Natural kind | Wikipedia audio article
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Date: 2018-11-26

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Natural kind

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SUMMARY
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In analytic philosophy, the term natural kind identifies a grouping of singular objects that always share particular qualities, whether or not humans know either the objects or the qualities.  A natural kind labels a "real" structure in the natural world, not an artificial result of human reasoning, by which scholars try to explain common sense knowledge with scientific knowledge.
Those who believe in natural kinds debate their structure and how it can be known.  The structure of kinds is assumed to be stable despite worldly experience of constant flux.  According to tradition, natural kinds can be known in two forms: as knowledge of general ideas about kinds, acquired by deductive reasoning, and as knowledge of observable examples of kinds, known by inductive reasoning.Results of deductive and inductive reasoning are stated in propositions that express relations among objects and their qualities.  For example: "All water is 
  
    
      
        
          H
          
            2
          
        
        O
      
    
    {\displaystyle H_{2}O}
  ." "All men are mortal." "All crows are black."
Believers in natural kinds claim such propositions describe objects and related qualities that exist.  But they recognize that inductive propositions about "all" of a kind are problematic, because no-one can observe "all" of anything.  Drawing conclusions about all members of a kind after observing a small sample appears illogical.  But this kind of reasoning appears to be necessary, and often "works," meaning proves to be able to identify stable kinds.
Scientific disciplines frequently divide the particulars they study into kinds and theorize about those kinds.  To say that a kind is natural is to say that it corresponds to a grouping that reflects the structure of the natural world rather than the interests and actions of human beings.  We tend to assume that science is often successful in revealing these kinds; it is a corollary of scientific realism that when all goes well the classifications and taxonomies employed by science correspond to the real kinds in nature.  The existence of these real and independent kinds of things is held to justify our scientific inferences and practices.This article identifies some contentious issues surrounding natural kinds. It presents a minority view expressed by John Dewey that natural kinds are a false conclusion of contaminated instrumental reasoning. It presents several majority views expressed by four more recent scholars—W. V. O. Quine, Hilary Kornblith, Hasok Chang, and Rasmus Winther—that natural kinds are real and important scientific facts.