Rikunarita-ORG/Wikinium huggingface dataset:
# Political freedom

There are different ideas of freedom. In terms of politics, there are various large movements:

* Liberalism thinks that the freedom of each person is important. Things such as human rights, or a number of freedoms guaranteed by a constitution are achievements of liberal thinkers.
* Anarchism is against all forms of government. Anarchists think there should be no government.
* Conservatism thinks that the current institutions and organisation are a result of culture. It thinks that the concepts that are there are not bad, and that new structures and ideas should build on them.
* Socialism and Communism think that the working class has been exploited. According to Karl Marx personal liberty has been exchanged for the exchange of goods and services.
* Nationalism tries to put the own people first. One's own people should have the right to not be oppressed.
* In Totalitarianism, there is one leader (or a very small group of people) who determines what is good for the people.

## Related pages

* Internet censorship
# Hungarian forint

Hungarian forint| Magyar forint (Hungarian) |
| --- |
| The banknotes of the Hungarian forint |
| ISO 4217 |
| Code | HUF (numeric: 348) |
| Subunit | 0.01 |
| Unit |
| Plural | forintok (nominative only) |
| Symbol | Ft‎ |
| Denominations |
| Subunit |  |
|  ​1⁄100 | fillér (defunct) |
| Banknotes | 500 Ft, 1000 Ft, 2000 Ft, 5000 Ft, 10,000 Ft, 20,000 Ft |
| Coins |  |
|  Freq. used | 5 Ft, 10 Ft, 20 Ft, 50 Ft, 100 Ft, 200 Ft |
| Demographics |
| Date of introduction | 1 August 1946 |
| User(s) |  Hungary |
| Issuance |
| Central bank | Hungarian National Bank |
| Printer | Pénzjegynyomda Zrt. Budapest |
| Mint | Hungarian Mint Ltd. |
| Valuation |
| Inflation | 7.9% (January 2022) |
|  Source |  |

The **forint** (sign Ft; code HUF) is the currency of Hungary. It was formerly divided into 100 fillér, but fillér coins are no longer in circulation. The introduction of the forint on 1 August 1946 was a crucial step in the post-World War II stabilisation of the Hungarian economy, and the currency remained relatively stable until the 1980s. Transition to a market economy in the early 1990s made the forint less valuable; inflation peaked at 35% in 1991. As a member of the European Union, the long-term aim of the Hungarian government may be to replace the forint with the euro, although under the current government there is no target date for adopting the euro.
# Singlish

**Singlish** is a language used mostly in Singapore. It is the first language of many younger Singaporeans, especially those whose parents do not share a native language or dialect, and is the second language of nearly all the rest of the country's residents.

The vocabulary of Singlish consists of words originating from English, Malay (mainly Bahasa Melayu rather than Indonesian), Hokkien, Teochew, Cantonese, Tamil and to a lesser extent various other European, Indic and Sinitic languages, while Singlish syntax resembles southern varieties of Chinese. Also, elements of American and Australian slang have come through from imported television series. To date, other Asian languages like Japanese, Korean and other lesser known Chinese dialects such as Shanghainese have also been incorporated into Singlish. Recently, because Mandarin is taught to all Singaporean Chinese in school, Mandarin words have also become a part of Singlish. Singlish is a creole of English.

Singlish is closely related to Manglish of the nearby country Malaysia.

The Singaporean government wants people to use Singapore Standard English instead of Singlish because it believes in that Singaporeans need to be able to effectively communicate with the other English users in the world. The government runs the Speak Good English Movement to emphasise the point.

## Other websites

* Singapore Speak Good English Movement Archived 2008-07-04 at the Wayback Machine
* The Coxford Singlish Dictionary @ Talkingcock.com
* A Dictionary of Singlish and Singapore English Archived 2011-02-17 at the Wayback Machine
* Singapore Colloquial English (Singlish) Archived 2008-08-08 at the Wayback Machine
* An Annotated Bibliography of Works on Singapore English Archived 2021-03-08 at the Wayback Machine
* The NIE Corpus of Spoken Singapore English Archived 2021-03-08 at the Wayback Machine
* The Lim Siew Lwee Corpus of Informal Singapore Speech Archived 2021-03-07 at the Wayback Machine
* Taiwanese Celebrities Criticize Singaporean English
# Ivan Aivazovsky

The portrait of Ivan Aivazovsky, by Aleksey Tyranov, 1847
**Ivan Aivazovsky** (Russian: Иван Константинович Айвазовский, Armenian: Հովհաննես Այվազովսկի - Hovhannes Aivazovsky July 29, 1817 – May 5, 1900) was an Armenian painter, most famous for his seascapes, which make up more than half of his paintings.

## Gallery

* Moonlit Seascape with Shipwreck
* Storm
* Fishermen on the Shore
* View of Tiflis
* Landing at Subashi
* The Ninth Wave
* View of Monaco
* Battle of Chesma
# Extravehicular activity

Astronaut Ed White makes the first American spacewalk during Gemini 4 (June 1965)
**Extravehicular activity** (**EVA**) is when an astronaut or cosmonaut gets out of a spacecraft in outer space, then gets back in. "Extravehicular activity" usually refers to a **spacewalk** outside a spacecraft orbiting the Earth, but can also refer to a **moonwalk** on the surface of the Moon. Three Apollo astronauts made spacewalks between the Earth and the Moon while their spacecraft were returning to Earth.

Astronauts from Russia, the United States and China have done EVAs.

## First spacewalks

**Alexey Leonov**, a cosmonaut from the Soviet Union, made the first spacewalk on March 18, 1965. He spent 12 minutes outside the Voskhod 2 spacecraft. The first American to make a spacewalk was Edward H. White, II, who spent 36 minutes outside the Gemini 4 spacecraft on June 3, 1965.

The first moonwalk was made by Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin on July 21, 1969 (UTC), during the Apollo 11 trip to the Moon. This first Moon walk lasted for 2 hours and 32 minutes. Twelve human beings have walked on the surface of the Moon.

## Later history

Cosmonaut Sergey Volkov works outside the International Space Station on August 3, 2011.
In 1973, astronauts made spacewalks to repair Skylab, the first space station sent into space by the United States. Skylab had been damaged while it was being launched into space. Many spacewalks were made to build the International Space Station (ISS). Spacewalks are still made to maintain the ISS and fix it when there is a problem.

## Related pages

* Space suit

## Other websites

* NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project *Walking to Olympus: An EVA Chronology*
# Kharijites

**Kharijites** refers to an off-shoot sect that appeared during the late Rashidun Caliphate. The Ibadi movement is seen as a moderate form.

Coin struck between 694 and 695 CE by the Azariqa Kharijite leader Qatari ibn Fuja'a, mint in Jahrom
Sometimes, the term *Kharijite* (or *Neo-Kharijite*) is also used for some Islamic militant groups like ISIS and Takfir wal-Hijra in Egypt. Kharijites are also compared to modern Hadith rejectors.
# National Science Foundation

National Science Foundation| Seal of the National Science Foundation |
| Flag of the National Science Foundation |
| Agency overview |
| Formed | May 10, 1950 (1950-05-10) |
| Headquarters | Alexandria, Virginia, U.S. |
| Motto | Where Discoveries Begin |
| Employees | 1700 |
| Annual budget | $7.8 billion for 2018 |
| Agency executive | * France A. Córdova, Director
 |
| Website | www.NSF.gov |

The **National Science Foundation** (**NSF**) is a United States government agency where discoveries begin and supports fundamental research and education in all the non-medical fields of science and engineering. Its medical counterpart is the National Institutes of Health. With an annual budget of about US$6.87 billion (fiscal year 2010), the NSF funds approximately 20 percent of all federally supported basic research conducted by the United States' colleges and universities. In some fields, such as mathematics, computer science, economics and the social sciences, the NSF is the major source of federal backing.

The NSF's director, deputy director, and the 24 members of the National Science Board (NSB) are appointed by the President of the United States, and confirmed by the United States Senate. The director and deputy director are responsible for administration, planning, budgeting and day-to-day operations of the foundation, while the NSB meets six times a year to establish its overall policies.

## Other websites

 Media related to National Science Foundation at Wikimedia Commons

* NASA
* NSF website
* Royal Society
# Chelyabinsk meteor

The meteor over Chelyabinsk
The explosion of the meteor, as seen in Kamensk-Uralsky
The **Chelyabinsk meteor** (or 2013 Russian meteor event) happened on 15 February 2013 over Chelyabinsk, Russia at about 9:13 a.m. Chelyabinsk is near the Ural Mountains.

The meteor was moving at a speed of about 18 km/s (40,000 mph), it passed over the southern Ural region and exploded in the air over Chelyabinsk Oblast. The air burst occurred at approximately 15 to 25 km (10 to 15 mi) above the ground.

The total energy released was equivalent to nearly 500 kilotons of TNT (2.1 PJ), which would make it 20–30 times more powerful than the atomic bombs detonated at Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The meteor was significantly smaller than objects that are tracked through current efforts by space object scientists, and was not detected before atmospheric entry.

About 1,500 people were injured, mainly by glass from windows shattered by the shock wave; two were reported in serious condition. As many as 3,000 buildings in six cities across the region were damaged as a result of the explosion and impacts. The meteor created a dazzling light, bright enough to cast shadows during broad daylight in Chelyabinsk and to be seen as far away as Kazakhstan. Eyewitnesses also felt intense heat from the fireball.

The Chelyabinsk meteor is the largest object known to have entered the Earth's atmosphere since the 1908 Tunguska event, and the only such event known to have resulted in a large number of injuries.

The predicted close approach of the roughly 50 metre asteroid 2012 DA14 occurred about 15 hours later. Sodankylä Geophysical Observatory, NASA, Russian sources, and the European Space Agency, said the two events were not related because they had different trajectories.

No deaths have been reported. It is not related to an asteroid that was also near the Earth on that day.
# Alkali metal

| Atomic No. | Standard Atomic Weight | Name | Symbol | Picture |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 3 | 6.94 | Lithium | Li |  |
| 11 | 22.99 | Sodium | Na |  |
| 19 | 39.098 | Potassium | K |  |
| 37 | 85.468 | Rubidium | Rb |  |
| 55 | 132.91 | Caesium | Cs |  |
| 87 | [223] | Francium | Fr | − |

**Alkali metals** are the chemical elements in periodic table group 1, other than hydrogen. The term **group 1 element** can be used to include hydrogen.

They are silver-coloured when pure, soft and have only one valence electron. They like to make reactions in which they give up this single electron and then have a charge of +1. They react strongly with water and explode when wet, and because of this, they have to be stored in oil. Alkali metals are the first group (column) in the periodic table. They are never found in nature uncombined because they are unstable and they react fast to other elements. They bond well with all elements except the noble gases. When they are in air, they quickly turn black.

The alkali metals are lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium (K), rubidium (Rb), caesium (sometimes written *cesium*, although *caesium* is preferred) (Cs), and francium (Fr). Lithium is the least reactive. Although it was thought before that francium would be the most reactive, though it is very rare, it was more recently predicted that caesium is in fact more reactive than francium due to relativity.

The alkali metals
* Lithium is a very light metal. It is soft, silvery and you can cut it with a knife.

* Sodium is the most important alkali metal. One of the most important salts of sodium is sodium chloride (NaCl) (common 'table salt'). It also forms a hydroxide, sodium hydroxide (NaOH), which is commonly called 'caustic soda'. It is a very strong base.

* Potassium is commonly found in bananas.

* Rubidium is a metal that can make things like fireworks red.

* Caesium is a very heavy, poisonous metal and is the most reactive metal.

* Francium is a very dangerous, radioactive metal. Not much is known about it. However, based on the way the periodic table works, it might be like caesium.

All of the alkali metals explode in water due to their reactivity, but no one has ever seen francium in water. Once the francium is created, it only has 22 minutes before it decays into radium, and it's too radioactive to go near, so nobody has seen it in water.
# X-ray

An X-ray photograph of a person's lungs.
X-radiation is a kind of electromagnetic radiation. **X-rays** are waves of X-radiation. They have a shorter wavelength, and therefore more energy, than ultraviolet radiation. X-rays have a much shorter wavelength than visible light (the light that we can see). Radiation with shorter wavelengths (more energy) than the X-ray is called Gamma radiation (γ-rays). These are all parts of the electromagnetic spectrum.

The wavelength of X-rays covers a wide range. Most X-rays have a wavelength in the range of 0.01 to 10 nanometres. This corresponds with frequencies in the range 30 petahertz to 30 exahertz (3×1016 Hz to 3×1019 Hz) and energies in the range 100 eV to 100 keV.

X-rays can go through many solid materials. For this reason, taking photograms with X-rays is used in medicine in order to see bones and other things inside the body. Sometimes the term "X-ray" means these pictures instead of the radiation that makes them.

What these images show will depend on three things: Rayleigh scattering, Compton scattering and photoabsorption. The images show bone because it is dense enough that X-rays are not able to pass through it. Instead, the X-rays are either absorbed or scattered. The images do not show skin and muscle, however, because these tissues are transparent enough for the X-rays to pass through them without being absorbed too much. To detect tumors, other imaging devices are used; such as magnetic resonance imaging. A computed tomography scanner combines an X-ray machine and computer to construct a three dimensional (3D) picture. This has some ability to see other things besides bone.

X-rays are made by hitting metal with fast-moving electrons. They are photons, tiny packets of energy that can move atoms and change chemicals in the body. They are ionizing radiation but the things they do depend on the wavelength of the X-rays (or how much energy they have). X-rays with smaller energies ("soft" x-rays) cause the photoelectric effect. Mid-level energies cause Compton scattering. High-level energies ("hard" X-rays) cause pair production. X-rays used for making pictures of people have low to medium energy. Radiation therapy that treats cancer uses Compton scattering and sometimes Pair production.

There are small amounts of X-rays in the air. Like other energy in the air, X-rays can change living cells. Exposing the human body to high doses of X-rays for a long time is dangerous. It can cause cancer. However, cancer cells are hurt more easily, so X-rays are sometimes used to kill them.

## Related pages

* X-ray crystallography
* Interventional Radiology
* Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
# BepiColombo

*BepiColombo*| Artist's depiction of the *BepiColombo* mission, with the Mercury Planetary Orbiter (left) and Mercury Magnetospheric Orbiter (right) |
|  |
| Mission type | Planetary science |
| Operator | ESA **·** JAXA |
| COSPAR ID | 2018-080A |
| SATCAT no. | 43653 |
| Website | sci.esa.int/bepicolombo/ |
| Mission duration | Cruise: 7 years (planned)
Elapsed: 7 years, 7 months and 25 days |
|  |
|  |
| Spacecraft properties |
| Manufacturer | EADS Astrium **·** ISAS |
| Launch mass | 4,100 kg (9,040 lb) |
| BOL mass | MPO: 1,230 kg (2,710 lb) MMO: 255 kg (560 lb) |
| Dry mass | 2,700 kg (5,950 lb) |
| Dimensions | MPO: 2.4 × 2.2 × 1.7 m      (7.9 × 7.2 × 5.6 ft) MMO: 1.8 × 1.1 m      (5.9 × 3.6 ft) |
| Power | MPO: 150 W MMO: 90 W |
|  |
|  |
| Start of mission |
| Launch date | October 20, 2018 (2018-10-20) |
| Rocket | Ariane 5 ECA |
| Launch site | Guiana Space Centre |
| Contractor | Arianespace |
|  |
|  |
| Mercury orbiter |
| Spacecraft component | Mercury Planetary Orbiter |
| Orbital insertion | Planned: 5 December 2025 |
| Orbit parameters |
| Perihermion | 480 km (300 mi) |
| Apohermion | 1,500 km (930 mi) |
| Inclination | 90° |
| Mercury orbiter |
| Spacecraft component | Mercury Magnetospheric Orbiter |
| Orbital insertion | Planned: 5 December 2025 |
| Orbit parameters |
| Perihermion | 590 km (370 mi) |
| Apohermion | 11,640 km (7,230 mi) |
| Inclination | 90° |
|  |
| **Horizon 2000+**← *LISA Pathfinder*  |

**BepiColombo** is a joint mission of the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) to the planet Mercury. It launched on October 20, 2018 and it is planned to arrive at Mercury On December 5, 2025.
# Hayabusa2

Hayabusa2 (Japanese: はやぶさ2; "Peregrine falcon 2") is an asteroid sample-return mission owned by the Japanese state space agency JAXA. It replaced the *Hayabusa* mission, which returned asteroid samples for the first time in June 2010.

*Hayabusa2* was launched on 3 December 2014 and rendezvoused in space with near-Earth asteroid 162173 Ryugu on 27 June 2018. It surveyed the asteroid for a year and a half and took samples. It left the asteroid in November 2019 and returned the samples to Earth on 5 December 2020.

## Other websites

* Can a spacecraft land on a teeny tiny asteroid? Japan's Hayabusa2 will certainly try. September 18, 2025. Space.com
# Pixel

Pixels in the picture of a computer.
A **pixel** (short for **pic**ture **el**ement) is a single point in a picture. On the monitor of a computer, a pixel is usually a square. Every pixel has a color and all the pixels together are the picture. The color of a pixel can be stored by using a combination of red, green and blue (RGB) but other combinations are also possible, such as cyan, magenta, yellow and black (CMYK). A peice of art made with pixels is called Pixel art

This drawing is made with pixel art. This is not, however, Minecraft.
## The word "pixel"

The word "pixel" was first used in a paper by Frederic C. Billingsley in 1965. He did not create the word himself. He got it from Keith E. McFarland but Keith does not know where he got it from. Keith said that the word was in use in those days.

The word "pixel" uses "pix" as a shorter word (an abbreviation) for "picture". The word pix was first used in 1932 in Variety, a magazine. It was an abbreviation for "pictures" or movies. By 1938 the word "pix" was also used for pictures that did not move (still pictures).

The word "picture element" is even older. For example, the German word *Bildpunkt* (which means "picture point") was used in a 1888 patent of Paul Gottlieb Nipkow.

## Related pages

* Display resolution
* Raster graphics
# Planck (spacecraft)

*Planck*| Names | COBRAS/SAMBA |
|  |
| Mission type | Space telescope |
| Operator | ESA |
| COSPAR ID | 2009-026B |
| SATCAT no. | 34938 |
| Website | www.esa.int/planck |
| Mission duration | Planned: >15 months Final: 4 years, 5 months, 8 days |
|  |
|  |
| Spacecraft properties |
| Manufacturer | Thales Alenia Space |
| Launch mass | 1,950 kg (4,300 lb) |
| Payload mass | 205 kg (452 lb) |
| Dimensions | Body: 4.20 m × 4.22 m (13.8 ft × 13.8 ft) |
|  |
|  |
| Start of mission |
| Launch date | 14 May 2009, 13:12:02 (2009-05-14UTC13:12:02) UTC |
| Rocket | Ariane 5 ECA |
| Launch site | Guiana Space Centre, French Guiana |
| Contractor | Arianespace |
| Entered service | 3 July 2009 |
|  |
|  |
| End of mission |
| Disposal | Decommissioned |
| Deactivated | 23 October 2013, 12:10:27 (2013-10-23UTC12:10:28) UTC |
|  |
|  |
| Orbital parameters |
| Reference system | L2 point (1,500,000 km / 930,000 mi) |
| Regime | Lissajous |
|  |
|  |
| Main telescope |
| Type | Gregorian |
| Diameter | 1.9 m × 1.5 m (6.2 ft × 4.9 ft) |
| Wavelengths | 300 µm – 11.1 mm (frequencies between 27 GHz and 1 THz) |
|  |
|

| Instruments |
| --- |
| HFI | High Frequency Instrument |
| LFI | Low Frequency Instrument |

 |
| **Horizon 2000**← *Herschel*  |

Planck was a space observatory operated by the European Space Agency (ESA) from 2009 to 2013.

It mapped the anisotropies of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) at microwave and infra-red frequencies, with high sensitivity and small angular resolution.

The mission improved on observations made by the NASA Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP). *Planck* provided a major source of information about cosmology and astrophysics. It tested theories of the early Universe and the origin of cosmic structure.

Since the end of its mission, *Planck* has made the most precise measurements of several key numbers. These include the average density of ordinary matter and dark matter in the Universe, and the age of the universe. Planck is now switched off.
# Edmund Burke

Rt. Hon. Edmund Burke
**Edmund Burke** (12 January 1729-9 July 1797) was an important Irish politician, and writer. He became a member of the British Parliament with the Whigs in 1765.

Burke supported the American Revolution. He opposed the French Revolution for killing Catholics and other dissenters. His most famous book was *Reflections on the Revolution in France*, which created many of the ideas in conservatism.

## Other websites

* Works by Edmund Burke at Project Gutenberg (including his collected works in 12 volumes)