Commodification of nature | Wikipedia audio article
Channel: wikipedia tts
Date: 16/06/2019

This is an audio version of the Wikipedia Article:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodification_of_nature


00:03:05 1 Origins and development
00:03:15 1.1 Classical liberalism and enclosure
00:06:19 1.2 Capitalist expansion
00:07:49 1.3 Neoliberal nature
00:09:37 1.4 Stretching and deepening
00:11:03 2 Aspects of commodification
00:15:40 3 Problems with commodification
00:16:31 3.1 Practical problems
00:18:47 3.2 Moral difficulties
00:20:40 3.3 Problematic consequences
00:24:15 4 Crisis and resistance
00:24:26 4.1 Incomplete capitalization and the fictitious commodity
00:26:21 4.2 Possible consequences of commodifying nature
00:27:39 4.3 Degradation of resources, underproduction of conditions
00:29:13 4.4 Reclaiming the commons?
00:30:35 5 Specific Examples in Modern Society
00:31:07 5.1 Emissions Trading
00:32:11 5.2 Drinking Water
00:33:13 5.3 Petroleum



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SUMMARY
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The commodification of nature is an area of research within critical environmental studies that is concerned with the ways in which natural entities and processes are made exchangeable through the market, and the implications thereof.
Drawing upon the work of Karl Marx, Karl Polanyi, James O’Connor  and David Harvey, this area of work is normative and critical, based in Marxist geography and political ecology. Theorists use a commodification framing in order to contest the perspectives of "market environmentalism," which sees marketization as a solution to environmental degradation. The environment  has been a key site of conflict between proponents of the expansion of market norms, relations and modes of governance and those who oppose such expansion.  Critics emphasize the contradictions and undesirable physical and ethical consequences brought about by the commodification of natural resources (as inputs to production and products) and processes (environmental services  or conditions).
Most researchers who employ a commodification of nature framing invoke a Marxian conceptualization of commodities as "objects produced  for sale on the market" that embody both use and exchange value. Commodification itself is a process by which goods and services not produced for sale are converted into an exchangeable form.  It involves multiple elements, including privatization, alienation, individuation, abstraction, valuation and displacement.As capitalism expands in breadth and depth, more and more things previously external to the system become “internalized,” including entities and processes that are usually considered "natural." Nature, as a concept, however, is very difficult to define, with many layers of meaning, including external environments as well as humans themselves. Political ecology and other critical conceptions draw upon strands within Marxist geography that see nature as "socially produced," with no neat boundary separating the "social" from the "natural." Still, the commodification of entities and processes that are considered natural is viewed as a "special case" based on nature’s biophysical materiality, which "shape[es] and condition[s] trajectories of commodification."