Police

context: A police force is a constituted body of persons empowered by the state to enforce the law, protect property, and limit civil disorder. Their powers include the legitimized use of force. The term is most commonly associated with police services of a sovereign state that are authorized to exercise the police power of that state within a defined legal or territorial area of responsibility. Police forces are often defined as being separate from military or other organizations involved in the defense of the state against foreign aggressors; however, gendarmerie are military units charged with civil policing.
qas: answers: text: enforce the law, protect property, and limit civil disorder
question: What does the state want a police force to do?

answers: text: military units charged with civil policing
question: What are gendarmerie?

answers: text: military or other organizations involved in the defense of the state against foreign aggressors
question: What are police usually separate from?

context: Law enforcement, however, constitutes only part of policing activity. Policing has included an array of activities in different situations, but the predominant ones are concerned with the preservation of order. In some societies, in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, these developed within the context of maintaining the class system and the protection of private property. Many police forces suffer from police corruption to a greater or lesser degree. The police force is usually a public sector service, meaning they are paid through taxes.
qas: answers: text: through taxes
question: How are police usually paid?

answers: text: late 18th and early 19th centuries
question: When were police used to protect the class system?

answers: text: public sector
question: What kind of service are police?

answers: text: corruption
question: What problem do many police forces have?

answers: text: through taxes
question: How are police usually paid?

answers: text: public sector
question: What kind of service are police?

answers: text: late 18th and early 19th centuries
question: When were police used to protect the class system?

answers: text: corruption
question: What problem do many police forces have?

context: Law enforcement in Ancient China was carried out by "prefects" for thousands of years since it developed in both the Chu and Jin kingdoms of the Spring and Autumn period. In Jin, dozens of prefects were spread across the state, each having limited authority and employment period. They were appointed by local magistrates, who reported to higher authorities such as governors, who in turn were appointed by the emperor, and they oversaw the civil administration of their "prefecture", or jurisdiction. Under each prefect were "subprefects" who helped collectively with law enforcement in the area. Some prefects were responsible for handling investigations, much like modern police detectives. Prefects could also be women. The concept of the "prefecture system" spread to other cultures such as Korea and Japan.
qas: answers: text: Chu and Jin
question: Which Chinese kingdoms developed law enforcement?

answers: text: Spring
question: What period was the Chu kingdom in?

answers: text: Autumn
question: What period was the Jin kingdom in?

answers: text: Korea and Japan
question: Which countries adopted the 'prefecture system' from China?

answers: text: prefects
question: What did ancient China call its police?

context: As one of their first acts after end of the War of the Castilian Succession in 1479, Ferdinand and Isabella established the centrally organized and efficient Holy Brotherhood (Santa Hermandad) as a national police force. They adapted an existing brotherhood to the purpose of a general police acting under officials appointed by themselves, and endowed with great powers of summary jurisdiction even in capital cases. The original brotherhoods continued to serve as modest local police-units until their final suppression in 1835.
qas: answers: text: War of the Castilian Succession
question: What war ended in 1479?

answers: text: Ferdinand and Isabella
question: Who formed Spain's first national police force?

answers: text: Santa Hermandad
question: What was Spain's first national police force called, in Spanish?

answers: text: Holy Brotherhood
question: What does Santa Hermandad mean?

answers: text: 1835
question: When did Spain suppress local police units?

context: In France during the Middle Ages, there were two Great Officers of the Crown of France with police responsibilities: The Marshal of France and the Constable of France. The military policing responsibilities of the Marshal of France were delegated to the Marshal's provost, whose force was known as the Marshalcy because its authority ultimately derived from the Marshal. The marshalcy dates back to the Hundred Years' 'War, and some historians trace it back to the early 12th century. Another organisation, the Constabulary (French: Connétablie), was under the command of the Constable of France. The constabulary was regularised as a military body in 1337. Under King Francis I (who reigned 1515–1547), the Maréchaussée was merged with the Constabulary. The resulting force was also known as the Maréchaussée, or, formally, the Constabulary and Marshalcy of France.
qas: answers: text: The Marshal of France and the Constable of France
question: Which two entities in Medieval France had police duties?

answers: text: Great Officers of the Crown of France
question: How were the Marshal and Constable of France formally classified?

answers: text: the Marshalcy
question: What was the Marshal's force called?

answers: text: the Constabulary
question: What was the Constable's force called, in English?

answers: text: Connétablie
question: What was the Constable's force called, in French?

answers: text: The Marshal of France and the Constable of France
question: Which two entities in Medieval France had police duties?

answers: text: Great Officers of the Crown of France
question: How were the Marshal and Constable of France formally classified?

answers: text: the Marshalcy
question: What was the Marshal's force called?

answers: text: the Constabulary
question: What was the Constable's force called, in English?

answers: text: Connétablie
question: What was the Constable's force called, in French?

context: The first centrally organised police force was created by the government of King Louis XIV in 1667 to police the city of Paris, then the largest city in Europe. The royal edict, registered by the Parlement of Paris on March 15, 1667 created the office of lieutenant général de police ("lieutenant general of police"), who was to be the head of the new Paris police force, and defined the task of the police as "ensuring the peace and quiet of the public and of private individuals, purging the city of what may cause disturbances, procuring abundance, and having each and everyone live according to their station and their duties".
qas: answers: text: 1667
question: In what year did Paris get a police force?

answers: text: King Louis XIV
question: Who created Paris's police force?

answers: text: Paris
question: What was the largest European city in 1667?

answers: text: lieutenant general of police
question: What was the title of the head of Paris's police, in English?

answers: text: lieutenant général de police
question: What was the title of the head of Paris's police, in French?

context: This office was first held by Gabriel Nicolas de la Reynie, who had 44 commissaires de police (police commissioners) under his authority. In 1709, these commissioners were assisted by inspecteurs de police (police inspectors). The city of Paris was divided into 16 districts policed by the commissaires, each assigned to a particular district and assisted by a growing bureaucracy. The scheme of the Paris police force was extended to the rest of France by a royal edict of October 1699, resulting in the creation of lieutenants general of police in all large French cities and towns.
qas: answers: text: Gabriel Nicolas de la Reynie
question: Who was Paris's first head of police?

answers: text: 44
question: How many commissioners worked under Reynie?

answers: text: 16
question: How many policing districts was Paris divided into?

answers: text: October 1699
question: When was Paris's police system expanded to the rest of France?

answers: text: 1709
question: When were police inspectors added to Paris's police?

context: The word "police" was borrowed from French into the English language in the 18th century, but for a long time it applied only to French and continental European police forces. The word, and the concept of police itself, were "disliked as a symbol of foreign oppression" (according to Britannica 1911). Before the 19th century, the first use of the word "police" recorded in government documents in the United Kingdom was the appointment of Commissioners of Police for Scotland in 1714 and the creation of the Marine Police in 1798.
qas: answers: text: in the 18th century
question: When did the French language adopt the word 'police'?

answers: text: Britannica 1911
question: Which dictionary said police were 'a symbol of foreign oppression'?

answers: text: English
question: What language did French borrow the word 'police' from?

answers: text: 1798
question: When were the Marine Police created in the UK?

answers: text: the appointment of Commissioners of Police for Scotland in 1714
question: What was the first use of 'police' in the UK?

context: In 1797, Patrick Colquhoun was able to persuade the West Indies merchants who operated at the Pool of London on the River Thames, to establish a police force at the docks to prevent rampant theft that was causing annual estimated losses of £500,000 worth of cargo. The idea of a police, as it then existed in France, was considered as a potentially undesirable foreign import. In building the case for the police in the face of England's firm anti-police sentiment, Colquhoun framed the political rationale on economic indicators to show that a police dedicated to crime prevention was "perfectly congenial to the principle of the British constitution." Moreover, he went so far as to praise the French system, which had reached "the greatest degree of perfection" in his estimation.
qas: answers: text: Patrick Colquhoun
question: Who convinced the West Indies merchants in London to establish police?

answers: text: docks
question: Where did the West Indies merchants in London create a police force?

answers: text: 1797
question: When did the West Indies merchants in London create a police force?

answers: text: £500,000
question: How much cargo had been being stolen from West Indies merchants in London each year?

answers: text: "the greatest degree of perfection"
question: How did Colquhoun praise the French police?

context: With the initial investment of £4,200, the new trial force of the Thames River Police began with about 50 men charged with policing 33,000 workers in the river trades, of whom Colquhoun claimed 11,000 were known criminals and "on the game." The force was a success after its first year, and his men had "established their worth by saving £122,000 worth of cargo and by the rescuing of several lives." Word of this success spread quickly, and the government passed the Marine Police Bill on 28 July 1800, transforming it from a private to public police agency; now the oldest police force in the world. Colquhoun published a book on the experiment, The Commerce and Policing of the River Thames. It found receptive audiences far outside London, and inspired similar forces in other cities, notably, New York City, Dublin, and Sydney.
qas: answers: text: 50
question: What was the initial size of the Thames River Police force?

answers: text: 33,000
question: How many dock workers were the Thames River Police policing?

answers: text: 11,000
question: How many dock workers did Colquhoun say were criminals?

answers: text: 28 July 180
question: When was the Thames River Police made a public service?

answers: text: £122,000
question: How much cargo theft did the Thames River Police prevent in its first year?

context: Colquhoun's utilitarian approach to the problem – using a cost-benefit argument to obtain support from businesses standing to benefit – allowed him to achieve what Henry and John Fielding failed for their Bow Street detectives. Unlike the stipendiary system at Bow Street, the river police were full-time, salaried officers prohibited from taking private fees. His other contribution was the concept of preventive policing; his police were to act as a highly visible deterrent to crime by their permanent presence on the Thames. Colquhoun's innovations were a critical development leading up to Robert Peel's "new" police three decades later.
qas: answers: text: stipendiary system
question: How did the Bow Street group pay their employees?

answers: text: Henry and John Fielding
question: Who started the Bow Street detectives?

answers: text: Robert Peel
question: Who came up with the concept of the 'new' police?

answers: text: full-time, salaried officers prohibited from taking private fees
question: How did the Thames River Police pay their employees?

answers: text: full-time
question: What schedule did the Thames River Police employees work?

context: Meanwhile, the authorities in Glasgow, Scotland successfully petitioned the government to pass the Glasgow Police Act establishing the City of Glasgow Police in 1800. Other Scottish towns soon followed suit and set up their own police forces through acts of parliament. In Ireland, the Irish Constabulary Act of 1822 marked the beginning of the Royal Irish Constabulary. The Act established a force in each barony with chief constables and inspectors general under the control of the civil administration at Dublin Castle. By 1841 this force numbered over 8,600 men.
qas: answers: text: Glasgow Police Act
question: Which law established Glasgow's police?

answers: text: 1800
question: When was Glasgow's police force established?

answers: text: Irish Constabulary Act
question: Which law established Ireland's police?

answers: text: 1822
question: When was Ireland's police force established?

answers: text: Royal Irish Constabulary
question: What was Ireland's police force called?

context: Peel, widely regarded as the father of modern policing, was heavily influenced by the social and legal philosophy of Jeremy Bentham, who called for a strong and centralized, but politically neutral, police force for the maintenance of social order, for the protection of people from crime and to act as a visible deterrent to urban crime and disorder. Peel decided to standardise the police force as an official paid profession, to organise it in a civilian fashion, and to make it answerable to the public.
qas: answers: text: Peel
question: Who was the 'father of modern policing'?

answers: text: Jeremy Bentham
question: Whose philosophy influenced Peel?

answers: text: neutral
question: What political position did Bentham think police should have?

answers: text: as an official paid profession
question: How did Peel standardize police?

answers: text: in a civilian fashion
question: How did Peel organize police?

context: The 1829 Metropolitan Police Act created a modern police force by limiting the purview of the force and its powers, and envisioning it as merely an organ of the judicial system. Their job was apolitical; to maintain the peace and apprehend criminals for the courts to process according to the law. This was very different to the 'Continental model' of the police force that had been developed in France, where the police force worked within the parameters of the absolutist state as an extension of the authority of the monarch and functioned as part of the governing state.
qas: answers: text: 1829
question: When was the Metropolitan Police Act passed?

answers: text: the judicial system
question: What did the Metropolitan Police Act say police were a subset of?

answers: text: France
question: Where was the 'Continental model' of police from?

answers: text: the authority of the monarch
question: What part of the government did French police work under?

context: In 1566, the first police investigator of Rio de Janeiro was recruited. By the 17th century, most captaincies already had local units with law enforcement functions. On July 9, 1775 a Cavalry Regiment was created in the state of Minas Gerais for maintaining law and order. In 1808, the Portuguese royal family relocated to Brazil, because of the French invasion of Portugal. King João VI established the "Intendência Geral de Polícia" (General Police Intendancy) for investigations. He also created a Royal Police Guard for Rio de Janeiro in 1809. In 1831, after independence, each province started organizing its local "military police", with order maintenance tasks. The Federal Railroad Police was created in 1852.
qas: answers: text: 1566
question: When did Rio get its first police investigator?

answers: text: most captaincies already had local units with law enforcement functions
question: How had the Rio police grown by the 17th century?

answers: text: July 9, 1775
question: When did Minas Gerais get a cavalry regiment?

answers: text: Brazil
question: Where did the Portuguese royal family move in 1808?

answers: text: French
question: Who invaded Portugal in 1808?

context: In Canada, the Royal Newfoundland Constabulary was founded in 1729, making it the first police force in present-day Canada. It was followed in 1834 by the Toronto Police, and in 1838 by police forces in Montreal and Quebec City. A national force, the Dominion Police, was founded in 1868. Initially the Dominion Police provided security for parliament, but its responsibilities quickly grew. The famous Royal Northwest Mounted Police was founded in 1873. The merger of these two police forces in 1920 formed the world-famous Royal Canadian Mounted Police.
qas: answers: text: 1729
question: When did Canada get its first police?

answers: text: Royal Newfoundland Constabulary
question: What was Canada's first police force?

answers: text: 1834
question: When was the Toronto police created?

answers: text: 1838
question: When was the Montreal police created?

answers: text: 1873
question: When were the first Mounties created?

context: In the American Old West, policing was often of very poor quality.[citation needed] The Army often provided some policing alongside poorly resourced sheriffs and temporarily organized posses.[citation needed] Public organizations were supplemented by private contractors, notably the Pinkerton National Detective Agency, which was hired by individuals, businessmen, local governments and the federal government. At its height, the Pinkerton Agency's numbers exceeded those of the United States Army.[citation needed]
qas: answers: text: poorly resourced sheriffs and temporarily organized posses
question: What were the Old West's local police options?

answers: text: The Army
question: Which military branch helped the Old West's inadequate local police?

answers: text: Army
question: Which military branch did the Pinkertons exceed at their height?

answers: text: Pinkerton National Detective Agency
question: Which private contractor acted as police for businesses?

context: Michel Foucault claims that the contemporary concept of police as a paid and funded functionary of the state was developed by German and French legal scholars and practitioners in Public administration and Statistics in the 17th and early 18th centuries, most notably with Nicolas Delamare's Traité de la Police ("Treatise on the Police"), first published in 1705. The German Polizeiwissenschaft (Science of Police) first theorized by Philipp von Hörnigk a 17th-century Austrian Political economist and civil servant and much more famously by Johann Heinrich Gottlob Justi who produced an important theoretical work known as Cameral science on the formulation of police. Foucault cites Magdalene Humpert author of Bibliographie der Kameralwissenschaften (1937) in which the author makes note of a substantial bibliography was produced of over 4000 pieces of the practice of Polizeiwissenschaft however, this maybe a mistranslation of Foucault's own work the actual source of Magdalene Humpert states over 14,000 items were produced from the 16th century dates ranging from 1520-1850.
qas: answers: text: German and French
question: Which countries' scholars developed the contemporary police concept?

answers: text: 1705
question: When was the 'Treatise on the Police' published?

answers: text: Traité de la Police
question: What was the 'Treatise on the Police' called in French?

answers: text: Nicolas Delamare
question: Who wrote the 'Treatise on the Police'?

answers: text: Political economist and civil servant
question: What was von Hornigk's career?

context: As conceptualized by the Polizeiwissenschaft,according to Foucault the police had an administrative,economic and social duty ("procuring abundance"). It was in charge of demographic concerns and needed to be incorporated within the western political philosophy system of raison d'état and therefore giving the superficial appearance of empowering the population (and unwittingly supervising the population), which, according to mercantilist theory, was to be the main strength of the state. Thus, its functions largely overreached simple law enforcement activities and included public health concerns, urban planning (which was important because of the miasma theory of disease; thus, cemeteries were moved out of town, etc.), and surveillance of prices.
qas: answers: text: mercantilist theory
question: Which economic theory did Foucault say supported the police?

answers: text: procuring abundance
question: How did Foucault describe the social duty of police?

answers: text: Foucault
question: Who wrote about Polizeiwissenschaft?

answers: text: because of the miasma theory of disease; thus, cemeteries were moved out of town, etc.
question: Why did the functions of police grow beyond law enforcement to urban planning?

context: Edwin Chadwick's 1829 article, "Preventive police" in the London Review, argued that prevention ought to be the primary concern of a police body, which was not the case in practice. The reason, argued Chadwick, was that "A preventive police would act more immediately by placing difficulties in obtaining the objects of temptation." In contrast to a deterrent of punishment, a preventive police force would deter criminality by making crime cost-ineffective - "crime doesn't pay". In the second draft of his 1829 Police Act, the "object" of the new Metropolitan Police, was changed by Robert Peel to the "principal object," which was the "prevention of crime." Later historians would attribute the perception of England's "appearance of orderliness and love of public order" to the preventive principle entrenched in Peel's police system.
qas: answers: text: Edwin Chadwick
question: Who wrote 'Preventive Police'?

answers: text: 1829
question: When was 'Preventive Police' published?

answers: text: London Review
question: Where was 'Preventive Police' published?

answers: text: prevention
question: What did Chadwick say police should be focused on?

answers: text: a deterrent of punishment
question: What was the alternative to prevention?

context: Despite popular conceptions promoted by movies and television, many US police departments prefer not to maintain officers in non-patrol bureaus and divisions beyond a certain period of time, such as in the detective bureau, and instead maintain policies that limit service in such divisions to a specified period of time, after which officers must transfer out or return to patrol duties.[citation needed] This is done in part based upon the perception that the most important and essential police work is accomplished on patrol in which officers become acquainted with their beats, prevent crime by their presence, respond to crimes in progress, manage crises, and practice their skills.[citation needed]
qas: answers: text: patrol duties
question: What do some police departments make detectives go back to periodically?

answers: text: on patrol
question: Where do some think the most important police work happens?

answers: text: prevent crime by their presence
question: How do patrol officers affect crime?

context: The terms international policing, transnational policing, and/or global policing began to be used from the early 1990s onwards to describe forms of policing that transcended the boundaries of the sovereign nation-state (Nadelmann, 1993), (Sheptycki, 1995). These terms refer in variable ways to practices and forms for policing that, in some sense, transcend national borders. This includes a variety of practices, but international police cooperation, criminal intelligence exchange between police agencies working in different nation-states, and police development-aid to weak, failed or failing states are the three types that have received the most scholarly attention.
qas: answers: text: 1993
question: When did Nadelmann write about global policing?

answers: text: 1995
question: When did Sheptycki write about global policing?

answers: text: international policing, transnational policing, and/or global policing
question: What terms have been used to describe policing beyond one country?

context: Historical studies reveal that policing agents have undertaken a variety of cross-border police missions for many years (Deflem, 2002). For example, in the 19th century a number of European policing agencies undertook cross-border surveillance because of concerns about anarchist agitators and other political radicals. A notable example of this was the occasional surveillance by Prussian police of Karl Marx during the years he remained resident in London. The interests of public police agencies in cross-border co-operation in the control of political radicalism and ordinary law crime were primarily initiated in Europe, which eventually led to the establishment of Interpol before the Second World War. There are also many interesting examples of cross-border policing under private auspices and by municipal police forces that date back to the 19th century (Nadelmann, 1993). It has been established that modern policing has transgressed national boundaries from time to time almost from its inception. It is also generally agreed that in the post–Cold War era this type of practice became more significant and frequent (Sheptycki, 2000).
qas: answers: text: 2002
question: When did Deflem write about cross-border policing?

answers: text: anarchist agitators and other political radicals
question: What groups did European police work against across borders in the 19th century?

answers: text: Prussian
question: Which police force monitored Karl Marx?

answers: text: Interpol
question: What international police agency was created before WW2?

answers: text: post–Cold War
question: In what era did cross-border policing increase?

context: Not a lot of empirical work on the practices of inter/transnational information and intelligence sharing has been undertaken. A notable exception is James Sheptycki's study of police cooperation in the English Channel region (2002), which provides a systematic content analysis of information exchange files and a description of how these transnational information and intelligence exchanges are transformed into police case-work. The study showed that transnational police information sharing was routinized in the cross-Channel region from 1968 on the basis of agreements directly between the police agencies and without any formal agreement between the countries concerned. By 1992, with the signing of the Schengen Treaty, which formalized aspects of police information exchange across the territory of the European Union, there were worries that much, if not all, of this intelligence sharing was opaque, raising questions about the efficacy of the accountability mechanisms governing police information sharing in Europe (Joubert and Bevers, 1996).
qas: answers: text: the English Channel region
question: Where did Sheptycki study police cooperation?

answers: text: 2002
question: When did Sheptycki write about police cooperation?

answers: text: 1968
question: When did the Channel region establish routine cross-border policing?

answers: text: 1992
question: When was the Schengen Treaty signed?

answers: text: formalized aspects of police information exchange across the territory of the European Union
question: What did the Schengen Treaty do for policing?

context: Studies of this kind outside of Europe are even rarer, so it is difficult to make generalizations, but one small-scale study that compared transnational police information and intelligence sharing practices at specific cross-border locations in North America and Europe confirmed that low visibility of police information and intelligence sharing was a common feature (Alain, 2001). Intelligence-led policing is now common practice in most advanced countries (Ratcliffe, 2007) and it is likely that police intelligence sharing and information exchange has a common morphology around the world (Ratcliffe, 2007). James Sheptycki has analyzed the effects of the new information technologies on the organization of policing-intelligence and suggests that a number of 'organizational pathologies' have arisen that make the functioning of security-intelligence processes in transnational policing deeply problematic. He argues that transnational police information circuits help to "compose the panic scenes of the security-control society". The paradoxical effect is that, the harder policing agencies work to produce security, the greater are feelings of insecurity.
qas: answers: text: outside of Europe
question: Where has cross-border policing been most under-studied?

answers: text: Alain
question: Who compared transnational police information and intelligence sharing practices?

answers: text: Intelligence-led
question: What kind of policing has become common practice?

answers: text: make the functioning of security-intelligence processes in transnational policing deeply problematic
question: What problems did Sheptycki say 'organizational pathologies' have caused for police?

answers: text: the harder policing agencies work to produce security, the greater are feelings of insecurity
question: What paradox did Sheptycki point out?

context: Police development-aid to weak, failed or failing states is another form of transnational policing that has garnered attention. This form of transnational policing plays an increasingly important role in United Nations peacekeeping and this looks set to grow in the years ahead, especially as the international community seeks to develop the rule of law and reform security institutions in States recovering from conflict (Goldsmith and Sheptycki, 2007) With transnational police development-aid the imbalances of power between donors and recipients are stark and there are questions about the applicability and transportability of policing models between jurisdictions (Hills, 2009).
qas: answers: text: in United Nations peacekeeping
question: Where has transnational policing become more important?

answers: text: Goldsmith and Sheptycki
question: Who wrote about police development-aid in 2007?

answers: text: weak, failed or failing states
question: What kind of countries get assistance with policing?

answers: text: With transnational police development-aid the imbalances of power between donors and recipients are stark
question: What concern did Hills raise about power imbalances?

answers: text: there are questions about the applicability and transportability of policing models between jurisdictions
question: What concern did Hills raise about police models?

context: Perhaps the greatest question regarding the future development of transnational policing is: in whose interest is it? At a more practical level, the question translates into one about how to make transnational policing institutions democratically accountable (Sheptycki, 2004). For example, according to the Global Accountability Report for 2007 (Lloyd, et al. 2007) Interpol had the lowest scores in its category (IGOs), coming in tenth with a score of 22% on overall accountability capabilities (p. 19). As this report points out, and the existing academic literature on transnational policing seems to confirm, this is a secretive area and one not open to civil society involvement.
qas: answers: text: Lloyd, et al.
question: Who wrote the Global Accountability Report for 2007?

answers: text: this is a secretive area and one not open to civil society involvement
question: Why is transnational policing so unaccountable?

answers: text: 22%
question: How accountable is Interpol?

answers: text: Interpol
question: What is the least-accountable IGO?

context: They can also be armed with non-lethal (more accurately known as "less than lethal" or "less-lethal") weaponry, particularly for riot control. Non-lethal weapons include batons, tear gas, riot control agents, rubber bullets, riot shields, water cannons and electroshock weapons. Police officers often carry handcuffs to restrain suspects. The use of firearms or deadly force is typically a last resort only to be used when necessary to save human life, although some jurisdictions (such as Brazil) allow its use against fleeing felons and escaped convicts. A "shoot-to-kill" policy was recently introduced in South Africa, which allows police to use deadly force against any person who poses a significant threat to them or civilians. With the country having one of the highest rates of violent crime, president Jacob Zuma states that South Africa needs to handle crime differently from other countries.
qas: answers: text: "less than lethal" or "less-lethal"
question: What should non-lethal weapons properly be called?

answers: text: batons, tear gas, riot control agents, rubber bullets, riot shields, water cannons and electroshock weapons
question: What are common less-lethal weapons?

answers: text: The use of firearms or deadly force
question: What is supposed to be the last resort for police?

answers: text: allows police to use deadly force against any person who poses a significant threat to them or civilians
question: What is South Africa's "shoot-to-kill" policy?

answers: text: Brazil
question: Where can police shoot fleeing convicts?

context: Modern police forces make extensive use of radio communications equipment, carried both on the person and installed in vehicles, to co-ordinate their work, share information, and get help quickly. In recent years, vehicle-installed computers have enhanced the ability of police communications, enabling easier dispatching of calls, criminal background checks on persons of interest to be completed in a matter of seconds, and updating officers' daily activity log and other, required reports on a real-time basis. Other common pieces of police equipment include flashlights/torches, whistles, police notebooks and "ticket books" or citations.
qas: answers: text: radio
question: How do modern police often communicate?

answers: text: carried both on the person and installed in vehicles
question: Where do police have radios?

answers: text: to co-ordinate their work, share information, and get help quickly
question: Why do police use radios?

answers: text: criminal background checks on persons of interest to be completed in a matter of seconds
question: What have computers in police cars enabled for investigation?

answers: text: updating officers' daily activity log and other, required reports on a real-time basis
question: What have computers in police cars enabled for reporting?

context: Unmarked vehicles are used primarily for sting operations or apprehending criminals without alerting them to their presence. Some police forces use unmarked or minimally marked cars for traffic law enforcement, since drivers slow down at the sight of marked police vehicles and unmarked vehicles make it easier for officers to catch speeders and traffic violators. This practice is controversial, with for example, New York State banning this practice in 1996 on the grounds that it endangered motorists who might be pulled over by people impersonating police officers.
qas: answers: text: primarily for sting operations or apprehending criminals without alerting them to their presence
question: When do police often use unmarked cars?

answers: text: for traffic law enforcement
question: What use of unmarked cars is controversial?

answers: text: it endangered motorists who might be pulled over by people impersonating police officers
question: Why did New York State ban unmarked cars for traffic cops?

answers: text: 1996
question: When did New York State ban unmarked cars for traffic cops?

context: Motorcycles are also commonly used, particularly in locations that a car may not be able to reach, to control potential public order situations involving meetings of motorcyclists and often in escort duties where motorcycle police officers can quickly clear a path for escorted vehicles. Bicycle patrols are used in some areas because they allow for more open interaction with the public. In addition, their quieter operation can facilitate approaching suspects unawares and can help in pursuing them attempting to escape on foot.
qas: answers: text: they allow for more open interaction with the public
question: Why do some cops use bicycles to patrol?

answers: text: their quieter operation can facilitate approaching suspects unawares and can help in pursuing them attempting to escape on foot
question: How do bicycles help catch some suspects?

answers: text: Motorcycles
question: What do police use to control motorcyclist events?

context: In the United States, August Vollmer introduced other reforms, including education requirements for police officers. O.W. Wilson, a student of Vollmer, helped reduce corruption and introduce professionalism in Wichita, Kansas, and later in the Chicago Police Department. Strategies employed by O.W. Wilson included rotating officers from community to community to reduce their vulnerability to corruption, establishing of a non-partisan police board to help govern the police force, a strict merit system for promotions within the department, and an aggressive recruiting drive with higher police salaries to attract professionally qualified officers. During the professionalism era of policing, law enforcement agencies concentrated on dealing with felonies and other serious crime, rather than broader focus on crime prevention.
qas: answers: text: August Vollmer
question: Who was O.W. Wilson a student of?

answers: text: August Vollmer
question: Who introduced education requirements for US police?

answers: text: to reduce their vulnerability to corruption
question: Why did Wilson rotate officers between communities?

answers: text: Wichita, Kansas, and later in the Chicago Police Department
question: Where did Wilson reduce police corruption?

answers: text: an aggressive recruiting drive with higher police salaries
question: How did Wilson recruit more qualified police?

context: In Miranda the court created safeguards against self-incriminating statements made after an arrest. The court held that "The prosecution may not use statements, whether exculpatory or inculpatory, stemming from questioning initiated by law enforcement officers after a person has been taken into custody or otherwise deprived of his freedom of action in any significant way, unless it demonstrates the use of procedural safeguards effective to secure the Fifth Amendment's privilege against self-incrimination"
qas: answers: text: safeguards against self-incriminating statements made after an arrest
question: What does Miranda provide?

answers: text: self-incrimination
question: What does the 5th Amendment protect against?

answers: text: Fifth
question: Which amendment prevents self-incrimination?

context: In Terry v. Ohio (1968) the court divided seizure into two parts, the investigatory stop and arrest. The court further held that during an investigatory stop a police officer's search " [is] confined to what [is] minimally necessary to determine whether [a suspect] is armed, and the intrusion, which [is] made for the sole purpose of protecting himself and others nearby, [is] confined to ascertaining the presence of weapons" (U.S. Supreme Court). Before Terry, every police encounter constituted an arrest, giving the police officer the full range of search authority. Search authority during a Terry stop (investigatory stop) is limited to weapons only.
qas: answers: text: 1968
question: When was the Terry v. Ohio case?

answers: text: investigatory stop and arrest
question: Which two parts did Terry v. Ohio divide seizure into?

answers: text: what [is] minimally necessary to determine whether [a suspect] is armed
question: What is an investigatory stop's search limited to?

context: All police officers in the United Kingdom, whatever their actual rank, are 'constables' in terms of their legal position. This means that a newly appointed constable has the same arrest powers as a Chief Constable or Commissioner. However, certain higher ranks have additional powers to authorize certain aspects of police operations, such as a power to authorize a search of a suspect's house (section 18 PACE in England and Wales) by an officer of the rank of Inspector, or the power to authorize a suspect's detention beyond 24 hours by a Superintendent.
qas: answers: text: constables
question: What is the legal status of UK police officers?

answers: text: authorize a search of a suspect's house
question: What can only Inspector-ranked UK officers do?

answers: text: authorize a suspect's detention beyond 24 hours
question: What can only Superintendent-ranked UK officers do?

answers: text: arrest
question: What powers of a new UK police officer are the same as a Commissioner's?

context: In contrast, the police are entitled to protect private rights in some jurisdictions. To ensure that the police would not interfere in the regular competencies of the courts of law, some police acts require that the police may only interfere in such cases where protection from courts cannot be obtained in time, and where, without interference of the police, the realization of the private right would be impeded. This would, for example, allow police to establish a restaurant guest's identity and forward it to the innkeeper in a case where the guest cannot pay the bill at nighttime because his wallet had just been stolen from the restaurant table.
qas: answers: text: To ensure that the police would not interfere in the regular competencies of the courts of law
question: Why do some police acts limit when police can interfere without court orders?

answers: text: the realization of the private right
question: What could be impeded without police interference?

answers: text: establish a restaurant guest's identity and forward it to the innkeeper
question: How could police help the owner when a restaurant guest doesn't pay because their wallet got stolen?