Rikunarita-ORG/Wikinium huggingface dataset:
# Dioxirane

**Dioxirane** is a chemical compound and a functional group in organic chemistry.

Chemical structure: The chemical dioxirane is a ring of three atoms: one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms.

Dioxirane has the chemical formula CH2O2. Replacing one or more of the hydrogen atoms with other atoms or groups gives the **dioxiranes**, which have the functional group >CO2.

The parent molecule dioxirane is very unstable and has no uses other than research. Other dioxiranes, such as dimethyldioxirane, are used as oxidising agents in organic synthesis.

## Preparation

Dioxiranes can be made from ketones by oxidation. Potassium peroxymonosulfate (oxone) can be used for this reaction.
# Blood plasma

Blood plasma in a plastic bag.
**Blood plasma** is the yellow liquid part of blood. In normal blood, the blood cells are suspended in the plasma.

Plasma makes up about 55% of the total blood volume. It is mostly water (90% by volume) and contains dissolved proteins, glucose, clotting factors, mineral ions, hormones and carbon dioxide. Plasma is the transport medium for excretion.

In hospitals, blood plasma is prepared like this for blood transfusion. An anti-coagulant stops the blood clotting. Then tubes of blood are spun very fast in a centrifuge. The blood cells go to the bottom of the tubes. The plasma is poured into another container.

Hospitals may give patients:

1. Saline solution (pure water plus salt) for blood volume. This can be done quickly in an emergency.
2. Blood plasma.
3. Packed red cells.
4. Whole blood.

**Blood serum** is blood plasma without fibrinogen or the other clotting factors (that is, whole blood minus both the cells *and* the clotting factors).

**Plasmapheresis** is a medical therapy which involves taking out blood plasma, treating it, and putting it back in the patient.

## Storage

Whole plasma may be stored frozen, or it may be stored dry. Dried plasma can be flown anywhere in the world, and is vital for the armed forces. The method was invented in the US in 1940, and used widely in World War II. The Army/Navy standard pack was two tin cans, each with 400cc bottles inside. One held the plasma, the other distilled (pure) water. The plasma could be restored in three minutes, and remained fresh for about four hours.
# Spanish transition to democracy

| Kingdom of Spain*Reino de España* |
| --- |
| 1975–1982 |
|
Flag (1977–1981)

Coat of arms (1977–1981)

 |
| **Motto:Una, Grande y Libre* ("One, Great and Free") *Plus Ultra* ("Further Beyond") |
| **Anthem:Marcha Real* ("Royal March") |
|  |
| Capitaland largest city | Madrid |
| Official languages | Spanish After 1978: Catalan, Basque, Galician |
| Religion  | Roman Catholicism (*state religion* until 1978) |
| Government | Unitary absolute monarchy (1975-1978)  Unitary parliamentary constitutional monarchy (after 1978) |
| King |   |
|  |
| • 1975–1982  | Juan Carlos I |
|  |
| Prime Minister |   |
|  |
| • 1975–1976  | Carlos Arias Navarro |
| • 1976–1981  | Adolfo Suárez |
| • 1981–1982  | Leopoldo Calvo-Sotelo |
|  |
| Legislature | *Cortes Españolas* (until 1977) *Cortes Generales* (from 1977) |
| • Upper House | Senate |
| • Lower House | Congress of Deputies |
| Historical era | Cold War |
|  |
| • Death of Franco  | 20 November 1975 |
| • Political Reform Act  | 18 November 1976 |
| • 1977 Election  | 15 June 1977 |
| • Amnesty Law  | 15 October 1977 |
| • Constitution adopted | 29 December 1978 |
| • 1979 Election  | 1 March 1979 |
| • Attempted coup d'état | 23 February 1981 |
| • 1982 Election  | 28 October 1982 |
|  |
| Currency | Spanish peseta |
| Calling code | +34 |
|

|  |  |
| --- | --- |
| **Preceded by** | **Succeeded by** |
|

|  |  |
| --- | --- |
|  | **1975:** Spanish State |
|  | **1977:** Spanish Republican Government-in-Exile |

 |

|  |  |
| --- | --- |
| Kingdom of Spain |  |

 |

 |

The **Spanish transition to democracy**, known in Spain as *la Transición* (IPA: [la tɾansiˈθjon]; "**the Transition**") or *la Transición española* ("the Spanish Transition"), is a period of modern Spanish history that moved from the Francoist dictatorship to a parliamentary system, under Juan Carlos I.
# Alan Carr

Alan Carr in 2007
**Alan Carr** (born 14 June 1976) is an English television presenter and stand-up comedian. Carr was born in Weymouth, Dorset, and grew up in Northampton. He presented Channel 4's The Friday Night Project with Justin Lee Collins. Carr is openly gay. He hosts *Alan Carr: Chatty Man*.

## Other websites

* Alan Carr on IMDb
* Official site
# Roger Bacon

| Roger Bacon |
| --- |
|  |
| Born | c. 1210–1214 Ilchester, Somerset, England |
| Died | c. 1294 (aged c. 80–84) Oxford, Oxfordshire, England |

**Roger Bacon** (c. 1214–1294) was an English philosopher and Franciscan friar who placed considerable emphasis on the study of nature through empirical methods. He is sometimes credited, mainly starting in the 19th century, as one of the earliest European advocates of the modern scientific method inspired by the works of Aristotle and later Arabic works, such as the works of Muslim scientist Alhazen.

However, more recent studies emphasize that he was essentially a medieval thinker, with much of his "experimental" knowledge obtained from books, in the scholastic tradition. A survey of the reception of Bacon's work over centuries found that it often reflects the concerns and controversies central to the receivers.

## Life

Roger Bacon was educated at Oxford University. He studied modern science, theology, and philosophy. His family was rich, which helped pay for the many experiments he conducted. After lecturing at Oxford he moved to Paris to learn and study. Bacon was one of the first people to teach about Aristotle in Paris. During his time he wrote a book named *On the Marvelous Power of art and nature*. He wrote a long list of inventions he had in mind, naming steamships, telescope, eye glasses, and microscopes.

He was apparently so intently concentrated in his experiments and he had an aggressive personality, he was known to be socially awkward. In 1247 he stopped teaching because of bad health and proceeded to study, experiment, and become a friar. Years later, he was sent to a monastery because of upsetting fellow friars and superiors. He was there for about 10 years, and was unable to conduct experiments and studies. He was then sponsored by Pope Clement IV, but shortly after the Pope’s death in 1278 Bacon was accused of being a “magician”. He was imprisoned in a convent in Paris for 12 years, until 1292. He died around 1294 when he was about 80 years old.

* Cerqueiro, Daniel. Roger Bacon y la Ciencia Experimental. Buenos Aires; Ed.P.Ven., 2008. ISBN 978-987-9239-19-3
# Quinine

The bark of the tree (*Cinchona officinalis*) quinine is extracted from
**Quinine** English pronunciation: /ˈkwaɪnaɪn, kwɪˈniːn, ˈkwiːniːn/ is an alkaloid which can reduce fever, work against malaria, pain and swelling. The bark of the Cinchona family of trees contains quinine. Quinine can be made artificially, but this is more expensive than extracting it from the bark of the tree. This tree is found in the Andes, South America, Indonesia, and Congo.

Quinine was the first treatment for malaria, known from 1631 in Europe, and probably much earlier to the native peoples of South America. Even today, quinine is used to treat certain forms of malaria, when other drugs fail or are unavailable. In that way, quinine is currently one of the best treatments for *malaria tropica*, which is caused by plasmodium falciparum. For the other forms of malaria, quinine is no longer used, as other drugs have replaced it.

## History

Quinine relaxes muscles, and was used by the Inca of Peru to stop people from shivering. Europeans first reported using quinine against malaria in Rome in 1631.

The best type of quinine used to treat malaria was found by Charles Marie de La Condamine in 1737. Quinine helped Europeans colonize Africa. A historian said that "it was quinine ... that gave colonists fresh opportunities to swarm into the Gold Coast, Nigeria and other parts of west Africa".

## Side effects

Quinine can cause cinchonism and even death (usually by pulmonary oedema) in some cases. Quinine can make someone paralyzed if it is injected into a nerve. It is very toxic in overdose.

## Current uses

Quinine has a bitter taste. It was first added to drinks like Bitter Lemon and tonic water. Quinine was added to have some protection against Malaria. In China, it is sometimes added to drugs against the common cold. Quinine is also often used to add a bitter taste to food. Usually this has to be declared though. Quinine can also stimulate the muscles of the uterus. For this reason, pregnant women should not take too much of it. Sometimes it is used in combination with heroin.

## Related pages

* Blood
* Brain

## Other websites

* From intox databank Archived 2007-12-20 at the Wayback Machine
* From inchem
* Database file on Quinine from rain-tree.com
* Quinine news page - Alcohol and Drugs History Society
# Independence

The word **independence** means "not dependent", or not having to depend on anyone or anything else. It also means being strong and able to survive alone. Anything can be dependent or independent. When people talk about independence, it may be about people or countries, where it is often being spoken about as a good thing. For places, it may mean sovereignty or autonomy. In science, as in *independent variable* the word does not mean it is good or bad. An independent electric supply has its own electrical generator. An independent broadcaster does not get programming from a broadcast network. An independent retailer is not part of a chain or franchise.

## In countries

A country gets its independence when it is no longer part of another country. Sometimes countries get their independence in a war, as when the United States left Great Britain in the American War of Independence. Countries can also get their independence peacefully, like Canada and Norway did. Help from another country may be needed to get independence, like in World War II, when the allies freed many countries that had been controlled by the Axis powers and, temporarily, vice versa. Attempts to gain independence may lead to civil war and may be unsuccessful.

### Examples

Singapore gained independence from Malaysia in 1965. The newest country to get its independence was South Sudan. Other countries that became independent not long ago are Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1992, Eritrea in 1993 and East Timor in 2002. However, some countries have political parties that discuss whether their country should become independent. Some examples of these are the Scottish National Party (SNP) or the Puerto Rican Independence Party (PIP).

## Related pages

* Declaration of independence
* Decolonization
* Autonomy
* Nationalism
* Self-determination