# Ĝermana lingvaro

|  |
| --- |
| **Ĝermana lingvaro** |
|  |
| **lingva familio** |
| **hindeŭropa lingvaro** |
| Lingvaj kodoj
 |
| **Glottolog** | germ1287
 |
| **Angla nomo** | Germanic languages
 |
| **Franca nomo** | langues germaniques
 |
|  |

La **ĝermana lingvaro** estas familio apartenanta al la hindeŭropa lingvaro kaj fontanta el la **ĝermana lingvo**, pralingvo de centra Eŭropo kaj parolita de la ĝermanoj. Ĝi konsistas el tri ĉefaj branĉoj:

* **okcidenta ĝermana:** afrikansa, angla, frisa, germana, jida, antikva lombarda , nederlanda, skota
* **orienta ĝermana** (mortinta branĉo): burgunda, gota, vandala
* **norda ĝermana** (el praskandinavia): dana, sveda, gotlanda; (el Norena:), feroa, islanda, norvega, norna (*mortinta*)

Antaŭ 2000 jaroj, en norda Germanio, Danio, kaj suda Skandinavio, multaj triboj parolis la ĝermanan, aŭ la teŭtonan pralingvon de la modernaj ĝermanaj lingvoj. Dum 50 generacioj la ĝermanaj dialektoj ŝanĝiĝis tre malrapide, kaj hodiaŭ, en okcidenta Eŭropo, oni parolas la germanan, la anglan kaj la svedan, inter aliaj.

En la supra mapo pri la lingvodisdivido ĉirkaŭ la Norda Maro dum la jaro 900, la ruĝa kaj oranĝa koloroj estas la okcidenta kaj orienta varioj de la norena lingvo, violkoloras la gotlanda lingvo, flavas la anglosaksa en Britio, kaj inter la verdaj areoj estas la restaj varioj de la ĝermana lingvo, kun multe da saksa kaj marborde iom la frisa lingvoj en hodiaŭa norda Germanio kaj Nederlando. Krome bluas la krimee gota lingvo
La ĝermanaj lingvoj nun floras en Nordameriko, norda Eŭropo, Sud-Afriko kaj Oceanio kaj estas parolataj de ĉirkaŭ 650 milionoj kiel unua aŭ dua lingvo. El tiuj, ĉirkaŭ 75% parolas la anglan kaj 25% la germanan.

Eĉ hodiaŭ, estas multaj similaĵoj inter la nuntempaj germana kaj angla, ekzemple, en la leksiko, ni trovas: *Arm/arm* (brako), *Finger/finger* (fingro), *Hand/hand* (mano), *Land/land* (lando), *bitter* (amara), *wild* (sovaĝa), *Wind/wind* (vento), *warm* (varmeta), *Winter/winter* (vintro), *Bier/beer* (biero), *Butter/butter* (butero), *Brot/bread* (pano), *Haus/house* (domo), *Maus/mouse* (muso), *See/sea*(maro), *Mann/man*(viro).

La plej antikvaj skriboj de la ĝermana estas en la gota lingvo en greksimila skribo. La plej fama el la gotaj skriboj estas la Arĝenta Libro, luksa evangeliaro en la gota el la 6-a jarcento.

La norda branĉo devenas de la praskandinavia lingvo. El la modernaj lingvoj, la islanda lingvo estas la plej proksima al la dialektoj de la vikingoj, konataj ankaŭ kiel la Norena.

|  |  |  |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Mapo de la ĝermanaj lingvoj en Eŭropo nuntempe kun la ĉefaj dialektoj. | * Okcidenta skandinava

- ﻿ 1 Islanda
- ﻿ 2 Feroa
- ﻿ 3 Sudokcidenta norvega
- ﻿ 4 Sudorienta norvega
- ﻿ 5 Tronda
- ﻿ 6 Jamtska
- ﻿ 7 Nordnorvega
* Orienta skandinava

- ﻿ 8 Norrlanda
- ﻿ 9 Orientsveda
- ﻿ 10 Svelanda
- ﻿ 11 Dalekarla
- ﻿ 12 Gotalanda
- ﻿ 13 Gotlanda
- ﻿ 14 Skana (inkl. Bornholman dialekton)
- ﻿ 15 Insula dana
- ﻿ 16 Orienta jutlanda
- ﻿ 17 Okcidenta jutlanda
- ﻿ 18 Suda jutlanda
 | * Malaltgermana

- ﻿ 19 (Norda) Malaltsaksa
- ﻿ 20 Meklenburga-Okcidentpomeria
- ﻿ 21 Marka
- ﻿ 22 Ostfalia
- ﻿ 23 Vestfalia (inkl. Nederlandan malaltsaksan)
- ﻿ 24 Orientfrisa (inkl. Groningan)
- ﻿ 25 Malalta franka (inkl. Nederlandan)
* Frisa

- ﻿ 26 Okcidenta frisa (Westerlauwers)
- ﻿ 27 Saterfisa
- ﻿ 28 Nordfrisa
* Centra germana

- ﻿ 29 Centra franka (inkl. luksemburgan)
- ﻿ 30 Turinga-supra saksa (inkl. altgermanan)
- ﻿ 31 Luzacia
* Supra germana

- ﻿ 32 Supra franka
- ﻿ 33 Aŭstro-bavara
- ﻿ 34 Alemana ŝvaba (inkl. svisgermanan)
* Angleca

- ﻿ 35 Sudorienta angla
- ﻿ 36 Sudokcidenta angla
- ﻿ 37 Kimria angla
- ﻿ 38 Centra angla
- ﻿ 39 Norda angla
- ﻿ 40 Skota
- ﻿ 41 Irlanda angla
 |

## Klasifiko

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| Ĝenerala klasifiko de la ĝermanaj lingvoj

Ĝermanaj lingvoj | - ﻿ okcident-nordia
- ﻿ orient-nordia
- ﻿ linio inter nord- kaj okcidentĝermana
- ﻿ angla kaj skota
- ﻿ frisa
- ﻿ nederlanda
- ﻿ platgermana
- ﻿ mezgermana
- ﻿ supragermana
 |

|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
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| praskandinava |

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| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| okcident-nordia |

okcident-nordia[Montri]

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| --- | --- |
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norena [nrn] †

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feroa [fao] |
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islanda [isl] |
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norvega [nno] nynorsk (landsmål)

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jamtska [jmk] |
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| orient-nordia |

orient-nordia[Montri]

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| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| dana Bokmal |

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| --- | --- |
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norvega [nob] bokmål

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| dana (riksmål) |

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| --- | --- |
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dana [dan] |
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juta [jut] |
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| sveda |

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| --- | --- |
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dalekarla [dlc] |
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skana [scy] |
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sveda [swe] |
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gotlanda

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petuha

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| okcidentĝermana |

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| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  |

anglofrisa[Montri]

|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| frisa  |

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| --- | --- |
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okcidentfrisa [fri] |
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nordfrisa [frr] |
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orientfrisa (fakte saterfrisa) [stq] |
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angla [eng] |
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skota [sco] |
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jingla [yib] |
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| germanonederlanda |

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| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  |

malaltgermana[Montri]

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| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| malaltfranka |

Nederlanda[Montri]

|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| nederlanda [nld] |

|  |  |
| --- | --- |
|  |
okcidenflandra [vls] |
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orientflandra

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zelanda [zea] Zeeuws ?

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holanda

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sud-geldera

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brabansona

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limburga [lim] |
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sudorienta limburga

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afrikansa [afr] |
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| malaltsaksa |

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| --- | --- |
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malaltsaksa de Nederlando

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orientfrisa

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vestfala [wep] |
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ostfala

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platdiĉa [nds] |
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aĥterhoeka [act] |
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drenta [drt] |
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groninga [gos] |
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platdiĉa [pdt] |
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sallanda [sdz] |
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stelingverfa [stl] |
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tventa [twd] |
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veluva [vel] |
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| orienta malaltgermana |

|  |  |
| --- | --- |
|  |
meklenburga-pomera

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brandenburga

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malaltprusa

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| altgermana |

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| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  |

mezgermana[Montri]

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| okcidenta mezgermana |

|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| mezfranka mezfranka [frk] |

|  |  |
| --- | --- |
|  |
ripuara [ksh] |
|  |
| luksemburga [ltz] |

|  |  |
| --- | --- |
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luksemburga [ltz] de Belgio

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luksemburga [ltz] de Loreno

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luksemburga [ltz] de Sarlando

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| Mozela\_franka [vmf] |

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| --- | --- |
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mozela franka [vmf] de Loreno

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mozela franka [vmf] de Sarlando

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rejna franka ( Palatina [pfl] )

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rejna franka de Loreno

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malalthesa

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orienthesa

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mezhesa

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| orienta mezgermana |

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| --- | --- |
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ŝvaba [sxu] |
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turinga

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silezia [sli] |
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nordaltsaksa

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sumarka

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altprusa

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supragermana[Montri]

|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| altfranka |

|  |  |
| --- | --- |
|  |
orienta franka

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| suda franka |

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| --- | --- |
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franka de Majno

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| altgermana *(Hochdeutsch)* |

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| --- | --- |
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germana [deu] |
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pensilvangermana [pdc] |
|  |

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| alemana [als] |

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| --- | --- |
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alzaca

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ŝvaba [swg] |
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malaltalemana

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mezaltalemana

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altalemana [wae] (Walser)

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alemana [gsw] |
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bavara [bar] |
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germana de Colonia Tovar [gct] |
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bimbria [cim] |
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huterita [geh] |
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moĉena [mhn] |
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jida[Montri]

|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| jida [yid]  |

|  |  |
| --- | --- |
|  |
alzaca jida

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orienta jida [ydd] |
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okcidenta jida [yih] |
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vilamovica

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| orientĝermana † |

|  |  |
| --- | --- |
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burgunda †

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gota [got] †

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vandala †

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## Notoj kaj referencoj

## Literaturo

* Antonsen, E. H., *On Defining Stages in Prehistoric Germanic*, *Language*, 41, 1965, 19ff.
* Bennett, William H., *An Introduction to the Gothic Language*. New York, Modern Language Association of America, 1980
* Campbell, A. *Old English Grammar*. London, Oxford University Press, 1959
* Cercignani, Fausto, *Indo-European ē in Germanic*, en *Zeitschrift für vergleichende Sprachforschung*, 86/1, 1972, 104-110.
* Cercignani, Fausto, *Proto-Germanic \*/i/ and \*/e/ Revisited*, en *Journal of English and Germanic Philology*, 78/1, 1979, 72-82.
* Cercignani, Fausto, *Indo-European eu in Germanic*, en *Indogermanische Forschungen*, 78, 1973, 106-112.
* Cercignani, Fausto, *Early Umlaut Phenomena in the Germanic Languages*, en *Language*, 56/1, 1980, 126-136.
* Krahe, Hans - Meid, Wolfgang, *Germanische Sprachwissenschaft*, Berlin, de Gruyter, 1969
* Lehmann, W. P., *A Definition of Proto-Germanic*, *Language*, 37, 1961, 67ff.
* Voyles, Joseph B., *Early Germanic Grammar*. London, Academic Press, 1992, ISBN 0-12-728270-X.

## Eksteraj ligiloj

* Klasifiko de la ĝermanaj lingvoj en ethnologue.com