# Asụsụ ndị Tibet

**Asụsụ Tibet** na-etolite otu asụsụ akọwapụtara nke ọma sitere na Tibetan ochie . Dị ka Nicolas Tournadre si kwuo, e nwere asụsụ Tibeti iri ise, bụ́ ndị alaka n'ihe karịrị olumba 200, bụ́ ndị a pụrụ ịchịkọta n'ime olumba asatọ continua . A na-asụ asụsụ Tibetic ndị a na Tibet, Gilgit-Baltistan, Ladakh, Aksai Chin, Nepal, na n'India na Himachal Pradesh, na Uttarakhand . [ 3 ] Tibet oge gboo bụ asụsụ agụmagụ bụ isi, ọkachasị maka ojiji ya na akwụkwọ nsọ na akwụkwọ Buddhist Tibet .

Ihe dị ka nde mmadụ isii na-asụ asụsụ Tibet, ọ bụghị ha niile bụ ndị Tibet . Site na mgbasa ozi Buddha zuru ụwa ọnụ nke Tibet, asụsụ Tibet agbasawokwa n'ebe ọdịda anyanwụ ụwa, a pụkwara ịchọta ya n'ọtụtụ akwụkwọ Buddhist na ihe ekpere, ebe ụmụ akwụkwọ ọdịda anyanwụ na-amụtakwa asụsụ maka nsụgharị nke ederede Tibet. N'èzí Lhasa n'onwe ya, ihe dị ka ndị Tibet 200,000 na-asụ Lhasa Tibet bụ ndị si Tibet kwaga India, Nepal na mba ndị ọzọ. A na-asụkwa Tibet site n'otu agbụrụ dị iche iche na Tibet bụ ndị bi na Tibet dị nso kemgbe ọtụtụ narị afọ, mana ka ha na-ejigide asụsụ na omenala ha.

Ọ bụ ezie na ndị China na-ekewa ndị Qiang nke Kham dị ka agbụrụ Tibet, asụsụ Qiangic abụghị Tibet, kama na-etolite alaka nke ha nke ezinụlọ Tibeto-Burman .

Tibet oge gboo abụghị asụsụ tonal, mana ọtụtụ ụdị dị ka Central na Khams Tibet ewepụtala ndekọ ụda. Amdo na Ladakhi-Balti enweghị ụda olu. Enwere ike ịkọwa ọdịdị nke Tibet dị ka agglutinative .

## Okwu okwu

Ọ bụ ezie na etinyere okwu ahụ bụ "Tibeti" n'ụzọ dị iche iche n'ime omenala nyocha nke Sino-Tibet, Nicolas Tournadre kọwara ya dị ka phylum sitere na Tibetan ochie . N'ịgbaso Nishi (1987) [ 4 ] na Beyer (1992), [ 5 ] ọ chọpụtara ọtụtụ ihe ọhụrụ lexical nke enwere ike iji mee nchọpụta iji mara ọdịiche dị na Tibetic na asụsụ ndị ọzọ nke ezinụlọ, dịka.  Bdun "asaa" bdun [ 6 ]

"Asụsụ Tibeti" n'echiche a bụ ngbanwe maka okwu "asụsụ/olumba Tibet" ejiri mee ihe n'akwụkwọ ndị gara aga; ọdịiche dị n'etiti "asụsụ" na "olumba" abụghị nke ọma, na ịkpọ ụdị Tibetic dị ka "olumba Tibet" nwere ike iduhie ọ bụghị nanị n'ihi na "olumba" ndị ahụ na-abụkarị ndị a na-aghọtaghị, kamakwa ndị na-asụ Tibetic adịghị ewere onwe ha dị ka agbụrụ Tibetan, dị ka ọ dị na Laratisha, Laratisha, Larsha, Larsha., Sikkimese na Bhutanese . [ 7 ]

## Mmalite

Marius Zemp (2018) na-eche na Tibetan malitere dị ka pidgin na asụsụ West Himalayish Zhangzhung dị ka superstratum ya, na Rgyalrongic dị ka substratum (asụsụ abụọ ahụ bụ akụkụ nke ezinụlọ Sino-Tibet ). Agbanyeghị, enwere ọtụtụ ọdịiche dị n'asụsụ Rgyalrongic na Tibetic; Rgyalrongic na-ejikarị prefixes dị ka \*kə-, \*tə-, wdg, ebe asụsụ Tibeti na-eji suffixes dị ka -pa/-ba, -ma, -po/-bo, -mo, wdg. [ 9 ].

N'otu aka ahụ, Tamangic nwekwara nnukwu ọdịda anyanwụ Himalayish, mana akụkụ ya sitere na ngalaba Sino-Tibet dị iche.

Naanị ụyọkọ asụsụ ole na ole n'ụwa ka esitere n'asụsụ nkịtị nke yitere ma ọ bụ nwee njikọ chiri anya na asụsụ ochie. Otu obere ìgwè a na-agụnye asụsụ Tibetic, dị ka ụmụ sitere na Old Tibetan (narị afọ 7-9), kamakwa asụsụ Romance na Latin, asụsụ Arabic (ma ọ bụ "olumba") na Arabic Classical, asụsụ Sinitic na Middle Chinese, asụsụ Indic nke oge a na Vedic Sanskrit .

## Nhazi

 Maapụ Tibet nke asụsụ agbụrụ
A na-asụ asụsụ ndị dị iche iche na ugwu na ọwụwa anyanwụ, ikekwe n'ihi mmekọrịta asụsụ na asụsụ Qiangic, Rgyalrongic . Ọdịiche egosiri na Khalong nwekwara ike ịbụ n'ihi mgbanwe asụsụ . Na mgbakwunye, enwere Baima, nke na-ejigide substratum Qiangic pụtara, ma nwee ọtụtụ ọkwa nke ịgbazinye ego n'aka Amdo, Khams, na Zhongu, mana ọ naghị adabara alaka ụlọ ọrụ Tibetic guzosiri ike.

Asụsụ Tibetic abụọ a na-eji maka mgbasa ozi n'ime China bụ Standard Tibet na Amdo Tibet .

### Tournadre na Suzuki (2023)

Tournadre & Suzuki (2023) ghọtara *mpaghara* mpaghara 8, nke ọ bụla nwere ihe dị ka *otu* 7-14 nke olumba Tibetic. [ 3 ] Nkewa a bụ ntughari nke Tournadre (2014).

### Myanmar

Na Myanmar, a na-asụ ụdị dị iche iche nke Khams Tibet na nso Hkakabo Razi, Kachin State nke dị n'akụkụ Nujiang Lisu Autonomous Prefecture, Yunnan na Tibet Autonomous Region . [ 27 ] Suzuki (2012) na-akọwa ụda ụda olu nke Sangdam, yana inye nkọwa nkenke nke ụdị Tibetic dị na mba ahụ.

Ọ na-eme atụmatụ na e nwere ihe dị ka ndị ọkà okwu 300 Khams Tibet bi ma ọ dịkarịa ala obodo anọ na Dazundam Village Tract, Pannandin Sub-township, Nogmong Township, Putao District, Kachin State. [ 28 ] Obodo anọ ọ na-akpọ Tahaundam, "Shidudan" (Japanese :シドゥダン), Sandam, Madin, nke abụọ nke ọ na-enyeghị romanization n'ihi na ebe a na-edeghị aha na map dị ya. [ 28 ] Dị ka onye ndụmọdụ Suzuki si kwuo, ha si na Zayu County, Tibet kwaga ihe karịrị otu narị afọ gara aga n'agbanyeghị na ha ka na-enwe mmekọrịta na ndị ikwu bi ebe ahụ, na e nwere obere ọdịiche dị n'etiti olumba nke obodo anọ ahụ. [ 29 ]

Ebe ọ bụ na ndị Rawang bụ agbụrụ ka ukwuu nke mpaghara ahụ, ndị Tibet nwekwara iwu nke Rawang, nke a na-ejikarị eme ihe maka nkwurịta okwu interethnic; ndị gụrụ akwụkwọ praịmarị nwekwara ike ịsụ na ide Burmese ebe ha na-agụghị akwụkwọ n'asụsụ nke ha. [ 29 ]

## Usoro edemede

Ọtụtụ asụsụ Tibeti ka edere n'otu n'ime edemede Indic abụọ. Ọkọlọtọ Tibet na ọtụtụ asụsụ Tibeti ndị ọzọ ka edere n'edemede Tibet nwere usoro ngbanwe nke akụkọ ihe mere eme (lee n'okpuru) nke na-enyere aka ijikọ mpaghara asụsụ Tibet. Edere ụfọdụ asụsụ Tibet ndị ọzọ (na India na Nepal) n'asụsụ Devanagari yiri ya, nke a na-ejikwa dee Hindi, Nepali na ọtụtụ asụsụ ndị ọzọ. Otú ọ dị, ụfọdụ ndị na-asụ Ladakhi na Balti na-eji edemede Urdu dee; Nke a na-eme ihe fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ naanị na Pakistan . Edemede Tibet dara ada na Pakistani Baltistan ọtụtụ narị afọ gara aga ka mpaghara ahụ nabatara Islam . Agbanyeghị, nchegbu na-abawanye n'etiti ndị Balti maka ichekwa asụsụ na ọdịnala ha, ọkachasị n'agbanyeghị mmetụta ọdịnala Punjabi siri ike na Pakistan niile, emelitela mmasị ọhụrụ n'ịtụte edemede Tibet na iji ya n'akụkụ edemede Perso-Arabic . Ọtụtụ ụlọ ahịa dị na isi obodo Baltistan Skardu na mpaghara “Northern Areas” Pakistan amalitela ịgbakwunye akara ndị e dere na script Perso-Arabic nwere akara ndị e dere na script Tibet. Baltis na-ahụ atụmatụ a ọ bụghị dị ka ndị na-ekewapụ onwe ha kama ọ bụ akụkụ nke mbọ iji chekwaa akụkụ omenala nke mpaghara ha bụ ndị ha na ndị agbata obi dị ka Kashmiris na Punjabis kerịta akụkọ ihe mere eme chiri anya kemgbe Islam bịarutere na mpaghara ahụ ọtụtụ narị afọ gara aga.

## phonology nke akụkọ ihe mere eme

Edemede a sụgharịrị fonology ochie Tibet nke ọma. Akpọpụtara agba ikpeazụ ndị ahụ n'agbanyeghị na edere ha ka e si kwuo ya, mkpụrụedemede prefix ahụ jikọtara ụda ha na mkpụrụedemede mgbọrọgwụ. Ngwakọta eserese *hr* na *lh* na-anọchi anya enweghị olu na ọ bụchaghị na-achọsi ike n'akwụkwọ ozi *r* na *l* n'otu n'otu. A na-akpọ akwụkwọ ozi ahụ dị ka a na-akpọ guttural fricative tupu ụdaume ma dị ka homorganic prenasalization tupu consonants. Ma gigu *verso* ọ nwere ihe ụda ụda pụtara ma ọ bụ na o nweghị ka na-ese okwu.

Dịka ọmụmaatụ, a gaara akpọ *Srongbtsan Sgampo* [sroŋpʦan zɡampo] (a na-akpọzi [sɔ́ŋʦɛ̃ ɡʌ̀mpo] na Lhasa Tibet) na ' *babs* gaara akpọ [mbaps] (akpọ [bapˤ]  na Lhasa Tibet).

Ugbua na narị afọ nke 9 usoro nke ụyọkọ mfe mfe, devoicing na tonogenesis amalitela n'asụsụ etiti, dị ka a pụrụ igosi site na Tibet okwu sụgharịrị n'asụsụ ndị ọzọ, karịsịa Middle Chinese kamakwa Uyghur .

Nchikota nke ihe akaebe nke a kpọtụrụ aha n'elu na-enyere anyị aka ịmepụta usoro mgbanwe nke Tibet. Na narị afọ nke itoolu, dị ka e gosipụtara na nkwekọrịta Tibet na-asụ asụsụ abụọ- Chinese nke 821-822 nke a chọtara n'ihu Jokhang nke Lhasa, ebelatalarị ụyọkọ mmalite mgbagwoju anya, na usoro nke tonogenesis na-aga nke ọma.

Mgbanwe na-esote weere ọnọdụ na olumba Tsang (Gtsang): Agbanwere mkpado *ra* -tag ka ọ bụrụ consonants retroflex, *ya* -tags wee ghọọ palatals.

Mgbe e mesịrị, akwụkwọ ozi ndị e dekwasịrị na nke ikpeazụ *d* na *s* kwụsịrị, ma e wezụga na ọwụwa anyanwụ na n'ebe ọdịda anyanwụ. Ọ bụ n'oge a ka asụsụ ahụ gbasaa na Lahul na Spiti, ebe akwụkwọ ozi ndị e dekwasịrị n'elu na-agbachi nkịtị, a na-anụkarị *d* na *g* ikpeazụ, na *dịka*, *os*, a na-akpọ *anyị* *ai*, *oi*, *ui* . Okwu ndị e si na Tibet webatara n'asụsụ oke ala n'oge ahụ dị nnọọ iche na nke agbaziri n'oge mbụ.

Mgbanwe ndị ọzọ na-adịbeghị anya ma kpachie na Ü na Tsang. Na Ü, ụdaume na-ada *a*, *o*, *ị* na-emekarị ka *ä*, *ö*, *ü* mgbe ụda coronal na-esote *i*, *d*, *s*, *l* na *n* . Otu ihe ahụ na-ejide Tsang ma ewezuga *l*, nke na-agbatị naanị ụdaume. Ndị mgbasa ozi aghọọla ihe na- achọsi ike nke nwere obere okwu, nke na-akakwa akara okwu nwere nkwenye mbụ dị mfe; ebe ndị mbụ na-achọsi ike na mkpịrịsị mgbagwoju anya dị mfe n'okwu ka a na-eji ụda dị elu, mkpu na ngwa ngwa.

## Nrụgharị

### Proto-Tibetic

Tournadre (2014) wuzigharịrị Proto-Tibetic, nna nna nke asụsụ Tibetic nwere echiche. Proto-Tibetic yiri, ma ọ bụghị otu, nke Tibet Tibet e dere na oge gboo . Atụmatụ ụda olu ndị a bụ njirimara nke Proto-Tibetic (Tournadre 2014: 113).

* Na prefixes \*s(ǝ)-, \*d(ǝ)-/g(ǝ)-, \*m(ǝ)-, na \*b(ǝ)-, e                                                           ghị  (ǝ)    (ǝ) . \* s(ǝ)- a na-eji anu anumanu na aru aru, na \*d(ǝ)-/\*g(ǝ)- and \*m(ǝ)-/\*r(ǝ)-.
* Palatalization nke consonants eze na alveolar tupu *y* (/j/).
* Mgbanwe consonant site na mpụta gaa na ọnọdụ eze mgbe /m/ (dịka, \*ml > \*md).
* Nkwụsị izizi pụrụ iche. A na-egosipụta ihe omume a site n'ịgbanwe mgbanaka ndị na-achọsi ike na ndị na-enweghị mmasị na akwụkwọ edemede Tibet ochie . Ọmụmatụ gụnyere gcig ~ gchig (གཅིག་ ~ གཆིག་) 'otu'; phyin-chad ~ phyin-cad (ཕྱིན་ཆད་ ~ ཕྱིན་ཅད་) 'site ugbu a gawa'; ci ~ chi (ཅི་ ~ ཆི་) 'gịnị'; na cu ~ chu (ཅུ་ ~ ཆུ་) 'mmiri'.

Ụdị Proto-Tibetic arụgharịrị site na Tournadre (2014) gụnyere:

### Tupu Tibeti

Pre-Tibetic bụ usoro echiche tupu e mepụta Proto-Tibetic.

\* ty-, \* ly-, \* sy- e mebeghị palatalized na Pre-Tibetic, mana ha mere palatalization na Proto-Tibetic (Tournadre 2014: 113-114). Mgbanwe ụda etinyere site na Pre-Tibetic gaa na Proto-Tibetic gụnyere \*ty-> \*tɕ-, \*sy-> \*ɕ-, \*tsy-> \*tɕ-, na \*ly-> \*ʑ-. Otú ọ dị, Tournadre (2014: 114) notes that many Bodish languages such as Basum, Tamang, and Kurtöp ( East Bodish ) have not undergone these changes (eg, Bake ( Basum ) *ti* 'what' vs. Proto-Tibetic \*tɕ(h)i and Bake *tɨ* 'one' vs. Prog-öp (Tikbetic Kurt) \* (Tikbetic) vs. Prog-öp (Tikbe) *H la:* 'ígwè' na Bumthap *lak* 'ígwè' vs. Proto-Tibetic \*ltɕaks).

Ụfọdụ nrụgharị tupu Tibetic, yana ụdị Proto-Tibetic arụgharịrị arụgharịrị na orthographic Classical Literary Tibet, sitere na Tournadre (2014: 114-116) ka edepụtara n'okpuru.

| Gloss | Pre-Tibetic | Proto-Tibetic | Classical Literary Tibetan |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| one | \*g(ǝ)-tyik | \*g(ǝ)-tɕ(h)ik | gcig / gchig གཅིག་ / གཆིག (Old Tibetan) |
| big | \*tye | \*tɕ(h)e | che ཆེ་ (Old Tibetan) |
| ten | \*b(ǝ)-tyu | \*b(ǝ)-tɕu | bcu / bchu བཅུ་ / བཆུ་ (Old Tibetan) |
| what | \*tyi | \*tɕ(h)i | ci / chi ཅི་ / ཆི་ (Old Tibetan) |
| flesh | \*sya | \*ɕa | sha ཤ་ |
| know | \*syes | \*ɕes | shes ཤེས་ |
| wood | \*sying | \*ɕiŋ | shing ཤིང་ |
| to cut (past stem) | \*b(ǝ)-tsyat | \*b(ǝ)-tɕat | bcad བཅད་ |
| spittle | \*m(ǝ)-tsyil-ma | \*m(ǝ)-tɕ(h)il-ma | mchil-ma མཆིལ་མ་ |
| liver | \*m(ǝ)-tsin-pa | \*m(ǝ)-tɕ(h)in-pa | mchin-pa མཆིན་པ |
| four | \*b(ǝ)-lyi | \*b(ǝ)ʑi | bzhi བཞི་ |
| field | \*lying | \*ʑiŋ | zhing ཞིང་ |
| flea | \*ldi | \*ldʑi | lji ལྗི་, 'ji ་འཇི་ |
| iron | \*s(ǝ)-lak(s) > \*l-sak(s) > \*l-tsyak(s) | \*ltɕaks | lcags ལྕགས་ |
| arrow |  | \*mda | mda' མདའ་ |
| to suppress | \*bnans | \*mnans | mnand (Old Tibetan) |
| to listen | \*bnyan | \*nyan | mnyand |
| eye |  | \*d(ǝ)myik | dmyig དམྱིག་ (Old Tibetan); mig |
| flower |  | \*mentok | men-tog མེན་ཏོག (Old Tibetan); ་me-tog |

## Ntụnyere ọnụọgụgụ

Ọnụọgụ n'asụsụ Tibet/Tibeti dị iche iche bụ:

| GLOSS | Ü-Tsang (Middle) | Amdo | Khams | CLASSICAL TIBETAN |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Lhasa | Cheng Zhang | Dolpo | Jirel | Mugom | Sherpa | Yohlmo |
| '1' | ʨiʔ53 | ʨi53 | ʂik | dokpoi | ʧɪk | ʦɪk55 | ʨīː | xʨɨx | ʨi55 | \*xʨik *gtšig* |
| '2' | ȵi55 | ȵi55 | ɲiː | ŋi | ŋi | ŋi55 | ɲìː | ɦȵi | ɲɯ53 | \*gnis *gnis* |
| '3' | sum55 | sɔ̃53 | sum | sum | sum | sum55 | sūm | sɘm | sũ53 | \*xsum *gsum* |
| '4' | ɕi13 | ɣɯ31 | ɕi̤ː | si | ɕi | ʣi55 | ʑì̤ | ɦʑɘ | ʐə33 | \*βʑi *bži* |
| '5' | ŋa53 | ɴɐ53 | ŋa | ŋa | ŋá | ŋɑ55 | ŋɑ̀ | ɦŋa | ŋɑ53 | \*ɬŋɑ *lŋa* |
| '6' | tʂʰuʔ13 | tʂu31 | ʈṳk | tʰuk | duk | ɖʊk11 | ʈṳ̀ː | tʂəx | tʂo33 | \*dɽuk *drug* |
| '7' | tỹ15 | dɛ̃24 | ty̤n | duin | dun | dɪn55 | t̪ì̤n | ɦdɘn | dĩ33 | \*βdun *bdun* |
| '8' | ɕɛʔ13 | dʑe31 | ce̤ʔ | get | ket | gæ55 | cē̤ː | ɦdʑʲɛ | ʑe33 | \*βɽgjat *brgyad* |
| '9' | ku13 | ɡɯ31 | kṳ | gu | gu | gu55 | kṳ̀ | ɦgɘ | gə33 | \*dgu *dgu* |
| '10' | ʨu53 | ʨɯ53 | tɕu | ʦutʰambaː | ʧú | ʦi55tʰɑm11ba11 | ʨʉ̄ | ʨɘ | ʨə55 | \*ɸʨu *btšu* |

Maka asụsụ Tibetic Central ma ọ bụ Eastern:

| GLOSS | Dzongkha-Lakha | Balti-Ladakhi | Spiti bhoti |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Dzongkha | Sikkimese | Balti | Changthang | Ladakhi | Purik | Zangskari |
| '1' | ʨí | ʧi | ʧik | ʧik | ʧik | ʧik | ʧiʔ | ʧík |
| '2' | ɲí | ni | ɲis | ɲis | ɲis | ɲis | ɲiː | ɲiː |
| '3' | súm | súm | xsum | sum | sum | sum | sum | súm |
| '4' | ʃi̤ | ʒe | βʒi | zi | zi | ʒi | ʒi | ʒì |
| '5' | ŋə | ŋa | ɣɑ | ŋa | ʂŋa | ʂŋə | ŋa | ŋá |
| '6' | dʑo | tʰu | truk | ɖruk | ʈuk | ʈuk | ʈuʔ | ʈùk |
| '7' | ty̤n | dĩ | βdun | dun | rdun | rdun | ðun | dùn |
| '8' | kæ̤ | gɛ | βgyʌt | gʲat | rgʲat | rgyət | ʝət | ɟèt |
| '9' | kṳ | go | rgu | gu | rgu | rgu | ɣu | gù |
| '10' | ʨu tʰam | ʧɔːmba | ɸʧu | ʧu | rʧu | rču | ʧu | ʧú |

## Ntụaka

* Beyer (1992). *The Classical Tibetan Language*. SUNY Press. ISBN 0-7914-1099-4.
* Denwood (1999). *Tibetan*. John Benjamins Publishing. ISBN 90-272-3803-0.
*
* Nishi (1987). "Gendei Tibet-go hoogen no bunrui". *Bulletin of the National Museum of Ethnology* **11** (4): 837–900.
*
*
* Tournadre (2023). *The Tibetic Languages: an introduction to the family of languages derived from Old Tibetan*. Paris: LACITO. ISBN 978-2-490768-08-0.
*

## Ihe odide ala ala peeji

## Ọgụgụ ọzọ

* Denwood (2007). "The Language History of Tibetan", in Bielmeier: *Linguistics of the Himalayas and beyond*. Walter de Gruyter, 47–70. ISBN 978-3-11-019828-7.
* Dpal ldan bkra shis (2016). "Amdo Tibetan Language: An Introduction to Normative Oral Amdo". *Asian Highland Perspectives* **43**. ISSN 1925-6329.
* van Driem (2001). *Languages of the Himalayas: An Ethnolinguistic Handbook of the Greater Himalayan Region containing an Introduction to the Symbiotic Theory of Language*. Brill. ISBN 9004103902.

## Njikọ mpụga

* Comparative Dictionary of Tibetan Dialects (CDTD)[usurped]
* Languages on the Tibetan Plateau and the Himalayas — Nicolas Tournadre
* Overview of Old Tibetan Synchronic phonology by Nathan Hill
* L'évolution des langues et les facteurs écolinguistiques : le cas des langues d'éleveurs et des langues d'agriculteurs sur le Haut Plateau tibétain at CNRS-LACITO
* China's Tibet policy continued attempt at erasing Tibetan language