Rikunarita-ORG/Wikinium huggingface dataset:
# Phycology

**Phycology** (or **algology**), a part of botany, is the study of algae. Algae are important as primary producers in aquatic ecosystems. Most algae are eukaryotic, photosynthetic organisms that live in a wet environment. They are different from the higher plants by a lack of "normal" roots, stems or leaves. Many types have one cell and are very small or microscopic (including plankton and other microalgae); many others have many cells; some of these are very big, like seaweeds such as kelp and *Sargassum*.

Phycology includes the study of prokaryotic forms known as blue-green algae or cyanobacteria. Some microscopic algae are also in lichens.

A phycologist is a person who studies phycology...
# Mycology

Mushrooms are a kind of fungal reproductive organ
**Mycology** is the study of fungi. This includes their genetics, their biochemical properties (the chemical processes in them), their classification, their use to humans and their dangers (poisonous or infectious). Fungi are a source of tinder (easily combustible material to light fires), medicines, food, and psychoactive substances.
A biologist who studies mycology is called a **mycologist**.

Mycology is closely related to phytopathology (the study of plant diseases), because most plant diseases are caused by fungi.
Historically, mycology was a branch of botany (plant biology). Now fungi are thought to be more closely related to animals than to plants.

Fungi are fundamental (perhaps essential) for life on Earth. They are symbionts. They can break down complex organic biomolecules, and so they are a link in the global carbon cycle.

## Related pages

* Palynology, the study of tiny natural particles, including fungus spores.
# Type species

The Whooper swan (Cygnus cygnus) is the type species of the genus Cygnus (Swans). The genus also contains other swans.
A Black Swan, another species of Swan. Not the type species.
The term **type species** is used in the scientific naming of living things, and is part of a system using a so-called "type".

The type system is central to the scientific naming of living things (organisms). How exactly it works is different depending on exactly what living thing is considered, but in a very general (and imprecise) sense it may be said that it fixes each name *to a particular specimen*, the type specimen. This helps in finding out what particular name is to be used for a particular living thing (or a group of living things, a taxon). There are international Codes of nomenclature which set out exactly how types are to be designated and used.

For animals, the type species of a genus (or subgenus) is the type of that genus (or subgenus). The species (hopefully) has a specimen (or in some cases a group of specimens) as its type, so the type species is the link between a genus (or subgenus) and a type specimen.

For algae, fungi and plants, it is different: the type species of a genus is the species that has the same type (specimen or illustration) as the genus. For example, *Malus sylvestris*, the European Wild Apple, is the type species of the genus *Malus*. Thus, for algae, fungi and plants, a type species plays no great role; it is not an official term, but only a term of convenience.
# Asian elephant

| Asian elephant |
| --- |
|  |
| Asian elephant |
| Conservation status |
|  Endangered  (IUCN 3.1) |
| Scientific classification |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Subphylum: | Vertebrata |
| Superclass: | Tetrapoda |
| Class: | Mammalia |
| Subclass: | Theria |
| Superorder: | Afrotheria |
| Order: | Proboscidea |
| Genus: | *Elephas* |
| Species: | E. maximus |
| Binomial name |
| Elephas maximus Linnaeus, 1758 |
|  |
|    Historical range
   Range in early 21st century |

The **Asian elephant** (*Elephas maximus*) is the elephant species living in Asia. They are more easily tamed than larger African elephants. People have used them as working animals for hundreds of years.

The Asian elephant is mostly found in parts of India and nearby countries.

## Description

Asian elephants are different from African elephants. They are smaller, have smaller ears, short legs, a more rounded back, and a fourth toenail on each of their back feet. They have thick, dry skin with a small amount of stiff hair, and are grey to brown in colour. Male Asian elephants have small tusks and female Asian elephants have no tusks. Sometimes pink spots appear on the ears as a result of loss of pigment.

Asian elephants eat grass, hay, twigs, bark and fruits. It can live up to 60 to 80 years. It can weigh up to 5000kg and be up to 300cm tall. It takes up to 660 days or 22 months until the babies are born.

## Distribution

Asian elephants live across many parts of India and Sri Lanka. They also live as far east as Sumatra, Indonesia. These three areas have subspecies that are slightly different.

## Habitat

Asian elephants are spread over areas with very different amounts of rain. They can survive in dry places where less than 40cm of rain falls per year, and in wet areas where over 8 meters of rain fall in a year.
# Cluster analysis

Different results of cluster analysis on an artificial dataset (called "Mouse")
**Cluster analysis** or **clustering** is a way of comparing data by splitting it into groups of similar data points. These groups are called **clusters**.

There are many algorithms to put data into clusters. Clustering algorithms can use different ways of measuring similarity between data points. As a result, different clustering algorithms can get different clusters on the same data.

* Ezugwu, Absalom E.; Ikotun, Abiodun M.; Oyelade, Olaide O.; Abualigah, Laith; Agushaka, Jeffery O.; Eke, Christopher I.; Akinyelu, Andronicus A. (1 April 2022). "A comprehensive survey of clustering algorithms: State-of-the-art machine learning applications, taxonomy, challenges, and future research prospects". *Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence*. **110**: 104743. doi:10.1016/j.engappai.2022.104743.`{{cite journal}}`: CS1 maint: article number as page number (link)
# Incertae sedis

The white on this branch of Elderberry is a fungus called Elder Whitewash (*Hyphodontia sambuci*). It is little researched, and might be put *incertae sedis* in the basidiomycetes.
In taxonomy, the term incertae sedis (abbreviated **inc. sed.**) is used for a taxon when its broader relationship to other taxa is unknown. The first person who used the term in botany was probably Antoine-Laurent de Jussieu. In his book *Genera Plantarum* of 1789 he listed a few *plantae incertae sedis*.

Reasons why a taxon might be classified as *incertae sedis* include:

* The description is not detailed enough to permit a clear classification.
* A scientific publication about a taxon does not focus on its classification. The taxon is labeled *incertae sedis*, because the authors of the publication do not want to *guess* where the taxon belongs.
* Different researchers may have different opinions of where a taxon should be classed. Until the conflicts are resolved, the taxon is classed as *incertae sedis*.
# Set theory

A Venn diagram illustrating the intersection of two sets
**Set theory** is the study of sets in mathematics. Sets are collections of objects. We refer to these objects as "elements" or "members" of the set. To write a set, one wraps the numbers in {curly brackets}, and separates them with commas. For example. the set WIKINIUM\_MATH\_PH\_0 holds 1, 2, and 3. Sets are also often referred to using capital roman letters such as WIKINIUM\_MATH\_PH\_2 , WIKINIUM\_MATH\_PH\_4 , WIKINIUM\_MATH\_PH\_6 .

There are three methods one can use to describe a set: Description method, Roster method (tabular form) and Rule method (set builder form).

## History

Set theory was created around 1874 by Georg Cantor. It had to be made better because collections of objects can cause problems if we work with them without explaining them better. Russell's paradox was one of the problems. Think about the set of all sets that are not members of themselves. If it were inside itself, then the rule which defines it would mean that it is *not* inside itself. But, if it were not inside itself, then the rule which defines it would mean that it *is* inside itself. This was a serious problem, and it meant that the old set theory was broken.
It was improved by people including Zermelo and Bertrand Russell.

## Theory

Set theory begins by giving some examples of things that are sets. Then it gives rules in which you can make other sets from the already known sets. Collections of objects that are not sets are called (proper) classes. It is possible to do mathematics using only sets, rather than classes, so that the problems that classes cause in mathematics do not occur.

* Example: An object WIKINIUM\_MATH\_PH\_8 and a set WIKINIUM\_MATH\_PH\_10 . If WIKINIUM\_MATH\_PH\_12 is a *member* (or *element*) of WIKINIUM\_MATH\_PH\_14 , we write WIKINIUM\_MATH\_PH\_16 . Since sets are objects, the membership relation can relate sets as well.

A binary relation between two sets is the subset relation, also called *set inclusion*. If all the members of set WIKINIUM\_MATH\_PH\_18 are also members of set WIKINIUM\_MATH\_PH\_20 , then WIKINIUM\_MATH\_PH\_22 is a *subset* of WIKINIUM\_MATH\_PH\_24 , marking WIKINIUM\_MATH\_PH\_26 . For example, WIKINIUM\_MATH\_PH\_28 is a subset of WIKINIUM\_MATH\_PH\_30 , but WIKINIUM\_MATH\_PH\_32 is not. From this example, it is clear that a set is a subset of itself. In cases where one wishes not to have this, the term *proper subset* is meant not to have this possibility.

The self-considering objects in set theory was considered too, with some example numbers being 1={1}, 2={1, 2}, 3={1, 2, 3} and so on.

## Related pages

* Cantor set
* Cantor's theorem
* Cardinality
* Continuum (mathematics)
* Mathematical logic
* Naive set theory
* Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory

* Chechulin V. L., Theory of sets with self-considering (foundations and some applications), Publishing by Perm State University (Russia), Perm, 2010, 100 p. ISBN 978-5-7944-1468-4 (In this non-predicative theory overcoming the limitations of predicative formal systems, i.e. Godel's theorems, the text is accessible from the page  )
# Virus classification

**Virus classification** is the way viruses are put into groups by scientists.
There are many different kinds of viruses. Scientists classify viruses to make it easier to learn about them. Classification also helps scientists to remember viruses and the diseases they cause. The International Committee of Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) is in charge of virus classification.

Sometimes different viruses have things in common. This is used in classification. For example, if they are made from DNA and protein, or RNA and protein. Other things that are taken into account are the size and shape of the viruses and the diseases they cause.

Similar viruses are first put into "families". Each family has a name. This family name always ends with "*-viridae*. For example, rotaviruses are in the *Reoviridae* family and herpes viruses are in the *Herpesviridae* family.

Viruses in any one family that are almost the same are then put in a smaller group called a "genus".

Another way of classifying viruses is called the Baltimore Classification. This is different from the ICTV one. Some scientists prefer the Baltimore Classification because it is based on how viruses grow in cells.
# International Standard Serial Number

An **International Standard Serial Number** (**ISSN**) is an eight-digit number used to identify a print or electronic periodical publication. The ISSN system was first created known as international standard ISO 3297 in 1975. The ISO subcommittee TC 46/SC 9 is responsible for the standard.
# Bibcode

Bibcode| Full name | Bibliographic code |
| Introduced | 1990s |
| No. of digits | 19 |
| Check digit | none |
| Example | 1924MNRAS..84..308E |

The **bibcode** (also known as the **refcode**) is a compact identifier used by several astronomical data systems to uniquely specify literature references.
# Semantic Scholar

Semantic Scholar| Type of site | Search engine |
| Created by | Allen Institute for Artificial Intelligence |
| URL | semanticscholar.org |
| Launched | November 2015 (2015-11) |

**Semantic Scholar** is an artificial-intelligence backed search engine for academic publications developed at the Allen Institute for AI and publicly released in November 2015.

## Other websites

* Official website
# Uppsala University

Uppsala University| Uppsala universitet |
| The University Hall of Uppsala University |
| Latin: *Universitas Regia Upsaliensis* |
| Motto | *Gratiae veritas naturae* (Latin) |
| Motto in English | Truth through the grace of God and through nature |
| Type | Public university |
| Established | 1477 |
| Budget | SEK 5.9 billion |
| Rectrix magnifica and Vice Chancellor | Professor Eva Åkesson |
| Academic staff | 1,841 |
| Students | 41,470 |
| Undergraduates | 18,733 |
| Postgraduates | 5,153 |
| Doctoral students | 2,427 |
| Location | Uppsala, Sweden |
| Campus | Urban |
| Colours |     Maroon, white |
| Affiliations | Coimbra Group EUA Matariki Network of Universities |
| Website | www.uu.se |
|  |
|  |

**Uppsala University** is a research university in Uppsala, Sweden, and the oldest university in Sweden, founded in 1477. The university rose to importance during the rise of Sweden as a great power at the end of the 16th century and was then given relative financial stability by the large gift from King Gustavus Adolphus in the early 17th century. Uppsala also has an important historical place in Swedish national culture, identity and for the Swedish establishment.

Uppsala belongs to the Coimbra Group of European universities. The university has nine faculties in three 'disciplinary domains'. It has about 20,000 full-time students, and about 2,000 doctoral students. It has a teaching staff of 4,000 (part-time and full-time) out of a total of 6,000 employees.
# North Carolina State University

North Carolina State University
**North Carolina State University** is a public college in Raleigh, North Carolina. It has about 31,000 students. It is the largest public college in North Carolina and the flagship school for engineering, design, and agriculture.

## History

The university was started in 1887. It was called the North Carolina College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts.

## Sports

NC State sports date back to 1900. The student body (which includes athletes!) is known as the "Wolfpack". This is because the students who watch the games are said to be rabid with support, like a pack of wolves!

NC State boasts the largest public stadium in the North Carolina. Carter Finley Stadium routinely packs in over 50,000.

The three most popular sports to watch around the school and around Raleigh are Wolfpack Women's Basketball, Wolfpack Men's Basketball, and Wolfpack football. The three most hated sports are UNC basketball, UNC football, and Duke basketball.

## Famous people who went to North Carolina State

* John Edwards, who was a United States Senator from North Carolina and ran for Vice President in 2004
* Philip Rivers, former quarterback of the San Diego Chargers
* Russel Wilson, former quarterback for the Wisconsin Badgers, Seattle Seahawks
* Zach Galafanakis, Comedian (*Last Man On Earth, Between Two Ferns, The Hangover)*
* Christina Koch, Astronaut (Outer Space)
* Bill Burr, Comedian

## Other websites

* "North Carolina State University". *ncsu.edu*. Retrieved 2008-06-28.
# University of Wyoming

The Engineering Hall on the University of Wyoming campus in 1940.
The **University of Wyoming** is a public university in Laramie, Wyoming. The university has about 13,657 students. It was founded in 1886. The current president of the university is Edward Seidel. Dick Cheney went to the University of Wyoming.

## Sports

The athletics teams of the university are called the Cowboys for the men and the Cowgirls for the women. They are commonly known as the Pokes. They have 17 varsity teams and they compete in the Mountain West Conference. Josh Allen once played quarterback for the Wyoming football team.

## Other websites

* University of Wyoming's Official website
* Wyoming Cowboys' Official athletics website
# Cambridge University Press

**Cambridge University Press** is the publishing wing of the University of Cambridge. King Henry VIII of England granted it the letters patent in 1534. It is also the world's oldest publishing house and the second-largest university press in the world.

Cambridge University Press has offices in 40 countries and it has published over 50,000 titles by authors from 100 different countries. They publishes academic journals, monographs, reference works, textbooks, and English language teaching and learning publications.

## Other websites

* Official website
# Agronomy

**Agronomy** is the study of soil in relation to how it affects plant growth. *Agronomists* work to make methods that will improve the use of soil and increase the amount of food and fiber crops.

## Related pages

* Agricultural science
# Astrobiology

**Astrobiology** is the study of life in outer space. The field of astrobiology looks for conditions necessary for life, such as liquid water or a similar substitute, a good temperature, or the presence of oxygen.

Some possible places to find life in the solar system are Europa, Ganymede, moons of Jupiter, or Titan and Enceladus, both moons of Saturn. Some of these places may have liquid water, or, in the case of Titan, hydrocarbons that could support a different type of life. They may be too cold to support life on their surfaces, but if they have liquid water, the water must be warm enough to support life. Astrobiologists suggest that there may be a liquid water ocean under their surfaces.

## Related pages

* Abiogenesis
* Astronomy
* Earliest known life forms
* Extraterrestrial life
* Extraterrestrial sky
* Panspermia

## Other websites

* Astrobiology.nasa.gov
* Spanish Centro de Astrobiología
* UK Centre for Astrobiology Archived 2012-10-20 at the Wayback Machine
* Astrobiology Research at The Library of Congress
* Astrobiology Survey – An introductory course on astrobiology
# Bacteriology

**Bacteriology** is the study of bacteria. **Bacteriologists** study, identify, classify, and describe bacterial species.

## Bacteriology and microbiology

Microorganisms such as bacteria, protozoa, fungi, and viruses are studied by "microbiologists". However, bacteriology is a distinct science, because the make-up and inheritance of bacteria is rather different from the other groups.

## Related pages

* Antibiotics
* Bacteria
* Microbiology
# Bioinformatics

Simplified model of a protein found on the surface of the influenza virus
**Bioinformatics** or **computational biology** is the study of large amounts of biological information or genome. It focuses on molecules like DNA. It is done often with the help of computers.

## Foundation

As species of living things change over time, the DNA contained in their cells change, because of evolution. If we can extract the information from living things today, and compare them to each other, we can see which living things are most closely related, the most similar can be thought to be the most closely related in time. Biologists can then construct family trees, or phylogenies. By combining each tree, a grand tree connecting all living things can be made, this is called the "Tree of Life". Bioinformatics uses integration of mathematical, statistical and computational method to analyze biological, biochemical and biophysical data.

## The process

All of the information needed by a cell is provided in its DNA. When a cell wants to build a protein, it finds the appropriate piece of DNA, makes a copy of it (called RNA), and uses the instructions in the copy to make the protein.

Proteins can perform many functions like transportation, structural support, movement and metabolism. Proteins are made from *amino acids*. There are twenty different amino acids that are used to build millions of different protein molecules.

These molecules can be studied using computers to analyze the DNA, RNA, and amino acid sequences from which they are created. Because there are so many different molecules, the best way we have of understanding how the entire system works is to use bioinformatics.

## Computers in bioinformatics

Chemists have developed ways to understand the shape and behavior of small molecules, using mathematical analysis. They might use computers to study these molecules. The DNA contained in just one cell of an organism is far too large to be read by any person, and to compare the DNA between two (or more) organisms, be they in the brother and sister, or of a completely different species, requires comparing large amounts of information to find differences. Computers are better suited to such comparisons, and computer programmers have worked with biologists to create very very large databases to store all the DNA information that has ever been learned.

## Related pages

* Biotechnology
* Computational biology
* Gel electrophoresis
* Sequence analysis
# Biological engineering

**Biological engineering** (also known as **biotechnological engineering** and **bioengineering**) is any type of engineering that is applied to living things.
# Biosemiotics

**Biosemiotics** is a science where the models of sign processes are used to study living systems. Unlike biophysics, biochemistry and molecular biology, sciences where the quantitative physical laws are used to explain the living things, biosemioticians study the organisms and phenomena of life on the basis of qualitative semiotic principles.

* Emmeche, Claus; Kull, Kalevi (eds.) (2011). *Towards a Semiotic Biology: Life is the Action of Signs*. London: Imperial College Press.
# Biophysics

**Biophysics** is a science where the laws of physics are used to study biology, the science on life and living things. Unlike biochemistry and molecular biology, sciences where macromolecules or "large" groups of molecules are studied, biophysicists study single or small groups of molecules.

## Related pages

* Bionics
* Computational biology
* Database of Molecular Motions
* Nanotechnology
# Biotechnology

A plant tissue research center
**Biotechnology** is a technology that involves the use of living organisms. Biotechnology is mainly used in agriculture, food science, and medicine. In biotechnology, living organisms are used to make useful chemicals and products or to perform an industrial task.

## Examples

An example of biotechnology is the use of the fermentation reaction in yeast to make beer and other alcoholic drinks. Another example is the use of carbon dioxide produced by yeast to make bread rise.

## Usage

Biotechnology is often used to refer to genetic engineering technology of the 21st century. The term is used for many ways of modifying biological organisms for the needs of humanity. It started with modifications of native plants into improved food crops through artificial selection and hybridization. Bioengineering is the science upon which all biotechnological applications are based. With the development of new approaches and modern techniques, traditional biotechnology industries are also acquiring new horizons enabling them to improve the quality of their products and increase the productivity of their systems.

Biotechnology has also made cloning (the process duplicating organisms) possible. A lot of people think that this is morally wrong while others think it could solve many diseases.

Biotechnology can be used to solve a great number of problems, ranging from product efficiency to reducing global warming.

## Related pages

* Bioinformatics
* Genetic engineering
* Genetically modified food
* Nanotechnology
# Biostatistics

**Biostatistics** (also known as **biometry**) is the application of statistical methods to biology.

It includes the design of biological experiments, the analysis of data from those experiments and the interpretation of the results.