Moreover , recent work has shown that much of the heat energy in the seas of the North Atlantic ( every square kilometre of which gives off as much energy as a nuclear power station and hence influences our weather ) is absorbed from sunlight in the tropical Pacific and is carried by ocean currents through the Drake Passage and up into the Atlantic .

moreover , recent work have show that much of the heat energy in the sea of the north atlantic ( every square kilometre of which give off as much energy as a nuclear power station and hence influence our weather ) be absorb from sunlight in the tropical pacific and be carry by ocean current through the drake passage and up into the atlantic .

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Thus , to understand some local and many regional , national and continental and all global environmental events , we need to have a global perspective and hold global databases ( Rhind and Mounsey 1989 ; Mounsey and Tomlinson 1988 ) .

thus , to understand some local and many regional , national and continental and all global environmental event , we need to have a global perspective and hold global database ( rhind and mounsey 1989 ; mounsey and tomlinson 1988 ) .

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In no way , however , does this invalidate the need for microscale studies — for instance , while global data sets may indicate the extent of algal blooms and may suggest causes of them , only detailed study of the algae themselves can provide understanding of why the bloom is occurring .

in no way , however , do this invalidate the need for microscale study — for instance , while global data set may indicate the extent of algal bloom and may suggest cause of they , only detailed study of the algae themselves can provide understanding of why the bloom be occur .

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A major complication , however , is that the environment can rarely be treated as in a laboratory experiment .

a major complication , however , be that the environment can rarely be treat as in a laboratory experiment .

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Given this , determining the nature of the interactions between the variables becomes a matter of major difficulty .

give this , determine the nature of the interaction between the variable become a matter of major difficulty .

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Figure 9.2 is taken from ESSC ( 1988 ) and is an attempt to show the interactions between environmental processes , as well as the indicators and implications of change in the state of the environment .

figure 9.2 be take from essc ( 1988 ) and be an attempt to show the interaction between environmental process , as well as the indicator and implication of change in the state of the environment .

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We are , however , becoming ever more aware of the massive influence of oceans on our climate ; research into ocean/atmosphere interactions is now a priority .

we be , however , become ever more aware of the massive influence of ocean on our climate ; research into ocean/atmosphere interaction be now a priority .

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In ocean dynamics studies , important topics are heat storage , circulation and the role of sea ice .

in ocean dynamic study , important topic be heat storage , circulation and the role of sea ice .

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Atmospheric circulation ( and , in turn , precipitation and temperature ) is also greatly affected by the balance of thermal energy at the land surface , itself affected by the vegetation and terrain characteristics .

atmospheric circulation ( and , in turn , precipitation and temperature ) be also greatly affect by the balance of thermal energy at the land surface , itself affect by the vegetation and terrain characteristic .

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The biogeochemical system embraces the totality of the movements of the key elements essential to life — carbon , nitrogen , oxygen , phosphorus and others — through what has been described as the total earth system .

the biogeochemical system embrace the totality of the movement of the key element essential to life — carbon , nitrogen , oxygen , phosphorus and other — through what have be describe as the total earth system .

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The oceans and their biota play a central role in the carbon and nutrient cycles ; global ocean circulation is also critical to the global carbon budget .

the ocean and their biota play a central role in the carbon and nutrient cycle ; global ocean circulation be also critical to the global carbon budget .

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A particular cause for concern is that the concentrations of the two main CFMs is increasing by about 5 per cent per annum while the equivalent figures for methane , nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide are 1 , 0.4 and 0.3 per cent .

a particular cause for concern be that the concentration of the two main cfm be increase by about 5 per cent per annum while the equivalent figure for methane , nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide be 1 , 0.4 and 0.3 per cent .

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There are several important ways in which biogeochemical processes can influence climate and hence habitability ( except where the latter is maintained at enormous cost ) .

there be several important way in which biogeochemical process can influence climate and hence habitability ( except where the latter be maintain at enormous cost ) .

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If , for instance , the concentrations of certain trace gases ( see above ) continue to increase , it has been predicted that the earth 's surface temperature will increase by an amount comparable to that since the last major phase of the most recent glaciation ( about 18 000 years BP ) — though there is some dispute about the magnitude of the likely change .

if , for instance , the concentration of certain trace gas ( see above ) continue to increase , it have be predict that the earth 's surface temperature will increase by an amount comparable to that since the last major phase of the most recent glaciation ( about 18 000 year bp ) — though there be some dispute about the magnitude of the likely change .

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The converse case — the effect of physical climate changes on biogeochemical processes — is also of obvious importance : changes in annual averages and cycles of temperature and precipitation , together with the probabilities of extreme events such as prolonged droughts or frosts , are major determinants of terrestrial ecosystem type , at least in areas largely unaffected by human activity .

the converse case — the effect of physical climate change on biogeochemical process — be also of obvious importance : change in annual average and cycle of temperature and precipitation , together with the probability of extreme event such as prolonged drought or frost , be major determinant of terrestrial ecosystem type , at least in area largely unaffected by human activity .

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Human-induced changes to the environment have increased rapidly as a consequence of growing population numbers and of numerous developments in technology .

human-induce change to the environment have increase rapidly as a consequence of grow population number and of numerous development in technology .

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fossil fuel combustion , for instance , has led to increased concentrations of sulphate in precipitation ( ’ acid rain' ) and many rivers , lakes and estuaries have been greatly affected by phosphates from agricultural , urban or industrial sources .

fossil fuel combustion , for instance , have lead to increase concentration of sulphate in precipitation ( ' acid rain' ) and many river , lake and estuary have be greatly affect by phosphate from agricultural , urban or industrial source .

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It should be stressed , however , that — while the outlines of human activities are clear — there are still many uncertainties : for instance , we know that the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide has risen about 9 per cent since 1959 .

it should be stress , however , that — while the outline of human activity be clear — there be still many uncertainty : for instance , we know that the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide have rise about 9 per cent since 1959 .

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But calculations of the total carbon released by fossil fuel combustion imply that , if all such carbon remained in the atmosphere , the concentration would have increased by twice as much .

but calculation of the total carbon release by fossil fuel combustion imply that , if all such carbon remain in the atmosphere , the concentration would have increase by twice as much .

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The environmental systems are effectively regarded as machines whose workings can all be discovered , described in differential equation form and whose future activities can thus be predicted in detail if their initial states are known .

the environmental system be effectively regard as machine whose working can all be discover , describe in differential equation form and whose future activity can thus be predict in detail if their initial state be know .

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An argument by many atmospheric physicists , for example , is that shortcomings in the accuracy of weather prediction over periods of more than a few days largely results from the unsophisticated nature of existing models , the lack of suitable data and inadequate computer power ( see Fig. 9.3 , derived from Tyler 1989 ) .

an argument by many atmospheric physicist , for example , be that shortcoming in the accuracy of weather prediction over period of more than a few day largely result from the unsophisticated nature of exist model , the lack of suitable datum and inadequate computer power ( see fig. 9.3 , derive from tyler 1989 ) .

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In contrast , the advocates of chaos theory ( e.g. Stewart 1989 ) argue that some natural systems are so sensitive to tiny stimuli that even ‘ the faint beat of a butterfly 's wing could be the ultimate trigger for a hurricane ’ .

in contrast , the advocate of chaos theory ( e.g. stewart 1989 ) argue that some natural system be so sensitive to tiny stimulus that even ' the faint beat of a butterfly 's wing could be the ultimate trigger for a hurricane ' .

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This has been recognized by , among others , ESSC ( 1988 ) .

this have be recognize by , among other , essc ( 1988 ) .

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To complicate matters still further , however , it seems at least possible that the components of the earth system may best be predicted deterministically at some spatial and temporal scales but stochastically at others and that the basis of prediction will differ for different components .

to complicate matter still far , however , it seem at least possible that the component of the earth system may well be predict deterministically at some spatial and temporal scale but stochastically at other and that the basis of prediction will differ for different component .

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As an example , atmospheric temperature shows marked day-to-day variability , a strong seasonal cycle with some year-to-year variations , a weak minimum variability for 10–20 year averages and then increased variation again at longer time-scales ( ESSC 1988 ) .

as an example , atmospheric temperature show mark day-to-day variability , a strong seasonal cycle with some year-to-year variation , a weak minimum variability for 10–20 year average and then increase variation again at long time-scale ( essc 1988 ) .

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Finally , it is perhaps worth concluding this section by emphasizing that there is still much controversy among the scientific community about the magnitude of many of the effects being discussed .

finally , it be perhaps worth conclude this section by emphasize that there be still much controversy among the scientific community about the magnitude of many of the effect be discuss .

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In general , the research work of the international groups of scientists , including those involved in the Inter-Governmental Committee and in the UK 's Inter-Agency Committee on Global Environmental Change , has progressively reduced the magnitude of the predicted effects of , for example , global warming .

in general , the research work of the international group of scientist , include those involve in the inter-governmental committee and in the uk 's inter-agency committee on global environmental change , have progressively reduce the magnitude of the predict effect of , for example , global warming .

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In giving the 1990 Robens Coal Science Lecture at the Royal Institution , Sir John Mason ( a former Director of the Meteorological Office ) urged caution in interpreting the results of the massive atmospheric and oceanic modelling exercises ; as the equilibrium models are refined to take account of the thermal lag in oceans , etc. , lower values of predicted changes are likely .

in give the 1990 robens coal science lecture at the royal institution , sir john mason ( a former director of the meteorological office ) urge caution in interpret the result of the massive atmospheric and oceanic modelling exercise ; as the equilibrium model be refine to take account of the thermal lag in ocean , etc. , low value of predict change be likely .

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Thus , while almost all scientists are — at the time of writing — convinced from the evidence that change in climate is under way and that regional effects may be much greater than the global average , the magnitude of the latter is now thought likely to be about half of what was predicted only 5 years ago .

thus , while almost all scientist be — at the time of writing — convince from the evidence that change in climate be under way and that regional effect may be much great than the global average , the magnitude of the latter be now think likely to be about half of what be predict only 5 year ago .

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If we consider the environment in the broadest sense , much monitoring of it has been in progress for many years and by an enormous diversity of organizations in the UK ; these include the DoE , the Forestry Commission , the Nature Conservancy , the Health and Safety Executive , local authorities , the component members of the Natural Environment Research Council ( such as the Institute of Terrestrial Ecology and the British Antarctic Survey ) , individuals or research groups in academia , the CEGB , the Friends of the Earth , and UK Centre for Economic and Environmental Development ( CEED ) ( 1989 ) .

if we consider the environment in the broad sense , much monitoring of it have be in progress for many year and by an enormous diversity of organization in the uk ; these include the doe , the forestry commission , the nature conservancy , the health and safety executive , local authority , the component member of the natural environment research council ( such as the institute of terrestrial ecology and the british antarctic survey ) , individual or research group in academia , the cegb , the friends of the earth , and uk centre for economic and environmental development ( ceed ) ( 1989 ) .

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The diversity of monitoring organizations seems just as great in other countries ; numerous multinational organizations , both quasi-governmental ( e.g. the UN Environment Programme ( UNEP ) ) and non-governmental ( e.g. the International Union for the Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) and the International Institute for Environment and Development ( IIED ) ) are also active in the field .

the diversity of monitor organization seem just as great in other country ; numerous multinational organization , both quasi-governmental ( e.g. the un environment programme ( unep ) ) and non-governmental ( e.g. the international union for the conservation of nature ( iucn ) and the international institute for environment and development ( iied ) ) be also active in the field .

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Moreover , commercial monitoring of the environment is now also routine , notably to predict crop yields in the main grain-growing areas and hence facilitate the buying of futures .

moreover , commercial monitoring of the environment be now also routine , notably to predict crop yield in the main grain-growing area and hence facilitate the buying of future .

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Scientists have both promoted and responded to the increasing interest in the environment .

scientist have both promote and respond to the increase interest in the environment .

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Thus , at the global scale , the International Council of Scientific Unions ( ICSU ) has endorsed the setting up of the International Geosphere Biosphere Project ( IGBP ) to ‘ describe and understand the interactive physical , chemical and biological processes that regulate the total Earth system , the unique environment it provides for life , the changes that are occurring in that system and the manner by which these changes are influenced by human actions ’ ( Report of ad hoc Planning Group for IGBP 1986 , quoted in IGBP 1988 ) .

thus , at the global scale , the international council of scientific unions ( icsu ) have endorse the setting up of the international geosphere biosphere project ( igbp ) to ' describe and understand the interactive physical , chemical and biological process that regulate the total earth system , the unique environment it provide for life , the change that be occur in that system and the manner by which these change be influence by human action ' ( report of ad hoc planning group for igbp 1986 , quote in igbp 1988 ) .

RB , IN DT JJ NN , DT NNP NNP IN NNP NNPS -LRB- NNP -RRB- VBZ VBN DT NN RP IN DT NNP NNP NNP NNP -LRB- NNP -RRB- TO `` VB CC VB DT JJ JJ , NN CC JJ NNS WDT VBP DT JJ NNP NN , DT JJ NN PRP VBZ IN NN , DT NNS WDT VBP VBG IN DT NN CC DT NN IN WDT DT NNS VBP VBN IN JJ NNS '' -LRB- NN IN FW FW NNP NNP IN NNP CD , VBN IN NNP CD -RRB- .

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This is to be put into operation by concentrating on four themes :

this be to be put into operation by concentrate on four theme :

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documenting and predict global change ;

Documenting and predicting global change ;


Observing and improving our understanding of dominant forcing functions ;

observe and improve our understanding of dominant force function ;


Based in Paris and working under Professor I. Rasool , it is intended to concentrate on managerial and policy aspects of the task in the first 2 years ( 1990–92 ) but then to expand considerably thereafter .

base in paris and work under professor i. rasool , it be intend to concentrate on managerial and policy aspect of the task in the first 2 year ( 1990–92 ) but then to expand considerably thereafter .

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Tasks agreed for the IGBP-DIS include making available a ‘ directory of data directories ’ modelled on NASA 's Master Directory , providing data sets for education and training and undertaking a land cover pilot study .

task agree for the igbp-dis include make available a ' directory of datum directory ' model on nasa 's master directory , provide data set for education and training and undertake a land cover pilot study .

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It is noteworthy , however , that the Royal Society made a plea for just this type of multidisciplinary work in its submission on greenhouse gases to the House of Lords ' Select Committee on Science and Technology ( Royal Society 1989 : 40 ) .

it be noteworthy , however , that the royal society make a plea for just this type of multidisciplinary work in its submission on greenhouse gas to the house of lords ' select committee on science and technology ( royal society 1989 : 40 ) .

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Currently this is organized and sponsored by the International Social Science Council ( ISSC ) , the UN University and the International Federation of Institutes of Advanced Studies .

currently this be organize and sponsor by the international social science council ( issc ) , the un university and the international federation of institutes of advanced studies .

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Improve scientific understanding and increase awareness of the complex dynamics governing human interaction with the total Earth system ;

improve scientific understanding and increase awareness of the complex dynamic govern human interaction with the total earth system ;

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Identify broad social strategies to prevent or mitigate undesirable impacts of global change or to adapt to changes which are unavoidable ;

identify broad social strategy to prevent or mitigate undesirable impact of global change or to adapt to change which be unavoidable ;

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Analyse policy options for dealing with global environmental change and promoting the goal of sustainable development .

analyse policy option for deal with global environmental change and promote the goal of sustainable development .

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Jacobson and Price ( 1990 ) provide a useful summary of the ways in which human factors contribute to , and are affected by , likely global changes ; in particular , they stress the importance of the data-handling issues and the role of GIS in coping with some of the problems of data integration and manipulation .

jacobson and price ( 1990 ) provide a useful summary of the way in which human factor contribute to , and be affect by , likely global change ; in particular , they stress the importance of the data-handling issue and the role of gis in cope with some of the problem of datum integration and manipulation .

NNP CC NNP -LRB- CD -RRB- VB DT JJ NN IN DT NNS IN WDT JJ NNS VBP IN , CC VBP VBN IN , JJ JJ NNS : IN JJ , PRP VBP DT NN IN DT JJ NNS CC DT NN IN NN IN VBG IN DT IN DT NNS IN NNS NN CC NN .

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The ISSC proposed its own work programme in the Human Dimensions of Global Change in late 1990 .

the issc propose its own work programme in the human dimension of global change in late 1990 .

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While these organizations intrinsically have a world-wide membership and are concerned with research into global environmental change , others share the same interest but from a more restricted geographical base .

while these organization intrinsically have a world-wide membership and be concern with research into global environmental change , other share the same interest but from a more restricted geographical base .

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A leading example of this is the European Science Foundation which has sponsored research programmes in both the physical and social science aspects of environmental change ( ESF 1990 ) .

a lead example of this be the european science foundation which have sponsor research programme in both the physical and social science aspect of environmental change ( esf 1990 ) .

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The spread of environmental awareness is readily demonstrated : in 1972 , 26 countries had environmental and natural resource management agencies whereas , a decade later the number was 144 ( WEC 1985 ) .

the spread of environmental awareness be readily demonstrate : in 1972 , 26 country have environmental and natural resource management agency whereas , a decade later the number be 144 ( wec 1985 ) .

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In most countries , the governmental and political concern with the environment has come somewhat later than that of scientists or concerned lay people : the early development of the Green Party in the Federal Republic of Germany is something of an exception .

in most country , the governmental and political concern with the environment have come somewhat later than that of scientist or concerned lay people : the early development of the green party in the federal republic of germany be something of an exception .

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Such a commitment to the environment is , none the less , both welcome and necessary if resources are to be made available to tackle existing , let alone forthcoming , environmental problems .

such a commitment to the environment be , none the less , both welcome and necessary if resource be to be make available to tackle exist , let alone forthcoming , environmental problem .

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The ‘ conversion ’ of the UK government has been briefly described earlier ; it is manifested in their July 1989 commitment to spend £10m. on climate change research in 1989/90 and the confident request to them from the Advisory Board for the Research Councils ( ABRC ) for an extra £11m. in 1990 and £13m. in the two succeeding years for additional environmental research .

the ' conversion ' of the uk government have be briefly describe early ; it be manifest in their july 1989 commitment to spend £10m. on climate change research in 1989/90 and the confident request to they from the advisory board for the research councils ( abrc ) for an extra £11m. in 1990 and £13m. in the two succeed year for additional environmental research .

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The Commission argues that there is at present no monitoring of environmental quality and trends on a European scale , nor any guarantee that the results of environmental monitoring will be comparable on a Community-wide basis ( a realization brought about through the CORINE programme described later ) .

the commission argue that there be at present no monitoring of environmental quality and trend on a european scale , nor any guarantee that the result of environmental monitoring will be comparable on a community-wide basis ( a realization bring about through the corine programme describe later ) .

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The objectives of the new agency would be to assist the Community and the Member States to achieve the goals set out in the Treaty of Rome and in successive environmental action programmes ; it must also , however , be seen in the context of the European Council 's adoption on 2 December 1988 of the Rhodes Declaration on the Environment and the environment chapter in the Single European Act which comes into effect in 1992 .

the objective of the new agency would be to assist the community and the member states to achieve the goal set out in the treaty of rome and in successive environmental action programme ; it must also , however , be see in the context of the european council 's adoption on 2 december 1988 of the rhodes declaration on the environment and the environment chapter in the single european act which come into effect in 1992 .

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The detailed specific roles of ‘ the System ’ ( comprising both agency and network ) are envisaged as :

the detailed specific role of ' the system ' ( comprise both agency and network ) be envisage as :

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In particular , to provide technical , scientific and economic information requested by the Commission in its tasks of identification , preparation and assessment of the implementation and results of environmental action and legislation ;

in particular , to provide technical , scientific and economic information request by the commission in its task of identification , preparation and assessment of the implementation and result of environmental action and legislation ;

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To stimulate the development and the application within the agency of techniques of environmental modelling and forecasting in order that adequate preventative action can be taken at the appropriate time ;

to stimulate the development and the application within the agency of technique of environmental modelling and forecasting in order that adequate preventative action can be take at the appropriate time ;

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To help ensure the harmonization and comparability of environmental data in the Community as well as the integration of European environmental data into international environmental monitoring programmes , such as those established within the framework of the United Nations and its system of agencies .

to help ensure the harmonization and comparability of environmental datum in the community as well as the integration of european environmental datum into international environmental monitoring programme , such as those establish within the framework of the united nations and its system of agency .

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Considerable stress is laid by the Commission on collaboration with national data-gathering agencies and with states adjacent to the Community 's borders .

considerable stress be lay by the commission on collaboration with national data-gathering agency and with state adjacent to the community 's border .

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It is envisaged that the totality of activities will extend the existing State of the European Environment report ( CEC 1988 ) through addressing the issues of the quality and sensitivity of the environment and also the pressures upon it .

it be envisage that the totality of activity will extend the exist state of the european environment report ( cec 1988 ) through address the issue of the quality and sensitivity of the environment and also the pressure upon it .

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Priorities for the new agency include study of atmospheric emissions and quality , water resources and quality ( including the marine environment ) , soil erosion and pollution and important land resources , and biotopes and nature conservation .

priority for the new agency include study of atmospheric emission and quality , water resource and quality ( include the marine environment ) , soil erosion and pollution and important land resource , and biotope and nature conservation .

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At the time of writing , the proposal has been approved and discussions are in progress on the location of the agency 's headquarters .

at the time of writing , the proposal have be approve and discussion be in progress on the location of the agency 's headquarters .

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Yet this is by no means the only plan which the Community has in relation to the environment : Directorate-General XII ( that for Science , Research and Development ) has published details of an extensive R&D programme ( CEC 1990a ) and the Commission as a whole ( CEC 1990b ) has made public its plans to develop regular official statistics of the environment .

yet this be by no mean the only plan which the community have in relation to the environment : directorate-general xii ( that for science , research and development ) have publish detail of an extensive r&d programme ( cec 1990a ) and the commission as a whole ( cec 1990b ) have make public its plan to develop regular official statistic of the environment .

CC DT VBZ IN DT NNS DT JJ NN WDT DT NNP VBZ IN NN IN DT NN : JJ NNP -LRB- DT IN NNP , NNP CC NNP -RRB- VBZ VBN NNS IN DT JJ NN NN -LRB- NN CD -RRB- CC DT NNP IN DT NN -LRB- NNP CD -RRB- VBZ VBN JJ PRP$ NNS TO VB JJ JJ NNS IN DT NN .

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Certain aspects of environmental monitoring have long been carried out by the private sector , notably that of crop states on a world-wide basis .

certain aspect of environmental monitoring have long be carry out by the private sector , notably that of crop state on a world-wide basis .

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Derived from satellite imagery at comparatively low resolution , predicted yields for different crops in different nation states become of commercial value .

derive from satellite imagery at comparatively low resolution , predict yield for different crop in different nation state become of commercial value .

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However , significant resources are also being made available by the private sector where there is no immediate commercial gain : thus IBM UK Ltd has donated £3.5m. of computing equipment to UNEP and IBM in general is actively supporting other R&D which can be expected to facilitate ‘ sustainable development ’ : IBM Europe , for instance , has invested $16m. in its Bergen scientific centre to make it the focal point for the company 's environmental modelling and a centre for information on the environment and sustainable development .

however , significant resource be also be make available by the private sector where there be no immediate commercial gain : thus ibm uk ltd have donate £3.5m. of compute equipment to unep and ibm in general be actively support other r&d which can be expect to facilitate ' sustainable development ' : ibm europe , for instance , have invest $16m. in its bergen scientific centre to make it the focal point for the company 's environmental modelling and a centre for information on the environment and sustainable development .

RB , JJ NNS VBP RB VBG VBN JJ IN DT JJ NN WRB EX VBZ DT JJ JJ NN : RB NNP NNP NNP VBZ VBN NN IN VBG NN IN NNP CC NNP IN JJ VBZ RB VBG JJ NN WDT MD VB VBN TO VB `` JJ NN '' : NNP NNP , IN NN , VBZ VBN NNS IN PRP$ NNP JJ NN TO VB PRP DT JJ NN IN DT NN POS JJ NN CC DT NN IN NN IN DT NN CC JJ NN .

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On a more modest basis , IBM UK have agreed to fund a pilot global population database being built in Birkbeck College to permit assessment of the impact of environmental change on the world s population .

on a more modest basis , ibm uk have agree to fund a pilot global population database be build in birkbeck college to permit assessment of the impact of environmental change on the world s population .

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Many other companies , of course , are supporting environmental work but IBM seems almost to be unique in its corporate commitment to use of high technology for facilitating ‘ sustainable development ’ .

many other company , of course , be support environmental work but ibm seem almost to be unique in its corporate commitment to use of high technology for facilitate ' sustainable development ' .

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Some examples of environmental monitoring projects

some example of environmental monitoring project


At the local scale , it is usually impossible to neglect the effects of multiple processes operating .

at the local scale , it be usually impossible to neglect the effect of multiple process operate .

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An example of environmental modelling and prediction where the interactions between different processes and dynamic feedback is taken into account is given by Haber and Schaller ( 1988 ) .

an example of environmental modelling and prediction where the interaction between different process and dynamic feedback be take into account be give by haber and schaller ( 1988 ) .

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Following Holling ( 1978 ) and Grossman ( 1983 ) , they conceptualized the man/environment relationship at a series of hierarchical levels :

follow holling ( 1978 ) and grossman ( 1983 ) , they conceptualize the man/environment relationship at a series of hierarchical level :

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The lowest , or process , level , is directly and ( usually ) obviously connected to perceived reality .

the low , or process , level , be directly and ( usually ) obviously connect to perceive reality .

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Thus processes and interrelationships are mostly obvious , simple and linear ; data are usually readily available and may be voluminous .

thus process and interrelationship be mostly obvious , simple and linear ; datum be usually readily available and may be voluminous .

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This level is readily handled in commercial GIS ; ,

this level be readily handle in commercial gis ; ,


The intermediate , or dynamic , level is concerned with less frequent and often irregular events , e.g. a temporary lack of water because of fire , frost or excessive demand from an increasing populace .

the intermediate , or dynamic , level be concern with less frequent and often irregular event , e.g. a temporary lack of water because of fire , frost or excessive demand from an increase populace .

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Characteristically , the data used may be more difficult to obtain and are usually more spatially aggregated ; modelling software which permits feedback loops is essential ;

characteristically , the datum use may be more difficult to obtain and be usually more spatially aggregated ; model software which permit feedback loop be essential ;

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Relevant data are therefore difficult to identify and scenario building is one of the few approaches available .

relevant datum be therefore difficult to identify and scenario building be one of the few approach available .

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Results of running this with different scenarios include ‘ time slice ’ maps of possible outcomes and of the exchange of material and energy within the study area .

result of run this with different scenario include ' time slice ' map of possible outcome and of the exchange of material and energy within the study area .

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While ultimately qualitative , it seems to offer a method for coping with different types of process and incorporating stochastic and truly random events .

while ultimately qualitative , it seem to offer a method for cope with different type of process and incorporate stochastic and truly random event .

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The national and continental scale : the CORINE project

the national and continental scale : the corine project


The CORINE programme represents the product of much activity by the European Commission 's Directorate-General ( XI ) for the Environment .

the corine programme represent the product of much activity by the european commission 's directorate-general ( xi ) for the environment .

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It originates from an Italian request to the Council of Ministers in 1973 to identify environmentally ‘ balanced ’ and ‘ unbalanced ’ areas in the Community ; the first attempts to do this were unsuccessful and , though by 1981 it was clear that a new approach based on an environmental information system was the most promising one , funding for this was not secured until 1985 .

it originate from an italian request to the council of ministers in 1973 to identify environmentally ' balanced ' and ' unbalanced ' area in the community ; the first attempt to do this be unsuccessful and , though by 1981 it be clear that a new approach base on an environmental information system be the most promising one , fund for this be not secure until 1985 .

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A 4-year experimental programme to ‘ collect , co-ordinate and ensure the consistency of information on the state of the environment and natural resources in the European Communities ’ was set up and labelled CORINE .

a 4-year experimental programme to ' collect , co-ordinate and ensure the consistency of information on the state of the environment and natural resource in the european communities ' be set up and label corine .

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A number of priority areas were identified , including biotopes of importance for nature conservation , acid deposition and its effects on soils and biotopes and the protection of the environment of the Mediterranean region ( Briggs and Martin 1988 ) .

a number of priority area be identify , include biotope of importance for nature conservation , acid deposition and its effect on soil and biotope and the protection of the environment of the mediterranean region ( briggs and martin 1988 ) .

DT NN IN NN NNS VBD VBN , VBG NNS IN NN IN NN NN , NN NN CC PRP$ NNS IN NNS CC NNS CC DT NN IN DT NN IN DT NNP NN -LRB- NNP CC NNP CD -RRB- .

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Many achievements can be claimed by the CORINE project team .

many achievement can be claim by the corine project team .

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As a result of some 40 sub-projects involving all the Member States ( and often several groups within each one ) , databases of topography , soils , water resources and quality , biotopes , atmospheric emissions , climate , soil erosion and administrative boundaries have been built up for the whole Community and can be interrelated ; other data sets ( such as land cover , derived from satellite imagery ) have already been compiled for some of the Member States .

as a result of some 40 sub-project involve all the member states ( and often several group within each one ) , database of topography , soil , water resource and quality , biotope , atmospheric emission , climate , soil erosion and administrative boundary have be build up for the whole community and can be interrelate ; other data set ( such as land cover , derive from satellite imagery ) have already be compile for some of the member states .

IN DT NN IN DT CD NNS VBG PDT DT NNP NNP -LRB- CC RB JJ NNS IN DT NN -RRB- , NNS IN NN , NNS , NN NNS CC NN , NNS , JJ NNS , NN , NN NN CC JJ NNS VBP VBN VBN RP IN DT JJ NNP CC MD VB VBN : JJ NN NNS -LRB- JJ IN NN NN , VBN IN NN NN -RRB- VBP RB VBN VBN IN DT IN DT NNP NNP .

O O NOUN O O O NOUN VERB O O NOUN NOUN O O ADV ADJ NOUN O O NOUN O O NOUN O NOUN O NOUN O NOUN NOUN O NOUN O NOUN O ADJ NOUN O NOUN O NOUN NOUN O ADJ NOUN VERB VERB VERB O O O ADJ NOUN O O VERB VERB O ADJ NOUN NOUN O ADJ O NOUN NOUN O VERB O NOUN NOUN O VERB ADV VERB VERB O O O O NOUN NOUN O


Various aspects of the CORINE project have been described in papers by Rhind et al. ( 1986 ) , Wiggins et al. ( 1987 ) , Briggs and Martin ( 1988 ) , Briggs and Mounsey ( 1989 ) and CEC ( 1990c ) .

various aspect of the corine project have be describe in paper by rhind et al. ( 1986 ) , wiggins et al. ( 1987 ) , briggs and martin ( 1988 ) , briggs and mounsey ( 1989 ) and cec ( 1990c ) .

JJ NNS IN DT NNP NN VBP VBN VBN IN NNS IN NNP NNP NN -LRB- CD -RRB- , NNPS NN NN -LRB- CD -RRB- , NNP CC NNP -LRB- CD -RRB- , NNP CC NNP -LRB- CD -RRB- CC NNP -LRB- CD -RRB- .

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For the present purposes , however , the key findings are :

for the present purpose , however , the key finding be :


Many necessary data sets were unavailable for reasons of administrative inadequacies , confidentiality constraints , cost or non-collection in certain countries ;

many necessary datum set be unavailable for reason of administrative inadequacy , confidentiality constraint , cost or non-collection in certain country ;

JJ JJ NNS NNS VBD JJ IN NNS IN JJ NNS , NN NNS , NN CC NN IN JJ NNS .

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The compilation of a spatially coherent database from mapped information compiled by different organizations at different scales and on different topographic bases ( see Rhind and Clark 1988 ) is often difficult ;

the compilation of a spatially coherent database from map information compile by different organization at different scale and on different topographic basis ( see rhind and clark 1988 ) be often difficult ;

DT NN IN DT RB JJ NN IN VBN NN VBN IN JJ NNS IN JJ NNS CC IN JJ JJ NNS -LRB- VB NNP CC NNP CD -RRB- VBZ RB JJ :

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The ‘ fuzzy ’ nature of much geographically distributed data , the inherent errors in it , the effects of the processing algorithms used and the assumption of known interactions between variables ensures that completely routine use by unskilled users is unlikely to be possible in the foreseeable future ;

the ' fuzzy ' nature of much geographically distribute datum , the inherent error in it , the effect of the processing algorithm use and the assumption of know interaction between variable ensure that completely routine use by unskilled user be unlikely to be possible in the foreseeable future ;

DT `` JJ '' NN IN RB RB VBN NNS , DT JJ NNS IN PRP , DT NNS IN DT NN NNS VBN CC DT NN IN VBN NNS IN NNS VBZ WDT RB JJ NN IN JJ NNS VBZ JJ TO VB JJ IN DT JJ NN :

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More detailed data are required for particular tasks as the role of CORINE grows .

more detailed datum be require for particular task as the role of corine grow .

RBR JJ NNS VBP VBN IN JJ NNS IN DT NN IN NNP VBZ .

ADV ADJ NOUN VERB VERB O ADJ NOUN O O NOUN O NOUN VERB O


The European Commission 's proposal for an environment agency ( see above ) will subsume the CORINE team and databases .

the european commission 's proposal for an environment agency ( see above ) will subsume the corine team and database .

DT NNP NNP POS NN IN DT NN NN -LRB- VB RB -RRB- MD VB DT NNP NN CC NNS .

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The organization has initiated many of the schemes which now are under discussion — the IGBP , for instance , has been strongly influenced by NASA proposals .

the organization have initiate many of the scheme which now be under discussion — the igbp , for instance , have be strongly influence by nasa proposal .

DT NN VBZ VBN JJ IN DT NNS WDT RB VBP IN NN : DT NNP , IN NN , VBZ VBN RB VBN IN NNP NNS .

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A summary of current activities and future plans is given in NASA ( 1988b ) .

a summary of current activity and future plan be give in nasa ( 1988b ) .

DT NN IN JJ NNS CC JJ NNS VBZ VBN IN NNP -LRB- CD -RRB- .

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By way of example , current programmes are collecting global data on stratospheric ozone , on sea-surface and sea-ice variables and on the earth 's radiation budget .

by way of example , current programme be collect global datum on stratospheric ozone , on sea-surface and sea-ice variable and on the earth 's radiation budget .

IN NN IN NN , JJ NNS VBP VBG JJ NNS IN JJ NN , IN NN CC NN NNS CC IN DT NN POS NN NN .

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In addition , however , funding has recently been approved for a much more ambitious scheme — the Earth Observing System ( EOS ) .

in addition , however , funding have recently be approve for a much more ambitious scheme — the earth observing system ( eos ) .

IN NN , RB , NN VBZ RB VBN VBN IN DT RB RBR JJ NN : DT NNP NNP NNP -LRB- NNP -RRB- .

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This is conceived not as a set of hardware but as a comprehensive information system focused on the needs identified by the ESSC ( see above ) and anticipating somewhat those of IGBP .

this be conceive not as a set of hardware but as a comprehensive information system focus on the need identify by the essc ( see above ) and anticipate somewhat those of igbp .

DT VBZ VBN RB IN DT NN IN NN CC IN DT JJ NN NN VBD IN DT NNS VBN IN DT NNP -LRB- VB RB -RRB- CC VBG RB DT IN NNP .

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On this basis , a data flow of no less than 1 terabyte ( i.e. 10&sup12 ; bytes ) day is anticipated by the mid-1990s .

on this basis , a data flow of no less than 1 terabyte ( i.e. 10&sup12 ; byte ) day be anticipate by the mid-1990 .

IN DT NN , DT NN NN IN DT JJR IN CD JJ -LRB- FW NN : NNS -RRB- NN VBZ VBN IN DT NNS .

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formed in the wake of the 1972 Stockholm conference , UNEP soon spawned the Global Environment Monitoring System ( GEMS ) as well as an international register of potentially toxic chemicals and a global network of sources to locate and provide technical , scientific and management information on the environment .

form in the wake of the 1972 stockholm conference , unep soon spawn the global environment monitoring system ( gems ) as well as an international register of potentially toxic chemical and a global network of source to locate and provide technical , scientific and management information on the environment .

VBN IN DT NN IN DT CD NNP NN , NNP RB VBD DT NNP NNP NNP NNP -LRB- NNP -RRB- RB RB IN DT JJ NN IN RB JJ NNS CC DT JJ NN IN NNS TO VB CC VB JJ , JJ CC NN NN IN DT NN .

VERB O O NOUN O O O NOUN NOUN O NOUN ADV VERB O NOUN NOUN NOUN NOUN O NOUN O ADV ADV O O ADJ NOUN O ADV ADJ NOUN O O ADJ NOUN O NOUN O VERB O VERB ADJ O ADJ O NOUN NOUN O O NOUN O


Mooneyhan ( 1988 ) has described the progress of the pilot stage of GRID which culminated in approval for a full operational phase ; GRID is now involved in integrating , storing and exploiting a variety of global environmental databases , mostly acquired from NASA .

mooneyhan ( 1988 ) have describe the progress of the pilot stage of grid which culminate in approval for a full operational phase ; grid be now involve in integrating , store and exploit a variety of global environmental database , mostly acquire from nasa .

NNP -LRB- CD -RRB- VBZ VBN DT NN IN DT NN NN IN NNP WDT VBD IN NN IN DT JJ JJ NN : NNP VBZ RB VBN IN NN , VBG CC VBG DT NN IN JJ JJ NNS , RB VBN IN NNP .

NOUN O O O VERB VERB O NOUN O O NOUN NOUN O NOUN O VERB O NOUN O O ADJ ADJ NOUN O NOUN VERB ADV VERB O NOUN O VERB O VERB O NOUN O ADJ ADJ NOUN O ADV VERB O NOUN O


In addition to the work being carried out in the UNEP HQ at Nairobi and in the GEMS/GRID site in Geneva , a series of GRID regional nodes are now being set up world-wide , each equipped with the same hardware and software and local subsets of the data .

in addition to the work be carry out in the unep hq at nairobi and in the gems/grid site in geneva , a series of grid regional node be now be set up world-wide , each equip with the same hardware and software and local subset of the datum .

IN NN IN DT NN VBG VBN RP IN DT NNP NNP IN NNP CC IN DT NNP NN IN NNP , DT NN IN NNP JJ NNS VBP RB VBG VBN RP RB , DT VBN IN DT JJ NN CC NN CC JJ NNS IN DT NNS .

O NOUN O O NOUN VERB VERB O O O NOUN NOUN O NOUN O O O NOUN NOUN O NOUN O O NOUN O NOUN ADJ NOUN VERB ADV VERB VERB O ADV O O VERB O O ADJ NOUN O NOUN O ADJ NOUN O O NOUN O


The first of these is in Bangkok and another is to be opened in Latin America .

the first of these be in bangkok and another be to be open in latin america .

DT JJ IN DT VBZ IN NNP CC DT VBZ TO VB VBN IN NNP NNP .

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Moreover , national nodes are also being set up ; the recent IBM gift to GRID ( see above ) has ensured that powerful microcomputers have been installed in many African countries , together with national and continental data sets .

moreover , national node be also be set up ; the recent ibm gift to grid ( see above ) have ensure that powerful microcomputer have be instal in many african country , together with national and continental datum set .

RB , JJ NNS VBP RB VBG VBN RP : DT JJ NNP NN TO VB -LRB- VB RB -RRB- VBZ VBN IN JJ NNS VBP VBN VBN IN JJ JJ NNS , RB IN JJ CC JJ NNS NNS .

ADV O ADJ NOUN VERB ADV VERB VERB O O O ADJ NOUN NOUN O VERB O VERB ADV O VERB VERB O ADJ NOUN VERB VERB VERB O ADJ ADJ NOUN O ADV O ADJ O ADJ NOUN NOUN O


The use of secondary data , rather than primary data collected by the data analyst ;

the use of secondary datum , rather than primary datum collect by the datum analyst ;

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The analyses carried out are often arcane in detail to all but a small group of ‘ high priests ’ ;

the analysis carry out be often arcane in detail to all but a small group of ' high priest ' ;

DT NNS VBN RP VBP RB JJ IN NN IN DT IN DT JJ NN IN `` JJ NNS '' :

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We have only a limited capacity for checking the accuracy of many environmental monitoring results , let alone of predictions .

we have only a limited capacity for check the accuracy of many environmental monitoring result , let alone of prediction .

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Some of these characteristics are now addressed in slightly more detail ; it will be obvious that such problems merit a paper in themselves .

some of these characteristic be now address in slightly more detail ; it will be obvious that such problem merit a paper in themselves .

DT IN DT NNS VBP RB VBN IN RB JJR NN : PRP MD VB JJ IN JJ NNS VBP DT NN IN PRP .

O O O NOUN VERB ADV VERB O ADV ADJ NOUN O O O VERB ADJ O ADJ NOUN VERB O NOUN O O O


Remote sensing as a data collection process

remote sense as a datum collection process


As the need for more extensive , high-resolution yet consistent and up-to-date data becomes more pressing , increased use of remote sensing seems inevitable .

as the need for more extensive , high-resolution yet consistent and up-to-date datum become more pressing , increase use of remote sensing seem inevitable .

IN DT NN IN RBR JJ , NN RB JJ CC NN NNS VBZ RBR JJ , VBN NN IN JJ NN VBZ JJ .

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The problem is now recognized , especially in Europe , and strenuous efforts are being made to harmonise the data sets ( e.g. through the use of standard classifications , such as that for land use produced by the Conference of European Statisticians in 1989 ) .

the problem be now recognize , especially in europe , and strenuous effort be be make to harmonise the data set ( e.g. through the use of standard classification , such as that for land use produce by the conference of european statisticians in 1989 ) .

DT NN VBZ RB VBN , RB IN NNP , CC JJ NNS VBP VBG VBN TO VB DT NN NNS -LRB- RB IN DT NN IN JJ NNS , JJ IN DT IN NN NN VBN IN DT NNP IN NNP NNPS IN CD -RRB- .

O NOUN VERB ADV VERB O ADV O NOUN O O ADJ NOUN VERB VERB VERB O VERB O NOUN NOUN O ADV O O NOUN O ADJ NOUN O ADJ O O O NOUN NOUN VERB O O NOUN O NOUN NOUN O O O O


At present , however , ground-collected environmental data are far less than ideal .

at present , however , ground-collected environmental datum be far less than ideal .

IN JJ , RB , JJ JJ NNS VBP RB JJR IN JJ .

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Recognizing this , NASA ( 1988a ) concluded that forthcoming global science projects would need land surface altitude data at three resolutions : 1 km resolution in XY and 10–100 m resolution in Z on a global basis , 100 m XY resolution and 1–10 m resolution in Z for regional databases and 10 m XY resolution and 0.1–1 m in Z for local studies .

recognize this , nasa ( 1988a ) conclude that forthcoming global science project would need land surface altitude datum at three resolution : 1 km resolution in xy and 10–100 m resolution in z on a global basis , 100 m xy resolution and 1–10 m resolution in z for regional database and 10 m xy resolution and 0.1–1 m in z for local study .

VBG DT , NNP -LRB- CD -RRB- VBD IN JJ JJ NN NNS MD VB NN NN NN NNS IN CD NNS : CD NN NN IN NNP CC NNP NN NN IN NN IN DT JJ NN , CD NN NNP NN CC NN NN NN IN NN IN JJ NNS CC CD NN NNP NN CC NNS VBP IN NN IN JJ NNS .

VERB O O NOUN O O O VERB O ADJ ADJ NOUN NOUN O VERB NOUN NOUN NOUN NOUN O O NOUN O O NOUN NOUN O NOUN O NOUN NOUN NOUN O NOUN O O ADJ NOUN O O NOUN NOUN NOUN O NOUN NOUN NOUN O NOUN O ADJ NOUN O O NOUN NOUN NOUN O NOUN VERB O NOUN O ADJ NOUN O


They argued that existing maps and digitized files from them are unable to meet these needs at global or regional scale and only remote sensing could help in the short term : the availability of stereometric data from the French SPOT satellite has already led to proposals for automated creation of global digital elevation models with a spatial ( XY ) resolution of about 30 m ( Muller 1989 ) .

they argue that exist map and digitize file from they be unable to meet these need at global or regional scale and only remote sensing could help in the short term : the availability of stereometric datum from the french spot satellite have already lead to proposal for automate creation of global digital elevation model with a spatial ( xy ) resolution of about 30 m ( muller 1989 ) .

PRP VBD IN VBG NNS CC VBN NNS IN PRP VBP JJ TO VB DT NNS IN JJ CC JJ NN CC RB JJ NN MD VB IN DT JJ NN : DT NN IN JJ NNS IN DT JJ NNP NN VBZ RB VBN IN NNS IN VBN NN IN JJ JJ NN NNS IN DT JJ -LRB- NNP -RRB- NN IN RB CD NN -LRB- NNP CD -RRB- .

O VERB O VERB NOUN O VERB NOUN O O VERB ADJ O VERB O NOUN O ADJ O ADJ NOUN O ADV ADJ NOUN O VERB O O ADJ NOUN O O NOUN O ADJ NOUN O O ADJ NOUN NOUN VERB ADV VERB O NOUN O VERB NOUN O ADJ ADJ NOUN NOUN O O ADJ O NOUN O NOUN O ADV O NOUN O NOUN O O O


The value of this information is inherently dependent upon the quality of the inference process and that in turn depends upon the complexity of the scene , the spatial , temporal and spectral resolution of the sensors and the particular algorithms used .

the value of this information be inherently dependent upon the quality of the inference process and that in turn depend upon the complexity of the scene , the spatial , temporal and spectral resolution of the sensor and the particular algorithm use .

DT NN IN DT NN VBZ RB JJ IN DT NN IN DT NN NN CC IN IN NN VBZ IN DT NN IN DT NN , DT JJ , JJ CC JJ NN IN DT NNS CC DT JJ NNS VBN .

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Thus far , for instance , accuracies of land cover ( let alone what is often needed , i.e. land use ) determined from Landsat and SPOT imagery for the UK have rarely been higher than 70 per cent unless trivial classifications ( e.g. built/unbuilt land ) have been used .

thus far , for instance , accuracy of land cover ( let alone what be often need , i.e. land use ) determine from landsat and spot imagery for the uk have rarely be high than 70 per cent unless trivial classification ( e.g. built/unbuilt land ) have be use .

RB RB , IN NN , NNS IN NN NN -LRB- VB RB WP VBZ RB VBN , FW NN NN -RRB- VBN IN NNP CC NNP NN IN DT NNP VBP RB VBN JJR IN CD IN NN IN JJ NNS -LRB- RB VBN NN -RRB- VBP VBN VBN .

ADV ADV O O NOUN O NOUN O NOUN NOUN O VERB ADV O VERB ADV VERB O O NOUN NOUN O VERB O NOUN O NOUN NOUN O O NOUN VERB ADV VERB ADJ O O O NOUN O ADJ NOUN O ADV VERB NOUN O VERB VERB VERB O


One solution to this is to ‘ densify ’ the ground control and another is to use contextually based classifiers rather than the traditional , spectrally based ones .

one solution to this be to ' densify ' the ground control and another be to use contextually base classifier rather than the traditional , spectrally base one .

CD NN IN DT VBZ TO `` VB '' DT NN NN CC DT VBZ TO VB RB VBN NNS RB IN DT JJ , RB VBN NNS .

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But the ground conditions in some parts of Europe make good results extremely difficult to obtain : some areas of Portugal , for instance , have field sizes of only a few metres and exhibit multi-level and multi-seasonal cropping .

but the ground condition in some part of europe make good result extremely difficult to obtain : some area of portugal , for instance , have field size of only a few metre and exhibit multi-level and multi-seasonal cropping .

CC DT NN NNS IN DT NNS IN NNP VBP JJ NNS RB JJ TO VB : DT NNS IN NNP , IN NN , VBP NN NNS IN RB DT JJ NNS CC NN JJ CC JJ NN .

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A further difficulty is the cost of the data in relation to its anticipated benefits .

a further difficulty be the cost of the datum in relation to its anticipated benefit .

DT JJ NN VBZ DT NN IN DT NNS IN NN IN PRP$ JJ NNS .

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It may be that a study commissioned from contractors by the British National Space Centre will provide useful evidence on the cash value of remote sensing ; it is particularly timely in view of the appointment of Professor Pearce ( see above ) as the adviser to the UK Secretary of State for the Environment .

it may be that a study commission from contractor by the british national space centre will provide useful evidence on the cash value of remote sensing ; it be particularly timely in view of the appointment of professor pearce ( see above ) as the adviser to the uk secretary of state for the environment .

PRP MD VB IN DT NN VBN IN NNS IN DT NNP NNP NNP NNP MD VB JJ NN IN DT NN NN IN JJ NN : PRP VBZ RB JJ IN NN IN DT NN IN NNP NNP -LRB- VB RB -RRB- IN DT NN IN DT NNP NNP IN NNP IN DT NNP .

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Finally , since data are often costly to acquire , it follows that summaries of them e.g. The State of the European Environment report ( CEC 1988 ) and the Environmental Data Report of the UN EP ( GEMS MARC 1989 ) are of considerable value .

finally , since datum be often costly to acquire , it follow that summary of they e.g. the state of the european environment report ( cec 1988 ) and the environmental data report of the un ep ( gems marc 1989 ) be of considerable value .

RB , IN NNS VBP RB JJ TO VB , PRP VBZ IN NNS IN PRP RB DT NNP IN DT NNP NNP NN -LRB- NN CD -RRB- CC DT NNP NNP NNP IN DT NNP NN -LRB- NNP NNP CD -RRB- VBP IN JJ NN .

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The lack of harmonization of definitions and methods of collection of environmental data have already been outlined above .

the lack of harmonization of definition and method of collection of environmental datum have already be outline above .

DT NN IN NN IN NNS CC NNS IN NN IN JJ NNS VBP RB VBN VBN RB .

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The need for harmonization is obvious and , in this respect , must follow from the successful pioneering achievements of EUROSTAT in harmonizing the definitions in trade , demographic and other ‘ social science ’ statistics ( see CEC 1990b ) .

the need for harmonization be obvious and , in this respect , must follow from the successful pioneering achievement of eurostat in harmonize the definition in trade , demographic and other ' social science ' statistic ( see cec 1990b ) .

DT NN IN NN VBZ JJ CC , IN DT NN , MD VB IN DT JJ JJ NNS IN NN IN VBG DT NNS IN NN , JJ CC JJ `` JJ NN '' NNS -LRB- VB NNP CD -RRB- .

O NOUN O NOUN VERB ADJ O O O O NOUN O O VERB O O ADJ ADJ NOUN O NOUN O VERB O NOUN O NOUN O ADJ O ADJ O ADJ NOUN O NOUN O VERB NOUN O O O


An additional and severe problem is that the volumes of data which are already collected are huge by the standards of only a decade ago .

an additional and severe problem be that the volume of datum which be already collect be huge by the standard of only a decade ago .

DT JJ CC JJ NN VBZ IN DT NNS IN NNS WDT VBP RB VBN VBP JJ IN DT NNS IN RB DT NN RB .

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Since remote sensing data sets ( especially those pertaining to terrestrial areas of the globe ) typically need much pre-processing to calibrate , transform and then perform an inference process and hence convert measurements of the radiation reflected or emitted by small areas of ground into useful ( e.g. land cover ) data , the processing power required is going to be formidable .

since remote sense data set ( especially those pertain to terrestrial area of the globe ) typically need much pre-processing to calibrate , transform and then perform an inference process and hence convert measurement of the radiation reflect or emit by small area of ground into useful ( e.g. land cover ) datum , the processing power require be go to be formidable .

IN JJ VBG NN NNS -LRB- RB DT VBG IN JJ NNS IN DT NN -RRB- RB VBP JJ NN TO VB , VB CC RB VB DT NN NN CC RB VB NNS IN DT NN VBN CC VBN IN JJ NNS IN NN IN JJ -LRB- RB NN NN -RRB- NNS , DT NN NN VBN VBZ VBG TO VB JJ .

O ADJ VERB NOUN NOUN O ADV O VERB O ADJ NOUN O O NOUN O ADV VERB ADJ NOUN O VERB O VERB O ADV VERB O NOUN NOUN O ADV VERB NOUN O O NOUN VERB O VERB O ADJ NOUN O NOUN O ADJ O ADV NOUN NOUN O NOUN O O NOUN NOUN VERB VERB VERB O VERB ADJ O


To hold all of the 1/50 000 scale topographic map coverage alone for the European Community would probably require about 3 terabytes of storage .

to hold all of the 1/50 000 scale topographic map coverage alone for the european community would probably require about 3 terabyte of storage .

TO VB DT IN DT CD CD NN JJ NN NN JJ IN DT NNP NNP MD RB VB RB CD NNS IN NN .

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It would be technically possible , for instance , to hold in less than 1 terabyte detailed information for every individual in the world , akin to that collected about everyone in the UK through the Census of Population .

it would be technically possible , for instance , to hold in less than 1 terabyte detailed information for every individual in the world , akin to that collect about everyone in the uk through the census of population .

PRP MD VB RB JJ , IN NN , TO VB RP JJR IN CD JJ JJ NN IN DT NN IN DT NN , JJ IN DT VBN IN NN IN DT NNP IN DT NNP IN NNP .

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This all presents major problems of data storage , handling ( especially for global data sets ) , display and dissemination .

this all present major problem of datum storage , handle ( especially for global data set ) , display and dissemination .

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Fortunately , technical developments have ensured that the increase in computing power per unit cost has been growing at about an order of magnitude every 6 years over the last three decades .

fortunately , technical development have ensure that the increase in compute power per unit cost have be grow at about an order of magnitude every 6 year over the last three decade .

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Indeed , this may grossly under-represent the present situation : the rapid spread of UNIX-based systems seems to facilitate competition and , at the time of writing , performance of workstations per unit cost seems to be increasing at about 50 per cent per annum .

indeed , this may grossly under-represent the present situation : the rapid spread of unix-based system seem to facilitate competition and , at the time of writing , performance of workstation per unit cost seem to be increase at about 50 per cent per annum .

RB , DT MD RB VB DT JJ NN : DT JJ NN IN JJ NNS VBZ TO VB NN CC , IN DT NN IN NN , NN IN NNS IN NN NN VBZ TO VB VBG IN RB CD IN NN IN FW .

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Moreover , the advent of low-cost , high-density-storage devices like CD-ROMs may well make substantial data sets available even to those with modest computing power : a CD-ROM , for instance , can hold about 600 megabytes ( i.e. 10&sup6 ; bytes ) , can be reproduced currently for about £1 and read on a device costing about £400 .

moreover , the advent of low-cost , high-density-storage device like cd-rom may well make substantial data set available even to those with modest computing power : a cd-rom , for instance , can hold about 600 megabyte ( i.e. 10&sup6 ; byte ) , can be reproduce currently for about £1 and read on a device cost about £400 .

RB , DT NN IN JJ , JJ NNS IN NNS MD RB VB JJ NN NNS JJ RB IN DT IN JJ NN NN : DT NNPS , IN NN , MD VB RB CD NNS -LRB- FW CD , NNS -RRB- , MD VB VBN RB IN RB JJ CC VBD IN DT NN VBG IN NNP .

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One such solution is Goodchild and Yang 's ( 1989 ) scheme for a hierarchical spatial data structure to handle data for the spherical earth .

one such solution be goodchild and yang 's ( 1989 ) scheme for a hierarchical spatial datum structure to handle datum for the spherical earth .

CD JJ NN VBZ NNP CC NNP POS -LRB- CD -RRB- NN IN DT JJ JJ NNS NN TO VB NNS IN DT JJ NN .

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A particular problem is that little or no quantitative regard has been paid until recently to the effects of quality variation in environmental data .

a particular problem be that little or no quantitative regard have be pay until recently to the effect of quality variation in environmental datum .

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The literature of the last few years is thronged with papers proposing that these must be taken into account — but with few realistic proposals on how this is to be achieved .

the literature of the last few year be throng with paper propose that these must be take into account — but with few realistic proposal on how this be to be achieve .

DT NN IN DT JJ JJ NNS VBZ VBN IN NNS VBG IN DT MD VB VBN IN NN : CC IN JJ JJ NNS IN WRB DT VBZ TO VB VBN .

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Goodchild ( 1988 ) has made perhaps the best summary of the problem and possible solutions to date .

goodchild ( 1988 ) have make perhaps the good summary of the problem and possible solution to date .

NNP -LRB- CD -RRB- VBZ VBN RB DT JJS NN IN DT NN CC JJ NNS IN NN .

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Finally , relatively little emphasis has been given to the management of data as a corporate resource , available to a wide community : many environmental data are collected on a project-by-project basis and ‘ lost ’ once the urgency of the initial research is over .

finally , relatively little emphasis have be give to the management of datum as a corporate resource , available to a wide community : many environmental datum be collect on a project-by-project basis and ' lose ' once the urgency of the initial research be over .

RB , RB JJ NN VBZ VBN VBN IN DT NN IN NNS IN DT JJ NN , JJ IN DT JJ NN : JJ JJ NNS VBP VBN IN DT JJ NN CC `` VBN '' RB DT NN IN DT JJ NN VBZ RB .

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Thus far , the emphasis has been very much on the natural science aspects of environmental monitoring and prediction .

thus far , the emphasis have be very much on the natural science aspect of environmental monitoring and prediction .

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Yet the consequences of any significant changes are a matter of the utmost concern to planners and to politicians at all levels , the quantification of the costs and benefits of alternative policy strategies is very much a matter for economists , and the adaptation of societies to massive change is a particular interest to sociologists and others .

yet the consequence of any significant change be a matter of the utmost concern to planner and to politician at all level , the quantification of the cost and benefit of alternative policy strategy be very much a matter for economist , and the adaptation of society to massive change be a particular interest to sociologist and other .

CC DT NNS IN DT JJ NNS VBP DT NN IN DT JJ NN IN NNS CC IN NNS IN DT NNS , DT NN IN DT NNS CC NNS IN JJ NN NNS VBZ RB RB DT NN IN NNS , CC DT NN IN NNS IN JJ NN VBZ DT JJ NN IN NNS CC NNS .

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These reports ( Pearce 1990 ; Turner 1990 ) may be taken as informed views from at least the economists in the UK social science community on the social science aspects of global environmental change .

these report ( pearce 1990 ; turner 1990 ) may be take as informed view from at least the economist in the uk social science community on the social science aspect of global environmental change .

DT NNS -LRB- NNP CD : NNP CD -RRB- MD VB VBN IN JJ NNS IN IN JJS DT NNS IN DT NNP JJ NN NN IN DT JJ NN NNS IN JJ JJ NN .

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The theory and practice of international agreements , viewed in a game theory context ;

the theory and practice of international agreement , view in a game theory context ;

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Cost-benefit frameworks , especially for dealing with man-induced climatic effects ;

cost-benefit framework , especially for deal with man-induced climatic effect ;


Assessment of the ecological values of tropical forest ;

assessment of the ecological value of tropical forest ;


Economic instruments for reducing greenhouse gases ;

economic instrument for reduce greenhouse gas ;


The international politics of climate change ;

the international politic of climate change ;


National and global energy options given the greenhouse effect ;

national and global energy option give the greenhouse effect ;


Turner ( 1990 ) argued that the priorities are as follows :

turner ( 1990 ) argue that the priority be as follow :

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The socio-economic consequences of sea-level rise ;

the socio-economic consequence of sea-level rise ;


Techniques for the valuation of environmental resources and effects ;

technique for the valuation of environmental resource and effect ;


An assessment of management tools , institutional adaptation and policy integration in regard to global environmental change ;

an assessment of management tool , institutional adaptation and policy integration in regard to global environmental change ;

DT NN IN NN NNS , JJ NN CC NN NN IN NN IN JJ JJ NN :

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Understanding of how environmental issues and technical change interact ;

understanding of how environmental issue and technical change interact ;


There is , then , no shortage of social science research which is claimed to be necessary if we are to cope with environmental change .

there be , then , no shortage of social science research which be claim to be necessary if we be to cope with environmental change .

EX VBZ , RB , DT NN IN JJ NN NN WDT VBZ VBN TO VB JJ IN PRP VBP TO VB IN JJ NN .

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Some of it is being carried out : in March 1991 ESRC announced a £6m programme of research on Global Environmental Change .

some of it be be carry out : in march 1991 esrc announce a £6m programme of research on global environmental change .

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However , perhaps most critical of all in the early stages is social science practice rather than research .

however , perhaps most critical of all in the early stage be social science practice rather than research .

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In the USA at least , there needs to be an improvement in scientists ' understandings of how to influence the allocation of funding for remedial measures or for further research ( see Kitsos and Ashe 1989 ) .

in the usa at least , there need to be an improvement in scientist ' understanding of how to influence the allocation of funding for remedial measure or for further research ( see kitsos and ashe 1989 ) .

IN DT NNP IN JJS , EX VBZ TO VB DT NN IN NNS POS NNS IN WRB TO VB DT NN IN NN IN JJ NNS CC IN JJ NN -LRB- VB NNP CC NNP CD -RRB- .

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All too often , it seems that the coupling of an as yet imperfect scientific understanding to policy-making is tenuous ( see Table 9.2 ) .

all too often , it seem that the coupling of an as yet imperfect scientific understanding to policy-making be tenuous ( see table 9.2 ) .

RB RB RB , PRP VBZ IN DT NN IN DT RB RB JJ JJ NN IN NN VBZ JJ -LRB- VB NN CD -RRB- .

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The contents of this chapter have scarcely touched upon such important environmental research as the World Ocean Climate Experiment or the World Climate Research Programme .

the content of this chapter have scarcely touch upon such important environmental research as the world ocean climate experiment or the world climate research programme .

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Nor has there been any discussion of the growing requirement in the UK ( as elsewhere ) to carry out an environmental impact assessment for all major developments .

nor have there be any discussion of the grow requirement in the uk ( as elsewhere ) to carry out an environmental impact assessment for all major development .

CC VBZ EX VBN DT NN IN DT VBG NN IN DT NNP -LRB- IN RB -RRB- TO VB RP DT JJ NN NN IN DT JJ NNS .

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The consequences for some nations or subgroups in a population of being without access to environmental data or the tools for analysing them while others have such access are potentially profound — as the European Commission has recognized in issuing a directive on public access to environmental data ( CEC 1990d ) — yet space limitations have also precluded their discussion .

the consequence for some nation or subgroup in a population of be without access to environmental datum or the tool for analyse they while other have such access be potentially profound — as the european commission have recognize in issue a directive on public access to environmental datum ( cec 1990d ) — yet space limitation have also preclude their discussion .

DT NNS IN DT NNS CC NNS IN DT NN IN VBG IN NN IN JJ NNS CC DT NNS IN VBG PRP IN NNS VBP JJ NN VBP RB JJ : IN DT NNP NNP VBZ VBN IN VBG DT NN IN JJ NN IN JJ NNS -LRB- NN CD -RRB- : CC NN NNS VBP RB VBN PRP$ NN .

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Despite these shortcomings dictated by the space available , what has been said should be sufficient to illustrate the enormous and diverse scope of environmental monitoring and prediction .

despite these shortcoming dictate by the space available , what have be say should be sufficient to illustrate the enormous and diverse scope of environmental monitoring and prediction .

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Such is its diversity that measuring the total expenditure on it seems quite impossible and the number of ‘ actors ’ already involved is vast .

such be its diversity that measure the total expenditure on it seem quite impossible and the number of ' actor ' already involve be vast .

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In these circumstances , it is scarcely surprising that there is evidence of international and interdisciplinary dispute , as Terney ( 1989 ) has chronicled in regard to IGBP .

in these circumstance , it be scarcely surprising that there be evidence of international and interdisciplinary dispute , as terney ( 1989 ) have chronicle in regard to igbp .

IN DT NNS , PRP VBZ RB JJ IN EX VBZ NN IN JJ CC JJ NN , IN NNP -LRB- CD -RRB- VBZ VBN IN NN IN NNP .

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