X-ray diffraction | Wikipedia audio article
Channel: wikipedia tts
Date: 2019-05-06

This is an audio version of the Wikipedia Article:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_crystallography


00:04:22 1 History
00:04:32 1.1 Early scientific history of crystals and X-rays
00:08:53 1.2 X-ray diffraction
00:13:40 1.3 Scattering
00:16:16 1.4 Development from 1912 to 1920
00:19:58 1.5 Cultural and aesthetic importance
00:21:34 2 Contributions to chemistry and material science
00:25:33 2.1 Mineralogy and metallurgy
00:27:25 2.2 Early organic and small biological molecules
00:28:52 2.3 Biological macromolecular crystallography
00:32:00 3 Relationship to other scattering techniques
00:32:11 3.1 Elastic vs. inelastic scattering
00:34:08 3.2 Other X-ray techniques
00:36:23 3.3 Electron and neutron diffraction
00:39:51 4 Methods
00:40:01 4.1 Overview of single-crystal X-ray diffraction
00:41:23 4.1.1 Procedure
00:43:16 4.1.2 Limitations
00:45:14 4.2 Crystallization
00:51:58 4.3 Data collection
00:52:07 4.3.1 Mounting the crystal
00:54:55 4.3.2 X-ray sources
00:55:04 4.3.2.1 Rotating anode
00:57:57 4.3.2.2 Synchrotron radiation
01:00:10 4.3.2.3 Free electron laser
01:01:22 4.3.3 Recording the reflections
01:04:26 4.4 Data analysis
01:04:36 4.4.1 Crystal symmetry, unit cell, and image scaling
01:07:53 4.4.2 Initial phasing
01:11:15 4.4.3 Model building and phase refinement
01:13:54 4.4.4 Disorder
01:14:50 4.4.5 Applied computational data analysis
01:16:32 4.5 Deposition of the structure
01:17:19 5 Diffraction theory
01:22:25 5.1 Intuitive understanding by Bragg's law
01:24:34 5.2 Scattering as a Fourier transform
01:32:03 5.3 Friedel and Bijvoet mates
01:41:53 5.4 Ewald's sphere
01:42:06 5.5 Patterson function
01:43:54 5.6 Advantages of a crystal
01:46:49 6 Nobel Prizes involving X-ray crystallography
01:49:03 7 Applications of X-ray diffraction
01:49:16 7.1 X-ray method for investigation of drugs
01:50:37 7.2 X-ray method for investigation of textile fibers and polymers
01:51:35 7.3 X-ray method for investigation of bones
01:52:55 7.4 Integrated circuits
01:53:45 8 See also



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SUMMARY
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X-ray crystallography (XRC) is a technique used for determining the atomic and molecular structure of a crystal, in which the crystalline structure causes a beam of incident X-rays to diffract into many specific directions. By measuring the angles and intensities of these diffracted beams, a crystallographer can produce a three-dimensional picture of the density of electrons within the crystal. From this electron density, the mean positions of the atoms in the crystal can be determined, as well as their chemical bonds, their crystallographic disorder, and various other information.
Since many materials can form crystals—such as salts, metals, minerals, semiconductors, as well as various inorganic, organic, and biological molecules—X-ray crystallography has been fundamental in the development of many scientific fields. In its first decades of use, this method determined the size of atoms, the lengths and types of chemical bonds, and the atomic-scale differences among various materials, especially minerals and alloys. The method also revealed the structure and function of many biological molecules, including vitamins, drugs, proteins and nucleic acids such as DNA. X-ray crystallography is still the primary method for characterizing the atomic structure of new materials and in discerning materials that appear similar by other experiments. X-ray crystal structures can also account for unusual electronic or elastic properties of a material, shed light on chemical interactions and processes, or serve as the basis for designing pharmaceuticals against diseases.
In a single-crystal X-ray diffraction measurement, a crystal is mounted on a goniometer.  The goniometer is used to position the crystal at selected orientations.  The crystal is illuminated with a finely focused monochromatic beam of X-rays, ...