Lingala (Ngala) (Lingala: Lingála) is a tonal Bantu language spoken in the northwest of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the northern half of the Republic of the Congo, in their capitals, Kinshasa and Brazzaville, and to a lesser degree in Angola, the Central African Republic,Kenya and southern South Sudan. Lingala has 25–30 million native speakers and about 35 million second-language speakers, for an approximate total of 60-65 million speakers.

History
Before 1880, Bobangi was an important trade language on the western sections of the Congo river, between Stanley Pool (Kinshasa) and the confluence of the Congo and Ubangi rivers. When the first Europeans and their West- and East-African troops started founding state posts for the Belgian king along this river section in the early 1880s, they noticed the widespread use and prestige of Bobangi. They attempted to learn it, but only cared to acquire an imperfect knowledge of it, a process that gave rise to a new, strongly restructured variety, called "the trade language", "the language of the river", or "Bobangi-pidgin", among other names. In 1884, Europeans introduced this restructured variety of Bobangi in the state post Bangala Station to communicate with local Congolese, some of whom had second-language knowledge of original Bobangi, and with the Congolese from more remote areas whom missionaries and colonials had been relocating to the station by force. The language of the river was therefore soon renamed "Bangala", a label the Europeans had since 1876 also been using as a convenient, but erroneous and non-original ethnic name for all Congolese of that region.

Around 1901–2, CICM missionaries started a project to "purify" the Bangala language by cleansing it from the "impure", pidginlike features it had acquired when it emerged out of Bobangi in the early 1880s.

Around and shortly after 1901, a number of both Catholic and Protestant missionaries working in the western and northern Congo Free State, independently of one another but in strikingly parallel terms, judged that Bangala as it had developed out of Bobangi was too "pidgin like", "too poor" a language to function as a proper means of education and evangelization. Each of them set out on a program of massive corpus planning, aimed at actively "correcting" and "enlarging" Bangala from above [...]. One of them was the Catholic missionary Egide De Boeck of the Congregatio Immaculati Cordis Mariae (CICM, commonly known as "the Missionaries of Scheut" or "Scheutists"), who arrived in Bangala Station – Nouvelle Anvers in 1901. Another one was the Protestant missionary Walter H. Stapleton [...], and a third one the Catholic Léon Derikx of the Premonstratensian Fathers [...]. By 1915, De Boeck's endeavors had proven to be more influential than Stapleton's, whose language creative suggestions, as the Protestant missionaries' conference of 1911 admitted, had never been truly implemented [...]. Under the dominance of De Boeck's work, Derikx's discontinued his after less than 10 years.

Lingala's importance as a vernacular has since grown with the size and importance of its main centers of use, Kinshasa and Brazzaville; with its use as the lingua franca of the armed forces; and with the popularity of soukous music.

Name 
At first the language the European pioneers and their African troops had forged out of Bobangi was called "the river language", "the trade language", and other volatile names. Beginning in 1884, it was called "Bangala", due to its introduction in Bangala Station. After 1901, Catholic missionaries of CICM, also called the Congregation of Scheutists, proposed to rename the language "Lingala". It took some decades for this to be generally accepted both by colonials and the Congolese. The name Lingala first appears in writing in a 1901-2 publication by the CICM missionary Égide De Boeck. This name change was accepted in western and northwestern Congo, and in other countries where the language was spoken, but not in northeastern Congo, where the variety of the language spoken locally is still called Bangala.

Characteristics and usage 
Lingala is a Bantu-based creole of Central Africa with roots in the Bobangi language, which provided most of its lexicon and grammar. In its basic vocabulary, Lingala also borrows from other languages, such as Kikongo varieties, Ubangian languages, Swahili, French, Portuguese, English, and various African languages (note local and foreign interaction with Krumen).

In practice, the extent of borrowing varies widely with speakers of different regions (commonly among young people), and during different occasions.

French 
 momí comes from the old French ma mie ("my dear"), and can sound like it means "grandmother", but means "girlfriend"  
 kelási for class/school

Spanish
 chiclé for chewing gum

Portuguese
 manteka for butter  
 mésa for table
 sapátu for shoes

English
 míliki for milk
 súpu for soup
 mamiwata for mermaid, literally mammy/water 
 búku for book
 mótuka, from motor-car, for car

Variation 
The Lingala language can be divided into several regiolects and sociolects. The major regional varieties are northwestern Lingala, Kinshasa Lingala and Brazzaville Lingala.

Literary Lingala (lingala littéraire or lingala classique in French) is a standardized form used mostly in education and news broadcasts on state-owned radio or television and in Roman Catholic religious services, It is taught as a subject at some educational levels. It is historically associated with the work of the Catholic Church, the Belgian CICM missionaries in particular. It has a seven-vowel system () with an obligatory tense-lax vowel harmony. It also has a full range of morphological noun prefixes with mandatory grammatical agreement system with subject–verb, or noun–modifier for each of class. It is largely used in formal functions and in some forms of writing. Most native speakers of Spoken Lingala and Kinshasa Lingala consider it incomprehensible.

Northwestern (or Equateur) Lingala is the product of the (incomplete) internalization by Congolese of the prescriptive rules the CICM missionaries intended when designing Literary Lingala. The northwest is a zone where the CICM missionaries strongly supported the network of schools.
  
Spoken Lingala (called lingala parlé in French) is the variety mostly used in Lingalaphones' day-to-day lives. It has a full morphological noun prefix system, but the agreement system in the noun phrase is laxer than the literary variety's. There is a five-vowel system and no vowel harmony. Spoken Lingala is largely used in informal functions, and the majority of Lingala songs use spoken Lingala. Modern spoken Lingala is influenced by French; French verbs, for example, may be "lingalized", adding Lingala inflection prefixes and suffixes: "acomprenaki te" or "acomprendraki te" ("he did not understand", using the French word comprendre) instead of classic Lingala "asímbaki ntína te" (literally: "s/he grasped/held the root/cause not"). These French influences are more prevalent in Kinshasa and indicate an erosion of the language as education in French becomes accessible to more of the population. There are pronunciation differences between "Catholic Lingala" and "Protestant Lingala", for example nzala/njala ("hunger").

Lingala ya Bayankee (sometimes called Yanké) is a sociolect widely used in Kinshasa, e.g., by street youth, street vendors, criminal gangs and homeless children. Langila is a little-studied language game (or ludic practice) musicians initially created shortly after 2000 that is increasingly used in social media and sites of cultural production.

Phonology

Vowels

Vowel harmony
Lingala words show vowel harmony to some extent. The close-mid vowels  and  normally do not mix with the open-mid vowels  and  in words. For example, the words ndɔbɔ 'fishhook' and ndobo 'mouse trap' are found, but not *ndɔbo or *ndobɔ.

Vowel shift
The Lingala spoken in Kinshasa shows a vowel shift from  to , leading to the absence of the phoneme  in favor of . The same occurs with  and , leading to just . So in Kinshasa, a native speaker will say mbóte as , compared to the more traditional pronunciation, .

Consonants

(1)  is allophonic with  depending on the dialect.

Prenasalized consonants
The prenasalized stops formed with a nasal followed by a voiceless plosive are allophonic to the voiceless plosives alone in some variations of Lingala.
 :  or 
 e.g.: mpɛmbɛ́ni is pronounced  but in some variations 
 :  or 
 e.g.: ntɔ́ngó is pronounced  but in some variations 
 :  or 
 e.g.: nkanya (fork) is pronounced  but in some variations 
 :  or  (inside a word)
 e.g.: nyɔnsɔ is pronounced  but in some variations 
The prenasalized voiced occlusives, , do not vary.

Tones
Lingala is a tonal language. Tone is a distinguishing feature in minimal pairs, e.g.: mutu (human being) and mutú (head), or kokoma (to write) and kokóma (to arrive). There are two main tones, low and high, and two less common ones: starting high, dipping low, and ending high, all within the same vowel sound, e.g., mǐso (eyes); and starting low, rising high, and ending low, e.g., bôngó (therefore).

Tonal morphology
Tense morphemes carry tones.
 koma (komL-a : write) inflected gives
 simple present L-aL :
 nakoma naL-komL-aL (I write)
 subjunctive H-aL :
 nákoma naH-komL-aL (I would write)
 present:
 nakomí naL-komL-iH (I have been writing)
 sepela (seLpel-a : enjoy) inflected gives
 simple present L-aL :
 osepela oL-seLpelL-aL (you-SG enjoy)
 subjunctive H-aL :
 ósepéla oH-seLpelH-aH (you-SG would enjoy)
 present L-iH:
 osepelí oL-seLpelL-iH (you-SG have been enjoying)

Grammar

Noun class system
Akin to all Bantu languages, Lingala has a noun class system in which nouns are classified according to the prefixes they bear and the prefixes they trigger in sentences. The table below shows Lingala's noun classes ordered according to the numbering system widely used in descriptions of Bantu languages.

Individual classes pair up to form singular/plural pairs, sometimes called genders. There are seven genders. The singular classes 1, 3, 5, 7, and 9 take their plural forms from classes 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, respectively. Additionally, many household items found in class 9 take a class 2 prefix (ba) in the plural: lútu → balútu 'spoon', mésa → bamésa 'table', sáni → basáni 'plate'. Words in class 11 usually take a class 10 plural. Most words from class 14 (abstract nouns) do not have a plural counterpart.

Class 9 and 10 have a nasal prefix, which assimilates to the following consonant. Thus, the prefix shows up as 'n' on words that start with t or d, e.g. ntaba 'goat', but as 'm' on words that start with b or p (e.g. mbísi 'fish'). There is also a prefixless class 9a and 10a, exemplified by sánzá → sánzá 'moon(s) or month(s)'. Possible ambiguities are resolved by context.

Noun class prefixes show up not only on the noun itself, but as markers throughout a sentence. In the sentences below, the class prefixes are underlined. (There is a special verbal form 'a' of the prefix for class 1 nouns.)
molakisi molaí yangó abíkí (CL1.teacher CL1.tall that CL1:recovered) That tall teacher recovered
bato bakúmisa Nkómbó ya Yɔ́ (CL2.people CL2.praise name of You) (Let) people praise Your name (a sentence from the Lord's Prayer)

To a certain extent, noun class allocation is semantically governed. Classes 1/2, as in all Bantu languages, mainly contain words for human beings; similarly, classes 9/10 contain many words for animals. In other classes, semantical regularities are mostly absent or obscured by many exceptions.

Verb inflections and morphology

Verbal extensions
Four morphemes modify verbs. They are added to a verb root in the following order:
 Reversive (-ol-)
 e.g.: kozinga to wrap and kozingola to develop
 Causative (-is-)
 e.g. : koyéba to know and koyébisa to inform
 Applicative (-el-)
 e.g. : kobíka to heal (self), to save (self) and kobíkela to heal (someone else), to save (someone)
 Passive (-am-)
 e.g. : koboma to kill and kobomama to be killed
 Reciprocal or stationary (-an-, sometimes -en-)
 e.g. : kokúta to find and kokútana to meet

Tense inflections
The first tone segment affects the subject part of the verb; the second attaches to the semantic morpheme attached to its root.
 present perfect (LH-í)
 simple present (LL-a)
 recurrent present (LL-aka)
 undefined recent past (LH-ákí)
 undefined distant past (LH-áká)
 future (L-ko-L-a)
 subjunctive (HL-a)

Writing system 
Lingala is more a spoken than a written language, and has several different writing systems, most of them ad hoc. As literacy in Lingala tends to be low, its popular orthography is very flexible and varies among the two republics. Some orthographies are heavily influenced by French; influences include a double S, ss, to transcribe [s] (in the Republic of the Congo); ou for [u] (in the Republic of the Congo); i with trema, aï, to transcribe  or ; e with acute accent, é, to transcribe [e]; e to transcribe , o with acute accent, ó, to transcribe  or sometimes [o] in opposition to o transcribing [o] or ; i or y can both transcribe [j]. The allophones are also found as alternating forms in the popular orthography; sango is an alternative to nsango (information or news); nyonso, nyoso, nionso, nioso (every) are all transcriptions of nyɔ́nsɔ.

In 1976, the Société Zaïroise des Linguistes (Zairian Linguists Society) adopted a writing system for Lingala, using the open e  and the open o  to write the vowels  and , and sporadic usage of accents to mark tone, though the limitation of input methods prevents Lingala writers from easily using the  and  and the accents. For example, it is almost impossible to type Lingala according to that convention with a common English or French keyboard. The convention of 1976 reduced the alternative orthography of characters but did not enforce tone marking. The lack of consistent accentuation is lessened by contextual disambiguation.

The popular orthographies seem to be a step ahead of any academic-based orthography. Many Lingala books, papers, the translation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Internet forums, newsletters, and major websites such as Google's Lingala do not use the Lingala-specific characters ɛ and ɔ. Tone marking is found in most literary works.

Alphabet 

The Lingala alphabet has 35 letters and digraphs. Each digraph has a specific place in the alphabet; for example, mza comes before mba, because the digraph mb follows the letter m. The letters r and h are rare but present in borrowed words. Accents indicate the tones as follows:
 no accent for default tone, the low tone
 acute accent for the high tone
 circumflex for descending tone
 caron for ascending tone

Sample 

The Lord's Prayer (Catholic version)
Tatá wa bísó, ozala o likoló,
bato bakúmisa Nkómbó ya ,
bandima bokonzi bwa , mpo elingo ,
basálá yangó o nsé,
lokóla bakosalaka o likoló
Pésa bísó  biléi bya ,
límbisa mabé ma bísó,
lokóla bísó tokolimbisaka baníngá.
Sálisa bísó tondima masɛ́nginyá tê,
mpe bíkisa bísó o mabé.

Na  bokonzi,
nguyá na nkembo,
o bileko o binso sékô.
Amen.

The Lord's Prayer (Protestant version used in Ubangi-Mongala region)
Tatá na bísó na likoló,
nkómbó na  ezala mosanto,
bokonzi na  eya,
mokano na  esalama na nsé
lokola na likoló.
Pésa bísó kwanga ekokí .
Límbisa bísó nyongo na bísó,
pelamoko elimbisi bísó bango nyongo na bango.
Kamba bísó kati na komekama tê,
kasi bíkisa bísó na mabé.

Mpo ete na  ezalí bokonzi,
na nguyá, na nkembo,
lobiko na lobiko.
Amen.

Sample text from Universal Declaration of Human Rights 
Bato nyonso na mbotama bazali nzomi pe bakokani na limemya pe makoki. Bazali na mayele pe base, geli kofanda na bondeko okati na bango. 
(Article 1 of Universal Declaration of Human Rights)

Mandombe
The Mandombe script is an abugida, primarily used to write Kikongo, that can also be used for Lingala. It is used as a liturgical script in the church of Kimbangu.

References

Sources 
 Van Everbroeck, René C.I.C.M. (1985) Lingala – Malóba ma lokóta/Dictionnaire. Editions l'Epiphanie. B.P. 724 LIMETE (Kinshasa).
 Edama, Atibakwa Baboya (1994) Dictionnaire bangála–français–lingála. Agence de Coopération Culturelle et Technique SÉPIA.
 Etsio, Edouard (2003) Parlons lingala / Tobola lingala. Paris: L'Harmattan. 
 Bokamba, Eyamba George et Bokamba, Molingo Virginie. Tósolola Na Lingála: Let's Speak Lingala (Let's Speak Series). National African Language Resource Center (May 30, 2005) 
 Guthrie, Malcolm & Carrington, John F. (1988) Lingala: grammar and dictionary: English-Lingala, Lingala-English. London: Baptist Missionary Society.
 Meeuwis, Michael (2020) 'A grammatical overview of Lingala: Revised and extended edition'. (Studies in African Linguistics vol. 81). München: LINCOM Europa. 
 Samarin, William J. (1990) 'The origins of Kituba and Lingala', Journal of African Languages and Linguistics, 12, 47-77.
 Bwantsa-Kafungu, J'apprends le lingala tout seul en trois mois'. Centre de recherche pédagogique, Centre Linguistique Théorique et Appliquée, Kinshasa 1982.
 Khabirov, Valeri. (1998) "Maloba ma nkota Russ-Lingala-Falanse. Русско-лингала-французский словарь". Moscow: Institute of Linguistics-Russian Academy of Sciences (соавторы Мухина Л.М., Топорова И.Н.), 384 p.

External links

Learn Lingala online (Mofeko), Omotola Akindipe, Ulama Masela & Laura Kiala 
First words in Lingala 
Maloba ya lingála 
Dictionnaire bilingues lingala - français 
Dictionary of Congo-Brazzaville National Languages
Lingala-English dictionary Freelang
Lingala Swadesh list of basic vocabulary words (from Wiktionary's Swadesh-list appendix)
PanAfriL10n page on Lingala
UCLA Language Profiles : Lingala
Google in Lingala
Inflections: Problems
Small Collection of Lingala Online resources
Parallel French-Lingala-English texts
Maneno (African blogging platform) in Lingala
(LingalaVision : the complete Lingala alphabet)

Bangi-Ntomba languages
Languages of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Languages of the Republic of the Congo
Lingala
Vowel-harmony languages