# Mrangura (Kompyuta)

Computers and computing devices from different eras—left to right, top to bottom:
* Early vacuum tube computer (ENIAC)
* Mainframe computer (IBM System/360)
* Smartphone (LYF Water 2)
* Desktop computer (IBM ThinkCentre S50 with monitor)
* Video game console (Nintendo GameCube)
* Supercomputer (IBM Summit)

**Mrangura** ni makina. Iwo ungaŵa kupanga mapulogalamu. Iwo mwaŵene kuchita ndondomeko. Ndondomeko izi ni za masamu panji mapulogalamu ghakumanyikwa. Ichi chikuchemeka *kupenda*. Mamrangura gha mazuŵa ghano gha pa mrangura ghakuchita vinthu vyakupambanapambana. Ntchito izi zikumanyikwa kuti *mapulogalamu*. Mapulogiramu ghakovwira mamrangura kuti ghachitenge milimo yinandi. Lizgu lakuti **dongosolo la mrangura** lingayowoya za mrangura yose. Ivi vikusazgapo vipangizo vya pa mrangura, vipangizo vyakugwiliskira ntchito, vipangizo, na vipangizo vyakuzungulira. Vinthu ivi vikukhumbikwa kuti vigwirenge ntchito mwakukwana. Mwakuyana waka, likung’anamura gulu la mamrangura. Mamrangura agha ghakukolerana. Ŵakugwira ntchito pamoza. Viyelezgero ivi ni netiweki ya mrangura panji gulu la mrangura.

Vinthu vinandi vikugwiriskira ncito mamrangura. Ivi vikusazgapo mafakitale na vinthu vyakuguliska. Ŵakugwiriskira ncito mamrangura nga ni ndondomeko yakulongozgeras. Viyelezgero ni vipangizo vipusu nga ni uvuni wa microwave na kulongozgera patali. Vipangizo vya mafakitale nga ni roboti ya mafakitales navyo vikuvigwiriskira ncito. Mamrangura ni ghakuzirwa chomene pa vipangizo vyakugwiriskira ntchito ŵanthu wose. Vinthu ivi vikusazgapo mrangura na chipangizo cha pa foni nga ni foni yamakono. Mamrangura ghakupereka nkhongono ku Intaneti. Intaneti yikukoleska mamrangura mabiliyoni ghanandi na ŵanthu awo ŵakugwiliskira ntchito Intaneti.

Mamrangura ghakale ghakaŵanga ghakugwiliskirika nchito waka pa kupenda. Vipangizo vyambura kusuzga vyakulembeka vikawovwiranga pa mawerengero. Abacus nchiyelezgero. Ŵanthu ŵali kugwiliskira ntchito kufuma waka pa nyengo yakale. Mu nyengo ya Kusintha kwa Mafakitale, ŵakapanga vipangizo vya makina. Ŵakachitanga ntchito zitali ndiposo zakutondeska. Chiyelezgero ni ndondomeko yakulongozga ya looms. Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m’ma 1900, ŵakapanga makina ghapachanya chomene gha magesi. Ŵakachitanga mawerengero ghapadera analog. Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Charu Chose, ŵakapanga makina ghakwamba ghakupenda ndalama gha pa mrangura digital. Vinthu ivi vikaŵa makina gha makina gha magesi. Ŵakagwiliskirangaso ntchito vavu ya thermionics. Kuumaliro wa vilimika vya m’ma 1940, semikondakita transistors yikawonekera. Mu vilimika vya kumanyuma vya m’ma 1950, vipangizo vya silicon-vyakupangika na MOSFET (transistor ya MOS) na dera lakuphatikizgika la monolithic vikalondezgapo. Ivi vikapangiska kuti paŵe maikroprosesa. Ŵakapangiskaso kuti paŵe kusintha kwa mamrangura ghachokoghachoko mu vilimika vya m’ma 1970. Kufuma nyengo iyi, luŵiro lwa mrangura, nkhongono, na kugwira ntchito zinandi vyasazgikira chomene. Chiŵerengero cha ma transistors chakwera mwaluŵiro. Dango la Moore likayowoya kuti ŵanthu ŵakaŵazganga kaŵiri pa vilimika viŵiri vyose. Ici cikapangiska kuti paŵe Kusintha kwa Digito. Likachitika kuumaliro wa vilimika vya m’ma 1900 na kukwambilira kwa vilimika vya m’ma 1900.

Mwakuyana waka, mrangura ya mazuŵa ghano yili na chinthu chakupangira vinthu chimoza. Ichi chikuŵa chigaŵa chapakati cha kupanga vinthu (CPU). CPU kanandi yikuŵa maikroprosesa. Kweniso likusazgapo mtundu unyake wa memory ya mrangura. Ichi chikuŵa kukumbukira kwa semiconductor vipangizo. Chinthu chakunozga chikuchita ntchito za masamu. Iwo ukuchitaso ntchito zakupulikikwa. Unit yakulongozgera na kulaŵilira yikusazgapo. Unit iyi ingasintha ndondomeko ya ntchito. Ikuzgora ku uthenga wakusungika. Vipangizo vyakuzungulira ndiwo chigaŵa cha ndondomeko. Iwo ŵakusazgapo vipangizo vyakunjilirapo. Viyelezgero ni makiyibodi, mbeŵa, na joysticks. Iwo ŵakusazgaposo vipangizo vyakufumiskiramo. Viyelezgero ni kuwonelera na kusindikizga. Pali vipangizo vyakunjilirapo/vyakufumiska navyo. Ivi vikuchita milimo yose yiŵiri. Chiyelezgero ni kukhwaska. Vipangizo vyakuzungulira vikuzomerezga kusanga uthenga. Vimanyikwiro ivi vikufuma ku malo gha kuwaro. Iwo ŵakovwiraso kusunga vyakusangikamo. Ivyo vikufuma mu opareshoni vingasangikaso.

## Mbiri ya zina

Munthu-mrangura, iyo yili na microscope na calculator, 1952
Pakati pa vilimika vya m’ma 1900 ndipo lizgu ili likamba kumanyikwa makora mazuŵa ghano; kuyana na *[[Oxford English Dictionary]*, kugwiriskira ncito kwakwamba kwakumanyikwa kwa lizgu lakuti *mrangura* kukaŵa mu ng'anamuro lakupambana, mu buku la 1613 lakuchemeka *The Yong Mans Gleanings* la mulembi wa Chingelezi Richard Brathwait: "Ine  [*sic*] kuŵazga mrangura yaunenesko ya Times, ndipo Nkhwantha ya Masamu yiwemi chomene iyo euer  [*sic*] kupuma, ndipo wakuchepeskako mazuŵa ghako kuŵa nambara yifupi." Kugwiriskira ncito lizgu ili kukayowoyanga za mrangura ya munthu, munthu uyo ​​wakacitanga mawerengero panji mawerengeros. Lizgu ili likalutilira kuŵa na ng’anamuro limoza mpaka pakati pa vilimika vya m’ma 1900. Mu nyengo ya umaliro wa nyengo iyi, ŵanakazi ŵakaŵanga nga ni mrangura yawo. ŵanyawo. Mu 1943, mamrangura ghanandi gha ŵanthu ghakaŵa gha ŵanakazi ..

*Dikishonale ya Etymology pa Intaneti* yikupereka ukaboni wakwamba wakugwiriskira ncito *mrangura* mu vilimika vya m'ma 1640, kung'anamura 'uyo wakupenda'; iyi ni "zina la wovwiri kufuma ku compute (v.)". "Dikishonale ya Etymology ya pa intaneti" yikuti kugwiriskira ncito lizgu ili kukung'anamura "'makina ghakuŵerengera' (gha mtundu uliwose) kufuma mu 1897." "Online Etymology Dictionary" yikulongora kuti "kugwiriskira ncito kwa mazuŵa ghano" kwa lizgu ili, kung'anamura 'mrangura ya digito yakupangika' yikafuma mu "1945 pasi pa zina ili; [mu] fundo [yakusambizga] kufuma mu 1937, nga ni *makina gha Turing*". The name has remained, although modern computers are capable of many higher-level functions.

## Mbiri

Nkhani ikulu: Mbiri ya mrangura and Mbiri ya vipangizo vya mrangura
### Pre-20th century

Chiwangwa cha Ishango, chida cha fupa icho chikapangika mu nyengo ya Africa pambere mbiri yindambe
Vipangizo vyagwiriskirika ncito kuti viwovwire pa kupenda kwa virimika vikwi vinandi, comenecomene vikugwiriskira ncito kulemberana kwa yumoza na yumoza na minwe. Chipangizo chakwamba chakuŵerengera chikwenera kuti chikaŵa mtundu wa tally stick. Pamanyuma pake vyakovwira kusunga vyakulembeka mu Fertile Crescent yose vikaŵa na calculi (vigaŵa vya dongo, makoni, na vinyake) ivyo vikayimiranga viŵelengero vya vinthu, vikwenera kuti vikaŵa viŵeto panji mbewu, ivyo vikajalirika mu viŵiya vya dongo vyambura kuphika. vimanyikwiro, vyose pamoza vikaŵa chiŵelengero cha vinthu ivyo vikasamuskikanga. Mwantheura viŵiya ivi vikaŵanga nga ni bill of lading panji buku la akaunti. Kuti ŵaleke kuphyora viŵiya ivi, cakwamba ŵakaŵikanga vithuzithuzi vya dongo vya vimanyikwiro kuwaro kwa viŵiya ivi, kuti ŵaŵerengerenge; mawonekero gha vithuzithuzi vikafumiskikapo mu vimanyikwiro vyakupangika; paumaliro, vimanyikwiro vyambura kumanyikwa vikagwiriskirika ncito mwandondomeko nga ni manambara; manambala agha pamanyuma ghakazomerezgeka kuŵa manambara.
Paumaliro vimanyikwiro ivyo vikaŵa kuwaro kwa viŵiya ndivyo vikakhumbikwanga kuti vilongosore unandi, ndipo viŵiya vya dongo vikasintha na kuŵa viphapha vya dongo ivyo vikaŵa na vimanyikwiro vya unandi. Schmandt-Besserat 1999 estimates it took 4000 years.}} Kugwiriskira ncito ndodo zakuŵerengera nchiyelezgero cimoza.

The Chinese suanpan (算盘). The number represented on this abacus is 6,302,715,408.
Pakwamba ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito abacus pa ntchito za masamu. Abacus wa Ŵaroma wakapangika kufuma ku vipangizo ivyo vikagwiliskirikanga nchito ku Babuloni kufuma waka mu 2400 B.C.E. Kufuma nyengo iyi, ŵanthu ŵali kupanga mitundu yinyake yinandi ya matabwa panji matebulo ghakuŵerengera. Mu nyengo ya ŵamitundu ŵa ku Europe nyumba yakupenda ndalama, ŵakaŵikanga pa thebulu salu yakupangika na vithuzithuzi, ndipo vimanyikwiro vikazungulirazungulira pa thebulu ilo mwakuyana na malango ghanyake, nga ni wovwiri pakupenda ndalama.

[[File:Antikythera Fragment A (Front).webp|thumb|upright=0.8|Nthowa ya Antikythera, iyo yikapangika mu Grisi wakale pafupifupi mu 200–80 B.C.E., ni chipangizo chakwambilira chakupangira mamrangura ghakuyana waka.]
Ŵakugomezga kuti Nthowa ya Antikythera ndiyo yikaŵa yakwamba chomene mrangura ya analog, kuyana na Derek J. de Solla Price. Likapangika kuti liŵerengerenge malo agho ŵasayansi ŵa mu mlengalenga ŵali. Likasangika mu 1901 mu chikepe cha Antikythera pafupi na chirwa cha Antikythera ku Greece, pakati pa Kythera na Krete, ndipo ŵakuti likasangika pafupifupi mu 1900. c. 100 BCE. Vipangizo vyakuyana waka na vya Antikythera vikawonekangaso yayi m’paka mu vilimika vya m’ma 1400.

Vinthu vinandi vyakovwira pa kupenda na kupima vinthu vikapangika kuti vigwiriskike nchito pa kusanda vyakuthambo na pa kwenda pa nyanja. Chati cha nyenyezi chikaŵa tchati cha nyenyezi icho chikapangika na Abu Rayhān al-Bīrūnī kukwambilira kwa vilimika vya m’ma 1000. Chinthu cha Astrolabe chikapangika mu charu cha Ŵagiriki mu vilimika vya m’ma 100 panji 200 B.C.E. Kusazgapo kwa planisphere na dioptra, astrolabe yikaŵa nadi mrangura ya analog iyo yingakwaniska kugwiliskira nchito mitundu yakupambanapambana ya masuzgo mu vyakuthambo vyakuzungulira. Astrolabe iyo yikusazgapo mrangura ya kalendara ndipo matayala gha magiya ghakapangika na Abi Bakr wa ku Isfahan, Peresiya mu 1235. Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī wakapanga kalendara yakwamba ya nyenyezi, makina ghakale ghakukhazikika ghakupanga umanyi na sitima ya magiya na matayala ya magiya, c. 1000 AD.

Chigaŵa ichi, chipangizo chakuŵerengera icho chikugwiriskirika nchito pa kumazga masuzgo mu chiŵelengero, trigonometry, kuchulukizga na kugaŵa, ndiposo pa milimo yakupambanapambana, nga ni makwerero na mizu ya cube, chikapangika kuumaliro wa vilimika vya m’ma 1500 ndipo chikasangika kuti chikugwiliskirika ntchito pa kupanga mfuti, kupenda na kulongozga pa nyanja.

Planimeter yikaŵa chipangizo cha mawoko chakupenda malo gha chithuzithuzi chakujalika mwa kuchilembapo na chinthu chakukolerana.

A slide rule
Rulala la slide likapangika pafupifupi 1620–1630, na msambizgi wa Chingelezi William Oughtred, nyengo yichoko waka kufuma apo fundo ya logarithm yikasindikizgikira. Ni mrangura ya analog iyo yikugwiliskirika ntchito na mawoko kuti yichitenge kuchulukizga na kugaŵa. Apo malango gha slide ghakalutanga panthazi, masikelo ghakusazgikira ghakapereka vimanyikwiro vyakuyana waka, makwerero na mizu ya makwerero, ma cube na mizu ya ma cube, ndiposo milimo yakujumpha nga ni logarithms na exponentials, circular na hyperbolic trigonometry na milimo yinyake. Malango ghakulongora vithuzithuzi agho ghali na masikelo ghapadera ghachali kugwiliskirika ntchito kuti ŵachitenge mwaluŵiro mawerengero gha nyengo zose, nga ni dango la E6B lakuzungulira ilo likugwiriskirika nchito pa nyengo na mtunda . calculations on light aircraft.

Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1770, Pierre Jaquet-Droz, uyo wakapanga mawotchi ku Switzerland, wakapanga chidole cha makina (automaton) icho chingalemba uku chikukora bolopointi ya quill. Pakusintha nambara na ndondomeko ya matayala ghake gha mukati, vilembo vyakupambanapambana, ndipo ntheura uthenga wakupambanapambana, ungapangika. Mukuyowoya mwakudumura, yingaŵa "yakupangika" kuti yiŵerenge malango. Pamoza na makina ghanyake ghaŵiri ghakusuzga, chidole ichi chili ku Nyumba Yakusungiramo Vinthu vya Kale ya ku Neuchâtel, ku Switzerland, ndipo chikugwira ntchito m’paka sono.

Mu 1831–1835, nkhwantha ya masamu na injiniya Giovanni Plana wakapanga Perpetual Calendar machine, iyo kwizira mu ndondomeko ya mapulley na masilinda yikamanyiska perpetual calendar ya chaka chilichose kufuma mu 0 CE (ndiko kuti, 1 BCE) m'paka 4000 CE, kusunga utali wa vyaka vyakujumphapo na vyakupambanapambana vya zuŵa. tide-predicting machine iyo yikapangika na wasayansi wa ku Scotland Sir William Thomson mu 1872 yikaŵa yakovwira chomene pa kwenda mu maji ghambura kunyang'amira. Likagwiliskiranga ntchito ndondomeko ya mapulley na mawaya kuti liŵerengerenge yekha unandi wa maji agho ghakuyowoyeka kuti ghazamuŵapo pa nyengo yinyake pa malo ghanyake.
differential analyser, mrangura ya makina ya analog iyo yikapangika kuti yimazge differential equations na integration, yikagwiliskira nchito nthowa za matayala na diski kuti yiphatikizge vinthu ivi. Mu 1876, Sir William Thomson wakadumbiskana kale za umo vingaŵira vyakuzenga vyakuŵerengera vyanthena ivi, kweni wakatondeka na nkhongono yichoko yakufumiramo ya ball-and-disk integrators. Mu chipangizo chakuwonera vyakupambana, ivyo vikafumanga ku integrator yimoza vikapangiskanga kuti integrator yakulondezgapo yinjiremo, panji kuti graphing output. torque amplifier ndiyo yikaŵa nthowa iyo yikapangiska kuti makina agha ghagwirenge ntchito. Kufuma mu 1920s, Vannevar Bush na ŵanyake ŵakapanga makina ghakuwonera mphambano.
Mu 1890s, injiniya wa ku Spain Leonardo Torres Quevedo wakamba kupanga mndandanda wa analog machines wakupambanapambana uwo ungamazga misisi yeneco na yakusuzga ya polynomials, iyo yikasindikizgika mu 1901 na Paris Academy of Sciences.

### mrangura yakwamba

Charles Babbage
A diagram of a portion of Babbage's Difference engineThe Difference Engine Number 2 at the Intellectual Ventures laboratory in Seattle
Charles Babbage, injiniya wa makina wa ku England ndipo polymath, ndiyo wakambiska fundo yakuti paŵe mrangura iyo yingaŵikika mu mapulogiramu. Kuwona kuti "father of the computer", iyo wakaghanaghana na kupanga mechanical computer wakwamba mu vilimika vya m'ma 19th century.
Pamanyuma pakugwira ntchito pa difference engine yake wakapharazga ivyo wakapanga mu 1822, mu pepala ilo wakalemba ku Royal Astronomical Society, ilo likaŵa na mutu wakuti "Note on the application of machinery to the computation of astronomical and mathematical tables". Kuŵika mapulogalamu na data kukaŵa kuti kupelekeka ku makina kwizira mu punched cards, nthowa iyo yikagwiriskirika ncito pa nyengo iyo kuti yilongozge looms ya makina nga ni Jacquard loom. Kuti yifumemo, makina ghaŵenge na printer, curve plotter na belu. Makina agha ghakaŵangaso na mazaza ghakulemba manambara pa makadi kuti ŵaŵazgenge pamanyuma. Injini iyi yizamuŵa na arithmetic logic unit, control flow mu kawonekero ka conditional branching na loops, ndiposo memory yakusazgako, ndipo yizamuŵa yakwamba kupanga mrangura yakugwiriskira ncito vinthu vyose iyo yingalongosoreka mu mazgu gha mazuŵa ghano kuti Turing-complete. .
Makina agha ghakaŵa pafupifupi vyaka zana limoza pambere nyengo yake yindakwane. Vigaŵa vyose vya makina ghake vikakhumbikwiranga kupangika na mawoko – ili likaŵa suzgo likuru ku chipangizo icho chikaŵa na vigaŵa vikwi vinandi. Paumaliro, ntchito iyi yikamara apo ŵa British Government ŵakadumura kuti ŵaleke kupeleka ndalama. Kutondeka kwa Babbage kumalizga injini yakusanda vinthu kungacitika comene cifukwa ca masuzgo gha ndyali na gha ndalama ndiposo cifukwa cakuti wakakhumbanga kupanga mrangura iyo yikaŵa yakunozga comene ndiposo kuti walutilire kwenda mwaluŵiro kuluska umo munthu waliyose wangacitira. Nangauli vikaŵa nthena, mwana wake, Henry Babbage, wakamalizga mtundu wakupepuka wa injini yakusanda ( *mphero*) mu 1888. Wakalongora makora umo yikugwiriskikira nchito pa matebulo gha mrangura mu 1906.

### Makina ghakuŵerengera gha magesi

Electro-mechanical calculator (1920) by Leonardo Torres Quevedo.
Mu buku lake lakuti *Essays on Automatics* ilo likalembeka mu 1914, Leonardo Torres Quevedo wakalemba mbiri yichoko waka ya umo Babbage wakayezgera kupanga injini yakupambana ya makina na injini yakusanda. Pepala ili lili na ndondomeko ya makina agho ghangapenda mafomula nga ni WIKINIUM\_MATH\_PH\_0 , gha ndondomeko ya vigaŵa vyakuzirwa. Makina ghose ghakeneranga kulaŵilirika na read-only program, agho ghakaŵa ghakukwana na vyakukhumbikwa vya conditional branching. Wakambiskaso fundo yakuti floating-point arithmetic. Mu 1920, kuti ŵakondwelere vyaka 100 vya kupangika kwa arithmometer, Torriro the Elect a . keyboard, ndipo wakapenda na kusindikizga ivyo vikasangika, kulongora kuti injini yakusanda vya magesi yingachitika.

### Analog computers

Nkhani ikulu: mrangura ya Analog
Sir William Thomson's third tide-predicting machine design, 1879–81
Mu hafu yakwamba ya vilimika vya m’ma 1900, vinthu vinandi ivyo ŵasayansi ŵakakhumbikwiranga pakupanga mamrangura vikafiskika na mamrangura gha analog agho ghakaŵa ghakunozga comene, agho ghakagwiliskiranga nchito ciyerezgero cakudunjika ca suzgo ilo likaŵapo pa nkhani ya makina panji magesi nga ni fundo yakucitira mamrangura. Ndipouli, vinthu ivi vikaŵa vyambura kupangika ndipo kanandi vikaŵavya vinthu vinandi ndiposo vikaŵanga vyambura kwenelera nga ni mamrangura gha mazuŵa ghano gha digito. mrangura yakwamba ya mazuŵa ghano ya analog yikaŵa makina ghakumanyirathu umo maji ghakuŵira, agho ghakapangika na Sir William Thomson (uyo pamanyuma wakazgoka Lord Kelvin) mu 1872. mrangura ya analog ya makina iyo yikapangika kuti yimazge ma equation ghakupambanapambana mwa kuphatikizga vinthu mwakugwiliskira nchito nthowa za matayala na diski, yikapangika na James brotherom the more the Thmo8. Fumu William Thomson.

Luso la kupanga mamrangura gha analog likafika pa msinkhu wake na chipangizo chakuwonera mphambano, icho chikapangika na H. L. Hazen na Vannevar Bush ku MIT kwamba mu 1927. Ici cikazengeka pa vipangizo vyakusazgako makina vya James Thomson na vipangizo vyakukhozga nkhongono ivyo vikapangika na H. W. Nieman. Vipangizo ivi khumi na viŵiri vikapangika pambere vindawoneke kuti vyamara nchito.[citation needed] Mu vilimika vya m’ma 1950, kupambana kwa mamrangura gha magesi gha digito kukapangiska kuti makina ghanandi ghakupangika na analog ghaleke kuŵapo, kweni mamrangura gha analog ghakalutilira kugwiliskirika nchito mu vilimika vya m’ma 1950 mu vinthu vinyake vyapadera nga ni masambiro (slide rule) na ndege (control systems) ..

### Mamrangura gha digito

#### Magesi-Makina

Claude Shannon's 1937 master's thesis wakaŵika fawundeshoni ya mamrangura gha digito, ndipo kumanya kwake kwakugwiriskira ncito algebra ya Boolean pakusanda na kupanga ma circuit ghakusinthasintha ndiyo fundo yakuzirwa iyo yikupangiska mamrangura ghose gha digito gha digito.

Mu 1938, ŵasilikari ŵa pa nyanja ŵa ku United States ŵakapanga mrangura ya analog ya magesi iyo yikaŵa yichoko chomene mwakuti ŵangagwiliskira ntchito pa boti la pasi pa maji. Iyi yikaŵa mrangura ya Torpedo Data, iyo yikagwiliskiranga ntchito trigonometry kuti yimazge suzgo la kuponya torpedo pa chinthu icho chikwenda. Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Charu Chose, ŵakapangaso vipangizo vyanthena ivi mu vyaru vinyake.

Replica of Konrad Zuse's Z3, the first fully automatic, digital (electromechanical) computer
Mamrangura ghakwambilira gha digito ghakaŵa gha magesi; masiwichi gha magesi ghakayendeskanga ma relay gha makina kuti ghachitenge chiŵelengero. Vipangizo ivi vikagwiranga nchito mwaluŵiro yayi ndipo paumaliro pake vikanjilirapo na mamrangura gha magesi ghose agho ghakaŵa ghaluŵiro comene, ndipo pakwamba ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito machubu gha vacuum. Z2, iyo yikapangika na injiniya wa ku Germany Konrad Zuse mu 1939 ku Berlin, yikaŵa yimoza mwa viyelezgero vyakwamba vya mrangura yakutumizga magesi.

Konrad Zuse, inventor of the modern computer
Mu 1941, Zuse wakalondezga makina ghake ghakale na Z3, mrangura yakwamba pa caru cose iyo yikugwira nchito na mapulogiramu gha magesi, ndiposo iyo yikugwira nchito yekha. Z3 yikapangika na 2000 relays, kukhazikiska utali wa mazgu gha 22 bit agho ghakagwiranga ntchito pa wotchi pafupipafupi pafupifupi 5-10 Hz. Khodi ya pulogiramu yikapelekekanga pa filimu yakukhoma apo data yikasungikanga mu mazgu 64 ghakukumbukika panji kupelekeka kufuma pa kiyibodi. Wakaŵa wakuyana waka na makina gha mazuŵa ghano mu vigaŵa vinyake, ndipo wakambiska vinthu vinandi nga ni manambara ghakuyandama. Mmalo mwa kugwiriskira ncito nthowa ya decimal iyo yikaŵa yakusuzga comene (iyo yikagwiriskirika ncito mu kapangilo kakwamba ka Charles Babbage), kugwiriskira ncito nthowa ya binary kukang’anamuranga kuti makina gha Zuse ghakaŵa ghambura kusuzga kupanga ndiposo ghangaŵa ghakugomezgeka comene, cifukwa ca tekinoloje iyo yikaŵapo pa nyengo iyo. Z3 iyo yekha yikaŵa mrangura ya pa caru cose yayi kweni yingasazgikirapo kuti yiŵe yakukwana ya Turing.

mrangura yakulondezgapo ya Zuse, Z4, yikaŵa mrangura yakwamba ya malonda pa caru cose; panyuma pa kuchedwa kwakwamba chifukwa cha Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Charu Chose, yikamalizgika mu 1950 na kupelekeka ku ETH Zurich. mrangura iyi yikapangika na kampani ya Zuse, Zuse KG, iyo yikakhazikiskika mu 1941 nga ni kampani yakwamba iyo yikaŵa na chilato chimoza pera cha kupanga mamrangura ku Berlin. Z4 ndiyo yikapangiska kuti ŵazenge mrangura ya ERMETH, iyo yikaŵa mrangura yakwamba ya ku Switzerland ndiposo yimoza mwa mrangura zakwamba ku Europe.

#### Machubu ghakufumiskikamo mphepo na vipata vya magesi vya dijito

Mwaluŵiro waka vinthu vyakukhwaskana na magesi pera vikanjira mu malo gha vinthu vyakuyana waka vya makina na vya magesi, pa nyengo yeneyiyo apo kupenda kwa digito kukanjira mu malo gha analog. Injiniya Tommy Flowers, uyo wakagwiranga nchito ku Post Office Research Station ku London mu vilimika vya m’ma 1930, wakamba kufufuza umo ŵangagwiliskira nchito vinthu vya magesi pakusinthana foni. Vipangizo vyakuyezga ivyo wakapanga mu 1934 vikamba kugwira ntchito pamanyuma pa vyaka vinkhondi, ndipo vikasintha chigaŵa chinyake cha foni kuti chiŵe chipangizo cha magesi chakupangira data, mwakugwiliskira ntchito vikwi vinandi vya machubu ghambura mphepo.[1] Ku US, John Vincent Atanasoff na Clifford E. Berry ŵa ku Iowa State University ŵakapanga na kuyezga mrangura ya Atanasoff-Berry (ABC) mu 1942, [2] "mrangura yakwamba ya digito ya magesi".[3] Nthowa iyi yikaŵaso ya magesi ndipo yikagwiliskiranga ntchito machubu pafupifupi 300 gha vacuum, ndipo ma capacitor ghakaŵikika mu ng’oma yakuzungulira mwamakina kuti munthu wakumbukenge vinthu.

Colossus, the first electronic digital programmable computing device, was used to break German ciphers during World War II. It is seen here in use at Bletchley Park in 1943.
Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yaciŵiri ya Caru Cose, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Britain awo ŵakaswa makodi ku Bletchley Park ŵakacita makora comene pakuswa makodi gha ŵasilikari ŵa Germany agho ghakaŵa ghakubisika. Makina ghakubisika gha ku Germany, Enigma, ghakawukirika chomene na wovwiri wa mabomba gha magesi agho kanandi ghakaŵanga na ŵanakazi.[1][2] Kuti ŵaphwanye makina ghakumanyikwa chomene gha ku Germany gha Lorenz SZ 40/42, agho ghakugwiriskira ntchito pa kuyowoyeskana na ŵasilikari ŵapachanya, Max Newman na ŵanyake ŵakatuma Flowers kuti wazenge Colossus.[3] Wakakhala myezi khumi na yimoza kufuma kukwambilira kwa February 1943 wakupanga na kuzenga Colossus wakwamba.[4] Pamanyuma pa kuyezgeka kwakugwira ntchito mu Disembala 1943, Colossus wakatumizgika ku Bletchley Park, uko wakapelekeka pa 18 Januwale 1944[5] ndipo wakawukira uthenga wake wakwamba pa 5 Febuluwale.[3]

Colossus ndiyo yikaŵa mrangura yakwamba pa charu chose iyo yikaŵa na mapulogiramu gha pa mrangura.[6] Wakagwiliskiranga ntchito mavavu ghanandi (machubu gha vacuum). Likaŵa na pepala-tepi ndipo likaŵa lakukwaniska kukhazikiska kuti lichitenge milimo yakupambanapambana ya boolean logical pa data yake, kweni likaŵa la Turing-complete yayi. Mk II Colossi 9 ŵakazengeka (Mk I wakasinthika kuŵa Mk II kupanga makina khumi ghose pamoza). Colossus Mark I yikaŵa na mavavu gha thermionic (machubhu) 1,500, kweni Mark II iyo yikaŵa na mavavu 2,400, yikaŵa ya luwiro kaŵiri ndiposo yikaŵa yipusu kugwiliskira nchito kuluska Mark I, ndipo yikapangiska kuti nchito ya kufumiska mazgu yiŵe ya luwiro comene.

ENIAC was the first electronic, Turing-complete device, and performed ballistics trajectory calculations for the United States Army.
ENIAC[1] (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) ndiyo yikaŵa mrangura yakwamba iyo yikapangika ku U.S. Nangauli ENIAC yikaŵa yakuyana waka na Colossus, kweni yikaŵa ya luwiro chomene, yikaŵa yakusinthasintha, ndipo yikaŵa yakukwana nga ni Turing. Nga ni Colossus, "pulogiramu" pa ENIAC yikalongosoreka na maboma gha makhebo ghake gha patch na masiwichi, kulira kutali chomene na makina gha magesi gha pulogiramu yakusungika agho ghakiza pamanyuma. Para ŵalemba pulogiramu, ŵakeneranga kuyiŵika mu makina na kuŵikaso mapulagi na masiwichi. Ŵanthu awo ŵakapanga pulogiramu ya ENIAC ŵakaŵa ŵanakazi 6, awo kanandi ŵakamanyikwanga kuti "ŵasungwana ŵa ENIAC".[58][59]

Likasazgako luŵiro lwa vinthu vya magesi na luso lwa kuŵika mapulogiramu gha masuzgo ghanandi ghakuru. Iwo ungasazgirako panji kuwuskapo maulendo 5000 pa sekondi, mwaluŵiro maulendo chikwi kuluska makina ghanyake ghose. Kweniso likaŵa na vigaŵa vyakusazga, kugaŵa, na square root. Kukumbukira kwa liwiro likuru kukaŵa kwa mazgu 20 (pafupifupi 80 bytes). ENIAC yikazengeka pasi pa ulongozgi wa John Mauchly na J. Presper Eckert ku yunivesite ya Pennsylvania, ndipo yikapangika na kuzenga ENIAC kufuma mu 1943 m’paka apo yikamba kugwira ntchito mwakukwana kuumaliro wa 1945. Makina agha ghakaŵa ghakuru chomene, ghakaŵa na uzito wa matani 30, ndipo ghakagwiliskiranga ntchito magesi ghakukwana 200 makilowati, na magesi ghakujumpha 200. 1,500 vyakupelekera, na vikwi vinandi vyakukhozga, vyakukhozga, na vyakukhozga.

## Mamrangura gha mazuŵa ghano

### Fundo ya mrangura ya mazuŵa ghano

Mamrangura gha mazuŵa ghano ni vipangizo vya magesi ivyo vikugwira ntchito pa data mwakugwiliskira ntchito mapulogiramu agho ghali kusungika, vikuchita mawerengero na kuchita milimo mwaŵene.

### Mapulogalamu ghakusungika

mrangura iyo yili na pulogiramu yakusungika yikusunga malango mu memory, ndipo yikovwira kuti munthu waŵe na mapulogiramu ghakusinthasintha na kugwiliskira ntchito kanandi waka.

### Ma transistor

Ma transistor ghakanjira mu malo gha machubu gha vacuum, ndipo ghakapangiska kuti mamrangura ghaŵe ghachoko, ghaluŵiro, ndiposo ghakugomezgeka.

### Ma circuit ghakuphatikizgika

Ma circuit ghakusazgako (IC) ghakapangiska kuti ma transistor na vinyake viŵe vichoko, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti paŵe mapulogalamu gha mazuŵa ghano ghachokoghachoko.

### Mamrangura gha pa foni

Vipangizo vyakunyamulika nga ni malaputopu, matabuleti, na mafoni ghamakono vikupangiska kuti munthu waŵe na mrangura paulendo.

### Mitundu

#### Mwakupanga

* Von Neumann wakuzenga nyumba
* Kuzenga nyumba ku Harvard
* Mamrangura gha Quantum

#### Mwakukura, kawonekero na chilato

* Mamrangura ghakurughakuru
* Mafuremu ghakuru
* Mamrangura gha munthu payekha
* Nthowa zakuŵikika

## Vipangizo

### Mbiri ya vipangizo vya mrangura

Kulondezga kusintha kwa vinthu kufuma ku ma calculator gha makina m’paka ku ma microprocessor gha mazuŵa ghano.

### Mitu yinyake ya hardware

* **Vipangizo vyakunjilirapo**: Kiyibodi, mbeŵa, sikirini yakukhwaska
* **Vipangizo vyakufumiskamo**: Monitor, printer, ma speaker
* **Chigaŵa cha kulaŵilira**: Kulaŵilira ntchito za CPU
* **Chigaŵa chapakati chakupangira vinthu (CPU)**: Chikuchita malango
* **Masamu ghakumanyikwa makora (ALU)**: Wakuchita mawerengero
* **"Kukumbukira"**: RAM, ROM, kusunga
* **Kunjilirapo/kufumamo (I/O)**: Kudumbiskana pakati pa mrangura na vipangizo vinyake
* **Kuchita vinthu vinandi**: Kuchita mapulogalamu ghanandi pa nyengo yimoza
* **Kupanga vinthu vinandi**: Kugwiliskira ntchito ma CPU ghanandi pakupanga vinthu mwakuyana

## Mapulogalamu

### Viyowoyero

* **Khodi ya makina**: Malango gha binary ghakuchitika na CPU
* **Chiyowoyero cha mapulogalamu**: Nthowa yakulembera mapulogalamu
* **Viyowoyero vyapasi**: Msonkhano, pafupi na khodi ya makina
* **"Viyowoyero vyapachanya"**: Python, Java, ivyo vikuŵazgika na ŵanthu

### Mapulogalamu

* **Mapulogalamu ghakusungika**: Mapulogalamu ghakusungika mu kukumbukira
* **Kapangidwe ka pulogiramu**: Kupangika, kulongozgeka na vinthu, na vinyakhe.
* **Vipusikizgi**: Vyakubudika mu khodi ya mapulogalamu

## Kupanga ma intaneti na intaneti

Ikukhwaska ndondomeko (TCP/IP), webusayiti ya pa charu chose, na mamrangura gha pa mtambo.

## Mamrangura ghambura kumanyikwa

* Mamrangura gha Quantum
* Mamrangura gha DNA
* Nthowa zakupangika na wongo

## Munthazi

### Viyelezgero vyakupanga mamrangura

* Kupanga mamrangura ghakuyana waka
* Kupanga mamrangura gha pamphepete

### Mahara ghakupangika

Makina ghakulongozgeka na AI na kusambira kwa makina.

### Ntchito na mabungwe

* Ŵanthu awo ŵakupanga mapulogiramu gha mrangura
* IEEE, ACM
* Mabungwe gha vya tekinoloje (mwachiyelezgero, Google, Apple)

## Wonaniso

* Fundo ya kuŵerengera
* Chitetezo cha pa mrangura
* Mazgu ghakulongosora vya mrangura
* Mbiri ya sayansi ya mamrangura
* Mndandanda wa mazgu gha pa mrangura agho ghakufumapo
* Mndandanda wa awo ŵakupanga mamrangura
* Mndandanda wa mamrangura ghakupangika waka
* Mndandanda wa mafilimu ghakukhwaskana na mamrangura
* Mndandanda wa ŵapayiniya ŵa sayansi ya mamrangura
* Mndandanda wa mamrangura
* Kuŵerengera kwa pulse
* TOP500 (mndandanda wa mamrangura ghankhongono chomene)
* Kupanga mamrangura ghambura kumanyikwa

## maNotsi

## Pobeka

* Bowden, B. V. (1953). *Faster than thought*. New York, Toronto, London: Pitman publishing corporation.
* Berkeley, Edmund (1949). *Giant Brains, or Machines That Think*. John Wiley & Sons.
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* Cohen, Bernard (2000). "Howard Aiken, Portrait of a computer pioneer". *Physics Today*. **53** (3). Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press: 74–75. Bibcode:2000PhT....53c..74C. doi:10.1063/1.883007. ISBN 978-0-262-53179-5.
* Collier, Bruce (1970). *The little engine that could've: The calculating machines of Charles Babbage*. Garland Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8240-0043-1. Archived from the original on 20 Janyuwale 2007. Retrieved 24 Okutobala 2013.
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* Digital Equipment Corporation (1972). *PDP-11/40 Processor Handbook* (PDF). Maynard, MA: Digital Equipment Corporation. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 Disembala 2017. Retrieved 27 Novembala 2017.
* Swade, Doron D. (Febuluwale 1993). "Redeeming Charles Babbage's Mechanical Computer". *Scientific American*. **268** (2): 86–91. Bibcode:1993SciAm.268b..86S. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0293-86. JSTOR 24941379.
* Essinger, James (2004). *Jacquard's Web, How a hand loom led to the birth of the information age*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280577-5.
* Evans, Claire L. (2018). [[[:Template:GBurl]] *Broad Band: The Untold Story of the Women Who Made the Internet*]. New York: Portfolio/Penguin. ISBN 978-0-7352-1175-9. Retrieved 9 Novembala 2020. `{{cite book}}`: Check `|url=` value (help)
* Felt, Dorr E. (1916). *Mechanical arithmetic, or The history of the counting machine*. Chicago: Washington Institute.
* Ifrah, Georges (2001). *The Universal History of Computing: From the Abacus to the Quantum Computer*. New York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-39671-0.
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* Meuer, Hans; Strohmaier, Erich; Simon, Horst; Dongarra, Jack (13 Novembala 2006). "Architectures Share Over Time". TOP500. Archived from the original on 20 Febuluwale 2007. Retrieved 27 Novembala 2006.
* Moseley, Maboth (1964). *Irascible Genius, Charles Babbage, inventor*. London: Hutchinson.
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* Schmandt-Besserat, Denise (1981). "Decipherment of the earliest tablets". *Science*. **211** (4479): 283–285. Bibcode:1981Sci...211..283S. doi:10.1126/science.211.4479.283. PMID 17748027.
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* Zuse, Konrad (1993). *The Computer – My life*. Berlin: Pringler-Verlag. ISBN 978-0-387-56453-1.

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