# Tauraron dan adam

| Tauraron dan adam |
| --- |
|  |
| Bayanai |
| Ƙaramin ɓangare na | satellite (en)  da spacecraft (en)  |
| Bangare na | spacecraft constellation (en)  da payload (en)  |
| Amfani | sadarwa, Earth observation (en) , navigation (en) , scientific research (en)  da reconnaissance (en)  |
| Fuskar | spaceflight (en)  |
| Karatun ta | astronautics (en)  da aerospace engineering (en)  |
| Time of discovery or invention (en)  |
4 Oktoba 1957 |
| Has characteristic (en)  | orbit (en)  |
| Operating area (en)  | Sararin samaniya |

**Tauraron dan Adam** ko **tauraron dan adam na wucin gadi** wani abu ne, yawanci jirgin sama, wanda aka sanya shi a cikin kewayar sararin samaniya. Suna da fa'ida iri-iri, gami da hanyar sadarwa, hasashen yanayi, kewayawa (GPS), watsa shirye-shirye, binciken kimiyya, da kuma lura da duniya. Ƙarin amfani da soja shine bincike, faɗakarwa da wuri, bayanan sirri da, yuwuwar isar da makamai. Sauran tauraron dan adam sun hada da matakin karshe na roka da ke sanya tauraron dan adam a cikin kewayawa da tauraron dan adam a da masu amfani wadanda daga baya suka lalace.

Ban da tauraron dan adam masu wucewa, yawancin tauraron dan adam suna da tsarin samar da wutar lantarki don kayan aikin da ke cikin jirgin, kamar hasken rana ko na'urorin wutar lantarki na rediyoisotope (RTGs). Yawancin tauraron dan adam kuma suna da hanyar sadarwa zuwa tashoshin ƙasa, wanda ake kira transponders. Yawancin tauraron dan adam suna amfani da daidaitaccen bas don adana farashi da aiki, wanda mafi shaharar su shine ƙananan CubeSats. Irin wannan tauraron dan adam na iya aiki tare a matsayin rukuni, suna samar da taurari. Saboda tsadar harbawa sararin samaniya, yawancin tauraron dan adam an tsara su don su kasance masu nauyi da ƙarfi gwargwadon yuwuwar. Yawancin tauraron dan adam na sadarwa tashoshi ne na rediyo a cikin kewayawa kuma suna ɗauke da ɗimbin na'urori masu ɗaukar hoto, kowanne yana da bandwidth na dubun megahertz.

Jiragen sararin samaniya sun zama tauraron dan adam ta hanyar hanzari ko raguwa don isa ga saurin sararin samaniya, suna mamaye sararin samaniya mai tsayi don guje wa ruɓar sararin samaniya saboda ja a gaban yanayi kuma sama da iyakar Roche. Tauraron dan Adam jirgi ne da aka harba daga sama zuwa sararin samaniya ta tsarin harba shi. Tauraron dan Adam na iya canzawa ko kula da kewayawar su ta hanyar motsa jiki, yawanci ta hanyar sinadarai ko ion thrusters. Ya zuwa shekarar 2018, kusan kashi 90% na tauraron dan adam da ke zagayawa a doron kasa suna cikin kewayar duniya kadan ne ko kuma yanayin yanayin kasa; geostationary yana nufin tauraron dan adam ya tsaya har yanzu a sararin sama (dangane da tsayayyen wuri a ƙasa). Wasu tauraron dan adam na hoto suna zaɓar kewayawar Rana-synchronous saboda suna iya bincika duk duniya tare da irin wannan haske. Yayin da adadin tauraron dan adam da adadin tarkacen sararin samaniya ya karu, barazanar karo ya kara tsananta. Mai kewayawa wani jirgin sama ne wanda aka kera shi don yin shigar da sararin samaniya, yana shiga kewayen jikin falaki daga wani, kuma ya zama tauraron dan adam. Kadan na tauraron dan adam suna kewaya wasu jikkuna (kamar Wata, Mars, da Rana) ko jikkuna da yawa a lokaci daya (biyu don kewayar halo, uku don kewayawar Lissajous).

Taurari na kallon duniya suna tattara bayanai don bincike, taswira, lura da yanayi, teku, dazuzzuka, da dai sauransu. Na'urorin hangen nesa na sararin samaniya suna amfani da fa'idar sararin samaniya kusa da cikakkiyar injin don lura da abubuwa tare da dukkan nau'ikan bakan na lantarki. Saboda tauraron dan adam na iya ganin babban yanki na duniya a lokaci daya, tauraron dan adam na sadarwa na iya isar da bayanai zuwa wurare masu nisa. Ana amfani da jinkirin siginar daga tauraron dan adam da tsinkayen su a cikin tsarin kewayawa tauraron dan adam, kamar GPS. Ƙirƙirar jiragen sama waɗanda ke cikin kewayawa ko kuma suka ci gaba da zama a sararin samaniya, kamar tashoshin sararin samaniya, tauraron dan adam ne kuma.

Tauraron dan Adam na farko da aka harba a sararin samaniya shi ne Sputnik 1 na Tarayyar Soviet, a ranar 4 ga Oktoba, 1957. Ya zuwa ranar 31 ga Disamba, 2022, akwai tauraron dan adam 6,718 da ke aiki a sararin duniya, wanda 4,529 na Amurka ne (3,996 na yan kasuwa), 5904 na China, 174 na Rasha ne, sai kuma 1425 kuma na sauran kasashen duniya.

## Tarihi

### Shawarwari na farko

Nazarin lissafi na farko da aka buga game da yiwuwar tauraron dan adam na wucin gadi shine Newton's cannonball, gwajin tunani na Isaac Newton don bayyana motsi na tauraron dan Adam na halitta, a cikin *Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica* (1687). Hoton farko na tauraron dan adam da aka kaddamar a cikin sararin samaniya wani ɗan gajeren labari ne na Edward Everett Hale, "The Brick Moon" (1869). Wannan ra'ayin ya sake bayyana a cikin littafin Jules Verne mai suna The Begum's Fortune (1879).

A cikin 1903, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (1857-1935) ya buga Exploring Space Using Jet Propulsion Devices, wanda shine rubutun ilimi na farko game da amfani da roket don kaddamar da jirgin sama. Ya lissafa saurin orbital da ake buƙata don ƙaramin orbital, kuma ya ƙaddara cewa Rocket mai matakai da yawa wanda ke amfani da ruwa zai iya cimma wannan.

Herman Potočnik ya binciki ra'ayin yin amfani da jirgin sararin samaniya don cikakken bayani game da zaman lafiya da kuma lura da ƙasa a cikin littafinsa na 1928, The Problem of Space Travel . Ya bayyana yadda yanayin sararin samaniya na musamman zai iya zama da amfani ga gwaje-gwajen kimiyya. Littafin ya bayyana tauraron dan adam na geostationary (wanda Konstantin Tsiolkovsky ya gabatar da shi) kuma ya tattauna sadarwa tsakanin su da ƙasa ta amfani da rediyo, amma ya kasa da ra'ayin amfani da tauraron dan Adam don watsa shirye-shiryen taro da kuma sadarwa.

A cikin wata kasida ta Wireless World ta 1945, marubucin almara na kimiyya na Ingilishi Arthur C. Clarke ya bayyana dalla-dalla yiwuwar amfani da tauraron dan adam na sadarwa don sadarwa. Ya ba da shawarar cewa tauraron dan adam guda uku za su samar da ɗaukar hoto a duk duniya.:

A cikin Mayu 1946, Rundunar Sojan Sama ta Amurka RAND ta fitar da Tsarin Farko na Jirgin Jirgin Ruwa na Gwaji na Duniya, wanda ya bayyana "Ana iya sa ran motar tauraron dan adam tare da kayan aikin da ya dace ya zama ɗaya daga cikin kayan aikin kimiyya mafi ƙarfi na ƙarni na ashirin." Project RAND a ƙarshe ya fitar da rahoton, amma ya ɗauki tauraron dan adam kayan aiki na kimiyya, siyasa, da farfaganda, maimakon makamin soja.

A cikin 1946, masanin ilimin taurari na Amurka Lyman Spitzer ya ba da shawarar na'urar hangen nesa mai kewaya sararin samaniya.

### Tauraron dan adam na farko

Kwafi na Sputnik 1
Tauraron dan Adam na farko na wucin gadi shine Sputnik 1, wanda Tarayyar Soviet ta harba a ranar 4 ga Oktoba 1957 a karkashin shirin Sputnik, tare da Sergei Korolev a matsayin babban mai zane. Sputnik 1 ya taimaka wajen gano yawan manyan yadudduka na yanayi ta hanyar auna canjin yanayinta da kuma bayar da bayanai kan rarraba siginar rediyo a cikin ionosphere. Sanarwar nasarar Sputnik 1 da ba a yi tsammani ba ta haifar da rikicin Sputnik a Amurka tare da kunna abin da ake kira Space Race a cikin yakin cacar baki.

A cikin mahallin ayyukan da aka tsara don Shekarar Geophysical ta Duniya (1957-1958), Fadar White House ta sanar a ranar 29 ga Yuli 1955 cewa Amurka ta yi niyyar harba tauraron dan adam a cikin bazara na 1958. Wannan ya zama sananne da Project Vanguard. A ranar 31 ga Yuli, Tarayyar Soviet ta sanar da aniyar ta harba tauraron dan adam nan da faduwar shekara ta 1957.

An ƙaddamar da Sputnik 2 a ranar 3 ga Nuwamba 1957 kuma ya ɗauki fasinja mai rai na farko zuwa sararin samaniya, kare mai suna Laika. An aika kare ba tare da yiwuwar dawowa ba.

A farkon 1955, bayan da Ƙungiyar Rocket Society ta Amurka, Cibiyar Kimiyya ta Ƙasa, da Shekarar Geophysical ta Duniya suka matsa masa lamba, Sojoji da Navy sunyi aiki akan Project Orbiter tare da shirye-shirye guda biyu masu fafatawa. Sojojin sun yi amfani da rokar Jupiter C, yayin da shirin farar hula-Navy yayi amfani da rokar Vanguard wajen harba tauraron dan adam. Explorer 1 ya zama tauraron dan adam na farko na Amurka, a ranar 31 ga Janairu 1958. Bayanin da aka mayar daga na'urar gano radiation ta kai ga gano bel na duniya na Van Allen. Kumbon TIROS-1, wanda aka harba a ranar 1 ga Afrilu, 1960, a matsayin wani bangare na shirin NASA Television Infrared Observation Satellite (TIROS), ya mayar da hoton talabijin na farko na yanayin yanayi da za a dauka daga sararin samaniya.

### Cigaban taurarin dan Adam na daga baya

An gina tauraron dan adam na farko zuwa zane na musamman. Tare da ci gaba a fasaha, an fara gina tauraron dan adam da yawa akan dandamalin samfuri guda ɗaya da ake kira bas ɗin tauraron dan adam. Ƙirar bas ɗin tauraron dan adam na farko da aka daidaita shi ne tauraron dan adam na HS-333 geosynchronous (GEO) wanda aka harba a cikin 1972. Tun daga 1997, FreeFlyer shine aikace-aikacen software na kashe-kashe na kasuwanci don nazarin aikin tauraron dan adam, ƙira, da ayyuka.

Bayan karshen shekaran 2010, kuma musamman bayan kirkira da kuma aiki filin wasa na manyan tauraron dan adam internet constellations-inda on-orbit aiki tauraron dan adam fiye da ninki biyu a tsawon shekaru biyar-kamfanonin gina taurari fara bayar da shawarar yau da kullum shirya deorbiting na mazan tauraron dan adam wanda ya kai karshen rayuwa, a matsayin wani ɓangare na tsari tsari na samun wani tauraron dan adam tashar da ake bukata ta kasa da kasa da lasisin har abada.

A farkon farko farkon shekarar 2000, musamman bayan zuwan CubeSats da ƙara ƙaddamar da microsats - akai-akai ana ƙaddamar da su zuwa ƙananan tuddai na ƙananan kewayar duniya (LEO) - tauraron dan adam ya fara tsarawa akai-akai don lalata, ko rushewa da ƙonewa gaba ɗaya a cikin yanayi. Misali, SpaceX Starlink tauraron dan adam, babban tauraron tauraron dan adam na farko da ya wuce tauraron dan adam 1000 a sararin samaniya a cikin 2020, an tsara su don su zama masu lalacewa 100% kuma suna ƙonewa gaba ɗaya akan sake shigar da sararin samaniya a ƙarshen rayuwarsu, ko kuma a lokacin da tauraron dan adam ya fara gazawa.

A lokuta daban-daban, kasashe da yawa kamar Algeria, Argentina, Australia, Austria, Brazil, Canada, Chile, China, Denmark, Masar, Finland, Faransa, Jamus, Indiya, Iran, Isra'ila, Italiya, Japan, Kazakhstan], Koriya ta Kudu, Malaysia, Mexico, Netherlands, Norway, Pakistan, Poland, Rasha, Saudi Arabia, Afirka ta Kudu, Spain, Switzerland, Tailandia, Turkiyya, Ukraine, Ingila da Amurka, suna da wasu tauraron dan adam a sararin samaniya.

Hukumar kula da sararin samaniya ta Japan (JAXA) da NASA sun shirya aika wani samfurin tauraron dan adam na katako mai suna LingoSat zuwa sararin samaniya a lokacin rani na 2024. Sun yi aiki a kan wannan aikin na shekaru kadan kuma sun aika da samfurin katako na farko zuwa sararin samaniya a cikin 2021 don gwada ƙarfin kayan ga yanayin sararin samaniya.

## Bangaren wucin gadi

### Orbit da kula da tsarin tsayin

Firing of *Deep Space 1*'s ion thruster
Yawancin tauraron dan adam suna amfani da sinadarai ko ion propulsion don daidaitawa ko kula da kewayawarsu, tare da motsin motsi don sarrafa kusurwoyinsu guda uku na juyawa ko hali. Tauraron dan Adam da ke kusa da Duniya ya fi shafan su ta hanyar bambance-bambancen maganadisu na duniya, filin gravitational da matsi na hasken rana; Tauraron dan adam da ke da nisa ya fi shafan sauran sassan jiki na wata da Rana. Tauraron tauraron dan adam na amfani da sutura masu haske mai haske don hana lalacewa daga hasken UV. Idan ba tare da kewayawa da daidaitawa ba, tauraron dan adam a cikin orbit ba zai iya sadarwa tare da tashoshin ƙasa a duniya ba.

Masu tura sinadarai a kan tauraron dan adam yawanci suna amfani da monopropellant (bangare ɗaya) ko bipropellant (ɓangarorin biyu) waɗanda suke hypergolic. Hypergolic yana nufin iya ƙonewa ba tare da bata lokaci ba lokacin da ake hulɗa da juna ko ga mai kara kuzari. Abubuwan da aka fi amfani da su a kan tauraron dan adam sune monopropellants na tushen hydrazine ko monomethylhydrazine-dinitrogen tetroxide bipropellants. Ion thrusters a kan tauraron dan adam yawanci su ne ƙwanƙwasa-tasirin Hall, waɗanda ke haifar da tursasawa ta hanzarin ions masu kyau ta hanyar grid mara kyau. Ion propulsion ya fi ƙwaƙƙwaran haɓaka-hikima fiye da haɓakar sinadarai amma yunƙurin sa kadan ne (kusan 0.5 N ko 0.1 lbf), don haka yana buƙatar ƙarin lokacin ƙonewa. Masu matsawa yawanci suna amfani da xenon saboda ba shi da ƙarfi, ana iya sanya shi cikin sauƙi, yana da babban adadin atomic kuma ana iya adana shi azaman ruwa mai ƙarfi.

### Power

Tashar sararin samaniya ta ƙasa da ƙasa na baƙaƙen hasken rana a hagu da farar radiyo a dama
Yawancin tauraron dan adam suna amfani da hasken rana don samar da wutar lantarki, kuma wasu kaɗan a cikin sararin samaniya mai ƙarancin hasken rana suna amfani da janareta na thermoelectric radioisotope. Zobba masu zamewa suna haɗa sassan hasken rana zuwa tauraron dan adam; zoben zamewa na iya juyawa su kasance daidai da hasken rana kuma suna samar da mafi ƙarfi. Duk tauraron dan adam masu amfani da hasken rana dole ne su kasance suna da batura, saboda hasken rana yana toshe a cikin motar harba da daddare. Mafi yawan nau'ikan batura don tauraron dan adam sune lithium-ion, da kuma nickel-hydrogen da suka gabata.

## Aikace-aikace

### Duban duniya

Deployment of the Earth Radiation Budget Satellite on STS-41-G, collecting data on Earth's weather and climate
An ƙera tauraron dan adam na lura da duniya don sa ido da kuma bincikar Duniya, wanda ake kira remote sensing. Yawancin tauraron dan adam na kallon duniya ana sanya su a cikin ƙananan kewayar duniya don ƙayyadaddun bayanai, kodayake wasu ana sanya su a cikin yanayin yanayin ƙasa don ɗaukar hoto mara yankewa. Wasu tauraron dan adam ana sanya su a cikin kewayawar Rana-synchronous don samun daidaiton haske da samun cikakkiyar ra'ayi na duniya. Dangane da ayyukan tauraron dan adam, ƙila su sami kyamara ta al'ada, radar, lidar, photometer, ko kayan aikin yanayi. An fi amfani da bayanan tauraron dan adam a cikin ilimin kimiya na kayan tarihi, zane-zane, sa ido kan muhalli, yanayin yanayi, da aikace-aikacen bincike. Kamar yadda na 2021, akwai sama da 950 tauraron dan adam masu lura da duniya, tare da mafi girman adadin tauraron dan adam da ake sarrafa tare da Labs Planet.

### Sadarwa

Tauraron dan adam na sadarwa tauraron dan adam ne na wucin gadi wanda ke watsawa da haɓaka siginar sadarwar rediyo ta hanyar transponder; yana samar da hanyar sadarwa tsakanin na'ura mai ba da labari da mai karɓa a wurare daban-daban a duniya. Ana amfani da tauraron dan adam na sadarwa don talabijin, tarho, rediyo, intanet, da aikace-aikacen soja. Tauraron tauraron dan adam da yawa suna cikin kewayar ƙasa mai nisan mil 22,236 (kilomita 35,785) sama da equator, ta yadda tauraron dan adam ya bayyana a tsaye a wuri ɗaya a sararin sama; don haka eriya ta tauraron dan adam na tashoshin ƙasa za a iya yin niyya ta dindindin a wannan wurin kuma ba dole ba ne su matsa don gano tauraron dan adam. Wasu kuma suna samar da taurarin tauraron dan adam a cikin ƙananan kewayar duniya, inda eriya a ƙasa dole ne su bi matsayin tauraron dan adam kuma su canza tsakanin tauraron dan adam akai-akai.

Radiyon da ake amfani da shi don hanyoyin sadarwar sadarwa suna tafiya ta layin gani don haka karkarwar duniya ta toshe ta. Manufar tauraron dan adam na sadarwa shine don isar da sigina a kusa da lanƙwan duniya don ba da damar sadarwa tsakanin wuraren da ba su rabu ba. Tauraron dan adam na sadarwa yana amfani da mitoci masu yawa na rediyo da microwave. Don guje wa tsoma bakin sigina, ƙungiyoyin ƙasa da ƙasa suna da ƙa'idodi waɗanda kewayon mitar ko "ƙungiya" wasu ƙungiyoyi an ba su izinin amfani da su. Wannan rabon makada yana rage haɗarin kutse cikin sigina.

### Telescope

The Hubble Space Telescope
Taurari tauraron dan adam tauraron dan adam ne da ake amfani da su don kallon taurari masu nisa, taurari, da sauran abubuwan sararin samaniya.

### Makami

Tun daga tsakiyar 2000s, ƙungiyoyin tsageru suna yin kutse ta tauraron dan adam don watsa farfaganda da tattara bayanan sirri daga hanyoyin sadarwar soja. Don dalilai na gwaji, tauraron dan adam a cikin ƙananan kewayar duniya an lalata su da makamai masu linzami na ballistic da aka harba daga Duniya. Rasha, Amurka, China da Indiya sun nuna ikon kawar da tauraron dan adam. A shekara ta 2007, sojojin kasar Sin sun harbo wani tauraron dan adam da ya tsufa, sannan sojojin ruwan Amurka sun harbo wani tauraron dan adam na leken asiri a cikin watan Fabrairun 2008. A ranar 18 ga Nuwamba, 2015, bayan da aka gaza yin yunƙuri guda biyu, Rasha ta yi nasarar yin gwajin jirgi na wani makami mai linzami na tauraron dan adam da ake kira Nudol. A ranar 27 ga Maris, 2019, Indiya ta harbo tauraron dan adam a tsayin kilomita 300 cikin mintuna 3, inda ta zama kasa ta hudu da ke da ikon lalata tauraron dan adam.

## Manazarta