is a Japanese term for one of the decorative techniques used in traditional crafts and woodwork. It refers to a method of inserting a board-like material, which is a cut out part of the mother of pearl inside the shell, into the carved surface of lacquer or wood, or a craft made by using this method. The kanji for  means 'shell' and  means 'inlaid'.  is a term used only for the technique or work of inlaying thin layers of pearl shells. In Japan, the technique of embedding the mother of pearl of shellfish in lacquer is called , while the technique of embedding metal or ivory is called .

The basic technique of  originated in Egypt around 3500 BC, and the technique spread along the Mediterranean coast. There is a theory that the technique of  in the East was introduced from Persia in the Sasanian dynasty to China, and another theory that it started in the Yin Dynasty. By the Tang Dynasty, Chinese  craftsmanship had reached a very mature level, especially lacquer-backed  on bronze mirrors, which was a treasure of craftsmanship in this period. Bronze mirrors with  lacquer backs have been excavated from Tang tombs in Shanxian County and Luoyang, Henan Province.

The basic technique of  was introduced into Japan during the Nara period from the Tang Dynasty. In Japan,  had been used in combination with Japanese various  techniques since the Heian period, but  declined in the Muromachi period. From the Sengoku period to the Azuchi-Momoyama period, many Japanese lacquerware decorated with  and  attracted European people, and were exported through the Nanban trade via Portuguese and Spanish in response to the request of the Society of Jesus. In the Edo period, many pieces of Japanese lacquerware were exported to royalty and nobility in Europe through Dutch East India Company and private traders. The lacquerware exported during the Edo period put more emphasis on artistic expression by  using gold powder lavishly than . In the 19th century, Japanese lacquerware with  were exported again.

The term may also be used for similar traditional work from Korea or countries in South-East Asia such as Vietnam, or for modern work done in the West.

Techniques of production
There are many ways that  is produced, with all techniques classed under three main categories:  (using thick shell pieces),  (using much thinner pieces), and  (the thinnest application of shell pieces).

In , the shell is often cut with a scroll saw, then finished with a file or rubstone before application. In , the thinner shell pieces are usually made using a template and a special punch.  is fashioned similarly to .

Methods of application are varied. Thick shell pieces may be inlaid into pre-carved settings, while thinner pieces may be pressed into a very thick coating of lacquer, or applied using an adhesive and then lacquered over. Other methods use acid washing and lacquering to produce different effects.

 is especially combined with  – gold or silver lacquer sprinkled with metal powder as a decoration.

History
 was imported to Nara period (710–794 CE) Japan from Tang Dynasty China (618–907 CE) and was used in mosaics and other items in combination with amber and tortoise shell.  developed rapidly in the Heian period (794–1185), and was used in architecture as well as lacquerware.  has been used in combination with , a unique Japanese technique, since the Heian period. In the Kamakura period (1185–1333),  was a popular saddle decoration.

 experienced rapid growth through Japan's Azuchi-Momoyama period (1568–1600), when Japan's borders were still open to the outside world, until the early 17th century, before the isolationism instituted by the  policy of the Edo period (1603–1867). The technique was often used in the creation of European-style items, such as chests of drawers and coffee cups, and was very popular in Europe, as the mother-of-pearl covering the items contributed to their status as a unique luxury. The Japanese referred to these goods as " lacquerware", with  meaning "Southern Barbarians", a term borrowed from the Chinese and, in 16th century Japan, meaning any foreigner, especially a European.

The lacquerware exported during the Edo period put more emphasis on artistic expression by  using gold powder lavishly than . Until the 1690s, the Dutch East India Company monopolized the export of Japanese lacquerware throughout Europe, but the lacquerware using  technique using a large amount of gold was so expensive that the customers were limited to royalty and nobility, and after 1690, it was exported through private trade.

After the Opening of Japan to foreign trade in the 1850s,  work for export markets soon became significant again. The Somada style and Shibayama style lacquerware using the  technique became popular and were exported in large quantities from Yokohama to Europe and the United States. Somada ware is a style invented by Somada Kiyosuke in the 1670s, and is characterized by a regular pattern made of a combination of lacquer, finely cut shellfish, gold leaf and silver leaf. Shibayama ware is a style invented by Shibayama Senzo in the 1770s, characterized by the inlay of various materials such as shellfish, gold, silver, ivory, coral, tortoise shell, and ceramics.

The  works of a number of famous Edo period craftsmen are still celebrated, namely those of Tōshichi Ikushima, Chōbei Aogai, and the Somada brothers. is widespread in Japan today, and is made for many applications, modern and classic.

See also
 Damascening
 Mother-of-pearl carving in Bethlehem
 Nacre

References

External links

Japanese lacquerware
Japanese woodwork
Japanese art terminology
Seashells in art
Japanese words and phrases
Traditional art of East Asia