Reviewerly/exHarmony huggingface dataset:
Grad-CAM: Visual Explanations from Deep Networks via Gradient-Based Localization

We propose a technique for producing ‘visual explanations’ for decisions from a large class of Convolutional Neural Network (CNN)-based models, making them more transparent and explainable. Our approach—Gradient-weighted Class Activation Mapping (Grad-CAM), uses the gradients of any target concept (say ‘dog’ in a classification network or a sequence of words in captioning network) flowing into the final convolutional layer to produce a coarse localization map highlighting the important regions in the image for predicting the concept. Unlike previous approaches, Grad-CAM is applicable to a wide variety of CNN model-families: (1) CNNs with fully-connected layers (e.g.VGG), (2) CNNs used for structured outputs (e.g.captioning), (3) CNNs used in tasks with multi-modal inputs (e.g.visual question answering) or reinforcement learning, all without architectural changes or re-training. We combine Grad-CAM with existing fine-grained visualizations to create a high-resolution class-discriminative visualization, Guided Grad-CAM, and apply it to image classification, image captioning, and visual question answering (VQA) models, including ResNet-based architectures. In the context of image classification models, our visualizations (a) lend insights into failure modes of these models (showing that seemingly unreasonable predictions have reasonable explanations), (b) outperform previous methods on the ILSVRC-15 weakly-supervised localization task, (c) are robust to adversarial perturbations, (d) are more faithful to the underlying model, and (e) help achieve model generalization by identifying dataset bias. For image captioning and VQA, our visualizations show that even non-attention based models learn to localize discriminative regions of input image. We devise a way to identify important neurons through Grad-CAM and combine it with neuron names (Bau et al. in Computer vision and pattern recognition, 2017) to provide textual explanations for model decisions. Finally, we design and conduct human studies to measure if Grad-CAM explanations help users establish appropriate trust in predictions from deep networks and show that Grad-CAM helps untrained users successfully discern a ‘stronger’ deep network from a ‘weaker’ one even when both make identical predictions. Our code is available at https://github.com/ramprs/grad-cam/, along with a demo on CloudCV (Agrawal et al., in: Mobile cloud visual media computing, pp 265–290. Springer, 2015) (http://gradcam.cloudcv.org) and a video at http://youtu.be/COjUB9Izk6E.
Explanation in artificial intelligence: Insights from the social sciences

There has been a recent resurgence in the area of explainable artificial intelligence as researchers and practitioners seek to provide more transparency to their algorithms. Much of this research is focused on explicitly explaining decisions or actions to a human observer, and it should not be controversial to say that looking at how humans explain to each other can serve as a useful starting point for explanation in artificial intelligence. However, it is fair to say that most work in explainable artificial intelligence uses only the researchers' intuition of what constitutes a ‘good’ explanation. There exist vast and valuable bodies of research in philosophy, psychology, and cognitive science of how people define, generate, select, evaluate, and present explanations, which argues that people employ certain cognitive biases and social expectations to the explanation process. This paper argues that the field of explainable artificial intelligence can build on this existing research, and reviews relevant papers from philosophy, cognitive psychology/science, and social psychology, which study these topics. It draws out some important findings, and discusses ways that these can be infused with work on explainable artificial intelligence.
Review of deep learning: concepts, CNN architectures, challenges, applications, future directions

In the last few years, the deep learning (DL) computing paradigm has been deemed the Gold Standard in the machine learning (ML) community. Moreover, it has gradually become the most widely used computational approach in the field of ML, thus achieving outstanding results on several complex cognitive tasks, matching or even beating those provided by human performance. One of the benefits of DL is the ability to learn massive amounts of data. The DL field has grown fast in the last few years and it has been extensively used to successfully address a wide range of traditional applications. More importantly, DL has outperformed well-known ML techniques in many domains, e.g., cybersecurity, natural language processing, bioinformatics, robotics and control, and medical information processing, among many others. Despite it has been contributed several works reviewing the State-of-the-Art on DL, all of them only tackled one aspect of the DL, which leads to an overall lack of knowledge about it. Therefore, in this contribution, we propose using a more holistic approach in order to provide a more suitable starting point from which to develop a full understanding of DL. Specifically, this review attempts to provide a more comprehensive survey of the most important aspects of DL and including those enhancements recently added to the field. In particular, this paper outlines the importance of DL, presents the types of DL techniques and networks. It then presents convolutional neural networks (CNNs) which the most utilized DL network type and describes the development of CNNs architectures together with their main features, e.g., starting with the AlexNet network and closing with the High-Resolution network (HR.Net). Finally, we further present the challenges and suggested solutions to help researchers understand the existing research gaps. It is followed by a list of the major DL applications. Computational tools including FPGA, GPU, and CPU are summarized along with a description of their influence on DL. The paper ends with the evolution matrix, benchmark datasets, and summary and conclusion.
Deep learning and process understanding for data-driven Earth system science

Machine learning approaches are increasingly used to extract patterns and insights from the ever-increasing stream of geospatial data, but current approaches may not be optimal when system behaviour is dominated by spatial or temporal context. Here, rather than amending classical machine learning, we argue that these contextual cues should be used as part of deep learning (an approach that is able to extract spatio-temporal features automatically) to gain further process understanding of Earth system science problems, improving the predictive ability of seasonal forecasting and modelling of long-range spatial connections across multiple timescales, for example. The next step will be a hybrid modelling approach, coupling physical process models with the versatility of data-driven machine learning.
CutMix: Regularization Strategy to Train Strong Classifiers With Localizable Features

Regional dropout strategies have been proposed to enhance performance of convolutional neural network classifiers. They have proved to be effective for guiding the model to attend on less discriminative parts of objects (e.g. leg as opposed to head of a person), thereby letting the network generalize better and have better object localization capabilities. On the other hand, current methods for regional dropout removes informative pixels on training images by overlaying a patch of either black pixels or random noise. Such removal is not desirable because it suffers from information loss causing inefficiency in training. We therefore propose the CutMix augmentation strategy: patches are cut and pasted among training images where the ground truth labels are also mixed proportionally to the area of the patches. By making efficient use of training pixels and retaining the regularization effect of regional dropout, CutMix consistently outperforms state-of-the-art augmentation strategies on CIFAR and ImageNet classification tasks, as well as on ImageNet weakly-supervised localization task. Moreover, unlike previous augmentation methods, our CutMix-trained ImageNet classifier, when used as a pretrained model, results in consistent performance gain in Pascal detection and MS-COCO image captioning benchmarks. We also show that CutMix can improve the model robustness against input corruptions and its out-of distribution detection performance.
Optuna

The purpose of this study is to introduce new design-criteria for next-generation hyperparameter optimization software. The criteria we propose include (1) define-by-run API that allows users to construct the parameter search space dynamically, (2) efficient implementation of both searching and pruning strategies, and (3) easy-to-setup, versatile architecture that can be deployed for various purposes, ranging from scalable distributed computing to light-weight experiment conducted via interactive interface. In order to prove our point, we will introduce Optuna, an optimization software which is a culmination of our effort in the development of a next generation optimization software. As an optimization software designed with define-by-run principle, Optuna is particularly the first of its kind. We will present the design-techniques that became necessary in the development of the software that meets the above criteria, and demonstrate the power of our new design through experimental results and real world applications. Our software is available under the MIT license (https://github.com/pfnet/optuna/).
Fundamentals of Recurrent Neural Network (RNN) and Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) network

Because of their effectiveness in broad practical applications, LSTM networks have received a wealth of coverage in scientific journals, technical blogs, and implementation guides. However, in most articles, the inference formulas for the LSTM network and its parent, RNN, are stated axiomatically, while the training formulas are omitted altogether. In addition, the technique of "unrolling" an RNN is routinely presented without justification throughout the literature. The goal of this paper is to explain the essential RNN and LSTM fundamentals in a single document. Drawing from concepts in signal processing, we formally derive the canonical RNN formulation from differential equations. We then propose and prove a precise statement, which yields the RNN unrolling technique. We also review the difficulties with training the standard RNN and address them by transforming the RNN into the "Vanilla LSTM" network through a series of logical arguments. We provide all equations pertaining to the LSTM system together with detailed descriptions of its constituent entities. Albeit unconventional, our choice of notation and the method for presenting the LSTM system emphasizes ease of understanding. As part of the analysis, we identify new opportunities to enrich the LSTM system and incorporate these extensions into the Vanilla LSTM network, producing the most general LSTM variant to date. The target reader has already been exposed to RNNs and LSTM networks through numerous available resources and is open to an alternative pedagogical approach. A Machine Learning practitioner seeking guidance for implementing our new augmented LSTM model in software for experimentation and research will find the insights and derivations in this tutorial valuable as well.
Machine Learning in Medicine

Interview with Dr. Isaac Kohane on machine learning in medicine. (16:31)Download In this view of the future of medicine, patient–provider interactions are informed and supported by massive amounts of data from interactions with similar patients. These data are collected and curated to provide the latest evidence-based assessment and recommendations.
nuScenes: A Multimodal Dataset for Autonomous Driving

Robust detection and tracking of objects is crucial for the deployment of autonomous vehicle technology. Image based benchmark datasets have driven development in computer vision tasks such as object detection, tracking and segmentation of agents in the environment. Most autonomous vehicles, however, carry a combination of cameras and range sensors such as lidar and radar. As machine learning based methods for detection and tracking become more prevalent, there is a need to train and evaluate such methods on datasets containing range sensor data along with images. In this work we present nuTonomy scenes (nuScenes), the first dataset to carry the full autonomous vehicle sensor suite: 6 cameras, 5 radars and 1 lidar, all with full 360 degree field of view. nuScenes comprises 1000 scenes, each 20s long and fully annotated with 3D bounding boxes for 23 classes and 8 attributes. It has 7x as many annotations and 100x as many images as the pioneering KITTI dataset. We define novel 3D detection and tracking metrics. We also provide careful dataset analysis as well as baselines for lidar and image based detection and tracking. Data, development kit and more information are available online.
PointPillars: Fast Encoders for Object Detection From Point Clouds

Object detection in point clouds is an important aspect of many robotics applications such as autonomous driving. In this paper, we consider the problem of encoding a point cloud into a format appropriate for a downstream detection pipeline. Recent literature suggests two types of encoders; fixed encoders tend to be fast but sacrifice accuracy, while encoders that are learned from data are more accurate, but slower. In this work, we propose PointPillars, a novel encoder which utilizes PointNets to learn a representation of point clouds organized in vertical columns (pillars). While the encoded features can be used with any standard 2D convolutional detection architecture, we further propose a lean downstream network. Extensive experimentation shows that PointPillars outperforms previous encoders with respect to both speed and accuracy by a large margin. Despite only using lidar, our full detection pipeline significantly outperforms the state of the art, even among fusion methods, with respect to both the 3D and bird’s eye view KITTI benchmarks. This detection performance is achieved while running at 62 Hz: a 2 - 4 fold runtime improvement. A faster version of our method matches the state of the art at 105 Hz. These benchmarks suggest that PointPillars is an appropriate encoding for object detection in point clouds.
SlowFast Networks for Video Recognition

We present SlowFast networks for video recognition. Our model involves (i) a Slow pathway, operating at low frame rate, to capture spatial semantics, and (ii) a Fast pathway, operating at high frame rate, to capture motion at fine temporal resolution. The Fast pathway can be made very lightweight by reducing its channel capacity, yet can learn useful temporal information for video recognition. Our models achieve strong performance for both action classification and detection in video, and large improvements are pin-pointed as contributions by our SlowFast concept. We report state-of-the-art accuracy on major video recognition benchmarks, Kinetics, Charades and AVA. Code has been made available at: https://github.com/facebookresearch/SlowFast.
Coordinate Attention for Efficient Mobile Network Design

Recent studies on mobile network design have demonstrated the remarkable effectiveness of channel attention (e.g., the Squeeze-and-Excitation attention) for lifting model performance, but they generally neglect the positional information, which is important for generating spatially selective attention maps. In this paper, we propose a novel attention mechanism for mobile networks by embedding positional information into channel attention, which we call "coordinate attention". Unlike channel attention that transforms a feature tensor to a single feature vector via 2D global pooling, the coordinate attention factorizes channel attention into two 1D feature encoding processes that aggregate features along the two spatial directions, respectively. In this way, long-range dependencies can be captured along one spatial direction and meanwhile precise positional information can be preserved along the other spatial direction. The resulting feature maps are then encoded separately into a pair of direction-aware and position-sensitive attention maps that can be complementarily applied to the input feature map to augment the representations of the objects of interest. Our coordinate attention is simple and can be flexibly plugged into classic mobile networks, such as MobileNetV2, MobileNeXt, and EfficientNet with nearly no computational overhead. Extensive experiments demonstrate that our coordinate attention is not only beneficial to ImageNet classification but more interestingly, behaves better in down-stream tasks, such as object detection and semantic segmentation. Code is available at https://github.com/Andrew-Qibin/CoordAttention.
CenterNet: Keypoint Triplets for Object Detection

In object detection, keypoint-based approaches often experience the drawback of a large number of incorrect object bounding boxes, arguably due to the lack of an additional assessment inside cropped regions. This paper presents an efficient solution that explores the visual patterns within individual cropped regions with minimal costs. We build our framework upon a representative one-stage keypoint-based detector named CornerNet. Our approach, named CenterNet, detects each object as a triplet, rather than a pair, of keypoints, which improves both precision and recall. Accordingly, we design two customized modules, cascade corner pooling, and center pooling, that enrich information collected by both the top-left and bottom-right corners and provide more recognizable information from the central regions. On the MS-COCO dataset, CenterNet achieves an AP of 47.0 %, outperforming all existing one-stage detectors by at least 4.9%. Furthermore, with a faster inference speed than the top-ranked two-stage detectors, CenterNet demonstrates a comparable performance to these detectors. Code is available at https://github.com/Duankaiwen/CenterNet.
performance: An R Package for Assessment, Comparison and Testing of Statistical Models

A crucial part of statistical analysis is evaluating a model's quality and fit, or performance.During analysis, especially with regression models, investigating the fit of models to data also often involves selecting the best fitting model amongst many competing models.Upon investigation, fit indices should also be reported both visually and numerically to bring readers in on the investigative effort.The performance R-package (R Core Team, 2021) provides utilities for computing measures to assess model quality, many of which are not directly provided by R's base or stats packages.These include measures like R 2 , intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC), root mean squared error (RMSE), or functions to check for vexing issues like overdispersion, singularity, or zeroinflation.These functions support a large variety of regression models including generalized linear models, (generalized) mixed-effects models, their Bayesian cousins, and many others.
Pyramid Vision Transformer: A Versatile Backbone for Dense Prediction without Convolutions

Although convolutional neural networks (CNNs) have achieved great success in computer vision, this work investigates a simpler, convolution-free backbone network use-fid for many dense prediction tasks. Unlike the recently-proposed Vision Transformer (ViT) that was designed for image classification specifically, we introduce the Pyramid Vision Transformer (PVT), which overcomes the difficulties of porting Transformer to various dense prediction tasks. PVT has several merits compared to current state of the arts. (1) Different from ViT that typically yields low-resolution outputs and incurs high computational and memory costs, PVT not only can be trained on dense partitions of an image to achieve high output resolution, which is important for dense prediction, but also uses a progressive shrinking pyramid to reduce the computations of large feature maps. (2) PVT inherits the advantages of both CNN and Transformer, making it a unified backbone for various vision tasks without convolutions, where it can be used as a direct replacement for CNN backbones. (3) We validate PVT through extensive experiments, showing that it boosts the performance of many downstream tasks, including object detection, instance and semantic segmentation. For example, with a comparable number of parameters, PVT+RetinaNet achieves 40.4 AP on the COCO dataset, surpassing ResNet50+RetinNet (36.3 AP) by 4.1 absolute AP (see Figure 2). We hope that PVT could, serre as an alternative and useful backbone for pixel-level predictions and facilitate future research.
CCNet: Criss-Cross Attention for Semantic Segmentation

Full-image dependencies provide useful contextual information to benefit visual understanding problems. In this work, we propose a Criss-Cross Network (CCNet) for obtaining such contextual information in a more effective and efficient way. Concretely, for each pixel, a novel criss-cross attention module in CCNet harvests the contextual information of all the pixels on its criss-cross path. By taking a further recurrent operation, each pixel can finally capture the full-image dependencies from all pixels. Overall, CCNet is with the following merits: 1) GPU memory friendly. Compared with the non-local block, the proposed recurrent criss-cross attention module requires 11x less GPU memory usage. 2) High computational efficiency. The recurrent criss-cross attention significantly reduces FLOPs by about 85% of the non-local block in computing full-image dependencies. 3) The state-of-the-art performance. We conduct extensive experiments on popular semantic segmentation benchmarks including Cityscapes, ADE20K, and instance segmentation benchmark COCO. In particular, our CCNet achieves the mIoU score of 81.4 and 45.22 on Cityscapes test set and ADE20K validation set, respectively, which are the new state-of-the-art results. The source code is available at https://github.com/speedinghzl/CCNet.
International evaluation of an AI system for breast cancer screening

Screening mammography aims to identify breast cancer at earlier stages of the disease, when treatment can be more successful1. Despite the existence of screening programmes worldwide, the interpretation of mammograms is affected by high rates of false positives and false negatives2. Here we present an artificial intelligence (AI) system that is capable of surpassing human experts in breast cancer prediction. To assess its performance in the clinical setting, we curated a large representative dataset from the UK and a large enriched dataset from the USA. We show an absolute reduction of 5.7% and 1.2% (USA and UK) in false positives and 9.4% and 2.7% in false negatives. We provide evidence of the ability of the system to generalize from the UK to the USA. In an independent study of six radiologists, the AI system outperformed all of the human readers: the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC-ROC) for the AI system was greater than the AUC-ROC for the average radiologist by an absolute margin of 11.5%. We ran a simulation in which the AI system participated in the double-reading process that is used in the UK, and found that the AI system maintained non-inferior performance and reduced the workload of the second reader by 88%. This robust assessment of the AI system paves the way for clinical trials to improve the accuracy and efficiency of breast cancer screening.