Planetary surface | Wikipedia audio article
Channel: wikipedia tts
Date: 29/05/2019

This is an audio version of the Wikipedia Article:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetary_surface


00:03:03 1 Distribution and conditions
00:04:02 2 Exploration
00:04:56 2.1 Past missions
00:06:26 2.2 Future missions
00:07:04 3 Surface materials
00:07:51 3.1 Rare surface occurrences
00:09:22 3.1.1 Extraterrestrial Organic compounds
00:11:06 3.1.1.1 On Mars
00:11:47 3.1.1.2 On Ceres
00:12:01 3.1.1.3 On Comet 67P
00:12:33 3.2 Inorganic materials
00:14:03 3.2.1 Rare inorganics
00:14:36 3.2.1.1 Carbon Ices
00:14:54 4 Landforms
00:15:41 5 Surface of gas giants



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SUMMARY
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A planetary surface is where the solid (or liquid) material of the outer crust on certain types of astronomical objects contacts the atmosphere or outer space. Planetary surfaces are found on solid objects of planetary mass, including terrestrial planets (including Earth), dwarf planets, natural satellites, planetesimals and many other small Solar System bodies (SSSBs). The study of planetary surfaces is a field of planetary geology known as surface geology, but also a focus of a number of fields including planetary cartography, topography, geomorphology, atmospheric sciences, and astronomy. Land (or ground) is the term given to non-liquid planetary surfaces. The term landing is used to describe the collision of an object with a planetary surface and is usually at a velocity in which the object can remain intact and remain attached.
In differentiated bodies, the surface is where the crust meets the planetary boundary layer. Anything below this is regarded as being sub-surface or sub-marine. Most bodies more massive than super-Earths, including stars and gas giants, as well as smaller gas dwarfs, transition contiguously between phases, including gas, liquid, and solid. As such, they are generally regarded as lacking surfaces.
Planetary surfaces and surface life are of particular interest to humans as it the primary habitat of the species, which has evolved to move over land and breathe air. Human space exploration and space colonization therefore focuses heavily on them. Humans have only directly explored the surface of Earth and the Moon. The vast distances and complexities of space  makes direct exploration of even near-Earth objects dangerous and expensive. As such, all other exploration has been indirect via space probes.
Indirect observations by flyby or orbit currently provide insufficient information to confirm the composition and properties of planetary surfaces. Much of what is known is from the use of techniques such as astronomical spectroscopy and sample return. Lander spacecraft have explored the surfaces of planets Mars and Venus. Mars is the only other planet to have had its surface explored by a mobile surface probe (rover). Titan is the only non-planetary object of planetary mass to have been explored by lander. Landers have explored several smaller bodies including 433 Eros (2001), 25143 Itokawa (2005), Tempel 1 (2005), and 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko(2014).