Incandescent_light_bulb

context: An incandescent light bulb, incandescent lamp or incandescent light globe is an electric light with a wire filament heated to a high temperature, by passing an electric current through it, until it glows with visible light (incandescence). The hot filament is protected from oxidation with a glass or quartz bulb that is filled with inert gas or evacuated. In a halogen lamp, filament evaporation is prevented by a chemical process that redeposits metal vapor onto the filament, extending its life. The light bulb is supplied with electric current by feed-through terminals or wires embedded in the glass. Most bulbs are used in a socket which provides mechanical support and electrical connections.
qas: answers: text: electric current
question: What type of energy makes an incandescent light bulb glow?

answers: text: wire filament
question: Which part of the incandescent light bulb is heated?

answers: text: feed-through terminals or wires embedded in the glass
question: What part of a halogen light bulb supplies electric current?

answers: text: a socket
question: What provides the electricity to most light bulbs?

answers: text: incandescent light bulb
question: Which type of light bulb uses inert gas?

context: Incandescent bulbs are much less efficient than most other types of electric lighting; incandescent bulbs convert less than 5% of the energy they use into visible light, with standard light bulbs averaging about 2.2%. The remaining energy is converted into heat. The luminous efficacy of a typical incandescent bulb is 16 lumens per watt, compared with 60 lm/W for a compact fluorescent bulb or 150 lm/W for some white LED lamps. Some applications of the incandescent bulb deliberately use the heat generated by the filament. Such applications include incubators, brooding boxes for poultry, heat lights for reptile tanks, infrared heating for industrial heating and drying processes, lava lamps, and the Easy-Bake Oven toy. Incandescent bulbs typically have short lifetimes compared with other types of lighting; around 1,000 hours for home light bulbs versus typically 10,000 hours for compact fluorescents and 30,000 hours for lighting LEDs.
qas: answers: text: less efficient
question: Are incandescent bulbs more or less efficient than most electric lighting?

answers: text: 2.2%
question: What percentage of energy does a standard light bulb actually convert to visible light?

answers: text: LED
question: Which is more efficient: compact fluorescent or LED lights?

answers: text: 1,000 hours
question: How long does a typical incandescent light bulb last?

answers: text: The remaining energy is converted into heat.
question: What happens to the energy that an incandescent bulb does not convert into light?

context: Incandescent bulbs have been replaced in many applications by other types of electric light, such as fluorescent lamps, compact fluorescent lamps (CFL), cold cathode fluorescent lamps (CCFL), high-intensity discharge lamps, and light-emitting diode lamps (LED). Some jurisdictions, such as the European Union, China, Canada and United States, are in the process of phasing out the use of incandescent light bulbs while others, including Colombia, Mexico, Cuba, Argentina, Brazil and Australia, have prohibited them already.
qas: answers: text: prohibited them already
question: What law did Australia make about incandescent light bulbs?

answers: text: phasing out the use of incandescent light bulbs
question: How is the United States treating incandescent light bulbs?

answers: text: cold cathode fluorescent lamps
question: What does the acronym CCFL refer to?

answers: text: compact fluorescent lamps
question: What does the acronym CFL refer to?

answers: text: light-emitting diode
question: What does the acronym LED refer to?

context: In 1872, Russian Alexander Lodygin invented an incandescent light bulb and obtained a Russian patent in 1874. He used as a burner two carbon rods of diminished section in a glass receiver, hermetically sealed, and filled with nitrogen, electrically arranged so that the current could be passed to the second carbon when the first had been consumed. Later he lived in the USA, changed his name to Alexander de Lodyguine and applied and obtained patents for incandescent lamps having chromium, iridium, rhodium, ruthenium, osmium, molybdenum and tungsten filaments, and a bulb using a molybdenum filament was demonstrated at the world fair of 1900 in Paris.
qas: answers: text: Alexander Lodygin
question: Who patented an incandescent light bulb in Russia in 1874?

answers: text: two carbon rods
question: What did Lodygin use as a burner in his lamp?

answers: text: 1900
question: In what year did Lodygin demonstrate a lamp at the World's Fair?

answers: text: Alexander de Lodyguine
question: What did Lodygin change his name to after moving to the USA?

answers: text: 1872
question: When did Lodygin invent his first lamp?

context: With the help of Charles Stearn, an expert on vacuum pumps, in 1878, Swan developed a method of processing that avoided the early bulb blackening. This received a British Patent in 1880.[dubious – discuss] On 18 December 1878, a lamp using a slender carbon rod was shown at a meeting of the Newcastle Chemical Society, and Swan gave a working demonstration at their meeting on 17 January 1879. It was also shown to 700 who attended a meeting of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Newcastle upon Tyne on 3 February 1879. These lamps used a carbon rod from an arc lamp rather than a slender filament. Thus they had low resistance and required very large conductors to supply the necessary current, so they were not commercially practical, although they did furnish a demonstration of the possibilities of incandescent lighting with relatively high vacuum, a carbon conductor, and platinum lead-in wires. Besides requiring too much current for a central station electric system to be practical, they had a very short lifetime. Swan turned his attention to producing a better carbon filament and the means of attaching its ends. He devised a method of treating cotton to produce 'parchmentised thread' and obtained British Patent 4933 in 1880. From this year he began installing light bulbs in homes and landmarks in England. His house was the first in the world to be lit by a lightbulb and also the first house in the world to be lit by hydroelectric power. In 1878 the home of Lord Armstrong at Cragside was also among the first houses to be lit by electricity. In the early 1880s he had started his company. In 1881, the Savoy Theatre in the City of Westminster, London was lit by Swan incandescent lightbulbs, which was the first theatre, and the first public building in the world, to be lit entirely by electricity.
qas: answers: text: at a meeting of the Newcastle Chemical Society
question: Where did Joseph Swan demonstrate his lamp in January 1879?

answers: text: Charles Stearn
question: Which vacuum pump expert helped Swan invent his lamp?

answers: text: 'parchmentised thread'
question: Why was Swan's first lamp not commercially viable?

answers: text: 1880
question: When did Swan receive a patent for parchmentised thread?

answers: text: the Savoy Theatre in the City of Westminster, London
question: What was the first public building to install electric lighting?

context: Thomas Edison began serious research into developing a practical incandescent lamp in 1878. Edison filed his first patent application for "Improvement In Electric Lights" on 14 October 1878. After many experiments, first with carbon in the early 1880s and then with platinum and other metals, in the end Edison returned to a carbon filament. The first successful test was on 22 October 1879, and lasted 13.5 hours. Edison continued to improve this design and by 4 November 1879, filed for a US patent for an electric lamp using "a carbon filament or strip coiled and connected ... to platina contact wires." Although the patent described several ways of creating the carbon filament including using "cotton and linen thread, wood splints, papers coiled in various ways," Edison and his team later discovered that a carbonized bamboo filament could last more than 1200 hours. In 1880, the Oregon Railroad and Navigation Company steamer, Columbia, became the first application for Edison's incandescent electric lamps (it was also the first ship to execute use of a dynamo).
qas: answers: text: 1878
question: When did Edison begin research into incandescent lighting?

answers: text: carbon
question: With what material did Edison make his first filament?

answers: text: 13.5 hours
question: How long did Edison's light burn during his first successful test in 1879?

answers: text: bamboo
question: What type of wood did Edison use in his improved filament?

answers: text: Columbia
question: What was the name of the first ship to use Edison's lamp?

context: Albon Man, a New York lawyer, started Electro-Dynamic Light Company in 1878 to exploit his patents and those of William Sawyer. Weeks later the United States Electric Lighting Company was organized. This company didn't made their first commercial installation of incandescent lamps until the fall of 1880 at the Mercantile Safe Deposit Company in New York City, about six months after the Edison incandescent lamps had been installed on the Columbia. Hiram S. Maxim was the chief engineer at the United States Electric Lighting Company.
qas: answers: text: Albon Man
question: Who founded Electro-Dynamic Light Company?

answers: text: Hiram S. Maxim
question: Who was the chief engineer at the United States Electric Lighting Company?

answers: text: Mercantile Safe Deposit Company
question: Where did Electro-Dynamic Light Company install its first lights?

answers: text: fall of 1880
question: When did Electro-Dynamic Light Company install its first lights?

answers: text: Electro-Dynamic Light Company
question: Which company was organized first, Electro-Dynamic Light Company or United States Electric Lighting Company?

context: Lewis Latimer, employed at the time by Edison, developed an improved method of heat-treating carbon filaments which reduced breakage and allowed them to be molded into novel shapes, such as the characteristic "M" shape of Maxim filaments. On 17 January 1882, Latimer received a patent for the "Process of Manufacturing Carbons", an improved method for the production of light bulb filaments, which was purchased by the United States Electric Light Company. Latimer patented other improvements such as a better way of attaching filaments to their wire supports.
qas: answers: text: Lewis Latimer
question: Who developed a heat-treating method that allowed carbon filaments to be molded into shapes?

answers: text: 17 January 1882
question: When did Latimer patent his "Process of Manufacturing Carbons"?

answers: text: United States Electric Light Company
question: Which company purchased Latimer's patent?

answers: text: Edison
question: Who employed Latimer when he developed his first patent?

context: On 13 December 1904, Hungarian Sándor Just and Croatian Franjo Hanaman were granted a Hungarian patent (No. 34541) for a tungsten filament lamp that lasted longer and gave brighter light than the carbon filament. Tungsten filament lamps were first marketed by the Hungarian company Tungsram in 1904. This type is often called Tungsram-bulbs in many European countries. Filling a bulb with an inert gas such as argon or nitrogen retards the evaporation of the tungsten filament compared to operating it in a vacuum. This allows for greater temperatures and therefore greater efficacy with less reduction in filament life.
qas: answers: text: Hungarian Sándor Just and Croatian Franjo Hanaman
question: Which inventors patented the tungsten filament lamp?

answers: text: 13 December 1904
question: When did Just and Hanaman receive their patent for the tungsten filament lamp?

answers: text: Tungsram
question: Which company first marketed the tungsten filament lamp?

answers: text: argon or nitrogen
question: What type of gas fills a tungsten filament bulb?

answers: text: Tungsram-bulbs
question: What is a common alternate name for the tungsten filament bulb in Europe?

context: Luminous efficacy of a light source may be defined in two ways. The radiant luminous efficacy (LER) is the ratio of the visible light flux emitted (the luminous flux) to the total power radiated over all wavelengths. The source luminous efficacy (LES) is the ratio of the visible light flux emitted (the luminous flux) to the total power input to the source, such as a lamp. Visible light is measured in lumens, a unit which is defined in part by the differing sensitivity of the human eye to different wavelengths of light. Not all wavelengths of visible electromagnetic energy are equally effective at stimulating the human eye; the luminous efficacy of radiant energy (LER) is a measure of how well the distribution of energy matches the perception of the eye. The units of luminous efficacy are "lumens per watt" (lpw). The maximum LER possible is 683 lm/W for monochromatic green light at 555 nanometers wavelength, the peak sensitivity of the human eye.
qas: answers: text: radiant luminous efficacy
question: What does the acronym LER refer to?

answers: text: 683 lm/W
question: What is the maximum LER possible?

answers: text: two ways
question: In how many ways can one define luminous efficacy of a light source?

answers: text: the ratio of the visible light flux emitted (the luminous flux) to the total power radiated over all wavelengths
question: What is the definition of radiant luminous efficacy?

answers: text: source luminous efficacy
question: What does the acronym LES refer to?

context: The spectrum emitted by a blackbody radiator at temperatures of incandescent bulbs does not match the sensitivity characteristics of the human eye; the light emitted does not appear white, and most is not in the range of wavelengths at which the eye is most sensitive. Tungsten filaments radiate mostly infrared radiation at temperatures where they remain solid – below 3,695 K (3,422 °C; 6,191 °F). Donald L. Klipstein explains it this way: "An ideal thermal radiator produces visible light most efficiently at temperatures around 6,300 °C (6,600 K; 11,400 °F). Even at this high temperature, a lot of the radiation is either infrared or ultraviolet, and the theoretical luminous efficacy (LER) is 95 lumens per watt." No known material can be used as a filament at this ideal temperature, which is hotter than the sun's surface. An upper limit for incandescent lamp luminous efficacy (LER) is around 52 lumens per watt, the theoretical value emitted by tungsten at its melting point.
qas: answers: text: 6,300 °C
question: At what temperature does a thermal radiator most efficiently produce light?

answers: text: 52 lumens per watt
question: What is the upper limit for LER of an incandescent lamp?

answers: text: infrared radiation
question: What type of radiation makes up the majority of tungsten filament emissions?

answers: text: the light emitted does not appear white,
question: What is the flaw in the color of light produced by an incandescent bulb?

answers: text: 52 lumens per watt
question: What is the theoretical LER value of tungsten at its melting point?

context: Although inefficient, incandescent light bulbs have an advantage in applications where accurate color reproduction is important, since the continuous blackbody spectrum emitted from an incandescent light-bulb filament yields near-perfect color rendition, with a color rendering index of 100 (the best possible). White-balancing is still required to avoid too "warm" or "cool" colors, but this is a simple process that requires only the color temperature in Kelvin as input for modern, digital visual reproduction equipment such as video or still cameras unless it is completely automated. The color-rendering performance of incandescent lights cannot be matched by LEDs or fluorescent lights, although they can offer satisfactory performance for non-critical applications such as home lighting. White-balancing such lights is therefore more complicated, requiring additional adjustments to reduce for example green-magenta color casts, and even when properly white-balanced, the color reproduction will not be perfect.
qas: answers: text: to avoid too "warm" or "cool" colors
question: What is the purpose of white-balancing?

answers: text: incandescent lights
question: Of incandescent lights, fluorescent lights and LEDs, which has the best color-rendering performance?

answers: text: 100
question: What is the color rendering index of an incandescent light?

answers: text: the continuous blackbody spectrum emitted from an incandescent light-bulb filament
question: Why do incandescent lights have superior color rendering?

answers: text: 100
question: What is the highest possible color rendering index score?

context: There are many non-incandescent light sources, such as the fluorescent lamp, high-intensity discharge lamps and LED lamps, which have higher luminous efficiency, and some have been designed to be retrofitted in fixtures for incandescent lights. These devices produce light by luminescence. These lamps produce discrete spectral lines and do not have the broad "tail" of invisible infrared emissions. By careful selection of which electron energy level transitions are used, and fluorescent coatings which modify the spectral distribution, the spectrum emitted can be tuned to mimic the appearance of incandescent sources, or other different color temperatures of white light. Due to the discrete spectral lines rather than a continuous spectrum, the light is not ideal for applications such as photography and cinematography.
qas: answers: text: higher
question: Do fluorescent lights have a higher or lower luminous efficiency than incandescents?

answers: text: By careful selection of which electron energy level transitions are used, and fluorescent coatings which modify the spectral distribution
question: How can luminescent light sources be modified to resemble the appearance of incandescents?

answers: text: Due to the discrete spectral lines rather than a continuous spectrum
question: Why are luminescent light sources not ideal for photography?

context: The initial cost of an incandescent bulb is small compared to the cost of the energy it uses over its lifetime. Incandescent bulbs have a shorter life than most other lighting, an important factor if replacement is inconvenient or expensive. Some types of lamp, including incandescent and fluorescent, emit less light as they age; this may be an inconvenience, or may reduce effective lifetime due to lamp replacement before total failure. A comparison of incandescent lamp operating cost with other light sources must include illumination requirements, cost of the lamp and labor cost to replace lamps (taking into account effective lamp lifetime), cost of electricity used, effect of lamp operation on heating and air conditioning systems. When used for lighting in houses and commercial buildings, the energy lost to heat can significantly increase the energy required by a building's air conditioning system. During the heating season heat produced by the bulbs is not wasted, although in most cases it is more cost effective to obtain heat from the heating system. Regardless, over the course of a year a more efficient lighting system saves energy in nearly all climates.
qas: answers: text: a building's air conditioning system
question: What appliance requires more energy due to the use of incandescent lighting?

answers: text: shorter
question: Do incandescent lights have a longer or shorter life than other lighting sources?

answers: text: illumination requirements, cost of the lamp and labor cost to replace lamps (taking into account effective lamp lifetime), cost of electricity used
question: What are some factors to consider in calculating operating costs of lighting?

answers: text: less
question: Do incandescent lights emit more, less, or the same amount of light as they age?

answers: text: heat from the heating system
question: What is more cost-effective, heat from incandescent bulbs or heat from a building's heating system?

context: Since incandescent light bulbs use more energy than alternatives such as CFLs and LED lamps, many governments have introduced measures to ban their use, by setting minimum efficacy standards higher than can be achieved by incandescent lamps. Measures to ban light bulbs have been implemented in the European Union, the United States, Russia, Brazil, Argentina, Canada and Australia, among others. In the Europe the EC has calculated that the ban contributes 5 to 10 billion euros to the economy and saves 40 TWh of electricity every year, translating in CO2 emission reductions of 15 million tonnes.
qas: answers: text: more
question: Do incandescent light bulbs use more or less energy as compared to CFLs and LED lamps?

answers: text: 5 to 10 billion euros
question: How much does the incandescent light ban in Europe contribute to the economy each year?

answers: text: 40 TWh of electricity
question: How much energy does the incandescent light ban in Europe save each year?

answers: text: 15 million tonnes
question: How much CO2 emissions does the incandescent light ban in Europe save each year?

answers: text: by setting minimum efficacy standards higher than can be achieved by incandescent lamps
question: How are laws written that bring about a ban of incandescent light bulbs?

context: Objections to banning the use of incandescent light bulbs include the higher initial cost of alternatives and lower quality of light of fluorescent lamps. Some people have concerns about the health effects of fluorescent lamps. However, even though they contain mercury, the environmental performance of CFLs is much better than that of light bulbs, mostly because they consume much less energy and therefore strongly reduce the environmental impact of power production. LED lamps are even more efficient, and are free of mercury. They are regarded as the best solution in terms of cost effectiveness and robustness.
qas: answers: text: better
question: Is the environmental performance of CFLs better or worse than that of incandescents?

answers: text: LED lamps
question: Which type of light bulbs is considered most cost effective and robust?

answers: text: higher initial cost of alternatives and lower quality of light of fluorescent lamps
question: What are some objections to banning incandescent bulbs?

answers: text: mercury
question: What substance in CFL bulbs raises health concerns?

answers: text: much less
question: Do CFLs consume more, less, or the same amount of energy as incandescent bulbs?

context: Prompted by legislation in various countries mandating increased bulb efficiency, new "hybrid" incandescent bulbs have been introduced by Philips. The "Halogena Energy Saver" incandescents can produce about 23 lm/W; about 30 percent more efficient than traditional incandescents, by using a reflective capsule to reflect formerly wasted infrared radiation back to the filament from which it can be re-emitted as visible light. This concept was pioneered by Duro-Test in 1980 with a commercial product that produced 29.8 lm/W. More advanced reflectors based on interference filters or photonic crystals can theoretically result in higher efficiency, up to a limit of about 270 lm/W (40% of the maximum efficacy possible). Laboratory proof-of-concept experiments have produced as much as 45 lm/W, approaching the efficacy of compact fluorescent bulbs.
qas: answers: text: Philips
question: Which company introduced hybrid incandescent bulbs?

answers: text: 30 percent
question: How much more efficient are Halogena Energy Saver bulbs compared to incandescents?

answers: text: Duro-Test
question: What company first marketed light bulbs using the reflective capsule technique to increase energy efficiency?

answers: text: 270 lm/W
question: What is the theoretical maximum efficiency of reflective capsule bulbs?

answers: text: 45 lm/W
question: What is the maximum efficiency of reflective capsule bulbs as tested in labs?

context: Incandescent light bulbs consist of an air-tight glass enclosure (the envelope, or bulb) with a filament of tungsten wire inside the bulb, through which an electric current is passed. Contact wires and a base with two (or more) conductors provide electrical connections to the filament. Incandescent light bulbs usually contain a stem or glass mount anchored to the bulb's base that allows the electrical contacts to run through the envelope without air or gas leaks. Small wires embedded in the stem in turn support the filament and its lead wires.
qas: answers: text: the envelope
question: What is the name of the air-tight glass enclosure in an incandescent bulb?

answers: text: tungsten wire
question: What is the filament made of?

answers: text: two (or more)
question: How many conductors are present in the bulb's base?

answers: text: a stem or glass mount anchored to the bulb's base
question: What prevents air or gas leaks from a light bulb?

answers: text: Small wires embedded in the stem in turn support the filament and its lead wires
question: What function do small wires in a light bulb's stem perform?

context: Most light bulbs have either clear or coated glass. The coated glass bulbs have a white powdery substance on the inside called kaolin. Kaolin, or kaolinite, is a white, chalky clay in a very fine powder form, that is blown in and electrostatically deposited on the interior of the bulb. It diffuses the light emitted from the filament, producing a more gentle and evenly distributed light. Manufacturers may add pigments to the kaolin to adjust the characteristics of the final light emitted from the bulb. Kaolin diffused bulbs are used extensively in interior lighting because of their comparatively gentle light. Other kinds of colored bulbs are also made, including the various colors used for "party bulbs", Christmas tree lights and other decorative lighting. These are created by coloring the glass with a dopant; which is often a metal like cobalt (blue) or chromium (green). Neodymium-containing glass is sometimes used to provide a more natural-appearing light.
qas: answers: text: kaolin
question: What is the powdery substance in coated glass light bulbs?

answers: text: blown in and electrostatically deposited
question: How is kaolin placed inside a light bulb?

answers: text: a more gentle and evenly distributed light
question: What is the effect of a kaolin coating on the light cast?

answers: text: by coloring the glass with a dopant
question: How are Christmas colored light bulbs created?

answers: text: It diffuses the light emitted from the filament
question: How does kaolin create a more gentle light?

context: Many arrangements of electrical contacts are used. Large lamps may have a screw base (one or more contacts at the tip, one at the shell) or a bayonet base (one or more contacts on the base, shell used as a contact or used only as a mechanical support). Some tubular lamps have an electrical contact at either end. Miniature lamps may have a wedge base and wire contacts, and some automotive and special purpose lamps have screw terminals for connection to wires. Contacts in the lamp socket allow the electric current to pass through the base to the filament. Power ratings for incandescent light bulbs range from about 0.1 watt to about 10,000 watts.
qas: answers: text: screw base
question: What is the name for a base with one or more contacts at the tip and one at the shell?

answers: text: bayonet base
question: What is the name for a lamp base with one or more contacts on the base and a shell used as a contact or used only as a mechanical support?

answers: text: allow the electric current to pass through the base to the filament
question: What is the purpose of contacts in the lamp socket?

answers: text: 0.1 watt to about 10,000 watts
question: What is the range of power ratings for incandescent bulbs?

answers: text: automotive and special purpose lamps
question: Which types of lamps use screw terminals for connection to wires?

context: The role of the gas is to prevent evaporation of the filament, without introducing significant heat losses. For these properties, chemical inertness and high atomic or molecular weight is desirable. The presence of gas molecules knocks the liberated tungsten atoms back to the filament, reducing its evaporation and allowing it to be operated at higher temperature without reducing its life (or, for operating at the same temperature, prolongs the filament life). It however introduces heat losses (and therefore efficiency loss) from the filament, by heat conduction and heat convection.
qas: answers: text: introduces heat losses (and therefore efficiency loss)
question: What is a potential problem with the use of gas in a light bulb?

answers: text: chemical inertness and high atomic or molecular weight
question: What are the ideal chemical properties for the gas in a light bulb?

answers: text: to prevent evaporation of the filament, without introducing significant heat losses
question: What is the purpose of the gas in a light bulb?

answers: text: The presence of gas molecules knocks the liberated tungsten atoms back to the filament
question: How do gases prevent evaporation of the filament?

context: In manufacturing the glass bulb, a type of "ribbon machine" is used. A continuous ribbon of glass is passed along a conveyor belt, heated in a furnace, and then blown by precisely aligned air nozzles through holes in the conveyor belt into molds. Thus the glass bulbs are created. After the bulbs are blown, and cooled, they are cut off the ribbon machine; a typical machine of this sort produces 50,000 bulbs per hour. The filament and its supports are assembled on a glass stem, which is fused to the bulb. The air is pumped out of the bulb, and the evacuation tube in the stem press is sealed by a flame. The bulb is then inserted into the lamp base, and the whole assembly tested.
qas: answers: text: ribbon machine
question: What type of machine manufactures glass light bulbs.

answers: text: 50,000
question: How many bulbs does the average ribbon machine produce per hour?

answers: text: assembled on a glass stem, which is fused to the bulb
question: How is the filament attached to the bulb?

answers: text: by a flame
question: How is the evacuation tube sealed?

answers: text: precisely aligned air nozzles
question: What blows the glass bulbs into their characteristic shape?

context: The first successful light bulb filaments were made of carbon (from carbonized paper or bamboo). Early carbon filaments had a negative temperature coefficient of resistance — as they got hotter, their electrical resistance decreased. This made the lamp sensitive to fluctuations in the power supply, since a small increase of voltage would cause the filament to heat up, reducing its resistance and causing it to draw even more power and heat even further. In the "flashing" process, carbon filaments were heated by current passing through them while in an evacuated vessel containing hydrocarbon vapor (usually gasoline). The carbon deposited on the filament by this treatment improved the uniformity and strength of filaments as well as their efficiency. A metallized or "graphitized" filament was first heated in a high-temperature oven before flashing and lamp assembly. This transformed the carbon into graphite which further strengthened and smoothed the filament. This also changed the filament to have a positive temperature coefficient, like a metallic conductor, and helped stabilize the lamp's power consumption, temperature and light output against minor variations in supply voltage.
qas: answers: text: carbon
question: What material were the first light bulb filaments made from?

answers: text: as they got hotter, their electrical resistance decreased
question: What was the primary problem with early carbon filaments?

answers: text: improved the uniformity and strength of filaments as well as their efficiency
question: What were the positive effects of the flashing process?

answers: text: further strengthened and smoothed the filament
question: What properties of graphite improved the filament?

answers: text: helped stabilize the lamp's power consumption, temperature and light output against minor variations in supply voltage
question: What are the effects of giving the filament a positive temperature coefficient?

context: In 1902, the Siemens company developed a tantalum lamp filament. These lamps were more efficient than even graphitized carbon filaments and could operate at higher temperatures. Since tantalum metal has a lower resistivity than carbon, the tantalum lamp filament was quite long and required multiple internal supports. The metal filament had the property of gradually shortening in use; the filaments were installed with large loops that tightened in use. This made lamps in use for several hundred hours quite fragile. Metal filaments had the property of breaking and re-welding, though this would usually decrease resistance and shorten the life of the filament. General Electric bought the rights to use tantalum filaments and produced them in the US until 1913.
qas: answers: text: Siemens
question: What company invented the tantalum light filament?

answers: text: 1902
question: In what year was the tantalum light filament invented?

answers: text: These lamps were more efficient than even graphitized carbon filaments and could operate at higher temperatures.
question: What were the major advantages of the tantalum light filament?

answers: text: General Electric
question: Who purchased the rights to the tantalum light filament from Siemens?

answers: text: 1913
question: When did GE cease production of the tantalum light filament?

context: In 1906, the tungsten filament was introduced. Tungsten metal was initially not available in a form that allowed it to be drawn into fine wires. Filaments made from sintered tungsten powder were quite fragile. By 1910, a process was developed by William D. Coolidge at General Electric for production of a ductile form of tungsten. The process required pressing tungsten powder into bars, then several steps of sintering, swaging, and then wire drawing. It was found that very pure tungsten formed filaments that sagged in use, and that a very small "doping" treatment with potassium, silicon, and aluminium oxides at the level of a few hundred parts per million greatly improved the life and durability of the tungsten filaments.
qas: answers: text: Tungsten metal was initially not available in a form that allowed it to be drawn into fine wires.
question: What was the problem with manufacturing the tungsten filament?

answers: text: William D. Coolidge
question: Who developed the ductile form of tungsten?

answers: text: 1910
question: When was the ductile form of tungsten invented?

answers: text: 1906
question: When was the tungsten filament introduced?

answers: text: potassium, silicon, and aluminium oxides
question: What other materials were combined with tungsten?

context: To improve the efficiency of the lamp, the filament usually consists of multiple coils of coiled fine wire, also known as a 'coiled coil'. For a 60-watt 120-volt lamp, the uncoiled length of the tungsten filament is usually 22.8 inches (580 mm), and the filament diameter is 0.0018 inches (0.046 mm). The advantage of the coiled coil is that evaporation of the tungsten filament is at the rate of a tungsten cylinder having a diameter equal to that of the coiled coil. The coiled-coil filament evaporates more slowly than a straight filament of the same surface area and light-emitting power. As a result, the filament can then run hotter, which results in a more efficient light source, while reducing the evaporation so that the filament will last longer than a straight filament at the same temperature.
qas: answers: text: 22.8 inches
question: How long is a typical uncoiled tungsten filament for a 60-watt bulb?

answers: text: The coiled-coil filament evaporates more slowly
question: What is the advantage of a coiled-coil filament over a straight filament?

answers: text: more efficient light source
question: What positive effects does a slower-evaporating filament enable?

answers: text: 0.0018 inches
question: What is the typical diameter of the filament on a 60-watt bulb?

context: One of the problems of the standard electric light bulb is filament notching due to evaporation of the filament. Small variations in resistivity along the filament cause "hot spots" to form at points of higher resistivity; a variation of diameter of only 1% will cause a 25% reduction in service life. These hot spots evaporate faster than the rest of the filament, which increases the resistance at that point—this creates a positive feedback that ends in the familiar tiny gap in an otherwise healthy-looking filament. Irving Langmuir found that an inert gas, instead of vacuum, would retard evaporation. General service incandescent light bulbs over about 25 watts in rating are now filled with a mixture of mostly argon and some nitrogen, or sometimes krypton. Lamps operated on direct current develop random stairstep irregularities on the filament surface which may cut lifespan in half compared to AC operation; different alloys of tungsten and rhenium can be used to counteract the effect.
qas: answers: text: a variation of diameter of only 1% will cause a 25% reduction in service life
question: What is the negative effect of "hot spots" forming on the filament?

answers: text: Irving Langmuir
question: Who discovered that inert gas could slow evaporation?

answers: text: argon and some nitrogen, or sometimes krypton
question: Which gases are typically used in a light bulb?

answers: text: alloys of tungsten and rhenium
question: Which type of alloys can decrease "stairstep" irregularities in light bulb filaments?

context: While inert gas reduces filament evaporation, it also conducts heat from the filament, thereby cooling the filament and reducing efficiency. At constant pressure and temperature, the thermal conductivity of a gas depends upon the molecular weight of the gas and the cross sectional area of the gas molecules. Higher molecular weight gasses have lower thermal conductivity, because both the molecular weight is higher and also the cross sectional area is higher. Xenon gas improves efficiency because of its high molecular weight, but is also more expensive, so its use is limited to smaller lamps.
qas: answers: text: conducts heat from the filament, thereby cooling the filament
question: Why does inert gas reduce efficiency?

answers: text: molecular weight of the gas and the cross sectional area of the gas molecules
question: What affects the thermal conductivity of a gas?

answers: text: Higher molecular weight gasses have lower thermal conductivity
question: How does the molecular weight of a gas relate to thermal conductivity?

answers: text: more expensive, so its use is limited to smaller lamps
question: Why is xenon gas not more widely used?

answers: text: reduces filament evaporation
question: What is the advantage of using inert gas in a light bulb?

context: During ordinary operation, the tungsten of the filament evaporates; hotter, more-efficient filaments evaporate faster. Because of this, the lifetime of a filament lamp is a trade-off between efficiency and longevity. The trade-off is typically set to provide a lifetime of several hundred to 2,000 hours for lamps used for general illumination. Theatrical, photographic, and projection lamps may have a useful life of only a few hours, trading life expectancy for high output in a compact form. Long-life general service lamps have lower efficiency but are used where the cost of changing the lamp is high compared to the value of energy used.
qas: answers: text: hotter, more-efficient filaments evaporate faster
question: What determines how fast a tungsten filament evaporates?

answers: text: several hundred to 2,000 hours
question: What is the typical goal for the life of a tungsten filament bulb?

answers: text: Theatrical, photographic, and projection lamps
question: Which types of lamps may have particularly short lives?

answers: text: efficiency and longevity
question: What is the typical tradeoff in light bulb design?

context: In a conventional lamp, the evaporated tungsten eventually condenses on the inner surface of the glass envelope, darkening it. For bulbs that contain a vacuum, the darkening is uniform across the entire surface of the envelope. When a filling of inert gas is used, the evaporated tungsten is carried in the thermal convection currents of the gas, depositing preferentially on the uppermost part of the envelope and blackening just that portion of the envelope. An incandescent lamp that gives 93% or less of its initial light output at 75% of its rated life is regarded as unsatisfactory, when tested according to IEC Publication 60064. Light loss is due to filament evaporation and bulb blackening. Study of the problem of bulb blackening led to the discovery of the Edison effect, thermionic emission and invention of the vacuum tube.
qas: answers: text: the evaporated tungsten eventually condenses on the inner surface of the glass envelope
question: What darkens a conventional bulb over its lifetime?

answers: text: An incandescent lamp that gives 93% or less of its initial light output at 75% of its rated life is regarded as unsatisfactory
question: What is the IEC guideline for an unacceptable level of light loss?

answers: text: Light loss is due to filament evaporation and bulb blackening
question: What are the primary causes of light loss?

answers: text: on the uppermost part of the envelope
question: Where in the bulb is evaporated tungsten deposited when inert gas is used?

answers: text: across the entire surface of the envelope
question: Where in the bulb is evaporated tungsten deposited when a vacuum is used?

context: A very small amount of water vapor inside a light bulb can significantly affect lamp darkening. Water vapor dissociates into hydrogen and oxygen at the hot filament. The oxygen attacks the tungsten metal, and the resulting tungsten oxide particles travel to cooler parts of the lamp. Hydrogen from water vapor reduces the oxide, reforming water vapor and continuing this water cycle. The equivalent of a drop of water distributed over 500,000 lamps will significantly increase darkening. Small amounts of substances such as zirconium are placed within the lamp as a getter to react with any oxygen that may bake out of the lamp components during operation.
qas: answers: text: significantly increase darkening
question: How does water vapor inside a light bulb affect lamp darkening?

answers: text: The oxygen attacks the tungsten metal, and the resulting tungsten oxide particles travel to cooler parts of the lamp.
question: Why does water increase lamp darkening?

answers: text: zirconium
question: What is an example of a substance that is added to light bulbs to reduce this effect?

answers: text: The equivalent of a drop of water distributed over 500,000 lamps
question: How much water is necessary to result in this darkening affect?

context: The halogen lamp reduces uneven evaporation of the filament and eliminates darkening of the envelope by filling the lamp with a halogen gas at low pressure, rather than an inert gas. The halogen cycle increases the lifetime of the bulb and prevents its darkening by redepositing tungsten from the inside of the bulb back onto the filament. The halogen lamp can operate its filament at a higher temperature than a standard gas filled lamp of similar power without loss of operating life. Such bulbs are much smaller than normal incandescent bulbs, and are widely used where intense illumination is needed in a limited space. Fiber-optic lamps for optical microscopy is one typical application.
qas: answers: text: reduces
question: Does the halogen bulp increase, reduce, or have no effect on filament evaporation?

answers: text: by redepositing tungsten from the inside of the bulb back onto the filament
question: How does the halogen bulb decrease darkening over time?

answers: text: higher
question: Does a halogen bulb operate at a higher or lower temperature than an incandescent?

answers: text: bulbs are much smaller than normal incandescent bulbs
question: How does the size of a halogen bulb compare to an incandescent?

answers: text: where intense illumination is needed in a limited space
question: What is the most common situation when a halogen bulb is used?

context: A variation of the incandescent lamp did not use a hot wire filament, but instead used an arc struck on a spherical bead electrode to produce heat. The electrode then became incandescent, with the arc contributing little to the light produced. Such lamps were used for projection or illumination for scientific instruments such as microscopes. These arc lamps ran on relatively low voltages and incorporated tungsten filaments to start ionization within the envelope. They provided the intense concentrated light of an arc lamp but were easier to operate. Developed around 1915, these lamps were displaced by mercury and xenon arc lamps.
qas: answers: text: an arc struck on a spherical bead electrode
question: What did an alternate version of the incandescent lamp substitute for a wire filament?

answers: text: scientific instruments such as microscopes
question: What was a common application for this type of bulb?

answers: text: 1915
question: When was this style of lamp developed?

answers: text: mercury and xenon arc lamps
question: What displaced this style of lamp?

context: Incandescent lamps are nearly pure resistive loads with a power factor of 1. This means the actual power consumed (in watts) and the apparent power (in volt-amperes) are equal. Incandescent light bulbs are usually marketed according to the electrical power consumed. This is measured in watts and depends mainly on the resistance of the filament, which in turn depends mainly on the filament's length, thickness, and material. For two bulbs of the same voltage, type, color, and clarity, the higher-powered bulb gives more light.
qas: answers: text: the actual power consumed (in watts) and the apparent power (in volt-amperes) are equal
question: What does a power factor of 1 mean?

answers: text: the resistance of the filament
question: What principally determines the wattage of an incandescent bulb?

answers: text: the filament's length, thickness, and material
question: What determines the resistance of the filament?

answers: text: Incandescent lamps are nearly pure resistive loads
question: How close do incandescent lamps come to pure resistive loads?

answers: text: the higher-powered bulb gives more light
question: All other things being equal, how does wattage affect light emitted?

context: The actual resistance of the filament is temperature dependent. The cold resistance of tungsten-filament lamps is about 1/15 the hot-filament resistance when the lamp is operating. For example, a 100-watt, 120-volt lamp has a resistance of 144 ohms when lit, but the cold resistance is much lower (about 9.5 ohms). Since incandescent lamps are resistive loads, simple phase-control TRIAC dimmers can be used to control brightness. Electrical contacts may carry a "T" rating symbol indicating that they are designed to control circuits with the high inrush current characteristic of tungsten lamps. For a 100-watt, 120-volt general-service lamp, the current stabilizes in about 0.10 seconds, and the lamp reaches 90% of its full brightness after about 0.13 seconds.
qas: answers: text: temperature
question: What determines the resistance of a filament?

answers: text: they are designed to control circuits with the high inrush current characteristic of tungsten lamps
question: What does a "T" rating symbol on an electrical contact mean?

answers: text: 0.13 seconds
question: How long does it take a typical 100-watt bulb to achieve 90% of its brightness?

answers: text: The cold resistance of tungsten-filament lamps is about 1/15 the hot-filament resistance
question: How does the cold resistance of tungsten filament lamps compare to the hot resistance?

answers: text: 144 ohms
question: What is the resistance of a typical lit 100-watt incandescent bulb?

context: Incandescent light bulbs come in a range of shapes and sizes. The names of the shapes may be slightly different in some regions. Many of these shapes have a designation consisting of one or more letters followed by one or more numbers, e.g. A55 or PAR38. The letters represent the shape of the bulb. The numbers represent the maximum diameter, either in 1⁄8 of an inch, or in millimeters, depending on the shape and the region. For example, 63 mm reflectors are designated R63, but in the US, they are known as R20 (2.5 in). However, in both regions, a PAR38 reflector is known as PAR38.
qas: answers: text: the shape of the bulb
question: What do the letters identify in a bulb shape designation?

answers: text: the maximum diameter
question: What do the numbers identify in a bulb shape designation?

answers: text: The names of the shapes may be slightly different in some regions
question: Can the name of a certain bulb shape vary?

answers: text: 1⁄8 of an inch, or in millimeters
question: What units are the bulb sizes measured in?

context: Very small lamps may have the filament support wires extended through the base of the lamp, and can be directly soldered to a printed circuit board for connections. Some reflector-type lamps include screw terminals for connection of wires. Most lamps have metal bases that fit in a socket to support the lamp and conduct current to the filament wires. In the late 19th century, manufacturers introduced a multitude of incompatible lamp bases. General Electric introduced standard base sizes for tungsten incandescent lamps under the Mazda trademark in 1909. This standard was soon adopted across the US, and the Mazda name was used by many manufacturers under license through 1945. Today most incandescent lamps for general lighting service use an Edison screw in candelabra, intermediate, or standard or mogul sizes, or double contact bayonet base. Technical standards for lamp bases include ANSI standard C81.67 and IEC standard 60061-1 for common commercial lamp sizes, to ensure interchangeablitity between different manufacturer's products. Bayonet base lamps are frequently used in automotive lamps to resist loosening due to vibration. A bipin base is often used for halogen or reflector lamps.
qas: answers: text: General Electric
question: Which company introduced standard base sizes for incandescent lamps?

answers: text: 1909
question: In what year were standard base sizes introduced for incandescent lamps?

answers: text: ANSI standard C81.67 and IEC standard 60061-1
question: What are some common technical standards for lamp bases?

answers: text: Bayonet base lamps
question: What is the typical base type for automotive lamps?

answers: text: bipin base
question: What is the typical base type for halogen lamps?

context: This means that a 5% reduction in operating voltage will more than double the life of the bulb, at the expense of reducing its light output by about 16%. This may be a very acceptable trade off for a light bulb that is in a difficult-to-access location (for example, traffic lights or fixtures hung from high ceilings). Long-life bulbs take advantage of this trade-off. Since the value of the electric power they consume is much more than the value of the lamp, general service lamps emphasize efficiency over long operating life. The objective is to minimize the cost of light, not the cost of lamps. Early bulbs had a life of up to 2500 hours, but in 1924 a cartel agreed to limit life to 1000 hours. When this was exposed in 1953, General Electric and other leading American manufacturers were banned from limiting the life.
qas: answers: text: a 5% reduction in operating voltage
question: What level of voltage reduction is required to double the life of an incandescent bulb?

answers: text: 1924
question: When did light bulb manufacturers establish a cartel to limit bulb life?

answers: text: 1953
question: When did authorities break up the light bulb cartel?

answers: text: 1000 hours
question: What was the artificially low limit on bulb life placed by the cartel?

answers: text: difficult-to-access location (for example, traffic lights or fixtures hung from high ceilings)
question: What is an example of a good application for a long-life bulb?

context: The relationships above are valid for only a few percent change of voltage around rated conditions, but they do indicate that a lamp operated at much lower than rated voltage could last for hundreds of times longer than at rated conditions, albeit with greatly reduced light output. The "Centennial Light" is a light bulb that is accepted by the Guinness Book of World Records as having been burning almost continuously at a fire station in Livermore, California, since 1901. However, the bulb emits the equivalent light of a four watt bulb. A similar story can be told of a 40-watt bulb in Texas that has been illuminated since 21 September 1908. It once resided in an opera house where notable celebrities stopped to take in its glow, and was moved to an area museum in 1977.
qas: answers: text: 1901
question: When did the "Centennial Light" begin burning?

answers: text: the equivalent light of a four watt bulb
question: How much light does the bulb emit?

answers: text: 21 September 1908
question: When did the long-lasting bulb in Texas begin continuing illumination?

answers: text: an opera house
question: Where did the Texas bulb begin its life?

context: In flood lamps used for photographic lighting, the tradeoff is made in the other direction. Compared to general-service bulbs, for the same power, these bulbs produce far more light, and (more importantly) light at a higher color temperature, at the expense of greatly reduced life (which may be as short as two hours for a type P1 lamp). The upper temperature limit for the filament is the melting point of the metal. Tungsten is the metal with the highest melting point, 3,695 K (6,191 °F). A 50-hour-life projection bulb, for instance, is designed to operate only 50 °C (122 °F) below that melting point. Such a lamp may achieve up to 22 lumens per watt, compared with 17.5 for a 750-hour general service lamp.
qas: answers: text: 50 °C (122 °F)
question: At what temperature does a typical 50-hour-life projection bulb operate?

answers: text: Tungsten
question: Which metal has the highest melting point?

answers: text: as short as two hours
question: What is the typical life of a P1 lamp?

answers: text: higher color temperature
question: How does the color temperature differ for photographic lighting?

context: Lamps designed for different voltages have different luminous efficacy. For example, a 100-watt, 120-volt lamp will produce about 17.1 lumens per watt. A lamp with the same rated lifetime but designed for 230 V would produce only around 12.8 lumens per watt, and a similar lamp designed for 30 volts (train lighting) would produce as much as 19.8 lumens per watt. Lower voltage lamps have a thicker filament, for the same power rating. They can run hotter for the same lifetime before the filament evaporates.
qas: answers: text: 17.1 lumens per watt
question: How many lumens per watt does a typical 100-watt, 120-volt lamp produce?

answers: text: as much as 19.8 lumens per watt
question: How many lumens per watt does a typical train light produce?

answers: text: Lower voltage lamps have a thicker filament
question: How does filament size relate to voltage level?

answers: text: They can run hotter for the same lifetime before the filament evaporates.
question: What is the effect of a thicker filament on bulb temperature?

context: In addressing the question of who invented the incandescent lamp, historians Robert Friedel and Paul Israel list 22 inventors of incandescent lamps prior to Joseph Swan and Thomas Edison. They conclude that Edison's version was able to outstrip the others because of a combination of three factors: an effective incandescent material, a higher vacuum than others were able to achieve (by use of the Sprengel pump) and a high resistance that made power distribution from a centralized source economically viable.
qas: answers: text: high resistance
question: What made power distribution economically viable in Edison's lamp?

answers: text: 22
question: How many inventors came up with electric lamps before Thomas Edison?

answers: text: by use of the Sprengel pump
question: How did Edison achieve a higher vacuum than other inventors?

answers: text: Robert Friedel and Paul Israel
question: Which historians wrote about the advantages of Edison's lamp over other early versions?