Rikunarita-ORG/Wikinium huggingface dataset:
# Outer Space Treaty

The **Outer Space Treaty** is a treaty that forms the basis of international law about space. It does not allow nuclear weapons to be placed in space. It establishes that space shall be free for exploration and use by all nations, but that no nation may claim sovereignty of outer space or any celestial body.

As of May 2025, 117 countries are parties to the treaty. Another 23 have signed the treaty but have not completed ratification.
# Second French Empire

| French EmpireEmpire français |
| --- |
| 1852–1870 |
|
Top: State Flag Bottom: Imperial Standard of Napoléon III

Coat of Arms

 |
| **Anthem:** Partant pour la Syrie "Departing for Syria"
 |
| Map of The Second French Empire with colonies |
| Capital | Paris |
| Official languages | French |
| Demonym(s) | French |
| Government | Constitutional Monarchy |
|  |
| • Emperor of the French  | Napoléon III |
|  |
| Establishment |
|  |
| • Coronation of Napoléon III  | 2 December 1852 |
| • Fall of the Empire  | 4 September 1870 |
|  |
|

|  |  |
| --- | --- |
| **Preceded by** | **Succeeded by** |
|

|  |  |
| --- | --- |
|  | French Second Republic |
|  | Kingdom of Sardinia |

 |

|  |  |
| --- | --- |
| French Third Republic |  |
| German Empire |  |
| Alsace–Lorraine |  |

 |

 |
| Today part of | France, Algeria |

The time from about 1852 to 1870 is known as **Second Empire** in French history. Napoléon III was the emperor. First he had an authoritarian style of ruling, but there was a lot of opposition. Like with many other countries, industrialization (and the industrial revolution) started during his reign. France also became one of the most powerful counties in Europe. It collapsed during the Franco-Prussian War in 1870-1871 during the Unification of Germany by Otto von Bismarck to create the German Empire in 1871 .
# Motto

A **motto** is a word, phrase or sentence used to describe the meaning or point of a group or organisation. In the Western world, mottoes are often in Latin.

## Related pages

* Slogan
# North African Campaign

| North African Campaign |
| --- |
| Part of World War II |
|  Australian troops in 1941 |
|

|  |  |
| --- | --- |
| Date | 10 June 1940 -13 May 1943 |
| Location | North Africa |
| Result |
Allied victory |

 |
| Belligerents |
| **Allies**  United Kingdom
* India
* Australia
* New Zealand

 South Africa  Australia  United States (from 1942)  Free French  Greece (and others) | **Axis**  Italy* Libya

 Germany

---

 Vichy France |
| Commanders and leaders |
|  Winston Churchill  Franklin D. Roosevelt  Charles de Gaulle |  Benito Mussolini  Adolf Hitler

---

 Philippe Pétain |

The **North African Campaign** was part of the Second World War. It took place in North Africa from 10 June 1940 to 13 May 1943. The campaign in North Africa included fighting in the Egyptian and Libyan Deserts (the Desert War), and in Morocco and Algeria (Operation Torch) and Tunisia (Tunisia Campaign).

There was a see-saw series of battles for the control of Libya and parts of Egypt. The Siege of Tobruk in 1941 was one of the turning points. In the Second Battle of El Alamein, British Commonwealth forces under the command of Lieutenant general Bernard Montgomery decisively defeated the German Afrika Korps and Royal Italian Army and pushed them back to Tunisia.

The late 1942 Allied landings in Operation Torch in North-West Africa were done to mop up the remaining enemy forces. The Allies fought against Vichy French Military forces who soon changed sides. The Allies suffered a serious defeat at the Battle of the Kasserine Pass. Later, they defeated the Axis forces in southern Tunisia (battle of Mareth), encircled the remaining German and Italian troops in northern Tunisia, and finally forced them to surrender.

After the fall of Tunis, the last troops to surrender were the Italians of general Messe on May 13, 1943 in the northern Tunisian peninsula of Cape Bon. This prepared the way for the Allied invasion of Sicily in July 1943.

## Related pages

* Battle of the Kasserine Pass
# Aryan race

The 4th edition of Meyers Konversationslexikon (Leipzig, 1885-1890) shows the *Caucasian race* (in blue) as being made up of *Aryans*, *Semites* and *Hamites*. *Aryans* are further split into *European Aryans* and *Indo-Aryans*. The people called "Indo-Aryans" on this 1890 map are today known as Indo-Iranians, and "Indo-Aryan" is only used today for those Indo-Iranians from northern India.
The **Aryan race** is a hypothesised idea that was formed in the 19th and 20th centuries. It was used to describe the theoretical descendents of group of people in ancient Persia and India who spoke an Indo-European language. However, there is no historical, anthropological, or archaeological evidence that supports its existence.

The word "Aryan" has been used to describe people of Iranian and Indian descent, but there is no record of Aryans in European history. Later it was used for Germanic peoples because of new ideas about the Aryans.

The term Aryan comes from the ancient Sanskrit word *ārya.* Sanskrit-speaking people used this word to distinguish themselves from other races. The Iranians also used this word, and the name Iran means "land of the Aryans".

The idea of an Aryan race was later used by occult movements (like Theosophy) and by the Nazis.

## In Nazism

The ideology of Nazism was based upon the idea that the Aryan race (Germanic peoples) was a master race. This view came from earlier racial theorists such as Arthur de Gobineau and Houston Stewart Chamberlain.

As the leader of Nazi Germany, Adolf Hitler decided that people who were not Germanic could also be Aryans. He declared Hungarians to be Aryan in 1934. He did the same for the Japanese in 1936 and the Finns in 1942.

The Nazis saw Slavs as inferior non-Aryans. They were usually vague as to whether Italians were "Aryan", although Italy under Mussolini had a "Manifesto of Race" in 1938 so that the Aryan race between the Italians indeed were related.

Jews, Romani people and Black people were considered “non-Aryans”.

## In Theosophy

Theosophy, a mystical occult society founded in 1875 by Helena Blavatsky, teaches that the Arabian people and the Jews are a part of the Aryan race. Theosophists believe that the Arabians used the Semitic languages of the people around them. These people had moved to the area from Atlantis. Theosophists claim that the Jews began as a part of the Arabian sub-race in what is now Yemen around 30,000 BC. They moved first to Somalia and then to Egypt, where they lived until the time of Moses.

## Other websites

* Who Were the Aryans? The Aryan Invasion Myth Archived 2013-10-26 at the Wayback Machine
# History (TV channel)

**History** is an international satellite and cable TV channel that broadcasts historical programs, both fictional and non-fictional. The TV channel is available in many countries. It is seen by more than 80 million households.

History| Logo |
| Country | United States |
| Broadcast area | Nationwide |
| Headquarters | New York City, New York, US |
| Programming |
| Picture format | * 1080i (HDTV)
* Downgraded to letterboxed 480i for SDTV feed
 |
| Ownership |
| Owner | A&E Networks |
| Sister channels | * Military History
* History en Español
* History TV18
 |
| History |
| Launched | January 1, 1995 (1995-01-01) |
| Former names | The History Channel (1995–2008) |
| Links |
| Website | www.history.com |

Because it shows a lot of programs on World War II, it has been jokingly called "The Hitler Channel". It also broadcast programs that try to foretell the future. The History Channel was started by A&E Television Networks on January 1, 1995. A&E Television Networks is a joint-venture between:

1. Hearst Corporation;
2. Disney-ABC Television Group (the Walt Disney Company); and
3. NBC Universal (General Electric).

On March 20, 2008, The History Channel dropped "The" and "Channel" from its name to become simply "History".
# Military organization

A mixed aircraft and ship formation of military vehicles during ANNUALEX (Annual Exercise) with USN and JASDF vehicles.
A **military organization** is a way of making up the armed forces of a state so as to offer military capability as needed by a national defence policy. Armed forces are led by officers, who command military units such as squads, platoons, companies, battalions, brigades and so forth. In some countries paramilitary forces are included in a nation's armed forces. Armed forces that are not a part of the military or paramilitary organizations, such as insurgent forces, often mimic military organizations, or use ad hoc structures.
# Siege

A **siege** is a military blockade of a city or fortress. The purpose is to conquer by starvation, lack of water, or by a well-prepared assault.

Siege warfare is a form of constant, low-intensity conflict. The defender inside has a strong, static, defensive position. Negotiation between combatants is common.

A siege happens when the attacker gets to a city or fortress which cannot be taken by storm, and which refuses to surrender. Sieges block the supplies and reinforcements or escape of men. Siege engines, artillery bombardment, and undermining are frequent. Deception and treachery are common.

Sieges can be decided by starvation, thirst, or disease. This form of siege can take many months or even years, depending upon the size of the stores of food the fortified position holds.

Well known sieges were:

* Siege of Petersburg
* Siege of Yorktown
* Siege of Odessa
* Siege of Orleans
* Siege of Fort Zeelandia
* Siege of Leningrad
* Siege of Tobruk
* Siege of Vicksburg
# Ballista

Modern reconstruction of a ballista
The **ballista** (plural **ballistae**) was one of the first artillery weapons used by the Ancient Greeks. The ballista was invented around 400 BC in the Greek town of Syracuse. It was one of the first catapults, and shot very large and heavy spears far distances.
The ballista resembled a large crossbow. They were made in different sizes. Smaller ones threw smaller missiles such as scaled-up arrows and darts.

The steps to operating the ballista are:

1. Pull back the bow-string with a winch, which creates tension.
2. Load the ballista with a light missile e.g. darts with iron points.
3. Release the bow-string, launching the missile.

Ballistae would be used if a weapon that fired light, narrow ammunition was needed.
# Centrifugal force

Centrifugal force is a force that acts on a body in a direction away from the centre, which contributes to making the body try to fly away. When you hold a rope with a heavy object attached to it, and rotate it around, the rope becomes tight and keeps the body from flying away. This is caused by centripetal force.

In physics, **centrifugal force** (from Latin centrum "center" and fugere "to flee") is a fictitious force that appears when describing physics in a rotating reference frame; it acts on anything with mass considered in such a frame. Centrifugal force is *fictitious* because although it may feel to a person like a certain force is being exerted on them, someone outside the scene will see something different.

**Example:** If Joshua is in a car that takes a sharp right turn, he will feel as though he is being pushed to his left. This is an imaginary force, called a centrifugal force, or a "running away from the center" force. Joshua feels it because he is inside the car and is affected by it. However, if Joshua's girlfriend, Andrea, is on the side of the road facing the front of Joshua's car and watches Joshua's car take a sharp right turn, Andrea will see the car push Joshua to the right with the car as it changes direction. This is a real force called centripetal force (or an "aiming towards the center" force) and acts towards the center of the circle of rotation.

 WIKINIUM\_MATH\_PH\_0
# Les Invalides

Les Invalides

**Les Invalides** is a landmark in Paris, France. It was built between 1670 and 1676 as a place for retirement of French war veterans. It consists of several buildings. It was also used as a burial place for French marshals and generals. Les Invalides is best known for housing the tomb of Napoleon Bonaparte. Nowadays, the complex houses the Museum of Arms, the Museum of Contemporary History, and the Museum of Plains-Reliefs.

 Hôtel des Invalides
# Senior Enlisted Advisor to the Chairman

The **senior enlisted advisor to the chairman** of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (SEAC) is the most senior non-commissioned officer (NCO) in the United States Armed Forces.

| No. | Picture | Senior Enlisted Advisor | Took office | Left office | Time in office | Defence branch | Chairman |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 |  | Gainey, WilliamCSM **William Gainey** (born 1956) | October 1, 2005 | April 25, 2008 | 2 years, 207 days |  United States Army | Peter Pace Michael Mullen |
| 2 |  | Battaglia, BryanSgtMaj **Bryan B. Battaglia** (born 1961) | October 1, 2011 | December 11, 2015 | 4 years, 71 days |  United States Marine Corps | Martin Dempsey |
| 3 |  | Troxell, JohnSEAC **John W. Troxell** (born 1964) | December 11, 2015 | December 13, 2019 | 4 years, 2 days |  United States Army | Joseph Dunford Mark A. Milley |
| 4 |  | Colón-López, RamónSEAC **Ramón Colón-López** (born 1971) | December 13, 2019 | *Incumbent* | 6 years, 188 days |  United States Air Force | Mark A. Milley |
# M240 machine gun

|  Machine Gun, 7.62 mm, M240  |
| --- |
| M240B |
| Type | General-purpose machine gun |
| Place of origin | * Belgium
* United States (manufacture)
 |
| Service history |
| In service | 1977–present |
| Used by | United States Armed Forces |
| Wars | * Gulf War
* Iraq conflict
* Afghanistan conflict
 |
| Production history |
| Designer | Ernest Vervier |
| Designed | 1950s |
| Manufacturer | FN Manufacturing, LLC |
| Produced | 1977–present |
| Variants | See *Variants* |
| Specifications |
| Mass | M240B: 27.1 pounds (12.3 kg) M240G: 25.6 pounds (11.6 kg) M240L: 22.3 pounds (10.1 kg) |
| Length | 49.7 in (1,263 mm) |
| Barrel length | 24.8 in (630 mm) |
| Width | 4.7 in (118.7 mm) |
| Height | 10.4 in (263 mm) |
|

---

 |
| Cartridge | 7.62×51mm NATO |
| Action | Gas-operated, open bolt |
| Rate of fire | 750–950 rounds/min |
| Muzzle velocity | 2,800 ft/s (853 m/s) |
| Effective firing range | * Bipod: 800 m (880 yd)
* Tripod: 1,800 m (1,980 yd)
 |
| Maximum firing range | 4,074 yd (3,725 m) |
| Feed system | Non-disintegrating DM1 or disintegrating M13 linked belt |
| Sights | Folding leaf sight with aperture and notch, front blade |

The **M240 machine gun** is a type of machine gun. It fires the 7.62mm NATO cartridge. It is gas-operated and the bullets are fed into the chamber by a belt. The M240 has been used by the United States Armed Forces since the late-1970s. It is used a lot by infantry. The M240 is also mounted onto ground vehicles, boats, and helicopters.
# M142 HIMARS

|  M142 HIMARS  |
| --- |
| M142 High Mobility Artillery Rocket System (HIMARS) in 2018 |
| Type | * Multiple rocket launcher
* Tactical ballistic missile
 |
| Place of origin | United States |
| Service history |
| In service | 2010–present |
| Wars | * War in Afghanistan
* Syrian Civil War
* Iraqi Civil War (2014–2017)
* War in Ukraine
 |
| Production history |
| Manufacturer | Lockheed Martin's Lockheed Martin Missiles and Fire Control |
| Unit cost | $3.5 million per one launcher+carrier, $110,000 per one M31 GMLRS (2014); |
| No. built | More than 540 |
| Specifications |
| Mass | 16,250 kg (35,800 lb) |
| Length | 7 m (23 ft 0 in) |
| Width | 2.4 m (7 ft 10 in) |
| Height | 3.2 m (10 ft 6 in) |
| Crew | 3 |
|

---

 |
| Traverse | 360° |
| Effective firing range | depends on armament* starting from 9 km (5.6 mi) armed with MLRS
* up to 499 km (310 mi) (planned) armed with PrSM
 |
|

---

 |
| Armor | Light |
| Main armament | * 6 × MLRS or
* 1 × ATACMS

 or 2 x PrSM |
| Engine | Caterpillar 3116 ATAAC 6.6-liter diesel 290 hp |
| Operational range | 480 km (300 mi) |
| Maximum speed  | 85 km/h (53 mph) |

The **M142 HIMARS** (**M142 High Mobility Artillery Rocket System**) is a light rocket launcher that can launch many rockets.The system was developed in the late 1990s for the United States Army. It is mounted on a truck frame. The vehicle is what that army calls a Family of Medium Tactical Vehicles (FMTV).

## Rockets

* GMLRS rockets, or Guided Multiple Launch Rocket System; The rockets in Ukraine have a range of at least 84 km (52 mi),
* ATACMS rocket, or MGM-140 Army Tactical Missile System (ATACMS), has a range of up to 300 km (190 mi). Ukraine does not have this kind (as of the middle of September 2023).

## Used by

* United States

* Ukraine: The United States gave 20 HIMARS (as of 2023's first quarter) to Ukraine's military. These HIMARS have been changed so that they cannot fire ATACMS (with a range of almost 200 miles) or other long-range missiles.
* Romania

* A rocket launcher sending off a missile from Zaporizhzhia Oblast, Ukraine (July 2022)
# Chief of Space Operations

The **Chief of Space Operations** is the highest ranking general of the United States Space Force.
John W. Raymond was the first CSO from December 2019 to November 2022.
B. Chance Saltzman is the second CSO.

Since December 2020 the CSO has been a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.
# Hispanic and Latino Americans

Percent of Hispanic and Latino Americans in each county of the USA (2020)
**Hispanic and Latino Americans** are Americans who are descendants of people from Latin America and Spain. They may also be called Latinos or Hispanos. Rarely, Americanos.
# American Forces Network

The United States Armed Forces Radio and Television Service is called **American Forces Network (AFN)**. AFN broadcasts radio and television to American soldiers, sailors, airmen, Department of Defense and other US government civilians and their families stationed outside of the U.S. and on U.S. Navy ships. AFN broadcasts popular American radio and television programs from U.S. networks. It is sometimes called the Armed Forces Network. AFRTS, American Forces Network and AFN are registered trademarks of the U.S. Department of Defense.

## Other websites

* American Forces Radio and Television Service Archived 2010-01-24 at the Wayback Machine
* American Forces Network Europe Archived 2013-01-17 at the Wayback Machine

## Books

* Patrick Morley: '*This Is the American Forces Network': The Anglo-American Battle of the Air Waves in World War II*. Praeger Publishing (2001).
* Trent Christman: *Brass Button Broadcasters: A Lighthearted Look at Fifty Years of Military Broadcasting*. Turner Publishing (1992).
* *History of AFRTS: The first 50 years*. U.S. Government Printing Office (1993).
# Joint Chiefs of Staff

| Joint Chiefs of Staff |
| --- |
| JCS |
| Joint Chiefs of Staff Identification Badge |
| Role | Advisory board providing professional military advice to the secretary of defense and the president |
| Established in practice | 1942 |
| Constituting instrument | National Security Act of 1947 currently codified at 10 U.S.C. § 151 |
| Predecessor entities | Joint Board (1903–1942) |
| Members |
| Chairman | Gen Charles Q. Brown Jr., USAF |
| Vice Chairman | ADM Christopher W. Grady, USN |
| Number of members | Eight |
| Administration |
| Parent agency | U.S. Department of Defense |
| Staff organization | The Joint Staff (for the chairman and the vice chairman; the service chiefs and the National Guard Bureau chief have their own staffs assisting them) |
| Seat | The Pentagon |

The **Joint Chiefs of Staff** (**JCS**) is the group of the most senior military leaders within the United States Department of Defense, which advises the president of the United States, the secretary of defense, the Homeland Security Council and the National Security Council on military affairs.

It is made up of a chairman (CJCS), a vice chairman (VJCS), the chiefs of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, Space Force, and the National Guard Bureau. Each of the individual service chiefs works directly under the secretaries of their military departments.
# Polish Navy

The **Polish Navy** is the naval branch of the Polish Armed Forces. The Polish Navy has 46 ships and about 12,000 people.

In the fifteenth century there was a small force of ships that primarily operated on rivers and lakes. In 1454, the city of Gdańsk was back in Poland after being previously occupied by the Teutonic Knights since 1308. Gdańsk is a seaport so Poland could have a large fleet on the Baltic. In 1561, following a victory over a Russian fleet in the Baltic, the Polish Navy got a second port at Riga, in modern-day Latvia. The Polish navy won the Battle of Oliwa in 1627 against the Swedish Empire, during the Polish–Swedish War. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth never really had a strong navy.

Józef Piłsudski, commander of the Armed Forces of Poland, founded the modern Polish Navy in 1918.

In World War II three ships sailed to the British naval base at Leith in Scotland in 1939 to escape from the German navy. The British lent them more ships.

During the Communist period, Poland's navy got much stronger. A separate force of Polish Marines started. The Navy also got Soviet-made ships, including 2 destroyers, 2 missile destroyers, 13 submarines and 17 missile boats to control the Baltic Sea.

Poland joined NATO in 1999 and this changed the work of the navy.
# American Academy of Arts and Sciences

The **American Academy of Arts and Sciences** is one of the oldest learned societies in the United States. It was founded in 1780. It is dedicated to honor excellence and leadership in the arts and sciences.

Membership in the academy can be done through a petition, review, and election process and has been thought to be a high honor for scholars. The academy was founded during the American Revolution by John Adams, John Hancock, James Bowdoin, and other Founding Fathers of the United States.
# Semaphore line

A **semaphore line** is an installation used to send optical signals. It is also known as **optical telegraph**. Common system include signal towers with special installations on them or hand-held flags. The meaning of the signal is determined by the position of the elements, for example the flags. The signal can be read when it is in a stable position. In modern usage, it refers to signalling with a set of flags.

Signal towers came before the electric telegraph. They were faster than sending out post riders with the information.

* Optical telegraph of Claude Chappe on the Litermont near Nalbach, Germany.
* Diagram of person holding 2 semaphore flags as letter "P"
* A Chappe semaphore tower near Saverne, France
* A Chappe semaphore telegraph at Louvre, France

## Characters

The following semaphore characters are presented as one would face the flagman:

* Rest / Space
* Numerals
* Error
* Cancel
* A / 1
* B / 2
* C / 3
Acknowledge
* D / 4
* E / 5
* F / 6
* G / 7
* H / 8
* I / 9
* J
Letters
* K / 0
* L
* M
* N
Negative
* O
* P
* Q
* R
* S
* T
* U
* V
* W
* X
* Y
* Z

## Related articles

* Railway semaphore signal
# Dassault Aviation

**Dassault Aviation** is an international French aircraft manufacturer of military and commercial jets, and is member of the Dassault Group.

It was founded in 1929 by Marcel Bloch as *Société des Avions Marcel Bloch* or "MB". After the World War II, Marcel Bloch changed his name to Marcel Dassault, and the company name was changed on 20 January 1947 to *Avions Marcel Dassault*.

The Dassault Aviation Group has been managed by Éric Trappier since January 9, 2013.

## Other websites

* Official website