# 伊本·海什木

| 伊本·海什木 |
| --- |
| 伊本·海什木 |
| 出生 | (965-07-01)965年7月1日(伊斯兰历354 年) 白益王朝巴士拉 |
| 逝世 | 1040年3月6日(1040-03-06)（74歲）(伊斯兰历430年) 法蒂玛王朝开罗 |
| 居住地 | 巴士拉 开罗 |
| 民族 | 阿拉伯人 |
| 知名于 | 《光学之书》、《有关托勒密的疑点》、《世界的结构》、《运动模式》、《光论》、《地方论》等 科学方法、实验科学、实验物理学、实验心理学、视知觉、解析几何、天文学、天体力学 |
| **科学生涯** |
| 研究领域 | 物理学、数学、天文学 |
| 受影响自 | 亚里士多德、欧几里得、托勒密、盖伦、巴努·穆萨兄弟、萨比特·伊本·库拉、肯迪、伊本·萨赫勒、阿布·萨赫勒·库希 |
| 施影响于 | 奥马尔·海亚姆、塔基丁·穆罕默德·伊本·马鲁夫、卡迈勒丁·法里西、伊本·魯世德、哈泽尼、约翰·佩卡姆、威特罗、罗吉尔·培根、约翰内斯·开普勒 |
|  |

**阿布·阿里·哈桑·伊本·哈桑·伊本·海什木**（阿拉伯語：‎أبو علي، الحسن بن الحسن بن الهيثم，羅馬化：Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥasan ibn al-Ḥasan ibn al-Haytham，965年—1040年），一般简称**伊本·海什木**（阿拉伯語：ابن الهيثم），是伊斯兰黄金时代的中世纪数学家、天文学家和物理学家。欧洲人称之为**海桑**（又译**哈金**，拉丁語：Alhazen）。他有大量著作和被现代科学证明了的科学发现，尤其在光学研究方面有突出成就，被誉为“现代光学之父”。他最具影响力的著作是《光学书》（Kitāb al-Manāẓir，阿拉伯语：كتاب المناظر），该书写于1011至1021年，现存有拉丁文版。海什木的作品在科学革命期间被艾萨克·牛顿、约翰内斯·开普勒、克里斯蒂安·惠更斯和伽利略等人频繁引用。

伊本·海什木是首位正确解释视觉理论的人，并提出视觉发生在大脑中，指出视觉是主观的，受到个人经验的影响。他还阐述了折射的最短时间原理，这一原理后来成为费马原理。他在反射、折射以及光线形成的图像性质的研究中，对镜面光学和透镜光学做出了重大贡献。伊本·海什木还是早期支持假设必须通过可验证的实验或数学推理来支持的科学方法论的倡导者—他被认为是科学方法的先驱，比文艺复兴时期的科学家早了五个世纪。他有时被称为“世界上第一个真正的科学家”。他也是一位博学多才的学者，涉猎哲学、神学和医学等领域。

## 生平

伊本·海什木出生于965年7月1日（伊斯兰历354年）在伊拉克的巴士拉城。被认为是在不同学科都有杰出的成绩，如数学、天文学、医学等等，他早期学习工程，读希腊科学的书，和关于安达卢西亚学说的精华，接收并发展了这些学说。当时的埃及哈里发召集他参与控制尼罗河泛滥的工程，但是经过他的研究发现那是不可能实现的，从而招致哈里发非常愤怒。于是海什木就以装疯的方式避免了严重惩罚，转而被软禁，直到哈里发1021年死去。在此期间他完成了大量重要的数学论文。

## 科学成就

### 光学理论

古典时期流行着两种关于视觉的主要理论。 第一个理论，即发射理论，得到了欧几里得和托勒密等思想家的支持，他们认为视觉是通过眼睛发射光线来实现的。 第二种理论，即亚里士多德及其追随者支持的引入理论，认为物理形式是从物体进入眼睛的。 以前的伊斯兰作家（例如金迪）主要是根据欧几里得学派、盖伦学派或亚里士多德学派的观点进行争论。 对《光学之书》影响最大的是托勒密的《光学》，而对眼睛的解剖学和生理学的描述则基于盖伦的叙述。伊本·海什木的成就是提出了一种理论，成功地将欧几里得的数学射线论证、盖伦的医学传统和亚里士多德的引入理论部分结合起来。 伊本·海什木的引入理论追随了金迪（并与亚里士多德决裂），断言“从每个有色物体的每个点，受到任何光的照射，都会沿着从该点画出的每条直线发出光和颜色”。这给他留下了解释如何从许多独立的辐射源形成相干图像的问题； 特别是物体的每个点都会向眼睛的每个点发送光线。

伊本·海什木需要的是物体上的每个点仅对应于眼睛上的一个点。他试图通过断言眼睛只会感知到来自物体的垂直光线来解决这个问题——对于眼睛上的任何一点，只有直接到达该点的光线才会被感知，而不会被眼睛的任何其他部分折射。 他用物理类比来论证，垂直光线比倾斜光线更强：就像直接扔向木板的球可能会打破木板，而倾斜地扔向木板的球会擦过一样，垂直光线更强 与折射光线相比，眼睛只能看到垂直光线。 由于任意一点只有一条垂直光线进入眼睛，而所有这些光线都会以圆锥体的形式汇聚在眼睛的中心，这使得他解决了物体上的每个点向眼睛发出多条光线的问题。 如果只有垂直光线重要，那么他就有了一对一的对应关系，并且可以解决混乱。他后来断言（在《光学》第七册中）其他光线会通过眼睛折射并被感知为垂直的。他关于垂直光线的论点并没有清楚地解释为什么只能感知到垂直光线； 为什么较弱的倾斜光线不会被感知得更弱？他后来关于折射光线将被感知为垂直的论点似乎没有说服力。然而，尽管存在缺陷，但当时没有其他理论如此全面，并且影响力巨大，特别是在西欧。 他的《光学之书》直接或间接地激发了13-17世纪光学领域的许多活动。 开普勒后来的视网膜图像理论（解决了物体上的点与眼睛中的点的对应问题）直接建立在伊本·海什木的概念框架上。

伊本·海什木通过实验证明光是沿直线传播的，并用透镜、镜子、折射和反射进行了各种实验。他对反射和折射的分析分别考虑了光线的垂直和水平分量。

伊本·海什木曾研究了视觉过程、眼睛的结构、眼睛中的图像形成和视觉系统。 伊恩·P·霍华德 (Ian P. Howard) 在 1996 年发表的《感知》文章中指出，伊本·海什木的许多发现和理论都有助于西欧人在几个世纪后撰写的著作。 例如，他描述了 19 世纪的赫林平等神经支配定律。 他比阿吉洛尼乌斯早 600 年写了一篇关于垂直双眼视差的描述，实际上比阿吉洛尼乌斯的定义更接近现代定义，并且帕努姆在 1858 年重复了他关于双眼视差的工作。克雷格·阿恩-斯托克代尔（Craig Aaen-Stockdale）虽然同意伊本·海什木在许多进步方面取得了进展，但也表达了一些谨慎的态度，特别是在将伊本·海什木与托勒密分开考虑时，伊本·海什木曾与托勒密非常熟悉。 伊本·海什木纠正了托勒密关于双眼视觉的一个重大错误，但除此之外他的描述非常相似； 托勒密还试图解释现在所谓的赫林定律。总的来说，伊本·海什木曾建立并扩展了托勒密的光学。

## 著作

## 流行文化

米哈游发行的开放世界游戏《原神》中的可操控人物艾尔海森以海什木作为原型。

* Aaen-Stockdale, C. R., Ibn al-Haytham and psychophysics (PDF), Perception, 2008, **37** (4): 636–638  [2012-10-18], PMID 18546671, doi:10.1068/p5940, （原始内容 (PDF)存档于2012-03-21）
* Professor Abattouy, Mohammed, The Arabic Science of weights: A Report on an Ongoing Research Project, The Bulletin of the Royal Institute for Inter-Faith Studies, 2002, **4**: 109–130
* Abbott, David, Biographical Dictionary of Scientists **I**, Frederick Muller Ltd, December 1983, ISBN 0-584-10854-0, OCLC 10505374
* Agrawal, Amit; Taguchi, Yuichi; Ramalingam, Srikumar, Beyond Alhazen's Problem: Analytical Projection Model for Non-Central Catadioptric Cameras with Quadric Mirrors, IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, 2011, （原始内容存档于2012-03-07）
* Agrawal, Amit; Taguchi, Yuichi; Ramalingam, Srikumar, Analytical Forward Projection for Axial Non-Central Dioptric and Catadioptric Cameras, European Conference on Computer Vision, 2010, （原始内容存档于2012-03-07）

* Arjomand, Kamran, The emergence of scientific modernity in Iran: controversies surrounding astrology and modern astronomy in the mid-nineteenth century, Iranian Studies, 1997, **30** (1)
* Bettany, Laurence, Ibn al-Haytham: an answer to multicultural science teaching?, Physics Education, 1995, **30**: 247–252, Bibcode:1995PhyEd..30..247B, doi:10.1088/0031-9120/30/4/011
* El-Bizri, Nader, La perception de la profondeur: Alhazen, Berkeley et Merleau-Ponty, Oriens-Occidens: sciences, mathématiques et philosophie de l’antiquité à l’âge classique (Cahiers du Centre d’Histoire des Sciences et des Philosophies Arabes et Médiévales) (Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique), 2004, **5**: 171–184
* El-Bizri, Nader, A Philosophical Perspective on Alhazen’s *Optics*, Arabic Sciences and Philosophy (Cambridge University Press), 2005a, **15** (2): 189–218, doi:10.1017/S0957423905000172
* El-Bizri, Nader, Ibn al-Haytham, Wallis, Faith (编), Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia, New York & London: Routledge: 237–240, 2005b, ISBN 0-415-96930-1, OCLC 218847614、58829023、61228669
* El-Bizri, Nader, Ibn al-Haytham or Alhazen, Meri, Josef W. (编), Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopaedia **II**, New York & London: Routledge: 343–345, 2006, ISBN 0-415-96692-2, OCLC 224371638、59360024
* El-Bizri, Nader, In Defence of the Sovereignty of Philosophy: Al-Baghdadi's Critique of Ibn al-Haytham's Geometrisation of Place, Arabic Sciences and Philosophy (Cambridge University Press), 2007, **17**: 57–80, doi:10.1017/S0957423907000367
* El-Bizri, Nader, Ibn al-Haytham et le problème de la couleur, Oriens-Occidens: sciences, mathématiques et philosophie de l’antiquité à l’âge classique (Cahiers du Centre d’Histoire des Sciences et des Philosophies Arabes et Médiévales) (Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique), 2004, **7**: 201–226
* Bouali, Hamid-Eddine; Zghal, Mourad; Lakhdar, Zohra Ben, Popularisation of Optical Phenomena: Establishing the First Ibn Al-Haytham Workshop on Photography (PDF), The Education and Training in Optics and Photonics Conference, 2005  [2008-07-08], （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2011-05-24）
* Burns, Robert, Some fear Iraq may be rebuilding its weapons of mass destruction, Topeka Capital-Journal, 1999-08-08  [2008-09-21], （原始内容存档于2009年3月15日）
* Child, John; Shuter, Paul; Taylor, David, Understanding History, Heinemann, 1992, ISBN 0-435-31211-1, OCLC 27338645
* Corbin, Henry, History of Islamic Philosophy, Translated by Liadain Sherrard, Philip Sherrard, London: Kegan Paul International in association with Islamic Publications for The Institute of Ismaili Studies, 1993; original French 1964, ISBN 0-7103-0416-1, OCLC 22109949、221646817、22181827、225287258  请检查`|date=`中的日期值 (帮助)
* Crombie, A. C., Robert Grosseteste and the Origins of Experimental Science, 1100–1700, Clarendon Press, Oxford University, 1971
* Dr. Al Deek, Mahmoud, Ibn Al-Haitham: Master of Optics, Mathematics, Physics and Medicine, Al Shindagah, 2004, (November–December 2004)  [2012-10-18], （原始内容存档于2008-06-17）
* Dessel, Norman F.; Nehrich, Richard B.; Glenn I., Voran, Science and Human Destiny, McGraw-Hill, 1973, ISBN 0-07-016580-7, OCLC 409664
* Duhem, Pierre, To Save the Phenomena: An Essay on the Idea of Physical theory from Plato to Galileo, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1908, 1969, ISBN 0-226-16921-9, OCLC 12429405  请检查`|date=`中的日期值 (帮助)
* Eder, Michelle, Views of Euclid's Parallel Postulate in Ancient Greece and in Medieval Islam, Rutgers University, 2000  [2008-01-23], （原始内容存档于2016-08-19）
* Elliott, Robert Stratman, Electromagnetics, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1966
* Falco, Charles M., Ibn al-Haytham and the Origins of Modern Image Analysis (PDF), Sharjah, United Arab Emirates (U.A.E.): presented at a plenary session at the International Conference on Information Sciences, Signal Processing and its Applications, 12–15 February 2007  [2008-01-23]
* Faruqi, Yasmeen M., Contributions of Islamic scholars to the scientific enterprise, International Education Journal, 2006, **7** (4): 391–396
* Gondhalekar, Prabhakar M., The Grip of Gravity: The Quest to Understand the Laws of Motion and Gravitation, Cambridge University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-521-80316-0, OCLC 224074913、45418963
* Grant, Edward, A source book in medieval science, Volume One, Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1974
* Grant, Edward, Alhazen, Encarta *Online Encyclopedia**, Microsoft, 2008  [2008-09-16], （原始内容存档于2008-05-26）*
* Hamarneh, Sami, Review: Hakim Mohammed Said, *Ibn al-Haitham*, Isis, 1972, **63** (1): 118–119, doi:10.1086/350861
* Hassan, Ahmad Y., Al-Jazari And the History of the Water Clock, 2007  [2008-01-23], （原始内容存档于2014-02-08）
* Hatfield, Gary, Was the Scientific Revolution Really a Revolution in Science?, Ragep, F. J.; Ragep, Sally P.; Livesey, Steven John (编), Tradition, Transmission, Transformation: Proceedings of Two Conferences on Pre-modern Science held at the University of Oklahoma, Brill Publishers, 1996, ISBN 90-04-09126-2, OCLC 19740432、234073624、234096934
* Heeffer, Albrecht, Kepler’s near discovery of the sine law: A qualitative computational model, Third International workshop: Computer models of scientific reasoning and applications (PDF), Buenos Aires: National Library of the Argentine Republic, September 14–15, 2003  [2008-01-23], （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-03-13）
* Hershenson, Maurice, The Moon Illusion, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1989  [2008-09-22], ISBN 0-8058-0121-9, OCLC 20091171、231045807, （原始内容存档于2015-01-14）
* Highfield, Roger, Don solves the last puzzle left by ancient Greeks, The Daily Telegraph, 1 April 1997, **676**  [2008-09-24], （原始内容存档于2004-11-23）
* Hockney, David, Secret Knowledge: Rediscovering the Lost Techniques of the Old Masters, 2006, ISBN 0-14-200512-6  (New and Expanded Edition). 328 pages. index. list of illustrations. bibliography. 'textual evidence' section cites Alhazen 240, 242, 277, 279, 284. Entire book records Hockney's investigation of the *camera obscura* and his rediscovery of its use in portraiture.
* Hodgson, Peter Edward, Theology And Modern Physics, Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing, 20062006-01-15, ISBN 978-0-7546-3622-9, OCLC 56876894, DDC: 201.653, LCC: BL265.P4 H63 2005
* Howard, Ian P., Alhazen's neglected discoveries of visual phenomena, Perception, 1996, **25** (10): 1203–1217, PMID 9027923, doi:10.1068/p251203
* Howard, Ian P.; Wade, Nicholas J., Ptolemy's contributions to the geometry of binocular vision, Perception, 1996, **25** (10): 1189–201, PMID 9027922, doi:10.1068/p251189
* Katz, Victor J., Ideas of Calculus in Islam and India, Mathematics Magazine, 1995, **68** (3): 163–174, doi:10.2307/2691411
* Katz, Victor J., History of Mathematics: An Introduction, Addison-Wesley, 1998, ISBN 0-321-01618-1, OCLC 38199387、60154481
* Kelley, David H.; Milone, E. F.; Aveni, A. F., Exploring Ancient Skies: An Encyclopedic Survey of Archaeoastronomy, Birkhäuser, 2005  [2012-10-18], ISBN 0-387-95310-8, OCLC 213887290, （原始内容存档于2013-06-17）
* Khaleefa, Omar, Who Is the Founder of Psychophysics and Experimental Psychology?, American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences, 1999, **16** (2)
* Langerman, Y. Tzvi, Ibn al Haytham's On the Configuration of the World, 1990
* Lindberg, David C., Alhazen's Theory of Vision and Its Reception in the West, Isis, 1967, **58** (3): 321–341, PMID 4867472, doi:10.1086/350266
* Lindberg, David C., Theories of Vision from al-Kindi to Kepler, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1976, ISBN 0-226-48234-0, OCLC 1676198、185636643
* Lindberg, David C., Roger Bacon and the Origins of Perspectiva in the Middle Ages*, Clarendon Press, 1996*
* Lorch, Richard, Ibn al-Haytham, Encyclopædia Britannica, 2008  [2008-08-06], （原始内容存档于2015-05-30）
* MacKay, R. J.; Oldford, R. W., Scientific Method, Statistical Method and the Speed of Light, Statistical Science, August 2000, **15** (3): 254–78, doi:10.1214/ss/1009212817
* Marshall, O. S., Alhazen and the Telescope, Astronomical Society of the Pacific Leaflets, 1950, **6**: 4
* Mihas, Pavlos, Use of History in Developing ideas of refraction, lenses and rainbow, Eighth International History, Philosophy, Sociology & Science Teaching Conference (PDF), University of Leeds, July 15–18, 2005  [2008-01-23], （原始内容 (PDF)存档于2007-09-27）
* Mohamed, Mohaini, Great Muslim Mathematicians, Penerbit UTM, 2000, ISBN 983-52-0157-9, OCLC 48759017
* Montada, Josep Puig, Ibn Bajja, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, September 28, 2007  [2008-07-11], （原始内容存档于2020-03-16）
* Morelon, Régis; Rashed, Roshdi, Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science **2**, Routledge, 1996, ISBN 0-415-12410-7, OCLC 34731151
* Murphy, Dan, No more 'Saddams': Iraqis get new currency, The Christian Science Monitor, 2003-10-17  [2008-09-21], （原始内容存档于2021-04-17）
* Nasr, Seyyed Hossein, The achievements of Ibn Sina in the field of science and his contributions to its philosophy, Islam & Science, 2003, (December 2003)
* O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E. F., Abu Ali al-Hasan ibn al-Haytham, November 1999  [2008-09-20], （原始内容存档于2009-04-19）
* O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E. F., Light through the ages: Ancient Greece to Maxwell, August 2002  [2008-09-20], （原始内容存档于2019-10-23）
* Omar, Saleh Beshara, Ibn al-Haytham's Optics: A Study of the Origins of Experimental Science, Minneapolis: Bibliotheca Islamica, 1977, ISBN 0-88297-015-1, OCLC 3328963
* Pines, Shlomo, Studies in Arabic Versions of Greek Texts and in Mediaeval Science, Brill Publishers, 1986, ISBN 965-223-626-8, OCLC 14217211、165468475、46823952、60041227
* Plott, C., Global History of Philosophy: The Period of Scholasticism, Motilal Banarsidass, 2000, ISBN 81-208-0551-8
* Powers, Richard, Best Idea; Eyes Wide Open, The New York Times (PDF), April 18, 1999  [2008-01-23], （原始内容 (PDF)存档于2008年2月29日）
* Qadir, Asghar, Relativity: An Introduction to the Special Theory, World Scientific Publishing Co., Singapore, 1989
* Qadir, C. A., Philosophy and Science in the lslamic World, London: Routledge, 1990
* Rashed, Roshdi, A Polymath in the 10th century, Science, August 2002a, **297** (5582): 773, ISSN 0036-8075, PMID 12161634, doi:10.1126/science.1074591
* Rashed, Roshdi, PORTRAITS OF SCIENCE: A Polymath in the 10th Century, Science (Science magazine), 2002-08-02, **297** (5582): 773  [2008-09-16], ISSN 0036-8075, PMID 12161634, doi:10.1126/science.1074591, （原始内容存档于2009-06-25）
* Rashed, Roshdi, The Celestial Kinematics of Ibn al-Haytham, Arabic Sciences and Philosophy (Cambridge University Press), 2007, **17**: 7–55, doi:10.1017/S0957423907000355
* Rosen, Edward, The Dissolution of the Solid Celestial Spheres, Journal of the History of Ideas, 1 January 1985, **46** (1): 13–31, ISSN 0022-5037, doi:10.2307/2709773
* Rottman, J., A first course in Abstract Algebra, Prentice Hall, February 28, 2000, ISBN 0-13-011584-3, OCLC 42960682、59576116
* Rozenfeld, Boris A., A History of Non-Euclidean Geometry: Evolution of the Concept of a Geometric Space, Springer Science+Business Media, 1988, ISBN 0-387-96458-4, OCLC 15550634、230166667、230980046、77693662
* Rozenfeld, Boris Abramovich; Youschkevitch, Adolf P., Geometry, Rashed, Roshdi (编), Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science **2**, London & New York: Routledge: 447–494, 1996
* Saad, Bashar; Azaizeh, Hassan; Said, Omar, Tradition and Perspectives of Arab Herbal Medicine: A Review, Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine (Oxford University Press), October 2005, **2** (4): 475–479, PMC 1297506 , PMID 16322804, doi:10.1093/ecam/neh133
* Sabra, A. I., The astronomical origin of Ibn al-Haytham’s concept of experiment, Actes du XIIe congrès international d’histoire des sciences (Albert Blanchard, Paris), 1971, **3**: 133–136 . Reprinted in Sabra, A. I., Optics, Astronomy and Logic: Studies in Arabic Science and Philosophy, Collected Studies Series **444**, Variorum, Aldershot, 1994, ISBN 0-86078-435-5, OCLC 29847104、30739740 .
* Sabra, A. I., Ibn al-Haytham and the Visual Ray Hypothesis, Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (编), Ismaili Contributions to Islamic Culture, Boston: Shambhala Publications: 178–216, 1978a, ISBN 0-87773-731-2
* Sabra, A. I., An Eleventh-Century Refutation of Ptolemy's Planetary Theory, Hilfstein, Erna; Czartoryski, Paweł; Grande, Frank D. (编), Science and History: Studies in Honor of Edward Rosen, Studia Copernicana **XVI**, Ossolineum, Wrocław: 117–131, 1978b
* Sabra, A. I., Theories of Light from Descartes to Newton, Cambridge University Press, 1981
* Sabra, A. I., Configuring the Universe: Aporetic, Problem Solving, and Kinematic Modeling as Themes of Arabic Astronomy, Perspectives on Science, 1998, **6** (3): 288–330
* Sabra, A. I., Ibn al-Haytham: Brief life of an Arab mathematician, Harvard Magazine, October–December 2003  [2008-01-23], （原始内容存档于2007-09-27）
* Sabra, A. I.; Hogendijk, J. P., The Enterprise of Science in Islam: New Perspectives, MIT Press, 2003, ISBN 0-262-19482-1, OCLC 237875424、50252039
* Saliba, George, A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam, New York University Press, 1994, ISBN 0-8147-8023-7, OCLC 35666761
* Salih, H.; Al-Amri, M.; El Gomati, M., The Miracle of Light, A World of Science (UNESCO), 2005, **3** (3)
* Samuelson, James; Crookes, William, The Journal of Science, and Annals of Astronomy, Biology, Geology
* Sardar, Ziauddin, Science in Islamic philosophy, Islamic Philosophy, Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 1998  [2008-02-03], （原始内容存档于2018-05-26）
* Sarton, George, Introduction To The History of Science, Volume I: From Homer To Omar Khayyam, Baltimore, Maryland: Carnegie Institution for Science, 1927
* Van Sertima, Ivan, Golden Age Of The Moor, Transaction Publishers, 2004  [2012-10-18], ISBN 1-56000-581-5, OCLC 123168739、25416243、29837541、44748929、50901951、56571741、57559516, （原始内容存档于2012-04-02）
* Smith, A. Mark, Alhacen's theory of visual perception: a critical edition, with English translation and commentary, of the first three books of Alhacen's De aspectibus, the medieval Latin version of Ibn al-Haytham's Kitab al-Manazir, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 91-4, 91-5, Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society & DIANE Publishing, 2001, ISBN 978-0-87169-914-5, OCLC 163278528、163278565、185537919、47168716
* Smith, A. Mark, The Alhacenian Account Of Spatial Perception And Its Epistemological Implications, Arabic Sciences and Philosophy (Cambridge University Press), 2005, **15**, doi:10.1017/S0957423905000184
* Smith, John D., The Remarkable Ibn al-Haytham, The Mathematical Gazette (Mathematical Association), 1 March 1992, **76** (475): 189–198, ISSN 0025-5572, doi:10.2307/3620392
* Thiele, Rüdiger, In Memoriam: Matthias Schramm, Arabic Sciences and Philosophy (Cambridge University Press), 2005, **15**: 329–331, doi:10.1017/S0957423905000214
* Toomer, G. J., Review: *Ibn al-Haythams Weg zur Physik* by Matthias Schramm, Isis, December 1964, **55** (4): 463–465, doi:10.1086/349914
* Topdemir, Hüseyin Gazi, Takîyüddîn'in Optik Kitabi, Ankara: Ministry of Culture Press, 1999
* Topdemir, Hüseyin Gazi, Kamal Al-Din Al-Farisi’s Explanation of the Rainbow (PDF), Humanity & Social Sciences Journal, 2007a, **2** (1): 75–85  [2008-09-16], （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2008-10-02）
* Topdemir, Huseyin Gazi, Ibn al-Haytham (965-1039) His Life and Works, July 18, 2007
* Topdemir, Hüseyin Gazi, Taqi al-Din ibn Ma‘ruf and the Science of Optics: The Nature of Light and the Mechanism of Vision, FSTC Limited, 30 June 2008  [2008-07-04], （原始内容存档于2008-07-14）
* Verma, R. L., Al-Hazen: father of modern optics, Al-Arabi, August 1969, **8**: 12–3, PMID 11634474
* Vernet, J., Ibn al- Hayt̲h̲am, Abū ʿalī al-Ḥasan b. al-Ḥasan (or Ḥusayn) b. al-Hayt̲h̲am al-Baṣrī al-Miṣrī, Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W. P. (编), Encyclopaedia of Islam, Brill Online: Brill Publishers, 4 April 2008  [2008-09-16]
* Wade, Nicholas J., A Natural History of Vision, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1998
* Wade, Nicholas J.; Finger, Stanley, The eye as an optical instrument: from camera obscura to Helmholtz's perspective, Perception, 2001, **30** (10): 1157–1177, PMID 11721819, doi:10.1068/p3210
* Weisstein, Eric, Alhazen's Billiard Problem, Mathworld,  [2008-09-24], （原始内容存档于2021-04-17）
* Whitaker, Brian, Centuries in the House of Wisdom, The Guardian, 2004-09-23  [2008-09-16], （原始内容存档于2012-06-14）

## 扩展阅读

### 主要文献

* Sabra, A. I., ed., The Optics of Ibn al-Haytham, Books I-II-III: On Direct Vision. The Arabic text, edited and with Introduction, Arabic-Latin Glossaries and Concordance Tables, Kuwait: National Council for Culture, Arts and Letters, 1983
* Sabra, A. I., ed., The Optics of Ibn al-Haytham. Edition of the Arabic Text of Books IV-V: On Reflection and Images Seen by Reflection. 2 vols, Kuwait: The National Council for Culture, Arts and Letters, 2002
* Sabra, A. I., trans., The Optics of Ibn al-Haytham. Books I-II-III: On Direct Vision. English Translation and Commentary. 2 vols, Studies of the Warburg Institute, vol. 40, London: The Warburg Institute, University of London, 1989, ISBN 0-85481-072-2, OCLC 165564751、65564771、180528350、180528355、180528359、21530166、230045836、24910015、59836570
* Smith, A. Mark, ed. and trans., 写于Philadelphia, Alhacen's Theory of Visual Perception: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of the First Three Books of Alhacen's *De aspectibus*, the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al-Haytham's *Kitāb al-Manāzir*, 2 vols., Transactions of the American Philosophical Society (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society), 2001, **91** (4-5), ISBN 0-87169-914-1, OCLC 47168716
* Smith, A. Mark, ed. and trans., Alhacen on the Principles of Reflection: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of Books 4 and 5 of Alhacen's *De Aspectibus*, the Medieval Latin version of Ibn-al-Haytham's *Kitāb al-Manāzir*, 2 vols, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Soc.), 2006, **96** (2–3), ISBN 0-87169-962-1, OCLC 123464885、185359947、185359957、219328717、219328739、70078653

### 其他文献

* Graham, Mark. *How Islam Created the Modern World*. Amana Publications, 2006.
* Omar, Saleh Beshara, Ibn al-Haytham and Greek optics: a comparative study in scientific methodology, PhD Dissertation, University of Chicago, Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations, June 1975
* Saliba, George, Islamic Science and the Making of the European Reneissance, MIT Press, 2007, ISBN 0-262-19557-7
* Belting, Hans, *Afterthoughts on Alhazen’s Visual Theory and Its Presence in the Pictorial Theory of Western Perspective*, in: Variantology 4. On Deep Time Relations of Arts, Sciences and Technologies In the Arabic-Islamic World and Beyond, ed. by Siegfried Zielinski and Eckhard Fürlus in cooperation with Daniel Irrgang and Franziska Latell (Cologne: Verlag der Buchhandlung Walther König, 2010), pp. 19–42. [1]
* Siegfried Zielinski & Franziska Latell, *How One Sees*, in: Variantology 4. On Deep Time Relations of Arts, Sciences and Technologies In the Arabic-Islamic World and Beyond, ed. by Siegfried Zielinski and Eckhard Fürlus in cooperation with Daniel Irrgang and Franziska Latell (Cologne: Verlag der Buchhandlung Walther König, 2010), pp. 19–42. [2]