Rikunarita-ORG/Wikinium huggingface dataset:
# Polygonaceae

| Polygonaceae |
| --- |
|  |
| *Polygonum persicaria* |
| Scientific classification |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| Division: | Magnoliophyta |
| Class: | Magnoliopsida |
| Order: | Caryophyllales |
| Family: | **Polygonaceae** Juss. |

**Polygonaceae** is a family of flowering plants are herbs, shrubs, or rarely trees comprising about 30 genera and 1,000 species. The leaves are simple, alternate or rarely opposite, and usually stipulate. Some well known members include buckwheat (*Fagopyrum*), sorrel (*Rumex*), rhubarb (*Rheum*), and knotweed (*Polygonum*).
# Virgil

Mosaic portrait of Virgil, 3rd-century AD.
**Publius Vergilius Maro** (Classical Latin: [ˈpuːbliʊs wɛrˈɡɪliʊs ˈmaroː]; traditional dates 15 October 70 BC – 21 September 19 BC), usually called **Virgil** or **Vergil** (/ˈvɜːrdʒɪl/ *VUR-jil*) in English, was a poet in the Latin language. His poems are about gods and their mythology. Virgil's most famous epic poem is called the *Aeneid*.

## Life

Tradition is that Virgil was born in the village of Andes, near Mantua in Cisalpine Gaul. Scholars looking at the way he used words think that he may have Etruscan, Umbrian or even a Celtic background. Study of his name has led to beliefs that his family may have been earlier Roman settlers. These modern beliefs are not supported by evidence from his own writings or from writers of his biographies. Some scholars have noted that his nickname, *MARO*, is an anagram of the two main themes in the Aeneid: *AMOR* (love) and *ROMA* (Rome).
# Hamitic

**Hamitic** is an outdated theory that claims that the so-called Hamitic race is superior to the negroid races of African. John Hanning Speke started the theory. Karl Richard Lepsius and Carl Meinhof extended the theory by using languages to divide people into Hamitic or non-Hamitic. That categorization is no longer in use.

## Alternative theories

Another way to classify people into Hamitic or non-Hamitic is by ethnic roots. Negroid people were perceived as Shemetic, as opposed to the Hamitic Ethiopian, Sudanese, and some other West African ethnic groups as attested by the genealogy of ancient ethnic lineages. For instance, a person who has ancestry from Rome would be considered closer to a Hamite than a person whose ancestry is in Africa.

Ironically, the Hamites include some of the darkest Sub-Saharan African groups like the Nilotes, who were considered closest to Europeans, as opposed to the Chadic Sub-Saharan Africans, who share a common RB1 lineage.

The Hamitic theory also was one factor in classifying the negroid races of Africa upon colonization. That was one factor leading to the Rwandan genocide, which pitted the Tutsis against the Hutus despite their strong similarities and long co-existence.

## Related pages

* Semites
* Scientific racism
* Rwandan genocide denial
# Robert Knox

Robert Knox c.1830
**Robert Knox** (4 September 1791 – 20 December 1862) was a Scottish anatomist, zoologist, ethnologist and doctor. He is best known for the Burke and Hare murders. Some of his work had controversy because he tried to prove that Anglo-Saxons were superior to other people.

## Life

Robert Knox was born in Edinburgh's North Richmond Street to Mary and Robert Knox. His father was a teacher of mathematics and philosophy. He had smallpox as an infant, which blinded his left eye and changed his face. He was educated at the Royal High School, where he bullied his friends.

In 1810, he joined medical classes in Edinburgh. He became interested in transcendentalism.

Knox graduated from Edinburgh University in 1814.

Knox married his wife Susan in 1824.

## Other websites

* Robert Knox MD, FRCSEd, FRSEd 1791–1862: The first Conservator of the College Museum Archived 2007-03-10 at the Wayback Machine
*The Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh, Historical Review*, 2000. Accessed 23 February 2007.
* Collection of prints related to the Burke and Hare murders Archived 2008-05-09 at the Wayback Machine
# Herbert Spencer

| Herbert Spencer |
| --- |
| Spencer at the age of 73 |
| Born | (1820-04-27)27 April 1820 Derby, Derbyshire, England |
| Died | 8 December 1903(1903-12-08) (aged 83) Brighton, Sussex, England |
| Nationality | British |
|  |
| Era | 19th-century philosophy |
| Region | Western philosophy |
| School | Evolutionism, positivism, classical liberalism |
| Main interests | Evolution, positivism, *laissez-faire*, utilitarianism |
| Notable ideas | Social Darwinism Survival of the fittest |
|
Influences
* Democritus, Aristotle, Charles Darwin, Auguste Comte, John Stuart Mill, George Henry Lewes, Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, Thomas Henry Huxley
 |
|
Influenced
* Charles Darwin, Dhondo Keshav Karve, Henry Sidgwick, William Graham Sumner, Murray Rothbard, Émile Durkheim, Henri Bergson, Charles Sanders Peirce, Auberon Herbert, Yan Fu, Jack London
 |
|  |
| Signature |
|  |

**Herbert Spencer** (27 April 1820 – 8 December 1903) was an British philosopher, and a prominent liberal political and social theorist of the Victorian era.

## Works

Spencer developed an all-embracing conception of evolution. He saw evolution as the progressive development of the physical world, biological organisms, the human mind, and human culture and societies.

Spencer never married; he remained a bachelor. He contributed to a wide range of subjects, including ethics, religion, politics, philosophy, biology, sociology, and psychology.

Like Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace, he read Malthus' *Essay on the principle of population*, and was deeply impressed by its argument. Malthus said that sooner or later population growth gets checked by famine and disease, and there are then many deaths. So, he was prepared for Darwin's idea of natural selection, which he preferred to call "survival of the fittest". He did this in *Principles of Biology* (1864), after reading Charles Darwin's *On the Origin of Species*.

"This survival of the fittest, which I have here sought to express in mechanical terms, is that which Mr. Darwin has called ‘natural selection’, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life."
Spencer's term does strongly suggest natural selection, yet as he extended evolution into realms of sociology and ethics, Spencer made use of Lamarckism rather than natural selection, so it seems he was not a Darwinian after all. Others took up his social ideas, and drew the conclusion that it was useless to try and help the poor, and that competition without limits was the way society should go. Darwin himself did not accept these ideas, but they were quite widespread in the United States at the end of the nineteenth century.
# Peony

| Peony |
| --- |
|  |
| *Paeonia suffruticosa* |
| Scientific classification  |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| *Clade*: | Tracheophytes |
| *Clade*: | Angiosperms |
| *Clade*: | Eudicots |
| Order: | Saxifragales |
| Family: | Paeoniaceae Raf. |
| Genus: | *Paeonia* L. |
| Type species |
| *Paeonia officinalis* L. |
| Sections |
| * *Moutan*
* *Onaepia*
* *Paeoniae*

For lower taxa, see text. |
|  |
| The range of *Paeonia*. |

The **peony** or **paeony (Paeonia)** is the only genus in the flowering plant family Paeoniaceae. They are native to Asia, southern Europe and western North America. It is the national flower of China.

## Other websites

 Data related to Paeonia at Wikispecies

 Media related to Paeonia at Wikimedia Commons
# Gaillardia

| Gaillardia |
| --- |
|  |
| Common Gaillardia (*Gaillardia aristata*) |
| Scientific classification |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| Division: | Magnoliophyta |
| Class: | Magnoliopsida |
| Order: | Asterales |
| Family: | Asteraceae |
| Genus: | Gaillardia |

**Gaillardia** (**Blanket flower**) is a genus of drought-tolerant annual and perennial plants from the sunflower family (Asteraceae), native to North America. It was named after M. Gaillard de Charentonneau, an 18th-century French magistrate who was a patron of botany. The common name refers to the inflorescence's resemblance to brightly patterned blankets made by native Americans.

* Susan Fry Biddulph (1944). "A revision of the genus Gaillardia". Res. Stud. State Coll. Wash. 13: 195–256.
# Common sage

| Common sage |
| --- |
|  |
| flowers |
| Scientific classification |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| Division: | Magnoliophyta |
| Class: | Magnoliopsida |
| Order: | Lamiales |
| Family: | Lamiaceae |
| Genus: | *Salvia* |
| Species: | S. officinalis |
| Binomial name |
| Salvia officinalis L. |

Sage leaves - first variety
**Common sage** (*Salvia officinalis*) is a small evergreen subshrub, with woody stems, grayish leaves, and blue to purplish flowers that grows in southern Europe and the Mediterranean region.

It is much cultivated as a kitchen and medicinal herb, and is also called Garden sage, Kitchen sage, and Dalmatian sage. In southern Europe similar species are sometimes cultivated for the same purpose, and may be confused with the common sage.

It likes warm, quite dry soil with some shade but it will grow in almost any garden soil. It can live through winter but after three to five years the plant is past its best and should be replaced.

## Related pages

* Salvia

* *The Herb Society of America New Encyclopedia of Herbs & Their Uses*,i like herbs Deni Bown (New York: DK, 2001)
* *A Modern Herbal* Mrs M Grieves (Surrey, UK: Merchant, 1973)

## Other websites

* Medicinal use: from appliedhealth.com Archived 2007-11-26 at the Wayback Machine
* Medicinal use, modern and historical: from botanical.com
# Réunion

Reunion (east of Madagascar and Africa)
Satellite view of Reunion
French flag/flag of Réunion
Coat of arms
**Réunion** (French: *La Réunion*) is an island of France. It is also a region of France and an overseas department of France, meaning France owns the island nation. It is in the Indian Ocean east of Madagascar, about 200 km (125 miles) southwest of Mauritius. Its capital is Saint-Denis. The highest point in La Reunion is La piton des neiges. The island is also famous for its black beaches, even though people think that there are white beaches. The island is 63 kilometres (39 mi) long; 45 kilometres (28 mi) wide; and covers 2,512 square kilometres (970 sq mi). It is similar to the island Hawaii as both are above hotspots in the Earth's crust.

The Piton de la Fournaise, a shield volcano on the eastern end of Réunion Island, rises more than 2,631 metres (8,632 ft) above sea level and is sometimes called a sister to Hawaiian volcanoes because of the similarity of climate and volcanic nature. It has erupted more than 100 times since 1640 and is under constant monitoring. It most recently erupted on 2 January 2010. Before that, the most noticeable was during April 2007, when the lava flow was estimated at 3,000,000 cubic metres (3,900,000 cu yd) per day. The Piton de la Fournaise is created by a hotspot volcano, which also created the Piton des Neiges and the islands of Mauritius and Rodrigues.

The Piton des Neiges volcano, the highest point on the island at 3,070 metres (10,070 ft) above sea level, is northwest of the Piton de la Fournaise. Collapsed calderas and canyons are southwest of the mountain. Like Kohala on the Big Island of Hawaii, the Piton des Neiges is an extinct volcano. Despite its name, snow (French: neige) practically never falls on the summit.

## Other websites

* Facts about Reunion Archived 2005-12-29 at the Wayback Machine
* Pictures of Reunion Island Archived 2011-07-16 at the Wayback Machine
# Gold Coast (region)

A map of the Guinea Coast, of 1725. It shows the different names
A map of Gold Coast, of 1750
**Gold Coast** was the name of a region in West Africa, on the Gulf of Guinea. In Portuguese, it was called **Costa do Ouro**. Today, it corresponds more or less to the coast of Ghana. It was part of the region of Guinea. The region was discovered and colonized in the 15th century. The names of the countries or colonies show the products that the Europeans would expect to trade there. For the whole region this was Pepper coast, Ivory Coast, Gold Coast and Slave Coast. In 1957, Gold Coast, together with Ashanti, Northern Territories of the Gold Coast and British Togoland became independent, and where named Ghana. The French- part of Togoland became independent as Togo in 1960. In British Togoland, there was a vote, if they wanted to unite with the others. While a majority was in favor, mostly the Ewe people were against it, as they wanted to unite with French Togoland, where other Ewe lived.

The so-called Pepper Coast became independent, and formed the stares Liberia , Sierra Leone and parts of Senegal. Ivory coast became independent as Cote d'Ivoire (sometimes still called Ivory Coast). Slave Coast became independent as Togo, Benin and the western part of Nigeria.
# MENA

**MENA** refers to the acronym for the region *Middle East and North Africa.*

How often countries/territories are included in MENA/WANA definitions:
  Almost always included
  Sometimes included
  Rarely included
## Related pages

* Fertile Crescent
* Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC)
* Near East
* Sahel
# Aneuploidy

**Aneuploidy** is a condition where the nucleus of a cell has one or a few chromosomes more or less than the usual number in the species. It is a common cause of genetic disorders. Aneuploidy occurs during cell division when the chromosomes do not separate properly between the two cells.

Aneuploidy often causes birth defects and miscarriages. Birth defects make up about 3% of births in the United States. Among those who survive birth, Down syndrome is the most common form of aneuploidy. Many with Down syndrome do survive to adulthood. Some cancer cells also have abnormal numbers of chromosomes. The aneuploid theory of cancer suggests that aneuploidy is a cause of cancer rather than a result of it.

## Related pages

* Trisomy
* Polyploidy
# Cycad

| Cycadophyta |
| --- |
|  |
| *Cycas circinalis* with old and new male cones. |
| Scientific classification |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| Division: | **Cycadophyta** |
| Class: | **Cycadopsida** |
| Order: | **Cycadales** Dumortier |
| Families |
|
Cycadaceae Cycas family
Stangeriaceae Stangeria family
Zamiaceae Zamia family |

Leaves and cone of *Encephalartos sclavoi*
Pinnate divided leaves of a cycad, with new growth in the centre in the form of a bud
Cycads in South Africa
**Cycads** are seed plants whose fossils are first found in the early Permian period.

They were very common in the Mesozoic era, the age of the dinosaurs, and are still living, but are now much less common. Only nine genera (about 100 species) of cycads are extant nowadays. In the Lower Jurassic they were part of the forests which became the Jurassic coal measures in part of the world. The fronds could be reached and eaten by some of the typical herbivores of the day.

Cycads are thought to have evolved from order Pteridospermae (seed ferns) of angiosperms, now totally extinct.

They are different from most plants because they have large crowns of compound leaves and a stout trunk. They are evergreen, dioecious plants having large pinnately compound leaves.

They are frequently confused with and mistaken for palms or ferns, but are only distantly related to both, and instead belong to the division **Cycadophyta**.

Cycads are gymnosperms (naked seeded). Their unfertilized seeds are open to the air to be directly fertilized by pollination. This contrasts with angiosperms, which have enclosed seeds and more complex fertilization arrangements. Cycads have very specialized pollinators, usually a specific species of beetle.

They have been reported to fix nitrogen in association with various cyanobacteria living in the roots (the "coralloid" roots).

These photosynthetic cyanobacteria produce a neurotoxin called BMAA that is found in the seeds of cycads. This is a typical defence against herbivory. the neurotoxin may enter a food chain if the cycad seeds are eaten, and may cause some neurological diseases.
# Uniform Resource Locator

The URL makes sure it goes to the right website. It is easy to make a mistake as there are lots of websites. This picture shows the resources near Google.
**Uniform Resource Locator** (**URL**) is another name for a web address. URLs are made of letters, numbers and other symbols in a standard form. People use them on computers, to make the computer fetch and show some specific resource (usually a web page) from another computer (web server) on the Internet. They do this by typing the URL into a web browser, or more often clicking a link, for example one on a web page that they are already seeing.

URLs consist of several parts:

* A protocol. Very often, this is the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
* Some separation characters: ://
* The other computer's name or address. It is very common for names to start with *www.* (which stands for *World Wide Web*), but the entire name is up to that computer's administrator.

In some cases, the URL may also contain

* The path to a document or script.
* In the case of a script, additional parameters after a question mark (?)
* Username and password needed to access a certain page
* Some text after a pound sign (#), naming a spot to skip ahead to.

The URL of this page is

* *https* is the protocol
* *simple.wikipedia.org* is the web site
* */w/index.php* is a script. That script gets parameters, *title=Uniform\_Resource\_Locator*

A shorter form, called a ("relative") URL, is used when a computer could correctly fill in the full ("absolute") URL from context. For example, of /wiki/URL only works for a link on Wikipedia to this page on Wikipedia. Absolute URLs can be shared outside of computers, even with little or no explanation.

## Extensions

These are at the end of the domain name which has a period mark before it. At first there were six main extensions:

* .com - Commercial use
* .net - network / Internet service provider use
* .org - Organizational use
* .edu - Educational use (Schools and universities)
* .mil - Military use
* .gov - Governmental use

Today, there are many other URL extensions. These are usually either a top level domain or interest grouping. Each country has its own top level domain, for example, .ca for Canada, .us for the United States of America or .co.uk for the United Kingdom. Many countries have a government-only extension, for example the United States uses .gov or .fed.us, .gc.ca for Canada and .gov.uk for the United Kingdom. Interest group domains would include .tv (television), .pro (professionals) and .xxx (pornography). These are not used as often as the original extensions.
# COBOL

**COBOL** is a programming language that was developed in the year 1959. It was one of the first computer programming languages. The name COBOL stands for CO**mmon **B**usiness-**O**riented **L**anguage*.

## Background

COBOL was created because people wanted a language they could use to describe the problems in a way that is independent of the hardware used. Like SQL COBOL uses a syntax that is close to that of natural languages. As an example, ADD** YEARS **TO** AGE* is a valid expression.

## History

There are several different versions of COBOL. The newest is from 2002. In general, versions of the language before 1985 are not compatible with the newer versions, from 1985 and later.

In his letter to an editor in 1975 titled "How do we tell truths that might hurt?", computer scientist and Turing Award recipient Edsger Dijkstra remarked that "The use of COBOL cripples the mind; its teaching should, therefore, be regarded as a criminal offense." In this letter, Dijkstra also criticised several other languages which were used at the time.

In recent years, COBOL has been extended to allow object-oriented programming, user-defined functions, and user-defined data types.

## Reputation

The computer scientist Howard E. Tompkins disagreed, and defended structured COBOL: "COBOL programs with convoluted control flow indeed tend to 'cripple the mind'", but this was because "there are too many such business application programs written by programmers that have never had the benefit of structured COBOL taught well...".
# IS-IS

**Intermediate System to Intermediate System** (**IS-IS**) is a routing protocol used in larger office networks and parts of the Internet. It quickly decides how data gets from one place to another on a network or the Internet.

## Related pages

* Shortest Path Bridging
* Border Gateway Protocol
# Portable Document Format

The Portable Document Format (**PDF**) is a file format for storing documents on a computer. Adobe created it in 1993 to make it easier to exchange documents. PDF is often used to make documents print-ready. PDF documents can have stylised text and images in them.

The document is stored in such a way that the content does not change the way it looks on different screens, computers and printers as can happen with other file formats.

PDF is an open standard that was officially published on July 1, 2008 by the ISO.

PDF reader software is required to read PDF documents.
# GitHub

GitHub, Inc.|   |
| Type of business | Subsidiary |
| Type of site | Collaborative version control |
| Available in | English |
| Founded | February 8, 2008 (2008-02-08) (as Logical Awesome LLC) |
| Headquarters | San Francisco, California, United States |
| Area served | Worldwide |
| Founder(s) | * Tom Preston-Werner
* Chris Wanstrath
* P. J. Hyett
* Scott Chacon
 |
| CEO | Nat Friedman |
| Key people | * Erica Brescia (COO)
* Carrie Olesen (CHRO)
* Mike Taylor (CFO)
 |
| Industry | Software |
| Parent | Microsoft |
| Registration | Optional (required for creating and joining projects) |
| Users | 100 million (Jan 2023) |
| Launched | April 10, 2008 (2008-04-10) |
| Current status | Active |
| Written in | Ruby |

**GitHub** is an online software development assistance and version control service. This platform uses Git. It is operated by **GitHub, Inc.** based in the United States.

In January 2020, GitHub reported that they have more than 40 million users and more than 100 million repositories (including at least 28 million public repositories). Therefore, it is recognized as the largest host of source code in the world.

## Organizational users

Currently, there are many individual GitHub users. On the other hand, there are also organizational users such as educational institutions and companies. The following companies are using GitHub to distribute open source projects:

* Facebook.
* Google Research (research facility of Google)
* IBM
* Microsoft
* TeX Users Group (A community for LaTeX users)
* Wolfram Research (developer of Wolfram Mathematica)

## Desktop version

GitHub was made for users who want to save their programs on their web browsers. But there is also a desktop version known as GitHub Desktop.

## GitHub Pages

All GitHub users can create websites with the **github.io** domain. This service is known as **GitHub Pages**. The development history of the HTML code will be recorded with Git.

## Similar services

Today, there are several GitHub like services for developers. Some of them use Git but have different interface with unique web-design. One of the most famous GitHub rival is **GitLab**. This is also based on Git. Users can export their programs on GitHub to GitLab.
# Malesia

Malesia with both the World Geographical Scheme for Recording Plant Distributions's Malesia (green) and most of its Papuasia (orange).
**Malesia** is a region that lies on both sides of the Equator. It is between two big natural areas called the Indomalayan and Australasian realms. Malesia is known for its plants and is part of the Paleotropical plant kingdom. A Swiss botanist and explorer named Heinrich Zollinger first said it was a special region in 1857.

The exact borders of Malesia can change depending on who defines it. In the book Flora Malesiana, Malesia includes Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Brunei, the Philippines, Timor-Leste, and Papua New Guinea. The World Geographical Scheme for Recording Plant Distributions (WGSRPD) had a similar idea, but in 2001, it separated New Guinea and some nearby islands into a different region called Papuasia.
# Decongestant

A **decongestant** (or **nasal decongestant**) is a type of pharmaceutical drug that is used to help stop nasal congestion in the upper respiratory tract. The active ingredients that most decongestants have are pseudoephedrine or phenylephrine.