Rikunarita-ORG/Wikinium huggingface dataset:
# Rum-running

*This article is about the transportation of illegal liquor. For the computer use of the term bootlegging see Copyright infringement of software.*
Rum runner sloop "Kirk and Sweeney" with alcohol stacked on deck
**Rum-running**, or **bootlegging**, is the illegal business of taking alcoholic beverages where they are against the law. It is usually done to evade taxation or prohibition laws.

*Rum-running* usually means smuggling over water. The term is thought to come from the start of the Prohibition era in the United States. This is when ships from Bimini in the western Bahamas transported cheap rum to Florida to be sold illegally. But there was little profit in cheap rum. They soon started smuggling Canadian whisky, French champagne, and English gin to major cities like New York City and Boston. This gave them a high profit. It was said that some ships carried $200,000 worth of alcohol in a single trip.

*Bootlegging* usually means smuggling over land. It is thought the term "bootlegging" started during the American Civil War. Soldiers would sneak liquor into army camps by hiding bottles of liquor in their boots or under their trouser legs.
# Pink elephant

A pink elephant, in a theme park in England
**Seeing pink elephants** is a figure of speech, that is used to describe a hallucination which is caused by alcohol, or delirium tremens. Jack London was among the first to use the term, in 1913. In the autobiographical novel John Barleycorn, he describes one kind of alcoholic, as "the man whom we all know, stupid, unimaginative, whose brain is bitten numbly by numb maggots; who walks generously with wide-spread, tentative legs, falls frequently in the gutter, and who sees, in the extremity of his ecstasy, blue mice and *pink elephants*. He is the type that gives rise to the jokes in the funny papers." A reference to pink elephants occurs in the 1941 Disney animated film *Dumbo*. Dumbo takes a drink of water from a bucket spiked with champagne and begins to hallucinate singing and dancing elephants in a segment known as "Pink Elephants on Parade".

Pink elephants do exist in nature, as it is possible for albino elephants to be pink, as well as white.
# Dry county

Map showing dry (red), wet (blue), and moist (yellow) counties in the United States
A **dry county** is a county in the United States whose government does not allow the sale of any kind of alcoholic beverages. Some don't allow off-premises sales, some don't allow on-premises sale, and some don't allow both. Many dry counties exist in the United States. Most of them in the South. Some smaller jurisdictions also exist, such as cities, towns, and townships, which don't allow alcohol to be sold. These are known as **dry cities**, **dry towns**, or **dry townships**. Dry jurisdictions can be contrasted with "wet" (minimal alcohol prohibitions) and "moist" (fewer prohibitions than "dry" but more than "wet").
# Sobriety

**Sobriety** is the condition of not having any levels or effects from alcohol or drugs. Sobriety is also seen to be the natural state of a human being at birth. A person in a state of sobriety is called **sober**.
# Gateway drug theory

**Gateway drug theory** is the idea that once a person uses one illegal drug, they are more likely to use other drugs. It is also called **stepping-stone theory**, **escalation hypothesis**, or **progression hypothesis.**

If the gateway theory is true, people who use one drug may be more likely to use other drugs because:

* Using the first drug changed their brain
* They have similar attitudes about using different drugs

The gateway theory helps shape education and lawmaking about drugs. Scientific study of the possible causes of the gateway theory is important for health policy.
# Methylene group

**Methylene group** can mean two different things in organic chemistry:

* Methylene bridge, −CH2−, connecting two different parts of a molecule
* Methylidene group, =CH2, connected twice to the same part of a molecule
# Alkoxy group

Examples of alkoxy groups (in blue)
An **alkoxy group** is a part of a chemical in organic chemistry. Alkoxy groups have an alkyl group connected to an oxygen atom, with the oxygen atom connected to the rest of the molecule. **Aryloxy groups** are similar groups that have aryl groups instead of alkyl groups.

Alkoxy groups are used in the preferred IUPAC names of ethers; for example, dimethyl ether has the preferred name methoxymethane. The alkoxy structure is found in many other functional groups, but the oxygen-alkane chemical bond is usually less important to the compound's chemistry, so it is not named as an alkoxy compound.
# Oxime

An **oxime** is a type of organic compound. Oximes have the oxime functional group, where a carbon atom has a double bond to a nitrogen atom, and the nitrogen is connected to a hydroxy group.

Oximes are sometimes divided into **aldoximes** and **ketoximes** depending on what else is connected to the carbon atom. This is similar to the difference between aldehydes and ketones: if the double bonded carbon atom is bonded to a hydrogen, it is called an aldoxime, and if it is bonded to two other carbon atoms, it is called a ketoxime.
# Silicate

In chemistry, a **silicate** is an anion (negatively charged ion) made of silicon and oxygen. Silicate anions, with a negative net electrical charge, must have that charge balanced by other cations to make an electrically neutral compound. These compounds are also called **silicates**.

## General structure

All silicates are made up of tetrahedral shapes, with a silicon atom at the centre and four oxygen atoms at the corners. In silicates, silicon is always in the +4 oxidation state, and oxygen is always in the -2 oxidation state. Different structures can form based on whether or not multiple silicon atoms share a single oxygen atom.

As silicates are normally large polymers, they are usually described by an empirical formula for a repeating unit, not the formula for a whole molecule.

## Types of silicate

### Tectosilicate

**Tectosilicate** is a neutral compound, not an ion, with the formula SiO2. In tectosilicates, every oxygen atom is shared by two silicon atoms. Quartz is a common mineral form of tectosilicate.

Tectosilicate anions only exist when silicon is replaced by another element that has a lower oxidation state. Feldspar is a tectosilicate where one or two out of four silicon atoms is replaced by aluminium, giving an anion with the formula AlSi3O−8 or Al2Si2O2−8. Zeolite is an important tectosilicate aluminosilicate in the chemical industry.

### Phyllosilicate

Structure of the flat phyllosilicate sheet in muscovite, a mica.
**Phyllosilicate** has the formula Si2O2−5. In phyllosilicates, each silicon tetrahedron shares three of its four oxygen atoms to make flat sheets.

Phyllosilicate minerals tend to have multiple layers. The oxygen atoms that aren't shared in the silicate sheet are shared with a layer of octahedral cations like magnesium or aluminium to form the whole mineral structure. Hydroxide, chloride, or fluoride fills out the octahedral layer. In some phyllosilicates, like the micas, there are two phyllosilicate layers, one on each side of the octahedral layer.

Phyllosilicates are an important part of clay. Kaolinite, the main mineral used to make porcelain, is a phyllosilicate with an aluminium octahedral layer.

### Metasilicate

### Pyrosilicate

Pyrosilicate is the ion Si2O6−7. Only one oxygen atom is shared. Minerals with this anion are called sorosilicates.

### Orthosilicate

Orthosilicate is the ion SiO−4. None of the oxygen atoms are shared between silicon atoms. In minerals, it is also called nesosilicate.

The orthosilicate ion is a strong base. Protonation of orthosilicate gives orthosilicic acid, a weak polyprotic acid. Orthosilicate, orthosilicic acid, and the various [SiOx(OH)4−x]x− hydrogen orthosilicates are the main form of dissolved silica in water.
# Food poisoning

People can be sick from eating poorly stored food, as in this picture
**Food poisoning** is when someone gets sick from eating food or drink that has gone bad or is contaminated.
There are two kinds of food poisoning, either by poisoning with a toxic agent or by an infectious agent. Food infection is when the food contains bacteria or other microbes which infect the body after it is eaten. Food intoxication is when the food contains toxins, including bacterially produced exotoxins, which can happen even when the microbe that produced the toxin is no longer present or able to cause infection. Even though it is commonly called "food poisoning", most cases are caused by a variety of pathogenic bacteria, viruses, prions or parasites that contaminate food, rather than chemical or natural toxins which are what we usually call poison. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, about 76 million people in the United Kingdom and the United States become ill from the food they eat, and about 5,000 die every year.

## Signs and symptoms

Campylobacter, a bacteria that is a major cause of food poisoning.
Symptoms start within hours to many days after eating. Depending on what the cause of the poisoning was, they can include one or more of the following: nausea, abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea, gastroenteritis, fever, pain in the head or fatigue.

In most cases the body is able to get better after a short period of acute food poisoning causing minor discomfort and illness. Food borne illnesses can result in permanent health problems or even death, especially for people at high risk, including babies, young children, pregnant women (and their fetuses), elderly people, sick people and others with weak immune systems.

Food borne illness due to *Campylobacter*, *Yersinia*, *Salmonella* or *Shigella* infection is a major cause of reactive arthritis, which typically occurs 1–3 weeks after diarrheal illness. Similarly, people with liver disease are especially susceptible to infections from *Vibrio vulnificus*, which can be found in oysters or crabs.

Tetrodotoxin poisoning from reef fish and other animals shows up very quickly in symptoms such as numbness and shortness of breath, and is often fatal.

## Related pages

* Drinking water
* Croup

## Other websites

* Descriptions of the main microbes that make food unsafe Archived 2011-07-07 at the Wayback Machine
* How long does food poisoning last? Archived 2012-04-17 at the Wayback Machine
# Serotonin

**Serotonin** is a neurotransmitter. Its chemical name is **5-Hydroxytryptamine** or **5-HT**. It is derived from tryptophan. Serotonin is found in all vertebrates, mainly in the gastrointestinal tract, blood platelets and central nervous system. Its name is derived from its effect on blood pressure: serotonin is a part of the *serum* which regulates the *tonus* of blood vessels.

Serotonin does several jobs within the human body. Unlike dopamine, serotonin causes happiness, while dopamine causes pleasure. It is believed to regulate mood, intestinal activity and appetite, memory, and sleep. Many antidepressant medications are thought to work by increasing the levels of serotonin in the body even though depression is not caused by low serotonin. Some non-medical treatments for depression have also been shown to raise serotonin levels.

Serotonin is also found in insect venom, fungi and plants. Its presence in the seeds of many fruits helps speed those seeds through the digestive tract of animals that consume them. In insect venom, it causes pain, and sometimes death, through its effect on smooth muscle contraction.

Serotonin is thought to be involved in social rank in some animals. For example, a lobster injected with serotonin behaves like an alpha male.
# Formaldehyde

The structure of a formaldehyde molecule
**Formaldehyde** (or **methanal**) is an organic chemical compound with the formula CH2O. It is the simplest aldehyde.

It is a colorless gas with a strong smell. Like other aldehydes, it is flammable and toxic.

Its main application is as a disinfectant. It is a biocide, this means it can kill most bacteria and fungi. It is also used to make dyes, to make textiles, wrinkle-free preservatives, explosives, and certain polymers. About 23 million tonnes (50 billion pounds) of formaldehyde was made worldwide in 2005.
# Heat

Heat energy in the surface of photosphere of sun

**Heat**, or **thermal energy**, is the sum of the kinetic energy of atoms or molecules. In thermodynamics, heat means energy which is moved between two things when one of them has a higher temperature than the other.

Adding heat to something increases its temperature. Heat is not the same as temperature. The temperature of an object is the measure of the average speed of the moving particles in it. The energy of the particles is called the internal energy. When an object is heated, its internal energy can increase to make the object hotter. The first law of thermodynamics says that the increase in internal energy is equal to the heat added minus the work done on the surroundings.

**Heat** can also be defined as **the amount of thermal energy** in a system. Thermal energy is the type of energy that a thing has because of its temperature. In thermodynamics, thermal energy is the internal energy present in a system in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium because of its temperature. H**eat** is defined as a spontaneous *flow of energy* (energy in transit) from one object to another, caused by a difference in temperature between two objects. Objects do not possess heat.

## Properties of Heat

Heat is a form of energy and not a physical substance. Heat has no mass.

Heat can move from one place to another in different ways:

* Conduction
* Convection
* Radiation

The measure of how much heat is needed to cause a change in temperature for a material is the specific heat capacity of the material. If the particles in the material are hard to move, then more energy is needed to make them move quickly, so a lot of heat will cause a small change in temperature. A particle that is easier to move will need less heat for the same change in temperature.

Unless some work is done, heat moves only from hot things to cold things.

## Measuring heat

Heat can be measured. That is, the amount of heat given out or taken in can be given a value. The calorie is one of the units of measurement for heat but the joule is also used for all kinds of energy including heat.

Heat is usually measured with a calorimeter. The energy in a material is allowed to flow into nearby water, which has a known specific heat capacity. The temperature of the water is then measured before and after, and heat can be found using a formula.

## Related pages

* Entropy
* Heat engine
* Heat transfer
* Radiation
* Internal energy
* Temperature
* Power
* Heat capacity
* Waste heat

## Other websites

* Plasma heat at 2 gigakelvins - Article about extremely high temperature generated by scientists (Foxnews.com)
* Heat and Thermodynamics - Georgia State University
* Correlations for Convective Heat Transfer Archived 2012-02-05 at the Wayback Machine - ChE Online Resources
* An Introduction to the Quantitative Definition and Analysis of Heat written for High School Students Archived 2010-09-24 at the Wayback Machine
# Soman

**Soman** is the name of a nerve agent, which was developed in Germany, in 1944. NATO use the abbreviation **GD** for Soman. During the 1930s, and 1940s, three nerve agents were developed. The two others were Tabun (1936) and Sarin (1942). Soman is the most stable of the three. Sunlight does not affect it. In the air, it will slowly decompose. It cannot be dissolved in water. Under standard conditions it is a colorless liquid.

Soman is a chemical weapon. Producing, stockpiling or owning it is heavily regulated, and monitored by the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons.
# Diatom

| Diatoms |
| --- |
|  |
| Marine diatoms |
| Scientific classification |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Chromalveolata |
| Phylum: | Heterokontophyta |
| Class: | **Bacillariophyceae** |

**Diatoms** are a type of algae (tiny plant-like living things often found in water). Most are single cells, but some form chains or simple colonies. They usually live in the ocean, but are also found in some soils and waterways.

## Characteristics

### Cell walls

Diatom cells have unique cell walls made of silica (SiO2). These walls (called "frustules") take many forms, some quite beautiful and ornate.

The name "diatom" comes from the ancient Greek word *diátomos*, which means 'cut through.' Diatom cell walls are usually split (or 'cut through') into two sides.

### Function

Living diatoms comprise about 20 to 50 percent of the oxygen produced annually. They take in over 6.7 billion metric tons of silicon each year from the waters in which they live.

### Similar organisms

Diatoms and coccoliths are the two great groups of single-celled organisms in the sea. They do not grow in the same places, because diatoms are silica and coccoliths are made of calcium carbonate. T.H. Huxley first discovered this on his voyage on *HMS Rattlesnake* in 1846–1850.

## Evolution

Archeologists have found diatom fossils from as far back as the Lower Jurassic period, around 185 million years ago. However, molecular clock evidence suggests that they developed even earlier.

Scientists have analyzed the entire genomes of two diatom species. The analysis revealed both species had hundreds of genes that came from bacteria.

Diatoms probably evolved some of their structure from red algae.

## Uses

Diatoms have some practical uses. Scientists can study it to determine water quality, monitor environmental conditions like pollution, and understand what past environments were like.

Diatom communities are also of interest to nanotechnology.
# Filter feeder

Krill feeding on phytoplankton.
**Filter feeders** are animals that feed on matter and food particles from water. Some animals that do this are clams, krill, sponges, baleen whales and many fish such as sharks. Some birds such as flamingos are also filter feeders. Filter feeders can help clear water.

## Books

* Bullivant, JS (1968). "A Revised Classification of Suspension Feeders". *Tuatara*. **16** (2): 151–160.
* Some aspects of water filtering activity of filter-feeders // Hydrobiologia. 2005. Vol. 542, No. 1. P. 275 – 286

## Other websites

* Filter feeder of krill Archived 2002-05-01 at the Wayback Machine
# Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeldt

Eibl-Eibesfeldt in 2009
**Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeldt** (15 June 1928 – 2 June 2018) was an Austrian ethologist. He was the founder of the field of human ethology. In authoring the book which bears that title, he applied ethology to humans by studying them in a perspective more common to volumes studying animal behavior. He was born in Vienna.

In 1970 he became Professor for Zoology at the University of Munich. From 1975 to 2018, he was the head of the Max Planck Institute for Behavioral Physiology, Department of Human Ethology in Andechs, Germany. He was the co-founder and first president of the International Society for Human Ethology.

From 1992 until his death, he was Honorary Director of the Ludwig-Boltzmann-Institute for Urban Ethology in Vienna.

For many years he dived with Hans Hass on his diving boat *Xarifa*.

Eibl-Eibesfeldt died on 2 June 2018 in Vienna at the age of 89.
# Hibernation

A bat (Northern bat) hibernating in Norway
**Hibernation** is a time of inactivity. Some endothermic (warm-blooded) animals hibernate, usually during the winter, when food is short. They fall into a sleep-like state. They regulate their metabolism to consume less energy. They lower their body temperature, slow their breathing, and slow other vital functions. During hibernation, the body uses fat for energy, which the animal has gathered in summer and autumn. They hibernate from the end of autumn to the start of winter. Animals try and eat as much as they can to increase the fats in their body.

Mammals like bats, ground squirrels (like marmots), hedgehogs, marsupials and others hibernate.

The phases of sleeping (called torpor) are different for the different animals. Hedgehogs sleep for 1–3 weeks, without waking, The fat dormouse sleeps for 20–33 days, without waking. The winter sleep of bears is not as deep as hibernation.

Only mammals hibernate. However, a few birds including hummingbirds do something similar.

## Related pages

* Torpor
* Dormancy
* Aestivation
# Termite

| Termite Temporal range: Upper Triassic – Recent |
| --- |
|  |
| Formosan subterranean termite soldiers (red colored heads) and workers (pale colored heads). |
| Scientific classification |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Subclass: | Pterygota |
| Infraclass: | Neoptera |
| Superorder: | Dictyoptera |
| Order: | Blattodea |
| Suborder: | **Isoptera** |

Some termites build large structures like these where they live
**Termites** are a suborder of social insects, the **Isoptera**. They are sometimes called *"white ants"*, incorrectly, because ants belong to the Order Hymenoptera.

They are *eusocial* animals, as are ants and some bees and wasps. Termites mostly feed on detritus, mostly wood, leaf litter, soil, or animal dung. There are an estimated 4,000 species (about 2,600 taxonomically known). About 10% are pests which can cause serious structural damage to buildings, crops or plantation forests.

Termites are major detrivores in the subtropical and tropical regions. Their recycling of wood and other plant matter is very important for ecology.

A termite colony starts when winged termites (called *alates*) swarm and mate. After mating, they fall to the ground and rip off their wings. The female looks for a good place to start the colony, and the male follows her. Most termites nest underground their entire lives, but termites in Africa and Australia actually build really big mound structures that look like little mountains and can be more than 20 feet tall (see photo below).

Termites live in colonies that, at maturity, hold from several hundred to several million individuals. They are a prime example self-organised systems which use swarm intelligence. They use this cooperation to exploit food sources and environments which would not be available to any single insect acting alone. A typical colony contains nymphs (semi-mature young), workers, soldiers, and reproductive individuals of both genders, sometimes containing several egg-laying queens.

## Other websites

* Termitehub Archived 2016-04-14 at the Wayback Machine
# First Amendment to the United States Constitution

The Bill of Rights in the National Archives
The **First Amendment** to the United States Constitution is a part of the United States Bill of Rights. The first amendment limits the power of congress. The amendment does not allow congress to pass laws that establish a religion or restrict people's rights. These rights include freedom of speech, freedom of religion, freedom of assembly, freedom of the press, and right to petition.

The Bill of Rights were passed to please the Anti-Federalists. Anti-Federalists liked the Bill of Rights because it made sure the government would respect the rights of people and not become too powerful.

The **Establishment Clause** does not allow the government to support one religion more than any other religion. The government also cannot say that a religion or a god is true. This is often described as "separation of church and state", where "state" means "The Government". It also does not allow the government to establish a national religion. It allows people to debate religion freely without the federal government of the United States getting involved. The clause did not stop the various states from supporting a particular religion, and several states did.

> Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances..
>
>

## Related pages

* Freedom of speech in the United States
* Constitutional amendment