Rikunarita-ORG/Wikinium huggingface dataset:
# Hadith

A **hadith** (Arabic: حَدِيْث, pronounced: "*ha-deeth*") is a saying attributed to Muhammad, the prophet of Islam. In English, the word hadith is also used as the plural word for a group of these narrations, although the plural in Arabic is *a-HAA-deeth*.

For most self-identified Muslims, hadiths are used along with the Qur'an to interpret Sharia (Islamic law). Sunnis follow the Kutub al-Sittah; Shias follow the Kutub al-Arba'a; Ibadis follow Tartib al-Musnad. Hadiths attributed to Abu Hurairah are the most common hadiths in Sunnism. Unlike the Qur'an, hadiths are not universally accepted by Muslims; some Muslims claim that most hadiths are fabrications (pseudepigrapha) created in the 8th and 9th century AD, and which are falsely attributed to Muhammad.

## Meaning

The word *hadith* means something new or a piece of information. The religious meaning of *hadith* is a statement, action or approval attributed to the prophet of Islam, Muhammad. Therefore, hadith can be divided into three categories based upon their content:

1. An attributed statement of the Prophet
2. An attributed action of the Prophet
3. An attribution of the Prophet’s approval of an action done by other than him

## History

After Prophet Muhammad died, Muslim scholars wrote down stories about what he had said and done. They also wrote down facts about who told each story. Some of the stories were retold many times before they were written down, and some stories did not agree in every detail resulting in the detailed study of hadith by scholars to compare between those hadith.

Muslim scholars collected all of these Hadith in books and compared them to each other. They decided which Hadith were most likely to be true records of the Sunnah, that is, the words and actions of Muhammad. Muslims see the Sunnah as an important source of guidance, along with the Qur'an. Islam is the complete religion so nothing could be changed about it. It gives a complete code of life.

Historically, not all Muslims believed in the hadiths. For example, Mu'tazilites rejected the hadiths as the basis for Islamic law, while at the same time accepting the Sunnah and ijma. For Mu'tazilites, the basic argument for rejecting the hadiths was that "since its essence is transmission by individuals, [it] cannot be a sure avenue of our knowledge about the Prophetic teaching unlike the Qur’an about whose transmission there is a universal unanimity among Muslims". Further, those who claim to obey the Qur'an alone while rejecting external sources such as the hadiths and the previous revelations are known as "Qur'anists".

## Related pages

* Quranism
* Criticism of hadith

* Swarup, Ram (1983). *Understanding Islam through Hadis*. New Delhi: Voice of India. ISBN 9788185990736. Archived from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 3 October 2017.
# Sortition

**Allotment**, also known as **sortition**, is a method of selection by some form of lottery. It is used to have an equal chance to be selected for those that are involved. For instance it is done by drawing coloured pebbles from a bag. In the democracy of Athens in Ancient Greece sortition was the main method for appointing officials. People thought it this method was one of the principal characteristics of democracy.

Aristotle saw equality and democracy in a close context:

> "Democracy arose from the idea that those who are equal in any respect are equal absolutely. All are alike free, therefore they claim that all are free absolutely... The next is when the democrats, on the grounds that they are all equal, claim equal participation in everything."
>
>

## Examples

* **Historical**
	+ The Athenian democracy made much use of sortition, with nearly all government offices filled by lottery rather than by election.
	+ The Doge of Venice was appointed by a lengthy procedure using alternating rounds of sortition and election.
	+ The Signoria of Florence and other Italian city republics was elected by lot during the medieval period.

## Related pages

* Election
* Appointment

## Other websites

* Citizens' Assembly on Electoral Reform Archived 2003-08-13 at the Wayback Machine (official website).
* South Australian Constitutional Convention Archived 2008-07-18 at the Wayback Machine (official website)
* The Loka Institute Archived 2014-12-17 at the Wayback Machine (official website)
* Sortition. Newsletter of the Society for Democracy including Random Selection (UK).
* A Citizen Legislature
* Integrating Public Voting And Random Selection for True Democracy Archived 2020-09-03 at the Wayback Machine
# Meritocracy

A **meritocracy** is the condition where people who deserve to can go up in rank, as opposed to a system like nepotism. It applies generally to all positions to which people may be appointed. It is often reinforced by laws, such as that women should have equal opportunities to men in employment.

The philosopher Plato thought that a government based on merit was better than democracy. In democracy, there is no guarantee that you will get the best person, the most qualified person, ruling the state. His criticisms were really of Athenian (or direct) democracy, where anyone could be selected to rule.

In a meritocracy, the people are chosen who are thought to be the best. Some have accused it of being elitist, saying that government by the best will mean that only those who have had the right opportunities will have a chance to govern, creating in effect a ruling class.

It is worth pointing out that Plato did not see it this way. He believed that philosophers were the best people to rule because they were *disinterested*, meaning they only had the interests of the state in mind, not their own interest. Plato's point was this: if you want to rule, then it will go wrong, because power will corrupt you. If you are a philosopher, you don't care about power – all you care about is truth, so you will rule well, without being interested in your power or status.

## Related pages

* Geniocracy
* Technocracy
# German idealism

Philosophers of German idealism. Kant (top left), Fichte (top right), Schelling (lower left), Hegel (lower right)
**German idealism** is a group of theories in philosophy that began in Germany in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. It was related to the Enlightenment and the French revolution. German idealists believed that nothing exists without the mind. This means that while the world exists, our knowledge about the outside world is limited to our experiences. Kant, Hegel, Fichte, and Schelling were the most famous German idealists.

## Related pages

* German philosophy
* Transcendental idealism
# Theravada

| **Buddhism**
 |
| --- |
| **Basic terms** |
| * Three Jewels
* Four Noble Truths

---

* + Dukkha Suffering
	+ Samudaya Cause of Suffering
	+ Nirodha Cessation of Suffering
	+ Magga Noble Eight Fold Path
* Buddhahood
* Enlightenment
* Nirvana
 |
| **People** |
| * Gautama Buddha
* Dalai Lama
* Bodhisattva
* Sangha
 |
| **Schools** |
| * Theravada
* Mahayana
	+ Zen
* Vajrayana
	+ Nyingma
	+ Kagyu
	+ Sakya
	+ Gelug
 |
| **Practices** |
| * Dharma study
* Noble Eightfold Path
* Meditation
* Chanting
* Metta
 |
| This box: * view
* talk
* edit
 |

**Theravada** is the oldest-surviving denomination of Buddhism.

## History of Theravada Buddism

Theravada was founded in Nepal. It is relatively conservative, and generally closest to early Buddhist practice. For many centuries it has been the main religion of Sri Lanka (now about 70% of the population) and most of continental Southeast Asia (Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand). Theravada is also practiced by minorities in parts of southwest China (by the Shan and Tai ethnic groups), Vietnam (by the Khmer Krom), Bangladesh (by the ethnic groups of Baruas, Chakma, and Marma), Malaysia and Indonesia.

## Theravada today

Recently this oldest-surviving denomination of Buddhism gaining popularity in Singapore and the Western world. Today Theravada Buddhists, who are also known as **Theravadins**, number over 100 million worldwide; in recent decades Theravada has begun to take root in the West and in the Buddhist revival in Nepal.

International Buddhist Meditation Center operates in Kathmandu.
# Alawites

The Assad family, who ruled Syria from 1971 to 2024, are well-known Alawites
The **Alawites**, also known as **Alawis** (*ʿAlawīyyah* Arabic: عَلَوِيَّةٌ) are an ethnoreligious group who live primarily in the Levant particularly in the coastal regions or the areas near the coast of the Mediterranean Sea. Alawism is a sect which branched out from Shi'ism during the 9th century. They live mainly in Syria but also have a presence in neighboring countries Lebanon and Turkey. They initially branched out of the Twelver school however they differ greatly from the Twelvers as they believe in the divinity of Ali. Alawites worship Ali, and the name "Alawi" means followers of Ali. Alawites are also called **Nusayris** although this term has been considered derogatory.

Alawite children in Antioch, now in Turkey's southern Hatay province, 1938.
## Other websites

* Reuters
# Ethnoreligion

Ethnoreligions are religions that are strongly connected to certain ethnic groups. Judaism, the Druze religion and the Samaritan religion are all ethnoreligions.
# Candomblé

**Candomblé** is an African-inspired or Afro-Brazilian religion, practiced chiefly in Brazil. The religion originated in the city of Salvador, the capital of Bahia.
# Theosophy

Theosophy refers to a set of spiritual and esoteric beliefs and practices that aim to explore and understand the nature of reality, the divine, and the purpose of existence. The term "Theosophy" is derived from the Greek words "theos," meaning "god," and "sophia," meaning "wisdom." Theosophical teachings often incorporate elements from various religious, philosophical, and mystical traditions.

The modern Theosophical movement was founded in the late 19th century by Helena Petrovna Blavatsky, Henry Steel Olcott, and William Quan Judge. They sought to synthesize and revitalize ancient spiritual wisdom, drawing from Eastern and Western religious traditions, mysticism, and occultism.

Key principles of Theosophy include:

1. Unity of All Religions: Theosophy asserts that at their core, all major world religions share a common spiritual truth.
2. Reincarnation: The belief in the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth as a means of spiritual evolution.
3. Karma: The law of cause and effect, where actions in one life have consequences in future lives.
4. Hierarchy of Spiritual Beings: Theosophy describes a hierarchy of spiritual entities, from divine beings to more advanced spiritual entities and human souls.
5. Esoteric Knowledge: Theosophists believe in the existence of hidden or esoteric knowledge that can lead to spiritual enlightenment and understanding.
6. Brotherhood of Humanity: The idea that all humans are interconnected and part of a larger spiritual brotherhood.

The Theosophical Society, founded in 1875, has branches worldwide and continues to be a source of study and exploration for individuals interested in spiritual and metaphysical topics. It's worth noting that Theosophy has inspired various offshoots and interpretations over the years, and different individuals may emphasize different aspects of its teachings.
# Hermeticism

**Hermeticism** is the study and practice of occult philosophy and magic. The name comes from the fact that the first books about Hermeticism are said to have been written by the god Hermes Trismegistus ("Thrice-Greatest Hermes"), who combines aspects of the Greek god Hermes and the Egyptian god Thoth.

Hermeticism is also connected with astrology and alchemy. These beliefs were strong in Europe during the Renaissance. The Hermetic Corpus was translated by Marsilio Ficino in 1463 and published in 1471. At this time, the Hermetic Corpus was thought to be older than both Plato and Pythagoras.

In 1614, Isaac Causabon showed that the texts were actually written sometime between 200 and 300 AD. This view was based on careful study of the way language was used in the original writings.

Hermeticism was revived in the 19th century in Western Europe. The most famous group involved in this revival was the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn.

## Related page

* Supernatural
# Religious denomination

A **religious denomination** (also simply **denomination**) is a subgroup within a religion that has a common name, tradition, and identity.

The term is often used for several Christian denominations including Eastern Orthodoxy, Catholicism, and the many sorts of Protestantism like: Baptist, Methodist, Episcopalian, and Pentecostal.

It is also used for the four branches of Judaism (Orthodox, Conservative, Reform, and Reconstructionist), and for the main branches of Islam (Sunnism and Shi'ism, Quranism, Ibadism, Sufism, Muwahhidism).

In Hinduism the major deity or philosophical belief functions as the identifier of a denomination and typically each has distinct cultural and religious practices. The major denominations include: Shaivism, Shaktism, Vaishnavism, Smartism, and Halumatha.

## Related pages

* Sect
* Cult
* Religion
* Christian denomination
* Full communion
* Schism (religion)
# Republic

A **republic** is a form of government that has no monarchy and no hereditary aristocracy, and instead the head of state (the highest political authority) is an elected office It originates from Rome. In 509 BC, the Romans overthrew the Roman Kingdom and established a republic, a government in which citizens elected representatives to rule on their behalf.

National sovereignty lies in the authority of the government, not in an emperor or monarch. The word *republic* comes from the Latin words **res publica**, meaning a "public thing". For example, the United States and India are republics. However, the United Kingdom and Canada are not republics since they have a monarch (King Charles III in both cases).

Countries with a king or other monarch and free elections is called a constitutional monarchy, not republics. A constitutional monarchy resembles a republic because the constitution has been amended to remove power from the monarch and install institutions conforming to a philosophy of republicanism. That includes the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms, the Netherlands, Thailand, and countries in Scandinavia and elsewhere. What makes a republic different is that its laws are made and enforced without royal authority.

The head of state in a republic is generally a person who has been chosen by the citizens by direct election or by a group of elected representatives to act as the top representative of the people. In most republics, the head of state is called the president. In some countries, the president is elected and has a lot of political power. In others, the president does not hold much direct power but is important in the legal system for other reasons.

Sometimes, state is called a "republic" when its head is not called a "king". For example, the Roman Empire had an "emperor" and the Dutch Republic had a "stadholder", but they worked as hereditary monarchs.

Licchavi, in India, was an aristocratic state in the 6th and 5th centuries BCE and is nowadays sometimes called the first republic. The earliest republics that were much imitated later were Greek cities, for example democracy in Athens. The biggest difference from the other city-states was that people chose their leaders by voting or by lottery. Several Italian city-states during the Renaissance were ruled by a small group of aristocrats, and were called republics.
# Tautology (rhetoric)

In rhetoric, a **tautology** is the repetition of a statement, for example, "With malice toward none, with charity for all".

Unlike a tautology in logic, it is not automatically true.

## Examples

* The phrase "A is A", often mistakenly attributed to Aristotle, was a favorite of Ayn Rand. The idea frequently appears in her philosophy, especially as written in her novel *Atlas Shrugged*.
* The phrase A is B because A is B.
* In his book *Mostly Harmless*, Douglas Adams used the phrase, "Anything that happens, happens. Anything that in happening causes something else to happen, causes something else to happen. Anything that in happening happens again, happens again. Though not necessarily in that order."
* Comedian Mitch Hedberg joked about a tautological advertisement for a boxing match: "It said, *It's a fight to the finish!* (pause) That's a good place to end."
# Old Church Slavonic

| Old Church Slavonic |
| --- |
| Old Church Slavic |
| ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ ⰧⰈⰟⰊⰍⰟ словѣ́ньскъ ѩꙁꙑ́къ *slověnĭskŭ językŭ* |
|  |
| Native to | formerly in Slavic areas, under the influence of Byzantium (both Catholic and Orthodox) |
| Region | * Central Europe
* Eastern Europe
* Southeastern Europe
 |
| Era | 9th–11th centuries; then evolved into several variants of Church Slavonic |
| Language family | Indo-European
* Balto-Slavic
	+ Slavic
		- South
			* Eastern
				+ **Old Church Slavonic**
 |
| Writing system | Glagolitic, Cyrillic |
| Language codes |
| ISO 639-1 | `cu` |
| ISO 639-2 | `chu` |
| ISO 639-3 | `chu` * ISO 639 codes for:
* Church Slavonic
* Church Slavic
* Old Church Slavonic
* Old Slavonic
* Old Bulgarian
 |
| *Glottolog* | `chur1257`  Church Slavic |
| Linguasphere | `53-AAA-a` |
|

**Old Church Slavonic** is the language of some Eastern Orthodox churches. It was the first Slavic language for writing literature. It was made by the priestly brothers Saints Cyril and Methodius in the 9th century.

## Related pages

* Kievan Rus
* Eastern Europe
* Byzantine Empire
* Tsardom of Russia
* Oriental Orthodoxy
* Eastern Orthodox Church

* Old Church Slavonic New Testament manuscript
* Church Slavonic and Urgic-Russian folklore reader with authentic tales. Uzhhorod, 1893. Page VIII From I. Franko personal Library
# Ä

**Ä** (lowercase **ä**) is a letter used in some languages. It is just an "a" with an umlaut. It evolved from the letter Å (lowercase å).

## German

### Germany, Austria and Switzerland

Ä is one of the 4 extra letters used in German. It can be replaced by using the digraph ae. In English language newspapers, ä is often written as "a" but this is not correct. It is usually pronounced like the "e" in "bed”. In Estonia however, it is almost always pronouced like the letter “a” in “bad”.

Internet addresses are written as "ae" because the internet address system can only understand ordinary English letters.
# Zoe (name)

|  |
| --- |
| **Zoe, Zoë** |
| Gender: | Gender-neutral |
| Origin: | Greek, ζωή |
| Meaning: | life |

**Zoë** (and other such names) is a feminine name which came from ancient Greece and means "life" in Greek. The pronunciation of the name is [ **zoh**-ee, zoh ]. This name was ranked #42 on the US Popular Names in 2021.

Some uses of the name are:

## Real people

* Zoe Ball, British television presenter
* Zooey Deschanel, American actress/musician
* Zoe Karbonopsina (died c. 920), Byzantine empress
* Zoe (empress), Byzantine empress (c. 978–1050)
* Zoe Palaiologina, (c. 1455–April 7, 1503), wife of Tsar Ivan III of Russia
* Zoë (singer), English pop star who had a 1991 hit with "Sunshine On A Rainy Day"
* Zoey (singer), a J-Pop singer
* Zoe Cramond, New Zealand actress
* Zoe Saldaña, American actress

## Fictional characters

* Zoë (Sluggy Freelance), a character from the *Sluggy Freelance* comic strip
* Zoë Castillo, a character from the computer game *Dreamfall: The Longest Journey*
* Zoé (Little Big Adventure), a character from *Little Big Adventure* video games
* Zoë, a character in the series *Monarch of the Glen*
* Zoë (All My Children), a character on the *All My Children* soap opera
* Zoe Reynolds a character played by Keeley Hawes in the BBC television series *Spooks*, (*MI-5* in the United States)
* Zoe Orimoto, a character from Digimon Frontier
* Zoe Washburne, from the television series *Firefly*
* Zoe Trent, a character from *Littlest Pet Shop*
* Zoe, a character from *Bluey*
* Zoe Heriot, a character in the television series *Doctor Who*
* Zoë (Sesame Street), a Muppet
* Zoe MacPherson, a character from the *Baby Blues* comic strip
* Zoey (Pokémon)
* Zoey Brooks, main character on *Zoey 101*
* Zoey Hanson, Ichigo Momomiya's English dub name in *Tokyo Mew Mew* (*Mew Mew Power*)
* Zooey Glass, One of the principal characters in *Franny and Zooey* the dual stories published by J.D. Salinger in 1955
# Public speaking

Winston Churchill speaking in 1949.
**Public speaking** is speaking to a group of people in an organized way: to give information, influence or persuade, or to entertain the listeners.

In public speaking there are five important questions, which are often expressed as "*who* is saying *what* to *whom*, using *which medium*, with what *effects*?"

The Ancient Greeks called public speaking rhetoric; the Romans called it oratory. Until the late 20th century it was also called *forensic speaking*, or *forensics*. Propaganda is an another name for speech for or against some point of view. In George Orwell's words propaganda is a reflection of prejudices and beliefs that colors people's [or societies] aesthetic judgements. Often they are simply fallacies or conjectures.

## Methods and techniques

Professional public speakers may use storytelling techniques or humor as a communication tool. A public speaker who is strong at using comedy might have more success adding a joke into a speech than one who is weak in that area.

Bill Gates speaking at DFID
Franklin D. Roosevelt making his State of the Union Address by radio (11 January 1944) from the White House
A speaker's guideline is given in *TED Talks: The Official TED Guide to Public Speaking*.
Their information includes:

* Try to make eye contact right from the start.
* Include humor to disarm the tension within the audience towards the subject. But no offensive jokes or corny puns.
* Drinking water avoids mouth getting dry from adrenalin and avoiding an empty stomach reduces anxiety.
* Keep a backup plan (notes or scripts) to use if the presentation technology goes wrong.
* It is better to avoid attempts to get applause. It is not about the speaker, but the idea the speaker is passionate about.

Other guidelines exist.

## Models

Models in public speaking.

The 6 I model of credibility for public speaking are:

| 6 I's of Credibility |
| --- |
| Ideation | Be creative in presenting the idea |
| Information | Bring out new and decision driving facts |
| Influence | Be charismatic with show of confidence |
| Integrity | Be authentic and build a trust through the first half of the session |
| Impact | Identify and present a memorable delivery to root the message |
| Ignition | Call out to action, if required (E.g. Funding, Social Action, Proselytisation ...etc.) |

### AIDA Model

The AIDA model is about designing the message and delivering it effectively to the target audience. It says the speaker should first get attention, hold the interest level of the audience, arouse desire for the solution or the objective (appeal, theme, etc.) desired to communicate, and finally obtain action or actionable commitment from the audience.

## Related pages

* Rhetoric

* Stephen Lucas (2016). *The Art of Public Speaking*. McGraw-Hill Education. ISBN 978-1-260-09402-2.
* Werlich, Egon 1976. *A text grammar of Eglish*. Heidelberg: Quelle & Meyer.
# Screenplay

A **screenplay** or script is the written instruction about what happens in a play, movie or television program. The screenplay for a movie has everything that happens in the movie. It includes the plot, the dialogue and actions of the characters, and instructions for editing. The person who writes the screenplay is called a screenwriter. A screenplay for television is called a **teleplay**. The script is usually slightly changed or things will be added or subtracted as the directors and producers decide.
# Diwan (poetry)

Mughal scribes at work, collecting *Diwan*s.
**Diwan** is a collection of poems. These poems were often written and collected in the royal courts of various sultanates. They were very well known for their ability to inspire.