# Rwanda

*"ruanda" inaelekezwa hapa. Kwa matumizi mengine, tazama ruanda (maana).*

| **Jamhuri ya RwandaRepubulika y’u Rwanda** |
| --- |
|
Bendera

Nembo

 |
| **Kaulimbiu:Ubumwe, Umurimo, Gukunda Igihugu* (Kinyarwanda: "Umoja, Kazi, Uzalendo") |
| **Wimbo wa taifa:Rwanda Nziza* |
|
Mahali pa Rwanda |
| **Mji mkuuna mkubwa** | Kigali |
| **Lugha rasmi** | Kinyarwanda, Kiingereza, Kifaransa, Kiswahili |
|  • Rais | Paul Kagame |
| **Historia** |
|  • Himaya ya Ujerumani | 1884 |
|  • Utawala wa Ubelgiji | 1916 |
|  • Uhuru kutoka Ubelgiji | 1 Julai 1962 |
| **Eneo** |  |
|  • Jumla | km2 26,338 (ya 144) |
|  • Maji (asilimia) | 6.3% |
| **Idadi ya watu** |  |
|  • Kadirio la 2024 | 14,368,000 |
|  • Msongamano | 546/km2 |
| **PLT (PPP)** | Kadirio la 2024 |
|  • Jumla | ▲ $45.1 bilioni |
|  • Kwa kila mtu | ▲ $3,078 |
| **PLT (Kawaida)** | Kadirio la 2024 |
|  • Jumla | ▲ $14.2 bilioni |
|  • Kwa kila mtu | ▲ $974 |
| **HDI** (2022) | ▲ 0.534 |
| **Gini** (2016) | 43.7 |
| **Sarafu** | Faranga ya Rwanda (RWF) |
| **Majira ya saa** | UTC+2 (CAT) |
| **Upande wa magari** | Kulia |
| **Msimbo wa simu** | +250 |
| **Jina la kikoa** | .rw |

**Rwanda**, rasmi kama **Jamhuri ya Rwanda**, ni nchi isiyo na pwani inayopatikana katika Afrika ya Kati-Mashariki.Inapakana na Uganda kaskazini, Tanzania mashariki, Burundi kusini, na Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo magharibi. Ina idadi ya watu takriban milioni 14.3, ikiwa ya 72 duniani. Jiji lake kubwa zaidi na mji mkuu ni Kigali. Rwanda imegawanyika katika mikoa 4 na wilaya 30. Inajulikana kwa mandhari yake ya milima yenye kijani kibichi.

Rwanda imepata maendeleo ya haraka ya kijamii na kiuchumi tangu mwanzoni mwa miaka ya 2000, ikiwa na maboresho makubwa katika sekta za afya, elimu, miundombinu, na utawala. Nchi hii ina moja ya uchumi unaokua kwa kasi zaidi barani Afrika, unaochochewa na sekta kama kilimo, utalii, na huduma. Kigali, mji mkuu, unatambulika kwa usafi wake na mpangilio mzuri wa mijini, na nchi imeweka juhudi kubwa katika kulinda mazingira, ikiwa ni pamoja na marufuku ya matumizi ya mifuko ya plastiki na kampeni za kitaifa za upandaji miti.

Rwanda ina historia tata iliyogubikwa na ukoloni na mauaji ya kimbari ya mwaka 1994 dhidi ya Watutsi, ambapo inakadiriwa kuwa watu wapatao 800,000 waliuawa. Tangu wakati huo, taifa limepitia hatua kubwa za upatanisho na ujenzi mpya chini ya uongozi wa Chama cha Rwanda Patriotic Front. Serikali inasisitiza umoja wa kitaifa, kujitegemea kiuchumi, na sera dhidi ya rushwa, ingawa pia imekumbwa na ukosoaji kuhusu uhuru wa kisiasa na ukandamizaji wa vyombo vya habari. Rwanda ni mwanachama wa Umoja wa Afrika, Jumuiya ya Afrika Mashariki, Jumuiya ya Madola, na Umoja wa Mataifa.

## Jiografia

Hali ya hewa mjini Kigali.
Rwanda huitwa *nchi ya vilima elfu* (kwa Kinyarwanda: *Igihugu cy'Imisozi Igihumbi*; kwa Kifaransa: *Pays de Mille Collines*): ndivyo sehemu kubwa ya eneo lake inavyoonekana, hasa magharibi.

Ni nyanda za juu na milima; sehemu kubwa ni mita 1500 juu ya UB. Milima kaskazini mwa nchi inapanda hadi mita 4507 juu ya UB. Kutokana na urefu huo hali ya hewa haina joto kali.

Mpaka na Kongo ni hasa Ziwa Kivu ambalo ni mojawapo kati ya maziwa ya bonde la ufa la Afrika ya Mashariki.

Mpakani kwa Kongo na Uganda ndiyo milima ya kivolkeno ya Virunga.

Huko kuna mazingira ya pekee duniani yenye sokwe wa milimani. Wako hatarini kuangamizwa kutokana na uwindaji na upanuzi wa mashamba unaopunguza mazingira wanamoishi.

### Miji

Miji mikubwa zaidi ndiyo: Kigali wakazi 745.261, Butare wakazi 89.800, Gitarama wakazi 87.613, Ruhengeri wakazi 86.685 na Gisenyi wakazi 83.623.(namba za Januari 2005)

Kigali ni mji mkuu wenye kiwanja cha ndege cha kimataifa na mahoteli makubwa.

Gisenyi ni mji kwenye ncha ya kaskazini ya Ziwa la Kivu mpakani kwa Kongo ukiwa jirani na mji wa Goma. Kuna usafiri wa mashua kwenda Kibuye na Cyangugu.

Kibuye ni mji mdogo ufukoni mwa Ziwa la Kivu. Una wavuvi wengi, kituo cha watalii na nyumba za kihistoria za wamisionari. Hadi mwaka 1994 Watutsi 250,000 waliishi katika wilaya ya Kibuye, lakini tangu uangamizaji wa Watutsi katika vita vya wenyewe kwa wenyewe wamebaki 8000 pekee.

Butare ni kitovu cha utamaduni kusini mwa nchi chenye chuo kikuu.

## Demografia

Wakazi wa Rwanda ni zaidi ya milioni 11. Banyarwanda milioni 2 wako Uganda na wengi zaidi Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo.

### Makabila

Kwa kawaida vikundi vitatu hutajwa kuwa wakazi wa Rwanda ndio Wahutu, Watutsi, Watwa. Lakini kuna tofauti kali kati ya mawazo kama vikundi hivyo ni makabila, mataifa ya pekee au matabaka ya kijamii. Hali halisi wanatumia lugha ileile ya Kinyarwanda na wanafuata utamaduni uleule.

Wanahistoria wengi wanasema ya kuwa Watwa walikuwa wakazi wa kwanza wakiwa wawindaji, Wahutu ndio wakulima wa Kibantu waliopatikana kwa uenezi wa Wabantu katika Afrika ya Kati na mababu wa Watutsi waliingia kama wafugaji kutoka kaskazini.

Watutsi walikuwa tabaka la kikabaila, pia mfalme alikuwa Mtutsi. Lakini wengine wanaamini ya kwamba vikundi vyote vitatu vilijitokeza nchini si kama tokeo la uhamiaji mbalimbali lakini zaidi kama matabaka yaliyotofautiana kikazi: wakulima, wavindaji na wafugaji waliokuwa pia askari wa mfalme.

Wakati wa ukoloni Wabelgiji walihesabu mwaka 1931 wakazi wa nchi kama ifuatavyo: 84 % Wahutu, 15 % Watutsi na 1 % Watwa.

Kabla ya uhuru vilitokea kwa mara ya kwanza vita vya wenyewe kwa wenyewe kati ya makabila mawili makubwa viliyosababisha kupungua kwa Watutsi kutokana na mauaji na zaidi kwa Watutsi kukimbilia nchi jirani. Mnamo 1990 asilimia ya Watutsi ilikadiriwa kuwa 9 - 10 %.

Vita vya wenyewe kwa wenyewe vya miaka ya 1990 vilileta uangamizaji mkubwa wa Watutsi. Kati ya asilimia 75 hadi 90 za wakazi Watutsi waliuawa katika wiki chache za mwaka 1994. Baada ya mwisho wa vita Watutsi wengi ambao wenyewe au wazazi wao walikuwa wamekimbilia Uganda na Tanzania walirudi tena Rwanda.

### Demografia

Kwa wastani kuna wakazi 300 kwa kilomita ya mraba ambayo ni msongamano mkubwa kabisa katika Afrika. Karibu nusu ya wakazi ni watoto hadi umri wa miaka 14.

Wastani wa muda wa maisha ni miaka 40 pekee. Vita vimesababisha idadi kubwa ya wagonjwa wa UKIMWI.

### Lugha

Lugha ya taifa, lugha rasmi na lugha ya mama kwa Wanyarwanda wote ni Kinyarwanda ambayo ni lugha ya Kibantu, mojawapo ya Niger-Kongo.

Mijini na sokoni Kiswahili kinatumika pia lakini si lugha asilia ya Rwanda.

Lugha rasmi tangu enzi za ukoloni ni Kifaransa. Tangu mwaka 1994 serikali mpya, iliyoongozwa na Watutsi walioishi miaka mingi Uganda, imetumia pia Kiingereza kama lugha rasmi ya tatu.

### Dini

Tazama makala Uislamu nchini Rwanda

Kadiri ya sensa ya mwaka 2012 wakazi wengi ni Wakristo, hasa Waprotestanti (49.5%) na Wakatoliki (43.7%). Waislamu ni 2%.

Kwa sasa serikali inazidi kufungia maabadi. Miezi saba ya kwanza ya mwaka 2018, imefungia tayari makanisa 8,000.

## Historia

*Tazama makala "Historia ya Rwanda"*

### Historia ya awali

Rwanda imekuwa nchi yenye rutuba na uoto wa kijani kwa maelfu ya miaka; sehemu ya Msitu wa Nyungwe ilikuwa ikipokea maji yaliyotoka barafu za milima ya Rwenzori. Ingawa haijulikani binadamu wa kwanza walifika lini hasa, inaaminika kuwa waliingia nchini baada ya enzi za barafu, aidha wakati wa kipindi cha Neolithiki (takriban miaka 10,000 iliyopita), au kipindi cha unyevunyevu kilichofuata hadi mwaka 3000 KK.

Watu wa kwanza kuishi Rwanda walikuwa jamii ya Watwa, waliokuwa wawindaji-wakusanyaji wa matunda msituni. Walijulikana kwa kuwa na miili mifupi na waliishi karibu na misitu. Hadi leo, baadhi ya watu wa jamii hii bado wanaishi Rwanda na wanatambulika kama wakazi wa asili wa nchi hiyo.

Uchunguzi wa akiolojia uliofanywa tangu miaka ya 1950 umebaini ushahidi wa makazi ya watu wachache waliokuwa wawindaji-wakusanyaji katika Enzi ya Mawe ya Mwisho. Baadaye, walikuja wakaaji wengi zaidi wa Zama za Chuma walioacha zana za chuma na vyungu vya udongo vilivyochongwa.

Mnamo mwaka 3000 KK, wakulima na wafugaji waliotumia lugha za Sudani ya Kati walikaa kaskazini na magharibi mwa Rwanda (pamoja na Burundi ya magharibi). Wachungaji wa Sudani ya Mashariki, waliokuwa na uhusiano na watu wa lugha za Kuliak, walihamia kusini mwa Rwanda na maeneo ya mashariki na magharibi ya Mto Ruzizi mnamo 2000 KK.

Mnamo 1000 KK, jamii za Wabantu wa Mashariki wenye ujuzi wa kilimo na uhunzi zilifika Rwanda kupitia Bonde la Kivu. Kabla ya 800 KK, baadhi ya wafugaji wa Kikushi kutoka Kusini walikaa sehemu za mashariki mwa Rwanda. Ifikapo 500 KK, jamii ya watu wa Maziwa Makuu, ambao ni mababu wa wasemaji wa lugha ya Kinyarwanda-Kirundi, walikaa kati ya Ziwa Kivu na Ziwa Rweru.

Hatimaye, jamii ya Wabantu wa Maziwa Makuu waliunganisha makundi yote ya awali ya Waniloti wa Sahara na Wakushi wa Kusini, na kufanya Rwanda kuwa nchi inayozungumza lugha za Kibantu pekee.

Karne nyingi zilizopita, jamii ya Watwa ilianza kupoteza nafasi yao ya awali baada ya kuwasili kwa Wabantu, ambao walikuwa wakulima wakaanza kusafisha misitu ili kujenga makazi ya kudumu. Hata hivyo, asili ya uhamiaji wa tatu mkubwa, wa jamii ya wachungaji wa mifugo, inabaki kuwa suala lenye utata mkubwa. Wataalamu mbalimbali hawakubaliani kuhusu ni lini na kwa njia gani Watutsi waliingia Rwanda, na iwapo walikuja kwa njia ya amani au kwa ushindi wa kijeshi.

### Wakati wa ukoloni

Rwanda ilikuwa ufalme tangu karne ya 16 kwa jina la Rwanda Rugali, lakini mwanzo wa karne ya 20 ilikuwa sehemu ya Afrika ya Mashariki ya Kijerumani na sababu ya mzozo kati ya Ujerumani na Ubelgiji.

Baada ya Vita Kuu ya Kwanza ya Dunia Rwanda ikawa chini ya Ubelgiji kama eneo lindwa.

### Baada ya uhuru

Uhuru katika mwaka 1961 ulifika pamoja na vita vya wenyewe kwa wenyewe kati ya Wahutu na Watutsi. Uhusiano kati ya vikundi hivyo viwili uliendelea kuwa vigumu.

Kuuawa kwa rais Juvenal Habariyama mwaka 1994 kulisababisha mauaji ya watu karibu milioni moja (walau 600,000) kati ya Watutsi, Watwa pamoja na Wahutu wasio na msimamo mkali.

Kikundi cha RPF chini ya Paul Kagame kiliingia kati na kuchukua madaraka.

Tangu ushindi wake wa kijeshi mwaka 1994 RPF ilianzisha serikali ya umoja wa kitaifa.

Mwaka 2003 palitokea uchaguzi wa kwanza.

Rwanda pamoja na Burundi zilijiunga na Kenya, Uganda na Tanzania kama wanashirika wa Jumuia ya Afrika Mashariki kwa maendeleo muhimu katika elimu, afya, uchumi na mambo mbalimbali. Mwaka 2017 bunge la Rwanda liliamua kufanya Kiswahili kuwa moja ya lugha rasmi nchini.

Vita vya Kongo vilivyokuwa na majeshi ya mataifa mbalimbali vilimalizika mwaka 2012, lakini mapigano bado yanaendelea.

## Siasa

### Serikali

Rais na mkuu wa dola ndiye jenerali Paul Kagame (RPF).
Waziri Mkuu ni Anastase Murekezi.

### Ugatuzi

Kuanzia mwaka 2006 kuna mikoa mitano inayogawanyika katika wilaya kadhaa:

| Mkoa | Jina la Kinyarwanda | Makao makuu | Eneo (km2)  | Wakazi (sensa ya mwaka 2012) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Kigali | Umujyi wa Kigali | Kigali City | 730 | 1,132,686 |
| Kusini | Amajyepfo | Nyanza | 5,963 | 2,589,975 |
| Magharibi | Iburengerazuba | Kibuye | 5,883 | 2,471,239 |
| Kaskazini | Amajyaruguru | Byumba | 3,276 | 1,726,370 |
| Mashariki | Iburasirazuba | Rwamagana | 9,458 | 2,595,703 |

## Tazama pia

* Orodha ya Marais wa Rwanda
* Orodha ya Wafalme wa Rwanda
* Orodha ya Mawaziri Wakuu wa Rwanda
* Orodha ya viongozi
* Orodha ya nchi kufuatana na wakazi
* Orodha ya nchi za Afrika kulingana na idadi ya watu
* Orodha ya nchi za Afrika kulingana na msongamano wa watu
* Orodha ya nchi za Afrika kulingana na pato la taifa
* Demografia ya Afrika

## Marejeo

## Viungo vya nje

**Serikali The Republic of Rwanda (official government site).
* Chief of State and Cabinet Members Ilihifadhiwa 17 Septemba 2013 kwenye Wayback Machine.

**Taarifa za jumla Rwanda entry at *The World Factbook*
* Rwanda Ilihifadhiwa 29 Novemba 2009 kwenye Wayback Machine. from *UCB Libraries GovPubs*.
* Rwanda katika Open Directory Project
* Rwanda profile from the BBC News.
* Wikimedia Atlas of Rwanda

**Utalii Rwanda Tourism Ilihifadhiwa 4 Januari 2010 kwenye Wayback Machine. (official Rwanda Tourism Board site).

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* Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) (III) (2011). "Rank Order – Life expectancy at birth". *The World Factbook*. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2018-12-26. Iliwekwa mnamo 16 Februari 2012.`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
* Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) (IV) (2013). "The World Factbook". *The World Factbook*. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2018-12-24. Iliwekwa mnamo 29 Julai 2013.`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
* Chrétien, Jean-Pierre (2003). *The Great Lakes of Africa: Two Thousand Years of History*. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. ISBN 978-1-890951-34-4. `{{cite book}}`: Invalid `|ref=harv` (help)
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* Clark, Phil (5 Agosti 2010). "Rwanda: Kagame's power struggle". *The Guardian*. London. Iliwekwa mnamo 16 Februari 2012. `{{cite news}}`: Invalid `|ref=harv` (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
* Coleman, Isobel (7 Aprili 2010). "Rwanda: Road to Recovery". *The Huffington Post*. Iliwekwa mnamo 16 Februari 2012. `{{cite news}}`: Invalid `|ref=harv` (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
* Commission Juridique Et Constitutionnelle Du Rwanda (CJCR) (26 Mei 2003). "Constitution of the Republic of Rwanda". Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2009-03-25. Iliwekwa mnamo 16 Februari 2012. `{{cite web}}`: Unknown parameter `|=` ignored (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
* Dallaire, Roméo (2005). *Shake Hands with the Devil: The Failure of Humanity in Rwanda*. London: Arrow. ISBN 978-0-09-947893-5. `{{cite book}}`: Invalid `|ref=harv` (help)
* Delawala, Imtiyaz (7 Septemba 2001). "What Is Coltan?". *ABC News: Nightline*. Iliwekwa mnamo 16 Februari 2012. `{{cite news}}`: Invalid `|ref=harv` (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
* Department of State (I) (2004). "Background Note: Rwanda". *Background Notes*. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2014-01-14. Iliwekwa mnamo 16 Februari 2012.`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link) CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
* Department of State (II) (2007). "Rwanda". *International Religious Freedom Report 2007*. Iliwekwa mnamo 16 Februari 2012.`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link) CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
* Department of State (III) (2012). "Background Note: Rwanda". *Background Notes*. Iliwekwa mnamo 16 Februari 2012.`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link) CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
* Directorate General of Immigration and Emigration, Republic of Rwanda. "General Information" (PDF). Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo (PDF) mnamo 2011-10-03. Iliwekwa mnamo 7 Machi 2012.`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
* Dorsey, Learthen (1994). *Historical Dictionary of Rwanda*. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-2820-9. `{{cite book}}`: Invalid `|ref=harv` (help)
* Drobac, Peter; Naughton, Brienna (2014-06-15). "Health Equity in Rwanda: The New Rwanda, Twenty Years Later". *Harvard International Review*. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2015-09-20. Iliwekwa mnamo 19 Agosti 2015. `{{cite news}}`: Invalid `|ref=harv` (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
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* Freedom House (2015). "Freedom in the World: Rwanda". Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2019-11-30. Iliwekwa mnamo 23 Agosti 2015. `{{cite web}}`: Invalid `|ref=harv` (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
* Global Nature Fund. "Lake Ihema". Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2014-01-07. Iliwekwa mnamo 29 Februari 2012. `{{cite web}}`: Invalid `|ref=harv` (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
* Gourevitch, Philip (2000). *We Wish To Inform You That Tomorrow We Will Be Killed With Our Families* (tol. la Reprint). London; New York, N.Y.: Picador. ISBN 978-0-330-37120-9. `{{cite book}}`: Invalid `|ref=harv` (help)
* Government of Rwanda. "Official Holidays". Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2019-09-16. Iliwekwa mnamo 8 Septemba 2015. `{{cite web}}`: Invalid `|ref=harv` (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
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* International Development Association (IDA). "Rwanda: Bringing Clean Water to Rural Communities". Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2010-07-11. Iliwekwa mnamo 16 Februari 2012.`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
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* International Monetary Fund (IMF) (II) (2015). "Rwanda". Iliwekwa mnamo 30 Agosti 2015.`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
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* Jefremovas, Villia (1995). "Acts of Human Kindness: Tutsi, Hutu and the Genocide". *Issue: A Journal of Opinion*. **23** (2): 28–31. doi:10.2307/1166503. ISSN 0047-1607. JSTOR 1166503. `{{cite journal}}`: Invalid `|ref=harv` (help)
* Jørgensen, Sven Erik (2005). *Lake and reservoir management*. Amsterdam: Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-444-51678-7. `{{cite book}}`: Invalid `|ref=harv` (help)
* Kabalira, Marie-Brigitte (30 Januari 2012). "Country on course to reduce infant deaths, but huge task ahead". *Rwanda Focus*. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2012-02-03. Iliwekwa mnamo 20 Januari 2013. `{{cite news}}`: Invalid `|ref=harv` (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
* Kigali City. "Kigali at a glance". Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2014-02-28. Iliwekwa mnamo 16 Februari 2012. `{{cite web}}`: Invalid `|ref=harv` (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
* Kigali Health Institute (KHI) (22 Machi 2012). "About KHI". Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2012-08-26. Iliwekwa mnamo 26 Aprili 2012.`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
* King, David C. (2007). *Rwanda (Cultures of the World)*. New York, N.Y.: Benchmark Books. ISBN 978-0-7614-2333-1. `{{cite book}}`: Invalid `|ref=harv` (help)
* Lacey, Marc (26 Agosti 2003). "Rwandan President Declares Election Victory". *New York Times*. Iliwekwa mnamo 16 Februari 2012. `{{cite news}}`: Invalid `|ref=harv` (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
* Lavelle, John (5 Julai 2008). "Resurrecting the East African Shilling". *East African Business Week*. Iliwekwa mnamo 16 Februari 2012. `{{cite news}}`: Invalid `|ref=harv` (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
* Majyambere, Gertrude (14 Mei 2010). "Rwandatel's Landline Telephony Increases By 7 Percent". *The New Times*. Kigali. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2013-11-07. Iliwekwa mnamo 16 Februari 2012. `{{cite news}}`: Invalid `|ref=harv` (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
* Mamdani, Mahmood (2002). *When Victims Become Killers: Colonialism, Nativism, and the Genocide in Rwanda*. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-10280-1. `{{cite book}}`: Invalid `|ref=harv` (help)
* Mbabazi, Linda (11 Mei 2008). "Hip Hop Dominating Music Industry". *The New Times*. Kigali. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2014-02-22. Iliwekwa mnamo 16 Februari 2012. `{{cite news}}`: Invalid `|ref=harv` (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
* McGreal, Chris (17 Desemba 2008). "'We are the future'". *The Guardian*. London. Iliwekwa mnamo 31 Agosti 2015. `{{cite news}}`: Invalid `|ref=harv` (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
* McGreal, Chris (16 Januari 2009). "Why Rwanda said adieu to French". *The Guardian*. London. Iliwekwa mnamo 16 Februari 2012. `{{cite news}}`: Invalid `|ref=harv` (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
* McNeil, Donald G. (14 Juni 2010). "In Desperately Poor Rwanda, Most Have Health Insurance". *The New York Times*. New York, N.Y. Iliwekwa mnamo 26 Aprili 2012. `{{cite news}}`: Invalid `|ref=harv` (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
* Media High Council, Republic of Rwanda. "Constitution of June 2003". Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2012-06-15. Iliwekwa mnamo 29 Februari 2012.`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
* Mehta, Hitesh; Katee, Christine (2005). "Virunga Massif Sustainable Tourism Development Plan" (PDF). International Gorilla Conservation Programme (IGCP). Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo (PDF) mnamo 2014-03-04. Iliwekwa mnamo 16 Februari 2012. `{{cite web}}`: Invalid `|ref=harv` (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
* Melvern, Linda (2004). *Conspiracy to Murder: The Rwandan Genocide*. Revised. London; New York, N.Y.: Verso Books. ISBN 978-1-85984-588-2. `{{cite book}}`: Invalid `|ref=harv` (help)
* Milmo, Cahal (29 Machi 2006). "Flashback to terror: Survivors of Rwandan genocide watch screening of Shooting Dogs". *The Independent*. London. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2014-02-26. Iliwekwa mnamo 16 Februari 2012. `{{cite news}}`: Invalid `|ref=harv` (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
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* Munyakazi, Augustine; Ntagaramba, Johnson Funga (2005). *Atlas of Rwanda* (kwa French). Oxford: Macmillan Education. ISBN 0-333-95451-3. `{{cite book}}`: Invalid `|ref=harv` (help)CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
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* Richards, Charles (24 Julai 1994). "Rwanda: Question Time: How could it happen?: Rebellion, slaughter, exodus, cholera: the catastrophe in Rwanda is beyond our worst imaginings. Who is to blame? Who are the Hutus and Tutsis? Can peace ever be restored? Some answers ..." *The Independent*. London. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2014-02-26. Iliwekwa mnamo 16 Februari 2012. `{{cite news}}`: Invalid `|ref=harv` (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
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