Rikunarita-ORG/Wikinium huggingface dataset:
# Dilemma

A **dilemma** (Greek δί-λημμα "double proposition") is when two solutions or possibilities are present. If both solutions are undesirable or impossible, this may put a person **on the horns of a dilemma**, neither outcome is comfortable.

The dilemma is sometimes put as a choice "you must accept either A, or B". Here A and B are each leading to some undesirable conclusion.

In formal logic, the definition of a dilemma differs from everyday usage. Two options are still present, but choosing between them is immaterial because they both imply the same conclusion. Symbolically expressed thus:

 WIKINIUM\_MATH\_PH\_0

This can be translated informally as "one (or both) of A or B is known to be true, but they both imply C, so regardless of the truth values of A and B we can conclude C."

Horned dilemmas can present more than two choices. The number of choices of horned dilemmas can be used in their alternative names, such as two-pronged (two-horned) or dilemma proper, or three-pronged (three-horned) or trilemma, and so on.

Constructive dilemmas

1. (If X, then Y) and (If W, then Z).
2. X or W.
3. Therefore, Y or Z.
Destructive dilemmas

1. (If X, then Y) and (If W, then Z).
2. Not Y or not Z.
3. Therefore, not X or not W.
## Responses to a dilemma

In *Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance,* Robert Pirsig outlines possible responses to a dilemma. The classical responses are to either choose one of the two horns and refute the other or alternatively to refute both horns by showing that there are additional choices. Pirsig then mentions three illogical or rhetorical responses. One can "throw sand in the bull's eyes" by, for example, questioning the competence of the questioner. One can "sing the bull to sleep" by, for example, stating that the answer to the question is beyond one's own humble powers and asking the questioner for help. Finally one can "refuse to enter the arena" by, for example, stating that the question is unanswerable.

## Related pages

* Prisoner's dilemma
* False dilemma
* Contradiction
* Paradox
* Trilemma
# Source text

A **source text** is a piece of work (usually writing, sometimes speech) where information or ideas come from. In translation, a source text is the original text that is to be translated into another language.

In the study of history, people talk about primary (firsthand), secondary (secondhand) and tertiary (thirdhand) sources.
# Western Christianity

The large branches of Christianity. The length of the branches do not mean anything in this diagram.
**Western Christianity** is a part of the Christian religion. Western Christianity talks about the religious traditions of Christians whose ancestors were from Western Europe.

Western Christianity includes people who are members of the Catholic Church, as well as people who are members of Protestant churches. The Protestant churches were formed by people who were former members of the Catholic Church. Many Protestant churches started during the Protestant Reformation in about 1600.

As the Protestant leaders were former members of the Catholic Church, Protestants share many, but not all, religious beliefs and religious traditions with Catholics. However, Western Christianity is different from Eastern Christianity, which has a different set of religious traditions, but many of the same religious beliefs.

## Western denominations

Western Christianity makes up about 90% of Christians worldwide. The Roman Catholic Church has over half of all Christians. The many Protestant and related denominations make up another 40%. Baptists, Lutherans, and Anglicans are some of the larger and older Western denominations which are not the Roman Catholic Church.

## Related pages

* Holy Roman Empire
* Lutheranism
* Protestant Reformation
* Western churches

## Other websites

 Media related to Western Christianity at Wikimedia Commons
# QS World University Rankings

The **QS World University Rankings** list the world's universities in order from the most prestigious to least.

This is the 2024 QS World University Rankings list of the top 20 universities in the world.

## Top 20

| Rank | 2024 rank | University | Country |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | 1 | Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Cambridge) |  United States |
| 2 | 2 | Cambridge University |  United Kingdom |
| 3 | 3 | Oxford University |  United Kingdom |
| 4 | 4 | Harvard University (Cambridge) |  United States |
| 5 | 5 | Stanford University |  United States |
| 6 | 6 | London Imperial College |  United Kingdom |
| 7 | 7 | Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich |  Switzerland |
| 8 | 8 | National University of Singapore |  Singapore |
| 9 | 9 | London University – University College |  United Kingdom |
| 10 | 10 | University of California, Berkeley |  United States |
| 11 | 11 | University of Chicago |  United States |
| 12 | 12 | Pennsylvania University |  United States |
| 13 | 13 | Cornell University |  United States |
| 14 | 14 | Melbourne University |  Australia |
| 15 | 15 | California Institute of Technology (Pasadena) |  United States |
| 16 | 16 | Yale University (New Haven) |  United States |
| 17 | 17 | Peking University (Beijing) |  China |
| 18 | 17 | Princeton University |  United States |
| 19 | 19 | New South Wales University |  Australia |
| 20 | 19 | Sydney University |  Australia |

## QS Stars

QS Stars is a rating system that is designed to help students in choosing right university. The rating system is based on topics that are matter of importance to students. The rating system is from 0 to 5. These ratings are applied to 13 key categories.

## QS Methodology

QS ranking methodology is based on indicators, based on which the ranking is calculated.Earlier there were 6 indicators, however for 2024 university rankings, QS has added 3 more indicators, namely- Employment Outcomes, International Research Network and Sustainability.

## Other websites

* Official website
# Community college

A community college in Johor, Malaysia.
**Community college** is a type of public education institution. It provides two-year college education at reasonable tuition fees. Different forms of community colleges exist in the U.S., the U.K., Australia, the Philippines and etc.

## Students

Students enter community colleges to pursue their academics or receive a better job training. After graduating from a community college, some choose to transfer to a four-year university.

## History

First college in India started in 1981. First community college in the U.S. is Joliet Junior College in Illinois, which was founded in 1901. The number of community colleges has grown continuously. Currently, there are 1,166 community colleges in the U.S.

## Drama

Community (TV series) is American TV series about community college students’ life.

## Other websites

* American Association of Community Colleges Archived 2009-11-08 at the Wayback Machine
* Pros and Cons of Free College Archived 2020-09-27 at the Wayback Machine
* Community(TV series)
# State school

**State schools** usually mean primary or secondary schools which educate children without charge. They are funded in whole or part by taxation. The term may also refer to public institutions of post-secondary education. State schools have to follow the national curriculum for their country.

State schools may be called public schools outside of England and Wales.

## By region or country

### United States

In the United States, "state school" is colloquial for state university, a college, or a university in a state university system. "Public school" is used for elementary, middle, or high schools that get their money from the government or are run by the government. "Private school" is used for schools that do not get their money from the government, nor are they run by the government.

## Related pages

* Compulsory education

## Other websites

* Explanatory article at the Good Schools Guide
* Public Education Network Archived 2017-05-25 at the Wayback Machine
* Center on Reinventing Public Education
* The Story of American Public Education
* Public Education in the United States Archived 2017-05-25 at the Wayback Machine
* History of Public Education in the United States
* Essay on public education paradigms on YouTube
# Value judgement

A **value judgement** (or value judgment) is an opinion of the rightness or wrongness or usefulness of something.

It is based on what a person thinks or prefers. Value judgments are not true or false. This is because they are not objective. They are decisions about how a person thinks or feels, or about what action a person thinks should be taken. They are opinions.

A typical dictionary definition runs:

"A perspective towards a person, object, principle etc. based on how one values [its] properties or characteristics".
# Disjoint sets

In mathematics, two sets are **disjoint** when they have no elements in common. For example, the sets WIKINIUM\_MATH\_PH\_0 and WIKINIUM\_MATH\_PH\_2 are disjoint, but the sets WIKINIUM\_MATH\_PH\_4 and WIKINIUM\_MATH\_PH\_6 are not disjoint.
# American League

The **American League** (or **AL**) is one of the two leagues that make up Major League Baseball (MLB). The other is the National League (or NL). The American League is made up of 15 teams. At the end of each season, five of these teams go to the playoffs where one will win the American League championship. The champions of the American League plays against the champions of the National League in the World Series. The team that wins the World Series is the champion of Major League Baseball. Teams in the American league play 116 games per season against other teams in the American League, while the remaining 46 games are played against the National League teams. There are 3 Divisions of the American League: AL East, AL Central, and AL West.

## Differences

From 1973 to 2021, the only big difference between the American League and the National League was that the AL used the "Designated Hitter" (or DH). The Designated Hitter is a player who does not play in the field, but is used to bat for the worst hitter in his team's "lineup" (usually the pitcher). The NL did not use the Designated Hitter, and all players in the "lineup" had to bat and field for themselves. If the DH played an NL game in an NL park, he often played First Base if at all. If they play in an AL park, the NL team could use a DH. During the 2020 season, shortened to 60 regular-season games due to the public response to COVID-19, both leagues used the DH. The NL permanently added the DH in the 2022 season.

## Related pages

* National League
# Sámi languages

| Sámi |
| --- |
| Native to | Finland, Norway, Sweden, and Russia |
| Region | Sápmi (Lapland) |
| Ethnicity | Sámi |
| Native speakers | Approximately 20,000–30,000 |
| Language family | Uralic
* **Sámi**
 |
| Official status |
| Official language in | Sweden and some parts of Norway; recognized as a minority language in several municipalities of Finland. |
| Language codes |
| ISO 639-3 | Variously: `sia` – Akkala `sjd` – Kildin `sjk` – Kemi `sjt` – Ter `smn` – Inari `sms` – Skolt `sju` – Ume `sje` – Pite `sme` – Northern `smj` – Lule `sma` – Southern |
| Historically verified distribution of the Sami languages: 1. Southern Sami, 2. Ume Sami, 3. Pite Sami, 4. Lule Sami, 5. Northern Sami, 6. Skolt Sami, 7. Inari Sami, 8. Kildin Sami, 9. Ter Sami. Darkened area represents municipalities that recognize Sami as an official language. |

The **Sámi languages** are a branch of Uralic languages spoken by the Sámi people. They are spoken in Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Russia. They are Uralic languages like Finnish, Estonian, and Hungarian.

They are sometimes considered dialects of the same language, but people from different dialects mostly do not understand one another. They share many things with the Baltic-Finnic languages such as Finnish, Estonian and Karelian but are not closely related to any of them. Their grammars are similar to Finnish, but their syntax has undergone influence from the Scandinavian languages.

Some linguists have a theory that the Sámi languages have come from a Proto-Sámi language, which existed c. 500 BC.

The Sámi languages include East Sámi.

## Western Sámi languages

* Southwestern
	+ Southern Sami (600)
		- Åsele dialect
		- Jämtland dialect
	+ Ume Sami (20)
* Northwestern
	+ Northwestern proper
		- Pite Sami (20)
		- Lule Sami (1,000–2,000)
	+ Northern Sami (20,000)
		- Torne Sami
		- Finnmark Sami
		- Sea Sami

## Eastern Sámi languages

Sami languages and settlements in Russia:
  Skolt (Russian *Notozersky*)
  Akkala (Russian *Babinsky*)
  Kildin
  Ter

* Mainland
	+ Inari Sami (300)
	+ Kemi Sami (extinct)
	+ Skolt Sami (420)
	+ Akkala Sami (extinct)
	+ Kainuu Sami (extinct)
* Peninsular
	+ Kildin Sami (500)
	+ Ter Sami (2–10)

## Related pages

* Sami literature
# Millennium

A **millennium** (plural: *millennia*) is a time period of one thousand (1000) years. The word *millennium* is derived from two Latin words *mille* ("thousand") and annum ("year").
# Sesshū Tōyō

| Sesshū |
| --- |
| A 16th century copy of Sesshū's 1491 self-portrait |
| Title | * *Suibokuga* master
* Zen Master
 |
| Personal |
| Born | c. 1420 Bitchū, Ashikaga shogunate |
| Died | 26 August 1506 (aged 85–86) |
| Religion | Buddhism |
| School | Rinzai |
| Senior posting |
| Teacher | Tenshō Shūbun |

**Sesshū Tōyō** (雪舟 等楊; c. 1420 – August 26, 1506), also called **Sesshū** (雪舟), was a Japanese Zen monk and painter. He is thought to be a master of Japanese ink painting. He was inspired by Chinese landscapes. His work has a Japanese style that shows Zen and Buddhism. His famous work was of landscapes, portraits, birds, and flower paintings. These works all had Zen Buddhist beliefs, and a flattened perspective.

Sesshū was born into the samurai Oda family (小田家) and trained at Shōkoku-ji temple in Kyoto as a Zen monk. From his childhood, Sesshū showed talent for painting. He eventually became known throughout Japan as a wise Zen scholar. He was soon called the greatest painter priest of Zen-Shu.

Sesshū trained under Tenshō Shūbun (c. 1418–1463). After Sesshū visited China, he was inspired to include it in his own work. His paintings began to have a unique Chinese and Japanese style.. Sesshū's influence on painting was so large that many schools of art made him their founder. Sesshū's most famous works are *Winter Landscape* (c. 1470s), *Birds and Flowers* (1420–1506) and *Four Landscape Scrolls of the Seasons* (1420–1506).

## Paintings and techniques

Sesshū's works are mostly suibokuga, or "water and ink paintings". Zen Buddhism focuses on simplicity and the natural world. To perform this, Suibokuga artists use only black ink. Sesshū used black sumi, or charcoal or soot-based solid ink on paper or silk. Sesshū's most famous works include *Winter Landscape* (c. 1470s), *Four Landscape Scrolls of the Seasons* (c. 1420 – 1506) and, *Birds and Flowers* (c. 1420 – 1506). These all show his use techniques to show zen beliefs.

*Winter Landscape* (c. 1470s), Collection of the Tokyo National Museum.
## Famous works

*Huike Offering His Arm to Bodhidharma* (1496)
### Landscapes

* *Four Landscape Scrolls of the Seasons* (c. 1420–1506)
* *Winter Landscapes from Landscapes of the Four Seasons* (c. 1420–1506); Tokyo National Museum)
* *Autumn and Winter Landscapes* (c. 1470s; Tokyo National Museum)
* *Short Scroll of Landscapes* (c. 1474–1490; Kyoto National Museum)
* *Long Scroll of Landscapes* (*Sansui Chokan*) (c. 1486; Mori Collection, Yamaguchi, Japan)
* *Haboku Sansui*, "splashed-ink" technique scroll (1495; Tokyo National Museum)
* *View of Ama-no-Hashidate* (c. 1502–1505; Kyoto National Museum)
* *Landscape by Sesshū*

### Other

* *Portrait of Masuda Kanetaka* (1479; Masuda Collection, Tokyo)
* *Huike Offering His Arm to Bodhidharma* (*Daruma and Hui K'o*) (1496; Sainen-ji, Aichi, Japan)
* *Flowers and Birds*, pair of sixfold screens (undated; Kosaka Collection, Tokyo)

## Related pages

* Taoism
# Proscription

**Proscription** is a ’decree of condemnation to death or banishment’ according to the *Oxford English Dictionary*.

It may refer to state-approved murder or banishment. The term originated in Ancient Rome, where a person could officially be declared an enemy of the state. It often involved confiscation of property.

In addition to its use the Roman Republic, it has become a standard term. It has been used since to describe similar governmental and political actions. It is used to suppress opposing ideologies. Also, it is used to eliminate political rivals or personal enemies.
# Ryōtei

A **Ryōtei** (料亭) is a type of very expensive and elegant Japanese restaurant. Traditionally they only accept new customers who are recommended by known and trusted clients. They usually include entertainment by geisha, but not always in modern times. Ryōtei are usually a place where very important business or political meetings can take place in private.

## Other websites

* New York Times article:  *In Tokyo's Ryotei, The Art of Service*
* *The Traditional Ryotei Are in Danger* at japaninc.com
# Netsuke

Netsuke from ivory
Orinigal netsuke
**Netsuke** is a Japanese miniature sculpture. It appeared in the 17th century. Originally It looked like a hanging keychain on Japanese traditional clothing called kimono. Netsuke was a button fastener on the cords of an inro box.

Netsuke is made of various materials: ivory, boxwood, metal, boar tusk, clay and so on.
# Hōei eruption

A drawing depicting the Hoei eruption
View from Susono City at the eastern foot of Mt. Fuji showing Mt. Hōei and Hōei Vent 1
View of Mt. Fuji from the south showing Hōei Vents (1, 2, and 3); and Mount Hōei (4)
Map of volcanic ash fall during the Hoei eruption
The **Hōei Eruption of Mount Fuji** (*Hōei dai funka*) started on December 16, 1707 (23rd day of the 11th month of the year Hōei 4) and ended about January 1, 1708 (9th day of the 12th month of the year Hōei 4) during the Edo period. There was no lava flow, but the Hoei eruption released at least 800 million cubic meters of volcanic ash. This ash spread over very large areas around the volcano. It even reached Edo almost 100 km away. Cinders and ash fell like rain in Izu, Kai, Sagami, and Musashi provinces. This eruption of Mount Fuji might have been caused by the 1707 Hōei earthquake
49 days earlier.

The eruption was on Mount Fuji's east–north-east slope and made three new volcanic openings called No. 1, No. 2, and No. 3 Hōei vents. The danger of the eruption increased over the next several days. After the first earthquake and explosion of cinders and ash, another stronger explosion happened a few days later. This explosion threw out rocks and stones. Mount Fuji has not erupted since; but scientists describe Fuji as an active volcano.

Hokusai's *One Hundred Views of Mount Fuji* includes an image of the small crater which developed from a secondary eruption site on the southwestern slope. This was called Hōeizan (Mount Hōei) because the eruption happened in year Hōei 4.

Today the crater can be visited from Fujinomiya Trail Archived 2008-07-31 at the Wayback Machine or Gotemba Trail Archived 2008-08-27 at the Wayback Machine of Mount Fuji.

## Related disasters

In the year after the Hōei eruption, another related disaster happened. The Sakawa River flooded. Sand from the volcano fell and widely covered the fields east of Mount Fuji. Farmers made sand piles by dumping the ash and sand from their fields. The rain washed away the sand piles from the dumping grounds and into the rivers again and again. This made some of the rivers shallower, especially the Sakawa. Enough ash had fallen to partly block the river. The ash made temporary dams. Heavy rainfall on August 7 and 8, 1708, caused an avalanche of volcanic ash and mud and broke the dams. The river flooded the Ashigara plain.

## Related pages

* Historic eruptions of Mount Fuji
* 1707 Hōei earthquake

## Other websites

* 富士山火山防災協議会 Archived 2006-03-14 at the Wayback Machine (Council for Fuji volcano disaster reduction)
* 富士山宝永噴火（1707）後の土砂災害(PDF) Archived 2007-09-27 at the Wayback Machine(Distribution of sediment disasters after the 1707 Hoei eruption of Fuji Volcano in central Japan, based on historical documents)
# Death march

A **death march** is a forced march of prisoners of war or other captives or deportees in which people are left to die along the way. It is distinguished from simple prisoner transport via foot march.
# Siege of Tsingtao

1914 Qingdao (also known as "**Tsingtao**"), China.
The **siege of Tsingtao** was a major conflict between the German Empire and Japan that happened in Shandong. This conflict was part of World War I ("WW1"). It started in August 1914, and ended in November 1914. Over 3,000 Germans were captured, and hundreds of Germans were killed. Japan lost more than 500 soldiers.

Japan decided to enter into WW1 to assist the British Empire, based on the Anglo-Japanese Alliance (1902). The British (1000+ soldiers) and the French helped Japan in this conflict. The Chinese helped neither side. The foreign minister of China - Sun Baoqi's policy was to remain neutral in this conflict.

## Background and collateral damage

1906
Before WW1, the Germans controlled "treaty ports" and territories in China. On the Japanese side, they were a naval super-power and had conquered Korea 4 years earlier.

During this conflict, the civilian sufferings included robbery, death penalty (mainly to speed up the advancement of troops of Japan) and rape of Chinese women. Also, the Germans treated the Chinese badly too, as the Germans lacked supplies.

## Result

The Germans were well prepared (had built many fortifications) but lost. The Japanese were organized and well equipped. The Japanese army had 23,000 soldiers. They outnumbered the Germans and took control of the city of Qingdao.

The big picture is that, in China, the German colonial power came to an end. Years later, the Japanese army reluctantly agreed to leave Shandong (Japan signed the 9 Power Treaty in 1922).
# University Press of Kansas

University Press of Kansas| Parent company | Kansas Board of Regents |
| Founded | 1946 |
| Country of origin | United States |
| Headquarters location | Lawrence, Kansas |
| Distribution | self-distributed (United States) Eurospan Group (EMEA) East-West Export Books (Asia, the Pacific) Scholarly Book Services (Canada) |
| Publication types | Books |
| Official website | kansaspress.ku.edu |

The **University Press of Kansas** is a publisher in Lawrence, KS that represents the six state universities in the US state of Kansas: Emporia State University, Fort Hays State University, Kansas State University (K-State), Pittsburg State University, the University of Kansas (KU), and Wichita State University.

## History

The press was created in 1946. There were big changes in 1967 and 1976. Today, it operates as a consortium with representation from each of the participating universities. The press is on the west part of the KU campus.

The press mostly publishes books about American politics and military history. They also publish books about the region around it.

## Other websites

* Official website
# Allied-occupied Austria

Allied-occupied Austria (German: Alliiert-besetztes Österreich) was very similar to Germany at the time as it was occupied by the same 4 countries (United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union and France) also it was part of Nazi Germany before The German Instrument of Surrender in 1945 and occupied for 10 years before gaining Independence as the Second Austrian Republic.
# New Zealand Defence Force

The **New Zealand Defence Force** (or **NZDF**) is the armed forces of New Zealand. It is divided into three parts: the New Zealand Army, the Royal New Zealand Navy, and the Royal New Zealand Air Force. The NZDF is headed by the Chief of Defence Force or CDF. The current CDF is Rhys Jones.

The original military of New Zealand in the 19th century was the British army. In the 1840s, residents in New Zealand started forming militia units. Starting in 1858, New Zealand formed small regular army units. The country formed a small flotilla in the 1860s for naval service. By 1941, the army, the navy, and the air force were separate services. The Defense Act 1990 created the NZDF.

## Related pages

* Military history of New Zealand