Rikunarita-ORG/Wikinium huggingface dataset:
# Ural Mountains

Map of the Ural Mountains
The Village of Kolchedan in the Ural Mountains in 1912
Work at the Bakalskii mine
The **Ural Mountains** (Russian: Ура́льские го́ры, romanized: *Uralskiye gory*), also known simply as the **Urals**, is a mountain range that runs roughly north and south through western Russia.

## Geography

The Urals stretch 2,500 km from the Kazakh steppes along the northern border of Kazakhstan to the coast of the Arctic Ocean. The island of Novaya Zemlya forms a further continuation of the chain. Geographically this range marks the northern part of the border between Asian and European sections of the Eurasian continent. Its highest peak is Mount Narodnaya (Poznurr, 1895 m).

## Other websites

* Five parts of the Ural Mountains
# Iranian plateau

the plataeu of Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan
The **Iranian plateau**, also known as the **Persian plateau** is a geological formation in Southwest Asia, **Southern Asia** and the Caucasus region. As a historical region, it includes Parthia, Media and eastern Persia, the heartlands of Greater Persia (mainly Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan west of the River Indus).
# Yenisei

**Yenisei River** – As seen from the Trans-Siberian Railway near Krasnoyarsk
The **Yenisei** (*Енисе́й*) is a river in Siberia. It belongs to the greatest river system that flows into the Arctic Ocean. The Yenisei is the fifth-longest river in the world. It is a little shorter than the Mississippi River, but with 1.5 times the flow. It comes from Mongolia and follows a northern course to the Kara Sea. The river drains a large part of central Siberia. The longest stream following the Yenisei-Angara-Selenga-Ider is about 5539 km long. Its watershed, which includes the world's largest (by volume) lake, Lake Baikal, holds more water than any other river system.

The upper parts of the system have rapids and flooding, and pass through areas where very few people live. The middle section is controlled by a series of large hydroelectric dams. The dams were built to supply a major Russian primary industry. Partly built by gulag labor in Soviet times, industrial contamination is a big problem in the area. The area is very hard for the police to watch. Moving on through sparsely populated taiga, the Yenisei grows with many tributaries and finally reaches the Kara Sea in desolate tundra where it is covered with ice for more than half the year. As with other Siberian rivers, the flow has increased lately. People think this is because of global warming. A concern was also raised that a change in the salt in the Arctic may have a global impact on ocean currents.
# North Indian Plain

The **North Indian Plain** or the **Indo-Gangetic Plain** is the large space of level land that is made by the Indus River and Ganges River in the northern parts of the Indian subcontinent. It is an important part of the countries of India, Pakistan, Nepal, and Bangladesh. Its space of about 700,000 square kilometers or 270,000 square miles is the home of about 1 billion people (about one in every seven persons alive today).

Its western edge is the Thar Desert; its northern edge is the Himalaya Mountains, the highest mountains on Earth; its eastern edge is the Ganges Delta of Bangladesh, the largest River delta in the world; and its southern edge is made by the Vindhya Mountains and Satpura Range and Chota Nagpur Plateau of middle India.

The North Gangetic Plains of India, Bangladesh and Nepal. The Ganges River is in the middle of the plains.The area has fertile land for agriculture, adequate water supply and favourable climate. It is known as a Cradle of civilization.
# Bohai Sea

The **Bohai Sea** (Chinese: **渤海**) is a gulf on the northeast coast of China and it is west of the Korean Peninsula. It is a redundant place name, which mean that the words making up the place name has the same meaning, since *hăi* (海) as in *Bóhǎi* already means "sea" or "ocean". Some important port cities on the Bohai Sea coast include Tianjin, Qinhuangdao, and Dalian.
# Aleutian Islands

Aleutian Islands| Wikimedia | © OpenStreetMap |
| Geography |
| Location | Pacific Ocean, Bering Sea |
| Administration |
| **United States** |
| Demographics |
| Population | 8,162 |

The **Aleutian Islands** (English pronunciation: /əˈluːʃən/; possibly from Chukchi *aliat*, "island") are a chain of more than 300 small volcanic islands.

They are in the Northern Pacific Ocean. They are spread out over an area of 6,821 sq mi (17,666 km²) and go out about 1,200 mi (1,931 km) west from the Alaska Peninsula toward the Kamchatka Peninsula. They mark a line between the Bering Sea and the Pacific Gulf of Alaska. Crossing longitude 180°, they are the furthest West part of the United States Nearly all the islands are part of Alaska but at the extreme western end are the Commander Islands which are in Russia. The islands, with their 57 volcanoes, are in the northern part of the Pacific Ring of Fire. The Alaska Marine Highway passes through the islands.

About 8,200 people live in 11 towns or villages on seven islands of the US part. About 600 people live in the Russian part of the islands.
# Historical linguistics

**Historical linguistics** is the study of language change. It has five main concerns:

1. to study changes in particular languages
2. to discover the pre-history of languages, and group them into language families (comparative linguistics)
3. to develop theories about how and why language or sound changes
4. to describe the history of speech communities
5. to study the history of words, etymology.

## History and development

Modern historical linguistics dates from the late 18th century. It grew out of the earlier discipline of philology, the study of ancient texts and documents dating back to antiquity.

At first, historical linguistics was comparative linguistics. The focus was on the well-known Indo-European languages, many of which had long written histories. Scholars also studied the Uralic languages, another language family for which less early written material exists.

Since then, there has been linguistic work in non-European languages, such as on the Austronesian languages and various families of Native American languages.

Comparative linguistics is now part of a discipline of historical linguistics. For Indo-European languages, comparative study is now a well-developed field. Most research is being carried out on their later development, such as the development of the modern standard varieties.

Some scholars have done studies attempting to establish super-families. They have, for example, linked Indo-European, Uralic, and other families into Nostratic. Such attempts have not been accepted widely. The information needed to establish relatedness becomes thinner the farther back. The time depth of linguistic methods is limited because of chance word resemblances and variations between language groups. Scholars can trace language changes back to around 10,000 years. The dating of the various proto-languages is also difficult; several methods are available for dating, but only approximate results are possible.
# Huns

The Hephthalites (Bactrian: ηβοδαλο, romanized: Ebodalo) sometimes called as the **White Huns** (also known as **Spet Xyon** in Iranian and as the **Sveta-huna** in Prakrit) were a people who lived in Central Asia during the 5th to 8th centuries CE, part of the larger group of Eastern Iranian Huns. They formed an empire, the *Imperial Hephthalites*, and were militarily important from 450 CE, when they defeated the Kidarites, to 560 CE, when combined forces from the First Turkic Khaganate and the Sasanian Empire defeated them. After 560 CE, they established "principalities" in the area of Tokharistan, under the suzerainty of the Western Turks (in the areas north of the Oxus) and of the Sasanian Empire (in the areas south of the Oxus), before the Tokhara Yabghus took over in 625.

Note:These may not be written in Basic English.
* Otto J. Mänchen-Helfen: *The Legend of the Origin of the Huns* (published in *Byzantion*, vol. XVII, 1944–45, pp. 244–251)
* E. A. Thompson: *A History of Attila and the Huns* (London, Oxford University Press, 1948)
* J. Webster: *The Huns and Existentialist Thought* (Loudonville, Siena College Press, 2006)
* Coinage and History of the White Huns- Waleed Ziad- Articles from the 'Journal of the Oriental Numismatic Society', 2004-2006 Archived 2007-08-21 at the Wayback Machine
* The History Files Europe: The Origins of the Huns, based on conversations with Kemal Cemal, Turkey, 2002
# Central Powers

**The Central Powers** were a group of nations fighting against the Allied Powers during World War I.

The Central Powers lost the war to the Allied powers, which was composed of France, Russia and the United Kingdom. The Allied powers were later joined by Japan and Italy.

European military alliances in 1914. The **Central Powers** are shown in purple, the Allies in gray and neutral countries in yellow.
## Members

* German Empire
* Austria-Hungary
* Ottoman Empire
* Kingdom of Bulgaria

### Former Members

* Italy (1914-1915)
# UNESCO

|  United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization |
| --- |
|  |
| Org type | Agency |
| Head | Khaled El-Enany Director-General of UNESCO |
| Status | Active |
| Established | 16 November 1945 |
| Headquarters | Paris, France |
| Website | UNESCO.org |

**UNESCO** is the **United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization** (French: *L'Organisation des Nations unies pour l’éducation, la science et la culture*). It is an agency of the United Nations (UN).

UNESCO says its purpose, as defined just after the end of World War II, is "to build the defenses of peace in the minds of men and women". It does this by helping nations work together, through education for all, science, and culture. This is supposed to help other nations follow the rule of law and human rights. It also helps promote some freedoms in the UN Charter.

UNESCO has 195 Member countries.

UNESCO tries to achieve what it wants to do through six programs: education, natural sciences, social and human sciences, culture, communication and information. Some projects sponsored by UNESCO are literacy, technical, and teacher-training programmes. UNESCO also decides what will become World Heritage Sites. A World Heritage Site is an important, special, interesting or beautiful place. If a place is a World Heritage Site, the place can not be destroyed, as it can give useful information for the future. The Uluru, for example, gives a lot of information on the culture of Aborigines. UNESCO is also a member of the United Nations Development Group. and works for Millennium Development Goals.

## List of directors

Directors-General of UNESCO| Order | Image | Name | Country | Term |
| 1st |  | Julian Huxley |  United Kingdom | 1946–1948 |
| 2nd |  | Jaime Torres Bodet |  Mexico | 1948–1952 |
| – |  | John Wilkinson Taylor |  United States | acting 1952–1953 |
| 3rd |  | Luther Evans |  United States | 1953–1958 |
| 4th |  | Vittorino Veronese |  Italy | 1958–1961 |
| 5th |  | René Maheu |  France | acting 1961; 1961–1974 |
| 6th |  | Amadou-Mahtar M'Bow |  Senegal | 1974–1987 |
| 7th |  | Federico Mayor Zaragoza |  Spain | 1987–1999 |
| 8th |  | Koïchiro Matsuura |  Japan | 1999–2009 |
| 9th |  | Irina Bokova |  Bulgaria | 2009–2017 |
| 10th |  | Audrey Azoulay |  France | 2017– 2025 |
| 11th |  | Khaled al-Anani |  Egypt | 2025–*Incumbent* |

## Other websites

* Official site of UNESCO on which you can find extra information
# Baltic states

A map showing the location of the three Baltic statesBaltic states’ flags in Riga Old Town, Latvia, May 2024.
The **Baltic states** are three countries in Northern Europe to the east of the Baltic Sea and the south of the Gulf of Finland. They are, from north to south, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. The languages that are spoken in these countries are different: while Lithuanians and Latvians speak Baltic languages (Latvian and Lithuanian), Estonians speak a Finnic language (Estonian).

By their culture and history, the Baltic countries are close to the Nordic countries and were sometimes ruled by the Swedish Empire. The biggest difference in the history was that the Baltic countries were invaded and occupied by the Soviet Union in 1940 (during the Second World War), but not the Nordic countries. After the Second World War, the three Soviet-occupied countries would be called Estonian SSR, Latvian SSR, and Lithuanian SSR.

All three Baltic countries had their freedom back in August 1991, a few months before the former Soviet Union came to an end. The governments and the people of the three countries all consider the 1940-1991 Soviet occupation to be illegal, which has been supported by the United States, European Union, and United Nations. Today, the Baltic countries are some of the most advanced and highest quality of life countries in the world. They became members of the European Union and NATO in 2004, joined the Schengen Area in 2007, and became part of the eurozone by 2015.

Paganism was the religion of Baltic people before most of them took Christianity during the Middle Ages. Baltic paganism never died out and some people are still pagans.
# archive.today

archive.today| Screenshot of archive.today |
| Founded | 2012 |
| URL | archive.today |

**archive.today** is a website that archives web pages on the internet.

When archiving, archive.today saves websites in 2 ways, the first being "Webpage", in which all of the web page is archived and every part of the original web page can be viewed. The second way is "Screenshot", which only takes a large image of the website, in 1024p.

## History

archive.today was founded in 2012, and used that site as its main URL, later adopting websites *archive.is*, *archive.vn*, *archive.fo*, *archive.li*, *archive.md*, and *archive.ph*.

In 2015, the site changed from *archive.today* to *archive.is*, but was changed back to *archive.today* in January 2019.
# Web crawler

A **web crawler** or spider is a computer program that automatically fetches the contents of a web page. The program then analyses the content, for example to index it by certain search terms. Search engines commonly use web crawlers.

## Related pages

* HTTrack – a web crawler released in 1998
# DOS

A **disk operating system** (**DOS**) will load from a floppy disk each time a computer starts, and will access that disk for software to complete operations. MS-DOS is probably the most well-known DOS, and was purchased by Microsoft Corporation from a system known as QDOS. As operating systems became more complicated and took up more space, they began to be permanently installed on hard drives, which are faster and more reliable than floppy disks, and can store more data. This was encouraged by a steady drop in hard drive prices.

*DOS*es are usually text-based and without graphics to save space on a floppy disk. Although DOSes have mostly been replaced by Windows, Macintosh, and Linux systems, among others (sporting a GUI, or Graphical User Interface), they are still in use in some places, mostly on older computers. This may be because of a lack of money, the need to use software which still runs on a DOS system, nostalgia for an older operating system, or the belief that text-based systems are more efficient.

Although GUIs are more popular, in times of emergency or when one needs to install special software, a boot disk allows a user to start his or her computer into a DOS.
# Wired (magazine)

*Wired*| Logo of Wired. |
| Global Editorial Director | Katie Drummond |
| Categories | Business, technology, life, thought leader |
| Frequency | Monthly |
| Total circulation (January 2017) | 870,101 |
| First issue | March/April 1993 (1993) |
| Company | Condé Nast Publications |
| Country | United States |
| Based in | San Francisco, California, USA |
| Language | English |
| Website | www.wired.com |
| ISSN | 1059-1028 |
| OCLC number | 24479723 |

Wired (called WIRED) is a magazine written in English. It is issued to readers once a month. They also put up their editions on the Internet, on their own website. Their writers write about politics, the economy, and how new technology changes culture. The magazine belongs to a company called Condé Nast, and has its headquarters in San Francisco, California.

They have other kinds of their magazine like *Wired UK*, *Wired Italia*, etc. In their first “colophons”, they said that a Canadian named Marshall McLuhan was their “patron saint”. When it started, influence on the magazine’s editorials was strongest about “techno-utopian” stuff.

There is a paywall on the website, which is 20 US dollars a year. During the time Condé Nast owned the magazine, Wired News took care of the website.

## History

The magazine was started by a journalist named Louis Rossetto and his friend Jane Metcalfe, along with Ian Charles Stewart, in 1993. In the early days, they were backed up by a software entrepreneur named Charlie Jackson and an academic named Nicholas Negroponte of the MIT Media Lab, who was a columnist for six years (through 1998) and wrote the book *Being Digital*. The founding designers were John Plunkett and Barbara Kuhr (Plunkett+Kuhr), starting with a 1991 verson and keeing up through the first five years of their magazine, 1993–98.

*Wired*, who said it was "the *Rolling Stone* of technology", showed off at the Macworld conference on January 2, 1993. It gained success at its launch and was loved by many for its vision, originality, innovation, and cultural impact. In its first four years, the magazine earned two National Magazine Awards for General Excellence and one for Design.

Wired building located in San Francisco
The founding executive editor of *Wired*, Kevin Kelly, was once an editor of the *Whole Earth Catalog* and the *Whole Earth Review* and took with him a few contributing writers from those publications. Six writers of the first *Wired* issue (1.1) had made stories for *Whole Earth Review*, with the most famous writer being Bruce Sterling (who was highlighted on the first cover) and Stewart Brand. Other people who contribute to *Whole Earth* were also shown in the magazine, including William Gibson, who was shown on *Wired*'s cover in its first year and his article "Disneyland with the Death Penalty" in issue 1.4 resulted in the publication being banned in Singapore.
# DuckDuckGo

DuckDuckGo|  |
| Type of site | Web search engine |
| Available in | Many languages |
| Headquarters | 20 Paoli Pike Paoli, Pennsylvania, U.S. |
| Area served | Worldwide |
| Owner | Duck Duck Go, Inc. |
| Created by | Gabriel Weinberg |
| URL | duckduckgo.com |
| Commercial | Yes |
| Registration | None |
| Launched | September 25, 2008 (2008-09-25) |
| Current status | Active |
| Written in | Perl, JavaScript, Python |

**DuckDuckGo** is a search engine made by Gabriel Weinberg. It stresses that it does not collect information about users like Google does, and keeps data private. It headquarters is in Paoli, Pennsylvania, United States. As of 2024, it received over 100,000,000 searches every day.

It's named after children's game Duck, duck, goose.

## Other websites

* Official website
# Oceanography

**Oceanography** (also called **oceanology** or **marine science**) is the study of the ocean, its properties and its characteristics. This can include, and is not limited to, studying the marine life, the geography of the ocean floor, and the water itself. Many sciences are useful in oceanography, so it is a multidisciplinary field. Oceanographers spend much time on boats.

## Sub-Categories

The study of oceanography may be divide branches:

* **Marine biology** or **biological oceanography **Chemical oceanography** or **marine chemistry **Marine geology** or **geological oceanography **Physical oceanography **Marine engineering**
# Topography

**Topography** means *the description of shape*. The word comes from Greek: *τόπος* "place" and *γράφω* "(I) write". It is an important part of earth science.

When you talk of the topography of the land, you refer to the landscape features like valleys, hills and mountains, rivers and lakes, or the coastline. Everything that describes the form of the landscape, is part of the topography. Topographic maps show topography.

## Related pages

* Cartography
# Nautical chart

A nautical chart
A **nautical chart** is a map which is used to show objects on the ocean. Nautical charts were very common from the 14th century to the 17th century. They are usually used by sailors to navigate.
# Earth radius

The **Earth's radius** (represented as R*🜨** or  **WIKINIUM\_MATH\_PH\_0** ) is the distance from the center of Earth to a point on or near its surface.

## Length

Earth is shaped like a slightly flattened ball (an oblate spheroid). Because it is not perfectly round, Earth's radius is different at certain places. At the Equator, Earth's radius (called the equatorial radius) is about 6,378 km (3,963 miles). At the North and South Poles, Earth's radius (called the polar radius) is a bit less at around 6,357 km (3,950 miles). The average radius has been estimated at 6,371 kilometres (3,959 mi).

| Earth radius |
| --- |
| Cross section of Earth's Interior |
| General information |
| Unit system | astronomy, geophysics |
| Unit of | distance |
| Symbol | R*🜨** or  WIKINIUM\_MATH\_PH\_2 , WIKINIUM\_MATH\_PH\_4   |
| Conversions
  |
| *1* **R*🜨in ...* | *... is equal to ...* |
|  |
|    SI base unit |    6.3781×106 m |
|    Metric system |    6,357 to 6,378 km |
|    English units |    3,950 to 3,963 mi |

### Definitions

Earth's radius can also be defined and measured using the radius of curvature. This calculation considers land and sea topography. As a result, it can produce a different result than measurement of the equatorial or polar radiuses.

"Earth radius" is sometimes used as a unit of measurement in astronomy and geophysics. The International Astronomical Union recommends that "Earth radius" should equal the planet's equatorial radius.
# Amerigo Vespucci

| Amerigo Vespucci |
| --- |
| Statue at the Uffizi, Florence |
| Born | (1451-03-09)March 9, 1451 Florence, Republic of Florence |
| Died | February 22, 1512(1512-02-22) (aged 60) Seville, Crown of Castile |
| Nationality | Italian |
| Other names | Américo Vespucio [*es*] Americus Vespucius [*la*] |
| Occupation(s) | Merchant, explorer, cartographer |
| Known for | Demonstrating that the New World was not Asia but a previously-unknown fourth continent. |

**Amerigo Vespucci** (9 March 1451- 22 February 1512) was an Italian merchant, explorer and cartographer. He was the first person to explain that the places discovered by Christopher Columbus in 1492 were not part of east Asia, but an unknown continent which he called "The New World". America got its name when other cartographers used a feminized and latinized version of his first name, *Americus*.

Not much is known of Vespucci's life. Two books were published saying he wrote them. Some letters exist, also saying he wrote them. He visited the New World at least twice, and died of malaria.

## Other websites

 Media related to Amerigo Vespucci at Wikimedia Commons

* Canaday, James A. *The Life of Amerigo Vespucci Archived 2010-03-28 at the Wayback Machine*.
* Account of 'The First Voyage', 1497: Letter of Amerigo Vespucci To Pier Soderini - Fordham University (U.S.) Internet Modern History Sourcebook Archived 2014-08-14 at the Wayback Machine
* *A scale model* Archived 2008-09-20 at the Wayback Machine - A scaled wooden model of the Amerigo Vespucci.
* *Amerigo Vespucci by Frederick A. Ober* at Project Gutenberg
* 'I am America.' - New York Times: Five hundred years ago, our continent was given a name.
# Robinson projection

Robinson Projection
The **Robinson projection** is a map projection. It has less accuracy, but it is more readable on a flat surface. It shows the poles as lines, which accurately shows the high altitude lands and water to land ratio.

## Related pages

* Mercator projection