Trace-element systematics and isotopic characteristics of sphalerite-pyrite from volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits of Betul belt, central Indian Tectonic Zone: Insight of ore genesis to exploration

The Paleoproterozoic volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) deposits in the Betul belt (BB) (ca.1.7 Ga) in central India are well-known for their low-grade Zn-Cu-Pb sulfide mineralization. The physicochemical conditions of ore formation, size, grade, extent, and nature of mineralization are the ongoing debates and concerns to the exploration agencies for the last two decades. Field examination, drill core analysis, petrography, and scanning electron microscopic studies reveal the occurrence of chalcopyrite, sphalerite, pyrite, galena with minor pyrrhotite in the form of dissemination, stringers, and semi-massive sulfide veins. We present the minor-trace element contents in sphalerite and pyrite from drill core samples of four deposits (Banskhapa, Jangaldehri, Biskhan, and Bhuyari), analyzed by electron probe microanalyzer (EPMA) and in-situ laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy (LA-ICP-MS) for determining ore-forming temperature, ore genesis and exploration prospectivity. The EPMA and LA-ICP-MS studies of sphalerite display a slightly high concentration of trace elements like Mn, In with a mean value of 3533 ppm and 33 ppm, respectively. On the other hand, Ga, Ge, and Ag content are low in abundance along with a low concentration of Bi, Pb, and Sb in all four deposits. Pyrites show low Ni and high Co/Ni (mostly > 1) ratios and variable Ti, Se, As, and Mn. Multivariate statistical analysis, especially the principal component analysis (PCA) of these trace elements, defines the geochemical variations among the Betul belt deposits. The ore-forming temperature is estimated using sphalerite thermometry (374 °C to 402 °C) and pyrite thermometry (225 °C to 484 °C). The geochemical discrepancies occur due to magmatic-hydrothermal activities caused by the sub-volcanic intrusions, followed by recrystallization and remobilization of the sub-microscopic inclusions during subsequent metamorphism. Additionally, sulfur isotope analysis provides insights into the sulfur source variations, metals, and mineralization. Carbon and Oxygen isotopes are used to understand the physicochemical conditions of the ore-forming environment. Sphalerite, pyrite, and chalcopyrite from Banskhapa deposit suggest a broad range of δ34S values (7.27–7.79‰, 8.37–8.61‰, and 6.58–6.72‰ respectively, n = 7), which advocate sulfur mostly derived by thermochemical reduction (TSR) of seawater sulfate with some input of magmatic sulfur leaching from the igneous basement. Carbon and oxygen isotope studies of carbonates from Jangaldehri and Bhuyari deposits (δ 13C: −6.0 to −13.45‰ with an average value of −9.51‰, n = 7; δ 18O: 7.32‰ to 20.58‰ with an average value of 15.65‰, n = 7) indicate that the carbonates formed from a hydrothermal fluid (seawater with an insignificant magmatic input), the mixing of hydrothermal fluid with ingressing seawater, or both in the mineralized zone. These processes collectively led to Zn-Cu and Zn-Cu-Pb mineralization in the Betul belt. High temperature, strong isotopic and trace element geochemical variations in sphalerites (Ag-Mn, In/Cd-Mn, In/Cd-Fe, Mn-In/Ge, Fe-In/Ge, Fe-In) and pyrite (Ni-Co, As-Cu, Ag-Au, and Se-Te) attest to the mineralization as being volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) deposits in Betul belt and differentiated from other genetic types like Mississippi Valley-type (MVT), sedimentary-exhalative (SEDEX), skarn, porphyry, and epithermal hydrothermal deposits.