# Nôm

|  |
| --- |
|  |
| Nôm |
| This is the Nôm character for rice noodle soup, or *phở*, a popular dish in Vietnam. The radical for this character is 米 (meaning rice) and the remainder is 頗. A radical classifies a character by meaning while a remainder indicates pronunciation. |
| Vietnamese name |
| Vietnamese | *chữ Nôm* |
| Hán-Nôm | 字喃 |
|  |

**Nôm** is a script formerly used in Vietnam. It involved the use of Chinese characters to write Vietnamese. The Van Ban bell, engraved in 1076, is the earliest known example of a Nôm inscription. The earliest surviving Nôm literature dates from the 13th century. The script was in common use until the 1920s. It was replaced by the Vietnamese alphabet. The Vietnamese alphabet is a form of the Latin alphabet.

Classical Chinese was used by the royal court and for other official purposes. The Temple of Literature in Hanoi was the best-known school for the study of Chinese. Students who passed the civil service examinations could go on to become magistrates. Confucian scholars saw Chinese as the language of education and looked down on Nôm, while popular opinion favored Nôm. Only a small percentage of the population was literate in any language, but nearly every village had at least one person who could read Nôm.

In Nôm, a Vietnamese word can be written using a Chinese character for a word with a similar meaning or pronunciation. Each character represents an idea. Such characters are called "ideographs." In addition, each character represents a syllable or sound. Because traditional characters have this dual property, nearly every syllable in modern Vietnamese has acquired a semantic meaning. Like Chinese, Vietnamese is a tonal language. Since the issue of tone does not arise for Japanese or Korean, native phonetic scripts could develop for these languages without this complicating factor.

Sino-Vietnamese characters were eventually displaced by an alphabetic script. Unlike alphabets used elsewhere, the Vietnamese alphabet has marks to indicate tone. In contrast to South Korea and Japan, modern Vietnam does not require students to study traditional characters. Fewer than 100 scholars worldwide can read Nôm. Vietnamese literature written in Nôm, including classics like *Tale of Kieu* and the poetry of Ho Xuan Huong, can now be read only in translation. However, character calligraphy remains popular as a home decoration and as a symbol of good luck. The Han-Nom Institute, founded in 1970, collects and studies relevant manuscripts. The Nôm Ideographs were added to Unicode in 2001.

## Language issues

Chinese characters are used to write various languages in China and elsewhere, including Mandarin, the most widely spoken language in China, Cantonese, spoken in Hong Kong and southern China, and Classical Chinese, traditionally used for formal writing. The characters were formerly used in Korea and Vietnam. Japan uses a mix of Chinese characters and native phonetic script. Even characters that retain their original meaning in all languages may be read in various ways. The character 十 is given as *shí* in Chinese Romanization (pinyin), *jū* in Japanese Romanization (Hepburn), *sip* in Korean Romanization (Revised Romanization), and *thập* in the Han-Viet system used in Vietnam. In all these languages, the meaning of the character is “ten.”

### Syntax

Modifiers normally come before the noun in Chinese, but follow the noun in vernacular Vietnamese. Chinese texts published in Vietnam often included a line-by-line translation into Nôm. Even when the same characters appear in both languages, the order is different. Many Chinese phrases gained currency as loan words. Later, the word order could be reversed to correspond to normal Vietnamese syntax. The word "Vietnam" is from the Chinese *Nányuè* (南越), meaning “Southern Yue”. In Han-Viet, the same characters are read as *Nam Việt*. The word order was reversed in modern times. In Chinese, the phrase “Chinese characters” is written 漢字. This is romanized as *hànzì* in pinyin, kanji in Japanese, hanja in Korean, and *Hán tự* in Han-Viet. In modern Vietnamese, they are *chữ Hán*.

### Character construction

The majority of the characters used in Nôm are of Chinese origin and are composed phonosemantically. For example, the character "喃" is read as "*Nôm*", whose phonetic component "南" is similar to the Cantonese pronunciation *Naam4* and means “chattering.” This rule is consistent in all Chu Nôm characters as all Vietnamese-made characters are composed using this method. The word "Nôm" does not have any negative connotation in Vietnamese, but rather suggests plain talk, something easy to understand.

Nôm includes thousands of characters not found in Chinese. In contrast, Japan developed only a few hundred kokuji, and Korea just a handful of rarely used gukja. These characters were created by authors who combined pre-existing elements. One element, called the *semantic component*, indicates the character's meaning, either pictographically or ideographically. The other element, called the *phonetic component*, gives pronunciation. For example, the reading *ba* is indicated by the character 巴. In Mandarin, this character has the same pronunciation as in Vietnamese, but its meaning is unrelated: "to long for." For the character 𠀧 (⿺巴三), the character 三 which means "three" is added as the semanic component. "Father" is also *ba*, but written as 爸 (⿱父巴). "Turtle" is *con ba ba* (昆蚆蚆; ⿰虫巴). Most Chinese characters were created by the same method. As the correspondence between sound and meaning is compounded in Vietnamese-created characters than it is in Chinese characters, the same approach resulted in two distinctions between Nôm characters; chữ Nôm (字喃; native characters) and Hán Nôm (漢喃; Han characters).

Of the 9,299 Nôm Ideographs, nearly half are specific to Vietnam. Each character has a codepoint assigned by Unicode. The characters for the V0, V1, and V2 sets were extracted from two Nôm dictionaries published in the 1970s. The V3 characters were extracted from manuscripts.

| Nôm Ideographs |
| --- |
| Ideograph | Semantic component | Phonetic component | Reading | English | Status in Chinese | Codepoint | V Source | Total in set |
| 𠊚 | 人 | 㝵 | người | people | None | U+2029B | V0 | 2,246 |
| 𤤰 | 王 | 布 | vua | king | None | U+24930 |
| 妖 | 女 | 夭 | yêu | to love | GB 2312 | U+5996 | V1 | 3,311 |
| 越 | 走 | 戉 | Việt | Vietnamese | GB 2312 | U+8D8A |
| 𠶡 | 口 | 𥐧 | trối | dying wish | None | U+20DA1 | V2 | 3,205 |
| 㐱 | 人 | 彡 | chỉn or xỉn | Used in *bủn xỉn* (stingy) | HDZ, Kangxi | U+3431 |
| 𡮲 | 小 | 詩 | thơ | early childhood | None | U+21BB2 | V3 | 535 |
| 𧹼 | 赤 | 都 | đỏ | red | None | U+27E7C |
| **Key**: GB 2312-80 is the basic character set for modern Chinese. HDZ (*Hanyu Da Zidian*) and the *Kangxi Dictionary* are comprehensive Chinese character dictionaries.
**Sources**: The Unicode Consortium & 1991-2013 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFThe\_Unicode\_Consortium1991-2013 (help), The Unicode Consortium 2012. The readings are from the Vietnamese Nôm Preservation Foundation. |

## History

A page from *The Tale of Kieu* by Nguyen Du. This novel was first published in 1820, and it is the best-known work in Nôm. The edition shown was printed in the late 19th century.
Chinese characters were introduced to Vietnam after the Han Empire conquered the country in 111 BC. Independence was achieved in 939, but the Chinese writing system was adopted for official purposes in 1010. Vietnamese began to use Chinese characters to write in their language at about this time. The Van Ban bell, engraved in 1076, is the earliest known example of a Nôm inscription. Nguyen Thuyen composed Nôm poetry in the 13th century. However, none of his work has survived. The oldest surviving Nôm text is the collected poetry of King Tran Nhan Tong, written in the 13th century. Many Nôm documents were destroyed by the Chinese during the Ming occupation of 1407-1428. Nguyen Trai (1380–1442) wrote both Chinese and Nôm literature in the 15th century. Trinh Thi Ngoc Truc, consort of King Le Than Tong, is credited with a 24,000-character bilingual Chinese-to-Vietnamese dictionary written in the 17th century.

Unlike Chinese, Nôm was not studied or classified systematically for most of its history. Vietnamese authors who had studied Chinese applied the principles of Chinese writing to their native language. Although official records were generally kept in Chinese, Nôm was used under two short-lived dynasties, the Ho dynasty (1400-1407) and the Tay Son (1778–1802). King Minh Mang (1820-1841) opposed literacy and the use of Nôm. In 1838, Jean-Louis Taberd wrote a Nôm dictionary that eventually gained general acceptance and wide circulation. In 1867, Catholic scholar Nguyen Truong To petitioned King Tu Duc to replace Classical Chinese with Nôm in official usage. The king did not consent to this, but he did respond with various efforts to promote Nôm. A decree was issued entitled "Please respect *quốc âm* [the national voice]."

In the 19th century, there was a flowering of popular literature written in Nôm, including such classics as Nguyen Du's *The Tale of Kieu* and the poetry of Ho Xuan Huong. Although only 3 to 5 percent of the population was literate, nearly every village had someone who could read Nôm aloud for the benefit of other villagers.

In Korea and Japan, the traditional writing system was simplified so it could be taught to the general public. Vietnam's educated class looked down on Nôm as inferior to Chinese, so it was not interested in doing the work required to simplify and standardize the system so that it could be used for mass communication.

Like Chinese, Vietnamese is a tonal language. It has nearly 5,000 distinct syllables, far more than other East Asian languages do. Phonetic scripts used elsewhere, including hangul in Korea and kana in Japan, do not indicate tone, so they cannot be applied to the Vietnamese language. As in Chinese, a semantic meaning is attributed to every syllable. This characteristic of the language may be considered a result of the traditional writing system.

The blue script is modern Vietnamese, while the characters in brown and green are Nôm. Characters that are also used in Chinese are shown in green, while those specific to Vietnam are in brown. It says, "My mother eats vegetarian food at the temple every Sunday."
Beginning in the late 19th century, the French colonial authorities promoted the use of the Vietnamese alphabet, which they viewed as a stepping stone toward learning French. Language reform in other Asian nations stimulated Vietnamese interest in the subject. Following the Russo-Japanese War of 1905, Japan was often cited as a model for Asian modernization. Nationalists embraced the alphabet as *quốc ngữ* (the national language), and as a tool for promoting literacy. The Confucian education system was compared unfavorably to the Japanese system of public education. Nationalist writer Phan Boi Chau encouraged the young to "study in the East," meaning Japan.

The popularity of Hanoi's short-lived Tonkin Free School suggested that broad reform was possible. In 1910, the colonial school system adopted a "Franco-Vietnamese curriculum," which emphasized French and alphabetic Vietnamese. The teaching of Sino-Vietnamese characters was discontinued in 1917. On December 28, 1918, King Khai Dinh declared that the traditional writing system no longer had official status. The civil service exam was given for the last time at the imperial capital of Hue on January 4, 1919. This exam tested knowledge of Chinese. The examination system, and the education system based on it, had been in effect for almost 900 years. China itself abandoned Classical Chinese soon afterward as part of the May Fourth Movement.

In the 1920s, the Vietnamese alphabet became the country’s dominant writing system. By the 1930s, the use of Sino-Vietnamese characters was largely restricted to books with limited woodbock printings intended for the Buddhist clergy. In more recent times, traditional characters have been used mainly in calligraphy, such as wedding decorations. In 2012, manuscripts in Classical Chinese were translated to support Vietnam's claim to the Paracel Islands.

## Most common characters

The following are the twenty-five most common characters in Nôm literature. The modern spelling is given in italics.

* 羅 *là* to be
* 吧 *và* and
* 各 *các* each; every
* 没 *một* one
* 固 *có* there is
* 𧵑 *của* of
* 得 *được* to get
* 𥪝 *trong* in
* 𤄯 *trong* clear
* 𠊛 or 𠊚 *người* people
* 忍 *những* (plural marker)
* 學 *học* to learn
* 如 *như* as
* 詞 *từ* word
* 會 *hội* to meet
* 咍 *hay* or; good
* 空 *không* not
* 体 *thể* body
* 四 *tư* four
* 拱 *cũng* also
* 𠇍 *với* with
* 朱 *cho* to give
* 社 *xã* society, company
* 尼 *này, nơi* place
* 底 *để* to place

* Hanna, William C. (1997), *Asia's orthographic dilemma*, Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 978-0824818920
* Hồ Lê, ed. (1976), *Bảng tra chữ Nôm* [Nôm Index], Hanoi: Institute of Linguistics, Social Sciences Publishing House, archived from the original on 2013-11-05, retrieved 2013-12-11. This book lists 8,187 Nôm characters.
* Hoang Trang-Lan Nguyen (Feb 14, 2012), "Vietnamese neglect Han-Nom heritage", *Viet Nam News*, Hanoi, archived from the original on 2013-10-29, retrieved 2013-12-11
* Hoàng Triều Ân (2003), *Tự điển chữ Nôm Tày* [Nôm of the Tay People], Hanoi: Social Sciences Publishing House
* Institute of Hán-Nôm Studies; Vietnamese Nôm Preservation Foundation (2008), *Kho Chữ Hán Nôm Mã Hoá* [Hán Nôm Coded Character Repertoire], Hanoi: Social Sciences Publishing House
* Khắc Mạnh Trịnh (2006), *Nghiên cứu chữ Nôm: Kỷ yếu Hội nghị Quốc tế về chữ Nôm*, Institute of Han-Nom Studies, Vietnamese Nôm Preservation Foundation
* Lê Quý Ngưu; Trương Đình Tín (2007), *Đại Tự Điển Chữ Nôm* [The Great Nôm Dictionary], Ho Chi Minh City: Hứa Tuấn. This is the most comprehensive Nôm dictionary with over 19,000 characters.
* Ngô Thanh Nhàn, *Nôm Proper Code Table: Version 2.1* (PDF) This includes the character list for V0, the original 1993 Nôm standard.
* Nguyễn Hữu Vinh (2009), *Tự điển chữ Nôm trích dẫn* [Dictionary of Nôm Characters with Excerpts], Westminster, Calif.: Institute of Vietnamese Studies
* Nguyễn Quang Hồng, ed. (2006), *Tự điển chữ Nôm* [Nôm Dictionary], Hanoi: Education Publishing House. Hồng was the leader of the Nôm encoding project. This dictionary contains 12,000 entries.
* Nguyễn Quang Hồng (2008), *Giới thiệu Kho chữ Hán Nôm mã hoá* [Encoding of Han-Nom Fonts], Hanoi: Social Sciences Publishing House
* Nhóm Nôm Na (5 July 2005), "Quy trình Nôm Na: *Giúp đọc Nôm và Hán Việt* và chữ Nôm trên mạng", *Tạp chí Nghiên cứu và Thảo luận* (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on 24 August 2016, retrieved 11 December 2013. This article tells how the Nom Na Tong font was created.
* Noboyuki, Matsuo (1998), "The Han Nom Institute, Hanoi", *Asian Research Trends: a Humanities and Social Science Review*, Tokyo: Yunesuko Higashi Ajia Bunka Kenkyū Sentā, p. No. 8–10, p. 140
* Marr, David G. (1984), *Vietnamese Tradition on Trial, 1920-1945*, Berkeley: University of California Press, ISBN 978-0520050815
* McLeod, Mark W; Thi Dieu Nguyen (2001), *Culture and Customs of Vietnam*, Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group, ISBN 978-0313361135
* Phùng Thành Chủng (2009), *Hướng tới 1000 năm Thăng Long-Hà Nội*, archived from the original on 2009-12-15, retrieved 2013-12-11
* Đình Quyền Vương (2002), *Văn bản quản lý nhà nước và công tác công văn, giấy tờ thời phong kiến Việt Nam*, Hanoi: National Political Publishing House
* Taberd, A. J. L. (1838), *Dictionarium Anamitico-Latinum*, Bengal, India: J. Marshnam
* Terrell, Peter (2002), *Langenscheidt's Pocket Dictionary Vietnamese*, Berlin, Munich: Langenscheidt Publishing Group, ISBN 9781585730599
* Thanh Nhàn Ngô (2005), *Manual, the Nôm Na Coded Character Set*, Hanoi: Nôm Na Group Ngô's group was sponsored by the Nôm Foundation. This work was later integrated into the *Hán Nôm Coded Character Repertoire* (2008).
* Trần Nghĩa; Gros, Franỗois (1993), "*Di sản Hán Nôm Việt Nam [The Han-Nom literary heritage of Vietnam]*", *Tạp chí Hán Nôm [Journal of Han-Nom Studies]*, **1** (14) This is a comprehensive bibliography.
* Trần Văn Kiệm (2004), *Giúp đọc Nôm và Hán Việt* [Help with Nôm and Han-Viet], Đà Nẵng Publishing House, Vietnamese Nôm Preservation Foundation. This book contains 17,761 Sino-Vietnamese characters. (Nhóm Nôm Na 2005)
* The Unicode Consortium (1991–2013), *Unihan Database*
* The Unicode Consortium (1995–2013), *Unibook Character Browser*
* The Unicode Consortium (2006), "Han Unification History" (PDF), *The Unicode Standard, Version 5.0*
* The Unicode Consortium (August 12, 2012), *CJK E V8.1 M Set* (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on September 7, 2020, retrieved December 11, 2013
* Viết Luân Chu (2003), *Thanh Hóa, thế và lực mới trong thế kỷ XXI*, Hanoi: National Political Publishing House
* "Ancient Han documents on Hoang Sa Islands translated", *Viet Nam News*, September 27, 2012, archived from the original on October 31, 2013, retrieved December 11, 2013
* "Hoi An to teach calligraphy for free", *VietnamNet*, Hanoi, July 18, 2011, archived from the original on October 31, 2013, retrieved December 11, 2013
* Vũ Văn Kính (1994), *Bảng tra chữ Nôm miền Nam* [Table of Nôm in the South]
* Vũ Văn Kính (1999), *Đại tự chữ Nôm* [Great Nôm Dictionary], Trung tâm Học liệu This is the most widely available Nôm reference. It is an updated version of Vũ Văn Kính’s 1971 work.
* Vũ Văn Kính; Nguyễn Quang Xỷ (1971), *Tự điển chữ Nôm* [Nôm Dictionary], Saigon`{{citation}}`: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)

## Fonts

Some characters in this article may require the installation of an additional font to display properly:

* Hanamin B Archived 2013-12-27 at the Wayback Machine  – This Japanese font supports nearly 90,000 characters, including those in Unicode CJK Extension C.
* Nom Na Tong “Nôm Na Tống Light” – created by the Vietnamese Nôm Preservation Foundation. It is based on characters found in *Thiền Tông Bản Hạnh* (The Origin of Buddhist Meditation, 1933) by Thanh Tu Thich. (Nhóm Nôm Na 2005).
* NomNaTongLight – This font, created by the Vietnamese Nôm Preservation Foundation, is based on characters found in traditional Vietnamese woodblock prints.
* Han Nom Font Set  – This open-source font supports over 70,000 Unicode CJK codepoints.
* Fonts for Chu Nom. How to display and use Han-Nom characters.

## Other websites

* Chunom.org Archived 2020-12-19 at the Wayback Machine "This site is about Chu Nom, the old writing system of Vietnam."
* Vietnamese Nôm Preservation Foundation. Features a dictionary with the complete set of Sino-Vietnamese characters.
* Han-Nom Collection Archived 2013-04-03 at the Wayback Machine, digitized manuscripts held by the National Library of Vietnam.
* Han-Nom Research Institute Archived 2013-02-23 at the Wayback Machine
* *Tạp chí Hán Nôm Archived 2013-11-01 at the Wayback Machine* [Journal of Han-Nom Studies]
* Ngành Hán Nôm Archived 2013-12-11 at the Wayback Machine. A four-year program in Han-Nom is offered at the University of Social Sciences and Humanities of Ho Chi Minh City.
* Cách Gõ Chữ Hán Nôm - WinVNKey Software to allow the entry of Han-Nom characters by reading.
* 倉頡之友《倉頡平台2012》 Archived 2013-12-14 at the Wayback Machine Cangjie input method for Windows that allows keyboard entry of all Unicode CJK characters by character shape. Supports over 70,000 characters. Users may add their own characters and character combinations.