Humanism

context: Humanism is a philosophical and ethical stance that emphasizes the value and agency of human beings, individually and collectively, and generally prefers critical thinking and evidence (rationalism, empiricism) over acceptance of dogma or superstition. The meaning of the term humanism has fluctuated according to the successive intellectual movements which have identified with it. Generally, however, humanism refers to a perspective that affirms some notion of human freedom and progress. In modern times, humanist movements are typically aligned with secularism, and today humanism typically refers to a non-theistic life stance centred on human agency and looking to science rather than revelation from a supernatural source to understand the world.
qas: answers: text: human beings
question: What can be seen as of essential importance to a practiced of humanism?

answers: text: freedom and progress
question: What is a common tenant of humanism?

answers: text: intellectual movements
question:  What can be credited for the changes in the definition of humanism? 

answers: text: secularism
question: These days humanism could be viewed as a form of what?

answers: text: science
question: Instead of turning to a spiritual or divine source practicers of humanism turn to what?

context: Gellius says that in his day humanitas is commonly used as a synonym for philanthropy – or kindness and benevolence toward one's fellow human being. Gellius maintains that this common usage is wrong, and that model writers of Latin, such as Cicero and others, used the word only to mean what we might call "humane" or "polite" learning, or the Greek equivalent Paideia. Gellius became a favorite author in the Italian Renaissance, and, in fifteenth-century Italy, teachers and scholars of philosophy, poetry, and rhetoric were called and called themselves "humanists". Modern scholars, however, point out that Cicero (106 – 43 BCE), who was most responsible for defining and popularizing the term humanitas, in fact frequently used the word in both senses, as did his near contemporaries. For Cicero, a lawyer, what most distinguished humans from brutes was speech, which, allied to reason, could (and should) enable them to settle disputes and live together in concord and harmony under the rule of law. Thus humanitas included two meanings from the outset and these continue in the modern derivative, humanism, which even today can refer to both humanitarian benevolence and to scholarship.
qas: answers: text: philanthropy
question: What was humanism once considered the same as?

answers: text: Gellius
question: Who has disagreed with this connotation of the word?

answers: text: Italian Renaissance
question: In which period did Gellius gain fame?

answers: text: Cicero
question: Who is credited with clarifying and making the term humanitas commonplace?

answers: text: speech
question: What is the characteristic that most separates humans from animals?

context: During the French Revolution, and soon after, in Germany (by the Left Hegelians), humanism began to refer to an ethical philosophy centered on humankind, without attention to the transcendent or supernatural. The designation Religious Humanism refers to organized groups that sprang up during the late-nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. It is similar to Protestantism, although centered on human needs, interests, and abilities rather than the supernatural. In the Anglophone world, such modern, organized forms of humanism, which are rooted in the 18th-century Enlightenment, have to a considerable extent more or less detached themselves from the historic connection of humanism with classical learning and the liberal arts.
qas: answers: text: supernatural
question:  At the time of the French Revolution what previous focus of humanism was removed?

answers: text: supernatural
question: Protestantism differs from Humanism in its focus is on what?

answers: text: 18th-century Enlightenment
question: What do current tenants humanism have their origins in?

answers: text: Religious Humanism
question: What was a name for humanism believers who emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries?

context: In 1808 Bavarian educational commissioner Friedrich Immanuel Niethammer coined the term Humanismus to describe the new classical curriculum he planned to offer in German secondary schools, and by 1836 the word "humanism" had been absorbed into the English language in this sense. The coinage gained universal acceptance in 1856, when German historian and philologist Georg Voigt used humanism to describe Renaissance humanism, the movement that flourished in the Italian Renaissance to revive classical learning, a use which won wide acceptance among historians in many nations, especially Italy.
qas: answers: text: 1808
question:  In what year did the term humanism gain yet another layer of meaning?

answers: text: Friedrich Immanuel Niethammer
question: Who can be credited with assisting the word humanism with finding a home in the English language?

answers: text: Georg Voigt
question: Who was responsible for yet another definition of the philosophy in 1856?

answers: text: Italy
question: What nation was highly receptive to the new definition of this concept?

context: But in the mid-18th century, during the French Enlightenment, a more ideological use of the term had come into use. In 1765, the author of an anonymous article in a French Enlightenment periodical spoke of "The general love of humanity ... a virtue hitherto quite nameless among us, and which we will venture to call 'humanism', for the time has come to create a word for such a beautiful and necessary thing". The latter part of the 18th and the early 19th centuries saw the creation of numerous grass-roots "philanthropic" and benevolent societies dedicated to human betterment and the spreading of knowledge (some Christian, some not). After the French Revolution, the idea that human virtue could be created by human reason alone independently from traditional religious institutions, attributed by opponents of the Revolution to Enlightenment philosophes such as Rousseau, was violently attacked by influential religious and political conservatives, such as Edmund Burke and Joseph de Maistre, as a deification or idolatry of humanity. Humanism began to acquire a negative sense. The Oxford English Dictionary records the use of the word "humanism" by an English clergyman in 1812 to indicate those who believe in the "mere humanity" (as opposed to the divine nature) of Christ, i.e., Unitarians and Deists. In this polarised atmosphere, in which established ecclesiastical bodies tended to circle the wagons and reflexively oppose political and social reforms like extending the franchise, universal schooling, and the like, liberal reformers and radicals embraced the idea of Humanism as an alternative religion of humanity. The anarchist Proudhon (best known for declaring that "property is theft") used the word "humanism" to describe a "culte, déification de l’humanité" ("worship, deification of humanity") and Ernest Renan in L’avenir de la science: pensées de 1848 ("The Future of Knowledge: Thoughts on 1848") (1848–49), states: "It is my deep conviction that pure humanism will be the religion of the future, that is, the cult of all that pertains to humanity—all of life, sanctified and raised to the level of a moral value."
qas: answers: text: French Enlightenment
question: During which period was the philosophy of humanism next updated?

answers: text: idolatry of humanity
question: What was the criticism of Humanism made by conservatives of the time?

answers: text: liberal reformers and radicals
question: Who continued to support the belief system despite its critics?

answers: text: Ernest Renan
question: Who felt that humanism would surely be a major "religion" today?

context: At about the same time, the word "humanism" as a philosophy centred on humankind (as opposed to institutionalised religion) was also being used in Germany by the so-called Left Hegelians, Arnold Ruge, and Karl Marx, who were critical of the close involvement of the church in the repressive German government. There has been a persistent confusion between the several uses of the terms: philanthropic humanists look to what they consider their antecedents in critical thinking and human-centered philosophy among the Greek philosophers and the great figures of Renaissance history; and scholarly humanists stress the linguistic and cultural disciplines needed to understand and interpret these philosophers and artists.
qas: answers: text: centred on humankind
question: What was the main difference between humanism and the religions of the time?

answers: text: Karl Marx
question: What well known socialist adopted the usage of this term in Germany?

answers: text: Greek philosophers
question: Who did benevolent believers in humanism turn to for ideas about the philosophy?

answers: text: linguistic and cultural disciplines
question: Where did the learned believers place their focus?

context: Another instance of ancient humanism as an organised system of thought is found in the Gathas of Zarathustra, composed between 1,000 BCE – 600 BCE in Greater Iran. Zarathustra's philosophy in the Gathas lays out a conception of humankind as thinking beings dignified with choice and agency according to the intellect which each receives from Ahura Mazda (God in the form of supreme wisdom). The idea of Ahura Mazda as a non-intervening deistic divine God/Grand Architect of the universe tied with a unique eschatology and ethical system implying that each person is held morally responsible for their choices, made freely in this present life, in the afterlife. The importance placed on thought, action, responsibility, and a non-intervening creator was appealed to by, and inspired a number of, Enlightenment humanist thinkers in Europe such as Voltaire and Montesquieu.
qas: answers: text: Gathas of Zarathustra
question: Which ancient text provides an example of the humanist way of thinking?

answers: text: 1,000 BCE – 600 BCE
question: When was this writing penned?

answers: text: afterlife
question: When was this writing penned?

answers: text: Voltaire
question: What well know scholar was inspired by Humanism?

context: In China, Yellow Emperor is regarded as the humanistic primogenitor.[citation needed] Sage kings such as Yao and Shun are humanistic figures as recorded.[citation needed] King Wu of Zhou has the famous saying: "Humanity is the Ling (efficacious essence) of the world (among all)." Among them Duke of Zhou, respected as a founder of Rujia (Confucianism), is especially prominent and pioneering in humanistic thought. His words were recorded in the Book of History as follows (translation):[citation needed]
qas: answers: text: Yellow Emperor
question: Who was known as being a founder of humanism thought in China?

answers: text: Duke of Zhou
question: What early adopter and developer of is associated with Confucianism?

answers: text: Book of History
question: What early adopter and developer of is associated with Confucianism?

answers: text: Wu of Zhou
question: Who is known for the thought that humanity is the most important thing in the world?

context: In the 6th century BCE, Taoist teacher Lao Tzu espoused a series of naturalistic concepts with some elements of humanistic philosophy. The Silver Rule of Confucianism from Analects XV.24, is an example of ethical philosophy based on human values rather than the supernatural. Humanistic thought is also contained in other Confucian classics, e.g., as recorded in Zuo Zhuan, Ji Liang says, "People is the zhu (master, lord, dominance, owner or origin) of gods. So, to sage kings, people first, gods second"; Neishi Guo says, "Gods, clever, righteous and wholehearted, comply with human." Taoist and Confucian secularism contain elements of moral thought devoid of religious authority or deism however they only partly resembled our modern concept of secularism.
qas: answers: text: 6th century BCE
question: When were humanism beliefs mixed with another philosophy by a Taoist thinker?

answers: text: Silver Rule of Confucianism
question: What is an example of Humanism based philosophy that focused on ethics?

answers: text: Ji Liang
question: Who can be credited with saying essentially humans are the gods of gods?

answers: text: Zuo Zhuan
question: Where could you read this information?

context: 6th-century BCE pre-Socratic Greek philosophers Thales of Miletus and Xenophanes of Colophon were the first in the region to attempt to explain the world in terms of human reason rather than myth and tradition, thus can be said to be the first Greek humanists. Thales questioned the notion of anthropomorphic gods and Xenophanes refused to recognise the gods of his time and reserved the divine for the principle of unity in the universe. These Ionian Greeks were the first thinkers to assert that nature is available to be studied separately from the supernatural realm. Anaxagoras brought philosophy and the spirit of rational inquiry from Ionia to Athens. Pericles, the leader of Athens during the period of its greatest glory was an admirer of Anaxagoras. Other influential pre-Socratics or rational philosophers include Protagoras (like Anaxagoras a friend of Pericles), known for his famous dictum "man is the measure of all things" and Democritus, who proposed that matter was composed of atoms. Little of the written work of these early philosophers survives and they are known mainly from fragments and quotations in other writers, principally Plato and Aristotle. The historian Thucydides, noted for his scientific and rational approach to history, is also much admired by later humanists. In the 3rd century BCE, Epicurus became known for his concise phrasing of the problem of evil, lack of belief in the afterlife, and human-centred approaches to achieving eudaimonia. He was also the first Greek philosopher to admit women to his school as a rule.
qas: answers: text: Thales of Miletus
question: Who was one of the first Greeks to adopt a humanistic outlook?

answers: text: Athens
question: Where did this type of thinking next travel to?

answers: text: Democritus
question: Who first introduced the idea that matter is made of atoms?

answers: text: Epicurus
question: Who was the first person to provide education opportunities to females?

context: Renaissance humanism was an intellectual movement in Europe of the later Middle Ages and the Early Modern period. The 19th-century German historian Georg Voigt (1827–91) identified Petrarch as the first Renaissance humanist. Paul Johnson agrees that Petrarch was "the first to put into words the notion that the centuries between the fall of Rome and the present had been the age of Darkness". According to Petrarch, what was needed to remedy this situation was the careful study and imitation of the great classical authors. For Petrarch and Boccaccio, the greatest master was Cicero, whose prose became the model for both learned (Latin) and vernacular (Italian) prose.
qas: answers: text: Middle Ages and the Early Modern period
question: When did the first wave of Humanism reach Europe?

answers: text: Petrarch
question: Who was thought to be the original believer of humanism in of the Renaissance period?

answers: text: Cicero
question: The study and following of classical writers was said to be a solution to what issue?

answers: text: age of Darkness
question: The study and following of classical writers was said to be a solution to what issue?

context: In the high Renaissance, in fact, there was a hope that more direct knowledge of the wisdom of antiquity, including the writings of the Church fathers, the earliest known Greek texts of the Christian Gospels, and in some cases even the Jewish Kabbalah, would initiate a harmonious new era of universal agreement. With this end in view, Renaissance Church authorities afforded humanists what in retrospect appears a remarkable degree of freedom of thought. One humanist, the Greek Orthodox Platonist Gemistus Pletho (1355–1452), based in Mystras, Greece (but in contact with humanists in Florence, Venice, and Rome) taught a Christianised version of pagan polytheism.
qas: answers: text: the Jewish Kabbalah
question:  What is one religious text that was thought to eventually lead to a peace between all?

answers: text: Renaissance Church authorities
question: Who gave followers of Humanism the ability to think out of bounds?

answers: text: era of universal agreement
question: Who gave followers of Humanism the ability to think out of bounds?

answers: text: Florence, Venice, and Rome
question: What cities may have influenced the beliefs of Gemistus Pleto?

context: The humanists' close study of Latin literary texts soon enabled them to discern historical differences in the writing styles of different periods. By analogy with what they saw as decline of Latin, they applied the principle of ad fontes, or back to the sources, across broad areas of learning, seeking out manuscripts of Patristic literature as well as pagan authors. In 1439, while employed in Naples at the court of Alfonso V of Aragon (at the time engaged in a dispute with the Papal States) the humanist Lorenzo Valla used stylistic textual analysis, now called philology, to prove that the Donation of Constantine, which purported to confer temporal powers on the Pope of Rome, was an 8th-century forgery. For the next 70 years, however, neither Valla nor any of his contemporaries thought to apply the techniques of philology to other controversial manuscripts in this way. Instead, after the fall of the Byzantine Empire to the Turks in 1453, which brought a flood of Greek Orthodox refugees to Italy, humanist scholars increasingly turned to the study of Neoplatonism and Hermeticism, hoping to bridge the differences between the Greek and Roman Churches, and even between Christianity itself and the non-Christian world. The refugees brought with them Greek manuscripts, not only of Plato and Aristotle, but also of the Christian Gospels, previously unavailable in the Latin West.
qas: answers: text: Latin literary texts
question: How were humanist able to identify the development of humanist thought?

answers: text: Patristic literature
question: What was included in this quest for knowledge of the belief system?

answers: text: philology
question: If your were unsure of the authenticity of an ancient text how could you verify it?

answers: text: Byzantine Empire
question: What caused a large migration of Greek refuges in the 1450s?

answers: text: Greek manuscripts
question: What caused a large migration of Greek refuges in the 1450s?

context: After 1517, when the new invention of printing made these texts widely available, the Dutch humanist Erasmus, who had studied Greek at the Venetian printing house of Aldus Manutius, began a philological analysis of the Gospels in the spirit of Valla, comparing the Greek originals with their Latin translations with a view to correcting errors and discrepancies in the latter. Erasmus, along with the French humanist Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples, began issuing new translations, laying the groundwork for the Protestant Reformation. Henceforth Renaissance humanism, particularly in the German North, became concerned with religion, while Italian and French humanism concentrated increasingly on scholarship and philology addressed to a narrow audience of specialists, studiously avoiding topics that might offend despotic rulers or which might be seen as corrosive of faith. After the Reformation, critical examination of the Bible did not resume until the advent of the so-called Higher criticism of the 19th-century German Tübingen school.
qas: answers: text: 1517
question: When are these texts first able to reach a large amount of people?

answers: text: Erasmus
question: When are these texts first able to reach a large amount of people?

answers: text: Lefèvre d'Étaples
question:  Erasmus can be said to have lit the match that sparked a radical change in thinking in his era along with who?

answers: text: the Bible
question: What text still remained without the type of thorough review that others texts had received by the 18th century?

context: The words of the comic playwright P. Terentius Afer reverberated across the Roman world of the mid-2nd century BCE and beyond. Terence, an African and a former slave, was well placed to preach the message of universalism, of the essential unity of the human race, that had come down in philosophical form from the Greeks, but needed the pragmatic muscles of Rome in order to become a practical reality. The influence of Terence's felicitous phrase on Roman thinking about human rights can hardly be overestimated. Two hundred years later Seneca ended his seminal exposition of the unity of humankind with a clarion-call:
qas: answers: text: P. Terentius Afer
question:  What author had a great impact in Rome?

answers: text: Terence
question: Who was able to spread the idea of equality among all through his words?

answers: text: the Greeks
question: From where did this school of thought emerge?

answers: text: Seneca
question: Who again issued the same type of challenge centuries later

answers: text: universalism
question: What was the name of the main belief Terence offered

context: Better acquaintance with Greek and Roman technical writings also influenced the development of European science (see the history of science in the Renaissance). This was despite what A. C. Crombie (viewing the Renaissance in the 19th-century manner as a chapter in the heroic March of Progress) calls "a backwards-looking admiration for antiquity", in which Platonism stood in opposition to the Aristotelian concentration on the observable properties of the physical world. But Renaissance humanists, who considered themselves as restoring the glory and nobility of antiquity, had no interest in scientific innovation. However, by the mid-to-late 16th century, even the universities, though still dominated by Scholasticism, began to demand that Aristotle be read in accurate texts edited according to the principles of Renaissance philology, thus setting the stage for Galileo's quarrels with the outmoded habits of Scholasticism.
qas: answers: text: A. C. Crombie
question: Who felt that looking to these ancient documents for new ideas was not the way to mover forward?

answers: text: technical writings
question:  Closer examination of what information allowed for further progress in scientific knowledge?

answers: text: Renaissance humanists
question: What group was neutral about this issue as they felt the subject unimportant? 

answers: text: 16th century,
question:  When did even the scholars and professors began to at least end to examine the works of Aristotle?

context: Just as artist and inventor Leonardo da Vinci – partaking of the zeitgeist though not himself a humanist – advocated study of human anatomy, nature, and weather to enrich Renaissance works of art, so Spanish-born humanist Juan Luis Vives (c. 1493–1540) advocated observation, craft, and practical techniques to improve the formal teaching of Aristotelian philosophy at the universities, helping to free them from the grip of Medieval Scholasticism. Thus, the stage was set for the adoption of an approach to natural philosophy, based on empirical observations and experimentation of the physical universe, making possible the advent of the age of scientific inquiry that followed the Renaissance.
qas: answers: text: Leonardo da Vinci
question: Who felt that the further examination and knowledge of studies in the arena of humanism could further art?

answers: text: Juan Luis Vives
question: Who helped to further the movement away from Scholasticism of the time?

answers: text: universities
question: Where did this initiate?

answers: text: Aristotelian
question: What type of philosophy was essential to this forwarding of thought?

context: Early humanists saw no conflict between reason and their Christian faith (see Christian Humanism). They inveighed against the abuses of the Church, but not against the Church itself, much less against religion. For them, the word "secular" carried no connotations of disbelief – that would come later, in the nineteenth century. In the Renaissance to be secular meant simply to be in the world rather than in a monastery. Petrarch frequently admitted that his brother Gherardo's life as a Carthusian monk was superior to his own (although Petrarch himself was in Minor Orders and was employed by the Church all his life). He hoped that he could do some good by winning earthly glory and praising virtue, inferior though that might be to a life devoted solely to prayer. By embracing a non-theistic philosophic base, however, the methods of the humanists, combined with their eloquence, would ultimately have a corrosive effect on established authority.
qas: answers: text: Early humanists
question: Who was able to reconcile their religious beliefs with those of humanism?

answers: text: secular
question: What phrase that has come to be associated with a lack of faith was not seen as an issue for Christians?

answers: text: Renaissance
question: During what time period did secular have a more neutral connotation?

answers: text: Gherardo
question: Petrarch felt that although he tried to do his own form of good whose life may have more meaning?

context: Eliot and her circle, who included her companion George Henry Lewes (the biographer of Goethe) and the abolitionist and social theorist Harriet Martineau, were much influenced by the positivism of Auguste Comte, whom Martineau had translated. Comte had proposed an atheistic culte founded on human principles – a secular Religion of Humanity (which worshiped the dead, since most humans who have ever lived are dead), complete with holidays and liturgy, modeled on the rituals of what was seen as a discredited and dilapidated Catholicism. Although Comte's English followers, like Eliot and Martineau, for the most part rejected the full gloomy panoply of his system, they liked the idea of a religion of humanity. Comte's austere vision of the universe, his injunction to "vivre pour altrui" ("live for others", from which comes the word "altruism"), and his idealisation of women inform the works of Victorian novelists and poets from George Eliot and Matthew Arnold to Thomas Hardy.
qas: answers: text: Harriet Martineau
question: What abolitionist was greatly affected by the writings of Comte?

answers: text: atheistic
question: What type of idea did he pose which was focused on facets of humanism?

answers: text: religion of humanity
question: What main idea did the English believers of Comte's philosophy take from his writings?

answers: text: altruism
question: What currently used word was based in ideas from this philosopher?

context: Active in the early 1920s, F.C.S. Schiller labelled his work "humanism" but for Schiller the term referred to the pragmatist philosophy he shared with William James. In 1929, Charles Francis Potter founded the First Humanist Society of New York whose advisory board included Julian Huxley, John Dewey, Albert Einstein and Thomas Mann. Potter was a minister from the Unitarian tradition and in 1930 he and his wife, Clara Cook Potter, published Humanism: A New Religion. Throughout the 1930s, Potter was an advocate of such liberal causes as, women’s rights, access to birth control, "civil divorce laws", and an end to capital punishment.
qas: answers: text: F.C.S. Schiller
question: What 19th century author associated his works with humanism?

answers: text: 1929
question: When was the first public group for Humanist founded?

answers: text: Charles Francis Potter
question: Who created this group?

answers: text: 1930
question: When did Charles Potter and Clara Potter publish their first writings on Humanism?

context: Humanistic psychology is a psychological perspective which rose to prominence in the mid-20th century in response to Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory and B. F. Skinner's Behaviorism. The approach emphasizes an individual's inherent drive towards self-actualization and creativity. Psychologists Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow introduced a positive, humanistic psychology in response to what they viewed as the overly pessimistic view of psychoanalysis in the early 1960s. Other sources include the philosophies of existentialism and phenomenology.
qas: answers: text: Abraham Maslow
question: Who wotked with Carl Rogers on humanistic phycology?

answers: text: psychological perspective
question: What is human phycology?

answers: text: 20th century
question: In what century did humanistic phycology rise in prominence?

answers: text: psychoanalysis
question: They introduced it in response to what?

context: Raymond B. Bragg, the associate editor of The New Humanist, sought to consolidate the input of Leon Milton Birkhead, Charles Francis Potter, and several members of the Western Unitarian Conference. Bragg asked Roy Wood Sellars to draft a document based on this information which resulted in the publication of the Humanist Manifesto in 1933. Potter's book and the Manifesto became the cornerstones of modern humanism, the latter declaring a new religion by saying, "any religion that can hope to be a synthesising and dynamic force for today must be shaped for the needs of this age. To establish such a religion is a major necessity of the present." It then presented 15 theses of humanism as foundational principles for this new religion.
qas: answers: text: Western Unitarian Conference
question: What groups thoughts did he seek to include?

answers: text: Raymond B. Bragg,
question: Who became responsible in part for the editing of The New Humanist?

answers: text: 15
question: How many cornerstones of this new way of thinking or religion were presented>

answers: text: Humanist Manifesto
question: What was the name of the material that was produced from this groups and the opinions of others?

context: Renaissance humanism was an activity of cultural and educational reform engaged in by civic and ecclesiastical chancellors, book collectors, educators, and writers, who by the late fifteenth century began to be referred to as umanisti – "humanists". It developed during the fourteenth and the beginning of the fifteenth centuries, and was a response to the challenge of scholastic university education, which was then dominated by Aristotelian philosophy and logic. Scholasticism focused on preparing men to be doctors, lawyers or professional theologians, and was taught from approved textbooks in logic, natural philosophy, medicine, law and theology. There were important centres of humanism at Florence, Naples, Rome, Venice, Mantua, Ferrara, and Urbino.
qas: answers: text: cultural and educational reform
question: What was the main action of humanism during the Renaissance>

answers: text: late fifteenth century
question: When did a new term for those who followed Humanism emerge?

answers: text: Naples
question: Where was one main concentration of Humanism?

answers: text: umanisti
question: What was the new term for believers of Humanism philosophy?

context: Humanists reacted against this utilitarian approach and the narrow pedantry associated with it. They sought to create a citizenry (frequently including women) able to speak and write with eloquence and clarity and thus capable of engaging the civic life of their communities and persuading others to virtuous and prudent actions. This was to be accomplished through the study of the studia humanitatis, today known as the humanities: grammar, rhetoric, history, poetry and moral philosophy. As a program to revive the cultural – and particularly the literary – legacy and moral philosophy of classical antiquity, Humanism was a pervasive cultural mode and not the program of a few isolated geniuses like Rabelais or Erasmus as is still sometimes popularly believed.
qas: answers: text: narrow pedantry
question: What was it about the utilitatian beliefs that humanism believers did not like?

answers: text: women
question: What group that had been to this point neglected was included in this thought?

answers: text: humanities
question: What foundation of study allowed for the accomplishment of the goal of a scholarly people?

answers: text: pervasive cultural mode
question: Was the humanism of the time limited to scholars?

context: Contemporary humanism entails a qualified optimism about the capacity of people, but it does not involve believing that human nature is purely good or that all people can live up to the Humanist ideals without help. If anything, there is recognition that living up to one's potential is hard work and requires the help of others. The ultimate goal is human flourishing; making life better for all humans, and as the most conscious species, also promoting concern for the welfare of other sentient beings and the planet as a whole. The focus is on doing good and living well in the here and now, and leaving the world a better place for those who come after. In 1925, the English mathematician and philosopher Alfred North Whitehead cautioned: "The prophecy of Francis Bacon has now been fulfilled; and man, who at times dreamt of himself as a little lower than the angels, has submitted to become the servant and the minister of nature. It still remains to be seen whether the same actor can play both parts".
qas: answers: text: capacity of people
question: What is contemporary humanism optimistic about?

answers: text: human flourishing
question: What is the main goal of humanism optimistic?

answers: text: making life better
question: What is human flourishing?

answers: text: purely good
question: What doesnt conetemporary humanism  believe about human nature?

context: Religious humanism is an integration of humanist ethical philosophy with religious rituals and beliefs that centre on human needs, interests, and abilities. Though practitioners of religious humanism did not officially organise under the name of "humanism" until the late 19th and early 20th centuries, non-theistic religions paired with human-centred ethical philosophy have a long history. The Cult of Reason (French: Culte de la Raison) was a religion based on deism devised during the French Revolution by Jacques Hébert, Pierre Gaspard Chaumette and their supporters. In 1793 during the French Revolution, the cathedral Notre Dame de Paris was turned into a "Temple to Reason" and for a time Lady Liberty replaced the Virgin Mary on several altars. In the 1850s, Auguste Comte, the Father of Sociology, founded Positivism, a "religion of humanity". One of the earliest forerunners of contemporary chartered humanist organisations was the Humanistic Religious Association formed in 1853 in London. This early group was democratically organised, with male and female members participating in the election of the leadership and promoted knowledge of the sciences, philosophy, and the arts. The Ethical Culture movement was founded in 1876. The movement's founder, Felix Adler, a former member of the Free Religious Association, conceived of Ethical Culture as a new religion that would retain the ethical message at the heart of all religions. Ethical Culture was religious in the sense of playing a defining role in people's lives and addressing issues of ultimate concern.
qas: answers: text: religious rituals
question: What was included in religious humanism that was similiar to other religion?

answers: text: 19th and early 20th centuries
question: When did practicers of religious humanism form under the name Humanism?

answers: text: Jacques Hébert
question: Who founded a religion whose cornerstone was deism?

answers: text: 1793
question: During what time was a religious state replaced in the Notre Dame cathedral with a symbol of Humanism?

context: Polemics about humanism have sometimes assumed paradoxical twists and turns. Early 20th century critics such as Ezra Pound, T. E. Hulme, and T. S. Eliot considered humanism to be sentimental "slop" (Hulme)[citation needed] or "an old bitch gone in the teeth" (Pound) and wanted to go back to a more manly, authoritarian society such as (they believed) existed in the Middle Ages. Postmodern critics who are self-described anti-humanists, such as Jean-François Lyotard and Michel Foucault, have asserted that humanism posits an overarching and excessively abstract notion of humanity or universal human nature, which can then be used as a pretext for imperialism and domination of those deemed somehow less than human. "Humanism fabricates the human as much as it fabricates the nonhuman animal", suggests Timothy Laurie, turning the human into what he calls "a placeholder for a range of attributes that have been considered most virtuous among humans (e.g. rationality, altruism), rather than most commonplace (e.g. hunger, anger)". Nevertheless, philosopher Kate Soper notes that by faulting humanism for falling short of its own benevolent ideals, anti-humanism thus frequently "secretes a humanist rhetoric".
qas: answers: text: Ezra Pound
question: Who was one early naysayer of Humanism?

answers: text: sentimental
question: What was the main reason they disagreed with the beliefs?

answers: text: Timothy Laurie
question: Who stated Humanism creates of people placeholder?

answers: text: Kate Soper
question: Who stated that this argument was in fact support of Humanism?

context: In his book, Humanism (1997), Tony Davies calls these critics "humanist anti-humanists". Critics of antihumanism, most notably Jürgen Habermas, counter that while antihumanists may highlight humanism's failure to fulfil its emancipatory ideal, they do not offer an alternative emancipatory project of their own. Others, like the German philosopher Heidegger considered themselves humanists on the model of the ancient Greeks, but thought humanism applied only to the German "race" and specifically to the Nazis and thus, in Davies' words, were anti-humanist humanists. Such a reading of Heidegger's thought is itself deeply controversial; Heidegger includes his own views and critique of Humanism in Letter On Humanism. Davies acknowledges that after the horrific experiences of the wars of the 20th century "it should no longer be possible to formulate phrases like 'the destiny of man' or the 'triumph of human reason' without an instant consciousness of the folly and brutality they drag behind them". For "it is almost impossible to think of a crime that has not been committed in the name of human reason". Yet, he continues, "it would be unwise to simply abandon the ground occupied by the historical humanisms. For one thing humanism remains on many occasions the only available alternative to bigotry and persecution. The freedom to speak and write, to organise and campaign in defence of individual or collective interests, to protest and disobey: all these can only be articulated in humanist terms."
qas: answers: text: 1997
question: In what year was the book humanism published?

answers: text: 20th century
question: In what century was the horrific wars?

answers: text: humanism
question: What is the only alternative to bigotry and persecution on many occasions?

answers: text: Tony Davies
question: Who wrote the book humanism?

context: The ad fontes principle also had many applications. The re-discovery of ancient manuscripts brought a more profound and accurate knowledge of ancient philosophical schools such as Epicureanism, and Neoplatonism, whose Pagan wisdom the humanists, like the Church fathers of old, tended, at least initially, to consider as deriving from divine revelation and thus adaptable to a life of Christian virtue. The line from a drama of Terence, Homo sum, humani nihil a me alienum puto (or with nil for nihil), meaning "I am a human being, I think nothing human alien to me", known since antiquity through the endorsement of Saint Augustine, gained renewed currency as epitomising the humanist attitude. The statement, in a play modeled or borrowed from a (now lost) Greek comedy by Menander, may have originated in a lighthearted vein – as a comic rationale for an old man's meddling – but it quickly became a proverb and throughout the ages was quoted with a deeper meaning, by Cicero and Saint Augustine, to name a few, and most notably by Seneca. Richard Bauman writes:
qas: answers: text: Seneca
question: Who quoted the line of Terence most notably?

answers: text: ancient manuscripts
question: What allowed for a deeper understanding and personal exploration of older philosophers theories?

answers: text: Saint Augustine
question: Who was the most influential supporter of the ideals of Terence?

answers: text: Church fathers
question: Who were the Humanists in agreement with about using these manuscripts in their quests for pure Christian living?

context: Davies identifies Paine's The Age of Reason as "the link between the two major narratives of what Jean-François Lyotard calls the narrative of legitimation": the rationalism of the 18th-century Philosophes and the radical, historically based German 19th-century Biblical criticism of the Hegelians David Friedrich Strauss and Ludwig Feuerbach. "The first is political, largely French in inspiration, and projects 'humanity as the hero of liberty'. The second is philosophical, German, seeks the totality and autonomy of knowledge, and stresses understanding rather than freedom as the key to human fulfilment and emancipation. The two themes converged and competed in complex ways in the 19th century and beyond, and between them set the boundaries of its various humanisms. Homo homini deus est ("The human being is a god to humanity" or "god is nothing [other than] the human being to himself"), Feuerbach had written.
qas: answers: text: The Age of Reason
question: What writing was considered a bridge between two other major writings?

answers: text: 18th-century
question: Which century was the first writing from?

answers: text: Feuerbach
question: Who states imply that humans are their own Gods?

answers: text: German
question: What was the origin of the second writing?