brief but detailed abstract of his ideas . Joint publication of papers by Wallace and Darwin ( edit ) Darwin was hard at work on the manuscript for his `` big book '' on Natural Selection , when on 18 June 1858 he received a parcel from Wallace , who stayed on the Maluku Islands ( Ternate and Gilolo ) . It enclosed twenty pages describing an evolutionary mechanism , a response to Darwin 's recent encouragement , with a request to send it on to Lyell if Darwin thought it worthwhile . The mechanism was similar to Darwin 's own theory . Darwin wrote to Lyell that `` your words have come true with a vengeance , ... forestalled '' and he would `` of course , at once write and offer to send ( it ) to any journal '' that Wallace chose , adding that `` all my originality , whatever it may amount to , will be smashed '' . Lyell and Hooker agreed that a joint publication putting together Wallace 's pages with extracts from Darwin 's 1844 Essay and his 1857 letter to Gray should be presented at the Linnean Society , and on 1 July 1858 , the papers entitled On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties ; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection , by Wallace and Darwin respectively , were read out but drew little reaction . While Darwin considered Wallace 's idea to be identical to his concept of natural selection , historians have pointed out differences . Darwin described natural selection as being analogous to the artificial selection practised by animal breeders , and emphasised competition between individuals ; Wallace drew no comparison to selective breeding , and focused on ecological pressures that kept different varieties adapted to local conditions . Some historians have suggested that Wallace was actually discussing group selection rather than selection acting on individual variation . Abstract of species book ( edit ) Soon after the meeting , Darwin decided to write `` an abstract of my whole work '' in the form of one or more papers to be published by the Linnean Society , but was concerned about `` how it can be made scientific for a Journal , without giving facts , which would be impossible . '' He asked Hooker how many pages would be available , but `` If the Referees were to reject it as not strictly scientific I would , perhaps publish it as pamphet . '' He began his `` abstract of Species book '' on 20 July 1858 , while on holiday at Sandown , and wrote parts of it from memory , while sending the manuscripts to his friends for checking . By early October , he began to `` expect my abstract will run into a small volume , which will have to be published separately . '' Over the same period , he continued to collect information and write large fully detailed sections of the manuscript for his `` big book '' on Species , Natural Selection . Murray as publisher ; choice of title ( edit ) By mid March 1859 Darwin 's abstract had reached the stage where he was thinking of early publication ; Lyell suggested the publisher John Murray , and met with him to find if he would be willing to publish . On 28 March Darwin wrote to Lyell asking about progress , and offering to give Murray assurances `` that my Book is not more un-orthodox , than the subject makes inevitable . '' He enclosed a draft title sheet proposing An abstract of an Essay on the Origin of Species and Varieties Through natural selection , with the year shown as `` 1859 '' . Murray 's response was favourable , and a very pleased Darwin told Lyell on 30 March that he would `` send shortly a large bundle of M.S. but unfortunately I can not for a week , as the three first chapters are in three copyists ' hands '' . He bowed to Murray 's objection to `` abstract '' in the title , though he felt it excused the lack of references , but wanted to keep `` natural selection '' which was `` constantly used in all works on Breeding '' , and hoped `` to retain it with Explanation , somewhat as thus '' , -- Through Natural Selection or the preservation of favoured races . On 31 March Darwin wrote to Murray in confirmation , and listed headings of the 12 chapters in progress : he had drafted all except `` XII . Recapitulation & Conclusion '' . Murray responded immediately with an agreement to publish the book on the same terms as he published Lyell , without even seeing the manuscript : he offered Darwin ​ ⁄ of the profits . Darwin promptly accepted with pleasure , insisting that Murray would be free to withdraw the offer if , having read the chapter manuscripts , he felt the book would not sell well . ( eventually Murray paid £ 180 to Darwin for the 1st edition and by Darwin 's death in 1882 the book was in its 6th edition , earning Darwin nearly £ 3000 . ) On 5 April , Darwin sent Murray the first three chapters , and a proposal for the book 's title . An early draft title page suggests On the Mutability of Species . Murray cautiously asked Whitwell Elwin to review the chapters . At Lyell 's suggestion , Elwin recommended that , rather than `` put forth the theory without the evidence '' , the book should focus on observations upon pigeons , briefly stating how these illustrated Darwin 's general principles and preparing the way for the larger work expected shortly : `` Every body is interested in pigeons . '' Darwin responded that this was impractical : he had only the last chapter still to write . In September the main title still included `` An essay on the origin of species and varieties '' , but Darwin now proposed dropping `` varieties '' . With Murray 's persuasion , the title was eventually agreed as On the Origin of Species , with the title page adding by Means of Natural Selection , or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life . In this extended title ( and elsewhere in the book ) Darwin used the biological term `` races '' interchangeably with `` varieties '' , meaning varieties within a species . He used the term broadly , and as well as discussions of `` the several races , for instance , of the cabbage '' and `` the hereditary varieties or races of our domestic animals and plants '' , there are three instances in the book where the phrase `` races of man '' is used , referring to races of humans . Publication and subsequent editions ( edit ) On the Origin of Species was first published on Thursday 24 November 1859 , priced at fifteen shillings with a first printing of 1250 copies . The book had been offered to booksellers at Murray 's autumn sale on Tuesday 22 November , and all available copies had been taken up immediately . In total , 1,250 copies were printed but after deducting presentation and review copies , and five for Stationers ' Hall copyright , around 1,170 copies were available for sale . Significantly , 500 were taken by Mudie 's Library , ensuring that the book promptly reached a large number of subscribers to the library . The second edition of 3,000 copies was quickly brought out on 7 January 1860 , and incorporated numerous corrections as well as a response to religious objections by the addition of a new epigraph on page ii , a quotation from Charles Kingsley , and the phrase `` by the Creator '' added to the closing sentence . During Darwin 's lifetime the book went through six editions , with cumulative changes and revisions to deal with counter-arguments raised . The third edition came out in 1861 , with a number of sentences rewritten or added and an introductory appendix , An Historical Sketch of the Recent Progress of Opinion on the Origin of Species , while the fourth in 1866 had further revisions . The fifth edition , published on 10 February 1869 , incorporated more changes and for the first time included the phrase `` survival of the fittest '' , which had been coined by the philosopher Herbert Spencer in his Principles of Biology ( 1864 ) . In January 1871 , George Jackson Mivart 's On the Genesis of Species listed detailed arguments against natural selection , and claimed it included false metaphysics . Darwin made extensive revisions to the sixth edition of the Origin ( this was the first edition in which he used the word `` evolution '' which had commonly been associated with embryological development , though all editions concluded with the word `` evolved '' ) , and added a new chapter VII , Miscellaneous objections , to address Mivart 's arguments . The sixth edition was published by Murray on 19 February 1872 as The Origin of Species , with `` On '' dropped from the title . Darwin had told Murray of working men in Lancashire clubbing together to buy the 5th edition at fifteen shillings and wanted it made more widely available ; the price was halved to 7 s 6 d by printing in a smaller font . It includes a glossary compiled by W.S. Dallas . Book sales increased from 60 to 250 per month . Publication outside great Britain ( edit ) American botanist Asa Gray ( 1810 -- 1888 ) In the United States , botanist Asa Gray , an American colleague of Darwin , negotiated with a Boston publisher for publication of an authorised American version , but learnt that two New York publishing firms were already planning to exploit the absence of international copyright to print Origin . Darwin was delighted by the popularity of the book , and asked Gray to keep any profits . Gray managed to negotiate a 5 % royalty with Appleton 's of New York , who got their edition out in mid January 1860 , and the other two withdrew . In a May letter , Darwin mentioned a print run of 2,500 copies , but it is not clear if this referred to the first printing only as there were four that year . The book was widely translated in Darwin 's lifetime , but problems arose with translating concepts and metaphors , and some translations were biased by the translator 's own agenda . Darwin distributed presentation copies in France and Germany , hoping that suitable applicants would come forward , as translators were expected to make their own arrangements with a local publisher . He welcomed the distinguished elderly naturalist and geologist Heinrich Georg Bronn , but the German translation published in 1860 imposed Bronn 's own ideas , adding controversial themes that Darwin had deliberately omitted . Bronn translated `` favoured races '' as `` perfected races '' , and added essays on issues including the origin of life , as well as a final chapter on religious implications partly inspired by Bronn 's adherence to Naturphilosophie . In 1862 , Bronn produced a second edition based on the third English edition and Darwin 's suggested additions , but then died of a heart attack . Darwin corresponded closely with Julius Victor Carus , who published an improved translation in 1867 . Darwin 's attempts to find a translator in France fell through , and the translation by Clémence Royer published in 1862 added an introduction praising Darwin 's ideas as an alternative to religious revelation and promoting ideas anticipating social Darwinism and eugenics , as well as numerous explanatory notes giving her own answers to doubts that Darwin expressed . Darwin corresponded with Royer about a second edition published in 1866 and a third in 1870 , but he had difficulty getting her to remove her notes and was troubled by these editions . He remained unsatisfied until a translation by Edmond Barbier was published in 1876 . A Dutch translation by Tiberius Cornelis Winkler was published in 1860 . By 1864 , additional translations had appeared in Italian and Russian . In Darwin 's lifetime , Origin was published in Swedish in 1871 , Danish in 1872 , Polish in 1873 , Hungarian in 1873 -- 1874 , Spanish in 1877 and Serbian in 1878 . By 1977 , it had appeared in an additional 18 languages . Content ( edit ) Title pages and introduction ( edit ) John Gould 's illustration of Darwin 's rhea was published in 1841 . The existence of two rhea species with overlapping ranges influenced Darwin . Page ii contains quotations by William Whewell and Francis Bacon on the theology of natural laws , harmonising science and religion in accordance with Isaac Newton 's belief in a rational God who established a law - abiding cosmos . In the second edition , Darwin added an epigraph from Joseph Butler affirming that God could work through scientific laws as much as through miracles , in a nod to the religious concerns of his oldest friends . The Introduction establishes Darwin 's credentials as a naturalist and author , then refers to John Herschel 's letter suggesting that the origin of species `` would be found to be a natural in contradistinction to a miraculous process '' : WHEN on board HMS Beagle , as naturalist , I was much struck with certain facts in the distribution of the inhabitants of South America , and in the geological relations of the present to the past inhabitants of that continent . These facts seemed to me to throw some light on the origin of species -- that mystery of mysteries , as it has been called by one of our greatest philosophers . Darwin refers specifically to the distribution of the species rheas , and to that of the Galápagos tortoises and mockingbirds . He mentions his years of work on his theory , and the arrival of Wallace at the same conclusion , which led him to `` publish this Abstract '' of his incomplete work . He outlines his ideas , and sets out the essence of his theory : As many more individuals of each species are born than can possibly survive ; and as , consequently , there is a frequently recurring struggle for existence , it follows that any being , if it vary however slightly in any manner profitable to itself , under the complex and sometimes varying conditions of life , will have a better chance of surviving , and thus be naturally selected . From the strong principle of inheritance , any selected variety will tend to propagate its new and modified form . Starting with the third edition , Darwin prefaced the introduction with a sketch of the historical development of evolutionary ideas . In that sketch he acknowledged that Patrick Matthew had , unknown to Wallace or himself , anticipated the concept of natural selection in an appendix to a book published in 1831 ; in the fourth edition he mentioned that William Charles Wells had done so as early as 1813 . Variation under Domestication and under nature ( edit ) Chapter I covers animal husbandry and plant breeding , going back to ancient Egypt . Darwin discusses contemporary opinions on the origins of different breeds under cultivation to argue that many have been produced from common ancestors by selective breeding . As an illustration of artificial selection , he describes fancy pigeon breeding , noting that `` ( t ) he diversity of the breeds is something astonishing '' , yet all were descended from one species of rock pigeon . Darwin saw two distinct kinds of variation : ( 1 ) rare abrupt changes he called `` sports '' or `` monstrosities '' ( example : Ancon sheep with short legs ) , and ( 2 ) ubiquitous small differences ( example : slightly shorter or longer bill of pigeons ) . Both types of hereditary changes can be used by breeders . However , for Darwin the small changes were most important in evolution . In Chapter II , Darwin specifies that the distinction between species and varieties is arbitrary , with experts disagreeing and changing their decisions when new forms were found . He concludes that `` a well - marked variety may be justly called an incipient species '' and that `` species are only strongly marked and permanent varieties '' . He argues for the ubiquity of variation in nature . Historians have noted that naturalists had long been aware that the individuals of a species differed from one another , but had generally considered such variations to be limited and unimportant deviations from the archetype of each species , that archetype being a fixed ideal in the mind of God . Darwin and Wallace made variation among individuals of the same species central to understanding the natural world . Struggle for existence , natural selection , and divergence ( edit ) In Chapter III , Darwin asks how varieties `` which I have called incipient species '' become distinct species , and in answer introduces the key concept he calls `` natural selection '' ; in the fifth edition he adds , `` But the expression often used by Mr. Herbert Spencer , of the Survival of the Fittest , is more accurate , and is sometimes equally convenient . '' Owing to this struggle for life , any variation , however slight and from whatever cause proceeding , if it be in any degree profitable to an individual of any species , in its infinitely complex relations to other organic beings and to external nature , will tend to the preservation of that individual , and will generally be inherited by its offspring ... I have called this principle , by which each slight variation , if useful , is preserved , by the term of Natural Selection , in order to mark its relation to man 's power of selection . He notes that both A.P. de Candolle and Charles Lyell had stated that all organisms are exposed to severe competition . Darwin emphasizes that he used the phrase `` struggle for existence '' in `` a large and metaphorical sense , including dependence of one being on another '' ; he gives examples ranging from plants struggling against drought to plants competing for birds to eat their fruit and disseminate their seeds . He describes the struggle resulting from population growth : `` It is the doctrine of Malthus applied with manifold force to the whole animal and vegetable kingdoms . '' He discusses checks to such increase including complex ecological interdependencies , and notes that competition is most severe between closely related forms `` which fill nearly the same place in the economy of nature '' . Chapter IV details natural selection under the `` infinitely complex and close - fitting ... mutual relations of all organic beings to each other and to their physical conditions of life '' . Darwin takes as an example a country where a change in conditions led to extinction of some species , immigration of others and , where suitable variations occurred , descendants of some species became adapted to new conditions . He remarks that the artificial selection practised by animal breeders frequently produced sharp divergence in character between breeds , and suggests that natural selection might do the same , saying : But how , it may be asked , can any analogous principle apply in nature ? I believe it can and does apply most efficiently , from the simple circumstance that the more diversified the descendants from any one species become in structure , constitution , and habits , by so much will they be better enabled to seize on many and widely diversified places in the polity of nature , and so be enabled to increase in numbers . Historians have remarked that here Darwin anticipated the modern concept of an ecological niche . He did not suggest that every favourable variation must be selected , nor that the favoured animals were better or higher , but merely more adapted to their surroundings . This tree diagram , used to show the divergence of species , is the only illustration in the Origin of Species . Darwin proposes sexual selection , driven by competition between males for mates , to explain sexually dimorphic features such as lion manes , deer antlers , peacock tails , bird songs , and the bright plumage of some male birds . He analysed sexual selection more fully in The Descent of Man , and Selection in Relation to Sex ( 1871 ) . Natural selection was expected to work very slowly in forming new species , but given the effectiveness of artificial selection , he could `` see no limit to the amount of change , to the beauty and infinite complexity of the coadaptations between all organic beings , one with another and with their physical conditions of life , which may be effected in the long course of time by nature 's power of selection '' . Using a tree diagram and calculations , he indicates the `` divergence of character '' from original species into new species and genera . He describes branches falling off as extinction occurred , while new branches formed in `` the great Tree of life ... with its ever branching and beautiful ramifications '' . Variation and heredity ( edit ) In Darwin 's time there was no agreed - upon model of heredity ; in Chapter I Darwin admitted , `` The laws governing inheritance are quite unknown . '' He accepted a version of the inheritance of acquired characteristics ( which after Darwin 's death came to be called Lamarckism ) , and Chapter V discusses what he called the effects of use and disuse ; he wrote that he thought `` there can be little doubt that use in our domestic animals strengthens and enlarges certain parts , and disuse diminishes them ; and that such modifications are inherited '' , and that this also applied in nature . Darwin stated that some changes that were commonly attributed to use and disuse , such as the loss of functional wings in some island dwelling insects , might be produced by natural selection . In later editions of Origin , Darwin expanded the role attributed to the inheritance of acquired characteristics . Darwin also admitted ignorance of the source of inheritable variations , but speculated they might be produced by environmental factors . However , one thing was clear : whatever the exact nature and causes of new variations , Darwin knew from observation and experiment that breeders were able to select such variations and produce huge differences in many generations of selection . The observation that selection works in domestic animals is not destroyed by lack of understanding of the underlying hereditary mechanism . Breeding of animals and plants showed related varieties varying in similar ways , or tending to revert to an ancestral form , and similar patterns of variation in distinct species were explained by Darwin as demonstrating common descent . He recounted how Lord Morton 's mare apparently demonstrated telegony , offspring inheriting characteristics of a previous mate of the female parent , and accepted this process as increasing the variation available for natural selection . More detail was given in Darwin 's 1868 book on The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication , which tried to explain heredity through his hypothesis of pangenesis . Although Darwin had privately questioned blending inheritance , he struggled with the theoretical difficulty that novel individual variations would tend to blend into a population . However , inherited variation could be seen , and Darwin 's concept of selection working on a population with a range of small variations was workable . It was not until the modern evolutionary synthesis in the 1930s and 1940s that a model of heredity became completely integrated with a model of variation . This modern evolutionary synthesis had been dubbed Neo Darwinian Evolution because it encompasses Charles Darwin 's theories of evolution with Gregor Mendel 's theories of genetic inheritance . Difficulties for the theory ( edit ) Chapter VI begins by saying the next three chapters will address possible objections to the theory , the first being that often no intermediate forms between closely related species are found , though the theory implies such forms must have existed . As Darwin noted , `` Firstly , why , if species have descended from other species by insensibly fine gradations , do we not everywhere see innumerable transitional forms ? Why is not all nature in confusion , instead of the species being , as we see them , well defined ? '' Darwin attributed this to the competition between different forms , combined with the small number of individuals of intermediate forms , often leading to extinction of such forms . This difficulty can be referred to as the absence or rarity of transitional varieties in habitat space . Another difficulty , related to the first one , is the absence or rarity of transitional varieties in time . Darwin commented that by the theory of natural selection `` innumerable transitional forms must have existed , '' and wondered `` why do we not find them embedded in countless numbers in the crust of the earth ? '' ( for further discussion of these difficulties , see Speciation # Darwin 's dilemma : Why do species exist ? and Bernstein et al. and Michod ) The chapter then deals with whether natural selection could produce complex specialised structures , and the behaviours to use them , when it would be difficult to imagine how intermediate forms could be functional . Darwin said : Secondly , is it possible that an animal having , for instance , the structure and habits of a bat , could have been formed by the modification of some animal with wholly different habits ? Can we believe that natural selection could produce , on the one hand , organs of trifling importance , such as the tail of a giraffe , which serves as a fly - flapper , and , on the other hand , organs of such wonderful structure , as the eye , of which we hardly as yet fully understand the inimitable perfection ? His answer was that in many cases animals exist with intermediate structures that are functional . He presented flying squirrels , and flying lemurs as examples of how bats might have evolved from non-flying ancestors . He discussed various simple eyes found in invertebrates , starting with nothing more than an optic nerve coated with pigment , as examples of how the vertebrate eye could have evolved . Darwin concludes : `` If it could be demonstrated that any complex organ existed , which could not possibly have been formed by numerous , successive , slight modifications , my theory would absolutely break down . But I can find out no such case . '' In a section on `` organs of little apparent importance '' , Darwin discusses the difficulty of explaining various seemingly trivial traits with no evident adaptive function , and outlines some possibilities such as correlation with useful features . He accepts that we `` are profoundly ignorant of the causes producing slight and unimportant variations '' which distinguish domesticated breeds of animals , and human races . He suggests that sexual selection might explain these variations : I might have adduced for this same purpose the differences between the races of man , which are so strongly marked ; I may add that some little light can apparently be thrown on the origin of these differences , chiefly through sexual selection of a particular kind , but without here entering on copious details my reasoning would appear frivolous . Chapter VII ( of the first edition ) addresses the evolution of instincts . His examples included two he had investigated experimentally : slave - making ants and the construction of hexagonal cells by honey bees . Darwin noted that some species of slave - making ants were more dependent on slaves than others , and he observed that many ant species will collect and store the pupae of other species as food . He thought it reasonable that species with an extreme dependency on slave workers had evolved in incremental steps . He suggested that bees that make hexagonal cells evolved in steps from bees that made round cells , under pressure from natural selection to economise wax . Darwin concluded : Finally , it may not be a logical deduction , but to my imagination it is far more satisfactory to look at such instincts as the young cuckoo ejecting its foster - brothers , -- ants making slaves , -- the larvæ of ichneumonidæ feeding within the live bodies of caterpillars , -- not as specially endowed or created instincts , but as small consequences of one general law , leading to the advancement of all organic beings , namely , multiply , vary , let the strongest live and the weakest die . Chapter VIII addresses the idea that species had special characteristics that prevented hybrids from being fertile in order to preserve separately created species . Darwin said that , far from being constant , the difficulty in producing hybrids of related species , and the viability and fertility of the hybrids , varied greatly , especially among plants . Sometimes what were widely considered to be separate species produced fertile hybrid offspring freely , and in other cases what were considered to be mere varieties of the same species could only be crossed with difficulty . Darwin concluded : `` Finally , then , the facts briefly given in this chapter do not seem to me opposed to , but even rather to support the view , that there is no fundamental distinction between species and varieties . '' In the sixth edition Darwin inserted a new chapter VII ( renumbering the subsequent chapters ) to respond to criticisms of earlier editions , including the objection that many features of organisms were not adaptive and could not have been produced by natural selection . He said some such features could have been by - products of adaptive changes to other features , and that often features seemed non-adaptive because their function was unknown , as shown by his book on Fertilisation of Orchids that explained how their elaborate structures facilitated pollination by insects . Much of the chapter responds to George Jackson Mivart 's criticisms , including his claim that features such as baleen filters in whales , flatfish with both eyes on one side and the camouflage of stick insects could not have evolved through natural selection because intermediate stages would not have been adaptive . Darwin proposed scenarios for the incremental evolution of each feature . Geologic record ( edit ) Chapter IX deals with the fact that the geologic record appears to show forms of life suddenly arising , without the innumerable transitional fossils expected from gradual changes . Darwin borrowed Charles Lyell 's argument in Principles of Geology that the record is extremely imperfect as fossilisation is a very rare occurrence , spread over vast periods of time ; since few areas had been geologically explored , there could only be fragmentary knowledge of geological formations , and fossil collections were very poor . Evolved local varieties which migrated into a wider area would seem to be the sudden appearance of a new species . Darwin did not expect to be able to reconstruct evolutionary history , but continuing discoveries gave him well founded hope that new finds would occasionally reveal transitional forms . To show that there had been enough time for natural selection to work slowly , he cited the example of The Weald as discussed in Principles of Geology together with other observations from Hugh Miller , James Smith of Jordanhill and Andrew Ramsay . Combining this with an estimate of recent rates of sedimentation and erosion , Darwin calculated that erosion of The Weald had taken around 300 million years . The initial appearance of entire groups of well developed organisms in the oldest fossil - bearing layers , now known as the Cambrian explosion , posed a problem . Darwin had no doubt that earlier seas had swarmed with living creatures , but stated that he had no satisfactory explanation for the lack of fossils . Fossil evidence of pre-Cambrian life has since been found , extending the history of life back for billions of years . Chapter X examines whether patterns in the fossil record are better explained by common descent and branching evolution through natural selection , than by the individual creation of fixed species . Darwin expected species to change slowly , but not at the same rate -- some organisms such as Lingula were unchanged since the earliest fossils . The pace of natural selection would depend on variability and change in the environment . This distanced his theory from Lamarckian laws of inevitable progress . It has been argued that this anticipated the punctuated equilibrium hypothesis , but other scholars have preferred to emphasise Darwin 's commitment to gradualism . He cited Richard Owen 's findings that the earliest members of a class were a few simple and generalised species with characteristics intermediate between modern forms , and were followed by increasingly diverse and specialised forms , matching the branching of common descent from an ancestor . Patterns of extinction matched his theory , with related groups of species having a continued existence until extinction , then not reappearing . Recently extinct species were more similar to living species than those from earlier eras , and as he had seen in South America , and William Clift had shown in Australia , fossils from recent geological periods resembled species still living in the same area . Geographic distribution ( edit ) Chapter XI deals with evidence from biogeography , starting with the observation that differences in flora and fauna from separate regions can not be explained by environmental differences alone ; South America , Africa , and Australia all have regions with similar climates at similar latitudes , but those regions have very different plants and animals . The species found in one area of a continent are more closely allied with species found in other regions of that same continent than to species found on other continents . Darwin noted that barriers to migration played an important role in the differences between the species of different regions . The coastal sea life of the Atlantic and Pacific sides of Central America had almost no species in common even though the Isthmus of Panama was only a few miles wide . His explanation was a combination of migration and descent with modification . He went on to say : `` On this principle of inheritance with modification , we can understand how it is that sections of genera , whole genera , and even families are confined to the same areas , as is so commonly and notoriously the case . '' Darwin explained how a volcanic island formed a few hundred miles from a continent might be colonised by a few species from that continent . These species would become modified over time , but would still be related to species found on the continent , and Darwin observed that this was a common pattern . Darwin discussed ways that species could be dispersed across oceans to colonise islands , many of which he had investigated experimentally . Chapter XII continues the discussion of biogeography . After a brief discussion of freshwater species , it returns to oceanic islands and their peculiarities ; for example on some islands roles played by mammals on continents were played by other animals such as flightless birds or reptiles . The summary of both chapters says : ... I think all the grand leading facts of geographical distribution are explicable on the theory of migration ( generally of the more dominant forms of life ) , together with subsequent modification and the multiplication of new forms . We can thus understand the high importance of barriers , whether of land or water , which separate our several zoological and botanical provinces . We can thus understand the localisation of sub-genera , genera , and families ; and how it is that under different latitudes , for instance in South America , the inhabitants of the plains and mountains , of the forests , marshes , and deserts , are in so mysterious a manner linked together by affinity , and are likewise linked to the extinct beings which formerly inhabited the same continent ... On these same principles , we can understand , as I have endeavoured to show , why oceanic islands should have few inhabitants , but of these a great number should be endemic or peculiar ; ... Classification , morphology , embryology , rudimentary organs ( edit ) Chapter XIII starts by observing that classification depends on species being grouped together in a Taxonomy , a multilevel system of groups and sub groups based on varying degrees of resemblance . After discussing classification issues , Darwin concludes : All the foregoing rules and aids and difficulties in classification are explained , if I do not greatly deceive myself , on the view that the natural system is founded on descent with modification ; that the characters which naturalists consider as showing true affinity between any two or more species , are those which have been inherited from a common parent , and , in so far , all true classification is genealogical ; that community of descent is the hidden bond which naturalists have been unconsciously seeking , ... Darwin discusses morphology , including the importance of homologous structures . He says , `` What can be more curious than that the hand of a man , formed for grasping , that of a mole for digging , the leg of the horse , the paddle of the porpoise , and the wing of the bat , should all be constructed on the same pattern , and should include the same bones , in the same relative positions ? '' This made no sense under doctrines of independent creation of species , as even Richard Owen had admitted , but the `` explanation is manifest on the theory of the natural selection of successive slight modifications '' showing common descent . He notes that animals of the same class often have extremely similar embryos . Darwin discusses rudimentary organs , such as the wings of flightless birds and the rudiments of pelvis and leg bones found in some snakes . He remarks that some rudimentary organs , such as teeth in baleen whales , are found only in embryonic stages . These factors also supported his theory of descent with modification . Concluding remarks ( edit ) The final chapter `` Recapitulation and Conclusion '' reviews points from earlier chapters , and Darwin concludes by hoping that his theory might produce revolutionary changes in many fields of natural history . He suggests that psychology will be put on a new foundation and implies the relevance of his theory to the first appearance of humanity with the sentence that `` Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history . '' Darwin ends with a passage that became well known and much quoted : It is interesting to contemplate an entangled bank , clothed with many plants of many kinds , with birds singing on the bushes , with various insects flitting about , and with worms crawling through the damp earth , and to reflect that these elaborately constructed forms , so different from each other , and dependent on each other in so complex a manner , have all been produced by laws acting around us ... Thus , from the war of nature , from famine and death , the most exalted object which we are capable of conceiving , namely , the production of the higher animals , directly follows . There is grandeur in this view of life , with its several powers , having been originally breathed into a few forms or into one ; and that , whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity , from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been , and are being , evolved . As discussed under religious attitudes , Darwin added the phrase `` by the Creator '' from the 1860 second edition onwards , so that the ultimate sentence began `` There is grandeur in this view of life , with its several powers , having been originally breathed by the Creator into a few forms or into one '' . Structure , style , and themes ( edit ) Nature and structure of Darwin 's argument ( edit ) Darwin 's aims were twofold : to show that species had not been separately created , and to show that natural selection had been the chief agent of change . He knew that his readers were already familiar with the concept of transmutation of species from Vestiges , and his introduction ridicules that work as failing to provide a viable mechanism . Therefore , the first four chapters lay out his case that selection in nature , caused by the struggle for existence , is analogous to the selection of variations under domestication , and that the accumulation of adaptive variations provides a scientifically testable mechanism for evolutionary speciation . Later chapters provide evidence that evolution has occurred , supporting the idea of branching , adaptive evolution without directly proving that selection is the mechanism . Darwin presents supporting facts drawn from many disciplines , showing that his theory could explain a myriad of observations from many fields of natural history that were inexplicable under the alternate concept that species had been individually created . The structure of Darwin 's argument showed the influence of John Herschel , whose philosophy of science maintained that a mechanism could be called a vera causa ( true cause ) if three things could be demonstrated : its existence in nature , its ability to produce the effects of interest , and its ability to explain a wide range of observations . Literary style ( edit ) The Examiner review of 3 December 1859 commented , `` Much of Mr. Darwin 's volume is what ordinary readers would call ' tough reading ; ' that is , writing which to comprehend requires concentrated attention and some preparation for the task . All , however , is by no means of this description , and many parts of the book abound in information , easy to comprehend and both instructive and entertaining . '' While the book was readable enough to sell , its dryness ensured that it was seen as aimed at specialist scientists and could not be dismissed as mere journalism or imaginative fiction . Unlike the still - popular Vestiges , it avoided the narrative style of the historical novel and cosmological speculation , though the closing sentence clearly hinted at cosmic progression . Darwin had long been immersed in the literary forms and practices of specialist science , and made effective use of his skills in structuring arguments . David Quammen has described the book as written in everyday language for a wide audience , but noted that Darwin 's literary style was uneven : in some places he used convoluted sentences that are difficult to read , while in other places his writing was beautiful . Quammen advised that later editions were weakened by Darwin making concessions and adding details to address his critics , and recommended the first edition . James T. Costa said that because the book was an abstract produced in haste in response to Wallace 's essay , it was more approachable than the big book on natural selection Darwin had been working on , which would have been encumbered by scholarly footnotes and much more technical detail . He added that some parts of Origin are dense , but other parts are almost lyrical , and the case studies and observations are presented in a narrative style unusual in serious scientific books , which broadened its audience . Human evolution ( edit ) From his early transmutation notebooks in the late 1830s onwards , Darwin considered human evolution as part of the natural processes he was investigating , and rejected divine intervention . In 1856 , his `` big book on species '' titled Natural Selection was to include a `` note on Man '' , but when Wallace enquired in December 1857 , Darwin replied ; `` You ask whether I shall discuss ' man ' ; -- I think I shall avoid whole subject , as so surrounded with prejudices , though I fully admit that it is the highest & most interesting problem for the naturalist . '' On 28 March 1859 , with his manuscript for the book well under way , Darwin wrote to Lyell offering the suggested publisher John Murray assurances `` That I do not discuss origin of man '' . In the final chapter of On the Origin of Species , `` Recapitulation and Conclusion '' , Darwin briefly highlights the human implications of his theory : In the distant future I see open fields for far more important researches . Psychology will be based on a new foundation , that of the necessary acquirement of each mental power and capacity by gradation . Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history . '' Discussing this in January 1860 , Darwin assured Lyell that `` by the sentence ( Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history ) I show that I believe man is in same predicament with other animals . Many modern writers have seen this sentence as Darwin 's only reference to humans in the book ; Janet Browne describes it as his only discussion there of human origins , while noting that the book makes other references to humanity . Some other statements in the book are quietly effective at pointing out the implication that humans are simply another species , evolving through the same processes and principles affecting other organisms . For example , in Chapter III : `` Struggle for Existence '' Darwin includes `` slow - breeding man '' among other examples of Malthusian population growth . In his discussions on morphology , Darwin compares and comments on bone structures that are homologous between humans and other mammals . Darwin 's early notebooks discussed how non-adaptive characteristics could be selected when animals or humans chose mates , with races of humans differing over ideas of beauty . In his 1856 notes responding to Robert Knox 's The Races of Man : A Fragment , he called this effect sexual selection . He added notes on sexual selection to his `` big book on species '' , and in mid-1857 he added a section heading ; `` Theory applied to Races of Man '' , but did not add text on this topic . In On the Origin of Species , Chapter VI : `` Difficulties on Theory '' Darwin mentions this in the context of `` slight and unimportant variations '' : I might have adduced for this same purpose the differences between the races of man , which are so strongly marked ; I may add that some little light can apparently be thrown on the origin of these differences , chiefly through sexual selection of a particular kind , but without here entering on copious details my reasoning would appear frivolous . '' When Darwin published The Descent of Man , and Selection in Relation to Sex twelve years later , he said that he had not gone into detail on human evolution in the Origin as he thought that would `` only add to the prejudices against my views '' . He had not completely avoided the topic : It seemed to me sufficient to indicate , in the first edition of my ' Origin of Species , ' that by this work ' light would be thrown on the origin of man and his history ; ' and this implies that man must be included with other organic beings in any general conclusion respecting his manner of appearance on this earth . He also said that he had `` merely alluded '' in that book to sexual selection differentiating human races . Reception ( edit ) See also : Reactions to On the Origin of Species In the 1870s , British caricatures of Darwin with a non-human ape body contributed to the identification of evolutionism with Darwinism . The book aroused international interest and a widespread debate , with no sharp line between scientific issues and ideological , social and religious implications . Much of the initial reaction was hostile , in a large part because very few reviewers actually understood his theory , but Darwin had to be taken seriously as a prominent and respected name in science . There was much less controversy than had greeted the 1844 publication Vestiges of Creation , which had been rejected by scientists , but had influenced a wide public readership into believing that nature and human society were governed by natural laws . The Origin of Species as a book of wide general interest became associated with ideas of social reform . Its proponents made full use of a surge in the publication of review journals , and it was given more popular attention than almost any other scientific work , though it failed to match the continuing sales of Vestiges . Darwin 's book legitimised scientific discussion of evolutionary mechanisms , and the newly coined term Darwinism was used to cover the whole range of evolutionism , not just his own ideas . By the mid-1870s , evolutionism was triumphant . While Darwin had been somewhat coy about human origins , not identifying any explicit conclusion on the matter in his book , he had dropped enough hints about human 's animal ancestry for the inference to be made , and the first review claimed it made a creed of the `` men from monkeys '' idea from Vestiges . Human evolution became central to the debate and was strongly argued by Huxley who featured it in his popular `` working - men 's lectures '' . Darwin did not publish his own views on this until 1871 . The naturalism of natural selection conflicted with presumptions of purpose in nature and while this could be reconciled by theistic evolution , other mechanisms implying more progress or purpose were more acceptable . Herbert Spencer had already incorporated Lamarckism into his popular philosophy of progressive free market human society . He popularised the terms evolution and survival of the fittest , and many thought Spencer was central to evolutionary thinking . Impact on the scientific community ( edit ) See also : History of evolutionary thought Scientific readers were already aware of arguments that species changed through processes that were subject to laws of nature , but the transmutational ideas of Lamarck and the vague `` law of development '' of Vestiges had not found scientific favour . Darwin presented natural selection as a scientifically testable mechanism while accepting that other mechanisms such as inheritance of acquired characters were possible . His strategy established that evolution through natural laws was worthy of scientific study , and by 1875 , most scientists accepted that evolution occurred but few thought natural selection was significant . Darwin 's scientific method was also disputed , with his proponents favouring the empiricism of John Stuart Mill 's A System of Logic , while opponents held to the idealist school of William Whewell 's Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences , in which investigation could begin with the intuitive truth that species were fixed objects created by design . Early support for Darwin 's ideas came from the findings of field naturalists studying biogeography and ecology , including Joseph Dalton Hooker in 1860 , and Asa Gray in 1862 . Henry Walter Bates presented research in 1861 that explained insect mimicry using natural selection . Alfred Russel Wallace discussed evidence from his Malay archipelago research , including an 1864 paper with an evolutionary explanation for the Wallace line . Huxley used illustrations to show that humans and apes had the same basic skeletal structure . Evolution had less obvious applications to anatomy and morphology , and at first had little impact on the research of the anatomist Thomas Henry Huxley . Despite this , Huxley strongly supported Darwin on evolution ; though he called for experiments to show whether natural selection could form new species , and questioned if Darwin 's gradualism was sufficient without sudden leaps to cause speciation . Huxley wanted science to be secular , without religious interference , and his article in the April 1860 Westminster Review promoted scientific naturalism over natural theology , praising Darwin for `` extending the domination of Science over regions of thought into which she has , as yet , hardly penetrated '' and coining the term `` Darwinism '' as part of his efforts to secularise and professionalise science . Huxley gained influence , and initiated the X Club , which used the journal Nature to promote evolution and naturalism , shaping much of late Victorian science . Later , the German morphologist Ernst Haeckel would convince Huxley that comparative anatomy and palaeontology could be used to reconstruct evolutionary genealogies . The leading naturalist in Britain was the anatomist Richard Owen , an idealist who had shifted to the view in the 1850s that the history of life was the gradual unfolding of a divine plan . Owen 's review of the Origin in the April 1860 Edinburgh Review bitterly attacked Huxley , Hooker and Darwin , but also signalled acceptance of a kind of evolution as a teleological plan in a continuous `` ordained becoming '' , with new species appearing by natural birth . Others that rejected natural selection , but supported `` creation by birth '' , included the Duke of Argyll who explained beauty in plumage by design . Since 1858 , Huxley had emphasised anatomical similarities between apes and humans , contesting Owen 's view that humans were a separate sub-class . Their disagreement over human origins came to the fore at the British Association for the Advancement of Science meeting featuring the legendary 1860 Oxford evolution debate . In two years of acrimonious public dispute that Charles Kingsley satirised as the `` Great Hippocampus Question '' and parodied in The Water - Babies as the `` great hippopotamus test '' , Huxley showed that Owen was incorrect in asserting that ape brains lacked a structure present in human brains . Others , including Charles Lyell and Alfred Russel Wallace , thought that humans shared a common ancestor with apes , but higher mental faculties could not have evolved through a purely material process . Darwin published his own explanation in the Descent of Man ( 1871 ) . Impact outside great Britain ( edit ) Haeckel showed a main trunk leading to mankind with minor branches to various animals , unlike Darwin 's branching evolutionary tree . Evolutionary ideas , although not natural selection , were accepted by German biologists accustomed to ideas of homology in morphology from Goethe 's Metamorphosis of Plants and from their long tradition of comparative anatomy . Bronn 's alterations in his German translation added to the misgivings of conservatives , but enthused political radicals . Ernst Haeckel was particularly ardent , aiming to synthesise Darwin 's ideas with those of Lamarck and Goethe while still reflecting the spirit of Naturphilosophie . Their ambitious programme to reconstruct the evolutionary history of life was joined by Huxley and supported by discoveries in palaeontology . Haeckel used embryology extensively in his recapitulation theory , which embodied a progressive , almost linear model of evolution . Darwin was cautious about such histories , and had already noted that von Baer 's laws of embryology supported his idea of complex branching . Asa Gray promoted and defended Origin against those American naturalists with an idealist approach , notably Louis Agassiz who viewed every species as a distinct fixed unit in the mind of the Creator , classifying as species what others considered merely varieties . Edward Drinker Cope and Alpheus Hyatt reconciled this view with evolutionism in a form of neo-Lamarckism involving recapitulation theory . French - speaking naturalists in several countries showed appreciation of the much modified French translation by Clémence Royer , but Darwin 's ideas had little impact in France , where any scientists supporting evolutionary ideas opted for a form of Lamarckism . The intelligentsia in Russia had accepted the general phenomenon of evolution for several years before Darwin had published his theory , and scientists were quick to take it into account , although the Malthusian aspects were felt to be relatively unimportant . The political economy of struggle was criticised as a British stereotype by Karl Marx and by Leo Tolstoy , who had the character Levin in his novel Anna Karenina voice sharp criticism of the morality of Darwin 's views . Challenges to natural selection ( edit ) There were serious scientific objections to the process of natural selection as the key mechanism of evolution , including Karl von Nägeli 's insistence that a trivial characteristic with no adaptive advantage could not be developed by selection . Darwin conceded that these could be linked to adaptive characteristics . His estimate that the age of the Earth allowed gradual evolution was disputed by William Thomson ( later awarded the title Lord Kelvin ) , who calculated that it had cooled in less than 100 million years . Darwin accepted blending inheritance , but Fleeming Jenkin calculated that as it mixed traits , natural selection could not accumulate useful traits . Darwin tried to meet these objections in the 5th edition . Mivart supported directed evolution , and compiled scientific and religious objections to natural selection . In response , Darwin made considerable changes to the sixth edition . The problems of the age of the Earth and heredity were only resolved in the 20th century . By the mid-1870s , most scientists accepted evolution , but relegated natural selection to a minor role as they believed evolution was purposeful and progressive . The range of evolutionary theories during `` the eclipse of Darwinism '' included forms of `` saltationism '' in which new species were thought to arise through `` jumps '' rather than gradual adaptation , forms of orthogenesis claiming that species had an inherent tendency to change in a particular direction , and forms of neo-Lamarckism in which inheritance of acquired characteristics led to progress . The minority view of August Weismann , that natural selection was the only mechanism , was called neo-Darwinism . It was thought that the rediscovery of Mendelian inheritance invalidated Darwin 's views . Impact on economic and political debates ( edit ) While some , like Spencer , used analogy from natural selection as an argument against government intervention in the economy to benefit the poor , others , including Alfred Russel Wallace , argued that action was needed to correct social and economic inequities to level the playing field before natural selection could improve humanity further . Some political commentaries , including Walter Bagehot 's Physics and Politics ( 1872 ) , attempted to extend the idea of natural selection to competition between nations and between human races . Such ideas were incorporated into what was already an ongoing effort by some working in anthropology to provide scientific evidence for the superiority of Caucasians over non white races and justify European imperialism . Historians write that most such political and economic commentators had only a superficial understanding of Darwin 's scientific theory , and were as strongly influenced by other concepts about social progress and evolution , such as the Lamarckian ideas of Spencer and Haeckel , as they were by Darwin 's work . Darwin objected to his ideas being used to justify military aggression and unethical business practices as he believed morality was part of fitness in humans , and he opposed polygenism , the idea that human races were fundamentally distinct and did not share a recent common ancestry . Religious attitudes ( edit ) The book produced a wide range of religious responses at a time of changing ideas and increasing secularisation . The issues raised were complex and there was a large middle ground . Developments in geology meant that there was little opposition based on a literal reading of Genesis , but defence of the argument from design and natural theology was central to debates over the book in the English - speaking world . The liberal theologian Baden Powell defended evolutionary ideas by arguing that the introduction of new species should be considered a natural rather than a miraculous process . Natural theology was not a unified doctrine , and while some such as Louis Agassiz were strongly opposed to the ideas in the book , others sought a reconciliation in which evolution was seen as purposeful . In the Church of England , some liberal clergymen interpreted natural selection as an instrument of God 's design , with the cleric Charles Kingsley seeing it as `` just as noble a conception of Deity '' . In the second edition of January 1860 , Darwin quoted Kingsley as `` a celebrated cleric '' , and added the phrase `` by the Creator '' to the closing sentence , which from then on read `` life , with its several powers , having been originally breathed by the Creator into a few forms or into one '' . While some commentators have taken this as a concession to religion that Darwin later regretted , Darwin 's view at the time was of God creating life through the laws of nature , and even in the first edition there are several references to `` creation '' . Baden Powell praised `` Mr Darwin 's masterly volume ( supporting ) the grand principle of the self - evolving powers of nature '' . In America , Asa Gray argued that evolution is the secondary effect , or modus operandi , of the first cause , design , and published a pamphlet defending the book in terms of theistic evolution , Natural Selection is not inconsistent with Natural Theology . Theistic evolution became a popular compromise , and St. George Jackson Mivart was among those accepting evolution but attacking Darwin 's naturalistic mechanism . Eventually it was realised that supernatural intervention could not be a scientific explanation , and naturalistic mechanisms such as neo-Lamarckism were favoured over natural selection as being more compatible with purpose . Even though the book did not explicitly spell out Darwin 's beliefs about human origins , it had dropped a number of hints about human 's animal ancestry and quickly became central to the debate , as mental and moral qualities were seen as spiritual aspects of the immaterial soul , and it was believed that animals did not have spiritual qualities . This conflict could be reconciled by supposing there was some supernatural intervention on the path leading to humans , or viewing evolution as a purposeful and progressive ascent to mankind 's position at the head of nature . While many conservative theologians accepted evolution , Charles Hodge argued in his 1874 critique `` What is Darwinism ? '' that `` Darwinism '' , defined narrowly as including rejection of design , was atheism though he accepted that Asa Gray did not reject design . Asa Gray responded that this charge misrepresented Darwin 's text . By the early 20th century , four noted authors of The Fundamentals were explicitly open to the possibility that God created through evolution , but fundamentalism inspired the American creation -- evolution controversy that began in the 1920s . Some conservative Roman Catholic writers and influential Jesuits opposed evolution in the late 19th and early 20th century , but other Catholic writers , starting with Mivart , pointed out that early Church Fathers had not interpreted Genesis literally in this area . The Vatican stated its official position in a 1950 papal encyclical , which held that evolution was not inconsistent with Catholic teaching . Modern influence ( edit ) A modern phylogenetic tree based on genome analysis shows the three - domain system . Various alternative evolutionary mechanisms favoured during `` the eclipse of Darwinism '' became untenable as more was learned about inheritance and mutation . The full significance of natural selection was at last accepted in the 1930s and 1940s as part of the modern evolutionary synthesis . During that synthesis biologists and statisticians , including R.A. Fisher , Sewall Wright and J.B.S. Haldane , merged Darwinian selection with a statistical understanding of Mendelian genetics . Modern evolutionary theory continues to develop . Darwin 's theory of evolution by natural selection , with its tree - like model of branching common descent , has become the unifying theory of the life sciences . The theory explains the diversity of living organisms and their adaptation to the environment . It makes sense of the geologic record , biogeography , parallels in embryonic development , biological homologies , vestigiality , cladistics , phylogenetics and other fields , with unrivalled explanatory power ; it has also become essential to applied sciences such as medicine and agriculture . Despite the scientific consensus , a religion - based political controversy has developed over how evolution is taught in schools , especially in the United States . Interest in Darwin 's writings continues , and scholars have generated an extensive literature , the Darwin Industry , about his life and work . The text of Origin itself has been subject to much analysis including a variorum , detailing the changes made in every edition , first published in 1959 , and a concordance , an exhaustive external index published in 1981 . Worldwide commemorations of the 150th anniversary of the publication of On the Origin of Species and the bicentenary of Darwin 's birth were scheduled for 2009 . They celebrated the ideas which `` over the last 150 years have revolutionised our understanding of nature and our place within it '' . In a survey conducted by a group of academic booksellers , publishers and librarians in advance of Academic Book Week in the United Kingdom , On the Origin of Species was voted the most influential academic book ever written . It was hailed as `` the supreme demonstration of why academic books matter '' and `` a book which has changed the way we think about everything '' . See also ( edit ) Book : Evolution On the Origin of Species -- full text at Wikisource of the first edition , 1859 The Origin of Species -- full text at Wikisource of the 6th edition , 1872 Charles Darwin bibliography History of biology History of evolutionary thought History of speciation Modern evolutionary synthesis The Complete Works of Charles Darwin Online The Descent of Man , and Selection in Relation to Sex , published in 1871 ; his second major book on evolutionary theory . Transmutation of species Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ Darwin 1859 , p. iii ^ Jump up to : Freeman 1977 ^ Jump up to : The book 's full original title was On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection , or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life . In the 1872 sixth edition `` On '' was omitted , so the full title is The origin of species by means of natural selection , or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life . This edition is usually known as The Origin of Species . The 6th is Darwin 's final edition ; there were minor modifications in the text of certain subsequent issues . See Freeman , R.B. `` The works of Charles Darwin : an annotated bibliographical handlist . '' In Van Wyhe , John , ed . Darwin Online : On the Origin of Species , 2002 . Jump up ^ Desmond & Moore 1991 , p. 477 . Jump up ^ `` Darwin Manuscripts ( Digitised notes on Origin ) '' . Cambridge Digital Library . Retrieved 24 November 2014 . Jump up ^ Mayr 1982 , pp. 479 -- 480 Jump up ^ Darwin 1872 , p. xiii Jump up ^ Aristotle , Physics , translated by Hardie , R.P. and Gayle , R.K. and hosted by MIT 's Internet Classics Archive , retrieved 23 April 2009 Jump up ^ Forster & Marston 1999 , pp. 26 -- 27 Jump up ^ Bowler 2003 , pp. 27 , 43 , 45 Jump up ^ Bowler 2003 , pp. 27 -- 36 , 39 -- 42 , 57 -- 62 , 67 , 70 , 77 -- 80 Jump up ^ Bowler 2003 , pp. 84 -- 90 Jump up ^ Desmond 1989 , pp. 47 -- 54 Jump up ^ Bowler 2003 , pp. 111 -- 114 Jump up ^ Browne 1995 , pp. 91 , 129 Jump up ^ Bowler 2003 , pp. 115 -- 117 Jump up ^ Desmond & Moore 1991 , pp. 34 -- 35 Jump up ^ Browne 1995 , pp. 80 -- 88 Jump up ^ Bowler 2003 , pp. 148 -- 149 Jump up ^ Browne 1995 , pp. 133 -- 140 Jump up ^ Larson 2004 , pp. 56 -- 62 Jump up ^ Darwin 1845 , pp. 205 -- 208 Jump up ^ Browne 1995 , pp. 244 -- 250 Jump up ^ Keynes 2000 , pp. xix -- xx Jump up ^ Eldredge 2006 Jump up ^ Quammen 2006 , pp. 24 -- 25 Jump up ^ Herbert 1980 , pp. 7 -- 10 Jump up ^ van Wyhe 2008 , p. 44 Jump up ^ Darwin 's Notebook B : Transmutation of species . pp. 1 -- 13 , 26 , 36 , 74 , retrieved 16 March 2009 Jump up ^ Desmond & Moore 1991 , pp. 240 -- 244 ^ Jump up to : van Wyhe 2009 Jump up ^ Larson 2004 , pp. 66 -- 70 Jump up ^ Darwin 's Notebook D: Transmutation of species . pp. 134 -- 135 , retrieved 8 April 2009 Jump up ^ Darwin 's Notebook E : Transmutation of species . p. 75 , retrieved 14 March 2009 ^ Jump up to : van Wyhe 2007 , pp. 186 -- 187 Jump up ^ Browne 1995 , p. 436 Jump up ^ Darwin 1958 , p. 120 Jump up ^ Desmond & Moore 1991 , p. 292 Jump up ^ Browne 1995 , pp. 436 -- 437 Jump up ^ van Wyhe 2007 , p. 188 Jump up ^ Darwin Correspondence Project -- Letter 814 -- Darwin , C.R. to Hooker , J.D. , ( 7 January 1845 ) , retrieved 24 November 2008 Jump up ^ Browne 1995 , pp. 461 -- 465 Jump up ^ Bowler 2003 , pp. 135 -- 140 ^ Jump up to : Bowler 2003 , pp. 169 -- 173 Jump up ^ Darwin 1958 , pp. 117 -- 121 Jump up ^ Quammen 2006 , pp. 138 -- 142 Jump up ^ Darwin 1958 , p. 124 ^ Jump up to : van Wyhe 2007 Jump up ^ Darwin 1859 , p. 1 . Jump up ^ Quammen 2006 , pp. 84 -- 92 Jump up ^ Wallace , Alfred R. ( 1855 ) , `` On the law which has regulated the introduction of new species '' , Annals and Magazine of Natural History , 16 ( 93 ) : 184 -- 196 , doi : 10.1080 / 037454809495509 ^ Jump up to : Quammen 2006 , pp. 135 -- 158 Jump up ^ `` Darwin in letters , 1856 -- 1857 : the ' Big Book ' '' . Darwin Correspondence Project . Retrieved 21 March 2016 . `` Letter 1870 -- Darwin , C.R. , to Hooker , J.D. , 9 May ( 1856 ) '' . Darwin Correspondence Project . Retrieved 21 March 2016 . Jump up ^ Darwin Correspondence Project -- Letter 2285 -- Darwin to Lyell ( June 1858 ) , archived from the original on 28 August 2007 , retrieved 15 March 2008 Jump up ^ Larson 2004 , pp. 74 -- 75 Jump up ^ Quammen 2006 , pp. 162 -- 163 Jump up ^ Bowler 2003 , pp. 175 -- 176 Jump up ^ Bowler 2013 , pp. 61 -- 63 ^ Jump up to : `` Darwin in letters , 1858 - 1859 : Origin '' . Darwin Correspondence Project . 2 June 2015 . Retrieved 17 January 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Letter 2303 -- Darwin , C.R. to Hooker , J.D. , 5 July ( 1858 ) '' . Darwin Correspondence Project . Retrieved 7 September 2010 . Jump up ^ Darwin 2006 , pp. 36 verso Jump up ^ `` Letter 2432 -- Darwin , C.R. to Hooker , J.D. , 15 March ( 1859 ) '' . Darwin Correspondence Project . Retrieved 7 September 2010 . It ( geographical distribution ) was nearly all written from memory Jump up ^ `` Letter 2339 -- Darwin , C.R. to Hooker , J.D. , 12 ( October 1858 ) '' . Darwin Correspondence Project . Retrieved 17 January 2017 . See letter to T.C. Eyton , 4 October ( 1858 ) , in which CD first mentioned the possibility that his ' abstract ' would form a small volume . ^ Jump up to : `` Letter 2437 -- Darwin , C.R. to Lyell , Charles , 28 March ( 1859 ) '' . Darwin Correspondence Project . Retrieved 16 January 2017 . Would you advise me to tell Murray that my Book is not more un-orthodox , than the subject makes inevitable . That I do not discuss origin of man. -- That I do not bring in any discussions about Genesis &c , & only give facts , & such conclusions from them , as seem to me fair . Darwin , C.R. proposed title page for Origin of species draft . ( 1859 ) APS - B - D25. L (. 38 ) Transcribed by Kees Rookmaaker , edited by John van Wyhe ^ Jump up to : Desmond & Moore 2009 , p. 306 . Jump up ^ `` Letter 2439 -- Darwin , C.R. to Lyell , Charles , 30 March ( 1859 ) '' . Darwin Correspondence Project . Retrieved 16 January 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Letter 2441 -- Darwin , C.R. to Murray , John ( b ) , 31 March ( 1859 ) '' . Darwin Correspondence Project . Retrieved 16 January 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Letter 2443 -- Murray , John ( b ) to Darwin , C.R. , 1 April 1859 '' . Darwin Correspondence Project . Retrieved 16 January 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Letter 2445 -- Darwin , C.R. to Murray , John ( b ) , 2 April ( 1859 ) '' . Darwin Correspondence Project . Retrieved 16 January 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Charles Darwin and his publisher '' . Darwin Correspondence Project . 2010 . Archived from the original on 7 October 2010 . Retrieved 7 September 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Letter 2447 -- Darwin , C.R. to Murray , John ( b ) , 5 April ( 1859 ) '' . Darwin Correspondence Project . Retrieved 16 January 2017 . Jump up ^ Darwin , C.R. ( early draft title of Origin ) On the mutability of species ( & other notes ) CUL - DAR205. 1.70 Transcribed by Kees Rookmaaker , edited by John van Wyhe Jump up ^ `` Letter 2457A -- Elwin , Whitwell , to Murray , John ( b ) , 3 May 1859 '' . Darwin Correspondence Project . Retrieved 16 January 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Letter 2459 -- Darwin , C.R. to Murray , John ( b ) , 6 May ( 1859 ) '' . Darwin Correspondence Project . Retrieved 16 January 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Letter 2448 -- Darwin , C.R. to Murray , John ( b ) , 10 September ( 1859 ) '' . Darwin Correspondence Project . Retrieved 16 January 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Defining Evolution '' . National Center for Science Education . 24 August 2000 . Retrieved 27 June 2016 . Jump up ^ Robert Bernasconi ; Tommy Lee Lott ( 2000 ) . The Idea of Race . Hackett Publishing . p. 54 . ISBN 0 - 87220 - 458 - 8 . The full title ( of the book ) employs the term ' race ' only in the broad biological use of the word , which refers to varieties throughout organic life ; however , speculation about the implications of his views specifically for the question of the human races began almost as soon as the book was published . Jump up ^ Sober 2011 , p. 45 , Quote : `` There nonetheless are a few cases in which Darwin does discuss selection processes in which groups are the units , and these will be the focus of the present chapter . But even here it does not matter whether the groups are from different ' races ' or from the same race . It is nests of honeybees that compete with each other , and human tribes that compete with other human tribes . For Darwin , the question of group selection had nothing special to do with ' race . ' Still , writing in the heyday of empire , Darwin saw European nations outcompeting the nations , kingdoms , and tribes that occupy the rest of the globe . In this one very salient example , Darwin did see races struggling with each other . In any event , the word race in Darwin 's subtitle needs to be understood very broadly ; it encompasses competition among individuals , competition among groups in the same ' race , ' and competition from groups from different ' races . ' This is a much broader meaning than the word ' race ' tends to have today . '' Jump up ^ Darwin 1859 , p. 15 Jump up ^ the three instances of the phrase `` races of man '' are found on Darwin 1859 , pp. 199 , 382 and 422 . Jump up ^ Dupree , A. Hunter ( 1988 ) . Asa Gray , American Botanist , Friend of Darwin . Baltimore , MD : Johns Hopkins University Press . p. 267 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 801 - 83741 - 8 . Jump up ^ Browne 2002 , p. 89 Jump up ^ Darwin 1958 , p. 122 ^ Jump up to : Browne 2002 , pp. 95 -- 96 Jump up ^ Darwin 1861 , p. xiii Jump up ^ `` This survival of the fittest , which I have here sought to express in mechanical terms , is that which Mr. Darwin has called ' natural selection ' , or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life . '' Spencer 1864 , pp. 444 -- 445 ^ Jump up to : Mivart 1871 Jump up ^ Browne 2002 , p. 59 Jump up ^ Freeman 1977 , pp. 79 -- 80 . `` Evolution '' in the transformist sense had been used by Charles Lyell in 1832 , Principles of Geology vol 2 , p. 11 ; and was used by Darwin in The Descent of Man in 1871 , p. 2 onwards . ^ Jump up to : Desmond & Moore 1991 , pp. 577 , 582 , 590 , 592 -- 593 Jump up ^ Darwin Correspondence Project -- Letter 2592 -- Darwin , C.R. to Gray , Asa , 21 December ( 1859 ) , archived from the original on 13 February 2009 , retrieved 6 December 2008 Jump up ^ Darwin Correspondence Project -- Letter 2665 -- Darwin , C.R. to Gray , Asa , 28 January ( 1860 ) , archived from the original on 13 February 2009 , retrieved 6 December 2008 Jump up ^ Darwin Correspondence Project -- Letter 2706 -- Gray , Asa to Darwin , C.R. , 20 February 1860 , archived from the original on 13 February 2009 , retrieved 6 December 2008 Jump up ^ Desmond & Moore 1991 , p. 492 ^ Jump up to : Browne 2002 , pp. 256 -- 259 ^ Jump up to : Browne 2002 , pp. 140 -- 142 ^ Jump up to : Darwin Correspondence Project -- The correspondence of Charles Darwin , volume 10 : 1862 , archived from the original on 5 June 2010 , retrieved 6 March 2009 Jump up ^ Darwin Correspondence Project -- The correspondence of Charles Darwin , volume 14 : 1866 , retrieved 6 March 2009 ^ Jump up to : Browne 2002 , pp. 142 -- 144 Jump up ^ Ch . Darwin , Het ontstaan der soorten van dieren en planten door middel van de natuurkeus of het bewaard blijven van bevoorregte rassen in de strijd des levens , transl . by T.C. Winkler ( Haarlem 1860 ) Source : Teyler , Winkler , Darwin Lecture by Marijn van Hoorn MA at the Congress of the European Botanical and Horticultural Libraries Group , Prague , 23 April 2009 Jump up ^ `` Freeman Bibliographic Database '' . Jump up ^ Freeman 1977 , pp. 101 -- 111 Jump up ^ Darwin 1859 , p. ii . Jump up ^ Phipps 1983 Jump up ^ Secord 2000 , p. 510 Jump up ^ van Wyhe 2007 , p. 197 Jump up ^ Darwin 1859 , p. 1 . Jump up ^ Darwin 1859 , p. 5 . Jump up ^ Darwin & Costa 2009 , p. 1 Jump up ^ Darwin 1861 , p. xiii . Jump up ^ Darwin 1866 , p. xiv -- xv . Jump up ^ Darwin & Costa 2009 , p. 7 ^ Jump up to : Quammen 2006 , pp. 184 -- 186 Jump up ^ Darwin 1859 , pp. 20 -- 28 ^ Jump up to : David Reznick ( 2009 ) The Origin Then and Now , Princeton University Press , p. 49 . 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Journal of Biological Education , 43 ( 3 ) , 104 -- 107 . Jump up ^ Darwin 1859 , pp. page 171 Jump up ^ Darwin 1859 , pp. 171 -- 178 Jump up ^ Darwin 1859 , pp. page 172 Jump up ^ Bernstein H , Byerly HC , Hopf FA , Michod RE ; Byerly ; Hopf ; Michod ( December 1985 ) . `` Sex and the emergence of species '' . J. Theor. Biol. 117 ( 4 ) : 665 -- 90 . doi : 10.1016 / S0022 - 5193 ( 85 ) 80246 - 0 . PMID 4094459 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Michod , Richard E. ( 1995 ) . Eros and evolution : a natural philosophy of sex . Reading , Mass : Addison - Wesley Pub. Co . ISBN 0 - 201 - 44232 - 9 . Jump up ^ Darwin 1859 , pp. 171 -- 172 Jump up ^ Darwin 1859 , pp. 180 -- 181 Jump up ^ Darwin 1859 , pp. 187 -- 190 Jump up ^ Darwin & Costa 2009 , pp. 194 -- 199 Darwin 1859 , pp. 197 -- 199 , Quote : `` We are profoundly ignorant of the causes producing slight and unimportant variations ; and we are immediately made conscious of this by reflecting on the differences in the breeds of our domesticated animals in different countries '' Jump up ^ Darwin & Costa 2009 , p. 199 Darwin 1874 , p. vi , Quote : `` ... I gave , however , a tolerably clear sketch of this principle in the first edition of the ' Origin of Species , ' and I there stated that it was applicable to man . '' Jump up ^ Desmond & Moore 2009 , p. 310 . Jump up ^ Darwin 1859 , p. 199 Jump up ^ Darwin 1859 , pp. 243 -- 244 Jump up ^ Darwin 1859 , pp. 245 -- 278 Jump up ^ Darwin 1872 , pp. 168 -- 205 ^ Jump up to : Bowler 2003 , p. 182 ^ Jump up to : Wesley R. Elsberry ( 1996 ) , Punctuated Equilibria , retrieved 30 April 2009 Jump up ^ Darwin 1859 , pp. 282 -- 287 Jump up ^ Darwin 1859 , pp. 306 -- 308 Jump up ^ Schopf 2000 ^ Jump up to : Darwin 1859 , pp. 312 -- 345 Jump up ^ Rhodes 1987 Jump up ^ Darwin & Costa 2009 , p. 108 Jump up ^ Darwin 1859 , pp. 350 -- 351 Jump up ^ Darwin 1859 , pp. 346 -- 382 Jump up ^ Darwin 1859 , pp. 408 -- 409 Jump up ^ Darwin 1859 , p. 420 Jump up ^ Darwin 1859 , pp. 434 -- 435 Jump up ^ Darwin 1859 , pp. 450 -- 451 Jump up ^ Darwin 1859 , pp. 484 -- 488 . Quote : `` When the views entertained in this volume on the origin of species , or when analogous views are generally admitted , we can dimly foresee that there will be a considerable revolution in natural history ... '' Jump up ^ Darwin 1859 , p. 488 Darwin 1871 , p. 1 , Quote : `` ... this implies that man must be included with other organic beings in any general conclusion respecting his manner of appearance on this earth . '' Jump up ^ Darwin 1859 , pp. 489 -- 490 ^ Jump up to : Darwin 1860 , p. 490 . Jump up ^ Darwin 1871 , p. 152 ^ Jump up to : Secord 2000 , pp. 508 -- 511 Jump up ^ Quammen 2006 , pp. 183 -- 188 ^ Jump up to : Bowler 2003 , pp. 180 -- 181 Jump up ^ Quammen 2006 , pp. 190 , 200 -- 201 Jump up ^ Larson 2004 , pp. 88 -- 89 Jump up ^ Darwin & Costa 2009 , p. xvii Jump up ^ Crawford 1859 Jump up ^ Quammen 2006 , pp. 176 -- 181 Jump up ^ Darwin & Costa 2009 , p. ix ^ Jump up to : Carroll , Joseph ( 2003 ) . On the Origin of Species / Charles Darwin . Broadview Press . pp. 51 -- 52 . ISBN 1 - 55111 - 337 - 6 . Following Darwin 's lead , most commentators cite this one passage as the only reference to man in the Origin , but they thus overlook , as did Darwin himself , two sentences that are , in their own quiet way , even more effective . Jump up ^ Browne 2007 , p. 42 , quoting Darwin , C.R. Notebook C ( February to July 1838 ) pp. 196 -- 197 `` Man in his arrogance thinks himself a great work worthy the interposition of a deity , more humble & I believe truer to consider him created from animals . '' Jump up ^ Desmond & Moore 1991 , pp. 412 -- 441 , 457 -- 458 , 462 -- 463 Desmond & Moore 2009 , pp. 283 -- 284 , 290 -- 292 , 295 Jump up ^ `` Letter 2192 -- Darwin , C.R. to Wallace , A.R. , 22 December 1857 '' . Darwin Correspondence Project . Jump up ^ Darwin 1871 , p. 488 Jump up ^ `` Letter 2647 -- Darwin , C.R. to Charles Lyell , 10 January ( 1860 ) '' . Darwin Correspondence Project . Retrieved 18 September 2017 . Jump up ^ For example , Browne 2002 , p. 60 , `` In this book , he was completely silent on the subject of human origins , although he did refer in several places to mankind as an example of biological details . The only words he allowed himself -- and these out of a sense of duty that he must somewhere refer to human beings -- were gnomic in their brevity . ' Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history ' . '' Jump up ^ Darwin 1859 , p. 64 , Quote : `` There is no exception to the rule that every organic being naturally increases at so high a rate , that if not destroyed , the earth would soon be covered by the progeny of a single pair . Even slow - breeding man has doubled in twenty - five years , and at this rate , in a few thousand years , there would literally not be standing room for his progeny . '' Jump up ^ van Wyhe 2008 Darwin 1859 , p. 434 , Quote : `` What can be more curious than that the hand of a man , formed for grasping , that of a mole for digging , the leg of the horse , the paddle of the porpoise , and the wing of the bat , should all be constructed on the same pattern , and should include the same bones , in the same relative positions ? '' Darwin 1859 , p. 479 , Quote : `` The framework of bones being the same in the hand of a man , wing of a bat , fin of the porpoise , and leg of the horse ... at once explain themselves on the theory of descent with slow and slight successive modifications . '' Jump up ^ Darwin , C.R. Notebook C , CUL - DAR122. - Transcribed by Kees Rookmaaker . ( Darwin Online ) , notes from de Beer , Gavin ed. 1960 . Darwin 's notebooks on transmutation of species . Part II . Second notebook ( C ) ( February to July 1838 ) . Bulletin of the British Museum ( Natural History ) . Historical Series 2 , No. 3 ( May ) : pp. 79 Jump up ^ Desmond & Moore 2009 , pp. 139 -- 141 , quotes `` our acquiring the instinct one notion of beauty & negroes another '' from Darwin , C.R. Notebook M : ( Metaphysics on morals and speculations on expression ( 1838 ) ) . CUL - DAR125. - Transcribed by Kees Rookmaaker , edited by Paul Barrett . ( Darwin Online , p. 32 Jump up ^ Richards 2017 , pp. 315 , 323 -- 324 . Jump up ^ Desmond & Moore 2009 , pp. 290 -- 291Stauffer , R.C. ed. 1975 . Charles Darwin 's Natural Selection ; being the second part of his big species book written from 1856 to 1858 . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . p. 213 Chapter Vi On Natural Selection first draft , completed on March 31 , 1857 , ( The outline of this original form of the chapter appears in the original table of contents ) `` 63 ( pencil addition ) Theory applied to Races of Man . '' ^ Jump up to : Darwin 1859 , pp. 197 -- 199 ^ Jump up to : Darwin 1871 , p. 1 , Quote : `` During many years I collected notes on the origin or descent of man , without any intention of publishing on the subject , but rather with the determination not to publish , as I thought that I should thus only add to the prejudices against my views . '' Jump up ^ See also Darwin 1958 , pp. 130 -- 131 , Quote : `` My Descent of Man was published in Feb. 1871 . As soon as I had become , in the year 1837 or 1838 , convinced that species were mutable productions , I could not avoid the belief that man must come under the same law . Accordingly I collected notes on the subject for my own satisfaction , and not for a long time with any intention of publishing . Although in the Origin of Species , the derivation of any particular species is never discussed , yet I thought it best , in order that no honourable man should accuse me of concealing my views , to add that by the work in question ' light would be thrown on the origin of man and his history . ' It would have been useless and injurious to the success of the book to have paraded without giving any evidence my conviction with respect to his origin . '' Jump up ^ Darwin 1871 , pp. 4 -- 5 , Quote : `` During many years it has seemed to me highly probable that sexual selection has played an important part in differentiating the races of man ; but in my ' Origin of Species ' ( first edition , p. 199 ) I contented myself by merely alluding to this belief . '' Jump up ^ Browne 2002 , pp. 376 -- 379 ^ Jump up to : van Wyhe 2008 , pp. 48 -- 49 ^ Jump up to : Bowler 2003 , pp. 177 -- 180 Jump up ^ Darwin in letters , 1860 : Answering critics Jump up ^ Browne 2002 , pp. 102 -- 103 Jump up ^ Darwin & Costa 2009 , p. 488 ^ Jump up to : Radick 2013 , pp. 174 -- 175 Huxley & Kettlewell 1965 , p. 88 Jump up ^ Browne 2002 , p. 87 Jump up ^ Leifchild 1859 Jump up ^ Bowler 2003 , pp. 207 -- 209 Jump up ^ Huxley 1863 Jump up ^ Bowler 2003 , pp. 203 -- 207 , 220 -- 222 Jump up ^ Bowler 2003 , pp. 179 -- 180 , 197 -- 198 Jump up ^ Bowler 2003 , pp. 183 -- 184 , 189 Jump up ^ Bowler 2003 , p. 208 ^ Jump up to : Bowler 2003 , pp. 184 -- 185 Jump up ^ Browne 2002 , pp. 105 -- 106 Jump up ^ Huxley 1860 Jump up ^ Bowler 2003 , p. 184 Jump up ^ Larson 2004 , p. 108 Jump up ^ Bowler 2003 , pp. 124 -- 126 Jump up ^ Desmond & Moore 1991 , pp. 490 -- 491 , 545 -- 547 Jump up ^ Secord 2000 , p. 512 Jump up ^ Lucas 1979 Jump up ^ Desmond & Moore 1991 , pp. 464 -- 465 , 493 -- 499 Jump up ^ Browne 2002 , pp. 160 -- 161 Jump up ^ Bowler 2003 , pp. 208 -- 211 , 214 -- 216 ^ Jump up to : Bowler 2003 , pp. 169 -- 170 , 190 -- 192 ^ Jump up to : Bowler 2003 , pp. 186 -- 187 , 237 , 241 Jump up ^ Dupree , pp. 216 -- 232 Jump up ^ Bowler 2003 , pp. 198 -- 200 , 234 -- 236 Jump up ^ Bowler 2003 , p. 225 ^ Jump up to : Quammen 2006 , pp. 205 -- 234 Jump up ^ Bowler 2003 , pp. 294 -- 307 ^ Jump up to : Bowler 2003 , pp. 202 -- 208 Jump up ^ Dewey 1994 , p. 26 Jump up ^ Larson 2004 , pp. 89 -- 92 Jump up ^ Bowler 2003 , p. 139 ^ Jump up to : Darwin and design : historical essay , Darwin Correspondence Project , 2007 , archived from the original on 21 October 2014 , retrieved 17 September 2008 Jump up ^ Darwin Correspondence Project -- Letter 2534 -- Kingsley , Charles to Darwin , C.R. , 18 November 1859 , archived from the original on 29 June 2009 , retrieved 11 April 2009 Jump up ^ Quammen 2006 , p. 119 Jump up ^ Moore 2006 Jump up ^ Barlow 1963 , p. 207 . Jump up ^ Desmond & Moore 1991 , pp. 487 -- 488 , 500 Jump up ^ Dewey 1994 , p. 27 Jump up ^ Miles 2001 Jump up ^ Gray , Asa ( 1860 ) , `` Natural Selection is not inconsistent with Natural Theology '' , Atlantic Monthly , Darwin Correspondence Project -- Essay : Natural selection & natural theology , archived from the original on 20 February 2009 , retrieved 11 April 2009 Jump up ^ Forster & Marston 1999 , pp. 37 -- 40 Jump up ^ Hodge 1874 , p. 177 Jump up ^ Gray , Asa ( 28 May 1874 ) , `` What is Darwinism ? '' , The Nation , Darwin Correspondence Project , archived from the original on 26 February 2009 , retrieved 3 March 2009 Jump up ^ Forster & Marston 1999 , pp. 41 -- 43 Jump up ^ Bowler 2003 , pp. 323 -- 324 Jump up ^ Pius XII ( 1950 ) , Humani generis , Vatican , retrieved 8 June 2009 Jump up ^ Kreeft 2001 , p. 49 Jump up ^ Biography , The Complete Works of Charles Darwin Online , 21 January 2009 , retrieved 23 April 2009 Jump up ^ Larson 2004 , pp. 287 -- 288 , 295 Jump up ^ Darwin & Costa 2009 , p. x Jump up ^ Peckham 1959 , recently reprinted . Jump up ^ Quammen 2006 , pp. 179 , 271 -- 283 Jump up ^ The ISTC of On the Origin of Species is A02 - 2009 - 00000001 - 4 . As a tribute to its influence , this work has been the first one to be registered by The International ISTC Agency . Jump up ^ Darwin 200 : Celebrating Charles Darwin 's bicentenary -- What is Darwin200 ? , The Natural History Museum , archived from the original on 28 February 2009 , retrieved 23 April 2009 Jump up ^ `` Darwin 's ' Origin of Species ' Voted Most Influential Academic Book '' . Tia Ghose . Retrieved 2 February 2017 . Jump up ^ `` On the Origin of Species voted most influential academic book in history '' . Alison Flood . Retrieved 2 February 2017 . References ( edit ) Barlow , Nora , ed. ( 1963 ) , `` Darwin 's Ornithological Notes '' , Bulletin of the British Museum ( Natural History ) Historical Series , 2 ( No. 7 ) , pp. 201 -- 278 , retrieved 10 June 2009 Bowler , Peter J. ( 1989 ) , The Mendelian Revolution : The Emergence of Hereditarian Concepts in Modern Science and Society , Baltimore : Johns Hopkins University Press , ISBN 0 - 485 - 11375 - 9 Bowler , Peter J ( 1996 ) , Charles Darwin : the man and his influence , Cambridge University Press , ISBN 0 - 521 - 56668 - 1 Bowler , Peter J. ( 2003 ) , Evolution : The History of an Idea ( 3rd ed . ) , University of California Press , ISBN 0 - 520 - 23693 - 9 Bowler , Peter J. ( 2013 ) , Darwin Deleted : Imagining a World without Darwin , The University of Chicago Press , ISBN 0 - 226 - 00984 - X Browne , E. Janet ( 1995 ) , Charles Darwin : Vol. 1 Voyaging , London : Jonathan Cape , ISBN 1 - 84413 - 314 - 1 Browne , E. Janet ( 2002 ) , Charles Darwin : Vol. 2 The Power of Place , London : Jonathan Cape , ISBN 0 - 7126 - 6837 - 3 Crawford , J. ( 1859 ) , `` ( Review of ) On the Origin of Species '' , Examiner : 722 -- 723 . Published anonymously . Darwin , Charles ( 1845 ) , Journal of Researches Into the Natural History and Geology of the Countries Visited During the Voyage of HMS Beagle Round the World , Under the Command of Captain Fitz Roy , R.N. ( 2nd ed . ) , London : John Murray , retrieved 22 April 2009 Darwin , Charles ( 1859 ) , On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection , or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life ( Full image view 1st ed . ) , London : John Murray , p. 502 , retrieved 1 March 2011 Darwin , Charles ( 1860 ) , On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection , or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life ( 2nd ed . ) , London : John Murray , retrieved 9 January 2009 Darwin , Charles ( 1861 ) , On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection , or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life ( 3rd ed . ) , London : John Murray , retrieved 9 January 2009 Darwin , Charles ( 1866 ) , On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection , or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life ( 4th ed . ) , London : John Murray , retrieved 22 February 2009 Darwin , Charles ( 1869 ) , On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection , or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life ( 5th ed . ) , London : John Murray , retrieved 22 February 2009 Darwin , Charles ( 1871 ) , The Descent of Man , and Selection in Relation to Sex ( 1st ed . ) , London : John Murray , retrieved 29 April 2009 Darwin , Charles ( 1872 ) , The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection , or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life ( 6th ed . ) , London : John Murray , retrieved 9 January 2009 Darwin , Charles ( 1874 ) , The Descent of Man , and Selection in Relation to Sex ( 2nd ed . ) , London : John Murray , retrieved 8 January 2017 Darwin , Charles ( 1958 ) , Barlow , Nora , ed. , The Autobiography of Charles Darwin 1809 -- 1882 . With the Original Omissions Restored . Edited and with Appendix and Notes by his Granddaughter Nora Barlow , London : Collins , retrieved 9 January 2009 Darwin , Charles ( 2006 ) , `` Journal '' , in van Wyhe , John , Darwin 's personal ' Journal ' ( 1809 -- 1881 ) , Darwin Online , CUL - DAR158. 1 -- 76 , retrieved 7 September 2010 Darwin , Charles ; Costa , James T. ( 2009 ) , The Annotated Origin : A Facsimile of the First Edition of On the Origin of Species Annotated by James T. Costa , Cambridge , Massachusetts , and London , England : Belknap Press of Harvard University Press , ISBN 978 - 0 - 674 - 03281 - 1 Desmond , Adrian ( 1989 ) , The Politics of Evolution : Morphology , Medicine , and Reform in Radical London , Chicago : University of Chicago Press , ISBN 0 - 226 - 14374 - 0 Desmond , Adrian ; Moore , James ( 1991 ) , Darwin , London : Michael Joseph , Penguin Group , ISBN 0 - 7181 - 3430 - 3 Desmond , Adrian ; Moore , James ( 2009 ) , Darwin 's sacred cause : race , slavery and the quest for human origins , London : Allen Lane , ISBN 1 - 84614 - 035 - 8 Dewey , John ( 1994 ) , `` The Influence of Darwinism on Philosophy '' , in Martin Gardner , Great Essays in Science , Prometheus Books , ISBN 0 - 87975 - 853 - 8 Eldredge , Niles ( 2006 ) , `` Confessions of a Darwinist '' , The Virginia Quarterly Review ( Spring 2006 ) , pp. 32 -- 53 , retrieved 4 November 2008 Forster , Roger ; Marston , Dr Paul ( 1999 ) , `` Genesis Through History '' , Reason Science and Faith ( Ivy Cottage : E-Books ed . ) , Chester , England : Monarch Books , ISBN 1 - 85424 - 441 - 8 Freeman , Richard B. ( 1977 ) , `` On the Origin of Species '' , The Works of Charles Darwin : An Annotated Bibliographical Handlist ( 2nd ed . ) , Folkestone , England : Dawson , ISBN 0 - 7129 - 0740 - 8 Herbert , Sandra , ed. ( 1980 ) , `` The Red Notebook of Charles Darwin '' , Bulletin of the British Museum ( Natural History ) Historical Series , 7 : 1 -- 164 Also available here ( 1 ) Hodge , Charles ( 1874 ) , What is Darwinism ? , Scribner Armstrong , retrieved 14 January 2007 Huxley , Julian ; Kettlewell , H.B.D. ( 1965 ) . Charles Darwin and His World . New York : the Viking Press . Huxley , Thomas Henry ( 1860 ) , `` Darwin on the Origin of Species '' , Westminster Review , 17 ( April 1860 ) : 541 -- 570 . Published anonymously . Huxley , Thomas ( 1863 ) , Six Lectures to Working Men `` On Our Knowledge of the Causes of the Phenomena of Organic Nature '' ( Republished in Volume II of his Collected Essays , Darwiniana ) , retrieved 15 December 2006 Keynes , Richard , ed. ( 2000 ) , Charles Darwin 's Zoology Notes & Specimen Lists from HMS Beagle , Cambridge University Press , ISBN 0 - 521 - 67350 - X Kreeft , Peter ( 2001 ) , Catholic Christianity , San Francisco : Ignatius Press , ISBN 0 - 89870 - 798 - 6 Larson , Edward J. ( 2004 ) , Evolution : The Remarkable History of a Scientific Theory , New York : Modern Library , ISBN 0 - 8129 - 6849 - 2 Leifchild ( 1859 ) , `` Review of ' Origin ' '' , Athenaeum ( No. 1673 , 19 November 1859 ) , retrieved 22 November 2008 Lucas , John R. ( 1979 ) , `` Wilberforce and Huxley : A Legendary Encounter '' , The Historical Journal , 22 ( 2 ) , pp. 313 -- 330 , doi : 10.1017 / S0018246X00016848 , PMID 11617072 , retrieved 22 November 2008 Mayr , Ernst ( 1982 ) , The Growth of Biological Thought , Harvard University Press , ISBN 0 - 674 - 36446 - 5 Miles , Sara Joan ( 2001 ) , `` Charles Darwin and Asa Gray Discuss Teleology and Design '' , Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith , 53 , pp. 196 -- 201 , retrieved 22 November 2008 Mivart , St. George Jackson ( 1871 ) , On the Genesis of Species , New York : Appleton Moore , James ( 2006 ) , Evolution and Wonder -- Understanding Charles Darwin , Speaking of Faith ( Radio Program ) , American Public Media , archived from the original on 22 December 2008 , retrieved 22 November 2008 Phipps , William E. ( 1983 ) , `` Darwin , the Scientific Creationist '' , Christian Century ( 14 -- 21 September 1983 ) : 809 -- 811 , archived from the original on 8 January 2007 , retrieved 11 January 2007 Peckham , Morse ( ed . ) ( 1959 ) , The Origin of Species : a variorum text ( 2006 reprint ed . ) , Philadelphia : University of Pennsylvania Press. , ISBN 978 - 0 - 8122 - 1954 - 8 CS1 maint : Extra text : authors list ( link ) Quammen , David ( 2006 ) , The Reluctant Mr. Darwin , New York : Atlas Books , ISBN 0 - 393 - 05981 - 2 Radick , Gregory ( 2013 ) . `` Darwin and Humans '' . In Ruse , Michael . The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Darwin and Evolutionary Thought . Cambridge University Press . pp. 173 -- 181 . Rhodes , Frank H.T. ( June 1987 ) , `` Darwinian Gradualism and Its Limits : The development of Darwin 's Views on the Rate and Pattern of Evolutionary Change '' , Journal of the History of Biology , Humanities , Social Sciences and Law , Springer Netherlands ( published 6 November 2004 ) , 20 ( 2 ) , pp. 139 -- 157 , doi : 10.1007 / BF00138435 Schopf , J. William ( 2000 ) , `` Solution to Darwin 's dilemma : Discovery of the missing Precambrian record of life '' , Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA , 97 ( 13 ) : 6947 -- 6953 , Bibcode : 2000PNAS ... 97.6947 S , doi : 10.1073 / pnas. 97.13. 6947 , PMC 34368 , PMID 10860955 Secord , James A. ( 2000 ) , Victorian Sensation : The Extraordinary Publication , Reception , and Secret Authorship of Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation , Chicago : University of Chicago Press , ISBN 0 - 226 - 74411 - 6 Sober , Elliott ( 2011 ) , Did Darwin Write the Origin Backwards ? : Philosophical Essays on Darwin 's Theory , Amherst : Prometheus Books , ISBN 978 - 1 - 61614 - 278 - 0 Spencer , Herbert ( 1864 ) , The Principles of Biology , Vol. 1 , London : Williams and Norgate van Wyhe , John ( 2007 ) , `` Mind the gap : Did Darwin Avoid Publishing his Theory for Many Years ? '' , Notes and Records of the Royal Society , 61 ( 2 ) : 177 -- 205 , doi : 10.1098 / rsnr. 2006.0171 , retrieved 5 January 2009 van Wyhe , John ( 2008 ) , Darwin : The Story of the Man and His Theories of Evolution , London : Andre Deutsch , ISBN 0 - 233 - 00251 - 0 van Wyhe , John ( 2009 ) , Charles Darwin : Gentleman Naturalist : A Biographical Sketch , The Complete Works of Charles Darwin Online , retrieved 6 June 2009 Further reading ( edit ) Browne , Janet ( 2007 ) , Darwin 's Origin of Species : A Biography , Grove Press , ISBN 978 - 0 - 87113 - 953 - 5 Malthus , Thomas Robert ( 1826 ) , An Essay on the Principle of Population : A View of its Past and Present Effects on Human Happiness ; with an Inquiry into Our Prospects Respecting the Future Removal or Mitigation of the Evils which It Occasions , 1 ( 6th ed . ) , London : John Murray , retrieved 13 November 2017 ( Vol. 2 ) Reznick , David N. ( 2009 ) , The Origin Then and Now : An Interpretive Guide to the Origin of Species , Princeton University Press , ISBN 978 - 0 - 691 - 12978 - 5 Schopf , J. William ; Scheibel , Arnold B. ( 1997 ) , The Origin and Evolution of Intelligence , Boston : Jones and Bartlett , ISBN 0 - 7637 - 0365 - 6 van Hoorn , Marijn ( 2009 ) , Teyler , Winkler , Darwin ( Lecture given at the Congress of the European Botanical and Horticultural Libraries Group , Prague , 23 April 2009 ) , Teyler Net ( Weblog of the Teylers Museum , Haarlem ) , retrieved 27 April 2010 Contemporary reviews ( edit ) Carpenter , William Benjamin ( 1859 ) , `` Darwin on the Origin of Species '' , National Review , vol. 10 no . December 1859 , pp. 188 -- 214 . Published anonymously . Gray , Asa ( 1860 ) , `` ( Review of ) The Origin of Species '' , Athenaeum ( 1710 : 4 August 1860 ) : 161 . Extract from Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 4 ( 1860 ) : 411 -- 415 . Huxley , Thomas Henry ( 1859 ) , `` Time and Life : Mr Darwin 's Origin of Species '' , Macmillan 's Magazine , 1 : 142 -- 148 . Huxley , Thomas Henry ( 1859 ) , `` Darwin on the Origin of Species '' , The Times ( 26 December 1859 ) : 8 -- 9 . Published anonymously . Jenkin , Fleeming ( 1867 ) , `` ( Review of ) The Origin of Species '' , North British Review , 46 ( June 1867 ) : 277 -- 318 . Published anonymously . Murray , Andrew ( 1860 ) , `` On Mr Darwin 's Theory of the Origin of Species '' , Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh , 4 : 274 -- 291 . Owen , Richard ( 1860 ) , `` Review of Darwin 's Origin of Species '' , Edinburgh Review , 3 ( April 1860 ) : 487 -- 532 . Published anonymously . Wilberforce , Samuel ( 1860 ) , `` ( Review of ) On the Origin of Species , by means of Natural Selection ; or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life '' , Quarterly Review , 108 ( 215 : July 1860 ) : 225 -- 264 . Published anonymously . For further reviews , see Darwin Online : Reviews & Responses to Darwin , Darwin Online , 10 March 2009 , retrieved 18 June 2009 External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to The Origin of Species . Wikisource has original text related to this article : On the Origin of Species Library resources about On the origin of species Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries The Complete Works of Charles Darwin Online : Table of contents , bibliography of On the Origin of Species -- links to text and images of all six British editions of The Origin of Species , the 6th edition with additions and corrections ( final text ) , the first American edition , and translations into Danish , Dutch , French , German , Polish , Russian and Spanish . Online Variorum , showing every change between the six British editions . On the Origin of Species on In Our Time at the BBC . On the Origin of Species , full text with embedded audio . Victorian Science Texts Darwin Correspondence Project Home Page , University Library , Cambridge . On the Origin of Species eBook provided by Project Gutenberg View online at the Biodiversity Heritage Library On the Origin of Species 1860 American edition , D Appleton and Company , New York , with front insert by H.E. Barker , Lincolniana . Darwin 's notes on the creation of On the Origin of Species digitised in Cambridge Digital Library Charles Darwin Life Darwin -- Wedgwood family Education Voyage on HMS Beagle Inception of theory Development of theory Publication of theory Reactions to On the Origin of Species Orchids to Variation Descent of Man to Emotions Insectivorous Plants to Worms Portraits of Darwin Religious views Health Women Writings Extracts from Letters to Henslow The Voyage of the Beagle Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties ; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection On the Origin of Species Fertilisation of Orchids Geological Observations on South America Geological Observations on the Volcanic Islands The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication The Descent of Man , and Selection in Relation to Sex The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals Insectivorous Plants The Power of Movement in Plants The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms Autobiography Correspondence The Life and Letters of Charles Darwin More Letters of Charles Darwin List of described taxa Related Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation History of evolutionary thought Pangenesis Darwin Industry Commemoration Things named for Darwin Darwinism Alternatives Eclipse Social Darwinism HMS Beagle Darwin Medal Darwin Awards Evolutionary biology Evolutionary history of life Index of evolutionary biology articles Introduction Outline of evolution Timeline of evolution Evolution Abiogenesis Adaptation Adaptive radiation Cladistics Coevolution Common descent Convergence Divergence Earliest known life forms Evidence of common descent Extinction Event Gene - centered view Homology Last universal common ancestor Macroevolution Microevolution Origin of life Panspermia Parallel evolution Prehistoric Autopsy Speciation Taxonomy Population genetics Biodiversity Gene flow Genetic drift Mutation Natural selection Variation Development Canalisation Evolutionary developmental biology Inversion Modularity Phenotypic plasticity Of taxa Birds origin Brachiopods Molluscs Cephalopods Dinosaurs Fish Fungi Insects butterflies Life Mammals cats canids wolves dogs hyenas dolphins and whales horses primates humans lemurs sea cows Plants Reptiles Spiders Tetrapods Viruses influenza Of organs Cell DNA Flagella Eukaryotes symbiogenesis chromosome endomembrane system mitochondria nucleus plastids In animals eye hair auditory ossicle nervous system brain Of processes Aging Death Programmed cell death Avian flight Biological complexity Cooperation Color vision in primates Emotion Empathy Ethics Eusociality Immune system Metabolism Monogamy Morality Mosaic evolution Multicellularity Sexual reproduction Gamete differentiation / sexes Life cycles / nuclear phases Mating types Sex - determination Snake venom Tempo and modes Gradualism / Punctuated equilibrium / Saltationism Micromutation / Macromutation Uniformitarianism / Catastrophism Speciation Allopatric Anagenesis Catagenesis Cladogenesis Cospeciation Ecological Hybrid Parapatric Peripatric Reinforcement Sympatric History Renaissance and Enlightenment Transmutation of species Charles Darwin On the Origin of Species History of paleontology Transitional fossil Blending inheritance Mendelian inheritance The eclipse of Darwinism Modern synthesis History of molecular evolution Extended evolutionary synthesis Philosophy Darwinism Alternatives Catastrophism Lamarckism Orthogenesis Mutationism Saltationism Structuralism Spandrel Theistic Vitalism Teleology in biology Related Biogeography Ecological genetics Molecular evolution Phylogenetics Tree Polymorphism Protocell Systematics Category Commons Portal WikiProject Natural history Pioneering naturalists Classical antiquity Aristotle ( History of Animals ) Theophrastus ( Historia Plantarum ) Aelian ( De Natura Animalium ) Pliny the Elder ( Natural History ) Dioscorides ( De Materia Medica ) Renaissance Gaspard Bauhin ( Pinax theatri botanici ) Otto Brunfels Hieronymus Bock Andrea Cesalpino Valerius Cordus Leonhart Fuchs Conrad Gessner ( Historia animalium ) Frederik Ruysch William Turner ( Avium Praecipuarum , New Herball ) John Gerard ( Herball , or Generall Historie of Plantes ) Enlightenment Robert Hooke ( Micrographia ) Antonie van Leeuwenhoek William Derham Hans Sloane Jan Swammerdam Carl Linnaeus ( Systema Naturae ) Georg Steller Joseph Banks Johan Christian Fabricius James Hutton John Ray ( Historia Plantarum ) Comte de Buffon ( Histoire Naturelle ) Bernard Germain de Lacépède Gilbert White ( The Natural History of Selborne ) Thomas Bewick ( A History of British Birds ) Jean - Baptiste Lamarck ( Philosophie Zoologique ) 19th century George Montagu ( Ornithological Dictionary ) Georges Cuvier ( Le Règne Animal ) William Smith Charles Darwin ( On the Origin of Species ) Alfred Russel Wallace ( The Malay Archipelago ) Henry Walter Bates ( The Naturalist on the River Amazons ) Alexander von Humboldt John James Audubon ( The Birds of America ) William Buckland Charles Lyell Mary Anning Jean - Henri Fabre Louis Agassiz Philip Henry Gosse Asa Gray William Jackson Hooker Joseph Dalton Hooker William Jardine ( The Naturalist 's Library ) Ernst Haeckel ( Kunstformen der Natur ) Richard Lydekker ( The Royal Natural History ) 20th century Abbott Thayer ( Concealing - Coloration in the Animal Kingdom ) Hugh B. 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Rip It Up ( Orange Juice song ) - wikipedia Rip It Up ( Orange Juice song ) Jump to : navigation , search `` Rip It Up '' Single by Orange Juice from the album Rip It Up B - side `` Snake Charmer '' `` A Sad Lament '' Released February 1983 Format 7 '' 12 '' Recorded Berwick Street Studios , London Genre Post-punk Label Polydor Songwriter ( s ) Edwyn Collins Producer ( s ) Martin Hayles Orange Juice singles chronology `` I Ca n't Help Myself '' ( 1982 ) `` Rip It Up '' ( 1983 ) `` Flesh of My Flesh '' ( 1983 ) `` I Ca n't Help Myself '' ( 1982 ) `` Rip It Up '' ( 1983 ) `` Flesh of My Flesh '' ( 1983 ) `` Rip It Up '' was a 1983 single by Scottish post-punk band Orange Juice . It was the second single to be released from their 1982 album of the same name . The song became the band 's only UK top 40 success , reaching no . 8 in the chart . `` Rip It Up '' signalled a departure from the sound of the band 's earlier singles , with Chic - influenced guitars and using a synthesiser to create a more disco - oriented sound . The song was sampled in 2009 by British soul singer Beverley Knight on her song `` In Your Shoes '' from the album 100 % . In 2014 , NME ranked it at number 216 in its list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time . It was also included by Pitchfork at number 157 in a list of The Best 200 Songs of the 1980s . Contents ( hide ) 1 Recording and influences 2 Music video 3 UK single release 3.1 Track listing 4 Chart positions 5 References 6 External links Recording and influences ( edit ) Roland TB - 303 The song was recorded as part of the sessions for Orange Juice 's second studio album and would go on to become the title track of said album . It marked a departure from their previous guitar - pop based material , instead utilising Chic style guitar - funk and a bubbling Roland TB - 303 synthesiser bassline , becoming the first chart single to feature the instrument . The song also features a snatch of the guitar riff from `` Boredom '' , a song by Buzzcocks that featured on their debut Spiral Scratch EP . The riff chimes briefly in , just as Collins namechecks the song in the lyrics claiming that `` ... and my favourite song is entitled ' Boredom ' . '' Backing vocals on the song were provided by Paul Quinn , the lead singer of fellow Scottish band Bourgie Bourgie , with whom Collins would later record a single in 1984 , a cover of the Velvet Underground song `` Pale Blue Eyes . '' Music video ( edit ) The video opens with the band in a futuristic , but cheaply constructed , control room as they sing , dance and operate various controls . The band then watch themselves on a monitor screen as they walk down a rainy British high street dressed in incongruous , brightly coloured summer clothes . The video then cuts back to the control room , this time with the band playing their instruments superimposed over it , before returning to more scenes of a British city in torrential rain as the band walk around in scuba diving gear . The video finally cuts back to the band playing in a silver foil covered room , before superimposing them over a pile of random photographs . UK single release ( edit ) `` Rip It Up '' was released as a single in the UK in February 1983 . The seven inch vinyl version of the single was available in three versions , a double pack including a second seven - inch and a fold out poster , along with two versions of the standard release , initially with a silver injection moulded labels , and then subsequently with paper printed labels . The song was also released on twelve inch vinyl , with extended versions of the title track and B - side . All versions were housed in a paper sleeve depicting a US P - 40 Warhawk fighter plane ( decorated with eyes and teeth ) partially submerged , tail first , in the sea , drawn by Edwyn Collins . Track listing ( edit ) Single 7 '' No . Title Writer ( s ) Length 1 . `` Rip It Up '' Edwyn Collins 3 : 51 2 . `` Snake Charmer '' Malcolm Ross 4 : 43 Double 7 '' No . Title Writer ( s ) Length 1 . `` Rip It Up '' Edwyn Collins 2 . `` Snake Charmer '' Malcolm Ross 3 . `` Love Sick '' ( Live ) Edwyn Collins 4 . `` A Sad Lament '' Edwyn Collins 12 '' No . Title Writer ( s ) Length 1 . `` Rip It Up '' ( Long Version ) Edwyn Collins 2 . `` A Sad Lament '' ( Long Version ) Edwyn Collins Chart positions ( edit ) Chart ( 1983 ) Peak position UK Singles Chart 8 New Zealand Singles Chart 42 References ( edit ) Jump up ^ http://www.rocklistmusic.co.uk/nme_500_greatest_songs_2014.htm Jump up ^ http://pitchfork.com/features/lists-and-guides/9700-the-200-best-songs-of-the-1980s/?page=3 ^ Jump up to : `` Buzzcocks : Boredom / Orange Juice : Rip It Up '' . Stylus Magazine . 25 August 2004 . Retrieved 26 May 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` Orange Juice - Rip It Up 12 '' . Discogs . Retrieved 26 May 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Orange Juice - Rip It Up '' . Discogs . Retrieved 26 May 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Orange Juice - Rip It Up '' . Discogs . Retrieved 26 May 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` Orange Juice - Rip It Up ( Song ) '' . charts.org.nz . Retrieved 26 May 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Orange Juice - Rip It Up '' . Discogs . Retrieved 26 May 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Orange Juice '' . Official Charts Company . Retrieved 26 May 2013 . External links ( edit ) Music video on YouTube ( hide ) Orange Juice Edwyn Collins James Kirk David McClymont Steven Daly Malcolm Ross Zeke Manyika Studio albums You Ca n't Hide Your Love Forever Rip It Up Texas Fever The Orange Juice Singles `` Falling and Laughing '' `` Rip It Up '' Compilations Ostrich Churchyard The Heather 's on Fire The Glasgow School Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rip_It_Up_(Orange_Juice_song)&oldid=751734896 '' Categories : 1983 singles Orange Juice ( band ) songs 1983 songs Polydor Records singles Songs written by Edwyn Collins Hidden categories : Use dmy dates from May 2015 Use British English from May 2015 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2013 Track listings with deprecated parameters Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 27 November 2016 , at 15 : 08 . 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2018 Winter Olympics - wikipedia 2018 Winter Olympics This is the latest accepted revision , reviewed on 9 January 2018 . Jump to : navigation , search `` PyeongChang 2018 '' redirects here . For the Winter Paralympics , see 2018 Winter Paralympics . XXIII Olympic Winter Games Host city Pyeongchang , South Korea Motto Passion . Connected . Korean : 하나 된 열정 . ( Hanadoen Yeoljeong ) Nations participating 90 ( estimated ) Events 102 in 7 sports ( 15 disciplines ) Opening ceremony 9 February ( 31 days from now ) Closing ceremony 25 February Stadium Pyeongchang Olympic Stadium Winter < Sochi 2014 Beijing 2022 > Summer < Rio de Janeiro 2016 Tokyo 2020 > Pyeongchang Location in South Korea Pyeongchang Winter Olympics Hangul 평창 동계 올림픽 Hanja 平 昌 冬季 올림픽 Revised Romanization Pyeongchang Donggye Ollimpik McCune -- Reischauer P'yŏngch'ang Tonggye Ollimp'ik Part of a series on 2018 Winter Olympics ( show ) Bid process ( bid details ) Venues Torch relay Mascots Broadcasters Opening ceremony ( flag bearers ) Chronological summary Medal table ( medalists ) World and Olympic records Concerns and controversies Closing ceremony ( flag bearers ) Paralympics IOC KOC POCOG The 2018 Winter Olympics , officially known as the XXIII Olympic Winter Games ( French : Les XXIIIèmes Jeux olympiques d'hiver ; Hangul : 제 23 회 동계 올림픽 ; RR : Je - isipsamhoe Donggye Ollimpik ) and commonly known as PyeongChang 2018 ( ( phjʌŋ. tɕhaŋ ) ) , is a major international multi-sport event scheduled to take place from 9 to 25 February 2018 in Pyeongchang County , South Korea . The elected host city was announced on 6 July 2011 by the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) after the 123rd IOC Session in Durban , South Africa . Pyeongchang won its bid on the first round of voting , receiving more votes than both Munich , Germany and Annecy , France combined . These will be South Korea 's second Olympic Games and its first Winter Games ; Seoul hosted the Summer Games in 1988 . Pyeongchang will be the third Asian city to host the Winter Games ; the first two were in Japan , at Sapporo ( 1972 ) and Nagano ( 1998 ) . Contents ( hide ) 1 Bidding 1.1 Host city election 2 Tickets 3 Preparations 3.1 Torch relay 4 Venues 4.1 Pyeongchang ( Mountain cluster ) 4.1. 1 Alpensia Sports Park 4.1. 2 Stand - alone venues 4.2 Gangneung ( Coastal cluster ) 5 Sports 6 Participating National Olympic Committees 7 Calendar 8 Marketing 8.1 Branding 8.2 Mascots 9 Broadcasting rights 10 Concerns and controversies 10.1 Security 10.2 Jeongseon Alpine Centre Ecological Issues 10.3 Russian doping 10.3. 1 Official sanctions 10.3. 2 Reaction in Russia 10.3. 3 Criticism 11 See also 12 Notes and references 13 External links Bidding ( edit ) Main article : Bids for the 2018 Winter Olympics Pyeongchang bid to host both the 2010 and 2014 Winter Olympic Games but lost in the final rounds of voting by three and four votes respectively . Pyeongchang won its bid for the 2018 Winter Olympic Games in the first round of voting , receiving 63 of the 95 votes cast , giving it the majority required to be elected host city . Munich also launched a bid to host these Games . Prior to Beijing 's successful 2022 Winter Olympics bid , Munich would have become the first city to host both the Winter and the Summer Games , having previously hosted the 1972 Summer Olympics , but received 25 votes . Annecy ( in southeastern France ) launched a bid , but failed to secure public support from local citizens . Their bid received seven votes . Host city election ( edit ) Pyeongchang was elected as the host city at the 123rd IOC Session in Durban , earning the necessary majority of at least 48 votes in just one round of voting . 2018 Winter Olympics bidding results City Nation Votes Pyeongchang South Korea 63 Munich Germany 25 Annecy France 7 Tickets ( edit ) Ticket prices for the 2018 Winter Olympics were announced in April 2016 and went on sale in October 2016 , ranging from ₩ 20,000 ( approximately US $ 17 ) to ₩ 900,000 ( US $776 ) . Tickets for the opening and closing ceremonies range from ₩ 220,000 ( US $190 ) to ₩ 1.5 million ( US $1293 ) . The exact prices were determined through market research ; around 50 % of the tickets are expected to cost about ₩ 80,000 ( US $69 ) or less , and tickets in sports that are relatively unknown in the region , such as biathlon and luge , will be made cheaper in order to encourage attendance . By contrast , figure skating and the men 's hockey gold - medal game carry the most expensive tickets of the Games . As of 11 October 2017 , domestic ticket sales for the Games have been slow . Of the 750,000 seats allocated to South Koreans , only 20.7 % have been sold . International sales have been better , with 59.7 % of the 320,000 allocated tickets sold . In total , 61 % of tickets have been sold . Sales of tickets to the Paralympic Games are increasing slowly , with 37 % of them sold . Preparations ( edit ) On 5 August 2011 , the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) announced the formation of the Pyeongchang 2018 Coordination Commission . On 4 October 2011 , it was announced that the Organizing Committee for the 2018 Winter Olympics would be headed by Kim Jin - sun . The Pyeongchang Organizing Committee for the 2018 Olympic & Paralympic Winter Games ( POCOG ) was launched at its inaugural assembly on 19 October 2011 . The first tasks of the organizing committee were putting together a master plan for the games as well as forming a design for the venues . The IOC Coordination Commission for the 2018 Winter Olympics made their first visit to Pyeongchang in March 2012 . By then , construction was already underway on the Olympic Village . In June 2012 , construction began on a high - speed rail line that will connect Pyeongchang to Seoul . Olympic venues 2018 The International Paralympic Committee met for an orientation with the Pyeongchang 2018 organizing committee in July 2012 . Then - IOC President Jacques Rogge visited Pyeongchang for the first time in February 2013 . On 27 June 2014 the Pyeongchang Olympic Committee announced their mascot selection contest . The contest ran from 15 September 2014 to 30 September 2014 . The 2013 Special Olympics World Winter Games were held in Pyeongchang . The Pyeongchang Organizing Committee for the 2018 Olympic & Paralympic Winter Games created Pyeongchang WINNERS in 2014 by recruiting university students living in South Korea to spread awareness of the Olympic Games through social networking services and news articles . Torch relay ( edit ) Main article : 2018 Winter Olympics torch relay Venues ( edit ) Main article : Venues of the 2018 Winter Olympics and Paralympics Dragon Valley Ski Resort Pyeongchang ( mountain cluster ) ( edit ) Alpensia sports park ( edit ) The Alpensia Resort in Daegwallyeong - myeon will be the focus of the 2018 Pyeongchang Winter Olympics . Pyeongchang Olympic Stadium -- opening and closing ceremonies Alpensia Ski Jumping Centre -- ski jumping , Nordic combined , snowboarding ( big air ) Alpensia Biathlon Centre -- biathlon Alpensia Cross-Country Centre -- cross-country skiing , Nordic combined Alpensia Sliding Centre -- luge , bobsleigh , and skeleton Olympic Village Yongpyong Alpine Centre -- alpine skiing ( slalom , giant slalom ) Stand - alone venues ( edit ) Bokwang Snow Park -- freestyle skiing and snowboard Jeongseon Alpine Centre -- alpine skiing ( downhill , super-G , and combined ) Gangneung ( coastal cluster ) ( edit ) The coastal cluster is located in the city of Gangneung . The Gangneung Olympic Park will include the following four venues : Gangneung Hockey Centre -- ice hockey ( men competition ) Gangneung Curling Centre -- curling Gangneung Oval -- speed skating Gangneung Ice Arena -- short track speed skating and figure skating In addition , a stand - alone venue is located on the grounds of Catholic Kwandong University : Kwandong Hockey Centre -- ice hockey ( women competition ) Sports ( edit ) The 2018 Winter Olympics will feature 102 events in 15 sports . Four new disciplines in existing sports will be introduced in Pyeongchang , including big air snowboarding , mixed doubles curling , mass start speed skating , and mixed team alpine skiing . For the first time since 1998 , the National Hockey League will not provide accommodations ( including a break in the season for all teams during the Olympics ) to allow its players to participate in the men 's ice hockey tournament . The NHL 's decision stemmed from their demands that the IOC cover the cost of insuring the NHL players who participate in the Games . Although it did pay to insure NHL players in Sochi , the IOC was unwilling to do so for Pyeongchang , and was concerned that the NHL 's demand could set a precedent for other professional sports bodies to follow . NHL Commissioner Gary Bettman added that a factor in the decision was that the IOC did not allow the NHL to promote the involvement of its players in the Olympics . The NHL secured the cooperation of the International Ice Hockey Federation and the IOC , who agreed to establish a blacklist forbidding national teams from nominating or accepting players under NHL contract to their Olympic rosters . Numbers in parentheses indicate the number of medal events contested in each sports discipline . Alpine skiing ( 11 ) ( details ) Biathlon ( 11 ) ( details ) Bobsleigh ( 3 ) ( details ) Cross-country skiing ( 12 ) ( details ) Curling ( 3 ) ( details ) Figure skating ( 5 ) ( details ) Freestyle skiing ( 10 ) ( details ) Ice hockey ( 2 ) ( details ) Luge ( 4 ) ( details ) Nordic combined ( 3 ) ( details ) Short track speed skating ( 8 ) ( details ) Skeleton ( 2 ) ( details ) Ski jumping ( 4 ) ( details ) Snowboarding ( 10 ) ( details ) Speed skating ( 14 ) ( details ) Participating national Olympic committees ( edit ) A total of 90 teams have qualified at least one athlete so far ( 89 nations , and the delegation from Russia which will compete under the IOC flag ) . Ecuador , Eritrea , Kosovo , Malaysia , and Singapore are scheduled to make their Winter Olympics debut if they decide to participate . North Korean athletes will be allowed to cross the DMZ into South Korea since two North Korean figure skaters qualified . North Korea agreed in negotiations with South Korea to send the qualified athletes for the Winter Olympics . Russia 's status remained unclear due to the state - sponsored doping scandal . On 5 December 2017 it was announced that the Russian Olympic Committee was suspended effective immediately . Individual athletes who qualified and can demonstrate they have complied with the IOC 's doping regulations will be allowed to compete as `` Olympic Athletes from Russia , '' ( OAR ) under a neutral flag and with the Olympic anthem played in any ceremony . ( hide ) Participating National Olympic Committees Albania Andorra Argentina Armenia Australia Austria Azerbaijan Belarus Belgium Bermuda Bolivia Bosnia and Herzegovina Brazil Bulgaria Canada Chile China Colombia Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Dominica Ecuador Eritrea Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Great Britain Greece Hong Kong Hungary Iceland India Iran Ireland Israel Italy Japan Kazakhstan Kenya Kosovo Kyrgyzstan Latvia Lebanon Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Macedonia Madagascar Malaysia Malta Mexico Moldova Monaco Mongolia Montenegro Morocco Netherlands New Zealand North Korea Norway Olympic Athletes from Russia Pakistan Peru Philippines Poland Portugal Puerto Rico Romania San Marino Serbia Singapore Slovakia Slovenia South Africa South Korea ( host ) Spain Sweden Switzerland Chinese Taipei Thailand Timor - Leste Togo Turkey Ukraine United States Uzbekistan Calendar ( edit ) All dates are KST ( UTC + 9 ) OC Opening ceremony Event competitions Event finals EG Exhibition gala CC Closing ceremony February 8th Thu 9th Fri 10th Sat 11th Sun 12th Mon 13th Tue 14th Wed 15th Thu 16th Fri 17th Sat 18th Sun 19th Mon 20th Tue 21st Wed 22nd Thu 23rd Fri 24th Sat 25th Sun Events Ceremonies OC CC N / A Alpine skiing 11 Biathlon 11 Bobsleigh Cross country skiing 12 Curling Figure skating EG 5 Freestyle skiing 10 Ice hockey Luge Nordic combined Short track speed skating 8 Skeleton Ski jumping Snowboarding 10 Speed skating 14 Total events 5 7 8 8 6 7 5 9 6 5 7 8 6 8 102 Cumulative total 5 12 20 28 34 41 46 55 61 64 69 76 84 90 98 102 February 8th Thu 9th Fri 10th Sat 11th Sun 12th Mon 13th Tue 14th Wed 15th Thu 16th Fri 17th Sat 18th Sun 19th Mon 20th Tue 21st Wed 22nd Thu 23rd Fri 24th Sat 25th Sun 102 events Marketing ( edit ) Gold medal of the 2018 Olympics Branding ( edit ) The emblem for the Games was unveiled on 3 May 2013 . It is a stylized representation of the hangul letters ᄑ p and ᄎ ch , being the initial sounds of 평창 Pyeongchang . Additionally the left symbol is said to represent the Korean philosophical triad of heaven , earth and humanity ( Korean : 천지인 cheon - ji - in ) , and the right symbol a crystal of ice . The name of the host city has been intentionally formatted in all official materials as `` PyeongChang '' , rather than `` Pyeongchang '' . This is to alleviate potential confusion with Pyongyang , the similarly - named capital of neighbouring North Korea . The official pictograms for 24 sports across 15 disciplines were revealed in January 2017 and are designed using the Korean alphabet as inspiration . Mascots ( edit ) Main article : Soohorang and Bandabi The official mascots for the Games , Soohorang ( 수 호랑 ) , a white tiger , and Bandabi ( 반 다비 ) , an Asiatic black bear , were unveiled on 2 June 2016 . Broadcasting rights ( edit ) Main article : List of 2018 Winter Olympics broadcasters Broadcast rights to the 2018 Winter Olympics in some countries were already sold as part of long - term broadcast rights deals , including the Games ' local rightsholder SBS -- which extended its rights to the Olympics in July 2011 through 2024 . On 29 June 2015 , the IOC announced that Discovery Communications had acquired exclusive rights to the Olympics across Europe , excluding Russia , from 2018 through 2024 on all platforms . Discovery 's rights deal will , initially , not cover France due to pre-existing rights deals with France Télévisions that run through the 2020 Games . Unlike previous pan-European deals , such as with the European Broadcasting Union and Sportfive , Discovery will not serve solely as a reseller , as it intends to carry coverage on its regional properties , such as Eurosport and DMAX , but it has committed to sub-license at least 100 hours of coverage to free - to - air networks . In the United Kingdom , Discovery will hold exclusive pay television rights under license from the BBC ; in return , the BBC will sub-license the free - to - air rights to the 2022 and 2024 Olympics from Discovery . In the United States , the Games will once again be broadcast by NBC under a long - term contract with NBCUniversal ; it will be NBC 's first Olympics without long - time primary host Bob Costas , who announced on 7 February 2017 his retirement from the role in favour of Mike Tirico . On 28 March 2017 , NBC also announced that it would air most primetime coverage simultaneously in all time zones in the United States , rather than tape - delayed for the West Coast . Concerns and controversies ( edit ) Main article : Concerns and controversies at the 2018 Winter Olympics Security ( edit ) On 20 September 2017 , South Korea 's President Moon Jae - in said the country is pushing to ensure security at the Pyeongchang Winter Olympic Games amid rising tensions over North Korea 's nuclear tests and a series of missile launches . However , on the next day , French Minister of Youth Affairs and Sports Laura Flessel - Colovic said France 's Winter Olympics team will boycott the games unless South Korea 's security is guaranteed . On 22 September 2017 , Austria and Germany joined France in considering not attending the Games . Karl Stoss , head of Austria 's national Olympic committee , said that `` if the situation worsens and the security of our athletes is no longer guaranteed , we will not go to South Korea . '' The German interior ministry said the security question and the possibility of keeping the German team at home would be addressed `` in good time '' by the government . Several days later , Laura Flessel - Colovic reaffirmed France 's participation in the games . Both countries have yet to decide on reaffirming . In early December 2017 , United States Ambassador to the United Nations , Nikki Haley , told Fox News that it was an `` open question '' whether the United States was going to participate in the games , citing security concerns in the region . However , days later the White House Press Secretary , Sarah Huckabee Sanders , stated that the United States `` looks forward to participating '' and will attend . Jeongseon Alpine Centre ecological issues ( edit ) Environmental groups have raised concerns surrounding the deforestation from the slopes of Gariwang mountain to build the Jeongseon Alpine Centre . Officials claim it is necessary as it is the only slope that will accommodate Olympic requirements and the forest will be restored after the games are done . Environmental groups are sceptical as the forest includes old growth of ancient and rare species . Russian doping ( edit ) Main articles : Doping in Russia , McLaren Report , Oswald Commission , Russia at the 2016 Summer Olympics , and Olympic Athletes from Russia at the 2018 Winter Olympics Official sanctions ( edit ) Proposed OAR logo On 5 December 2017 , the IOC announced that the Russian Olympic Committee had been suspended effective immediately from the 2018 Winter Olympics . Athletes who had no previous drug violations and a consistent history of drug testing were to be allowed to compete under the Olympic Flag as an `` Olympic Athlete from Russia '' ( OAR ) . Under the terms of the decree , Russian government officials were barred from the Games , and neither the country 's flag nor anthem would be present . The Olympic Flag and Olympic Anthem will be used instead , and on 20 December 2017 the IOC proposed an alternate logo for the uniforms ( seen at right ) . IOC President Thomas Bach said that `` after following due process ( the IOC ) has issued proportional sanctions for this systematic manipulation while protecting the clean athletes . '' Reaction in Russia ( edit ) In the past , Vladimir Putin , the President of Russia , and other officials had said that it would be a humiliation for Russia if its athletes were not allowed to compete under the Russian flag . However , his spokesman later said that no boycott had been discussed . After the IOC decision was announced , Ramzan Kadyrov , the head of Chechnya , announced that no Chechen athletes would participate under a neutral flag . On 6 December , Putin stated that the Russian government would not prevent any athletes from participating at the Games as individuals , but there were calls from other politicians for a boycott . Criticism ( edit ) The IOC 's decision was criticized by Jack Robertson , primary investigator of the Russian doping program on behalf of the World Anti-Doping Agency , who said that the IOC has issued `` a non-punitive punishment meant to save face while protecting the ( IOC 's ) and Russia 's commercial and political interests '' . He also emphasized that Russian whistleblowers provided empirical evidence that `` 99 percent of ( their ) national - level teammates were doping . '' According to Robertson , `` ( WADA ) has discovered that when a Russian athlete ( reaches ) the national level , he or she ( has ) no choice in the matter : ( it is ) either dope , or you 're done '' . `` There is currently no intelligence I have seen or heard about that indicates the state - sponsored doping program has ceased '' , he added . It was also reported that Russian officials intensively lobbied US politicians in an apparent attempt to achieve Grigory Rodchenkov 's ( main whistleblower ) extradition to Russia . See also ( edit ) Olympics portal 2018 Winter Paralympics 2018 Summer Youth Olympics Notes and references ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` Olympics : 2018 Winter Olympics ... not in Pyongyang '' . The Manila Bulletin . Agence France - Presse. 26 January 2016 . Archived from the original on 31 January 2016 . Retrieved 26 January 2016 . Jump up ^ Longman , Jeré ; Sang - hun , Choe ( 6 July 2011 ) . `` 2018 Winter Games to Be Held in Pyeongchang , South Korea '' . The New York Times . The New York Times Company . ISSN 0362 - 4331 . Retrieved 7 June 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Pyeongchang 2018 reveal ticket prices for Winter Olympic Games '' . Jump up ^ `` PyeongChang Olympics ticket sales get icy reception '' . The Korea Herald . Herald Media Inc. 11 October 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Gunilla Lindberg to Chair PyeongChang 2018 Coordination Commission '' . Archived from the original on 18 September 2011 . Retrieved 4 October 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Coordination Commissions '' . Olympic.org . Retrieved 8 August 2012 . Jump up ^ `` PyeongChang 2018 Organizing Committee Launched '' . GamesBids.com . Archived from the original on 20 October 2011 . Retrieved 8 August 2012 . Jump up ^ `` PyeongChang 2018 Praised '' . Gamesbids.com . Archived from the original on 14 June 2012 . Retrieved 8 August 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Pyeongchang 2018 have `` good grasp of what is expected '' says Lindberg after first IOC Coordination Commission visit `` . Insidethegames.biz. 22 March 2012 . Retrieved 8 August 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Construction Begins on High - Speed Railway , Critical for PyeongChang 2018 Olympic Games '' . Gamesbids.com . Archived from the original on 19 June 2012 . Retrieved 8 August 2012 . Jump up ^ `` IPC Orientates PyeongChang 2018 '' . Gamesbids.com . Archived from the original on 3 August 2012 . Retrieved 8 August 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Pyeongchang 2018 on `` right track '' declares Rogge after first visit `` . Insidethegames.biz. 1 February 2013 . Retrieved 19 February 2014 . Jump up ^ `` 2018 평창 동계 올림픽 대회 및 장애인 동계 올림픽 대회 마스코트 아이디어 공모 '' . Jump up ^ `` Pyeongchang 2018 recruits college student reporters : WINNERS '' . 18 June 2015 . Retrieved 5 November 2015 . Jump up ^ `` PyeongChang 2018 Alpensia Resort and water park complete and full for summer season '' . Sportsfeatures.com . Archived from the original on 12 March 2012 . Retrieved 8 August 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Pyeongchang2018 Volume 2 ( Sport and Venues ) '' ( PDF ) . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 18 March 2012 . Retrieved 8 August 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Pyeongchang 2018 move venue for Opening and Closing Ceremonies Winter Olympics 2018 '' . insidethegames.biz. 6 July 2012 . Retrieved 8 August 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Winter Olympics : Big air , mixed curling among new 2018 events '' . BBC Sport . BBC . Retrieved 21 June 2017 . Jump up ^ `` NHL will not participate in 2018 Pyeongchang Olympic Games '' . Sportsnet. Rogers Media . Retrieved 3 April 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Olympics and N.H.L. Face Off Over Who Pays to Insure Players '' . The New York Times . The New York Times Company . 19 May 2016 . Retrieved 21 May 2016 . Jump up ^ `` IOC decides not to cover costs for NHL players at Olympics '' . Sportsnet. Rogers Media . 23 April 2016 . Retrieved 21 May 2016 . Jump up ^ Whyno , Stephen ( 15 September 2017 ) . `` Capitals ' Ovechkin says Olympic decision out of his hands '' . Associated Press . Retrieved 15 September 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Alex Ovechkin , other NHL players reluctantly accept 2018 Olympics decision '' . The Globe and Mail . Retrieved 30 November 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Pyeongchang 2018 : Athletes to travel through demilitarised zone '' . BBC News . 18 May 2017 . Retrieved 8 June 2017 . Jump up ^ `` North Korean skaters qualify for Pyeongchang 2018 '' . insidethegames.biz . Dunsar Media Company Limited . Jump up ^ Sang - Hun , Choe ( 8 January 2018 ) . `` North Korea to Send Athletes to Olympics in South Korea Breakthrough '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 9 January 2018 . Jump up ^ `` With one year until 2018 Winter Games , Russia 's status murky '' . 9 February 2017 . Jump up ^ `` IOC suspends Russian NOC and creates a path for clean individual athletes to compete in Pyeongchang 2018 under the Olympic flag '' . IOC. 5 December 2017 . Retrieved 5 December 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Quota allocation for Alpine skiing '' . www.data.fis-ski.com/ . International Ski Federation ( FIS ) . 8 August 2017 . Retrieved 8 August 2017 . Jump up ^ `` 2018 Winter Olympics '' . IIHF . iihf.com . Retrieved 18 May 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Quota allocation for Cross-country skiing '' . www.data.fis-ski.com/ . International Ski Federation ( FIS ) . 8 August 2017 . Retrieved 8 August 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Pyeongchang 2018 Winter Olympics '' . worldcurling.org . Retrieved 23 July 2016 . Jump up ^ `` ISU Communication no . 2136 '' . International Skating Union . Retrieved 31 December 2017 . Jump up ^ `` PyeongChang 2018 Launches Official Emblem '' . olympic.org . International Olympic Committee . Retrieved 12 August 2016 . Jump up ^ `` PyeongChang 2018 Pictograms '' . The PyeongChang 2018 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games . 25 January 2017 . Retrieved 30 May 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Tiger and bear mascots unveiled for Pyeongchang 2018 Winter Olympics and Paralympics '' . insidethegames.biz . Dunsar Media Company Limited . 2 June 2016 . Retrieved 16 November 2017 . Jump up ^ `` IOC awards SBS broadcast rights for 2018 , 2020 , 2022 and 2024 Olympic Games - Olympic News '' . International Olympic Committee . 9 December 2016 . Retrieved 7 August 2017 . Jump up ^ `` DMAX emitirá los Juegos Olímpicos de invierno de Pyeongchang 2018 . Noticias de Televisión '' . El Confidencial ( in Spanish ) . Retrieved 28 December 2017 . Jump up ^ `` IOC awards European broadcast rights to SPORTFIVE '' . ESPN.com . ESPN Internet Ventures . 18 February 2009 . Retrieved 13 August 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Discovery Lands European Olympic Rights Through ' 24 '' . Sports Business Journal . Retrieved 1 July 2015 . Jump up ^ `` BBC dealt another blow after losing control of TV rights for Olympics '' . The Guardian . Guardian Media Group . Retrieved 30 June 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Olympics coverage to remain on BBC after Discovery deal '' . The Guardian . Guardian News and Media Limited . Retrieved 7 June 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Bob Costas steps down as NBC host of Olympics ; Mike Tirico to replace him '' . USA Today . Gannett Company . Retrieved 9 February 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Brennan : Bob Costas has been the face of the Olympics for Americans '' . USA Today . Gannett Company . Retrieved 9 February 2017 . Jump up ^ `` NBC to Broadcast Winter Olympics Live Across All Time Zones '' . Variety . PMC . Retrieved 28 March 2017 . Jump up ^ `` South Korea 's Moon says pushing to guarantee safety at Pyeongchang Olympics '' . Reuters. 20 September 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Olympics - France to skip 2018 Winter Games if security not assured '' . Reuters. 22 September 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Olympics : North Korea triggers 2018 Winter Olympics security scare '' . The Straits Times . 23 September 2017 . Jump up ^ `` US ambassador to UN says it 's an ' open question ' whether U.S. athletes will participate in Winter Olympics over safety concerns '' . Business Insider. 7 December 2017 . Jump up ^ Mitchell , Ellen ( 7 December 2017 ) . `` White House walks back remarks that US athletes might not participate in 2018 Olympics '' . The Hill . Retrieved 4 January 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Olympics : Olympic organisers destroy ' sacred ' South Korean forest to create ski run '' . The Guardian . 03 January 2018 . Check date values in : date = ( help ) ^ Jump up to : Cite error : The named reference : 0 was invoked but never defined ( see the help page ) . ^ Jump up to : Ruiz , Rebecca C. ; Panja , Tariq ( 5 December 2017 ) . `` Russia Banned From Winter Olympics by I.O.C '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 5 December 2017 . Jump up ^ `` IOC 's OAR implementation group releases guidelines for uniforms accessories and equipment 's '' . olympic.org. 20 December 2017 . Jump up ^ `` IOC Bars Russian Athletes and Officials From Winter Olympic Games '' . The Moscow Times . 5 December 2017 . Retrieved 5 December 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Putin says US pressured IOC to ban Russia from Winter Games '' . Yahoo Sports . Agence France - Presse. 19 October 2017 . Retrieved 5 December 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Кадыров : ни один чеченский спортсмен не будет выступать под нейтральным флагом '' . Championat.com ( in Russian ) . Retrieved 6 December 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Владимир Путин : `` Никакой блокады Олимпиады не будет '' . ОЛИМПИАДА - Пхенчхан - 2018 . СПОРТ - ЭКСПРЕСС '' ( in Russian ) . Sport-express.ru . Retrieved 6 December 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Путин : Россия не будет объявлять `` никакой блокады '' Олимпиады - BBC Русская служба '' ( in Russian ) . BBC . Retrieved 6 December 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Жириновский предложил отказаться от участия в Олимпиаде - 2018 '' ( in Russian ) . Interfax.ru . Retrieved 6 December 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Vladimir Putin wo n't tell Russian athletes to boycott Winter Olympics '' . CNN . 6 December 2017 . Retrieved 6 December 2017 . Jump up ^ `` The 2018 Winter Olympics Are Already Tainted '' . The New York Times . 27 December 2017 . Retrieved 27 December 2017 . Jump up ^ `` IOC accused of cowardice for failing to address Russian retaliation against Rodchenkov '' . Inside the Games . 26 December 2017 . Retrieved 27 December 2017 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to 2018 Winter Olympics . Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Pyeongchang 2018 Winter Olympics . Pyeongchang 2018 Pyeongchang 2018 ( IOC ) Preceded by Sochi Winter Olympics Pyeongchang XXIII Olympic Winter Games ( 2018 ) Succeeded by Beijing Olympic Games Ceremonies Charter Participating nations Summer Olympics Winter Olympics Host cities Bids Venues IOC NOCs Country codes Medal Medal tables Medalists Ties Diploma Scandals and controversies Colonialism Doping Sports Symbols Torch relays Pierre de Coubertin medal Women Deaths WWI Olympic video games Summer Games 1896 Athens 1900 Paris 1904 St. Louis 1908 London 1912 Stockholm 1916 Berlin 1920 Antwerp 1924 Paris 1928 Amsterdam 1932 Los Angeles 1936 Berlin 1940 Tokyo 1944 London 1948 London 1952 Helsinki 1956 Melbourne 1960 Rome 1964 Tokyo 1968 Mexico City 1972 Munich 1976 Montreal 1980 Moscow 1984 Los Angeles 1988 Seoul 1992 Barcelona 1996 Atlanta 2000 Sydney 2004 Athens 2008 Beijing 2012 London 2016 Rio de Janeiro 2020 Tokyo 2024 Paris 2028 Los Angeles 2032 TBD Winter Games 1924 Chamonix 1928 St. Moritz 1932 Lake Placid 1936 Garmisch - Partenkirchen 1940 Sapporo 1944 Cortina d'Ampezzo 1948 St. Moritz 1952 Oslo 1956 Cortina d'Ampezzo 1960 Squaw Valley 1964 Innsbruck 1968 Grenoble 1972 Sapporo 1976 Innsbruck 1980 Lake Placid 1984 Sarajevo 1988 Calgary 1992 Albertville 1994 Lillehammer 1998 Nagano 2002 Salt Lake City 2006 Turin 2010 Vancouver 2014 Sochi 2018 Pyeongchang 2022 Beijing 2026 TBD 2030 TBD Ancient Olympic Games Intercalated Games 1906 Paralympic Games Youth Olympic Games Events at the 2018 Winter Olympics ( PyeongChang , South Korea ) Alpine skiing Biathlon Bobsleigh Cross-country skiing Curling Figure skating Freestyle skiing Ice hockey men women Luge Nordic combined Short track speed skating Skeleton Ski jumping Snowboarding Speed skating Nations at the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang , South Korea Africa Eritrea Kenya Madagascar Morocco South Africa Togo Americas Argentina Bermuda Bolivia Brazil Canada Chile Colombia Dominica Ecuador Mexico Peru Puerto Rico United States Asia China Hong Kong India Iran Japan Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Lebanon Malaysia Mongolia North Korea Pakistan Philippines Singapore South Korea Chinese Taipei Thailand Timor - Leste Uzbekistan Europe Albania Andorra Armenia Austria Azerbaijan Belarus Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Great Britain Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Israel Italy Kosovo Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Macedonia Malta Moldova Monaco Montenegro Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania San Marino Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Ukraine Oceania Australia New Zealand Other Olympic Athletes from Russia Venues of the 2018 Winter Olympics Pyeongchang Mountain Cluster Alpensia Biathlon Centre Cross-Country Centre Ski Jumping Centre Convention Centre IBC Alpensia Sliding Centre Yongpyong Alpine Centre Pyeongchang Olympic Stadium Pyeongchang Olympic Village Bokwang Phoenix Park Stand - alone venues : Jeongseon Alpine Centre Phoenix Snow Park Gangneung Coastal Cluster Gangneung Olympic Park Gangneung Curling Centre Gangneung Hockey Centre Gangneung Ice Arena Gangneung Oval Kwandong Hockey Centre Gangneung Olympic Village Italics indicate non-competition venues . 2010s portal Olympics portal South Korea portal Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=2018_Winter_Olympics&oldid=819510807 '' Categories : 2018 Winter Olympics 2018 in multi-sport events 2018 in South Korean sport Olympic Games in South Korea Scheduled multi-sport events Sport in Pyeongchang County Winter Olympics by year Sport in Gangneung February 2018 sports events in Asia 2018 in winter sports Winter sports competitions in South Korea Hidden categories : Pages with reference errors CS1 Spanish - language sources ( es ) CS1 errors : dates Pages with broken reference names CS1 Russian - language sources ( ru ) Wikipedia pending changes protected pages Use dmy dates from January 2018 Articles containing Korean - language text Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikivoyage Afrikaans Аҧсшәа Azərbaycanca বাংলা Беларуская Беларуская ( тарашкевіца ) ‎ Български Bosanski Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Коми Кыргызча Latviešu Lietuvių Limburgs Magyar Македонски मराठी Bahasa Melayu Монгол Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Олык марий Polski Português Română Русский Саха тыла Scots Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska Татарча / tatarça ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 9 January 2018 , at 19 : 35 . 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Maryse Ouellet - wikipedia Maryse Ouellet Jump to : navigation , search Maryse Ouellet Ouellet in April 2016 Birth name Maryse Ouellet ( 1983 - 01 - 21 ) January 21 , 1983 ( age 35 ) Montréal , Quebec , Canada Residence Austin , Texas , United States Spouse ( s ) The Miz ( m . 2014 ) Children Professional wrestling career Ring name ( s ) Maryse Billed height 5 ft 8 in ( 1.73 m ) Billed weight 116 lb ( 53 kg ) Billed from Montreal , Quebec , Canada Trained by Al Snow Dave Finlay Steve Keirn Tom Prichard Ricky Steamboat Debut August 24 , 2006 Maryse Mizanin ( / məˈriːs / ; née Ouellet ; born January 21 , 1983 ) is a French Canadian professional wrestler , professional wrestling manager , actress , businesswoman and glamour model currently signed to WWE under the ring name Maryse , performing on the SmackDown brand as the manager of her real - life husband The Miz . She is currently inactive due to her maternity leave . After spending years modeling , including winning Miss Hawaiian Tropic Canada in 2003 , Ouellet was hired by the professional wrestling promotion WWE in August 2006 , after she participated in the WWE Diva Search competition . She spent time in Ohio Valley Wrestling and Florida Championship Wrestling , WWE 's developmental territories , before being assigned to the SmackDown brand in 2008 . In December 2008 , Maryse won her first WWE Divas Championship and held it for seven months , which is the third longest reign in the championship 's history . In April 2009 , she was drafted to the Raw brand , and won the WWE Divas Championship for the second time in February 2010 , making her the first wrestler to have held the championship on more than one occasion . In mid-2010 , she became the co-host of NXT and the manager of Ted DiBiase , prior to her release from the company in October 2011 . In April 2016 , she returned to the company and became the manager of her husband The Miz , managing him to three Intercontinental Championship reigns . In late - 2011 , she announced plans for a clothing and jewelry line called House of Maryse , and later began working as a realtor . In November 2016 , she began starring in the reality television series Total Divas on E ! as part of the main cast . She and her husband The Miz will also star in their own reality show titled Miz & Mrs. that will premiere in 2018 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Early life and career 2 Professional wrestling career 2.1 World Wrestling Entertainment / WWE 2.1. 1 Diva Search and developmental territories ( 2006 -- 2007 ) 2.1. 2 Early feuds ( 2006 -- 2008 ) 2.1. 3 Divas Champion ( 2008 -- 2010 ) 2.1. 4 Managing Ted DiBiase and departure ( 2010 -- 2011 ) 2.2 Independent circuit ( 2012 ) 2.3 Return to WWE 2.3. 1 Managing The Miz ( 2016 -- present ) 3 Other media 4 Filmography 4.1 Film 4.2 Television 5 Other endeavors 6 Personal life 7 In wrestling 8 Championships and accomplishments 9 References 10 External links Early life and career ( edit ) Ouellet was born in Montreal , Quebec , but grew up in Edmundston , New Brunswick . In high school , Ouellet was the only girl in her class , and ran the school 's fashion show . She also began developing a range of makeup products . Ouellet began her modelling career as a beauty pageant contestant , winning Miss Hawaiian Tropic Canada 2003 and finishing second at the International Finals of Miss Hawaiian Tropic 2004 . She was also on the cover of Playboy 's 2007 Girls of Canada calendar . Professional Wrestling career ( edit ) World Wrestling Entertainment / WWE ( edit ) Diva Search and developmental territories ( 2006 -- 2007 ) ( edit ) In mid-2006 , Ouellet tried out for World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) 's Diva Search . She made the final cut and was one of the top eight contestants , but was the second person eliminated on July 24 . Despite her elimination , she was invited to observe workouts and the training facility at WWE 's developmental territory , Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) , along with Brooke Adams . Ouellet later said that she was `` very , very excited '' , as it was her `` dream to become a WWE Diva '' . Ouellet was officially signed to a WWE developmental contract on August 24 , 2006 and was assigned to OVW for training . She made her in - ring debut at an OVW live event in December 2006 . In March 2007 , she began wrestling in dark matches prior to the OVW television tapings . In mid-2007 , Ouellet began managing Sylvain Grenier . When Florida Championship Wrestling ( FCW ) opened in mid-2007 , Ouellet was transferred to the new developmental facility , and on September 25 , she made her FCW debut as the valet of Ryan O'Reilly along with Lacey Von Erich . Ouellet then started competing in singles and tag team competition , before managing Ted DiBiase , Jr. in December 2007 , and was at ringside when he captured the FCW Southern Heavyweight Championship . She continued making sporadic appearances in FCW until January 2008 . Early feuds ( 2006 -- 2008 ) ( edit ) On the September 22 , 2006 episode of SmackDown ! , Ouellet , known as simply Maryse , was shown on the TitanTron welcoming the Montreal viewers in French to the season premiere of SmackDown ! on the CW Network . Maryse made her first official televised appearance on the May 21 , 2007 episode of Raw to present American rapper Timbaland 's new music video for the single `` Throw It on Me '' , in which she had appeared . Maryse in 2008 By the time she began appearing regularly on SmackDown at the beginning of 2008 , she had adopted a snobby attitude and become a villainous character . On the March 7 , 2008 episode of SmackDown , Maryse competed in a swimsuit contest against Victoria , Michelle McCool , Cherry , and Eve Torres , which ended in a brawl between Maryse and Torres . The following week , she was the first eliminated from another swimsuit competition . On March 28 , Maryse competed in a `` Wet and Wild '' match , teaming with Victoria against Cherry and McCool in a losing effort . On a `` SmackDown after the bell '' video on WWE 's website , the tag team Deuce ' n Domino dumped Cherry , who had been their manager , and replaced her with Maryse . Maryse then insulted Cherry , only for Cherry to slap her . On the May 16 episode of SmackDown , Maryse made her in - ring debut in a loss to Cherry , though she defeated Cherry in a rematch the following week . On the June 6 episode of SmackDown ! , SmackDown General Manager Vickie Guerrero announced the creation of the WWE Divas Championship , and that same night the Divas competed in a Golden Dreams match to qualify for the championship match at The Great American Bash , which was won by Natalya . On the July 4 , 2008 episode of SmackDown ! , she competed again in another Golden Dreams match to face Natalya for the championship , however she failed to win . For several weeks , Maryse competed in six - person tag team matches with Victoria and Natalya against Cherry , Michelle McCool and Maria . She suffered a minor broken nose after receiving a bulldog from Maria in August 2008 . Divas Champion ( 2008 -- 2010 ) ( edit ) Maryse began a rivalry with Michelle McCool in September 2008 , challenging her for the WWE Divas Championship at Unforgiven , and in a rematch the following week on SmackDown , but failed to win on both occasions . On the September 23 episode of ECW , Maryse defeated McCool in a non-title match . After a month - long absence , Maryse returned at Survivor Series pay - per - view event in November , participating in a five - on - five Divas elimination tag team match , eliminating Kelly Kelly , Mickie James and Candice Michelle ; Maryse was the sole survivor of her team , but was ultimately eliminated by Beth Phoenix . At the Armageddon pay - per - view on December 14 , Maryse teamed up with Jillian Hall , Victoria and Natalya in a losing effort to McCool , Maria , Kelly Kelly and Mickie James in an Eight - Diva Santa 's Little Helper tag team match . On December 19 , Maryse pinned Maria to become the number one contender for Michelle McCool 's Divas Championship . The following week on SmackDown , Maryse defeated McCool , with Maria as the special guest referee , to win her first Divas Championship . On December 28 , at a house show in Raleigh , North Carolina , Maryse dislocated her knee in a tag team match against The Bella Twins ( Nikki and Brie ) . It was later announced that the injury was not major , and therefore only missed a few weeks action . On the January 23 , 2009 episode of SmackDown , Maryse returned and sat at ringside commentating during a Divas ' tag team match . She returned to in - ring action on February 20 , teaming with Michelle McCool in a win against Maria and Eve Torres , where she pinned Torres . Maryse wrestling during the WrestleMania XXV event in April 2009 Maryse made her first appearance on Raw on March 2 , as a commentator for a match involving the WWE Women 's Champion Melina , with Maryse attacking her after the match . The following week , Maryse made her in - ring debut on Raw in a champion vs champion lumberjill match , which she defeated Melina . The rivalry extended to a tag team match on SmackDown on March 13 , where Melina and Maria defeated McCool and Maryse . On March 27 episode of SmackDown , Maryse made her first championship defense , losing by disqualification after the returning Gail Kim attacked Maryse and McCool , and thus retained the championship . On April 5 , Maryse competed in a 25 - Diva Miss WrestleMania battle royal at WrestleMania XXV , but she was eliminated by Beth Phoenix and the match was won by Santina Marella ( Santino Marella dressed in drag ) . Maryse made her last appearance on SmackDown on April 24 , retaining her championship against Gail Kim . As part of the 2009 WWE Draft on April 13 , Maryse was drafted to the Raw brand , and in the process , the Divas Championship became exclusive to Raw . She made her first appearance as part of the brand on April 27 , teaming with Beth Phoenix , Rosa Mendes , and Jillian Hall in a loss to Santina Marella , Mickie James , Brie Bella and Kelly Kelly . Maryse then began feuding with Mickie James after she cost James a number one contender 's battle royal , which was eventually won by Kelly Kelly , by spraying hairspray in her eyes . The following week , Maryse lost a championship match against Kelly by disqualification , meaning the championship did not change hands , and won a subsequent rematch by pinfall two weeks later on June 8 . At Night of Champions on July 26 , Maryse lost the Divas Championship to James . Despite being only the second Divas champion , her reign of 216 days remained the longest in the title 's history for nearly five years , until AJ Lee surpassed her reign in January 2014 . After losing the championship , Maryse underwent to a legitimate knee surgery . She returned on the November 23 episode of Raw , disguised as The Gobbledy Gooker , as the guest timekeeper for a Thanksgiving - themed 6 - Divas tag team match . After the match , she revealed herself by attacking the Divas Champion Melina . The following week , Maryse made her in - ring return teamed with Jillian Hall in a tag team match against Melina and Gail Kim , where Maryse pinned Melina . On the December 7 episode of Raw , Maryse defeated Gail Kim by dirty tactics , and following the match , Maryse proceed to attack Kelly Kelly , who was working as ring announcer , ordering her to announce she was the next Divas Champion , but was stopped by Melina . In early 2010 , a tournament was held for the newly vacated WWE Divas Championship due to Melina 's injury . Maryse entered the tournament , and defeated Brie Bella and Eve Torres in the first round and semi-finals , respectively , to advance to the finals . The tournament 's finals were originally scheduled for Elimination Chamber on February 21 ; instead , the match was changed by the SmackDown General Manager Vickie Guerrero to a interbrand tag team match , where Maryse teamed with her scheduled opponent Gail Kim against LayCool ( Michelle McCool and Layla ) , which was won by LayCool as a result of Maryse abandoning Kim during the match . The following night on Raw , Maryse defeated Kim in the finals to win the championship , becoming the first Diva to have held it twice . On March 15 episode of Raw , Maryse defeated Kelly Kelly in a non-title match , attacking her after the match before being attacked by Eve Torres and Gail Kim , and saved by LayCool , then joining with them and Vickie Guerrero . On March 26 episode of SmackDown , Maryse teamed up with LayCool , Guerrero and Alicia Fox defeating Beth Phoenix in a 5 - on - 1 handicap match before being attacked by Kim , Eve , Kelly and Mickie James . At WrestleMania XXVI , on March 28 , she was part of the winning team of a 10 - Diva tag team match with LayCool , Fox and Guerrero against Phoenix , James , Kim , Torres and Kelly Kelly , but the following night on Raw , she was pinned by Torres in a rematch . Maryse lost the Divas Championship two weeks later to Eve Torres on the April 12 episode of Raw , and was unsuccessful to regain it at Over the Limit pay - per - view in May . At Fatal 4 - Way on June 20 , Maryse failed to regain the title in a Fatal Four - Way match that also involved then - champion Eve , Gail Kim , and Alicia Fox , which Fox would win pinning her to become the champion . Managing Ted DiBiase and departure ( 2010 -- 2011 ) ( edit ) Maryse at the 2010 Tribute to the Troops event . On the June 21 episode of Raw , after Ted DiBiase fired Virgil , Maryse became DiBiase 's new personal assistant . At Money in the Bank , on July 18 , Maryse accompanied DiBiase in his Money in the Bank ladder match for the WWE Championship contract , which she tried to pick the briefcase , but was stopped by John Morrison . Along with DiBiase , Maryse was announced as a mentor for Brodus Clay for the fourth season of NXT on November 30 . On Raw , on December 13 , Maryse was involved in a battle royal to determine the winner of the Diva of the Year Slammy Award , but was eliminated by Natalya . Clay traded his mentors , Maryse and DiBiase , for Alberto Del Rio on the January 25 , 2011 episode of NXT . In late September 2010 , Maryse was involved in an storyline with Goldust , in which he stole the Million Dollar Championship from DiBiase , and lost a subsequent mixed tag team match against Goldust and Aksana on October 26 . On March 8 , Maryse became the co-host of NXT , alongside Matt Striker . As part of NXT Redemption , Maryse was involved in several romantic storylines , most notably with Yoshi Tatsu , Lucky Cannon , and Hornswoggle . In April , DiBiase made an ultimatum to Maryse for her to choose to continue on the NXT or continue with him . The following week , Maryse chose to continue appearing on NXT , disbanding their alliance in the process . In August , Maryse underwent surgery for an abdominal hernia and took time off WWE programming . After two months of inactivity , Maryse was released from her WWE contract on October 28 . Independent circuit ( 2012 ) ( edit ) On October 5 , 2012 , Maryse appeared at the Family Wrestling Entertainment ( FWE ) event Back 2 Brooklyn , performing live commentary . She began appearing regularly for FWE , where she commentated during women 's matches . Return to WWE ( edit ) Managing the Miz ( 2016 -- present ) ( edit ) Maryse celebrating along The Miz after winning the Intercontinental Championship at a Raw event in April 2016 On April 4 , 2016 episode of Raw , the episode after WrestleMania 32 , Maryse returned during a WWE Intercontinental Championship match between the champion Zack Ryder and her husband , The Miz . During the match , Maryse slapped Ryder 's father , who was in the front row , in order to distract Ryder and allowed Miz to capture the championship for the fifth time , thus becoming his manager in the process , where the two then became an on - screen power couple . She formally re-introduced herself three days later on the April 7 episode of SmackDown before once more helping Miz to retain his championship over Ryder . She then began to cut various promos with Miz as his host during the `` Miz TV '' segments , while calling themselves the `` It '' Couple . Following a hiatus due to the shoot of a WWE film , Maryse returned to WWE television on the June 27 episode of Raw , where she helped Miz to retain his championship against Kane after she faked an ankle injury . After being drafted to Smackdown as part of the 2016 WWE draft which took place on July 19 , Ouellet made her first appearance for the brand on July 26 , where she co-hosted a Miz TV segment along her husband before being interrupted by Randy Orton , who challenged Miz to a non-title match , in which he was subsequently defeated . At Backlash , Maryse successfully helped Miz to retain the Intercontinental Championship by spraying something at Dolph Ziggler whilst Miz distracted the referee . The following week , SmackDown General Manager Daniel Bryan announced a rematch for the championship due Maryse 's interference at Backlash . On September 20 , Miz retained the championship over Ziggler . On October 9 , at No Mercy Miz lost the Intercontinental Championship to Ziggler in a title vs career match when Maryse was banned from the ringside along with The Spirit Squad ( Kenny and Mikey ) , who was contracted by her to help Miz , ending Miz 's reign at 188 days . On November 8 episode of SmackDown , Maryse went on to speak in Miz 's name due Miz refuse to speak with Daniel Bryan . At that night , Maryse accepted Bryan 's offer to Miz face Ziggler the following week for the Intercontinental Championship in the 900th episode of SmackDown . Later that night , Bryan would state on Talking Smack that if Ziggler successfully retains his championship , The Miz and Maryse would be traded to Raw for someone else . On November 15 at the 900th episode of SmackDown , Maryse helped Miz to win the championship for the sixth time and also retain it at Survivor Series against Sami Zayn . On December 20 , episode of SmackDown , Maryse was banned from the ringside after an attempt to apply a eye poke on Apollo Crews during a championship match for Miz 's Intercontinental Championship ; After the match , Miz was interviewed by Renee Young who slapped him after a joke involving her and Dean Ambrose . On December 27 , episode of SmackDown , Maryse confronted Renee Young in a backstage segment before Ambrose attacked Miz . On January 3 , 2017 , episode of SmackDown , Maryse slapped both Ambrose and Young in different occasions , before interfering in the championship match between Miz and Ambrose , slapping Ambrose again and being banned from ringside before Ambrose defeated Miz for the championship . Later on Talking Smack , Maryse was fined $5,000 for slapping Young . On February 12 at the Elimination Chamber pay - per - view , Maryse was accidentally hit by Nikki Bella when Natalya pushed Nikki into her during a backstage brawl . On February 21 episode of SmackDown , Maryse was again hit by Nikki and Natalya backstage during their Falls Count Anywhere match , leading to Maryse attacking Bella with a lead pipe and causing her to lose the match . On February 28 episode of SmackDown , during the Miz TV segment , Maryse slapped Nikki 's then real - life boyfriend John Cena , causing Nikki to confront her . On March 7 episode of SmackDown , Maryse and Miz attacked Nikki and Cena after they won a match against James Ellsworth and Carmella . On March 14 episode of SmackDown , after another showdown between the couples , SmackDown General Manager Daniel Bryan announced a mixed tag team match at WrestleMania 33 . Maryse and Miz would ultimately lose in what was Maryse 's first match in over six years . On April 10 , Maryse was drafted to the Raw brand along with Miz as part of the `` Superstar Shake Up '' , where they made their debut on the same night dressed as Bella and Cena , before being confronted by the Intercontinental Champion Dean Ambrose . On June 4 , at Extreme Rules , Maryse was in Miz 's corner when he won the WWE Intercontinental Championship for the seventh time by defeating Ambrose . In September , following her pregnancy announcement , Maryse stopped appearing on television . On January 22 , 2018 , in the Raw 25 Years special episode , Maryse was honored as part of a segment involving women considered legends that contributed to the company 's success , including the Bella Twins , Kelly Kelly , Lilian Garcia , Torrie Wilson , Michelle McCool , Terri Runnels , Maria Kanellis and the Hall of Famers Jacqueline and Trish Stratus . Other media ( edit ) Maryse and Miz in July 2016 In April 2007 , she appeared alongside fellow WWE Divas Ashley , Torrie Wilson , Brooke Adams , Layla , and Kelly Kelly in Timbaland 's music video `` Throw It On Me '' featuring The Hives . Ouellet also appeared in the January 2009 issue of Muscle & Fitness , along with Eve Torres and Michelle McCool . She and John Morrison were interviewed on Eurosport in the same year . She also made a special appearance on Redemption Song , which was hosted by WWE wrestler Chris Jericho , along with Candice Michelle , Mickie James , and Eve Torres . She has also appeared in several newspaper interviews , including Tokyo Headline , and was on the cover of Sessions Magazine in October 2010 . In 2012 , Maryse was featured on the cover of Le Journal de Montréal , and on MDA Show of Strength with The Miz and other celebrities . In 2015 , Ouellet had roles in Sharknado 3 : Oh Hell No ! and in Santa 's Little Helper , the latter starring Ouellet 's husband , The Miz . In the same year , she appeared on the E ! reality television series WAGS . In 2016 , it was announced that Maryse would appear as a main cast member on the sixth season of Total Divas , which prompted her return to WWE . In June 2017 , Maryse along with Miz were cover of the DUB Magazine with a Jeep car . In 2018 , Maryse along with The Miz will star in a reality television series titled Miz & Mrs . Maryse has appeared in four WWE video games . She made her in - game debut at WWE Smackdown vs. Raw 2010 , later appearing in WWE Smackdown vs. Raw 2011 , WWE ' 12 , and returned in WWE 2K18 . Filmography ( edit ) Film ( edit ) Year Title Role Notes Octobre Pouilleuse Film debut 2015 Sharknado 3 : Oh Hell No ! Officer Davis TV Movie 2015 Karla Sidney 2015 Santa 's Little Helper Melody Straight - to - DVD 2016 Enter the Fist and the Golden Fleecing Macy Does Post-production 2016 Delilah Amy Lannigan 2016 Isle of the Dead Mikaela Usylvich Post-production 2017 The Marine 5 : Battleground Ana Television ( edit ) Year Title Role Notes 2008 Redemption Song Herself Guest appearance Musée Eden Religieuse auditorium 1 episode 2011 Trauma Femme de Lemire 1 episode 2012 Unité 9 Infirmière d'Yvon 2 episodes 2015 WAGS Herself Episode : `` Never Have I Ever '' 2016 -- present Total Divas Main cast ( season 6 -- present ) Other endeavors ( edit ) Following her release from WWE in 2011 , Ouellet announced her plans for a clothing and jewelry line named House of Maryse . Beginning in late 2013 , Ouellet began working as a realtor in Los Angeles after spending a year earning her real estate license . Personal life ( edit ) Ouellet is a native speaker of French , fluent in English , and she is able to read Spanish , although she can not speak it . Ouellet has a tattoo of her late father 's name , Guy , on her left wrist . She has a degree in business administration , and holds a black belt in martial arts . Her favorite actress is Scarlett Johansson , her favorite bands are Simple Plan and Nickelback , and she loves techno music . Ouellet is a vegan and an avid supporter of animal rights and gay rights , and posed for the NOH8 campaign in 2011 . Ouellet is Catholic . Ouellet was inspired to become a professional wrestler by Lita . She cites Lita and Victoria as her dream opponents . In 2013 , Ouellet got engaged to longtime boyfriend and fellow wrestler Mike Mizanin , best known by his ring name The Miz . The two were married in The Bahamas on February 20 , 2014 . The couple reside in Austin , Texas . The couple announced on September 11th episode of RAW that they are expecting their first child . On March 27 , 2018 , Maryse gave birth to their first child , a daughter named Monroe Sky Mizanin . In wrestling ( edit ) Finishing moves French Kiss ( Snap DDT , with theatrics ) French TKO ( Heel kick , to the back of the opponent 's head ) Signature moves Forward Russian legsweep French Pain ( Camel clutch ) Spinning side slam backbreaker Hair - pull facebuster Leg choke Modified sleeper hold Running knee strike , to the head of a kneeling opponent Wrestlers managed Sylvain Grenier Ryan O'Reilly Deuce ' n Domino Ted DiBiase The Miz The Spirit Squad ( Kenny and Mikey ) The Miztourage ( Curtis Axel and Bo Dallas ) Entrance themes `` All Summer Long '' by Adam Salkeld `` Lounge Lizard '' by Emanuel Kallins and Stephen Teller `` Pourquoi ? '' by Jim Johnston Championships and accomplishments ( edit ) Maryse is a two - time Divas Champion Pro Wrestling Illustrated Ranked No. 9 of the top 50 female wrestlers in the PWI Female 50 in 2009 World Wrestling Entertainment WWE Divas Championship ( 2 times ) Divas Championship Tournament ( 2010 ) References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Kamchen , Richard . `` Maryse Ouellet '' . Slam ! Sports . Canadian Online Explorer . Retrieved July 4 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : `` Maryse Mizanin 's Blog : How The Miz and I Are Preparing for Our Daughter 's Birth '' . Retrieved March 19 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : `` Maryse 's profile '' . Ohio Valley Wrestling . Archived from the original on October 27 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Maryse '' . WWE . Retrieved December 21 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Kapur , Bob ( December 12 , 2009 ) . `` Maryse answers SLAM ! Wrestling reader questions '' . Slam ! Sports . Canadian Online Explorer . Retrieved December 27 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Maryse Ouellet '' . Twitter . 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Sports . Canadian Online Explorer . Retrieved March 21 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Burdick , Michael ( 2009 ) . `` Divas singles match '' . Online world of wrestling.com . Retrieved February 6 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Burdick , Michael ( 2009 ) . `` Champion vs. Champion match '' . Wrestleview . Retrieved December 1 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Burdick , Michael ( 2009 ) . `` Divas tag team match '' . WWE.com . Retrieved December 1 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Parks , Greg ( March 28 , 2009 ) . `` Parks ' WWE SmackDown report 3 / 27 : Coverage of the MyNetwork TV Show , including HBK 's tribute to Undertaker '' . PW Torch . TDH Communications Inc . Retrieved September 6 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` '' Santina '' Marella wins 25 - Diva Battle Royal for title of `` Miss WrestleMania '' `` . WWE. April 5 , 2009 . Retrieved January 15 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Parks , Greg ( April 24 , 2009 ) . `` Parks ' WWE SmackDown report 4 / 24 : Ongoing `` virtual time '' coverage of the show , including Dibiase & Rhodes vs. Batista & Shane `` . PW Torch . TDH Communications Inc . Retrieved September 6 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Plummer , Dale ( April 14 , 2009 ) . `` Raw : Drafting a fresh start for the WWE '' . Slam ! Sports . Canadian Online Explorer . Retrieved April 14 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Plummer , Dale ( April 28 , 2009 ) . `` Raw : Batista next for the Orton Era '' . Slam ! Sports . Canadian Online Explorer . Retrieved April 29 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Plummer , Dale ( May 26 , 2009 ) . `` RAW : Vince uses his podium ; `` Lakers '' win `` . Slam ! Sports . Canadian Online Explorer . Retrieved July 4 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Plummer , Dale ( June 8 , 2009 ) . `` RAW : Batista hurt , Vicki quits , Triple H returns '' . Slam ! Sports . Canadian Online Explorer . Retrieved July 4 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Elliott , Bryan ( July 26 , 2009 ) . `` Night of Champions : Punk loses title , but keeps star performer tag '' . Slam ! Sports . Canadian Online Explorer . Retrieved July 31 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Caldwell , James ( January 17 , 2014 ) . `` WWE Newswire : A.J. sets record '' . Pro Wrestling Torch . Retrieved March 21 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Aldren , Mike ( September 3 , 2009 ) . `` Daily wrestling news & gossip '' . The Sun . Retrieved September 16 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Plummer , Dale ( November 23 , 2009 ) . `` RAW : The Body hosts a Thanksgiving wrestling feast '' . SLam ! Sports . Canadian Online Explorer . Retrieved November 24 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Adkins , Greg ( November 30 , 2009 ) . `` '' Mini Me , '' mega show `` . World Wrestling Entertainment . Retrieved December 1 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Stone , Tom Van ( January 4 , 2010 ) . `` Melina vacates Divas title due to injury '' . WrestleView . Archived from the original on June 29 , 2011 . Retrieved September 6 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Plummer , Dale ( January 4 , 2010 ) . `` RAW : Bret Hart returns '' . Slam ! Sports . Canadian Online Explorer . Retrieved March 21 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Plummer , Dale ( January 26 , 2010 ) . `` RAW : Getting Psych - ed for the Rumble '' . Slam ! Sports . Canadian Online Explorer . Retrieved March 21 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Martin , Adam ( February 21 , 2010 ) . `` Card for WWE Elimination Chamber '' . WrestleView . Archived from the original on June 29 , 2011 . Retrieved September 6 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Plummer , Dave ; Tylwalk , Nick ( August 12 , 2010 ) . `` Batista , Jericho and Michaels capitalize on Elimination Chamber opportunities '' . Slam ! Sports . Canadian Online Explorer . Retrieved September 6 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Plummer , Dale ( February 22 , 2010 ) . `` RAW : Finding a Jewel on the Road to Wrestlemania '' . Slam ! Sports . Canadian Online Explorer . Retrieved February 24 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Kandeler , Derek ( March 15 , 2010 ) . `` WWE RAW Results -- March 15th , 2010 '' . Wrestle Zone . Retrieved March 16 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Nemer , Paul ( March 27 , 2010 ) . `` Smackdown Results -- 3 / 26 / 10 '' . Wrestle View . Retrieved March 16 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Plummer , Dale ; Tylwalk , Nick ( March 29 , 2010 ) . `` Undertaker ends Shawn Michaels ' career in thrilling rematch to cap off Wrestlemania XXVI '' . Slam ! Sports . Canadian Online Explorer . Retrieved August 14 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Plummer , Dale ( March 29 , 2010 ) . `` RAW : HBK says farewell to the WWE Universe '' . Slam ! Sports . Canadian Online Explorer . Retrieved April 23 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Plummer , Dale ( April 12 , 2010 ) . `` RAW : Do n't Hassel the Hoff '' . Slam ! Sports . Canadian Online Explorer . Retrieved May 24 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Bishop , Matt ( May 23 , 2010 ) . `` Batista quits to end disappointing Over The Limit '' . Slam ! Sports . Canadian Online Explorer . Retrieved May 24 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Caldwell , James ( June 20 , 2010 ) . `` WWE News : Fatal Four - Way PPV News & Notes -- three new champions , bonus matches , Vince McMahon appearance '' . Pro Wrestling Torch . Retrieved June 21 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Tylwalk , Nick ( June 2 , 2010 ) . `` Raw : Vince inserts himself into the NXT saga '' . Slam ! Sports . Canadian Online Explorer . Retrieved June 2 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Results : '' Miz - ter '' Money in the Bank `` . World Wrestling Entertainment . Retrieved July 19 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Bishop , Matt ( November 30 , 2010 ) . `` WWE NXT : Season 3 mercifully ends with new breakout diva crowned '' . Slam ! Sports . Canadian Online Explorer . Retrieved December 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Keller , Wade ( December 14 , 2010 ) . `` Keller 's WWE Raw Report 12 / 13 : Slammy Awards , David Arquette Returns , Verdict by Barrett on Cena Reinstatement , TLC Hype , much more '' . Pro Wrestling Torch . Retrieved April 1 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Bishop , Matt ( January 26 , 2011 ) . `` WWE NXT : Rookies battle for chance at new pro '' . Slam ! Sports . Canadian Online Explorer . Retrieved January 15 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Keller , Wade ( October 4 , 2010 ) . `` Keller 's WWE Raw report 10 / 4 : John Cena joins The Nexus , wrestles as Nexus , reads statement regarding joining Nexus '' . Pro Wrestling Torch . Retrieved October 20 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Sokol , Bryan ( October 25 , 2010 ) . `` Cena central to Bragging Rights ; Smackdown wins again '' . Slam ! Sports . Canadian Online Explorer . Retrieved November 3 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` WWE NXT : October 26 , 2010 '' . WWE . Retrieved May 1 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Bishop , Matt ( March 9 , 2011 ) . `` WWE NXT : Redemption beings ( sic ) for 6 former rookies '' . Slam ! Sports . Canadian Online Explorer . Retrieved March 11 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Bishop , Matt ( May 11 , 2011 ) . `` WWE NXT : Regal finally gets match with Novak '' . Slam ! Sports . Canadian Online Explorer . Retrieved December 21 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Bishop , Matt ( June 21 , 2011 ) . `` WWE NXT : Ryder makes surprise appearance '' . Slam ! Sports . Canadian Online Explorer . Retrieved December 21 , 2011 . Jump up ^ WrestlingNewsWorld.com . `` WWE NXT Results ( 4 / 12 / 11 ) - Yoshi Tatsu Gets The Girl '' . Wrestling News World . Retrieved April 12 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` WWE Diva undergoes surgery '' . Pro Wrestling Torch . August 25 , 2011 . Retrieved June 26 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Martin , Adam ( August 25 , 2011 ) . `` WWE Diva scheduled for surgery on Wednesday '' . WrestleView . Archived from the original on August 28 , 2011 . Retrieved December 21 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Maryse released '' . WWE . October 28 , 2011 . Retrieved October 28 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Back 2 Brooklyn '' . Family Wrestling Entertainment . Archived from the original on February 18 , 2013 . Retrieved February 21 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Johnson , Mike ( July 28 , 2012 ) . `` Tommy Dreamer Wins Gold : Complete FWE `` X '' Coverage From Long Island `` . PWInsider . Retrieved October 20 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Johnson , Mike . `` Complete FWE : No Limits IPPV coverage '' . PWInsider . Retrieved February 17 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Show Results -- 10 / 12 FWE in Brooklyn , N.Y. : Morgan vs. J - Mo main event , DiBiase returns to the ring vs. Cabana , Jarrett , A-Love , Masters , Young Bucks , Carlito , more '' . Jump up ^ Richard , Trionfo ( April 4 , 2016 ) . `` WWE RAW REPORT : WHO IS THE NUMBER ONE CONTENDER ? , WHO DID NOT MAKE THEIR DEBUT FROM NXT TONIGHT ? , A CELEBRATION OF WOMEN 'S WRESTLING ... AND A WALK OUT , AND MORE '' . PWInsider . Retrieved April 5 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Richard , Trionfo ( April 8 , 2016 ) . `` WWE SMACKDOWN REPORT : OWENS AND JERICHO VERSUS STYLES AND CESARO , CORBIN TALKS , REIGNS AND STYLES FACE OFF , VAUDEVILLAINS DEBUT , AND MORE '' . PWInsider . Retrieved April 9 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` WWE SMACKDOWN RESULTS -- 4 / 14 / 16 ( SAMI ZAYN VS . CHRIS JERICHO IN MAIN EVENT , NO . 1 CONTENDERS TAG TEAM TOURNAMENT CONTINUES ) '' . wrestleview.com . Retrieved April 16 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Richard , Trionfo ( June 27 , 2016 ) . `` WWE RAW REPORT : WILL THE MAIN EVENT OF BATTLEGROUND CHANGE ? , SOME RETURNS TO ACTION , BECKY USES TITUS ; ACTIONS FOR MOTIVATION , AND MORE '' . PWInsider . Retrieved June 28 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Richard , Trionfo ( July 19 , 2016 ) . `` COMPLETE SMACKDOWN DRAFT REPORT : WHO WENT WHERE ? , WHICH NXT WRESTLERS GOT PROMOTED ? , WHO IS THE WWE CHAMPION GOING INTO BATTLEGROUND , AND MORE '' . PWInsider . Retrieved July 27 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` 2016 WWE Draft results : WWE officially ushers in New Era '' . WWE.com . July 19 , 2016 . Retrieved July 21 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Richard , Trionfo ( July 26 , 2016 ) . `` WWE SMACKDOWN REPORT : AMBROSE 'S OPPONENT IS DETERMINED , A NEW FACE ON SMACKDOWN , SAY HELLO TO THE WOMEN 'S DIVISION , A BATTLE ROYAL , AND MORE '' . PWInsider . Retrieved July 27 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Caldwell , James ( September 11 , 2016 ) . `` 9 / 11 WWE Backlash Results -- CALDWELL 'S Ongoing PPV Report '' . Pro Wrestling Torch . Retrieved September 11 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Clapp , John . `` SmackDown Tag Team Champions Rhyno & Heath Slater vs. The Usos '' . WWE . Retrieved September 20 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Melok , Bobby . `` Dolph Ziggler def . Intercontinental Champion The Miz ( Title vs. Career Match ) '' . WWE . Retrieved October 9 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Parks , Greg ( November 8 , 2016 ) . `` 11 / 8 WWE Smackdown LIVE -- Parks 's Ongoing , Real - Time Report '' . Pro Wrestling Torch . Retrieved November 8 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Martin , Adam . `` WWE Smackdown Results -- 11 / 15 / 16 ( Live from Wilkes - Barre , 900th episode , The Undertaker and Edge return ) '' . WrestleView . Retrieved November 15 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Intercontinental Champion The Miz def . Apollo Crews '' . WWE.com . Retrieved December 21 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` 12 / 27 WWE Smackdown LIVE -- Parks 's Complete , Real - Time Report , including three title matches , John Cena 's return '' . Pro Wrestling Torch . Retrieved December 28 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Parks , Greg . `` 1 / 3 WWE Smackdown LIVE -- Parks 's Ongoing , Real - Time Report , including Miz vs. Ambrose for the I.C. Title '' . Pro Wrestling Torch . Retrieved January 3 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Maryse fined $5,000 for slapping Renee Young - WWE '' . www.wwe.com . Retrieved June 20 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Powell , Jason . `` 2 / 12 Powell 's WWE Elimination Chamber 2017 live review : John Cena vs. AJ Styles vs. Dean Ambrose vs. The Miz vs. Baron Corbin vs. Bray Wyatt in an Elimination Chamber match for the WWE Championship '' . Pro Wreslting Dot Net . Retrieved February 12 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Keller , Wade ( February 21 , 2017 ) . `` KELLER 'S WWE SMACKDOWN REPORT 2 / 21 : Results of Battle Royal to determine a new no . 1 contender for WWE Championship at WrestleMania '' . Pro Wrestling Torch . Retrieved February 21 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Matters on `` Miz TV '' get explosive between John Cena , The Miz , Maryse and Nikki Bella `` . WWE . February 28 , 2017 . Retrieved February 28 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Keller , Wade . `` KELLER 'S WWE SMACKDOWN REPORT 3 / 7 : Styles vs. Orton to earn WWE Title shot at WM33 , Cena & Nikki vs. Ellsworth & Carmella '' . PWTorch . Retrieved March 7 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Pappolla , Ryan ( March 14 , 2017 ) . `` John Cena & Nikki Bella vs. The Miz & Maryse '' . WWE . Retrieved March 14 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Burdick , Michael . `` John Cena & Nikki Bella def . Miz & Maryse ; Cena asks Nikki to marry him '' . WWE . Retrieved April 2 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Tedesco , Mike ( April 10 , 2017 ) . `` WWE RAW Results -- 4 / 10 / 17 ( Night # 1 of the Superstar Shake Up ) '' . WrestleView . Retrieved April 12 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Powell , Jason . `` 6 / 4 Powell 's WWE Extreme Rules Live Review : Finn Balor vs. Samoa Joe vs. Bray Wyatt vs. Roman Reigns vs. Seth Rollins in a five - way to become No. 1 contender to the WWE Universal Championship , The Hardys vs. Sheamus and Cesaro in a cage match for the Raw Tag Titles '' . Pro Wrestling Dot Net . Retrieved June 4 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` On March 28 , 2018 Mizanin welcomed a baby girl named Monroe Sky Mizanin '' . Jump up ^ `` WWE honors female WWE Legends : Raw 25 , Jan. 22 , 2018 '' . WWE . Retrieved January 22 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Medalis , Kara A. ( April 20 , 2007 ) . `` The Sexiest Women in L.A. '' World Wrestling Entertainment . Archived from the original on June 22 , 2007 . Retrieved April 21 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Medalis , Kara A. ( December 8 , 2008 ) . `` SmackDown Divas crank up the heat in ' Muscle & Fitness ' '' . World Wrestling Entertainment . Retrieved September 16 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Maryse and Morrison Talking on `` Eurosport '' in 2009 Jump up ^ Stevens , Lee ( April 20 , 2009 ) . `` Under The Microscope -- 4 / 17 WWE Smackdown : Brand Split delay , Matt Hardy 's Leg Drop on Jeff , Karaoke records , Bruce Pearl raps instead of R - Truth ( w / Video ) '' . Pro Wrestling Torch . Retrieved September 16 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Hidden Effort of WWE Maryse '' . Tokyo Headline . Japan Style . August 5 , 2010 . Retrieved August 31 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Sessions Magazine Featuring Maryse Ouellet '' . Sessions Magazine . October 5 , 2011 . Retrieved August 31 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Le Journal de Monstréal Featuring Maryse Ouellet '' . Celebrity . January 31 , 2012 . Retrieved October 11 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` Maryse Ouellet '' . Internet Movie Database . Retrieved March 25 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` ' Total Bellas ' coming to E ! , new ' Total Divas ' cast announced '' . WWE.com. April 26 , 2016 . Retrieved August 5 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Magazine , DUB ( May 31 , 2017 ) . `` dubmagazine on Instagram : Check out @ mikethemiz as featured in the latest issue of DUB Magazine at dubmagazine.com '' . Instagram . Retrieved July 26 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Ouellet , Maryse ( June 1 , 2017 ) . `` marysemizanin on Instagram : The # ItCouple graces the cover of @ dubmagazine '' . Instagram . Retrieved July 26 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Ouellet , Maryse ( June 2 , 2017 ) . `` marysemizanin on Instagram : WCheck us out in @ dubmagazine this month ! ! ! ! '' . Instagram . Retrieved July 26 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Ouellet , Maryse ( June 6 , 2017 ) . `` marysemizanin on Instagram : Hubby & I in @ dubmagazine this month ! ! ! ! '' . Instagram . Retrieved July 26 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Mike , Mizanin ( June 10 , 2017 ) . `` mikethemiz on Instagram : I ca n't tell which pic from @ dubmagazine is my favorite '' . Instagram . Retrieved July 26 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Ramos , Dino - Ray ( January 8 , 2018 ) . `` WWE ' Miz & Mrs . ' Docuseries Set At USA Network '' . Deadline . Retrieved January 9 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Corey , Clayton ( September 2 , 2011 ) . `` Superstar roster revealed for THQ 's `` WWE ' 12 '' `` . WWE.com . Retrieved April 5 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Linder , Zack ( January 17 , 2014 ) . `` Exclusive interview : Catching up with the lovely and talented Maryse '' . WWE.com . Jump up ^ Zack , Zeigler ( July 5 , 2006 ) . `` Getting to know your Diva Search Contestants : Maryse Ouellet '' . WWE.com . Retrieved May 5 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Maryse Convinces Her Husband to Become Vegetarian For One Week '' . E ! Online . Retrieved December 23 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Maryse Ouellet profile on famousVcard '' . Jump up ^ `` Maryse talks WWE release , restraining order , Divas Legend she wants to work with '' . Pro Wrestling Torch . January 5 , 2012 . Retrieved April 12 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` More Diva dreams come true '' . WWE . August 24 , 2006 . Retrieved June 27 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Nesbitt , Cherylann . `` Mike `` The Miz '' Mizanin Knows His Fiance is hotter `` . MTV . Retrieved August 31 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Donnelly , Matthew Scott . `` Mike ' The Miz ' Mizanin ties the knot with a fellow WWE Champ '' . MTV . Retrieved March 21 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` WWE Superstar The Miz -- My Wedding Was Awesome ! '' . TMZ . February 22 , 2014 . Retrieved March 21 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` The Miz and Maryse are expecting their first child '' . Retrieved March 19 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Waldman , Jon ( April 25 , 2009 ) . `` Smackdown : UK gets a strong episode of SD ! '' . Slam ! Sports . Canadian Online Explorer . Retrieved February 14 , 2010 . Jump up ^ David , Stephens ( January 4 , 2010 ) . `` WWE Raw Results -- 1 / 4 / 10 '' . WrestleView . Retrieved April 9 , 2016 . Jump up ^ David , Stephens ( May 17 , 2010 ) . `` WWE Raw Results -- 5 / 17 / 10 '' . WrestleView . Retrieved April 9 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Tedesco , Mike ( December 26 , 2008 ) . `` Smackdown Results -- 12 / 26 / 08 -- Toronto , ON '' . Wrestleview . Retrieved July 14 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Tedesco , Mike . `` Smackdown Results -- 12 / 19 / 08 -- Baltimore , MD '' . Wrestleview . Archived from the original on November 27 , 2011 . Retrieved July 14 , 2011 . Maryse hits the Stroke and I 'm sure Kurt Angle is happy about that ... Maryse hits a forearm to the face and a spinning backbreaker , which was executed nicely ! Jump up ^ Tedesco , Mike . `` Smackdown Results -- 2 / 20 / 09 '' . Wrestleview . Retrieved July 5 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Martin , Todd ( May 4 , 2009 ) . `` WWE Raw TV report for May 4 '' . Wrestling Observer / Figure Four Online . Retrieved February 14 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Mulligan , Ryan ( December 13 , 2008 ) . `` Ryan Mulligan 's Smackdown TV report for December 12 '' . Wrestling Observer / Figure Four Online . Retrieved February 14 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Keller , Wade ( July 26 , 2011 ) . `` Keller 's WWE Night Of Champions PPV Report 7 / 26 : Results , star ratings , thoughts , observations , nitpicks , quotebook '' . Pro Wrestling Torch . Retrieved July 14 , 2011 . Jump up ^ David , Stephens ( December 6 , 2010 ) . `` WWE Raw Results -- 12 / 6 / 10 '' . WrestleView . Archived from the original on August 26 , 2016 . Retrieved April 5 , 2016 . Jump up ^ David , Stephens ( January 17 , 2011 ) . `` WWE Raw Results -- 1 / 17 / 11 '' . WrestleView . Archived from the original on August 26 , 2016 . Retrieved April 5 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Adam , Martin ( May 16 , 2008 ) . `` Smackdown Results -- 5 / 16 / 08 -- Grand Rapids , MI -- ( 6 on 1 Handicap ) '' . WrestleView . Retrieved April 6 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Lennie , DiFino ( May 23 , 2008 ) . `` Smackdown Results - 5 / 23 / 08 - Des Moines , IA ( Undertaker / Chavo ) '' . WrestleView . Retrieved April 6 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` OWW : The Miz '' . Online World of Wrestling . Retrieved February 26 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` All Summer Long ( R ' N ' B Pop 2 ) '' . APM Music . Retrieved February 18 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Lounge Lizard ( Glamazon ) '' . FirstCom Music . Retrieved February 18 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` WWE : Pourquoi ? ( Maryse ) - Single '' . iTunes . Retrieved September 27 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Martin , Adam ( September 11 , 2009 ) . `` PWI Top 50 Female Wrestlers list '' . WrestleView . Retrieved September 12 , 2009 . External links ( edit ) Professional wrestling portal Fashion portal Film portal Television portal Wikimedia Commons has media related to Maryse Ouellet . 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Slasher ( TV series ) - wikipedia Slasher ( TV series ) Jump to : navigation , search Slasher Genre Anthology Horror Slasher Drama Created by Aaron Martin Starring Katie McGrath Brandon Jay McLaren Steve Byers Patrick Garrow Dean McDermott Leslie Hope Lovell Adams - Gray Jim Watson Christopher Jacot Paulino Nunes Ty Olsson Joanne Vannicola Sebastian Pigott Madison Cheeatow Melinda Shankar Kaitlyn Leeb Rebecca Liddiard Paula Brancati Composer ( s ) Shawn Pierce Country of origin Canada Original language ( s ) English No. of seasons No. of episodes 16 ( list of episodes ) Production Executive producer ( s ) Aaron Martin Greg Phillips Jonathan Ford Christina Jennings Scott Garvie Location ( s ) Ontario , Canada Editor ( s ) Erin Deck Camera setup Single - camera Running time 46 - 53 minutes Production company ( s ) Shaftesbury Films Super Channel ( season 1 ) TVA Group ( season 2 ) Distributor Content Media Corporation Release Original network Super Channel ( Canada , season 1 ) Chiller ( USA , season 1 ) Netflix ( season 2 ) Original release March 4 , 2016 ( 2016 - 03 - 04 ) -- present External links Website www.netflix.com/title/80105452 Slasher is a Canadian television horror anthology series created by Aaron Martin . The first season , retroactively subtitled The Executioner , was produced in association with the Canadian network Super Channel , Slasher was the first original series by U.S. TV channel Chiller , which premiered the series on Friday , March 4 , 2016 , at 9 : 00 pm EST . Super Channel aired the show 's Canadian premiere on April 1 , 2016 . The series first season , which centered on a mysterious figure billed as `` The Executioner '' terrorizing the fictional town of Waterbury , Canada , was filmed between July and October 2015 in Sudbury , Parry Sound , and Sault Ste . Marie , Ontario . On May 1 , 2017 , Slasher began filming a second season in Orangeville , Ontario , Canada . The licensing rights for the second season was acquired by Netflix . The season was released as a `` Netflix Original '' title in various countries on October 17 , 2017 . The second season titled Slasher : Guilty Party is centered on a group of former summer camp counselors who return to an isolated campground in order to bury their sins of the past , before being targeted , one by one , by an unknown killer . Contents ( hide ) 1 Background 2 Plot 2.1 Season 1 : The Executioner ( 2016 ) 2.2 Season 2 : Guilty Party ( 2017 ) 3 Cast and characters 3.1 Recurring cast members 3.2 Season 1 : The Executioner 3.2. 1 Main 3.2. 2 Recurring 3.3 Season 2 : Guilty Party 4 Episodes 4.1 Season 1 : The Executioner ( 2016 ) 4.2 Season 2 : Guilty Party ( 2017 ) 5 Development and production 6 Reception 6.1 Awards and accolades 7 International broadcast 8 References 9 External links Background ( edit ) Slasher employs a season - long anthology format , with an overarching mystery storyline that will be resolved upon the season 's conclusion . Aaron Martin , the series ' creator / producer , acknowledged gaining inspiration for the format from American Horror Story , stating that , should Slasher have subsequent seasons , the AHS style of self - contained storylines would be used along with , ideally , the reliance on as many actors from previous seasons as possible to portray brand new roles . Martin aims to tell `` a modern - day monster story '' in Slasher , combining three of his favorite genres : The contemporary murder mystery ( a la Broadchurch ) , the works of Agatha Christie ( one of Martin 's favorite crime writers ) , and the classic slasher films he grew up with . In terms of the latter , Martin has specifically cited the influences of Halloween and It Follows in Slasher 's use of a mysterious singular embodiment that is responsible for a series of killings . Not wanting to have the show 's killer be `` a mythological creature '' ( as he feels the killers in most slasher films do not have much mystery surrounding them ) , Martin also uses elements of the traditional whodunit in Slasher : The show 's characters , many of whom have mysterious backgrounds -- and their own reasons for possibly being the killer -- are featured , explored , and eliminated from consideration , one by one ( either through death or the natural deductive process ) , until the `` all too human '' killer and their motivations for their actions are revealed . Plot ( edit ) Season 1 : the Executioner ( 2016 ) ( edit ) Slasher 's 8 - episode first season centers around Sarah Bennett who , with husband Dylan , moves back to the town of her birth , Waterbury ( a fictional town in Canada ) , and into her parents ' former home . It was in that house on Halloween Night 1988 where both of her parents , Bryan and Rachel , were murdered . Rachel was pregnant with Sarah at the time of her murder , with police discovering the killer holding Rachel 's newborn baby after the slayings . Sarah 's return to Waterbury is greeted with the start of a series of copycat murders , all appearing to be at the hands of `` The Executioner '' . Seeking insight on her sightings of `` The Executioner '' and the slayings he or she has committed , Sarah has paid visits to her parents ' imprisoned murderer , Tom Winston . Tom suggests to Sarah that though most of Waterbury 's residents project a veneer of friendship , innocence , and self - righteousness , many of them harbor dark secrets , including her late parents . During these conversations , Tom expresses thoughts on what is a common theme of Slasher 's first season -- the seven deadly sins . Gaining information from Sarah on the victims ' backgrounds and the nature of their deaths , Tom provides suggestions as to what sin the victims may have violated ; Sarah would begin to employ this approach herself without Tom 's assistance in later episodes . Just as Tom declared himself `` the Lord 's messenger '' in a 1988 police interrogation video after murdering Sarah 's parents ( seen in Episode 1 ) , he believes in the present day that the new Executioner has become a self - appointed deliverer of `` Biblical '' punishment towards those he or she believes have committed one of the seven deadly sins in their past , employing methods that are apropos to the individual natures of the deadly sins . Future victim Alison Sutherland would get The Executioner to admit this in their Episode 5 interview : Alison asks why The Executioner would be as much a sinner as everyone else and violate one of God 's commandments to not kill ; The Executioner counters that God only commanded not to murder the innocent , and that his / her victims are not innocent . Tom has suggested to Sarah , in Episode 3 , that The Executioner him / herself has committed a deadly sin of their own , being blinded by pride ( `` the greatest of sins '' ) . The police chief is found harboring Ariel , a missing teenager that he kidnapped , and a child they had together , in a enclosed locked room in his basement . Sarah 's grandmother accidentally put her best friend in a coma by dropping a cinder block on her head ( in fact , she was aiming for the girl sitting next to her best friend ; the boy who had gotten Sarah 's grandmother pregnant as a teenager was taking this girl to their high school prom ) . Bryan and Rachel ( Sarah 's parents ) were cuckolding multiple men and video taping them into service to support them , including Tom Winston . Tom decided to kill Bryan and Rachel after falling in love with Rachel and being blackmailed , but saved Sarah after Rachel told him Sarah was actually his and not her husband 's . Eventually , it 's revealed that the deputy Cam is the Executioner , suffering under an abusive mother whom he pushed down the stairs , killing her . Cam 's father , the town priest , discovered that Cam was the Executioner , and Cam killed him as well . After finding her father 's body parts in his home , Sarah kills Cam with a machete . Season 2 : Guilty Party ( 2017 ) ( edit ) Slasher 's 8 - episode second season centers around a horrific secret that a group of former summer camp counselors have buried long ago . Due to a changing circumstance , they must return to their resort in the dead of winter to retrieve the body of Talvinder , whom they murdered while they were camp counsellors , five years earlier . They get surprised when they ca n't find the body at the campsite . Later , the group start dying one by one at the hands of a mysterious person wearing a parka , which also alerts the second group of counselors at the resort . Eventually , it 's revealed that Judith is the killer , and another character , Wren , is actually Owen `` Wren '' Turnbull , her son who committed suicide after being framed for Talvinder 's murder , and is a figment of Judith 's imagination . Owen wrote a letter to his mother , asking her to get justice for him before hanging himself . Judith killed several members of the commune for their complicity after the fact , as Antoine discovered Talvinder 's body and hid it to avoid jeopardizing a real estate deal . Dawn and Keira are the only ones to escape her wrath and the former finally turns herself in for her crime during the epilogue . Judith can be seen watching them along with the hallucination of Owen , who says they 'll be waiting for Dawn after she is released from prison . Cast and characters ( edit ) Recurring cast members ( edit ) Actor Character per season The Executioner Guilty Party Katie McGrath Sarah Bennett Does not appear Brandon Jay McLaren Dylan Bennett Does not appear Steve Byers Cam Henry Does not appear Patrick Garrow Tom Winston Does not appear Dean McDermott Iain Vaughn Alan Haight Christopher Jacot Robin Turner Antoine Wendy Crewson Brenda Merrit Does not appear Leslie Hope Does not appear Judith Berry Lovell Adams - Gray Does not appear Peter Broome Paula Brancati Jana Singer Dawn Duguin Jim Watson Young Alan Henry Noah Jenkins Paulino Nunes Does not appear Mark Rankin Ty Olsson Does not appear Benny Ironside Joanne Vannicola Debbie Renée Sebastian Pigott Does not appear Owen `` Wren '' Turnbull Madison Cheeatow Does not appear Keira Melinda Shankar Does not appear Talvinder Gill Kaitlyn Leeb Does not appear Susan Lam Rebecca Liddiard Does not appear Andi Criss Jefferson Brown Trent McBride Gene Season 1 : the Executioner ( edit ) Main ( edit ) Katie McGrath as Sarah Bennett . An artist , Sarah returns with her husband to Waterbury , where she becomes proprietor of her own art gallery . She sets out to find how and why the slayings are occurring . Creator Aaron Martin has described Sarah as more of a Nancy Drew type than that of a classic `` final girl '' commonly found in horror films . Brandon Jay McLaren as Dylan Bennett , Sarah 's husband and editor - in - chief of the local newspaper , the Waterbury Bulletin . Steve Byers as Cam Henry , a member of Waterbury 's police force . Patrick Garrow as Tom Winston , the original Executioner who murdered Sarah 's parents in 1988 and who advises Sarah on the new Executioner 's murders in the present day . Dean McDermott as Iain Vaughn , Waterbury 's police chief . Christopher Jacot as Robin Turner , who , after the death of his husband , Justin , must deal with the business mess he left behind . Wendy Crewson as Brenda Merrit , Sarah 's maternal grandmother , who returns to Waterbury to look after Sarah and Dylan . Recurring ( edit ) Jessica Sipos as June Henry , Cam 's wife , who works as an EMT and shows jealousy over Cam 's relationship to Sarah . Mary Walsh as Verna McBride , Sarah and Dylan 's neighbor , who passed judgement almost immediately on the two . Enuka Okuma as Lisa Ann Follows , a former criminal justice lawyer , now a New York - based journalist and talk show host . Erin Karpluk as Heather Peterson . She is deeply haunted by and obsessed with her daughter Ariel 's disappearance , which occurred 5 years before the show begins . Karpluk has equated Heather to the Log Lady , in that much like the Twin Peaks character , Heather appears to have a sixth sense about Waterbury 's residents and their dark secrets . Mayko Nguyen as Alison Sutherland , the publisher of the Waterbury Bulletin and Dylan 's boss . Rob Stewart as Alan Henry , Cam 's father , a church pastor , and the survivor / witness of Sarah 's parents ' murder . He has made occasional visits to Tom Winston in prison to provide religious counsel . Jefferson Brown as Trent McBride , Verna 's nephew , June Henry 's former EMT partner , and an enthusiastic hunter and taxidermist . Mark Ghanimé as Justin Faysal , who with husband Robin purchased several properties in Waterbury , including the storefront location that serves as Sarah 's art gallery . Dylan Taylor as Bryan Ingram , Sarah 's father Alysa King as Rachel Ingram , Sarah 's mother Victoria Snow as Sonja Edwards , Brenda 's former childhood friend and her intended victim in a prom night 1968 incident . Hannah Endicott - Douglas as Ariel Peterson , Heather 's missing daughter Shawn Ahmed as Sharma , an officer in Waterbury 's police force Booth Savage as Ronald Edwards , the Mayor of Waterbury Susannah Hoffman as Marjorie Travers , a prostitute and drug addict Season 2 : Guilty Party ( edit ) Leslie Hope as Judith Berry Lovell Adams - Gray as Peter Broome Jim Watson as Noah Jenkins Christopher Jacot as Antoine Paulino Nunes as Mark Rankin Ty Olsson as Glenn Morgan / Benny Ironside : A former prisoner , and the sixth to die in the present . A year ago , Benny was serving time in prison when he met a new inmate with whom he entered into a romantic relationship . The inmate is released 6 months later , and 2 months prior to the present , Benny reunites with him as he is camping in Tamarind Bluffs . When the inmate announces he plans on joining a commune , Benny volunteers to come along , but the inmate eventually snaps on the journey and demands he leaves , believing he ca n't start a new life if he 's constantly being reminded of his time in jail . When Benny tries to kiss him and re-affirm their relationship , the inmate angers him by saying he does n't want to be with him anymore and Benny kills him in a fit of rage . He joins the commune under the inmate 's , Glen Morgan , identity . After he kidnaps and rapes Noah , Noah managed to fight back by setting the school bus on fire and driving him out . Benny then returns to the commune and attempts to kill Renee and Judith , but he is shot and incapacitated by Renee . He is tortured for answers regarding the killer , but admits only to Glen 's death until falsely admitting he killed Antoine to end the torture , so Renee slits his throat . Joanne Vannicola as Renée Sebastian Pigott as Owen `` Wren '' Turnbull Madison Cheeatow as Keira Melinda Shankar as Talvinder Gill : A new camp counselor whose murder drives the events of Guilty Party . A manipulative girl , she played on the other counselors kindness , setting up Susan as a destructive hater and having sex with Peter . A summer outing for her and five other counselors turns out to be a trap , as the other five have arranged for her to stand ' trial ' for her actions . The trial goes wrong , however , leading the other campers to believe she is dead only to regain consciousness as her body is about to be hidden . Faced with the possibility of being arrested for her assault , the group argues about what to do with her until Andi snaps and kills her with a rock . 5 years later , the counselors have to return to retrieve and destroy her body as a resort is going to be built and the construction might unearth it . However , despite her death and the hiding of her body resulting in multiple murders , the killer is not doing it because they are avenging Talvinder 's death . Kaitlyn Leeb as Susan Lam : A mother and wife , once Andi and Dawn 's friend , the third to die in the present . 5 years ago , when Talvinder was the newest camp counselor , she was distrustful of her , believing her to be a bad person . After rejecting her attempt at seduction and telling her that she saw right through her , Talvinder trashed the camp carnival booth they had been working on and accused Susan of doing it , setting Dawn against her . Angry , Susan showed Andi that Talvinder was a faker by taking her to where she and Peter were having sex in the woods , promising the distraught Andi that she would figure out a way to make Talvinder pay . She was the one to come up with the trial idea that went bad when Talvinder was hurt and thought to be dead , panicking when Talvinder was found to be dead and she ran away , claiming no wrong doing occurred . After the counselor group is discovered to have access to a gun and separated from the commune group , she leaves the cabin and is caught by the killer , her eyes gouged out with a broken pipe and her neck snapped . Rebecca Liddiard as Andi Criss : Peter 's ex-girlfriend , and the second to die in the present . 5 years ago , when Talvinder was the newest camp counselor , Peter cheated on Andi with Talvinder . When the attempt to scare Talvinder went wrong and she was severely injured , while the other counselors were arguing what to do with her , Talvinder called out to Peter that she loved him , angering Andi and causing her to pick up a rock and kill Talvinder . In the present , she argues with Peter about going to the police and after talking with Mark , decides to return to the rocks where Talivinder 's body disappeared , only to see her skeletal corpse hanging from the trees and get knocked out . She is tied to the ground by stakes and her throat is sliced open , bleeding out onto the snow . Paula Brancati as Dawn Duguin Dean McDermott as Alan Haight Jefferson Brown as Gene : The outfitter and supply deliverer for the commune . He drives the former counselors up to the commune , and becomes suspicious of their desire to visit the former camp in the dead of winter , deciding to stay over the weekend to keep an eye on the newcomers . He is the first to die in the present , as when he decides to visit the communes sauna , he is surprised by a person in a concealing parka and sliced from his stomach downward with a chainsaw . Kyle Buchanan as Simon Simu Liu as Luke : Susan 's kind and somewhat oblivious husband . He truly loves his wife , but fails to notice her stress about interacting with her old counselor friends , once two years prior when Andi approached on the street and in the present when she is hesitating to go up to the commune . Sophia Walker as Megan : An unlucky hiker , the fifth to die in the present . Going on a trek she typically took with a friend who passed away in memoriam of her , she came to the commune to seek shelter when a blizzard is expected . Renee , hardened by the loss of Antoine , is immediately suspicious of her and refuses to listen to reason , striking her with a statue and giving her a concussion . After she learns of the situation at hand , she agrees to attempt a hike down the mountain to the road for help , but only if the blizzard is over by morning . However , that night she suffers a psychotic break , wildly hallucinating and vomiting before falling down the stairs and dying from a broken neck , the cause of which is revealed to be toxic berries in her soup bowl . Kimberly - Sue Murray as Janice Episodes ( edit ) Season 1 : the Executioner ( 2016 ) ( edit ) No . overall No. in season Title Directed by Written by Original air date U.S. viewers ( millions ) `` An Eye for an Eye '' Craig David Wallace Aaron Martin March 4 , 2016 ( 2016 - 03 - 04 ) 0.120 Sarah and Dylan move to Waterbury and into the former home and murder site of her parents . The new `` Executioner '' surfaces for the first time , chasing Sarah down her street before beating a teen boy who had been destroying mailboxes with his baseball bat . Following a suggestion from Tom Winston after their first meeting , Sarah discovers a camcorder and illicit sex tapes her parents buried in their house , tapes that Verna discovers and takes to her house after snooping around . The Executioner ties down and dismembers Verna in her bedroom as punishment for the sin of wrath . Sarah discovers Verna 's body , only to fall down the stairs and lose consciousness while trying to escape The Executioner , who leaves one sex tape beside her . `` Digging Your Grave With Your Teeth '' Craig David Wallace Aaron Martin March 4 , 2016 ( 2016 - 03 - 04 ) 0.110 Sarah 's grandmother , Brenda arrives at the Bennett 's home , suitcase in hand . Robin is confronted by Trent , while Sarah is confronted by Heather . Sarah receives a package containing a severed human finger and a note ; following Tom 's suggestion that the note contains geographic coordinates , Sarah discovers the remains of Verna McBride 's husband , Peter , in a nearby wooded area . Lured out into an alley way by a severed power cable , Robin 's arms are slashed by The Executioner , with a bystander rescuing Robin . While Robin recovers in hospital , another outage occurs , after which Robin receives flowers and a card of condolence . Believing Justin is in danger , Robin and Cam frantically try to call Justin but Justin dies after collapsing and frothing at the mouth after snorting cocaine and ingesting the rat poison that was in it , serving as the punishment for his gluttony . After she had previously threatened Justin and Robin , a fitful Heather is arrested by the police . `` Like as Fire Eateth Up and Burneth Wood '' Craig David Wallace Aaron Martin March 11 , 2016 ( 2016 - 03 - 11 ) 0.067 Robin , deep in grief over Justin and deep in the business mess he left behind , deals with Trent 's anger over Justin giving him a bad check . After The Executioner breaks into her home , Sarah heads out of town . After swerving off the road to avoid a truck , Sarah and Brenda become separated in the woods . Brenda , who had just admitted to Sarah her role in Ada 's accident , is kidnapped by The Executioner , who ties her to a cinder block and tosses it into the lake at a nearby boathouse . Brenda 's drowning death , the punishment for her envy , prompts the police to release Heather from custody . `` As Water is Corrupted Unless It Moves '' Craig David Wallace Aaron Martin March 18 , 2016 ( 2016 - 03 - 18 ) 0.067 The police verify that the truck that ran off Sarah and Brenda belonged to Trent . Trent is chased into a pit in the woods and eaten by snakes as punishment for his sloth by The Executioner . Dylan interviews Tom in prison for the Bulletin . Tom produces evidence to Dylan that suggests he has had a greater interest in Tom than he let on to Sarah . Apologetic for drunkenly claiming Sarah is in love with Cam , June confides to Sarah that she and Trent had an affair while they were EMT partners ; she also tells Sarah about Trent 's encounter with Ariel Peterson . Security camera footage reveals a detail June left out : She was with Trent in his ambulance that night . After comforting a hysterical Heather , June heads to church to pray but The Executioner abducts her . June awakens in a cornfield naked , attached to an IV , and covered in honey , which attracts animals that eat her alive while she does n't know what happens . 5 5 `` Ill - Gotten Gains '' Craig David Wallace Aaron Martin March 25 , 2016 ( 2016 - 03 - 25 ) 0.053 June 's rotted remains are discovered . Cam and Sarah argue over suspicions each other have about the killer ; Alan learns about the argument and advises Sarah to be careful . Sarah and Robin discover a `` murder kit '' in Alan 's church office , later discovering Alan needs the contents for a BDSM session . Sarah discovers her parents ' sex videos feature a young Tom Winston . Alison asks The Executioner on - air for an interview who obliges and , in full costume , speaks with Alison at an abandoned foundry . Alison confides to Lisa Ann that she fabricated evidence in the Bulletin that tied Benny Peterson to his daughter 's disappearance . Heading to New York , Alison gets into a courtesy limo driven by the Executioner , who takes her back to the foundry and slashes her throat ; her head is later found in a restaurant 's deep fryer as punishment for her greed . Vaughn heads home to his basement , where he opens a room - sized safe ; inside , a young boy is being sung to by Ariel Peterson . 6 6 `` The One Who Sows His Own Flesh '' Craig David Wallace Aaron Martin April 1 , 2016 ( 2016 - 04 - 01 ) 0.076 The cold open depicts Iain Vaughn 's abduction and rape of Ariel 5 years ago ; in the present day , he prevents an attempt by Ariel and son Jake to escape his basement . Sarah becomes suspicious about Dylan 's whereabouts when Alison was killed . Tom insists to Sarah that he is her father with a DNA test to confirm . After Sarah and Cam tell Vaughn their suspicions about Marjorie Travers ' claim of seeing Ariel the night she disappeared , Vaughn and Marjorie meet and he gives Marjorie a needle filled with heroin that she fatally overdoses on . Realizing Sarah is suspicious about Marjorie 's death , Vaughn takes Sarah to a junkyard and attempts to make it appear as if The Executioner punished Sarah for the sin of pride . Knowing his sin is lust , Vaughn makes an attempt to punish himself along with Ariel and Jake with gasoline and attempts to burn himself and the two . With the police demanding Vaughn 's whereabouts , Sarah encourages his wife , Nancy , to let them into their basement , from which only Ariel and Jake exit . Vaughn escapes to a secluded lakeside shack , where The Executioner knocks him out ; he later awakens to being burned alive in a crematorium , a punishment for his lust . 7 7 `` In the Pride of His Face '' Craig David Wallace Aaron Martin April 8 , 2016 ( 2016 - 04 - 08 ) 0.077 A flashback to Bryan and Rachel Ingram 's murder reveals a new detail : Before killing her , Tom reveals himself to Rachel ; she responds by professing her love for him and pleads for their baby 's life . Sharma and Cam discover The Executioner 's list of sinners , which include Tom 's and Sarah 's names for pride . Sarah becomes angry at Dylan after discovering his website dedicated to her parents ' murders . Lisa Ann upsets Dylan with her knowledge that Tom and Sarah are targets , but mollifies him with news that she got his request for a book deal approved -- and an intimate moment . While heading back to prison from hospital , Tom escapes to Sarah 's house ; Sarah willingly goes with him to the woods where The Executioner captures them both . With Sarah tied to a buzzsaw , Tom reveals how his own ego and pride led him to murder Bryan and Rachel . Tom demands that The Executioner punish him instead of Sarah , and he dives onto the running buzzsaw , being `` broken on a wheel '' , killing himself for his sin of pride . At Cam 's house , Cam adds a bloody piece of Tom 's prison jumpsuit to a hidden box of murder mementos , implying that he is the Executioner . 8 8 `` Soon Your Own Eyes Will See '' Craig David Wallace Aaron Martin April 15 , 2016 ( 2016 - 04 - 15 ) 0.086 After a flashback depicts the death of Cam 's mother , the story picks up on Halloween eve : Alan finds Cam 's box of murder mementos , but is strangled by Cam while praying for his son . Cam plants the mementos in the Bennetts ' house and , after Sarah discovers them , arrests Dylan . Cam comforts Sarah , and the two have a sexual interlude . Browsing through a summer camp scrapbook , Sarah discovers a sketch Cam drew that resembles The Executioner 's drawings ; her new suspicions are confirmed when she sneaks into Cam 's house and discovers Alan 's remains and a bloody knife . Sarah takes the knife and , after luring him out of Robin 's Halloween party , stabs Cam , who takes that same knife and stabs both Sarah and Robin . Sarah escapes to her house , but Cam pursues her and stabs Sarah again . Sarah , along with Dylan , turn the tables , however , stabbing Cam several times and slitting his throat . Four weeks later , a reconciled Sarah and Dylan leave Waterbury , with Robin showing their former house to two prospective buyers and their young daughter , who snaps the neck of a stray cat in the yard . Season 2 : Guilty Party ( 2017 ) ( edit ) No . overall No. in season Title Directed by Written by Original air date 9 `` Six Feet Under '' Felipe Rodriguez Aaron Martin October 17 , 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 17 ) Five years ago , a group of six summer camp counselors , Peter , Dawn , Noah , Susan , Andi and Talvinder drive beyond camp limits to party . That night , Susan tells the group that she 's found a good swimming hole , so the group follows her , but only Talivinder is excited about the find until she reaches the clearing , finding it lined with torches as Andi informs her that she is going to stand trial for being ' a nasty bitch ' . The other five members then drag what they think to be Talivinder 's dead body into the woods , until at the place where they plan to hide her body she regains consciousness . While Peter wants to take her to the hospital , Dawn refuses to let him take her and Noah tackles him , holding him down while Dawn drags Talivinder away . In the present , the five counselors are burdened by the guilt of what happened , and must return to the former camp , now a commune , to remove and destroy Talivinder 's body when they learn that a resort is going to built on the land , running the risk of having the body be discovered . The group gets a ride up to the commune thanks to the outfitter Gene and his snowmobiles . The people there , Antoine and Renee , the founders of the commune , and Mark , Glen , Judith , Wren , and Kiera , the communes members , are surprised that they have decided to visit in winter . Gene is killed when he goes to the isolated sauna and is surprised by a parka - clad person wielding a chainsaw . When the former counselors go to the site where Talivinder 's body was supposed to be hidden , they find it has disappeared . 5 years ago ( sometime prior to her death ) Talivinder is the newest counselor at the summer camp and Andi is showing her the camp , and Talvinder begins making advances on her boyfriend Peter . Back in the present , Andi is angered by Peter 's optimistic view about rekindling their relationship after going to the police . Searching for the body , Andi finds Talivinder 's skeletal corpse suspended from nearby trees and gets knocked out . Peter later leaves to search for Andi , finding her with her throat slit . Peter returns to the commune with news of Andi 's death , while Antoine tries and fails to contact the outside world via land line . When the former counselors return to their cabin , they find someone has written the words ' I know you killed her ' in blood over their mantle . 5 years ago , after the discovery that Talivinder was still alive and dragged back to the hiding place , she calls out to Peter , repeatedly , that she still loves him . This angers Andi , and she finishes off Talivinder by smashing her head with a rock . 10 `` Between Good and Evil '' Felipe Rodriguez Jana Sinyor October 17 , 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 17 ) Susa Two years prior to the present , Susan and her husband Luke are walking down the street when they are approached by Andi . After Luke misunderstands the situation and leaves to let the two of them talk , Susan confronts Andi , telling her to stay away as she will defend her new family to death if necessary . In the present , the group clean up the bloody message while Antoine and Renee go looking for Gene , only to find a gruesome snowman decorated with his dismembered body parts . 5 years ago , sometime after Talvinder became a counselor , she and Susan are setting up a fortune telling booth for a camp carnival event . Susan is n't happy about working with her because she thinks she 's too clingy and desperate , and Dawn admonishes her for disliking Talivinder . In the present , the group create a story , in case the commune members are suspicious about Andi 's murder , and Judith and Wren have a quiet chat , where Wren expresses his concern about her after almost walking in on her cutting herself in the bathroom , until Antoine comes in to announce a meeting between both groups . After announcing the discovery of Gene 's body , Antoine , Renee and Pete go out to the snowmobiles to see if they can go for help , only to find all the gas has been siphoned from them . 5 years ago , before the camp carnival is to begin , Talivinder attempts to seduce Susan , but Susan retorts that she sees right through her , angering Talvinder . In the present , the counselor group are unpleasantly surprised when Dawn reveals she has a gun , having packed it just in case . Noah finds a box on the commune 's doorstep , with a note saying ' Stay Warm ! ' attached , that is stuffed with Gene 's bloody clothes . After this discovery , Susan gets angry so she and Noah attempt to walk back to Gene 's store to go for help in her SUV. 5 years ago at the camp carnival , the fortune teller 's booth is trashed and Talvinder accuses Susan of doing it , though Susan tries to protest her innocence . In the present , Susan and Noah discover that the phone line was cut , preventing anyone from calling for help . Renee discusses the disappearance of Talvinder with the commune group , as it caused Renee 's mother to shut down the camp 3 years prior because parents would n't send their kids anymore . Antoine gets suspicious of the former counselors , as the story they gave fits the disappearance 's timeline . After getting too cold and lost in the dark , Susan and Noah are forced to return to the commune , Noah suffering from severe frostbite on his toes . Dawn is surprised during the night by someone trying to get into the cabin , so she fires through the door , alerting the people behind it , Mark and Kiera , to the fact that the counselor group has a gun , angering Renee and demanding the truth from Noah and Susan . Five years ago , while discussing Talvinder 's accusation , Susan leads Andi through the woods to show her Peter and Talvinder having sex . In the present , Peter convinces Dawn to give up the gun , surrendering it to the commune group , but Antoine and Renee take the gun when he ca n't provide a good reason for having it and kick out Susan and Noah to the counselor cabin , telling them not to come back for any reason . When Susan tries to argue with Dawn , claiming innocence in Talvinder 's death , Dawn reminds her she came up with the idea for the trial that went wrong . 5 years ago , Susan tries to comfort Andi after seeing her boyfriend cheat on her , telling her the only way to beat Talvinder is to think like her , to come up with a plan to ensure she never does anything like that again . In the present , Susan left the cabin to go for a walk and is shot by a knock - out dart. 5 years ago , when Talvinder is discovered to be still alive , she apologizes to Susan and begs for her help while Dawn demands to know what to do next , so Susan panics and runs away . In the present , Susan is dragged by her hair by the parka - clad person to a spot where her eyes are gouged out with a broken pipe and her neck is snapped . Juliet is shocked awake when she discovers Wren in her room , though he had come to stand watch over her through the night . Mark and Kiera discover Susan 's body . Two years ago , when Andi tried to talk to Susan , Susan says that the reason she seems so together is that she pretends that Talvinder 's death never happened , dismissing Andi 's concerns about living with the consequences as ' some of us have more to regret than others ' . 11 `` Saint Sebastian '' Felipe Rodriguez James Hurst October 17 , 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 17 ) Three years ago , Antoine , Renee and her girlfriend are going home after a night out . When Antoine walks home alone through an alley , a man in a pickup truck pulls up and insults him about his homosexuality . When the man starts beating him up , Antoine fights back and beats him down before putting his head in his car door and kicking it into him . In the present , after discovering Susan 's body , the two groups begin accusing the others of the murders . Glen lets Noah bunk with him while Dawn and Peter bunk in other rooms . Dawn takes the opportunity , when Judith , her roommate , leaves to get extra blankets to retrieve her gun . Antoine says to Renee that he needs to show her something , and outside he shows her Talvinder 's body in a locked trunk . He had found it last summer while looking for mushrooms in the woods . after he stumbled across it in the woods months prior and he had to hide it to ensure the land deal went through . But after that , he was concerned he 'd left evidence on it and would be accused of her murder so he had to keep it . Renee is angry that Antoine has hidden this from her but agrees to keep the body a secret . Glen gives Noah some drugs for the pain from his frostbite , but makes sure he promises that he wo n't tell anyone he has them , as illicit drugs are banned from the house and spies on Noah from the bathroom keyhole as he is changing . 3 years ago , Antoine is trying to dispose of the evidence of the homophobic man 's murder when Renee invites him over to smoke weed . He expresses his frustration with city life , and Renee tells him about some land her family has that they could use to build their own open community . In the present , Antoine and Renee go out with an auger to hide Talinder 's body , but the ground is frozen and Antoine tries to tear her corpse apart to bury her in different locations . When he fails , Renee convinces him to turn over the body to the police and hide it in the trunk again until they can . Renee , Dawn , Peter , Mark and Glen hike to Glen 's shop to get to the SUV that brought the counselor group there , and Dawn misplaces her gun after Noah is seen holding a similar gun . Juliet finds a note from Wren on her bed that is seemingly romantic in tone . While looking for pain relief , Noah accidentally discovers more of Glen 's pills , one with the name Benny Ironside on the prescription label . The group arrives at Gene 's store , but find his phone line is n't functional because he did n't pay the bill , and the SUV 's battery is dead because Dawn left the lighted mirror over her seat on . Keira discovers Talvinder 's severed hand when going for firewood , which enrages Antoine into confronting and attacking Noah because he was the only member of the counselor group left behind , demanding he tell everything about what happened 5 years ago and why they came back . Noah blames Owen , and before Antoine can hurt him anymore , the group comes back , shocking Renee with his display of violence . Antoine apologizes to her , but refuses her help as he leaves to hide the body . He runs into Judith in the hall , who wanted to discuss his observation of her and Wren earlier , but says it 's natural to want to escape in this situation and he believes it 's harmless . When her gets to the trunk , he finds it empty , and is surprised by the parka - clad person , who knocks him down by pushing over the auger , impaling him in the stomach before turning it on and tearing his insides apart . Glen goes back to his room and Noah confronts him about the different name on the pill bottle . Glen identifies the pills as warfarin , an extremely expensive medication he received for free from a compassion clinic , and they had to print random names on the labels because the practice is considered illegal . Noah does n't believe the story , so Glen warns him not to go through his things again . As Glen prepares some meat for his meal , a piece he puts into the pan has one of Antoine 's tattoos , leading Renee to the shocking revelation that Antoine is dead . 12 `` Night of Hunters '' Felipe Rodriguez Story by : Aaron Martin Teleplay by : Naledi Jackson October 17 , 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 17 ) One year ago , Glen is in prison , talking to a confident new inmate while working out , advising him to seek allies . In the present , Glen is throwing up in a sink after the discovery that the meat he was cooking and eating was Antoine . Mark and Renee go out to the shed where Antoine was killed , finding the bloody auger and the rest of his remains in the trunk that was used to hide Talvinder 's body . Judith comforts the grieving Renee , convincing her to take some pills to let her sleep . Mark visits with Dawn , returning the gun Antoine took so she could have it for protection . When Glen angers Noah , he reveals to Kiera and Peter that Glen has a prescription with a different name , but ca n't find in his drawer when tries to show them . This makes Kiera suspicious , so she orders him to stay in Glen 's room until further notice . Kiera and Peter are surprised by a stranger in a parka outside , who they chase down , only to find it to be a woman named Megan McCalister , who claims to be on a memorial trek for her best friend Gail who died of leukemia . Renee is suspicious and strikes her with a statue , giving her a concussion , refusing to listen Kiera trying to tell her Megan was telling the truth because she found a park permit dated the day before at 8 am , from a station 50 kilometers away . When Renee keeps trying to hurt or tie Megan up , Kiera orders her out of the room to tend to Megan . 6 months ago at Glen 's prison , the cocky new inmate is about to be released , saying his first stop on the outside will be a few months in Tamarind Bluffs , and gives Glen a picture postcard from the place . In the present , Peter informs Megan about what 's been happening and she , reluctantly , agrees to help with a trek back down to the main road , but only if the blizzard is gone by morning . In the night , Noah decides to try and get into Glen 's RV in order to find evidence to prove his suspicions about Glen being the killer . 2 months ago , Glen surprises the cocky inmate by visiting him in his RV . That night , as the two are talking , the inmate tells Glen he intends to join an intended community for a fresh start and Glen says he wants to come along too . In the present , Noah sees the freezer in the back has blood on it and opens it for a surprising sight . He takes a picture of it and flees . He tries to get back to the commune , but struggles because he went out in only a hoodie , and is grabbed by a person in black . Noah and Glen 's absence is noticed at dinner , so Peter and Kiera go to look for him . 2 months ago , the cocky inmate is annoyed by Glen 's antics and does n't want him around anymore to remind him of his time in jail . Glen tells him he 's tired and that he 'll drive , pulling him in for a deep kiss , but the inmate breaks it , saying the best day of his life was his release , as it meant he would n't have to look at or touch Glen anymore . This angers Glen , and in his rage he kills him . In the present , Noah is tied up with duct tape as Glen is revealed to be the one who abducted him and is holding him in an abandoned school bus . At the commune , Megan suffers a psychotic break , seeing hallucinations and vomiting before throwing herself down the stairs and breaking her neck . Mark finds toxic berries in Megan 's soup , putting suspicion on Dawn as she was the one who ladled out the soup . Kiera and Peter get to the RV and find the inmate 's body in the freezer . 2 months ago , Glen made it to the commune and is accepted under the dead inmate 's name , revealing ' Glen ' is his false identity and Bruce Ironsides as his real name . In the present , Glen rapes Noah . 13 5 `` Out of the Frying Pan '' Felipe Rodriguez Lucie Pagé October 17 , 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 17 ) Five years ago , Talvinder ( Melinda Shankar ) is building tents , having trouble , so Noah ( Jim Watson ) helps her out selflessly . She comes on to him a bit , conning him into doing stuff for her . The picture of the hideous acts which later occurred is being painted , one stroke at a time . Not long later , Noah sees Tal heading into the woods with a beer and friends . Peter ( Lovell Adams - Gray ) and him both have a thing for her , obviously the former has a better idea of what was going on . Now , Noah 's lying in a bus after being raped by Glenn ( Actually Benny Ironside ) ( Ty Olsson ) . While his captor sleeps , he picks up a kettle and tries beating him with it . That does n't go over well , at all . Out at the camper , Peter and the others have found the corpse in the freezer . They look around to find any clues about who it was , who owns the camper . They find the actual Glenn Morgan 's ID . Judith ( Leslie Hope ) tends to Megan 's dead body when Wren ( Sebastian Pigott ) shows up . He believes that anything could happen now . Out in the living room , Dawn ( Paula Brancati ) is still standing accused of poisoning the woman , denying it to Renée ( Joanne Vannicola ) and Mark ( Paulino Nunes ) . This is when Peter and Keira ( Madison Cheeatow ) come to tell them about Glenn 's true identity , which is n't totally received so hot right away . But some of them will go looking for Benny . Speaking of , he 's strangling Noah to death . His victim manages to toss a bit of fire around and lights the place up , trapping his captor inside the bus . Benny gets out , not before Noah escapes for the time being . Cut back to five years ago , when the group of friends has taken Tal out to the forest , calling her out . Andi ( Rebecca Liddiard ) , Dawn , and Susan ( Kaitlyn Leeb ) lead them . She 's sentenced to spend a night out there alone with nothing , just what she 's wearing . She pleads to Noah , getting no help . Present day again . Everyone 's looking for Noah now , the bus burning in the distance . They hear him screaming for them . Benny takes off further in the darkness . He goes back to the cabins , breaking through the window and strangling Renée until she 's unconscious . Judith runs and hides from him as he stalks her through the halls . Thankfully , Renée puts a bullet in the big guy , incapacitating him for the time being . Benny 's in trouble , tied to a chair , helpless . When Mark comes out with food and water , he has questions for him . He asks about the snowmobile , the poison in the food . He claims he 's not a killer . He fesses up to one murder , naturally , that he 's Mr. Ironside , saying that killing Glenn was n't a planned thing . Meanwhile , Keira and Dawn help Noah get his clothes off and clean up . This is when the women discover he 's been raped , as well . Back to five years ago again , as Tal chases after the group pleading for them not to leave . They taunt her while they go . Peter protests , whereas Noah calls her a skank and starts a fight with him . Before they leave , Tal brings up something about Susan , a girl named Marcy Rae ; they made out , and when Susan outed her she killed herself . Plus , Tal trots out everyone 's secrets , blackmailing them to take her back out of the woods . Noah yells at her , prompting her to call him pathetic , going hard at him . So he runs after her , angry enough to kill . Present day . Renée , Peter , and Mark discuss what to do next . They realize that Benny may not be the serial killer . So , what 's their best option ? Could lure the real killer using him . Renée 's fixing to get answers of him , believing he killed Antoine , and she starts slicing the guy up with a box cutter . And she 's barred the door so nobody can get inside . Soon , he admits to it just to try ending the torture . This is when she peels a strip off his arm , followed by cutting his throat open . Outside , Noah finds a fire going . But it 's not any of his friends there . He 's stumbled onto the parka killer , who tosses gas on him and lights him ablaze . Immediately we cut back to Noah charging after Tal that night five years ago . He tears her shirt open , then he 's about to rape her right on the truck . Peter rushes in and hauls him off . This sends Tal running into the woods , the others shocked at their friend 's actions . Peter punches him in the face before going after Tal . This has everyone actually worried about the girl instead of murderous . Present day once more . Everyone wakes up , wondering if they 're safe since Benny is dead . Nobody can find Noah , though . Peter and Keira head out to look , coming to the remains of the fire : Noah on top of Tal 's skeletal remains . 14 6 `` Drone '' Felipe Rodriguez Floyd Kane October 17 , 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 17 ) Back in the past , Mark ( Paulino Nunes ) is having sex in the kitchen with Stephanie , taking pictures . It 's in a restaurant , not far from the staff just outside . In through the door comes a scruffy looking dude ( Dean McDermott ) . He 's pissed at Mark , whose client killed his son in a drunk driving incident ; he obviously got the guy off for the death . The lawyer claims he was just doing a job , but this is not the end . Moments later , the man blows Stephanie 's brains out in front of everybody . He points the gun at Mark , shooting him twice , before turning the gun on himself . Back to the retreat , where Peter ( Lovell Adams - Grey ) and Keira ( Madison Cheeatow ) have found the corpse of Talvinder ( Melinda Shankar ) with a burned up Noah ( Jim Watson ) underneath . Turns out he 's still alive . They get him inside , trying to help with his burn wounds . A brutal situation . Mark 's having troubles due to his flashbacks to that day he was shot . Worse , Noah needs a hospital , he can barely breath without a tube getting shoved down his throat . Outside a plane flies over ; they do n't get its attention , though they start making an SOS signal out of branches and logs in hopes it 'll circle back , and that they 'll be ready . Mark also wants to build a couple fires to make smoke signals , so Peter and Dawn ( Paula Brancati ) head further into the woods . Inside , Wren ( Sebastian Pigott ) reveals a bit of an inner dark side , he does n't care that there 's a man burned up , dying in front of them , whereas Judith ( Leslie Hope ) hates to see Noah in pain ; she does n't care what the young man did before . Out in the woods , Dawn steps right into a bear trap . They ca n't open it . Peter offers to head back . Although now this leaves her all alone . She has a gun , but that 'll only do so good . She nearly shoots Mark when he turns up , then Peter gets back , too . They manage to get her out . But her leg 's completely broken . She and Mark get closer now , bonding during a terrifying experience , isolated out there . Keira straight out asks Peter if they killed that girl five years ago . From his burned up state , Noah tells Peter that it 's his fault . He admits to his part in what happened , telling Keira it was largely his fault . Downstairs Mark comes to confront everybody . He believes that one of them is the killer , someone in that cabin . He talks about being an attorney before , paid to be a nasty shark . He wants to root out the killer by questioning everybody . However , they 're not happy with that . Nobody 's gon na do that , certainly not Renée ( Joane Vannicola ) . Yet he 's pretty keen on it . He offers for him to represent We Live As One and Dawn to represent the group of friends during this little mock trial . Mark stats with Keira . He figures out eventually she had a patient die on her watch once when she was an ER nurse . She 'd been working a long shift , she messed up , and that was that . Next is Wren . He 's pretty combative and has nothing to say . Judith is n't totally forthcoming , Mark asks her about her strong prescription drugs and she passes it off . He pushes her a bit hard , getting personal , to the point Dawn is n't on board . Judith yells at him . Then comes Renée . She would 've had no reason to kill Antoine , however , Mark wo n't let her forget that she killed Benny , torturing him to death . Mark questions Dawn about why they came up there . She 's honest , explaining they were coming up to find the remains , to move them before the resort was built . She does n't show any remorse . Claims it was an accident and goes on about how Talvinder was n't innocent . Whatever relationship they 'd started building together has fallen apart , as Mark rages at her . When he goes to interrogate Peter , they 've all had enough of him stirring the place into madness . Everybody 's slowly starting to crumble , turning against one another . This leads to the lawyer pulling out that gun ; an interesting parallel to the opening scene . Simultaneously , Noah chokes to death , succumbing to his brutal wounds . Renée puts aside the anger , asking Mark to go with her someplace . She tells him , vaguely , somebody said something they should n't have known about the past . They head out to a spot where there 's a small cabin . She heads in while he stays out , guarding with the gun . This is when we flash back two years ago , Mark first coming to We Live As One . He meets Antoine ( Christopher Jacot ) , Renée , Judith , as they welcome him with open arms . They 're all bright eyed , bushy tailed , ready to live an alternative lifestyle in the midst of nature . Quite different from how it is now . Especially with a chainsaw revving in the distance . Renée finds a box of things from 2012 marked Camp Motega . She looks through it and comes across the files of the group of friends , from Andi ( Rebecca Liddiard ) to Talvinder to Dawn and the rest . And then we see Wren . Outside the killer , covered in blood , arrives on snowmobile . He runs Mark down hard . Then he puts a couple bullets into Renée as she runs away . She does n't make it very far . The killer takes the file from her , then we hear the sounds of him running her over , the wet sounds of the blood , her last scream . 15 7 `` Dawn of the Dead '' Felipe Rodriguez Amanda Fahey October 17 , 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 17 ) Five years ago , Talvinder ( Melinda Shankar ) and Dawn ( Paula Brancati ) are close . Talking together about the future , what it 'll be like fully entering adulthood , how they should move in together . A macabre match cut takes us from Dawn twirling her fingers through Tal 's living hair to the dead hair on the corpse 's head . Then she winds up toppling the remains over onto her . Meanwhile , Peter ( Lovell Adams - Gray ) and Keira ( Madison Cheeatow ) have found the snowmobile , covered in blood and gore . Plus , no gas , no Renée ( Joanne Vannicola ) -- well , at least not much . Suspicions are high , Keira wonders if it was Dawn who could be the killer , even if Peter is n't convinced . Jump back to five years prior . Dawn and the other counselors teach kids to do all kinds of stuff , like archery . She was particularly close to one dude , Ryan . This is also when we see Owen ( Wren ) talking to Tal , pressing her to go out with him , being creepy . Nothing gets any better at the retreat . Peter thinks Mark is the killer . Mark finds one of the pictures from the files on Renée , and it 's Peter . Five years ago again . Tal and Dawn talk about the latter sleeping with a married man ; her stepfather , in fact . She wrecked her own home , doing it to get back at her mother . At Camp Motega , she did n't want to add to her body count , and so she intended on taking it slow with Ryan . This is where we see her bonding , deeply , with Tal . At the cabin , Mark puts a pill in Peter 's beer , as they all sit around trying to forget their grim reality , at least for a moment . They try a game of Never Have I Ever . He has a flashback to five years before , he and Tal lying together out in the woods . She tells him about moving in with Dawn when they go back home , what they ought to do about their relationship . He made some promises , ones he appears to want to go back on . Breaking her heart a bit . Later , she listens to Dawn talking lovingly of Ryan , and she laments the love she just lost . And the drugs are kicking in on Peter . He stumbles outside , so Mark locks the door . Dawn was a part of it , of course . Keira 's the only one who seems to not believe in what the others are sure of already . Things are getting really ugly . Go back five years . Dawn wants Tal to talk her up to Ryan . The trusted friend goes to him , trying to work her magic . He asks if Dawn ever mentions him . She gives him a generic answer , not talking Dawn up whatsoever . Tal 's doing what she does , acting deviously behind the backs of the people who seem to like her ; she lies about Dawn 's stepfather , making it out to look like she was molested . In the woods , Peter is stumbling , drugged on ketamine , out in the cold . At the cabins , Wren and Judith ( Leslie Hope ) hook up in one room . In the living room , Dawn tries getting closer to Mark , in a genuine way , talking to him about her past . She also admits that all that 's happened is because of her , her friends . She wants to own up to the guilt . Five years ago , once more . Tal lies to Dawn that she 's not Ryan 's type because he likes really skinny , small girls . This clearly devastates her friend . That night , Dawn gets drunk and starts getting a bit wild in front of everyone , talking to Ryan . But he mentions the stepfather stuff , and then she realizes her friend is not actually her friend . Out in the woods , Peter comes across a shrine , bloody , candles lit . Above it is a mannequin , hanging by the neck . Back at the retreat , Judith finds the gun in Wren 's jacket ; the one the killer supposedly took from Renée . She nearly uses it on him , deciding not to at the last moment . Peter goes back to the cabin , more information now , but when Dawn lets him inside Mark runs at him , knocking him out . After that Keira is pissed . She believes maybe Mark is the killer now . Yet there 's a piece of Andi 's hair in Peter 's pocket . So strange , so creepy . Go back again , five years ago . Dawn and the other girls plot against Tal . They go from silly little pranks , to more serious things . They want to scare the life out of her . They decide to put her on trial , leaving her in the woods to walk home alone . Present day , Judith 's having trouble , worried Wren is the killer . She considers blowing her own brains out , until he finds her out there . He confesses his love for her . She says she loves him , too . However , when Mark comes running towards them , Wren shoots him in the head . 16 8 `` The Past is Never Dead '' Felipe Rodriguez Aaron Martin October 17 , 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 17 ) Five years ago , Dawn ( Paula Brancati ) , Peter ( Lovell Adams - Gray ) and the rest of the friends are carefully enacting their calculated plan to get revenge on Talvinder ( Melinda Shankar ) . They take her out to that spot in the woods with the lit torches . They 've got her on trial . She 's made to stand in the middle of a circle . They all call her out , starting with Andi ( Rebecca Liddiard ) . Conveniently , Andi does n't blame Peter , which Tal uses against her . Susan ( Kaitlyn Leeb ) calls her nothing . Eventually Dawn has her say , feeling utterly betrayed ; she 's the one who really has the most genuine reason . Peter does n't bash her , instead apologizing to his girlfriend for what he 's done . Cut to a little later , when Noah ( Jim Watson ) almost rapes her on the truck . Then she 's rushing off into the woods , the others worried for her . But Tal wo n't turn back . She winds up tripping and smashing her head . They find her in a ditch . She seems dead , so they all react with horror . They drag her off , she 's still alive . Andi smashes her head , she still wo n't die . And Dawn takes the rock , smashing her once more . Noah takes his turn , as well . Laying the killing blow , it seems . Wren ( Sebastian Pigott ) is heading back to the cabin , after killing Mark , Judith ( Leslie Hope ) is pleading with him not to do anything else terrible . He 's bent on revenge . They let him take the fall for Talvinder 's disappearance . All she asks is that Keira is left alive . Back at the cabins , Judith reels off a lie about Mark , that he was going to kill her . And she says she shot him . Taking the blame . Lulling Dawn in . Except the young woman does n't believe it , she knows it 's lies . Five years ago . The friends are reeling in the aftermath of what they 've done , people are asking where Tal has gone . They 're trying to figure out the next course of action . Their lives changed for the worse , and they had to either deal or go to prison for the rest of their lives . Present day , the gang at the retreat hear a snowmobile . A woman named Janice arrives looking for her boyfriend , Gene . She thinks We Live As One are a cult , but Peter tries explaining , asking for help . Janice has room for one on her machine ; Judith tries desperately to send Keira , only Keira wo n't have it , wanting it to be Dawn , so she might get medical attention . But Wren , he 's intent on killing more . He wants Judith to help and she wo n't , he starts getting worse . He 's a sad , lonely , murderous man . He says she 'll die alone and she grabs him , throwing him at the mirror . Except nobody 's there . Just her . Soon , Peter and Keira find her , bloodied , unconscious . They put her to bed , then decide they 've got to find Mark 's corpse , confirm he 's dead . Peter heads out while she stays to look after Judith . Judith has worse problems . She continually hears Wren in her head , commanding her . We jump back five years . Wren a.k.a Owen leaves his cabin at Camp Motega , and in slips Dawn to drop a piece of Tal 's jewelry into his things . Present day , Peter comes across Mark 's dead body . Nearby he sees the footprints , he tries re-imagining the crime . He knows something 's not right . Elsewhere , Dawn and Janice try getting out of the forest , but they stop a moment across the way from the parka killer , who fires on both women , bleeding Janice out . Dawn makes it away , though she 's soon shot in the river . Who 's behind the mask ? Judith . At the cabin , Peter finds Keira unconscious , propane filling the house . Then he sees a bunch of letters in Judith 's room . They 're from Wren , in jail . To his mother , Judith . Peter does the only thing he can , carrying Keira through the woods . Only to run into Judith . She says one lives , the other dies . A tough choice . We 're finally seeing the full extent of things now after a flashback , why the noose was in that shrine Peter found -- Judith has hallucinated Owen , the entire time . He hanged himself in jail . Peter puts the noose around his neck and steps from the ledge over the shrine , hanging himself as Judith watches , flashing to images of her son slowly dying . But another surprise , as well -- up the river , Dawn is still alive , on shore , and two hunters find her there bleeding profusely . When Keira wakes up she sees Peter hanging . She also finds a letter Peter wrote to Talvinder 's parents , confessing to the crime , trying to give them closure . Admitting that Owen was innocent , they laid the crime on him . Skip ahead a bit : Keira is safe , back home . She meets with Dawn , who 's preparing to turn herself in to the police , to atone for her terrible sins . From a distance , Judith watches them , still followed by the haunting ghost of her son . Neither of them have forgotten Dawn , they 'll wait until she 's free . Development and production ( edit ) Aaron Martin was inspired to write Slasher after his work on the first season of the medical series Saving Hope , including his writing of two Hope episodes where , in his words , `` people got chopped up . '' Martin would write the first episode of Slasher as a spec script , with two intentions for doing so : To offer it to prospective studios , and to show a writing style that was different from his previous work ( e.g. Saving Hope , Degrassi : The Next Generation , Being Erica ) . Though the script did not receive immediate interest , Shaftesbury Films would discover and option it to prospective broadcasters . The script would land at Canadian premium network Super Channel , who , their interest piqued in part by Slasher 's fixed - end format , would order it as a series . The American network Chiller , which specializes in the horror / thriller genre , would join in production sometime after Super Channel ; Slasher would be Chiller 's first foray into original scripted series content . Production on Slasher 's 8 - episode first season was announced on July 28 , 2015 , with filming taking place between then and October 2015 . Three Northern Ontario municipalities -- the cities of Sudbury and Sault Ste . Marie and the town of Parry Sound -- would stand in for the show 's fictitious location , the town of Waterbury . A first trailer for the series would be released on November 26 , 2015 . Unlike most TV series that film their episodes in order , Slasher , under the direction of Craig David Wallace , was shot as if it were a `` super-sized '' movie : Scenes from multiple episodes were shot at the same time , with the availability of locations and cast being factored in . The out - of - order schedule allowed the actors to know of their characters ' fates , especially those who had to film their death scenes one day but return later to film earlier scenes as necessary . As an example of this , Martin cited Mark Ghanimé 's first day on set , when his character , Justin Faysal , was laid out in a casket for a scene early in Slasher 's third episode ( Justin 's death , which took place in Episode 2 , would be filmed later on ) . On May 1 , 2017 , Slasher began filming a second season in Orangeville , Ontario , Canada . Shaftesbury Films confirmed that the series will not be returning to Super Channel or Chiller for a second season . However , Netflix acquired the rights to the second season . The second season was released via Netflix on October 17 , 2017 . Reception ( edit ) Slasher has received positive reviews . Zap2it called the series `` a whole lot of fun '' and `` something for everyone , '' praising the series ' anthology nature , its cast of characters , storyline , plot twists , bloody violence , and even the series - within - the - series Falcon Husbandry ( shown as a favorite of Robin and Justin 's in Episode 2 ) . Bloody Disgusting awarded the show four skulls out of five , praising Katie McGrath as a great `` protagonist and possible final girl '' and the series ' decision to feature an adult cast , rather than teenagers , with well - developed characters and a `` decidedly classic '' presentation . On the occasion of Slasher 's Super Channel premiere , The Globe and Mail 's John Doyle , while remarking that it `` is no masterpiece of horror , nor was it meant to be , '' called the show `` very well - crafted , '' praising its `` exceptional cast '' and tight pacing , and noting fans of gory horror will appreciate its bloody scenes . Awards and accolades ( edit ) Year Award Nominee ( s ) Result 2017 5th Annual Canadian Screen Awards Best TV Movie or Limited Series Slasher Nominated Best Direction in a Dramatic Program or Limited Series Nominated Best Writing in a Dramatic Program or Limited Series Nominated Best Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role in a Dramatic Program or Limited Series Steve Byers Nominated Best Performance by an Actress in a Featured Supporting Role in a Dramatic Program or Series Wendy Crewson Won International broadcast ( edit ) On May 25 , 2016 , the entire first season of Slasher became available to stream instantly on Netflix US . On October 17 , 2017 , the full second season of Slasher became available to stream on Netflix in various countries . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Brzoznowski , Kristin . `` Super Channel Sets April Premiere for Original Series Slasher '' . TVDrama.ws . World Screen ( WSN Inc . ) . Retrieved 6 March 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` Chiller and Shaftesbury Announce Start of Production and Cast for `` Slasher '' `` . The Futon Critic . July 28 , 2016 . Retrieved March 6 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` Lights , camera , action ... ' Slasher ' TV series begins filming in Orangeville '' . Orangeville Banner . May 1 , 2017 . Retrieved May 2 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` Slasher returns for a second season '' . Playback Online . May 9 , 2017 . Retrieved September 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Moore , Kasey ( September 20 , 2017 ) . `` October 2017 New Netflix Releases '' . WhatsonNetlix . Retrieved September 20 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Urqyhart - White , Alaina ( October 17 , 2017 ) . `` Is ' Slasher 2 : Guilty Party ' A True Story ? The Netflix Series Honors Some Legendary Horror Classics '' . Bustle . Retrieved October 18 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Patrick Hipes . `` Chiller Unveils First Original Series ' Slasher ' , More New Movies '' . Deadline Hollywood . ^ Jump up to : `` Slasher delivers a good old - fashioned murder mystery , '' from The TV Junkies , 3 / 3 / 2016 ^ Jump up to : `` A Conversation with ' Slasher ' Creator Aaron Martin , '' from TheTelevixen , 3 / 4 / 2016 ^ Jump up to : `` Katie McGrath , Brandon Jay McLaren , Wendy Crewson & More To Star In Chiller 's Anthology Series ' Slasher ' '' . TVWise . Jump up ^ Apr 1 ( 2016 - 04 - 01 ) . `` Steve Byers on Twitter : `` Welcome to Waterbury Canada . # Slasher starts any minute on @ SuperChannel @ SlasherSeries '' . Twitter.com . Retrieved 2016 - 08 - 17 . ^ Jump up to : `` Slasher Premieres With Two Back - to - Back Episodes , '' from TheTeleVixen.com , 3 / 2 / 2016 ^ Jump up to : Recap for Slasher Season 1 , Episode 3 from ChillerTV.com ^ Jump up to : Mario Giglio . `` Slasher : Chiller stellt Cast seiner Horrorserie auf '' . Serienjunkies ( in German ) . Jump up ^ Recap of Chiller Season 1 , Episode 6 from ChillerTV.com ^ Jump up to : `` John Doyle : If gore 's your thing , Slasher will slay you , '' from The Globe and Mail , 4 / 3 / 2016 Jump up ^ `` Erin Karpluk Ventures Into New Territory on ' Slasher ' , '' from TheTelevixen.com , 3 / 25 / 2016 Jump up ^ Recap of Slasher Season 1 , Episode 2 from ChillerTV.com ^ Jump up to : Metcalf , Mitch ( March 7 , 2016 ) . `` UPDATED : SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 150 Friday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 3.4. 2016 '' . Showbuzzdaily . Archived from the original on March 8 , 2016 . Retrieved March 8 , 2016 . CS1 maint : Unfit url ( link ) Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( March 14 , 2016 ) . `` UPDATED : SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 150 Friday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 3.11. 2016 '' . Showbuzzdaily . Archived from the original on March 15 , 2016 . Retrieved March 14 , 2016 . CS1 maint : Unfit url ( link ) Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( March 21 , 2016 ) . `` UPDATED : SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 150 Friday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 3.18. 2016 '' . Showbuzzdaily . Retrieved March 24 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( March 28 , 2016 ) . `` UPDATED : SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 150 Friday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 3.25. 2016 '' . Showbuzzdaily . Retrieved March 28 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( April 4 , 2016 ) . `` UPDATED : SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 150 Friday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 4.1. 2016 '' . Showbuzzdaily . Archived from the original on April 5 , 2016 . Retrieved April 4 , 2016 . CS1 maint : Unfit url ( link ) Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( April 11 , 2016 ) . `` UPDATED : SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 150 Friday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 4.8. 2016 '' . Showbuzzdaily . Archived from the original on April 16 , 2016 . Retrieved May 8 , 2016 . CS1 maint : Unfit url ( link ) Jump up ^ Pucci , Douglas ( April 18 , 2016 ) . `` Friday Final Nationals : CBS and ABC Lead Prime Time '' . Programming Insider . Retrieved May 8 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Mario Giglio ( November 27 , 2015 ) . `` Slasher : Erster Trailer zur Horrorserie von Chiller '' . Serienjunkies . Jump up ^ `` Aaron Martin Talks Slasher 's First Season And Teases The Finale , '' from TheTeleVixen , 4 / 15 / 2016 Jump up ^ `` ' Slasher ' : Guts & gore galore and 5 more reasons to watch Chiller 's first scripted series '' . Zap2it.com . March 4 , 2016 . Retrieved March 27 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` ( TV Review ) Chiller 's ' Slasher ' Impresses With More Drama Than Kills ! '' . Bloody Disgusting . February 29 , 2016 . Retrieved March 27 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Nat Brehmer . `` New on Netflix : May 27th , 2016 '' . Wicked Horror . Retrieved 2016 - 08 - 17 . Jump up ^ Moore , Kasey ( September 20 , 2017 ) . `` October 2017 New Netflix Releases '' . WhatsonNetlix . Retrieved September 20 , 2017 . External links ( edit ) Official website Slasher on IMDb Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Slasher_(TV_series)&oldid=819375334 '' Categories : 2010s American drama television series 2016 American television series debuts American anthology television series American drama television series American horror fiction television series American mystery television series English - language television programs Serial drama television series Thriller television series 2010s Canadian drama television series 2016 Canadian television series debuts Canadian horror fiction television series Super Channel shows Hidden categories : CS1 German - language sources ( de ) CS1 maint : Unfit url Pages using infobox television with editor parameter Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch Español Français Italiano Português Русский 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 9 January 2018 , at 01 : 07 . 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where was the first season of slasher filmed

Orangeville, Ontario, Canada

U.S. TV channel Chiller

If a tree falls in a forest - wikipedia If a tree falls in a forest Jump to : navigation , search For the 2011 documentary , see If a Tree Falls : A Story of the Earth Liberation Front . A fallen tree in a forest `` If a tree falls in a forest and no one is around to hear it , does it make a sound ? '' is a philosophical thought experiment that raises questions regarding observation and perception . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 2 Metaphysics 2.1 The possibility of unperceived existence 2.2 Knowledge of the unobserved world 2.3 The dissimilarity between sensation and reality 2.4 Buddhist perspectives 2.4. 1 Tibetan 2.4. 2 Zen 2.4. 2.1 Hui - neng 's Flag 2.4. 2.2 Hui - neng Receives The Dharma 2.5 Hinduism 3 In popular culture 4 See also 5 References History ( edit ) Philosopher George Berkeley , in his work , A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge ( 1710 ) , proposes , `` But , say you , surely there is nothing easier than for me to imagine trees , for instance , in a park ( ... ) and nobody by to perceive them . ( ... ) The objects of sense exist only when they are perceived ; the trees therefore are in the garden ( ... ) no longer than while there is somebody by to perceive them . '' ( It is worth noting that the quote from section 45 is arguably a statement of an objection to Berkeley 's view , and not a proclamation of it . ) Nevertheless , Berkeley never actually wrote about the question . Some years later , a similar question is posed . It is unknown whether the source of this question is Berkeley or not . In June 1883 in the magazine The Chautauquan , the question was put , `` If a tree were to fall on an island where there were no human beings would there be any sound ? '' They then went on to answer the query with , `` No . Sound is the sensation excited in the ear when the air or other medium is set in motion . '' This seems to imply that the question is posed not from a philosophical viewpoint , but from a purely scientific one . The magazine Scientific American corroborated the technical aspect of this question , while leaving out the philosophic side , a year later when they asked the question slightly reworded , `` If a tree were to fall on an uninhabited island , would there be any sound ? '' And gave a more technical answer , `` Sound is vibration , transmitted to our senses through the mechanism of the ear , and recognized as sound only at our nerve centers . The falling of the tree or any other disturbance will produce vibration of the air . If there be no ears to hear , there will be no sound . '' Albert Einstein is reported to have asked his fellow physicist and friend Niels Bohr , one of the founding fathers of quantum mechanics , whether he realistically believed that ' the moon does not exist if nobody is looking at it . ' To this Bohr replied that however hard he ( Einstein ) may try , he would not be able to prove that it does , thus giving the entire riddle the status of a kind of an infallible conjecture -- one that can not be either proved or disproved . The current phrasing appears to have originated in the 1910 book Physics by Charles Riborg Mann and George Ransom Twiss . The question `` When a tree falls in a lonely forest , and no animal is near by to hear it , does it make a sound ? Why ? '' is posed along with many other questions to quiz readers on the contents of the chapter , and as such , is posed from a purely physical point of view . Metaphysics ( edit ) The possibility of unperceived existence ( edit ) Main article : George Berkeley Can something exist without being perceived ? -- e.g. `` is sound only sound if a person hears it ? '' The most immediate philosophical topic that the riddle introduces involves the existence of the tree ( and the sound it produces ) outside of human perception . If no one is around to see , hear , touch or smell the tree , how could it be said to exist ? What is it to say that it exists when such an existence is unknown ? Of course , from a scientific viewpoint , it exists . It is human beings that are able to perceive it . George Berkeley in the 18th century developed subjective idealism , a metaphysical theory to respond to these questions , coined famously as `` to be is to be perceived '' . Today meta - physicists are split . According to substance theory , a substance is distinct from its properties , while according to bundle theory , an object is merely its sense data . The definition of sound , simplified , is a hearable noise . The tree will make a sound , even if nobody heard it . The definition states that sound is a hearable noise . So the tree could have been heard , though nobody was around to do so . Knowledge of the unobserved world ( edit ) Main article : Observer - expectancy effect Can we assume the unobserved world functions the same as the observed world ? -- e.g. , `` does observation affect outcome ? '' A similar question does not involve whether or not an unobserved event occurs predictably , like it occurs when it is observed . The anthropic principle suggests that the observer , just in its existence , may impose on the reality observed . However , most people , as well as scientists , assume that the observer does n't change whether the tree - fall causes a sound or not , but this is an impossible claim to prove . However , many scientists would argue as follows , `` A truly unobserved event is one which realises no effect ( imparts no information ) on any other ( where ' other ' might be e.g. , human , sound - recorder or rock ) , it therefore can have no legacy in the present ( or ongoing ) wider physical universe . It may then be recognized that the unobserved event was absolutely identical to an event which did not occur at all . '' ( this apparent quote has no attribution or reference and none can be found online with reasonable effort ) . Of course , the fact that the tree is known to have changed state from ' upright ' to ' fallen ' implies that the event must be observed to ask the question at all -- even if only by the supposed deaf onlooker . The British philosopher of science Roy Bhaskar , credited with developing critical realism has argued , in apparent reference to this riddle , that : If men ceased to exist sound would continue to travel and heavy bodies to fall to the earth in exactly the same way , though ex hypothesi there would be no - one to know it This existence of an unobserved real is integral to Bhaskar 's ontology , which contends ( in opposition to the various strains of positivism which have dominated both natural and social science in the twentieth century ) that ' real structures exist independently of and are often out of phase with the actual patterns of events ' . In social science , this has made his approach popular amongst contemporary Marxists -- notably Alex Callinicos -- who postulate the existence of real social forces and structures which might not always be observable . The dissimilarity between sensation and reality ( edit ) Main article : Qualia What is the difference between what something is , and how it appears ? -- e.g. , `` sound is the variation of pressure that propagates through matter as a wave '' Perhaps the most important topic the riddle offers is the division between perception of an object and how an object really is . If a tree exists outside of perception then there is no way for us to know that the tree exists . So then , what do we mean by ' existence ' , what is the difference between perception and reality ? Also , people may also say , if the tree exists outside of perception ( as common sense would dictate ) , then it will produce sound waves . However , these sound waves will not actually sound like anything . Sound as it is mechanically understood will occur , but sound as it is understood by sensation will not occur . So then , how is it known that ' sound as it is mechanically understood ' will occur if that sound is not perceived ? Buddhist perspectives ( edit ) Tibetan ( edit ) from The Thirty - Seven Bodhisattva Practices by Ngulchu Thogme Zangpo , `` 22 Appearances are one 's own mind . From the beginning , mind 's nature is free from the extremes of elaboration . Knowing this , not to engage the mind in subject - object duality is the bodhisattva 's practice . '' Zen ( edit ) Hui - neng 's flag ( edit ) There is a well - known story of Hui - neng , a well - respected Buddhist monk who later became known as the founder of the Zen school , who one day happened to be passing by two monks . `` Two monks were arguing about the temple flag waving in the wind . One said , `` The flag moves . '' The other said , `` The wind moves . '' They argued back and forth but could not agree . The Sixth Ancestor said , `` Gentlemen ! It is not the wind that moves ; it is not the flag that moves ; it is your mind that moves . '' The two monks were struck with awe . '' - The Mumonkan Case 29 , translation by Robert Aitken Hui - neng receives the dharma ( edit ) One day the monks at Huang - mei monastery were instructed to write a stanza in order that their master Hung - jen might decide who would inherit the dharma throne . All of the monks assumed that a certain senior disciple Shen - hsui would win and thus did n't even bother writing stanzas . Shen - hsui assumed he would win too , and wrote the following stanza on the monastery wall : The body is a Bodhi tree , the mind a standing mirror bright . At all times polish it diligently , and let no dust alight . Due to the danger surrounding him if he were to openly challenge the senior monk Shen - hsui , Hui - neng went out one night while it was completely dark and wrote the following stanza in secret : Bodhi originally has no tree . The bright mirror also has no stand . Fundamentally there is not a single thing . Where could dust arise ? Later , master Hung - jen saw this stanza and reaffirmed that he who had written it had indeed opened his mind 's eye . Finding it was Hui - neng , master Hung - jen then gave Hui - neng the secret dharma teachings of their lineage , which Hui - neng says completely opened his mind , and gave the young Hui - neng the dharma robe and stick , symbolizing his status as Patriarch of the lineage . Hung - jen told Hui - neng that he must then flee the monastery for fear of Shen - hsui and his followers killing Hui - neng . Hui - neng did as he was told and then later returned from living with some hunters to become The Sixth Patriarch and pass on The Dharma in such forms as The Sutra Spoken by The Sixth Patriarch . Hui - neng also started the Sudden School which taught that Mind is realized instantaneously while Shen - hsui started the Gradual School which taught , similar to his stanza above , a sort of dust - wiping meditation . Zen today embodies Hui - neng 's Sudden School style , particularly with Satori . Hinduism ( edit ) The ancient Hindu texts , the Vedas and the Puranas , have defined several theories of creation -- one of them being the ' Drishti - srishti - vada ' ( Drishti = Sight , Srishti = Universe , Vada = Theory ) , which puts forth the argument that the universe , or that which is seen , arises only after the seer , and has no independent existence apart from the seer . The very name of the theory is derived from the order of precedence of sight and the seen -- first there is sight ( ' Drishti ' ) and then there is the seen ( ' Srishti ' ) . The famous 20th century Tamil saint Sri Ramana Maharshi , also made numerous references to the world being only a concept in the mind . `` The mind is like akasa ( space ) . Just as there are the objects in the akasa , so there are thoughts in the mind . The akasa is the counterpart of the mind and objects are of thought . One can not hope to measure the universe and study the phenomena . It is impossible . For the objects are mental creations ... The universe is only an object created by the mind and has its being in the mind . '' ( Talks with Sri Ramana Maharshi , pp. 478 -- 479 ) . `` The shrutis ( a subdivision of the Vedas ) and the sages say that the objects are only mental creations . They have no substantive being . Investigate the matter and ascertain the truth of the statement . The result will be the conclusion that the objective world is in the subjective consciousness . '' ( TWSRM , p. 479 ) . In popular culture ( edit ) Canadian songwriter , social activist and environmentalist Bruce Cockburn poses the question in the chorus of his 1989 song `` If a Tree Falls '' and frames it with his lyrics as a pressing question regarding the cause and effect of deforestation . Washington - state - based wilderness conservatory Northwest Trek used a shortened form of the quote in its mid-1970s television advertisement , as such : `` There is no sound unless someone is there to see it or hear it . Experience it at Northwest Trek . '' See also ( edit ) Counterfactual definiteness Descartes ' dream argument Epistemology Object ( philosophy ) Observer effect ( physics ) Kōan Ontology Schrödinger 's cat Principle of locality References ( edit ) Jump up ^ A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge , 1734 . section 23 . Jump up ^ A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge , 1734 . section 45 . Jump up ^ Whether Berkeley thought objects continued to exist when unperceived by finite minds , and if so , in what manner , is the subject of serious debate among Berkeley scholars . Jump up ^ The Chautauquan , June 1883 , Volume 3 , Issue 9 , p. 543 Jump up ^ Scientific American , April 5 , 1884 , pg 218 . Jump up ^ Mann , Charles Riborg and George Ransom Twiss . Physics . Scott , Foresman and Co. , 1910 , p. 235 . ^ Jump up to : `` What is Philosophy ? -- Analysis '' , Plymouth State University , Philosophy Department Jump up ^ Bhaskar , R. ( 2008 ( 1975 ) ) , A Realist Theory of Science , London : Verso , p. 21 . Jump up ^ Bhaskar , R. ( 2008 ( 1975 ) ) , A Realist Theory of Science , London : Verso , p. 13 . Jump up ^ Marsh , D. ( 2002 ) , `` Marxism '' , in Marsh D. Stoker , G. ( Eds . ) , Theory and Methods in Political Science , Basingstoke : Palgrave Macmillan , p. 159 . Jump up ^ Marsh , D , & Furlong , P. ( 2002 ) , `` Ontology and Epistemology in Political Science '' , in Marsh D. Stoker , G. ( Eds . ) , Theory and Methods in Political Science , Basingstoke : Palgrave Macmillan , p. 31 . Jump up ^ Callinicos , A. ( 2006 ) , The Resources of Critique , Cambridge : Polity , pp. 155 -- 158 . Jump up ^ Watts 1962 , pp. 111 -- 113 Jump up ^ A Buddhist Bible , `` Sutra Spoken by The Sixth Patriarch '' Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=If_a_tree_falls_in_a_forest&oldid=812540716 '' Categories : Fictional trees Riddles Philosophical problems Thought experiments in philosophy of mind Talk Contents About Wikipedia Español فارسی עברית Македонски Nederlands Português Русский Svenska ไทย 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 28 November 2017 , at 12 : 14 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . 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who said if a tree falls in the woods and nobody hears it

Charles Riborg Mann

George Berkeley

Uralic languages - wikipedia Uralic languages Jump to : navigation , search Not to be confused with Urali language . This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( July 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Uralic Uralian languages Geographic distribution Central , Eastern , and Northern Europe , North Asia Linguistic classification One of the world 's primary language families Proto - language Proto - Uralic Subdivisions Finnic Hungarian Khanty Mansi Mari Mordvinic Permic Sami Samoyedic ISO 639 - 5 urj Glottolog ural1272 Geographical distribution of the Uralic languages The Uralic languages ( / jʊəˈrælɪk / ; sometimes called Uralian languages / jʊəˈreɪliən / ) form a language family of 38 languages spoken by approximately 25 million people , predominantly in Northern Eurasia . The Uralic languages with the most native speakers are Hungarian , Finnish , and Estonian , which are the official languages of Hungary , Finland , and Estonia , respectively , and of the European Union . Other Uralic languages with significant numbers of speakers are Erzya , Moksha , Mari , Udmurt , and Komi , which are officially recognized languages in various regions of Russia . The name `` Uralic '' derives from the fact that the areas where the languages are spoken are found on both sides of the Ural Mountains . Also , the original homeland ( Urheimat ) is commonly hypothesized to be in the vicinity of the Urals . Finno - Ugric is sometimes used as a synonym for Uralic , though Finno - Ugric is widely understood to exclude the Samoyedic languages . Scholars who do not accept the traditional notion that Samoyedic split first from the rest of the Uralic family may treat the terms as synonymous . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 1.1 Homeland 1.2 Early attestations 1.3 Uralic studies 2 Classification 2.1 Traditional classification 2.2 Lexical isoglosses 2.3 Phonological isoglosses 3 Typology 3.1 Grammar 3.2 Phonology 3.3 Lexicography 3.3. 1 Selected cognates 3.3. 2 Mutual intelligibility 3.4 Comparison 4 Possible relations with other families 4.1 Indo - Uralic 4.2 Uralic -- Yukaghir 4.3 Eskimo -- Uralic 4.4 Uralo - Siberian 4.5 Ural -- Altaic 4.6 Nostratic 4.7 Eurasiatic 4.8 Uralo - Dravidian 4.9 Uralic skepticism 4.10 Other comparisons 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 7.1 External classification 7.2 Linguistic issues 8 External links 8.1 `` Rebel '' Uralists History ( edit ) Further information : Proto - Uralic Homeland ( edit ) Further information : Proto - Uralic homeland hypotheses In recent times , linguists often place the Urheimat ( original homeland ) of the Proto - Uralic language in the vicinity of the Volga River , west of the Urals , close to the Urheimat of the Indo - European languages , or to the east and southeast of the Urals . Historian Gyula László places its origin in the forest zone between the Oka River and central Poland . E. N. Setälä and M. Zsirai place it between the Volga and Kama Rivers . According to E. Itkonen , the ancestral area extended to the Baltic Sea . P. Hajdu has suggested a homeland in western and northwestern Siberia . Early attestations ( edit ) The first plausible mention of a Uralic people is in Tacitus 's Germania ( c. 98 AD ) , mentioning the Fenni ( usually interpreted as referring to the Sami ) and two other possibly Uralic tribes living in the farthest reaches of Scandinavia . There are many possible earlier mentions , including the Iyrcae ( perhaps related to Yugra ) described by Herodotus living in what is now European Russia , and the Budini , described by Herodotus as notably red - haired ( a characteristic feature of the Udmurts ) and living in northeast Ukraine and / or adjacent parts of Russia . In the late 15th century , European scholars noted the resemblance of the names Hungaria and Yugria , the names of settlements east of the Ural . They assumed a connection but did not seek linguistic evidence . Uralic Studies ( edit ) The Siberian origin of Hungarians was long hypothesized by European scholars . Here , Sigismund von Herberstein 's 1549 map of Moscovia shows `` Yugra from where the Hungarians originated '' ( Iuhra inde ungaroru origo ) , east of the Ob River . The Ural Mountains in the middle of the maps are labeled Montes dicti Cingulus Terræ ( `` The mountains called the Girdle of the Earth '' ) The affinity of Hungarian and Finnish was first proposed in the late 17th century . Two of the more important contributors were the German scholar Martin Vogel , who established several grammatical and lexical parallels between Finnish and Hungarian , and the Swedish scholar Georg Stiernhielm , who commented on the similarities of Sami , Estonian and Finnish , and also on a few similar words between Finnish and Hungarian . These two authors were the first to outline what was to become the classification of the Finno - Ugric , and later Uralic family . This proposal received some of its initial impetus from the fact that these languages , unlike most of the other languages spoken in Europe , are not part of what is now known as the Indo - European family . In 1717 , Swedish professor Olof Rudbeck proposed about 100 etymologies connecting Finnish and Hungarian , of which about 40 are still considered valid . In the same year , the German scholar Johann Georg von Eckhart , in an essay published in Leibniz 's Collectanea Etymologica , proposed for the first time a relation to the Samoyedic languages . In 1730 , Philip Johan von Strahlenberg published his book Das Nord - und Ostliche Theil von Europa und Asia ( The North and East Parts of Europe and Asia ) , surveying the geography , peoples and languages of Russia . All the main groups of the Uralic languages were already identified here . Nonetheless , these relationships were not widely accepted . Hungarian intellectuals especially were not interested in the theory and preferred to assume connections with Turkic tribes , an attitude characterized by Merritt Ruhlen as due to `` the wild unfettered Romanticism of the epoch '' . Still , in spite of this hostile climate , the Hungarian Jesuit János Sajnovics travelled with Maximilian Hell to survey the alleged relationship between Hungarian and Sami . Sajnovics published his results in 1770 , arguing for a relationship based on several grammatical features . In 1799 , the Hungarian Sámuel Gyarmathi published the most complete work on Finno - Ugric to that date . Uralic languages in the Russian Empire ( Russian Census of 1897 ; the census was not held in Finland because it was an autonomous area ) Progress resumed after a number of decades , with the first major field research expeditions on the Uralic languages spoken in the more eastern parts of Russia . These were made in the 1840s by Matthias Castrén ( 1813 -- 1852 ) and Antal Reguly ( 1819 -- 1858 ) , who focused especially on the Samoyedic and the Ob - Ugric languages , respectively . Reguly 's materials were worked on by the Hungarian linguist Pál Hunfalvy ( 1810 -- 1891 ) and German Josef Budenz ( 1836 -- 1892 ) , who both supported the Uralic affinity of Hungarian . Budenz was the first scholar to bring this result to popular consciousness in Hungary , and to attempt a reconstruction of the Proto - Finno - Ugric grammar and lexicon . Another late - 19th - century Hungarian contribution is that of Ignácz Halász ( 1855 -- 1901 ) , who published extensive comparative material of Finno - Ugric and Samoyedic in the 1890s , and whose work is at the base of today 's wide acceptance of the inclusion of Samoyedic as a part of Uralic . Meanwhile , in the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland , a chair for Finnish language and linguistics at the University of Helsinki was created in 1850 , first held by Castrén . In 1883 , the Finno - Ugrian Society was founded in Helsinki on the proposal of Otto Donner , and during the late 19th and early 20th century ( until the separation of Finland from Russia following the Russian revolution ) , a large number of stipendiates were sent by the Society to survey the less known Uralic languages . Major researchers of this period included Heikki Paasonen ( studying especially the Mordvinic languages ) , Yrjö Wichmann ( studying Permic ) , Artturi Kannisto ( Mansi ) , Kustaa Fredrik Karjalainen ( Khanty ) , Toivo Lehtisalo ( Nenets ) , and Kai Donner ( Kamass ) . The vast amounts of data collected on these expeditions would provide edition work for later generations of Finnish Uralicists for more than a century . Classification ( edit ) Relative numbers of speakers of Uralic languages Hungarian 56 % Finnish 20 % Estonian 4.2 % Erzya 2.8 % Moksha 2.5 % Mari 2 % Udmurt 1.9 % Komi 1.6 % Other 8.9 % The Uralic family comprises nine undisputed groups with no consensus classification between them . ( Some of the proposals are listed in the next section . ) An agnostic approach treats them as separate branches . Obsolete or native names are displayed in italics . Finnic ( Fennic , Baltic Finnic , Balto - Finnic , Balto - Fennic ) Hungarian ( Magyar ) Khanty ( Ostyak , Handi , Hantõ ) Mansi ( Vogul ) Mari ( Cheremis ) Mordvinic ( Mordvin , Mordvinian ) Permic ( Permian ) Sami ( Saami , Samic , Saamic , Lappic , Lappish ) Samoyedic ( Samoyed ) There is also historical evidence of a number of extinct languages of uncertain affiliation : Merya Muromian Meshcherian ( until 16th century ? ) Traces of Finno - Ugric substrata , especially in toponymy , in the northern part of European Russia have been proposed as evidence for even more extinct Uralic languages . Traditional classification ( edit ) All Uralic languages are thought to have descended , through independent processes of language change , from Proto - Uralic . The internal structure of the Uralic family has been debated since the family was first proposed . Doubts about the validity of most of the proposed higher - order branchings ( grouping the nine undisputed families ) are becoming more common . A traditional classification of the Uralic languages has existed since the late 19th century . It has enjoyed frequent adaptation in whole or in part in encyclopedias , handbooks , and overviews of the Uralic family . Donner 's model is as follows : Ugric ( Ugrian ) Hungarian Ob - Ugric ( Ob Ugrian ) Khanty Mansi Finno - Permic ( Permian - Finnic ) Permic Finno - Volgaic ( Finno - Cheremisic , Finno - Mari ) Volga - Finnic Mari Mordvinic Finno - Lappic ( Finno - Saamic , Finno - Samic ) Sami Finnic At Donner 's time , the Samoyedic languages were still poorly known , and he was not able to address their position . As they became better known in the early 20th century , they were found to be quite divergent , and they were assumed to have separated already early on . The terminology adopted for this was `` Uralic '' for the entire family , `` Finno - Ugric '' for the non-Samoyedic languages ( though `` Finno - Ugric '' has , to this day , remained in use also as a synonym for the whole family ) . Finno - Ugric and Samoyedic are listed in ISO 639 - 5 as primary branches of Uralic . Nodes of the traditional family tree recognized in some overview sources : Year Author ( s ) Finno - Ugric Ugric Ob - Ugric Finno - Permic Finno - Volgaic Volga - Finnic Finno - Samic 1910 Szinnyei ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✗ ✓ 1921 T.I. Itkonen ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✗ 1926 Setälä ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✗ 1962 Hajdú ✓ ✗ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✗ ✗ 1965 Collinder ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✗ ✗ ✗ 1966 E. Itkonen ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 1968 Austerlitz ✗ ✓ ✓ ✗ ✗ ✓ ✗ 1977 Voegelin & Voegelin ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 2002 Kulonen ✗ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✗ ✗ ✓ 2007 Lehtinen ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✗ ✓ 2009 Janhunen ✓ ✗ ✗ ✓ ✓ ✗ Little explicit evidence has however been presented in favour of Donner 's model since his original proposal , and numerous alternate schemes have been proposed . Especially in Finland , there has been a growing tendency to reject the Finno - Ugric intermediate protolanguage . A recent competing proposal instead unites Ugric and Samoyedic in an `` East Uralic '' group for which shared innovations can be noted . The Finno - Permic grouping still holds some support , though the arrangement of its subgroups is a matter of some dispute . Mordvinic is commonly seen as particularly closely related to or part of Finno - Samic . The term Volgaic ( or Volga - Finnic ) was used to denote a branch previously believed to include Mari , Mordvinic and a number of the extinct languages , but it is now obsolete and considered a geographic classification rather than a linguistic one . Within Ugric , uniting Mansi with Hungarian rather than Khanty has been a competing hypothesis to Ob - Ugric . Lexical isoglosses ( edit ) Lexicostatistics has been used in defense of the traditional family tree . A recent re-evaluation of the evidence however fails to find support for Finno - Ugric and Ugric , suggesting four lexically distinct branches ( Finno - Permic , Hungarian , Ob - Ugric and Samoyedic ) . One alternate proposal for a family tree , with emphasis on the development of numerals , is as follows : Uralic ( * kektä `` 2 '' , * wixti `` 5 '' / `` 10 '' ) Samoyedic ( * op `` 1 '' , * ketä `` 2 '' , * näkur `` 3 '' , * tettə `` 4 '' , * səmpəleŋkə `` 5 '' , * məktut `` 6 '' , * sejtwə `` 7 '' , * wiət `` 10 '' ) Finno - Ugric ( * üki / * ükti `` 1 '' , * kormi `` 3 '' , * ńeljä `` 4 '' , * wiiti `` 5 '' , * kuuti `` 6 '' , * luki `` 10 '' ) Mansic Mansi Hungarian ( hét `` 7 '' ; replacement egy `` 1 '' ) Finno - Khantic ( reshaping * kolmi `` 3 '' on the analogy of `` 4 '' ) Khanty Finno - Permic ( reshaping * kektä > * kakta ) Permic Finno - Volgaic ( * śećem `` 7 '' ) Mari Finno - Saamic ( * kakteksa , * ükteksa `` 8 , 9 '' ) Saamic Finno - Mordvinic ( replacement * kümmen `` 10 '' ( * luki - `` to count '' , `` to read out '' ) ) Mordvinic Finnic Phonological isoglosses ( edit ) Another proposed tree , more divergent from the standard , focusing on consonant isoglosses ( which does not consider the position of the Samoyedic languages ) is presented by Viitso ( 1997 ) , and refined in Viitso ( 2000 ) : Finno - Ugric Saamic -- Fennic ( consonant gradation ) Saamic Fennic Eastern Finno - Ugric Mordva ( node ) Mari Permian -- Ugric ( * δ > * l ) Permian Ugric ( * s * š * ś > * ɬ * ɬ * s ) Hungarian Khanty Mansi The grouping of the four bottom - level branches remains to some degree open to interpretation , with competing models of Finno - Saamic vs. Eastern Finno - Ugric ( Mari , Mordvinic , Permic - Ugric ; * k > ɣ between vowels , degemination of stops ) and Finno - Volgaic ( Finno - Saamic , Mari , Mordvinic ; * δ́ > δ between vowels ) vs. Permic - Ugric . Viitso finds no evidence for a Finno - Permic grouping . Extending this approach to cover the Samoyedic languages suggests affinity with Ugric , resulting in the aforementioned East Uralic grouping , as it also shares the same sibilant developments . A further non-trivial Ugric - Samoyedic isogloss is the reduction * k , * x , * w > ɣ when before * i , and after a vowel ( cf . * k > ɣ above ) , or adjacent to * t , * s , * š , or * ś . Finno - Ugric consonant developments after Viitso ( 2000 ) ; Samoyedic changes after Sammallahti ( 1988 ) Saamic Finnic Mordvinic Mari Permic Hungarian Mansi Khanty Samoyedic Medial lenition of * k no no yes yes yes yes yes yes yes Medial lenition of * p , * t no no yes yes yes yes no no no Degemination no no yes yes yes yes yes yes yes Consonant gradation yes yes no no no no no no yes Development of * δ * δ * t * t ∅ * l l * l * l * r * δ́ * δ * ĺ ď ⟨ gy ⟩ , j * ĺ * j * j * s * s * s * s * š * s ∅ * t * ɬ * t * š * h * š * š * ś * ć * s * ś * ś s ⟨ sz ⟩ * š * s * s * ć * ć č ⟨ cs ⟩ * ć ~ * š * ć Note : Proto - Khanty * ɬ in many of the dialects yields * t ; it is assumed this also happened in Mansi and Samoyedic . The inverse relationship between consonant gradation and medial lenition of stops ( the pattern also continuing within the three families where gradation is found ) is noted by Helimski ( 1995 ) : an original allophonic gradation system between voiceless and voiced stops would have been easily disrupted by a spreading of voicing to previously unvoiced stops as well . Based on phonological isoglosses , Häkkinen ( 2007 ) proposes the following tree : Uralic West Uralic Saamic Finnic Mordvinic Central Uralic ( ? ) Mari Permic East Uralic Hungarian Ob - Ugric Mansi Khanty Samoyedic Typology ( edit ) Structural characteristics generally said to be typical of Uralic languages include : Grammar ( edit ) extensive use of independent suffixes ( agglutination ) a large set of grammatical cases marked with agglutinative suffixes ( 13 -- 14 cases on average ; mainly later developments : Proto - Uralic is reconstructed with 6 cases ) , e.g. : Erzya : 12 cases Estonian : 14 cases ( 15 cases with instructive ) Finnish : 15 cases Hungarian : 18 cases ( together 34 grammatical cases and case - like suffixes ) Inari Sami : 9 cases Komi : in certain dialects as many as 27 cases Moksha : 13 cases Nenets : 7 cases North Sami : 6 cases Udmurt : 16 cases Veps : 24 cases unique Uralic case system , from which all modern Uralic languages derive their case systems . nominative singular has no case suffix . accusative and genitive suffixes are nasal sounds ( - n , - m , etc . ) three - way distinction in the local case system , with each set of local cases being divided into forms corresponding roughly to `` from '' , `` to '' , and `` in / at '' ; especially evident , e.g. in Hungarian , Finnish and Estonian , which have several sets of local cases , such as the `` inner '' , `` outer '' and `` on top '' systems in Hungarian , while in Finnish the `` on top '' forms have merged to the `` outer '' forms . the Uralic locative suffix exists in all Uralic languages in various cases , e.g. Hungarian superessive , Finnish essive ( - na ) , North Sami essive , Erzyan inessive , and Nenets locative . the Uralic lative suffix exists in various cases in many Uralic languages , e.g. Hungarian illative , Finnish lative ( - s as in rannemmas ) , Erzyan illative , Komi approximative , and Northern Sami locative . a lack of grammatical gender , including one pronoun for both he and she ; for example , hän in Finnish , tämä in Votic , tema in Estonian , sijə in Komi , ő in Hungarian . negative verb , which exists in almost all Uralic languages ( notably absent in Hungarian ) use of postpositions as opposed to prepositions ( prepositions are uncommon ) . possessive suffixes the genitive is also used to express possession in some languages , e.g. Estonian mu koer , colloquial Finnish mun koira , Northern Sami mu beana ' my dog ' ( literally ' dog of me ' ) . Separate possessive adjectives and possessive pronouns , such as my and your , are rare . dual , in the Samoyedic , Ob - Ugric and Samic languages and reconstructed for Proto - Uralic plural markers - j ( i ) and - t ( - d , - q ) have a common origin ( e.g. in Finnish , Estonian , Võro , Erzya , Samic languages , Samoyedic languages ) . Hungarian , however , has - i - before the possessive suffixes and - k elsewhere . In the old orthographies , the plural marker - k was also used in the Samic languages . Possessions are expressed by a possessor in the adessive or dative case , the verb `` be '' ( the copula , instead of the verb `` have '' ) and the possessed with or without a possessive suffix . The grammatical subject of the sentence is thus the possessed . In Finnish , for example , the possessor is in the adessive case : `` Minulla on kala '' , literally `` At me is fish '' , i.e. `` I have a fish '' , whereas in Hungarian , the possessor is in the dative case , but appears overtly only if it is contrastive , while the possessed has a possessive ending indicating the number and person of the possessor : `` ( Nekem ) van egy halam '' , literally `` ( To me ( dative ) ) is a fish - my '' , i.e. `` ( As for me , ) I have a fish '' . expressions that include a numeral are singular if they refer to things which form a single group , e.g. `` négy csomó '' in Hungarian , `` njeallje čuolmma '' in Northern Sami , `` neli sõlme '' in Estonian , and `` neljä solmua '' in Finnish , each of which means `` four knots '' , but the literal approximation is `` four knot '' . ( This approximation is inaccurate for Finnish and Estonian , where the singular is in the partitive case , such that the number points to a part of a larger mass , like `` four of knot ( s ) '' . ) Phonology ( edit ) Vowel harmony : this is present in many but by no means all Uralic languages . It exists in Hungarian and various Baltic - Finnic languages , and is present to some degree elsewhere , such as in Mordvinic , Mari , Eastern Khanty , and Samoyedic . It is lacking in Sami , Permic and standard Estonian , while it does exist in Võro and elsewhere in South Estonian . ( Although umlaut letters are used in writing Uralic languages , the languages do not exhibit Germanic umlaut ; front and back values are intrinsic features of words and modify suffixes , not vice versa as in umlaut . ) Large vowel inventories . For example , some Selkup varieties have over twenty different monophthongs , and Estonian has over twenty different diphthongs . Palatalization of consonants ; in this context , palatalization means a secondary articulation , where the middle of the tongue is tense . For example , pairs like ( ɲ ) -- ( n ) , or ( c ) -- ( t ) are contrasted in Hungarian , as in hattyú ( hɒcːuː ) `` swan '' . Some Sami languages , for example Skolt Sami , distinguish three degrees : plain ⟨ l ⟩ ( l ) , palatalized ⟨ ' l ⟩ ( lj ) , and palatal ⟨ lj ⟩ ( ʎ ) , where ⟨ ' l ⟩ has a primary alveolar articulation , while ⟨ lj ⟩ has a primary palatal articulation . Original Uralic palatalization is phonemic , independent of the following vowel and traceable to the millennia - old Proto - Uralic . It is different from Slavic palatalization , which is of more recent origin . The Finnic languages have lost palatalization , but the eastern varieties have reacquired it , so Finnic palatalization ( where extant ) was originally dependent on the following vowel and does not correlate to palatalization elsewhere in Uralic . Lack of phonologically contrastive tone . In many Uralic languages , the stress is always on the first syllable , though Nganasan shows ( essentially ) penultimate stress , and a number of languages of the central region ( Erzya , Mari , Udmurt and Komi - Permyak ) synchronically exhibit a lexical accent . The Erzya language can vary its stress in words to give specific nuances to sentential meaning . Lexicography ( edit ) Basic vocabulary of about 200 words , including body parts ( e.g. eye , heart , head , foot , mouth ) , family members ( e.g. father , mother - in - law ) , animals ( e.g. viper , partridge , fish ) , nature objects ( e.g. tree , stone , nest , water ) , basic verbs ( e.g. live , fall , run , make , see , suck , go , die , swim , know ) , basic pronouns ( e.g. who , what , we , you , I ) , numerals ( e.g. two , five ) ; derivatives increase the number of common words . Selected cognates ( edit ) The following is a very brief selection of cognates in basic vocabulary across the Uralic family , which may serve to give an idea of the sound changes involved . This is not a list of translations : cognates have a common origin , but their meaning may be shifted and loanwords may have replaced them . English Proto - Uralic Finnic Sami Mordvin Mari Permic Hungarian Mansi Khanty Samoyed Finnish Estonian Võro South North Kildin Erzya Meadow Komi Udmurt Northern Kazym Vakh Tundra Nenets ' fire ' * tuli tuli ( tule - ) tuli ( tule - ) tuli ( tulõ - ) dålle ( tollə ) dolla tōll tol tul tɨl - tɨl -- -- -- -- tuu ' water ' * weti vesi ( vete - ) vesi ( vee - ) vesi ( vii - ) -- -- -- ved _́ wüt va vu víz wit -- -- jiʔ ' ice ' * jäŋi jää jää ijä jïenge ( jɨeŋə ) jiekŋa īŋŋ ej i ji jə jég jaaŋk jeŋk jeŋk -- ' fish ' * kala kala kala kala guelie ( kʉelie ) guolli kūll ' kal kol -- -- hal xuul xŭɬ kul xalja ' nest ' * pesä pesä pesa pesä biesie ( piesie ) beassi piess ' pize pəžaš poz puz fészek pitji -- pĕl pjidja ' hand , arm ' * käti käsi ( käte - ) käsi ( käe - ) käsi ( käe - ) gïete ( kɨedə ) giehta kīdt ked _́ kit ki ki kéz kaat -- köt -- ' eye ' * śilmä silmä silm ( silma - ) silm ( silmä - ) tjelmie ( t͡ʃɛlmie ) čalbmi čall 'm śeĺme šinča śin ( śinm - ) śin ( śinm - ) szem sam sem sem sæwə ' fathom ' * süli syli ( syle - ) süli ( süle - ) -- sïlle ( sjɨllə ) salla sē̮ll seĺ šülö sɨl sul öl ( el ) tal ɬăɬ lö̆l tjíbja ' vein / sinew ' * sï ( x ) ni suoni ( suone - ) soon ( soone - ) suuń ( soonõ - ) soene ( suonə ) suotna sūnn san šün sən sən ín taan ɬɔn lan teʔ ' bone ' * luwi luu luu luu -- -- -- lovaža lu lɨ lɨ -- luw ɬŭw lŏγ le ' blood ' * weri veri veri veri vïrre ( vjɨrrə ) varra vē̮rr veŕ wür vur vir vér wiɣr wŭr wər -- ' liver ' * mïksa maksa maks ( maksa - ) mass ( massa - ) mueksie ( mʉeksie ) -- -- makso mokš mus mus ( musk - ) máj maat mŏxəɬ muγəl mudə ' urine ' / ' to urinate ' * kunśi kusi ( kuse - ) kusi ( kuse - ) kusi ( kusõ - ) gadtjedh ( gadtje - ) ( kɑdd͡ʒə ) - gožžat ( gožža - ) kōnnče -- kəž kudź kɨź húgy xuńś - xŏs - kŏs - -- ' to go ' * meni - mennä ( men - ) minema minemä mïnnedh ( mjɨnnə ) - mannat mē̮nne -- mija - mun - mɨn - menni men - măn - mĕn - mjin - ' to live ' * elä - elää ( elä - ) elama ( ela - ) elämä ( elä - ) jieledh ( jielə ) - eallit jēll'e -- ila - ol - ul - él - -- -- -- jilje - ' to die ' * ka ( x ) li - kuolla ( kuol - ) koolma kuulma ( kool - ) -- -- -- kulo - kola - kul - kul - hal - xool - xăɬ - kăla - xa - ' to wash ' * mośki - -- -- mõskma -- -- -- muśke - muška - mɨśkɨ - mɨśk - mos - -- -- -- masø - Orthographical notes : The hacek denotes postalveolar articulation ( ⟨ ž ⟩ ( ʒ ) , ⟨ š ⟩ ( ʃ ) , ⟨ č ⟩ ( t͡ʃ ) ) ( In Northern Sami , ( ⟨ ž ⟩ ( dʒ ) ) , while the acute denotes a secondary palatal articulation ( ⟨ ś ⟩ ( sj ~ ɕ ) , ⟨ ć ⟩ ( tsj ~ tɕ ) , ⟨ l ⟩ ( lj ) ) or , in Hungarian , vowel length . The Finnish letter ⟨ y ⟩ and the letter ⟨ ü ⟩ in other languages represent the high rounded vowel ( y ) ; the letters ⟨ ä ⟩ and ⟨ ö ⟩ are the front vowels ( æ ) and ( ø ) . As is apparent from the list , Finnish is the most conservative of the Uralic languages presented here , with nearly half the words on the list below identical to their Proto - Uralic reconstructions and most of the remainder only having minor changes , such as the conflation of * ś into / s / , or widespread changes such as the loss of * x and alteration of * ï . Finnish has even preserved old Indo - European borrowings relatively unchanged as well . ( An example is porsas ( `` pig '' ) , loaned from Proto - Indo - European * porḱos or pre-Proto - Indo - Iranian * porśos , unchanged since loaning save for loss of palatalization , * ś > s . ) Mutual intelligibility ( edit ) The Estonian philologist Mall Hellam proposed cognate sentences that she asserted to be mutually intelligible among the three most widely spoken Uralic languages : Finnish , Estonian , and Hungarian : Estonian : Elav kala ujub vee all . Finnish : Elävä kala ui veden alla . Hungarian : Eleven hal úszik a víz alatt . English : A live fish is swimming underwater . However , linguist Geoffrey Pullum reports that neither Finns nor Hungarians could understand the other language 's version of the sentence . Comparison ( edit ) No Uralic language has exactly the idealized typological profile of the family . Typological features with varying presence among the modern Uralic language groups include : Feature Samoyedic Ob - Ugric Hungarian Permic Mari Mordvin Finnic Samic Palatalization + + + + − + − + Consonant length − − + − − − + + Consonant gradation − − − − − − + + Vowel harmony − − + − + + + − Grammatical vowel alternation ( ablaut or umlaut ) + + − − − − − + Dual number + + − − − − − + Distinction between inner and outer local cases − − + + + + + − Determinative inflection ( verbal marking of definiteness ) + + + − − + − − Passive voice − + + − − + + + Negative verb + − − + + ± + + SVO word order − − − ± − + + + Notes : Clearly present only in Nganasan . Vowel harmony is present in the Uralic languages of Siberia only in some marginal archaic varieties : Nganasan , Southern Mansi and Eastern Khanty . A number of umlaut processes are found in Livonian . In Komi , but not in Udmurt . Possible Relations with other families ( edit ) Many relationships between Uralic and other language families have been suggested , but none of these are generally accepted by linguists at the present time . Indo - Uralic ( edit ) Main article : Indo - Uralic languages The Indo - Uralic ( or Uralo - Indo - European ) hypothesis suggests that Uralic and Indo - European are related at a fairly close level or , in its stronger form , that they are more closely related than either is to any other language family . Uralic -- Yukaghir ( edit ) Main article : Uralic -- Yukaghir languages The Uralic -- Yukaghir hypothesis identifies Uralic and Yukaghir as independent members of a single language family . It is currently widely accepted that the similarities between Uralic and Yukaghir languages are due to ancient contacts . Regardless , the hypothesis is accepted by a few linguists and viewed as attractive by a somewhat larger number . Eskimo -- Uralic ( edit ) Main article : Eskimo -- Uralic languages The Eskimo -- Uralic hypothesis associates Uralic with the Eskimo -- Aleut languages . This is an old thesis whose antecedents go back to the 18th century . An important restatement of it is Bergsland 1959 . Uralo - Siberian ( edit ) Main article : Uralo - Siberian languages Uralo - Siberian is an expanded form of the Eskimo -- Uralic hypothesis . It associates Uralic with Yukaghir , Chukotko - Kamchatkan , and Eskimo -- Aleut . It was propounded by Michael Fortescue in 1998 . Ural -- Altaic ( edit ) Main article : Ural -- Altaic languages Theories proposing a close relationship with the Altaic languages were formerly popular , based on similarities in vocabulary as well as in grammatical and phonological features , in particular the similarities in the Uralic and Altaic pronouns and the presence of agglutination in both sets of languages , as well as vowel harmony in some . For example , the word for `` language '' is similar in Estonian ( keel ) and Mongolian ( хэл ( hel ) ) . These theories are now generally rejected and most such similarities are attributed to language contact or coincidence . Nostratic ( edit ) Main article : Nostratic languages Nostratic associates Uralic , Indo - European , Altaic , Dravidian , and various other language families of Asia . The Nostratic hypothesis was first propounded by Holger Pedersen in 1903 and subsequently revived by Vladislav Illich - Svitych and Aharon Dolgopolsky in the 1960s . Eurasiatic ( edit ) Main article : Eurasiatic languages Eurasiatic resembles Nostratic in including Uralic , Indo - European , and Altaic , but differs from it in excluding the South Caucasian languages , Dravidian , and Afroasiatic and including Chukotko - Kamchatkan , Nivkh , Ainu , and Eskimo -- Aleut . It was propounded by Joseph Greenberg in 2000 -- 2002 . Similar ideas had earlier been expressed by Heinrich Koppelmann in 1933 and by Björn Collinder in 1965 . Uralo - Dravidian ( edit ) The hypothesis that the Dravidian languages display similarities with the Uralic language group , suggesting a prolonged period of contact in the past , is popular amongst Dravidian linguists and has been supported by a number of scholars , including Robert Caldwell , Thomas Burrow , Kamil Zvelebil , and Mikhail Andronov . This hypothesis has , however , been rejected by some specialists in Uralic languages , and has in recent times also been criticised by other Dravidian linguists , such as Bhadriraju Krishnamurti . Uralic skepticism ( edit ) In her book , The Uralic language family : facts , myths , and statistics , linguist Angela Marcantonio argues against the existence of the Uralic family , claiming that the languages are no more closely related to each other than they are to various other Eurasian languages . All of these hypotheses are minority views at the present time in Uralic studies . Other comparisons ( edit ) See also : Alternative theories of the Hungarian language relations Various unorthodox comparisons have been advanced such as Finno - Basque , Hungarian - Etruscan , and Cal - Ugrian . These are considered at best spurious fringe - theories by specialists . See also ( edit ) Finland portal Hungary portal Languages portal Uralic peoples Finno - Ugric peoples Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ Hammarström , Harald ; Forkel , Robert ; Haspelmath , Martin , eds. ( 2017 ) . `` Uralic '' . Glottolog 3.0 . Jena , Germany : Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History . Jump up ^ Simons , Gary F. ; Fenning , Charles F. `` Uralic '' . Ethnologue . SIL International . Retrieved 14 February 2018 . Jump up ^ Tommola , Hannu ( 2010 ) . `` Finnish among the Finno - Ugrian languages '' . Mood in the Languages of Europe . John Benjamins Publishing Company . p. 155 . ISBN 90 - 272 - 0587 - 6 . Jump up ^ The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia , p. 231 . Jump up ^ Anderson , J.G.C. ( ed . ) ( 1938 ) . Germania . Oxford : Clarendon Press . CS1 maint : Extra text : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Sebeok , Thomas A. ( 15 August 2002 ) . Portrait Of Linguists . Bloomsbury Publishing . p. 58 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4411 - 5874 - 1 . OCLC 956101732 . Jump up ^ Wickman 1988 , pp. 793 -- 794 . ^ Jump up to : Collinder , Björn . An Introduction to the Uralic languages . Berkeley : University of California Press . pp. 8 -- 27 , 34 . Jump up ^ Wickman 1988 , pp. 795 -- 796 . Jump up ^ Ruhlen , Merritt ( 1987 ) . A Guide to the World 's Languages . Stanford : Stanford University Press . pp. 64 -- 71 . OCLC 923421379 . Jump up ^ Wickman 1988 , pp. 796 - 798 . Jump up ^ Wickman 1988 , p. 798 . Jump up ^ Wickman 1988 , pp. 801 - 803 . Jump up ^ Wickman 1988 , pp. 803 -- 804 . Jump up ^ Halász , Ignácz ( 1893 ) . `` Az ugor - szamojéd nyelvrokonság kérdése '' ( PDF ) . Nyelvtudományi Közlemények ( in Hungarian ) . 23 : 1 : 14 -- 34 . Jump up ^ Halász , Ignácz ( 1893 ) . `` Az ugor - szamojéd nyelvrokonság kérdése II '' ( PDF ) . Nyelvtudományi Közlemények ( in Hungarian ) . 23 : 3 : 260 -- 278 . Jump up ^ Halász , Ignácz ( 1893 ) . `` Az ugor - szamojéd nyelvrokonság kérdése III '' ( PDF ) . Nyelvtudományi Közlemények ( in Hungarian ) . 23 : 4 : 436 -- 447 . Jump up ^ Halász , Ignácz ( 1894 ) . `` Az ugor - szamojéd nyelvrokonság kérdése IV '' ( PDF ) . Nyelvtudományi Közlemények ( in Hungarian ) . 24 : 4 : 443 -- 469 . Jump up ^ Szabó , László ( 1969 ) . `` Die Erforschung der Verhältnisses Finnougrisch -- Samojedisch '' . Ural - Altaische Jahrbücher ( in German ) . 41 : 317 -- 322 . Jump up ^ Wickman 1988 , pp. 799 -- 800 . Jump up ^ Wickman 1988 , pp. 810 -- 811 . Jump up ^ `` Lexica Societatis Fenno - Ugricae XXXV '' . Suomalais - Ugrilainen Seura ( in Hungarian ) . Jump up ^ Salminen , Tapani ( 2009 ) . `` Uralic ( Finno - Ugrian ) languages '' . Jump up ^ Helimski , Eugene ( 2006 ) . `` The `` Northwestern '' group of Finno - Ugric languages and its heritage in the place names and substratum vocabulary of the Russian North `` . In Nuorluoto , Juhani . The Slavicization of the Russian North ( Slavica Helsingiensia 27 ) ( PDF ) . Helsinki : Department of Slavonic and Baltic Languages and Literatures . pp. 109 -- 127 . ISBN 978 - 952 - 10 - 2852 - 6 . ^ Jump up to : Marcantonio , Angela ( 2002 ) . The Uralic Language Family : Facts , Myths and Statistics . Publications of the Philological Society . 35 . Oxford : Blackwell . pp. 55 -- 68 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 631 - 23170 - 7 . OCLC 803186861 . ^ Jump up to : Salminen , Tapani ( 2002 ) . `` Problems in the taxonomy of the Uralic languages in the light of modern comparative studies '' . Jump up ^ Donner , Otto ( 1879 ) . Die gegenseitige Verwandtschaft der Finnisch - ugrischen sprachen ( in German ) . Helsinki . OCLC 1014980747 . Jump up ^ Szinnyei , Josef ( 1910 ) . Finnisch - ugrische Sprachwissenschaft ( in German ) . Leipzig : G.J. Göschen'sche Verlagshandlung . pp. 9 -- 21 . Jump up ^ Itkonen , T.I. ( 1921 ) . Suomensukuiset kansat ( in Finnish ) . Helsinki : Tietosanakirjaosakeyhtiö . pp. 7 -- 12 . Jump up ^ Setälä , E.N. ( 1926 ) . `` Kielisukulaisuus ja rotu '' . Suomen suku ( in Finnish ) . Helsinki : Otava . Jump up ^ Hájdu , Péter ( 1962 ) . Finnugor népek és nyelvek ( in Hungarian ) . Budapest . Jump up ^ Hajdu , Peter ( 1975 ) . Finno - Ugric Languages and Peoples . Translated by G.F. Cushing . London : André Deutch Ltd ... English translation of Hajdú ( 1962 ) . Jump up ^ Itkonen , Erkki ( 1966 ) . Suomalais - ugrilaisen kielen - ja historiantutkimuksen alalta . Tietolipas ( in Finnish ) . 20 . Suomalaisen kirjallisuuden seura . pp. 5 -- 8 . Jump up ^ Austerlitz , Robert ( 1968 ) . `` L'ouralien '' . In Martinet , André . Le langage . Jump up ^ Voegelin , C.F. ; Voegelin , F.M. ( 1977 ) . Classification and Index of the World 's Languages . New York / Oxford / Amsterdam : Elsevier . pp. 341 -- 343 . Jump up ^ Kulonen , Ulla - Maija ( 2002 ) . `` Kielitiede ja suomen väestön juuret '' . In Grünthal , Riho . Ennen , muinoin . Miten menneisyyttämme tutkitaan . Tietolipas. 180 . Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura . pp. 104 -- 108 . ISBN 951 - 746 - 332 - 4 . Jump up ^ Lehtinen , Tapani ( 2007 ) . Kielen vuosituhannet . Tietolipas. 215 . Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura . ISBN 978 - 951 - 746 - 896 - 1 . Jump up ^ Janhunen , Juha ( 2009 ) . `` Proto - Uralic -- what , where and when ? '' ( pdf ) . Suomalais - Ugrilaisen Seuran toimituksia. 258 . ISBN 978 - 952 - 5667 - 11 - 0 . ISSN 0355 - 0230 . Jump up ^ Häkkinen , Kaisa 1984 : Wäre es schon an der Zeit , den Stammbaum zu fällen ? -- Ural - Altaische Jahrbücher , Neue Folge 4 . ^ Jump up to : Häkkinen , Jaakko 2009 : Kantauralin ajoitus ja paikannus : perustelut puntarissa . -- Suomalais - Ugrilaisen Seuran Aikakauskirja 92 . Jump up ^ Bartens , Raija ( 1999 ) . Mordvalaiskielten rakenne ja kehitys ( in Finnish ) . Helsinki : Suomalais - Ugrilainen Seura . p. 13 . ISBN 952 - 5150 - 22 - 4 . Jump up ^ Michalove , Peter A. ( 2002 ) The Classification of the Uralic Languages : Lexical Evidence from Finno - Ugric . In : Finnisch - Ugrische Forschungen , vol. 57 Jump up ^ Janhunen , Juha ( 2009 ) , `` Proto - Uralic -- what , where and when ? '' ( pdf ) , Suomalais - Ugrilaisen Seuran toimituksia , 258 , ISBN 978 - 952 - 5667 - 11 - 0 , ISSN 0355 - 0230 Jump up ^ Viitso , Tiit - Rein . Keelesugulus ja soome - ugri keelepuu . Akadeemia 9 / 5 ( 1997 ) Jump up ^ Viitso , Tiit - Rein . Finnic Affinity . Congressus Nonus Internationalis Fenno - Ugristarum I : Orationes plenariae & Orationes publicae. ( 2000 ) Jump up ^ Sammallahti , Pekka ( 1988 ) . `` Historical phonology of the Uralic Languages '' . In Sinor , Denis . The Uralic Languages : Description , History and Foreign Influences . Leiden : E.J. Brill . pp. 478 -- 554 . ISBN 978 - 90 - 04 - 07741 - 6 . OCLC 466103653 . Jump up ^ Helimski , Eugen . Proto - Uralic gradation : Continuation and traces . In Congressus Octavus Internationalis Fenno - Ugristarum . Pars I : Orationes plenariae et conspectus quinquennales . Jyväskylä , 1995 . `` Archived copy '' ( PDF ) . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2011 - 10 - 02 . Retrieved 2012 - 02 - 24 . Jump up ^ Häkkinen , Jaakko 2007 : Kantauralin murteutuminen vokaalivastaavuuksien valossa . Pro gradu - työ , Helsingin yliopiston Suomalais - ugrilainen laitos . Jump up ^ Austerlitz , Robert ( 1990 ) . `` Uralic Languages '' ( pp. 567 -- 576 ) in Comrie , Bernard , editor . The World 's Major Languages . Oxford University Press , Oxford ( p. 573 ) . Jump up ^ `` Estonian Language '' ( PDF ) . Estonian Institute . p. 14 . Retrieved 2013 - 04 - 16 . Jump up ^ `` The Finno - Ugrics : The dying fish swims in water '' , The Economist , pp. 73 -- 74 , December 24 , 2005 -- January 6 , 2006 , retrieved 2013 - 01 - 19 Jump up ^ Pullum , Geoffrey K. ( 2005 - 12 - 26 ) , `` The Udmurtian code : saving Finno - Ugric in Russia '' , Language Log , retrieved 2009 - 12 - 21 Jump up ^ Hájdu , Péter ( 1975 ) . `` Arealógia és urálisztika '' ( pdf ) . Nyelvtudományi Közlemények ( in Hungarian ) . 77 : 147 -- 152 . ISSN 0029 - 6791 . Jump up ^ Rédei , Károly 1999 : Zu den uralisch - jukagirischen Sprachkontakten . -- Finnisch - Ugrische Forschungen 55 . Jump up ^ Bergsland , Knut ( 1959 ) . `` The Eskimo - Uralic hypothesis '' . Journal De La Société Finno - Ougrienne. 61 : 1 -- 29 . Jump up ^ Fortescue , Michael D ( 1998 ) . Language Relations Across Bering Strait : Reappraising the Archaeological and Linguistic Evidence . Open linguistics series . London : Cassell . ISBN 978 - 0 - 304 - 70330 - 2 . OCLC 237319639 . Jump up ^ Georg , Stefan ; Michalove , Peter A. ; Ramer , Alexis Manaster ; Sidwell , Paul J. ( March 1999 ) . `` Telling general linguists about Altaic '' ( PDF ) . Journal of Linguistics. 35 ( 1 ) : 65 -- 98 . ISSN 1469 - 7742 . Jump up ^ Pedersen , Holger ( 1903 ) . `` Türkische Lautgesetze '' ( Turkish Phonetic Laws ) . Zeitschrift Der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft ( in German ) . 57 ( 3 ) : 535 -- 561 . ISSN 0341 - 0137 . OCLC 5919317968 . Jump up ^ Greenberg , Joseph Harold ( 2000 ) . Indo - European and Its Closest Relatives : The Eurasiatic Language Family . Volume 1 : Grammar . Stanford , Calif. : Stanford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8047 - 3812 - 5 . OCLC 491123067 . Greenberg , Joseph H ( 2002 ) . Indo - European and Its Closest Relatives : The Eurasiatic Language Family . Vol. 2 : Lexicon . Stanford , Calif. : Stanford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8047 - 4624 - 3 . OCLC 895918332 . Jump up ^ Koppelmann , Heinrich L. ( 1933 ) . Die Eurasische Sprachfamilie : Indogermanisch , Koreanisch U. Verwandtes ( in German ) . Heidelberg : Carl Winter . Jump up ^ Collinder , Björn ( 1965 ) . An Introduction to the Uralic Languages . University of California Press . pp. 30 -- 34 . Jump up ^ Tyler , Stephen ( 1968 ) , `` Dravidian and Uralian : the lexical evidence '' . Language 44 : 4 . 798 -- 812 Jump up ^ Webb , Edward ( 1860 ) . `` Evidences of the Scythian Affinities of the Dravidian Languages , Condensed and Arranged from Rev. R. Caldwell 's Comparative Dravidian Grammar '' . Journal of the American Oriental Society . 7 : 271 -- 298 . doi : 10.2307 / 592159 . Jump up ^ Burrow , T. ( 1944 ) . `` Dravidian Studies IV : The Body in Dravidian and Uralian '' . Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies . 11 ( 2 ) : 328 -- 356 . doi : 10.1017 / s0041977x00072517 . Jump up ^ Zvelebil , Kamal ( 2006 ) . Dravidian Languages . In Encyclopædia Britannica ( DVD edition ) . Jump up ^ Andronov , Mikhail S. ( 1971 ) , `` Comparative Studies on the Nature of Dravidian - Uralian Parallels : A Peep into the Prehistory of Language Families '' . Proceedings of the Second International Conference of Tamil Studies Madras. 267 -- 277 . Jump up ^ Zvelebil , Kamal ( 1970 ) , Comparative Dravidian Phonology Mouton , The Hauge . at p. 22 contains a bibliography of articles supporting and opposing the hypothesis Jump up ^ Krishnamurti , Bhadriraju ( 2003 ) The Dravidian Languages Cambridge University Press , Cambridge . ISBN 0 - 521 - 77111 - 0 at p. 43 . Jump up ^ `` The Uralic language family : facts , myths , and statistics review by Dr. Edward Vajda '' ( PDF ) . Dr. Edward Vajda . Jump up ^ Trask , R.L. The History of Basque Routledge : 1997 ISBN 0 - 415 - 13116 - 2 Jump up ^ Alinei , Mario ( 2003 ) , Etrusco : una forma arcaica di ungherese , Bologna , Il Mulino . References ( edit ) Abondolo , Daniel M. ( editor ) . 1998 . The Uralic Languages . London and New York : Routledge . ISBN 0 - 415 - 08198 - X . Collinder , Björn. 1955 . Fenno - Ugric Vocabulary : An Etymological Dictionary of the Uralic Languages . ( Collective work . ) Stockholm : Almqvist & Viksell . ( Second , revised edition : Hamburg : Helmut Buske Verlag , 1977 . ) Collinder , Björn. 1957 . Survey of the Uralic Languages . Stockholm . Collinder , Björn. 1960 . Comparative Grammar of the Uralic Languages . Stockholm : Almqvist & Wiksell Comrie , Bernhard. 1988 . `` General Features of the Uralic Languages . '' In The Uralic Languages , edited by Denis Sinor , pp. 451 -- 477 . Leiden : Brill . Décsy , Gyula. 1990 . The Uralic Protolanguage : A Comprehensive Reconstruction . Bloomington , Indiana . Hajdu , Péter. 1963 . Finnugor népek és nyelvek . Budapest : Gondolat kiadó . Helimski , Eugene . Comparative Linguistics , Uralic Studies . Lectures and Articles . Moscow . 2000 . ( Russian : Хелимский Е. А . Компаративистика , уралистика . Лекции и статьи . М. , 2000 . ) Laakso , Johanna. 1992 . Uralilaiset kansat ( ' Uralic Peoples ' ) . Porvoo -- Helsinki -- Juva . ISBN 951 - 0 - 16485 - 2 . Napolskikh , Vladimir . The First Stages of Origin of People of Uralic Language Family : Material of Mythological Reconstruction . Moscow , 1991 . ( Russian : Напольских В . В . Древнейшие этапы происхождения народов уральской языковой семьи : данные мифологической реконструкции . М. , 1991 . ) Rédei , Károly ( editor ) . 1986 -- 88 . Uralisches etymologisches Wörterbuch ( ' Uralic Etymological Dictionary ' ) . Budapest . Wickman , Bo ( 1988 ) . `` The History of Uralic Languages '' . In Sinor , Denis . The Uralic Languages : Description , History , and Foreign Influences . Leiden : Brill . pp. 792 -- 818 . ISBN 978 - 90 - 04 - 07741 - 6 . OCLC 16580570 . External classification ( edit ) Sauvageot , Aurélien. 1930 . Recherches sur le vocabulaire des langues ouralo - altaïques ( ' Research on the Vocabulary of the Uralo - Altaic Languages ' ) . Paris . Linguistic issues ( edit ) Künnap , A. 2000 . Contact - induced Perspectives in Uralic Linguistics . LINCOM Studies in Asian Linguistics 39 . München : LINCOM Europa . ISBN 3 - 89586 - 964 - 3 . Wickman , Bo. 1955 . The Form of the Object in the Uralic Languages . Uppsala : Lundequistska bokhandeln . External links ( edit ) `` The Finno - Ugrics '' The Economist , December 20 , 2005 Kulonen , Ulla - Maija : Origin of Finnish and related languages . thisisFINLAND , Finland Promotion Board . Cited 30.10. 2009 . `` Rebel '' uralists ( edit ) `` The untenability of the Finno - Ugrian theory from a linguistic point of view '' by Dr. László Marácz , a minority opinion on the language family `` The ' Ugric - Turkic battle ' : a critical review '' by Angela Marcantonio , Pirjo Nummenaho , and Michela Salvagni `` Linguistic shadow - boxing '' by Johanna Laakso -- a book review of Angela Marcantonio 's The Uralic Language Family : Facts , Myths and Statistics Wikimedia Commons has media related to Uralic languages . Uralic languages Finnic Estonian Northeastern coastal South Estonian Võro Seto Finnish Kven Meänkieli Ingrian Karelian Karelian proper Livvi Ludic Livonian † Veps Votic Sami Akkala † Inari Kainuu † Kemi † Kildin Lule Northern Pite Skolt Southern Ter Ume Mordvinic Erzya Moksha Mari Hill Mari Meadow Mari Permic Komi Zyrian Permyak Yodzyak Udmurt Ugric Hungarian Khanty Mansi Samoyedic Enets Yurats † Nenets Forest Nenets Tundra Nenets Nganasan Kamassian † Mator † Selkup Others Merya † Meshcherian † Muromian † † indicate extinct languages List of primary language families Africa Afro - Asiatic Austronesian Khoe Kx'a Niger -- Congo Nilo - Saharan ? Tuu Mande ? Songhay ? Ijaw ? Ubangian ? Kadu ? Isolates Bangime Hadza Jalaa Sandawe Kwadi ? Laal ? Shabo ? Sign languages Arab BANZSL French Lasima Tanzanian Others Europe and Asia Afro - Asiatic Ainu Austroasiatic Austronesian Chukotko - Kamchatkan Dravidian Eskimo -- Aleut Great Andamanese Hmong -- Mien Hurro - Urartian Indo - European Japonic Kartvelian Koreanic Mongolic Northeast Caucasian Northwest Caucasian Ongan Sino - Tibetan Tai -- Kadai Tungusic Turkic Tyrsenian Uralic Yeniseian Yukaghir Dené -- Yeniseian ? Altaic ? Austronesian -- Ongan ? Austro - Tai ? Sino - Austronesian ? Digaro ? Kho - Bwa ? Siangic ? Miji ? Vasconic ? Isolates Basque Burushaski Elamite Hattic Kusunda Nihali Nivkh Sumerian Hruso ? Miju ? Puroik ? Sign languages BANZSL French German Japanese Swedish Chinese Indo - Pakistani Arab Chiangmai -- Bangkok Others New Guinea and the Pacific Arai -- Samaia Arafundi Austronesian Baining Binanderean -- Goilalan Border Bulaka River Central Solomons Chimbu -- Wahgi Doso -- Turumsa East Geelvink Bay East Strickland Eleman Engan Fas Kaure -- Kosare Kiwaian Kutubuan Kwomtari Lakes Plain Lower Mamberamo Lower Sepik Madang Mairasi North Bougainville Pauwasi Piawi Ramu Senagi Sentani Sepik Skou South Bougainville Teberan Tor -- Kwerba -- Nimboran Torricelli Trans - Fly Trans -- New Guinea Turama -- Kikorian West Papuan Yam Yawa Yuat North Papuan ? Northeast New Guinea ? Papuan Gulf ? Isolates Abinomn Anêm ? Ata ? Kol Kuot Porome Taiap ? Pawaia Porome Sulka ? Tambora Wiru Sign languages Hawai'i Sign Language Others Australia Arnhem / Macro-Gunwinyguan Bunuban Darwin River Eastern Daly Eastern Tasmanian Garawan Iwaidjan Jarrakan Mirndi Northern Tasmanian Northeastern Tasmanian Nyulnyulan Pama -- Nyungan Southern Daly Tangkic Wagaydyic Western Daly Western Tasmanian Worrorran Yangmanic ( Wardaman ) Isolates Giimbiyu Malak - Malak Marrgu Tiwi Wagiman North America Algic Alsea Caddoan Chimakuan Chinookan Chumashan Comecrudan Coosan Eskimo -- Aleut Iroquoian Kalapuyan Keresan Maiduan Muskogean Na - Dene Palaihnihan Plateau Penutian Pomoan Salishan Shastan Siouan Tanoan Tsimshianic Utian Uto - Aztecan Wakashan Wintuan Yokutsan Yukian Yuman -- Cochimí Dené -- Yeniseian ? Hokan ? Penutian ? Isolates Chimariko Haida Karuk Kutenai Seri Siuslaw Takelma Timucua Waikuri Washo Yana Yuchi Zuni Sign languages Inuit ( Inuiuuk ) Plains Sign Talk Others Mesoamerica Chibchan Jicaquean Lencan Mayan Misumalpan Mixe -- Zoque Oto - Manguean Tequistlatecan Totonacan Uto - Aztecan Xincan Totozoquean ? Isolates Cuitlatec Huave Tarascan / Purépecha Sign languages Plains Sign Talk Mayan Others South America Arawakan Arauan Araucanian Arutani -- Sape Aymaran Barbacoan Boran Borôroan Cahuapanan Cariban Catacaoan Chapacuran Charruan Chibchan Choco Chonan Guaicuruan Guajiboan Jê / Gê Harákmbut -- Katukinan Jirajaran Jivaroan Kariri Katembri -- Taruma Mascoian Matacoan Maxakalian Nadahup Nambikwaran Otomákoan Pano - Tacanan Peba -- Yaguan Purian Quechuan Piaroa -- Saliban Ticuna -- Yuri Timotean Tiniguan Tucanoan Tupian Uru -- Chipaya Witotoan Yabutian Yanomaman Zamucoan Zaparoan Chimuan ? Esmeralda -- Yaruro ? Hibito -- Cholón ? Lule -- Vilela ? Macro-Jê ? Tequiraca -- Canichana ? Isolates ( extant in 2000 ) Aikanã ? Alacalufan Andoque ? Camsá Candoshi Chimane Chiquitano Cofán ? Fulniô Guató Hodï / Joti Irantxe ? Itonama Karajá Krenak Kunza Leco Maku - Auari of Roraima Movima Mura - Pirahã Nukak ? Ofayé Puinave Huaorani / Waorani Trumai Urarina Warao Yamana Yuracaré See also Language isolates Unclassified languages Creoles Pidgins Mixed languages Artificial languages List of sign languages Families with more than 30 languages are in bold . Families in italics have no living members . LCCN : sh85141270 GND : 4062084 - 0 SUDOC : 027434389 BNF : cb11947660w ( data ) NDL : 00575506 BNE : XX544740 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Uralic_languages&oldid=837416046 '' Categories : Agglutinative languages Language families Uralic languages Languages of Russia Hidden categories : CS1 maint : Extra text : authors list CS1 Hungarian - language sources ( hu ) CS1 German - language sources ( de ) CS1 Finnish - language sources ( fi ) Articles needing additional references from July 2017 All articles needing additional references All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February 2014 Articles containing German - language text Pages using bar box without float left or float right Articles containing Estonian - language text Articles containing Finnish - language text Articles containing Hungarian - language text Articles containing Russian - language text Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Aragonés Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская ( тарашкевіца ) ‎ Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Davvisámegiella Deutsch Dolnoserbski Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Gaeilge Gaelg Galego 한국어 हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ಕನ್ನಡ Kernowek Kiswahili Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Magyar Македонски मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Nordfriisk Norsk Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Piemontèis Polski Português Română Romani Runa Simi Русский Scots Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça ไทย Türkçe Удмурт Українська اردو Vèneto Vepsän kel ' Tiếng Việt West - Vlams 粵語 Zazaki Žemaitėška 中文 83 more Edit links This page was last edited on 20 April 2018 , at 17 : 53 . 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Menstruation - wikipedia Menstruation Jump to : navigation , search This article is about humans . For other mammals , see Menstruation ( mammal ) . Figure showing the progression of the menstrual cycle and the different hormones contributing to it . Menstruation , also known as a period or monthly , is the regular discharge of blood and mucosal tissue ( known as menses ) from the inner lining of the uterus through the vagina . The first period usually begins between twelve and fifteen years of age , a point in time known as menarche . However , periods may occasionally start as young as eight years old and still be considered normal . The average age of the first period is generally later in the developing world , and earlier in the developed world . The typical length of time between the first day of one period and the first day of the next is 21 to 45 days in young women , and 21 to 31 days in adults ( an average of 28 days ) . Bleeding usually lasts around 2 to 7 days . Menstruation stops occurring after menopause , which usually occurs between 45 and 55 years of age . Periods also stop during pregnancy and typically do not resume during the initial months of breastfeeding . Up to 80 % of women report having some symptoms prior to menstruation . Common signs and symptoms include acne , tender breasts , bloating , feeling tired , irritability , and mood changes . These may interfere with normal life , therefore qualifying as premenstrual syndrome , in 20 to 30 % of women . In 3 to 8 % , symptoms are severe . A lack of periods , known as amenorrhea , is when periods do not occur by age 15 or have not occurred in 90 days . Other problems with the menstrual cycle include painful periods and abnormal bleeding such as bleeding between periods or heavy bleeding . Menstruation in other animals occurs in primates , such as apes and monkeys , as well as bats and the elephant shrew . The menstrual cycle occurs due to the rise and fall of hormones . This cycle results in the thickening of the lining of the uterus , and the growth of an egg , ( which is required for pregnancy ) . The egg is released from an ovary around day fourteen in the cycle ; the thickened lining of the uterus provides nutrients to an embryo after implantation . If pregnancy does not occur , the lining is released in what is known as menstruation . Contents ( hide ) 1 Onset and frequency 2 Health effects 2.1 Cramps 2.2 Mood and behavior 2.3 Bleeding 2.4 Menstrual disorders 3 Ovulation suppression 3.1 Birth control 3.2 Breastfeeding 4 Menstrual management 4.1 Disposable products 4.2 Reusable products 4.3 Non-commercial items 5 Society and culture 5.1 Traditions and taboos 5.1. 1 Islam 5.1. 2 Judaism 5.1. 3 Hinduism 5.1. 4 Christianity 5.1. 5 Secular culture 5.1. 6 Other 5.2 Sexual activity 5.3 Education 5.4 Cost 6 Evolution 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links Onset and frequency Diagram illustrating how the uterus lining builds up and breaks down during the menstrual cycle . The first menstrual period occurs after the onset of pubertal growth , and is called menarche . The average age of menarche is 12 to 15 . However , it may start as early as eight . The average age of the first period is generally later in the developing world , and earlier in the developed world . The average age of menarche has changed little in the United States since the 1950s . Menstruation is the most visible phase of the menstrual cycle and its beginning is used as the marker between cycles . The first day of menstrual bleeding is the date used for the last menstrual period ( LMP ) . The typical length of time between the first day of one period and the first day of the next is 21 to 45 days in young women , and 21 to 31 days in adults ( an average of 28 days ) . Perimenopause is when fertility in a female declines , and menstruation occurs less regularly in the years leading up to the final menstrual period , when a female stops menstruating completely and is no longer fertile . The medical definition of menopause is one year without a period and typically occurs between 45 and 55 in Western countries . During pregnancy and for some time after childbirth , menstruation does not occur ; this state is known as amenorrhoea . If menstruation has not resumed , fertility is low during lactation . The average length of postpartum amenorrhoea is longer when certain breastfeeding practices are followed ; this may be done intentionally as birth control . Health effects Further information : Premenstrual syndrome In most women , various physical changes are brought about by fluctuations in hormone levels during the menstrual cycle . This includes muscle contractions of the uterus ( menstrual cramping ) that can precede or accompany menstruation . Some may notice water retention , changes in sex drive , fatigue , breast tenderness , or nausea . Breast swelling and discomfort may be caused by water retention during menstruation . Usually , such sensations are mild , and some females notice very few physical changes associated with menstruation . A healthy diet , reduced consumption of salt , caffeine and alcohol , and regular exercise may be effective for women in controlling some symptoms . Severe symptoms that disrupt daily activities and functioning may be diagnosed as premenstrual dysphoric disorder . Symptoms before menstruation are known as premenstrual molimina . Cramps Further information : Dysmenorrhea Many women experience painful cramps , also known as dysmenorrhea , during menstruation . Pain results from ischemia and muscle contractions . Spiral arteries in the secretory endometrium constrict , resulting in ischemia to the secretory endometrium . This allows the uterine lining to slough off . The myometrium contracts spasmodically in order to push the menstrual fluid through the cervix and out of the vagina . The contractions are mediated by a release of prostaglandins . Painful menstrual cramps that result from an excess of prostaglandin release are referred to as primary dysmenorrhea . Primary dysmenorrhea usually begins within a year or two of menarche , typically with the onset of ovulatory cycles . Treatments that target the mechanism of pain include non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs ( NSAIDs ) and hormonal contraceptives . NSAIDs inhibit prostaglandin production . With long - term treatment , hormonal birth control reduces the amount of uterine fluid / tissue expelled from the uterus . Thus resulting in shorter , less painful menstruation . These drugs are typically more effective than treatments that do not target the source of the pain ( e.g. acetaminophen ) . Risk factors for primary dysmenorrhea include : early age at menarche , long or heavy menstrual periods , smoking , and a family history of dysmenorrhea . Regular physical activity may limit the severity of uterine cramps . For many women , primary dysmenorrhea gradually subsides in late second generation . Pregnancy has also been demonstrated to lessen the severity of dysmenorrhea , when menstruation resumes . However , dysmenorrhea can continue until menopause. 5 -- 15 % of women with dysmenorrhea experience symptoms severe enough to interfere with daily activities . Secondary dysmenorrhea is the diagnosis given when menstruation pain is a secondary cause to another disorder . Conditions causing secondary dysmenorrhea include endometriosis , uterine fibroids , and uterine adenomyosis . Rarely , congenital malformations , intrauterine devices , certain cancers , and pelvic infections cause secondary dysmenorrhea . Symptoms include pain spreading to hips , lower back and thighs , nausea , and frequent diarrhea or constipation . If the pain occurs between menstrual periods , lasts longer than the first few days of the period , or is not adequately relieved by the use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs ( NSAIDs ) or hormonal contraceptives , women should be evaluated for secondary causes of dysmenorrhea . When severe pelvic pain and bleeding suddenly occur or worsen during a cycle , the woman or girl should be evaluated for ectopic pregnancy and spontaneous abortion . This evaluation begins with a pregnancy test and should be done as soon as unusual pain begins , because ectopic pregnancies can be life ‐ threatening . In some cases , stronger physical and emotional or psychological sensations may interfere with normal activities , and include menstrual pain ( dysmenorrhea ) , migraine headaches , and depression . Dysmenorrhea , or severe uterine pain , is particularly common for young females ( one study found that 67.2 % of girls aged 13 -- 19 have it ) . The medications in the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs ( NSAIDs ) class are commonly used to relieve menstrual cramps . Some herbs are also claimed to help . Mood and behavior Some women experience emotional disturbances starting one or two weeks before their period , and stopping soon after the period has started . Symptoms may include mental tension , irritability , mood swings , and crying spells . Problems with concentration and memory may occur . There may also be depression or anxiety . This is part of premenstrual syndrome ( PMS ) and is estimated to occur in 20 to 30 % of women . In 3 to 8 % it is severe . More severe symptoms of anxiety or depression may be signs of premenstrual dysphoric disorder ( PMDD ) . Rarely , in individuals who are susceptible , menstruation may be a trigger for menstrual psychosis . Extreme psychological stress can also result in periods stopping . Bleeding The average volume of menstrual fluid during a monthly menstrual period is 35 milliliters ( 2.4 tablespoons of menstrual fluid ) with 10 -- 80 milliliters ( 1 -- 6 tablespoons of menstrual fluid ) considered typical . Menstrual fluid is the correct name for the flow , although many people prefer to refer to it as menstrual blood . Menstrual fluid contains some blood , as well as cervical mucus , vaginal secretions , and endometrial tissue . Menstrual fluid is reddish - brown , a slightly darker color than venous blood . About half of menstrual fluid is blood . This blood contains sodium , calcium , phosphate , iron , and chloride , the extent of which depends on the woman . As well as blood , the fluid consists of cervical mucus , vaginal secretions , and endometrial tissue . Vaginal fluids in menses mainly contribute water , common electrolytes , organ moieties , and at least 14 proteins , including glycoproteins . Many mature females notice blood clots during menstruation . These appear as clumps of blood that may look like tissue . If there are questions ( for example , was there a miscarriage ? ) , examination under a microscope can confirm if it was endometrial tissue or pregnancy tissue ( products of conception ) that was shed . Sometimes menstrual clots or shed endometrial tissue is incorrectly thought to indicate an early - term miscarriage of an embryo . An enzyme called plasmin -- contained in the endometrium -- tends to inhibit the blood from clotting . The amount of iron lost in menstrual fluid is relatively small for most women . In one study , premenopausal women who exhibited symptoms of iron deficiency were given endoscopies. 86 % of them actually had gastrointestinal disease and were at risk of being misdiagnosed simply because they were menstruating . Heavy menstrual bleeding , occurring monthly , can result in anemia . Menstrual disorders There is a wide spectrum of differences in how women experience menstruation . There are several ways that someone 's menstrual cycle can differ from the norm , any of which should be discussed with a doctor to identify the underlying cause : Symptom See article Infrequent periods Oligomenorrhea Short or extremely light periods Hypomenorrhea Too - frequent periods ( defined as more frequently than every 21 days ) Polymenorrhea Extremely heavy or long periods ( one guideline is soaking a sanitary napkin or tampon every hour or so , or menstruating for longer than 7 days ) Hypermenorrhea Extremely painful periods Dysmenorrhea Breakthrough bleeding ( also called spotting ) between periods ; normal in many females Metrorrhagia Absent periods Amenorrhea There is a movement among gynecologists to discard the terms noted above , which although they are widely used , do not have precise definitions . Many now argue to describe menstruation in simple terminology , including : Cycle regularity ( irregular , regular , or absent ) Frequency of menstruation ( frequent , normal , or infrequent ) Duration of menstrual flow ( prolonged , normal , or shortened ) Volume of menstrual flow ( heavy , normal , or light ) Dysfunctional uterine bleeding is a hormonally caused bleeding abnormality . Dysfunctional uterine bleeding typically occurs in premenopausal women who do not ovulate normally ( i.e. are anovulatory ) . All these bleeding abnormalities need medical attention ; they may indicate hormone imbalances , uterine fibroids , or other problems . As pregnant women may bleed , a pregnancy test forms part of the evaluation of abnormal bleeding . Women who had undergone female genital mutilation ( particularly type III - infibulation ) a practice common in parts of Africa , may experience menstrual problems , such as slow and painful menstruation , that is caused by the near - complete sealing off of the vagina . Premature or delayed menarche should be investigated if menarche begins before 9 years , if menarche has not begun by age 15 , if there is no breast development by age 13 , or if there is no period by 3 years after the onset of breast development . Ovulation suppression Birth control Main article : Hormonal contraception Half - used blister pack of a combined oral contraceptive . The white pills are placebos , mainly for the purpose of reminding the woman to continue taking the pills . Since the late 1960s , many women have chosen to control the frequency of menstruation with hormonal birth control pills . They are most often combined hormone pills containing estrogen and are taken in 28 - day cycles , 21 hormonal pills with either a 7 - day break from pills , or 7 placebo pills during which the woman menstruates . Hormonal birth control acts by using low doses of hormones to prevent ovulation , and thus prevent pregnancy in sexually active women . But by using placebo pills for a 7 - day span during the month , a regular bleeding period is still experienced . Injections such as depo - provera became available in the 1960s . Progestogen implants such as Norplant in the 1980s and extended cycle combined oral contraceptive pills in the early 2000s . Using synthetic hormones , it is possible for a woman to completely eliminate menstrual periods . When using progestogen implants , menstruation may be reduced to 3 or 4 menstrual periods per year . By taking progestogen - only contraceptive pills ( sometimes called the ' mini-pill ' ) continuously without a 7 - day span of using placebo pills , menstrual periods do not occur . Some women do this simply for convenience in the short - term , while others prefer to eliminate periods altogether when possible . Some women use hormonal contraception in this way to eliminate their periods for months or years at a time , a practice called menstrual suppression . When the first birth control pill was being developed , the researchers were aware that they could use the contraceptive to space menstrual periods up to 90 days apart , but they settled on a 28 - day cycle that would mimic a natural menstrual cycle and produce monthly periods . The intention behind this decision was the hope of the inventor , John Rock , to win approval for his invention from the Roman Catholic Church . That attempt failed , but the 28 - day cycle remained the standard when the pill became available to the public . There is debate among medical researchers about the potential long - term impacts of these practices upon female health . Some researchers point to the fact that historically , females have had far fewer menstrual periods throughout their lifetimes , a result of shorter life expectancies , as well as a greater length of time spent pregnant or breast - feeding , which reduced the number of periods experienced by females . These researchers believe that the higher number of menstrual periods by females in modern societies may have a negative impact upon their health . On the other hand , some researchers believe there is a greater potential for negative impacts from exposing females perhaps unnecessarily to regular low doses of synthetic hormones over their reproductive years . Breastfeeding Main article : Lactational amenorrhea method Breastfeeding causes negative feedback to occur on pulse secretion of gonadotropin - releasing hormone ( GnRH ) and luteinizing hormone ( LH ) . Depending on the strength of the negative feedback , breastfeeding women may experience complete suppression of follicular development , follicular development but no ovulation , or normal menstrual cycles may resume . Suppression of ovulation is more likely when suckling occurs more frequently . The production of prolactin in response to suckling is important to maintaining lactational amenorrhea . On average , women who are fully breastfeeding whose infants suckle frequently experience a return of menstruation at fourteen and a half months postpartum . There is a wide range of response among individual breastfeeding women , however , with some experiencing return of menstruation at two months and others remaining amenorrheic for up to 42 months postpartum . Menstrual management Main article : Feminine hygiene Further information : Menstrual hygiene day Menstruation is managed by menstruating women to avoid damage to clothing or to accord with norms of public life . Menstrual management practices range from medical suppression of menstruation , through wearing special garments or other items , washing or avoidance of washing , disposal and laundry of stained materials , to separation of menstruators to particular places or activities . Menstrual products ( also called `` feminine hygiene '' products ) are made to absorb or catch menstrual blood . A number of different products are available - some are disposable , some are reusable . Where women can afford it , items used to absorb or catch menses are usually commercially manufactured products . Disposable products Disposable sanitary napkin Tampon in plastic applicator Sanitary napkins ( also called sanitary towels or pads ) -- Rectangular pieces of material worn attached to the underwear to absorb menstrual flow , often with an adhesive backing to hold the pad in place . Disposable pads may contain wood pulp or gel products , usually with a plastic lining and bleached . Tampons -- Disposable cylinders of treated rayon / cotton blends or all - cotton fleece , usually bleached , that are inserted into the vagina to absorb menstrual flow . Disposable menstrual cups made of soft plastic -- A firm , flexible cup - shaped device worn inside the vagina to collect menstrual flow . Reusable products Menstrual cup Cloth menstrual pad Menstrual cups -- A firm , flexible bell - shaped device worn inside the vagina to collect menstrual flow . Menstrual cups are usually made of silicone and can last 5 years or longer . Reusable cloth pads -- Pads that are made of cotton ( often organic ) , terrycloth , or flannel , and may be handsewn ( from material or reused old clothes and towels ) or storebought . Padded panties or period - proof underwear -- Reusable cloth ( usually cotton ) underwear with extra absorbent layers sewn in to absorb flow . Some also use patented technology to be leak resistant , such as the brand THINX . Sea sponges -- Natural sponges , worn internally like a tampon to absorb menstrual flow . Blanket , towel -- ( also known as a draw sheet ) -- large reusable piece of cloth , most often used at night , placed between legs to absorb menstrual flow . Non-commercial items In developing countries , many poor women can not afford commercial feminine hygiene products . Instead , they use materials found in the environment or other improvised materials . Absorption materials that may be used by women who can not afford anything else include : sand , ash , small hole in earth , cloth , whole leaf , leaf fibre ( such as water hyacinth , banana , papyrus , cotton fibre ) , paper ( toilet paper , re-used newspaper , pulped and dried paper ) , animal pelt e.g. goat skin , double layer of underwear , skirt or sari . Society and culture Amra Padatik India , celebration of Menstrual Hygiene Day in India Traditions and taboos Main article : Culture and menstruation Further information : Menstrual taboo Many religions have menstruation - related traditions . Islam Islam prohibits sexual contact with women during menstruation in the 2nd chapter of the Quran . Women are exempted from Salah ( prayer ) . They are also prohibited from fasting and obligatory fasts of Ramadan are to be performed during other days . During menses pilgrimages are allowed ; however , circumambulation of the Kaaba is prohibited and is to be performed during other times . Judaism The laws of Niddah in Judaism may ban certain actions during menstruation ( such as sexual intercourse in some movements of Judaism ) or rituals performed at the end of each menses ( such as the mikvah ) . Some traditional societies sequester women in residences called `` menstrual huts '' that are reserved for that exclusive purpose . Hinduism In Hinduism , it is also frowned upon to go to a temple and do pooja ( i.e. , pray ) or do pooja at religious events if one is menstruating . Metaformic Theory , as proposed by cultural theorist Judy Grahn and others , places menstruation as a central organizing idea in the creation of culture and the formation of humans ' earliest rituals . Christianity Although most Christian denominations do not follow any specific or prescribed rites for menstruation , Western civilization , which has been predominantly Christian , has a history of menstrual taboos , with menstruating women having been believed to be dangerous . Secular culture Anthropologists , Lock and Nguyen ( 2010 ) , have noted that the heavy medicalization of the reproductive life - stages of women in the West , mimic power structures that are deemed , in other cultural practices , to function as a form of `` social control '' . Medicalization of the stages of women 's lives , such as birth and menstruation , has enlivened a feminist perspective that investigates the social implications of biomedicine 's practice . `` ( C ) ultural analysis of reproduction ... attempts to show how women ... exhibit resistance and create dominant alternative meanings about the body and reproduction to those dominant among the medical profession . '' Other In some parts of South Asia , women are isolated during menstruation . In 2005 , in Nepal , the Supreme Court abolished the practice of chhaupadi , keeping women in cow - sheds during menstruation . Sexual activity Sexual intercourse during menstruation does not cause damage in and of itself , but the woman 's body is more vulnerable during this time . Vaginal pH is higher and thus less acidic than normal , the cervix is lower in its position , the cervical opening is more dilated , and the uterine endometrial lining is absent , thus allowing organisms direct access to the bloodstream through the numerous blood vessels that nourish the uterus . All these conditions increase the chance of infection during menstruation . Education Menstruation education is frequently taught in combination with sex education in the US , although one study suggests that girls would prefer their mothers to be the primary source of information about menstruation and puberty . A Nigerian study showed the following breakdown in menstruation education : `` parents of 56.1 % , friends of 53.18 % , books of 45.56 % , teachers of 44.15 % , internet of 45.19 % , and health centers of 54.14 % '' held the most influence in terms of menstruation education . Information about menstruation is often shared among friends and peers , which may promote a more positive outlook on puberty . The quality of menstrual education in a society determines the accuracy of people 's understanding of the process . This is in part due to the segregation of male and female peers during educational sessions . Failure to teach an accurate understanding of menstruation to students of all genders has social implications for gendered relationships and the objectification of women 's bodies . Discomfort arises when students do not have access to the same information , reinforcing the belief `` that menstruation is gross and should be kept hidden '' . Girls are encouraged to conceal the fact that they may be menstruating in order to be considered desirable . Sexual harassment and teasing about menstruation cause girls anxiety as they must struggle to ensure that they give no sign of menstruation . Effective educational programs are essential to providing children and adolescents with clear and accurate information about menstruation . Several education and sexual health experts have studied the key features necessary for such programs . Some experts maintain that schools are an appropriate place for menstrual education to take place because they are an institution that young people attend consistently . Schools are intended to expand students ' knowledge and thus serve as an appropriate site for conveying menstrual education . Other experts argue that programs led by peers or third - party agencies are more effective than those taught in the school classroom . This may be due to the use of small group interactions , the ability of these programs to target specific populations , or the possibility that many teenagers choose to participate voluntarily in these programs , rather than being mandated to attend school programs . Cost Further information : Tampon tax The cost of commercial products for menstrual management is considered to be unacceptably high for many women . At least half a million women across the world do not have enough money to adequately afford these products . This can result in missing school or even dropping out . Known as `` period poverty '' this situation has resulted in efforts to eliminate taxes on these products . A study by the WHO and UNICEF showed that one out of five women in Scotland have been forced to improvise with items including toilet paper and old clothes due to the high cost of commercial products . In July 2017 , a pilot program began in Scotland to have free sanitary products available at schools and food banks for women who can not afford them . Further to this half year pilot program , Scotland 's opposition Labour Party intends to introduce a bill to make this permanent . Scotland is the first country to ban period poverty . In 2015 a petition was put forward in England seeking the elimination of the 5 % `` tampon tax '' . The government voted in favour but it has yet to be implemented due to Brexit complications . In England , one in ten women between 14 and 21 can not afford menstrual management products . In the United States , nine states have eliminated the tampon tax , and seven states have introduced legislation . In January 2018 , California rejected a proposal to eliminate tampon tax . Evolution All female placental mammals have a uterine lining that builds up when the animal is fertile , but it is dismantled when the animal is infertile . Most female mammals have an estrous cycle , yet only primates ( including humans ) , several species of bats , and elephant shrews have a menstrual cycle . ( Killer whales , Orcinus orca , are one of the few species to experience menopause . ) Some anthropologists have questioned the energy cost of rebuilding the endometrium every fertility cycle . However , anthropologist Beverly Strassmann has proposed that the energy savings of not having to continuously maintain the uterine lining more than offsets energy cost of having to rebuild the lining in the next fertility cycle , even in species such as humans where much of the lining is lost through bleeding ( overt menstruation ) rather than reabsorbed ( covert menstruation ) . Many have questioned the evolution of overt menstruation in humans and related species , speculating on what advantage there could be to losing blood associated with dismantling the endometrium , rather than absorbing it , as most mammals do . Humans do , in fact , reabsorb about two - thirds of the endometrium each cycle . Strassmann asserts that overt menstruation occurs not because it is beneficial in itself . Rather , the fetal development of these species requires a more developed endometrium , one which is too thick to reabsorb completely . Strassman correlates species that have overt menstruation to those that have a large uterus relative to the adult female body size . Beginning in 1971 , some research suggested that menstrual cycles of cohabiting human females became synchronized . A few anthropologists hypothesized that in hunter - gatherer societies , males would go on hunting journeys whilst the females of the tribe were menstruating , speculating that the females would not have been as receptive to sexual relations while menstruating . However , there is currently significant dispute as to whether menstrual synchrony exists . 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Indian J Pediatr. 75 ( 2 ) : 125 -- 9 . doi : 10.1007 / s12098 - 008 - 0018 - 5 . PMID 18334791 . Jump up ^ Gayle , A. Alleman . `` Herbal Remedies for Menstruation '' . howstuffworks . Retrieved 9 April 2018 . Jump up ^ Meczekalski , B ; Katulski , K ; Czyzyk , A ; Podfigurna - Stopa , A ; Maciejewska - Jeske , M ( November 2014 ) . `` Functional hypothalamic amenorrhea and its influence on women 's health '' . Journal of endocrinological investigation . 37 ( 11 ) : 1049 -- 56 . doi : 10.1007 / s40618 - 014 - 0169 - 3 . PMC 4207953 . PMID 25201001 . Jump up ^ Farage , Miranda ( 22 Mar 2013 ) . The Vulva : Anatomy , Physiology , and Pathology . CRC Press . pp. 155 -- 158 . Jump up ^ `` Menstrual blood problems : Clots , color and thickness '' . WebMD . Archived from the original on 23 September 2011 . Retrieved 20 September 2011 . Jump up ^ Clancy , Kate ( 27 July 2011 ) . `` Iron - deficiency is not something you get just for being a lady '' . SciAm . Archived from the original on 17 March 2012 . Jump up ^ Kepczyk T , Cremins JE , Long BD , Bachinski MB , Smith LR , McNally PR ( January 1999 ) . `` A prospective , multidisciplinary evaluation of premenopausal women with iron - deficiency anemia '' . Am. J. Gastroenterol. 94 ( 1 ) : 109 -- 15 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1572 - 0241.1999. 00780. x . PMID 9934740 . Jump up ^ Fraser IS , Critchley HO , Munro MG , Broder M ( 2007 ) . `` Can we achieve international agreement on terminologies and definitions used to describe abnormalities of menstrual bleeding ? '' . Hum Reprod. 22 ( 3 ) : 635 -- 43 . doi : 10.1093 / humrep / del478 . PMID 17204526 . Jump up ^ `` Health risks of female genital mutilation ( FGM ) '' . World Health Organization . Archived from the original on 29 November 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Delaying your period with birth control pills '' . Mayo Clinic . Archived from the original on 26 September 2011 . Retrieved 20 September 2011 . Jump up ^ `` How can I delay my period while on holiday ? '' . National Health Service , United Kingdom . Archived from the original on 5 August 2011 . Retrieved 20 September 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Do you really need to have a period every month ? '' . Discovery Health . Archived from the original on 8 February 2013 . Retrieved 20 September 2011 . Jump up ^ Amy Lind ; Stephanie Brzuzy ( 2007 ) . Battleground : Women , Gender , and Sexuality : Volume 2 : M -- Z . Greenwood . p. 348 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 313 - 34039 - 0 . Jump up ^ Kam , Katherine . `` Eliminate periods with birth control ? '' . WebMD . Archived from the original on 2 September 2011 . Retrieved 20 September 2011 . Jump up ^ McNeilly AS ( 2001 ) . `` Lactational control of reproduction '' . Reprod . Fertil . Dev. 13 ( 7 -- 8 ) : 583 -- 90 . doi : 10.1071 / RD01056 . PMID 11999309 . Archived from the original on 29 May 2003 . Jump up ^ Kippley , John ; Sheila Kippley ( 1996 ) . The Art of Natural Family Planning ( 4th ed . ) . Cincinnati , OH : The Couple to Couple League . p. 347 . ISBN 0 - 926412 - 13 - 2 . Jump up ^ Stallings JF , Worthman CM , Panter - Brick C , Coates RJ ( February 1996 ) . `` Prolactin response to suckling and maintenance of postpartum amenorrhea among intensively breastfeeding Nepali women '' . Endocr . Res. 22 ( 1 ) : 1 -- 28 . doi : 10.3109 / 07435809609030495 . PMID 8690004 . Jump up ^ `` Breastfeeding : Does It Really Space Babies ? '' . The Couple to Couple League International . Internet Archive. 17 January 2008 . Archived from the original on 17 January 2008 . Retrieved 21 September 2008 . , which cites : Kippley SK , Kippley JF ( November -- December 1972 ) . `` The relation between breastfeeding and amenorrhea '' . Journal of Obstetric , Gynecologic , & Neonatal Nursing. 1 ( 4 ) : 15 -- 21 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1552 - 6909.1972. tb00558. x . PMID 4485271 . Sheila Kippley ( November -- December 1986 and January -- February 1987 ) . `` Breastfeeding survey results similar to 1971 study '' . The CCL News . 13 ( 3 ) : 10 . Check date values in : date = ( help ) and 13 ( 4 ) : 5 . ^ Jump up to : Tamiru , S. , Mamo , K. , Acidria , P. , Mushi , R. , Satya Ali , C. , Ndebele , L. ( 2015 ) Towards a sustainable solution for school menstrual hygiene management : cases of Ethiopia , Uganda , South - Sudan , Tanzania , and Zimbabwe . Waterlines , Vol. 34 , No. 1 Jump up ^ House , S. , Mahon , T. , Cavill , S. ( 2012 ) . Menstrual hygiene matters - A resource for improving menstrual hygiene around the world Archived 24 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine ... WaterAid , UK Jump up ^ Chin , L. ( 2014 ) Period of shame - The Effects of Menstrual Hygiene Management on Rural Women and Girls ' Quality of Life in Savannakhet , Laos ( Master 's thesis ) LUMID International Master programme in applied International Development and Management http://lup.lub.lu.se/student-papers/record/4442938 ( accessed 10 August 2015 ) Jump up ^ `` The Emergence of Metaformic Consciousness '' . www.metaformia.org . Retrieved 2018 - 01 - 17 . Jump up ^ `` The Golden Bough : a study of magic and religion , by Sir James George Frazer : LX . Between Heaven and Earth '' . ebooks.adelaide.edu.au . Archived from the original on 14 July 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Lock , M. & Nguyen , V. - K. , 2010 . An Anthropology of Biomedicine . Oxford : Wiley - Blackwell . Jump up ^ Sushil Sharma , `` Women hail menstruation ruling '' Archived 31 August 2010 at the Wayback Machine. , BBC News , 15 September 2005 . Jump up ^ Ann Intern Med. 1982 Jun ; 96 ( 6 Pt 2 ) : 921 -- 3 . `` Vaginal physiology during menstruation . '' Jump up ^ Oettel , Michael ; Schillinger , Ekkehard ( 6 December 2012 ) . Estrogens and Antiestrogens II : Pharmacology and Clinical Application of Estrogens and Antiestrogen . Springer Science & Business Media . p. 355 . ISBN 9783642601071 . Archived from the original on 16 January 2017 . Jump up ^ Sooki , Zahra ; Shariati , Mohammad ; Chaman , Reza ; Khosravi , Ahmad ; Effatpanah , Mohammad ; Keramat , Afsaneh ( 2016 - 02 - 20 ) . `` The Role of Mother in Informing Girls About Puberty : A Meta - Analysis Study '' . Nursing and Midwifery Studies . 5 ( 1 ) . doi : 10.17795 / nmsjournal30360 . ISSN 2322 - 1488 . PMC 4915208 . PMID 27331056 . Jump up ^ Sooki , Zahra ; Shariati , Mohammad ; Chaman , Reza ; Khosravi , Ahmad ; Effatpanah , Mohammad ; Keramat , Afsaneh ( 2016 - 02 - 20 ) . `` The Role of Mother in Informing Girls About Puberty : A Meta - Analysis Study '' . Nursing and Midwifery Studies . 5 ( 1 ) . doi : 10.17795 / nmsjournal30360 . ISSN 2322 - 1488 . PMC 4915208 . PMID 27331056 . Jump up ^ Hatami , Mahnaz ; Kazemi , Ashraf ; Mehrabi , Tayebeh ( 2015 - 12 - 30 ) . `` Effect of peer education in school on sexual health knowledge and attitude in girl adolescents '' . Journal of Education and Health Promotion. 4 . doi : 10.4103 / 2277 - 9531.171791 . ISSN 2277 - 9531 . PMC 4944604 . PMID 27462620 . Jump up ^ Allen , Katherine ; et al. `` More Than Just a Punctuation Mark : How Boys and Young Men Learn About Menstruation '' . Journal of Family Issues . 32 : 129 -- 156 . CS1 maint : Explicit use of et al. ( link ) ^ Jump up to : Allen , Katherine R. ; Kaestle , Christine E. ; Goldberg , Abbie E. `` More Than Just a Punctuation Mark : How Boys and Young Men Learn About Menstruation '' . Journal of Family Issues . 32 ( 2 ) : 129 -- 156 . doi : 10.1177 / 0192513x10371609 . Jump up ^ Kirby , Douglas ( February 2002 ) . `` The impact of schools and school programs upon adolescent sexual behavior '' . Journal of Sex Research . 39 ( 1 ) : 27 -- 33 . doi : 10.1080 / 00224490209552116 . ISSN 0022 - 4499 . PMID 12476253 . Jump up ^ Kirby , Douglas ( February 2002 ) . `` The impact of schools and school programs upon adolescent sexual behavior '' . Journal of Sex Research . 39 ( 1 ) : 27 -- 33 . doi : 10.1080 / 00224490209552116 . ISSN 0022 - 4499 . PMID 12476253 . Jump up ^ https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/us/could-this-be-the-first-country-to-end-period-poverty/ar-AAw1fu4 Jump up ^ http://www.bbc.com/news/av/uk-england-hampshire-43148080/period-poverty-helping-homeless-and-vulnerable-women Jump up ^ https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2018/04/18/scotland-end-period-poverty-tampon-tax/502020002/ Jump up ^ `` Why do women menstruate ? '' . ScienceBlogs. 2011 . Archived from the original on 27 January 2013 . Retrieved 15 January 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Strassmann BI ( 1996 ) . `` The evolution of endometrial cycles and menstruation '' . The Quarterly Review of Biology . 71 ( 2 ) : 181 -- 220 . doi : 10.1086 / 419369 . PMID 8693059 . Jump up ^ Kathleen O'Grady ( 2000 ) . `` Is Menstruation Obsolete ? '' . The Canadian Women 's Health Network . Archived from the original on 13 February 2007 . Retrieved 21 January 2007 . Jump up ^ Desmond Morris ( 1997 ) . `` The Human Sexes '' . Cambridge University Press . Jump up ^ Chris Knight ( 1991 ) . Blood relations : menstruation and the origins of culture . New Haven , Conn : Yale University Press . ISBN 0 - 300 - 06308 - 3 . Jump up ^ Adams , Cecil ( 20 December 2002 ) . `` Does menstrual synchrony really exist ? '' . The Straight Dope . The Chicago Reader . Archived from the original on 15 September 2008 . Retrieved 10 January 2007 . Further reading Howie , Gillian ; Shail , Andrew ( 2005 ) . Menstruation : A Cultural History . Palgrave Macmillan . ISBN 1 - 4039 - 3935 - 7 . Retrieved 9 November 2013 . Knight , Chris ( 1995 ) . Blood Relations : Menstruation and the Origins of Culture . New Haven and London : Yale University . ISBN 0 - 300 - 04911 - 0 . Retrieved 9 November 2013 . External links Wikiquote has quotations related to : Menstruation Wikimedia Commons has media related to Menstruation . 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Bond ( finance ) - wikipedia Bond ( finance ) Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the financial instrument . For other uses , see Bond ( disambiguation ) . Securities Securities ( show ) Banknote Bond Debenture Derivative Stock Markets ( show ) Stock market Commodity market Foreign exchange market Futures exchange Over-the - counter market ( OTC ) Spot market Bonds by coupon ( show ) Fixed rate bond Floating rate note Inflation - indexed bond Perpetual bond Zero - coupon bond Commercial paper Bonds by issuer ( show ) Corporate bond Government bond Municipal bond Pfandbrief Equities ( stocks ) ( show ) Stock Share Initial public offering ( IPO ) Short selling Investment funds ( show ) Mutual fund Closed - end fund Exchange - traded fund ( ETF ) Hedge fund Index fund Segregated fund Structured finance ( show ) Securitization Agency security Asset - backed security Mortgage - backed security Commercial mortgage - backed security Residential mortgage - backed security Tranche Collateralized debt obligation Collateralized fund obligation Collateralized mortgage obligation Credit - linked note Unsecured debt Derivatives ( show ) Forward Futures Option Swap Warrant Credit derivative Hybrid security In finance , a bond is an instrument of indebtedness of the bond issuer to the holders . The most common types of bonds include municipal bonds and corporate bonds . The bond is a debt security , under which the issuer owes the holders a debt and ( depending on the terms of the bond ) is obliged to pay them interest ( the coupon ) or to repay the principal at a later date , termed the maturity date . Interest is usually payable at fixed intervals ( semiannual , annual , sometimes monthly ) . Very often the bond is negotiable , that is , the ownership of the instrument can be transferred in the secondary market . This means that once the transfer agents at the bank medallion stamp the bond , it is highly liquid on the secondary market . Thus a bond is a form of loan or IOU : the holder of the bond is the lender ( creditor ) , the issuer of the bond is the borrower ( debtor ) , and the coupon is the interest . Bonds provide the borrower with external funds to finance long - term investments , or , in the case of government bonds , to finance current expenditure . Certificates of deposit ( CDs ) or short - term commercial paper are considered to be money market instruments and not bonds : the main difference is the length of the term of the instrument . Bonds and stocks are both securities , but the major difference between the two is that ( capital ) stockholders have an equity stake in a company ( that is , they are owners ) , whereas bondholders have a creditor stake in the company ( that is , they are lenders ) . Being a creditor , bondholders have priority over stockholders . This means they will be repaid in advance of stockholders , but will rank behind secured creditors , in the event of bankruptcy . Another difference is that bonds usually have a defined term , or maturity , after which the bond is redeemed , whereas stocks typically remain outstanding indefinitely . An exception is an irredeemable bond , such as a consol , which is a perpetuity , that is , a bond with no maturity . Contents ( hide ) 1 Etymology 2 Issuance 3 Features 3.1 Principal 3.2 Maturity 3.3 Coupon 3.4 Yield 3.5 Credit quality 3.6 Market price 3.7 Others 4 Types 4.1 Foreign currencies 5 Bond valuation 6 Investing in bonds 6.1 Bond indices 7 See also 8 References 9 External links Etymology ( edit ) In English , the word `` bond '' relates to the etymology of `` bind '' . In the sense `` instrument binding one to pay a sum to another '' , use of the word `` bond '' dates from at least the 1590s . Issuance ( edit ) Bonds are issued by public authorities , credit institutions , companies and supranational institutions in the primary markets . The most common process for issuing bonds is through underwriting . When a bond issue is underwritten , one or more securities firms or banks , forming a syndicate , buy the entire issue of bonds from the issuer and re-sell them to investors . The security firm takes the risk of being unable to sell on the issue to end investors . Primary issuance is arranged by bookrunners who arrange the bond issue , have direct contact with investors and act as advisers to the bond issuer in terms of timing and price of the bond issue . The bookrunner is listed first among all underwriters participating in the issuance in the tombstone ads commonly used to announce bonds to the public . The bookrunners ' willingness to underwrite must be discussed prior to any decision on the terms of the bond issue as there may be limited demand for the bonds . In contrast , government bonds are usually issued in an auction . In some cases , both members of the public and banks may bid for bonds . In other cases , only market makers may bid for bonds . The overall rate of return on the bond depends on both the terms of the bond and the price paid . The terms of the bond , such as the coupon , are fixed in advance and the price is determined by the market . In the case of an underwritten bond , the underwriters will charge a fee for underwriting . An alternative process for bond issuance , which is commonly used for smaller issues and avoids this cost , is the private placement bond . Bonds sold directly to buyers may not be tradeable in the bond market . Historically an alternative practice of issuance was for the borrowing government authority to issue bonds over a period of time , usually at a fixed price , with volumes sold on a particular day dependent on market conditions . This was called a tap issue or bond tap . Features ( edit ) Principal ( edit ) 1978 $1,000 U.S. Treasury Bond Nominal , principal , par , or face amount is the amount on which the issuer pays interest , and which , most commonly , has to be repaid at the end of the term . Some structured bonds can have a redemption amount which is different from the face amount and can be linked to performance of particular assets . Maturity ( edit ) The issuer has to repay the nominal amount on the maturity date . As long as all due payments have been made , the issuer has no further obligations to the bond holders after the maturity date . The length of time until the maturity date is often referred to as the term or tenure or maturity of a bond . The maturity can be any length of time , although debt securities with a term of less than one year are generally designated money market instruments rather than bonds . Most bonds have a term of up to 30 years . Some bonds have been issued with terms of 50 years or more , and historically there have been some issues with no maturity date ( irredeemable ) . In the market for United States Treasury securities , there are three categories of bond maturities : short term ( bills ) : maturities between one and five years ; medium term ( notes ) : maturities between six and twelve years ; long term ( bonds ) : maturities longer than twelve years . Coupon ( edit ) The coupon is the interest rate that the issuer pays to the holder . Usually this rate is fixed throughout the life of the bond . It can also vary with a money market index , such as LIBOR , or it can be even more exotic . The name `` coupon '' arose because in the past , paper bond certificates were issued which had coupons attached to them , one for each interest payment . On the due dates the bondholder would hand in the coupon to a bank in exchange for the interest payment . Interest can be paid at different frequencies : generally semi-annual , i.e. every 6 months , or annual . Bond issued by the Dutch East India Company in 1623 Yield ( edit ) The yield is the rate of return received from investing in the bond . It usually refers either to The current yield , or running yield , which is simply the annual interest payment divided by the current market price of the bond ( often the clean price ) . The yield to maturity , or redemption yield , which is a more useful measure of the return of the bond . This takes into account the current market price , and the amount and timing of all remaining coupon payments and of the repayment due on maturity . It is equivalent to the internal rate of return of a bond . Credit quality ( edit ) The quality of the issue refers to the probability that the bondholders will receive the amounts promised at the due dates . This will depend on a wide range of factors . High - yield bonds are bonds that are rated below investment grade by the credit rating agencies . As these bonds are riskier than investment grade bonds , investors expect to earn a higher yield . These bonds are also called junk bonds . Market price ( edit ) The market price of a tradable bond will be influenced , amongst other factors , by the amounts , currency and timing of the interest payments and capital repayment due , the quality of the bond , and the available redemption yield of other comparable bonds which can be traded in the markets . The price can be quoted as clean or dirty . `` Dirty '' includes the present value of all future cash flows , including accrued interest , and is most often used in Europe . `` Clean '' does not include accrued interest , and is most often used in the U.S. The issue price at which investors buy the bonds when they are first issued will typically be approximately equal to the nominal amount . The net proceeds that the issuer receives are thus the issue price , less issuance fees . The market price of the bond will vary over its life : it may trade at a premium ( above par , usually because market interest rates have fallen since issue ) , or at a discount ( price below par , if market rates have risen or there is a high probability of default on the bond ) . Others ( edit ) Indentures and Covenants -- An indenture is a formal debt agreement that establishes the terms of a bond issue , while covenants are the clauses of such an agreement . Covenants specify the rights of bondholders and the duties of issuers , such as actions that the issuer is obligated to perform or is prohibited from performing . In the U.S. , federal and state securities and commercial laws apply to the enforcement of these agreements , which are construed by courts as contracts between issuers and bondholders . The terms may be changed only with great difficulty while the bonds are outstanding , with amendments to the governing document generally requiring approval by a majority ( or super-majority ) vote of the bondholders . Optionality : Occasionally a bond may contain an embedded option ; that is , it grants option - like features to the holder or the issuer : Callability -- Some bonds give the issuer the right to repay the bond before the maturity date on the call dates ; see call option . These bonds are referred to as callable bonds . Most callable bonds allow the issuer to repay the bond at par . With some bonds , the issuer has to pay a premium , the so - called call premium . This is mainly the case for high - yield bonds . These have very strict covenants , restricting the issuer in its operations . To be free from these covenants , the issuer can repay the bonds early , but only at a high cost . Putability -- Some bonds give the holder the right to force the issuer to repay the bond before the maturity date on the put dates ; see put option . These are referred to as retractable or putable bonds . Call dates and put dates -- the dates on which callable and putable bonds can be redeemed early . There are four main categories : A Bermudan callable has several call dates , usually coinciding with coupon dates . A European callable has only one call date . This is a special case of a Bermudan callable . An American callable can be called at any time until the maturity date . A death put is an optional redemption feature on a debt instrument allowing the beneficiary of the estate of a deceased bondholder to put ( sell ) the bond back to the issuer at face value in the event of the bondholder 's death or legal incapacitation . This is also known as a `` survivor 's option '' . Sinking fund provision of the corporate bond indenture requires a certain portion of the issue to be retired periodically . The entire bond issue can be liquidated by the maturity date ; if not , the remainder is called balloon maturity . Issuers may either pay to trustees , which in turn call randomly selected bonds in the issue , or , alternatively , purchase bonds in open market , then return them to trustees . Bonds are often identified by its international securities identification number , or ISIN , which is a 12 digit alphanumeric code that uniquely identifies debt securities . A smart bond is an automated programmable bond contract that uses the capabilities of a blockchain database to operate as a cryptographically - secure yet open and transparent general bond ledger . It is one of a class of financial instruments known as a smart contract , `` a computerized transaction protocol that executes the terms of a contract . '' Smart bond technology may lower transaction costs by the elimination of the `` middle or back office '' , as well as the bond registry , substantially reducing the cost of bond servicing . Another potential benefit is the potential for instantaneous settlement , rather than the days , as well as lower operational risk . In 2015 , UBS was experimenting with smart bonds that use the bitcoin blockchain . Types ( edit ) Bond certificate for the state of South Carolina issued in 1873 under the state 's Consolidation Act . Railroad obligation of the Moscow - Kiev - Voronezh railroad company , printed in Russian , Dutch and German . The following descriptions are not mutually exclusive , and more than one of them may apply to a particular bond : Fixed rate bonds have a coupon that remains constant throughout the life of the bond . A variation are stepped - coupon bonds , whose coupon increases during the life of the bond . Floating rate notes ( FRNs , floaters ) have a variable coupon that is linked to a reference rate of interest , such as Libor or Euribor . For example , the coupon may be defined as three - month USD LIBOR + 0.20 % . The coupon rate is recalculated periodically , typically every one or three months . Zero - coupon bonds ( zeros ) pay no regular interest . They are issued at a substantial discount to par value , so that the interest is effectively rolled up to maturity ( and usually taxed as such ) . The bondholder receives the full principal amount on the redemption date . An example of zero coupon bonds is Series E savings bonds issued by the U.S. government . Zero - coupon bonds may be created from fixed rate bonds by a financial institution separating ( `` stripping off '' ) the coupons from the principal . In other words , the separated coupons and the final principal payment of the bond may be traded separately . See IO ( Interest Only ) and PO ( Principal Only ) . High - yield bonds ( junk bonds ) are bonds that are rated below investment grade by the credit rating agencies . As these bonds are riskier than investment grade bonds , investors expect to earn a higher yield . Convertible bonds let a bondholder exchange a bond to a number of shares of the issuer 's common stock . These are known as hybrid securities , because they combine equity and debt features . Exchangeable bonds allows for exchange to shares of a corporation other than the issuer . Inflation - indexed bonds ( linkers ) ( US ) or Index - linked bond ( UK ) , in which the principal amount and the interest payments are indexed to inflation . The interest rate is normally lower than for fixed rate bonds with a comparable maturity ( this position briefly reversed itself for short - term UK bonds in December 2008 ) . However , as the principal amount grows , the payments increase with inflation . The United Kingdom was the first sovereign issuer to issue inflation linked gilts in the 1980s . Treasury Inflation - Protected Securities ( TIPS ) and I - bonds are examples of inflation linked bonds issued by the U.S. government . Receipt for temporary bonds for the state of Kansas issued in 1922 Other indexed bonds , for example equity - linked notes and bonds indexed on a business indicator ( income , added value ) or on a country 's GDP . Asset - backed securities are bonds whose interest and principal payments are backed by underlying cash flows from other assets . Examples of asset - backed securities are mortgage - backed securities ( MBSs ) , collateralized mortgage obligations ( CMOs ) and collateralized debt obligations ( CDOs ) . Subordinated bonds are those that have a lower priority than other bonds of the issuer in case of liquidation . In case of bankruptcy , there is a hierarchy of creditors . First the liquidator is paid , then government taxes , etc . The first bond holders in line to be paid are those holding what is called senior bonds . After they have been paid , the subordinated bond holders are paid . As a result , the risk is higher . Therefore , subordinated bonds usually have a lower credit rating than senior bonds . The main examples of subordinated bonds can be found in bonds issued by banks , and asset - backed securities . The latter are often issued in tranches . The senior tranches get paid back first , the subordinated tranches later . Covered bonds are backed by cash flows from mortgages or public sector assets . Contrary to asset - backed securities the assets for such bonds remain on the issuers balance sheet . Perpetual bonds are also often called perpetuities or ' Perps ' . They have no maturity date . The most famous of these are the UK Consols , which are also known as Treasury Annuities or Undated Treasuries . Some of these were issued back in 1888 and still trade today , although the amounts are now insignificant . Some ultra-long - term bonds ( sometimes a bond can last centuries : West Shore Railroad issued a bond which matures in 2361 ( i.e. 24th century ) are virtually perpetuities from a financial point of view , with the current value of principal near zero . Bearer bond is an official certificate issued without a named holder . In other words , the person who has the paper certificate can claim the value of the bond . Often they are registered by a number to prevent counterfeiting , but may be traded like cash . Bearer bonds are very risky because they can be lost or stolen . Especially after federal income tax began in the United States , bearer bonds were seen as an opportunity to conceal income or assets . U.S. corporations stopped issuing bearer bonds in the 1960s , the U.S. Treasury stopped in 1982 , and state and local tax - exempt bearer bonds were prohibited in 1983 . Registered bond is a bond whose ownership ( and any subsequent purchaser ) is recorded by the issuer , or by a transfer agent . It is the alternative to a Bearer bond . Interest payments , and the principal upon maturity are sent to the registered owner . A government bond , also called Treasury bond , is issued by a national government and is not exposed to default risk . It is characterized as the safest bond , with the lowest interest rate . A treasury bond is backed by the `` full faith and credit '' of the relevant government . For that reason , for the major OECD countries this type of bond is often referred to as risk - free . Pacific Railroad Bond issued by City and County of San Francisco , CA . May 1 , 1865 Municipal bond is a bond issued by a state , U.S. Territory , city , local government , or their agencies . Interest income received by holders of municipal bonds is often exempt from the federal income tax and from the income tax of the state in which they are issued , although municipal bonds issued for certain purposes may not be tax exempt . Build America Bonds ( BABs ) are a form of municipal bond authorized by the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 . Unlike traditional US municipal bonds , which are usually tax exempt , interest received on BABs is subject to federal taxation . However , as with municipal bonds , the bond is tax - exempt within the US state where it is issued . Generally , BABs offer significantly higher yields ( over 7 percent ) than standard municipal bonds . Book - entry bond is a bond that does not have a paper certificate . As physically processing paper bonds and interest coupons became more expensive , issuers ( and banks that used to collect coupon interest for depositors ) have tried to discourage their use . Some book - entry bond issues do not offer the option of a paper certificate , even to investors who prefer them . Lottery bonds are issued by European and other states . Interest is paid as on a traditional fixed rate bond , but the issuer will redeem randomly selected individual bonds within the issue according to a schedule . Some of these redemptions will be for a higher value than the face value of the bond . War bond is a bond issued by a government to fund military operations during wartime . This type of bond has low return rate . Serial bond is a bond that matures in installments over a period of time . In effect , a $100,000 , 5 - year serial bond would mature in a $20,000 annuity over a 5 - year interval . Revenue bond is a special type of municipal bond distinguished by its guarantee of repayment solely from revenues generated by a specified revenue - generating entity associated with the purpose of the bonds . Revenue bonds are typically `` non-recourse '' , meaning that in the event of default , the bond holder has no recourse to other governmental assets or revenues . Climate bond is a bond issued by a government or corporate entity in order to raise finance for climate change mitigation - or adaptation - related projects or programmes . Dual currency bonds Retail bonds are a type of corporate bond mostly designed for ordinary investors . They have become particularly attractive since the London Stock Exchange ( LSE ) launched an order book for retail bonds . Social impact bonds are an agreement for public sector entities to pay back private investors after meeting verified improved social outcome goals that result in public sector savings from innovative social program pilot projects . Foreign currencies ( edit ) Some companies , banks , governments , and other sovereign entities may decide to issue bonds in foreign currencies as it may appear to be more stable and predictable than their domestic currency . Issuing bonds denominated in foreign currencies also gives issuers the ability to access investment capital available in foreign markets . The proceeds from the issuance of these bonds can be used by companies to break into foreign markets , or can be converted into the issuing company 's local currency to be used on existing operations through the use of foreign exchange swap hedges . Foreign issuer bonds can also be used to hedge foreign exchange rate risk . Some foreign issuer bonds are called by their nicknames , such as the `` samurai bond '' . These can be issued by foreign issuers looking to diversify their investor base away from domestic markets . These bond issues are generally governed by the law of the market of issuance , e.g. , a samurai bond , issued by an investor based in Europe , will be governed by Japanese law . Not all of the following bonds are restricted for purchase by investors in the market of issuance . Eurodollar bond , a U.S. dollar - denominated bond issued by a non-U.S. entity outside the U.S Baklava bond , a bond denominated in Turkish Lira and issued by a domestic or foreign entity in the Turkish market Yankee bond , a US dollar - denominated bond issued by a non-US entity in the US market Kangaroo bond , an Australian dollar - denominated bond issued by a non-Australian entity in the Australian market Maple bond , a Canadian dollar - denominated bond issued by a non-Canadian entity in the Canadian market Masala bonds an Indian rupee denominated bond issued outside India . Samurai bond , a Japanese yen - denominated bond issued by a non-Japanese entity in the Japanese market Uridashi bond , a non-yen - denominated bond sold to Japanese retail investors . Shibosai Bond , a private placement bond in the Japanese market with distribution limited to institutions and banks . Shogun bond , a non-yen - denominated bond issued in Japan by a non-Japanese institution or government Bulldog bond , a pound sterling - denominated bond issued in London by a foreign institution or government . Matryoshka bond , a Russian rouble - denominated bond issued in the Russian Federation by non-Russian entities . The name derives from the famous Russian wooden dolls , Matrioshka , popular among foreign visitors to Russia Arirang bond , a Korean won - denominated bond issued by a non-Korean entity in the Korean market Kimchi bond , a non-Korean won - denominated bond issued by a non-Korean entity in the Korean market Formosa bond , a non-New Taiwan Dollar - denominated bond issued by a non-Taiwan entity in the Taiwan market Panda bond , a Chinese renminbi - denominated bond issued by a non-China entity in the People 's Republic of China market Dim sum bond , a Chinese renminbi - denominated bond issued by a Chinese entity in Hong Kong . Enables foreign investors forbidden from investing in Chinese corporate debt in mainland China to invest in and be exposed to Chinese currency in Hong Kong . Huaso bond , a Chilean peso - denominated bond issued by a non-Chilean entity in the Chilean market . Lion City bond foreign currency denominated bond issued by foreign company in Singapore Komodo bonds , rupiah - denominated global bonds issued in Indonesia , `` The Komodo dragon is a very large species of lizards found in eastern Indonesia . '' Bond valuation ( edit ) See also : Bond valuation At the time of issue of the bond , the interest rate and other conditions of the bond will have been influenced by a variety of factors , such as current market interest rates , the length of the term and the creditworthiness of the issuer . These factors are likely to change over time , so the market price of a bond will vary after it is issued . The market price is expressed as a percentage of nominal value . Bonds are not necessarily issued at par ( 100 % of face value , corresponding to a price of 100 ) , but bond prices will move towards par as they approach maturity ( if the market expects the maturity payment to be made in full and on time ) as this is the price the issuer will pay to redeem the bond . This is referred to as `` Pull to Par '' . At other times , prices can be above par ( bond is priced at greater than 100 ) , which is called trading at a premium , or below par ( bond is priced at less than 100 ) , which is called trading at a discount . Most government bonds are denominated in units of $1000 in the United States , or in units of £ 100 in the United Kingdom . Hence , a deep discount US bond , selling at a price of 75.26 , indicates a selling price of $752.60 per bond sold . ( Often , in the US , bond prices are quoted in points and thirty - seconds of a point , rather than in decimal form . ) Some short - term bonds , such as the U.S. Treasury bill , are always issued at a discount , and pay par amount at maturity rather than paying coupons . This is called a discount bond . The market price of a bond is the present value of all expected future interest and principal payments of the bond discounted at the bond 's yield to maturity , or rate of return . That relationship is the definition of the redemption yield on the bond , which is likely to be close to the current market interest rate for other bonds with similar characteristics . ( Otherwise there would be arbitrage opportunities . ) The yield and price of a bond are inversely related so that when market interest rates rise , bond prices fall and vice versa . The market price of a bond may be quoted including the accrued interest since the last coupon date . ( Some bond markets include accrued interest in the trading price and others add it on separately when settlement is made . ) The price including accrued interest is known as the `` full '' or `` dirty price '' . ( See also Accrual bond . ) The price excluding accrued interest is known as the `` flat '' or `` clean price '' . The interest payment ( `` coupon payment '' ) divided by the current price of the bond is called the current yield ( this is the nominal yield multiplied by the par value and divided by the price ) . There are other yield measures that exist such as the yield to first call , yield to worst , yield to first par call , yield to put , cash flow yield and yield to maturity . The relationship between yield and term to maturity ( or alternatively between yield and the weighted mean term allowing for both interest and capital repayment ) for otherwise identical bonds is called a yield curve . The yield curve is a graph plotting this relationship . Bond markets , unlike stock or share markets , sometimes do not have a centralized exchange or trading system . Rather , in most developed bond markets such as the U.S. , Japan and western Europe , bonds trade in decentralized , dealer - based over-the - counter markets . In such a market , market liquidity is provided by dealers and other market participants committing risk capital to trading activity . In the bond market , when an investor buys or sells a bond , the counterparty to the trade is almost always a bank or securities firm acting as a dealer . In some cases , when a dealer buys a bond from an investor , the dealer carries the bond `` in inventory '' , i.e. holds it for their own account . The dealer is then subject to risks of price fluctuation . In other cases , the dealer immediately resells the bond to another investor . Bond markets can also differ from stock markets in that , in some markets , investors sometimes do not pay brokerage commissions to dealers with whom they buy or sell bonds . Rather , the dealers earn revenue by means of the spread , or difference , between the price at which the dealer buys a bond from one investor -- the `` bid '' price -- and the price at which he or she sells the same bond to another investor -- the `` ask '' or `` offer '' price . The bid / offer spread represents the total transaction cost associated with transferring a bond from one investor to another . Investing in bonds ( edit ) Bonds are bought and traded mostly by institutions like central banks , sovereign wealth funds , pension funds , insurance companies , hedge funds , and banks . Insurance companies and pension funds have liabilities which essentially include fixed amounts payable on predetermined dates . They buy the bonds to match their liabilities , and may be compelled by law to do this . Most individuals who want to own bonds do so through bond funds . Still , in the U.S. , nearly 10 % of all bonds outstanding are held directly by households . The volatility of bonds ( especially short and medium dated bonds ) is lower than that of equities ( stocks ) . Thus , bonds are generally viewed as safer investments than stocks , but this perception is only partially correct . Bonds do suffer from less day - to - day volatility than stocks , and bonds ' interest payments are sometimes higher than the general level of dividend payments . Bonds are often liquid -- it is often fairly easy for an institution to sell a large quantity of bonds without affecting the price much , which may be more difficult for equities -- and the comparative certainty of a fixed interest payment twice a year and a fixed lump sum at maturity is attractive . Bondholders also enjoy a measure of legal protection : under the law of most countries , if a company goes bankrupt , its bondholders will often receive some money back ( the recovery amount ) , whereas the company 's equity stock often ends up valueless . However , bonds can also be risky but less risky than stocks : Fixed rate bonds are subject to interest rate risk , meaning that their market prices will decrease in value when the generally prevailing interest rates rise . Since the payments are fixed , a decrease in the market price of the bond means an increase in its yield . When the market interest rate rises , the market price of bonds will fall , reflecting investors ' ability to get a higher interest rate on their money elsewhere -- perhaps by purchasing a newly issued bond that already features the newly higher interest rate . This does not affect the interest payments to the bondholder , so long - term investors who want a specific amount at the maturity date do not need to worry about price swings in their bonds and do not suffer from interest rate risk . Bonds are also subject to various other risks such as call and prepayment risk , credit risk , reinvestment risk , liquidity risk , event risk , exchange rate risk , volatility risk , inflation risk , sovereign risk and yield curve risk . Again , some of these will only affect certain classes of investors . Price changes in a bond will immediately affect mutual funds that hold these bonds . If the value of the bonds in their trading portfolio falls , the value of the portfolio also falls . This can be damaging for professional investors such as banks , insurance companies , pension funds and asset managers ( irrespective of whether the value is immediately `` marked to market '' or not ) . If there is any chance a holder of individual bonds may need to sell their bonds and `` cash out '' , interest rate risk could become a real problem ( conversely , bonds ' market prices would increase if the prevailing interest rate were to drop , as it did from 2001 through 2003 . One way to quantify the interest rate risk on a bond is in terms of its duration . Efforts to control this risk are called immunization or hedging . Bond prices can become volatile depending on the credit rating of the issuer -- for instance if the credit rating agencies like Standard & Poor 's and Moody 's upgrade or downgrade the credit rating of the issuer . An unanticipated downgrade will cause the market price of the bond to fall . As with interest rate risk , this risk does not affect the bond 's interest payments ( provided the issuer does not actually default ) , but puts at risk the market price , which affects mutual funds holding these bonds , and holders of individual bonds who may have to sell them . A company 's bondholders may lose much or all their money if the company goes bankrupt . Under the laws of many countries ( including the United States and Canada ) , bondholders are in line to receive the proceeds of the sale of the assets of a liquidated company ahead of some other creditors . Bank lenders , deposit holders ( in the case of a deposit taking institution such as a bank ) and trade creditors may take precedence . There is no guarantee of how much money will remain to repay bondholders . As an example , after an accounting scandal and a Chapter 11 bankruptcy at the giant telecommunications company Worldcom , in 2004 its bondholders ended up being paid 35.7 cents on the dollar . In a bankruptcy involving reorganization or recapitalization , as opposed to liquidation , bondholders may end up having the value of their bonds reduced , often through an exchange for a smaller number of newly issued bonds . Some bonds are callable , meaning that even though the company has agreed to make payments plus interest towards the debt for a certain period of time , the company can choose to pay off the bond early . This creates reinvestment risk , meaning the investor is forced to find a new place for their money , and the investor might not be able to find as good a deal , especially because this usually happens when interest rates are falling . Bond indices ( edit ) See also : Bond market index A number of bond indices exist for the purposes of managing portfolios and measuring performance , similar to the S&P 500 or Russell Indexes for stocks . The most common American benchmarks are the Barclays Capital Aggregate ( ex Lehman Aggregate ) , Citigroup BIG and Merrill Lynch Domestic Master . Most indices are parts of families of broader indices that can be used to measure global bond portfolios , or may be further subdivided by maturity or sector for managing specialized portfolios . See also ( edit ) Bond credit rating Bond fund Bond market Bond market index Collective action clause Debenture Deferred financing costs GDP - linked bond Government bond / Sovereign bonds Immunization ( finance ) Promissory note Short - rate model Penal bond Structured note Market specific Brady Bonds Build America Bonds Eurobond General Criticism of debt Fixed income List of accounting topics List of economics topics List of finance topics References ( edit ) Jump up ^ O'Sullivan , Arthur ; Sheffrin , Steven M. ( 2003 ) . Economics : Principles in action . Upper Saddle River , New Jersey 07458 : Pearson Prentice Hall . pp. 197 , 507 . ISBN 0 - 13 - 063085 - 3 . Jump up ^ Bonds , accessed : 2012 - 06 - 08 Jump up ^ Absolute Priority , accessed : 2013 - 10 - 8 Jump up ^ Harper , Douglas . `` bond '' . Online Etymology Dictionary . Retrieved 2017 - 07 - 23 . Jump up ^ `` UK Debt Management Office '' . Dmo.gov.uk . Retrieved 2012 - 03 - 22 . Jump up ^ `` Affordable Housing Finance '' . Housingfinance.com . Retrieved 2012 - 03 - 22 . Jump up ^ Tap issue at Investopedia Jump up ^ `` Dirty Price '' . Investopedia . Retrieved 8 November 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Jenn , Sarah ( 2015 - 06 - 15 ) . `` UBS Bank to Launch Cryptosecurites Also ? '' . NewsBTC . Retrieved 2016 - 05 - 27 . Jump up ^ Tapscott , Don ; Tapscott , Alex ( May 2016 ) . The Blockchain Revolution : How the Technology Behind Bitcoin is Changing Money , Business , and the World . pp. 72 , 83 , 101 , 127 . ISBN 978 - 0670069972 . Jump up ^ Ross , Rory ( 2015 - 09 - 12 ) . `` Smart Money : Blockchains Are the Future of the Internet '' . Newsweek . Retrieved 2016 - 05 - 27 . Jump up ^ Wigan , David ( 2015 - 06 - 11 ) . `` Bitcoin technology will disrupt derivatives , says banker '' . IFR Asia . Retrieved 2016 - 05 - 27 . Jump up ^ Eason , Yla ( June 6 , 1983 ) . `` Final Surge in Bearer Bonds '' New York Times . Jump up ^ Quint , Michael ( August 14 , 1984 ) . `` Elements in Bearer Bond Issue '' . New York Times . Jump up ^ Benjamin Shepherd . `` A Slice of the Pie '' . InvestingDaily.com . Retrieved 2010 - 01 - 19 . Jump up ^ no byline ( July 18 , 1984 ) . `` Book Entry Bonds Popular '' . New York Times . Jump up ^ Dual currency bond , accessed 2012 - 06 - 08 . Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20130209161432/http://www.cfo-insight.com/financing-liquidity/loans-and-bonds/enquest-cfo-swinney-on-issuing-first-industrial-retail-bond/ . Archived from the original on February 9 , 2013 . Retrieved February 6 , 2013 . Missing or empty title = ( help ) Jump up ^ http://www.hedgefundonline.com/ Jump up ^ `` Eurodollar deposit '' . Archived from the original on 2008 - 12 - 26 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 05 . Jump up ^ Memili , Ümit ( 2012 ) . Baklava Bonds : Sweet Margins in Turkey . Evaluating Turkish Corporate Bonds in Local Currency . p. 117 . Jump up ^ no byline ( 2005 - 12 - 05 ) . `` Ninja loans may yet overtake samurais '' . The Standard . Archived from the original on 2007 - 09 - 29 . Retrieved 2008 - 12 - 09 . Jump up ^ http://lexicon.ft.com/Term?term=bulldog-bond&mhq5j=e2 . Missing or empty title = ( help ) Jump up ^ Batten , Jonathan A. ; Peter G. Szilagyi ( 2006 - 04 - 19 ) . `` Developing Foreign Bond Markets : The Arirang Bond Experience in Korea '' ( PDF ) . IIS Discussion Papers ( 138 ) . Retrieved 2007 - 07 - 06 . Jump up ^ Gwon , Yeong - seok ( 2006 - 05 - 24 ) . `` ' 김치 본드 ' 내달 처음 으로 선보인다 ( Announcement : first ' Kimchi Bonds ' next month ) '' . The Hankyoreh . Retrieved 2007 - 07 - 06 . Jump up ^ Chung , Amber ( 2007 - 04 - 19 ) . `` BNP Paribas mulls second bond issue on offshore market '' . Taipei Times . Retrieved 2007 - 07 - 04 . Jump up ^ Areddy , James T. ( 2005 - 10 - 11 ) . `` Chinese Markets Take New Step With Panda Bond '' . The Wall Street Journal . Retrieved 2007 - 07 - 06 . Jump up ^ Stein , Peter ( 2010 - 11 - 01 ) . `` Dim Sum Bonds ' on the Menu for Foreign Investors '' . The Wall Street Journal . Retrieved 2010 - 11 - 01 . Jump up ^ Moura , Fabiola ( 2011 - 03 - 26 ) . `` Chile Expects More ' Huaso ' Bond Sales in Coming Months , Larrain Says '' . Bloomberg . Jump up ^ `` https://www.bizjournals.com/washington/stories/2003/06/16/daily13.html '' . www.bizjournals.com . Retrieved 2018 - 02 - 09 . External link in title = ( help ) External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bond certificates . Bonds links at Curlie ( based on DMOZ ) Estate planner victimized terminally ill , FBI Bond market Bond Debenture Fixed income Types of bonds by issuer Agency bond Corporate bond Senior debt Subordinated debt Distressed debt Emerging market debt Government bond Municipal bond Types of bonds by payout Accrual bond Auction rate security Callable bond Commercial paper Contingent convertible bond Convertible bond Exchangeable bond Extendible bond Fixed rate bond Floating rate note High - yield debt Inflation - indexed bond Inverse floating rate note Perpetual bond Puttable bond Reverse convertible securities Zero - coupon bond Bond valuation Clean price Convexity Coupon Credit spread Current yield Dirty price Duration I - spread Mortgage yield Nominal yield Option - adjusted spread Risk - free bond Weighted - average life Yield curve Yield spread Yield to maturity Z - spread Securitized products Asset - backed security Collateralized debt obligation Collateralized mortgage obligation Commercial mortgage - 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a bond that the issuer has the right to pay off before its maturity date

callable

interest is usually payable at fixed intervals ( semiannual, annual, sometimes monthly )

American entry into World war I - wikipedia American entry into World war I Jump to : navigation , search The American entry into World War I came in April 1917 , after more than two and a half years of efforts by President Woodrow Wilson to keep the United States out of the war . Apart from an Anglophile element urging early support for the British , American public opinion reflected that of the president : the sentiment for neutrality was particularly strong among Irish Americans , German Americans and Scandinavian Americans , as well as among church leaders and among women in general . On the other hand , even before World War I had broken out , American opinion had been more negative toward Germany than towards any other country in Europe . Over time , especially after reports of atrocities in Belgium in 1914 and following the sinking of the passenger liner RMS Lusitania in 1915 , the American people increasingly came to see Germany as the aggressor in Europe . As U.S. president , it was Wilson who made the key policy decisions over foreign affairs : while the country was at peace , the domestic economy ran on a laissez - faire basis , with American banks making huge loans to Britain and France -- funds that were in large part used to buy munitions , raw materials , and food from across the Atlantic . Until 1917 , Wilson made minimal preparations for a land war and kept the United States Army on a small peacetime footing , despite increasing demands for enhanced preparedness . He did however expand the United States Navy . In 1917 , with Russia experiencing political upheaval following widespread disillusionment there over the war , and with Britain and France low on credit , Germany appeared to have the upper hand in Europe , while Germany 's ally , the Ottoman Empire , clung stubbornly to its possessions in the Middle East . In the same year , Germany decided to resume unrestricted submarine warfare against any vessel approaching British waters ; this attempt to starve Britain into surrender was balanced against the knowledge that it would almost certainly bring the United States into the war . Germany also made a secret offer to help Mexico regain territories lost in the Mexican -- American War in an encoded telegram known as the Zimmermann Telegram , which was intercepted by British Intelligence . Publication of that communique outraged Americans just as German U-boats started sinking American merchant ships in the North Atlantic . Wilson then asked Congress for `` a war to end all wars '' that would `` make the world safe for democracy '' , and Congress voted to declare war on Germany on April 6 , 1917 . On December 7 , 1917 , the U.S. declared war on Austria - Hungary . U.S. troops began arriving on the Western Front in large numbers in 1918 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Main issues 1.1 Naval blockade 1.1. 1 The strategy behind the blockade 1.2 Business considerations 1.3 Views of the elites 2 Public opinion 2.1 Parties 2.2 Workers , farmers , and African Americans 2.3 South 2.4 German Americans 2.5 Christian churches and pacifists 2.6 Jewish Americans 2.7 Irish - Americans 2.8 Pro-Allied immigrants 2.9 Popular pacifism 2.10 German agents 3 Preparedness movement 3.1 Size of military 3.2 Navy 4 Decision for war 4.1 Decision making 4.2 Zimmermann Telegram 4.3 Sinking of American merchant ships 5 Public opinion , moralism , and national interest 6 Declaration of war 6.1 Germany 6.2 Austria - Hungary 7 See also 8 Footnotes 9 Bibliography 9.1 Historiography 10 Primary sources 11 External links Main issues ( edit ) Further information : Diplomatic history of World War I and Presidency of Woodrow Wilson Naval blockade ( edit ) Britain used its large navy to prevent cargo vessels entering German ports , mainly by intercepting them in the North Sea between the coasts of Scotland and Norway . The wider sea approaches to Britain and France , their distance from German harbours and the smaller size of the German surface fleet all made it harder for Germany to reciprocate . Instead , Germany used submarines to lie in wait for , and then sink , merchant ships heading for enemy ports . The United States insisted on maintaining the traditional rights of ships registered in neutral countries and protested strongly against American ships being intercepted or sunk : the British seized American ships for supposed violations , while the Germans sank them -- often without warning , in violation of international law that said sailors must be allowed an opportunity to reach their lifeboats . After several violations , Germany stopped this practice but in early 1917 she decided to resume unrestricted submarine warfare , in the hope that this would starve out the British before the Americans could make any effective military retaliation . The Strategy behind the blockade ( edit ) The British Royal Navy successfully stopped the shipment of most war supplies and food to Germany . Neutral American ships that tried to trade with Germany were seized or turned back by the Royal Navy who viewed such trade as in direct conflict with the Allies ' war efforts . The strangulation came about very slowly , because Germany and its allies controlled extensive farmlands and raw materials . It was eventually successful because Germany and Austria - Hungary had decimated their agricultural production by taking so many farmers into their armies . By 1918 , German cities were on the verge of starvation ; the front - line soldiers were on short rations and were running out of essential supplies . Germany also considered a blockade . `` England wants to starve us '' , said Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz , the man who built the German fleet and who remained a key advisor to the Kaiser Wilhelm II . `` We can play the same game . We can bottle her up and destroy every ship that endeavors to break the blockade '' . Unable to challenge the more powerful Royal Navy on the surface , Tirpitz wanted to scare off merchant and passenger ships en route to Britain . He reasoned that since the island of Britain depended on imports of food , raw materials , and manufactured goods , scaring off a substantial number of the ships would effectively undercut its long - term ability to maintain an army on the Western Front . While Germany had only nine long - range U-boats at the start of the war , it had ample shipyard capacity to build the hundreds needed . However , the United States demanded that Germany respect the international agreements upon `` freedom of the seas '' , which protected neutral American ships on the high seas from seizure or sinking by either belligerent . Furthermore , Americans insisted that the drowning of innocent civilians was barbaric and grounds for a declaration of war . The British frequently violated America 's neutral rights by seizing ships . Wilson 's top advisor , Colonel Edward M. House commented that , `` The British have gone as far as they possibly could in violating neutral rights , though they have done it in the most courteous way '' . When Wilson protested British violations of American neutrality , the British backed down . German submarines torpedoed ships without warning , causing sailors and passengers to drown . Berlin explained that submarines were so vulnerable that they dared not surface near merchant ships that might be carrying guns and which were too small to rescue submarine crews . Britain armed most of its merchant ships with medium calibre guns that could sink a submarine , making above - water attacks too risky . In February 1915 , the United States warned Germany about misuse of submarines . On April 22 , the German Imperial Embassy warned U.S. citizens against boarding vessels to Britain , which would have to face German attack . On May 7 , Germany torpedoed the British passenger liner RMS Lusitania , sinking her . This act of aggression caused the loss of 1,198 civilian lives , including 128 Americans . The sinking of a large , unarmed passenger ship , combined with the previous stories of atrocities in Belgium , shocked Americans and turned public opinion hostile to Germany , although not yet to the point of war . Wilson issued a warning to Germany that it would face `` strict accountability '' if it sank more neutral U.S. passenger ships . Berlin acquiesced , ordering its submarines to avoid passenger ships . By January 1917 , however , Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg and General Erich Ludendorff decided that an unrestricted submarine blockade was the only way to achieve a decisive victory . They demanded that Kaiser Wilhelm order unrestricted submarine warfare be resumed . Germany knew this decision meant war with the United States , but they gambled that they could win before America 's potential strength could be mobilized . However , they overestimated how many ships they could sink and thus the extent Britain would be weakened . Finally , they did not foresee that convoys could and would be used to defeat their efforts . They believed that the United States was so weak militarily that it could not be a factor on the Western Front for more than a year . The civilian government in Berlin objected , but the Kaiser sided with his military . Business considerations ( edit ) The beginning of war in Europe coincided with the end of the Recession of 1913 -- 1914 in America . Exports to belligerent nations rose rapidly over the first four years of the War from $824.8 million in 1913 to $2.25 billion in 1917 . Loans from American financial institutions to the Allied nations in Europe also increased dramatically over the same period . Economic activity towards the end of this period boomed as government resources aided the production of the private sector . Between 1914 and 1917 , industrial production increased 32 % and GNP increased by almost 20 % . The improvements to industrial production in the United States outlasted the war . The capital build - up that had allowed American companies to supply belligerents and the American army resulted in a greater long - run rate of production even after the war had ended in 1918 . In 1913 , J.P. Morgan , Jr. took over the House of Morgan , an American - based investment bank consisting of separate banking operations in New York , London , and Paris , after the death of his father , J. Pierpont Morgan . The House of Morgan offered assistance in the wartime financing of Britain and France from the earliest stages of the war in 1914 through America 's entrance in 1917 . J.P. Morgan & Co. , the House of Morgan 's bank in New York , was designated as the primary financial agent to the British government in 1914 after successful lobbying by the British ambassador , Sir Cecil Spring Rice . The same bank would later take a similar role in France and would offer extensive financial assistance to both warring nations . J.P. Morgan &Co . became the primary issuer of loans to the French government by raising money from American investors . Morgan , Harjes , the House of Morgan 's French affiliated bank , controlled the majority of the wartime financial dealings between the House of Morgan and the French government after primary issuances of debt in American markets . Relations between the House of Morgan and the French government became tense as the war raged on with no end in sight . France 's ability to borrow from other sources diminished , leading to greater lending rates and a depressing of the value of the franc . After the war , in 1918 , J.P. Morgan & Co. continued to aid the French government financially through monetary stabilization and debt relief . Because America was still a declared neutral state , the financial dealings of American banks in Europe caused a great deal of contention between Wall Street and the U.S. government . Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan strictly opposed financial support of warring nations and wanted to ban loans to the belligerents in August 1914 . He told President Wilson that `` refusal to loan to any belligerent would naturally tend to hasten a conclusion of the war . '' Wilson at first agreed , but then reversed himself when France argued that if it was legal to buy American goods then it was legal to take out credits on the purchase . J.P. Morgan issued loans to France including one in March 1915 and , following negotiations with the Anglo - French Financial Commission , another joint loan to Britain and France in October 1915 , the latter amounting to US $500,000,000 . Although the stance of the U.S. government was that stopping such financial assistance could hasten the end of the war and therefore save lives , little was done to insure adherence to the ban on loans , in part due to pressure from Allied governments and American business interests . The American steel industry had faced difficulties and declining profits during the Recession of 1913 -- 1914 . As war began in Europe , however , the increased demand for tools of war began a period of heightened productivity that alleviated many U.S. industrial companies from the low - growth environment of the recession . Bethlehem Steel took particular advantage of the increased demand for armaments abroad . Prior to American entrance into the War , these companies benefitted from unrestricted commerce with sovereign customers abroad . After President Wilson issued his declaration of war , the companies were subjected to price controls created by the U.S. Trade Commission in order to insure that the U.S. military would have access to the necessary armaments . By the end of the war in 1918 , Bethlehem Steel had produced 65,000 pounds of forged military products and 70 million pounds of armor plate , 1.1 billion pounds of steel for shells , and 20.1 million rounds of artillery ammunition for Britain and France . Bethlehem Steel took advantage of the domestic armaments market and produced 60 % of the American weaponry and 40 % of the artillery shells used in the War . Even with price controls and a lower profit margin on manufactured goods , the profits resulting from wartime sales expanded the company into the third largest manufacturing company in the country . Bethlehem Steel became the primary arms supplier for the United States and other allied powers again in 1939 . Views of the elites ( edit ) Historians divide the views of American political and social leaders into four distinct groupings -- the camps were mostly informal : The first of these were the Non-Interventionists , a loosely affiliated and politically diverse anti-war movement which sought to keep the United States out of the war altogether . Members of this group tended to view the war as a clash between British imperialism and German militarism , both of which they regarded as equally corrupt . Others were pacifists , who objected on moral grounds . Prominent leaders included Democrats like former Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan , industrialist Henry Ford and publisher William Randolph Hearst ; Republicans Robert M. La Follette , Senator from Wisconsin and George W. Norris , Senator from Nebraska ; and Progressive Party activist Jane Addams . At the far - left end of the political spectrum the Socialists , led by their perennial candidate for President Eugene V. Debs and movement veterans like Victor L. Berger and Morris Hillquit , were staunch anti-militarists and opposed to any US intervention , branding the conflict as a `` capitalist war '' that American workers should avoid . However , after the US did join the war in April , 1917 a schism developed between the anti-war Party majority and a pro-war faction of Socialist writers , journalists and intellectuals led by John Spargo , William English Walling and E. Haldeman - Julius . This group founded the rival Social Democratic League of America to promote the war effort among their fellow Socialists . Next were the more moderate Liberal - Internationalists . This bipartisan group reluctantly supported a declaration of war against Germany with the postwar goal of establishing collective international security institutions designed to peacefully resolve future conflicts between nations and to promote liberal democratic values more broadly . This groups 's views were advocated by interest groups such as the League to Enforce Peace . Adherents included US President Woodrow Wilson , his influential advisor Edward M. House , former President William Howard Taft , famed inventor Alexander Graham Bell , Wall Street financier Bernard Baruch and Harvard University President Abbott Lawrence Lowell . Finally , there were the so - called Atlanticists . Ardently pro-Entente , they had strongly championed American intervention in the war since 1915 . Their primary political motivation was to both prepare the US for war with Germany and to forge an enduring military alliance with Great Britain . This group actively supported the Preparedness Movement and was strong among the Anglophile political establishment of the northeast , boasting such luminaries as former President Theodore Roosevelt , Major General Leonard Wood , prominent attorney and diplomat Joseph Hodges Choate , former Secretary of War Henry Stimson , journalist Walter Lippman and Senators Henry Cabot Lodge , Sr. of Massachusetts and Elihu Root of New York . Public opinion ( edit ) A cosmopolitan group of upper and upper - middle class businessmen based in the largest cities took the lead in promoting military preparedness and in defining how far America could be pushed around before it would fight back . Many public figures hated war -- Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan was the most prominent , and he resigned when he thought Wilson had become too bellicose . Grassroots opposition to American entry came especially from German and Irish elements . Parties ( edit ) A surprising factor in the development of American public opinion was how little the political parties became involved . Wilson and the Democrats in 1916 campaigned on the slogan `` He kept us out of war ! '' , saying a Republican victory would mean war with both Mexico and Germany . His position probably was critical in winning the Western states . Charles Evans Hughes , the GOP candidate , insisted on downplaying the war issue . The Socialist party talked peace . Socialist rhetoric declared the European conflict to be `` an imperialist war '' . It won 2 % of the 1916 vote for Eugene V. Debs , blamed the war on capitalism and pledged total opposition . `` A bayonet '' , its propaganda said , `` was a weapon with a worker at each end '' . When war began , however , about half the Socialists , typified by Congressman Meyer London , supported the decision and sided with the pro-Allied efforts . The rest , led by Debs , remained ideological and die - hard opponents . Many socialists came under investigation from the Espionage Act of 1917 and many suspected of treason were arrested , including Debs . This would only increase the Socialist 's anti-war groups in resentment toward the American government . Workers , farmers , and African Americans ( edit ) The working class was relatively quiet , and tended to divide along ethnic lines . At the beginning of the war , neither working men nor farmers took a large interest in the debates on war preparation . Samuel Gompers , head of the AFL labor movement , denounced the war in 1914 as `` unnatural , unjustified , and unholy '' , but by 1916 he was supporting Wilson 's limited preparedness program , against the objections of Socialist union activists . In 1916 the labor unions supported Wilson on domestic issues and ignored the war question . The war at first disrupted the cotton market ; Britain blockaded shipments to Germany , and prices fell from 11 cents a pound to only 4 cents . By 1916 , however , the British decided to bolster the price to 10 cents to avoid losing Southern support . The cotton growers seem to have moved from neutrality to intervention at about the same pace as the rest of the nation . Midwestern farmers generally opposed the war , especially those of German and Scandinavian descent . The Midwest became the stronghold of isolationism ; other remote rural areas also saw no need for war . The African - American community did not take a strong position one way or the other . A month after congress declared war , W.E.B. Du Bois called on African - Americans to `` fight shoulder to shoulder with the world to gain a world where war shall be no more '' . Once war began and black men were drafted , they worked to achieve equality . Many had hoped the community 's help in the war efforts abroad would earn civil rights at home . When such civil liberties were still not granted , many African - Americans grew tired of waiting for recognition of their rights as American citizens . South ( edit ) There was a strong antiwar element in the white South and border states . In rural Missouri for example , distrust of powerful Eastern influences focused on the risk that Wall Street would lead America into war . Across the South poor white farmers warned each other that `` a rich man 's war meant a poor man 's fight , '' and they wanted nothing of it . Congressman James Hay , Democrat of Virginia was the powerful chairman of the House Committee on Military Affairs . He repeatedly blocked prewar efforts to modernize and enlarge the army . Preparedness was not needed because Americans were already safe , he insisted in January 1915 : Isolated as we are , safe in our vastness , protected by a great navy , and possessed of an army sufficient for any emergency that may arise , we may disregard the lamentations and predictions of the militarists . German Americans ( edit ) German Americans by this time usually had only weak ties to Germany ; however , they were fearful of negative treatment they might receive if the United States entered the war ( such mistreatment was already happening to German - descent citizens in Canada and Australia ) . Almost none called for intervening on Germany 's side , instead calling for neutrality and speaking of the superiority of German culture . As more nations were drawn into the conflict , however , the English - languages press increasingly supporting Britain , while the German - American media called for neutrality while also defending Germany 's position . Chicago 's Germans worked to secure a complete embargo on all arms shipments to Europe . In 1916 , large crowds in Chicago 's Germania celebrated the Kaiser 's birthday , something they had not done before the war . German Americans in early 1917 still called for neutrality , but proclaimed that if a war came they would be loyal to the United States . By this point , they had been excluded almost entirely from national discourse on the subject . Once war started , they were harassed in so many ways that historian Carl Wittke noted in 1936 , it was `` one of the most difficult and humiliating experiences suffered by an ethnic group in American history . '' German - American Socialists in Milwaukee , Wisconsin actively campaigned against entry into the war . Christian Churches and pacifists ( edit ) Come on in , America , the Blood 's Fine ! ( 1917 ) by M.A. Kempf . Leaders of most religious groups ( except the Episcopalians ) tended to pacifism , as did leaders of the woman 's movement . The Methodists and Quakers among others were vocal opponents of the war . President Wilson , who was a devout Presbyterian , would often frame the war in terms of good and evil in an appeal for religious support of the war . A concerted effort was made by pacifists including Jane Addams , Oswald Garrison Villard , David Starr Jordan , Henry Ford , Lillian Wald , and Carrie Chapman Catt . Their goal was to encourage Wilson 's efforts to mediate an end of the war by bringing the belligerents to the conference table . Finally in 1917 Wilson convinced some of them that to be truly anti-war they needed to support what he promised would be `` a war to end all wars '' . Once war was declared , the more liberal denominations , which had endorsed the Social Gospel , called for a war for righteousness that would help uplift all mankind . The theme -- an aspect of American exceptionalism -- was that God had chosen America as his tool to bring redemption to the world . American Catholic bishops maintained a general silence toward the issue of intervention . Millions of Catholics lived in both warring camps , and Catholic Americans tended to split on ethnic lines in their opinions toward American involvement in the war . At the time , heavily Catholic towns and cities in the East and Midwest often contained multiple parishes , each serving a single ethnic group , such as Irish , German , Italian , Polish , or English . American Catholics of Irish and German descent opposed intervention most strongly . Pope Benedict XV made several attempts to negotiate a peace . All of his efforts were rebuffed by both the Allies and the Germans , and throughout the war the Vatican maintained a policy of strict neutrality . Jewish Americans ( edit ) Jewish American sympathies likewise broke along ethnic lines , with recently arrived Yiddish speaking Jews inclined to Zionism , and the established German - American Jewish community largely opposed to it . In 1914 -- 1916 , there were few Jewish forces in favor of American entry into the war . Many regarded Britain as hostile to Jewish interests . New York City , with its well - organized element numbering 1.5 million Jews , was the center of antiwar activism . The different Jewish communities worked together during the war years to provide relief to Jewish communities in Eastern Europe . Of greatest concern to Jews was the tsarist regime in Russia because it was notorious for tolerating pogroms and following anti-Semitic policies . As historian Joseph Rappaport reported through his study of Yiddish press during the war , `` The pro-Germanism of America 's immigrant Jews was an inevitable consequence of their Russophobia '' . The fall of the tsarist regime in March 1917 removed a major obstacle for many Jews who refused to support tsarism . The draft went smoothly in New York City , and left - wing opposition to the war largely collapsed when Zionists saw the possibility of using the war to demand a state of Israel . Irish - Americans ( edit ) The most effective domestic opponents of the war were Irish - American Catholics . They had little interest in the continent , but were neutral about helping the United Kingdom because it had recently enacted the Government of Ireland Act 1914 , allowing Irish Home Rule . However , the Act was suspended until the war ended . John Redmond and the Irish Parliamentary Party ( IPP ) declared that Irish Volunteers should support America 's pro-Allied war efforts first ; his political opponents argued that it was not the time to support Britain in its attempt to `` strengthen and expand her empire '' . The attacks on the IPP and pro-Allied press showed a firm belief that a German victory would hasten the achievement of Irish independence . Yet rather than proposing intervention on behalf of the Germans , Irish American leaders and organizations focused on demanding American neutrality . But the increased contact between militant Irish nationalists and German agents in the United States only fueled concerns of where the primary loyalties of Irish Americans lay . Nevertheless , close to 1,000 Irish - born Americans died fighting with the U.S. armed forces in WWI . The Easter Rising in Dublin in April 1916 was crushed within a week and its leaders executed by firing squad . The mainstream American press treated the uprising as foolish and misguided , and theorized it was largely inspired by the Germans . Overall public opinion remained faithfully pro-British . Irish - Americans dominated the Democratic party in many large cities so Wilson had to take account of their views . They did not prevent him from being hostile to Germany , but they did force him to keep his distance from Britain . Indeed , Irish - American pressure influenced the United States into not accepting Britain 's war aims as its own and define its own objectives , primarily self - determination . The Irish - American community thought they had Wilson 's promise to promote Irish independence in exchange for their support of his war policies , but after the war they were bitterly disappointed by his refusal to support them in 1919 . Wilson saw the Irish situation purely as an internal UK matter and did not perceive the dispute and the unrest in Ireland as comparable to the plight of the various nationalities in Europe as a fall - out from World War I . The progress of the Irish Race Conventions give a flavour of the differing and changing opinions during the war . Pro-Allied immigrants ( edit ) Some British immigrants worked actively for intervention . London - born Samuel Insull , Chicago 's leading industrialist , for example , enthusiastically provided money , propaganda , and means for volunteers to enter the British or Canadian armies . After the United States ' entry , Insull directed the Illinois State Council of Defense , with responsibility for organizing the state 's mobilization . Immigrants from eastern Europe usually cared more about politics in their homeland than politics in the United States . Spokesmen for Slavic immigrants hoped that an Allied victory would bring independence for their homelands . Large numbers of Hungarian immigrants who were liberal and nationalist in sentiment , and sought an independent Hungary , separate from the Austro - Hungarian Empire lobbied in favor of the war and allied themselves with the Atlanticist or Anglophile portion of the population . This community was largely pro-British and anti-German in sentiment . Albanian - Americans in communities such as Boston also campaigned for entry into the war and were overwhelmingly pro-British and anti-German , as well as hopeful the war would lead to an independent Albania which would be free from the Ottoman Empire . Polish , Slovak , and Czech immigrants were enthusiastically pro-war and generally pro-British . Popular pacifism ( edit ) The song `` I Did n't Raise My Boy To Be A Soldier '' was a hit in 1915 , selling 650,000 copies . Its expression of popular pacifist sentiment `` helped make the pacifist movement a hard , quantifiable political reality to be reckoned with . '' Henry Ford supported the pacifist cause by sponsoring a large - scale private peace mission , with numerous activists and intellectuals aboard the `` Peace Ship ' ( the ocean liner Oscar II ) . Ford chartered the ship in 1915 and invited prominent peace activists to join him to meet with leaders on both sides in Europe . He hoped to create enough publicity to prompt the belligerent nations to convene a peace conference and mediate an end to the war . The mission was widely mocked by the press , which wrote about the `` Ship of Fools . '' Infighting between the activists , mockery by the press contingent aboard , and an outbreak of influenza marred the voyage . Four days after the ship arrived in neutral Norway , a beleaguered and physically ill Ford abandoned the mission and returned to the United States ; he had demonstrated that independent small efforts accomplished nothing . German agents ( edit ) On July 24 , 1915 , the German embassy 's commercial attaché , Heinrich Albert , left his briefcase on a train in New York City , where an alert Secret Service agent , Frank Burke , snatched it up . Wilson let the newspapers publish the contents , which indicated a systematic effort by Berlin to subsidize friendly newspapers and block British purchases of war materials . Berlin 's top espionage agent , debonnaire Franz Rintelen von Kleist was spending millions to finance sabotage in Canada , stir up trouble between the United States and Mexico and to incite labor strikes . The British were engaged in propaganda too , though not illegal espionage . But they did not get caught . Germany took the blame as Americans grew ever more worried about the vulnerability of a free society to subversion . Indeed , one of the main fears Americans of all stations had in 1916 -- 1919 was that spies and saboteurs were everywhere . This sentiment played a major role in arousing fear of Germany , and suspicions regarding everyone of German descent who could not `` prove '' 100 % loyalty . Preparedness movement ( edit ) This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( September 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Main article : Preparedness Movement By 1915 , Americans were paying much more attention to the war . The sinking of the Lusitania had a strong effect on public opinion because of the deaths of American civilians . That year , a strong `` Preparedness '' movement emerged . Proponents argued that the United States needed to immediately build up strong naval and land forces for defensive purposes ; an unspoken assumption was that America would fight sooner or later . General Leonard Wood ( still on active duty after serving a term as Chief of Staff of the Army ) , former president Theodore Roosevelt , and former secretaries of war Elihu Root and Henry Stimson were the driving forces behind Preparedness , along with many of the nation 's most prominent bankers , industrialists , lawyers and scions of prominent families . Indeed , there emerged an `` Atlanticist '' foreign policy establishment , a group of influential Americans drawn primarily from upper - class lawyers , bankers , academics , and politicians of the Northeast , committed to a strand of Anglophile internationalism . Representative was Paul D. Cravath , one of New York 's foremost corporation lawyers . For Cravath , in his mid-fifties when the war began , the conflict served as an epiphany , sparking an interest in international affairs that dominated his remaining career . Fiercely Anglophile , he strongly supported American intervention in the war and hoped that close Anglo - American cooperation would be the guiding principle of postwar international organization . The advertisement of The Battle Cry of Peace film The Preparedness movement had a `` realistic '' philosophy of world affairs -- they believed that economic strength and military muscle were more decisive than idealistic crusades focused on causes like democracy and national self - determination . Emphasizing over and over the weak state of national defenses , they showed that America 's 100,000 - man Army even augmented by the 112,000 National Guardsmen , was outnumbered 20 to one by Germany 's army , which was drawn from a smaller population . Similarly in 1915 , the armed forces of Great Britain and the British empire ( the world 's most powerful military and economic power at the time ) , France , Russia , the Austro - Hungarian empire , Ottoman empire , Italy , Bulgaria , Romania , Serbia , Belgium , Japan and Greece were all larger and more experienced than the United States military , in many cases significantly so . Reform to them meant UMT or `` universal military training '' . They proposed a national service program under which the 600,000 men who turned 18 every year would be required to spend six months in military training , and afterwards be assigned to reserve units . The small regular army would primarily be a training agency . Antimilitarists complained the plan would make America resemble Germany ( which required two years ' active duty ) . Advocates retorted that military `` service '' was an essential duty of citizenship , and that without the commonality provided by such service the nation would splinter into antagonistic ethnic groups . One spokesman promised that UMT would become `` a real melting pot , under which the fire is hot enough to fuse the elements into one common mass of Americanism '' . Furthermore , they promised , the discipline and training would make for a better paid work force . Hostility to military service was strong at the time , and the program failed to win approval . In World War II , when Stimson as Secretary of War proposed a similar program of universal peacetime service , he was defeated . Underscoring its commitment , the Preparedness movement set up and funded its own summer training camps at Plattsburgh , New York , and other sites , where 40,000 college alumni became physically fit , learned to march and shoot , and ultimately provided the cadre of a wartime officer corps . Suggestions by labor unions that talented working - class youth be invited to Plattsburgh were ignored . The Preparedness movement was distant not only from the working classes but also from the middle - class leadership of most of small - town America . It had had little use for the National Guard , which it saw as politicized , localistic , poorly armed , ill trained , too inclined to idealistic crusading ( as against Spain in 1898 ) , and too lacking in understanding of world affairs . The National Guard on the other hand was securely rooted in state and local politics , with representation from a very broad cross section of American society . The Guard was one of the nation 's few institutions that ( in some northern states ) accepted blacks on an equal footing . The Democratic party saw the Preparedness movement as a threat . Roosevelt , Root and Wood were prospective Republican presidential candidates . More subtly , the Democrats were rooted in localism that appreciated the National Guard , and the voters were hostile to the rich and powerful in the first place . Working with the Democrats who controlled Congress , Wilson was able to sidetrack the Preparedness forces . Army and Navy leaders were forced to testify before Congress to the effect that the nation 's military was in excellent shape . In fact , neither the Army nor Navy was in shape for war . The Navy had fine ships but Wilson had been using them to threaten Mexico , and the fleet 's readiness had suffered . The crews of the Texas and the New York , the two newest and largest battleships , had never fired a gun , and the morale of the sailors was low . In addition , it was outnumbered and outgunned by the British , German , French , and Italian navies . The Army and Navy air forces were tiny in size . Despite the flood of new weapons systems unveiled by the British , Germans , French , Austro - Hungarians , Italians , and others in the war in Europe , the Army was paying scant attention . For example , it was making no studies of trench warfare , poison gas , heavy artillery , or tanks and was utterly unfamiliar with the rapid evolution of Aerial warfare . The Democrats in Congress tried to cut the military budget in 1915 . The Preparedness movement effectively exploited the surge of outrage over the Lusitania in May 1915 , forcing the Democrats to promise some improvements to the military and naval forces . Wilson , less fearful of the Navy , embraced a long - term building program designed to make the fleet the equal of the British Royal Navy by the mid-1920s , although this would not be achieved until World War II . `` Realism '' was at work here ; the admirals were Mahanians and they therefore wanted a surface fleet of heavy battleships second to none -- that is , equal to Britain . The facts of submarine warfare ( which necessitated destroyers , not battleships ) and the possibilities of imminent war with Germany ( or with Britain , for that matter ) , were simply ignored . Wilson 's program for the Army touched off a firestorm . Secretary of War Lindley Garrison adopted many of the proposals of the Preparedness leaders , especially their emphasis on a large federal reserve and abandonment of the National Guard . Garrison 's proposals not only outraged the localistic politicians of both parties , they also offended a strongly held belief shared by the liberal wing of the Progressive movement . They felt that warfare always had a hidden economic motivation . Specifically , they warned the chief warmongers were New York bankers ( like J.P. Morgan ) with millions at risk , profiteering munition makers ( like Bethlehem Steel , which made armor , and DuPont , which made powder ) and unspecified industrialists searching for global markets to control . Antiwar critics blasted them . These special interests were too powerful , especially , Senator La Follette noted , in the conservative wing of the Republican Party . The only road to peace was disarmament , reiterated Bryan . Garrison 's plan unleashed the fiercest battle in peacetime history over the relationship of military planning to national goals . In peacetime , War Department arsenals and Navy yards manufactured nearly all munitions that lacked civilian uses , including warships , artillery , naval guns , and shells . Items available on the civilian market , such as food , horses , saddles , wagons , and uniforms were always purchased from civilian contractors . Armor plate ( and after 1918 , airplanes ) was an exception that has caused unremitting controversy for a century . After World War II , the arsenals and Navy yards were much less important than giant civilian aircraft and electronics firms , which became the second half of the `` military - industrial complex '' Peace leaders like Jane Addams of Hull House and David Starr Jordan of Stanford redoubled their efforts , and now turned their voices against the president because he was `` sowing the seeds of militarism , raising up a military and naval caste '' . Many ministers , professors , farm spokesmen , and labor union leaders joined in , with powerful support from a band of four dozen southern Democrats in Congress who took control of the House Military Affairs Committee . Wilson , in deep trouble , took his cause to the people in a major speaking tour in early 1916 , a warmup for his reelection campaign that fall . Wilson seems to have won over the middle classes , but had little impact on the largely ethnic working classes and the deeply isolationist farmers . Congress still refused to budge , so Wilson replaced Garrison as Secretary of War with Newton Baker , the Democratic mayor of Cleveland and an outspoken opponent of preparedness ( Garrison kept quiet , but felt Wilson was `` a man of high ideals but no principles '' ) . The upshot was a compromise passed in May 1916 , as the war raged on and Berlin was debating whether America was so weak it could be ignored . The Army was to double in size to 11,300 officers and 208,000 men , with no reserve , and a National Guard that would be enlarged in five years to 440,000 men . Summer camps on the Plattsburg model were authorized for new officers , and the government was given $20 million to build a nitrate plant of its own . Preparedness supporters were downcast , the antiwar people were jubilant . America would now be too weak to go to war . Colonel Robert L. Bullard privately complained that `` Both sides ( Britain and Germany ) treat us with scorn and contempt ; our fool , smug conceit of superiority has been exploded in our faces and deservedly . '' The House gutted the naval plans as well , defeating a `` big navy '' plan by 189 to 183 , and scuttling the battleships . The battle of Jutland ( May 31 / June 1 , 1916 ) was used by the navalists to argue for the primacy of seapower ; they then took control in the Senate , broke the House coalition , and authorized a rapid three - year buildup of all classes of warships . A new weapons system , naval aviation , received $3.5 million , and the government was authorized to build its own armor plate factory . The very weakness of American military power encouraged Berlin to start its unrestricted submarine attacks in 1917 . It knew this meant war with America , but it could discount the immediate risk because the U.S. Army was negligible and the new warships would not be at sea until 1919 by which time the war would be over , with Germany victorious . The notion that armaments led to war was turned on its head : refusal to arm in 1916 led to war in 1917 . Size of military ( edit ) Americans felt an increasing need for a military that could command respect . As one editor put it , `` The best thing about a large army and a strong navy is that they make it so much easier to say just what we want to say in our diplomatic correspondence . '' Berlin thus far had backed down and apologized when Washington was angry , thus boosting American self - confidence . America 's rights and America 's honor increasingly came into focus . The slogan `` Peace '' gave way to `` Peace with Honor '' . The Army remained unpopular , however . A recruiter in Indianapolis noted that , `` The people here do not take the right attitude towards army life as a career , and if a man joins from here he often tries to go out on the quiet '' . The Preparedness movement used its easy access to the mass media to demonstrate that the War Department had no plans , no equipment , little training , no reserve , a laughable National Guard , and a wholly inadequate organization for war . Motion pictures like The Battle Cry of Peace ( 1915 ) depicted invasions of the American homeland that demanded action . Navy ( edit ) Main article : History of the United States Navy § Preparing for war 1914 -- 1917 The readiness and capability of the U.S. Navy was a matter of controversy . The press at the time reported that the only thing the military was ready for was an enemy fleet attempting to seize New York harbor -- at a time when the German battle fleet was penned up by the Royal Navy . The Navy Secretary Josephus Daniels was a journalist with pacifist leanings . He had built up the educational resources of the Navy and made its Naval War College in Newport , Rhode Island an essential experience for would - be admirals . However , he alienated the officer corps with his moralistic reforms , including no wine in the officers ' mess , no hazing at the Naval Academy , and more chaplains and YMCAs . Daniels , as a newspaperman , knew the value of publicity . In 1915 he set up the Naval Consulting Board headed by Thomas Edison to obtain the advice and expertise of leading scientists , engineers , and industrialists . It popularized technology , naval expansion , and military preparedness , and was well covered in the media . But according to Coletta he ignored the nation 's strategic needs , and disdaining the advice of its experts , Daniels suspended meetings of the Joint Army and Navy Board for two years because it was giving unwelcome advice , chopped in half the General Board 's recommendations for new ships , reduced the authority of officers in the Navy yards where ships were built and repaired , and ignored the administrative chaos in his department . Bradley Fiske , one of the most innovative admirals in American naval history , in 1914 was Daniels ' top aide ; he recommended a reorganization that would prepare for war , but Daniels refused . Instead he replaced Fiske in 1915 and brought in for the new post of Chief of Naval Operations an unknown captain , William Benson . Chosen for his compliance , Benson proved a wily bureaucrat who was more interested in preparing for an eventual showdown with Britain than an immediate one with Germany . Benson told Sims he `` would as soon fight the British as the Germans '' . Proposals to send observers to Europe were blocked , leaving the Navy in the dark about the success of the German submarine campaign . Admiral William Sims charged after the war that in April 1917 , only ten percent of the Navy 's warships were fully manned ; the rest lacked 43 % of their seamen . Light antisubmarine ships were few in number , as if Daniels had been unaware of the German submarine menace that had been the focus of foreign policy for two years . The Navy 's only warfighting plan , the `` Black Plan '' assumed the Royal Navy did not exist and that German battleships were moving freely about the Atlantic and the Caribbean and threatening the Panama Canal . Daniels ' tenure would have been even less successful save for the energetic efforts of Assistant Secretary Franklin D. Roosevelt , who effectively ran the Department . His most recent biographer concludes that , `` it is true that Daniels had not prepared the navy for the war it would have to fight . '' Decision for war ( edit ) `` Hurting Their Feelings '' : Political cartoon from November 9 , 1915 , shows the British lion and John Bull reading a newspaper about American war protests and crying , while American ships and cargo appear in the harbor behind them By 1916 a new factor was emerging -- a sense of national self - interest and American nationalism . The unbelievable casualty figures in Europe were sobering -- two vast battles caused over one million casualties each . Clearly this war would be a decisive episode in the history of the world . Every American effort to find a peaceful solution was frustrated . Decision making ( edit ) Kendrick Clements claims bureaucratic decision - making was one of the main sources pushing the United States to declaring war on Germany and aligning itself with the Allies . He cites the State Department 's demand that Germany 's submarines obey outdated , 18th century sailing laws as one of the first missteps by the United States bureaucracy regarding the war . By doing so , the United States had essentially given Germany the choice of whether or not the U.S. would enter the war . Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan spent most of the fall of 1914 out of contact with the State Department , leaving the more conservative Robert Lansing with the ability to shape American foreign policy at the time . One of these decisions was made in response to British protests that the Germans were using U.S. radio towers to send messages to their warships . Immediately prior to the war starting in 1914 , Britain had cut all cable communications leading out of Germany , including the trans - Atlantic cable . The US Government permitted German embassies to use the US cable lines for `` proper '' diplomatic business . Germany argued that usage of the towers was necessary to allow efficient contact between the U.S. and Germany . Lansing responded by requiring both sides to give the U.S. Navy copies of the messages they sent over the towers . The French and British were still able to use the cables , forcing Germany to be the only belligerent required to provide the U.S. with their messages . This and other seemingly small decisions made by Lansing during this time would eventually stack up , shifting American support towards the Allies . Zimmermann Telegram ( edit ) Main article : Zimmermann Telegram Once Germany had decided on unrestricted submarine warfare in January 1917 , and knowing it would be attacking all American ships in the North Atlantic , it tried to line up new allies , especially Mexico . Arthur Zimmermann , the German foreign minister , sent the Zimmermann Telegram to Mexico on January 16 , 1917 . Zimmerman invited Mexico ( knowing their resentment towards America since the 1848 Mexican Cession ) to join in a war against the United States . Germany promised to pay for Mexico 's costs and to help it recover the territory annexed by the U.S. in 1848 . These territories included the present day states of California , Nevada , Utah , most of Arizona , about half of New Mexico and a quarter of Colorado . British intelligence intercepted and decoded the telegram and passed it to the Wilson administration . The White House would release it to the press on March 1st . Anger grew further as the Germans began sinking American ships , even as isolationists in the Senate launched a filibuster to block legislation for arming American merchant ships to defend themselves . Sinking of American merchant ships ( edit ) In early 1917 Berlin forced the issue . Its declared decision on 31 January 1917 to target neutral shipping in a designated war - zone became the immediate cause of the entry of the United States into the war . Five American merchant ships went down in March . Outraged public opinion now overwhelmingly supported Wilson when he asked Congress for a declaration of war on April 2 , 1917 . Public opinion , moralism , and national interest ( edit ) Historians such as Ernest R. May have approached the process of American entry into the war as a study in how public opinion changed radically in three years ' time . In 1914 most Americans called for neutrality , seeing the war a dreadful mistake and were determined to stay out . By 1917 the same public felt just as strongly that going to war was both necessary and wise . Military leaders had little to say during this debate , and military considerations were seldom raised . The decisive questions dealt with morality and visions of the future . The prevailing attitude was that America possessed a superior moral position as the only great nation devoted to the principles of freedom and democracy . By staying aloof from the squabbles of reactionary empires , it could preserve those ideals -- sooner or later the rest of the world would come to appreciate and adopt them . In 1917 this very long - run program faced the severe danger that in the short run powerful forces adverse to democracy and freedom would triumph . Strong support for moralism came from religious leaders , women ( led by Jane Addams ) , and from public figures like long - time Democratic leader William Jennings Bryan , the Secretary of State from 1913 to 1916 . The most important moralist of all was President Woodrow Wilson -- the man who dominated decision making so totally that the war has been labelled , from an American perspective , `` Wilson 's War '' . In 1917 Wilson won the support of most of the moralists by proclaiming `` a war to make the world safe for democracy . '' If they truly believed in their ideals , he explained , now was the time to fight . The question then became whether Americans would fight for what they deeply believed in , and the answer turned out to be a resounding `` Yes '' . Antiwar activists at the time and in the 1930s , alleged that beneath the veneer of moralism and idealism there must have been ulterior motives . Some suggested a conspiracy on the part of New York City bankers holding $3 billion of war loans to the Allies , or steel and chemical firms selling munitions to the Allies . The interpretation was popular among left - wing Progressives ( led by Senator Robert La Follette of Wisconsin ) and among the `` agrarian '' wing of the Democratic party -- including the chairman of the tax - writing Ways and Means Committee of the House . He strenuously opposed war , and when it came he rewrote the tax laws to make sure the rich paid the most . ( In the 1930s neutrality laws were passed to prevent financial entanglements from dragging the nation into a war . ) In 1915 , Bryan thought that Wilson 's pro-British sentiments had distorted his policies , so he became the first Secretary of State ever to resign in protest . However , historian Harold C. Syrett argues that business supported neutrality . Other historians state that the pro-war element was animated not by profit but by disgust with what Germany actually did , especially in Belgium , and the threat it represented to American ideals . Belgium kept the public 's sympathy as the Germans executed civilians , and English nurse Edith Cavell . American engineer Herbert Hoover led a private relief effort that won wide support . Compounding the Belgium atrocities were new weapons that Americans found repugnant , like poison gas and the aerial bombardment of innocent civilians as Zeppelins dropped bombs on London . Even anti-war spokesmen did not claim that Germany was innocent , and pro-German scripts were poorly received . Randolph Bourne criticized the moralist philosophy claiming it was a justification by American intellectual and power elites , like President Wilson , for going to war unnecessarily . He argues that the push for war started with the Preparedness movement , fueled by big business . While big business would not push much further than Preparedness , benefitting the most from neutrality , the movement would eventually evolve into a war - cry , led by war - hawk intellectuals under the guise of moralism . Bourne believes elites knew full well what going to war would entail and the price in American lives it would cost . If American elites could portray the United States ' role in the war as noble , they could convince the generally isolationist American public war would be acceptable . Above all , American attitudes towards Germany focused on the U-boats ( submarines ) , which sank the Lusitania in 1915 and other passenger ships `` without warning '' . That appeared to Americans as an unacceptable challenge to America 's rights as a neutral country , and as an unforgivable affront to humanity . After repeated diplomatic protests , Germany agreed to stop . But in 1917 the Germany military leadership decided that `` military necessity '' dictated the unrestricted use of their submarines . The Kaiser 's advisors felt America was enormously powerful economically but too weak militarily to make a difference . Declaration of war ( edit ) Germany ( edit ) On April 2 , 1917 , Wilson asked a special joint session of Congress to declare war on the German Empire , stating , `` We have no selfish ends to serve '' . To make the conflict seem like a better idea , he painted the conflict idealistically , stating that the war would `` make the world safe for democracy '' and later that it would be a `` war to end war '' . The United States had a moral responsibility to enter the war , Wilson proclaimed . The future of the world was being determined on the battlefield , and American national interest demanded a voice . Wilson 's definition of the situation won wide acclaim , and , indeed , has shaped America 's role in world and military affairs ever since . Wilson believed that if the Central Powers won , the consequences would be bad for the United States . Germany would have dominated the continent and perhaps would gain control of the seas as well . Latin America could well have fallen under Berlin 's control . The dream of spreading democracy , liberalism , and independence would have been shattered . On the other hand , if the Allies had won without help , there was a danger they would carve up the world without regard to American commercial interests . They were already planning to use government subsidies , tariff walls , and controlled markets to counter the competition posed by American businessmen . The solution was a third route , a `` peace without victory '' , according to Wilson . On April 6 , 1917 , Congress declared war . In the Senate , the resolution passed 82 to 6 , with Senators Harry Lane , William J. Stone , James Vardaman , Asle Gronna , Robert M. La Follette , Sr. , and George W. Norris voting against it . In the House , the declaration passed 373 to 50 , with Claude Kitchin , a senior Democrat , notably opposing it . Another opponent was Jeannette Rankin , who alone voted against entry into both World War I and World War II . Nearly all of the opposition came from the West and the Midwest . Austria - Hungary ( edit ) The United States Senate , in a 74 to 0 vote , declared war on Austria - Hungary on December 7 , 1917 , citing Austria - Hungary 's severing of diplomatic relations with the United States , its use of unrestricted submarine warfare and its alliance with Germany . The declaration passed in the United States House of Representatives by a vote of 365 to 1 . See also ( edit ) World War I portal Causes of World War I Diplomatic history of World War I United States in World War I United States home front during World War I Footnotes ( edit ) Jump up ^ Jeanette Keith ( 2004 ) . Rich Man 's War , Poor Man 's Fight : Race , Class , and Power in the Rural South during the First World War . U. of North Carolina Press . pp. 1 -- 5 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8078 - 7589 - 6 . Jump up ^ Barnes , Harry Elmer . The Genesis of the World War ( 1925 ) pp. 590 -- 591 Jump up ^ `` World War One '' . BBC History . Jump up ^ Link , Arthur S. ( 1972 ) . Woodrow Wilson and the Progressive Era , 1910 -- 1917 . New York : Harper & Row . pp. 252 -- 282 . ^ Jump up to : H.J. Res. 169 : Declaration of War with Austria - Hungary , WWI , United States Senate ^ Jump up to : Jennifer K. Elsea ; Matthew C. Weed ( April 18 , 2014 ) . `` Declarations of War and Authorizations for the Use of Military Force : Historical Background and Legal Implications '' ( PDF ) . p. 9 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on August 10 , 2006 . Retrieved July 21 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Eric W. Osborne , Britain 's economic blockade of Germany , 1914 -- 1919 ( 2004 ) Jump up ^ Ernest May , The World War and American Isolation , 1914 -- 1917 ( 1959 ) p. 115 quote from Dec 1914 . Jump up ^ C.R.M.F. Cruttwell , A history of the Great War , 1914 -- 1918 ( 2007 ) p. 191 Jump up ^ Edward House , The intimate papers of Colonel House : Vol 2 ( 1928 ) p. 73 Jump up ^ Duffy , Michael ( August 22 , 2009 ) . `` U.S. ' Strict Accountability ' Warning to Germany , 10 February 1915 '' . Retrieved January 30 , 2011 Jump up ^ Spencer Tucker , The Great War , 1914 -- 18 ( 1997 ) p. 133 Jump up ^ Ernest May , The World War and American Isolation , 1914 -- 1917 ( 1959 ) p. 414 Jump up ^ Krakow , Ira . `` World War I - The Most Unpopular War In Our History '' . Archived from the original on February 5 , 2013 . Retrieved March 20 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Horn , Martin ( Spring 2000 ) . `` A Private Bank at War : J.P. Morgan &Co. and France , 1914 -- 1918 '' . Business History Review . 1 . 74 : 85 -- 112 . doi : 10.2307 / 3116353 . Jump up ^ Global Financial Data . `` Industrial Output 1909 -- 1930 '' . Retrieved March 20 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Kendrick , John W. ( 1961 ) . `` Productivity Trends in the United States '' . National Bureau of Economic Research : 1 -- 50 . Jump up ^ H.W. Brands ( 2003 ) . Woodrow Wilson : The American Presidents Series : The 28th President , 1913 -- 1921 . Henry Holt . pp. 55 -- 56 . ^ Jump up to : Cuff , Robert D. ; Urofsky , Melvin I. ( Autumn 1970 ) . `` The Steel Industry and Price - Fixing during World War I '' . The Business History Review . 3 . 44 ( 3 ) : 291 -- 306 . doi : 10.2307 / 3112615 . ^ Jump up to : Metz , Lance E. ( November 2006 ) . `` Bethlehem Steel : The Rise and Fall of An Industrial Giant '' . Pennsylvania Legacies. 6 ( 2 ) : 10 -- 15 . Jump up ^ James Weinstein , `` Anti-War Sentiment and the Socialist Party , 1917 -- 1918 . '' Political Science Quarterly 74 # 2 ( 1959 ) : 215 -- 239 . in JSTOR Jump up ^ Ross A. Kennedy , The Will to Believe : Woodrow Wilson , World War I , and America 's Strategy for Peace and Security ( Kent State University Press , 2009 ) Jump up ^ Charles Chatfield , For peace and justice : pacifism in America , 1914 -- 1941 ( 1973 ) ch 1 Jump up ^ Nicole Anderson Yanoso ( 2016 ) . The Irish and the American Presidency . Transaction Publishers . pp. 90 -- 91 . Jump up ^ Frederick C. Luebke , Bonds of Loyalty : German - American and World War I ( Northern Illinois University Press , 1974 ) , ch 1 . Jump up ^ John Milton Cooper , Jr. , Woodrow Wilson ( 2009 ) pp. 341 -- 2 , 352 , 360 Jump up ^ Merlo J. Pusey , Charles Evans Hughes ( 1951 ) vol 1 , p. 356 Jump up ^ Bernard J. Brommel , `` The pacifist speechmaking of Eugene V. Debs . '' Quarterly Journal of Speech 52.2 ( 1966 ) : 146 - 154 . Jump up ^ Seymour Martin Lipset and Gary Marks , It did n't happen here : why socialism failed in the United States ( 2001 ) p. 184 Jump up ^ John Whiteclay Chambers ( 1999 ) . The Oxford Companion to American Military History . Oxford UP . p. 203 . Jump up ^ Lawrence O. Christensen , `` World War I in Missouri , '' Missouri Historical Review , 90 ( 1996 ) , 330 - 354 , 410 - 428 . Jump up ^ Edwin Costrell , How Maine viewed the war , 1914 -- 1917 ( 1940 ) Jump up ^ John C. Crighton , Missouri and the World War , 1914 -- 1917 : a study in public opinion ( 1947 ) Jump up ^ Joseph A. McCartin , Labor 's Great War : The Struggle for Industrial Democracy and the Origins of Modern American Labor Relations , 1912 -- 1921 ( 1998 ) pp. 34 , 57 Jump up ^ McCorkle , James L. , Jr. ( 1981 ) . `` Mississippi from Neutrality to War ( 1914 -- 1917 ) '' . Journal of Mississippi History . 43 ( 2 ) : 85 -- 125 . Jump up ^ Arthur S. Link , Woodrow Wilson and the Progressive Era ( 1954 ) pp. 169 -- 72 Jump up ^ Christopher C. Gibbs , The great silent majority : Missouri 's resistance to World War I ( 1988 ) Jump up ^ Panikos Panayi , `` Minorities in Wartime : National and Racial Groupings in Europe , North America , and Australia During the Two World War '' ( 1992 ) p. 170 Jump up ^ Mark Ellis , `` America 's Black Press , 1914 -- 18 , '' History Today , Sept 1991 , Vol. 41 , Issue 9 Jump up ^ Panikos Panayi , `` Minorities in Wartime : National and Racial Groupings in Europe , North America , and Australia During the Two World Wars '' ( 1992 ) p. 171 Jump up ^ Christopher C. Gibbs , Great Silent Majority : Missouri 's Resistance to World War I ( 1988 ) Jump up ^ Jeanette Keith ( 2004 ) . Rich Man 's War , Poor Man 's Fight : Race , Class , and Power in the Rural South During the First World War . U. of North Carolina Press . p. 85 . Jump up ^ George C. Herring , `` James Hay and the Preparedness Controversy , 1915 -- 1916 . '' Journal of Southern History ( 1964 ) 30 # 4 pp. 383 -- 404 quote , p. 386 in JSTOR Jump up ^ Leslie V. Tischauser , The Burden of Ethnicity : The German Question in Chicago , 1914 -- 1941 ( Garland , 1990 ) pp. 21 -- 23 Jump up ^ Frederick C. Luebke , Bonds of Loyalty : German - Americans and World War I ( 1974 ) pp. 200 -- 207 Jump up ^ Carl Wittke , German - Americans and the World War ( with Special Emphasis on Ohio 's German - Language Press ) ( Columbus , Ohio , 1936 ) , p. 209 Jump up ^ See Wisconsin Historical Society , `` World War I , at home and in the trenches '' Jump up ^ John F. Piper , The American Churches in World War I ( 1985 ) . Jump up ^ Samuel S. Hill , Charles H. Lippy , and Charles Reagan Wilson , Encyclopedia of Religion in the South ( 2005 ) p. 297 Jump up ^ Patterson , David S. ( 1971 ) . `` Woodrow Wilson and the Mediation Movement 1914 -- 1917 '' . The Historian. 33 ( 4 ) : 535 -- 556 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1540 - 6563.1971. tb01164. x . Jump up ^ Piper , John F. , Jr. ( 1970 ) . `` The American Churches in World War I '' . Journal of the American Academy of Religion . 38 ( 2 ) : 147 -- 155 . doi : 10.1093 / jaarel / XXXVIII. 2.147 . JSTOR 1461171 . Jump up ^ Gamble , Richard M. ( 2003 ) . The War for Righteousness : Progressive Christianity , the Great War , and the Rise of the Messianic Nation . Wilmington : ISI Books . ISBN 1 - 932236 - 16 - 3 . Jump up ^ Christopher M. Sterba , Good Americans : Italian and Jewish Immigrants During the First World War ( 2003 ) , 61 -- 63 Jump up ^ Mary Ann Irwin , and Ann Marie Wilson ; `` ' The Air is Becoming Full of War ' : Jewish San Francisco and World War I , '' Pacific Historical Review 74 # 3 ( 2005 ) : 331 - 66 Jump up ^ Zosa Szajkowski , `` Private and Organized American Jewish Overseas Relief ( 1914 -- 1938 ) , '' American Jewish Historical Quarterly 57 # 1 ( 1967 ) 52 -- 106 in JSTOR Jump up ^ Zosa Szajkowski , Jews , Wars , and Communism . Vol . I : The Attitude of American Jews to World War I , the Russian Revolutions of 1917 , and Communism ( 1914 -- 1945 ) ( New York : KTAV , 1973 ) includes a great deal of undigested information . Jump up ^ Joseph Rappaport , Jewish Immigrants and World War I : A Study of Yiddish Attitudes ( 1951 ) , p. 78 Jump up ^ Henry L. Feingold ( 2007 ) . `` Silent No More '' : Saving the Jews of Russia , the American Jewish Effort , 1967 -- 1989 . Syracuse UP . p. 13 . Jump up ^ Sterba , Good Americans ( 2003 ) , 68 -- 69 , 76 , 79 , 167 - 69 Jump up ^ Malcolm Campbell , Ireland 's New Worlds , ( 2008 ) , p. 164 Jump up ^ Malcolm Campbell , Ireland 's New Worlds , ( 2008 ) , p. 174 Jump up ^ Smolenyak , Megan . `` How Many Irish - Born Died in Service to the U.S. in WWI ? '' . Irish America . Retrieved April 13 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Malcolm Campbell , Ireland 's New Worlds , ( 2008 ) , p. 170 Jump up ^ Leary , William M. , Jr. ( 1967 ) . `` Woodrow Wilson , Irish Americans , and the Election of 1916 '' . Journal of American History . 54 ( 1 ) : 57 -- 72 . doi : 10.2307 / 1900319 . JSTOR 1900319 . Jump up ^ Kennedy , Billy . `` Woodrow Wilson '' . Ulstervirginia.com . `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on 2007 - 12 - 12 . Retrieved 2015 - 02 - 08 ... Retrieved November 10 , 2011 . Jump up ^ McDonald , Forrest ( 2004 ) . Insull : The Rise and Fall of a Billionaire Utility Tycoon . Washington : Beard Books . pp. 162 -- 187 . ISBN 1 - 58798 - 243 - 9 . Jump up ^ O'Grady , Joseph ( 1967 ) . The Immigrants ' Influence on Wilson 's Peace Policies . Lexington : University of Kentucky Press . Jump up ^ The Hungarian - Americans by Steven Béla Várdy ; Twayne Publishers , 1985 page 87 -- 99 Jump up ^ Christopher M. Sterba , Good Americans : Italian and Jewish Immigrants During the First World War , ( 2003 ) p. 31 -- 32 Jump up ^ Michael T. Urbanski , `` Money , War , and Recruiting an Army : The Activities of Connecticut Polonia During World War I , '' Connecticut History ( 2007 ) 46 # 1 pp. 45 -- 69 . Jump up ^ The Albanian - American Odyssey : A Pilot Study of the Albanian Community of Boston , Massachusetts Front Cover Dennis L. Nagi AMS Press , Jan 1 , 1989 , pp. 33 -- 35 Jump up ^ Mark W. van Wienen ( 1997 ) . Partisans and Poets : The Political Work of American Poetry in the Great War . Cambridge UP . p. 57 . Jump up ^ Barbara S. Kraft , The Peace Ship : Henry Ford 's Pacifist Adventure in the First World War ( 1978 ) p. 81 Jump up ^ Max Wallace , The American Axis ( New York , New York : St. Martin 's Press , 2003 ) , pp. 224 -- 225 . Jump up ^ H.C. Peterson , Propaganda for war : The campaign against American neutrality , 1914 -- 1917 ( 1968 ) Jump up ^ Link 3 : 556ff Jump up ^ George C. Herring , `` James Hay and the Preparedness Controversy , 1915 -- 1916 . '' Journal of Southern History ( 1964 ) 30 # 4 pp. 383 -- 404 in JSTOR Jump up ^ Roberts , Priscilla ( 2005 ) . `` Paul D. Cravath , the First World War , and the Anglophile Internationalist Tradition '' . Australian Journal of Politics and History . 51 ( 2 ) : 194 -- 215 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1467 - 8497.2005. 00370. x . Jump up ^ `` World War I facts , information , pictures Encyclopedia.com articles about World War I '' . Encyclopedia.com . Retrieved 2016 - 11 - 06 . Jump up ^ Scott Manning ( 2007 - 01 - 04 ) . `` World War I : Troop Statistics '' . Scottmanning.com . Retrieved 2016 - 11 - 06 . Jump up ^ Chambers 93 ; Weigley Army 345 Jump up ^ Very few young men from wealthy or prominent families considered a career in the Army or Navy then or at any time in American history . The highest social background of cadets , exemplified by George Patton , West Point 1909 , and Lucius Clay , 1918 , was oldest son of a locally prominent family . Jump up ^ Link , Woodrow Wilson , pp. 179ff Jump up ^ Herring , `` James Hay and the Preparedness Controversy , 1915 -- 1916 , '' p. 383 ^ Jump up to : Paolo Coletta , American Secretaries of the Navy ( 1980 ) 2 : 526 - 41 Jump up ^ Theodore A. Thelander , `` Josephus Daniels and the Publicity Campaign for Naval and Industrial Preparedness before World War I , '' North Carolina Historical Review ( 1966 ) 43 # 3 pp. 316 -- 332 Jump up ^ Lee A. Craig ( 2013 ) . Josephus Daniels : His Life and Times . U. North Carolina Press . pp. 364 -- 65 . Jump up ^ Kendrick A. Clements , `` Woodrow Wilson and World War I . '' Presidential Studies Quarterly ( 2004 ) 34 # 1 pp. 62 -- 82 . Jump up ^ Cooper , Woodrow Wilson ( 2011 ) pp. 378 -- 79 Jump up ^ Thomas Boghardt , The Zimmermann Telegram : Intelligence , Diplomacy , and America 's Entry into World War I ( 2012 ) Excerpt and text search , summarized in Thomas Boghardt 's The Zimmermann Telegram : Diplomacy , Intelligence and The American Entry into World War I ( 2003 ) online Jump up ^ Compare : Doenecke , Justus D. ( 2011 ) . Nothing Less Than War : A New History of America 's Entry Into World War I. Studies in Conflict , Diplomacy and Peace Series . University Press of Kentucky . p. 250 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8131 - 3002 - 6 . Retrieved 2015 - 12 - 07 . On January 31 , Ambassador Bernstorff presented ( ... ) Germany 's response to Wilson 's recent ' peace without victory ' plea ( ... ) : his nation was about to launch an unrestricted submarine campaign , thereby declaring total maritime war against all neutrals . After February 1 , the communique noted , German U-boats would sink without warning belligerent and neutral ships found in a designated zone comprising waters around Great Britain , France , and Italy , and in the eastern Mediterranean . The Admiralty made one minor exception : it would permit one American steamer a week to sail between New York and Falmouth ( ... ) . Initially Germany would grant a period of grace , during which its submarines would not harm neutral ships that either were en route to the war zone or had already arrived . Jump up ^ Compare : Doenecke , Justus D. ( 2011 ) . Nothing Less Than War : A New History of America 's Entry Into World War I. Studies in Conflict , Diplomacy and Peace Series . University Press of Kentucky . p. 286 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8131 - 3002 - 6 . Retrieved 2015 - 12 - 07 . Several factors led to Wilson 's choice . Germany 's U-boat warfare was paramount . Had it not been for Berlin 's announcement of January 31 , the president probably would not have issued a call to arms . Jump up ^ Justus D. Doenecke , Nothing Less Than War : A New History of America 's Entry into World War I ( 2011 ) ch 10 ^ Jump up to : May , Ernest R. ( 1966 ) . The World War and American isolation , 1914 -- 1917 . Jump up ^ Knock , Thomas J. ( 1995 ) . To End All Wars : Woodrow Wilson and the Quest for a New World Order . Jump up ^ Syrett , Harold C. ( 1945 ) . `` The Business Press and American Neutrality , 1914 -- 1917 '' . Mississippi Valley Historical Review . 32 ( 2 ) : 215 -- 230 . doi : 10.2307 / 1898209 . JSTOR 1898209 . Jump up ^ Robert W. Cherny , A righteous cause : the life of William Jennings Bryan ( 1994 ) p. 144 Jump up ^ Syrett , `` The Business Press and American Neutrality , 1914 -- 1917 , '' Jump up ^ The German army executed over 6,500 French and Belgian civilians between August and November 1914 , usually in near - random large - scale shootings of civilians ordered by junior German officers . Horne , John ; Kramer , Alan ( 2001 ) . German Atrocities , 1914 : A History of Denial . New Haven : Yale U.P. ISBN 0 - 300 - 08975 - 9 . Jump up ^ Bonadio , Felice A. ( 1959 ) . `` The Failure of German Propaganda in the United States , 1914 -- 1917 '' . Mid America . 41 ( 1 ) : 40 -- 57 . Jump up ^ Bourne , Randolph . `` The War and the Intellectuals . '' N.p. : n.p. , n.d. 133 - 46 . Print . Jump up ^ DISASTER BEARS OUT EMBASSY 'S WARNING ; German Advertisement Practically Foretold Lusitania 's Fate on Day She Sailed . AND IS REPEATED TODAY Passengers Also Said to Have Received Telegrams -- Shipping Men Heard of Threats . Jump up ^ Germany , U-Boats and the Lusitania Jump up ^ The Lusitania Jump up ^ for detailed coverage of the speech see NY Times main headline , April 2 , 1917 , President Calls for War Declaration , Stronger Navy , New Army of 500,000 Men , Full Cooperation With Germany 's Foes Jump up ^ John Milton Cooper , Jr. , Woodrow Wilson : A Biography ( 2011 ) pp. 383 -- 89 Jump up ^ Simon Newton Dexter North ; et al. ( 1918 ) . The American Year Book : A Record of Events and Progress . Thomas Nelson & Sons . pp. 10 -- 11 . Bibliography ( edit ) After war was declared war bond posters demonized Germany Ambrosius , Lloyd E. `` Woodrow Wilson and George W. Bush : Historical Comparisons of Ends and Means in Their Foreign Policies , '' Diplomatic History , 30 ( June 2006 ) , 509 -- 43 . Arnett , Alex Mathews . Claude Kitchin and the Wilson War Policies. 1937 . OCLC 1278853 Kitchen was an antiwar Democrat in the House Bassett , John Spencer . Our War with Germany : A History ( 1919 ) online edition Brands , H.W. Theodore Roosevelt ( 2001 ) OCLC 50431515 , full biography online edition Clements , Kendrick A. `` Woodrow Wilson and World War I , '' Presidential Studies Quarterly 34 : 1 ( 2004 ) . pp. 62 +. online edition Clifford , J. Garry . Citizen Soldiers : The Plattsburgh Training Camp Movement , 1913 -- 1920 ( 1972 ) Cooper , John Milton . The vanity of power : American isolationism and the First World War , 1914 - 1917 ( 1969 ) . Cooper , John Milton . Woodrow Wilson . A Biography ( 2009 ) , Major scholarly biography . Costrell , Edwin . How Maine viewed the war , 1914 -- 1917 , ( 1940 ) OCLC 475605726 Crighton , John C. Missouri and the World War , 1914 -- 1917 : a study in public opinion ( University of Missouri , 1947 ) OCLC 831309569 Coffman , Edward M. The War to End All Wars : The American Military Experience in World War I ( 1998 ) ISBN 0 - 8131 - 0955 - 8 OCLC 38842092 Cummins , Cedric Clisten . Indiana public opinion and the World War , 1914 -- 1917 , ( 1945 ) Davis , Allen F. American Heroine : The Life and Legend of Jane Addams . ( Oxford University Press , 1973 ) ISBN 0 - 19 - 501694 - 7 OCLC 714527 Doenecke , Justus D. Nothing Less Than War : A New History of America 's Entry into World War I ( 2011 ) 433 pages ; comprehensive history online ISBN 978 - 0 - 8131 - 3002 - 6 OCLC 682895305 Doenecke , Justus D. `` Neutrality Policy and the Decision for War . '' in Ross Kennedy ed. , A Companion to Woodrow Wilson ( 2013 ) pp. 243 -- 69 Online ; covers the historiography Early , Frances H. A World without War : How U.S. Feminists and Pacifists Resisted World War I. ( Syracuse University Press , 1997 ) ISBN 0 - 8156 - 2764 - 5 OCLC 36800616 Esposito , David M. The Legacy of Woodrow Wilson : American War Aims in World War I. ( Praeger , 1996 ) 159pp online edition ISBN 0 - 275 - 95493 - 5 OCLC 33244422 Finnegan , John P. Against the Specter of a Dragon : The Campaign for American Military Preparedness , 1914 -- 1917 . ( 1975 ) . ISBN 0 - 8371 - 7376 - 0 OCLC 983933 Floyd , M. Ryan ( 2013 ) . Abandoning American Neutrality : Woodrow Wilson and the Beginning of the Great War , August 1914 - December 1915 . New York : Palgrave Macmillan . ISBN 978 - 1 - 137 - 33411 - 4 OCLC 836748335 Fordham , Benjamin O. `` Revisionism reconsidered : exports and American intervention in World War I . '' International Organization 61 # 2 ( 2007 ) : 277 - 310 . Gibbs , Christopher C. The Great Silent Majority : Missouri 's Resistance to World War I. 1988 . ISBN 0 - 8262 - 0683 - 2 OCLC 17676727 Grubbs , Frank L. The Struggle for Labor Loyalty : Gompers , the A.F. of L. , and the Pacifists , 1917 -- 1920 . 1968 . OCLC 640024383 Hannigan , Robert E. The Great War and American Foreign Policy , 1914 - 24 ( 2016 ) excerpt ; online at Questia Herman , Sondra . Eleven Against War : Studies in American Internationalist Thought , 1898 -- 1921 . 1969 . OCLC 23333 Higham , Robin and Dennis E. Showalter , eds . Researching World War I : A Handbook . 2003 . ISBN 0 - 313 - 28850 - X OCLC 51922814 , 475pp ; highly detailed historiography , online edition Hodgson , Godfrey . Woodrow Wilson 's Right Hand : The Life of Colonel Edward M. House . 2006 . ISBN 0 - 300 - 09269 - 5 OCLC 61864854 335pp Kazal , Russell A. Becoming Old Stock : The Paradox of German - American Identity. 2004 . 390 , pp. ISBN 0 - 691 - 05015 - 5 OCLC 52509620 German Americans in Philadelphia ponder the war . Kazin , Michael . War Against War : The American Fight for Peace , 1914 - 1918 ( 2017 ) . Keene , Jennifer D. `` Remembering the `` Forgotten War '' : American Historiography on World War I . '' Historian 78 # 3 ( 2016 ) : 439 -- 468 . Keene , Jennifer D. `` Americans Respond : Perspectives on the Global War , 1914 - 1917 . '' Geschichte und Gesellschaft 40.2 ( 2014 ) : 266 - 286 . online Kennedy , David M. Over Here : The First World War and American Society ( 1982 ) , covers politics & economics & society online edition ISBN 0 - 19 - 502729 - 9 OCLC 6085939 Kennedy , Ross A. `` Preparedness , '' in Ross A. Kennedy ed. , A Companion to Woodrow Wilson 2013 . pp. 270 -- 86 ISBN 978 - 1 - 4443 - 3737 - 2 OCLC 808244737 Kennedy , Ross A. Woodrow Wilson , World War I , and America 's Strategy for Peace and Security ( 2009 ) . Koistinen , Paul . Mobilizing for Modern War : The Political Economy of American Warfare , 1865 -- 1919 Lawrence : University Press of Kansas , 1997 . Knock , Thomas J. To End All Wars : Woodrow Wilson and the Quest for a New World Order New York : Oxford University Press , 1992 . ISBN 0 - 19 - 507501 - 3 OCLC 25317305 Lemnitzer , Jan Martin . `` Woodrow Wilson 's Neutrality , the Freedom of the Seas , and the Myth of the ' Civil War Precedents ' . '' Diplomacy & Statecraft 27.4 ( 2016 ) : 615 - 638 . Link , Arthur S. Woodrow Wilson and the Progressive Era , 1910 -- 1917 . 1972 . Link , Arthur S. Wilson : The Struggle for Neutrality : 1914 -- 1915 ( 1960 ) ; Wilson : Confusions and Crises : 1915 -- 1916 ( 1964 ) ; Wilson : Campaigns for Progressivism and Peace : 1916 -- 1917 ( 1965 ) all 3 volumes are online at ACLS e-books Link , Arthur S. Wilson the Diplomatist : A Look at His Major Foreign Policies Baltimore : Johns Hopkins Press , 1957 . online edition OCLC 475072 Link , Arthur S. Woodrow Wilson and a Revolutionary World , 1913 -- 1921 . 1982 . online edition Link , Arthur S. Woodrow Wilson : Revolution , War , and Peace . Arlington Heights , IL : AHM Pub . Corp. , 1979 . online edition ISBN 0 - 88295 - 798 - 8 OCLC 5244770 Livermore , Seward W. Politics Is Adjourned : Woodrow Wilson and the War Congress , 1916 -- 1918 . 1966 . Luebke , Frederick C. Bonds of Loyalty : German - Americans and World War I. Dekalb : Northern Illinois University Press , 1974 . ISBN 0 - 87580 - 045 - 9 OCLC 865969 McCallum , Jack . Leonard Wood : Rough Rider , Surgeon , Architect of American Imperialism . New York : New York University Press , 2006 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8147 - 5699 - 7 OCLC 60402000 McDonald , Forrest . Insull : The Rise and Fall of a Billionaire Utility Tycoon ( 2004 ) May , Ernest R . The World War and American Isolation , 1914 -- 1917 ( 1959 ) online at ACLS e-books , highly influential study Nash , George H. Life of Herbert Hoover : The Humanitarian , 1914 -- 1917 ( Life of Herbert Hoover , Vol. 2 ) ( 1988 ) O'Toole , Patricia . When Trumpets Call : Theodore Roosevelt after the White House . New York : Simon & Schuster , 2005 . ISBN 0 - 684 - 86477 - 0 OCLC 56921011 Perkins , Bradford . The Great Rapprochement : England and the United States , 1895 -- 1914 1968 . Peterson , H.C. Propaganda for War : The Campaign Against American Neutrality , 1914 -- 1917 . Norman , OK : University of Oklahoma Press , 1968 . Rothwell , V.H. British War Aims and Peace Diplomacy , 1914 -- 1918 . 1971 . Safford , Jeffrey J. Wilsonian Maritime Diplomacy , 1913 -- 1921 . 1978 . Smith , Daniel . The Great Departure : The United States and World War I , 1914 -- 1920 . 1965 . Sterba , Christopher M. Good Americans : Italian and Jewish Immigrants during the First World War . 2003 . 288 pp. online edition ISBN 0 - 19 - 514754 - 5 OCLC 49576532 Tuchman , Barbara W. ( 1985 ) . The Zimmermann Telegram . ISBN 0 - 345 - 32425 - 0 . Tucker , Robert W. Woodrow Wilson and the Great War : Reconsidering America 's Neutrality , 1914 -- 1917 . 2007 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8139 - 2629 - 2 Unger , Nancy C. Fighting Bob La Follette : The Righteous Reformer Chapel Hill : University of North Carolina Press , 2000 . ISBN 0 - 8078 - 2545 - X OCLC 42861557 Venzon , Anne Cipriano , ed . The United States in the First World War : An Encyclopedia New York : Garland Pub. , 1995 . ISBN 0 - 8240 - 7055 - 0 OCLC 32013365 Ward , Robert D . `` The Origin and Activities of the National Security League , 1914 -- 1919 . '' Mississippi Valley Historical Review 47 ( 1960 ) : 51 -- 65 . online at JSTOR Witcover , Jules . Sabotage at Black Tom : Imperial Germany 's Secret War in America . Chapel Hill , NC : Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill , 1989 . ISBN 0 - 912697 - 98 - 9 OCLC 18379558 Historiography ( edit ) Doenecke , Justus D. `` Neutrality Policy and the Decision for War . '' in Ross Kennedy ed. , A Companion to Woodrow Wilson ( 2013 ) pp. 243 -- 69 Online ; covers the historiography Keene , Jennifer D. `` Remembering the `` Forgotten War '' : American Historiography on World War I . '' Historian 78 # 3 ( 2016 ) : 439 -- 468 . Primary sources ( edit ) The Papers of Woodrow Wilson edited by Arthur S. Link complete in 69 vol , at major academic libraries . Annotated edition of all of WW 's letters , speeches and writings plus many letters written to him Wilson , Woodrow . Why We Are at War ( 1917 ) six war messages to Congress , Jan - April 1917 External links ( edit ) Keene , Jennifer D. : United States of America , in : 1914 - 1918 - online . International Encyclopedia of the First World War . Ford , Nancy Gentile : Civilian and Military Power ( USA ) , in : 1914 - 1918 - online . International Encyclopedia of the First World War . Strauss , Lon : Social Conflict and Control , Protest and Repression ( USA ) , in : 1914 - 1918 - online . International Encyclopedia of the First World War . Little , Branden : Making Sense of the War ( USA ) , in : 1914 - 1918 - online . International Encyclopedia of the First World War . Miller , Alisa : Press / Journalism ( USA ) , in : 1914 - 1918 - online . International Encyclopedia of the First World War . Wells , Robert A. : Propaganda at Home ( USA ) , in : 1914 - 1918 - online . International Encyclopedia of the First World War . NY Times main headline , April 2 , 1917 , President Calls for War Declaration , Stronger Navy , New Army of 500,000 Men , Full Cooperation With Germany 's Foes President Wilson 's War Address Map of Europe at the time of the US declaration of war on Germany at omniatlas.com World War I : Declarations of War from Around the Globe - How America Entered the Great War Today in History : U.S. Enters World War I ( hide ) Woodrow Wilson 28th President of the United States ( 1913 -- 1921 ) 34th Governor of New Jersey ( 1911 -- 1913 ) 13th President of Princeton University ( 1902 -- 1910 ) Presidency 1913 inauguration Suffrage Parade 1917 inauguration The New Freedom Clayton Antitrust Act Farm Loan Act Federal Employees ' Compensation Act Federal Reserve System Federal Reserve Act Federal Income Tax amendment Federal Trade Commission Act Federal Trade Commission Revenue Act of 1913 Flag Day National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics Occupation of Haiti Bryan -- Chamorro Treaty Philippine Autonomy Act World War I entry campaigns home front Committee on Public Information Espionage Act of 1917 Selective Service Act of 1917 Four Minute Men Sedition Act of 1918 National War Labor Board The Inquiry American Commission to Negotiate Peace Paris Peace Conference , 1919 Treaty of Versailles The Big Four Fourteen Points League of Nations charter 1919 Nobel Peace Prize Wilsonian Armenia Silent Sentinels Women 's Suffrage amendment Roosevelt desk Judicial appointments Supreme Court Cabinet State of the Union Address 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1920 Life Birthplace and Presidential Library papers and manuscripts Boyhood home in Georgia Boyhood home in South Carolina Princeton University president Summer White House ( Harlakenden Shadow Lawn ) Woodrow Wilson House Gravesite Books Congressional Government When a Man Comes to Himself The New Freedom ( 1913 ) Elections New Jersey gubernatorial election , 1910 1912 Democratic National Convention 1912 U.S. presidential election 1916 Democratic National Convention 1916 U.S. presidential election Legacy Wilsonianism Woodrow Wilson Foundation Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs Celestial Sphere Woodrow Wilson Memorial Woodrow Wilson Bridge Woodrow Wilson National Fellowship Foundation U.S. Postage stamps U.S. Currency Popular culture Wilson ( 1944 film ) Profiles in Courage ( 1965 series ) Wilson ( 2013 book ) Woodrow Wilson and the Birth of the American Century ( 2002 documentary ) Family Joseph Ruggles Wilson ( father ) Jessie Janet Woodrow ( mother ) Ellen Axson Wilson ( wife , 1885 -- 1914 ; death ) Edith Bolling Wilson ( wife , 1915 -- 1924 ) Margaret Wilson ( daughter ) Jessie Wilson Sayre ( daughter ) Eleanor Wilson McAdoo ( daughter ) William McAdoo ( son - in - law ) Francis Sayre , Jr. ( grandson ) James Woodrow ( maternal uncle ) Related Progressive Era Jefferson Literary and Debating Society ← William Howard Taft Warren G. Harding → Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=American_entry_into_World_War_I&oldid=822020133 '' Categories : United States in World War I United States home front during World War I Hidden categories : Articles with inconsistent citation formats Articles needing additional references from September 2017 All articles needing additional references Talk Contents About Wikipedia Français Bahasa Indonesia Edit links This page was last edited on 23 January 2018 , at 23 : 33 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

when did united states enter world war i

April 1917

April 1917

Strategy of unbalanced growth - Wikipedia Strategy of unbalanced growth Jump to : navigation , search This article may be incomprehensible or very hard to understand . In particular , it uses both very general statements which are not further clarified or contextualized , and technical jargon that is not explained . Please help by rewording it if the intended meaning can be determined . The talk page may have details . ( August 2016 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) This article includes a list of references , related reading or external links , but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations . Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations . ( January 2012 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Unbalanced growth is a natural path of economic development . Situations that countries are in at any one point in time reflect their previous investment decisions and development . Accordingly , at any point in time desirable investment programs that are not balanced investment packages may still advance welfare . Unbalanced investment can complement or correct existing imbalances . Once such an investment is made , a new imbalance is likely to appear , requiring further compensating investments . Therefore , growth need not take place in a balanced way . Supporters of the unbalanced growth doctrine include Albert O. Hirschman , Hans Singer , Paul Streeten , Marcus Fleming , Prof. Rostov and J. Sheehan . Contents ( hide ) 1 Introduction 2 Complementarity 3 Induced investment 4 External economies 5 Social Overhead Capital 6 Development via capital imbalances 7 Backward and forward linkages 8 Linkages and last industries 8.1 Disadvantages 9 Further reading 10 Notes 11 References Introduction ( edit ) The theory is generally associated with Hirschman . He presented a complete theoretical formulation of the strategy . Underdeveloped countries display common characteristics : low levels of GNI per capita and slow GNI per capita growth , large income inequalities and widespread poverty , low levels of productivity , great dependence on agriculture , a backward industrial structure , a high proportion of consumption and low savings , high rates of population growth and dependency burdens , high unemployment and underemployment , technological backwardness and dualism ( existence of both traditional and modern sectors ) . In a less - developed country , these characteristics lead to scarce resources or inadequate infrastructure to exploit these resources . With a lack of investors and entrepreneurs , cash flows can not be directed into various sectors that influence balanced economic growth . Hirschman contends that deliberate unbalancing of the economy according to the strategy is the best method of development and if the economy is to be kept moving ahead , the task of development policy is to maintain tension , disproportions and disequilibrium . Balanced growth should not be the goal but rather the maintenance of existing imbalances , which can be seen from profit and losses . Therefore , the sequence that leads away from equilibrium is precisely an ideal pattern for development . Unequal development of various sectors often generates conditions for rapid development . More - developed industries provide undeveloped industries an incentive to grow . Hence , development of underdeveloped countries should be based on this strategy . The path of unbalanced growth is described by three phases : Complementary Induced investment External economies Singer believed that desirable investment programs always exist within a country that represent unbalanced investment to complement the existing imbalance . These investments create a new imbalance , requiring another balancing investment . One sector will always grow faster than another , so the need for unbalanced growth will continue as investments must complement existing imbalance . Hirschman states `` If the economy is to be kept moving ahead , the task of development policy is to maintain tensions , disproportions and disequilibrium '' . This situation exists for all societies , developed or underdeveloped . Complementarity ( edit ) Complementarity is a situation where increased production of one good or service builds up demand for the second good or service . When the second product is privately produced , this demand will lead to imports or higher domestic production of the second product , as it will be in the interests of the producers to do so . Otherwise , the increased demand takes the form of political pressure . This is the case for such public services such as law and order , education , water and electricity that can not reasonably be imported . Induced investment ( edit ) Complementarity allows investment in one industry or sector to encourage investment in others . This concept of induced investment is like a multiplier , because each investment triggers a series of subsequent events . Convergence occurs as the output of external economies diminishes at each step . Growth sequences tend to move towards convergence or divergence and the policy is usually concerned with preventing rapid convergence and promoting the possibility of divergence . External economies ( edit ) New projects often appropriate external economies created by preceding ventures and create external economies that may be utilized by subsequent ones . Sometimes the project undertaken creates external economies , causing private profit to fall short of what is socially desirable . The reverse is also possible . Some ventures have a larger input of external economies than the output . Therefore , Hirschman says , `` the projects that fall into this category must be net beneficiaries of external economies '' . Social Overhead capital ( edit ) Social Overhead Capital ( SOC ) is defined as basic services without which primary , secondary and tertiary productive activities can not function . In a narrow sense , Social Overhead Capital is defined to include transportation and electricity , while in a wider sense , it includes all public services , including law and order and education . Criteria for classifying an asset as Social Overhead Capital include : The services provided by the activity should facilitate a great variety of economic activities . The services provided should be subject to public control . The services can not be imported . The investment needed to provide services should be characterized by some unevenness as well as by high capital output ratio . Development via capital imbalances ( edit ) The strategy of unbalanced growth has been discussed within the frameworks of development through shortage of SOC and development through excess of SOC . In the first case , the country invests in direct productive activities ( DPA ) . Direct productive activity increases demand for SOC , inducing investment . In the second case , SOC expands , which reduces the cost of services , inducing investment in DPA . The cost of producing any unit of output of DPA is inversely proportional to SOC . The economy 's major objective is to attain increasing output of DPA . One of the paradoxes of development is that poor countries can not afford to be economical . According to Hirschman , resources are not scarce per se , but the ability to employ those resources may be lacking . To explain unbalanced growth , Hirschman assumes that the country invests in either DPA or SOC . Both paths set up incentives and an evaluation of their respective efficiency depends on the strengths of entrepreneurial motivations and the response to public pressure of the authorities responsible for SOC . The major characteristic of the two paths of development is that they yield excess dividends . SOC built ahead of demand creates this demand by making a country more attractive to DPA investors . DPA that outpaces SOC development , creates demand to expand SOC . Balanced growth of DPA and SOC is not achievable in underdeveloped countries , nor it is not a desirable policy , as it does not set up the incentives and the pressure that make for this dividend of induced investment decisions . Backward and forward linkages ( edit ) Hirschman introduces the concept of backward and forward linkages . A forward linkage is created when investment in a particular project encourages investment in subsequent stages of production . A backward linkage is created when a project encourages investment in facilities that enable the project to succeed . Normally , projects create both forward and backward linkages . Investment should be made in those projects that have the greatest total number of linkages . Projects with many linkages will vary from country to country ; knowledge about project linkages can be obtained through input and output studies . Most underdeveloped economies are primarily agrarian . Agriculture is typically at a primitive stage and hence possesses few linkages , as most output goes for consumption or exports . Therefore , it is said that underdeveloped countries are lacking in interdependence and linkages . An example of an industry that has excellent forward and backward linkages is the steel industry . Backward linkages include coal and iron ore mining . Forward linkages include items such as canned goods . While this industry has strong linkages , it is not a good leading sector . Any industry that has a high capital / output ratio and causes significant costs to other businesses has the potential to hurt the developing economy more than it helps it . A better leading sector would be the beer industry . Linkages and last industries ( edit ) The development of an economy using the unbalanced method depends on the linkages between sectors . Hirschman suggests that the best strategy is induced industrialization . This type of development will create more backward and forward linkages and should be the first step taken . Industries that transform semi-manufactured goods into goods needed by final demand are called `` last industries '' or `` enclave import industries '' . In underdeveloped countries , industrialization takes place through such industries , through plants that add final touches to unfinished imported products . Examples are metal fabricating industries , pharmaceutical laboratories and assembly and mixing plants . Such industries have many advantages , as they often require the smaller amounts of capital available in such economies and without having to rely on unreliable domestic producers . Therefore , underdeveloped countries set up such `` last industries '' first . These industries create long chains of backward linkages . Colombia , Brazil and Mexico are examples of countries that followed this path . Protection and subsidy of import - replacing industries should come , but at a later stage . The Last Industry Strategy has disadvantages . It can slow the creation of domestic production . Industrialists who have begun working with imports may not accept domestic alternative products that reduce demand for their output . Creating last industries first can create loyalty toward foreign products and distrust of domestic products and their quality . Banks may get used to extending credit for shorter , smaller capital requirements . Disadvantages ( edit ) Disadvantages of the last industry strategy include inhibition of domestic production as domestic demand grows . This is because industrialists who work with imported material will often be hostile to the establishment of domestic industries , because domestic goods are of lower quality , the number of domestic suppliers is small , downstream competition may intensify once inputs are available domestically and competitors may be able to locate closer to the upstream suppliers . Last / first may accustom domestic consumers to imported goods , making it harder for local producers to find customers . Further , financing may be easier for import - based business . Further reading ( edit ) Hirschman , Albert O. ( 1958 ) . The Strategy of Economic Development . New Haven , Conn. : Yale University Press . ISBN 0 - 300 - 00559 - 8 Streeten , Paul ( 1959 ) Unbalanced Growth , Oxford Economic Papers New Series , Vol. 11 , No. 2 ( Jun. , 1959 ) , pp. 167 -- 190 Notes ( edit ) References ( edit ) Hirschman , Albert O . `` The Strategy of Economic Development , '' in Agarwal , A.N. and Singh , S.P. ( eds ) , Accelerating Investment in Developing Economies ( London Oxford Press , 1969 ) Thirwall , A.P. Growth and Development : With special reference to developing economies ( London : Macmillian Press ltd ... , sixth edition . 1999 ) , pp237 -- 242 . Scitovsky , Tibor . Papers on welfare and Growth ( London George Allen and Unwin ltd ... 1965 ) Refer to 5th paper entitled `` Growth -- Balanced and Unbalanced '' . Nath , S.K. , `` Balanced Growth . '' in Livingstone ( ed ) , Economic Policy for Development ( Harmodworth , Middlesex : Penguin Books ltd. 1971 ) Han Singer , `` The Concept of Balanced Growth and Economic Development ; Theory and Facts , '' University of Texas Conference on Economic Development , April 1958 . Paul Streeten , `` Unbalanced Growth . '' Economic Integration , Sythoff , Leiden ( Netherlands ) , 1961 . Reprinted in A.N. Agarwala and S.P. Singh , ( eds . ) , Accelerating Investment in Developing Economies ( London : Oxford University Press , 1969 ) . ( hide ) Development Economics : Partial Theories of Development Dual - sector model Big push model Critical minimum effort theory Ragnar Nurkse 's balanced growth theory Strategy of unbalanced growth Social dualism Technological dualism Fei -- Ranis model of economic growth Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Strategy_of_unbalanced_growth&oldid=838124154 '' Categories : Economic growth Hidden categories : Wikipedia articles that are incomprehensible from August 2016 All Wikipedia articles that are incomprehensible Articles lacking in - text citations from January 2012 All articles lacking in - text citations All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February 2013 Wikipedia articles needing clarification from February 2013 Articles with unsourced statements from March 2012 All articles with specifically marked weasel - worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel - worded phrases from February 2013 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch Français 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 25 April 2018 , at 02 : 21 . 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who has given the theory of unbalanced economic growth

Hirschman

Hirschman

Distilled beverage - wikipedia Distilled beverage Jump to : navigation , search `` Liquor '' redirects here . For sweetened and flavored alcoholic beverages , see Liqueur . For the novel series , see Liquor ( novel series ) . An old whiskey still A display of various distilled beverages in a supermarket Some single - drink distilled beverage bottles available in Germany A distilled beverage , spirit , liquor , hard liquor or hard alcohol is an alcoholic beverage produced by distillation of liquid drinks made with grains , fruit , or vegetables that have already gone through alcoholic fermentation . The distillation process purifies the liquid and removes diluting components like water , for the purpose of increasing its proportion of alcohol content ( commonly expressed as alcohol by volume , ABV ) . As distilled beverages contain significantly more alcohol , they are considered `` harder '' -- in North America , the term hard liquor is used to distinguish distilled beverages from undistilled ones . As examples , this term does not include beverages such as beer , wine , mead , sake , or cider , as they are fermented but not distilled . These all have a relatively low alcohol content , typically less than 15 % . Brandy is a spirit produced by the distillation of wine , and has an ABV of over 35 % . Other examples of distilled beverages include vodka , baijiu , gin , rum , tequila , mezcal , and whisky . ( Also see list of alcoholic drinks , and liquors by national origin . ) Contents ( hide ) 1 Nomenclature 2 Etymology 3 History of distillation 3.1 Precursors 3.2 True distillation 3.3 Government regulation 3.4 Microdistilling 4 Flammability 5 Serving 6 Alcohol consumption by country 7 Health effects 7.1 Short - term effects 7.2 Long - term effects 8 See also 9 References 10 Bibliography 11 External links Nomenclature ( edit ) The term spirit refers to a distilled beverage that contains no added sugar and has at least 20 % alcohol by volume ( ABV ) . Distilled beverages bottled with added sugar and added flavorings , such as Grand Marnier , Frangelico , and American schnapps , are known instead as liqueurs . Distilled beverages generally have an alcohol concentration higher than 30 % . Beer and wine , which are not distilled beverages , are limited to a maximum alcohol content of about 20 % ABV , as most yeasts can not reproduce when the concentration of alcohol is above this level ; as a consequence , fermentation ceases at that point . Etymology ( edit ) The origin of `` liquor '' and its close relative `` liquid '' was the Latin verb liquere , meaning `` to be fluid '' . According to the Oxford English Dictionary , an early use of the word in the English language , meaning simply `` a liquid '' , can be dated to 1225 . The first use the OED mentions of its meaning `` a liquid for drinking '' occurred in the 14th century . Its use as a term for `` an intoxicating alcoholic drink '' appeared in the 16th century . The term `` spirit '' in reference to alcohol stems from Middle Eastern alchemy . These alchemists were more concerned with medical elixirs than with transmuting lead into gold . The vapor given off and collected during an alchemical process ( as with distillation of alcohol ) was called a spirit of the original material . History of distillation ( edit ) Main article : Distillation Precursors ( edit ) Distillation equipment used by the 3rd century alchemist Zosimos of Panopolis , from the Byzantine Greek manuscript Parisinus graces . Distillation was known in the ancient Indian subcontinent , evident from baked clay retorts and receivers found at Taxila and Charsadda in modern Pakistan , dating back to the early centuries of the Christian era . These `` Gandhara stills '' were only capable of producing very weak liquor , as there was no efficient means of collecting the vapors at low heat . The Chinese may have independently developed the process in the early centuries after Christ , during the Eastern Han dynasty . Distilled water was described in the 2nd century AD by Alexander of Aphrodisias . Alchemists in Roman Egypt were using a distillation alembic or still device in the 3rd century . Freeze distillation involves freezing the alcoholic beverage and then removing the ice . The freezing technique had limitations in geography and implementation limiting how widely this method was put to use . True distillation ( edit ) An illustration of brewing and distilling industry methods in England , 1858 The medieval Arabs used the distillation process extensively , and there is evidence that they distilled alcohol . Al - Kindi unambiguously described the distillation of wine in the 9th century . The process later spread to Italy , where later evidence of the distillation of alcohol comes from the School of Salerno in southern Italy during the 12th century . In China , archaeological evidence indicates that the true distillation of alcohol began during the 12th century Jin or Southern Song dynasties . A still has been found at an archaeological site in Qinglong , Hebei , dating to the 12th century . In India , the true distillation of alcohol was introduced from the Middle East , and was in wide use in the Delhi Sultanate by the 14th century . Fractional distillation was developed by Taddeo Alderotti in the 13th century . The production method was written in code , suggesting that it was being kept secret . In 1437 , `` burned water '' ( brandy ) was mentioned in the records of the County of Katzenelnbogen in Germany . It was served in a tall , narrow glass called a Goderulffe . Claims upon the origin of specific beverages are controversial , often invoking national pride , but they are plausible after the 12th century AD , when Irish whiskey and German brandy became available . These spirits would have had a much lower alcohol content ( about 40 % ABV ) than the alchemists ' pure distillations , and they were likely first thought of as medicinal elixirs . Consumption of distilled beverages rose dramatically in Europe in and after the mid-14th century , when distilled liquors were commonly used as remedies for the Black Death . Around 1400 , methods to distill spirits from wheat , barley , and rye beers , a cheaper option than grapes , were discovered . Thus began the `` national '' drinks of Europe : jenever ( Belgium and the Netherlands ) , gin ( England ) , Schnaps ( Germany ) , grappa ( Italy ) , borovička ( Slovakia ) , horilka ( Ukraine ) , akvavit / snaps ( Scandinavia ) , vodka ( Poland and Russia ) , ouzo ( Greece ) , rakia ( the Balkans ) , and poitín ( Ireland ) . The actual names emerged only in the 16th century , but the drinks were well known prior to then . Government regulation ( edit ) It is legal to distill beverage alcohol as a hobby for personal use in some countries , including New Zealand and the Netherlands . In the United States , it is illegal to distill beverage alcohol without a license . In some parts of the U.S. , it is also illegal to sell a still without a license . However , all states allow unlicensed individuals to make their own beer , and some also allow unlicensed individuals to make their own wine ( although making beer and wine is also prohibited in some local jurisdictions ) . Microdistilling ( edit ) Microdistilling ( also known as craft distilling ) began to re-emerge as a trend in the United States following the microbrewing and craft beer movement in the last decades of the 20th century . In contrast , large - scale distillation facilities were never as dominant in Scotland , so the tradition of small - scale distillation was never really lost in the Scotch whisky market . Flammability ( edit ) These flaming cocktails illustrate that a distilled beverage will readily catch fire and burn . See also : Alcohol proof , Flash point , and Fire point Liquor that contains 40 % ABV ( 80 US proof ) will catch fire if heated to about 26 ° C ( 79 ° F ) and if an ignition source is applied to it . This temperature is called its flash point . The flash point of pure alcohol is 16.6 ° C ( 61.9 ° F ) , less than average room temperature . The flammability of distilled beverages is applied in the cooking technique Flambé . The flash points of alcohol concentrations from 10 % ABV to 96 % ABV are : 10 % -- 49 ° C ( 120 ° F ) -- ethanol - based water solution 12.5 % -- about 52 ° C ( 126 ° F ) -- wine 20 % -- 36 ° C ( 97 ° F ) -- fortified wine 30 % -- 29 ° C ( 84 ° F ) 40 % -- 26 ° C ( 79 ° F ) -- typical vodka , whisky or brandy 50 % -- 24 ° C ( 75 ° F ) -- strong whisky , bottled in bond whisky 60 % -- 22 ° C ( 72 ° F ) -- normal tsikoudia ( called mesoraki or middle raki ) , barrel proof whisky 70 % -- 21 ° C ( 70 ° F ) -- some absinthe , slivovitz 80 % -- 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) 90 % or more -- 17 ° C ( 63 ° F ) -- neutral grain spirit Serving ( edit ) See also : Bartending terminology A row of alcoholic beverages -- in this case , spirits -- in a bar Distilled beverages can be served : Neat -- at room temperature without any additional ingredient ( s ) Up -- shaken or stirred with ice , strained , and served in a stemmed glass . Down -- shaken or stirred with ice , strained , and served in a rocks glass . On the rocks -- over ice cubes Blended or frozen -- blended with ice With a simple mixer , such as club soda , tonic water , juice , or cola As an ingredient of a cocktail As an ingredient of a shooter With water With water poured over sugar ( as with absinthe ) Alcohol consumption by country ( edit ) Main article : List of countries by alcohol consumption The World Health Organization measures and publishes alcohol consumption patterns in different countries . The WHO measures alcohol consumed by persons 15 years of age or older and reports it on the basis of liters of pure alcohol consumed per capita in a given year in a country . Health effects ( edit ) Short - term effects ( edit ) Main article : Short - term effects of alcohol This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( January 2016 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Distilled spirits contain ethyl alcohol , the same chemical that is present in beer and wine and as such , spirit consumption has short - term psychological and physiological effects on the user . Different concentrations of alcohol in the human body have different effects on a person . The effects of alcohol depend on the amount an individual has drunk , the percentage of alcohol in the spirits and the timespan that the consumption took place , the amount of food eaten and whether an individual has taken other prescription , over-the - counter or street drugs , among other factors . Drinking enough to cause a blood alcohol concentration ( BAC ) of 0.03 % - 0.12 % typically causes an overall improvement in mood and possible euphoria , increased self - confidence , and sociability , decreased anxiety , a flushed , red appearance in the face and impaired judgment and fine muscle coordination . A BAC of 0.09 % to 0.25 % causes lethargy , sedation , balance problems and blurred vision . A BAC from 0.18 % to 0.30 % causes profound confusion , impaired speech ( e.g. , slurred speech ) , staggering , dizziness and vomiting . A BAC from 0.25 % to 0.40 % causes stupor , unconsciousness , anterograde amnesia , vomiting , and respiratory depression ( potentially life - threatening ) . Death may occur due to inhalation of vomit ( pulmonary aspiration ) while unconscious . A BAC from 0.35 % to 0.80 % causes a coma ( unconsciousness ) , life - threatening respiratory depression and possibly fatal alcohol poisoning . As with all alcoholic beverages , driving under the influence , operating an aircraft or heavy machinery increases the risk of an accident ; as such many countries have penalties for drunk driving . Long - term effects ( edit ) See also : Long - term effects of alcohol consumption The main active ingredient of distilled spirits is alcohol , and therefore , the health effects of alcohol apply to spirits . Drinking small quantities of alcohol ( less than one drink per day for women and 2 drinks per day for men ) is associated with a decreased risk of heart disease , stroke , diabetes mellitus , and early death . Drinking more than this amount ; however , increases the risk of heart disease , high blood pressure , atrial fibrillation , and stroke . The risk is greater in younger people due to binge drinking which may result in violence or accidents . About 3.3 million deaths ( 5.9 % of all deaths ) are believed to be due to alcohol each year . Alcoholism , also known as `` alcohol use disorder '' , is a broad term for any drinking of alcohol that results in problems . It was previously divided into two types : alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence . In a medical context , alcoholism is said to exist when two or more of the following conditions is present : a person drinks large amounts over a long time period , has difficulty cutting down , acquiring and drinking alcohol takes up a great deal of time , alcohol is strongly desired , usage results in not fulfilling responsibilities , usage results in social problems , usage results in health problems , usage results in risky situations , withdrawal occurs when stopping , and alcohol tolerance has occurred with use . Alcoholism reduces a person 's life expectancy by around ten years and alcohol use is the third - leading cause of early death in the United States . No professional medical association recommends that people who are nondrinkers should start drinking wine . While lower quality evidence suggests a cardioprotective effect , no controlled studies have been completed on the effect of alcohol on the risk of developing heart disease or stroke . Excessive consumption of alcohol can cause liver cirrhosis and alcoholism . The American Heart Association `` cautions people NOT to start drinking ... if they do not already drink alcohol . Consult your doctor on the benefits and risks of consuming alcohol in moderation . '' See also ( edit ) Liquor portal Drink portal Absinthe Akvavit Aguardiente Alcoholic beverage Arak Arrack Awamori Baijiu / Shōchū / Soju Brandy Borovička Cachaça Eau de vie Er guo tou Fenny Freeze distillation Gin ( and Jenever ) Horilka Liquor store List of beverages Mamajuana Mezcal Moonshine Neutral grain spirit Orujo Pálinka Pisco Poitín Rakı Rakia Rum Rượu đế Schnapps Slivovitz Vodka Whisky Tsikoudia Tsipouro References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` distilled spirit - alcoholic beverage '' . Encyclopædia Britannica . Jump up ^ E. Gildemeister and Fr . Hoffman , translated by Edward Kremers ( 1913 ) . The Volatile Oils. 1 . New York : Wiley . p. 203 . Jump up ^ Bryan H. Bunch and Alexander Hellemans ( 2004 ) . The History of Science and Technology . Houghton Mifflin Harcourt . p. 88 . ISBN 0 - 618 - 22123 - 9 . Jump up ^ Marcelin Berthelot Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs ( 3 vol. , Paris , 1887 -- 1888 , p. 161 ) ^ Jump up to : Irfan Habib ( 2011 ) , Economic History of Medieval India , 1200 - 1500 , page 55 , Pearson Education ^ Jump up to : Haw , Stephen G. ( 2006 ) . `` Wine , women and poison '' . Marco Polo in China . Routledge . pp. 147 -- 148 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 134 - 27542 - 7 . Retrieved 2016 - 07 - 10 . The earliest possible period seems to be the Eastern Han dynasty ... the most likely period for the beginning of true distillation of spirits for drinking in China is during the Jin and Southern Song dynasties Jump up ^ Taylor , F. Sherwood ( 1945 ) . `` The Evolution of the Still '' . Annals of Science . 5 ( 3 ) : 186 . doi : 10.1080 / 00033794500201451 . ISSN 0003 - 3790 . ^ Jump up to : Ahmad Y. al - Hassan ( 2001 ) , Science and Technology in Islam : Technology and applied sciences , pages 65 - 69 , UNESCO Jump up ^ Hassan , Ahmad Y. `` Alcohol and the Distillation of Wine in Arabic Sources '' . History of Science and Technology in Islam . Retrieved 2014 - 04 - 19 . Jump up ^ The Economist : `` Liquid fire - The Arabs discovered how to distil alcohol . They still do it best , say some '' December 18 , 2003 Jump up ^ Forbes , Robert James ( 1970 ) . A short history of the art of distillation : from the beginnings up to the death of Cellier Blumenthal . BRILL . pp. 57 , 89 . ISBN 978 - 90 - 04 - 00617 - 1 . Retrieved 29 June 2010 . Jump up ^ Sarton , George ( 1975 ) . Introduction to the history of science . R.E. Krieger Pub. Co. p. 145 . Jump up ^ Holmyard , Eric John ( 1990 ) . Alchemy . Courier Dover Publications . p. 53 . Jump up ^ graf-von-katzenelnbogen.com , see entry at Trinkglas . Jump up ^ `` Flash Point and Fire Point '' . Archived from the original on December 14 , 2010 . Retrieved March 6 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Material Safety Data Sheet , Section 5 '' . Retrieved March 7 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Flash points of ethanol - based water solutions '' . Retrieved June 23 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Robert L. Wolke ( 5 July 2006 ) . `` Combustible Combination '' . Washington Post . Retrieved 27 January 2011 . Jump up ^ Walkart , C.G. ( 2002 ) . National Bartending Center Instruction Manual . Oceanside , California : Bartenders America , Inc. p. 104 . ASIN : B000F1U6HG . Jump up ^ who.int ^ Jump up to : O'Keefe , JH ; Bhatti , SK ; Bajwa , A ; DiNicolantonio , JJ ; Lavie , CJ ( March 2014 ) . `` Alcohol and cardiovascular health : the dose makes the poison ... or the remedy '' . Mayo Clinic Proceedings . 89 ( 3 ) : 382 -- 93 . doi : 10.1016 / j. mayocp. 2013.11. 005 . PMID 24582196 . Jump up ^ `` Alcohol Facts and Statistics '' . Retrieved 9 May 2015 . Jump up ^ Jill Littrell ( 2014 ) . Understanding and Treating Alcoholism Volume I : An Empirically Based Clinician 's Handbook for the Treatment of Alcoholism : volume Ii : Biological , Psychological , and Social Aspects of Alcohol Consumption and Abuse . Hoboken : Taylor and Francis . p. 55 . ISBN 9781317783145 . The World Health Organization defines alcoholism as any drinking which results in problems Jump up ^ Hasin , Deborah ( December 2003 ) . `` Classification of Alcohol Use Disorders '' . pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/ . Retrieved 28 February 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` Alcohol Use Disorder : A Comparison Between DSM -- IV and DSM -- 5 '' . November 2013 . Retrieved 9 May 2015 . Jump up ^ Schuckit , MA ( 27 November 2014 ) . `` Recognition and management of withdrawal delirium ( delirium tremens ) '' . The New England Journal of Medicine . 371 ( 22 ) : 2109 -- 13 . doi : 10.1056 / NEJMra1407298 . PMID 25427113 . Jump up ^ Alcohol and Heart Health American Heart Association Jump up ^ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . `` General Information on Alcohol Use and Health '' . Retrieved 26 June 2008 . Jump up ^ American Heart Association . `` Alcohol , Wine and Cardiovascular Disease '' . Retrieved 26 June 2008 . Bibliography ( edit ) Blue , Anthony Dias ( 2004 ) . The Complete Book of Spirits : A Guide to Their History , Production , and Enjoyment . New York : HarperCollins Publishers . ISBN 0 - 06 - 054218 - 7 . Forbes , Robert ( 1997 ) . Short History of the Art of Distillation from the Beginnings up to the Death of Cellier Blumenthal . Brill Academic Publishers . ISBN 90 - 04 - 00617 - 6 . Multhauf , Robert ( 1993 ) . The Origins of Chemistry . Gordon & Breach Science Publishers . ISBN 2 - 88124 - 594 - 3 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Distilled beverages . History and Taxonomy of Distilled Spirits ( hide ) Alcoholic drinks History and production History of alcohol History of alcoholic beverages History of beer History of wine History of Bordeaux wine History of Champagne History of Chianti History of French wine History of Portuguese wine History of Rioja wine History of Sherry History of South African wine Production Alcohol industry Brewing Distillation Drinking establishments Fermentation Winemaking Alcoholic drinks Fermented drink Beer Cider Mead Rice wine Sake Wine Other fermented drinks Distilled drink Brandy Gin Liqueur Rum Tequila Vodka Whisky Other distilled drinks Fortified wine Madeira wine Marsala wine Port wine Sherry Vermouth Other fortified wines Distilled drinks by ingredients Fruit Apple Applejack Calvados Cashew apple Feni Coconut Arrack Fig Boukha Grape Armagnac Brandy Cognac Pisco Plum Slivovitz Țuică Pomace Chacha Grappa Marc Orujo Tsikoudia Tsipouro Zivania Various fruits Eau de vie Himbeergeist Kirschwasser Marillenschnaps Nalewka Pálinka Rakia Schnaps Cereals Barley Irish whiskey Japanese whisky Scotch whisky Maize Bourbon whiskey Corn whiskey Tennessee whiskey Rice Awamori Cheongju Rice baijiu Shochu Soju Rye Korn Rye whiskey Starka Sorghum Baijiu ( Kaoliang wine ) Multiple grains American whiskey Canadian whisky Other Agave Mezcal Tequila Buckwheat Buckwheat whisky Shochu Sugarcane or molasses Aguardiente Cachaça Clairin Guaro Rum Seco Herrerano Tharra Various starches Akvavit Horilka Poitín Shochu Vodka Liqueurs and infused distilled drinks by ingredients Almond Amaretto Crème de Noyaux Anise Absinthe Arak Hierbas Herbs de Majorca Ouzo Pastis Rakı Sambuca Blackthorn shrub Patxaran Chocolate Chocolate liqueur Cinnamon Tentura Cloudberry Lakka Coconut Malibu Coffee Kahlúa Tia Maria Egg Advocaat Hazelnut Frangelico Herbs Aquavit Bénédictine Brennivín Crème de menthe Metaxa Honey Bärenjäger Drambuie Glayva Krupnik Juniper Gin Jenever Orange Campari Cedratine Curaçao Triple sec Peppers Pertsivka Star anise Sassolino Sugarcane / molasses Charanda Various fruits Crème de banane Crème de cassis Limoncello Schnapps Sloe gin Portals Liquor Beer Drink Wine WikiProjects Beer Spirits Wine GND : 4182358 - 8 NDL : 00575038 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distilled_beverage&oldid=834146170 '' Categories : Distilled drinks Alcohol Distillation Indian inventions Pakistani inventions Hidden categories : All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from December 2017 Articles with unsourced statements from January 2014 Articles needing additional references from January 2016 All articles needing additional references Wikipedia articles needing clarification from January 2016 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Bân - lâm - gú Беларуская Беларуская ( тарашкевіца ) ‎ Català Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Español Esperanto فارسی Føroyskt Français Gaeilge 한국어 हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar മലയാളം မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands नेपाल भाषा 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Occitan Português Runa Simi Русский Scots Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Українська West - Vlams ייִדיש 粵語 中文 38 more Edit links This page was last edited on 4 April 2018 , at 05 : 04 . 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John Brown 's raid on Harpers Ferry - wikipedia John Brown 's raid on Harpers Ferry Jump to : navigation , search John Brown 's Raid on Harper 's Ferry Part of pre-Civil War conflicts Harper 's Weekly illustration of U.S. Marines attacking John Brown 's `` Fort '' Date October 16 -- 18 , 1859 Location Harpers Ferry , ( West ) Virginia Result U.S. victory Belligerents United States Abolitionist Insurgents Commanders and leaders Robert E. Lee Israel Greene Jeb Stuart John Brown Strength 88 U.S. Marines Unknown number of Virginia Militia and Maryland Militia 8 white men 12 free black men 1 freed slave 1 fugitive slave Casualties and losses U.S. Marines : 1 killed 1 wounded Virginia and Maryland Militia : Unknown 10 killed 7 captured 5 escaped Civilians : 6 killed 9 wounded John Brown 's raid on Harper 's Ferry ( also known as John Brown 's raid or The raid on Harper 's Ferry ) was an effort by armed abolitionist John Brown to initiate an armed slave revolt in 1859 by taking over a United States arsenal at Harpers Ferry , Virginia . Brown 's party of 22 was defeated by a company of U.S. Marines , led by First Lieutenant Israel Greene . Colonel Robert E. Lee was in overall command of the operation to retake the arsenal . John Brown had originally asked Harriet Tubman and Frederick Douglass , both of whom he had met in his transformative years as an abolitionist in Springfield , Massachusetts , to join him in his raid , but Tubman was prevented by illness and Douglass declined , as he believed Brown 's plan would fail . Contents ( hide ) 1 Brown 's preparation 2 Advance knowledge of raid 3 The raid 3.1 October 16 3.2 October 17 3.3 October 18 3.4 October 19 4 Aftermath 5 Casualties 5.1 John Brown 's raiders 5.2 Others 6 Liberated slaves 7 See also 8 Notes 8.1 Citations 8.2 Bibliography 9 External links Brown 's preparation ( edit ) John Brown rented the Kennedy Farmhouse , with a small cabin nearby , 4 miles ( 6.4 km ) north of Harpers Ferry near the community of Dargan in Washington County , Maryland , and took up residence under the name Isaac Smith . Brown came with a small group of men minimally trained for military action . His group included 18 men besides himself ( 13 white men , 5 black men ) . Northern abolitionist groups sent 198 breech - loading . 52 caliber Sharps carbines ( `` Beecher 's Bibles '' ) and 950 pikes ( obtained in late September from Charles Blair of Collinsville Axe Co. , Collinsville , CT ) , in preparation for the raid . The United States Armory was a huge complex of buildings that manufactured small arms for the U.S. Army ( 1801 -- 1861 ) , with an Arsenal ( storehouse ) that was thought to contain 100,000 muskets and rifles at the time . An illustration of Brown trying to persuade abolitionist Frederick Douglass to join him in the raid on Harpers Ferry . Douglass refused . Brown attempted to attract more black recruits . He tried recruiting Frederick Douglass as a liaison officer to the slaves in a meeting held in a quarry at Chambersburg , Pa . It was at this meeting that ex-slave `` Emperor '' Shields Green consented to join with John Brown on his attack on the United States Armory , Green stating to Douglass `` I believe I will go with the old man '' . Douglass declined , indicating to Brown that he believed the raid was a suicide mission . The plan was `` an attack on the federal government '' that `` would array the whole country against us ... You will never get out alive '' , he warned . The Kennedy Farmhouse served as `` barracks , arsenal , supply depot , mess hall , debate club , and home '' . It was very crowded and life there was tedious . Brown was worried about arousing neighbors ' suspicions . As a result , the raiders had to stay indoors during the daytime , without much to do but study , drill , argue politics , discuss religion , and play cards and checkers . Brown 's daughter - in - law Martha served as cook and housekeeper . His daughter Annie served as lookout . Brown wanted women at the farm , to prevent suspicions of a large all - male group . The raiders went outside at night to drill and get fresh air . Thunderstorms were welcome since they concealed noise from Brown 's neighbors . Brown did not plan to have a sudden raid and escape to the mountains . Rather , he intended to use those rifles and pikes he captured at the arsenal , in addition to those he brought along , to arm rebellious slaves with the aim of striking terror in the slaveholders in Virginia . He believed that on the first night of action , 200 - 500 black slaves would join his line . He ridiculed the militia and regular army that might oppose him . He planned to send agents to nearby plantations , rallying the slaves . He planned to hold Harpers Ferry for a short time , expecting that as many volunteers , white and black , would join him as would form against him . He would move rapidly southward , sending out armed bands along the way . They would free more slaves , obtain food , horses and hostages , and destroy slaveholders ' morale . Brown planned to follow the Appalachian Mountains south into Tennessee and even Alabama , the heart of the South , making forays into the plains on either side . Advance knowledge of raid ( edit ) John Brown in 1859 Brown paid Hugh Forbes $600 to be his drillmaster . Forbes was an English mercenary who served Giuseppe Garibaldi in Italy . Forbes ' Manual for the Patriotic Volunteer was found in Brown 's papers after the raid . Brown and Forbes argued over strategy and money . Forbes wanted more money so that his family in Europe could join him . Forbes sent threatening letters to Brown 's backers in an attempt to get money . Failing in this effort , Forbes traveled to Washington , DC , and met with U.S. Senators William H. Seward and Henry Wilson . He denounced Brown to Seward as a `` vicious man '' who needed to be restrained , but did not disclose any plans for the raid . Forbes partially exposed the plan to Senator Wilson and others . Wilson wrote to Samuel Gridley Howe , a Brown backer , advising him to get Brown 's backers to retrieve the weapons intended for use in Kansas . Brown 's backers told him that the weapons should not be used `` for other purposes , as rumor says they may be . '' In response to warnings , Brown had to return to Kansas to shore up support and discredit Forbes . Some historians believe that this trip cost Brown valuable time and momentum . Estimates are that at least eighty people knew about Brown 's planned raid in advance . Many others had reasons to believe that Brown was contemplating a move against the South . One of those who knew was David J. Gue of Springdale , Iowa . Gue was a Quaker who believed that Brown and his men would be killed . Gue , his brother , and another man decided to warn the government `` to protect Brown from the consequences of his own rashness . '' Gue sent an anonymous letter dated August 20 , 1859 to Secretary of War John B. Floyd . The letter said that `` old John Brown , ' late of Kansas , '' was planning to organize a slave uprising in the South . It said that Brown had a secret agent `` in an armory '' in Maryland . The letter said that Brown was stockpiling weapons at a secret location in Maryland . Gue warned that Brown planned to leave Maryland and enter Virginia at Harpers Ferry . Gue acknowledged that he was afraid to disclose his identity but asked Floyd not to ignore his warning `` on that account . '' He was hoping that Floyd would send soldiers to Harpers Ferry . He hoped that the extra security would motivate Brown to call off his plans . Even though President Buchanan offered a $250 reward for Brown , Floyd did not connect the John Brown of Gue 's letter to the John Brown of Pottawatomie , Kansas fame . He knew that Maryland did not have an armory ( Harpers Ferry is just across the river from Maryland ) . Floyd figured that the letter writer was a crank and forgot about it . He later said that `` a scheme of such wickedness and outrage could not be entertained by any citizen of the United States . '' The raid ( edit ) October 16 ( edit ) North American slave revolts Toussaint Louverture 1526 San Miguel de Guadalupe ( Spanish Florida , Victorious ) c. 1570 Gaspar Yanga 's Revolt ( Veracruz , New Spain , Victorious ) 1712 New York Slave Revolt ( British Province of New York , Suppressed ) 1730 First Maroon War ( British Jamaica , Victorious ) 1733 St. John Slave Revolt ( Danish Saint John , Suppressed ) 1739 Stono Rebellion ( British Province of South Carolina , Suppressed ) 1741 New York Conspiracy ( Province of New York , Suppressed ) 1760 Tacky 's War ( British Jamaica , Suppressed ) 1787 Abaco Slave Revolt ( British Bahamas , Suppressed ) 1791 Mina Conspiracy ( Louisiana ( New Spain ) , Suppressed ) 1795 Pointe Coupée Conspiracy ( Louisiana ( New Spain ) , Suppressed ) 1791 -- 1804 Haitian Revolution ( French Saint - Domingue , Victorious ) 1800 Gabriel 's Rebellion ( Virginia , Suppressed ) 1803 Igbo Landing ( St. Simons Island , Georgia , Suppressed ) 1805 Chatham Manor ( Virginia , Suppressed ) 1811 German Coast Uprising ( Territory of Orleans , Suppressed ) 1815 George Boxley ( Virginia , Suppressed ) 1816 Bussa 's Rebellion ( British Barbados , Suppressed ) 1822 Denmark Vesey ( South Carolina , Suppressed ) 1831 Nat Turner 's rebellion ( Virginia , Suppressed ) 1831 -- 1832 Baptist War ( British Jamaica , Suppressed ) 1839 Amistad , ship rebellion ( Off the Cuban coast , Victorious ) 1841 Creole case , ship rebellion ( Off the Southern U.S. coast , Victorious ) 1842 Slave Revolt in the Cherokee Nation ( Indian Territory , Suppressed ) 1859 John Brown 's Raid ( Virginia , Suppressed ) This box : view talk edit A modern reproduction of the 1848 fire engine house that became known as John Brown 's Fort , c. 2007 On Sunday night , October 16 , 1859 , Brown left four of his men behind as a rear - guard : his son , Owen Brown , Barclay Coppock , and Frank Meriam ; he led the rest into the town of Harpers Ferry , Virginia . Brown detached a party under John Cook Jr. to capture Colonel Lewis Washington , great - grandnephew of George Washington , at his nearby Beall - Air estate , some of his slaves , and two relics of George Washington : a sword allegedly presented to Washington by Frederick the Great and two pistols given by Marquis de Lafayette , which Brown considered talismans . The party carried out its mission and returned via the Allstadt House , where they took more hostages . Brown 's main party captured several watchmen and townspeople in Harpers Ferry . Brown 's men needed to capture the weapons and escape before word could be sent to Washington . The raid was going well for Brown 's men . They cut the telegraph wire and seized a Baltimore & Ohio train passing through . A free black man was the first casualty of the raid . Hayward Shepherd , an African - American baggage handler on the train , confronted the raiders ; they shot and killed him . For some reason , Brown let the train continue , and the conductor alerted the authorities down the line . Brown had been sure that he would win the support of local slaves in joining the rebellion , but a massive uprising did not occur , because word had not been spread about the uprising , so the slaves nearby did not know about it . Although the white townspeople soon began to fight back against the raiders , Brown 's men succeeded in capturing the armory that evening . October 17 ( edit ) Army workers discovered Brown 's men early on the morning of October 17 . Local militia , farmers and shopkeepers surrounded the armory . When a company of militia captured the bridge across the Potomac River , any route of escape for the raiders was cut off . During the day , four townspeople were killed , including the mayor . Realizing his escape was cut , Brown took nine of his captives and moved into the smaller engine house , which would come to be known as John Brown 's Fort . The raiders blocked entry of the windows and doors and traded sporadic gunfire with surrounding forces . At one point Brown sent out his son , Watson , and Aaron Dwight Stevens with a white flag , but Watson was mortally wounded and Stevens was shot and captured . The raid was rapidly failing . One of Brown 's men , William H. Leeman , panicked and made an attempt to flee by swimming across the Potomac River , but he was shot and fatally injured while doing so . During the intermittent shooting , Brown 's other son , Oliver , was also hit ; he died after a brief period . At around 3 : 00 p.m. a militia company led by Captain E.G. Alburtis arrived by train from Martinsburg , Virginia . Most of the militia members were Baltimore & Ohio Railroad employees . The militia forced the raiders inside the engine house . They broke into the guardroom and freed over two dozen prisoners . Eight militiamen were wounded . Alburtis said that he could have ended the raid with help from other citizens . By 3 : 30 that afternoon , President James Buchanan ordered a company of U.S. Marines ( the only government troops in the immediate area ) to march on Harpers Ferry under the command of Brevet Colonel Robert E. Lee , lieutenant colonel of the 2nd U.S. Cavalry Regiment. Lee had been on leave from his regiment , stationed in Texas , when he was hastily called to lead the detachment and had to command it while wearing his civilian clothes . October 18 ( edit ) This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( October 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Lee first offered the role of attacking the engine house to the local militia units on the spot . Both militia commanders declined , and Lee turned to the Marines . On the morning of October 18 , Colonel Lee sent Lt. J.E.B. Stuart , serving as a volunteer aide - de-camp , under a white flag of truce to negotiate a surrender of John Brown and his followers . Colonel Lee informed Lt. Israel Greene that if Brown did not surrender , he was to direct the Marines in attacking the engine house . Stuart walked towards the front of the engine house where he told Brown that his men would be spared if they surrendered . Brown refused and as Stuart walked away , he signaled a `` thumbs down '' to Lt. Greene and his men standing nearby . Soon after , Greene led a detachment of Marines to attack the engine house . Marines equipped with sledgehammers tried to break through the door , but their efforts were unsuccessful . Greene found a wooden ladder , and he and about 10 Marines used it as a battering ram to force the front doors open . Greene was the first through the door and with the assistance of Lewis Washington , identified and singled out John Brown . Greene later recounted what events occurred next : Quicker than thought I brought my saber down with all my strength upon ( Brown 's ) head . He was moving as the blow fell , and I suppose I did not strike him where I intended , for he received a deep saber cut in the back of the neck . He fell senseless on his side , then rolled over on his back . He had in his hand a short Sharpe 's cavalry carbine . I think he had just fired as I reached Colonel Washington , for the Marine who followed me into the aperture made by the ladder received a bullet in the abdomen , from which he died in a few minutes . The shot might have been fired by someone else in the insurgent party , but I think it was from Brown . Instinctively as Brown fell I gave him a saber thrust in the left breast . The sword I carried was a light uniform weapon , and , either not having a point or striking something hard in Brown 's accouterments , did not penetrate . The blade bent double . In three minutes , all of the raiders still alive were taken prisoner and the action was over . October 19 ( edit ) Robert E. Lee made a synopsis of the events that took place at Harpers Ferry . According to Lee 's notes , Lee believed John Brown was a madman , `` ... the plan ( raiding the Harpers Ferry Arsenal ) was the attempt of a fanatic or madman . '' Lee also believed that the blacks in the raid were forced by Brown . `` The blacks , whom he ( John Brown ) forced from their homes in this neighborhood , as far as I could learn , gave him no voluntary assistance . '' Lee attributed John Brown 's `` temporary success '' by creating panic and confusion and by `` magnifying '' the number of participants involved in the raid . Aftermath ( edit ) See also : Virginia v. John Brown A contemporary newspaper illustration showing the interior of the engine house immediately before the door is broken down by U.S. Marines John Brown wrote his last prophecy on December 2 of 1859 . Colonel Lee and John Stuart searched the surrounding country for fugitives who had participated in the attack . Few of Brown 's associates escaped , and among those who did , some were sheltered by abolitionists in the north , including William Still . Brown was taken to the court house in nearby Charles Town for trial . He was found guilty of treason against the Commonwealth of Virginia and was hanged on December 2 . ( This execution was witnessed by the actor John Wilkes Booth , who would later assassinate President Abraham Lincoln . ) On the day of his execution , Brown wrote his last testament , which said , ' I John Brown am now quite certain that the crimes of this guilty , land : will never be purged away ; but with Blood . I had as I now think : vainly flattered myself that without very much bloodshed ; it might be done . ' Four other raiders were executed on December 16 and two more on March 16 , 1860 . In his last speech , at his trial , he said to the court : ' ... had I so interfered in behalf of the rich , the powerful , the intelligent , the so - called great , or in behalf of any of their friends , either father , mother , brother , sister , wife , or children , or any of that class , and suffered and sacrificed what I have in this interference , it would have been all right ; and every man in this court would have deemed it an act worthy of reward rather than punishment . ' Southerners had a mixed attitude towards their slaves . Many southern whites lived in fear of a slave insurrection . Paradoxically , whites claimed that slaves were well treated and content in bondage . After the raid southerners initially lived in fear of slave uprisings and invasion by armed abolitionists . The South 's reaction entered the second phase at around the time of Brown 's execution . Southerners were relieved that no slaves had volunteered to help Brown . Southerners felt vindicated in their claims that slaves were content . After Northerners had expressed admiration for Brown 's motives , with some treating him as a martyr , Southern opinion evolved into what James M. McPherson called `` unreasoning fury . '' The first Northern reaction among antislavery advocates to Brown 's Raid was one of baffled reproach . William Lloyd Garrison called the raid `` misguided , wild , and apparently insane . '' But through the trial and his execution , Brown was transformed into a martyr . Henry David Thoreau , in A Plea for Captain John Brown , said , `` I think that for once the Sharp 's rifles and the revolvers were employed in a righteous cause . The tools were in the hands of one who could use them , '' and said of Brown , `` He has a spark of divinity in him . '' Though `` Harper 's Ferry was insane , '' wrote the religious weekly the Independent , `` the controlling motive of his demonstration was sublime . '' To the South , Brown was a murderer who wanted to deprive them of their property . The North `` has sanctioned and applauded theft , murder , and treason , '' said De Bow 's Review . Casualties ( edit ) John Brown 's raiders ( edit ) Events leading to the American Civil War Slavery Northwest Ordinance Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions Battle of Negro Fort Missouri Compromise Tariff of 1828 Nat Turner 's slave rebellion Nullification Crisis The Amistad Prigg v. Pennsylvania Texas annexation Mexican -- American War Wilmot Proviso Manifest destiny Underground Railroad Nashville Convention Compromise of 1850 Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 Uncle Tom 's Cabin Kansas -- Nebraska Act Ostend Manifesto Bleeding Kansas Caning of Charles Sumner Dred Scott v. Sandford The Impending Crisis of the South Brown 's raid on Harpers Ferry 1860 presidential election Crittenden Compromise Secession of Southern States Star of the West Corwin Amendment Battle of Fort Sumter Killed John Henry Kagi ( Shot and killed while crossing a river . First buried in common grave at Harpers Ferry ; reburied 1899 in a common grave near John Brown at North Elba , New York . ) Jeremiah G. Anderson ( At age 26 , was mortally wounded and killed by a Marine 's bayonet during the final assault on the engine house . Body claimed by Winchester Medical College as a teaching cadaver ; last resting place unknown . ) William Thompson ( First buried in common grave at Harpers Ferry ; reburied 1899 in a common grave near John Brown at North Elba , New York . ) Dauphin Thompson ( Killed in the storming of the engine house . First buried in common grave at Harpers Ferry ; reburied 1899 in a common grave near John Brown at North Elba , New York . ) Oliver Brown ( At age 21 , the youngest of John Brown 's three sons to participate in the action , he was mortally wounded on the 17th inside the engine house and died the next day . He was first buried in common grave at Harpers Ferry ; and reburied in 1899 in a common grave near John Brown at North Elba , New York . ) Watson Brown ( At age 24 , was mortally wounded outside the engine house while carrying a white flag to negotiate with the opposing militia ; he died two days later . As his body was claimed by Winchester Medical College as a teaching cadaver , Union troops burned the college in an attack during the Civil War . Brown was reburied in 1882 in a grave near his father 's in North Elba , New York . ) Stewart Taylor . Uxbridge , Ontario , Canada ( First buried in common grave at Harpers Ferry ; reburied 1899 in a common grave near John Brown at North Elba , New York . ) William Leeman ( Shot while trying to escape across the Potomac River . First buried in common grave at Harpers Ferry ; reburied 1899 in a common grave near John Brown at North Elba , New York . ) Lewis Sheridan Leary ( A 24 - year - old free black , he was mortally wounded while trying to escape across the Shenandoah River . He was stationed in the rifle factory with Kagi . Alleged to be buried at John Brown gravesite at North Elba , New York . Cenotaph memorial in Oberlin , Ohio . ) Dangerfield Newby ( At about 35 , he was born into slavery , with a white father who was not his master . He was given permission to move to Ohio along with his mother and siblings , but when he tried to gain freedom for his wife and children , their master refused . This inspired Newby to join Brown 's raid . He was the first raider killed . ( His body was mutilated ; for example , his ears were cut off by someone in the crowd as souvenirs . ) First he was buried at Harpers Ferry ; reburied in 1899 in a common grave near John Brown at North Elba , New York . ) Captured John Brown ( also wounded ) Tried , convicted and executed by hanging December 2 , 1859 , in nearby Charles Town . Aaron Dwight Stevens ( shot and captured October 18 . Hanged March 16 , 1860 in Charles Town . First buried at Eagleswood Mansion New Jersey ; reburied 1899 in a common grave near John Brown at North Elba , New York . ) Edwin Coppock ( At age 24 , he shot and killed the mayor of Harpers Ferry , Fontaine Beckham , during the raid . He was later executed at Charles Town on December 16 , 1859 and was buried in Salem , Ohio . ) John Anthony Copeland , Jr . ( A 25 - year - old free black , he joined the raiders along with his uncle Lewis Leary . He was captured during the raid and executed on December 16 , 1859 , in Charles Town . The body was claimed by Winchester Medical College as a teaching cadaver . The last resting place is unknown . Cenotaph memorial in Oberlin , Ohio . ) Shields Green ( At about age 23 , Green was an escaped slave from South Carolina ; captured in the engine house on October 18 , 1859 and hanged December 16 , 1859 in Charles Town . The body was claimed by Winchester Medical College as a teaching cadaver . The last resting place is unknown . Cenotaph memorial in Oberlin , Ohio . ) John Edwin Cook ( Escaped into Pennsylvania but soon captured . Hanged December 16 , 1859 in Charles Town . Body sent to New York . ) Albert E. Hazlett ( Escaped into Pennsylvania but soon captured . Hanged March 16 , 1860 . Buried at Eagleswood Mansion in Perth Amboy , New Jersey ; reburied 1899 in a common grave near John Brown at North Elba , New York . ) Four raiders escaped and were captured about six months later . Escaped and never captured Barclay Coppock ( Died during US Civil War . ) Charles Plummer Tidd ( Died during US Civil War . ) Osborne Perry Anderson ( Served as a soldier in Union Army , and wrote a memoir about the raid . Died 1870 ) Owen Brown ( Served as an officer in Union Army . Died January 8 , 1889 . Pasadena , California ( Brown 's Mountain ) ) Francis Jackson Meriam ( Served in the army as a captain in the 3rd South Carolina Colored Infantry . ) Others ( edit ) Civilians Shepherd Heyward ( Free African - American B&O baggage master ; killed . Buried in African - American Cemetery on Rt. 11 in Winchester , Va. , grave is unmarked ) Thomas Boerly ( Townsperson ; killed . ) George W. Turner ( Townsperson ; killed . ) Fontaine Beckham ( Town mayor ; killed . ) A slave belonging to Col. Washington was killed . A slave belonging to hostage John Allstad was killed . ( Some claim the two slaves voluntarily joined Brown 's raiders , others say Brown forced them to fight . Regardless , one was killed trying to escape across the Potomac River , the other was wounded and later died in the Charles Town jail . ) 9 other civilians were wounded . Marines Private Luke Quinn ( Killed during the storming of the engine house . ) Buried in Harpers Ferry Catholic Cemetery on Rte. 340 . Private Matthew Ruppert ( Shot in the face during the storming of the engine house ; survived . ) Liberated slaves ( edit ) Mayor Beckham 's Will Book called for the liberation of Isaac Gilbert , his wife , and three children upon his death . When Edwin Coppock killed Beckham the five slaves were free . See also ( edit ) List of incidents of civil unrest in the United States Notes ( edit ) Citations ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` John Brown 's raid on Harpers Ferry '' . History.com . Retrieved 1 May 2015 . Jump up ^ In many books the town is called `` Harper 's Ferry . '' For example , `` Col. Robert E. Lee 's Report Concerning the Attack at Harper 's Ferry , October 19 , 1859 , '' ; Horace Greeley , The American Conflict : A History of the Great Rebellion in the United States of America , 1860 -- 64 . Volume : 1 . ( 1866 ) , p. 279 ; French Ensor Chadwick , Causes of the Civil War , 1859 -- 1861 ( 1906 ) p. 74 ; Allan Nevins , The Emergence of Lincoln ( 1950 ) vol 2 ch 3 ; James M. McPherson , Battle Cry of Freedom : The Civil War Era ( 1988 ) , p. 201 ; Stephen W. Sears , Landscape Turned Red : The Battle of Antietam ( 2003 ) p. 116 . Jump up ^ Hoffman , Colonel Jon T. , USMC : A Complete History , Marine Corps Association , Quantico , Virginia , ( 2002 ) , p. 84 . Jump up ^ Taylor , Marian ( 2004 ) . Harriet Tubman : Antislavery Activist ( New ed . ) . Chelsea House Publishers . pp. 68 -- 69 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7910 - 8340 - 6 . Jump up ^ `` The Kennedy Farmhouse '' , John Brown website Jump up ^ `` The Harpers Ferry Raid '' . pbs.org . Retrieved 2014 - 12 - 09 . Jump up ^ James M. McPherson , Battle Cry of Freedom : The Civil War Era ( 2003 ) p. 205 Jump up ^ National Park Service History Series . John Brown 's Raid ( 2009 ) , pp. 22 -- 30 . Jump up ^ Allan Nevins , The Emergence of Lincoln : Prelude to Civil War , 1859 -- 1861 ( 1950 ) , vol. 4 , pp. 72 -- 73 Jump up ^ National Park Service History Series . John Brown 's Raid ( 2009 ) , p. 16 Jump up ^ Oates ( 1984 ) , p. 248 Jump up ^ National Park Service . John Brown 's Raid ( 2009 ) , p. 16 Jump up ^ Oates ( 1984 ) , pp. 284 -- 85 Jump up ^ Oates ( 1984 ) , p. 285 Jump up ^ Ted McGee ( April 5 , 1973 ) . `` National Register of Historic Places Nomination : Beall - Air '' ( PDF ) . National Park Service . Archived from the original ( pdf ) on February 3 , 2013 Jump up ^ Frances D. Ruth ( July 1984 ) . `` National Register of Historic Places Nomination : Allstadt House and Ordinary '' ( pdf ) . National Park Service Jump up ^ Horton , James Oliver ; Lois E. Horton ( 2006 ) . Slavery and the Making of America . Oxford University Press USA . p. 162 . ISBN 978 - 0195304510 . Jump up ^ Greeley , Horace ( 1864 ) . The American Conflict : A History : Part One . p. 292 . ISBN 9781417908288 . Jump up ^ National Park Service History Series . John Brown 's Raid ( 2009 ) , pp. 49 -- 50 Jump up ^ Emory M. Thomas , Robert E. Lee : A Biography ( 1995 ) pp. 180 Jump up ^ Israel Green , Eyewitness Account , University of Virginia Jump up ^ Col. Robert E. Lee , Report to the Adjutant General Concerning the Attack at Harper 's Ferry , University of Missouri Kansas City , Law School Jump up ^ Simmons , William J. , and Henry McNeal Turner . Men of Mark : Eminent , Progressive and Rising . GM Rowell & Company , 1887 . p. 160 Jump up ^ Oates 1984 , p. 351 Jump up ^ Horowitz 2011 , p. 212 Jump up ^ James M. McPherson . Battle Cry of Freedom . New York : Oxford University Press ( 1988 ) , pp. 207 -- 08 . Jump up ^ Norton Anthology of American Literature , Volume B. p. 2057 . Jump up ^ Reynolds , John Brown ( 2006 ) , p. 340 Jump up ^ James M. McPherson , Battle cry of freedom : the Civil War era ( 2003 ) p. 210 ^ Jump up to : `` John Brown 's Men Disinterred '' . New York Times . August 29 , 1899 . access - date = requires url = ( help ) Jump up ^ Stephen Vincent Benet . John Brown 's Body . New York . Rinehart & Co. ( 1927 ) , p. 33 Jump up ^ Stephen B. Oates ( 1984 ) . To Purge this Land with Blood , p. 296 Bibliography ( edit ) Library resources about John Brown 's raid on Harpers Ferry Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Earle , Jonathan . John Brown 's Raid on Harpers Ferry : A Brief History with Documents ( 2008 ) excerpt and text search Field , Ron . Avenging Angel ; John Brown 's Raid on Harpers Ferry 1859 ( 2012 ) . Osprey Raid Series # 36 . Osprey Publishing . ISBN 9781849087575 Fraser , George MacDonald . Flashman and the Angel of the Lord ( 1994 ) Lee , Robert E. `` Col. Robert E. Lee 's Report Concerning the Attack at Harper 's Ferry , October 19 , 1859 '' online Horwitz , Tony . Midnight Rising : John Brown and the Raid That Sparked the Civil War ( 2011 ) Henry Holt and Company Mason , J.M. `` Senate Select Committee Report on the Harper 's Ferry Invasion , June 15 , 1860 '' online Nalty , Bernard C. The United States Marines at Harpers Ferry and in the Civil War ( 1959 ) History & Museums Division , United States Marine Corps . online National Park Service History Series . John Brown 's Raid , Virginia Beach , VA : The Dunning Company Publishers ( 2009 ) Nevins , Allan . The Emergence of Lincoln : Prelude to Civil War , 1859 -- 1861 ( 1950 ) , vol 4 of The Ordeal of the Union , esp ch 3 pp 70 -- 97 Oates , Stephen B. To Purge this Land with Blood : A Biography of John Brown ( 1984 ) . Amherst , MA : The University of Massachusetts Press . Potter , David M. The Impending Crisis : 1848 -- 1861 ( 1976 ) pp 356 -- 84 ; Pulitzer Prize winning history Reynolds , David S. John Brown , Abolitionist : The Man Who Killed Slavery , Sparked the Civil War , and Seeded Civil Rights ( 2006 ) Villard , Oswald Garrison . John Brown , 1800 -- 1859 : A Biography Fifty Years After ( 1910 ) 738 pages , full text online Thomas , Emory M. Robert E. Lee : A Biography ( 1995 ) . New York : W.W. Norton & Company . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to John Brown 's raid on Harpers Ferry . Michael E. Ruane ( October 14 , 2009 ) . `` 150 Years Later , John Brown 's Failed Slave Revolt Marches On '' . The Washington Post . John Brown -- 150 Years After Harpers Ferry by Terry Bisson , Monthly Review , October 2009 Coordinates : 39 ° 19 ′ 23 '' N 77 ° 43 ′ 49 '' W  /  39.32306 ° N 77.73028 ° W  / 39.32306 ; - 77.73028 ( hide ) Harriet Tubman Events Underground Railroad John Brown 's raid on Harpers Ferry Raid at Combahee Ferry Locations Harriet Tubman Grave Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad State Park visitor center Harriet Tubman Memorial Garden Harriet Tubman National Historical Park Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad National Historical Park Salem Chapel National Historic Site Homages and memorials A Woman Called Moses SS Harriet Tubman Harriet Tubman Memorial ( Boston ) The Quest for Freedom The Railroad to Freedom : A Story of the Civil War Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_Brown%27s_raid_on_Harpers_Ferry&oldid=838548002 '' Categories : John Brown 's raid on Harpers Ferry Conflicts in 1859 Political violence in the United States 1859 in Virginia United States Marine Corps in the 18th and 19th centuries Rebellions in the United States Slave rebellions in the United States Military raids Crimes in Virginia October 1859 events Hidden categories : Articles with inconsistent citation formats Pages using citations with accessdate and no URL CS1 : Julian -- Gregorian uncertainty Use mdy dates from September 2011 Articles needing additional references from October 2017 All articles needing additional references Coordinates on Wikidata Talk Contents About Wikipedia Français Hrvatski Italiano Polski Simple English Edit links This page was last edited on 27 April 2018 , at 18 : 19 . 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who led the soldiers in ending the raid on the harper's ferry arsenal

First Lieutenant Israel Greene

First Lieutenant Israel Greene

Disney 's Art of Animation resort - wikipedia Disney 's Art of Animation resort Jump to : navigation , search Disney 's Art of Animation Resort Location ESPN Wide World of Sports Resort Area Resort type Value resort Opened May 31 , 2012 Theme Walt Disney characters Areas Cars Finding Nemo The Lion King The Little Mermaid Rooms 984 Suites 1,120 Green lodge yes Disney 's Art of Animation Resort is a resort within Walt Disney World Resort in Lake Buena Vista , Florida . It is located where construction on the unfinished half of Disney 's Pop Century Resort was started but later abandoned after the September 11 attacks . The resort is the first to be built in the complex in over seven years and the fifth to be placed in the value - priced category , along with Disney 's All - Star Sports Resort , the All - Star Music Resort , the All - Star Movies Resort , and Disney 's Pop Century Resort . Family suites opened on May 31 , 2012 , and standard rooms opened on September 15 , 2012 . Overview ( edit ) An incomplete Pop Century Legendary Years building can be seen across the Hourglass Lake . The Generation Gap Bridge would have connected both halves of the resort . Originally , the land the Art of Animation Resort occupies was planned to be part of Disney 's Pop Century Resort as part of the `` Legendary Years '' section . Several buildings were constructed for these plans , some even to the point of adding decorative details . While one - half of Pop Century ( the `` Classic Years '' ) opened in 2003 , the other half was left abandoned following the tourism halt after the September 11 attacks on the United States . Disney started to prepare the land for the resort in January 2010 , and construction began in the summer of that year . At the time of this announcement on May 12 , 2010 , Disney did not say how much construction is expecting to cost , but it was mentioned that approximately 800 jobs would be produced . When the `` Legendary Years '' buildings were first being made , a bridge named the Generation Gap Bridge was constructed to connect both parts of Pop Century and made them accessible to each other . The bridge connects Pop Century to the Finding Nemo section of the Art of Animation Resort . Theming ( edit ) The resort is designed `` with families in mind . '' It features four of Disney 's popular character themes : Cars , Finding Nemo , The Lion King , and The Little Mermaid . Much like the other Disney Value Resorts , giant versions of various items are built around the hotel on each of the ten wings , such as a 35 - foot ( 11 m ) model of King Triton . In total , there are 1,984 rooms. of which 1,120 are family suites capable of housing up to six people , featuring living rooms and bedrooms . The remaining 864 sport the standard value layout . The resort has a total of ten buildings , as well as three themed pools . Finding Nemo : The Finding Nemo section of the resort is themed with the ocean setting featured in the film , with underwater plant and animal decorations throughout the buildings . This is the first area of the resort , which opened on May 31 , 2012 . Cars : The Cars section of the resort is themed like the Cozy Cone Motel that has featured in the film . Resort buildings are themed with the movie 's characters , including Lightning McQueen , Sally , Mater , and Luigi and Guido . The second section of the resort opened on June 18 , 2012 . The Lion King : The Lion King section of the resort features a `` natural '' setting , such as that found in the wild . The third section of the resort opened its doors on August 10 , 2012 . The Little Mermaid : The Little Mermaid section of the resort is themed with 600 cutout objects on resort balconies. `` Under the Sea '' decorations are incorporated throughout the section . This section of the resort has exterior walkways , where the other sections have enclosed interior walkways between the rooms . ( This section uses a couple of buildings that were originally built for Pop Century 's `` Legendary Years '' section before construction halted , which left them unfinished for years . ) It opened on September 15 , 2012 , as the fourth and final section of the resort . Dining and shopping ( edit ) Landscape of Flavors - a food court selling American cuisine and deli style market items . The Landscape of Flavors Food Court serves omelets , pancakes , French toast , pizza , pasta , sandwiches , salads , burgers , burritos , ice cream and bakery items . The food court seats 606 people . Pizza Delivery - pizza , sandwiches , salad , dessert and beverages are available in the evening for delivery to guest rooms . Ink & Paint Shop - gift shop that offers a range of items from Disney souvenirs to Disney 's Art of Animation themed clothing . The store also has grocery section that sells items including snacks , liquor , drinks , and sundries . Gallery ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Disney 's Art of Animation Resort . Sign at the entrance to the Art of Animation Resort Exterior of Animation Hall , central hall of the resort Swimming pool within the Finding Nemo section of the resort References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Disney 's Art of Animation Resort '' . ^ Jump up to : `` New Disney hotel : Disney to build 2,000 - room hotel dubbed Disney 's Art of Animation Resort '' . TheDailyDisney.com . Retrieved June 6 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` More details on Disney 's Art of Animation Resort '' . TheDisneyBlog.com . Retrieved June 10 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Disney 's Art of Animation Resort Unveiled `` Disney Parks Blog '' . Disneyparks.disney.go.com . May 12 , 2010 . Retrieved June 6 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` First look at new Art of Animation Resort concept art and rooms shown at Destination D: Walt Disney World '' . Inside the Magic . External links ( edit ) Official website Art of Animation Photo Gallery at HanBan Photos Walt Disney World Resorts Location Deluxe Moderate Value Deluxe Villa / Disney Vacation Club Magic Kingdom Resort Area Disney 's Contemporary Resort Disney 's Grand Floridian Resort & Spa Disney 's Polynesian Village Resort Disney 's Wilderness Lodge None None Bay Lake Tower at Disney 's Contemporary Resort Disney 's Polynesian Villas & Bungalows The Villas at Disney 's Grand Floridian Resort & Spa Boulder Ridge Villas at Disney 's Wilderness Lodge Copper Creek Villas & Cabins at Disney 's Wilderness Lodge Epcot Resort Area Disney 's Beach Club Resort Disney 's BoardWalk Inn Disney 's Yacht Club Resort Star Wars Hotel Disney 's Caribbean Beach Resort None Disney 's Beach Club Villas Disney 's BoardWalk Villas Disney Riviera Resort Animal Kingdom Resort Area Disney 's Animal Kingdom Lodge Disney 's Coronado Springs Resort Disney 's All - Star Movies Resort Disney 's All - Star Music Resort Disney 's All - Star Sports Resort Disney 's Animal Kingdom Villas Disney Springs Resort Area None Disney 's Port Orleans Resort - French Quarter Disney 's Port Orleans Resort - Riverside None Disney 's Old Key West Resort Disney 's Saratoga Springs Resort & Spa ESPN Wide World of Sports Resort Area None None Disney 's Art of Animation Resort Disney 's Pop Century Resort None Campsites and cabins Disney 's Fort Wilderness Resort & Campground Residental Golden Oak at Walt Disney World Resort Non-Disney Resorts B Resort & Spa Best Western Buena Vista Palace Doubletree Four Seasons Hilton Holiday Inn Shades of Green Walt Disney World Dolphin Walt Disney World Swan Wyndham Coordinates : 28 ° 21 ′ 0.98 '' N 81 ° 32 ′ 54.59 '' W  /  28.3502722 ° N 81.5484972 ° W  / 28.3502722 ; - 81.5484972 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Disney%27s_Art_of_Animation_Resort&oldid=799926127 '' Categories : Walt Disney World Hotels in Walt Disney World Resort Hotel buildings completed in 2012 Hidden categories : Use mdy dates from September 2017 Coordinates on Wikidata Talk About Wikipedia Français Edit links This page was last edited on 10 September 2017 , at 17 : 08 . About Wikipedia

when did disney art of animation resort open

May 31, 2012

May 31, 2012

Gymnosperm - wikipedia Gymnosperm Jump to : navigation , search Gymnosperms Temporal range : 370 -- 0 Ma PreЄ Є Pg Devonian - Present Various gymnosperms . Scientific classification Kingdom : Plantae Subkingdom : Embryophyta ( unranked ) : Gymnospermae ( paraphyletic ) Divisions Pinophyta ( or Coniferophyta ) - Conifers Ginkgophyta - Ginkgo Cycadophyta - Cycads Gnetophyta - Gnetum , Ephedra , Welwitschia Encephalartos sclavoi cone , about 30 cm long The gymnosperms are a group of seed - producing plants that includes conifers , cycads , Ginkgo , and gnetophytes . The term `` gymnosperm '' comes from the Greek composite word γυμνόσπερμος ( γυμνός gymnos , `` naked '' and σπέρμα sperma , `` seed '' ) , meaning `` naked seeds '' . The name is based on the unenclosed condition of their seeds ( called ovules in their unfertilized state ) . The non-encased condition of their seeds stands in contrast to the seeds and ovules of flowering plants ( angiosperms ) , which are enclosed within an ovary . Gymnosperm seeds develop either on the surface of scales or leaves , which are often modified to form cones , or solitary as in Yew , Torreya , Ginkgo . The gymnosperms and angiosperms together compose the spermatophytes or seed plants . The gymnosperms are divided into six phyla . Organisms that belong to the Cycadophyta , Ginkgophyta , Gnetophyta , and Pinophyta ( also known as Coniferophyta ) phyla are still in existence while those in the Pteridospermales and Cordaitales phyla are now extinct . By far the largest group of living gymnosperms are the conifers ( pines , cypresses , and relatives ) , followed by cycads , gnetophytes ( Gnetum , Ephedra and Welwitschia ) , and Ginkgo biloba ( a single living species ) . Roots in some genera have fungal association with roots in the form of mycorrhiza ( Pinus ) , while in some others ( Cycas ) small specialised roots called coralloid roots are associated with nitrogen - fixing cyanobacteria . Contents ( hide ) 1 Classification 2 Diversity and origin 3 Uses 4 Life cycle 5 Genetics 6 References 7 External links Classification ( edit ) Further information : Spermatophyte In early classification schemes , the gymnosperms ( Gymnospermae ) were regarded as a `` natural '' group . There is conflicting evidence on the question of whether the living gymnosperms form a clade . The fossil record of gymnosperms includes many distinctive taxa that do not belong to the four modern groups , including seed - bearing trees that have a somewhat fern - like vegetative morphology ( the so - called `` seed ferns '' or pteridosperms . ) When fossil gymnosperms such as Bennettitales , Caytonia and the glossopterids are considered , it is clear that angiosperms are nested within a larger gymnosperm clade , although which group of gymnosperms is their closest relative remains unclear . For the most recent classification on extant gymnosperms see Christenhusz et al. ( 2011 ) . There are 12 families , 83 known genera with a total of ca 1080 known species ( Christenhusz & Byng 2016 ) . Subclass Cycadidae Order Cycadales Family Cycadaceae : Cycas Family Zamiaceae : Dioon , Bowenia , Macrozamia , Lepidozamia , Encephalartos , Stangeria , Ceratozamia , Microcycas , Zamia . Subclass Ginkgoidae Order Ginkgoales Family Ginkgoaceae : Ginkgo Subclass Gnetidae Order Welwitschiales Family Welwitschiaceae : Welwitschia Order Gnetales Family Gnetaceae : Gnetum Order Ephedrales Family Ephedraceae : Ephedra Subclass Pinidae Order Pinales Family Pinaceae : Cedrus , Pinus , Cathaya , Picea , Pseudotsuga , Larix , Pseudolarix , Tsuga , Nothotsuga , Keteleeria , Abies Order Araucariales Family Araucariaceae : Araucaria , Wollemia , Agathis Family Podocarpaceae : Phyllocladus , Lepidothamnus , Prumnopitys , Sundacarpus , Halocarpus , Parasitaxus , Lagarostrobos , Manoao , Saxegothaea , Microcachrys , Pherosphaera , Acmopyle , Dacrycarpus , Dacrydium , Falcatifolium , Retrophyllum , Nageia , Afrocarpus , Podocarpus Order Cupressales Family Sciadopityaceae : Sciadopitys Family Cupressaceae : Cunninghamia , Taiwania , Athrotaxis , Metasequoia , Sequoia , Sequoiadendron , Cryptomeria , Glyptostrobus , Taxodium , Papuacedrus , Austrocedrus , Libocedrus , Pilgerodendron , Widdringtonia , Diselma , Fitzroya , Callitris ( incl . Actinostrobus and Neocallitropsis ) , Thujopsis , Thuja , Fokienia , Chamaecyparis , Callitropsis , Cupressus , Juniperus , Xanthocyparis , Calocedrus , Tetraclinis , Platycladus , Microbiota Family Taxaceae : Austrotaxus , Pseudotaxus , Taxus , Cephalotaxus , Amentotaxus , Torreya Diversity and origin ( edit ) There are more than 1000 extant or currently living species of gymnosperms in 88 plant genera belonging to 14 plant families . It is widely accepted that the gymnosperms originated in the late Carboniferous period , replacing the lycopsid rainforests of the tropical region . This appears to have been the result of a whole genome duplication event around 319 million years ago . Early characteristics of seed plants were evident in fossil progymnosperms of the late Devonian period around 383 million years ago . It has been suggested that during the mid-Mesozoic era , pollination of some extinct groups of gymnosperms was by extinct species of scorpionflies that had specialized proboscis for feeding on pollination drops . The scorpionflies likely engaged in pollination mutualisms with gymnosperms , long before the similar and independent coevolution of nectar - feeding insects on angiosperms . Evidence has also been found that mid-Mesozoic gymnosperms were pollinated by Kalligrammatid lacewings , a now - extinct genus with members which ( in an example of convergent evolution ) resembled the modern butterflies that arose far later . Zamia integrifolia , a cycad native to Florida Conifers are by far the most abundant extant group of gymnosperms with six to eight families , with a total of 65 - 70 genera and 600 - 630 species ( 696 accepted names ) . Conifers are woody plants and most are evergreens . The leaves of many conifers are long , thin and needle - like , other species , including most Cupressaceae and some Podocarpaceae , have flat , triangular scale - like leaves . Agathis in Araucariaceae and Nageia in Podocarpaceae have broad , flat strap - shaped leaves . Cycads are the next most abundant group of gymnosperms , with two or three families , 11 genera , and approximately 338 species . A majority of cycads are native to tropical climates and are most abundantly found in regions near the equator . The other extant groups are the 95 - 100 species of Gnetales and one species of Ginkgo . Uses ( edit ) Gymnosperms have major economic uses . Pine , fir , spruce , and cedar are all examples of conifers that are used for lumber , paper production , and resin . Some other common uses for gymnosperms are soap , varnish , nail polish , food , gum , and perfumes . Life cycle ( edit ) Example of gymnosperm lifecycle Gymnosperms , like all vascular plants , have a sporophyte - dominant life cycle , which means they spend most of their life cycle with diploid cells , while the gametophyte ( gamete - bearing phase ) is relatively short - lived . Two spore types , microspores and megaspores , are typically produced in pollen cones or ovulate cones , respectively . Gametophytes , as with all heterosporous plants , develop within the spore wall . Pollen grains ( microgametophytes ) mature from microspores , and ultimately produce sperm cells . Megagametophytes develop from megaspores and are retained within the ovule . Gymnosperms produce multiple archegonia , which produce the female gamete . During pollination , pollen grains are physically transferred between plants from the pollen cone to the ovule . Pollen is usually moved by wind or insects . Whole grains enter each ovule through a microscopic gap in the ovule coat ( integument ) called the micropyle . The pollen grains mature further inside the ovule and produce sperm cells . Two main modes of fertilization are found in gymnosperms . Cycads and Ginkgo have motile sperm that swim directly to the egg inside the ovule , whereas conifers and gnetophytes have sperm with no flagella that are moved along a pollen tube to the egg . After syngamy ( joining of the sperm and egg cell ) , the zygote develops into an embryo ( young sporophyte ) . More than one embryo is usually initiated in each gymnosperm seed . The mature seed comprises the embryo and the remains of the female gametophyte , which serves as a food supply , and the seed coat . Genetics ( edit ) The first published sequenced genome for any gymnosperm was the genome of Picea abies in 2013 . References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` Gymnosperms on The Plant List '' . Theplantlist.org . Retrieved 2013 - 07 - 24 . ^ Jump up to : Raven , P.H. ( 2013 ) . Biology of Plants . New York : W.H. Freeman and Co . Jump up ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer ; Douglas E. Soltis ; Mark W. Chase ( 2004 ) . `` The plant tree of life : an overview and some points of view '' . American Journal of Botany. 91 ( 10 ) : 1437 -- 1445 . doi : 10.3732 / ajb. 91.10. 1437 . PMID 21652302 . Jump up ^ Stevens , P.F. `` Angiosperm Phylogeny Website - Seed Plant Evolution '' . Jump up ^ Hilton , Jason , and Richard M. Bateman. 2006 . Pteridosperms are the backbone of seed - plant phylogeny . Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society 133 : 119 - 168 ( abstract ) Jump up ^ Christenhusz , M.J.M. ; Reveal , J.L. ; Farjon , A. ; Gardner , M.F. ; Mill , R.R. ; Chase , M.W. ( 2011 ) . `` A new classification and linear sequence of extant gymnosperms '' ( PDF ) . Phytotaxa. 19 : 55 -- 70 . Jump up ^ Christenhusz , M.J.M. ; Byng , J.W. ( 2016 ) . `` The number of known plants species in the world and its annual increase '' . Phytotaxa . Magnolia Press . 261 ( 3 ) : 201 -- 217 . doi : 10.11646 / phytotaxa. 261.3. 1 . Jump up ^ Sahney , S. ; Benton , M.J. & Falcon - Lang , H.J. ( 2010 ) . `` Rainforest collapse triggered Pennsylvanian tetrapod diversification in Euramerica '' ( PDF ) . Geology. 38 ( 12 ) : 1079 -- 1082 . Bibcode : 2010Geo ... 38.1079 S . doi : 10.1130 / G31182. 1 . Jump up ^ Campbell and Reece ; Biology , Eighth edition Jump up ^ Jiao Y , Wickett NJ , Ayyampalayam S , Chanderbali AS , Landherr L , Ralph PE , Tomsho LP , Hu Y , Liang H , Soltis PS , Soltis DE , Clifton SW , Schlarbaum SE , Schuster SC , Ma H , Leebens - Mack J , Depamphilis CW ( 2011 ) Ancestral polyploidy in seed plants and angiosperms . Nature Jump up ^ Ollerton , J. ; Coulthard , E. ( 2009 ) . `` Evolution of Animal Pollination '' . Science . 326 ( 5954 ) : 808 -- 809 . doi : 10.1126 / science. 1181154 . PMID 19892970 . Jump up ^ Ren , D ; Labandeira , CC ; Santiago - Blay , JA ; Rasnitsyn , A ; et al. ( 2009 ) . `` A Probable Pollination Mode Before Angiosperms : Eurasian , Long - Proboscid Scorpionflies '' . Science . 326 ( 5954 ) : 840 -- 847 . doi : 10.1126 / science. 1178338 . PMC 2944650 . PMID 19892981 . Jump up ^ Labandeira , Conrad C. ; Yang , Qiang ; Santiago - Blay , Jorge A. ; Hotton , Carol L. ; Monteiro , Antónia ; Wang , Yong - Jie ; Goreva , Yulia ; Shih , ChungKun ; Siljeström , Sandra ; Rose , Tim R. ; Dilcher , David L. ; Ren , Dong . `` The evolutionary convergence of mid-Mesozoic lacewings and Cenozoic butterflies '' . Proceedings of the Royal Society B : Biological Sciences . 283 ( 1824 ) : 20152893 . doi : 10.1098 / rspb. 2015.2893 . PMC 4760178 . PMID 26842570 . Jump up ^ Catalogue of Life : 2007 Annual checklist - Conifer database Archived January 15 , 2009 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Campbell , Reece , `` Phylum Coniferophyta . '' Biology . 7th . 2005 . Print . P. 595 Jump up ^ Walters , Dirk R Walters Bonnie By ( 1996 ) . Vascular plant taxonomy . Dubuque , Iowa : Kendall / Hunt Pub. Co. p. 124 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7872 - 2108 - 9 . Jump up ^ Nystedt , B ; Street , NR ; Wetterbom , A ; et al. ( May 2013 ) . `` The Norway spruce genome sequence and conifer genome evolution '' . Nature . 497 : 579 -- 584 . doi : 10.1038 / nature12211 . PMID 23698360 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gymnosperm . Gymnosperm Database Gymnosperms on the Tree of Life Albert Seward ( 1911 ) . `` Gymnosperms '' . Encyclopædia Britannica ( 11th ed . ) . Botany History of botany Subdisciplines Plant systematics Ethnobotany Paleobotany Plant anatomy Plant ecology Phytogeography Geobotany Flora Phytochemistry Plant pathology Bryology Phycology Floristics Dendrology Plant groups Algae Archaeplastida Bryophyte Non-vascular plants Vascular plants Spermatophytes Pteridophyte Gymnosperm Angiosperm Plant morphology ( glossary ) Plant cells Cell wall Phragmoplast Plastid Plasmodesma Vacuole Tissues Meristem Vascular tissue Vascular bundle Ground tissue Mesophyll Cork Wood Storage organs Vegetative Root Rhizoid Bulb Rhizome Shoot Stem Leaf Petiole Cataphyll Bud Sessility Reproductive ( Flower ) Flower development Inflorescence Umbel Raceme Bract Pedicellate Flower Whorl Floral symmetry Floral diagram Floral formula Receptacle Hypanthium ( Floral cup ) Perianth Tepal Petal Sepal Sporophyll Gynoecium Ovary Ovule Stigma Archegonium Androecium Stamen Staminode Pollen Tapetum Gynandrium Gametophyte Sporophyte Plant embryo Fruit Fruit anatomy Berry Capsule Seed Seed dispersal Endosperm Surface structures Epicuticular wax Plant cuticle Epidermis Stoma Nectary Trichome Prickle Plant physiology Materials Nutrition Photosynthesis Chlorophyll Plant hormone Transpiration Turgor pressure Bulk flow Aleurone Phytomelanin Sugar Sap Starch Cellulose Plant growth and habit Secondary growth Woody plants Herbaceous plants Habit Vines Lianas Shrubs Subshrubs Trees Succulent plants Reproduction Evolution Ecology Alternation of generations Sporangium Spore Microsporangia Microspore Megasporangium Megaspore Pollination Pollinators Pollen tube Double fertilization Germination Evolutionary development Evolutionary history timeline Hardiness zone Plant taxonomy History of plant systematics Herbarium Biological classification Botanical nomenclature Botanical name Correct name Author citation International Code of Nomenclature for algae , fungi , and plants ( ICN ) - for Cultivated Plants ( ICNCP ) Taxonomic rank International Association for Plant Taxonomy ( IAPT ) Plant taxonomy systems Cultivated plant taxonomy Citrus taxonomy cultigen cultivar Group grex Practice Agronomy Floriculture Forestry Horticulture Lists Related topics Botanical terms Botanists by author abbreviation Botanical expedition Portal WikiProject Classification of Archaeplastida / Plantae sensu lato Domain Archaea Bacteria Eukaryota ( Supergroup Plant Hacrobia Heterokont Alveolata Rhizaria Excavata Amoebozoa Opisthokonta Animal Fungi ) Rhodophyta ( red algae ) Cyanidiophyceae Porphyridiophyceae Compsopogonophyceae Stylonematophyceae Rhodellophyceae Bangiophyceae Florideophyceae Glaucocystophyta ( glaucophytes ) Glaucocystophyceae Glaucocystis Cyanophora Gloeochaete Viridiplantae ( green algae & land plants ) Chlorophyta Palmophyllales Nephroselmidophyceae Prasinophyceae Pseudoscourfieldiales Pyramimonadophyceae Scourfieldiales Pedinophyceae Chlorodendrophyceae UTC clade Ulvophyceae Trebouxiophyceae Chlorophyceae Streptophyta ( charophytes , & land plants ) Mesostigmatophyceae Chlorokybophyceae Klebsormidiophyceae Phragmo - plastophyta Charophyceae Coleochaetophyceae Zygnematophyceae Embryophyta ( land plants ) Bryophytes ( non-vascular ) Marchantiophyta Anthocerotophyta Bryophyta `` Moss '' † Horneophytopsida Tracheophyta ( vascular ) Lycopodiophyta ( microphylls ) † Zosterophyllopsida † Sawdoniales Isoetopsida Lycopodiopsida Euphyllophyta ( megaphylls ) Moniliformopses ( ferns ) † Cladoxylopsida † Stauropteridales † Zygopteridales Equisetopsida Psilotopsida Marattiopsida Filicopsida Spermatophyta ( seed plants ) † Seed ferns Gymnosperms Gnetopsida Pinopsida Cycadopsida Ginkgoopsida Angiosperms or flowering plants Amborellales Nymphaeales Austrobaileyales Magnoliids Monocots Eudicots Other † Trimerophytopsida † Progymnosperm Other † Rhyniopsida † = extinct . See also the list of plant orders . Nuts True , or botanical nuts Acorn Beech American beech European beech Breadnut Candlenut Chestnut Sweet chestnut Hazelnut American hazel Beaked hazel European hazel Filbert Asian hazel Johnstone River almond Kola nut Kurrajong Malabar chestnut Mongongo Palm nut Karuka Planted karuka Wild karuka Red bopple nut Yellow walnut Drupes Almond Australian cashew nut Betel nut Borneo tallow nut Breadfruit Cashew Chilean hazel Coconut Durian Gabon nut Hickory Mockernut hickory Pecan Shagbark hickory Shellbark hickory Irvingia gabonensis Jack nut Panda oleosa Pekea nut Pili nut Pistachio Walnut Black walnut Butternut English walnut Heartnut Gymnosperms Cycad Burrawang nut Ginkgo nut Araucaria spp . Bunya nut Monkey - puzzle nut Pine nut Chilgoza pine Colorado pinyon Korean pine Mexican pinyon Single - leaf pinyon Stone pine Angiosperms Brazil nut Macadamia Macadamia nut Queensland macadamia nut Paradise nut Peanut Peanut tree Soybean Taxon identifiers Wd : Q133712 EoL : 28872220 ITIS : 846506 Tropicos : 43000115 GND : 4129481 - 6 NDL : 00569301 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gymnosperm&oldid=820812101 '' Categories : Gymnosperms Plant taxonomy Extant Late Devonian first appearances Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links Articles with ' species ' microformats Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikispecies Afrikaans Azərbaycanca বাংলা Bân - lâm - gú Башҡортса Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Italiano עברית Basa Jawa ქართული Қазақша Kreyòl ayisyen Кыргызча Latviešu Lietuvių Lumbaart Magyar Македонски മലയാളം Монгол Nāhuatl Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Occitan Олык марий ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Polski Português Română Runa Simi Русский Scots Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் తెలుగు Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt West - Vlams 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 16 January 2018 , at 19 : 19 . 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the seed of a gymnosperm seed is made in the

either on the surface of scales or leaves

naked ''

Subcutaneous injection - wikipedia Subcutaneous injection Jump to : navigation , search `` Subcut '' redirects here . For the song by Grand Mixer DXT featuring Bill Laswell , see Aftermathematics . Play media 3D animation of a subcutaneous injection A subcutaneous injection is administered as a bolus into the subcutis , the layer of skin directly below the dermis and epidermis , collectively referred to as the cutis . Subcutaneous injections are highly effective in administering vaccines and medications such as insulin , morphine , diacetylmorphine and goserelin . Subcutaneous , as opposed to intravenous , injection of recreational drugs is referred to as `` skin popping '' . Subcutaneous administration may be abbreviated as SC , SQ , sub-cu , sub-Q , SubQ , or subcut . Subcut is the preferred abbreviation for patient safety . Subcutaneous tissue has few blood vessels and so drugs injected here are for slow , sustained rates of absorption . It is slower than intramuscular injections but still faster than intradermal injections . Contents ( hide ) 1 Injection sites 2 Equipment 3 Procedure 4 Subcutaneous insulin injections in diabetes mellitus 5 See also 6 References Injection sites ( edit ) Subcutaneous injection sites Sites include , The outer area of the upper arm . The abdomen , from the rib margin to the iliac crest and avoiding a 2 - inch circle around the navel . This has the fastest rate of absorption among the sites . The front of the thigh , midway to the outer side , 4 inches below the top of the thigh to 4 inches above the knee . This has a slower rate of absorption than the upper arm . The upper back . The upper area of the buttock , just behind the hip bone . This has the slowest rate of absorption among the sites . Equipment ( edit ) A 25 to 31 gauge thick , 3 / 8 '' to 1 '' long needle can be used . The size is determined by the amount of subcutaneous tissue present , which is based on patient build . The 3 / 8 '' and 5 / 8 '' needles are most commonly used . Usually , no more than 1 mL of solution is given , compared to intradermal injections , where no more than 0.5 mL is usually given . Procedure ( edit ) Subcutaneous injections are inserted at 45 to 90 degree angles , depending on amount of subcutaneous tissue present and length of needle - a shorter , 3 / 8 '' needle is usually inserted 90 degrees and a 5 / 8 '' needle is usually inserted at 45 degrees . Medication is administered slowly , about 10 seconds / milliliter . Subcutaneous insulin injections in diabetes mellitus ( edit ) An insulin pump with a subcutaneous injection site . A person with insulin - dependent ( either type 1 or type 2 ) diabetes mellitus typically injects insulin subcutaneously . The injection should be given under the skin , into the fat layer . See also ( edit ) Intramuscular injection Intravenous injection Intradermal injection References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` subcutaneous injection '' at Dorland 's Medical Dictionary Jump up ^ `` ISMP 's List of Error - Prone Abbreviations , Symbols , and Dose Designations '' ( PDF ) . www.ismp.org. 2013 . Retrieved 13 May 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Taylor , C.R. , Lillis , C. , LeMone , P. , Lynn , P. ( 2011 ) Fundamentals of nursing : The art and science of nursing care . Philadelphia : Lippincott Williams & Wilkins , page 749 . Jump up ^ `` Insulin Administration '' . Diabetes Care . 25 ( suppl 1 ) : s112 -- s115 . January 2002 . doi : 10.2337 / diacare. 25.2007. s112 . ( hide ) Routes of administration , dosage forms Oral Digestive tract ( enteral ) Solids Pill Tablet Capsule Pastille Time release technology Osmotic delivery system ( OROS ) Liquids Decoction Elixir Electuary Emulsion Extended - release syrup Effervescent powder or tablet Herbal tea Hydrogel Molecular encapsulation Powder Softgel Solution Suspension Syrup Syrup Concentrate for dilution and / or addition of carbonated water Tincture Buccal ( sublabial ) , sublingual Solids Orally disintegrating tablet ( ODT ) Film Lollipop Sublingual drops Lozenges Effervescent buccal tablet Chewing gum Liquids Mouthwash Toothpaste Ointment Oral spray Respiratory tract Solids Smoking device Dry - powder inhaler ( DPI ) 0 0 Liquids Anaesthetic vaporizer Vaporizer Nebulizer Metered - dose inhaler ( MDI ) Gas Oxygen mask and Nasal cannula Oxygen concentrator Anaesthetic machine Relative analgesia machine Ophthalmic , otologic , nasal Nasal spray Ear drops Eye drops Ointment Hydrogel Nanosphere suspension Insufflation Mucoadhesive microdisc ( microsphere tablet ) Urogenital Ointment Pessary ( vaginal suppository ) Vaginal ring Vaginal douche Intrauterine device ( IUD ) Extra-amniotic infusion Intravesical infusion Rectal ( enteral ) Ointment Suppository Enema Solution Hydrogel Murphy drip Nutrient enema Dermal Ointment Topical cream Topical gel Liniment Paste Film DMSO drug solution Electrophoretic dermal delivery system Hydrogel Liposomes Transfersome vesicles Cream Lotion Lip balm Medicated shampoo Dermal patch Transdermal patch Contact ( rubbed into break in the skin ) Transdermal spray Jet injector Injection , infusion ( into tissue / blood ) Skin Intradermal Subcutaneous Transdermal implant Organs Intracavernous Intravitreal Intra-articular injection Transscleral Central nervous system Intracerebral Intrathecal Epidural Circulatory , musculoskeletal Intravenous Intracardiac Intramuscular Intraosseous Intraperitoneal Nanocell injection Patient - Controlled Analgesia pump PIC line WikiProject Pharmacy portal Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Subcutaneous_injection&oldid=827949994 '' Categories : Dosage forms Routes of administration Injection ( medicine ) Talk Contents About Wikipedia Dansk Deutsch Español فارسی Français Italiano Nederlands Norsk Polski Português Slovenščina Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 6 more Edit links This page was last edited on 27 February 2018 , at 18 : 16 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

where would a subcutaneous injection be made in the skin

into the subcutis,[1] the layer of skin directly below the dermis and epidermis

directly below the dermis and epidermis

Small intestine - wikipedia Small intestine Jump to : navigation , search Small Intestine Diagram showing the small intestine and surrounding structures Details System Digestive system Artery Superior mesenteric artery Vein Hepatic portal vein Nerve Celiac ganglia , vagus Lymph Intestinal lymph trunk Identifiers Latin Intestinum tenue MeSH D007421 TA A05. 6.01. 001 FMA 7200 Anatomical terminology ( edit on Wikidata ) The small intestine or small bowel is the part of the gastrointestinal tract between the stomach and the large intestine , and is where most of the end absorption of food takes place . The small intestine has three distinct regions -- the duodenum , jejunum , and ileum . The duodenum is the shortest part of the small intestine and is where preparation for absorption begins . It also receives bile and pancreatic juice through the pancreatic duct , controlled by the sphincter of Oddi . The primary function of the small intestine is the absorption of nutrients and minerals from food , using small finger - like protrusions called villi . Contents ( hide ) 1 Structure 1.1 Size 1.2 Parts 1.3 Blood supply 1.4 Histology 1.5 Development 2 Function 2.1 Digestion 2.2 Absorption 2.3 Immunological 3 Gene and protein expression 4 Clinical significance 5 Other animals 6 Society and culture 7 Additional images 8 See also 9 References 10 Bibliography 11 External links Structure ( edit ) Size ( edit ) The length of the small intestine can vary greatly , from as short as 2.75 m ( 9.0 ft ) to as long as 10.49 m ( 34.4 ft ) . The average length in a living person is 3m - 5m . The length depends both on how tall the person is and how the length is measured . Taller people generally have a longer small intestine and measurements are generally longer after death and when the bowel is empty . It is approximately 1.5 cm in diameter in newborns after 35 weeks of gestational age , and 2.5 -- 3 cm ( 1 inch ) in diameter in adults . On abdominal X-rays , the small intestine is considered to be abnormally dilated when the diameter exceeds 3 cm . On CT scans , a diameter of over 2.5 cm is considered abnormally dilated . The surface area of the human small intestinal mucosa , due to enlargement caused by folds , villi and microvilli , averages 30 square meters . Parts ( edit ) The small intestine is divided into three structural parts . The duodenum is a short structure ranging from 20 cm ( 7.9 inches ) to 25 cm ( 9.8 inches ) in length , and shaped like a `` C '' . It surrounds the head of the pancreas . It receives gastric chyme from the stomach , together with digestive juices from the pancreas ( digestive enzymes ) and the liver ( bile ) . The digestive enzymes break down proteins and bile emulsifies fats into micelles . The duodenum contains Brunner 's glands , which produce a mucus - rich alkaline secretion containing bicarbonate . These secretions , in combination with bicarbonate from the pancreas , neutralize the stomach acids contained in gastric chyme . The jejunum is the midsection of the small intestine , connecting the duodenum to the ileum . It is about 2.5 m long , and contains the plicae circulares , and villi that increase its surface area . Products of digestion ( sugars , amino acids , and fatty acids ) are absorbed into the bloodstream here . The suspensory muscle of duodenum marks the division between the duodenum and the jejunum . The ileum : The final section of the small intestine . It is about 3 m long , and contains villi similar to the jejunum . It absorbs mainly vitamin B12 and bile acids , as well as any other remaining nutrients . The ileum joins to the cecum of the large intestine at the ileocecal junction . The jejunum and ileum are suspended in the abdominal cavity by mesentery . The mesentery is part of the peritoneum . Arteries , veins , lymph vessels and nerves travel within the mesentery . Blood supply ( edit ) The small intestine receives a blood supply from the coeliac trunk and the superior mesenteric artery . These are both branches of the aorta . The duodenum receives blood from the coeliac trunk via the superior pancreaticoduodenal artery and from the superior mesenteric artery via the inferior pancreaticoduodenal artery . These two arteries both have anterior and posterior branches that meet in the midline and anastomose . The jejunum and ileum receive blood from the superior mesenteric artery . Branches of the superior mesenteric artery form a series of arches within the mesentery known as arterial arcades , which may be several layers deep . Straight blood vessels known as vasa recta travel from the arcades closest to the ileum and jejunum to the organs themselves . Histology ( edit ) Main article : Gastrointestinal wall Micrograph of the small intestine mucosa showing the intestinal villi and crypts of Lieberkühn . The three sections of the small intestine look similar to each other at a microscopic level , but there are some important differences . The parts of the intestine are as follows : Layer Duodenum Jejunum Ileum Serosa 1st part serosa , 2nd -- 4th adventitia Normal Normal Muscularis externa Longitudinal and circular layers , with Auerbach 's ( myenteric ) plexus in between Same as duodenum Same as duodenum Submucosa Brunner 's glands and Meissner 's ( submucosal ) plexus No BG No BG Mucosa : muscularis mucosae Normal Normal Normal Mucosa : lamina propria No PP No PP Peyer 's patches Mucosa : intestinal epithelium Simple columnar . Contains goblet cells , Paneth cells Similar to duodenum ? Development ( edit ) See also : Development of the digestive system The small intestine develops from the midgut of the primitive gut tube . By the fifth week of embryological life , the ileum begins to grow longer at a very fast rate , forming a U-shaped fold called the primary intestinal loop . The loop grows so fast in length that it outgrows the abdomen and protrudes through the umbilicus . By week 10 , the loop retracts back into the abdomen . Between weeks six and ten the small intestine rotates anticlockwise , as viewed from the front of the embryo . It rotates a further 180 degrees after it has moved back into the abdomen . This process creates the twisted shape of the large intestine . Function ( edit ) Food from the stomach is allowed into the duodenum through the pylorus by a muscle called the pyloric sphincter . Digestion ( edit ) The small intestine is where most chemical digestion takes place . Many of the digestive enzymes that act in the small intestine are secreted by the pancreas and liver and enter the small intestine via the pancreatic duct . Pancreatic enzymes and bile from the gallbladder enter the small intestine in response to the hormone cholecystokinin , which is produced in the small intestine in response to the presence of nutrients . Secretin , another hormone produced in the small intestine , causes additional effects on the pancreas , where it promotes the release of bicarbonate into the duodenum in order to neutralize the potentially harmful acid coming from the stomach . The three major classes of nutrients that undergo digestion are proteins , lipids ( fats ) and carbohydrates : Proteins are degraded into small peptides and amino acids before absorption . Chemical breakdown begins in the stomach and continues in the small intestine . Proteolytic enzymes , including trypsin and chymotrypsin , are secreted by the pancreas and cleave proteins into smaller peptides . Carboxypeptidase , which is a pancreatic brush border enzyme , splits one amino acid at a time . Aminopeptidase and dipeptidase free the end amino acid products . Lipids ( fats ) are degraded into fatty acids and glycerol . Pancreatic lipase breaks down triglycerides into free fatty acids and monoglycerides . Pancreatic lipase works with the help of the salts from the bile secreted by the liver and stored in the gall bladder . Bile salts attach to triglycerides to help emulsify them , which aids access by pancreatic lipase . This occurs because the lipase is water - soluble but the fatty triglycerides are hydrophobic and tend to orient towards each other and away from the watery intestinal surroundings . The bile salts emulsify the triglycerides in the watery surroundings until the lipase can break them into the smaller components that are able to enter the villi for absorption . Some carbohydrates are degraded into simple sugars , or monosaccharides ( e.g. , glucose ) . Pancreatic amylase breaks down some carbohydrates ( notably starch ) into oligosaccharides . Other carbohydrates pass undigested into the large intestine and further handling by intestinal bacteria . Brush border enzymes take over from there . The most important brush border enzymes are dextrinase and glucoamylase , which further break down oligosaccharides . Other brush border enzymes are maltase , sucrase and lactase . Lactase is absent in some adult humans and , for them , lactose , like most poly - saccharides , is not digested in the small intestine . Some carbohydrates , such as cellulose , are not digested at all , despite being made of multiple glucose units . This is because the cellulose is made out of beta - glucose , making the inter-monosaccharidal bindings different from the ones present in starch , which consists of alpha - glucose . Humans lack the enzyme for splitting the beta - glucose - bonds , something reserved for herbivores and bacteria from the large intestine . Absorption ( edit ) Digested food is now able to pass into the blood vessels in the wall of the intestine through either diffusion or active transport . The small intestine is the site where most of the nutrients from ingested food are absorbed . The inner wall , or mucosa , of the small intestine is lined with simple columnar epithelial tissue . Structurally , the mucosa is covered in wrinkles or folds called plicae circulares , which are considered permanent features in the wall of the organ . They are distinct from rugae which are considered non-permanent or temporary allowing for distention and contraction . From the plicae circulares project microscopic finger - like pieces of tissue called villi ( Latin for `` shaggy hair '' ) . The individual epithelial cells also have finger - like projections known as microvilli . The functions of the plicae circulares , the villi , and the microvilli are to increase the amount of surface area available for the absorption of nutrients , and to limit the loss of said nutrients to intestinal fauna . Each villus has a network of capillaries and fine lymphatic vessels called lacteals close to its surface . The epithelial cells of the villi transport nutrients from the lumen of the intestine into these capillaries ( amino acids and carbohydrates ) and lacteals ( lipids ) . The absorbed substances are transported via the blood vessels to different organs of the body where they are used to build complex substances such as the proteins required by our body . The material that remains undigested and unabsorbed passes into the large intestine . Absorption of the majority of nutrients takes place in the jejunum , with the following notable exceptions : Iron is absorbed in the duodenum . Vitamin B12 and bile salts are absorbed in the terminal ileum . Water is absorbed by osmosis and lipids by passive diffusion throughout the small intestine . Sodium bicarbonate is absorbed by active transport and glucose and amino acid co-transport Fructose is absorbed by facilitated diffusion . Immunological ( edit ) The small intestine supports the body 's immune system . The presence of gut flora appears to contribute positively to the host 's immune system . Peyer 's patches , located within the ileum of the small intestine , are an important part of the digestive tract 's local immune system . They are part of the lymphatic system , and provide a site for antigens from potentially harmful bacteria or other microorganisms in the digestive tract to be sampled , and subsequently presented to the immune system . Gene and protein expression ( edit ) Further information : Bioinformatics § Gene and protein expression About 20,000 protein coding genes are expressed in human cells and 70 % of these genes are expressed in the normal duodenum . Some 300 of these genes are more specifically expressed in the duodenum with very few genes expressed only in the small intestine . The corresponding specific proteins are expressed in glandular cells of the mucosa , such as fatty acid binding protein FABP6 . Most of the more specifically expressed genes in the small intestine are also expressed in the duodenum , for example FABP2 and the DEFA6 protein expressed in secretory granules of Paneth cells . Clinical significance ( edit ) See also : Gastrointestinal disease The small intestine is a complex organ , and as such , there are a very large number of possible conditions that may affect the function of the small bowel . A few of them are listed below , some of which are common , with up to 10 % of people being affected at some time in their lives , while others are vanishingly rare . Small intestine obstruction or obstructive disorders Paralytic ileus Volvulus Hernia Intussusception Adhesions Obstruction from external pressure Obstruction by masses in the lumen ( foreign bodies , bezoar , gallstones ) Infectious diseases Giardiasis Ascariasis Tropical sprue Tape worm ( Diphyllobothrium latum , Taenia solium , Hymenolepsis nana ) Hookworm ( e.g. Necator americanus , Ancylostoma duodenale ) Nematodes ( e.g. Ascaris lumbricoides ) Other Protozoa ( e.g. Cryptosporidium parvum , Cyclospora , Microsporidia , Entamoeba histolytica ) Bacterial infections Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli Salmonella enterica Campylobacter Shigella Yersinia Clostridium difficile ( antibiotic - associated colitis , Pseudomembranous colitis ) Mycobacterium ( Mycobacterium avium paratuberculosis , disseminated Mycobacterium tuberculosis ) Whipple 's disease Vibrio ( cholera ) Enteric ( typhoid ) fever ( Salmonella enterica var . typhii ) and paratyphoid fever Bacillus cereus Clostridium perfringens ( gas gangrene ) Viral infections Rotavirus Norovirus Astrovirus Adenovirus Calicivirus Neoplasms ( cancers ) Adenocarcinoma Carcinoid Gastrointestinal stromal tumor ( GIST ) Lymphoma Sarcoma Leiomyoma Metastatic tumors , especially SCLC or melanoma Developmental , congenital or genetic conditions Duodenal ( intestinal ) atresia Hirschsprung 's disease Meckel 's diverticulum Pyloric stenosis Pancreas divisum Ectopic pancreas Enteric duplication cyst Situs inversus Cystic fibrosis Malrotation Persistent urachus Omphalocele Gastroschisis Disaccharidase ( lactase ) deficiencies Primary bile acid malabsorption Gardner syndrome Familial adenomatous polyposis syndrome ( FAP ) Other conditions Crohn 's disease , and the more general inflammatory bowel disease Typhlitis ( neutropenic colitis in the immunosuppressed Coeliac disease ( sprue or non-tropical sprue ) Mesenteric ischemia Embolus or thrombus of the superior mesenteric artery or the superior mesenteric vein Arteriovenous malformation Gastric dumping syndrome Irritable bowel syndrome Duodenal ( peptic ) ulcers Gastrointestinal perforation Hyperthyroidism Diverticulitis Radiation enterocolitis Mesenteric cysts Peritoneal Infection Sclerosing retroperitonitis Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth Endometriosis Other animals ( edit ) The small intestine is found in all tetrapods and also in teleosts , although its form and length vary enormously between species . In teleosts , it is relatively short , typically around one and a half times the length of the fish 's body . It commonly has a number of pyloric caeca , small pouch - like structures along its length that help to increase the overall surface area of the organ for digesting food . There is no ileocaecal valve in teleosts , with the boundary between the small intestine and the rectum being marked only by the end of the digestive epitheliu In tetrapods , the ileocaecal valve is always present , opening into the colon . The length of the small intestine is typically longer in tetrapods than in teleosts , but is especially so in herbivores , as well as in mammals and birds , which have a higher metabolic rate than amphibians or reptiles . The lining of the small intestine includes microscopic folds to increase its surface area in all vertebrates , but only in mammals do these develop into true villi . The boundaries between the duodenum , jejunum , and ileum are somewhat vague even in humans , and such distinctions are either ignored when discussing the anatomy of other animals , or are essentially arbitrary . There is no small intestine as such in non-teleost fish , such as sharks , sturgeons , and lungfish . Instead , the digestive part of the gut forms a spiral intestine , connecting the stomach to the rectum . In this type of gut , the intestine itself is relatively straight but has a long fold running along the inner surface in a spiral fashion , sometimes for dozens of turns . This valve greatly increases both the surface area and the effective length of the intestine . The lining of the spiral intestine is similar to that of the small intestine in teleosts and non-mammalian tetrapods . In lampreys , the spiral valve is extremely small , possibly because their diet requires little digestion . Hagfish have no spiral valve at all , with digestion occurring for almost the entire length of the intestine , which is not subdivided into different regions . Society and culture ( edit ) In traditional Chinese medicine , the small intestine is a yang organ . Additional images ( edit ) Small intestine in situ , greater omentum folded upwards . Third state of the development of the intestinal canal and peritoneum , seen from in front ( diagrammatic ) . The mode of preparation is the same as in Fig 400 Second stage of development of the intestinal canal and peritoneum , seen from in front ( diagrammatic ) . The liver has been removed and the two layers of the ventral mesogastrium ( lesser omentum ) have been cut . The vessels are represented in black and the peritoneum in the reddish tint . First stage of the development of the intestinal canal and the peritoneum , seen from the side ( diagrammatic ) . From colon 1 the ascending and transverse colon will be formed and from colon 2 the descending and sigmoid colons and the rectum . See also ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Small intestine . Large intestine Stomach References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Physiology : 6 / 6ch2 / s6ch2_30 - Essentials of Human Physiology Jump up ^ human body Britannica.com ^ Jump up to : DiBaise , John K. ; Parrish , Carol Rees ; Thompson , Jon S. ( 2016 ) . Short Bowel Syndrome : Practical Approach to Management . CRC Press . p. 31 . ISBN 9781498720809 . Jump up ^ Tortora , Gerard ( 2014 ) . Principles of Anatomy & Physiology . USA : Wiley . p. 913 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 118 - 34500 - 9 ... its length is about 3m in a living person and about 6.5 m in a cadaver due to loss of smooth muscle tone after death . Jump up ^ Standring , Susan ( 2016 ) . Gray 's Anatomy . UK : Elsevier . p. 1124 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7020 - 5230 - 9 ... and has a mean length of 5 metres ( 3 - 8.5 metres ) when measured intraoperatively in the living adult ( Tietelbaum et al 2013 ) . Jump up ^ Debora Duro , Daniel Kamin ( 2007 ) . `` Overview of short bowel syndrome and intestinal transplantation '' . Colombia Médica. 38 ( 1 ) . ^ Jump up to : Ali Nawaz Khan ( 2016 - 09 - 22 ) . `` Small - Bowel Obstruction Imaging '' . Medscape . Retrieved 2017 - 02 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Abdominal X-ray - Abnormal bowel gas pattern '' . radiologymasterclass.co.uk . Retrieved 2017 - 02 - 07 . Jump up ^ Gazelle , GS ; Goldberg , MA ; Wittenberg , J ; Halpern , EF ; Pinkney , L ; Mueller , PR ( 1994 ) . `` Efficacy of CT in distinguishing small - bowel obstruction from other causes of small - bowel dilatation '' . American Journal of Roentgenology. 162 ( 1 ) : 43 -- 47 . doi : 10.2214 / ajr. 162.1. 8273687 . ISSN 0361 - 803X . Jump up ^ Helander , Herbert F ; Fändriks , Lars ( 2015 ) . `` Surface area of the digestive tract -- revisited '' . Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology. 49 ( 6 ) : 681 -- 689 . doi : 10.3109 / 00365521.2014. 898326 . ISSN 0036 - 5521 . PMID 24694282 . Jump up ^ Drake , Richard L. ; Vogl , Wayne ; Tibbitts , Adam W.M. Mitchell ; illustrations by Richard ; Richardson , Paul ( 2005 ) . Gray 's anatomy for students . Philadelphia : Elsevier / Churchill Livingstone . p. 273 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8089 - 2306 - 0 . Jump up ^ Drake , Richard L. ; Vogl , Wayne ; Tibbitts , Adam W.M. Mitchell ; illustrations by Richard ; Richardson , Paul ( 2005 ) . Gray 's anatomy for students . Philadelphia : Elsevier / Churchill Livingstone . p. 271 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8089 - 2306 - 0 . ^ Jump up to : Drake , Richard L. ; Vogl , Wayne ; Tibbitts , Adam W.M. Mitchell ; illustrations by Richard ; Richardson , Paul ( 2005 ) . Gray 's anatomy for students . Philadelphia : Elsevier / Churchill Livingstone . pp. 295 -- 299 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8089 - 2306 - 0 . ^ Jump up to : Schoenwolf , Gary C. ; Bleyl , Steven B. ; Brauer , Philip R. ; Francis - West , Philippa H. ( 2009 ) . `` Development of the Urogenital system '' . Larsen 's human embryology ( 4th ed . ) . Philadelphia : Churchill Livingstone / Elsevier . p. 237 . ISBN 9780443068119 . Jump up ^ Silk DB ( 1974 ) . `` Progress report . Peptide absorption in man '' . Gut. 15 ( 6 ) : 494 -- 501 . doi : 10.1136 / gut. 15.6. 494 . PMC 1413009 . PMID 4604970 . Jump up ^ `` Intestinal immune cells play an unexpected role in immune surveillance of the bloodstream '' . Massachusetts General Hospital . 13 December 2012 . Jump up ^ Canny , G.O. ; McCormick , B.A. ( 2008 ) . `` Bacteria in the Intestine , Helpful Residents or Enemies from Within ? '' . Infection and Immunity. 76 ( 8 ) : 3360 -- 3373 . doi : 10.1128 / IAI. 00187 - 08 . ISSN 0019 - 9567 . PMC 2493210 . PMID 18474643 . Jump up ^ `` The human proteome in small intestine - The Human Protein Atlas '' . www.proteinatlas.org . Retrieved 2017 - 09 - 26 . Jump up ^ Uhlén , Mathias ; Fagerberg , Linn ; Hallström , Björn M. ; Lindskog , Cecilia ; Oksvold , Per ; Mardinoglu , Adil ; Sivertsson , Åsa ; Kampf , Caroline ; Sjöstedt , Evelina ( 2015 - 01 - 23 ) . `` Tissue - based map of the human proteome '' . Science . 347 ( 6220 ) : 1260419 . doi : 10.1126 / science. 1260419 . ISSN 0036 - 8075 . PMID 25613900 . Jump up ^ Gremel , Gabriela ; Wanders , Alkwin ; Cedernaes , Jonathan ; Fagerberg , Linn ; Hallström , Björn ; Edlund , Karolina ; Sjöstedt , Evelina ; Uhlén , Mathias ; Pontén , Fredrik ( 2015 - 01 - 01 ) . `` The human gastrointestinal tract - specific transcriptome and proteome as defined by RNA sequencing and antibody - based profiling '' . Journal of Gastroenterology. 50 ( 1 ) : 46 -- 57 . doi : 10.1007 / s00535 - 014 - 0958 - 7 . ISSN 0944 - 1174 . ^ Jump up to : Romer , Alfred Sherwood ; Parsons , Thomas S. ( 1977 ) . The Vertebrate Body . Philadelphia , PA : Holt - Saunders International . pp. 349 -- 353 . ISBN 0 - 03 - 910284 - X . Jump up ^ Porter ( ed . ) , Roy ( 1997 ) . Medicine : a history of healing . ( S.l. ) : Diane Pub Co. p. 104 . ISBN 9780756751432 . CS1 maint : Extra text : authors list ( link ) Bibliography ( edit ) Sherwood , Lauralee ( 2006 ) . Fundamentals of physiology : a human perspective ( Third ed . ) . Florence , KY : Cengage Learning . p. 768 . ISBN 0 - 534 - 46697 - 4 . Solomon et al. ( 2002 ) Biology Sixth Edition , Brooks - Cole / Thomson Learning ISBN 0 - 03 - 033503 - 5 Townsend et al. ( 2004 ) Sabiston Textbook of Surgery , Elsevier ISBN 0 - 7216 - 0409 - 9 Thomson A , Drozdowski L , Iordache C , Thomson B , Vermeire S , Clandinin M , Wild G ( 2003 ) . `` Small bowel review : Normal physiology , part 1 '' . Dig Dis Sci. 48 ( 8 ) : 1546 -- 64 . doi : 10.1023 / A : 1024719925058 . PMID 12924651 . Thomson A , Drozdowski L , Iordache C , Thomson B , Vermeire S , Clandinin M , Wild G ( 2003 ) . `` Small bowel review : Normal physiology , part 2 '' . Dig Dis Sci. 48 ( 8 ) : 1565 -- 81 . doi : 10.1023 / A : 1024724109128 . PMID 12924652 . External links ( edit ) Small intestine at the Human Protein Atlas ( hide ) Anatomy of the gastrointestinal tract , excluding the mouth Upper Pharynx Muscles Spaces peripharyngeal retropharyngeal parapharyngeal retrovisceral danger prevertebral Pterygomandibular raphe Pharyngeal raphe Buccopharyngeal fascia Pharyngobasilar fascia Piriform sinus Esophagus Sphincters upper lower glands Stomach Curvatures greater lesser Angular incisure Cardia Body Fundus Pylorus antrum canal sphincter Gastric mucosa Gastric folds Microanatomy Gastric pits Gastric glands Cardiac glands Fundic glands Pyloric glands Foveolar cell Parietal cell Gastric chief cell Enterochromaffin - like cell Lower Small intestine Microanatomy Intestinal villus Intestinal gland Enterocyte Enteroendocrine cell Goblet cell Paneth cell Duodenum Suspensory muscle Major duodenal papilla Minor duodenal papilla Duodenojejunal flexure Brunner 's glands Jejunum No substructures Ileum Ileocecal valve Peyer 's patches Microfold cell Large intestine Cecum Appendix Colon Ascending colon Hepatic flexure Transverse colon Splenic flexure Descending colon Sigmoid colon Continuous taenia coli haustra epiploic appendix Rectum Transverse folds Ampulla Anal canal Anus Anal columns Anal valves Anal sinuses Pectinate line Internal anal sphincter Intersphincteric groove External anal sphincter Wall Serosa / Adventitia Subserosa Muscular layer Submucosa Circular folds Mucosa Muscularis mucosa GND : 4013218 - 3 NDL : 00987719 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Small_intestine&oldid=837499657 '' Categories : Abdomen Digestive system Organs ( anatomy ) Hidden categories : Pages with unresolved properties CS1 maint : Extra text : authors list Pages using div col without cols and colwidth parameters Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Afrikaans Alemannisch Aragonés ܐܪܡܝܐ অসমীয়া Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Bân - lâm - gú Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская ( тарашкевіца ) ‎ Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Basa Jawa Kapampangan Қазақша Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Limburgs Lingála Magyar Македонски മലയാളം मराठी Bahasa Melayu Mìng - dĕ̤ng - ngṳ̄ Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Polski Português Română Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Scots Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Soomaaliga کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் తెలుగు ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Vahcuengh Tiếng Việt Winaray ייִדיש 粵語 Zazaki Žemaitėška 中文 88 more Edit links This page was last edited on 21 April 2018 , at 06 : 33 . 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where are most nutrients absorbed in the human digestive tract

The small intestine or small bowel

the end absorption of food takes place

Board of directors - wikipedia Board of directors Jump to : navigation , search `` Board Room '' and `` Board of Trustees '' redirect here . For other uses , see Board Room ( disambiguation ) and Board of Trustees ( disambiguation ) . A meeting of a board of directors of the Leipzig -- Dresden Railway Company in 1852 A board of directors is a recognized group of people who jointly oversee the activities of an organization , which can be either a for - profit business , nonprofit organization , or a government agency . Such a board 's powers , duties , and responsibilities are determined by government regulations ( including the jurisdiction 's corporations law ) and the organization 's own constitution and bylaws . These authorities may specify the number of members of the board , how they are to be chosen , and how often they are to meet . In an organization with voting members , the board is accountable to , and might be subordinate to , the organization 's full membership , which usually vote for the members of the board . In a stock corporation , non-executive directors are voted for by the shareholders and the board is the highest authority in the management of the corporation . The board of directors appoints the chief executive officer of the corporation and sets out the overall strategic direction . In corporations with dispersed ownership , the identification and nomination of directors ( that shareholders vote for or against ) are often done by the board itself , leading to a high degree of self - perpetuation . In a non-stock corporation with no general voting membership , the board is the supreme governing body of the institution ; its members are sometimes chosen by the board itself . Contents ( hide ) 1 Terminology 2 Roles 3 Directors 3.1 Inside director 3.2 Outside director 3.3 Terminology 4 Process and structure 4.1 Board meetings 4.2 Size 5 Non-corporate boards 5.1 Membership organizations 6 Corporations 6.1 Governance 6.2 Two - tier system 6.3 History 6.4 Election and removal 6.5 Exercise of powers 6.6 Duties 6.6. 1 `` Proper purpose '' 6.6. 2 `` Unfettered discretion '' 6.6. 3 `` Conflict of duty and interest '' 6.6. 3.1 Transactions with the company 6.6. 3.2 Use of corporate property , opportunity , or information 6.6. 3.3 Competing with the company 6.6. 4 Common law duties of care and skill 6.6. 5 Remedies for breach of duty 6.6. 6 Current trends 6.7 United States 6.7. 1 Sarbanes -- Oxley Act 6.7. 2 Size 6.7. 3 Committees 6.7. 4 Compensation 6.8 Criticism 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 9.1 Citations 9.2 Sources 10 External links Terminology ( edit ) Other names include board of directors and advisors , board of governors , board of managers , board of regents , board of trustees , or board of visitors . It may also be called `` the executive board '' and is often simply referred to as `` the board '' . Roles ( edit ) Business administration Management of a business Accounting ( show ) Management accounting Financial accounting Financial audit Business entities ( show ) Cooperative Corporation Limited liability company Partnership Sole proprietorship State - owned enterprise Corporate governance ( show ) Annual general meeting Board of directors Supervisory board Advisory board Audit committee Corporate law ( show ) Commercial law Constitutional documents Contract Corporate crime Corporate liability Insolvency law International trade law Mergers and acquisitions Economics ( show ) Commodity Public economics Labour economics Development economics International economics Mixed economy Planned economy Econometrics Environmental economics Open economy Market economy Knowledge economy Microeconomics Macroeconomics Economic development Economic statistics Finance ( show ) Financial statement Insurance Factoring Cash conversion cycle Insider dealing Capital budgeting Commercial bank Derivative Financial statement analysis Financial risk Public finance Corporate finance Managerial finance International finance Liquidation Stock market Financial market Tax Financial institution Working capital Venture capital Marketing ( show ) Marketing Marketing research Public relations Sales Types of management ( show ) Asset Brand Business intelligence Business development Capacity Change innovation Commercial marketing Communications Conflict Content Customer relationship Distributed Earned value Electronic business Enterprise resource planning management information system Financial Human resource development Incident Integrated Knowledge Materials Network administrator Office Operations services Performance Power Problem Process Product life - cycle Product Project Quality Records Resource Risk crisis Sales Security Service Strategic Supply chain Systems administrator Talent Technology Organization ( show ) Architecture Behavior Communication Culture Conflict Development Engineering Hierarchy Patterns Space Structure Trade ( show ) Business analysis Business ethics Business plan Business judgment rule Consumer behaviour Business operations International business Business model International trade Business process Business statistics Business and economics portal Typical duties of boards of directors include : governing the organization by establishing broad policies and setting out strategic objectives ; selecting , appointing , supporting and reviewing the performance of the chief executive ( of which the titles vary from organization to organization ; the chief executive may be titled chief executive officer , president or executive director ) ; terminating the chief executive ; ensuring the availability of adequate financial resources ; approving annual budgets ; accounting to the stakeholders for the organization 's performance ; setting the salaries , compensation and benefits of senior management ; The legal responsibilities of boards and board members vary with the nature of the organization , and between jurisdictions . For companies with publicly trading stock , these responsibilities are typically much more rigorous and complex than for those of other types . Typically , the board chooses one of its members to be the chairman ( more usually now called the `` chair '' or `` chairperson '' ) , who holds whatever title is specified in the bylaws or articles of association . However , in membership organizations , the members elect the president of the organization and the president becomes the chair of the board , unless the bylaws say otherwise . Directors ( edit ) The directors of an organization are the persons who are members of its board . Several specific terms categorize directors by the presence or absence of their other relationships to the organization . Inside director ( edit ) An inside director is a director who is also an employee , officer , chief executive , major shareholder , or someone similarly connected to the organization . Inside directors represent the interests of the entity 's stakeholders , and often have special knowledge of its inner workings , its financial or market position , and so on . Typical inside directors are : A chief executive officer ( CEO ) who may also be chairman of the board Other executives of the organization , such as its chief financial officer ( CFO ) or executive vice president Large shareholders ( who may or may not also be employees or officers ) Representatives of other stakeholders such as labor unions , major lenders , or members of the community in which the organization is located An inside director who is employed as a manager or executive of the organization is sometimes referred to as an executive director ( not to be confused with the title executive director sometimes used for the CEO position in some organizations ) . Executive directors often have a specified area of responsibility in the organization , such as finance , marketing , human resources , or production . Outside director ( edit ) Main article : Independent director An outside director is a member of the board who is not otherwise employed by or engaged with the organization , and does not represent any of its stakeholders . A typical example is a director who is president of a firm in a different industry . Outside directors are not employees of the company or affiliated with it in any other way . Outside directors bring outside experience and perspectives to the board . For example , for a company that only serves a domestic market , the presence of CEOs from global multinational corporations as outside directors can help to provide insights on export and import opportunities and international trade options . One of the arguments for having outside directors is that they can keep a watchful eye on the inside directors and on the way the organization is run . Outside directors are unlikely to tolerate `` insider dealing '' between insider directors , as outside directors do not benefit from the company or organization . Outside directors are often useful in handling disputes between inside directors , or between shareholders and the board . They are thought to be advantageous because they can be objective and present little risk of conflict of interest . On the other hand , they might lack familiarity with the specific issues connected to the organization 's governance and they might not know about the industry or sector in which the organization is operating . Terminology ( edit ) Director -- a person appointed to serve on the board of an organization , such as an institution or business . Inside director -- a director who , in addition to serving on the board , has a meaningful connection to the organization Outside director -- a director who , other than serving on the board , has no meaningful connections to the organization Executive director -- an inside director who is also an executive with the organization . The term is also used , in a completely different sense , to refer to a CEO Non-executive director -- an inside director who is not an executive with the organization Shadow or de facto director -- an individual who is not a named director but who nevertheless directs or controls the organization Nominee director -- an individual who is appointed by a shareholder , creditor or interest group ( whether contractually or by resolution at a company meeting ) and who has a continuing loyalty to the appointor / s or other interest in the appointing company Individual directors often serve on more than one board . This practice results in an interlocking directorate , where a relatively small number of individuals have significant influence over a large number of important entities . This situation can have important corporate , social , economic , and legal consequences , and has been the subject of significant research . Process and structure ( edit ) The process for running a board , sometimes called the board process , includes the selection of board members , the setting of clear board objectives , the dissemination of documents or board package to the board members , the collaborative creation of an agenda for the meeting , the creation and follow - up of assigned action items , and the assessment of the board process through standardized assessments of board members , owners , and CEOs . The science of this process has been slow to develop due to the secretive nature of the way most companies run their boards , however some standardization is beginning to develop . Some who are pushing for this standardization in the USA are the National Association of Corporate Directors , McKinsey Consulting and The Board Group . Board meetings ( edit ) A board of directors conducts its meetings according to the rules and procedures contained in its governing documents . These procedures may allow the board to conduct its business by conference call or other electronic means . They may also specify how a quorum is to be determined . Most organizations have adopted Robert 's Rules of Order as its guide to supplement its own rules . In this book , the rules for conducting board meetings may be less formal if there is no more than about a dozen board members present . An example of the informality is that motions are not required if it 's clear what is being discussed . Size ( edit ) Historically , nonprofit boards have not uncommonly had large boards with up to twenty - four members , but a modern trend is to have smaller boards as small as six or seven people . Studies suggest that after seven people , each additional person reduces the effectiveness of group - decision - making . Non-corporate boards ( edit ) The role and responsibilities of a board of directors vary depending on the nature and type of business entity and the laws applying to the entity ( see types of business entity ) . For example , the nature of the business entity may be one that is traded on a public market ( public company ) , not traded on a public market ( a private , limited or closely held company ) , owned by family members ( a family business ) , or exempt from income taxes ( a non-profit , not for profit , or tax - exempt entity ) . There are numerous types of business entities available throughout the world such as a corporation , limited liability company , cooperative , business trust , partnership , private limited company , and public limited company . Much of what has been written about boards of directors relates to boards of directors of business entities actively traded on public markets . More recently , however , material is becoming available for boards of private and closely held businesses including family businesses . A board - only organization is one whose board is self - appointed , rather than being accountable to a base of members through elections ; or in which the powers of the membership are extremely limited . Membership organizations ( edit ) In membership organizations , such as a society made up of members of a certain profession or one advocating a certain cause , a board of directors may have the responsibility of running the organization in between meetings of the membership , especially if the membership meets infrequently , such as only at an annual general meeting . The amount of powers and authority delegated to the board depend on the bylaws and rules of the particular organization . Some organizations place matters exclusively in the board 's control while in others , the general membership retains full power and the board can only make recommendations . The setup of a board of directors vary widely across organizations and may include provisions that are applicable to corporations , in which the `` shareholders '' are the members of the organization . A difference may be that the membership elects the officers of the organization , such as the president and the secretary , and the officers become members of the board in addition to the directors and retain those duties on the board . The directors may also be classified as officers in this situation . There may also be ex-officio members of the board , or persons who are members due to another position that they hold . These ex-officio members have all the same rights as the other board members . Members of the board may be removed before their term is complete . Details on how they can be removed are usually provided in the bylaws . If the bylaws do not contain such details , the section on disciplinary procedures in Robert 's Rules of Order may be used . Corporations ( edit ) In a publicly held company , directors are elected to represent and are legally obligated as fiduciaries to represent owners of the company -- the shareholders / stockholders . In this capacity they establish policies and make decisions on issues such as whether there is dividend and how much it is , stock options distributed to employees , and the hiring / firing and compensation of upper management . Governance ( edit ) Theoretically , the control of a company is divided between two bodies : the board of directors , and the shareholders in general meeting . In practice , the amount of power exercised by the board varies with the type of company . In small private companies , the directors and the shareholders are normally the same people , and thus there is no real division of power . In large public companies , the board tends to exercise more of a supervisory role , and individual responsibility and management tends to be delegated downward to individual professional executives ( such as a finance director or a marketing director ) who deal with particular areas of the company 's affairs . Another feature of boards of directors in large public companies is that the board tends to have more de facto power . Many shareholders grant proxies to the directors to vote their shares at general meetings and accept all recommendations of the board rather than try to get involved in management , since each shareholder 's power , as well as interest and information is so small . Larger institutional investors also grant the board proxies . The large number of shareholders also makes it hard for them to organize . However , there have been moves recently to try to increase shareholder activism among both institutional investors and individuals with small shareholdings . A contrasting view is that in large public companies it is upper management and not boards that wield practical power , because boards delegate nearly all of their power to the top executive employees , adopting their recommendations almost without fail . As a practical matter , executives even choose the directors , with shareholders normally following management recommendations and voting for them . In most cases , serving on a board is not a career unto itself . For major corporations , the board members are usually professionals or leaders in their field . In the case of outside directors , they are often senior leaders of other organizations . Nevertheless , board members often receive remunerations amounting to hundreds of thousands of dollars per year since they often sit on the boards of several companies . Inside directors are usually not paid for sitting on a board , but the duty is instead considered part of their larger job description . Outside directors are usually paid for their services . These remunerations vary between corporations , but usually consist of a yearly or monthly salary , additional compensation for each meeting attended , stock options , and various other benefits . such as travel , hotel and meal expenses for the board meetings . Tiffany & Co. , for example , pays directors an annual retainer of $46,500 , an additional annual retainer of $2,500 if the director is also a chairperson of a committee , a per - meeting - attended fee of $2,000 for meetings attended in person , a $500 fee for each meeting attended via telephone , in addition to stock options and retirement benefits . Two - tier system ( edit ) In some European and Asian countries , there are two separate boards , an executive board for day - to - day business and a supervisory board ( elected by the shareholders and employees ) for supervising the executive board . In these countries , the CEO ( chief executive or managing director ) presides over the executive board and the chairman presides over the supervisory board , and these two roles will always be held by different people . This ensures a distinction between management by the executive board and governance by the supervisory board and allows for clear lines of authority . The aim is to prevent a conflict of interest and too much power being concentrated in the hands of one person . There is a strong parallel here with the structure of government , which tends to separate the political cabinet from the management civil service . In the United States , the board of directors ( elected by the shareholders ) is often equivalent to the supervisory board , while the executive board may often be known as the executive committee ( operating committee or executive council ) , composed of the CEO and their direct reports ( other C - level officers , division / subsidiary heads ) . History ( edit ) The meeting room of the Heren XVII ( nl ) , the Dutch East India Company 's board of directors , in the Oost - Indisch Huis ( Amsterdam ) . The Dutch East India Company ( VOC ) is often considered by many to be an early pioneering model of the modern corporation . In 1610 , the company established its administrative center ( the VOC 's second headquarters ) in Batavia with a Governor - General in charge , as the company 's de facto chief executive . The examples and perspective in this section deal primarily with the United Kingdom and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject . You may improve this article , discuss the issue on the talk page , or create a new article , as appropriate . ( April 2016 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The development of a separate board of directors to manage / govern / oversee a company has occurred incrementally and indefinitely over legal history . Until the end of the 19th century , it seems to have been generally assumed that the general meeting ( of all shareholders ) was the supreme organ of a company , and that the board of directors merely acted as an agent of the company subject to the control of the shareholders in general meeting . However , by 1906 , the English Court of Appeal had made it clear in the decision of Automatic Self - Cleansing Filter Syndicate Co Ltd v Cuninghame ( 1906 ) 2 Ch 34 that the division of powers between the board and the shareholders in general meaning depended on the construction of the articles of association and that , where the powers of management were vested in the board , the general meeting could not interfere with their lawful exercise . The articles were held to constitute a contract by which the members had agreed that `` the directors and the directors alone shall manage . '' The new approach did not secure immediate approval , but it was endorsed by the House of Lords in Quin & Axtens v Salmon ( 1909 ) AC 442 and has since received general acceptance . Under English law , successive versions of Table A have reinforced the norm that , unless the directors are acting contrary to the law or the provisions of the Articles , the powers of conducting the management and affairs of the company are vested in them . The modern doctrine was expressed in John Shaw & Sons ( Salford ) Ltd v Shaw ( 1935 ) 2 KB 113 by Greer LJ as follows : A company is an entity distinct alike from its shareholders and its directors . Some of its powers may , according to its articles , be exercised by directors , certain other powers may be reserved for the shareholders in general meeting . If powers of management are vested in the directors , they and they alone can exercise these powers . The only way in which the general body of shareholders can control the exercise of powers by the articles in the directors is by altering the articles , or , if opportunity arises under the articles , by refusing to re-elect the directors of whose actions they disapprove . They can not themselves usurp the powers which by the articles are vested in the directors any more than the directors can usurp the powers vested by the articles in the general body of shareholders . It has been remarked that this development in the law was somewhat surprising at the time , as the relevant provisions in Table A ( as it was then ) seemed to contradict this approach rather than to endorse it . Election and removal ( edit ) In most legal systems , the appointment and removal of directors is voted upon by the shareholders in general meeting or through a proxy statement . For publicly traded companies in the U.S. , the directors which are available to vote on are largely selected by either the board as a whole or a nominating committee . Although in 2002 the New York Stock Exchange and the NASDAQ required that nominating committees consist of independent directors as a condition of listing , nomination committees have historically received input from management in their selections even when the CEO does not have a position on the board . Shareholder nominations can only occur at the general meeting itself or through the prohibitively expensive process of mailing out ballots separately ; in May 2009 the SEC proposed a new rule allowing shareholders meeting certain criteria to add nominees to the proxy statement . In practice for publicly traded companies , the managers ( inside directors ) who are purportedly accountable to the board of directors have historically played a major role in selecting and nominating the directors who are voted on by the shareholders , in which case more `` gray outsider directors '' ( independent directors with conflicts of interest ) are nominated and elected . Directors may also leave office by resignation or death . In some legal systems , directors may also be removed by a resolution of the remaining directors ( in some countries they may only do so `` with cause '' ; in others the power is unrestricted ) . Some jurisdictions also permit the board of directors to appoint directors , either to fill a vacancy which arises on resignation or death , or as an addition to the existing directors. ( needs citation ) In practice , it can be quite difficult to remove a director by a resolution in general meeting . In many legal systems , the director has a right to receive special notice of any resolution to remove him or her ; the company must often supply a copy of the proposal to the director , who is usually entitled to be heard by the meeting . The director may require the company to circulate any representations that he wishes to make . Furthermore , the director 's contract of service will usually entitle him to compensation if he is removed , and may often include a generous `` golden parachute '' which also acts as a deterrent to removal . A recent study examines how corporate shareholders voted in director elections in the United States . It found that directors received fewer votes from shareholders when their companies performed poorly , had excess CEO compensation , or had poor shareholder protection . Also , directors received fewer votes when they did not regularly attend board meetings or received negative recommendations from a proxy advisory firm . The study also shows that companies often improve their corporate governance by removing poison pills or classified boards and by reducing excessive CEO pay after their directors receive low shareholder support . Board accountability to shareholders is a recurring issue . In 2010 , the New York Times noted that several directors who had overseen companies which had failed in the financial crisis of 2007 -- 2010 had found new positions as directors . The SEC sometimes imposes a ban ( a `` D&O bar '' ) on serving on a board as part of its fraud cases , and one of these was upheld in 2013 . Exercise of powers ( edit ) The exercise by the board of directors of its powers usually occurs in board meetings . Most legal systems require sufficient notice to be given to all directors of these meetings , and that a quorum must be present before any business may be conducted . Usually , a meeting which is held without notice having been given is still valid if all of the directors attend , but it has been held that a failure to give notice may negate resolutions passed at a meeting , because the persuasive oratory of a minority of directors might have persuaded the majority to change their minds and vote otherwise . In most common law countries , the powers of the board are vested in the board as a whole , and not in the individual directors . However , in instances an individual director may still bind the company by his acts by virtue of his ostensible authority ( see also : the rule in Turquand 's Case ) . Duties ( edit ) Main articles : Directors ' duties and Fiduciary duties Because directors exercise control and management over the organization , but organizations are ( in theory ) run for the benefit of the shareholders , the law imposes strict duties on directors in relation to the exercise of their duties . The duties imposed on directors are fiduciary duties , similar to those that the law imposes on those in similar positions of trust : agents and trustees . The duties apply to each director separately , while the powers apply to the board jointly . Also , the duties are owed to the company itself , and not to any other entity . This does not mean that directors can never stand in a fiduciary relationship to the individual shareholders ; they may well have such a duty in certain circumstances . `` Proper purpose '' ( edit ) Directors must exercise their powers for a proper purpose . While in many instances an improper purpose is readily evident , such as a director looking to feather his or her own nest or divert an investment opportunity to a relative , such breaches usually involve a breach of the director 's duty to act in good faith . Greater difficulties arise where the director , while acting in good faith , is serving a purpose that is not regarded by the law as proper . The seminal authority in relation to what amounts to a proper purpose is the Supreme Court decision in Eclairs Group Ltd v JKX Oil & Gas plc ( 2015 ) UKSC 71 ( 2 December 2015 ) . The case concerned the powers of directors under the articles of association of the company to disenfranchise voting rights attached to shares for failure to properly comply with notice served on the shareholders . Prior to that case the leading authority was Howard Smith Ltd v Ampol Ltd ( 1974 ) AC 821 . The case concerned the power of the directors to issue new shares . It was alleged that the directors had issued a large number of new shares purely to deprive a particular shareholder of his voting majority . An argument that the power to issue shares could only be properly exercised to raise new capital was rejected as too narrow , and it was held that it would be a proper exercise of the director 's powers to issue shares to a larger company to ensure the financial stability of the company , or as part of an agreement to exploit mineral rights owned by the company . If so , the mere fact that an incidental result ( even if it was a desired consequence ) was that a shareholder lost his majority , or a takeover bid was defeated , this would not itself make the share issue improper . But if the sole purpose was to destroy a voting majority , or block a takeover bid , that would be an improper purpose . Not all jurisdictions recognised the `` proper purpose '' duty as separate from the `` good faith '' duty however . `` Unfettered discretion '' ( edit ) Directors can not , without the consent of the company , fetter their discretion in relation to the exercise of their powers , and can not bind themselves to vote in a particular way at future board meetings . This is so even if there is no improper motive or purpose , and no personal advantage to the director . This does not mean , however , that the board can not agree to the company entering into a contract which binds the company to a certain course , even if certain actions in that course will require further board approval . The company remains bound , but the directors retain the discretion to vote against taking the future actions ( although that may involve a breach by the company of the contract that the board previously approved ) . `` Conflict of duty and interest '' ( edit ) As fiduciaries , the directors may not put themselves in a position where their interests and duties conflict with the duties that they owe to the company . The law takes the view that good faith must not only be done , but must be manifestly seen to be done , and zealously patrols the conduct of directors in this regard ; and will not allow directors to escape liability by asserting that his decision was in fact well founded . Traditionally , the law has divided conflicts of duty and interest into three sub-categories . Transactions with the company ( edit ) By definition , where a director enters into a transaction with a company , there is a conflict between the director 's interest ( to do well for himself out of the transaction ) and his duty to the company ( to ensure that the company gets as much as it can out of the transaction ) . This rule is so strictly enforced that , even where the conflict of interest or conflict of duty is purely hypothetical , the directors can be forced to disgorge all personal gains arising from it . In Aberdeen Ry v Blaikie ( 1854 ) 1 Macq HL 461 Lord Cranworth stated in his judgment that : `` A corporate body can only act by agents , and it is , of course , the duty of those agents so to act as best to promote the interests of the corporation whose affairs they are conducting . Such agents have duties to discharge of a fiduciary nature towards their principal . And it is a rule of universal application that no one , having such duties to discharge , shall be allowed to enter into engagements in which he has , or can have , a personal interest conflicting or which possibly may conflict , with the interests of those whom he is bound to protect ... So strictly is this principle adhered to that no question is allowed to be raised as to the fairness or unfairness of the contract entered into ... '' ( emphasis added ) However , in many jurisdictions the members of the company are permitted to ratify transactions which would otherwise fall foul of this principle . It is also largely accepted in most jurisdictions that this principle can be overridden in the company 's constitution . In many countries , there is also a statutory duty to declare interests in relation to any transactions , and the director can be fined for failing to make disclosure . Use of corporate property , opportunity , or information ( edit ) Directors must not , without the informed consent of the company , use for their own profit the company 's assets , opportunities , or information . This prohibition is much less flexible than the prohibition against the transactions with the company , and attempts to circumvent it using provisions in the articles have met with limited success . In Regal ( Hastings ) Ltd v Gulliver ( 1942 ) All ER 378 the House of Lords , in upholding what was regarded as a wholly unmeritorious claim by the shareholders , held that : `` ( i ) that what the directors did was so related to the affairs of the company that it can properly be said to have been done in the course of their management and in the utilisation of their opportunities and special knowledge as directors ; and ( ii ) that what they did resulted in profit to themselves . '' And accordingly , the directors were required to disgorge the profits that they made , and the shareholders received their windfall . The decision has been followed in several subsequent cases , and is now regarded as settled law . Competing with the company ( edit ) Directors can not compete directly with the company without a conflict of interest arising . Similarly , they should not act as directors of competing companies , as their duties to each company would then conflict with each other . Common law duties of care and skill ( edit ) Traditionally , the level of care and skill which has to be demonstrated by a director has been framed largely with reference to the non-executive director . In Re City Equitable Fire Insurance Co ( 1925 ) Ch 407 , it was expressed in purely subjective terms , where the court held that : `` a director need not exhibit in the performance of his duties a greater degree of skill than may reasonably be expected from a person of his knowledge and experience . '' ( emphasis added ) However , this decision was based firmly in the older notions ( see above ) that prevailed at the time as to the mode of corporate decision making , and effective control residing in the shareholders ; if they elected and put up with an incompetent decision maker , they should not have recourse to complain . However , a more modern approach has since developed , and in Dorchester Finance Co Ltd v Stebbing ( 1989 ) BCLC 498 the court held that the rule in Equitable Fire related only to skill , and not to diligence . With respect to diligence , what was required was : `` such care as an ordinary man might be expected to take on his own behalf . '' This was a dual subjective and objective test , and one deliberately pitched at a higher level . More recently , it has been suggested that both the tests of skill and diligence should be assessed objectively and subjectively ; in the United Kingdom , the statutory provisions relating to directors ' duties in the new Companies Act 2006 have been codified on this basis . Remedies for breach of duty ( edit ) In most jurisdictions , the law provides for a variety of remedies in the event of a breach by the directors of their duties : injunction or declaration damages or compensation restoration of the company 's property rescission of the relevant contract account of profits summary dismissal Current trends ( edit ) Historically , directors ' duties have been owed almost exclusively to the company and its members , and the board was expected to exercise its powers for the financial benefit of the company . However , more recently there have been attempts to `` soften '' the position , and provide for more scope for directors to act as good corporate citizens . For example , in the United Kingdom , the Companies Act 2006 requires directors of companies `` to promote the success of the company for the benefit of its members as a whole '' and sets out the following six factors regarding a director 's duty to promote success : the likely consequences of any decision in the long term the interests of the company 's employees the need to foster the company 's business relationships with suppliers , customers and others the impact of the company 's operations on the community and the environment the desirability of the company maintaining a reputation for high standards of business conduct , and the need to act fairly as between members of a company This represents a considerable departure from the traditional notion that directors ' duties are owed only to the company . Previously in the United Kingdom , under the Companies Act 1985 , protections for non-member stakeholders were considerably more limited ( see for example , s. 309 which permitted directors to take into account the interests of employees but which could only be enforced by the shareholders and not by the employees themselves ) . The changes have therefore been the subject of some criticism . United States ( edit ) Sarbanes -- Oxley Act ( edit ) The Sarbanes -- Oxley Act of 2002 has introduced new standards of accountability on boards of U.S. companies or companies listed on U.S. stock exchanges . Under the Act , directors risk large fines and prison sentences in the case of accounting crimes . Internal control is now the direct responsibility of directors . The vast majority of companies covered by the Act have hired internal auditors to ensure that the company adheres to required standards of internal control . The internal auditors are required by law to report directly to an audit board , consisting of directors more than half of whom are outside directors , one of whom is a `` financial expert . '' The law requires companies listed on the major stock exchanges ( NYSE , NASDAQ ) to have a majority of independent directors -- directors who are not otherwise employed by the firm or in a business relationship with it . Size ( edit ) According to the Corporate Library 's study , the average size of publicly traded company 's board is 9.2 members , and most boards range from 3 to 31 members . According to Investopedia , some analysts think the ideal size is seven . State law may specify a minimum number of directors , maximum number of directors , and qualifications for directors ( e.g. whether board members must be individuals or may be business entities ) . Committees ( edit ) While a board may have several committees , two -- the compensation committee and audit committee -- are critical and must be made up of at least three independent directors and no inside directors . Other common committees in boards are nominating and governance . Compensation ( edit ) Directors of Fortune 500 companies received median pay of $234,000 in 2011 . Directorship is a part - time job . A recent National Association of Corporate Directors study found directors averaging just 4.3 hours a week on board work . Surveys indicate that about 20 % of nonprofit foundations pay their board members , and 2 % of American nonprofit organizations do . 80 % of nonprofit organizations require board members to personally contribute to the organization , as BoardSource recommends . This percentage has increased in recent years . Criticism ( edit ) According to John Gillespie , a former investment banker and co-author of a book critical of boards , `` Far too much of their time has been for check - the - box and cover - your - behind activities rather than real monitoring of executives and providing strategic advice on behalf of shareholders '' . At the same time , scholars have found that individual directors have a large effect on major corporate initiatives such as mergers and acquisitions and cross-border investments . The issue of gender representation on corporate boards of directors has been the subject of much criticism in recent years . Governments and corporations have responded with measures such as legislation mandating gender quotas and comply or explain systems to address the disproportionality of gender representation on corporate boards . A study of the French corporate elite has found that certain social classes are also disproportionately represented on boards , with those from the upper and , especially , upper - middle classes tending to dominate . See also ( edit ) Alternate director Celebrity board director Chairman Chief executive officer Corporate governance Corporate title Gender representation on corporate boards of directors Interlocking directorate Governing boards of colleges and universities in the United States Managing director Non-executive director Parliamentary procedure in the corporate world President ( corporate title ) Supervisory board ( in German : `` Aufsichtsrat '' ) Trustee Vorstand , German for `` management board '' Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ For example , in the United Kingdom , see section 303 of the Companies Act 1985 . Jump up ^ In the United Kingdom it is 28 days ' notice , see sections 303 ( 2 ) and 379 of the Companies Act 1985 . Jump up ^ In the United Kingdom , see section 304 ( 1 ) of the Companies Act 1985 . A private company can not use a written resolution under section 381A -- a meeting must be held . Jump up ^ In the United Kingdom , see sections 303 ( 2 ) and ( 3 ) of the Companies Act 1985 . Jump up ^ This division was rejected in British Columbia in Teck Corporation v Millar ( 1972 ) 33 DLR ( 3d ) 288 . Jump up ^ Although as Gower points out , as well understood as the rule is , there is a paucity of authority on the point . But see Clark v Workman ( 1920 ) 1 Ir R 107 and Dawson International plc v Coats Paton plc 1989 SLT 655 . Jump up ^ In the United Kingdom , see section 317 of the Companies Act 1985 . Jump up ^ In summary , the facts were as follows : Company A owned a cinema , and the directors decided to acquire two other cinemas with a view to selling the entire undertaking as a going concern . They formed a new company ( `` Company B '' ) to take the leases of the two new cinemas . But the lessor insisted on various stipulations , one of which was that Company B had to have a paid up share capital of not less than £ 5,000 ( a substantial sum at the time ) . Company A was unable to subscribe for more than £ 2,000 in shares , so the directors arranged for the remaining 3,000 shares to be taken by themselves and their friends . Later , instead of selling the undertaking , they sold all of the shares in both companies and made a substantial profit . The shareholders of Company A sued asking that directors and their friends to disgorge the profits that they had made in connection with their 3,000 shares in Company B -- the very same shares which the shareholders in Company A had been asked to subscribe ( through Company A ) but refused to do so . References ( edit ) Citations ( edit ) Jump up ^ Robert 2011 , p. 9 . Jump up ^ `` How are the directors selected ? '' . Commonwealth of Virginia , State Corporation Commission , Business FAQs . Retrieved 2011 - 04 - 08 . Jump up ^ `` Chapter 181 , Nonstock Corporations ( Sect . 181.0804 ) '' ( PDF ) . Wisconsin Statutes Database . Retrieved 2011 - 04 - 08 . ^ Jump up to : Robert 2011 , p. 481 - 483 . Jump up ^ McNamara , Carter . `` Overview of Roles and Responsibilities of Corporate Board of Directors '' . Free Management Library . Authenticity Consulting , LLC . Retrieved 2008 - 01 - 26 . Jump up ^ `` Basic Role of the Board '' . Governance Basics . Institute on Governance ( Canada ) . Archived from the original on 30 December 2007 . Retrieved 2008 - 01 - 27 . ^ Jump up to : Robert 2011 , p. 484 . Jump up ^ This section was developed from numerous definitions in USLegal.com , BusinessDictionary.com , Dictionary.com , The Free Dictionary by Farlex ( `` inside director '' ; `` executive director '' ; `` outside director '' ; `` nonexecutive director '' ) , Macmillan Dictionary , and Economics-dictionary.com . Jump up ^ `` Executive Director '' . Investopedia . Retrieved 24 May 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Outside Director '' . Investopedia . Retrieved 24 May 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Executive Director '' . Business Dictionary . Retrieved 24 May 2013 . Jump up ^ Board Process Archived 20 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine . ^ Jump up to : `` Frequently Asked Questions about RONR ( Question 19 ) '' . The Official Robert 's Rules of Order Web Site . The Robert 's Rules Association . Archived from the original on 26 July 2017 . Retrieved 24 December 2015 . Jump up ^ `` National Association of Parliamentarians > > FAQ '' ... the 11th edition of Robert 's Rules of Order Newly Revised is the current edition of the most widely used reference for meeting procedure and business rules in the English - speaking world . Jump up ^ Robert 2011 , p. 9 - 10,487 - 488 . Jump up ^ Robert III , Henry M. ; et al. ( 2011 ) . Robert 's Rules of Order Newly Revised In Brief ( 2nd ed . ) . Philadelphia , PA : Da Capo Press . p. 158 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 306 - 82019 - 9 . ^ Jump up to : White , Cyrus . `` For Nonprofit Boards , Smaller is Better '' . perma.cc . The South Cabin Group LLC . Retrieved 2016 - 08 - 08 . Jump up ^ See generally , Bowen , William G. , The board book : an insider 's guide for directors and trustees ( 2008 W.W. Norton & Co . ) ; Murray , Alan S. , Revolt in the boardroom : the new rules of power in corporate America ( 2007 Collins ) ; Charan , Ram , Boards that deliver : advancing corporate governance from compliance to competitive advantage ( 2005 Jossey - Bass ) ; Carver , John , Corporate boards that create value : governing company performance from the boardroom ( 2002 Jossey - Bass ) ; Harvard business review on corporate governance ( 2000 Harvard Business School Press ) . Jump up ^ See specifically Tutelman and Hause , The Balance Point : New Ways Business Owners Can Use Boards ( 2008 Famille Press ) . Jump up ^ Robert 2011 , p. 481 -- 483 . Jump up ^ Robert 2011 , p. 572 . Jump up ^ `` Frequently Asked Questions about RONR ( Question 2 ) '' . The Official Robert 's Rules of Order Web Site . The Robert 's Rules Association . Archived from the original on 26 July 2017 . Retrieved 24 December 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Frequently Asked Questions about RONR ( Question 20 ) '' . The Official Robert 's Rules of Order Web Site . The Robert 's Rules Association . Archived from the original on 26 July 2017 . Retrieved 24 December 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Titles Associated with Executive Compensation Archived 17 September 2012 at the Wayback Machine . Compensation Resources Inc . Jump up ^ Fees , CEO Evaluation , and Ownership Structure By Joshua Kennon , About.com Jump up ^ Steensgaard , Niels ( 1982 ) . `` The Dutch East India Company as an Institutional Innovation '' , in Maurice Aymard ( ed . ) , Dutch Capitalism and World Capitalism / Capitalisme hollandais et capitalisme mondial ( Studies in Modern Capitalism / Etudes sur le capitalisme moderne ) , pp. 235 -- 257 Jump up ^ Jonker , Joost ; Gelderblom , Oscar ; de Jong , Abe ( 2013 ) . The Formative Years of the Modern Corporation : The Dutch East India Company VOC , 1602 -- 1623 . ( The Journal of Economic History / Volume 73 / Issue 04 / December 2013 , pp. 1050 -- 1076 ) Jump up ^ Von Nordenflycht , Andrew : The Great Expropriation : Interpreting the Innovation of `` Permanent Capital '' at the Dutch East India Company , in Origins of Shareholder Advocacy , edited by Jonathan GS Koppell ( Palgrave Macmillan , 2011 ) , pp. 89 -- 98 Jump up ^ Taylor , Bryan ( 6 November 2013 ) . `` The Rise and Fall of the Largest Corporation in History '' . BusinessInsider.com . Retrieved 13 March 2018 . Jump up ^ Gower , Principles of Company Law ( 6th ed . ) , citing Isle of Wight Rly Co v Tahourdin ( 1884 ) LR 25 Ch D 320 Jump up ^ Per Cozens - Hardy LJ at 44 Jump up ^ See Gower , Principles of Company Law ( 6th ed . ) at 185 . ^ Jump up to : Shivdasani A , Yermack D. ( 1999 ) . CEO involvement in the selection of new board members : An empirical analysis . Journal of Finance . Jump up ^ Chhaochharia V , Grinstein Y. ( 2007 ) . Corporate governance and firm value : The impact of the 2002 governance rules Archived 11 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine ... The Journal of Finance . Jump up ^ SEC . ( May 2009 ) . SEC Votes to Propose Rule Amendments to Facilitate Rights of Shareholders to Nominate Directors . Jump up ^ Cai , Jay ; Garner , Jacqueline ; Walkling , Ralph ( 2010 ) . `` Shareholder Access to the Boardroom : A Survey of Recent Evidence '' . Journal of Applied Finance . 20 ( 2 ) : 15 -- 26 . Jump up ^ Cai , J. ; Garner , J.L. ; Walkling , R.A. ( 2009 ) . `` Electing Directors '' . Journal of Finance . 64 ( 5 ) : 2387 -- 2419 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1540 - 6261.2009. 01504. x . Jump up ^ Craig S , Lattman P. ( 2010 ) . Companies May Fail , but Directors Are in Demand . New York Times . Jump up ^ SEC Wins D&O Bar Against Alleged Hedge Fund Scammer . Law360 . Jump up ^ See for example Barber 's Case ( 1877 ) 5 Ch D 963 and Re Portuguese Consolidated Copper Mines ( 1889 ) 42 Ch D 160 Jump up ^ Breckland Group Holdings Ltd v London and Suffolk Properties ( 1989 ) BCLC 100 Jump up ^ Percival v Wright ( 1902 ) Ch 421 Jump up ^ For example , if the board is authorised by the shareholders to negotiate with a takeover bidder . It has been held in New Zealand that `` depending upon all the surround circumstances and the nature of the responsibility which in a real and practical sense the director has assumed towards the shareholder , '' Coleman v Myers ( 1977 ) 2 NZLR 225 Jump up ^ Following Hogg v Cramphorn Ltd ( 1967 ) Ch 254 Jump up ^ Teck Corporation v Millar ( 1972 ) 33 DLR ( 3d ) 288 Jump up ^ Industrial Development Consultants v Cooley ( 1972 ) 1 WLR 443 ( corporate information ) , Canadian Aero Service v. O'Malley ( 1973 ) 40 DLR ( 3d ) 371 ( corporate opportunity ) and Boardman v Phipps ( 1967 ) 2 AC 46 ( corporate opportunity , which again , the company itself had declined to take up ) Jump up ^ Norman v Theodore Goddard ( 1991 ) BCLC 1027 Jump up ^ Director 's duties ^ Jump up to : `` Evaluating The Board Of Directors '' . investopedia.com. 29 February 2008 . Jump up ^ `` U.S. Corporate Governance by State '' . harborcompliance.com. 22 April 2014 . Jump up ^ `` U.S. Nonprofit Governance by State '' . harborcompliance.com. 27 January 2014 . Jump up ^ Compensation Committee Structure , Function and Best Practices Richard E. Wood ^ Jump up to : `` Company directors see pay skyrocket '' . USA Today . 26 October 2011 . Jump up ^ Schambra , William A. ( Winter 2008 ) . `` Board Compensation : To Pay or Not to Pay ? '' . Philanthropy magazine . Philanthropy Roundtable . Retrieved 2 May 2017 . Jump up ^ BoardSource 2015 , p. 52 . Jump up ^ Cf . Internal Revenue Service ( 4 February 2008 ) , Governance and Related Topics - 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) Organizations ( PDF ) , Washington , DC : Author , Charities should generally not compensate persons for service on the board of directors except to reimburse direct expenses of such service ... Charities may pay reasonable compensation for services provided by officers and staff . Jump up ^ BoardSource 2015 , p. 31 . Jump up ^ BoardSource ( 12 October 2016 ) , Recommended governance practices ( PDF ) , Washington , DC : Author , p. 4 , retrieved 2 May 2017 Jump up ^ Grant Thornton ( 7 November 2007 ) , National Board Governance Survey for Not - for - Profit Organizations 2007 ( PDF ) , Chicago , IL : Author , p. 9 , archived from the original ( PDF ) on 17 November 2008 , retrieved 2 May 2017 Jump up ^ Cf . http://leadingwithintent.org/past-reports/ Jump up ^ Cf . BoardSource ( 17 November 2010 ) , BoardSource nonprofit governance index 2010 ( PDF ) , Washington , DC : Author , p. 12 Jump up ^ Money for Nothing : How the Failure of Corporate Boards is Ruining American Business and Costing Us Trillions Jump up ^ Rousseau , Peter ; Stroup , Caleb ( 2015 ) . `` Director Histories and the Pattern of Acquisitions '' . Journal of Financial and Quantitative Analysis . 50 ( 04 ) : 671 -- 698 . doi : 10.1017 / s0022109015000289 . Jump up ^ Stroup , Caleb ( November 28 , 2015 ) . `` International Deal Experience and Cross-Border Acquisitions '' . Economic Inquiry . doi : 10.1111 / ecin. 12365 . SSRN 2037512 . Jump up ^ Senden , Linda ( December 2014 ) . `` The Multiplicity of Regulatory Responses to Remedy the Gender Imbalance on Company Boards '' . Utrecht Law Review . 10 ( 5 ) : 51 -- 66 . doi : 10.18352 / ulr. 300 . Jump up ^ Maclean , Mairi ; Harvey , Charles ; Kling , Gerhard ( 2014 - 06 - 01 ) . `` Pathways to Power : Class , Hyper - Agency and the French Corporate Elite '' . Organization Studies . 35 ( 6 ) : 825 -- 855 . doi : 10.1177 / 0170840613509919 . ISSN 0170 - 8406 . Sources ( edit ) P. Blumberg , ' Reflections on Proposals for Corporate Reform Through Change in the Composition of the Board of Directors : `` Special Interest '' or `` Public '' Directors ' ( 1973 ) 53 Boston University Law Review 547 BoardSource ( January 2015 ) , Leading with intent : A national index of nonprofit board practices ( PDF ) , Washington , DC : Author , retrieved 2 May 2017 KJ Hopt , ' The German Two - Tier Board : Experience , Theories , Reforms ' in KJ Hopt and others . ( eds ) , Comparative Corporate Governance : The State of the Art and Emerging Research ( Clarendon 1998 ) KJ Hopt and PC Leyens , ' Board Models in Europe -- Recent Developments of Internal Corporate Governance Structures in Germany , the United Kingdom , France , and Italy ' ( 2004 ) EGCI Working Paper Robert , Henry M. ; et al. ( 2011 ) . Robert 's Rules of Order Newly Revised ( 11th ed . ) . Philadelphia , PA : Da Capo Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 306 - 82020 - 5 . Archived from the original on 26 July 2017 . External links ( edit ) Web site of the Board of a large U.S. university , illustrating a typical board 's composition , duties , concerns , etc . Guidance on director 's duties ( Lemon & Co ) National Association of Corporate Directors European Directors and Board Members Association Corporate Governance Board Leadership Training , Global Corporate Governance Forum BoardofDirectors.com.au - Australia 's leading Online Directorship Listing ( hide ) Corporate titles Chief officers Administrative Analytics Audit Brand Business Channel Commercial Chief communications Compliance Content Creative Data Design Digital Diversity Executive ( CEO ) Experience Financial Human resources Information Information security Innovation Investment Knowledge Learning Legal Marketing Medical Networking Operating Privacy Procurement Product Quality Research Restructuring Revenue Risk Science Security Strategy Sustainability Technology Visionary Web Senior executives Chairman Chief managing director Creative director Development director General counsel Executive director Non-executive director President Vice president Mid-level executives General manager Divisional manager Regional manager First - level executives Departmental manager Manager Related topics Board of directors Corporate governance Executive pay Senior management Supervisory board Talent management Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Board_of_directors&oldid=836048392 '' Categories : Corporate directors Business law Business terms Board of directors Corporate law Committees Hidden categories : All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from November 2016 Articles with permanently dead external links Webarchive template wayback links Use dmy dates from March 2013 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February 2013 Vague or ambiguous geographic scope from November 2016 Articles with unsourced statements from July 2012 Interlanguage link template link number Articles with limited geographic scope from April 2016 United Kingdom - centric Articles with specifically marked weasel - worded phrases from April 2016 Articles with unsourced statements from April 2009 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Azərbaycanca Bân - lâm - gú Беларуская Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français 한국어 हिन्दी Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Қазақша Lietuvių Македонски മലയാളം Bahasa Melayu Nederlands नेपाली 日本 語 Norsk Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Papiamentu ភាសា ខ្មែរ Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 34 more Edit links This page was last edited on 12 April 2018 , at 11 : 19 . 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a recognized group of people who jointly oversee the activities of an organization

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Ossification center - wikipedia Ossification center Jump to : navigation , search This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( May 2011 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Ossification center X-ray of ossification centers in a child . Details Identifiers Latin centrum ossificationis Dorlands / Elsevier 12227335 TA A02. 0.00. 043 FMA 75436 Anatomical terminology ( edit on Wikidata ) The first step in ossification of the cartilage is that the cartilage cells , at the point where ossification is commencing and which is termed as an ossification center , enlarge and arrange themselves in rows . The matrix in which they are imbedded increases in quantity , so that the cells become further separated from each other . A deposit of calcareous material now takes place in this matrix , between the rows of cells , so that they become separated from each other by longitudinal columns of calcified matrix , presenting a granular and opaque appearance . Here and there the matrix between two cells of the same row also becomes calcified , and transverse bars of calcified substance stretch across from one calcareous column to another . Thus there are longitudinal groups of the cartilage cells enclosed in oblong cavities , the walls of which are formed of calcified matrix which cuts off all nutrition from the cells ; the cells , in consequence , atrophy , leaving spaces called the primary areolæ . Types of ossification centers ( edit ) Section of fetal bone of cat . ir . Irruption of the subperiosteal tissue . p . Fibrous layer of the periosteum . o . Layer of osteoblasts . im . Subperiosteal bony deposit . There are two types of ossification centers -- primary and secondary . A primary ossification center is the first area of a bone to start ossifying . It usually appears during prenatal development in the central part of each developing bone . In long bones the primary centers occur in the diaphysis / shaft and in irregular bones the primary centers occur usually in the body of the bone . Most bones have only one primary center ( e.g. all long bones ) but some irregular bones such as the os coxa ( hip ) and vertebrae have multiple primary centers . A secondary ossification center is the area of ossification that appears after the primary ossification center has already appeared -- most of which appear during the postnatal and adolescent years . Most bones have more than one secondary ossification center . In long bones , the secondary centres appear in the epiphyses . References ( edit ) This article incorporates text in the public domain from the 20th edition of Gray 's Anatomy ( 1918 ) Jump up ^ Gray and Spitzka ( 1910 ) , page 44 . Bibliography ( edit ) Gray , Henry ; Spitzka , Edward Anthony ( 1910 ) . Anatomy , descriptive and applied . the University of California : Lea & Febiger . Development of bone Ossification Triradiate cartilage Limb development Limb bud Apical ectodermal ridge Zone of polarizing activity Sclerotome Myotome Septum transversum Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ossification_center&oldid=808049222 '' Categories : Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 20th edition of Gray 's Anatomy ( 1918 ) Skeletal system Tissues ( biology ) Hidden categories : Articles needing additional references from May 2011 All articles needing additional references Medicine infobox template using GraySubject or GrayPage Medicine infobox template using Dorlands parameter Talk About Wikipedia Nederlands Edit links This page was last edited on 31 October 2017 , at 15 : 42 . About Wikipedia

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Home Alone 2 : Lost in New York - wikipedia Home Alone 2 : Lost in New York Jump to : navigation , search `` Home Alone 2 '' redirects here . For the video game based on this film , see Home Alone 2 ( video game ) . Home Alone 2 : Lost in New York Theatrical release poster Directed by Chris Columbus Produced by John Hughes Written by John Hughes Based on Characters by John Hughes Starring Macaulay Culkin Joe Pesci Daniel Stern John Heard Tim Curry Brenda Fricker Catherine O'Hara Music by John Williams Cinematography Julio Macat Edited by Raja Gosnell Production company Hughes Entertainment Distributed by 20th Century Fox Release date November 20 , 1992 ( 1992 - 11 - 20 ) Running time 120 minutes Country United States Language English Budget $20 million Box office $359 million Home Alone 2 : Lost in New York is a 1992 American Christmas comedy film written and produced by John Hughes and directed by Chris Columbus . It is the second film in the Home Alone series and the sequel to Home Alone . Macaulay Culkin reprises his role as Kevin McCallister , while Joe Pesci and Daniel Stern reprise their roles as the Wet Bandits , now known as the Sticky Bandits . Catherine O'Hara , John Heard , Rob Schneider , Tim Curry , and Brenda Fricker are also featured . The plot is as follows : Kevin and his family decide to take a trip to Florida , but Kevin takes the wrong plane and ends up in New York City . He tries to make do with what he has , such as using his father 's credit card to stay at the Plaza Hotel , but is soon confronted by the Wet Bandits and must outrun and out - prank them again . The film was shot in Winnetka , Illinois ; O'Hare International Airport in Chicago ; Evanston , Illinois ; and New York City ( which was star Culkin 's hometown at the time ) . The exterior of Duncan 's Toy Chest in New York City was filmed outside of the Rookery Building in downtown Chicago . The exterior of Haven Middle School in Evanston , Illinois is shown prior to the Christmas pageant . The Miami scenes were filmed in Los Angeles , including an exterior of Miami International Airport which was filmed at Los Angeles International Airport . The film became the second most financially successful film of 1992 , earning over $173 million in revenue in the United States and $359 million worldwide against a budget of $20 million . The film is also notable for featuring a cameo from future U.S. President Donald Trump , who had owned the Plaza Hotel at the time of the film 's production . Home Alone 3 followed five years later in 1997 , but the original cast , composer , and director did not return for that film . Contents ( hide ) 1 Plot 2 Cast 2.1 Main cast 2.2 The McCallister family 2.3 Other characters 3 Release 3.1 Marketing 3.2 Box office 3.3 Critical reception 3.4 Home media 3.5 Social Media 4 Music 4.1 Original Score 4.2 Original Soundtrack Album 4.3 The Deluxe Edition 5 Novelization 6 Sequels 7 See also 8 References 9 External links Plot ( edit ) In Chicago , the McCallister family is preparing for a Christmas vacation in Miami . On the night before their departure , the entire family gathers at Peter and Kate 's home , where their youngest son , Kevin , sees Florida as contradictory to Christmas , on his opinion of the lack of Christmas trees in Florida . During the school Christmas pageant , Kevin 's older brother Buzz humiliates him during his solo , causing Kevin to retaliate , thereby ruining the performance . While Buzz fakes an apology to Kevin in front of the McCallisters ( who are convinced it is sincere ) , Kevin refuses to apologize to Buzz and storms to the third floor of the house . Prior to the pageant , Peter has unknowingly caused the alarm clock to reset ; consequently , the family once again oversleeps . In the confusion they have to rush to reach the airport on time , Kevin falls behind everyone else , and mistakenly boards a flight bound for New York City while trying to replace the batteries for a Talkboy , carrying Peter 's bag containing his wallet and a large amount of money ; upon arrival in Miami , Kate realizes that Kevin is missing again . In New York , Kevin tours the city and meets a homeless woman tending to pigeons at Central Park , where he runs off . Kevin goes to the Plaza Hotel , where he tantalizes the staff into checking in with Peter 's credit card . On Christmas Eve , Kevin tours the city in a limousine and visits a toy store where he meets its philanthropic owner , Mr. Duncan . Kevin learns that the proceeds from the store 's Christmas sales will be donated to a children 's hospital . Kevin donates $20 to the hospital . As a token of appreciation , Mr. Duncan offers Kevin a pair of ceramic turtledoves as a gift , instructing him to give one to another person as a sign of eternal friendship . After running into Harry and Marv , who have recently escaped from prison and are now called `` The Sticky Bandits '' , Kevin retreats to the Plaza Hotel . The hotel 's concierge , Mr. Hector , confronts Kevin about the credit card , which has been reported stolen . Kevin flees after evading Mr. Hector , but is captured by Harry and Marv . The duo discuss plans for breaking into the toy store that night . Kevin manages to escape by pinching a woman in front of him , which results in the woman attacking the duo . Kevin 's family travels to New York after tracking the whereabouts of the stolen credit card , and Kate searches the city for Kevin . Meanwhile , Kevin goes to his uncle Rob 's townhouse , only to find the house vacant and undergoing renovations , while Rob and his family are in Paris . At Central Park , he encounters and befriends the pigeon lady . They go to Carnegie Hall , where an orchestra is performing . The pigeon lady explains how her life collapsed and how she dealt with it by taking care of the pigeons in the park . Kevin gives the pigeon lady some advice and promises that he will be her friend . Kevin , after remembering what the bandits said , returns to the townhouse , and rigs it with numerous booby traps . Kevin arrives at the toy store during Harry and Marv 's robbery and throws a brick through the window , setting off the store 's alarm . Kevin then lures the duo to the townhouse , where he springs the traps and Harry and Marv suffer various injuries . When the duo chase Kevin around the townhouse , he escapes and calls the police . Harry and Marv catch him and take him down to Central Park to kill him , but the pigeon lady sneaks in and throws birdseed on the duo , and the pigeons storm in to incapacitate them . Kevin sets off fireworks he had bought earlier to signal the police . The police arrive and arrest the bandits . At the toy store , Mr. Duncan finds a note from Kevin attached to the brick , explaining about what happened . Kate , still searching for Kevin on foot , remembers his fondness for Christmas trees . After observing Kevin making a wish at the Rockefeller Center Christmas Tree , Kate meets him there , and they reconcile . On Christmas Day , a truckload of gifts arrive at the McCallisters ' hotel room from the toy store . Kevin and Buzz reconcile , and Buzz allows him to open up the first present . Kevin goes to Central Park to give the pigeon lady the second turtledove . At the Plaza , Buzz receives the bill for Kevin 's stay from Cedric and shows it to Peter . Peter suddenly calls out , `` Kevin , you spent $967 on room service ? ! '' at which point Kevin runs off . Cast ( edit ) Main cast ( edit ) Macaulay Culkin as Kevin McCallister Joe Pesci as Harry Lime Daniel Stern as Marv Merchants The McCallister family ( edit ) Catherine O'Hara as Kate McCallister John Heard as Peter McCallister Devin Ratray as Buzz McCallister , Kevin 's brother who gets him into trouble Kieran Culkin ( Macaulay Culkin 's younger brother ) as Fuller McCallister Gerry Bamman as Frank McCallister , Kevin 's uncle Hillary Wolf as Megan McCallister Maureen Elisabeth Shay ( who replaces Angela Goethals ) as Linnie McCallister Mike Maronna as Jeff McCallister Terrie Snell as Leslie McCallister , Kevin 's aunt Jedidiah Cohen as Rod McCallister Senta Moses as Tracy McCallister Daiana Campeanu as Sondra McCallister Anna Slotky as Brooke McCallister Other characters ( edit ) Brenda Fricker as the Pigeon Lady Tim Curry as Mr. Hector the concierge Eddie Bracken as Mr. E.F. Duncan Rob Schneider as Cedric the bellhop Dana Ivey as Hester Stone the desk clerk Ralph Foody as Johnny Rip Taylor , Jaye P. Morgan , and Jimmie Walker as themselves Ally Sheedy as New York ticket agent Chris Columbus as Duncan 's Toy Chest patron Donald Trump as himself Clare Hoak as Susie Leigh Zimmerman as Fashion Model Steve Sivak as Chours Director Release ( edit ) Marketing ( edit ) Numerous video games based on Home Alone 2 were released by THQ for such systems as the Sega Genesis , the Nintendo Entertainment System , the Super Nintendo Entertainment System , Game Boy and personal computers , mostly in late 1992 . A separate hand - held game was released by Tiger Electronics . Numerous board games were also released , some based around play cards , while another was a close emulation of the classic Mouse Trap . The Talkboy cassette recorder was produced as a tie - in for the movie by Tiger Electronics ( currently under Hasbro ) based on specifications provided by John Hughes and the movie studio , and sold particularly well after the film was released on home video . American Airlines again had product placement in the film with the McCallisters making their trip on the airline 's two Boeing 767 - 200s . In the first film , a McDonnell Douglas DC - 10 was used . For the release of the first two films on home video , the airline became a sponsor. . Coca - Cola products make several appearances in the film , including in scenes when Kevin rides a limousine and when Kevin 's cousin Fuller wakes up at the Plaza Hotel . Notably , Pepsi products appeared in the first Home Alone film instead . Box office ( edit ) Home Alone 2 opened to $31.1 million from 2,222 theaters , averaging $14,008 per site . While it started off better than Home Alone , the final box office gross was much less . $173.6 million was taken in the United States and a total of $359 million worldwide . The film was released in the United Kingdom on December 11 , 1992 , and topped the country 's box office that weekend . Critical reception ( edit ) Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film an approval rating of 27 % based on 26 reviews , with an average rating of 3.7 / 10 and an audience score of 61 % . Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of `` A -- '' on an A+ to F scale . Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film two out of four stars and stated that `` cartoon violence is only funny in cartoons . Most of the live - action attempts to duplicate animation have failed , because when flesh - and - blood figures hit the pavement , we can almost hear the bones crunch , and it is n't funny . '' Home media ( edit ) The film was first released on VHS and Laserdisc on July 27 , 1993 . It was re-released in 1997 along with Home Alone on VHS . It was later released on DVD on October 5 , 1999 as a basic package , with no special features other than theatrical trailers for the film and its predecessor and successor . The film was released on Blu - ray in 2009 with no special features , and was released alongside Home Alone in a collection pack the following year . The film was reissued again on DVD and Blu - ray in 2013 and 2015 . After the September 11 attacks of 2001 , a scene of Kevin visiting the observation deck of the original World Trade Center was edited out of the film . Social media ( edit ) Achieving cult status , the film has been parodied on multiple social media websites with both fan - fiction and parodies . Music ( edit ) John Williams returned from the first installment to score Home Alone 2 . While the film featured the first film 's theme song `` Somewhere in My Memory '' , it also contained its own theme entitled `` Christmas Star '' . Two soundtrack albums of the film were released on November 20 , 1992 , with one featuring Williams ' score and the other featuring contemporary Christmas songs featured in the film . Ten years later , a 2 - disc Deluxe Edition of the film score soundtrack was released . Original score ( edit ) Home Alone 2 : Lost in New York -- Original Score Film score by John Williams Released November 20 , 1992 Genre Classical Length 63 : 20 Label Arista Records , 20th Century Fox Records John Williams chronology Far and Away ( 1992 ) Far and Away 1992 Home Alone 2 ( 1992 ) Jurassic Park ( 1993 ) Jurassic Park 1993 Home Alone chronology Home Alone ( 1990 ) Home Alone 1990 Home Alone 2 ( 1992 ) Home Alone 21992 Home Alone 3 ( 1997 ) Home Alone 3 1997 Home Alone 2 : Lost in New York -- Original Score is a 1992 soundtrack composed by John Williams , who also scored the first installment in the franchise . While the soundtrack is mostly a repeat of the first film 's material , there are a few new prominent themes such as `` Christmas Star '' and `` Plaza Hotel and Duncan 's Toy Store '' . Ultimately , the soundtrack fell out of print . `` Somewhere in My Memory '' ( 3 : 49 ) `` Home Alone '' ( 2 : 01 ) `` We Overslept Again '' ( 2 : 46 ) `` Christmas Star '' ( 3 : 18 ) `` Arrival in New York '' ( 1 : 41 ) `` Plaza Hotel and Duncan 's Toy Store '' ( 3 : 45 ) `` Concierge and Race to the Room '' ( 2 : 04 ) `` Star of Bethlehem '' ( 3 : 28 ) `` The Thieves Return '' ( 4 : 35 ) `` Appearance of Pigeon Lady '' ( 3 : 19 ) `` Christmas at Carnegie Hall '' ( `` O Come All Ye Faithful '' / `` O Little Town of Bethlehem '' / `` Silent Night '' ) ( 5 : 02 ) `` Into the Park '' ( 3 : 49 ) `` Haunted Brownstone '' ( 3 : 01 ) `` Christmas Star and Preparing the Trap '' ( 4 : 17 ) `` To the Plaza Presto '' ( 3 : 22 ) `` Reunion at Rockefeller Center '' ( 2 : 36 ) `` Kevin 's Booby Traps '' ( 3 : 41 ) `` Finale '' ( 3 : 55 ) `` Merry Christmas , Merry Christmas '' ( 2 : 51 ) Original soundtrack album ( edit ) Home Alone 2 : Lost in New York -- Original Soundtrack Album / Home Alone Christmas Soundtrack album by Various artists Released November 20 , 1992 ( Original ) September 16 , 1997 ( HAC ) Genre Christmas , pop , rock and roll , R&B Length 39 : 26 Label Arista Records ( Original ) Sony BMG ( HAC ) Professional ratings Review scores Source Rating AllMusic Home Alone 2 : Lost in New York -- Original Soundtrack Album is a 1992 soundtrack album that contains music from or inspired by Home Alone and Home Alone 2 : Lost in New York . The album eventually was discontinued and later re-released as Home Alone Christmas in 1997 by Sony BMG with an alternate track listing . Both versions feature tracks of John Williams ' score , though the tracks are of different songs between the original album and its re-release . Original Soundtrack Album track listing `` All Alone on Christmas '' ( 4 : 14 ) ( Darlene Love ) `` A Holly Jolly Christmas '' ( 2 : 14 ) ( Alan Jackson ) `` Somewhere in My Memory '' ( 3 : 58 ) ( Bette Midler , composed by John Williams , lyrics by Leslie Bricusse ) `` My Christmas Tree '' ( 2 : 35 ) ( Home Alone Children 's Choir , composed by Alan Menken , lyrics by Jack Feldman ) `` Sleigh Ride '' ( 3 : 44 ) ( TLC ) `` Silver Bells '' ( 4 : 15 ) ( Atlantic Starr ) `` Merry Christmas , Merry Christmas '' ( 2 : 40 ) ( John Williams ) `` Jingle Bell Rock '' ( 2 : 09 ) ( Bobby Helms ) `` Cool Jerk ( Christmas Mix ) '' ( 2 : 39 ) ( The Capitols ) `` It 's Beginning to Look a Lot Like Christmas '' ( 2 : 14 ) ( Johnny Mathis ) `` Christmas Star '' ( 3 : 16 ) ( John Williams ) `` O Come All Ye Faithful '' ( 3 : 26 ) ( Lisa Fischer ) Home Alone Christmas track listing `` All Alone on Christmas '' ( Darlene Love ) `` A Holly Jolly Christmas '' ( Alan Jackson ) `` My Christmas Tree '' ( The Fox Albert Choir ) `` Somewhere in My Memory '' ( John Williams ) `` Silver Bells '' ( Atlantic Starr ) `` Sleigh Ride '' ( TLC ) `` Christmas All Over Again '' ( Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers ) `` Please Come Home for Christmas '' ( Southside Johnny Lyon ) `` Merry Christmas , Merry Christmas '' ( John Williams ) `` Carol of the Bells '' ( John Williams ) `` Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas '' ( Mel Torme ) `` O Come All Ye Faithful '' ( Lisa Fischer ) The Deluxe Edition ( edit ) Home Alone 2 : Lost in New York -- The Deluxe Edition Soundtrack album by John Williams Released November 15 , 2002 Genre Classical Length 1 : 39 : 49 Label Varèse Sarabande On the film 's tenth anniversary , Varèse Sarabande released a two - disc special edition soundtrack entitled Home Alone 2 : Lost in New York -- The Deluxe Edition . The soundtrack contains John Williams ' cues found on the previous releases as well as additional compositions that were left out from the final film . This release is also known for resolving a mastering error that caused the music to be inaccurately pitched . Disc One Home Alone ( Main Title ) ( 2 : 07 ) This Year 's Wish ( 1 : 47 ) We Overslept Again / Holiday Flight ( 3 : 19 ) Separate Vacations * ( 1 : 58 ) Arrival in New York * * ( 2 : 59 ) The Thieves Return ( 3 : 28 ) Plaza Hotel ( 3 : 04 ) Concierge ( 1 : 31 ) Distant Goodnights ( Christmas Star ) ( Lyrics by Leslie Bricusse ) ( 2 : 05 ) A Day in the City ( : 59 ) Duncan 's Toy Store ( 2 : 41 ) Turtle Doves ( 1 : 29 ) To the Plaza , Presto ( 3 : 27 ) Race to the Room / Hot Pursuit ( 4 : 08 ) Haunted Brownstone ( 3 : 02 ) Appearance of the Pigeon Lady ( 3 : 21 ) Christmas at Carnegie Hall ( 5 : 15 ) O Come , All Ye Faithful / O Little Town of Bethlehem / Silent Night Disc Two Christmas Star - Preparing the Trap ( Lyrics by Leslie Bricusse ) ( 4 : 22 ) Another Christmas in the Trenches ( 2 : 33 ) Running Through Town ( 1 : 16 ) Luring the Thieves * ( 4 : 02 ) Kevin 's Booby Traps ( 7 : 23 ) Down the Rope / Into the Park ( 5 : 06 ) Reunion at Rockefeller Center / It 's Christmas ( 5 : 21 ) Finale ( 2 : 00 ) We Wish You a Merry Christmas ( Traditional ) and Merry Christmas , Merry Christmas ( Lyrics by Leslie Bricusse ) ( 2 : 51 ) End Title ( 1 : 32 ) Holiday Flight ( alternate ) ( 2 : 32 ) Suite from `` Angels with Filthy Souls II '' ( : 56 ) Somewhere in My Memory ( Lyrics by Leslie Bricusse ) ( 3 : 57 ) Star of Bethlehem ( Lyrics by Leslie Bricusse ) ( 3 : 32 ) Christmas Star ( Lyrics by Leslie Bricusse ) ( 3 : 23 ) Merry Christmas , Merry Christmas ( orchestra ) ( 2 : 23 ) Novelization ( edit ) Home Alone 2 was novelized by Todd Strasser and published by Scholastic in 1992 to coincide with the film . It has an ISBN of 0 - 590 - 45717 - 9 . An audiobook version was also released read by Tim Curry ( who played the concierge in the film ) . As in the novelization of the first film the McCallisters live in Oak Park , Illinois and the crooks are named as Harry Lime and Marv Merchants . In the beginning of the novelization , a prologue , which ends up being Marv 's nightmare in prison , he and Harry sneak away from the cops and return to Kevin 's house to seek revenge on Kevin . Kevin bolts into the garage with Marv and Harry in hot pursuit . Harry and Marv end up triggering extra traps that Kevin had set up in the garage . Kevin watches as Marv ends up triggering a trap where a running lawnmower falls on his head ( This was a trap featured in Home Alone 3 ) . Sequels ( edit ) Main article : Home Alone 3 A second sequel , Home Alone 3 , followed in 1997 . Two additional television movie sequels , Taking Back the House and The Holiday Heist , would follow in 2002 and 2012 , respectively . See also ( edit ) List of films featuring fictional films References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` HOME ALONE 2 - LOST IN NEW YORK ( PG ) '' . British Board of Film Classification . November 4 , 2017 . Retrieved November 10 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Home Alone 2 : Lost in New York ( 1992 ) '' . The Numbers . Retrieved December 24 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` Home Alone 2 : Lost in New York ( 1992 ) '' . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved December 23 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Langille , Sean . `` Never forget Donald Trump 's cameo in ' Home Alone 2 ' '' . Washington Examiner . Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 23 . ^ Jump up to : Home Alone 2 : Lost in New York - Nostalgia Critic ( YouTube ) . Channel Awesome . December 20 , 2017 . Retrieved December 20 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Home Alone 2 Lost in New York Board Game BoardGameGeek Jump up ^ Home Alone 2 Action Contraption Game Board Game BoardGameGeek Jump up ^ Reyes , Sonia ( 16 December 1993 ) . `` Talkboy : ' Home Alone 2 ' Toy Is Hot , Hot , Hot '' . The Seattle Times . Retrieved 12 November 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Home Alone 2 : Lost in New York - Weekend Box Office Results '' . Retrieved November 12 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Home Alone Weekend Box Office Results '' . Retrieved December 24 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Weekend box office 11th December 1992 - 13th December 1992 '' . www.25thframe.co.uk . Retrieved 30 December 2016 . Jump up ^ Home Alone 2 : Lost in New York ( 1992 ) at Rotten Tomatoes Jump up ^ `` CinemaScore '' . cinemascore.com . Jump up ^ Ebert , Roger ( 1992 - 11 - 20 ) . `` Home Alone 2 : Lost in New York '' . rogerebert.com . Retrieved October 8 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` The Twin Towers : a doomed fate in film '' . 2011 - 09 - 06 . Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 23 . Jump up ^ `` Filmtracks : Home Alone 2 : Lost in New York ( John Williams ) '' . Filmtracks . November 11 , 2008 . Retrieved October 20 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Birchmeier , Jason . Home Alone 2 : Lost in New York at AllMusic . Retrieved October 19 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Daish , Tom ( October 2 , 2010 ) . `` Home Alone 2 : Lost in New York - The Deluxe Edition '' . FilmMusicSite.com . Retrieved October 20 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Home Alone 2 : Lost in New York -- Screen Archives '' . Screen Archives . Retrieved October 20 , 2012 . External links ( edit ) Wikiquote has quotations related to : Home Alone 2 : Lost in New York Home Alone 2 : Lost in New York on IMDb Home Alone 2 : Lost in New York at the TCM Movie Database Home Alone 2 : Lost in New York at AllMovie Home Alone 2 : Lost in New York at Rotten Tomatoes Movie Locations Guide.com - Maps and directions to Home Alone 2 Filming Locations Home Alone Films Home Alone ( 1990 ) Home Alone 2 : Lost in New York ( 1992 ) Home Alone 3 ( 1997 ) Home Alone 4 ( 2002 ) Home Alone : The Holiday Heist ( 2012 ) Video games Home Alone ( 1991 ) Home Alone 2 : Lost in New York ( 1992 ) Home Alone ( 2006 ) Miscellaneous Home Alone : Original Motion Picture Soundtrack Talkboy Chris Columbus Directed Adventures in Babysitting ( 1987 ) Heartbreak Hotel ( 1988 ) Home Alone ( 1990 ) Only the Lonely ( 1991 ) Home Alone 2 : Lost in New York ( 1992 ) Mrs. Doubtfire ( 1993 ) Nine Months ( 1995 ) Stepmom ( 1998 ) Bicentennial Man ( 1999 ) Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone ( 2001 ) Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets ( 2002 ) Rent ( 2005 ) I Love You , Beth Cooper ( 2009 ) Percy Jackson & the Olympians : The Lightning Thief ( 2010 ) Pixels ( 2015 ) Produced only Jingle All the Way ( 1996 ) Monkeybone ( 2001 ) Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban ( 2004 ) Christmas with the Kranks ( 2004 ) Fantastic Four ( 2005 ) Night at the Museum ( 2006 ) Fantastic Four : Rise of the Silver Surfer ( 2007 ) Night at the Museum : Battle of the Smithsonian ( 2009 ) The Help ( 2011 ) Percy Jackson : Sea of Monsters ( 2013 ) Night at the Museum : Secret of the Tomb ( 2014 ) The Young Messiah ( 2016 ) I Kill Giants ( 2018 ) Written only Reckless ( 1984 ) Gremlins ( 1984 ) The Goonies ( 1985 ) Young Sherlock Holmes ( 1985 ) Little Nemo : Adventures in Slumberland ( 1989 ) Christmas with the Kranks ( 2004 ) Television Galaxy High ( 1986 , wrote ) See also 1492 Pictures House of Secrets John Hughes Director and writer Sixteen Candles ( 1984 ) The Breakfast Club ( 1985 ) Weird Science ( 1985 ) Ferris Bueller 's Day Off ( 1986 ) Planes , Trains and Automobiles ( 1987 ) She 's Having a Baby ( 1988 ) Uncle Buck ( 1989 ) Curly Sue ( 1991 ) Writer only National Lampoon 's Class Reunion ( 1982 ) Mr. Mom ( 1983 ) National Lampoon 's Vacation ( 1983 ) Nate and Hayes ( 1983 ) National Lampoon 's European Vacation ( 1985 ) Pretty in Pink ( 1986 ) Some Kind of Wonderful ( 1987 ) The Great Outdoors ( 1988 ) National Lampoon 's Christmas Vacation ( 1989 ) Home Alone ( 1990 ) Career Opportunities ( 1991 ) Dutch ( 1991 ) Beethoven ( 1992 ) Home Alone 2 : Lost in New York ( 1992 ) Dennis the Menace ( 1993 ) Baby 's Day Out ( 1994 ) Miracle on 34th Street ( 1994 ) 101 Dalmatians ( 1996 ) Flubber ( 1997 ) Home Alone 3 ( 1997 ) Reach the Rock ( 1998 ) Just Visiting ( 2001 ) Maid in Manhattan ( 2002 , story ) Drillbit Taylor ( 2008 , original character ) Related Do n't You Forget About Me ( 2009 documentary ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Home_Alone_2:_Lost_in_New_York&oldid=821387243 '' Categories : 1992 films English - language films American films 1990s comedy films 1990s sequel films American adventure comedy films American Christmas films American sequel films Films about missing people Films set in Chicago Films set in hotels Films set in Miami Films set in New York City Films shot in Chicago Films shot in Los Angeles Films shot in New York City Home Alone ( franchise ) 20th Century Fox films Films directed by Chris Columbus Films produced by John Hughes ( filmmaker ) Films scored by John Williams Screenplays by John Hughes ( filmmaker ) Christmas comedy films Hidden categories : Use mdy dates from July 2013 Pages using div col with deprecated parameters Wikipedia articles needing clarification from September 2015 Music infoboxes with deprecated parameters Articles with hAudio microformats Album infoboxes lacking a cover Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikiquote Azərbaycanca বাংলা Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Latviešu Magyar Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Scots Simple English Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 20 January 2018 , at 04 : 37 . 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where does kevins family go in home alone 2

Florida

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