克里弗德・紀爾茲

克里弗德・紀爾茲（Clifford Geertz，），美國文化人類學家，象徵人類學代表人物。知名著作有《文化的詮釋》、《劇場國家》、《地方知識》、《農業的內卷化：印度尼西亞生態變遷的過程》等。

生平

經 Antioch College 與哈佛大學，於 1956 年取得博士學位。之後歷任加州大學柏克萊分校、芝加哥大學、普林斯頓高等研究院。

研究

主要成就在於對於摩洛哥、印尼包括爪哇、峇裡島等地的社會文化作了深入的田野調查研究，並以此為基礎，對文化、知識的性質提出新的看法。在他最重要的著作之一《文化的詮釋》中，他對於文化概念的深入探討和詮釋，包括如深刻寫描等概念，其影響超出人類學，而及於社會學、文化史、文化研究等方面。此外在另一部重要著作《地方知識》中，以例項來深入探討人類學對於個別地區的研究所獲得的種種知識，有其如何的意義。

2.1 文化概念

《文化的詮釋》的首篇文章《深描》開宗明義的指出整本書的目的，以及他心目中的人類學研究。

他的目的簡單的說是要更加精確的定義「文化」這個概念。他採取的是一符號學的取向，認為文化是人自己織出並居於其中的「意義之網」（引用德國社會學家馬克斯・韋伯語）。而人類學的工作便是要找出這些「意義之網」究竟是什麼。至於人類學家是怎麼做到這一點，他引用英國哲學家吉爾伯特・賴爾著名的短語：「深描」（thick description）。想像一個男孩正為了向他的同伴暗示些什麼，而不停的擠眉弄眼；另一個男孩走進來，看到這一幕，便開始模仿起來，甚至還帶有點玩笑意味。我們怎麼知道這兩個動作事實上是不一樣的動作？

對他而言，如果我們是緊緊遵守行為主義的教條，換言之僅觀察行為本身，我們可能沒有辦法區辨這兩個動作哪裡不同。畢竟，他們都不過是眨眼的動作罷了。但關鍵就在這裡，我們之所以能夠知道這兩個動作不一樣，就在於我們掌握了這兩個男孩 - 行動者 - 的意圖（intention; 或另一個格爾茨喜歡的短語：what they are up to）。其中一個正運用了「擠眉弄眼」這一有特定意義結構支撐的行動在傳遞某些想法、意圖；而另一個僅僅是單純的模仿。

著作

"Religion as a Cultural System". In Anthropological Approaches to the Study of Religion. Ed. Michael Banton. pp.1–46. ASA Monographs, 3. London: Tavistock Publications. 1966
The Religion of Java (1960), University Of Chicago Press 1976 paperback: ISBN 0-226-28510-3
Peddlers and Princes: Social Development and Economic Change in Two Indonesian Towns (1963), University Of Chicago Press 1968 paperback: ISBN 0-226-28514-6
Agricultural Involution: the process of ecological change in Indonesia (1964)
Islam Observed, Religious Development in Morocco and Indonesia (1968), University Of Chicago Press 1971 paperback: ISBN 0-226-28511-1
The Interpretation of Cultures (1973), Basic Books 2000 paperback: ISBN 0-465-09719-7
Kinship in Bali (1975) coauthor: Hildred Geertz, University Of Chicago Press 1978 paperback: ISBN 0-226-28516-2
Negara: The Theatre State in Nineteenth Century Bali (1980), Princeton University Press 2001 paperback: ISBN 0-691-00778-0
Local Knowledge: Further Essays in Interpretive Anthropology (1983), Basic Books 2000 paperback: ISBN 0-465-04162-0
"Anti-Anti-Relativism" (1984), American Anthropologist, vol. 86, no. 2, pp.263–278.

Works and Lives: The Anthropologist As Author (1988), Stanford University Press 1990 paperback: ISBN 0-8047-1747-8
After the Fact: Two Countries, Four Decades, One Anthropologist , Harvard University Press 1995 paperback: ISBN 0-674-00872-3
Available Light: Anthropological Reflections on Philosophical Topics , Princeton University Press 2000 paperback: ISBN 0-691-08956-6
"An inconstant profession: The anthropological life in interesting times" (2002), Annual Review of Anthropology, vol. 31, pp.1–19 Viewable at hypergeertz.jku.at

3.1 著作編年

1957 Ritual and Social Change: A Javanese Example. American Anthropologist 59 (1):32-54.

1959 Form and Variation in Balinese Village Structure. American Anthropologist 61:991-1012.

1959 The Javanese Village. In Local, Ethnic, and National Loyalties in Village Indonesia. Ed. G. William Skinner. pp.34–41. New Haven: Southeast Asian Program, Yale University.

1960 Religion of Java. Glencoe: Free Press.

1961 The Rotating Credit Association: A "Middle Rung" in Development. Economic Development and Cultural Change 10:241-263.

1962 Studies in Peasant Life: Community and Society. In Biennial Review of Anthropology 1961. Ed. Bernard J. Siegal. pp.1–41. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

1962 The Growth of Culture and the Evolution of Mind. In Theories of the Mind. Ed. J. Scher. pp.713–740. New York: Free Press.

1963 Agricultural Involution: The Process of Agricultural Change in Indonesia. Berkeley: University of California Press.

1963 Peddlers and Princes: Social Change and Economic Modernization in Two Indonesian Towns. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

1963 (editor) Old Societies and New States. New York: Free Press.

1963 The Integrative Revolution: Primordial Sentiments and Civil Politics in the New States. In Old Societies and New States. Ed. Clifford Geertz. pp.105–157. Glencoe: Free Press.

1964 Ideology as a Cultural System. In Ideology and Discontent. Ed. David Apter. pp.47–76. New York: Free Press.

1965 The Social History of an Indonesian Town. Cambridge: MIT Press.

1965 Modernization in a Muslim Society: The Indonesian Case, 201-211, in Robert O. Tilman (ed), Man, State, and Society in Contemporary South East Asia. London: Pall Mall.

1966 Person, Time, and Conduct in Bali: An Essay in Cultural Analysis. Southeast Asia Program, Cultural Report Series. New Haven: Yale University.

1966 Religion as a Cultural System. In Anthropological Approaches to the Study of Religion. Ed. Michael Banton. pp.1–46. ASA Monographs, 3. London: Tavistock Publications.

1966 The Impact of the Concept of Culture on the Concept of Man. In New Views of the Nature of Man. Ed. J. Platt. pp.93–118. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

1967 Politics Past, Politics Preset: Some Notes on the Contribution of Anthropology to the Study of the New States. European Journal of Sociology 8 (1):1-14.

1967 The Cerebral Savage: On the Work of Claude Levi-Strauss. Encounter 48 (4):25-32.

1967 Tihingan: A Balinese Village. In Villages in Indonesia. Ed. R. N. Koentjaraningrat. pp.210–243. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press.

1967 Under the Mosquito Net. New York Review of Books, September 14.

1968 Islam Observed: Religious Development in Morocco and Indonesia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 136 pp.

1968 Thinking as a Moral Act: Dimensions of Anthropological Fieldwork in the New States. Antioch Review 28 (2):139-158.

1972 Religious Change and Social Order in Soeharto's Indonesia. Asia 27:62-84.

1972 The Wet and the Dry: Traditional Irrigation in Bali and Morocco. Human Ecology 1:34-39.

1972 Deep Play: Notes on the Balinese Cockfight. Daedalus 101 (1 Winter).

1973 The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays. New York: Basic.

1973 Thick Description: Toward an Interpretive Theory of Culture. In The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays. Clifford Geertz. pp 3–30. New York: Basic Books.

1976 From the Native's Point of View. In Meaning in Anthropology. Eds. Keith H. Basso and Henry A. Selby. pp.221–237. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.

1977 Found in Translation: On the Social History of the Moral Imagination. Georgia Review 31 (4 Winter):788-810.

1977 Curing, Sorcery, and Magic in a Javanese Town. In Culture, Disease, and Healing: Studies in Medical Anthropology. Ed. David Landy. pp.146–153. New York: Macmillan Publishing.

1979 with Hildred Geertz and Lawrence Rosen Meaning and Order in Moroccan Society: Three Essays in Cultural Analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. See his own contribution on "Suq: The Bazaar Economy in Sefrou" (pp.123–225).

1980 Negara: The Theatre State in Nineteenth-Century Bali. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

1983 Local Knowledge: Further Essays in Interpretive Anthropology. New York: Basic Books.

1983 Centers, Kings, and Charisma: Reflections on the Symbolics of Power. In Local Knowledge: Further Essays in Interpretive Anthropology. Clifford Geertz. pp.121–146. New York: Basic Books.

1983 "From the Native's Point of View": On the Nature of Anthropological Knowledge. In Local Knowledge: Further Essays in Interpretive Anthropology. Clifford Geertz. pp.55–70. New York: Basic Books.

1983 Notions of Primitive Thought: Dialogue with Clifford Geertz. In States of Mind. ed & comp Jonathan Miller. pp.192–210. New York: Pantheon.

1984 Anti-Anti-Relativism. 1983 Distinguished Lecture. American Anthropologist 82:263-278.

1984 Culture and Social Change: The Indonesian Case. Man 19:511-532.

1986 The Uses of Diversity. In Tanner Lectures on Human Values, Vol. 7. Ed. Sterling M. McMurrin. pp.251–275. Cambridge and Salt Lake City: Cambridge University Press and University of Utah Press.

1988 Works and Lives: The Anthropologist as Author. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

The four studies included in the book are:

"The World in a Text: How to Read Tristes Tropiques" (pp.25–48).

"Slide Show: Evans-Pritchard's African Transparencies" (pp.49–72).

"I-Witnessing: Malinowski's Children" (pp.73–101).

"Us/not-Us: Benedict's Travels" (pp.102–128).

1989 Margaret Mead, 1901-1978. Biographical Memoirs 58:329-341. National Academy of Sciences.

1990 History and Anthropology. New Literary History 21 (2 Winter):321-335.

1991 The Year of Living Culturally. New Republic, October 21, 30-36.

1992 "Local Knowledge" and Its Limits: Some Obiter Dicta. Yale Journal of Criticism 5 (2):129-135.

1993 "Ethnic Conflict": Three Alternative Terms. Common Knowledge 2 (3 Winter):54-65.

1994 Life on the Edge. Review of Tsing, In the Realm of the Diamond Queen. New York Review of Books 41 (7 April):3-4.

1995 After the Fact: Two Countries, Four Decades, One Anthropologist. The Jerusalem-Harvard Lectures. Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press.

1995 Culture War. Review essay on Sahlins, How "Natives" Think and Obeyesekere, The Apotheosis of Captain Cook. New York Review of Books 42 (19 November 30):4-6.

2000 Available Light: Anthropological Reflections on Philosophical Topics. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

2010 Life Among the Anthros and Other Essays edited by Fred Inglis (Princeton University Press; 272 pages)

For a complete list of all publications by Clifford Geertz see http://hypergeertz.jku.at , including a list of translations into Chinese.