# Ottoman Empire

Ottoman Empire

historical country| Part of | Central Powers  |
| Year dem found am | 29 July 1299  |
| Native label | دولت عالیه عثمانیه  |
| Dem name after | Osman I  |
| Position held by head of the organization | sultan of the Ottoman Empire  |
| Official language | Ottoman Turkish  |
| Anthem | Imperial anthems of the Ottoman Empire  |
| Motto text | دولت ابد مدت  |
| Continent | Asia, Europe, Africa  |
| Country | Ottoman Empire  |
| Coordinate location | 41°0′0″N 29°0′0″E  |
| Office held by head of state | sultan of the Ottoman Empire  |
| Legislative body | Ottoman General Assembly  |
| Central bank | Ottoman Bank  |
| Diplomatic relation | Persian Empire, Ukrainian People's Republic  |
| Currency | Akçe, kuruş, Ottoman lira, sultani  |
| Dey share bother plus | Kingdom of Bulgaria, Austria–Hungary, Austrian Empire, Kingdom of Hungary  |
| Dey follow | Byzantine Empire, Empire of Trebizond  |
| Replaced by | Government of the Grand National Assembly, occupation of Smyrna, Principality of Serbia  |
| Date dem dissolve, abolish anaa demolish | 17 November 1922  |
| Flag | flags of the Ottoman Empire  |
| Coat of arms | coat of arms of the Ottoman Empire  |
| History of topic | history of the Ottoman Empire  |
| Official religion | Sunni Islam  |
| Economy of topic | economic history of the Ottoman Empire  |
| Demographics of topic | demographics of the Ottoman Empire  |

De **Ottoman Empire**, dem sanso call de **Turkish Empire**, na e be an empire wey control much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, den North Africa from de 14th to early 20th centuries; e sanso control parts of southeastern Central Europe, between de early 16th den early 18th centuries.

De empire emerge from a *beylik*, anaa principality, dem found insyd northwestern Anatolia insyd c. 1299 by de Turkoman tribal leader Osman I. Na ein successors conquer much of Anatolia wey dem expand into de Balkans by de mid-14th century, wey dey transform dema petty kingdom into a transcontinental empire. De Ottomans end de Byzantine Empire plus de conquest of Constantinople insyd 1453 by Mehmed II. Plus ein capital at Constantinople den control over a significant portion of de Mediterranean Basin, na de Ottoman Empire be at de centre of interactions between de Middle East den Europe for six centuries. Dey rule over chaw peoples, de empire grant varying levels of autonomy to ein chaw confessional communities, anaa *millets*, to manage dema own affairs per Islamic law. During de reigns of Selim I den Suleiman the Magnificent insyd de 16th century, de Ottoman Empire cam be a global power.

While na dem once think de Ottoman Empire enter a period of decline after de death of Suleiman the Magnificent, modern academic consensus dey posit dat na de empire continue to maintain a flexible den strong economy, society den military into much of de 18th century. De Ottomans suffer military defeats insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries, wey dey culminate insyd de loss of territory. Plus rising nationalism, na a number of new states emerge insyd de Balkans. Dey follow *Tanzimat* reforms over de course of de 19th century, de Ottoman state cam be more powerful den organized internally. Insyd de 1876 revolution, na de Ottoman Empire attempt constitutional monarchy, before reverting to a royalist dictatorship under Abdul Hamid II, dey follow de Great Eastern Crisis.

Over de course of de late 19th century, Ottoman intellectuals dem know as Young Turks sought to liberalize den rationalize society den politics along Western lines, wey dey culminate insyd de Young Turk Revolution of 1908 wey de Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) lead, wich reestablish a constitutional monarchy. However, dey follow de disastrous Balkan Wars, de CUP cam be increasingly radicalized den nationalistic, wey lead a coup d'état insyd 1913 wey na dem establish a dictatorship.

Insyd de 19th den early 20th centuries, na persecution of Muslims during de Ottoman contraction den insyd de Russian Empire result in large-scale loss of life den mass migration into modern-day Turkey from de Balkans, Caucasus, den Crimea. Na de CUP join World War I on de side of de Central Powers. Na e struggle plus internal dissent, especially de Arab Revolt, wey dem engage insyd genocide against Armenians, Assyrians, den Greeks. Insyd de aftermath of World War I, de victorious Allied Powers occupy den partition de Ottoman Empire, wich loose ein southern territories to de United Kingdom den France. De successful Turkish War of Independence, wey Mustafa Kemal Atatürk lead against de occupying Allies, lead to de emergence of de Republic of Turkey den de abolition of de sultanate insyd 1922.

* Armour, Ian D. (2012). *A History of Eastern Europe 1740-1918: Empires, Nations and Modernisation* (2nd ed.). London New York: Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-84966-661-9.
* Atasoy, Nurhan; Raby, Julian (1989). Petsopoulos, Yanni (ed.). *Iznik: The Pottery of Ottoman Turkey*. Alexandria Press. ISBN 978-0-500-97374-5.
* Biondich, Mark (2011). *The Balkans: Revolution, War, and Political Violence since 1878*. The United States: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199299058.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-929905-8.
* Blair, Sheila S.; Bloom, Jonathan M. (1995). *The Art and Architecture of Islam 1250-1800*. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-06465-0. Archived from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 9 March 2022.
* Bosma, Ulbe; Lucassen, Jan; Oostindie, Gert, eds. (2012). *Postcolonial Migrants and Identity Politics: Europe, Russia, Japan and the United States in Comparison*. International Studies in Social History. Vol. 18. Berghahn Books. doi:10.1515/9780857453280. ISBN 978-0-85745-328-0.
* Freely, John (2011). *A History of Ottoman Architecture*. WIT Press. ISBN 978-1-84564-506-9. Archived from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 9 March 2022.
* Gibney, Matthew J.; Hansen, Randall, eds. (2005). *Immigration and asylum: from 1900 to the present*. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781576077962.
* Howard, Douglas A. (2016). *The History of Turkey* (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0.
* Itzkowitz, Norman (1980). *Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition*. ISBN 978-0-226-38806-9.
* Karpat, K.H. (2001). *The Politicization of Islam: Reconstructing Identity, State, Faith, and Community in the Late Ottoman State*. Studies in Middle Eastern history. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-513618-0.
* Karpat, Kemal H. (2004). *Studies on Turkish Politics and Society: Selected Articles and Essays*. Leiden Boston: BRILL. ISBN 978-9004133228.
* Kasaba, Reşat, ed. (2008). *The Cambridge History of Turkey*. Vol. 4: Turkey in the Modern World. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521620963. ISBN 978-1-139-05421-8.
* Kaser, Karl (2011). *The Balkans and the Near East: Introduction to a Shared History*. Berlin Wien: LIT Verlag Münster. ISBN 978-3-643-50190-5.
* Kinross, Lord (1979). *The Ottoman Centuries: the Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire*. Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-688-08093-8. popular history espouses old "decline" thesis
* Kuban, Doğan (2010). *Ottoman Architecture*. Translated by Mill, Adair. Antique Collectors' Club. ISBN 978-1-85149-604-4.
* Pekesen, Berna (7 March 2012). "Expulsion and Emigration of the Muslims from the Balkans". *European History Online*. Leibniz Institute of European History. Archived from the original on 20 February 2024. Retrieved 20 February 2024.
* Quataert, Donald (1983). *Social Disintegration and Popular Resistance in the Ottoman Empire 1881–1908*.
* Quataert, Donald; Spivey, Diane M. (2000). *Consumption Studies and the History of the Ottoman Empire, 1550–1922*. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-4431-3.
* Rogan, Eugene (2011). *The Arabs: A History*. Penguin. ISBN 978-0-465-03248-8. Archived from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 9 September 2021.
* Rüstem, Ünver (2019). *Ottoman Baroque: The Architectural Refashioning of Eighteenth-Century Istanbul*. Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691181875.
* Somel, S.A. (2010). *The A to Z of the Ottoman Empire*. The A to Z Guide Series. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-1-4617-3176-4.

## Read further

### General surveys

* *The Cambridge History of Turkey* online Archived 5 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine
	+ Volume 1: Kate Fleet ed., "Byzantium to Turkey 1071–1453." Cambridge University Press, 2009.
	+ Volume 2: Suraiya N. Faroqhi and Kate Fleet eds., "The Ottoman Empire as a World Power, 1453–1603." Cambridge University Press, 2012.
	+ Volume 3: Suraiya N. Faroqhi ed., "The Later Ottoman Empire, 1603–1839." Cambridge University Press, 2006.
	+ Volume 4: Reşat Kasaba ed., "Turkey in the Modern World." Cambridge University Press, 2008.
* Agoston, Gabor and Bruce Masters, eds. *Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire* (2008)
* Faroqhi, Suraiya. *The Ottoman Empire: A Short History* (2009) 196pp
* Finkel, Caroline (2005). *Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1923*. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-02396-7.
* Hathaway, Jane (2008). *The Arab Lands under Ottoman Rule, 1516–1800*. Pearson Education Ltd. ISBN 978-0-582-41899-8.
* Howard, Douglas A. (2017). *A History of the Ottoman Empire*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-72730-3.
* Imber, Colin (2009). *The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power* (2 ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-57451-9.
* İnalcık, Halil; Donald Quataert, eds. (1994). *An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-57456-3. Two volumes.
* Kia, Mehrdad, ed. *The Ottoman Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia* (2 vol 2017)
* McCarthy, Justin. *The Ottoman Turks: An Introductory History to 1923.* (1997) The Ottoman Turks : an introductory history to 1923 online
* Mikaberidze, Alexander. *Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia* (2 vol 2011)
* Miller, William. *The Ottoman Empire and its successors, 1801–1922* (2nd ed 1927) online, strong on foreign policy
* Quataert, Donald. *The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922.* 2005. ISBN 0-521-54782-2.
* Şahin, Kaya. "The Ottoman Empire in the Long Sixteenth Century." *Renaissance Quarterly* (2017) 70#1: 220–234 online
* Somel, Selcuk Aksin. *Historical Dictionary of the Ottoman Empire* (2003). pp. 399 excerpt Archived 14 May 2022 at the Wayback Machine
* Stavrianos, L. S. *The Balkans since 1453* (1968; new preface 1999) online
* Tabak, Faruk. *The Waning of the Mediterranean, 1550–1870: A Geohistorical Approach* (2008)

### Early Ottomans

* Kafadar, Cemal (1995). *Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State*. U California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-20600-7.
* Lindner, Rudi P. (1983). *Nomads and Ottomans in Medieval Anatolia*. Bloomington: Indiana UP. ISBN 978-0-933070-12-7.
* Lowry, Heath (2003). *The Nature of the Early Ottoman State*. Albany: SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-5636-1.

### Diplomatic den military

* Ágoston, Gábor (2014). "Firearms and Military Adaptation: The Ottomans and the European Military Revolution, 1450–1800". *Journal of World History*. **25**: 85–124. doi:10.1353/jwh.2014.0005. S2CID 143042353.
* Aksan, Virginia (2007). *Ottoman Wars, 1700–1860: An Empire Besieged*. Pearson Education Limited. ISBN 978-0-582-30807-7.
* Aksan, Virginia H. "Ottoman Military Matters." *Journal of Early Modern History* 6.1 (2002): 52–62, historiography; online
* Aksan, Virginia H. "Mobilization of Warrior Populations in the Ottoman Context, 1750–1850." in *Fighting for a Living: A Comparative Study of Military Labour: 1500–2000* ed. by Erik-Jan Zürcher (2014)online.
* Aksan, Virginia. "Breaking the spell of the Baron de Tott: Reframing the question of military reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1760–1830." *International History Review* 24.2 (2002): 253–277 online.
* Aksan, Virginia H. "The Ottoman military and state transformation in a globalizing world." *Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East* 27.2 (2007): 259–272 online.
* Aksan, Virginia H. "Whatever happened to the Janissaries? Mobilization for the 1768–1774 Russo-Ottoman War." *War in History* 5.1 (1998): 23–36 online.
* Albrecht-Carrié, René. *A Diplomatic History of Europe Since the Congress of Vienna* (1958), 736pp; a basic introduction, 1815–1955 online free to borrow
* Çelik, Nihat. "Muslims, Non-Muslims and Foreign Relations: Ottoman Diplomacy." *International Review of Turkish Studies* 1.3 (2011): 8–30. online Archived 28 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine
* Fahmy, Khaled. *All the Pasha's Men: Mehmed Ali, His Army and the Making of Modern Egypt* (Cambridge University Press. 1997)
* Hall, Richard C. ed. *War in the Balkans: An Encyclopedic History from the Fall of the Ottoman Empire to the Breakup of Yugoslavia* (2014)
* Hurewitz, Jacob C. "Ottoman diplomacy and the European state system." *Middle East Journal* 15.2 (1961): 141–152. online Archived 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine
* Merriman, Roger Bigelow. *Suleiman the Magnificent, 1520–1566* (Harvard University Press, 1944) online
* Miller, William. *The Ottoman Empire and its successors, 1801–1922* (2nd ed 1927) online, strong on foreign policy
* Minawi, Mustafa. *The Ottoman Scramble for Africa Empire and Diplomacy in the Sahara and the Hijaz* (2016) online
* Nicolle, David. *Armies of the Ottoman Turks 1300–1774* (Osprey Publishing, 1983)
* Palmer, Alan. *The Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire* (1994).
* Rhoads, Murphey (1999). *Ottoman Warfare, 1500–1700*. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-1-85728-389-1.
* Soucek, Svat (2015). *Ottoman Maritime Wars, 1416–1700*. Istanbul: The Isis Press. ISBN 978-975-428-554-3.
* Uyar, Mesut; Erickson, Edward (2009). *A Military History of the Ottomans: From Osman to Atatürk*. Abc-Clio. ISBN 978-0-275-98876-0.

### Specialty studies

* Baram, Uzi and Lynda Carroll, editors. *A Historical Archaeology of the Ottoman Empire: Breaking New Ground* (Plenum/Kluwer Academic Press, 2000)
* Barkey, Karen. *Empire of Difference: The Ottomans in Comparative Perspective.* (2008) ISBN 978-0-521-71533-1
* Davison, Roderic H. *Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1856–1876* (New York: Gordian Press, 1973)
* Deringil, Selim. *The well-protected domains: ideology and the legitimation of power in the Ottoman Empire, 1876–1909* (London: IB Tauris, 1998)
* Findley, Carter V. *Bureaucratic Reform in the Ottoman Empire: The Sublime Porte, 1789–1922* (Princeton University Press, 1980)
* Hamed-Troyansky, Vladimir (2024). *Empire of Refugees: North Caucasian Muslims and the Late Ottoman State*. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-1-5036-3696-5. Archived from the original on 21 May 2024. Retrieved 20 May 2024.
* McMeekin, Sean. *The Berlin-Baghdad Express: The Ottoman Empire and Germany's Bid for World Power* (2010)
* Mikhail, Alan. *God's Shadow: Sultan Selim, His Ottoman Empire, and the Making of the Modern World* (2020) ISBN 978-1-63149-239-6 on Selim I (1470–1529)
* Pamuk, Sevket. *A Monetary History of the Ottoman Empire* (1999). pp. 276
* Stone, Norman "Turkey in the Russian Mirror" pp. 86–100 from *Russia War, Peace and Diplomacy* edited by Mark & Ljubica Erickson, Weidenfeld & Nicolson: London, 2004 ISBN 0-297-84913-1.
* Yaycioglu, Ali. *Partners of the empire: The crisis of the Ottoman order in the age of revolutions* (Stanford University Press, 2016), covers 1760–1820 online review: doi:10.17192/meta.2018.10.7716 Cakir, Burcin (2018). "Ali Yacıoğlu: "Partners of the Empire: The Crisis of the Ottoman Order in the Age of Revolutions" | Middle East – Topics & Arguments". *Middle East – Topics & Arguments*. **10**: 109–112. doi:10.17192/meta.2018.10.7716. Archived from the original on 1 November 2022. Retrieved 1 November 2022..

### Historiography

* Aksan, Virginia H. "What's Up in Ottoman Studies?" *Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association* 1.1–2 (2014): 3–21. online Archived 9 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine
* Aksan, Virginia H. "Ottoman political writing, 1768–1808." *International Journal of Middle East Studies* 25.1 (1993): 53–69 online.
* Finkel, Caroline. "Ottoman history: whose history is it?." *International Journal of Turkish Studies* 14.1/2 (2008).
* Gerber, Haim. "Ottoman Historiography: Challenges of the Twenty-First Century." *Journal of the American Oriental Society,* 138#2 (2018), p. 369+. online Archived 28 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine
* Hartmann, Daniel Andreas. "Neo-Ottomanism: The Emergence and Utility of a New Narrative on Politics, Religion, Society, and History in Turkey" (PhD Dissertation, Central European University, 2013) online Archived 14 May 2022 at the Wayback Machine.
* Eissenstat, Howard. "Children of Özal: The New Face of Turkish Studies" *Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association* 1#1 (2014), pp. 23–35 doi:10.2979/jottturstuass.1.1-2.23 Eissenstat (2014). "Children of Özal: The New Face of Turkish Studies". *Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association*. **1** (1–2): 23–35. doi:10.2979/jottturstuass.1.1-2.23. JSTOR 10.2979/jottturstuass.1.1-2.23. S2CID 158272381. Archived from the original on 9 August 2020. Retrieved 28 March 2020.
* Kayalı, Hasan (December 2017). "The Ottoman Experience of World War I: Historiographical Problems and Trends". *The Journal of Modern History* (in English). **89** (4): 875–907. doi:10.1086/694391. ISSN 0022-2801. S2CID 148953435.
* Lieven, Dominic. *Empire: The Russian Empire and its rivals* (Yale University Press, 2002), comparisons with Russian, British, & Habsburg empires. excerpt Archived 19 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine
* Mikhail, Alan; Philliou, Christine M. "The Ottoman Empire and the Imperial Turn," *Comparative Studies in Society & History* (2012) 54#4 pp. 721–745. Comparing the Ottomans to other empires opens new insights about the dynamics of imperial rule, periodisation, and political transformation
* Olson, Robert, "Ottoman Empire" in Kelly Boyd, ed. (1999). *Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing vol 2*. Taylor & Francis. pp. 892–896. ISBN 978-1-884964-33-6. Archived from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 5 October 2016.
* Quataert, Donald. "Ottoman History Writing and Changing Attitudes towards the Notion of 'Decline.'" *History Compass* 1 (2003): 1–9.
* Yaycıoğlu, Ali. "Ottoman Early Modern." *Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association* 7.1 (2020): 70–73 online.
* Yılmaz, Yasir. "Nebulous Ottomans vs. Good Old Habsburgs: A Historiographical Comparison." *Austrian History Yearbook* 48 (2017): 173–190. Online

* Ottoman Text Archive Project Archived 19 May 2024 at the Wayback Machine
* Ottoman and Turkish Studies Resources – University of Michigan
* Historians of the Ottoman Empire – University of Chicago
* Turkey in Asia, 1920