Rikunarita-ORG/Wikinium huggingface dataset:
# Strict scrutiny

**Strict scrutiny** is the most stringent standard of judicial review used by United States courts. It is part of the hierarchy of standards that courts use to weigh the government's interest against a constitutional right or principle. The lesser standards are rational basis review and exacting or intermediate scrutiny. These standards are used to test statutes and government action at all levels of government within the United States.

The idea of "levels of judicial scrutiny", including strict scrutiny, was introduced in *United States v. Carolene Products Co.* (1938), one of a series of decisions testing the constitutionality of New Deal legislation. The first and most notable case in which the Supreme Court applied the strict scrutiny standard and found the government's actions valid was *Korematsu v. United States* (1944). In *Korematsu* the Court upheld the government ruling 6-3 that the need to protect the country from espionage outweighed the rights of Mr. Korematsu.

## Applicability

U.S. courts apply the strict scrutiny standard in two contexts: when a fundamental constitutional right is infringed, particularly those found in the Bill of Rights and those the court has deemed a fundamental right protected by the Due Process Clause or "liberty clause" of the 14th Amendment, or when a government action applies to a "suspect classification," such as race or national origin.

To pass strict scrutiny, the law or policy must satisfy three tests:

* **Compelling governmental interest**. While the Courts have never clearly defined how to determine if an interest is compelling, the concept generally refers to something necessary or crucial. Examples include national security, preserving the lives of multiple individuals, and not violating explicit constitutional protections.

* **Narrowly tailored** refers to achieve that goal or interest. If the government action includes too much (overbroad) or fails to address important parts of the compelling interest, then the rule is not considered narrowly tailored.

* **least restrictive means** must be used for achieving that interest. That is, there cannot be a less restrictive way to effectively achieve the compelling government interest. The test will be met even if there is another method that is equally the least restrictive. Some legal scholars consider this "least restrictive means" requirement part of being narrowly tailored, though the Court generally evaluates it separately.
# Victoria, British Columbia

Victoria's Inner Harbour with The Empress hotel at the left and government buildings at the center
**Victoria** is the capital city of the province of British Columbia, Canada. It is named after Queen Victoria. Around 400,000 people live in the Victoria area. Many people work for the government or in tourism. It is warmer than other Canadian cities in the winter and so many Canadians move there when they retire.

Victoria is on Vancouver Island. Most people travel there by ferry from Vancouver or from Washington State. Victoria has three ferry docks and an airport, Victoria International Airport.

Victoria has one of the mildest climates in Canada, with gardens blooming year-round.

Some tourist attractions are the Butchart Gardens and the Royal British Columbia Museum. SOME OF THE BEST-known buildings are the government buildings and the Empress Hotel; both are by the Inner Harbour.

The first people to live in the area were the Coast Salish native people. People from England built Fort Victoria in 1843. Victoria became a city in 1862.

There are 18,000 students who study at the University of Victoria. Other people study at Camosun College, Royal Roads University, University Canada West, Victoria College of Art, and the Canadian College of Performing Arts. Students from all over the world study at Pearson College, near Victoria.

The Canadian navy has ships in the part of the city called Esquimalt.

Some of the parks include Beacon Hill Park, East Sooke Park, Mount Work Park, and Mount Douglas Park.

There are many flowers in Victoria, which is called the "city of gardens." It is much drier than places nearby, and has little snow.

These well-known people from are Victoria:

* Jamie Benn (hockey)
* Emily Carr (art)
* Steve Nash (basketball)
* David Foster (music)
* Nelly Furtado (singer)
* Kyle Germaine Johnson (Pro Biker)

## Regions

The Victoria area is made up of 13 parts. Four of them make up Greater Victoria:

* Victoria
* Saanich
* Esquimalt
* Oak Bay

Three of them make up the Saanich Peninsula:

* Sidney
* Central Saanich
* North Saanich

The others make up the Western Communities:

* Colwood
* Langford
* View Royal
* Metchosin
* Sooke
* Highlands
# Debtor's prison

A **debtor's prison** was an institution for confining people for unpaid debts. Imprisoning people for debt was really common in 18th century western Europe and America.
# Indirect tax

An **indirect tax** is a tax that is paid as part of a product. Many countries tax gasoline or cigarettes, but they do so indirectly. Because of the tax, the product will be more expensive. In turn, the shops will then pay the tax for the number of packets of cigarettes they sold, or for the amount of gasoline. This is opposed to a direct tax, which is directly paid by the consumer.

## Related pages

* Tax
* Direct tax
* Sales tax
* Value Added Tax
# Pentagon Papers

The Pentagon Papers, officially titled Report of the Office of the Secretary of Defense Vietnam Task Force, is a United States Department of Defense history of the United States' political and military involvement in Vietnam from 1945 to 1967.

The papers were released by Daniel Ellsberg, who had worked on the study. They were first brought to the attention of the public on the front page of *The New York Times* in 1971.

A 1996 article in *The New York Times* said that the *Pentagon Papers* had shown, among other things, that the Johnson Administration "systematically lied, not only to the public but also to Congress."
# William McPherson

| William McPherson |
| --- |
| Born | (1933-03-16)March 16, 1933 Sault Sainte Marie, Michigan |
| Died | March 28, 2017(2017-03-28) (aged 84) Washington, D.C. |
| Occupation | Writer, journalist |
| Genre | Journalism, non-fiction, fiction |

**William McPherson** (March 16, 1933 – March 28, 2017) was an American writer and journalist. He is the author of two novels, *Testing the Current* and *To the Sargasso Sea*, and many articles, essays, and book reviews. McPherson was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Distinguished Criticism in 1977. He worked as a journalist for *The Washington Post* during his journalist career.

McPherson died at a medical center in Washington, D.C. on March 28, 2017 from complications of congestive heart failure and pneumonia, aged 84.

## Other websites

* McPherson's blog at Tumblr
# Depp v Heard

Sept 2015
Depp versus Heard was a trial which took place in court in Virginia, from 11th April to 1st June 2022, between Johnny Depp and Amber Heard. They used to be in love, but then, they sued each other civilly. They became friends in 2009 and got married in February 2015. Heard applied for divorce in May 2016.

The previous legal battle didn't go well for Depp. In the High Court of Justice in London, the British Judge stated, "*The great majority of alleged assaults of Ms. Heard by Mr. Depp have been proved to the civil standard.*" In contrast, the American trial had a jury. Depp's lawyer wanted a jury trial in America, where Depp won substantially and cleared his name/ restored his reputation as a "good guy".

After the trial ended, they didn't give up yet. Both Depp and Heard appealed. In December 2022, it was finally announced that Depp would receive US$1 million from Heard as the case had settled/ they had managed to reach a deal.
# Ombudsman

An **ombudsman** (/ˈɒmbʊdzmən/, also US: /-bədz-, -bʌdz-/, Swedish: [ˈɔ̂mːbʉːdsˌman]) is an official who is usually hired by the government or by parliament. In some countries, an inspector general, citizen activist or other official may have duties similar to those of a national ombudsman. An ombudsman may be appointed by a state, local, or city government.
# Watergate scandal

The Watergate apartment building where the crime took place.
A United States President, Richard Nixon, was running for election against Democrat George McGovern. Afterwards, Frank Wills, a security guard, discovered clues that former FBI and CIA agents broke into the offices of the Democratic Party and George McGovern months before the election. They secretly listened to phone lines and stole several important documents.

When these men were found, they were discovered to have been associated with Nixon. He had helped them cover all the evidence of the scandal, and may have even hired the men to begin with. *The Washington Post* was a newspaper which played a big role in exposing the misdoings, specifically aided by reporters Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein. This showed the public that Nixon was not as trustworthy as he seemed.

Nixon chose to resign from office on August 9, 1974 because he wished not to be impeached. This means that he might have been charged with crimes. The U.S. Congress could not impeach him if he resigned. After this, Gerald Ford became his vice-president because Spiro T. Agnew (Nixon's first vice-president) had to resign as well after unrelated charges of accepting bribes and avoiding taxes. Ford then became the President by default of Nixon using his power under the 25th Amendment to the U.S Constitution. Ford pardoned Nixon for all of his crimes later on. The name "Watergate" comes from the hotel in Washington, D.C. where the first crime and break in took place, and is often associated with political scandals.

## Other resources

* Brittanica
# Telegram (software)

Telegram|  |
| Developer(s) | Telegram FZ LLC Telegram Messenger Inc. |
| Initial release | August 2013 (2013-08) |
| Repository | * github.com/telegramdesktop/tdesktop
 |
| Operating system | Google Android, Apple iOS, Windows Phone, MS Windows, Linux, OS X |
| Available in | English, Arabic, Spanish, German, Italian, Korean, Dutch, Portuguese (Brazil & Portugal) |
| Type | Instant messaging |
| License | GPL v2 (client), closed source (server) |
| Website | www.telegram.org |

**Telegram Messenger** is a messaging service which lets its users send each other messages, photos, videos and documents (all file types are supported). The client applications are open source and the server is proprietary software (closed source). It is based in Dubai in the United Arab Emirates.

## History

Telegram was started in 2013 by the brothers Nikolai and Pavel Durov, the creators of VK.

Telegram is registered as a company in the British Virgin Islands and as an LLC in Dubai in the United Arab Emirates. Pavel Durov said that the service was headquartered in Berlin, Germany, between 2014 and early 2015, but moved to different jurisdictions after failing to obtain residence permits for everyone on the team. According to press reports, Telegram had employees in Saint Petersburg, Russia, from 2014 to 2017. The Telegram team is based in Dubai as of 2017.

In April 2018, Russian court ruled to block Telegram in Russia because of terrorists using the app. Some Russians tried to circumvent the ban by using open proxies in other countries. The Russian Government removed its ban on 18 June 2020. Russian ministers and officials now use it.

On 5 October 2021, Telegram gained over 70 million new users as a result of an outage which affected Facebook and its affiliates.

It has been called "social media for organised criminals", because there is no censorship. Durov says it is a safe haven for citizens living in repressive regimes, such as Belarus, Iran and Hong Kong. “In Dubai the government doesn’t bother us.” It allows Iran-linked militant groups including Hamas, Hizbollah and Iraqi militia groups to use it. A psychological warfare unit of the Israel Defense Forces, had run an unauthorised Telegram Channel entitled “72 Virgins — Uncensored” in 2023. Its rules say that it will block terrorist channels.

In 2024 it was said to have 900 million monthly active users. It has more than 80,000 servers around the world. There are only about 50 full-time employees

## Features

Telegram lets its users send voice notes, photos, videos and files of all types. Groups can also have a maximum of 200,000 members. There are channels — for one-way broadcasting of messages — with unlimited subscribers. Telegram uses a similar system of message read statuses to WhatsApp, with 1 check = sent, 2 checks = read (opened).

## Other websites

* Official website
* Telegram on Twitter
# Vance Trimble

**Vance Harrison Trimble** (July 6, 1913 – June 16, 2021) was an American journalist and writer. He was born in Harrison, Arkansas. He won the 1960 Pulitzer Prize for National Reporting.

Trimble was known for his national reporting about nepotism and payroll abuse in the U.S. Congress. In his life, Trimble has worked in the newspaper business for over fifty years. Trimble was inducted into the Oklahoma Journalism Hall of Fame in 1974. He has published numerous books since his retirement.

Trimble turned 100 in July 2013. He lived in Wewoka, Oklahoma. Trimble died on June 16, 2021 at the age of 107.

## Other websites

* 100 Year Life Oral History Project -- Oklahoma State University Library Archived 2015-03-01 at the Wayback Machine
* Vance H. Trimble Manuscript Collection -- Ohio University Library Archived 2015-07-07 at the Wayback Machine
# Nick Kotz

Nick Kotz
**Nathan "Nick" K. Kotz** (September 16, 1932 – April 26, 2020) was an American journalist, author, and historian. He was born in San Antonio, Texas. He was best known for his 2005 book *Judgment Days: Lyndon Baines Johnson, Martin Luther King Jr., and the Laws that Changed America* talking about the roles of President Lyndon B. Johnson and Martin Luther King Jr. in the passage of the 1964, 1965, and 1968 civil rights laws. Kotz won a Pulitzer Prize for National Reporting in 1968.

Kotz was killed outside his farm on April 26, 2020 in Broad Run, Virginia after being hit by his car, aged 87.
# Seniority in the United States Senate

**Seniority in the United States Senate** is the value of a senator based on his/her service. There are two senators per state. The one senator that served more years is called the **Senior** senator. The one who served less is called the **Junior** senator.

## Other websites

* "United States Senate Periodical Press Gallery". Senate.gov. May 2011. Retrieved November 27, 2012.
*
# Senate Democratic Caucus

| Senate Democratic Caucus  |
| --- |
|  |
| Part of | United States Senate |
| Chair and Leader | Chuck Schumer (NY) |
| Floor Whip | Dick Durbin (IL) |
| Assistant Leader | Patty Murray (WA) |
| Vice Chairs | Mark Warner (VA) Elizabeth Warren (MA) |
| Ideology | Centrism Conservatism Modern liberalism Progressivism |
| Political position | Center to center-left |
| Affiliation | Democratic Party |
| Colors |      Blue |
| Seats | 50 / 100 |
| Website |
| democrats.senate.gov |

The **Democratic Caucus of the United States Senate**, sometimes referred to as the **Democratic Conference**, is the formal organization of all senators who are part of the Democratic Party in the United States Senate.

For the makeup of the 117th Congress, the caucus additionally includes two independent senators (Bernie Sanders of Vermont and Angus King of Maine) who caucus with the Democrats, bringing the current total to 50 members.

## Other websites

* Official Home of the Senate Democratic Caucus on the Internet
* Senate Party Leadership – much of this article's content was adapted from this useful public domain resource
* First Formal Organization of the Senate Democratic Caucus
# Congressional Black Caucus

| Congressional Black Caucus  |
| --- |
|   |
| Chair | Yvette Clarke |
| Founder |
13 founding members
* Shirley Chisholm (from New York's 12th district)
* Bill Clay (from Missouri's 1st district)
* George W. Collins (from Illinois's 6th district)
* John Conyers (from Michigan's 1st district)
* Ron Dellums (from California's 7th district)
* Charles Diggs (from Michigan's 13th district)
* Walter Fauntroy (from District of Columbia's at-large district)
* Augustus F. Hawkins (from California's 21st district)
* Ralph Metcalfe (from Illinois's 1st district)
* Parren Mitchell (from Maryland's 7th district)
* Robert N.C. Nix Sr. (from Pennsylvania's 2nd district)
* Charles Rangel (from New York's 18th district)
* Louis Stokes (from Ohio's 21st district)
 |
| Founded | March 30, 1971 (1971-03-30) |
| Headquarters | Washington, D.C. |
| International affiliation | Congressional Black Caucus Foundation |
| Colors |  Red   Black   Blue  |
| Seats in the House | 55 / 435 (plus 2 non-voting)
 |
| Seats in the Senate | 4 / 100 |
| Seats in the House Democratic Caucus | 55 / 213 |
| Seats in House Republican Conference | 0 / 222 |
| Predecessor | Democratic Select Committee (DSC) |
| Website |
| cbc.house.gov www.cbcfinc.org |
| * Politics of the United States
* Political parties
 |

The **Congressional Black Caucus** (**CBC**) is made up of Black members of the United States Congress. Representative Yvette Clarke from New York is the current chairperson. Although most members belong to the Democratic Party, the CBC founders wanted it to be a non-partisan organization, and there have been several times that Republicans joined the caucus.
# Appropriations bill (United States)

In the United States Congress, an **appropriations bill** is legislation to legally allow federal funds to specific federal government departments, agencies and programs. The money provides funding for operations, personnel, equipment and activities.
# Ranking member

In United States politics, a **ranking member** is the most senior member of a congressional or state legislative committee from the minority party.

When party control of a legislative chamber changes, a committee's ranking minority member is likely, though not assured, to become the next chairman of the committee, and vice versa.
# Federal Hall

Archibald Robertson's drawing of the building, circa 1798.
**Federal Hall** was the first capitol building of the United States, and was the site where George Washington was inaugurated as America's first president in 1789. In 1700, it was built on Wall Street and named **New York City Hall**. It was renamed to Federal Hall when it became the capitol under the new United States Constitution.

In 1812, the building was demolished. A new customs house replaced it in 1842. In 1882, a bronze statue of President Washington was made and put in front of the steps. The new building officially became a landmark according to the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission on 21 December 1965.
# Sergeant at Arms of the United States House of Representatives

| Sergeant at Arms of the U.S. House of Representatives |
| --- |
| **Incumbent Paul D. Irving** since January 17, 2012 |
| Appointer | Elected by the House |
| Term length | Two years |
| Inaugural holder | Joseph Wheaton |
| Website | Sergeant at Arms |

The **Sergeant at Arms of the United States House of Representatives** is an officer of the House with law enforcement, protocol, and administrative responsibilities.

The Sergeant at Arms is elected at the beginning of each Congress by the membership of the House.

They are known for announcing "Mister/Madam Speaker, the President of the United States" during the beginning of the State of the Union Address as the President enters the United States Capitol.

## Other websites

* Official website
* Source: United States House of Representatives Sergeant at Arms Fact Sheet (pdf file), via House.gov
* Sergeants at Arms official fact sheet, via history.house.gov
# Quorum

A **quorum** is the minimum number of members of an organization who must be present in order for their meeting to be legal or official. The word is often used in legislative assemblies, corporations and societies who make official decisions. The by-laws of an organization will usually say how many members make up a quorum.

In the case of legislatures and government bodies, the requirements for a quorum are often set by statute or in their constitution. Some bodies use a fixed number for a quorum while others use a percentage of the members. It is usually the responsibility of the chairperson to make sure there is a quorum present. If there is not a quorum at a meeting, then in most cases the only business that can be discussed is taking steps to obtain a quorum, to decide on a time when to adjourn the meeting and to adjourn the meeting.

The noun quorum is the plural of the Latin word *qui*, meaning "of whom."

A similar term, "quorum-busting", is a tactic used by members of a group when they know they will lose a vote. If enough members do not show up for a meeting, a vote cannot take place if there is no quorum. It is a delaying tactic similar to a filibuster. Both are used in the hopes that if a vote is delayed long enough, it may not take place at all.
# John S. McCain Jr.

| Jack McCain |
| --- |
| Admiral John Sidney McCain, Jr. |
| Nickname(s) | Jack |
| Born | (1911-01-17)January 17, 1911 Council Bluffs, Iowa, U.S. |
| Died | March 22, 1981(1981-03-22) (aged 70) In air over North Atlantic |
| Buried | Arlington National Cemetery |
| Allegiance |  United States of America |
| Branch |  United States Navy |
| Years of service | 1931-1972 |
| Rank |  Admiral |
| Unit | retirement in 1972 |
| Commands | USS *Gunnel* (SS-253) USS *Dentuda* (SS-335) Amphibious Forces, Atlantic Fleet Eastern Sea Frontier Atlantic Reserve Fleet U.S. Naval Forces Europe U.S. Pacific Command |
| Battles / wars | World War II Korean War Vietnam War |
| Awards | Navy Distinguished Service Medal (2) Silver Star Legion of Merit (3) Bronze Star |
| Relations | Adm. John S. McCain, Sr. (father) Sen. John S. McCain III (son) |

**John Sidney "Jack" McCain Jr.** (January 17, 1911 – March 22, 1981) was a United States Navy admiral. He served in conflicts from the 1940s through the 1970s, including as the Commander, United States Pacific Command. He is the father of John McCain.

McCain, Jr. was born on January 17, 1911 in Council Bluffs, Iowa. His father was John S. McCain, Sr.. He was raised in Washington, D.C.. McCain studied at Central High School. McCain was married to Roberta McCain from 1933 until his death in 1981. They had three children. McCain died on March 22, 1981 while on a plane in the middle of the North Atlantic after having a heart attack, aged 70.
# Firebreak

Plow cutting a firebreak in advance of a forest fire in South Carolina, United StatesA **firebreak** is a way to fight wildfires by allowing no vegetation or other material that can burn. That makes it hard for a fire to jump across the break. Therefore, the spread of a possible fire is delayed.

Rocky Point Trail acted as a firebreak for a forest fire in the McDonald Lake region of Glacier National Park, Montana, United States, in the summer of 2003.