Rikunarita-ORG/Wikinium huggingface dataset:
# Anatomy

Anatomy of the human head
**Anatomy** is the study of the bodies of people and other animals. Anatomy is the study of the inside of the body and outside the body. Anatomy notes the position and structure of organs such as muscles, glands and bones. A person who studies anatomy is an anatomist.

The history of anatomy dates back to 1600 BC when Egyptians began studying human anatomy. They discovered the functions of many organs like the liver, spleen, kidneys, heart etc. and were the first to discover the structure and functions of the lymphatic system.

For long periods the dissection of deceased people was forbidden, and correct ideas about human anatomy was a long time coming.

Academic human anatomists are usually employed by universities, medical schools and teaching hospitals. They are often involved in teaching and research. Gross anatomy studies parts of the body that are big enough to see. Micro-anatomy studies smaller parts.

## Body systems

There are different organ systems, such as the cardiovascular system, also known as the circulatory system (the system that gets blood around the body), the muscular system (the system that contains muscles), the nervous system (the system that controls the nerves, and the brain) and the skeleton (the bones).

Anatomy, physiology and biochemistry are similar basic medical sciences.

## Related pages

* Anatomical terms of location
* Medicine
* Zoology
	+ Comparative anatomy
	+ Organ (anatomy)
* Gray's Anatomy
* Vesalius
* William Harvey
# Morphology (biology)

*For other uses, see Morphology (disambiguation).*
**Morphology** is the study of animal or human form or body shape. It is the branch of biology dealing with the study of the form of organisms and their specific structural features.

The concept of morphology was developed by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1790) and independently by the German anatomist and physiologist Karl Friedrich Burdach (1800).

In general use, the word morphology refers to the form and structure of an organism as a whole, including all internal and external structures. This includes aspects of the outward appearance (shape, structure, colour, pattern) as well as the form and structure of the internal parts like bones and organs. Morphology is contrasted to physiology, which deals primarily with function.

## Branches of morphology

* Comparative morphology compares the structures of organisms.
* Functional morphology is the study of the structure and function of bodily features.
* Anatomy is the study of the form and structure of the features of an organism.

In English-speaking countries, the term "molecular morphology" is used to describe the structure of compound molecules, such as polymers. and RNA. The term "gross morphology" is a general description of the form and structure of an organism.
# Embryology

**Embryology** is the study of embryos and their development. The study of embryology starts with the fertilisation of an egg, and continues until the foetus stage. A broader term, developmental biology, covers the whole period of growth from the egg to adult life.

In mammals (and some other animals) embryos develop inside the mother, in the mother's womb. Otherwise it takes place after the egg is laid. It most animals, there are various stages between the egg and the adult animal. If the stages are well-defined the process is called metamorphosis.
# Karyotype

A **karyotype** is the number and appearance of chromosomes in the nucleus of a eukaryote cell. The term is also used of the complete set of chromosomes in a species, or an individual organism. It describes the number of chromosomes, and what they look like under a light microscope. Attention is paid to their length, the position of the centromeres, any differences between the sex chromosomes, and any other physical characteristics. The preparation and study of karyotypes is part of cytogenetics (cytology and genetics).

Karyogram of a human male.
The basic number of chromosomes in the somatic (body) cells of an individual or a species is called the *somatic number* and is designated *2n*. Thus, in humans 2n = 46. In the sex cells the chromosome number is *n* (humans: n = 23).

So, in normal diploid organisms, chromosomes are present in two copies. There may, or may not, be sex chromosomes. Polyploid cells have multiple copies of chromosomes and haploid cells have single copies. The study of whole sets of chromosomes is sometimes known as *karyology*.

The chromosomes are depicted (by rearranging a microphotograph) in a standard format known as a *karyogram* or *idiogram*: in pairs, ordered by size and position of centromere for chromosomes of the same size. This may be used for many purposes; such as, to show genetic disease, what sex the animal is and its diploid number. In humans, cytologists have used karyotypes to help identify genetic abnormalities a baby might have before it is born.

Karyotypes may be studied to gather information about past evolutionary events, such as polyploidy.

* Sex determination
# Physiology

**Physiology** is the study of how living things work. Physiologists can study how organs of an organism work together to make things happen. In human beings, for example, the digestion of food hormones and other chemicals are made by the stomach, liver, and pancreas. Muscle contraction happens because of chemical messages made by nerves of that muscle. By learning how the body functions normally, physiologists and physicians can better understand what happens when organs do not function normally. For example, an understanding of how the thyroid gland functions has helped in treating goitre. Studies of the circulatory system and the nervous system have helped physicians understand and treat such illnesses like heart disease, stroke, and high blood pressure.

The field is usually divided into human physiology, animal physiology, and plant physiology.

## Other websites

* The Physiological Society
* Developmental physiology Archived 2018-06-06 at the Wayback Machine
* The American Physiological Society
# Metabolism

Structure of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a central intermediate in energy metabolism
**Metabolism** is the chemical reactions which keep us alive. It happens in the cells of living organisms.

The chemical reactions are catalyzed by enzymes. Metabolism allows organisms to grow, reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments. The word ‘metabolism’ can also refer to digestion and the transport of substances into and between different cells.

Metabolism is usually divided into two categories:

* Catabolism breaks down organic matter and harvests energy by way of cellular respiration.
* Anabolism uses energy to build molecules such as proteins and nucleic acids.

The chemical reactions of metabolism are organized into metabolic pathways, or cycles, like the Krebs cycle. One chemical is transformed through a series of steps into another chemical by a series of enzymes.

The metabolic system of an organism decides which substances it finds nutritious and which poisonous. For example, some prokaryotes use hydrogen sulfide as a nutrient, yet this gas is poisonous to animals. The speed of metabolism, called the metabolic rate, influences how much food an organism will need, and how it is able to get that food.

A striking feature of metabolism is the similarity of the basic metabolic pathways and components between even vastly different species. For example, the set of carboxylic acids that are best known as the intermediates in the citric acid cycle are present in all known organisms, being found in species as diverse as the unicellular bacterium *Escherichia coli* and huge multicellular organisms like elephants. These striking similarities in metabolic pathways are likely due to their early appearance in the evolution of life, and kept because of their efficiency.

## Related pages

* Catabolism
* Anabolism
* Metabolic rate
* Metabolic syndrome
# Molecular biology

**Molecular biology** is the study of biology at a molecular level. The field overlaps with other areas of biology and chemistry, particularly cell biology, genetics, biophysics and biochemistry.

Molecular biology tries to explain the interactions between the various systems of a cell. It studies the relationship of DNA, RNA and how proteins are made, and how these interactions are regulated.

## Relationship to other specialities

*Schematic relationship between biochemistry, genetics and molecular biology*
Researchers in molecular biology use specific techniques that are typical for molecular biology, but they combine these with techniques and ideas from genetics and biochemistry. This diagram shows one possible view of the relationship between the fields:

* *Biochemistry* is the study of the chemical substances and vital processes occurring in living organisms.
* *Genetics* is the study of inheritance: the effect of genetic differences on organisms.
* *Molecular biology* includes the study of the structure and function of all carbon-based macromolecules. This includes the chain of events from gene to protein: replication, transcription and translation. Much of the work in molecular biology is quantitative, and recently much work has been done at the interface of molecular biology and computer science in bioinformatics and computational biology. As of the early 2000s, the study of the genome has been amongst the most prominent sub-field of molecular biology.
* *Cytology*, which includes the appearance of cells and cell structures, microscopy, and the use of stains and tags to help distinguish organelles and processes.

## Related pages

* DNA and chromosome structure
* Genome
* Cell
* Cell biology
* Cytology
* Molecular cloning
* Sequence analysis
* Transcription (genetics)
* Transformation (genetics)
* Translation (genetics)

* Cohen S.N. Chang A.C.Y. Boyer H. & Heling R.B. 1973. Construction of biologically functional bacterial plasmids *in vitro*. *PNAS* **70**, 3240–3244.
* Rodgers M. 1975. The Pandora's box congress. *Rolling Stone* **189**, 37–77.

## Other websites

### Other reliable accounts

* Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry
* A brief history of molecular biology

### Personal accounts of Nobel Prize winners

* Max Perutz Freeview Video interview with Max Perutz by the Vega Science Trust.
* Frederick Sanger Freeview Video Interview/Documentary by the Vega Science Trust.
* Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard Freeview interview by the Vega Science Trust.

### Other

* DNA from the beginning
* Scientific American Magazine (April 2004) Evolution encoded
* DNA Interactive
* *Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology* (journal home)
# Behavior

**Behavior** (or **behaviour**) is what a person or animal does and how they act. Behaviors may be conscious or unconscious. They may be inherited or learned. The term is also used for systems and for machines which interact with their environment. The term is not well-defined.

In experiments, behavior is the observed reaction which occurs when an organism is given a stimulus. Some organisms are more complicated than others and may be more aware of their surroundings. If their behavior is conscious it means that they know what they are doing. If they are not aware of what they are doing this is unconscious behavior.

Humans will pull their hand back without thinking if they accidentally touch something hot. This is done because we (and other animals) inherit nervous system reflexes which cause us to pull away from the thing that is causing the pain.

Behavior is linked to the nervous system as well as the endocrine system. The nervous system reacts, and notices what happens. The hormone system is much slower. It makes some kinds of behavior more, or less, likely. A simple example is the change from being a child to an adult. This involves a whole range of hormones which affect growth and behavior.

Behavior is also linked to learning. Organisms which are more complicated can learn better than those that are simpler. However, even the simplest animals show habituation, which is a primitive kind of learning. For organisms, learning means that they change their behavior because they remember having been in that situation before and know how to react.

People often use the word "behavior" to mean the way people interact with (behave towards) one another. Children are taught what is good behavior and what is bad behavior. Good behavior is about being polite and thoughtful to other people. It is the kind of behavior that people in a society expect from others.

## Related pages

* Behaviorism
# Range (biology)

The three basic types of population distribution within an area. From top to bottom: spaced (uniform/regular), random and clumped (aggregated).
In biology, the **range** or **distribution** of a species is the geographical area or
habitat where the species live.

Sometimes, when species are found in different regions at different times of year, terms such as **summer range** and **winter range** can be used. When discussing about animals, the species' **natural range** is often discussed.

There are at least five types of distribution patterns:

* random
* clustered/grouped (most are in one area)
* linear (they are in a line)
* radial (radiating from a centre)
* Regular/ordered (not random, but in set positions)

## Related pages

* Ecology
# Systema Naturae

Title page of the 1758 edition of Linnaeus's *Systema Naturæ*.
Systema Naturae (sometimes written Systema Naturæ) is the main work of Carl Linnaeus, where he listed and classified the known species of plants, animals, and minerals. The first edition was made of only seven folios.

## Editions

Many editions of Systema Naturae exist, including the 10th edition of Systema Naturae, which is a book written by Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus and published in two volumes in 1758 and 1759.
# Synapomorphy

A cladogram showing the terminology used to describe different patterns of ancestral and derived character states.
A **synapomorphy** is a common character. It is a term in cladistics, meaning a trait which is present in two or more species by common descent. It is a type of homologous character or homology.

More precisely, it is shared by two or more taxa and their most recent common ancestor, whose own ancestor in turn does not possess the trait. Thus, it is not just an ancestral trait, but a recently evolved distinguishing trait. It helps to distinguish between two trees of descent which would otherwise be equally likely.
# Song dynasty

Song Taizu, first emperor of the Song Dynasty
Map of the Song Dynasty.
The **Song dynasty** ruled in China from 960–1279. It was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song who forced the state of Later Zhou out of power before reuniting China. This ended the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period.

There are two periods of Song dynasty history: Northern Song and Southern Song. The Northern Song lasted from 960 to 1127 and controlled most of China while the Southern Song was formed after Northern Song had lost control of North China to the Jin dynasty. Southern Song's capital was in Hangzhou and lasted from 1127 to 1279. Southern Song was conquered by the Mongols.

## History

The Northern Song Dynasty ruled in China from 960 to 1127. The first emperor, Emperor Taizu of Song, set the capital in Bianliang (now we call this city Kaifeng) in northern China. The Northern Song Dynasty enjoyed the highest economic and cultural prosperity during the ancient Chinese history.

The Battle of Yamen effectively ended the Southern Song Dynasty in 1279, as the battle resulted in the death of the last emperor Zhao Bing.

## Other websites

 Media related to Song Dynasty at Wikimedia Commons
# Invertebrate

A spider
An **invertebrate** is an animal that does not have a spine or *backbone*. This contrasts with vertebrate: if an animal is not a vertebrate (fish, reptile, amphibian, bird, or mammal), it is an invertebrate. Most animals, and most species of animal, are invertebrates.

The main phyla (groups) of invertebrate animals are:

* Annelida: segmented worms
* Arthropods: (arachnids, crustaceans, insects, and others); the largest groups of invertebrates.
* Brachiopods: the lamp-shells.
* Bryozoa: sea mats or moss animals (sometimes they look like corals)
* Cnidarians: jellyfish, sea anemones, hydroids.
* Echinoderms: starfish, sea urchins, sea cucumbers
* Molluscs: (gastropods, cephalopods, bivalves and others); a large group of invertebrates.
* Nematoda: roundworms
* Porifera: sponges
* Platyhelminthes: flatworms
* Rotifers: tiny "wheel animals", which live in habitats such as pond water.

Insects and other arthropods have no bones, but they have a skeleton on the outside of their bodies, called an exoskeleton.

There are 18 more groups of invertebrates, mostly minor: see List of animal phyla.
# Cetacea

| Cetacea Temporal range: Early Eocene – Present |
| --- |
|  |
| Humpback whale breaching |
| Scientific classification |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Mammalia |
| Infraclass: | Eutheria |
| Superorder: | Laurasiatheria |
| Order: | Artiodactyl |
| Infraorder: | **Cetacea** |
| Suborders |
|
Mysticeti
Odontoceti
†Archaeoceti |

Some Cetacea: 1- Bowhead whale; 2- Orca; 3- Right whale; 4- Sperm whale; 5- Narwhal; 6- Blue whale; 7- Rorqual; 8- Beluga
The order **Cetacea** are marine mammals that live in oceans, seas and even a few rivers around the world. Whales, dolphins and porpoises are part of this group. These common names refer to size: whales are the largest, porpoises the smallest. How and what they eat is a better guide to their relationships. The study of cetaceans is called cetology.

Cetaceans are ocean creatures without toes, but are classified in the related order Cetartiodactyla because their ancestors were even toed ungulates.

## Taxonomy

* Infraorder **Cetacea**
	+ Parvorder **Mysticeti**: Baleen whales
		- Family **Balaenidae**: Right whales and Bowhead whale
			* Bowhead whale, *Balaena mysticetus*
			* Genus *Eubalaena*: Right whales
				+ North Atlantic right whale, *Eubalaena glacialis*
				+ North Pacific right whale, *Eubalaena japonica*
				+ Southern right whale, *Eubalaena australis*
		- Family **Balaenopteridae**: Rorquals
			* Genus *Balaenoptera*
				+ Blue whale, *Balaenoptera musculus*
				+ Fin whale, *Balaenoptera physalus*
			* Humpback whale, *Megaptera novaeangliae*
		- Family **Eschrichtiidae Gray whale, *Eschrichtius robustus*
		- Family **Neobalaenidae Pygmy right whale, *Caperea marginata*
	+ Suborder **Odontoceti**: Toothed whales
		- Family **Delphinidae**: Oceanic dolphins
		- Family **Phocoenidae**: Porpoises
		- Family **Monodontidae Beluga, *Delphinapterus leucas*
			* Narwhal, *Monodon monoceros*
		- Family **Physeteridae**: Sperm whales
			* Sperm whale, *Physeter catodon*
			* Dwarf sperm whale, *Kogia sima*
			* Pygmy sperm whale, *Kogia breviceps*
		- Family Ziphiidae
			* Cuvier's beaked whale, *Ziphia cavirostris*
		- Superfamily **Platanistoidea**: River dolphins
# Theophrastus

| Theophrastus |
| --- |
| Statue of Theophrastus |
| Born | c. 371 BC Eresos |
| Died | c. 287 BC Athens |
|  |
| Era | Ancient philosophy |
| Region | Western Philosophy |
| School | Peripatetic school |
| Main interests | Botany, ethics, grammar, history, logic, metaphysics, natural history, physics |
|  |

**Theophrastus** (Greek: Θεόφραστος; c. 371 – c. 287 BC), a Greek native of Eresos in Lesbos, was the successor to Aristotle in the Peripatetic school.

He came to Athens at a young age and studied in Plato's school. After Plato's death, he attached himself to Aristotle. Aristotle left his writings to Theophrastus, and named Theophrastus the new leader of the Lyceum.

Theophrastus led the Peripatetic school for thirty-six years, during which time the school was very successful. He is often considered the "father of botany" for his works on plants. After his death, the Athenians honoured him with a public funeral. His successor as head of the school was Strato of Lampsacus.

*Historia plantarum*, 1549
# Cornus

| *Cornus* Temporal range: Late Campanian–Holocene,  |
| --- |
|  |
| *Cornus kousa* var. *chinensis* |
| Scientific classification  |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| *Clade*: | Tracheophytes |
| *Clade*: | Angiosperms |
| *Clade*: | Eudicots |
| *Clade*: | Asterids |
| Order: | Cornales |
| Family: | Cornaceae |
| Genus: | *Cornus* L. |
| Type species |
| *Cornus mas* L. |
| Subgenera |
| * *Afrocrania*
* *Arctocrania*
* *Cornus*
* *Cynoxylon*
* *Discocrania*
* *Kraniopsis*
* *Mesomora*
* *Sinocornus*
* *Syncarpea*
* *Yinquania*
 |
| Synonyms |
| *Chamaepericlimenum* Hill |

In species such as this *Cornus × unalaschkensis*, the tiny four-petaled flowers are clustered in a tightly packed, flattened cyme at the center of four showy white petal-like bracts.
*Cornus mas*
*Cornus florida* in spring
*Cornus drummondii* in flower
Mature and immature flowers of *Cornus canadensis*, Bonnechere Provincial Park, Ontario
*Cornus canadensis* fruit
Spring budding
Cornus is a genus of 30-60 species of woody plants in the family Cornaceae. They are also called **dogwoods** or **cornels**. They have unique blossoms, berries, and bark. Most of the Cornus are deciduous trees or shrubs. A few of these species are alsoperennial subshrubs. Some of the species are be evergreen. Many species in this genus have small flowers that are surrounded by an involucre. In the involucre, there are petal bracts. Some species have clusters of petal-bearing flowers. These flowers are native to temperate and boreal Eurasia and North America. China, Japan, and southeast United States have many of these native species.

There are many species of Cornus. Some common ones are the common dogwood *Cornus sanguinea* in Eurasia. In North America, there are many flowering dogwood *(Cornus florida)*. In the Pacific and North America, there are many dogwood *Cornus nuttallii*. In east Asia, there is the Kousa dogwood *Cornus kousa*. In Canadian and Eurasian, there are dwarf cornels (or bunchberries): *Cornus canadensis* and *Cornus suecica*.

Dogwoods can be classified many ways. It is usually divided into 1 to 9 genera or subgenera.

## Other websites

* Dogwood history and uses Archived 2016-03-03 at the Wayback Machine
* *Cornus* in Flora of China Archived 2025-05-21 at the Wayback Machine
# Crocus

| *Crocus* |
| --- |
|  |
| *Crocus longiflorus* |
| Scientific classification |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| (unranked): | Angiosperms |
| (unranked): | Monocots |
| Order: | Asparagales |
| Family: | Iridaceae |
| Subfamily: | Crocoideae |
| Genus: | Crocus L. |
| Type species |
| *Crocus sativus* L. |
| Species |
|
See text. |

Crocus (plural: crocuses, croci) is a genus of flowering plants in the iris family comprising about 80 species of perennials growing from corms. Many are cultivated for their flowers appearing in autumn, winter, or spring. Crocuses are native to woodland, scrub and meadows from sea level to alpine tundra in central and southern Europe, North Africa and the Middle East, on the islands of the Aegean, and across Central Asia to western China.