Rikunarita-ORG/Wikinium huggingface dataset:
# Martial law in Poland

| Martial law in Poland |
| --- |
| Part of the Polish crisis of 1980–1981 and the Cold War |
|  Polish T-55 tanks enter the town of Zbąszyń while moving east towards Poznań, 13 December 1981 |
|

|  |  |
| --- | --- |
| Date | 13 December 1981 – 22 July 1983 (1 year, 7 months, 1 week and 2 days) |
| Location |  Poland |
| Result |
Polish government victory
* Crackdown on opposition
* Protests suppressed
* Deepened economic crisis
* Continued resistance until 1989
 |

 |
| Belligerents |
|  Polish People's Republic
* Polish United Workers' Party
* Polish People's Army
* Citizens' Militia (MO)
* ZOMO squads
* Security Service (SB)
* Pro-Government Protesters

---

**Supported by:**
 Soviet Union (Intelligence support and military equipment) |
Solidarity Movement
* Fighting Solidarity (from 1982)
* Anti-Government Protesters
* Government Defectors
* Catholic Church in Poland

---

**Supported by:**
 Polish government-in-exile  United States (Financial support)  United Kingdom (Financial support) |
| Commanders and leaders |
|  Wojciech Jaruzelski
* Military Council of National Salvation
 |  Lech Wałęsa |
| Strength |
| **Initial strength**:
* 80,000 soldiers
* 30,000 policemen
* 1,750 tanks
* 1,900 combat vehicles
* 9,000 cars
 |
23,000 members of Solidarity, protesters, governmental defectors and other people armed mostly with small arms |
| Casualties and losses |
| * 1 killed
* over 20 injured
 | * about 100 killed
* Thousands arrested
 |

**Martial law in Poland** (Polish: *Stan wojenny w Polsce*) happened from 13 December 1981 to 22 July 1983. The government of the Polish People's Republic used it to stop protests and control the country. It targeted the Solidarity movement and other groups.

## Background

Poland had many problems in the 1970s. The government borrowed money but could not fix the economy. Food and other goods were limited. In 1980, workers started Solidarity, the first free trade union in the Communist Bloc. Protests grew. General Wojciech Jaruzelski became the leader. He wanted to end protests.

## Description

On 13 December 1981, Jaruzelski said martial law started. The Military Council of National Salvation (WRON) was created to lead the country. The army and police worked to stop protests.

During martial law:

* People could not protest.
* A curfew was set.
* The government controlled the news and letters.
* Travel needed special permission.
* Thousands of people were put in jail.

## Deaths

In total, almost 100 people died. Fewer protests happened in 1982. Martial law ended on 31 December 1982.

## Related pages

* Cold War
* Communism
* Soviet Union

## Other websites

* Archival recording of General Jaruzelski's speech on the introduction of martial law, TVP/YouTube
# Perestroika

**Perestroika**, which means "restructuring" in the Russian language, was a series of changes to the structure of the Soviet economy. Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev started the policy in 1986. This happened only a few years before the Soviet Union dissolved into 15 new countries. Many historians argue that it was a major reason that the Soviet Union fell apart. Perestroika was introduced around the same time as Gorbachev's "glasnost" reforms, which loosened restrictions on the media and allowed for criticism of the government. It was the first time such changes were implemented in the Soviet Union, and uncovered a lot of secrets about how the Soviet system operated. It also uncovered events which the public were unaware of, such as Chernobyl occurring three days before any announcement was put out, or the deals that Stalin made with Hitler during WWII.

1988 Postage Stamp of Perestroika
The Soviet Union was ideologically a communist country. The economy was centralised and the means of production owned by the government. People did not own their own land or businesses. Under perestroika, some people were permitted to own their businesses. Gorbachev's main goal of perestroika was to repair the Soviet economy, which had been stagnant for decades and upon his election was starting to decline. However, Gorbachev's reforms did not have the desired impact and many people attribute the dissolution of the Soviet Union as Gorbachev's fault.

## Related pages

* History of the Soviet Union (1985-1991)
# MI5

The **Security Service**, commonly known as **MI5**, is one of three British intelligence agencies. It is the security agency responsible for counter-intelligence inside the United Kingdom. It gives the government information about hostile activities inside the UK. The slang term for MI5 inside the security services is "Box 500", after its old wartime postal address. Priorities are set by the Joint Intelligence Committee. All its employees are bound by the Official Secrets Act.

The Secret Intelligence Service (or *MI6*) is responsible for intelligence collection outside the UK, and the Government Communications Headquarters is responsible for providing signals intelligence.

The arm of the law which works for MI5 is known informally as Special Branch. They have been rearranged as part of the Metropolitan Police's Counter Terrorism Command. MI5 staff do not have the power of arrest: what they do is instruct Special Branch, who then do the leg-work and interrogation of suspects.
# 100 Thieves

100 Thieves, LLC|  |
| Company type | Private |
| Industry | * Esports
* Lifestyle
* Clothing
 |
| Founded | November 20, 2017 (2017-11-20) |
| Headquarters | Los Angeles, California, U.S. |
| Key people | * **CEO**: Matthew Haag
* **President**: Jacob Toft-Anderson
* **COO**: Julie Van
 |
| Revenue |  US$38 million (2021) |
| Total equity |  US$460 million (2022) |
| Owners | * Matthew "Nadeshot" Haag
* Dan Gilbert
* Drake
* Scooter Braun
* Rachell "Valkyrae" Hofstetter
* Jack "CouRageJD" Dunlop
 |
| Divisions | * *Apex Legends*
* *Call of Duty*
* *Call of Duty: Warzone*
* *League of Legends*
* *Marvel Rivals*
* *Street Fighter*
* *Teamfight Tactics*
* *Valorant*
 |
| Website | 100thieves.com |

**100 Thieves, LLC**, also known as **100T** is an American lifestyle brand and gaming organization based in Los Angeles, California. It was founded in 2017 by Matthew "Nadeshot" Haag. The organization competes in several video games, including *Apex Legends*, *Call of Duty*, *Call of Duty: Warzone,* *League of Legends, Marvel Rivals, Street Fighter,* *Teamfight Tactics*, and *Valorant*.
# Center of mass

Diagram of an educational toy that balances on a point: the CM (C) settles below its support (P). Any object whose CM is below the fulcrum will not topple.
**Center of mass** or **barycenter** of a system is the average position of all the mass in a system.

In a rigid body, the center of mass is always in the same place. In a loose collection the center of mass may be in space, as it is in the Solar System. Also, as planets' orbits change slightly, so will the position of the barycenter.

A simple way to understand the concept of barycenter is to push a supermarket trolley. If you hold only one corner and push, it will only go in a straight line when you push through the center of mass. Otherwise a turning force is created. This shows that the mass acts as if it were only in one place.

The **center of gravity** is a closely related term. It is the point where an object can be balanced perfectly by a sharp point holding it up under the object. It is the center of mass acting in a gravitational field.

## History

The concept of center of mass was first introduced by the ancient Greek physicist, mathematician, and engineer Archimedes of Syracuse. Archimedes showed that the torque (turning force) exerted on a lever by weights resting at various points along the lever is the same as what it would be if all of the weights were moved to a single point — their center of mass.

Archimedes was the first person to work out ways of finding the center of mass in various objects.

## Relation between the two terms

The center of mass is often called the *center of gravity* because any uniform gravitational field **g** acts on a system as if the mass *M* of the system were concentrated at the center of mass **R**.
# Stripper clip

A **stripper clip** is speedloader used to load bullets into a rifle more quickly so that soldiers can fully load a rifle all at once, rather than to load bullets one at a time. It is mostly used for directly loading bolt-action rifles, but it can also load bullets into magazines as well. It is different from a magazine because the person loading the gun must push the bullets off of the clip into the firearm.
# Musket

Muskets and bayonets aboard the frigate Grand Turk.
A **musket** is a muzzleloading, smoothbore firearm, which is meant to be fired from the shoulder.

The musket is the weapon that replaced the arquebus, and was then replaced by the rifle. But the word *musket* is also used to describe a number of different weapons including:

* a long, heavy weapon with a matchlock or wheellock and loose powder fired with the gun barrel resting on a stand
* a lighter weapon with a flintlock or percussion cap firing mechanism, with a bayonet.

Muskets were made for use by infantry. A soldier armed with a musket was called a **musketman** or **musketeer**. In the 1500's, soldiers armed with a heavy arquebus, called a musket, supported the arquebusiers and the pikemen. By the start of 1700's, a lighter type of musket took over from the arquebus. When the bayonet was added, there was no longer a need for pikemen, and almost all infantry soldiers became musketeers. The first musket made in the united States was the Springfield Model 1795 Musket. In the 1800's, better ammunition and ways of firing the gun, meant that rifling was practical for military use, and the rifled musket became common. A few years later, the use of cartridges, breechloading, and multiple rounds of ammunition meant the "rifled musket" gave way to the rifle, and "muskets" were no longer used.

Musket calibres ranged from 0.5 inches (13 mm) to 0.8 inches (20 mm). A smoothbore musket, firing at a single target, was only accurate to about 50 yards (46 m) to 70 yards (64 m). Rifled muskets in the 1850's were much better, able to hit a man sized target at up to 500 yards (460 m). The advantage of this longer distance was shown at the Battle of Four Lakes, where Springfield Model 1855 rifled muskets killed Indian warriors before they could get close enough with their smoothbore muskets. However, in the Italian War of 1859, French forces were able to defeat the longer range of Austrian rifle muskets by quick, small attacks and bayonet attacks at close range.

## Other websites

* History of Muskets
* Infantry Tactics During the Napoleonic wars - Musketry
*  Archived 2009-10-27 at the Wayback Machine
# Bump stock

A Slide Fire Solutions bump fire stock on a WASR-10 semiautomatic rifle
**Bump stocks** or **bump fire stocks** are gun stocks that can be used to help make a semi-automatic firearm fire more bullets and a faster speed.

In the United States, the legality of bump stocks have been in question since the 2017 Las Vegas shooting, in which 60 people were killed and 869 people injured. Several states passed legislation making it harder to own bump stocks following this shooting. In December 2018, the United States Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF) published a rule that bump stocks were seen as "machine guns", and were effectively illegal under federal law. The U.S. Supreme Court ruled against this in June 2024 in *Garland v. Cargill*.

Bump stocks remain illegal in 15 states and the District of Columbia based on state bans not affected by the Supreme Court ruling.
# Barrel (weapons)

Components of a gun barrel
A **barrel** is a part of a gun. It is a long metal tube and main pressure containing component of the weapon that the bullet or projectile goes through after it is fired. Guns can have many different sizes of barrels. Usually, longer barrels make it easier for the bullet to hit the target more often. Barrels usually have spiral grooves on the inside called rifling. Barrels with grooves spin the projectile around faster as it exits the gun. This makes the projectile more stable in flight and more accurate.
# Minié ball

Various types of Minié balls. The four on the right are provided with Tamisier ball grooves for aerodynamic stability.
James H. Burton's Minié ball design from the Harpers Ferry Armory
The **Minié ball**, or **Minni ball**, is a type of muzzle-loading spin-stabilized bullet for rifled muskets named after its developer, Claude-Étienne Minié, inventor of the French Minié rifle. It came to prominence in the Crimean War and American Civil War.

Rifling, the addition of spiral grooves inside a gun barrel, gives a spin to a bullet, greatly increasing the range and accuracy of a gun. Before the Minié ball, balls had to be jammed down the rifle barrel, sometimes with a mallet, and after a relatively small number of shots, gunpowder leftovers built up in the spiral grooves, which then had to be cleaned out. The development of the Minié ball was significant, because it was the first projectile that was small enough to be easily put down the barrel of a rifled long gun. Both the American Springfield Model 1861 and the British Pattern 1853 Enfield rifled muskets, the most common weapons used during the American Civil War, used the Minié ball.

The Minié ball did a lot of damage in the American Civil War. It made it really hard for surgeons to treat wounded soldiers because Minié balls shattered bones often.
# Concealed weapon

A **concealed weapon** is a dangerous weapon that is hidden from view. It can also be a dangerous weapon under a person's control that is not readily visible. The term is most often applied to handguns. A dangerous weapon is any weapon that can inflict death or serious injury on another person. Various jurisdictions define what a dangerous weapon is. Carrying a concealed weapon is illegal as defined by laws of many states, provinces, and countries. The usual exceptions are law enforcement officers and members of the military who carry weapons as part of their jobs. Many jurisdictions may issue concealed weapons permits (also called concealed carry permits) giving individuals permission to carry a concealed weapon within their jurisdiction.

## Concealed weapon laws

Carrying a concealed weapon (CCW) is the practice of carrying a handgun out of sight, hidden somewhere on a person's body. CCW is regulated by the states in the US. The laws vary, sometimes considerably, from state to state. As of 2015, most states grant licenses to carry handguns on a "Shall-Issue" basis to qualified applicants. Shall-Issue means the jurisdiction issuing the license must issue the license to anyone who is not otherwise prevented from owning a firearm. "May-Issue" allows the jurisdiction to decide on a case-by-case basis who may be issued a license. A few states are may-issue states, while seven states allow the carrying of firearms in a concealed manner without a permit (called Constitutional-carry).

## Global gun laws

Gun laws vary considerably around the world. The larger majority of countries heavily restrict or do not allow citizens to carry firearms.

### United States and Canada

Penalties for carrying a concealed weapon in the US without a permit can vary by jurisdiction. In some cases it is a misdemeanor but more often it is considered a felony. In Canada CCW is illegal but permitted under rare circumstances.

### Mexico

In Mexico civilians cannot own guns since it has been illegal since 1968. However, most Mexicans own guns, even fully automatic weapons. In South Africa there are about 6 million licensed handgun owners. There is also a very large backlog of those applying for a license. Illegal guns can be easily bought off the streets. About 2,000 guns are stolen per month from licensed owners making it the largest source of illegal guns.
# Dagger

Neolithic dagger
Modern Winchester Riot Dagger and sheath
A **dagger** is a knife which is used to stab people. It has a double-edged blade, so it cannot be used for normal cutting like a knife.

Daggers are small, so they can often be hidden under the attacker's clothing and then suddenly produced.

They were also used in the Middle Ages for the infantry armies to defend or attack their opponents.

Some people like Julius Caesar were assassinated with a dagger.
# University of New Mexico

Hodgin Hall, which is one of the oldest buildings on campus
The **University of New Mexico** is a public university in Albuquerque, New Mexico. The university has about 34,674 students. It was founded in 1889. The current president of the university is David J. Schmidly.

## Sports

The athletics teams of the university are called the Lobos. They have 16 varsity teams, most of which compete in the Mountain West Conference (MW). New Mexico has separate conference memberships in two sports that the MW does not sponsor. In skiing, the Lobos are members of the Rocky Mountain Intercollegiate Ski Association. In men's soccer, New Mexico is a member of Conference USA.

## Other websites

* University of New Mexico's Official website
* New Mexico Lobos' Official athletics website
# Bowie knife

A replica Bowie Knife
A modern design Bowie Knife
A **Bowie knife** is a large hunting knife. It is named after Colonel Jim Bowie. The knife was probably designed by his brother, Rezin P. Bowie. Rezin (pronounced "reason") gave his younger brother (Jim) the knife so he would always have a backup weapon. It became history after the "sandbar fight" on the banks of the Mississippi River in September 1827. This started as a duel but quickly became a fight between the two seconds, Judge Crane and Jim Bowie. Crane pulled out a pistol and shot at Bowie twice. One bullet hit Bowie in the leg the other killed an onlooker. Friends on both sides began shooting and slashing with knives. Bowie was wounded several times but managed to kill one assailant and wound another with what witnesses called a "big butcher knife". This made both Bowie, the knife-fighter, and his knife famous. More than a dozen knifemakers of the time claim to have made the first Bowie knife. But no one knows who made the first one or exactly what it looked like.
# Kirpan

The **Kirpan** is a curved, single-edged dagger or knife carried by Sikhs. Traditionally, it was a full-sized sword but modern Sikhs have reduced the length to that of a dagger due to colonial policies and laws. It is part of the five articles of faith (the five Ks) which says it must be worn at all times.

## Other websites

* Explaining what the Kirpan is to a Non-Sikh.
* Press release VDPA Human Rights Conference, Vienna, Austria
* Sword in Sikhism Archived 24 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine
* About the 5 K´s
# Jackknife

A **jackknife** is a type of knife. It has a blade that folds into the handle. It is also a dive where the body is bent and then straightened before entering the water and when a person backs up in their vehicle with a trailer attached and it accidentally folds.

## Gallery

* A jackknife (folding knife)
* A jackknife dive
# FN P90

The **FN P90** is a very short personal defense weapon made by FN Herstal. It was made to replace 9x19mm Parabellum submachine guns in NATO because NATO needed a small automatic weapon for non-combat specialists to protect themselves and could shoot through body armor. The P90 shoots the FN 5.7x28mm bullet, the same bullet as the FN Five-seven pistol. It is a small, high-velocity bullet that can shoot through body armor. The P90 has a rare feature where the box magazine is loaded parallel to the gun's barrel rather than perpendicular to it. Each magazine can hold 50 bullets. The P90 fires at a fast 900 rounds per minute (RPM). The P90 is fully ambidextrous, which means both right-handed and left-handed people can use the gun without any problems. It weighs only 2.6 kilograms (5.6 pounds) and is only 50.5 centimeters (19.9 inches) long. It is even small and light enough to fire with one hand. The P90 is very common in militaries and police forces in NATO countries. A semi-automatic only version called the **PS-90** can be bought and used for civilian purposes.
# Vostok 1

Vostok 1| Model of the Vostok spacecraft |
|  |
| Operator | Soviet space program |
| Harvard designation | 1961 Mu 1 |
| COSPAR ID | 1961-012A |
| SATCAT no. | 103 |
| Mission duration | 1 hour, 48 minutes |
| Orbits completed | 1 |
|  |
|  |
| Spacecraft properties |
| Spacecraft | Vostok-3KA No.3 |
| Manufacturer | Experimental Design Bureau OKB-1 |
| Launch mass | 4,725 kg (10,417 lb) |
| Landing mass | 2,400 kg (5,290 lb) |
| Dimensions | 2.30 m (7 ft 6.5 in) diameter |
|  |
|  |
| Crew |
| Crew size | 1 |
| Members | Yuri Gagarin |
| Callsign | Кедр (*Kedr* – Siberian pine) |
|  |
|  |
| Start of mission |
| Launch date | April 12, 1961, 06:07 (1961-04-12UTC06:07) UTC |
| Rocket | Vostok-K 8K72K |
| Launch site | Baikonur 1/5 ﻿ / ﻿ |
|  |
|  |
| End of mission |
| Landing date | April 12, 1961, 07:55 (1961-04-12UTC07:56) UTC |
| Landing site | ﻿ / ﻿ |
|  |
|  |
| Orbital parameters |
| Reference system | Geocentric |
| Regime | Low Earth |
| Perigee | 169 km (91 nmi) |
| Apogee | 327 km (177 nmi) |
| Inclination | 64.95 degrees |
| Period | 89.1 minutes |
| Epoch | April 12, 1961 |
|  |
|  Yuri Gagarin in SwedenVostok programme Manned flightsVostok 2 →  |

Vostok 1 (Russian: Восто́к, *East* or *Orient* 1) was the first flight to take a human into space. It used a Vostok 3KA spacecraft, and was launched on April 12, 1961. It took into space Yuri Gagarin, a cosmonaut from the Soviet Union. The Vostok 1 mission was the first time a person went into outer space and the first time anyone had entered into orbit. The flight made one orbit and lasted for 1 hour, 48 minutes. The Vostok 1 was launched by the Soviet space program and made by the Soviet rocket scientists Sergei Korolev and Kerim Kerimov.

The Vostok spacecraft weighed 4.73 t (10,400 lb), was 4.4 m (14 ft) long and 2.43 m (8.0 ft) in diameter. The cosmonaut flew inside a spherical module. He sat on a seat which was also an ejection seat which allowed the cosmonaut to escape from the spacecraft in case of an emergency. The flight was simple, the cosmonaut was simply a passenger. There were controls for use in an emergency. The spacecraft had a food locker, radio, a cabinet with experiments inside, and two windows, one above the ejection seat and one to the right.. Gagarin ejected from the spacecraft after re-entry and landed by parachute.

There were six manned Vostok flights, the last one, Vostok 6, carried Valentina Tereshkova, the first woman to go into space on June 16, 1963.
# T-72

|  T-72A  |
| --- |
| Serbian T-72B1MS |
| Type | Main Battle Tank |
| Service history |
| In service | 1973-present |
| Production history |
| Designer | Leonid Kartsev-Valeri Venediktov |
| Manufacturer | Uralvagonzavod, Heavy Vehicles Factory |
| Unit cost | US$0.5–1.2 million in 1994–1996, US$0.5 million in 2011 |
| Produced | 1968-present |
| No. built | around 25,000 |
| Specifications (T-72) |
| Mass | 41.5 tonnes |
| Length | 9.53 m (31 ft 3 in) gun forward
6.95 m (22 ft 10 in) hull |
| Width | 3.59 m (11 ft 9 in) |
| Height | 2.23 m (7 ft 4 in) |
| Crew | 3 (commander, gunner, driver) |
|

---

 |
| Armor | Steel and composite armor with ERA |
| Engine | V-12 diesel
V-92S2F (T-72B3 & T-72B3M) 780 hp (580 kW)
1,130 hp (840 kW) for V-92S2F |
| Power/weight | 18.8 hp/tonne (14 kW/tonne) |
| Transmission | Synchromesh, hydraulically assisted, with 7 forward and 1 reverse gears |
| Suspension | Torsion bar |
| Ground clearance | 0.49m (19in) |
| Fuel capacity | 1,200 L (320 U.S. gal; 260 imp gal) |
| Operational range | 460 km (290 mi), 700 km (430 mi) with fuel drums |
| Maximum speed  | 60 to 75 km/h (37 to 47 mph) |

The **T-72** is a family of Russian/Soviet main battle tanks that started getting built in 1969. The T-72 was made to replace the T-64, which was bad because it was expensive and complicated. Around 25,000 T-72s have been built, and repairs have made many of them work for a very long time. The T-72 has been used in 40 countries. The T-72 was replaced by the T-90 in 1992, but the T-72 is still made today.