Hybrid (biology) | Wikipedia audio article
Channel: wikipedia tts
Date: 2018-12-25

This is an audio version of the Wikipedia Article:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_(biology)


00:02:52 1 Etymology
00:03:25 2 As seen by different disciplines
00:03:35 2.1 Animal and plant breeding
00:05:19 2.2 Biogeography
00:06:02 2.3 Genetics
00:06:53 2.4 Taxonomy
00:07:45 3 Biology
00:07:54 3.1 Expression of parental traits
00:08:28 3.2 Mechanisms of reproductive isolation
00:10:01 3.3 Speciation
00:11:57 3.4 Hybrid vigour
00:13:43 4 Human influence
00:13:52 4.1 Anthropogenic hybridization
00:14:34 4.2 Management
00:16:01 4.3 Genetic mixing and extinction
00:16:58 4.4 Effect on biodiversity and food security
00:17:50 5 In different taxa
00:18:00 5.1 In animals
00:19:37 5.2 In plants
00:22:25 5.3 In humans
00:24:07 6 In mythology
00:24:53 7 See also



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SUMMARY
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In biology, a hybrid is the result of combining the qualities of two organisms of different breeds, varieties, species or genera through sexual reproduction. Hybrids are not always intermediates between their parents (such as in blending inheritance), but can show hybrid vigour, often growing larger or taller than either parent. The concept of a hybrid is interpreted differently in animal and plant breeding, where there is interest in the individual parentage. In genetics, attention is focused on the numbers of chromosomes. In taxonomy, a key question is how closely related the parent species are.
Species are reproductively isolated by strong barriers to hybridisation, which include morphological differences, differing times of fertility, mating behaviors and cues, and physiological rejection of sperm cells or the developing embryo. Some act before fertilization and others after it. Similar barriers exist in plants, with differences in flowering times, pollen vectors, inhibition of pollen tube growth, somatoplastic sterility, cytoplasmic-genic male sterility and the structure of the chromosomes. A few animal species and many plant species, however, are the result of hybrid speciation, including important crop plants such as wheat, where the number of chromosomes has been doubled.
Human impact on the environment has resulted in an increase in the interbreeding between regional species, and with introduced species worldwide, which has resulted in an increase in hybridisation. The genetic mixing may threaten many species with extinction, while genetic erosion in crop plants may be damaging the gene pools of many species for future breeding.  A form of often intentional human-mediated hybridisation is the crossing of wild and domesticated species. This is common in both traditional horticulture and modern agriculture; many commercially useful fruits, flowers, garden herbs, and trees have been produced by hybridisation. One such flower, Oenothera lamarckiana, was central to early genetics research into mutationism and polyploidy.  It is also more occasionally done in the livestock and pet trades; some well-known wild × domestic hybrids are beefalo and wolfdogs.  Human selective breeding of domesticated animals and plants has resulted is the development of distinct breeds (usually called cultivars in reference to plants); crossbreeds between them (without any wild stock) are sometimes also imprecisely referred to as "hybrids". 
Hybrid humans existed in prehistory. For example, Neanderthals and anatomically modern humans are thought to have interbred as recently as 40,000 years ago.
Mythological hybrids appear in human culture in forms as diverse as the Minotaur, blends of animals, humans and mythical beasts such as centaurs and sphinxes, and the Nephilim of the Biblical apocrypha described as the wicked sons of fallen angels and attractive women.