# Parkinson's disease

| Parkinson's disease |
| --- |
| Other names | Parkinson disease, idiopathic anaa primary parkinsonism, hypokinetic rigid syndrome, paralysis agitans, shaking palsy |
|  |
| Illustration of Parkinson's disease by William Richard Gowers, dem first publish insyd *A Manual of Diseases of the Nervous System* (1886) |
| Specialty | Neurology |
| Symptoms | Shaking, rigidity, slowness of movement, difficulty walking |
| Usual onset | Age over 60 |
| Causes | Unknown |
| Risk factors | Pesticide exposure, head injuries |
| Diagnostic method | Based for symptoms top |
| Differential diagnosis | Dementia plus Lewy bodies, progressive supranuclear palsy, essential tremor, antipsychotic use |
| Treatment | Exercise, medications, surgery |
| Medication | L-DOPA, dopamine agonist |
| Prognosis | Life expectancy ~ 15 years |
| Frequency | 6.2 million (2015) |
| Deaths | 117,400 (2015) |

**Parkinson's disease** (**PD**), anaa simply **Parkinson's**, be a neurodegenerative disease primarily of de central nervous system, wey dey affect both motor den non-motor systems. Symptoms typically dey develop gradually, plus non-motor issues wey cam turn more prevalent as de disease dey progress. De motor symptoms be collectively called parkinsonism den dey include tremors, bradykinesia, rigidity as well as postural instability (i.e., difficulty maintaining balance). Non-motor symptoms dey develop later insyd de disease den dey include behavioral changes anaa neuropsychiatric problems such as sleep abnormalities, psychosis, den mood swings.

Chaw Parkinson's disease cases be sporadic, though dem identify factors wey dey contribute. Pathophysiology dey involve progressive degeneration of nerve cells insyd de substantia nigra, a midbrain region wey dey provide dopamine to de basal ganglia, a system wey involve insyd voluntary motor control. De cause of dis cell death be poorly understood buh e dey involve de aggregation of alpha-synuclein into Lewy bodies within neurons. Oda potential factors dey involve genetic den environmental influences, medications, lifestyle, den prior health conditions.

Diagnosis primarily dey base for signs and symptoms top, typically motor-related, identified thru neurological examination. Medical imaging techniques like positron emission tomography fi support de diagnosis. Parkinson's typically dey manifest insyd individuals over 60, plus about one percent wey be affect. Insyd those younger dan 50, e be termed "early-onset PD".

### Works dem cite

#### Books

* Bhattacharyya KB (2017). "Chapter One – Hallmarks of Clinical Aspects of Parkinson's Disease Through Centuries". In Bhatia KP, Chaudhuri KR, Stamelou M (eds.). *Parkinson's Disease*. International Review of Neurobiology. pp. 1–23.
* Bernat, James L.; Beresford, Richard (2013). *Ethical and Legal Issues in Neurology* (in English). Newnes. ISBN 978-0-444-53504-7.
* Ferri FF (2010). "Chapter P". *Ferri's differential diagnosis: a practical guide to the differential diagnosis of symptoms, signs, and clinical disorders* (2nd ed.). Elsevier/Mosby. ISBN 978-0-3230-7699-9.
* Lanska DJ (2010). "Chapter 33: The history of movement disorders". *Handbook of Clinical Neurology*. 3. Vol. 95. History of Neurology. pp. 501–546. doi:10.1016/S0072-9752(08)02133-7. ISBN 978-0-444-52009-8. PMID 19892136.
* O'Sullivan SB, Schmitz TJ (2007). "Parkinson's Disease". *Physical Rehabilitation* (5th ed.). F.A. Davis. ISBN 978-0-8036-1247-1.
* Simon RP, Greenberg D, Aminoff MJ (2017). *Lange Clinical Neurology* (10th ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-1-2598-6172-7.
* Stoker TB, Greenland JC, eds. (December 2018). *Parkinson's Disease: Pathogenesis and Clinical Aspects*. Codon Publications. ISBN 978-0-9944-3816-4.
	+ Greenland JC, Barker RA (2018). "Chapter 6: The Differential Diagnosis of Parkinson's Disease". In Stoker TB, Greenland JC (eds.). *Parkinson's disease: Pathogenesis and Clinical Aspects*. Codon Publications. pp. 109–128. doi:10.15586/codonpublications.parkinsonsdisease.2018.ch6. ISBN 978-0-9944-3816-4. PMID 30702839. S2CID 80908095.
* The National Collaborating Centre for Chronic Conditions, ed. (2006). "Non-motor features of Parkinson's disease". *Parkinson's Disease*. London: Royal College of Physicians. pp. 113–133. ISBN 978-1-8601-6283-1. Archived from the original on 24 September 2010.

#### Journal articles

* Aarslanda D, Krambergera MG (2015). "Neuropsychiatric Symptoms in Parkinson's Disease". *Journal of Personalized Medicine*. **5** (3): 659–667. doi:10.3233/JPD-150604. PMID 26406147.
* Abusrair AH, Elsekaily W, Bohlega S (13 September 2022). "Tremor in Parkinson's Disease: From Pathophysiology to Advanced Therapies". *Tremor and Other Hyperkinetic Movements*. **12** (1): 29. doi:10.5334/tohm.712. PMC 9504742. PMID 36211804.
* Ahlskog JE (July 2011). "Does vigorous exercise have a neuroprotective effect in Parkinson disease?". *Neurology*. **77** (3): 288–294. doi:10.1212/wnl.0b013e318225ab66. PMC 3136051. PMID 21768599.
* Alfaidi M, Barker RA, Kuan W (2024). "An update on immune-based alpha-synuclein trials in Parkinson's disease". *Journal of Neurology*. **272** (1): 21. doi:10.1007/s00415-024-12770-x. PMC 11638298. PMID 39666171.
* Almikhlafi MA (January 2024). "A review of the gastrointestinal, olfactory, and skin abnormalities in patients with Parkinson's disease". *Neurosciences*. **29** (1): 4–9. doi:10.17712/nsj.2024.1.20230062 (inactive 1 November 2024). PMC 10827020. PMID 38195133.`{{cite journal}}`: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
* Armstrong MJ, Okun MS (February 2020). "Diagnosis and Treatment of Parkinson Disease: A Review". *JAMA*. **323** (6): 548–560. doi:10.1001/jama.2019.22360. PMID 32044947. S2CID 211079287.
* Ascherio A, Schwarzschild MA (2016). "The epidemiology of Parkinson's disease: risk factors and prevention". *Lancet Neurology*. **15** (12): 1257–1272. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(16)30230-7. PMID 27751556.
* Atalar MS, Oguz O, Genc G (2023). "Hypokinetic Dysarthria in Parkinson's Disease: A Narrative Review". *The Medical Bulletin of Sisle Etfal Hospital*. **57** (2): 163–170. doi:10.14744/SEMB.2023.29560. PMC 10600629. PMID 37899809.
* Bandres-Ciga S, Diez-Fairen M, Kim JJ, Singleton AB (April 2020). "Genetics of Parkinson's disease: An introspection of its journey towards precision medicine". *Neurobiology of Disease*. **137**: 1–9. doi:10.1016/j.nbd.2020.104782. PMC 7064061. PMID 31991247.
* Barichella M, Cereda E, Pezzoli G (October 2009). "Major nutritional issues in the management of Parkinson's disease". *Movement Disorders*. **24** (13): 1881–1892. doi:10.1002/mds.22705. hdl:2434/67795. PMID 19691125.
* Ben-Shlomo Y, Darweesh S, Llibre-Guerra J, Marras C, Luciano MS, Tanner C (2024). "The epidemiology of Parkinson's disease". *The Lancet*. **403** (10423): 283–292. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(23)01419-8. PMC 11123577. PMID 38245248.
* Bereczki D (2010). "The description of all four cardinal signs of Parkinson's disease in a Hungarian medical text published in 1690". *Parkinsonism & Related Disorders*. **16** (4): 290–293. doi:10.1016/j.parkreldis.2009.11.006. PMID 19948422.
* Bidesi NS, Andersen IV, Windhorst AD, Shalgunov V, Herth MM (November 2021). "The role of neuroimaging in Parkinson's disease". *Journal of Neurochemistry*. **159** (4): 660–689. doi:10.1111/jnc.15516. PMC 9291628. PMID 34532856.
* Biundo R, Weis L, Antonini A (September 2016). "Cognitive decline in Parkinson's disease: the complex picture". *npj Parkinson's Disease*. **2** (16018): 16018. doi:10.1038/npjparkd.2016.18. PMC 5516581. PMID 28725699.
* Bloem BR, Boonstra TA (December 2023). "The inadequacy of current pesticide regulations for protecting brain health: the case of glyphosate and Parkinson's disease". *The Lancet. Planetary Health*. **7** (12): e948 – e949. doi:10.1016/s2542-5196(23)00255-3. PMID 37949088.
* Blonder LX (2018). "Historical and cross-cultural perspectives on Parkinson's disease". *Journal of Complementary and Integrative Medicine*. **15** (3): 1–15. doi:10.1515/jcim-2016-0065. PMID 29738310.
* Boettcher L, Bonney P, Smitherman A, Sughrue M (2015). "Hitler's parkinsonism". *Neurosurgical Focus*. **39** (1): E8. doi:10.3171/2015.4.FOCUS1563. PMID 26126407.
* Bollu PC, Sahota P (2017). "Sleep and Parkinson Disease". *Missouri Medicine*. **114** (5): 381–386. PMC 6140184. PMID 30228640.
* Bologna M, Paparella G, Fasano A, Hallett M, Berardelli A (December 2019). "Evolving concepts on bradykinesia". *Brain*. **143** (3): 727–750. doi:10.1093/brain/awz344. PMC 8205506. PMID 31834375.
* Bologna M, Truong D, Jankovic J (2022). "The etiopathogenetic and pathophysiological spectrum of parkinsonism". *Journal of the Neurological Sciences*. **433**: 1–8. doi:10.1016/j.jns.2021.120012. PMID 34642022.
* Boonstra, Jackson Tyler; Michielse, Stijn; Temel, Yasin; Hoogland, Govert; Jahanshahi, Ali (2020). "Neuroimaging Detectable Differences between Parkinson's Disease Motor Subtypes". *Movement Disorders Clinical Practice*. **8** (2): 175–192. doi:10.1002/mdc3.13107. PMC 7853198. PMID 33553487.
* Borghammer P (January 2018). "How does parkinson's disease begin? Perspectives on neuroanatomical pathways, prions, and histology". *Movement Disorders*. **33** (1): 48–57. doi:10.1002/mds.27138. PMID 28843014.
* Borsche M, Pereira SL, Klein C, Grünewald A (February 2021). "Mitochondria and Parkinson's Disease: Clinical, Molecular, and Translational Aspects". *Journal of Parkinson's Disease*. **11** (1): 45–60. doi:10.3233/JPD-201981. PMC 7990451. PMID 33074190.
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* Brooks DJ (April 2010). "Imaging approaches to Parkinson disease". *Journal of Nuclear Medicine*. **51** (4): 596–609. doi:10.2967/jnumed.108.059998. PMID 20351351.
* Brundin P, Melki R (October 2017). "Prying into the Prion Hypothesis for Parkinson's Disease". *Journal of Neuroscience*. **37** (41): 9808–9818. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1788-16.2017. PMC 5637113. PMID 29021298.
* Caballol N, Martí MJ, Tolosa E (September 2007). "Cognitive dysfunction and dementia in Parkinson disease". *Mov. Disord*. **22** (Suppl 17): S358–66. doi:10.1002/mds.21677. PMID 18175397. S2CID 3229727.
* Calabresi P, Mechelli A, Natale G, Volpicelli-Daley L, Di Lazzaro G, Ghiglieri V (2023). "Alpha-synuclein in Parkinson's disease and other synucleinopathies: from overt neurodegeneration back to early synaptic dysfunction". *Cell Death & Disease*. **14** (3): 176. doi:10.1038/s41419-023-05672-9. PMC 9977911. PMID 36859484.
* Caproni S, Colosimo C (February 2020). "Diagnosis and Differential Diagnosis of Parkinson Disease". *Clinical Geriatric Medicine*. **36** (1): 13–24. doi:10.1016/j.cger.2019.09.014. PMID 31733693.
* Casey G (August 2013). "Parkinson's disease: a long and difficult journey". *Nursing New Zealand*. **19** (7): 20–24. PMID 24195263.
* Chen R, Gu X, Wang X (April 2022). "α-Synuclein in Parkinson's disease and advances in detection". *Clinica Chimica Acta; International Journal of Clinical Chemistry*. **529**: 76–86. doi:10.1016/j.cca.2022.02.006. PMID 35176268.
* Chua WY, Wang JD, Chan CK, Chan L, Tan E (September 2024). "Risk of aspiration pneumonia and hospital mortality in Parkinson disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis". *European Journal of Neurology*. **31** (12): e16449. doi:10.1111/ene.16449. PMC 11555015. PMID 39236309.
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* Coleman C, Martin I (16 December 2022). "Unraveling Parkinson's Disease Neurodegeneration: Does Aging Hold the Clues?". *Journal of Parkinson's Disease*. **12** (8): 2321–2338. doi:10.3233/JPD-223363. PMC 9837701. PMID 36278358.
* Connolly BS, Lang AE (April 2014). "Pharmacological treatment of Parkinson disease: a review". *JAMA*. **311** (16): 1670–1683. doi:10.1001/jama.2014.3654. PMID 24756517. S2CID 205058847.
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* Corrà MF, Vila-Chã N, Sardoeira A, Hansen C, Sousa AP, Reis I, Sambayeta F, Damásio J, Calejo M, Schicketmueller A, Laranjinha I, Salgado P, Taipa R, Magalhães R, Correia M, Maetzler W, Maia LF (January 2023). "Peripheral neuropathy in Parkinson's disease: prevalence and functional impact on gait and balance". *Brain*. **146** (1): 225–236. doi:10.1093/brain/awac026. PMC 9825570. PMID 35088837.
* Costa V, Prati JM, de Oliveira BS, Brito TS, da Rocha F, Gianlorenço T, Carolyna A (November 2024). "Physical Exercise for Treating the Anxiety and Depression Symptoms of Parkinson's Disease: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis". *Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology*. **37** (6): 415–435. doi:10.1177/08919887241237223. ISSN 0891-9887. PMID 38445606.
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* Delic V, Beck KD, Pang KC, Citron BA (April 2020). "Biological links between traumatic brain injury and Parkinson's disease". *Acta Neuropathologica Communications*. **8** (1): 45. doi:10.1186/s40478-020-00924-7. PMC 7137235. PMID 32264976.
* Deliz JR, Tanner CM, Gonzalez-Latapi P (2024). "Epidemiology of Parkinson's Disease: An Update". *Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports*. **24** (6): 163–179. doi:10.1007/s11910-024-01339-w. PMID 38642225.
* De Miranda BR, Goldmanb SM, Millerc GW, Greenamyred JT, Dorsey ER (April 2024). "Preventing Parkinson's Disease: An Environmental Agenda". *Journal of Parkinson's Disease*. **12** (1): 45–68. doi:10.3233/JPD-212922. PMC 8842749. PMID 34719434.
* Dickson DW (January 2018). "Neuropathology of Parkinson disease". *Parkinsonism and Related Disorders*. **46** (S1): S30 – S33. doi:10.1016/j.parkreldis.2017.07.033. PMC 5718208. PMID 28780180.
* Dodet P, Houot M, Leu-Semenescu S, Corvol JC, Lehéricy S, Mangone G, Vidailhet M, Roze E, Arnulf I (February 2024). "Sleep disorders in Parkinson's disease, an early and multiple problem". *npj Parkinson's Disease*. **10** (1): 46. doi:10.1038/s41531-024-00642-0. PMC 10904863. PMID 38424131.
* Dommershuijsen LJ, Darweesh SK, Ben-Shlomo Y, Kluger BM, Bloem BR (October 2023). "The elephant in the room: critical reflections on mortality rates among individuals with Parkinson's disease". *npj Parkinson's Disease*. **9** (1): 145. doi:10.1038/s41531-023-00588-9. PMC 10587193. PMID 37857675.
* Dorsey ER, Bloem BR (January 2024). "Parkinson's Disease Is Predominantly an Environmental Disease". *Journal of Parkinson's Disease*. **14** (3): 103–115. doi:10.3233/JPD-230357. PMC 11091623. PMID 38217613.
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* Dorsey ER, Sherer T, Okun MS, Bloem BR (2018). "The Emerging Evidence of the Parkinson Pandemic". *Journal of Parkinson's Disease*. **8** (s1): S3 – S8. doi:10.3233/JPD-181474. PMC 6311367. PMID 30584159.
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