Rikunarita-ORG/Wikinium huggingface dataset:
# Mathematical model

A **mathematical model** is a description of a system using mathematical concepts and language. The process of building a mathematical model is termed **mathematical modeling**. Mathematical models are used in the natural sciences (such as physics, biology, earth science, meteorology) and engineering disciplines (e.g. computer science, artificial intelligence). They are also used in the social sciences (such as economics, psychology, sociology and political science). Physicists, engineers, statisticians, operations research analysts and economists use mathematical models a lot.

## Types of mathematical models

Mathematical models can take many forms. The types of models include:

* dynamical systems - for systems that change,
* statistical models - for finding patterns in large groups of measurements or data,
* differential equations - to study how variables change over time, or
* game theoretic models - for studying how many independent decision makers can interact.

These and other types of models can overlap, with a given model involving a variety of abstract structures. Mathematical models can include logical models. In many cases, the quality of a scientific field depends on how well the mathematical models built on theory agree with results of repeatable experiments. When theoretical mathematical models do not match experimental measurements, scientists try to correct the model. Such corrections lead the way to better theories to explain the facts.

## More reading

Books
* Bender, E.A. [ 1978 ] ( 2000 ). *An Introduction to Mathematical Modeling*, New York : Dover. ISBN 0-486-41180-X
* Gershenfeld, N., The Nature of Mathematical Modeling, Cambridge University Press, (1998). ISBN 0521570956
* Yang, X.-S., Mathematical Modelling for Earth Sciences, Dudedin Academic, (2008). ISBN 1903765927

Specific applications
* Peierls, Rudolf. Model-making in physics, Contemporary Physics, Volume 21 (1), January 1980, 3-17
* Korotayev A., Malkov A., Khaltourina D. ( 2006 ). *Introduction to Social Macrodynamics: Compact Macromodels of the World System Growth*. Moscow : Editorial URSS. ISBN 5-484-00414-4

## Other websites

General reference material
* McLaughlin, Michael P. ( 1999 ) 'A Tutorial on Mathematical Modeling' PDF (264 KiB)
* Plus teacher and student package: Mathematical Modelling. Brings together all articles on mathematical modeling from *Plus*, the online mathematics magazine produced by the Millennium Mathematics Project at the University of Cambridge.

Philosophical background
* Frigg, R. and S. Hartmann, Models in Science, in: The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, (Spring 2006 Edition)
* Griffiths, E. C. (2010) What is a model? Archived 2012-03-12 at the Wayback Machine
# Dinner for One

Dinner for One, also known as The 90th Birthday (German: Der 90. Geburtstag), is a television comedy sketch. The sketch was produced by German television. In several European countries, it is played at New Year's Eve. Even though it was produced for a German TV station, the sketch is in English. It stars British comedians Freddy Finton and Laurie Wylie, amongst others. The sketch was originally written by British author Lauri Wylie for the theatre. After featuring on the stage, the German TV broadcaster, Norddeutscher Rundfunk (NDR), recorded the sketch in 1963 as an 18-minute black-and-white videotape recording, performed in English by British comedians Freddie Frinton and May Warden. The sketch begins with an introduction in German, followed by the main act in English, and is available online.

## Summary

The Sketch is about a birthday dinner of a lady (Warden). The lady is ninety years old, all her friends have died a long time ago. So she has her birthday party. The comedy comes from the fact that during the meal, she wants different alcoholic drinks. While she drinks, her butler (Frinton) also has to drink. Unlike her, he drinks for the four other people. So, he gets increasingly drunk. Serving the meals becomes more and more of a problem.

## Distribution

In many countries, it is usually shown at New Year's Eve. These countries include Germany, Switzerland, Luxembourg, Denmark, Sweden, Finland and Estonia. In Norway it is broadcast on 23 December. As of 1995 it was the most frequently repeated television programme in Germany. Even though it was originally written for the stage, the TV version gained only limited recognition in the UK over 50 years after its recording. It was broadcast on New Year's Eve in Britain on Sky Arts from 2018 to 2020.

In other parts of the world, the sketch is broadcast in Australia and South Africa. Apart from a few satires, *Dinner for One* is not known in the United States, where the comic premise had already been made famous by Red Skelton and Lucille Ball.

In 2003, Danish TV producer Paul Anthony Sørensen directed and produced a documentary about the sketch that includes interviews with relatives of Freddie Frinton and May Warden. It was nominated for the Rose d'Or 2004.

## Catch phrase: "Same procedure as every year"

The line "Same procedure as every year" (in the original English) has become a very popular catchphrase in Germany. The phrase has entered everyday vocabulary, and is used in newspaper headlines and advertisements. This is also the case in Norway, Denmark and Sweden.

## Other websites

### Video

* Dinner for One - Das Original on ARD Mediathek
* English transcript (NDR)

### Articles

* The Mystery of *Dinner for One*
* British comedy lives on in German television
* *Dinner for One*: A sketch well-known to all but the British
* 10 famous Britons you've probably never heard of: Freddie Frinton
* *Dinner For One*: How an obscure British skit became a New Year's Eve tradition
# New Year's Day (U2 song)

| "New Year's Day" |
| --- |
| Single by U2 |
| from the album  *War*  |
| B-side | "Treasure (Whatever Happened to Pete the Chop)" |
| Released | 10 January 1983 |
| Recorded | September–November 1982 |
| Studio | Windmill Lane Studios (Dublin) |
| Genre | * Post-punk
* new wave
 |
| Length | * 5:36 (album version)
* 5:40 (original 12" long version)
* 4:17 (video version)
* 3:53 (7" edit)
 |
| Label | * CBS Ireland
* Island
 |
| Songwriter(s) | U2 |
| Producer(s) | Steve Lillywhite |
| U2 singles chronology |
|

|  |  |  |
| --- | --- | --- |
| "A Celebration" (1982) | "**New Year's Day**" (1983) | "Two Hearts Beat as One" (1983) |

 |
|  |
| Music video |
| "New Year's Day" on YouTube |
|  |

"**New Year's Day**" is a 1983 song by Irish rock band U2. It is the third track from their third studio album *War*. It went to number 2 in Ireland, number 9 in the Netherlands and Norway and number 10 in the United Kingdom.

## Formats and track listings

7" - Island / WIP 6848 (UK)| No. | Title | Length |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 1. | "New Year's Day" (Short version) | 3:53 |
| 2. | "Treasure (Whatever Happened to Pete the Chop)" | 3:24 |

7" - Island / 811 323-7 (France)| No. | Title | Length |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 1. | "New Year's Day" (Edit) | 3:40 |
| 2. | "Treasure (Whatever Happened to Pete the Chop)" | 3:24 |

7" - Island / 7S-86 (Japan)| No. | Title | Length |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 1. | "New Year's Day" (Special version) | 4:16 |
| 2. | "Treasure (Whatever Happened to Pete the Chop)" | 3:24 |

2x7" - Island / UWIP6848 (UK)| No. | Title | Length |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 1. | "New Year's Day" (Short version) | 3:53 |
| 2. | "Treasure (Whatever Happened to Pete the Chop)" | 3:24 |
| 3. | "Fire" (Live from Werchter, 4 July 1982) | 3:45 |
| 4. | "I Threw a Brick Through a Window"/"A Day Without Me" (Live from Werchter, 4 July 1982) | 6:58 |

12" - Island / 12 WIP 6848 (UK)| No. | Title | Length |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 1. | "New Year's Day" (Album version) | 5:35 |
| 2. | "Treasure (Whatever Happened to Pete the Chop)" | 3:24 |
| 3. | "Fire" (Live from Werchter, 4 July 1982) | 3:45 |
| 4. | "I Threw a Brick Through a Window"/"A Day Without Me" (Live from Werchter, 4 July 1982) | 6:58 |

12" - Island / 814 948-1 (France)| No. | Title | Length |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 1. | "New Year's Day" (U.S. remix) | 4:30 |
| 2. | "Two Hearts Beat as One" (U.S. remix) | 5:40 |

CD - Island / 664 973 (Austria)| No. | Title | Length |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 1. | "New Year's Day" (Album version) | 5:35 |
| 2. | "Treasure (Whatever Happened to Pete the Chop)" | 3:24 |
| 3. | "Fire" (Live from Werchter, 4 July 1982) | 3:45 |
| 4. | "I Threw a Brick Through a Window"/"A Day Without Me" (Live from Werchter, 4 July 1982) | 6:58 |
# Western European Summer Time

BST** redirects here, for the Bangladeshi time zone, see Bangladesh Standard Time*
Time in Europe:

|  |  |
| --- | --- |
| Light Blue | Western European Time / Greenwich Mean Time (UTC) |
| Blue | Western European Time / Greenwich Mean Time (UTC) |
| Western European Summer Time / British Summer Time / Irish Standard Time (UTC+1) |
| Red | Central European Time (UTC+1) |
| Central European Summer Time (UTC+2) |
| Yellow | Eastern European Time / Kaliningrad Time (UTC+2) |
| Ochre | Eastern European Time (UTC+2) |
| Eastern European Summer Time (UTC+3) |
| Green | Moscow Time / Turkey Time (UTC+3) |
| Turquoise | Armenia Time / Azerbaijan Time / Georgia Time / Samara Time (UTC+4) |

▉▉▉▉ Pale colours: Standard time observed all year
▉▉▉ Dark colours: Summer time observed

**Western European Summer Time** (**WEST**) is a summer daylight saving time scheme, 1 hour ahead of Coordinated Universal Time. It is used in the following places:

* the Canary Islands
* the Faroe Islands
* the Republic of Ireland
* the Crown dependencies
* the Madeira islands
* Continental Portugal
* the United Kingdom
* Morocco in North Africa

Western European Summer Time is also known by other names:

* **British Summer Time** (BST) in the United Kingdom.
* **Irish Standard Time** (IST) (*Am Caighdeánach na hÉireann* (ACÉ)) in Ireland. This is sometimes called **Irish Summer Time** (*Am Samhraidh na hÉireann*).

The scheme runs from the last Sunday in March to the last Sunday in October each year. At both the start and end of the schemes, clock changes take place at 01:00 UTC. During the winter, Greenwich Mean Time (UTC+0) is used.
# South East Queensland

| South East Queensland Queensland |
| --- |
| Regions of Queensland with South East Queensland in the bottom right hand corner of the state |
| Population | 3,800,000 (2020) |
|  • Density | 107.8/km2 (279/sq mi) |
| Established | 1824 |
| Area | 35,248 km2 (13,609.3 sq mi) |
| LGA(s) | City of Brisbane, City of Gold Coast, Somerset Region, Sunshine Coast Region, City of Moreton Bay, Redland City, Logan City, Shire of Noosa, Scenic Rim Region, City of Ipswich, Lockyer Valley Region, Toowoomba Region |
|

|  |
| --- |
| **Localities around South East Queensland:** |
| Darling Downs | Wide Bay–Burnett | *South Pacific Ocean* |
| Darling Downs | South East Queensland | *South Pacific Ocean* |
| Darling Downs | New South Wales North Coast | *South Pacific Ocean* |
|  |

 |

**South East Queensland** (**SEQ**) is a conurbation and region in the Australian state of Queensland, located in the southeastern corner of the state.

The region can be defined in many different ways, but it always includes the three largest cities in the state: Brisbane, the Gold Coast and the Sunshine Coast, as well as the city of Ipswich. It is the third-largest metropolitan area in Australia after Greater Sydney and Greater Melbourne.

## Cities

In a very broad definition of South East Queensland, it can include the following cities:

* Brisbane
* Gold Coast
* Ipswich
* Sunshine Coast
* Toowoomba
* Tweed Heads (located just south of the New South Wales border, but sometimes included as South East Queensland)

It also can include nearby towns, such as Beaudesert and Esk.
# Tweants

Map of languages and dialects in the Netherlands and Belgium. Tweants is spoken in areas 15 and 16.
**Tweants** or **Twents** is a dialect of the Low Saxon language. It is spoken in the region of Twente, in the east of the Netherlands. About 320.000 people speak it daily, but the number of people who can but don't is higher. As a dialect of Low Saxon, it shares many characteristics with neighbouring dialects, such as Sallands and Achterhooks, but also across the border into Germany.

Tweants can be roughly divided into two main dialects: East and West Tweants (sometimes called Twents-Groafskops). For instance, the English phrase *I have done* translates to *Ik heb doan* in East Twents, and *Ik hebbe edoan(e)* in West Tweants. Another difference between East and West is that the eastern dialects say *nich* for English *not*, while western dialects use *neet*.

There is no common form of Twents. Every town or village has some features that are slightly different from the rest. They all share roughly the same grammar, words and phrases, with a few local special words.

Twents has long been looked down on. Parents were discouraged to pass it onto their children. Today, there is a renewed interest in the language and local culture, though many can't speak it anymore.

Some well-known speakers of Tweants are football manager Erik ten Hag and Dutch comedian Herman Finkers.
# Middle High German

| Middle High German |
| --- |
| **Diutsch** |
| Region | Central and southern Germany (south of the Benrath line), Austria and parts of Switzerland |
| Era | High Middle Ages |
| Language family | Indo-European
* Germanic
	+ West Germanic
		- German
			* **Middle High German**
 |
| Early form | Old High German
 |
| Language codes |
| ISO 639-2 | `gmh` |
| ISO 639-3 | `gmh` |
| ISO 639-6 | `mdgr` |
| *Glottolog* | `midd1343` |
|

**Middle High German** is the form of the German language spoken and written in the High Middle Ages. It is usually placed in the period between 1050 and 1350. It developed from Old High German and then developed into Early New High German.

A page of the Manesse Codex, written in Middle High German
# Thuringian dialect

| Thuringian |
| --- |
| *Thüringisch* |
| Native to | Germany |
| Region | Thuringia |
| Language family | Indo-European
* Germanic
	+ West Germanic
		- High German
			* Central German
				+ East Central German
					- **Thuringian**
 |
| Language codes |
| ISO 639-3 | – |
| *Glottolog* | `thur1252` |
| Glottopedia | `Thüringisch` |
| Central German dialects after 1945
  Thuringian (7) |

**Thuringian** is an East Central German dialect group spoken in Thuringia, southwestern Saxony-Anhalt, Hesse, and Bavaria.

## Subgroups

The subgroups of Thuringian:

* Central Thuringian
* Northern Thuringian
* Eichsfeld dialect
* Eastern Thuringian
* Southeastern Thuringian

Other variants:

* Ilm Thuringian
* Northeastern Thuringian
* Mansfeld dialect
* Western Thuringian
# Upper German

| Upper German |
| --- |
| *Oberdeutsch* |
| Geographic distribution | Southern Germany, northern and central Switzerland, Austria, Liechtenstein, Northern Italy (South Tyrol), France (Alsace) |
| Linguistic classification | Indo-European* Germanic
	+ West Germanic
		- Elbe Germanic
			* High German
				+ **Upper German**
 |
| Early forms | Old High German
* Middle High German
	+ Early New High German
 |
| Subdivisions | * Alemannic
* Austro-Bavarian
* High Franconian
 |
| Language codes |
| Glottolog | ``high1286`` |
| High Franconian:
  1: East Franconian
  2: South Franconian
Alemannic:
  3: Swabian German
  4: Low Alemannic
  5: High and Highest Alemannic
Bavarian:
  6: Northern Bavarian
  7: Central Bavarian
  8: Southern Bavarian |

**Upper German** (German: *Oberdeutsch*) is a variant of High German dialects.
# Bokmål

| Norwegian Bokmål |
| --- |
| *norsk*   •   **bokmål** |
| Pronunciation | [nɔʂk] • [ˈbuːkmɔːl] |
| Native to | Norway, Denmark |
| Native speakers | ~ 5.32 million |
| Language family | Indo-European
* Germanic
	+ North Germanic
		- West Scandinavian
			* **Norwegian Bokmål**
 |
| Standard forms | * Bokmål (official)
* Riksmål (unofficial)
 |
| Writing system | Latin (Norwegian alphabet) |
| Official status |
| Official language in | Norway Nordic Council |
| Regulated by | Norwegian Language Council (Bokmål proper) Norwegian Academy (Riksmål) |
| Language codes |
| ISO 639-1 | `nb` |
| ISO 639-2 | `nob` |
| ISO 639-3 | `nob` |
| Linguasphere | 52-AAA-ba to -be & 52-AAA-cd to -cg |
|

**Bokmål** (UK: /ˈbuːkmɔːl/, US: /ˈbʊk-, ˈboʊk-/; lit. 'book language') is one of two official written forms of Norwegian; the other is Nynorsk. Bokmål is used by 85-90% of the population in Norway and the usual way to teach to foreign students.

Bokmål is regulated by the government's Norwegian Language Council. A more conservative orthographic standard is called *Riksmål*, which is regulated by the non-governmental Norwegian Academy for Language and Literature.
# Epic poetry

**Epic poetry** tells a dramatic story in a poem. It is usually long, has characters, and takes place in different settings. Epic poems started in prehistoric times as part of oral tradition.

*Beowulf* is a famous example, written in Old English. Well-known people who wrote epics were Homer, Virgil, Ovid, Dante, Edmund Spenser and Milton. William Wordsworth's Prelude plays with epic ideas, though the poem is autobiographical. The Kyrgyz Epic of Manas is one of the longest written epics in history.

## Characteristics

Epic poems have seven main characteristics:

1. The hero is outstanding. They might be important, and historically or legendarily significant.
2. The setting is large. It covers many nations, or the known world.
3. The hero's actions require great or superhuman courage.
4. Supernatural forces—gods, angels, demons—insert themselves in the action.
5. The poem is written in a very special style (verse as opposed to prose).
6. The poet tries to remain objective.
7. Epic poems are believed to be supernatural and real by the hero and the villain.

Usually, in epic poems:

1. The poem starts with the theme or subject of the story.
2. In epics inspired from Western civilization, the writer invokes a Muse, one of the nine daughters of Zeus. The poet prays to the Muse for divine inspiration to tell the great story.
3. The narrative opens *in medias res*, or in the middle of things, usually with the hero at his lowest point. Usually flashbacks show earlier portions of the story.
4. Catalogues and genealogies are given. Often, the poet is honoring audience members' ancestors.
5. Main characters give extended formal speeches.
6. The poem uses the epic simile.
7. Repetition or stock phrases are used frequently.
8. The poem presents heroic ideals like courage, honour, sacrifice, patriotism and kindness.
9. The poem gives a clear window of the social and cultural patterns of the contemporary life. (For example, Beowulf shows how people at the time loved wine, wild celebration, war, adventure and sea voyages.)

## Examples

### Ancient

* 20th to 10th century BC:
	+ *Epic of Gilgamesh* (Mesopotamia)
* 8th century BC to 3rd century AD:
	+ *Mahābhārata* (Indian mythology)
* 8th to 6th century BC:
	+ *Iliad and* *Odyssey,* ascribed to Homer (Greek mythology)
* 1st century BC:
	+ *Aeneid*, Vergil (Latin)

### Medieval

* Song of Roland
* 8th to 10th century AD
	+ *Beowulf* (Old English)
* 12th to 13th century AD
	+ **Sirat Bani Hilal** (Arabic) \*[
* 10th to 12th century AD
	+ *Njál's saga* (Old Norse)
* 14th century AD
	+ *Sir Gawain and the Green Knight* (dialect of middle English)

### Contemporary

Omeros (1990), Derek Walcott

Empire of Dreams (1988), Giannina Braschi

## Related pages

* Lyric poetry - contrary notion
* Narrative poetry
# Western Europe

**Western Europe** is a geographic region of Europe. This term does not have an exact definition. Some definitions include countries like Spain and the United Kingdom, while some don't. Its use has changed over time. During the Middle Ages, the European parts of the Western World included those countries following Catholicism or Protestantism. During the Cold War, *Western Europe* was a geographic and socio-political concept. It meant the democratic European countries of the First World, which are also vaguely defined. It was and still is distinguished from Eastern Europe by differences of economics, politics, and religion.

It includes at least the following 23 countries:

* Andorra
* Austria
* Belgium
* Denmark
* Finland
* France
* Germany
* Greece
* Iceland
* Ireland
* Italy
* Liechtenstein
* Luxembourg
* Monaco
* Netherlands
* Norway
* Portugal
* San Marino
* Spain
* Sweden
* Switzerland
* United Kingdom
* Vatican City

Many, such as Norway, are also in Northern Europe or in Central Europe or Southern Europe.

Today, the term "Western Europe" has to do with geography and with economics. The concept is commonly associated with liberal democracy, socialism and also with the European Union, though that also has some countries of Eastern Europe.

Most of the countries in the region share Western culture, and many have economic, and political ties with countries in North and South America and Oceania.

In addition, Western Europe is commonly associated with social democracy and democratic socialism and remains fairly neutral throughout international disputes. The Iberian Peninsula, the most western part of Europe is similarly closely linked to the Americas.

It is a monotonous area with long and irregular coastlines.
# Anti-German sentiment

**Anti-German sentiment** (**Germanophobia** or **Teutophobia**) is an opposition to, or fear of, Germany, Germans, its culture and the German language. The opposite is called Germanophilia.

The sentiment began with the mid-19th century unification of Germany, which made the new nation a rival to the Great powers of Europe in economics, military, cultural, and geopolitical grounds. It was believed correctly in other countries that Otto von Bismarck and Helmuth von Moltke were driving Germany towards domination of the European landmass. Bismark unified Germany in 1871 and was their first Chancellor, serving until 1890.

Von Moltke the elder was chief of staff of the Prussian Army for 30 years. He commanded in the Austro-Prussian War and the Franco-Prussian War. He is described as a "Prussian military organization and tactical genius". He was fascinated with railways and pioneered their military usage. He is often referred to as *Moltke the Elder* to distinguish him from his nephew Helmuth Johann Ludwig von Moltke, who commanded the German Army (*Deutsches Heer*) at the outbreak of World War I.
# American German

| American German |
| --- |
| US German |
| *Deutsch der Vereinigten Staaten* |
| Region | United States |
| Ethnicity | German Americans Austrian Americans Swiss Americans Liechtensteiner Americans Belgian Americans Luxembourgian Americans |
| Native speakers | 1.06 million (2009–2013) |
| Language family | Indo-European
* Germanic
	+ West Germanic
		- High German
			* **American German**
 |
| Writing system | * Latin script (German alphabet)
* German Braille
 |
| Language codes |
| ISO 639-3 | – |
| IETF | `de-US` |
|  |

**American German** is a dialect of German language, spoken by more than 1.06 million people, In the year 2009–2013, the dialect was used a lot in the Midwestern region of the United States, along with the German Texan spoken in northeastern and the southern part of Texas. In the 15th century, Germans invaded Pennsylvania, and their language spread across the Midwest region to the South region.

## Related pages

* American English
* Brazilian Portuguese
* Canadian French
* Mexican Spanish
# Nelly Sachs

| Nelly Sachs |
| --- |
| Nelly Sachs, 1966 |
| Born | Leonie Sachs (1891-12-10)10 December 1891 Schöneberg, Germany |
| Died | 12 May 1970(1970-05-12) (aged 78) Stockholm, Sweden |
| Occupation | Poet, Playwright |
| Nationality | German, Swedish |
| Notable awards | Nobel Prize in Literature 1966  |
|

---

 |
| Signature |  |

**Nelly Sachs** (German pronunciation: [ˈnɛliː zaks] (listen); 10 December 1891 – 12 May 1970) was a German-Swedish poet and playwright. She is a Nobel Prize winner and of Jewish descent.

## Works

* In the Dwellings of Death

Nelly Sachs postage stamp
## Other websites

* Nobel Prize Lecture Archived 2013-06-09 at the Wayback Machine