Rikunarita-ORG/Wikinium huggingface dataset:
# Science (journal)

Science is one of the world's top academic journals. It is a peer-reviewed journal about science, published weekly. The publisher is the American Association for the Advancement of Science. It is also referred to as *Science magazine*. *Science* was founded by John Michaels in 1880 with financial support from Thomas Edison and later from Alexander Graham Bell.

## Related pages

* *Nature*
* *The Lancet*

## Other websites

* Magazine website
# Space (physics)

**Space**, in everyday language, is something that we all know. It is measured in the three dimensions of distance: length, width, and height.

In modern physics, space is a "boundless four-dimensional continuum" known as spacetime. Disagreement exists about whether it is an entity (something that actually exists). It may be just a relationship between entities, or part of a conceptual framework.

The standard space interval, called a metre (or meter), is defined as the distance traveled by light in a vacuum during a time interval of about 1/300,000,000 of a second.

Before Einstein's work on relativistic physics, time and space were viewed as independent dimensions. Einstein's discoveries have shown that due to relativity of motion space and time can be mathematically combined into spacetime.
# Verrucomicrobiota

| Verrucomicrobiota |
| --- |
|  |
| Transmission electron micrograph of stage II epixenosomes. |
| Scientific classification  |
| Domain: | Bacteria |
| Superphylum: | PVC superphylum |
| Phylum: | Verrucomicrobiota Hedlund 2021 |
| Classes |
| * Opitutae Choo et al. 2007
* Terrimicrobia García-López et al. 2020
* Verrucomicrobiae Hedlund et al. 1998
* Orders not assigned to a class
	+ "*Candidatus* Methylacidiphilales" Op den Camp et al. 2009
* Genera not assigned to a class, order, or family
	+ "*Fucophilus*" Sakai et al. 2003
	+ *Limisphaera* Anders et al. 2015
	+ "*Methylacidimicrobium*" van Teeseling et al. 2014
	+ "*Candidatus* Methyloacida" Islam et al. 2008
	+ "*Methylokorus*" Dunfield et al. 2007
	+ "*Candidatus* Nucleicoccus" corrig. Sato et al. 2014
	+ "*Candidatus* Organicella" Williams et al. 2021
	+ "*Pedosphaera*" Kant et al. 2011
	+ "*Candidatus* Rhizospheria" Nunes da Rocha 2010
 |
| Synonyms |
| * "Verrucomicrobaeota" Oren et al. 2015
* "Verrucomicrobia" Hedlund et al. 1997
* "Verrucomicrobia" Hedlund 2010
* "Verrucomicrobia" Yoon et al. 2010
* "Verrucomicrobiota" Whitman et al. 2018
 |

The phylum Verrucomicrobia is made up of six groups of gram-negative, spherical or rod-shaped bacteria that consume other plants or animals for energy and nutrients (heterotrophic). They are distributed throughout freshwater, marine, and soil habitats, as well as vertebrae digestive tracts including those of humans. The bacteria within this group exist as a free-living organisms or symbiont (organisms that live in close physical association) with eukaryotic hosts from nematode worms and marine sponges to the gut of sea cucumber, clam worm, and humans.

## Planctobacteria Superphylum

Members of the *Verrucomicrobia* phylum (group) are a part of the Planctobacteria (PVC) superphylum, along with its “sister groups”; *Chlamydiae* and *Lentisphaerae.* Verrucomicrobia is distinguished from these other groups by a unique genetic change.
# Ciliate

| Ciliates Temporal range: Ediacaran - Recent |
| --- |
|  |
| "Ciliata" from Ernst Haeckel's *Kunstformen der Natur*, 1904 |
| Scientific classification |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Chromalveolata |
| Superphylum: | Alveolata |
| Phylum: | **Ciliophora** Doflein, 1901 *emend.* |

The **ciliates** are a group of protists which have hair-like organelles called cilia.

Ciliates are identical in structure to flagella, but typically shorter and in much larger numbers. They have a different pattern of waving than do flagella.

Cilia occur in all members of the group (although the peculiar suctoria have them only for part of the life-cycle). They are used for swimming, crawling, attachment, feeding, and sensation.
# Choanoflagellate

| Choanoflagellates Temporal range: 900–0 Ma
Had'n

Archean

Proterozoic

Pha.

 No fossils known, molecular clock evidence for origin 1050-800Ma |
| --- |
|  |
| *Codosiga* sp. |
| Scientific classification  |
| *Clade*: | Obazoa |
| *Clade*: | Opisthokonta |
| *Clade*: | Holozoa |
| *Clade*: | Filozoa |
| *Clade*: | Choanozoa |
| Class: | Choanoflagellatea Cavalier-Smith, 1998 |
| Orders & families |
| * Craspedida
	+ Codonosigidae (incl. Salpingoecidae)
* Acanthoecida
	+ Stephanoecidae
	+ Acanthoecidae
 |
| Synonyms |
| * Craspedmonadina Stein, 1878
* Choanoflagellata Kent, 1880
* Craspedomonadaceae Senn, 1900
* Craspedophyceae Chadefaud, 1960
* Craspédomonadophycidées Bourrelly, 1968
* Craspedomonadophyceae Hibberd, 1976
* Choanomonadea Krylov et al., 1980
* Choanoflagellida Levine et al., 1980, Lee et al., 1985
* Choanoflagellea Cavalier-Smith, 1997
* Choanomonada Adl et al. 2005
 |

*Sphaeroeca*, a colony of choanoflagellates (about 230 individuals)
The **choanoflagellates** are a class or phylum of collared microscopic flagellate eukaryotes. Some species are single cells, some are multicellular. They do not have chloroplasts, and are heterotrophic. Some consider they form the simplest phylum of animals; others consider them to be protists.

The Choanoflagellates have many similarities to metazoa, and are the sister group to Metazoa

|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Holozoa |

|  |  |
| --- | --- |
|  |
Ichthyosporea |
|  |
|  |
Pluriformea |
|  |
| Filozoa |

|  |  |
| --- | --- |
|  |
Filasteria |
|  |
| Choanozoa |

|  |  |
| --- | --- |
|  | **Choanoflagellata** |
|  |
|  |
Metazoa |
|  |

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|  |

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## Related pages

* List of animal phyla
* Craspedida
# Acritarch

**Acritarchs** are early microfossils, the remains, probably, of eukaryote cells. It is the resistant single-layered cell walls, or perhaps a cover secreted by cell walls, that we see in early rocks of the Proterozoic era. These structures are organic in their chemical composition, not calcium carbonate. Their precise nature is not known, but they look like the resting stages of modern dinoflagellates (the 'red tide' organisms).

"These microfossils represent the resting stage in the reproductive cycle of eukaryote algae".p258
Acritarchs appear in quantity in organic-rich shales and siltstone strata 1.4 to 1.6 billion years old.p57 They include a wide range of forms, so it is not clear whether or not they are monophyletic. At about 1 billion years ago they started to increase in abundance, diversity, and especially size and number of spines. Their populations crashed during the Cryogenian period 860 million years ago (the Snowball Earth episodes). They proliferated in the Cambrian explosion and reached their highest diversity in the Palaeozoic. They survived at least until the Ordovician period.p256

The increased spininess possibly resulted from the need for defence against predators large enough to swallow them or tear them apart. Other groups of small organisms from the Neoproterozoic era also show signs of anti-predator defences.

## Recent discovery

A recent discovery has greatly extended our knowledge of acritarchs. Large (50μm) acritarchs have been found in silica-based rocks of Archaean age in South Africa. These rocks date to 3,200 million years ago, which makes them the second oldest life to be found as fossils. The earliest are cyanobacteria found in stromatolites.

The significance of this is that acritarchs are eukaryotes. This means that eukaryotes were present at least 1.5 billion years earlier than had been supposed.
# Ulvophyceae

| Ulvophyceae Temporal range:  |
| --- |
|  |
| diversity of Ulvophyceae |
| Scientific classification  |
| *Clade*: | Archaeplastida |
| (unranked): | Viridiplantae |
| Division: | Chlorophyta |
| Class: | Ulvophyceae Stewart & Mattox, 1978 |
| Orders |
| * Bryopsidales
* Chlorocystidales
* Cladophorales
* Dasycladales
* Ignatiales
* Oltmannsiellopsidales
* Receptaculitales
* Scotinosphaerales
* Sykidiales
* Trentepohliales
* Ulotrichales
* Ulvales
 |

The **Ulvophyceae** or **Ulvophytes** are class of green algae. Other well-known members include *Ulothrix*, *Acetabularia* and *Caulerpa*. Others, such as *Cladophora*, *Rhizoclonium* and *Pithophora* live in fresh water and in some areas are considered weeds.
# Progymnosperm

**Progymnosperms** are ancient plants that don't exist anymore. They were like woody plants with spores and probably came from trimerophytes. Later, they led to the development of gymnosperms, which are the ancestors of acrogymnosperms and angiosperms (flowering plants). People sometimes call them **Progymnospermophyta** or **Progymnospermopsida**.

| Progymnosperms Middle Devonian – Lopingian |
| --- |
|  |
| *Archaeopteris* fossil leaves |
| Scientific classification |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| Class: | †**Progymnospermopsida** |

## Other websites

* Progymnospermophyta Archived 2015-04-02 at the Wayback Machine
* Botany: an introduction to plant biology
# Ground tissue

Different kinds of plant cells
**Ground tissue** is the name for a number of different kinds of tissue of plants. These kinds are usually classified by looking at the cell walls. There are three different main kinds:

* **Parenchyma** cells have thin primary walls and usually remain alive after they become mature. Parenchyma forms the "filler" tissue in the soft parts of plants.
* **Collenchyma** cells have thin primary walls with some areas of secondary thickening. Collenchyma provides extra structural support, particularly in regions of new growth.
* **Sclerenchyma** cells have thick lignified secondary walls and often die when mature. Sclerenchyma provides the main structural support to a plant.

* Parenchyma tissue
* Collenchyma tissue
* Sclerenchyma tissue
# Nut (fruit)

Hazelnuts from the common hazel
Chestnuts
A walnut and a walnut core having been removed from the outer pithy fruit. Walnuts are not true nuts.
A **nut** is a hard-shelled fruit of some plants. They are an important part of the diet. Many dried seeds and fruits are called 'nuts' in English, but only some are nuts to a botanist.

Nuts are made of the seed and the fruit. Most seeds come from fruits, and the seeds are released from the fruit. But nuts have a stony fruit wall which keeps the seed inside.

## Definition

In common speaking, many so-called nuts, like pistachios and Brazil nuts, are not nuts in a biological sense. Everyday usage of the term often means any hard-walled, edible kernel.

A nut in botany is a simple dry fruit with one seed (rarely two). The ovary wall is hard (stony or woody) when it matures, and the seed is stuck to the ovary wall.

## Types of nuts

Types of nuts include the oak, hickory, chestnut, stone-oak, birch, hazelnut, and acorn. The peanut, coconut, almond, macadamia, pistachio, pecan, walnut and cashew are not true nuts, but are used like nuts in cooking.

## Nutrition

Nuts have nutrients that are important for growing a new plant. They have protein, fats, vitamins, and minerals. Nuts also give these nutrients to humans and wildlife that eat them. However, some people are allergic to nuts.

## Other websites

* Linus Pauling Micronutrient Information Centre Nuts
# Botanical garden

Orto botanico di Pisa, example of a botanical Garden
A **botanical garden** is generally a well kept garden or a park which contains many different kinds of plants labeled with their botanical names. They can contain collections of special types of plants, such as cacti, herb gardens, plants of certain parts of the world. Some of these collections need to be kept in greenhouses, such as tropical plants, alpine plants or other exotic plants.

In botanic gardens, seeds or cuttings are collected from species in the wild and then used to build up a population of plants from which, one day, some plants may be reintroduced to their natural habitats. Tissue culture can often help to produce many plants from just a few specimens.
 The garden encompasses all green vegetation with specific names and values that add beauty to the environment. The plant needs to be selected and considered for onward discovery, classification, naming and systematic.

Botanical gardens employ professional botanists. Botanists make sure the information given about plants is correct, and also they do research.

## Related pages

* Zoological garden
* Kew Gardens
* Brooklyn Botanic Garden
# Zoo

The "Tiergarten Schönbrunn", Vienna, was founded in 1752 and is the oldest still existing zoo.
A **zoological garden**, **zoological park**, or **zoo** is a place where many different species of animals are kept so that people can see and watch them.

Modern zoos try not only to be for people's entertainment, but for education, research, and the conservation and protection of animals. Many zoos are centers where rare animals are preserved when they are in danger of dying out. These modern zoos also want to give the animals a natural life, so that they are healthy and behave normal. This is done for the animals, but also that people can see the animals as if they were in nature, and not in a zoo.

Zoos cost money. They educate the public on the biological diversity that makes up the world. They help people and wildlife successfully coexist. They pursue continuing research and education for people. They preserve crucial natural resources. They work to provide the most natural environment possible for wildlife in their care. Without enough money they cannot do these things.

Many zoos are not like the modern type of zoo. There the animals are held in bad conditions. They are kept in small cages. They get bored. They also get sick. Animals can also get very stressed in zoos.

## Types

There are different types of zoo all over the world. They are:

Giraffes at West Midlands Safari park
* In a safari park visitors can drive their own vehicles or ride in vehicles given by the park to see the animals. Sometimes, visitors can feed the animals through the car windows. The first safari park was Whipsnade Park in Bedfordshire, England. It was opened by the Zoological Society of London in 1931.

The main aquarium at Dubai Mall Aquarium
* A public aquarium has many aquatic animals and plants for people to see. Most public aquariums have very large tanks. They may also have smaller tanks. The first public aquariums were made in the mid-19th century.

Child petting a domestic goat at the "Little Kids" Children's Zoo in the St. Louis Zoo in St. Louis, Missouri, US
* A petting zoo has domestic animals and some wild animals that are very calm so that the visitors can touch and feed them. Most petting zoos feature very calm herbivorous domesticated animals, such as: donkeys, goats, pigs, horses (including ponies), rabbits or sheep, to feed and touch them safely. Few petting zoos have wild animals (such as snakes, big cats, monkeys or apes) touch. These are rare and usually found outside Western countries.

* An animal theme park is a combination of a theme park and a zoo. It mainly built for entertainment, amusement, and commercial reasons. Many animal theme parks combine theme park elements, like entertainment and amusement rides, with zoo elements such as live animals kept inside cages so that visitors can see them.

## Pictures

* Giraffes in the Tiergarten Schönbrunn, Vienna.
* Penguins at London Zoo.
* Giant Pandas in Chiang Mai Zoo.
* Toucans at Bronx Zoo.
# Conifer

| Conifera |
| --- |
|  |
| Trees of a Pinophyta species: *Araucaria heterophylla* (Araucariaceae) |
| Scientific classification |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| Division: | **Pinophyta** |
| Class: | **Pinopsida** |
| Orders & Families |
|
Cordaitales †
**Pinales**
  Pinaceae – Pine family
  Araucariaceae – Araucaria
  Podocarpaceae – Yellow-woods
  Sciadopityaceae – Umbrella-pines
  Cupressaceae – Cypresses
  Cephalotaxaceae – Plum-yews
  Taxaceae – Yews
Vojnovskyales †
Voltziales † |

**Conifers** are gymnosperms. They are cone-bearing seed plants.

All living conifers are woody plants which are perennial. Most are trees; some are shrubs. They are the Division **Pinophyta** or **Coniferophyta**.

Living conifers are all in the order **Pinales**. Typical examples include cedars, cypresses, firs, junipers, kauris, larches, pines, redwoods, spruces, and yews.

Species of conifers can be found in almost all parts of the world, and are often the most common plants in their habitats, as in the taiga. Conifers are of great economic value, and their wood is mainly used for timber and paper-making The wood of conifers is known as softwood, though yew wood is actually quite hard. The division *Coniferae* contains about 700 living species.

## Evolution

The earliest conifers were in the late Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian) period (about 300 million years ago), Pinophytes, Cycads, and Ginkgos all developed at this time. These plants live without being so dependent on water. Other adaptations are pollen (so fertilisation can occur without water) and the seed, which allows the embryo to be transported and developed elsewhere.

Conifers appear to be one of the taxa that benefited from the Permian–Triassic extinction event. They were the dominant land plants of the Mesozoic era. Conifers were eventually overtaken by their descendants, the flowering plants, which first appeared in the Cretaceous. Flowering plants became dominant in the Cainozoic era.

Conifers were a main food of herbivorous dinosaurs, and their resins and poisons no doubt gave them some protection against herbivores. All the reproductive features of modern conifers had evolved by the end of the Mesozoic era.

## List of genera

* *Araucariaceae*
	+ *Agathis* (kauri)
	+ *Araucaria* (monkey puzzle)
	+ *Wollemia* (wollemi pine)
* *Cupressaceae*
	+ *Athrotaxis* (pencil pine)
	+ *Cryptomeria* (Japanese redwood)
	+ *Cunninghamia*
	+ *Glyptostrobus* (Chinese swamp cypress)
	+ *Metasequoia* (dawn redwood)
	+ *Sequoia* (coast redwood)
	+ *Sequoiadendron* (giant redwood)
	+ *Taiwania*
	+ *Taxodium*
* *Pinaceae*
	+ *Abies* (fir)
	+ *Cathaya*
	+ *Cedrus* (cedar)
	+ *Keeteleeria*
	+ *Larix* (larch)
	+ *Nothotsuga* (bristlecone hemlock)
	+ *Picea* (spruce)
	+ *Pinus* (pine)
	+ *Pseudolarix* (golden larch)
	+ *Pseudotsuga* (Douglas fir)
	+ *Tsuga* (hemlock)

## Related pages

* Gymnosperm
* Conifer cones
# Vessel element

A cross-section of a stem. The holes with dark red outlines are xylem vessels SEM image (top) and light microscope image (bottom) of vessel elements in Oak
A **vessel element** (trachea) is one of the cell types found in xylem, the water conducting tissue of plants.

Vessel elements are found in flowering plants (angiosperms) but not in most gymnosperms such as conifers. Vessel elements are the main feature distinguishing the "hardwood" of angiosperms from the "softwood" of conifers.

## Structure

Xylem vessels are a long straight chain made of tough long dead cells known as vessel elements. The vessel have no cytoplasm. They are not living, but are made by living cells. The cells are arranged end to end and the cell walls have disappeared. This makes a tube.

Vessels are made of a substance called **lignin**. They have a lignified cell wall and a central cavity. Vessel members are interconnected through perforations in their common walls. Lignin is a hard organic polymer. It makes the cell walls rigid and is very long-lasting. It is the lignin in xylem vessels which holds trees up.

## Function

Water flows up the xylem vessels. The evaporation of water from the stomata cells in the leaves pulls up the water in a transpiration stream. This is called capillary action, because it depends on the way water molecules stick to the walls of the xylem (adhesion).

There is also some **root pressure**, because water enters the roots by osmosis. This is important so water gets upwards during the night when transpiration is low.

As the water goes up, it carries some minerals with it, so actually the xylem brings some basic nutrients to the plant. The phloem mostly distributes the more complex organic molecules.
# Millet

Some millet
Pearl millet
Thinai (Foxtail) millet
Varagu (Kodo) millet
**Millet** is a type of grain that is eaten. There are many types of millet. Millets are of good nutritional value.

Millets also have high fiber content, and poor digestibility of nutrients. This limits their value in nutrition and makes them rather less acceptable to consumers.
# Juncaceae

| Rush family |
| --- |
|  |
| *Juncus effusus* |
| Scientific classification |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| (unranked): | Angiosperms |
| (unranked): | Monocots |
| (unranked): | Commelinids |
| Order: | Poales |
| Family: | Juncaceae Juss. |
| Genera |
| * *Distichia*
* *Juncus* - Rush
* *Luzula* - Woodrush
* *Marsippospermum*
* *Oxychloë*
* *Patosia*
* *Rostkovia*
 |

The **Juncaceae**, the **rush family**, is a family of rather small plants that often look like a type of grass. They often grow on wet, infertile soils. There are about 400 species organised into eight genera. *Juncus* is the most well-known and largest genus in the Juncaceae family.

They are one of the monocot flowering plant families, which means that their seeds only have one leaf to start off new growth.

Rushes are found all around the world. They are commonly found in wet marshy areas, as the plant prefers moist soil. However, seedlings can survive dormant once well established even in the driest of places. Seeds spread by water or birds and other animals. They can live for up to 50 years lying dormant in droughts.

Rushes are a basic food of many animal diets. They are also used as bedding and nesting material for many different types of birds and mammals. Rushes have been used throughout history by humans for various purposes such as weaving matts, thatching, *tatami*, medicine and animal feed. Today they are still used in some places for making sleeping mats but are mostly used as a decorative plant around ponds.
# Dictionary.com

Dictionary.com logo
Dictionary.com is a website showing the defenition of each word, and has a "Word of The Week/Day/Month/Year". The main reason for its creation was to provide a online dictionary with accurate ways to define each word. *Dictionary.com* was made on May 14, 1995, by Brian Kariger and Daniel Fierro.
# Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation

Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation|  |
| Agency overview |
| Formed | 1916 |
| Jurisdiction | Commonwealth of Australia |
| Headquarters | Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia |
| Employees | 6600+ |
| Agency executive | * Doug Hilton
 |
| Website | csiro.au |

The **Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation** (**CSIRO**) is the national government body for scientific research in Australia. It was founded in 1926 originally as the Advisory Council of Science and Industry.
# Septum

A **septum** (Latin: *something that encloses*; plural **Septa**) is a partition separating two cavities or spaces. Examples include:

* Nasal Septum: the cartilage wall separating the nostrils of the human nose.Often deviated or perforated through physical injury or cocaine abuse.
* Cephalopod Septa: walls between each chamber, or *siphuncle*, in shells of nautiloids, ammonites, and belemnites; i.e. cephalopods that retain an external shell.
* The wall dividing the right side of the heart from the left side.

Fungi produce septa to partition filamentous hyphae into discrete cells.
# Salicaceae

| Salicaceae |
| --- |
|  |
| *Salix caprea* |
| Scientific classification |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| Division: | Magnoliophyta |
| Class: | Magnoliopsida |
| Order: | Malpighiales |
| Family: | **Salicaceae** Mirb. |
| Synonyms |
|
Bembiciaceae
Caseariaceae
Flacourtiaceae
Homaliaceae
Poliothyrsidaceae
Prockiaceae
Samydaceae
Scyphostegiaceae |

Salicaceae is a family of flowering plants. Each plant has either staminate or pistillate catkins. The flowers have no petals or sepals. Each has a small scale-like bract below it. These developing catkins on willows form the well-known "pussy-willow" branches.

Except for two species of *Populas* (Cottonwood), all the members of *Salicaceae* in the Bay Area are of the genera *Salix* (Willows).