Rikunarita-ORG/Wikinium huggingface dataset:
# Scholasticism

Fourteenth-century image of a school
**Scholasticism** is a way of thinking and teaching knowledge. It was developed in the Middle Ages. It started when people wanted to bring together what is called *classical philosophy* with the teachings of
Christian theology. Classical philosophy is the philosophy developed in Ancient Greece.
Scholasticism is not a philosophy or a theology, but rather a way of teaching and learning. Scholasticism emphasises the use of dialectic. The main purpose of dialectic is to find an answer to a question, or to show that a contradiction can be resolved.

Scholasticism was started by people like Saint Ambrose and St. Augustine. They tried to use philosophy to help explain the doctrine and mysteries of the church. Ambrose and Augustine were among the first Church fathers who brought Christian ideas and Greek philosophy together.

The main figures of scholasticism were Peter Abelard, Albertus Magnus, Duns Scotus, William of Ockham, Bonaventure and, most importantly, Thomas Aquinas. Summa Theologica is an ambitious synthesis of Greek philosophy and Christian doctrine.

In the 13th century, the teachings of Aristotle were considered more important than those of Plato. Scholastic education was very much based on written texts, and with arguments for and against ideas in those texts. In this way it differed greatly from modern science, which is based on observations from nature. In Aristotle the scholastics chose someone who was himself quite an original investigator of the natural world. But the scholastics themselves dealt almost entirely with the world in manuscripts written in two ancient languages. One was in Latin, the language of the Vulgate Bible and the other was Ancient Greek. Greek opened the doors to the writings of the Greek philosophers in their own language, at least so far as their works survived. The motto of Boethius “As far as you are able, join faith to reason” reminds us that all scholastics were mediaeval Christians. Their main concern was to see how the Greek ideas could be fitted into their religious view of the world.

## Other websites

* "Scholasticism". In *Encyclopædia Britannica* Online.
# Thomas Aquinas

A painting of St. Thomas Aquinas
**St. Thomas Aquinas**, (1225 – 7 March 1274) was a Catholic Dominican priest from Italy, saint and philosopher. He was born in Roccasecca, as the son of Count Andulf of Aquino and Countess Theodora of Teano.

His early education was at the Benedictine monastery at Montecassino. He attended the University of Naples, where he got the nickname "dumb ox" for his slow demeanor, though he was an intelligent and talented student. He studied philosophy, Catholic theology, church history, liturgy, and canon law.

Thomas de Aquinas is an essential character of Western philosophy and Christianity. We have access to his academic work, teachings, and writings approaching abstract thinking.

Thomas de Aquinas began his journey with the monastery (religious life) at five years old. Coming from a wealthy and influential family, Thomas de Aquinas was destined by his family to become the Abbot of Montecassino. He didn't want to follow the path his family had paved for him and decided to become a monk with the Dominicans. They were monks who lived by eliminating all material wealth. For his family, being a monk of the Dominicans was a dishonor. His family kidnapped him and kept him prisoner in the their castle for over a year in an attempt to change his mind. This was until he escaped and became a friar with the new Dominican Order against the wishes of his family.

He was sent to Paris by the Dominicans to study theology and philosophy. He became one of the 33 Doctors of the Church and is known for his work with Natural Law. Aquinas took an optimistic view of human nature, believing that it is human nature to do good and not evil.

He was the author of the cosmological argument. Catholics think Aquinas is the best teacher for one who wants to become a priest. His most famous book being *Summa Theologica.* Many schools are named after him including the Pontifical and Royal University of Santo Tomas in Manila, Philippines.
# Asteraceae

| Asteraceae |
| --- |
|  |
| Scientific classification |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| Division: | Magnoliophyta |
| Class: | Magnoliopsida |
| Order: | Asterales |
| Family: | Asteraceae Bercht. & J.Presl |

Sunflower
Daisy (*Leucanthemum vulgare*)
"Pussies toes" (*Helichrysum basalticum*)
The family **Asteraceae** or **Compositae** (the **aster**, **daisy**, or **sunflower** family) is the largest family of flowering plants. It has the most species.

What looks like its flower is really made of hundreds or thousands of tiny individual flowers. The technical term for it is a pseudanthium ("false flower").

The driving force for the evolution of the Asteraceae was that the composite flowers look attractive to pollinating insects. A large brightly coloured flower attracts insects. The other quality insects like is the scent of the pollen and the sugary nectar in the flowers. The asters are very successful (over 32,000 known species of flowering plants in over 1,900 genera in the order Asterales). Their success is due to what they offer to visiting insects. It is also due to their ability to grow almost anywhere, but especially on grass.

Heterocarpy, or amphicarpy, the ability of an annual species to produce different fruit morphs, is common in Asteraceae. It allows seeds to be dispersed over varying distances, each type adapted to different environment. This increases the chances of survival.
# Brassicaceae

| Brassicaceae |
| --- |
|  |
| Winter Cress (*Barbarea vulgaris)* |
| Scientific classification |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| Division: | Magnoliophyta |
| Class: | Magnoliopsida |
| Order: | Brassicales |
| Family: | **Brassicaceae** Juss. |

**Brassicaceae** is a family of plants including mustard, wasabi, and horseradish. They are also called the mustard family, or cabbage family. Some plants in this family are hot when you eat them, so they are used as spices. Another group includes the cabbages, where there are broccoli, cauliflower, and cabbage. Another name for this family is Cruciferae.

The flowers of this family have four petals and look like a cross. The name comes from the genus in it, Brassica.

## Image gallery

* *Draba aizoides*
* *Lepidium bidentatum*
* Incised leaves of *Capsella bursa-pastoris*
* Corymbs of *Iberis umbellata*
* Corymbs of *Arabidopsis thaliana*
* Flower of *Cardamine pulcherrima*
* Siliquae of *Cardamine hirsuta*
* Loment-like siliquae of *Raphanus sativus*
* Samara-like siliquae of *Isatis tinctoria*
* Cabbage (*Brassica oleracea*)
* Turnips (*Brassica rapa*)
* Rapeseed field in Germany (*Brassica napus*)
* *Matthiola incana*
# Kingdom of England

| Kingdom of England |
| --- |
| 927–1707 (Commonwealth: 1649–1660) |
|
Top: Flag of England
Bottom: Royal standard (1406–1603)

Royal Arms of England used during the rule of the House of Plantagenet.

 |
| **Motto:** "Dieu et mon droit" (French) "God and my right" |
| Location of  the Kingdom 1284–1707  (green) |
| Capital | * Winchester (927–1066)
* London (1066–1707)
 |
| Largest city | London |
| Official languages | English |
| Common languages | English (official), French, Latin |
| Religion  | * Roman Catholicism (927–1534)
* Protestantism (1534–1707)
 |
| Demonym(s) | English |
| Government | * Absolute monarchy (927–1660)
* semi-constitutional monarchy (1660–1690)
* Constitutional Monarchy (1690-1707)
 |
| Monarch |   |
|  |
| • 927–939 (first)  | Athelstan |
| • 1702–1707 (last)  | Anne |
|  |
| Legislature | Parliament |
| • Upper house | House of Lords |
| • Lower house | House of Commons |
| Establishment |
|  |
| • Establishment  | 12 July 927 |
| • Acts of Union  | 1 May 1707 |
|  |
| Currency | Pound sterling |
|

|  |  |
| --- | --- |
| **Preceded by** | **Succeeded by** |
|

|  |  |
| --- | --- |
|  | Wessex |
|  | Sussex |
|  | Essex |
|  | Kent |
|  | Dumnonia |
|  | Mercia |
|  | East Anglia |
|  | Northumbria |
|  | Welsh Marches |
|  | Principality of Wales |

 |

|  |  |
| --- | --- |
| Great Britain |  |

 |

 |
| Today part of | * United Kingdom
* England
* Wales
 |
| 1. **^** Monarch of Wessex from 924.
2. **^** Continued as monarch of Great Britain until her death in 1714.
 |

The **Kingdom of England** was a country in Western Europe. It was the land in the south of the island of Great Britain. It united with Scotland to create the Kingdom of Great Britain.

Before the Romans arrived, what is now England, was actually twenty two tribes. Following the collapse of the Roman Empire in Britain, seven kingdoms existed until in 827, Northumbria submitted to Egbert of Wessex at Dore, briefly making Egbert the first king to reign over a united England. It ended on 1 May 1707 with the Acts of Union 1707, which added Scotland to the Kingdom to form the Kingdom of Great Britain.
# Joseph Pitton de Tournefort

**Joseph Pitton de Tournefort** (5 June 1656 – 28 December 1708) was a French botanist. He is notable as the first to make a clear definition of the concept of genus for plants. Botanist Charles Plumier was his pupil and accompanied him on his travels. He also said that fungi were plants. Today, they are a class of their own. They are different from plants and animals.
# Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation

Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation | Title page of the 12th edition of *Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation* (1884) |
| Author | Robert Chambers |
| Country | United Kingdom |
| Language | English |
| Subject | Evolutionary biology |
| Publisher | John Churchill |
| Publication date | October 1844 |

Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation is an 1844 work by Robert Chambers. It was published anonymously in England.
The book openly discussed the transmutation of species in an attractive way.

*Vestiges* became an international bestseller. Its theme contradicted the natural theology fashionable at the time. Its ideas were reviled by clergymen. The ideas in the book were popular with a wider public. Prince Albert read it aloud to Queen Victoria in 1845. *Vestiges* caused a shift in popular opinion which – Charles Darwin believed – prepared the public mind for the scientific theories of evolution by natural selection as in his *On the Origin of Species* in 1859.

For decades there was speculation about the authorship of *Vestiges*. The 12th edition of 1884, revealed that the author was Robert Chambers, a Scottish journalist. He had written the book in St Andrews between 1841 and 1844 while recovering from illness. Initially, Chambers had proposed the title *The Natural History of Creation*, but he was persuaded to revise the title in deference to the Scottish geologist James Hutton. Hutton had remarked of the timeless aspect of geology: "no *vestige* of a beginning, no *prospect* of an end".

## Publication

The book was published in October 1844 by John Churchill in London. The secret of the authorship was kept from Churchill.

## Difficulties appreciated

"In other words, the fact of extinction — which can be observed in the fossil layers — suggests that some designs were flawed... Some other idea must then come with regard to the mode in which the Divine Author proceeded in the organic creation. (p153)

"...how can we suppose that the august Being who brought all these countless worlds into form by the simple establishment of a natural principle flowing from his mind, was to interfere personally and specially on every occasion when a new shell-fish or reptile was to be ushered into existence on one of these worlds? Surely this idea is too ridiculous to be for a moment entertained". (p154)

The general scandal caused by *Vestiges* meant Darwin was reluctant to publish his own ideas until he had well researched answers to all possible objections.

## Reaction

The first edition of 1,750 copies sold out in a few days. The book was translated into five languages, and many editions were published in the U.S.A.

Chambers followed the book with another, this time dealing with all the questions raised by the first book: Chambers, Robert 1845. *Explanations: a sequel to Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation*. London: John Churchill.
# Hesperornis

| *Hesperornis* Temporal range: 89–65 million years ago: Upper Cretaceous |
| --- |
|  |
| *H. regalis* skeleton in swimming pose; note feet pointing sideways. |
| Scientific classification |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Aves |
| Subclass: | Hesperornithes |
| Family: | Hesperornithidae |
| Genus: | Hesperornis Marsh, 1872 |

Hesperornis  is an extinct genus of flightless aquatic birds that lived during the Upper Cretaceous (89–65 million years ago).

*Hesperornis* was an important early find in the history of avian paleontology. It was discovered by the paleontologist O.C. Marsh in the late 19th century Bone Wars.

Famous locations for *Hesperornis* are the Upper Cretaceous marine limestones from Kansas and the marine shales from Canada. The genus probably had a Holarctic distribution.

## Anatomy and life style

J.M. Gleeson's restoration of *Hesperornis* swimming, 1902
*Hesperornis* was a large bird, reaching up to 1.5 meters (5 feet) in length. It had virtually no wings, and swam with its powerful hind legs.

Like many other Mesozoic birds such as *Ichthyornis*, *Hesperornis* had teeth in its beak which were used to hold prey (most likely fish).

*Hesperornis* hunted in the waters of such contemporary shelf seas as the North American Inland Sea, the Turgai Strait and the prehistoric North Sea, which then were subtropical to tropical waters, much warmer than today. They probably fed mainly on fish, maybe also crustaceans, cephalopods and mollusks, as do the diving seabirds of today. Their teeth were helpful in dealing with slippery or hard-shelled prey.

On land, *Hesperornis* species may or may not have been able to walk. They certainly could not stand upright like penguins as in the early reconstructions. Their legs attached far at the back and sideways, with even the lower leg being tightly attached to the body (see photo of skeleton). Thus, they were limited to a clumsy hobble at best on land and would have been more nimble if they moved by sliding on their belly or galumphing. The leg skeleton of *Hesperornis* was so thoroughly adapted to diving that their mode on land, and their egg-laying and parental care, is a matter of speculation.

Young *Hesperornis* grew fairly quickly and continuously to adulthood, as is the case in modern birds. More young birds are known from the fossil record of the more northerly sites than from those further south. This suggests that at least some species were migratory like today's penguins, which swim polewards in the summer.

*Hesperornis* was preyed upon by large marine carnivores such as mosasaurs. A *Tylosaurus* specimen contains the bones of a *Hesperornis* in its gut area.
# Paraphyly

**Paraphyly** is a term in cladistics. It means a group which does not include all its descendents. So Sauropsida without birds is paraphyletic, since birds are definitely descended from archosaurs, probably small theropod dinosaurs (origin of birds).

see text
Paraphyly is corrected to monophyly when the missing group(s) are included. So if birds are included in Sauropsida, the larger group is then monophyletic.

Traditional Linnaean classification is often paraphyletic. Many common terms, like "fish", are paraphyletic, but still very useful for everyday purposes.

## Related pages

* Polyphyly
# Polyphyly

The group of "warm-blooded animals" is polyphyletic.
Comparison of phylogenetic groups, showing a **monophyly** (sauropsids), a **paraphyly** (reptiles), and a **polyphyly** (warm-blooded animals)
**Polyphyly** is a term in cladistics. It describes a group of organisms whose last common ancestor is not a member of the group. Another way of expressing this is to say that polyphyly includes groups some members of which are descended from ancestral populations.

The diagrams show that birds and mammals are indeed related, but only at the level of the early amniotes. In terms of evolution, there is a vast gulf between them.

More common in traditional taxonomy is to include all descendants (say, living mammals) without the group they evolved from (which would be some clade in the therapsida). This is done for convenience; but it makes the mammals polyphyletic.

Biological classification aims to group species together such that every group is descended from a single common ancestor. A polyphyletic group can be "fixed" either by excluding clades or by adding the common ancestor.

According to cladistics it should be the aim of classification to ensure that all groups are monophyletic. However, other taxonomists argue that there is a valid place for groups that are paraphyletic. These would contain their most recent common ancestor but not all the descendants of that ancestor.
# Carl Woese

| Carl Woese |
| --- |
| Carl Woese in February 2004 |
| Born | (1928-07-15)July 15, 1928 Syracuse, New York, U.S. |
| Died | December 30, 2012(2012-12-30) (aged 84) Urbana, Illinois, U.S. |
| Cause of death | Pancreatic cancer |
| Nationality | American |
| Citizenship | United States |
| Alma mater | Amherst College Yale University |
| Known for | Archaea |
| Awards | Leeuwenhoek Medal (1992) Selman A. Waksman Award (1995) National Medal of Science (2000) Crafoord Prize (2003) |
| **Scientific career** |
| Fields | Microbiology |
| Institutions | University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign |
|  |

The three domains
**Carl Richard Woese** (July 15, 1928 – December 30, 2012) was an American microbiologist and biophysicist.

## Career

Woese is famous for defining the Archaea (a new domain or kingdom of life) in 1977. He used phylogenetic taxonomy of 16S ribosomal RNA, a technique pioneered by him which is now standard practice.

He was also the originator of the RNA world hypothesis in 1977, although not by that name. He was the Stanley O. Ikenberry professor of microbiology at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

## Work and discoveries

After defining Archaea as a new domain, Woese redrew the taxonomic tree. His **three-domain system** is based upon genetic relationships. It divides life into 23 main divisions in three domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. Archaea are neither bacteria nor eukaryotes. Looked at another way, they are prokaryotes that are not bacteria.

The tree of life shows the diversity of microbes. Single-celled organisms represent the vast majority of the biosphere's diversity. This is surprising to some, given our familiarity with the larger metazoan world. Microbes are responsible for many biochemical cycles and are crucial to the whole biosphere. Woese's efforts to clarify the evolution and diversity of microbes was an invaluable service to ecology, conservation and evolutionary biology.

## Personal life

Woese was born on July 15, 1928 in Syracuse, New York. He studied at Amherst College and at Yale University. Woese died on December 30, 2012 in his home in Urbana, Illinois from pancreatic cancer, aged 84.

## Other websites

* Woese, C. R.; Fox, G. E. (1977). "Phylogenetic structure of the prokaryotic domain: the primary kingdoms". *PNAS*. **74** (11): 5088–5090. Bibcode:1977PNAS...74.5088W. doi:10.1073/pnas.74.11.5088. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 432104. PMID 270744.
* Woese, Carl R. (1987). "Bacterial evolution". *Microbiological Reviews*. **51** (2): 221–271. doi:10.1128/mr.51.2.221-271.1987. PMC 373105. PMID 2439888.
* Woese, Carl R.; Goldenfeld, Nigel (2009). "How the microbial world saved evolution from the scylla of molecular biology and the charybdis of the modern synthesis". *Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews*. **73** (1): 14–21. doi:10.1128/MMBR.00002-09. PMC 2650883. PMID 19258530. Retrieved 2011-12-27.
* Woese's homepage Archived 2005-04-05 at the Wayback Machine
# Cell nucleus

Cells in tissue culture stained for DNA with the blue Hoechst dye. The middle and right cells are in interphase, so their entire nuclei are labeled. On the left, a cell is going through mitosis and its DNA has condensed, ready for division
Diagram of a typical animal cell
1.Nucleolus
2.Nucleus
3.Ribosomes
4.Vesicle
5. rough endoplasmic reticulum
6.Golgi apparatus
7.Cytoskeleton
8. smooth endoplasmic reticulum
9.Mitochondrion
10.Vacuole
11.Cytosol
12.Lysosome
13.Centriole
14.Cell membrane
The eukaryotic cell nucleus. Seen here are the ribosome-dotted double membranes of the nuclear envelope, the DNA complex, and the nucleolus
The **cell nucleus** (plural: cell nuclei) contains the cell's genes and controls the cell's growth and reproduction. It has a double layered nuclear membrane round it. The nucleus is usually the most prominent organelle in a cell. The nucleus is small and round, and works as the cell's control center. It contains chromosomes which house the DNA. The human body contains billions of cells, most of which have a nucleus.

All eukaryote organisms have nuclei in their cells, even the many eukaryotes that are single-celled. Bacteria and Archaea, which are prokaryotes, are single-celled organisms of a different type and do not have nuclei. Cell nuclei were first found by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in the 17th century.

The nucleus has a membrane around it but the things inside it do not. Inside it are many proteins, RNA molecules, chromosomes and the nucleolus. In the nucleolus ribosomes are put together. After being produced in the nucleolus, ribosomes are exported to the cytoplasm where they translate mRNA into proteins.

When a cell is dividing or preparing to divide, the chromosomes become visible with a light microscope. At other times when the chromosomes are not visible, the nucleolus will be visible.

## Nuclear membrane

Large molecules cannot get through the double-layer nuclear membrane. However, nuclear pores exist. They control the movement of molecules across the membrane. The pores cross both nuclear membranes, providing a channel. The larger molecules are actively transported by carrier proteins, and there is free movement of small molecules and ions. Movement of large molecules such as proteins and RNA through the pores is required for both gene expression and the maintenance of chromosomes.

## Nucleolus

Within the nucleus is a structure called a nucleolus. It is made at a nucleolus organizer region (NOR). This is a chromosomal region around which the nucleolus forms. Inside the nucleolus ribosomes are made. These are exported through the nuclear pore complexes to the cytoplasm. There they work to build proteins. They become attached to the endoplasmic reticulum if they are making membrane proteins.