Rikunarita-ORG/Wikinium huggingface dataset:
# Carbohydrate

A diagram of the structure of fructose
**Carbohydrates** are chemical compounds that contain *only* oxygen, hydrogen and carbon. They are made up of joined-up sugars. Sugars have the general formula Cm(H2O)n, and are also known as **saccharides.**

Certain carbohydrates are an important storage and transport form of energy in most organisms, including plants and animals.

## Biochemistry

There are four types of carbohydrates, named by the number of sugar molecules they contain.

1. Simple saccharides with one or two sugar molecules
	1. Monosaccharides: single sugar e.g. glucose, fructose
	2. Disaccharides: two saccharides. e.g. sucrose, lactose, maltose
2. Longer chain saccharides:
	1. Oligosaccharides (shortish chains), often linked to amino acids or lipids. They play a special role in cell membranes.
	2. Polysaccharides (long chains) are complex carbohydrates, with linear chains of sugars or branched clusters. Their function is either energy storage (starch, glycogen) or building structures (cellulose, chitin).

## Nutrition and foods

Carbohydrates are the most common source of energy for the human body. Protein builds tissue and cells in the body. Carbohydrates are very good for energy, but, if a person eats more than needed, the extra is changed into fat through a process called de novo lipogenesis.

If necessary, humans can live without eating carbohydrates because the human body can change fats and proteins into carbohydrates through a process called gluconeogenesis. Some already stored glucose in the liver can be released through another process called glycogenolysis. People of some cultures eat food with very little carbohydrates, but they still remain healthy, such as the Inuits.

Research in the United States and Canada have shown that people get about 40% to 60% of their energy from carbohydrates (mostly from refined carbohydrates). The amount of energy needs may depend on the amount of physical work done by people: the harder the work, the more energy they need. The other need for energy is body temperature. Living in a cold climate means a person needs more energy.

Some foods (especially grains) have high levels of carbohydrates including wheat products (bread, pasta, potatoes, cereals), rice, etc.
# Intestine

A diagram showing the intestines of a person
The **intestines**, divided into the small intestine and the large intestine, of an animal are like a tube through which food and bile from the stomach move.

The first part of the small **intestine** is called the duodenum, where most food is broken down by enzymes. Later, the small intestine absorbs useful compounds from the digested food, which is done using small villi or tiny microvilli - hair-like structures in the walls of the intestine.

The large intestine, also called the **bowel**, absorbs water and any other nutrients, as well as vitamins made by the gut flora in the colon. Finally, waste is expelled through the anus.
# Baculum

The **baculum** (also **penis bone**), is a bone found in the penis of many male mammals. It is absent in the human penis, but present in the penises of our close relatives the apes, such as the gorilla and chimpanzee.
The bone is located along the top of the penis and it aids in sex by keeping it stiff for a long time during the sex act.

A bone in the penis allows a male to mate for a much longer time with a female. This can be an advantage as it prevents a rival male from having sex with the female for some time.

Male animals without a penis bone tend to form close emotional bonds with a female and so ensure they are the father of her offspring.

How do you Sex a fossil? The Guardian Wed 24 Jan 2018
# Field vole

| Field vole |
| --- |
|  |
| Conservation status |
|  Least Concern  (IUCN 3.1) |
| Scientific classification  |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Mammalia |
| Order: | Rodentia |
| Family: | Cricetidae |
| Subfamily: | Arvicolinae |
| Genus: | *Microtus* |
| Subgenus: | *Microtus* |
| Species: | M. agrestis |
| Binomial name |
| Microtus agrestis (Linnaeus, 1761) |
|  |
| Field vole distribution |
| Synonyms |
|

List
* *Arvicola bailloni* Selys‑Longshamps, 1841
* *Arvicola brittanicus* Selys‑Longshamps, 1847
* *Arvicola hirta* Bellamy, 1839
* *Arvicola intermedia* Bonaparte, 1845
* *Arvicola levernedii* Crespon, 1844
* *Arvicola neglectus* Jenyns, 1841
* *Arvicola rozianus* Bocage, 1865
* *Lemmus insularis* Nilsson, 1844
* *Microtus arcturus* Thomas, 1912
* *Microtus macgillivrayi* Barrett‑Hamilton and Hinton,1913
* *Mus agrestis* Linnaeus, 1761
* *Mus gregarius* Linnaeus, 1766
 |

The **field vole** or **short-tailed vole** (*Microtus agrestis*) is a type of vole. It is about 10 cm long. It has a short tail. It can be found from any coast facing the Atlantic Ocean to Lake Baikal. It lives in moist grassy habitats, such as woodland, marsh or on river banks. It is a least concern species.
# Brazil nut

| Brazil nut tree |
| --- |
|  |
| Conservation status |
|  Vulnerable  (IUCN 2.3) |
| Scientific classification  |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| *Clade*: | Tracheophytes |
| *Clade*: | Angiosperms |
| *Clade*: | Eudicots |
| *Clade*: | Asterids |
| Order: | Ericales |
| Family: | Lecythidaceae |
| Subfamily: | Lecythidoideae |
| Genus: | *Bertholletia* Bonpl. |
| Species: | B. excelsa |
| Binomial name |
| Bertholletia excelsa Humb. & Bonpl. |

The **Brazil nut** (*Bertholletia excelsa*) is a tree from the family Lecythidaceae. It is native to South America. The trees are known for their nuts that come from the fruit of the plant.

## The plant

Brazil nut fruit with shelled and de-shelled nuts.
The Brazil nut is known to be a large tree in the Amazon rainforest. It can be about 50 m (160 ft) tall and the diameter of its trunk is about 1 to 2 m (3 ft 3 in to 6 ft 7 in). It could live for 500 years. Some trees could also reach a thousand years of age. The stem is straight and commonly does not have branches in half of itself.
# Ground squirrel

| Marmot Temporal range: early Oligocene – Recent |
| --- |
|  |
| California ground squirrel (*Spermophilus beecheyi*) in the man-made rocky shoreline of the Berkeley Marina: The numerous crevices offer safety and shelter. |
| Scientific classification |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Mammalia |
| Order: | Rodentia |
| Family: | Sciuridae |
| Subfamily: | Xerinae |
| Tribe: | Marmotini |
| Genus: | Marmota |

Watchful "rock chuck" (*Marmota flaviventris*) atop Mount Dana, Yosemite National Park in California
marmota
**Ground squirrels** are **marmots**. These are small rodents, squirrels which live on and in the ground.

Most of them live in the mountains, like the Sierra Nevada, or the Alps. Marmots make holes in the ground. They live in burrows, underground. They hibernate, that is they sleep through the winter. Marmots are very social animals. They group together easily. They also like to communicate with each other, with whistles, especially when they sense danger.

They vary in size and habits. Most are able to rise up on their hind legs and stand fully erect comfortably for long periods. This way they watch for predators. They tend to live together more than other squirrels, and many live in colonies with complex social structures. Most Marmotini are rather short-tailed and large squirrels. The Alpine marmot (*Marmota marmota*) is the largest living member of the Sciuridae, at 53–73 cm in length and weighing 5–8 kg.

Many historians suggest that marmots, rather than rats, were the carriers of bubonic plague epidemics in the Middle Ages.

## Related pages

* Chipmonk
* Groundhog
* Prairie dog

## Other websites

 Media related to Marmota at Wikimedia Commons
# Rakali

| Rakali |
| --- |
|  |
| Conservation status |
|  Least Concern  (IUCN 3.1) |
| Scientific classification |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Mammalia |
| Order: | Rodentia |
| Family: | Muridae |
| Genus: | *Hydromys* |
| Species: | H. chrysogaster |
| Binomial name |
| Hydromys chrysogaster Geoffroy, 1804 |
|  |
| Distribution of the Water Rat |

The **rakali** (*Hydromys chrysogaster*), also known as the **water-rat**, is an Australian native rodent. The species lives in burrows on the banks of rivers, lakes and estuaries. It feeds on aquatic insects, fish, crustaceans, mussels, snails, frogs, birds' eggs and water birds. Rakali are 231–370 millimetres (9.1–14.6 in) in length with a thick tail measuring around 242–345 millimetres (9.5–13.6 in). They weigh 340–1,275 grams (0.750–2.811 lb). They have webbed hind legs, waterproof fur, a flattened head, a long blunt nose, many whiskers and small ears and eyes. They are black to brown in colour with an orange to white belly, and dark tail with a white tip.

## Common names

Until the 1980s, this species was commonly known as **water-rat**. During the 1990s there was a push for English common names to be replaced with indigenous names. In 1995 the Australian Nature Conservation Agency recommended that the name **rakali** be used as the common name. The Australian Department of Environment and Heritage has taken up this suggestion and both common names are now used.

* *Hydromys chrysogaster*
* Rakali at the St Kilda Breakwater
* Rear view showing white-tipped tail

## Other websites

* Australian Museum Factsheet
# Edible dormouse

| Edible dormouse Temporal range: Oligocene–Recent |
| --- |
|  |
| Conservation status |
|  Least Concern  (IUCN 3.1) |
| Scientific classification |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Class: | Mammalia |
| Order: | Rodentia |
| Family: | Gliridae |
| Subfamily: | Glirinae |
| Genus: | Glis |
| Binomial name |
| Glis glis (Linnaeus, 1766) |

edible dormouse
The **edible dormouse** or **fat dormouse** (*Glis glis*) is a small dormouse and the only species in the genus Glis.

Fat dormice are the largest dormice in Europe. The ancient Romans used to breed them to be eaten (usually as a snack). This is the reason for the word *edible* in its name. The dormice were kept in large pits or in terra cotta containers (which were called *gliraria*), which were like modern hamster cages.

Wild edible dormice are still eaten in Slovenia, and trapping dormice is a Slovenian tradition. Using dormice for food and fur is mentioned in documents which were written in the 13th century. They also mention the use of dormouse fat as a medicine. Poor and hungry peasants would eat dormice during winter because it is a good protein source.

The edible dormouse lives in Europe. It was accidentally introduced to the town of Tring in England after some dormice escaped from the private collection of Lionel Walter Rothschild in 1902. The British edible dormouse population is about 10,000 and is found in a 200-square-mile (520 km2) triangle between Beaconsfield, Aylesbury and Luton.
This animal is seen as a pest by some people. In the United Kingdom the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 does not allow some ways of killing them, and to remove the dormice from the area may require a license.

* Amori, G.; et al. (2008). "*Glis glis*". *IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2008*. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 13 Oct 2008.

## Other websites

* The Dormouse Hollow
* Rodent page from Mammals Trust UK (includes sound file of Glis glis cry) Archived 2008-01-30 at the Wayback Machine
* Amersham.org page on Glis glis Archived 2006-08-23 at the Wayback Machine
# Pocket gopher

| Pocket gophers Temporal range: Early Oligocene – Recent |
| --- |
|  |
| Scientific classification |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Class: | Mammalia |
| Order: | Rodentia |
| Superfamily: | Geomyoidea |
| Family: | **Geomyidae** |

The **pocket gophers** are burrowing rodents of the family **Geomyidae**. These are the "true" gophers. Several ground squirrels of the family Sciuridae are often called gophers as well. They are not true gophers,though. The name "pocket gopher" on its own is used for a number of subspecies of the family. Pocket gophers, despite being largely a pest, are a symbol of the U.S. state of Minnesota, sometimes called "the Gopher State". They are a pest and are killed with dry ice.

## Distribution

Pocket gophers are widely distributed in North America, extending into Central America.

## Appearance

Gophers are heavily built, and most are moderately large. They usually weigh a few hundred grams. A few species reach weights approaching 1 kg. Most gophers have brown fur which often closely matches the color of the soil in which they live. Their most characteristic feature is their large cheek pouches. The *pocket* in their name comes from these pouches. These pouches are fur-lined, and can be turned inside out. They extend from the side of the mouth well back onto the shoulders. They have small eyes and a short, hairy tail which they use to feel around tunnels when they walk backwards.

## Behavior

All pocket gophers are burrowers. They are larder hoarders, and their cheek pouches are used for transporting food back to their burrows. Gophers can collect large hoards. Their presence is unambiguously announced by the appearance of mounds of fresh dirt about 20 cm in diameter. These mounds will often appear in vegetable gardens, lawns, or farms, as gophers like moist soil. They also enjoy feeding on vegetables. For this reason, some species are considered agricultural pests. They may also damage trees in forests. Although they will attempt to flee when threatened, they may attack other animals, including cats and humans, and can inflict serious bites with their long, sharp teeth.

## Classification

There has been much debate among taxonomists about which races of pocket gopher should be recognised as full species. There are about 37 species in six genera.

## Other websites

* Article on the Animal Diversity Web site Archived 2008-07-06 at the Wayback Machine
* eNature flashcard with image (southeastern pocket gopher) Archived 2007-09-29 at the Wayback Machine
* eNature flashcard with image (western pocket gopher) Archived 2007-09-29 at the Wayback Machine
# Nepotism

**Nepotism** is when a person in authority gives jobs to their relatives. It comes from the practice of mediaeval Popes, appointing their nephews to important positions. *Nepote* is Italian for 'nephew'.

For instance, Pope Callixtus III, head of the Borgia family, made two of his nephews cardinals; one of them, Rodrigo, later used his position as a cardinal as a stepping stone to the papacy, becoming Pope Alexander VI. Alexander then elevated Alessandro Farnese, his mistress's brother, to cardinal; Farnese would later go on to become Pope Paul III. Paul III was a notorious nepotist. When elected Pope in 1534 he appointed two nephews, aged 14 and 16, as cardinals.

The practice was finally ended when Pope Innocent XII issued the bull *Romanum decet Pontificem*, in 1692. The papal bull prohibited popes in all times from bestowing estates, offices, or revenues on any relative, with the exception that one qualified relative (at most) could be made a cardinal.

In the modern world, nepotism is thought to be wrong, and conflicts with the principle of merit, where the best person gets the job (meritocracy). The argument against the widespread nepotism in countries like Italy is that it damages the economy of the country, though that is difficult to prove.
# Major histocompatibility complex

A **major histocompatibility complex**, or MHC, is a molecule on the outside of immune cells such as white blood cells. It is coded for by a large gene family in all vertebrates.

The function of is MHC molecules to sense foreign antigens, and hence the presence of 'foreign' proteins. They bind peptide fragments from pathogens onto their cell surface. Once there, the fragments are recognized by T-cells. Adaptive immunity depends on this reaction.

## Effectiveness

Two properties of MHC molecules make it difficult for pathogens to dodge the immune response.

1. MHC is polygenic. There are several different genes, so that each person or animal has a set of MHC molecules which bind somewhat different ranges of peptides.

2. The MHC genes are highly polymorphic. This means there are multiple variants alleles of each gene in the population. The polymorphism is so high that in a mixed population there are no two individuals with exactly the same set of MHC genes and molecules, with the exception of identical twins.

Inside a population, the presence of many different alleles means there will almost always be an individual with a specific MHC molecule able to load the correct peptide to recognize a specific microbe. The evolution of the MHC polymorphism means that a population will not succumb to a new pathogen or a mutated one, because at least some individuals will be able to develop an adequate immune response to defeat the pathogen. The variations in the MHC molecules are the result of the inheritance of different MHC molecules.

### Transplants

Transplants are limited to those which get the least reaction from the MHC system in tests of tissue matches.

### Autoimmune diseases

An autoimmune disease occurs when the immune cells do not recognize the MHC molecules of other cells and starts attacking its own body.
# Pheromone

A **pheromone** is a scent given off by some animals. The scent causes a social response in members of the same species.

There are many types of pheromone, such as:

* Sex pheromones (to attract a partner): e.g. butterflies and moths
* Alarm pheromones (to warn the group): e.g. wasps
* Food trail pheromomes (to let others know what has been found): e.g. ants
* Territorial pheromones: e.g. cats and dogs
* Various 'short-term' pheromones cause a rapid but brief behaviour: e.g. releasing a cluster of nymphs, or positioning the body for sex.

All pheromones work by inherited instinct, not by learning. They occur in most animals, but are especially obvious in insects.