Effect of digital literacy on social entrepreneurial intentions and nascent behaviours among students and practitioners in mass communication

<jats:title>Abstract</jats:title><jats:p>Because journalism and mass communication have changed dramatically in the digital era, exploring alternative career paths for students and practitioners in mass communication may offer valuable insights for the future of the field. Considering the emphasis on decent work opportunities and responsible production practices outlined in the Sustainable Development Goals, this study evaluates the determinants of social entrepreneurial intentions and behaviours of students and practitioners of mass communication in Taiwan. A quantitative survey method is adopted. In total, 814 participants, consisting of 373 students and 441 practitioners, provided valid responses, which were analysed utilising structural equation modelling. The results in both samples indicate positive direct effects of perceived social support, perceived social awareness of peers, and digital literacy on social entrepreneurial intentions, and positive direct effects of digital literacy and social entrepreneurial intentions on social entrepreneurial behaviours. The study identifies digital literacy as a critical element for fostering social entrepreneurial intentions and behaviours. Moreover, educational implications and suggestions are also provided.</jats:p>

section_name: Introduction

section_content: overnments, corporations, and the public are increasingly aware of ethical business practices, sustainable practices, and social responsibility. Within the mass communication sector, complying with ethics and corporate social responsibility (CSR) has become essential. For example, public relations practitioners must report a corporation's social, economic, and environmental contributions to various stakeholders (Rim et al., 2019). Additionally, journalists should follow ethical and professional guidelines when reporting news stories (Henkel et al., 2020; Munno et al., 2022). Demand for mass communication sectors to contribute to society has risen, and studies that evaluate approaches to generating social value and practising CSR are necessary. Apart from donating to charities, organising corporate volunteer teams, and engaging in CSR activities, means of creating social value should be explored. 

The emergence of social entrepreneurship has attracted attention globally, particularly as a key aspect of sustainable development goals (SDGs) set by governments (Ip and Liang, 2023). Social entrepreneurship is defined as 'the process of identifying, evaluating and exploiting opportunities aiming at social value creation by means of commercial, market-based activities and of the use of a wide range of resources' (Bacq and Janssen, 2011, p. 388). In social entrepreneurship, an entrepreneur engages in commercial activities instead of depending on donations and grants to acquire financial resources for ensuring venture sustainability, obtaining reinvestment, and addressing social problems. Major social problems including poverty, unemployment, and global warming, have raised concerns among communities worldwide. Because governments have been unable to resolve social problems, social entrepreneurship has become one of the attractive alternatives. 

Studies have examined the determinants or antecedents of social entrepreneurial intentions (SEI) in accordance with the theory of planned behaviour (Hockerts, 2017; Ip et al., 2018; Ip et al., 2021; Liu et al., 2019). However, these studies have merely incorporated intentions as a dependent variable and assumed that intentions generate behaviours; therefore, these studies have failed to account for social entrepreneurial behaviours as an outcome of SEI. Analysing the determinants of entrepreneurial intentions may predict entrepreneurial behaviours and actions (Lee et al., 2011). Although some studies have reported a significant association between entrepreneurial intentions and entrepreneurial behaviours (Shirokova et al., 2016), intentions may not always generate behaviours because various constraints, such as action doubt or action aversion, can prevent intentions from becoming actions (Ip et al., 2022; Van Gelderen et al., 2015). Ip et al. (2022) operationalised social entrepreneurial behaviours and explored the determinants of these behaviours; however, the study did not incorporate SEI as an antecedent of nascent social entrepreneurial behaviours. Therefore, further investigating the influence of SEI on behaviours is essential. 

This study has four primary goals. First, the study revisits the determinants of SEI. Second, digital literacy and perceived social awareness of peers are incorporated as predictors of SEI. Third, the study investigates the effect of SEI on social entrepreneurial behaviours. Fourth, both samples of university students and practitioners of mass communication are evaluated, in order to improve the robustness of the results.
section_name: G

section_content: Rationale for focusing on the mass communication sectors Characteristics of students and practitioners in mass communication. Mass communication includes the sectors of strategic communication (e. g., public relations and advertising) and news media (e. g., journalism; Crawford et al., 2013). An analysis of the different motivations of students majoring in mass communication revealed that students studying news media are more likely to be motivated by altruism, especially a desire to impact the world and highlight unethical behaviours, whereas students studying strategic communication are more motivated by revenue and profit (Crawford et al., 2013). These motivations in both sectors are consistent with the values of social entrepreneurship, which emphasises both social and economic values. Therefore, students and practitioners in mass communication should engage in social entrepreneurship through their education; doing so can foster an entrepreneurial atmosphere that influences the intentions of mass communication students to become an entrepreneur (Buschow and Laugemann, 2020). 

Changes in journalism during the digital era. Traditional media have been substantially influenced by the emergence of social media (Liu et al., 2019). Due to new technology and media, the amount of financial capital required to establish a news media outlet has decreased considerably (Casero-Ripollés et al., 2016). In addition, the aggregation of information and people on the Internet has enabled all people to become news producers, and this has created challenges for journalists (Liang, 2020). The new media ecology has led to layoffs in different countries, including in Taiwan; therefore, journalists and media practitioners may consider alternative career paths (Liu et al., 2018). Additionally, some media outlets have changed full-time journalist roles into contractor or freelancer roles to reduce their labour costs (Liu et al., 2018; Storey et al., 2005). 

Exploring and evaluating alternative editorial and business models is necessary. Smith (2012) suggested that the profit margins of commercial media companies are consistently decreasing, and hence profits are emphasised more than meaningful journalism. This situation has contributed to the emergence of 'social entrepreneurial journalism', which encourages the adoption of novel business models for sustainable reporting on underreported topics and social issues, especially for underserved communities (Liu et al., 2019; Smith, 2012). Job cuts and resignations may occur in the Taiwanese media industry (Liu et al., 2019), and social entrepreneurial journalism can address deficiencies in the media sector and provide a new role for journalists. 

Theoretical foundation of the conceptual model. The conceptual model was grounded in the theory of planned behaviour and social cognitive career theory. 

The theory of planned behaviour emphasises the effects of attitude towards behaviour, perceived behavioural control, and subjective norms on behavioural intentions (Ajzen, 1991). Mair and Noboa (2006) proposed that empathy can be a proxy for attitude towards engaging in social entrepreneurship, perceived social support and self-efficacy can be proxies for perceived behavioural control, and moral judgement can be a proxy for subjective norms. Hockerts (2017) empirically tested an extended model, which incorporated experiences with social problems as an antecedent to empathy, perceived social support, social entrepreneurial self-efficacy, and moral obligation. Studies have also investigated other variables, such as outcome expectations (i. e., attitudes towards engaging in social entrepreneurship) and social responsibility (i. e., subjective norms; Ip et al., 2021). 

Social cognitive career theory, as a vocational theory, should also be considered in analysing the determinants of SEI (Tran and Von Korflesch, 2016). With an increasing number of young people seeking meaningful work rather than solely working for money, social entrepreneurship has emerged as a viable career option (Ip et al., 2021). The theory highlights the importance of social cognitive factors, including self-efficacy and outcome expectations, in shaping an individual's career interests and goals (Lent et al., 2002). The theory regards self-efficacy as a dynamic set of self-beliefs rather than a fixed trait; therefore, it can be acquired and changed through means such as personal accomplishment or experience (Lent et al., 2002). In addition, Liguori et al. (2018) identified several personal variables that influence self-efficacy and outcome expectations with reference to the social cognitive career theory; for example, prior entrepreneurial and work experiences tend to generate favourable selfefficacy beliefs. Tran and Von Korflesch (2016) also claim that contextual factors, such as experiences gained from education and role models, should be considered as antecedents of self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and SEI. These studies provide evidence of the importance of incorporating experience, self-efficacy, and outcome expectations in the model. 

However, the studies adopted the theory of planned behaviour did not evaluate the effects of intentions and perceived behavioural control on behaviours (Hockerts, 2017; Ip et al., 2021), which are addressed by the theory of planned behaviour. Although the positive effect of entrepreneurial intentions on behaviours has been established (Kautonen et al., 2015), investigating the determinants of SEI and behaviours is necessary for several reasons. First, social entrepreneurial behaviours have rarely been empirically tested. Most social entrepreneurial studies have only tested SEI, because these studies simply assume that intentions lead to social entrepreneurial actions (Hockerts, 2017; Ip et al., 2017; Ip and Liang, 2023; Liu et al., 2019). Although Ip and colleagues (2022) operationalised a scale for measuring social entrepreneurial behaviours, the influence of SEI on behaviours was not tested. 

Second, the effect of intentions on behaviours may not always be strong (Darmanto and Yuliari, 2018). One explanation may be that the transformation of entrepreneurial intentions into behaviours is affected by various factors, such as entrepreneurial motivation, influence of peers, and university support (Alam et al., 2019; Meoli et al., 2020). For instance, initiatives promoting entrepreneurship by offering entrepreneurship courses or programs can enable students to acquire the critical skills and knowledge necessary for establishing a venture, which transforms intentions into actions (Meoli et al., 2020). However, intentions can be postponed or abandoned; if behaviours are expected only after a long period, factors such as action doubt, intention stability, or changes to preferences can occur (Sheeran and Webb, 2016; Van Gelderen et al., 2015). 

Third, whether intentions are easily transformed into actions depends on the context of the study. If a behaviour is difficult to perform, an individual may not engage in that behaviour even if their intention is strong (Sheeran and Webb, 2016). The difficulty of performing a behaviour depends on the capabilities, resources, opportunities, time, and effort of the individual (Sheeran and Webb, 2016). Indeed, the effort required to establish a social enterprise is quite high. Because social entrepreneurship addresses the creation of both social and economic values, the effort required to identify social entrepreneurial opportunities and develop an innovative strategy that will return a profit from selling products is vital (Ip and Liang, 2021). For instance, an individual should have financial capital, capabilities in starting and operating a business, knowledge in business and management, knowledge in social problems, and skills to identify innovative solutions for a social problem. Acquiring the necessary capabilities and knowledge often requires time, motivation, and effort. Because starting a social enterprise is relatively difficult, analysing the effect of SEI on behaviours is essential. 

The present study investigates the effect of digital literacy on SEI and behaviours. Communication practitioners can use digital media to share information and interact with various stakeholders, particularly young adults (Cismaru et al., 2018). Because mass communication sectors emphasise digital applications, Cismaru et al. (2018) identified the requirements for operating on social media, processing online information, understanding the uncontrollability of information on social media, and reaching specific goals by capitalising on platforms for public relations practices. For online news workers, digital competencies are essential for daily work and include the abilities to use digital tools for information dissemination, interacting with users and followers on online platforms, sharing articles on social media, editing pictures on Photoshop, and researching with search engines (Krumsvik, 2015; Reyes-de-Cózar et al., 2022). 

Hypothesis development. Perceived social support is the 'actual and potential resources individuals obtain from knowing others, being part of a social network with them, or merely from being known to them and having a good reputation' (Baron and Markman, 2000, p. 107). Perceived social support is a significant and strong predictor of SEI (Ip et al., 2017; Liu et al., 2019; Seyoum et al., 2021). Social support is vital for encouraging and assisting individuals to become social entrepreneurs because social capital and networks are critical for exchanging ideas on new ventures and acquiring financial and human capital (Tran and Von Korflesch, 2016). Social entrepreneurship requires innovative ideas and the identification of appropriate markets; thus, gathering accurate and useful information from significant others is critical (Seyoum et al., 2021). 

H1. Perceived social support positively influences (a) SEI and (b) social entrepreneurial behaviours. 

Social entrepreneurial self-efficacy is an individual's belief in their ability to solve social problems (Hockerts, 2017). Social entrepreneurial self-efficacy is an essential element in recognising social entrepreneurial opportunities and identifying solutions to social problems (Urban, 2020). Individuals who possess a high level of self-efficacy tend to believe that they can establish social enterprises and overcome barriers during the start-up process, which fosters proactive and innovative actions towards social entrepreneurship (Nsereko et al., 2021). Studies have reported that social entrepreneurial self-efficacy is an important predictor of SEI or behaviours, such as Indian students (Tiwari et al., 2017), Taiwanese media workers (Liu et al., 2019), and the general Taiwanese public (Ip et al., 2021; Ip et al., 2022). 

H2. Social entrepreneurial self-efficacy positively influences (a) SEI and (b) social entrepreneurial behaviours. 

Outcome expectations refer to the perceived efficacy and consequences of engaging in social entrepreneurship (Ip et al., 2021). In one study on Korean students studying cultural and artistic majors, the outcome expectations of students influenced their interest in entrepreneurship (Jeong and Choi, 2017). Tran and Von Korflesch (2016) proposed a conceptual model based on social cognitive career theory, which suggested that outcome expectations can positively predict SEI. Another empirical study revealed that the outcome expectations of social entrepreneurship positively influence SEI; thus, an individual's belief that social entrepreneurship contributes more to society than alternative means can generate SEI (Ip et al., 2021). 

H3. Outcome expectations positively influence SEI. 

Experience with social problems indicates the experience and knowledge of social organisations and problems of an individual (Hockerts, 2017). Research on entrepreneurship has reported that experience-such as job experience, education, and entrepreneurial experience-can facilitate the acquisition of resources, knowledge, confidence, and role models, all of which are necessary for start-up behaviours (Bignotti and Le Roux, 2020). Moreover, Hockerts (2017) found that experience with social problems positively influences SEI through perceived social support and self-efficacy because experience can nurture the skills and social networks required to establish a social venture. Because experience can improve cognitive abilities in a given field, the outcome expectations and self-efficacy can be improved, increasing the confidence of experienced individuals in starting a social venture (Tran and Von Korflesch, 2016). Empirical studies have reported that experience with social problems can enhance self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and perceived social support, generating stronger SEI (Ip et al., 2021). Therefore, experience with social problems can enhance attitudes towards, beliefs in, and support for social entrepreneurship and create SEI. 

H4. Experience positively influences SEI through perceived social support, social entrepreneurial self-efficacy, and outcome expectations. 

Perceived social awareness of peers is the extent to which an individual believes that their significant others would follow, be interested in, and acquire information about community and government initiatives and policies (Dinev and Hart, 2005). Because subjective norms emphasise the influence of society on behaviour (Ajzen, 1991), this study uses the perceived social awareness of peers to represent the potential influence from others. Because social entrepreneurship offers innovative solutions to social problems, social entrepreneurs should have knowledge of social problems. This knowledge may be nurtured from a high level of social awareness because socially aware individuals tend to follow measures, information, and programs related to social problems more closely than do non-socially aware individuals (Dinev and Hart, 2005; Lichtenstein et al., 2004). Knowledge and values can be transmitted by significant others who offer useful advice (e. g., on dealing with social problems), and this knowledge and values can foster favourable perceptions of social entrepreneurship (Liñán and Chen, 2009). Studies have also suggested that individuals who are concerned about social problems have a prosocial identity and are more emotionally attached to those who are devoted to helping others than to those who are relatively indifferent to helping others (Zhang et al., 2021). 

H5. The perceived social awareness of peers positively influences SEI. 

Digital literacy is the ability to effectively use digital artefacts, platforms, and infrastructure to foster innovation and support business operations (Neumeyer et al., 2021). Digital literacy can be operationalised into three dimensions, including the social dimension (i. e., the ability to communicate and interact with stakeholders online), the technical dimension (i. e., the ability to use technological devices and digital tools), and the cognitive dimension (i. e., the ability to question, summarise, and synthesise information pertinent to the technology of interest) (Neumeyer et al., 2021). Digital literacy is essential to the performance (e. g., production and sales) of small and medium-sized enterprises because those who are more digitally literate have stronger technical, managerial, social, and entrepreneurial capabilities (Sariwulan et al., 2020). For example, individuals who are digitally literate are more capable of interacting with stakeholders through online tools and devices and can conduct data analyses to make decisions, assist with business operations, and overcome operational risks. Because the capabilities of using social media and other online tools in communicating with stakeholders can facilitate information seeking and gathering, these capabilities become crucial during the entrepreneurial development process (Olanrewaju et al., 2020). Moreover, digital literacy is essential for identifying and exploiting business opportunities, which enhances competitiveness, increases efficiency, and fosters innovation (Neumeyer et al., 2021). Utilising advanced technologies for digital storytelling can also foster a shared sense of meaningfulness among the audience, thereby enhancing the acquisition of attentional resources for social entrepreneurship (Zhao et al., 2023). Therefore, digitally engaging with consumers and online communities through social media has become essential for social entrepreneurs. 

H6. Digital literacy positively influences (a) SEI and (b) social entrepreneurial behaviours. 

Social entrepreneurial behaviours are considered the actions and preparations taken to acquire the know-how, experience, and knowledge to start a social venture (Ip et al., 2022). Individuals with stronger intentions to become entrepreneurs tend to possess the knowledge and capabilities in business and entrepreneurship, which are essential assets for entrepreneurs to succeed in a competitive market. Therefore, such entrepreneurs are more confident when starting a business (Gieure et al., 2020). Empirical studies on conventional entrepreneurship and green entrepreneurship have revealed the positive influence of entrepreneurial intentions on behaviours (Gieure et al., 2020; Yi, 2021). 

H7. SEI positively influence social entrepreneurial behaviours. 

The hypothesised model is summarised in Fig. 1.
section_name: Literature review

section_content: Participants and procedures. A quantitative survey method and structural equation modelling were adopted. Structural equation modelling is considered an appropriate modelling technique for analysing complex mediation models and is commonly adopted in social entrepreneurship research (e. g., Hockerts, 2017; Ip et al., 2021). This study used web-based surveys to collect data, which can gather a large and geographically distributed sample in a costeffective manner. Additionally, human error in the data entry process can be avoided (Lefever et al., 2007). The target respondents were students and practitioners in the field of mass communication in Taiwan. Students in the field of mass communication often have knowledge of marketing, advertising, and public relations, which are critical for operating a social enterprise. Therefore, studies investigating strategies that can be employed to attract mass communication students to engage in and support social entrepreneurship are warranted. Moreover, mass communication practitioners usually possess the skills and capabilities required to start a venture and raise public awareness of a social problem, including innovativeness and social connections at various levels (McManus, 2015). Given that social enterprises face challenges in survival without sufficient support, the development and maintenance of stakeholder relationships are crucial. 

It is crucial to investigate whether differences in the hypothesised effects would be observed between students and practitioners. For example, the influence of self-efficacy on SEI might be less prominent in the practitioner sample, because journalists are often trained to view social problems from various perspectives (Liu et al., 2019; McManus, 2015). Furthermore, public relations practitioners are also trained to identify innovative ideas for engaging in CSR. As a result, practitioners may view the ability to solve social problems as an inherent competency rather than a distinct capability. Even if individuals believe that they are capable of addressing social problems, they may not necessarily be interested in starting a social enterprise; instead, they may choose to engage in solutions journalism. 

The survey was distributed through online channels such as forums, Facebook, and e-mail from 18 to 27 March 2022. Although individuals who did not use the Internet were excluded from the web-based surveys, the Internet penetration rate in Taiwan was between 85% and 91% of the population in 2022 (DataReportal, 2022; TWNIC, 2022), which indicates that most of the population can be reached online (except those who are aged 60 years or older). Items for screening (e. g., 'please check strongly disagree for this question') were included to ensure that the respondents were paying attention when answering questions (Brosnan et al., 2019). 

A total of 814 valid responses were collected, which were comprised of 373 from students and 441 from practitioners. The student sample consisted of 172 (46. 1%) men and 201 (53. 9%) women, and the median age was 22 years; 192 students were born in northern Taiwan, 86 in southern Taiwan, 89 in central Taiwan, and the remaining students were born in other areas of Taiwan. Moreover, 44 (11. 8%) of the students were postgraduate students. The practitioner sample consisted of 220 (49. 9%) men and 221 (50. 1%) women, and the median age was 36 years; 218 practitioners were born in northern Taiwan, 118 in southern Taiwan, 92 in central Taiwan, and the remaining practitioners were born in other areas of Taiwan. Most practitioners had an undergraduate degree (72. 8%) and others had a postgraduate degree (17. 2%) as their highest level of education. 

To validate the proposed factor structure, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed utilising Amos 27. 0. Convergent validity and item consistencies were evaluated using standardised factor loadings, composite reliability (CR), and the average variance extracted (AVE), whereas discriminant validity was tested using heterotrait-monotrait (HTMT) correlations (Henseler et al., 2015). After the factor structure had been confirmed to be correct, the structural models for the students and practitioners were evaluated using the maximum likelihood method and Amos 27. 0. To test the robustness of the empirical findings, the present study analysed the structural model for the student and practitioner samples separately. 

Measures. Hockerts (2017) was referred to when measuring experience with social problems, perceived social support, and social entrepreneurial self-efficacy, and each variable was measured using three items. Ip et al. (2021) were referenced for the three items measuring outcome expectations. Dinev and Hart (2005) and Lichtenstein et al. (2004) were referred to for the four items measuring perceived social awareness of peers. Nine items measuring digital literacy were adapted from the study of Neumeyer et al. (2021) and were treated as a second-order factor, which involved three items each for the social, technical, and cognitive dimensions. Four items measuring SEI were obtained by referring to Ip et al. (2017), and five items measuring social entrepreneurial behaviours were adapted from the scale of Ip et al. (2022). Age, sex, education level, and household income were control variables. All items were scored on a 6-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree), similar to related studies also adopting a 6-point Likert scale (Ip et al., 2022; Liu et al., 2019).
section_name: Method

section_content: CFA for the hypothetical model yields an acceptable fit (χ 2 / degrees of freedom [df] = 2. 87, RMSEA = 0. 05, SRMR = 0. 05, CFI = 0. 94, TLI = 0. 93; Table 1 ) (Hair et al., 2014). All values of the standardised factor loadings and composite reliabilities are larger than the 0. 5 and 0. 7 thresholds. However, the AVE of social entrepreneurial self-efficacy is marginally lower than 0. 5; because an AVE below 0. 50 can be considered adequate if the CR is greater than 0. 70 (Fornell and Larcker, 1981), the convergent validity is considered acceptable. Regarding discriminant validity, all HTMT correlation coefficients (ranging from 0. 28 to 0. 84) are lower than the strict 0. 85 threshold or lenient 0. 90 threshold (Henseler et al., 2015). Therefore, discriminant validity is achieved. 

The hypothesised structural models for both the practitioners (χ 2 / df = 2. 27, CFI = 0. 92, TLI = 0. 90, RMSEA = 0. 05, SRMR = 0. 06) and students (χ 2 / df = 2. 02, CFI = 0. 91, TLI = 0. 90, RMSEA = 0. 05, SRMR = 0. 06) have acceptable fit (Hair et al., 2014). 

The results for the practitioner sample are as follows. Perceived social support positively influences SEI (β = 0. 36, SE = 0. 12, p < 0. 001), which supports H1a; however, its effect on social entrepreneurial behaviours is nonsignificant (β = 0. 10, SE = 0. 09, p > 0. 05), meaning that H1b is rejected. Social entrepreneurial self-efficacy has nonsignificant effects on SEI (β = 0. 01, SE = 0. 19, p > 0. 05) and social entrepreneurial behaviours (β = -0. 03, SE = 0. 12, p > 0. 05), which leads to H2a and H2b being rejected. Outcome expectations have a nonsignificant effect on SEI (β = -0. 07, SE = 0. 10, p > 0. 05), meaning that H3 is rejected. Additionally, experience positively influences perceived social support (β = 0. 76, SE = 0. 10, p < 0. 001), self-efficacy (β = 0. 89, SE = 0. 09, p < 0. 001), and outcome expectations (β = 0. 58, SE = 0. 08, p < 0. 001). The positive indirect effect of experience on SEI through perceived social support, self-efficacy, and outcome expectations of social entrepreneurship is significant (β = 0. 24, SE = 0. 09, p < 0. 05, 95% CI [0. 04, 0. 41]), meaning that H4 is supported. Perceived social awareness of peers positively influences SEI (β = 0. 22, SE = 0. 11, p < 0. 01), which supports H5. Digital literacy positively influences SEI (β = 0. 31, SE = 0. 11, p < 0. 001) and social entrepreneurial behaviours (β = 0. 38, SE = 0. 09, p < 0. 001), meaning that H6a and H6b are supported. SEI positively influence social entrepreneurial behaviours (β = 0. 53, SE = 0. 05, p < 0. 001), supporting H7. Among the control variables, age, sex, education level, and household income do not have significant influences on SEI or social entrepreneurial behaviours. 

The results for the student sample are as follows. Perceived social support positively influences SEI (β = 0. 25, SE = 0. 16, p < 0. 001), which supports H1a; however, its effect on social entrepreneurial behaviours is nonsignificant (β = 0. 05, SE = 0. 12, p > 0. 05), meaning that H1b is rejected. Social entrepreneurial self-efficacy positively influences SEI (β = 0. 27, SE = 0. 25, p < 0. 01), which supports H2a; however, its effect on social entrepreneurial behaviours is nonsignificant (β = -0. 13, SE = 0. 19, p > 0. 05), so H2b is rejected. The outcome expectations do not have a significant effect on SEI (β = -0. 08, SE = 0. 12, p > 0. 05), meaning that H3 is rejected. Additionally, experience positively influences perceived social support (β = 0. 73, SE = 0. 08, p < 0. 001), self-efficacy (β = 0. 88, SE = 0. 08, p < 0. 001), and outcome expectations (β = 0. 49, SE = 0. 06, p < 0. 001). The positive indirect effect of experience on SEI through perceived social support, self-efficacy, and outcome expectations of social entrepreneurship is significant (β = 0. 38, SE = 0. 10, p < 0. 001, 95% CI [0. 20, 0. 58]), supporting H4. Perceived social awareness of peers positively influences SEI (β = 0. 16, SE = 0. 09, p < 0. 05), supporting H5. Digital literacy positively influences SEI (β = 0. 16, SE = 0. 10, p < 0. 05) and social entrepreneurial behaviours (β = 0. 36, SE = 0. 08, p < 0. 001), meaning that H6a and H6b are supported. SEI positively influence social entrepreneurial behaviours (β = 0. 68, SE = 0. 06, p < 0. 001), which supports H7. Among the control variables, men exhibited stronger SEI (β = -0. 13, SE = 0. 10, p < 0. 01), whereas a higher education level resulted in weaker SEI (β = -0. 11, SE = 0. 13, p < 0. 01). Household income also affected social entrepreneurial behaviours (β = 0. 08, SE = 0. 00, p < 0. 05). 

The results from both samples are summarised in Table 2.
section_name: Results

section_content: The results indicate positive direct effects of perceived social support, perceived social awareness of peers, and digital literacy on SEI; positive direct effects of digital literacy and SEI on social entrepreneurial behaviours; and a positive indirect effect of experience on SEI in the samples. 

Theoretical implications. Perceived social support positively affects SEI, but its effect on social entrepreneurial behaviours is nonsignificant in both samples. The results echo those of other studies on SEI (Hockerts, 2017; Ip et al., 2021; Liu et al., 2019; Seyoum et al., 2021), implying that gathering useful information and acquiring financial or human capital from significant others before starting a social enterprise is essential. Although Ip et al. (2022) reported a significant direct effect of perceived social support on social entrepreneurial behaviours, the present study found that this direct effect is nonsignificant. One reason may be that mass communication practitioners are pragmatic, especially in public relations and advertising, because they recognise the importance of enhancing public attention towards products, which often requires significant financial investment. Therefore, they tend to be cautious when deciding to take social entrepreneurial actions. To motivate individuals to become social entrepreneurs, other capabilities such as business knowledge, innovativeness, and digital literacy are critical. Moreover, product attractiveness, marketing strategies, and communication efforts are central to business survival and sustainability. Therefore, perceived social support is a necessary element to establish a social venture but cannot be the only element (Mair and Noboa, 2006). A significant positive effect of social entrepreneurial selfefficacy on SEI is observed in the student sample, which is consistent with empirical research on Chinese business students (Wu et al., 2020). The effect may have been nonsignificant in the practitioner sample because journalists are often trained to view a problem from multiple perspectives and suggest innovative solutions (McManus, 2015). Consequently, journalists may perceive the ability to solve social problems as an inherent competency rather than a distinct capability. Additionally, although Ip et al. (2022) displayed a positive influence of social entrepreneurial self-efficacy on social entrepreneurial behaviours, their study did not incorporate SEI as a mediator of the relationship between social entrepreneurial self-efficacy and social entrepreneurial behaviours. The present study demonstrated that only an indirect effect of self-efficacy on social entrepreneurial behaviours exists. 

The outcome expectations have no significant effect on SEI. Results diverge from those of other studies in this respect, although the beta values are not high (Belchior and Lyons, 2021; Urban, 2020). The nonsignificant result can be explained by the characteristics of mass communication students and practitioners. Ip et al. (2021) discovered no significant influence of the outcome expectations on SEI for those who value extrinsic rewards from work, such as money and status. Because strategic communication is more motivated by revenue and profits than other factors (Crawford et al., 2013), practitioners in the field may prioritise extrinsic rewards to ensure business sustainability. Therefore, merely having a favourable perception of social entrepreneurship may not sufficiently motivate such practitioners to become social entrepreneurs. 

A positive indirect effect of experience with social problems on SEI is discovered in both samples, which echoes the results of other studies (Hockerts, 2017; Ip et al., 2021). Experience and knowledge offer essential skills and build confidence in starting and operating a business (Bignotti and Le Roux, 2020), which can reduce the cognitive barriers to becoming an entrepreneur. 

Because work and entrepreneurial experience can broaden a person's social network, experienced individuals may believe they can start a venture and that they possess enough social capital (Keat et al., 2011). Experience may also serve as a trigger for potential social entrepreneurs in understanding what should be done to ensure a venture's success (Ip et al., 2017). Consequently, social entrepreneurs improve their skills and their ventures become more innovative. Results also indicate that experience, such as volunteering and work experience, can equip social entrepreneurs with valuable skills, support, and an interest in establishing a social venture. 

Perceived social awareness of peers positively influences SEI in both samples. The findings contribute to the literature on entrepreneurial intentions, which traditionally focused on the original variables in the theory of planned behaviour and entrepreneurial event model (Farrukh et al., 2019; Liñán and Chen, 2009; Mallios et al., 2023), by demonstrating that perceived social awareness of peers can serve as a proxy for subjective norms. Additionally, because individuals who are more concerned about social problems may be more committed to helping others (Zhang et al., 2021), they may influence their peers' perceptions towards becoming social entrepreneurs by providing advice and sharing ideas. Therefore, social influence from peers, which reflects the unique nature of social entrepreneurship, can influence the behavioural intentions of a person. 

Digital literacy positively influences SEI and behaviours in both samples. This is consistent with prior research highlighting the role of social media and digital tools in accumulating social capital, which is crucial for identifying entrepreneurial opportunities, sharing information, acquiring attentional resources, and enhancing the potential for entrepreneurial success (Olanrewaju et al., 2020; Zhao et al., 2023). Because the digitalisation of media has reshaped business models in mass communication, the daily routines of journalists and public relations practitioners require the use of digital tools for designing graphics and videos, creating interactive stories, and analysing data; thus, digital literacy and competency are vital for accomplishing tasks and working efficiently (Parkatti et al., 2022). For example, journalists may be required to gather and analyse audience metrics to understand the demographics of their readers and the time readers spend on each article (Cohen, 2019). Results further demonstrate the importance of digital literacy when engaging in social entrepreneurship. Practitioners may opt for an alternative career path, to diversify their sources of income, or to improve the reputation of media corporations by organising social entrepreneurial activities. The positive influence of digital literacy on SEI and behaviours in the present study strengthens the proposition that digital literacy enhances competitiveness and innovation, especially for small and medium-sized enterprises (Neumeyer et al., 2021; Sariwulan et al., 2020). 

SEI positively influence social entrepreneurial behaviours in both samples. This result is consistent with the theory of planned behaviour (Ajzen, 1991) and studies on conventional and green entrepreneurship (Gieure et al., 2020; Yi, 2021). Moreover, results extend those of Ip and colleagues (2022) by revealing a strong and robust influence of SEI on social entrepreneurial behaviours in both samples. 

Practical implications and suggestions. Nurturing digital literacy is vital for fostering social entrepreneurship. Different tools can be used to assist individuals with improving their digital literacy. First, educators can offer courses on online learning platforms, such as Coursera and YouTube, to equip students with knowledge of digital business operations. Second, skills in basic data analyses and big data analytics (e. g., acquiring and analysing product reviews on various ecommerce platforms) can be taught to assist entrepreneurs with identifying unmet market needs and making complex decisions (Neumeyer et al., 2021). Moreover, various classroom activities and teaching approaches can be integrated into lessons; for instance, digital storytelling activities or projects can be included to improve photo and video editing skills, problem-solving, and creativity (Chan et al., 2017). To improve the digital literacy and competency of practitioners in mass communication, informal learning and continuing education practices can be provided, including self-learning opportunities and peer support. Practitioners can learn from one another by collaborating with colleagues to acquire digital knowledge and expertise (Parkatti et al., 2022). For example, managers can integrate mentoring and coaching into organisational practices or organise discussions and conferences. 

To provide meaningful experiences and foster social awareness, universities can provide opportunities for students to address social problems, such as through volunteering, simulations, and competitions (Ip et al., 2022). Governments and universities can devote more effort to promoting academia-industry collaboration projects; for example, corporations can invite students to devise CSR ideas and campaigns or design new products that address social problems. Moreover, governments can collaborate with charities to organise competitions or programs that promote SDGs, which may raise students' awareness of social problems and identify innovative measures for solving social problems. For example, identifying measures to help the homeless population in the community can improve their living conditions. 

Improving self-efficacy and perceived social support are crucial. Volunteering programs at universities and corporations can encourage people to share their expertise and establish social networks, which help them accumulate financial and human resources for solving social problems (Ip et al., 2021). Universities can also establish platforms that match students with business partners on the basis of business interests and complementary knowledge and skills. Similarly, governments can devote more resources to facilitating social entrepreneurship and remove regulatory barriers for social entrepreneurs. 

Limitations. The present study has some limitations. First, because the study only investigated samples of students and practitioners in mass communication in Taiwan, the results may not be generalisable to other industries or countries. Future studies can apply this model in other countries or industries to evaluate the generalisability of the results. Second, this research mainly considered social entrepreneurship as an alternative career path for practitioners in mass communication. However, social intrapreneurship can also emerge within an organisation, with employees engaging in social innovation and identifying social entrepreneurial opportunities (Geradts and Alt, 2022). Due to the emphasis on sustainable values and practices in business, corporations such as the media and communication industries may consider various approaches to respond to societal demands, which deserves further attention from researchers.
section_name: Discussion and limitations

section_content: Through analysing samples of university students and practitioners in mass communication, the study reveals positive direct effects of perceived social support, perceived social awareness of peers, and digital literacy on SEI. Moreover, it highlights positive direct effects of digital literacy and SEI on behaviours in both samples. The crucial role of digital literacy underscores the importance of educating students in effectively using social media and digital tools for stakeholder communication and decision-making. Interestingly, social entrepreneurial self-efficacy and outcome expectations show lesser significance, suggesting a need for a more pragmatic approach in fostering social entrepreneurship. Educators and policymakers should focus on equipping individuals with the capabilities to establish and operate businesses, rather than merely shaping favourable perceptions towards social entrepreneurship. 

This study makes three contributions to the literature. First, the study identifies digital literacy as a critical element for fostering SEI and behaviours. Research on SEI has thus far neglected the importance of business, marketing, and managerial capabilities for creating and operating a social venture (Ip et al., 2021; Liu et al., 2019). Results are robust for both the practitioner and student samples. Because the government's revenue is decreasing and market competition is intense, social entrepreneurship research should account for the social and economic aspects of venture sustainability (Weerawardena et al., 2021). 

Second, the study investigated the critical elements affecting whether students and practitioners in mass communication become social entrepreneurs or consider social entrepreneurship as an alternative career path given the new media ecology, which has generated layoffs around the world (Liu et al., 2018). The results underline the need for communication faculties to offer new modules (e. g., entrepreneurial journalism, digital applications in communication, social innovation and entrepreneurship, and CSR communication) rather than only providing traditional courses in communication to improve the competitiveness of students. 

Third, the study investigated the effect of intentions on behaviours, which has rarely been tested in other studies on social entrepreneurship. This research expands on the literature, in which the determinants of SEI have primarily been evaluated and intentions have been assumed to lead to behaviours (Hockerts, 2017; Ip et al., 2021; Liu et al., 2019), with social entrepreneurial behaviours being empirically evaluated.
section_name: Conclusion

section_name: Acknowledgements

section_content: This work was supported by the National Science and Technology Council (Taiwan) under Grant 111-2410-H-030-003-SSS.
section_name: Acknowledgements

section_name: Data availability

section_content: As per the approved version of the questionnaire by the IRB, the data from the current study must be destroyed no later than December 2025. Consequently, the dataset analysed during this study cannot be shared.
section_name: Data availability

section_name: Author contributions

section_content: This research was conducted and written solely by CYI.
section_name: Author contributions

section_content: The author declares no competing interests.
section_name: Competing interests

section_content: The questionnaire and methodology for this study had been approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of Fu Jen Catholic University (Approval number: C110057).
section_name: Ethical approval

section_content: Because this study adopted the online survey method, a brief informed consent statement was presented in the introduction of the online survey without providing an informed written consent form. The questionnaire had been approved by the IRB. Moreover, confidentiality and anonymity were assured, because this study did not collect identifying details such as names and email addresses.
section_name: Informed consent

section_name: Additional information

section_content: The online version contains supplementary material available at https://doi. org/10. 1057/s41599-023-02587-w. 

Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to Ching Yin Ip. 

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section_name: Supplementary information