Tokamak | Wikipedia audio article
Channel: wikipedia tts
Date: 2019-10-03

This is an audio version of the Wikipedia Article:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokamak


00:03:08 1 Etymology
00:03:56 2 History
00:04:05 2.1 First steps
00:06:29 2.2 Lavrentiev's letter
00:07:51 2.3 Magnetic confinement
00:10:51 2.4 Richter and the birth of fusion research
00:12:46 2.5 New ideas
00:14:20 2.6 Instability
00:16:34 2.7 Steps toward declassification
00:18:47 2.8 First tokamaks
00:21:31 2.9 Atoms for Peace and the doldrums
00:24:18 2.10 Tokamak progress in the 1960s
00:26:34 2.10.1 Culham Five
00:28:40 2.10.2 US turmoil
00:30:47 2.10.3 Tokamak stampede in the US
00:33:46 2.11 Heating: US takes the lead
00:36:36 2.12 1980s: great hope, great disappointment
00:39:43 2.13 ITER
00:41:16 3 Tokamak design
00:41:26 3.1 Basic problem
00:43:05 3.2 Tokamak solution
00:44:38 3.3 Other issues
00:47:20 3.4 Advanced tokamaks
00:52:18 3.5 Plasma disruptions
00:55:15 4 Plasma heating
00:56:18 4.1 Ohmic heating ~ inductive mode
00:57:38 4.2 Magnetic compression
00:58:32 4.3 Neutral-beam injection
01:00:38 4.4 Radio-frequency heating
01:01:20 5 Tokamak particle inventory
01:03:21 6 Experimental tokamaks
01:03:31 6.1 Currently in operation
01:07:28 6.2 Previously operated
01:10:48 6.3 Planned
01:11:46 7 See also



Listening is a more natural way of learning, when compared to reading. Written language only began at around 3200 BC, but spoken language has existed long ago.

Learning by listening is a great way to:
- increases imagination and understanding
- improves your listening skills
- improves your own spoken accent
- learn while on the move
- reduce eye strain

Now learn the vast amount of general knowledge available on Wikipedia through audio (audio article). You could even learn subconsciously by playing the audio while you are sleeping! If you are planning to listen a lot, you could try using a bone conduction headphone, or a standard speaker instead of an earphone.

Listen on Google Assistant through Extra Audio:
https://assistant.google.com/services/invoke/uid/0000001a130b3f91
Other Wikipedia audio articles at:
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=wikipedia+tts
Upload your own Wikipedia articles through:
https://github.com/nodef/wikipedia-tts
Speaking Rate: 0.8990555216716907
Voice name: en-AU-Wavenet-B


"I cannot teach anybody anything, I can only make them think."
- Socrates


SUMMARY
=======
A tokamak  (Russian: Токамáк) is a device which uses a powerful magnetic field to confine a hot plasma in the shape of a torus. The tokamak is one of several types of magnetic confinement devices being developed to produce controlled thermonuclear fusion power. As of 2016, it is the leading candidate for a practical fusion reactor.Tokamaks were initially conceptualized in the 1950s by Soviet physicists Igor Tamm and Andrei Sakharov, inspired by a letter by Oleg Lavrentiev. Meanwhile, the first working tokamak was attributed to the work of Natan Yavlinskii on the T-1. It had been demonstrated that a stable plasma equilibrium requires magnetic field lines that wind around the torus in a helix. Devices like the z-pinch and stellarator had attempted this, but demonstrated serious instabilities. It was the development of the concept now known as the safety factor (labelled q in mathematical notation) that guided tokamak development; by arranging the reactor so this critical factor q was always greater than 1, the tokamaks strongly suppressed the instabilities which plagued earlier designs.
The first tokamak, the T-1, began operation in 1958. By the mid-1960s, the tokamak designs began to show greatly improved performance. Initial results were released in 1965, but were ignored; Lyman Spitzer dismissed them out of hand after noting potential problems in their system for measuring temperatures. A second set of results was published in 1968, this time claiming performance far in advance of any other machine, and was likewise considered unreliable. This led to the invitation of a delegation from the United Kingdom to make their own measurements. These confirmed the Soviet results, and their 1969 publication resulted in a stampede of tokamak construction.
By the mid-1970s, dozens of tokamaks were in use around the world. By the late 1970s, these machines had reached all of the conditions needed for practical fusion, although not at the same time nor in a single reactor. With the goal of breakeven now in sight, a new series of machines were designed that would run on a fusion fuel of deuterium and tritium. These machines, notably the Joint European Torus (JET), Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor (TFTR) and JT-60, had the explicit goal of reaching breakeven.
Instead, these machines demonstrated new problems that limited their performance. Solving these would require a much larger and more expensive machine, beyond the abilities of any one country. After an initial agreement between Ronald Reagan and Mikhail Gorbachev in November 1985, the International Thermonuclear Experiment ...