Rikunarita-ORG/Wikinium huggingface dataset:
# Centimetre–gram–second system of units

The **centimetre-gram-second system** (abbreviated **CGS** or **cgs**) is a variant of the metric system. The derived units are on the centimeter as the unit of length, the gram as a unit of mass and the second as a unit of time. The system evolved in the nineteenth century when it was used to define both electrical and mechanical units.

The cgs units of energy and force are the *dyne* and the *erg*.

* The *dyne* is defined as the force needed to accelerate a mass of one gram by one centimetre per second squared (cm s-2).
* The *erg* is defined as the work done when a mass of one gram is moved a distance of one centimetre against a force of one dyne.

The coherent cgs unit of pressure was the *barye* (symbol Ba). A *bayre* is one dyne per square centimeter.
Many non-coherent units of pressure were used in the cgs system. They include:

* The *atmosphere* (atm). A standard atmosphere is 1.01325×106 Ba.
* *Millimetres of mercury* (mmHg). One millimeter of mercury is 133.32 Ba.

The dyne and the erg were used to define the units for electrical quantities. Two different forms of cgs units were developed. One form was developed for electrostatic units and another for electromagnetic units. Electrical engineering units were based on the MKS (metre-kilogram-second) system instead of the CGS system.

During the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries many other units were defined using cgs units. In 1960 the BIPM published the International System of Units (SI) which was based on the metre, the kilogram, the second and the ampere. SI has now replaced the CGS system of units in most applications.
# Cyrillic script

Cyrillic alphabet
The **Cyrillic script**, sometimes called the **Slavonic script** or **Slavic script**, is a writing system. It is used to write Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Rusyn, Bulgarian, Macedonian and most South Slavic languages. It was developed in the Bulgarian empire during the reign of Tsar Simeon I. The Soviet Union made many non-Slavic languages in the Caucasus, Siberia, Central Asia and in northern Russia to be written in Cyrillic.

## History

Old Church Slavonic was the original language of the Slavic people, and it was used for Russian Orthodox Church. In the 9th century, two monks, St. Cyril and St. Methodius, were missionaries in Eastern Europe. When they preached to the Slavic peoples, they invented the Glagolitic alphabet, an early form of Cyrillic.

John 3:16 in Old Church Slavonic
During the 18th century, Nikolay Karamzin added Э, Й and Ё.

In 1708, Peter the Great added lowercase forms to the letters.

After the October Revolution, the Communist Party changed the Cyrillic alphabet for the Russian language so it would be easier for Soviet citizens to learn how to read and write. The letters I/i, Ѣ/ѣ, Ѳ/ѳ, and Ѵ/ѵ were all removed from Russian.

In 1991, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan decided to drop the Cyrillic script and adopt the Latin script.

## Related pages

* Roman alphabet
# Computer hardware

**Computer hardware** or **hardware** means the physical parts that make up a computer.

Some examples are:

* Central processing unit (CPU)
* Random-access memory (RAM)
* Power supply unit (PSU)
* Motherboard
* Graphics processing unit (GPU)
* Network card
* Peripheral equipment
	+ Modem
	+ USB flash drive
	+ Hard drive
	+ Computer monitor
	+ Keyboard
	+ Computer mouse

Hardware needs software to tell it what to do. Without software, the hardware cannot be used.
# Max Newman

| Max Newman |
| --- |
| Max Newman in North Wales, c. 1950 |
| Born | Maxwell Herman Alexander Neumann (1897-02-07)7 February 1897 Chelsea, London |
| Died | 22 February 1984(1984-02-22) (aged 87) Cambridge |
| Nationality | British |
| Alma mater | St John's College, Cambridge |
| Known for | *Elements of the topology of plane sets of points* Newman's lemma Newmanry section at Bletchley Park Heath Robinson (codebreaking machine) Colossus computer Newman problem |
| Awards | Fellow of the Royal Society (1939) Sylvester Medal (1958) De Morgan Medal (1962) |
| **Scientific career** |
| Fields | Mathematics |
| Institutions | St John's College, Cambridge University of Manchester Princeton University |
| Doctoral students | Thomas Graham, Hubert Griffiths, Sze-Tsen Hu, Gilbert Robinson, Hsien Chung Wang |
|  |

**Maxwell Herman Alexander "Max" Newman**, FRS (7 February 1897 – 22 February 1984) was a British mathematician and codebreaker. He was Jewish. He started the Royal Society Computing Machine Laboratory at the University of Manchester. This laboratory made the first working modern computer. The computer stored programs in 1948. This computer was called the Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine.
# William Shockley

| William Shockley |
| --- |
|  |
| Born | William Bradford Shockley Jr. (1910-02-13)February 13, 1910 London, England, UK |
| Died | August 12, 1989(1989-08-12) (aged 79) Stanford, California, US |
| Nationality | American |
| Alma mater | * Caltech (BS, 1932)
* MIT (PhD, 1936)
 |
| Known for | * Point-contact transistor and GJT
* Diffused-base transistor
* Heterojunction bipolar transistor
* Thyristor
* BARITT diode
* Shockley diode
* Junction theory
* BJT theory
* FET theory
* Deathnium
* Deep-level trap
* Deformation potential theory
* Empty lattice approximation
* Gradual channel approximation
* Lucky electron model
* Hot electron theory
* Channel length modulation
* Process variation
* Ion implantation
* Low-level injection
* Through-silicon via
* Transmission line measurement
* Shockley diode equation
* Shockley–Read–Hall recombination
* Shockley partials
* Shockley–Ramo theorem
* Shockley states
* Shockley–James paradox
* Shockley–Queisser limit
* Haynes–Shockley experiment
* Read–Shockley equation
* Van Roosbroeck–
Shockley equation
 |
| Awards | * Nobel Prize in Physics (1956)
* Comstock Prize in Physics (1953)
* Oliver E. Buckley Condensed Matter Prize (1953)
* Wilhelm Exner Medal (1963)
* IEEE Medal of Honor (1980)
 |
| **Scientific career** |
| Institutions | * Bell Labs
* Shockley Semiconductor Stanford University
* Columbia University
 |
| Doctoral advisor | John C. Slater |
|  |

**William Bradford Shockley Jr.** (February 13, 1910 – August 12, 1989) was an American physicist and inventor. He was the manager of a research group at Bell Labs. He won the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics.

## Early life

Shockley was born to American parents in London on February 13, 1910, and was raised in his family's hometown of Palo Alto, California. Shockley was homeschooled up to the age of eight because Shockley's history of violent tantrums. Shockley learned some physics at a young age from a neighbor who was a Stanford physics professor.

## Controversial views

While a professor of electrical engineering at Stanford University, Shockley became a supporter of eugenics. He is known as a controversial Nobel winner.

Shockley was a candidate for the Republican nomination in the 1982 United States Senate election in California. He ran because he was against the "dysgenic threat" that he believed African-Americans and other groups created.

In the last twenty years of his life, Shockley, who had no degree in genetics, became widely known for his extreme views on race and human intelligence. He was a strong supporter of eugenics. He said that a higher rate of reproduction among less intelligent people was having a dysgenic effect, and argued that a drop in average intelligence would lead to a decline in civilization. He also claimed that black people were not as smart as white people.

## Death

Shockley died of prostate cancer on August 12, 1989 at the age of 79. He did not have a good relationship with his family when he died. His children learned of his death by reading his obituary in the newspaper.
# Microcontroller

The integrated circuit from an Intel 8742, an 8-bit microcontroller that includes a CPU running at 12 MHz, 128 bytes of RAM, 2048 bytes of EPROM, and I/O in the same chip.
A **microcontroller** (abbreviated **MCU** or **µC**) is a computer system on a chip that does a job. It contains an integrated processor, memory (a small amount of RAM, program memory, or both), and programmable input/output peripherals, which are used to interact with electronic components connected to the chip. A **microcontroller** is different than a microprocessor, which only contains a CPU (the kind used in a Personal Computer).

First released in 1971 by the Intel company, microcontrollers began to become popular in their first few years. The extremely useful Intel 8008 microprocessor was then released, but it was still impractical because of high cost for each chip. These first microcontrollers combined different types of computer memory on one unit. After people began to see how useful they were, micro controllers were constantly being upgraded, with people trying to find new ways to make them better. Cost was reduced over time and by the early 2000s, microcontrollers were widely used across the world.

Other terms for a microcontroller are embedded system and embedded controller, because the microcontroller and its support circuits are often built into, or embedded in, a single chip.

In addition to the usual arithmetic and logic elements of a general microprocessor, the microcontroller also has additional elements such as RAM for data storage, read-only memory for program storage, flash memory for permanent data storage, and other devices (peripherals).

Microcontrollers often operate at very low speed compared to microprocessors used in smartphones and personal computers. Clock speeds may be as little as 32 kHz, but this is useful for typical applications. They consume very little power (milliwatts or even micro watts).

Microcontrollers are used in automatic products and devices, such as car engine systems, remote controls, machines, appliances, power tools, and toys. These are called embedded systems. Microcontrollers can also be found at work in solar power and energy harvesting, anti-lock braking systems in cars, and have many uses in the medical field as well.

Like other integrated circuits, microcontrollers are designed on special masks, and are later treated with ultraviolet light, which creates special traces (usually made out of silicon) that build up different parts of the integrated circuit. Modern microcontrollers may use technology producing silicon traces as small as 2µm.

## Related pages

* Arduino
* Atmel AVR
* Intel
* Microprocessor
* CPU
* Texas Instruments
# Trackball

The Kensington Expert Mouse trackball
In computing, a **trackball** is a pointing input device. It consists of a ball held by a socket containing sensors to detect a rotation of the ball about two axes. It is like an upside-down mouse with a ball that sticks out. The user rolls the ball with the thumb, fingers or the palm of the hand to move a cursor and can click one of two buttons (identical to mouse buttons) near the trackball to select desktop objects or position the cursor for text entry. Currently only three major companies: Logitech, A4Tech and Kensington make many of them. Microsoft was once a major producer.

Large trackballs are sometimes seen on computerized special-purpose workstations, such as the radar consoles in an air traffic control room, or sonar equipment on a ship or submarine, or computer-aided design. Potentiometers capture the trackball orientation.

Many notebook and laptop computers in the late 20th century used a small trackball. It was usually located in front of the keyboard toward the user. IBM's ThinkPad series of notebook computers use a "pointing stick", called a TrackPoint, that is integrated into the middle of the keyboard keys.
# Audio editing software

## For use with music

Editors designed for use with music typically allow the user to do the following:

* The ability to import and export various audio file formats for editing
* Record audio from one or more inputs and save the recording
* Edit the start time, stop time, and duration of any sound on the audio timeline
* Fading into/out of or in-between audio clips.
* Mix multiple sound sources/tracks, combine them at various volume levels and pan from channel to channel to one or more output tracks
* Apply simple or advanced effects or filters, including compression, expansion, flanging, reverb, audio noise reduction, and equalization to change the audio
* Playback sound (often after being mixed) that can be sent to one or more outputs, such as speakers, additional processors, or a recording medium
* Conversion between different audio file formats, or between different sound quality levels

Typically these tasks can be performed in a manner that is non-linear. Each time the edited audio is played back, it is reconstructed from the original source and the specified editing steps.
# Subroutine

In computer programming, a **subroutine** (also called procedure, function, or method) is code that is grouped together to do specific tasks. The purpose is to perform a series of instructions to complete the task. Subroutines are smaller groups of a larger program, that can have many subroutines. They can be re-used by other programs and programmers, hence saving time and helping to be organized.

Subroutines are commonly paired with parameters, a type of variable used as input. After changes are made by the code, there will be a result, that completes the task.
# Machine learning

**Machine learning** gives computers the ability to learn without being explicitly programmed (Arthur Samuel, 1959). It is a subfield of computer science.

The idea came from work in artificial intelligence. Machine learning explores the study and construction of algorithms which can learn and make predictions on data. Such algorithms follow programmed instructions, but can also make predictions or decisions based on data. They build a model from sample inputs.

Machine learning is done where designing and programming explicit algorithms cannot be done. Examples include spam filtering, detection of artificial neural network intruders or malicious insiders working towards a data breach, optical character recognition (OCR), search engines and computer vision.

Using machine learning has risks. Some algorithms create a final model which is a black box. Models have been criticized for biases in hiring, criminal justice, and recognizing faces.

## Overview

Learning algorithms try to predict what will happen in the future with patterns from the past. These predictions can be obvious: for example, if the sun rose for the past 10,000 days, it will probably rise again. These predictions can also be more complex. An example of a complex prediction is facial recognition (knowing who someone is by looking at face).

Machine learning programs can do things that it hasn't been told to do by a programmer. Machine learning programs will be shown some patterns. These patterns will be an input (such as a question) and an output (the answer to the question). Then, the machine learning program will predict the output based on the input. Machine learning isn't always necessary. Computers can do simple tasks by being told instructions. However, sometimes there are a lot of things that control the output. Then, it is hard for a human to tell the computer all of the instructions. It is sometimes easier to tell the computer how to teach itself.

There are a lot of different ways to tell the computer to teach itself. When a problem has a lot of answers, different answers can be marked as valid. This is used to form data that the computer is trained with. One example of training data is the MNIST data. The MNIST data has images of handwritten numbers. The computer can learn to identify handwritten numbers using the MNIST data.
# Compact disc

The read side of a compact disc
A **compact disc** (**CD**) is a storage device in the form of small plastic compact discs which store and retrieve computer data or music using light. CDs replaced floppy disks and gramophone records because they were faster and could hold more information. The CD was invented by both Philips and Sony at the same time. Sony and Philips did work together to create a standard format and the technology to read a CD in 1982 (JP) and 1983 (outside JP). The CD can store up to 700 MB worth of data, which is about 74-80 minutes of music. The Mini CD has an 8 cm diameter with less music/data storage capacity than the CD of 12 cm. A CD and a Mini CD can have data or music storage capacity. The middle hole in a CD and Mini CD is about 1.5 cm.

## Related pages

* CD-R
* CD-RW
* CD-MO
* CD-ROM
* CD-i
* CD player
* VCD
* Mini CD
* BD
# Open hardware

**Open hardware** is hardware or device whose design documents such as raw material lists, circuit diagrams and circuit board introductory patterns are openly accessible, usable, editable and distributable by anyone. Design documents and other material are licensed under an open license. In addition, the firmware and device drivers required to use the device must be open source.

## Related pages

* Open software
* Openness

## Other websites

* Open Hardware Repository
# Clockwork

**Clockwork** means the inner workings of mechanical machines clocks (where it is also called a "movement". Also other similar mechanisms with a complex series of gears.

A clockwork mechanism usually has a clockwork motor. This has a mainspring, a spiral of metal ribbon. Energy is stored in the mainspring by *winding it up*, turning a key attached to a ratchet which twists the mainspring tighter. Then the force of the mainspring turns the clockwork gears, until the stored energy is used up. The adjectives *wind-up* and *spring-powered* refer to mainspring-powered clockwork devices. These include clocks and watches, kitchen timers, music boxes, and wind-up toys.
# Upper and Lower Egypt

**Upper and Lower Egypt** was a time period in Ancient Egypt. It was also known as **the Two Lands**. During this time the country was divided into Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt. Upper Egypt was in the south from Aswan to Cairo. Lower Egypt was in the north from Cairo to the Mediterranean Sea. South of Aswan was the Nubian desert

## Sema Tawy and symbolism

* Hapi tying the papyrus and reed plants in the *sema tawy* symbol for the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt
* The river god Hapi uniting Upper and Lower Egypt. Colossi of Memnon. Reign of Amenhotep III.
* Temple scene at Luxor, Thebes
* Alabaster jar depicting the sema tawy symbol with Hapy. From the tomb of Tutankhamun.
* Ramesses III at the temple of Khonsu.
* Sema tawy (without deities) on the side of the throne of Khafre
# Parallax

An example of the parallax of an object against a distant background due to a change in location. When viewed from "Viewpoint A", the object appears to be in front of the blue square. When the viewpoint is changed to "Viewpoint B", the object *appears* to have moved in front of the red square.
**Parallax** is the perceived change in position of an object seen from two different places.

In astronomy, annual parallax is the only direct way to measure distance to stars outside the solar system.
In essence, parallax is the perceived shifting phenomenon which occurs when an object is viewed from different positions.

It is measured by the angle between two lines of observation. Nearby objects have a larger parallax than more distant objects when observed from identical positions, so parallax can be used to determine distances.

Astronomers use the principle of parallax to measure distances to celestial objects including to the Moon, the Sun, and to stars beyond the Solar System. Here, the term "parallax" is the angle between two sight-lines to the star.

Astronomical measurement of position are taken at different times of the year. Since the Earth's orbit is known exactly, the distance from position 1 to position 2 can be worked out. The angle from the horizon to the object can be measured precisely. This gives a triangle whose baseline and angles are known accurately. From the triangle, the distance is calculated by trigonometry and expressed in parsecs.

The method only fails with objects which are so distant that the earth's orbit is too small to get a large enough parallax angle to measure accurately. This distance is about 100 light-years. Astronomers have invented various ways to solve this problem, though none are so accurate as the parallax method is for relatively nearby objects. This provides a basis for the cosmic distance ladder of techniques to calculate greater distances.

From 1989 to 1993 the Hipparcos satellite took measurements for over 100,000 nearby stars. Gaia (spacecraft) is intended to make similar measurements of about a Billion stars.

Many animals, including humans, have two eyes which provide depth perception; this is called stereopsis. Because the two eyes are at different places on the head, this gives the basis for an automatic sense of distance. We perceive this as a normal 3-D scene.

## Related pages

* Astrometry
* Parsec

## Other websites

* Parallax Citizendium
# Tropical rainforest climate

Locations of the tropical rainforest climate (Af).
A **tropical rainforest climate** or **equatorial climate** is a tropical climate subtype found in the tropics, usually within 10 to 15 degrees latitude of the equator. This climate type is designated *Af* in the Köppen climate classification. A tropical rainforest climate is typically hot, very humid, and wet with no dry season. The average temperature in tropical rainforests ranges from 20–30 °C (68–86 °F). Temperatures don't change much throughout the year and also don't change much between night and day. The humidity is always very high, ranging between 77% to 100% year-round. Thanks to the tropical rainforest climate, tropical rainforests are lush all year long.