Rikunarita-ORG/Wikinium huggingface dataset:
# Minor planet designation

**Minor planet designations** are number-name combinations given by the Minor Planet Center, a part of the IAU. They are used for dwarf planets and small Solar System bodies such as asteroids, but not comets. They are given to a body once its orbit is secured and unrelated to provisional designations, given when an object is found.

The two parts of a formal designation are

* a number, historically given in a similar order to the order that it was found, now given only after the orbit is secured
* a name, either the name assigned by the astronomer who found it or, more commonly, the provisional designation.

It looks like this: `(number) Name`, for example (90377) Sedna or (55636) 2002 TX300. According to what the astronomer wants, the brackets are now often removed, as in 90377 Sedna. In practice, however, the number is primarily a catalog entry for any reasonably well-known object. Therefore, the name or provisional designation is generally used in the formal designation: Sedna, 2002 TX300.

The rule for moons of minor planets, such as the formal designation (87) Sylvia I Romulus for the asteroid moon Romulus, is an extension of the Roman numeral convention used, on and off, for the moons of the planets since Galileo's time.

The Minor Planet Center also managed comets but used a different cataloging system.

## History

By 1851, there were 15 asteroids, all but one with their own symbol. The symbols were becoming less and less simple, and, as they had to be drawn by hand, astronomers found some of them hard to draw. This difficulty was addressed by Benjamin Apthorp Gould in 1851, who suggested numbering asteroids in the order that they were found, and placing this number in a circle as the symbol for the asteroid, such as ④ for the fourth asteroid, Vesta. This practice was soon coupled with the name itself into an official number-name designation, "④ Vesta", as the number of minor planets increased. By *ca* 1858, the circle had been simplified to brackets, "(4)" and "(4) Vesta", which was easier to typeset. Other punctuation such as "4) Vesta" and "4, Vesta" was also used, but had more or less completely died out by 1949.

The major exception to the convention that the number tracks the order they were or the order that they're orbit was calculated is the case of Pluto. Since Pluto was originally called a planet, it was not given a number until a 2006 redefinition of "planet" that didn't include it. At that point, Pluto was given the formal designation Pluto.

## Other websites

* IAU FAQ on minor planets Archived 2006-02-16 at the Wayback Machine
* MPC explanation of provisional designations
* Dr. James Hilton, *When Did the Asteroids Become Minor Planets?* Archived 2007-09-21 at the Wayback Machine
# China National Space Administration

The **China National Space Administration (CNSA)** is the national space agency of China, and is based in the Haidian District. It is in charge of the national space program and of managing different space-related activities.

China National Space Administration| 中国国家航天局 |
| Agency overview |
| Formed | 22 April 1993; 31 years ago |
| Jurisdiction | State Council of the People's Republic of China |
| Headquarters | Haidian, Beijing |
| Website | www.cnsa.gov.cn |

The CNSA has had many successful missions, for example the Tiangong Space Station, and Tianwen-1, which landed a rover on Mars.

The agency has astronauts in space (as of 2026's second quarter). Three astronauts are supposed to travel from the Tiangong space station to Earth, about April 2026. That flight will be Shenzhou 22.
Earlier, the Shenzhou 21 mission took those 3 astronauts to the Tiangong space station.

## Foundation and history

CNSA is a space agency made in 1993 when the Ministry of Aerospace Industry was split into the CNSA and the China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation(CASC).

Later in 1998 CASC was split into smaller goverment-owned companies.

In 2011 NASA was forced to not work with CNSA. In 2021, China started building the Tiangong space station, which has only three modules made for crew, cargo, and research. In the same year CNSA sent Tianwen-1 to Mars.

## Launch facilities

* Jiuquan Satelite Launch Center
* Taiyuan Satelite Launch Center
* Xichang Satelite Launch Center
* Wenchang Space Launch Site

## Departments

CNSA has four departments:

* Department of General Planning
* Department of System Engineering
* Department of Science, Technology and Quality Control
* Department of Foreign Affairs
# Holocene extinction

The dodo is a bird that became extinct because of humans.
The **Holocene extinction** is the extinction of nearly all large mammal species after the end of the ice age. This was done by humans hunting the animals, and by climate change.

Habitat destruction and over-harvesting are two of the primary causes which drive species extinct in more recent times. The fundamental cause of this is the huge increase in human population since the agricultural revolution.

Forests and natural habitats have been greatly reduced throughout the world, and this has been the cause of many extinctions.
# Oxide

An **oxide** is a chemical compound containing at least one oxygen atom and at least one atom of one other element. Most of the Earth's crust consists of oxides (mainly silica). Oxides can be made when elements are oxidized by air (when oxygen in the air reacts with the element).

Some common oxides are:

* Water (hydrogen oxide) (H2O)
* Iron(III) oxide (Rust) (Fe2O3)
* Aluminium oxide (Al2O3)
* Lead(II) oxide (PbO)
* Calcium oxide (CaO)
* Carbon dioxide (CO2)
* Carbon monoxide (CO)
* Magnesium oxide (Magnesia) (MgO)
* Phosphorus pentoxide (P4O10)
* Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
* Sulfur trioxide (SO3)
* Silicon dioxide (SiO2)
* Nitrous oxide (laughing gas) (N2O)
* Zinc oxide (ZnO)
* Copper(I) oxide (Cu2O) and Copper(II) oxide (CuO)
# Van Allen radiation belt

This video illustrates changes in the shape and intensity of a cross section of the Van Allen belts.
A cross section of Van Allen radiation belts
A **Van Allen radiation belt** is a zone of charged particles which come from the Sun as the solar wind. They are captured and held by the Earth's magnetic field.

Earth has two such belts and sometimes others.
The belts were discovered by James Van Allen. Earth's two main belts extend from the altitude of about 500 to 58,000 km (310 to 36,040 mi)

Most of the particles that form the belts are thought to come from solar wind and other particles by cosmic rays. By trapping the solar wind, the magnetic field deflects those energetic particles and protects the atmosphere from destruction.

The belts are in the inner region of Earth's magnetosphere. The belts trap energetic electrons and protons. The belts endanger satellites, which must have their sensitive components protected with adequate shielding if they spend much time in that zone. In 2013, NASA reported that the Van Allen Probes had discovered a third radiation belt, which was observed for four weeks. It was destroyed by a powerful, interplanetary shock wave from the Sun.
# Volcanic eruption

Volcanic eruptions.
A **volcanic eruption** occurs when hot materials from the Earth's interior are thrown out of a volcano. Lava, rocks, dust, and gas compounds are some of these "ejecta".

It is worth remembering that the Earth below its solid cruse is still very hot, even after its long existence (over 4,000 million years).

Eruptions can come from side branches or from the top of the volcano. Some eruptions are terrible explosions that throw out huge amounts of rock and volcanic ash and can kill many people. Some are quiet outflows of hot lava. Several more complex types of volcanic eruptions have been described by volcanologists. These are often named after famous volcanoes where that type of eruption has been seen. Some volcanoes may show only one type of eruption during a period of activity, while others may show a range of types in a series.

## Volcanic Explosivity Index

The Volcanic Explosivity Index (commonly shortened VEI) is a scale, from 0 to 8, for measuring the strength of eruptions. It is used by the Smithsonian Institution's Global Volcanism Program to assess historic and prehistoric lava flows. It works in a way similar to the Richter scale for earthquakes: each interval in value is a tenfold increase in magnitude (it is logarithmic). Most volcanic eruptions are of VEIs between 0 and 2.

**Volcanic eruptions by VEI index**

| VEI | Plume height | Eruptive volume \* | Eruption type | Frequency \*\* | Example |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 0 | <100 m (330 ft) | 1,000 m3 (35,300 cu ft) | Hawaiian | Continuous | Kīlauea |
| 1 | 100–1,000 m (300–3,300 ft) | 10,000 m3 (353,000 cu ft) | Hawaiian/Strombolian | Months | Stromboli |
| 2 | 1–5 km (1–3 mi) | 1,000,000 m3 (35,300,000 cu ft) † | Strombolian/Vulcanian | Months | Galeras (1992) |
| 3 | 3–15 km (2–9 mi) | 10,000,000 m3 (353,000,000 cu ft) | Vulcanian | Yearly | Nevado del Ruiz (1985) |
| 4 | 10–25 km (6–16 mi) | 100,000,000 m3 (0.024 cu mi) | Vulcanian/Peléan | Few years | Eyjafjallajökull (2010) |
| 5 | >25 km (16 mi) | 1 km3 (0.24 cu mi) | Plinian | 5–10 years | Mount St. Helens (1980) |
| 6 | >25 km (16 mi) | 10 km3 (2 cu mi) | Plinian/Ultra Plinian | 1,000 years | Krakatoa (1883) |
| 7 | >25 km (16 mi) | 100 km3 (20 cu mi) | Ultra Plinian | 10,000 years | Tambora (1815) |
| 8 | >25 km (16 mi) | 1,000 km3 (200 cu mi) | Supervolcanic | 100,000 years | Lake Toba (74 ka) |
|  **\ This is the minimum eruptive volume necessary for the eruption to be considered within the category.  **\*\ Values are a rough estimate. Exceptions occur.  **†** There is a discontinuity between the 2nd and 3rd VEI level; instead of increasing by a magnitude of 10, the value increases by a magnitude of 100 (from 10,000 to 1,000,000). |

Types of volcanic eruptions
## Related pages

* Volcanism
* Volcano
# Satellite flare

An animation of a satellite flare.
A **Satellite flare** (also called a **Iridium flares** or **satellite glint**) is a phenomenon caused by man-made satellite where the sunlight is reflected back to Earth. This results in a quick and bright "flare." Some flares can be up to 20 times brighter than Venus.

An Iridium satellite
Iridium satellites are satellites that are used for telephones and other purposes such as navigation. Most of them are in a controlled orbit, so the flares from these satellites can be predicted. Computer programs can be fed the satellite's information and can predict a flare to an observer's location. The iridium satellite is known for having a weird shape. It has three door-sized antennas that occasionally reflects sunlight back to Earth. These can be very bright. So much so, that it can even be seen during the day. This annoys astronomers because it disrupts their observations.
# Atmosphere of Venus

Venus's atmosphere
The **atmosphere of Venus** is the layer of gases that surrounds Venus. It is mainly composed of carbon dioxide. Its atmosphere is denser and hotter than the atmosphere of Earth. The temperature at the surface is 740 K (467 °C, 872 °F). The pressure is 93 bar (9.3 MPa). It is composed of carbon dioxide (96.5 %), nitrogen (3.5 %), sulfur dioxide (150 ppm), argon (70 ppm), water vapor (20 ppm), carbon monoxide (17 ppm), helium (12 ppm), hydrogen chloride (0.1–0.6 ppm) and hydrogen fluoride (0.001–0.005 ppm).
# Unidentified flying object

Photo from New Jersey, USA
An **unidentified flying object** (or **UFO**) is an object in the sky which cannot be identified.

## Identified flying objects (IFOs)

Studies estimate that 50-90% of all reported UFO sightings are identified later. Most are natural or man-made objects that looked strange. 80-90% of UFOs are identified as one of three things:

1. astronomical causes (for example: planets, stars, or meteors)
2. aircraft
3. balloons (including weather balloons)

## New term

Since the 2020s, people have come up with the following terminology:

* Unidentified Aerial Phenomena
* Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena

Therefore, it is common to hear "UFO" and "UAP" while listening to people talk about this topic.

## Other websites

* Wikinews - UFO Archive
* CIA educational summary on UFO Archived 2007-05-09 at the Wayback Machine (working link or what? Maybe it should be used this link Archived 2019-10-01 at the Wayback Machine instead?)
* NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts
* BBC article on Mexican Air-force videotape
* NASA UFO Hacker Video Interview Archived 2007-11-13 at the Wayback Machine
* Popularmechanics Article - When UFOs Arrive: February 2004 Cover Story Archived 2007-09-27 at the Wayback Machine
* Allan Hendry, *The UFO Handbook: A Guide to Investigating, Evaluating, and Reporting UFO Sightings*, 1979, Doubleday & Co., ISBN 0-385-14348-6
# Galileo (spacecraft)

*Galileo*| Artist's drawing of *Galileo* at Io with Jupiter in the background; the high-gain antenna is fully deployed |
| Names | Jupiter Orbiter Probe |
|  |
| Mission type | Jupiter orbiter |
| Operator | NASA |
| COSPAR ID | 1989-084B |
| SATCAT no. | 20298 |
| Website | solarsystem.nasa.gov/galileo/ |
| Mission duration | * Planned: 8 years, 1 month, 19 days
* In orbit: 7 years, 9 months, 13 days
* Final: 13 years, 11 months, 3 days
 |
| Distance travelled | 4,631,778,000 km (2.88 billion mi) |
|  |
|  |
| Spacecraft properties |
| Manufacturer | * Jet Propulsion Laboratory
* Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm
* General Electric
* Hughes Aircraft Company
 |
| Launch mass | * Total: 2,562 kg (5,648 lb)
* Orbiter: 2,223 kg (4,901 lb)
* Probe: 339 kg (747 lb)
 |
| Dry mass | * Orbiter: 1,884 kg (4,154 lb)
* Probe: 339 kg (747 lb)
 |
| Payload mass | * Orbiter: 118 kg (260 lb)
* Probe: 30 kg (66 lb)
 |
| Power | * Orbiter: 570 watts
* Probe: 730 watt-hours
 |
|  |
|  |
| Start of mission |
| Launch date | October 18, 1989, 16:53:40 (1989-10-18UTC16:53:40) UTC |
| Rocket | Space Shuttle *Atlantis* STS-34 / IUS |
| Launch site | Kennedy LC-39B |
| Entered service | December 8, 1995, 01:16 UTC SCET |
|  |
|  |
| End of mission |
| Disposal | Controlled entry into Jupiter |
| Decay date | September 21, 2003, 18:57:18 (2003-09-21UTC18:57:19) GMT SCET; September 21, 2003, 19:49:36 (2003-09-21UTC19:49:37) GMT ERT |
|  |
|  |
| Jupiter orbiter |
| Spacecraft component | Orbiter |
| Orbital insertion | December 8, 1995, 01:16 UTC SCET |
| Jupiter atmospheric probe |
| Spacecraft component | Probe |
| Atmospheric entry | December 7, 1995, 22:04 UTC SCET |
| Impact site | ﻿ / ﻿ at entry interface |
|  |
|

| ExpandInstruments |
| --- |
| SSI | Solid-State Imager |
| NIMS | Near-Infrared Mapping Spectrometer |
| UVS | Ultraviolet Spectrometer |
| PPR | Photopolarimeter-Radiometer |
| DDS | Dust Detector Subsystem |
| EPD | Energetic Particles Detector |
| HIC | Heavy Ion Counter |
| MAG | Magnetometer |
| PLS | Plasma Subsystem |
| PWS | Plasma Wave Subsystem |

 |
|
NASA Flagship Program← *Voyager* program*Cassini–Huygens* →  |

**Galileo** was an unmanned NASA spacecraft. It explored the planet Jupiter and its moons. Galileo was launched in 1989 and it arrived at Jupiter in 1995.

Galileo was made up of two parts: an orbiter and a probe. The probe was released from the orbiter on July 13, 1995 and it went towards Jupiter. It reached Jupiter on December 7, 1995 and went down into the atmosphere. The probe gathered data for 57 minutes until the great atmospheric heat and pressure destroyed it.

The orbiter went into orbit around the planet on December 8, 1995 and went down into Jupiter's atmosphere and was crushed on September 21, 2003. This was done intentionally to prevent potential contamination of Europa.
# Mars ocean theory

An artist's impression of ancient Mars and its oceans based on geological data
The blue region of low topography in the Martian northern hemisphere. People though that this was the site of a primordial ocean of liquid water.
The **Mars ocean theory** states that nearly a third of the surface of Mars was covered by an ocean of liquid water early in the planet's geologic history. This ocean is called Paleo-Ocean or Oceanus Borealis (/oʊˈsiːənəs ˌbɒriˈælɪs/ *oh-SEE-ə-nəs BORR-ee-AL-iss*). It would have filled the basin Vastitas Borealis in the northern hemisphere. This region lies 4–5 km (2.5–3 miles) below the mean planetary elevation. It would have existed approximately 4.1–3.8 billion years ago. Evidence for this ocean includes geographic features resembling ancient shorelines, and the chemical properties of the Martian soil and atmosphere. Early Mars would have required a denser atmosphere and warmer climate to allow liquid water to remain at the surface.

## Other explanations

Not all scientists agree that this ocean really existed. The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter's High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) has discovered large boulders on the site of the ancient seabed, which should contain only fine sediment. The boulders could have been dropped by icebergs, a process common on Earth. The interpretations of some features as ancient shorelines has been challenged.

A study published in September 2021 compared potassium isotopes found in rocks from various bodies. The study suggests that the surface gravity on Mars was too low to keep enough water to form a large ocean.

There are other explanations of how the surface gullies and channels were created include wind erosion, liquid carbon dioxide, and liquid methanol.

Confirmation or refutation of the Mars ocean hypothesis awaits additional observational evidence from future Mars missions.

## Related pages

* Life on Mars
* Water on Mars
* Terraforming of Mars – Hypothetical modification of Mars that would include a large northern ocean
# Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter

*Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter*| Artist's impression of the *Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter* spacecraft. |
|  |
| Mission type | Mars orbiter |
| Operator | NASA / JPL |
| COSPAR ID | 2005-029A |
| SATCAT no. | 28788 |
| Website | marsprogram.jpl.nasa.gov/mro/ nasa.gov/mission\_pages/MRO/main/index.html |
| Mission duration | Primary mission: 2 years Elapsed: 20 years, 10 months and 1 day from launch 20 years, 3 months and 3 days (7202 sols) at Mars |
|  |
|  |
| Spacecraft properties |
| Manufacturer | Lockheed Martin / University of Arizona / APL / ASI / Malin Space Science Systems |
| Launch mass | 2,180 kg (4,810 lb) |
| Dry mass | 1,031 kg (2,273 lb) |
| Payload mass | 139 kg (306 lb) |
| Power | 2,000.0 watts |
|  |
|  |
| Start of mission |
| Launch date | August 12, 2005, 11:43:00 (2005-08-12UTC11:43Z) UTC |
| Rocket | Atlas V 401 |
| Launch site | Cape Canaveral SLC-41 |
| Contractor | ILS |
|  |
|  |
| Orbital parameters |
| Reference system | Areocentric |
| Regime | Sun-synchronous |
| Inclination | 93 degrees |
|  |
|  |
| Mars orbiter |
| Orbital insertion | March 10, 2006, 21:24:00 UTC MSD 46990 12:48 AMT 20 Dhanus 211 Darian |
|  |
|  Official insignia of the *Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter* mission.
  |

**Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter** is a NASA spacecraft. It launched on August 12, 2005 from Cape Canaveral, Florida. It arrived at Mars on March 10, 2006. It went into orbit around Mars, and has been studying the planet since then. Its main goal is to find water on Mars, below the surface, and in the air. To do this, it has the largest telescope ever sent to another planet. The orbiter also works as a communications satellite. Its powerful antennas send and receive messages between NASA on Earth, and rovers on the surface of Mars.
# Infrared

Picture of a person infrared
**Infrared** (**IR**) radiation is a type of electromagnetic radiation (a wave with electricity). The wave is longer than light which humans can see and shorter than microwaves. The word *infrared* means *below red*. It comes from the Latin word *infra* (meaning *below*) and the English word *red*. (Infrared light has a frequency *below* the frequency of red light). Red light has the longest wavelength that human eyes can see. Infrared waves cannot be seen by the eye.

Near-infrared waves are between 800 nm and 1.4 µm. Most infrared from the Sun is near-infrared. Thermal imaging is mostly done with thermal radiation waves between 8 and 15 **µm.**

People sense infrared as heat.

Most remote controls use infrared to send the control signals. Many missiles for anti-aircraft warfare find their target by infrared.

## Telecommunications

Before Bluetooth was invented, some computers, personal digital assistants, and cell phones used infrared technology to send files to other devices. Bluetooth replaced infrared in the early 2000s. Infrared is limited by the need to have both devices in a "line of sight" with each other.

Infrared lasers are used to provide the light for optical fiber communications systems. Infrared light with a wavelength around 1,330 nm (least dispersion) or 1,550 nm (best transmission) are the best choices for standard silica fibers.

## Related pages

* Infrared spectroscopy
* Infrared telescope
# Mars Orbiter Mission 2

The **Mars Orbiter Mission 2**, also known as **Mangalyaan 2**, is India's second interplanetary craft planned to orbit Mars by the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO). It is planned for launch no earlier than [2026]. India was the first Asian nation to reach Mars' orbit and on its first attempt when Mangalyaan 1 was launched in 2013 by ISRO. It was originally going to include a lander, but in February 2021, ISRO decided it would only be an orbiter.
# 1764

1764 in other calendars| Gregorian calendar | 1764 *MDCCLXIV* |
| Ab urbe condita | 2517 |
| Armenian calendar | 1213 ԹՎ ՌՄԺԳ |
| Assyrian calendar | 6514 |
| Balinese saka calendar | 1685–1686 |
| Bengali calendar | 1171 |
| Berber calendar | 2714 |
| British Regnal year | 4 Geo. 3 – 5 Geo. 3 |
| Buddhist calendar | 2308 |
| Burmese calendar | 1126 |
| Byzantine calendar | 7272–7273 |
| Chinese calendar | 癸未年 (Water Goat) 4460 or 4400     *— to —* 甲申年 (Wood Monkey) 4461 or 4401 |
| Coptic calendar | 1480–1481 |
| Discordian calendar | 2930 |
| Ethiopian calendar | 1756–1757 |
| Hebrew calendar | 5524–5525 |
| Hindu calendars |  |
|  - *Vikram Samvat* | 1820–1821 |
|  - *Shaka Samvat* | 1685–1686 |
|  - *Kali Yuga* | 4864–4865 |
| Holocene calendar | 11764 |
| Igbo calendar | 764–765 |
| Iranian calendar | 1142–1143 |
| Islamic calendar | 1177–1178 |
| Japanese calendar | Hōreki 14 / Meiwa 1 (明和元年) |
| Javanese calendar | 1689–1690 |
| Julian calendar | Gregorian minus 11 days |
| Korean calendar | 4097 |
| Minguo calendar | 148 before ROC 民前148年 |
| Nanakshahi calendar | 296 |
| Thai solar calendar | 2306–2307 |
| Tibetan calendar | ཆུ་མོ་ལུག་ལོ་ (female Water-Sheep) 1890 or 1509 or 737     *— to —* ཤིང་ཕོ་སྤྲེ་ལོ་ (male Wood-Monkey) 1891 or 1510 or 738 |

**1764** (MDCCLXIV)
was a leap year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar and a leap year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar, the 1764th year of the Common Era (CE) and *Anno Domini* (AD) designations, the 764th year of the 2nd millennium, the 64th year of the 18th century, and the 5th year of the 1760s decade. As of the start of 1764, the Gregorian calendar was
11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.

## Births

* March 13 – Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1845)
* September 25 – Fletcher Christian, leader of the Mutiny on the Bounty (d. 1793)

## Deaths

* April 15 – Madame de Pompadour, mistress of King Louis XV of France (born 1721)
* November 20 – Christian Goldbach, Prussian mathematician (born 1690)
# West Africa

Western Africa (as the UN sees it)
**West Africa** or **Western Africa** is the most western region of Africa. According to the United Nations (UN), West Africa has seventeen countries:

|  |  |  |
| --- | --- | --- |
| * Benin
* Burkina Faso
* Cape Verde
* Côte d'Ivoire
* Gambia
* Ghana

  | * Guinea
* Guinea-Bissau
* Liberia
* Mali
* Mauritania

  | * Niger
* Nigeria
* Senegal
* Sierra Leone
 |