Rikunarita-ORG/Wikinium huggingface dataset:
# City manager

A **city manager** is an official appointed as the administrative manager of a city in the council–manager form of city government. Local officials serving in this position are referred to as the chief executive officer (CEO) or chief administrative officer (CAO) in some municipalities.

## Related pages

* Council-manager government

* Kemp, Roger L. *Managing America's Cities: A Handbook for Local Government Productivity*, McFarland and Co., Jefferson, NC, USA, and London, Eng., UK 1998(ISBN 0-7864-0408-6).
* \_\_\_\_\_\_\_, *Model Government Charters: A City, County, Regional, State, and Federal Handbook*, McFarland and Co., Jefferson, NC, USA, and London, Eng., UK, 2003 (ISBN 978-0-7864-3154-0)
* \_\_\_\_\_\_\_, *Forms of Local Government: A Handbook on City, County and Regional Options*, McFarland and Co., Jefferson, NC, USA, and London, Eng., UK, 2007 (ISBN 978-0-7864-3100-7).
* Stillman, Richard Joseph. *The rise of the city manager: A public professional in local government*. (University of New Mexico Press, 1974)
* Weinstein, James. "Organized business and the city commission and manager movements." *Journal of Southern History* (1962): 166–182. in JSTOR
* White, Leonard D. *The city manager* (1927)
* Woodruff, Clinton Rogers (1928). "The City-Manager Plan". *American Journal of Sociology*. **33** (4): 599–613.

## Other websites

* International City/County Management Association, ICMA is the professional and educational organization for chief appointed managers, administrators, and assistants in cities, towns, counties, and regional entities throughout the world.
* Staunton, Virginia: Birthplace Of City Manager Form Of Government, a history on the city manager system of government.
# Social programs in the United States

Welfare in America
**Social programs in the United States** are welfare subsidies designed to help the overall American population receive basic needs such as food, housing and healthcare.

Federal and state welfare programs include money assistance, healthcare and medical needs, food assistance, housing subsidies, energy and utilities subsidies, education and childcare assistance, and subsidies and assistance for other basic services.
# Cuisine of the United States

Fried chicken
Eating apple pie is a tradition in the United States
The **cuisine of the United States** refers to food prepared in the United States. The European colonization of the Americas gave way to introduction of many ingredients and cooking styles. These styles extended to the 19th and 20th centuries.

Seafood has been in the United States since pre-Colonial times. Native Americans ate fish and other seafood in those times.

Pizza, and Potato soup was brought to the U.S. by Italian and Irish immigrants. It varies, however, based on the style and development region.

Italian food is also popular in the United States.

In the Southern United States, fried chicken is extremely popular, though it is eaten everywhere. Soul food is also very popular.
# Gary Becker

| Gary Becker |
| --- |
| Gary Becker speaking in Chicago, May 24, 2008 |
| Born | (1930-12-02)December 2, 1930 Pottsville, Pennsylvania, U.S. |
| Died | May 3, 2014(2014-05-03) (aged 83) Chicago, Illinois, U.S. |
| Alma mater | Princeton University University of Chicago |
| Awards | 1967 John Bates Clark Medal 1992 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences 1997 Pontifical Academy of Sciences 2004 John von Neumann Award 2007 Presidential Medal of Freedom |

**Gary Stanley Becker** (December 2, 1930 – May 3, 2014) was an American economist. He was a professor of economics and sociology at the University of Chicago and a professor at the Booth School of Business. He won the Nobel Prize in Economics in 1992 and received the United States Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2007.

Becker was one of the first economists to study topics that were usually researched in sociology. He studied family organization in new and interesting ways. He studied racial discrimination, crime, and rational addiction. He said that many different types of human behavior that seem self-destructive or irrational can be seen as rational and utility-maximizing. He also studied altruism in human behavior. He showed that sometimes altruism was really to help oneself. He was a strong supporter of studying human capital. According to Milton Friedman, he was "the greatest social scientist who has lived and worked" in the second part of the twentieth century.

Becker was born in Pottsville, Pennsylvania.

Becker died in Chicago, Illinois from complications of ulcer surgery, aged 83.

## Other websites

 Media related to Gary Becker at Wikimedia Commons
# Job

A **job** is any legal activity that allows an individual to perform a service and in return earn credits they can use to buy things.

A job can mean "some work that has to be done", for example: there are jobs to be done in the house: washing up, mending things that are broken, etc.

A job can also mean: work that a person does to earn money. The word "job" may be used when a person works for someone else "an employer" who pays them for the work. For example, a teacher's job is to teach children or adults. A taxi driver's job is to drive people in a taxi. A firefighter rescues people from burning buildings and puts out fires. A dermatologist's job is to diagnose and treat skin diseases. Some jobs pay very little.

The International Labour Organization was established to make people's job conditions better. It became an organization of the United Nations in 1946.

## Related pages

* International Labour Organization
* Constitution
* Constitutional economics
* Full employment
* Job satisfaction
* Recruitment
* Unemployment
# Sick leave

**Sick leave** is time off from work that workers can use to stay home because they are sick.

## Overview

Paid sick leave is a requirement in many nations around the world. Most European, many Latin American, a few African and a few Asian countries have legal requirements for paid sick leave.

## History

Already in 1500 BC, at least some of the workers who built the tombs of Egyptian pharaohs received paid sick leave as well as state-sponsored healthcare.

## Sick pay

**Sick pay** is money paid to a person who is not able to work because they are ill. This may come from the business they normally work for, from health insurance, or from social security. To get the money most people will need a sick note from a medical doctor to show that they cannot work.

## Examples

In the United Kingdom (UK), general practitioners had to give people sick notes since the National Insurance Act 1911. They could get 10 shillings a week Sickness benefit for 26 weeks.
# Parental leave

**Parental leave** or **family leave** is an employee benefit available in almost all countries that provides paid time off work to care for a child or make arrangements for the child's welfare. The terms "parental leave" and "family leave" include maternity, paternity, and adoption leave. Often, the minimum benefits are stipulated by law.
# Geoffrey Blainey

**Geoffrey Norman Blainey** (born 11 March 1930) is an Australian historian, academic, philanthropist and commentator. Blainey is known for having written texts on the economic and social history of Australia, including *The Tyranny of Distance* (1966). He has published over 35 books, including histories of the world and of Christianity. Other well known works include *The Peaks of Lyell* (1954) and *A Short History of the World* (2000).

Blainey was made a Fellow of the Royal Historical Society of Victoria in 1967. In 1975 he was made an Officer of the Order of Australia for his works to Australian literature. He was awarded a Companion of the Order of Australia in the Australia Day Honours list of 2000 for his service to academia, research and scholarship.

## Biography

Blainey was born in Melbourne, Victoria. He studied at the University of Melbourne.

Blainey has often appeared in newspapers and on television. He held chairs in economic history and history at the University of Melbourne for over 20 years. In the 1980s, he was visiting professor of Australian Studies at Harvard University. He received the 1988 Britannica Award for dissemination of knowledge and was made a Companion of the Order of Australia in 2000.

He was once described as the "most prolific, wide-ranging, inventive, and, in the 1980s and 1990s, most controversial of Australia's living historians".

Blainey is married to author Ann Blainey. They both live in Melbourne.

## More readings

* Bolton, Geoffrey. "Geoffrey Blainey" in Kelly Boyd, ed. *Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing, vol 1* (1999) pp 93–95

## Other websites

* Works by Geoffrey Blainey Archived 2005-04-04 at the Wayback Machine
* Works about Geoffrey Blainey Archived 2006-09-11 at the Wayback Machine
* ABC Interview with audio
# Politics of Australia

| Politics of Australia |
| --- |
| Coat of arms |
| Polity type | Federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy |
| Constitution | Constitution of Australia |
| Formation | 1 January 1901 |
| Legislative branch |
| Name | Parliament |
| Type | Bicameral |
| Meeting place | Parliament House |
| Upper house |
| Name | Senate |
| Presiding officer | Sue Lines, President |
| Lower house |
| Name | House of Representatives |
| Presiding officer | Milton Dick, Speaker |
| Executive branch |
| Head of State |
| Title | Monarch represented by Governor-General |
| Currently | Charles III represented by David Hurley |
| Head of Government |
| Title | Prime Minister |
| Currently | Anthony Albanese |
| Cabinet |
| Name | Cabinet of the Federal Executive Council |
| Current cabinet | Albanese Ministry |
| Leader | Prime Minister |
| Deputy leader | Deputy Prime Minister |
| Ministries | 30 |
| Judicial branch |
| Name | Judiciary |
| Courts | Courts of Australia |
| High Court |

The Commonwealth of Australia is a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy with a liberal democratic political system. The Constitution of Australia is the world's tenth-oldest, having been in place since Federation in 1901. Australia is a federation of the six states and the two territories.

Australia's system of government has been influenced by many other systems, mostly the British Westminster system and the American federalist system, so it has sometimes been described as the "Washminster system" (a blend of "Washington" and "Westminster").

There are three tiers of government in Australia: the federal government, the state/territory government and local government.

The Australian head of government is called the Prime Minister. The Australian head of state is the Monarch (King or Queen), who is also the head of state of the United Kingdom and many other countries (like Canada and New Zealand, as well as many others). The monarch is represented by the Governor General. The current Prime Minister is Anthony Albanese (who was elected in 2022) and the current Governor General is David Hurley, who represents King Charles III.

## Federal government

The federal government has three branches:

* Legislature: the bicameral Parliament, which is the House of Representatives (the lower house) and the Senate (the upper house)
* Executive: the Federal Executive Council, which gives legal effect to the decisions of the Cabinet
* Judiciary: the High Court and other federal courts, whose judges are appointed by the Governor General

## Related pages

* List of political parties in Australia
# Cleanth Brooks

| Cleanth Brooks |
| --- |
| Born | (1906-10-16)October 16, 1906 Murray, Kentucky, U.S. |
| Died | May 10, 1994(1994-05-10) (aged 87) |
| Education | McTyeire School Vanderbilt University Tulane University Exeter College, Oxford |
| Occupation(s) | Literary critic, academic |
| Spouse | Edith Amy Blanchord |

**Cleanth BrooksKLEE-anth* (October 16, 1906 – May 10, 1994) was an American literary critic and teacher.

Brooks was born in Murray, Kentucky. He went to college at Vanderbilt University and Tulane University. He was a Rhodes Scholar at Oxford University.

He wrote *Understanding Poetry* in 1938 with poet Robert Penn Warren. This helped to begin a way of looking at literature that is called "The New Criticism." He taught at Yale University from 1946 until 1975.

## Books

* 1936. *An Approach to Literature*
* 1938. *Understanding Poetry*
* 1939. *Modern Poetry and the Tradition*
* 1943. *Understanding Fiction*
* 1947. *The Well Wrought Urn: Studies in the Structure of Poetry*
* 1957. *Literary Criticism: A Short History*
* 1963. *William Faulkner: The Yoknapatawpha Country*
* 1964. *The Hidden God: Studies in Hemingway, Faulkner, Yeats, Eliot, and Warren*
* 1971. *A Shaping Joy: Studies in the Writer's Craft*
* 1973. *American Literature: The Makers and the Making*
* 1978. *William Faulkner: Toward Yoknapatawpha and Beyond*
* 1983. *William Faulkner: First Encounters*
* 1985. *The Language of the American South*
* 1991. *Historical Evidence and the Reading of Seventeenth-Century Poetry*
# Tarot

*Le Bateleur*, "The Mountebank," the first trump in the Tarot of Marseille.

The **Tarot** (often **Tarot cards**) are a set of seventy-eight cards, comprising twenty-two Тrump cards, and four suits of fourteen cards each with four Face cards. In the English speaking world, Tarot cards are mostly used for divination. Tarot cards are also used in many European countries for playing trick taking card games. Cartomancy is to use Tarot cards for divination.

Tarot decks did not come before decks having four suits of the same length. They were invented not for occult purposes but purely for gaming. In 1781, Court de Gébelin published an essay associating the cards with ancient wisdom. This idea was later disproved by Dummett. Tarot cards have been used for cartomancy and divination as well as gaming. Nowadays fortune-tellers tend to use specially-developed tarot decks rather than those used for games. Not just the cards but now there are several websites available online where people go to get their answers. They simply put the data on the lucky wheel and it starts spinning. When it stops, the people know what's written in the cards for them.

Many websites offer tarot definitions.

## Other websites

* Tarocchi History at Trionfi.com
* Card Games: Tarot Games at Pagat.com
# The Rape of the Lock

"The New Star," Illustration by Aubrey Beardsley for *The Rape of the Lock*

The Rape of the Lock is a poem written by Alexander Pope, mocking heros and heroines. It was first published anonymously in *Lintot's Miscellany* in May 1712.

## Poem

The poem is sarcastically laughing at the epic world of the gods. It was based on an incident that was remembered by Pope's friend, John Caryll. Arabella Fermor and Robert Petre were both from Catholic families at a time in England when Anglicanism was very important. Petre, lusting after Arabella, had cut a lock of her hair to keep without permission, which made the two families have a big argument. This was because in those days, cutting off a lock of the lover's hair was scandalous and symbolized improper love. Pope, also a Catholic, wrote the poem to make the two families reconcile and be happy again. He made the character Belinda to represent Arabella in the poem.

Pope's poem mocks all the traditions of classics. Although the poem is funny at times, Pope keeps a sense that beauty is fragile, and that just because Belinda loses a lock of her hair she is very deeply hurt.

Three of Uranus's moons are named after characters from *The Rape of the Lock*: Belinda, Umbriel, and Ariel.

 Arabella Fermor (1696-1737)
## Other websites

* "The Rape of the Lock:" Study Guide With Complete Text and Detailed Explanatory Notes Archived 2019-09-20 at the Wayback Machine
* *The Rape of the Lock and Other Poems* at Project Gutenberg
# Vitruvian Man

| *Vitruvian Man* |
| --- |
| Italian: **L'uomo vitruviano** |
|  |
| Artist | Leonardo da Vinci |
| Year | c. 1490 |
| Type | Pen and ink with wash over metalpoint on paper |
| Dimensions | 34.6 cm × 25.5 cm (13.6 in × 10.0 in) |
| Location | Gallerie dell'Accademia, Venice, Italy |

The Vitruvian Man, known in Italian as L'uomo vitruviano, is a drawing made by Leonardo da Vinci in about 1490. Around the drawing are notes based on the work of the architect Vitruvius. Its original name was Le proporzioni del corpo umano secondo Vitruvio - this means "The proportions of the human body according to Vitruvius".

The drawing is done in pen and ink on paper. It is of a male figure standing in two positions, that are superimposed (drawn over the top of each other). The figure's arms and legs are drawn in two different positions, while the rest of the body stays in one position. The figure is drawn standing inside both a circle and a square.

The drawing and text are sometimes called the **Canon of Proportions** or, less often, **Proportions of Man**. It is stored in the Gallerie dell'Accademia in Venice, Italy. It is displayed only occasionally.

The drawing is based on the ideal proportions of a man's body, and how this relates to geometry. This relationship was described by the ancient Roman architect Vitruvius in Book III of his treatise *De architectura*. Vitruvius wrote the human figure was the main source of proportion among the Classical orders of architecture. He wrote that the ideal body should be eight heads tall. Da Vinci's drawing is traditionally named in honour of the architect.

## Other websites

* Willamette University site on *Vitruvian Man*
* Stanford University site on *Vitruvian Man*
* Leonardo's *Vitruvian Man*
# Poliomyelitis

A man's right leg, affected by polio

External video| on Sputnik V Official YouTube Channel |
|  Polio outbreak in Japan. - Lessons of playing vaccine politics. on YouTube |

**Poliomyelitis**, or **polio**, is a virus that causes a serious disease. It is spread from person to person.

Most of the time, polio has no symptoms unless the polio virus gets into the blood. It is uncommon for the virus to enter the brain or spinal cord. If this does happen, it can cause muscles to become paralyzed. Some people get better from the paralysis. Others will be disabled. Depending on which muscles have been affected, these people may need a mobility aid or a wheelchair; they may have difficulty using their hands; or they may even have trouble breathing.

About 15 out of every 10,000 adults who get polio die. (This means an adult has a 0.015% chance of dying from polio.)

Vaccination with polio vaccines could stop the disease all over the world. Organizations like the World Health Organization have been trying to vaccinate as many people as possible against polio. Vaccinations have eliminated polio from most countries in the world.

Worldwide, polio has become much less common in the past few decades. In 1988, there were about 350,000 cases of polio in the world. By 2007, the number of cases of polio in the world had decreased by over 99.9%, to just 1,652 cases.
The disease is preventable with the polio vaccine; however, multiple doses are required for it to be effective. The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommends polio vaccination boosters for travellers and those who live in countries where the disease is endemic.

The 32nd President of the United States, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, had polio. He is the only President of the United States to have had this disease.

## Prevention

The way to prevent polio has been known for many years:

* Vaccine given 6, 12 and 16 weeks old as part of a six-in-one vaccine.
* Three years and four months old as part of a 4-in-one pre-school booster
* 14 years old as a part of the 3-in-one teenage booster.

The child has to have ALL of these to be fully protected. This explains why polio is still around. In endemic areas, wild polioviruses can infect virtually the entire human population. Not all, however, develop paralysis or any other sign of the infection.

The vaccine was developed by Jonas Salk in the 1950s.

## Related pages

* Spina bifida
# Courtesan

Veronica Franco, famous Venetian poet and courtesan. Portrait by Paolo Veronese.
Madame de Pompadour, by Maurice Quentin de La Tour
A **courtesan** was often a high-class prostitute or mistress, especially one associated with rich, powerful, or noble men who gave
luxuries and status in exchange for her services. In Renaissance Europe, courtesans had an important role in high class society, sometimes taking the place of wives at social roles requiring diplomacy. Courtesans usually enjoyed more freedom than was typical of women at the time. For example, they did not have money problems, and were more independent. Madame de Pompadour (1721–1764), the famous mistress and favorite of King Louis XV of France, was a courtesan. Courtesans also existed in many countries outside Europe, such as India and Japan.

## Related pages

* Geisha
* Oiran
* Geji

* Freundschuh, Aaron. The Courtesan and the Gigolo: The Murders in the Rue Montaigne and the Dark Side of Empire in Nineteenth-Century Paris. Stanford University Press, 2017.

* Griffin, Susan. *The Book of the Courtesans: A Catalogue of Their Virtues*. New York: Broadway Books, 2001.
* Hickman, Katie. *Courtesans: Money, Sex, and Fame in the Nineteenth Century*. New York: HarperCollins, 2003.
* Lawner, Lynne. *Lives of the Courtesans: Portraits of the Renaissance.* New York: Rizzoli, 1987.
* Rounding, Virginia. *Grandes Horizontales: The Lives and Legends of Four Nineteenth-Century Courtesans*. London: Bloomsbury, 2003.

## Other websites

* Defining the Courtesan Archived 2007-08-14 at the Wayback Machine (Mt. Holyoke College)
# Poissy

Coat of arms
**Poissy** is a commune. It is in Île-de-France in the Yvelines department in north-central France. In 2019, 39,187 people lived there.

The commune is in the western suburbs of Paris, 23.8 km (14.8 mi) from the center. It is one of Peugeot's largest factories.

## Hospital

* Poissy-Saint-Germain-en-Laye Hospital

## Twin towns

Poissy is twinned with:

* Pirmasens, Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany, since 1964.
# Louis Zukofsky

| Louis Zukofsky |
| --- |
| Born | (1904-01-23)January 23, 1904 New York City, United States |
| Died | May 12, 1978(1978-05-12) (aged 74) Port Jefferson, New York, United States |
| Occupation | Poet, professor |
| Education | Columbia University (BA, MA) |

**Louis Zukofsky** (January 23, 1904 – May 12, 1978) was an American poet.

His Jewish parents moved to the United States from the part of the Russian Empire that is now Lithuania. His family spoke Yiddish. He was the first member of his family to be born in the United States, on the Lower East Side of New York City.

His first experiences with literature came by reading and going to performances of Shakespeare, Henrik Ibsen, August Strindberg and Leo Tolstoy in the Yiddish language.

At Columbia University he read new and experimental writing by James Joyce, T. S. Eliot, and Ezra Pound. He made a strong connection with Pound by writing letters to him. Pound asked Harriet Monroe to let 27-year-old Zukofsky be the guest editor of the February 1931 edition of Poetry magazine. This edition printed poems by writers that Zukofsky called "Objectivists."

Zukofsky's main work was a long, book-length poem called *"A"* (the title has the quotation marks). He worked on this from 1928 until 1974, four years before his death.

## Books

* *An "Objectivists" Anthology*, ed. Louis Zukofsky (1932)
* *Anew* (1946)
* *A Test of Poetry* (1948)
* *"A" 1–12* (1959)
* *Bottom: on Shakespeare* (1963)
* *All: The Collected Short Poems, 1923–1958* (1965)
* *All: The Collected Short Poems, 1956–1964* (1966)
* *"A" 13–21* (1969)
* *"A" 24* (1972)
* *"A" 22 & 23* (1975)
* *"A"* (complete, 1978)

## Related pages

* List of poets from North America

## Other websites

* Louis Zukofsky at PennSound