Rikunarita-ORG/Wikinium huggingface dataset:
# Glass

A glass ball with coloured glass shapes inside
 Edo-Kiriko, a traditional cut glass craft in Asakusa, Tokyo, Japan. The glass has two layers, a coloured layer outside a clear layer.
**Glass** is a hard material that can be made in many shapes. It is usually transparent, but it can also be made in colours. Glass is mainly made of silica; glass made of silica only is called silica glass.

Glass used to make windows and bottles is a specific type called soda-lime glass, composed of about 75% silicon dioxide (SiO2), sodium oxide (Na2O) from sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), calcium oxide, also called lime (CaO), and several minor additives.

By changing the proportions, and adding different ingredients, many kinds of glass can be made. Coloured glass is made by adding small amounts of metal oxides. For example, a blue colour is given by tiny amounts of cobalt oxide.

Crystal glass is made by adding lead and zinc oxides. It is not actually a crystal because all glass is a non-crystalline solid. Crystal glass is called cut glass if it has been cut by hand:

" 'Cut glass' is glass that has been decorated entirely by hand by use of rotating wheels. Cuts are made in an otherwise completely smooth surface of the glass by workers holding and moving the piece against various sized metal or stone wheels".
Because glass is used to make lenses, the word "glasses" often means eyeglasses.

The myth that glass is actually a liquid comes from the fact that old windows in houses and churches (200–300 years old) are sometimes a little out of shape: thicker at the bottom than the top. This is actually due to the process of glass making in the past which led to the glass pane being thicker at one edge than the other. It was sensible to install the windows with the thick edge at the bottom. Sometimes a window can be found with the thick edge at the top of the window.

Glass can be recycled over and over. Glass bottles and jars can easily be recycled to make new glass bottles and jars or used in industry as aggregate (building material) or sand.

* Roman glass beaker from the 4th century A.D.
* A glass with water.
* A stained glass mural art at a Christian Church.

## Other websites

* Corning Museum of Glass
* A comprehensive guide to art glass and crystal around the world Archived 2010-12-26 at the Wayback Machine
* Working Description Furnace & Moleria - Murano Glass
* Informative website about the glass industry
* Substances used in the Making of Colored Glass Archived 2005-11-30 at the Wayback Machine
* Almost 400 articles and images about glass (mostly art glass) Archived 2018-10-22 at the Wayback Machine
# Attila the Hun

470 AD, portrait of Attila, drawn by Marina the Monk.
**Attila**, or **Attila the Hun** (406-453), was a leader of the Huns from 434 AD until he died in 453 AD. He was one of the most common ruler.

Attila led the Hunnic Empire, and was known as a feared military commander. He invaded Gaul, and nearly captured the city of Aurelianum. In 451 AD, he lost the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains, the only one he ever lost. He also invaded Italy and attacked and looted several towns.

Attila died in 453. The traditional account of his death is that it happened the night after his marriage to a woman named Ildiko. The Huns declined in the years immediately after Attila's death.
# Monarch

A **monarch** is the ruler of a country which is a monarchy. Monarchs usually get their power by inheritance from one of their parents. When a monarch dies, a child or the nearest relative takes over. A male monarch is usually called a king or emperor. A female monarch is usually called a queen or empress. There female kings in history. An example of a modern woman king is Her Royal Majesty Queen Diambi, the traditional ruler of the Bakwa Luntu People in Central Kasaï, Congo, Africa.

Monarchy is still common in Africa. Many countries have both a president and a monarch of some sort.

Monarchs were very common in history until the 20th century. Most European countries had monarchs in past centuries, but most no longer have them. Some countries that still have monarchs have other leaders with the actual power. Most monarchies are hereditary monarchies. Some countries, however, elect their monarch, instead of using inheritance, like the Holy Roman Empire and Malaysia. Some republics, such as the Dutch Republic or North Korea, had or have a hereditary ruler but do not call him a "monarch".

Monarchs can also have monarchs of lower honour below them. For example, an empire could include several kingdoms, and a kingdom could have several duchies or principalities. Nations would rarely include all titles and usually go from duchy to kingdom instead of duchy to principality to kingdom. "Prince" and " princess" are words that mean "ruler of a principality" and/or "son of a king/queen." Some languages have separate words for them.

The details may vary from country to country.

## Monarchs by rank

| Title | Male | Female |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Empire | Emperor | Empress |
| Kingdom | King | Queen |
| Archduchy | Archduke | Archduchess |
| Grand Duchy | Grand Duke | Grand Duchess |
| Duchy | Duke | Duchess |
| Grand Principality | Grand Prince | Grand Princess |
| Principality | Prince | Princess |
| Marquisate | Marquess | Marchioness |
| County/Earldom | Count/Earl | Countess |
| Viscounty | Viscount | Viscountess |
| Barony | Baron | Baroness |

## Related pages

* Coronation
* Divine right of kings
* Interregnum
* Letters patent
* Royal family

## Other websites
# Code name

Margaretha Geertruida Zelle used the stage name Mata Hari and the code name H 21 when she worked for German Intelligence.
A **code name** is a secret name used to refer to a name, word, project or person. Spies are often referred to by their code name to make discovery more difficult. Code names may also be used in industrial espionage to protect secrets from business rivals.

Secrecy is not the only reason for their use. Standard words and phrases are easier to hear on radio channels like walkie-talkies.

Code names became numerous in World War II. Names like Operation Barbarossa and Operation Overlord and the Manhattan Project became famous.
# Icelandic name

The Icelandic patronymic naming system.Icelandic names are different from most other naming systems used in the West, in that the names follow a patronymic (sometimes matronymic) surname pattern.

This means that when a person is named, their last name is the name of their father, plus -son. So if a man called Eric had a son called Leif, Leif's name would be Leif Ericsson.

The same is true for females, although sometimes women take the name of their father for their last name, or the name of their mother. Also, the suffix -sdottír is added to the end of the parent's name. So, if a girl called Astrid's parents were Leif and Inga, then their daughter could be called either Astrid Leifsdóttir, or Astrid Ingasdóttir.

Changes were announced to the laws about names in 2019. Given names are not limited by gender anymore. People that are registered officially with a non-binary gender will be able to use the suffix -bur ("child of") instead of -son or -dóttir.

This naming system is the same naming system that was used by the Vikings. Iceland has kept this naming system because Iceland is an island, and had little contact with the outside world for quite some time, so there was not much change in things like customs, language and naming systems.
# Matrilineality

**Matrilineality** is a way of identifying kinship ancestry through the mother or female line. A matriline is essentially a mother's line, which traces the descent from a female ancestor to an individual. Patrilineality is a way of identifying ancestry through the father or male line. A patriline is essentially a father's line, which traces the descent from a male ancestor to an individual.

The use of these systems often involves inheritance of names and of possessions and a way of identifying kin. The system of patrilineal descent is usually more common than matrilineal descent.
# Bernicia

The Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Bernicia
**Bernicia** (Old English: *Bernice*) was a kingdom in Northern England. It was an Anglo-Saxon kingdom established by Anglian settlers in the 6th century. Bernicia occupied about the same area as the modern English counties of Northumberland and Durham, and the former Scottish counties of Berwickshire and East Lothian. Bernicia was one of two Anglo-Saxon kingdoms located north of the River Humber. The other was Deira and in the early 7th century they combined to become the kingdom of Northumbria.

## Roman and British Bernicia

The name Bernicia was an Anglicization of the earlier Celtic name *Bryneich* (or *Beornice*). The name probably meant 'The Land of Hills' or something very similar. It was the territory of the Guairi, a clan of the Votadini tribe. Their fortress home was the pre-Roman *Din Guairi* (fort of the Guairi). A large part of the Votadini under the leadership of Cunedda removed to north Wales creating the dynasty of Gwynedd. The remaining Votadini were not strong enough to withstand attacks by the Picts. After 410 they called in Germanic mercenaries

## English Bernicia

The details of the arrival of the Germanic Angles in this area is not to be found in historical sources, According to Bede the founder of the Bernician dynasty was Ida of Bernicia. But he had little detail on the Bernician kings before the reign of Athelfrith of Bernicia (died 616). Bede dated Ida's reign to starting in 547. He also gives the impression that the next 4 kings had all they could do to hold onto their territory. They had constant battles with the British during this time. Athelfrith was the first to expand the territory at the expense of the British. In 605 Athelfrith united the two kingdoms, Bernicia and Deira, into a single and powerful kingdom called Northumbria.

## Kings of Bernicia

* Ida (547–559)
* Glappa son of Ida (559–560)
* Adda son of Ida (560–568)
* Aethelric son of Ida (568–572)
* Theodric son of Ida (572–579)
* Frithuwald (579–585)
* Hussa (585–593)
* Athelfrith (593–616) ruled Bernicia 593–604, Northumbria 605–616. Combined Bernicia with Deira to form Northumbria.

Kingdom briefly split

* Eanfrith of Bernicia son of Æthelfrith (633–634)
* Oswald son of Æthelfrith, Bernicia reunited with Deira under Northumbria from 634.

## Other websites

* *Kings of Bernicia*, Britannia
# House of Valois

| House of Valois |
| --- |
|  |
| Country | France |
| Parent house | Capetian dynasty |
| Titles | * Count of Valois
* King of France
* King of Scotland
* King of Poland
* Grand Duke of Lithuania
* Duke of Milan
* Duke of Alençon
* Duke of Orléans
* Duke of Anjou
* Duke of Berry
* Duke of Burgundy
* Duke of Brittany
* King of Naples
 |
| Founded | 1284 |
| Founder | Charles, Count of Valois |
| Final ruler | Henry III of France (legitimate branch) Louis Emmanuel, Duke of Angolême (illegitimate branch) |
| Dissolution | 1589 (legitimate) 1653 (illegitimate) |
| Cadet branches | * Valois-Orléans
* Valois-Anjou
* Valois-Burgundy
* Valois-Alençon
* Valois-Angoulême
 |

The **House of Valois** was a younger branch of the Capetian dynasty that ruled France in the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance from 1328 to 1529. The kings of the House of Valois were descended
from Charles of Valois who was the third son of Philip III of France. They claimed the Salic law put them ahead of Edward III of England to rule France. Edward III of England thought he had gotten the right to the French crown through his mother. The two countries fought the Hundred Years' War because of that disagreement. The house younger branch of Valois-Angolême was the last surviving agnatic Valois branch, and it dured to 1653 by a illegimate branch descendent of Charles IX of France and until 1589 by the legitimate branch.
# Shang dynasty

| Shang商 |
| --- |
| c. 1600 BC–c. 1046 BC |
| Remnants of advanced, stratified societies dating back to the Shang period have been found in the Yellow River Valley. |
| Status | Kingdom |
| Capital | Yin (modern Anyang) |
| Common languages | Old Chinese |
| Religion  | Chinese folk religion |
| Government | monarchy |
| King |   |
| Historical era | Bronze Age |
|  |
| • Established  | c. 1600 BC |
| • Zhou conquest  | c. 1046 BC |
|  |
| Area |
| 1122 BC est. | 1,250,000 km2 (480,000 sq mi) |
|

|  |  |
| --- | --- |
| **Preceded by** | **Succeeded by** |
|

|  |  |
| --- | --- |
|  | Xia dynasty |

 |

|  |  |
| --- | --- |
| Zhou dynasty |  |

 |

 |
| Today part of |  China |

This was the Shang kingdom.
The **Shang dynasty** (existed from 1600BC - 1046BC) was the second dynasty in China following the Xia dynasty. Most of what we know about the Shang Dynasty is from reading pictures on oracle bones and bronze objects. A dynasty is a series of rulers which are considered to be part of the same family because they are ruling a country over generations. According to tradition, the last Shang king was overthrown in 1046 BC. The succeeding dynasty was called the Zhou dynasty.

The Shang dynasty is the earliest dynasty in traditional Chinese history that is firmly supported by archaeological evidence, unlike the Xia dynasty which is considered to be semi-legendary.

This is an oracle bone. As you can see, it is not actually a bone, it is a rock with important Chinese language carved on it.
## Capitals

The Shang moved their capital c. five times.

* Bo (either modern Yanshi or Zhengzhou)
* Ao (near modern Zhengzhou)
* Yan (near modern Qufu)
* Xiang (near modern Anyang)
* Yinxu (picture; near modern Anyang)
* Zhaoge (map; near modern Qi County, Hebi)

## Kings

| Order | # of years | Rulers |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 01 | 29 | King Tang of Shang of China |
| 02 | 02 | Da Ding of Shang |
| 03 | 32 | King Bu Bing of Shang of China |
| 04 | 04 | Zhong Ren |
| 05 | 12 | Tai Jia |
| 06 | 29 | Wo Ding |
| 07 | 25 | Tai Geng |
| 08 | 17 | Xiao Jia |
| 09 | 12 | Yong Ji |
| 10 | 75 | Tai Wu |
| 11 | 11 | Zhong Ding |
| 12 | 15 | Wai Ren |
| 13 | 09 | He Dan Jia |
| 14 | 19 | Zu Yi |
| 15 | 16 | Zu Xin |
| 16 | 20 | Wo Jia |
| 17 | 32 | Zu Ding |
| 18 | 29 | Ding Wang |
| 19 | 07 | King Yang Jia |
| 20 | 28 | Pan Geng |
| 21 | 29 | Xiao Xin of Shang |
| 22 | 21 | Xiao Yi of Shang |
| 23 | 59 | Wu Ding |
| 24 | 12 | Geng of Shang |
| 25 | 20 | Zu Jia |
| 26 | 06 | Lin Xin |
| 27 | 06 | Geng Ding |
| 28 | 35 | Wu Yi |
| 29 | 11 | Wen Ding |
| 30 | 26 | Di Ying |
| 31 | 30 | Di Xin |

## Other websites

* Zhengzhou Shang City Site

|  |  |  |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Preceded by Xia dynasty |  **Dynasties in Chinese history** ca. 1600–ca. 1047 BC | Succeeded by Zhou dynasty |
# Jiangnan

**Jiangnan** is a geographic area in China referring to lands immediately to the south of the lower reaches of the Yangtze River, including the southern part of the chinese reigion.
# Liao River

| Liao River 辽河 Liao He |
| --- |
|  |
| Map of the Liao River drainage basin |
| Location |
| Country | China |
| Province | Hebei, Inner Mongolia, Jilin, Liaoning |
| Physical characteristics |
|  |
| Source | various sources of its tributaries |
|  |
| Mouth | Liaodong Bay |
| Length | 1,345 km (836 mi) |
| Basin size | 232,000 km2 (90,000 sq mi) |

The **Liao River** (simplified Chinese: 辽河; traditional Chinese: 遼河; pinyin: *Liáo Hé*) is the biggest river in northeastern China (Manchuria). It has a length of 1,390 kilometres (860 mi). The Chinese province Liaoning and the Liaodong Peninsula are named after the river. The Liao River is one of the seven main river systems in mainland China. In 1958, the river changed its course. This is caused by a River engineering project. A dam was constructed by the civil emergency preparedness department of the local government. It is called the "Six rooms dam" (六间房水文站). The dam caused some of the tributaries to be blocked off such as the Hun River.

It passes by Jilin City in Jilin province as well as Tieling, Panjin and Tai'an in Liaoning province.
# Historian

Plaster cast of a double herma with portraits of Herodotus and Thucydides, two ancient Greek historians
A **historian** is someone who studies history. Historians use written sources to understand past events and societies.

## Education

Professional historians often get a Master's degree or PhD. A Master's degree student spends most of their time in the classroom. A PhD student needs to write a long research paper known as a thesis to graduate. Classes focus on learning about history, not teaching history. However, most historians do need to teach history.

## As a job

Professional historians are often professors of history and teach it at colleges and universities. They share their ideas about history by writing books and articles.

Other historians work in public history. They may work in museums or at landmarks where important historic events happened.

## Related pages

* List of historians

* Richard B. Todd, ed. (2004). *Dictionary of British Classicists, 1500–1960*, Bristol: Thoemmes Continuum, 2004 ISBN 1-85506-997-0.
* Kelly Boyd, ed. (1999). *Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing*. London [etc.] : Fitzroy Dearborn ISBN 1-884964-33-8
* Lateiner, D. (1989). *The historical method of Herodotus*. Phoenix, 23. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
* John Cannon et al., eds. (1988). *The Blackwell Dictionary of Historians*. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1988 ISBN 0-631-14708-X.
* Hartog, F. (1988). *The mirror of Herodotus: the representation of the other in the writing of history*. Berkeley: University of California Press.
* Erik Christiansen (1970). *The Last Hundred Years of the Roman Republic*, Odense: Andelsbogtrykkeriet
* Gottschalk, L. R. (1950). *Understanding history; a primer of historical method*. New York: Knopf
* Barnes, M. S. (1896). *Studies in historical method*. Heath's pedagogical library. Boston: D.C. Heath & Co.
* Taylor, I. (1889). *History of the transmission of ancient books to modern times, together with the process of historical proof: or, a concise account of the means by which the genuineness of ancient literature generally, and authenticity of historical works especially, are ascertained, including incidental remarks upon the relative strength of the evidence usually adduced in behalf of the Holy Scriptures*. Liverpool: E. Howell.
* Herodotus, Rawlinson, G., Rawlinson, H. C., & Wilkinson, J. G. (1862). *History of Herodotus*. A new English version. London: John Murray.
* Véricour, L. R. d. (1850). *Historical analysis of Christian civilisation*. London: J. Chapman.
* Taylor, I. (1828). *The process of historical proof*. London: Printed for B. J. Holdsworth.
* Elizabeth Kostova "The Historian"
# Cockfight

A cockfight in London
A **cockfight** is a blood sport between two or more roosters that is held inside a cockpit. The combatants, called gamecocks, are specially bred birds. Cockfights are called blood sports by animal welfare and animal rights groups due to trauma inflicted between the roosters. It is illegal in the United States (and a felony in thirty States).
# Yue Prefecture (Zhejiang)

| Yue Prefecture |
| --- |
|  |
| Population |  |
|  • 740s or 750s | 529,589 |
|  • 1100s | 367,390 |
|  |
| History |  |
|  • Preceded by | Kuaiji Commandery |
|  • Created | * 605 (Sui dynasty)
* 621 (Tang dynasty)
* 758 (Tang dynasty)
 |
|  • Abolished | 1131 (Song dynasty) |
|  • Succeeded by | Shaoxing Prefecture |
|  |
|  |
| Contained within |  |
|  • Circuit | * Jiangnan Circuit (621–733)
* Jiangnan East Circuit (after 733)
* Zhejiang East Circuit (758–907)
 |
|  • Kingdom | Wuyue (907–978) |
|  • Circuit | * Liangzhe Circuit (978–1074)
* Liangzhe East Circuit (after 1074)
 |
|  |
|  |

**Yuezhou** or **Yue Prefecture** was a *zhou* (prefecture) in imperial China in modern Zhejiang, China. It existed (intermittently) from 605 until 1131. In 1131, became Shaoxing Prefecture.

## Counties

Yue Prefecture had these counties (縣) in its history:

| # | Sui dynasty | Tang dynasty | Wuyue | Song dynasty | Modern location |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | Kuaiji (會稽) | Yuecheng District & Keqiao District, Shaoxing |
| 2 | Shanyin (山陰) |
| 3 | Shangyu (上虞) | Shangyu District, Shaoxing |
| 4 | Zhuji (諸暨) | * Zhuji, 618–880s
* Jiyang (暨陽), 880s–908
 | Zhuji | Zhuji |
| 5 | Shan (剡) | Shan (贍) | * Shan (剡), 979–1121
* Sheng (嵊), after 1121
 | Shengzhou |
| 6 | Xinchang (新昌) | Xinchang County |
| 7 | Yuyao (餘姚) | Yuyao |
| 8 | Xiaoshan (蕭山) | Xiaoshan District, Hangzhou |

* Shi Weile, ed. (2005). *Zhongguo Lishi Diming Da Cidian* (中国历史地名大词典) [*Large Dictionary of Chinese Historical Place Names*] (in Chinese). China Social Sciences Press. ISBN 7-5004-4929-1.
* (in Chinese) Ouyang Xiu; et al., eds. (1060). *Xin Tang Shu* [*New Book of Tang*].
* (in Chinese) Toqto'a; et al., eds. (1345). *Song Shi* [*History of Song*].
# Confucius

A picture of Confucius, in *Myths & Legends of China*, 1922, by E.T.C. Werner
**Confucius** (born 551 BC, died 479 BC) was an important Chinese educator and philosopher. His original name was Kong Qiu or Zhong Ni.
As a child, he was eager to learn about everything, and was very interested in rituals. Although he grew up in extreme poverty, it did not stop his curiosity from growing. He was a very dedicated student, especially in his teenage years. It is not known how he received his formal education, but he mastered many subjects of the arts. Once he grew up, he worked as a state official who handled farms and cattle. Then he became a teacher.

Confucius lived in a time when many states were fighting wars in China.
This period was called the Spring and Autumn period of the Zhou Dynasty.
Confucius did not like this and wanted to bring order back to society.

## Teaching

Like Socrates, Confucius sometimes did not answer philosophical questions himself.
Instead he wanted people to think hard about problems and to learn from others, especially from history.
Confucius also thought that people should get power because they were good and skilled, and not just because they came from powerful families.

Confucius wanted people to think about other people more than about money or what they owned.
However he also felt that there should be strong rules in society and that people needed to obey them.
Confucius thought that there were five relationships people could have, and that they all had their own rules.
Two people could be

* Prince and Subject
* Father and Son
* Husband and Wife
* Elder and Child
* or Friends

These were traditional relationships called the 'five prototypes'.
Confucius said that in all these relationships, both people must obey rules.
For example, a subject must obey a prince, but also a prince must listen to a subject and must rule him well and fairly.

Confucius said that people should only do things to other people if they would be okay with other people doing those things to themselves.
This is sometimes called the Golden Rule and was also taught by Jesus Christ.

His students wrote down small stories about him, and things that he said.
These were put together to make a book called The Analects, which became one of the main books of Confucianism.