Feature engineering or feature extraction or feature discovery is the process of extracting features (characteristics, properties, attributes) from raw data
Machine learning-based attention is a mechanism mimicking cognitive attention
In linear algebra, the singular value decomposition (SVD) is a factorization of a real or complex matrix
The softmax function, also known as softargmax or normalized exponential function, converts a vector of K real numbers into a probability distribution of K possible outcomes
Adversarial machine learning is the study of the attacks on machine learning algorithms, and of the defenses against such attacks
AdaBoost, short for Adaptive Boosting, is a statistical classification meta-algorithm formulated by Yoav Freund and Robert Schapire in 1995, who won the 2003 G del Prize for their work
Activation function of a node in an artificial neural network is a function that calculates the output of the node (based on its inputs and the weights on individual inputs)
Artificial neural networks (ANNs, also shortened to neural networks (NNs) or neural nets) are a branch of machine learning models that are built using principles of neuronal organization discovered by connectionism in the biological neural networks constituting animal brains.An ANN is based on a collection of connected units or nodes called artificial neurons, which loosely model the neurons in a biological brain
Multi-task learning (MTL) is a subfield of machine learning in which multiple learning tasks are solved at the same time, while exploiting commonalities and differences across tasks
In mathematical optimization and decision theory, a loss function or cost function (sometimes also called an error function) is a function that maps an event or values of one or more variables onto a real number intuitively representing some "cost" associated with the event
In digital image processing and computer vision, image segmentation is the process of partitioning a digital image into multiple image segments, also known as image regions or image objects (sets of pixels)
A reference is a relationship between objects in which one object designates, or acts as a means by which to connect to or link to, another object
Supervised learning (SL) is a paradigm in machine learning where input objects (for example, a vector of predictor variables) and a desired output value (also known as human-labeled supervisory signal) train a model
Adversarial machine learning is the study of the attacks on machine learning algorithms, and of the defenses against such attacks
Cross-validation, sometimes called rotation estimation or out-of-sample testing, is any of various similar model validation techniques for assessing how the results of a statistical analysis will generalize to an independent data set
Convolutional neural network (CNN) is a regularized type of feed-forward neural network that learns feature engineering by itself via filters (or kernel) optimization
In statistics and machine learning, the bias variance tradeoff describes the relationship between a model's complexity, the accuracy of its predictions, and how well it can make predictions on previously unseen data that were not used to train the model
Weak supervision, also called semi-supervised learning, is a paradigm in machine learning, the relevance and notability of which increased with the advent of large language models due to large amount of data required to train them
In machine learning, hyperparameter optimization or tuning is the problem of choosing a set of optimal hyperparameters for a learning algorithm
Transfer learning (TL) is a technique in machine learning (ML) in which knowledge learned from a task is re-used in order to boost performance on a related task
In statistics and machine learning, ensemble methods use multiple learning algorithms to obtain better predictive performance than could be obtained from any of the constituent learning algorithms alone
Deep learning is the subset of machine learning methods which are based on artificial neural networks with representation learning
In machine learning, instance-based learning (sometimes called memory-based learning) is a family of learning algorithms that, instead of performing explicit generalization, compare new problem instances with instances seen in training, which have been stored in memory
Alpha (uppercase , lowercase ; Ancient Greek: , lpha, or Greek: , romanized: lfa) is the first letter of the Greek alphabet
Data augmentation is a technique in machine learning used to reduce overfitting when training a machine learning model, by training models on several slightly-modified copies of existing data
In machine learning, the vanishing gradient problem is encountered when training artificial neural networks with gradient-based learning methods and backpropagation
In machine learning, support vector machines (SVMs, also support vector networks) are supervised learning models with associated learning algorithms that analyze data for classification and regression analysis
In computational intelligence (CI), an evolutionary algorithm (EA) is a subset of evolutionary computation, a generic population-based metaheuristic optimization algorithm
In machine learning and statistics, the learning rate is a tuning parameter in an optimization algorithm that determines the step size at each iteration while moving toward a minimum of a loss function
The bag-of-words model is a model of text represented as an unordered collection of words
In pattern recognition, information retrieval, object detection and classification (machine learning), precision and recall are performance metrics that apply to data retrieved from a collection, corpus or sample space
Zero-shot learning (ZSL) is a problem setup in deep learning where, at test time, a learner observes samples from classes which were not observed during training, and needs to predict the class that they belong to
An autoencoder is a type of artificial neural network used to learn efficient codings of unlabeled data (unsupervised learning)
As a machine-learning algorithm, backpropagation performs a backward pass to adjust a neural network model's parameters, aiming to minimize error
Reinforcement learning (RL) is an area of machine learning concerned with how intelligent agents ought to take actions in an environment in order to maximize the notion of cumulative reward
Active learning is "a method of learning in which students are actively or experientially involved in the learning process and where there are different levels of active learning, depending on student involvement." Bonwell & Eison (1991) states that "students participate [in active learning] when they are doing something besides passively listening." According to Hanson and Moser (2003) using active teaching techniques in the classroom can create better academic outcomes for students
A feedforward neural network (FNN) is one of the two broad types of artificial neural network, characterized by direction of the flow of information between its layers
In mathematics, gradient descent (also often called steepest descent) is a first-order iterative optimization algorithm for finding a local minimum of a differentiable function
Bayesian optimization is a sequential design strategy for global optimization of black-box functions that does not assume any functional forms
A label (as distinct from signage) is a piece of paper, plastic film, cloth, metal, or other material affixed to a container or product, on which is written or printed information or symbols about the product or item
In statistics, linear regression is a linear approach for modelling the relationship between a scalar response and one or more explanatory variables (also known as dependent and independent variables)
In mathematical modeling, overfitting is "the production of an analysis that corresponds too closely or exactly to a particular set of data, and may therefore fail to fit to additional data or predict future observations reliably"
In machine learning, a variational autoencoder (VAE) is an artificial neural network architecture introduced by Diederik P
In mathematics, an embedding (or imbedding) is one instance of some mathematical structure contained within another instance, such as a group that is a subgroup
Artificial intelligence (AI) is the intelligence of machines or software, as opposed to the intelligence of humans or animals
In statistics, the k-nearest neighbors algorithm (k-NN) is a non-parametric supervised learning method first developed by Evelyn Fix and Joseph Hodges in 1951, and later expanded by Thomas Cover
A capsule neural network (CapsNet) is a machine learning system that is a type of artificial neural network (ANN) that can be used to better model hierarchical relationships
Federated learning (also known as collaborative learning) is a machine learning technique that trains an algorithm via multiple independent sessions, each using its own dataset
Principal component analysis (PCA) is a popular technique for analyzing large datasets containing a high number of dimensions/features per observation, increasing the interpretability of data while preserving the maximum amount of information, and enabling the visualization of multidimensional data
In mathematics, a time series is a series of data points indexed (or listed or graphed) in time order
Dilution and dropout (also called DropConnect) are regularization techniques for reducing overfitting in artificial neural networks by preventing complex co-adaptations on training data
Cluster analysis or clustering is the task of grouping a set of objects in such a way that objects in the same group (called a cluster) are more similar (in some sense) to each other than to those in other groups (clusters)
In deep learning, fine-tuning is an approach to transfer learning in which the weights of a pre-trained model are trained on new data.Fine-tuning can be done on the entire neural network, or on only a subset of its layers, in which case the layers that are not being fine-tuned are 'frozen' (not updated during the backpropagation step).A model may also be augmented with 'adapters' that consist of far fewer parameters than the original model, and fine-tuned in a parameter-efficient way by tuning the weights of the adapters and leaving the rest of the model's weights frozen.
A decision tree is a decision support hierarchical model that uses a tree-like model of decisions and their possible consequences, including chance event outcomes, resource costs, and utility
In statistical modeling, regression analysis is a set of statistical processes for estimating the relationships between a dependent variable (often called the 'outcome' or 'response' variable, or a 'label' in machine learning parlance) and one or more independent variables (often called 'predictors', 'covariates', 'explanatory variables' or 'features')
In computer science, data validation is the process of ensuring data has undergone data cleansing to confirm they have data quality, that is, that they are both correct and useful
In statistics, quality assurance, and survey methodology, sampling is the selection of a subset or a statistical sample (termed sample for short) of individuals from within a statistical population to estimate characteristics of the whole population
Machine learning (ML) is a field of study in artificial intelligence concerned with the development and study of statistical algorithms that can effectively generalize and thus perform tasks without explicit instructions.Recently, generative artificial neural networks have been able to surpass many previous approaches in performance.Machine learning approaches have been applied to large language models, computer vision, speech recognition, email filtering, agriculture and medicine, where it is too costly to develop algorithms to perform the needed tasks.
Data preprocessing can refer to manipulation or dropping of data before it is used in order to ensure or enhance performance,and is an important step in the data mining process