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For decades, the Namibian desert in Africa has witnessed the struggle for survival of wild horses, with dwindling numbers in recent years threatening extinction. The combination of recurrent attacks by predators, primarily hyenas, and tough weather conditions with long and recurrent droughts has threatened the population of feral horses in the southwestern African country of Namibia, with numbers declining from nearly 300 to only 74 animals in just four years, the Namibia Wild Horses NGO reported. The horses have been around for 104 to 105 years, Mannfred Goldbeck, president of Namibia Wild Horses, told EFE. There was a breeder on the edge of the Namibian desert that kept them for diamond mines, for work and also for leisure, Goldbeck continued. During World War I, the owner was deported to Germany and the animals were liberated, the president of the NGO in charge of their preservation added. The wild creatures, which were brought by European colonials, found a new home in the Namib desert, far in the south, in an area known as the Garub, where they found water at a railway station. At first glance, the wild horses, which live in small herds, do not differ from their domesticated counterparts, except for the tough living conditions they endure making them smaller and thinner. Until 1986 the hardy horses galloped freely on the Garub plains but when the area they inhabited became part of the Namib-Naukluft National Park, comprised of vast terrains of the Namib Desert and the Naukluft mountain range, their mobility was limited considerably when authorities fenced off the protected lands. Ironically, the creation of a national park has complicated efforts to save these animals, as their numbers have declined drastically over the last six years. Sadly, since 2013 no foal has survived into adulthood. The main threat to these chestnut-colored horses is hyena attacks. However, the severe droughts which have hit southern Africa between 2015 and 2018 have not helped either. The Namibia Wild Horses NGO has presented several plans to the government to try and resolve the crisis in a bid to avoid extinction. These included making the organization the main guardians of the feral equines and to purchase nearby lands in order to relocate them. Under these proposed plans, the horses would have been looked after by the NGO and the land would have remained state-owned and continued to be accessed by tourists. The government, however, turned down the offer. The Ministry of Environment and Tourism is attempting to address the issue and has rolled out a policy to cull hyenas. The decision has sparked controversy, not only because it goes against the national park’s rules and animal rights, but also because it could be too late, Goldbeck said. However, he said he was optimistic because the government has finally taken into consideration the value of wildlife and its touristic potential.

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Le blianta fada, tá an Desert Namibí san Afraic mar fhianaise ar an streachailt chun maireachtáil na capaill fiáine, le líon ag laghdú le blianta beaga anuas ag bagairt a n-éag. Tá an teaglaim de ionsaithe athfhillteacha ag creachadóirí, go príomha hyenaí, agus dálaí aimsire diana le triomachtaí fada agus athfhillteacha ag bagairt ar phobal na capaill fiáine i dtír an Afraic theasthuaiscirt Namibia, agus tá líon na n-ainmhithe ag titim ó beagnach 300 go díreach 74 in ach ceithre bliana, a thuairiscigh an NGO Wild Horses Namibia. Tá na capaill thart ar feadh 104 go 105 bliain, a dúirt Mannfred Goldbeck, uachtarán Namibia Wild Horses, le EFE. Bhí briodóir ar imeall an fhásaigh Namibí a choinnigh iad le haghaidh mianaigh diamond, le haghaidh oibre agus freisin le haghaidh fóillíochta, lean Goldbeck. Le linn an Chéad Chogadh Domhanda, díbríodh an t-úinéir go dtí an Ghearmáin agus scaoileadh na hainmhithe saor, a dúirt uachtarán an NGO atá i gceannas ar a gcosc. Fuair na créatúir fiáine, a thug coilíneoirí Eorpacha leo, baile nua i bhfásach Namib, i bhfad ó dheas, i gceantar ar a dtugtar an Garub, áit a bhfuair siad uisce ag stáisiún traenach. Ar an gcéad amharc, ní bhíonn aon difríocht idir na capaill fiáine, a chónaíonn i dtrí phobal beag, agus a gcomhghleacaithe tí, ach amháin go bhfuil na coinníollacha maireachtála crua a fhulaingíonn siad ina gcúis leo a bheith níos lú agus níos caol. Go dtí 1986 bhí na capaill daingean ag galúb go saor ar na pláin Garub ach nuair a tháinig an limistéar a raibh cónaí orthu mar chuid de Pháirc Náisiúnta Namib-Naukluft, a chuimsíonn terrains ollmhór an Fásaigh Namib agus an tsla Naukluft, bhí a n-iompar teoranta go mór nuair a chuir údaráis fál ar na tailte cosanta. Go hionraic, tá an páirc náisiúnta a cruthaíodh tar éis iarrachtaí a dhéanamh chun na hainmhithe seo a shábháil a chastachtú, toisc go bhfuil a líon tar éis titim go mór le sé bliana anuas. Ar an drochuair, ó 2013 i leith, níor fhan aon fhóil go dtí an aois fásta. Is ionsaí hyena an príomh-ghairm ar na capaill seo a bhfuil a gcraiceann caisteil. Mar sin féin, ní raibh an triomaíocht throm a bhuail an Afraic theas idir 2015 agus 2018 ag cabhrú leis. Tá roinnt pleananna curtha i láthair ag an NGOs Namibia Wild Horses don rialtas chun iarracht a dhéanamh an ghéarchéim a réiteach i ndícheall an díothaithe a sheachaint. I measc na mbeart sin bhí an eagraíocht a dhéanamh mar phríomh-chaomhnóirí na n-eachaí fiáine agus talamh in aice láimhe a cheannach chun iad a athshuí. Faoin bpleananna a bhí beartaithe, d'fhágfadh an t-NGO na capaill a chúram agus d'fhanfadh an talamh faoi úinéireacht an stáit agus leanfadh turasóirí de rochtain air. D'éirigh leis an rialtas, áfach, an tairiscint a dhiúltú. Tá an Aireacht Comhshaoil agus Turasóireachta ag iarraidh dul i ngleic leis an gceist agus tá beartas curtha i bhfeidhm chun hyenaí a chur as. Tá an cinneadh seo tar éis conspóide a spreagadh, ní hamháin toisc go bhfuil sé i gcoinne rialacha an pháirc náisiúnta agus cearta ainmhithe, ach freisin toisc go bhféadfadh sé a bheith ró-dhéanach, a dúirt Goldbeck. Mar sin féin, dúirt sé go raibh sé dóchasach toisc go bhfuil luach na fiadhúlra agus a fhéidearthacht turasóireachta curtha san áireamh ag an rialtas sa deireadh.

Our Third Ear: A Multi-Sensory Experience of Sound Mills, David Robert MetadataShow full item record Our Third Ear aims to create a multi-sensory experience by fusing sight, touch, and sound. By creating a means of physically feeling music, listeners can connect with songs, bands, and individual musicians on a profoundly personal level. The potential for unintended applications like learning to play an instrument, broadening the understanding of music for people with hearing impairments, or providing a means of therapy are also exciting prospects. The purpose of this paper is to illustrate the process involved in creating a multi-sensory experience of music from concept to prototype. The culmination of interdisciplinary research and a broad range of creative technologies resulting in a working system. The multi-sensory experience consists of primarily tactile, but also visual responses triggered by music and executed in conjunction with aural music. Tactile investigation involved varied tactile sensations such as vibration, temperature, pressure, proprioception, and touch. Further research questioned the practicality, feasibility, and psychological impacts of using such sensations as well as where on the body such sensations would optimally be received. Visual research involved the visual representation of notes, chords, and sounds, as well as, how music could directly affect visuals in a real time environment. Additional research explored active interaction and passive interaction of visual cues using human computer interfaces. - Masters Theses

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Ár Tríú Chluas: Taithí Il-Fhásúil ar Fuaim Mills, David Robert Meta-sonraíShow full item record Tá sé mar aidhm ag ár Tríú Chluas taithí il-fhaisnéasach a chruthú trí amharc, teagmháil agus fuaim a chomhcheangal. Trí mhodh a chruthú chun ceol a mhothú go fisiciúil, is féidir le lucht éisteachta ceangal a dhéanamh le hamhráin, le bannaí, agus le ceoltóirí aonair ar leibhéal an-phearsanta. Tá an fhéidearthacht le haghaidh feidhmchláir neamhbheartaithe cosúil le foghlaim a bheith ag seinm uirlisí, tuiscint níos leithne ar cheol a leathnú do dhaoine a bhfuil lagú éisteachta orthu, nó modhanna teiripe a sholáthar iontu ina ionchais spreagúla freisin. Is é cuspóir an pháipéir seo an próiseas a bhaineann le taithí il-sensory ceoil a chruthú ó choincheap go próta-eacnamaíocht a léiriú. Tá an taighde idirdhisciplíneach agus réimse leathan teicneolaíochtaí cruthaitheacha ag teacht le chéile agus tá córas oibre mar thoradh air. Is éard atá sa thaithí il-fhionnmhar go príomha freagraí tacsacha, ach freisin freagraí amhairc a spreagann ceol agus a dhéantar i gcomhar le ceol cluasa. Baineann an scrúdú tacsaí le hairíonna tacsaí éagsúla amhail cith, teocht, brú, proprioception, agus teagmháil. D'fhiafraigh taighde breise de phraiticiúlacht, indéantacht, agus tionchair síceolaíocha na n-impléachtaí sin a úsáid chomh maith le cá háit ar an gcomhlacht a bhfaightear na hairíonna sin ar bhealach is fearr. Baineann taighde amhairc le léiriú amhairc nótaí, cords, agus fuaimeanna, chomh maith le conas a d'fhéadfadh ceol tionchar díreach a imirt ar amhairc i dtimpeallacht fíor-ama. Rinne taighde breise iniúchadh ar idirghníomhaíocht ghníomhach agus idirghníomhaíocht éighníomhach le cuimhní amhairc ag baint úsáide as comhéadan idir-chomhfhiosach daonna. - Teisigh Máistreachta

I have recently read some online articles about adenomyosis and endometriosis and have noticed quite a few misconceptions about these disorders. Since I recently wrote a book on adenomyosis after months of research into clinical studies, I feel it is necessary to write a myth vs. fact blog on these disorders. Many misconceptions come from old information. Some of these inaccuracies are a result of a failure of medical professionals to update their current knowledge. I hope the following information will clarify the facts on these two disorders. Myth: Adenomyosis and endometriosis are the same disorder. False. Adenomyosis and endometriosis are similar, but they are not the same disorder. Both involved misplaced endometrial tissue (the tissue that is shed each month in the form of a menstrual period). In endometriosis, these endometrial implants are found outside the uterus on organs such as the bowel, bladder, and ovaries. Endometrial implants have even been found as far away as the brain. In adenomyosis, the misplaced endometrial tissue invades the uterine muscle and is confined to this area. It is important to note that many women suffer from both disorders at the same time. Myth: Adenomyosis only affects women in their 40s – 50s. False. This myth is rampant online. This used to be thought, but in recent years, this disorder is being recognized in much younger women. According to a 2013 study by Taran et al., “the clinical age at presentation of adenomyosis may be significantly earlier than previously thought and that early-stage adenomyosis might present a different clinical phenotype compared to late-stage disease.”¹ The reason for this change is due to the discovery of the difference in width of the junctional zone within the uterine wall (will be discussed later). Myth: Pregnancy will cure both adenomyosis and endometriosis. False. Pregnancy will only subdue symptoms due to fluctuations in hormone levels. Once the pregnancy is over, symptoms will return, sometimes worse than ever. Pregnancy is NOT an effective “treatment” for these disorders. Myth: Adenomyosis/endometriosis is due to some kind of physical trauma earlier in the woman’s life. False. This is a very antiquated belief that is completely false. Both disorders can now be seen clearly on imaging tests if the physician/radiologist is knowledgeable about the disorders. Bowel resections have been done on patients where the endometriosis has progressed through the bowel wall. Both adenomyosis and endometriosis can clearly be pathologically proven, so the idea that the disorders are linked to some kind of abuse has been proven to be false. Myth: Adenomyosis can’t be diagnosed until hysterectomy. False. If you go to a physician who is well-versed in adenomyosis diagnosis and treatment, he/she should be able to obtain a diagnosis prior to hysterectomy. As mentioned earlier, it has been found that the width of the junctional zone can indicate the presence of adenomyosis. The width of the junctional zone, visualized on MRI, varies throughout a woman’s cycle but in general, a normal width is 5-8 mm. Studies now show that a junctional zone width of 12 mm. or more indicates the presence of adenomyosis. In a 2011 study by Novellas et al., it was determined a thickness of the junctional zone of greater that 12 mm. indicates adenomyosis with an accuracy of 85 percent and a specificity of 96 percent.² A study by Dueholm et al. states that the use of transvaginal sonography and MRI together gives the most accurate results in the diagnosis of adenomyosis.³ Myth: Adenomyosis and endometriosis can be cured through hysterectomy. This is only partly true – false for endometriosis and true for adenomyosis. Since adenomyosis involves only the uterus, removing the uterus will cure the condition. Since endometrial implants are found outside the uterus in endometriosis, removing the uterus will not cure the condition. Many adenomyosis sufferers become very confused when their symptoms do not resolve after having a hysterectomy, which is understandable. An important thing to remember is that in a lot of women, both adenomyosis and endometriosis are present. If your symptoms persist after having a hysterectomy for adenomyosis, you have probably been suffering from both adenomyosis and endometriosis. For more in-depth information, including the results of recent research, please check out my book, Adenomyosis: A Significantly Neglected and Misunderstood Uterine Disorder by Maria Yeager. It is available on Amazon in both paperback and Kindle formats. ¹Taran, F.A., Stewart, E. A., & Brucker, S. (2013). Adenomyosis: Epidemiology, risk factors, clinical phenotype and surgical and interventional alternatives to hysterectomy. Geburtshilfe Frauernheilkd, 73(9), 924-931. doi: 10.1055/s-0033-1350840 ²Novellas, s., Chassang, M., Delotte, J., Toullalan, O., Cheallier, A., Bouasis, J. & Chevallier, P. (2011). MRI characteristics of the uterine junctional zone: From normal to the diagnosis of adenomyosis. American Journal of Roentgenology, 196(5). doi: 10.2214/AJR.10.4877 ³Dueholm, M., Lundorf, E., Hansen, E. S., Sorensen, J. S., Ledertoug, S., & Olesen, F. (2001). Magnetic resonance imaging and transvaginal ultrasonography for the diagnosis of adenomyosis. Fertility and Sterility, 76, 588-594. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/Soo15-0282(01)01962-8

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Tá roinnt alt ar líne á léamh agam le déanaí faoi adenomyosis agus endometriosis agus tá roinnt mí-aitheanta faoi na neamhoird seo tugtha faoi deara agam. Ó scríobh mé leabhar le déanaí ar adenomyosis tar éis míonna taighde ar staidéir chliniciúla, is dóigh liom go bhfuil sé riachtanach blag miotais vs fíricí a scríobh ar na neamhoird seo. Tagann go leor míthuiscintí ó sheanfhaisnéis. Tá cuid de na míchruinnithe seo mar thoradh ar fhéile na ngairmithe le cur lena gcuid eolais reatha ar an eolas. Tá súil agam go soiléireofar leis an bhfaisnéis seo a leanas na fíricí maidir leis an dá neamhoird seo. Mí-chreideamh: Is é an galar céanna é adenomyosis agus endometriosis. Mícheart. Tá adenomyosis agus endometriosis cosúil, ach ní hé an galar céanna iad. Bhí baint ag an dá chás le fíochán endometrial a bhí mí-áitithe (an fíochán a scaoiltear gach mí i bhfoirm tréimhse menstrual). I ndómitriosis, tá na hionchláir endometrial seo lasmuigh den uterus ar orgáin mar an intestine, an bolgán, agus na h-oivirí. Fuarthas ionscadail endometrial chomh fada siar leis an inchinn. I adenomyosis, ionsaíonn fíochán endometrial mí-áitithe an muscle uterine agus tá sé teoranta don limistéar seo. Tá sé tábhachtach a thabhairt faoi deara go bhfuil an dá neamhord ag go leor mná ag an am céanna. Mí-chreideamh: Ní dhéanann adenomyosis difear ach do mhná atá ina 40í 50í. Mícheart. Tá an miotas seo forleathan ar líne. Bhí sé seo mar a cheapadh, ach le blianta beaga anuas, tá an t-aontacht seo á aithint i measc mná i bhfad níos óige. De réir staidéar 2013 le Taran et al., d'fhéadfadh go mbeadh an aois chliniciúil ag léiriú adenomyosis i bhfad níos luaithe ná mar a cheapadh roimhe seo agus d'fhéadfadh go mbeadh feiniméide chliniciúil difriúil ag adenomyosis chéim luath i gcomparáid le galar chéim déanach.1 Is é an chúis leis an athrú seo ná an difríocht a fuarthas i leithead an chrios nasc laistigh de bhalla na mathair (a phléfar níos déanaí). Mí-chreideamh: Leigheasfaidh toirchis adenomyosis agus endometriosis araon. Mícheart. Ní chuirfidh toirchis ach na hairíonna faoi chois mar gheall ar athruithe i leibhéil hormóin. Nuair a bhíonn an toirchis críochnaithe, tiocfaidh na comharthaí ar ais, uaireanta níos measa ná riamh. NÍ " cóireáil " éifeachtach é toirchis do na neamhoird seo. Mí-Fhír: Tá adenomyosis/endometriosis mar gheall ar chineál éigin trauma fisiciúil níos luaithe i saol na mban. Mícheart. Is creideamh an-aosta é seo atá mícheart go hiomlán. Is féidir an dá neamhoird a fheiceáil go soiléir anois ar thástálacha íomháíochta má tá eolas ag an dochtúir/raidiólóg ar na neamhoird. Rinneadh resections intestinal ar othair ina bhfuil an endometriosis tar éis dul chun cinn tríd an mballa intestinal. Is féidir an adenomyosis agus an endometriosis a chruthú go soiléir go paiteolaíoch, mar sin tá an smaoineamh go bhfuil na neamhoird nasctha le cineál mí-úsáid éigin cruthaithe go bhfuil sé bréagach. Mí-Fhír: Ní féidir adenomyosis a dhiagnóisiú go dtí go ndéantar histerectomy. Mícheart. Má théann tú chuig dochtúir atá eolach ar dhiagnóisiú agus cóireáil adenomyosis, ba cheart go mbeadh sé/sí in ann diagnóis a fháil roimh hysterectomy. Mar a luadh roimhe seo, fuarthas amach gur féidir le leithead an chrios nasc a léiriú go bhfuil adenomyosis ann. Athraíonn leithead an chrios nasc, a léirítear ar MRI, le linn timthriall na mban ach go ginearálta, is é 5-8 mm an leithead is gnáth. Léiríonn staidéir anois go bhfuil leithead crios junctional de 12 mm. Léiríonn an t-amhrán seo go bhfuil adenomyosis ann. I staidéar 2011 le Novellas et al., chinntear tiús na limistéir nasc níos mó ná 12 mm. Léiríonn an t-amhrán adenomyosis le cruinneas 85 faoin gcéad agus sonracht 96 faoin gcéad.2 Staidéar ag Dueholm et al. Deir sé go dtugann úsáid sonagrafaíocht tras-fhuighne agus MRI le chéile na torthaí is cruinne i ndiagnosis adenomyosis.3 Mí-chreideamh: Is féidir adenomyosis agus endometriosis a leigheas trí hysterectomy. Níl sé seo fíor ach go páirteach bréagach le haghaidh endometriosis agus fíor le haghaidh adenomyosis. Ós rud é nach mbaineann adenomyosis ach leis an uterus, leigheasfaidh an uterus an riocht. Ós rud é go bhfuil ionchasaithe endometrial le fáil lasmuigh den uterus i endometriosis, ní leigheasfaidh an uterus an riocht. Bíonn a lán daoine a bhfuil adenomyosis orthu an-chontúirteach nuair nach dtéann a gcuid comharthaí ar aghaidh tar éis a bheith i mbun hysterectomy, rud atá le tuiscint. Rud tábhachtach le cuimhneamh ná go bhfuil adenomyosis agus endometriosis araon i láthair i go leor mná. Má leanann do chuid comharthaí tar éis duit a bheith ag hysterectomy le haghaidh adenomyosis, is dócha go raibh tú ag fulaingt ó adenomyosis agus endometriosis araon. Le haghaidh tuilleadh eolais, lena n-áirítear torthaí taighde le déanaí, féach mo leabhar, Adenomyosis: A Significantly Neglected and Misunderstood Uterine Disorder le Maria Yeager. Tá sé ar fáil ar Amazon i bhformáid páipéar-chló agus Kindle. 1Taran, F.A., Stewart, E. A., & Brucker, S. (2013). Adenomyosis: Eipidéimeolaíocht, fachtóirí riosca, feiniméadar cliniciúil agus roghanna máinliachta agus idirghabhála in ionad hysterectomy. Geburtshilfe Frauernheilkd, 73 ((9), 924-931. doi: 10.1055/s-0033-1350840 2Novellas, s., Chassang, M., Delotte, J., Toullalan, O., Cheallier, A., Bouasis, J. & Chevallier, P. (2011). Tá an t-am ar fad le haghaidh an tástála a dhéanamh. Iris Mheiriceá ar Roentgenology, 1965). doi: 10.2214/AJR.10.4877 3Dueholm, M., Lundorf, E., Hansen, E. S., Sorensen, J. S., Ledertoug, S., & Olesen, F. (2001). Íomháíocht maighnéadach-chruthúcháin agus ultrafhuaim tras-fhuineach chun adenomyosis a dhiagnóisiú. Fertility and Sterility, 76, 588-594. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/Soo15-0282(01)01962-8

Respiratory system disease is a common and frequently occurring disease. The main lesions are the trachea, bronchus, lungs and chest. In mild cases, cough, chest pain, and breathing are more affected. In severe cases, breathing difficulties, hypoxia, and even respiratory failure leading to death. The death rate in the cities is the third, while in the rural areas it is the first. More attention should be paid to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (referred to as a chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, including chronic bronchitis, emphysema, and pulmonary heart disease), bronchial asthma, lung cancer, and other factors at home and abroad due to air pollution, smoking, aging population and other factors. The morbidity and mortality of diseases such as diffuse interstitial fibrosis of the lungs and lung infections are increasing. Asthma in English: bronchial asthma, referred to as asthma, commonly known as "roar disease", Chinese medicine called "asthma syndrome", is chronic airway inflammation involving a variety of cells, especially mast cells, eosinophils and T lymphocytes; In susceptible persons, this inflammation can cause recurrent symptoms of wheezing, shortness of breath, chest tightness, and coughing, which usually occur at night or in the early morning; such symptoms are often accompanied by extensive and variable expiratory flow limitation, but they can be partially Naturally alleviated or relieved by treatment; this symptom is also accompanied by increased airway responsiveness to a variety of stimulating factors. According to the authoritative organization Jinan Asthma Hospital, asthma can be classified into more than ten categories: chronic bronchitis asthma, allergic asthma, drug-induced asthma, senile asthma, cough variant asthma, chronic asthma, exercise asthma, and childhood asthma. Chronic bronchitis (chronic bronchitis) is caused by infection or non-infectious factors in the tracheal and bronchial mucous membranes and increased mucus secretion. It is clinically characterized by long-term cough, sputum or wheezing. The symptoms of the disease are mild in the early stage, mostly in winter, and relieved after the warmth of spring, and the course of the disease is slow, so it is not paid attention to. When the advanced disease progresses and complicates with obstructive emphysema, lung function suffers damage, affecting health and labor. This disease is one of the common and frequently occurring diseases in China. Decades of clinical data show that the age of onset is more than 40 years old. Smokers are significantly higher than non-smokers. The prevalence in China is higher in the north than in the south, and the incidence in rural areas is slightly higher than that in urban areas. Bronchitis refers to non-specific inflammation of the trachea, bronchial mucosa and surrounding tissues. Most of them are caused by bacterial or viral infections. According to epidemiological investigations, they are mainly rhinovirus, syncytial virus, influenza virus and rubella virus. The more common bacteria are pneumococcus, hemolytic streptococcus, staphylococcus, influenza bacillus, salmonella and diphtheria bacillus. In addition, sudden changes in temperature, dust, smoke and irritating gases can also cause bronchitis. Clinically, it is characterized by coughing, sputum expectoration, or accompanied by wheezing and recurrent episodes. It is divided into chronic bronchitis and acute bronchitis. Acute bronchitis has a runny nose, fever, cough, and sputum as the main symptoms, as well as hoarseness of the throat, sore throat, and slight post-sternal friction pain. The phlegm is small and viscous in the early stage, and then it becomes purulent. Stimuli such as smoke and cold air can make the cough worse. Chronic bronchitis is mainly manifested as a long-term cough, especially in the morning and evening. If the infection is secondary, fever, fear of cold, and coughing up purulent sputum. Clinical data shows that winter is the season of the high incidence of this disease. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD), an irreversible chronic lung disease, includes two types: chronic bronchitis (chronic bronchitis) and emphysema (emphysema). It is a preventable and treatable disease. It has some obvious extrapulmonary effects, which can aggravate the severity of the disease in some patients, and is characterized by incompletely reversible airflow limitation. The airflow limitation is progressively worsening and is mostly related to the abnormal inflammatory response of the lungs to harmful particles and gases. Airflow limitation, the characteristic lesion of COPD, is the result of the combined effects of small airway disease (obstructive small chronic obstructive pulmonary disease bronchitis) and lung parenchymal destruction (emphysema), which account for the two causes in different patients The ratio is different. The natural course of COPD is variable, and each patient's course is different. A progressively worsening disease, especially when the patient is continuously exposed to a harmful environment. The impact of COPD on patients depends not only on the degree of airflow limitation, but also on the severity of symptoms (especially shortness of breath and decreased mobility), systemic effects, and the presence or absence of comorbidities. The most common type of chronic pulmonary heart disease is chronic hypoxic blood pulmonary heart disease, also known as obstructive pulmonary heart disease, or pulmonary heart disease for short. It refers to the pulmonary circulation's resistance caused by chronic lesions of the thorax or pulmonary artery in the lungs. Increased height leads to pulmonary hypertension and right ventricular hypertrophy, a type of heart disease with or without right heart failure. Cor Pulmonale is a common and frequently occurring disease in China. More than 20 million people were surveyed nationwide from 2000 to 2002, and the average prevalence of cor pulmonale was 0.4%. In 1992, more than 100,000 farmers were surveyed in certain areas of Beijing, Hubei, and Liaoning. The average prevalence of cor pulmonale was 0.47%, which was basically similar to the previous one. The prevalence of people living on plateaus (such as Northeast, North China, and Northwest), insufficiency of sunshine and too humid southwest and the smoking population is high, and it increases with age, and more than 91.2% of patients are over 41 years old. There is no significant difference in gender between men and women. The prevalence rates of different occupations are workers, farmers, and general urban residents in order. The highest prevalence rate can reach 15.7%～49.8%. This disease accounts for 46%～38.5% of hospitalized heart disease. Most regions accounted for the 3rd and 4th place, and the composition ratio from 1980 to 1989 was only 2.49%, accounting for 8th place. This is related to the increase in the incidence of coronary heart disease and myocarditis and the increase in the number of cases. In the severely cold northern and humid southwest regions, it is the first. Pulmonary tuberculosis: pulmonary tuberculosis (TB) is a chronic infectious disease caused by the tubercle bacillus, which can affect multiple organs throughout the body, but tuberculosis is the most common. The pathological features of this disease are tuberculosis nodules and caseous necrosis, which are easy to form cavities. Clinically, it is mostly a chronic process, and a small number of them may have the onset of disease. There are often systemic symptoms such as low-grade fever and fatigue, and respiratory manifestations such as cough and hemoptysis.

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Is galar coitianta agus is minic a tharlaíonn galar an chórais chosnaimh é. Is iad na príomh- léachtaí an trachea, bronchus, scamhóga agus an chistin. I gcásanna éadrom, bíonn tionchar níos mó ag an gcos, pian toraidh, agus an anailís. I gcásanna tromchúiseacha, deacrachtaí a bhaineann le haeráil, hypoxia, agus fiú teip a bhaineann le haeráil a fhágann go bhfaigheann an duine bás. Is é an ráta báis sna cathracha an tríú, agus sna ceantair thuaithe is é an chéad cheann. Ba cheart aird níos mó a thabhairt ar ghalar scamhóideach ainsealach na scamhóide (ar a dtugtar galar scamhóideach ainsealach na scamhóide, lena n-áirítear bronchitis ainsealach, emphysema, agus galar croí scamhóide), asthma bronchial, ailse scamhóide, agus tosca eile sa bhaile agus thar lear mar gheall ar thruailliú aeir, caitheamh tobac, daonra atá ag dul in aois agus tosca eile. Tá méadú ar thinneas agus ar bhás ó ghalair amhail fibrosis idirstitiúil scaipthe na scamhóg agus ionfhabhtuithe scamhóg. Asthma i mBéarla: asthma bronchial, dá ngairtear asthma, ar a dtugtar " galar roar " go coitianta, is é " siondróm astma " an leigheas Síneach, tinneas ainsealach na n-aistriú a bhaineann le cineálacha éagsúla cealla, go háirithe masta, eosinophils agus T-limfocítí; i ndaoine atá so-ghabhálach, is féidir leis an tinneas seo comharthaí athfhillteacha a bheith acu de wheezing, go leor gaoithe, teannas toraidh, agus coughing, a tharlaíonn de ghnáth san oíche nó go luath ar maidin; is minic a bhíonn teorainn mhór agus athraitheach ar shreabhadh an sruthas a ghabhann le comharthaí den sórt sin, ach is féidir iad a mhaolú go nádúrtha nó a mhaolú go páirteach le cóireáil; tá an comhartha seo chomh maith le freagairt níos mó ar na haistriúcháin aeracha do fhachtóirí spreagúla éagsúla. De réir na heagraíochta údarásach Ospidéal Asthma Jinan, is féidir asthma a aicmiú i níos mó ná deich gcineál: asthma bronchitis ainsealach, asthma ailléirgeach, asthma a spreagtar le drugaí, asthma seanlaigh, asthma athraitheach a bhaineann le cough, asthma ainsealach, asthma cleachtadh, agus asthma óige. Tá bronchitis ainsealach (bronchitis ainsealach) mar thoradh ar ionfhabhtú nó ar fhachtóirí neamh-ionfhabhtaithe sna membranes mucous tracheal agus bronchial agus ar shroichíocht mucus méadaithe. Tá sé tréithithe go cliniciúil le cough, sputum nó wheezing fadtéarmach. Tá comharthaí an ghalair éadrom sa chéim luath, den chuid is mó san gheimhreadh, agus é a mhaolú tar éis teas an earraigh, agus tá cúrsa an ghalair mall, mar sin ní thugtar aird air. Nuair a théann an galar chun cinn agus a chuireann sé i gcontúirt le emphysema coscáin, bíonn damáiste déanta ar fheidhm na scamhóg, ag dul i bhfeidhm ar shláinte agus ar bhreith. Tá an galar seo ar cheann de na galair is coitianta agus is minic a tharlaíonn sa tSín. Léiríonn sonraí cliniciúla a rinneadh le blianta gur os cionn 40 bliain d'aois a thosaíonn an galar. Tá an ráta i bhfad níos airde i measc na ndaoine a dhéanann tobac ná i measc na ndaoine nach ndéanann tobac. Tá an forleithne sa tSín níos airde sa tuaisceart ná sa deisceart, agus tá an t-ionchas i gceantair thuaithe beagán níos airde ná sin i gceantair uirbeacha. Tagraíonn bronchitis do athlasadh neamhshonrach an trachea, mucosa bronchial agus fíocháin thimpeallacha. Is ionfhabhtuithe baictéaracha nó víreasacha a bhíonn i gceist leis an gcuid is mó díobh. De réir imscrúduithe eipidéimeolaíocha, is iad na víris seo go príomha ná rhinovirus, víris syncytial, víris an fhliú agus víris rubella. Is iad na baictéir is coitianta ná pneumococcus, streptococcus hemolytic, staphylococcus, bacillus influenza, bacillus salmonella agus bacillus difterea. Ina theannta sin, d'fhéadfadh athruithe tobann ar thimpeachtra, deatach, deatach agus gáis aisteach bronchitis a chur faoi deara freisin. Go cliniciúil, is é is tréith leis ná coughing, sputum expectoration, nó go bhfuil wheezing agus eipeasóid athfhillte ann. Tá sé roinnte ina bronchitis ainsealach agus bronchitis géarmhíochaine. Tá srón, fiabhras, cough agus sputum mar phríomh-iarsmaí ag bronchitis ghéar, chomh maith le hoarness an throat, sore throat, agus pian beag tar éis frith-sternal. Tá an phlegm beag agus greamaitheach sa chéim luath, agus ansin bíonn sé purulent. Is féidir le spreagadh mar deatach agus aer fuar an cough a dhéanamh níos measa. Is é bronchitis ainsealach a léirítear go príomha mar chough fadtéarmach, go háirithe ar maidin agus tráthnóna. Má tá an t-ionfhabhtú ina thánaisteach, teas, eagla ar fhuílleog, agus sputum purulent a chaith. Léiríonn sonraí cliniciúla gurb é an gheimhreadh an séasúr a mbíonn an galar seo ag tarlú go minic. Breoiteacht phléascóideach ainsealach Cuimsíonn galar ainsealach coscúil na scamhóga (COPD), galar ainsealach neamh-athraitheach na scamhóga, dhá chineál: bronchitis ainsealach (bronchitis ainsealach) agus emphysema (emphysema). Is galar é is féidir a chosc agus a chóireáil. Tá roinnt éifeachtaí extrapulmonary soiléir aige, a d'fhéadfadh déine na galar a mhéadú i roinnt othair, agus tá sé tréithe ag teorainn sreabhadh aer nach féidir a thiontú go hiomlán. Tá an teorainn le sreabhadh aer ag dul i ngeall go forleathan agus tá baint aige den chuid is mó le freagairt athlastaithe neamhghnácha na scamhóg do pharaillí agus gásanna díobhálacha. Is é teorainn sreabhadh aer, an léas carachtarúil COPD, toradh éifeachtaí comhcheangailte galar beag na n-airdbhealaí (brónsaíteas coscúil galar plúmónach coiriúil beag) agus scrios parenchymal na scamhóg (emphysema), a chuireann an dá chúis in iúl i dtrí othair éagsúla Tá an cóimheas difriúil. Tá an cúrsa nádúrtha de COPD éagsúil, agus tá cúrsa gach othair difriúil. A galar ag dul i méid go forleathan, go háirithe nuair a bhíonn an t-othar i gcónaí nochtaithe do thimpeallacht díobhálach. Braitheann tionchar COPD ar othair ní amháin ar an méid a bhaineann le teorainn sreabhadh aer, ach freisin ar thromchúis na hairíonna (go háirithe go bhfuil go leor gaoithe agus gluaiseacht laghdaithe), éifeachtaí córais, agus láithreacht nó easpa comorbidities. Is é an cineál is coitianta de ghalair croí pailmeacha ainsealacha ná galar croí pailmeach fola hipocsaic ainsealach, ar a dtugtar galar croí pailmeach oscailte, nó galar croí pailmeach go gairid. Tagraíonn sé do fhriotaíocht an timthriallachta phlúinéir a tharlaíonn mar gheall ar léachtaí ainsealacha ar an gcroí nó ar an artery phlúinéir sna scamhóga. Mar thoradh ar mhéadú ar airde, bíonn hipertineas scamhóige agus hipertireach ventricle ceart, cineál galar croí le nó gan easnamh croí ceart. Is galar coitianta agus is minic a tharlaíonn Cor Pulmonale sa tSín. Rinneadh suirbhé ar níos mó ná 20 milliún duine ar fud na tíre ó 2000 go 2002, agus ba é 0.4% an meán-raon leithead cor pulmonale. I 1992, rinneadh suirbhé ar níos mó ná 100,000 feirmeoir i gceantair áirithe de Bheigín, Hubei, agus Liaoning. Ba é 0.47% an meán-choitiantacht cor pulmonale, a bhí cosúil leis an gceann roimhe seo. Tá an forleithne ar dhaoine a chónaíonn ar phlátaí (mar shampla Oirthear Thuaidh, Thuaisceart na Síne, agus an Iarthuaisceart), neamhdhéanamh na gréine agus an iomarca taise i ndeisceart an iarthar agus an daonra tobac ard, agus méadaíonn sé le haois, agus tá níos mó ná 91.2% de na hothair os cionn 41 bliain d'aois. Níl aon difríocht shuntasach idir fir agus mná i leith inscne. Is iad na rátaí forleithneacht de ghairmeacha éagsúla oibrithe, feirmeoirí, agus cónaitheoirí uirbeacha ginearálta in ord. Is féidir leis an ráta forleithneachta is airde 15.7%49.8% a bhaint amach. Is é an galar seo 46%38.5% de ghalar croí ospidéilithe. Bhí an chuid is mó de na réigiúin ar an 3ú agus an 4ú háit, agus ní raibh an cóimheas comhdhéanta ó 1980 go 1989 ach 2.49%, agus bhí an 8ú háit ar an gcúigiú háit. Tá baint ag an méid sin le méadú ar an minicíocht de ghalair croí corónach agus myocarditis agus an méadú ar líon na gcásanna. Sna réigiúin thuaidh atá an-fhuar agus san iarthuaisceart taise, is é an chéad cheann. Tubairiclóis phléasóide: is galar ionfhabhtach ainsealach é tubairiclóis phléasóide (TB) a bhíonn mar thoradh ar an bacillus tubairiclóide, a d'fhéadfadh tionchar a bheith aige ar a lán orgáin ar fud an choirp, ach is é tubairiclóis an ceann is coitianta. Is iad na gnéithe paiteolaíocha den ghalair seo nóidlí tubarcóiseacha agus necróis caseous, a bhfuil sé éasca cavities a fhoirmiú. Go cliniciúil, is próiseas ainsealach é den chuid is mó, agus d'fhéadfadh go mbeadh tús na galair ag líon beag acu. Is minic a bhíonn comharthaí córais ann mar fhéipéar agus tuirse íseal, agus léiriúí riospráide mar chough agus hemoptysis.

Trichopus leeri Bleeker, 1852, Sumatra. OTHER COMMON NAMES English: Diamond gourami, lace gourami, mosaic gourami; French: Gourami mosaпque, gourami perlй; German: Mosaikfadenfisch; Spanish: Gurami perla, Gurami mosбico. Length 4.7 in (12 cm). Body laterally compressed with short dorsal fin of 5–7 fin spines and 8–10 soft rays; long anal fin with 12–14 spines and 25–30 soft rays. Pelvic fins with an extremely prolonged first soft ray behind the spine, followed by four short soft rays. This pelvic filament reaches up to two-thirds of the fish’s total length, is highly movable in all three dimensions, and is used as an organ of taste because its surface is covered with numerous taste buds. A tactile function has also been demonstrated. Males can be distinguished from females by the posterior rays of the soft dorsal and soft anal fin being prolonged and projecting beyond the fin membrane. Coloration of the body consists of a grayish background, with numerous bright white spots all over the body and fins (hence the name “pearl” gourami), a black midlateral stripe that extends from the snout to the caudal peduncle, and a black spot at the base of the caudal fin. Males have bright nuptial coloration, especially when sexually active. Freshwaters of Thailand, peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, and Borneo. Smaller or larger forest streams, usually with slightly acidic water. Nothing is known about the of the pearl gourami in the wild. FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET No field data on gut contents is available, but judging from the small mouth and the numerous gill rakers, feeds on small aquatic invertebrates. The onset of a reproductive period is characterized by an increasing aggressiveness of the male and the establishment of a breeding territory in which it builds a foam nest. Parts of aquatic vegetation or detritus may be incorporated into the foam mass. The foam nest is built from air gulped in at the surface and released as foam-coated bubbles below the nesting site, from either the mouth or the opercular cleft. The male’s nuptial coloration is bright orange on the throat, pelvic filament, and anterior anal fin, with numerous bright white spots on the body and fins. Spawning takes place below the nest. The typical spawning clasp is performed. Eggs are usually released when the female’s genital opening points to the nest. Up to 135 eggs are released during each bout of spawning, with up to 1,000 eggs per spawning sequence. A short phase (2–10 seconds) of spawning rigor follows egg release, during which the male and female remain motionless in their clasp. Eggs contain a large oil globule that renders them buoyant. Floating eggs are collected by the male and stored in the nest. Hatching occurs after 24 hours at 84.2°F (29°C). Free swimming is achieved after two to three days. The pearl gourami exhibits male parental care. Not listed by the IUCN. SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS Consumed as a food fish and used in aquaculture. A common and popular aquarium fish. Copyright © 2016-2017 Animalia Life | All rights reserved

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Trichopus leeri Bleeker, 1852, Sumatra. Ainmneacha Coiteann Eile Béarla: Diamond gourami, lace gourami, mosaic gourami; Fraincis: Gourami mosaпque, gourami perlй; Gearmáinis: Mosaikfadenfisch; Spáinnis: Gurami perla, Gurami mosбico. Fad 4.7 in (12 cm). Cuireadh corp i gcuimhne go taobh le sciathán dorsail ghearr de 57 spine sciathán agus 810 scála bog; sciathán anail fhada le 1214 scála agus 2530 scála bog. Tá an t-easnamh seo ag brath ar an méid a bhaineann le feistí a bhfuil an t-ábhar a úsáidtear le haghaidh feistí a tháirgeadh. Tá an t-ainneog pelvic seo suas le dhá thrian de fhad iomlán an éisc, tá sé in-ghníomhach sna trí thrí thríochtaí, agus úsáidtear é mar orgán blas, toisc go bhfuil a dromchla clúdaithe le go leor bplátaí blas. Taispeánadh feidhm tactile freisin. Is féidir fir a idirdhealú ó mhná trí na gealaí chúlra den chúlra bog agus an chúlra bog a bheith fada agus ag cur amach thar an membrane fin. Is éard atá i dhath an choirp ná cúlra liath, le go leor spotaí geala geal ar fud an choirp agus na fins (mar sin an t-ainm pearl gourami), stiall lárnach dubh a shíneann ó na snout go dtí an peduncle caudal, agus spota dubh ag bun an fins caudal. Tá dath geal pósta ag na fir, go háirithe nuair a bhíonn siad gníomhach go gnéasach. Uisce úr na Téalainne, an Mhalaeisia, Sumatra, agus Borneo. sruthanna foraoise níos lú nó níos mó, go ginearálta le huisce beagán aigéadach. Níl aon rud ar eolas faoi na an gourami pearl sa fhiáine. ÉACLÓGIA agus DIÓTAÍ FEEDING Níl aon sonraí faoin réimse maidir le hábhar na n-éadaí ar fáil, ach ag breithiúnas ón béal beag agus na rakers gille iomadúla, feeds ar invertebrates uisceacha beaga. Is é is saintréithe le tús tréimhse atáirgthe ná ionsaíocht mhéadaithe an fhir agus bunaíocht chríoch atáirgthe ina ndéanann sé nead spúnóg. Féadfar codanna de fhéithíocht uisceach nó de dhretrites a ionchorprú sa mhais scamhóige. Déantar an nead foam a thógáil as aer a chuirtear isteach ag an dromchla agus a scaoiltear mar bhoilgeoga atá clúdaithe le foam faoi bhun an láithreáin neadaithe, ó bhéal nó ó shleamhnán opercular. Tá dath oráiste geal ar an bhfear ar a throat, ar a filament pelvic, agus ar an finn análach roimhe, le go leor spotaí geal geal ar a chorp agus ar a fins. Bíonn an t-easnamh ar siúl faoi bhun an neada. Déantar an cnapán gnáth-ghreamú. De ghnáth scaoiltear uibheacha nuair a bhíonn oscailt ghiniatach na mban ag pointeáil ar an nead. Tá suas le 135 uibheacha scaoilte le linn gach buaicphointe, agus suas le 1,000 uibheach in aghaidh an tsraith uibheacha. Tar éis an scaoileadh uibhe, tagann céim ghearr (210 soicind) de rigor spawn, agus bíonn an fear agus an bhean gan ghluaiseacht ina gclaon. Tá glúból ola mór i n-uibheacha a chuireann snámh orthu. Baineann an fear leis na huibheacha a bhíonn ag snámh agus cuirtear sa nead iad. Tarlaíonn an t-eiscill tar éis 24 uair ag 84.2°F (29°C). Déantar snámh saor a bhaint amach tar éis dhá nó trí lá. Léiríonn an gourami péarla cúram tuismitheoireachta fireann. Níl sé liostaithe ag an IUCN. TÁSÁIR LE DAONNA Déantar é a ithe mar iasc bia agus a úsáidtear san uisceachas. Iasc uiscí coitianta agus tóir. Copyright © 2016-2017 Animalia Life Coimeádtar na cearta go léir

The link between the two isn’t metaphorical in this case- according to a new study, the connective foundations of our brain look as though they were designed by a grid-focused city planner. Researchers used cutting-edge imaging technology to look at places where the fibers that carry messages from one part of the brain to another intersect. And they found a remarkably organized three-dimensional grid, according to Van Wedeen of Harvard Medical School, the study’s lead author. The grid is a bit like Manhattan, Wedeen says, “with streets running in two dimensions and then the elevators in the buildings in the third dimension.” Obviously this brain-city would not fit on a single plane- the human brain has many folds and curves. So, Wedeen says, “you have to imagine Manhattan bent into some odd shapes. But the underlying grid doesn’t change. The streets intersect at 90-degree angles and the buildings rise vertically.” It sounds to me like that brain is less like Manhattan, and more like the city pictured during this famous scene from Inception: This city-like grid represents a significant shift from the traditional model of the brain’s wiring. Wedeen explains that in the old view, “the brain looked somewhat like a plate of spaghetti or perhaps like one of those old antique telephone switchboards with a million wires running more or less at random.” This new model for understanding the internal structure of the brain may help to explain how a relatively small number of genes contain the blueprint for something as complex as the human brain- a question that has stumped geneticists for years. The answer may be that in a highly organized grid system with consistent rules, a genetic blueprint doesn’t have to describe every detail of the final product, Wedeen says. “The grid system would allow a species to gradually add new functions to its brain much the way an architect adds extra floors to a building or a city planner adds new streets.” There remains some uncertainty regarding whether the entire brain is actually laid out in this way. Weeden was only able to resolve the grid for about a quarter of the human brain, mostly in the deepest parts. Some researchers have expressed the opinion that their model is oversimplified, or that while the grid may exist, it is combined with other, crisscrossing connections as well. The debate may be resolved within 5 years- that is the timetable for the US National Institute of Health’s Human Connectome Project, which aims to map all the brain’s wiring and demonstrate its connection to mental health over the next half-decade. Sources: Research abstract: “The Geometric Structure of the Brain Fiber Pathways” – Science Magazine Press release: “Brain Wiring a No-Brainer?”

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Ní mheataforach an nasc idir an dá rud sa chás seo - de réir staidéar nua, tá bunús na gceangail dár n-inchinn cosúil le pleanálaí cathrach dírithe ar ghréasán a dhearadh iad. D'úsáid taighdeoirí teicneolaíocht íomháithe chun cinn chun breathnú ar áiteanna ina gcroiseann na snáithíní a iompraíonn teachtaireachtaí ó chuid amháin den inchinn go ceann eile. Agus fuair siad grille trí-thaobhach eagraithe go hiontach, de réir Van Wedeen ó Scoil Leighis Harvard, príomh-údar an staidéir. Tá an líonra beagán cosúil le Manhattan, a deir Wedeen, agus sráideanna ag rith i dhá thomhais agus ansin na lifteoirí sna foirgnimh sa tríú gné. Ar ndóigh ní bheadh an chathair-inchinn seo a oireann ar eitleán amháin - tá an inchinn daonna go leor fillte agus cuairte. Mar sin, Wedeen a deir, "Tá tú a shamhlú Manhattan bent i roinnt cruthanna aisteach. Ach ní athraíonn an ghréasán bunúsach. Tá na sráideanna ag crochadh le chéile ag uillinneacha 90 céim agus tá na foirgnimh ag ardú go ingearach. Is cosúil liomsa nach bhfuil an inchinn sin chomh minic le Manhattan, agus is cosúil leis an gcathair a léirítear le linn an radharc cáiliúil seo ó Inception: Léiríonn an ghréasáin seo cosúil le cathair athrú suntasach ón tsamhail thraidisiúnta de cheangail an inchinn. Míníonn Wedeen go bhfuil an t-amharc sean, "an inchinn a d'fhéach beagán cosúil le pláta spaghetti nó b'fhéidir cosúil le ceann de na sean-telefón sean-switchboards le milliún sreang ag rith níos mó nó níos lú ar an randamach. " D'fhéadfadh an tsamhail nua seo chun struchtúr inmheánach na hinne a thuiscint cabhrú le míniú a thabhairt ar an gcaoi a bhfuil an phleanphriont i líon réasúnta beag géiní do rud chomh casta le hinneall an duine - ceist a bhí ag na heinscéaltóirí le blianta. D'fhéadfadh an freagra a bheith ann go bhfuil córas gréasán ard-eagraithe le rialacha comhsheasmhacha, ní gá go ndéanfaidh an phlean géiniteach gach mionsonraí den táirge deiridh a thuairisciú, a deir Wedeen. D'fhéadfaí an córas gríd a chur ar chumas speiceas feidhmeanna nua a chur leis a inchinn de réir a chéile, ar an mbealach a chuireann ailtire urláir breise le foirgneamh nó a chuireann pleanálaí cathrach sráideanna nua leis. Tá roinnt éiginnteachta ann fós maidir le cibé an bhfuil an inchinn ar fad leagtha amach ar an mbealach seo i ndáiríre. Ní raibh Weeden in ann an ghréasán a réiteach ach le haghaidh thart ar cheathrú de inchinn an duine, den chuid is mó sna codanna is doimhne. Tá tuairim ag roinnt taighdeoirí go bhfuil a múnla ró-shimplí, nó cé go bhféadfadh an líonra a bheith ann, tá sé comhcheangailte le naisc eile, tras-chroí freisin. D'fhéadfadh an díospóireacht a bheith réitithe laistigh de 5 bliana - sin an sceideal ama do Thionscadal Connectome Daonna Institiúid Náisiúnta Sláinte na Stát Aontaithe, a bhfuil sé mar aidhm aige cáblaíocht uile an inchinn a mhapeáil agus a nasc le sláinte mheabhrach a thaispeáint thar an gcéad leath-deich mbliana eile. Foinsí: Gearrthóg taighde: Struchtúr Geoimeatrach na Bealaí Fibreacha inchinne Iris Eolaíochta Ráiteas nuachta: Cá bhfuil an t-aon-chomhfhiosach ag baint le ceangail inchinn?

To submit your question please email: [email protected] What is Epilepsy? Epilepsy is a generic term used to define a variety of seizure disorders. A person who has recurrent seizures (two or more) is said to have Epilepsy. What is a Seizure? A seizure is a disturbance in the electrical activity of the brain, resulting in a change in consciousness, movement, behavior, perception and/or sensation. What causes Epilepsy? In about 70% of cases, there is no known cause for seizures. In the remaining 30%, known causes include: - Head trauma - Brain tumor or stroke - Birth injury What treatments are available? - Anti-Epileptic Drugs - Surgery (ex. Vagus nerve stimulator, brain surgery) - Diet (ex. Ketogenic diet) - Other experimental techniques Is Epilepsy a disease? Epilepsy is not a disease. It is a sign or symptom of an underlying neurological disorder. When was Epilepsy discovered? Epilepsy is the oldest known brain disorder. It was mentioned more than 2,000 years before Christ. References can be found in ancient Greek texts and in the Bible. How many people have Epilepsy? Epilepsy is more common than most of us realize. 1 in every 100 Americans has Epilepsy. Is Epilepsy inherited? In most cases Epilepsy is not inherited. In a few cases the tendency towards Epilepsy might be inherited, but even with this tendency certain conditions must exist in the brain before a person will experience epileptic seizures. How is Epilepsy diagnosed? Observing and recording seizure activity is essential in the diagnosis of Epilepsy. Details such as: time of day, what took place before the seizure occurred, was the person’s body rigid, change in breathing, and length of the seizure can be very important in the diagnosis. In addition an electroencephalogram (EEG), computerized axial tomography (CAT) scan, magnetic resonance imager (MRI), or positron emission tomography (PET) scan may be used. Is there a cure for Epilepsy? There is no known “cure” for Epilepsy. Medications can often control seizures, but they are not a cure. Some forms of Epilepsy occur only in childhood, and the person is said to have outgrown the seizures. In some cases there is a spontaneous remission of the seizure disorder. Sometimes, surgery to remove the part of the brain in which the seizures originate can produce a complete and permanent stop to the seizures.

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Chun do cheist a chur isteach, déan ríomhphost chuig: [email protected] Cad é Epilepsy? Is téarma cineálach é epilepsy a úsáidtear chun sainmhíniú a thabhairt ar neamhoird éagsúla a bhaineann le hairíonna. Deirtear go bhfuil Epilepsy ag duine a bhíonn ag teacht ar thráth arís agus arís eile (dhá thráth nó níos mó). Cad é an t-Eagla? Is éard atá i ngreim ná cur isteach ar ghníomhaíocht leictreach na hinchinne, rud a fhágann go bhfuil athrú ar chois, ar ghluaiseacht, ar iompar, ar thuairim agus/nó ar shinne. Cad a dhéanann Epilepsy? I thart ar 70% de na cásanna, níl aon chúis ar eolas ag na hairíonna. I 30% eile, tá na cúiseanna a bhfuil a fhios acu: - Trauma ceann - Tuamóir inchinne nó stróc - Dramhaitheacht ó bhreith Cad iad na cóireálacha atá ar fáil? - Drugaí frith- Eipilpeach - Máinliacht (ex. Spreagtóir néaróg vagus, máinliacht inchinn) - Diet (ex. aiste bia cetoganach) - Teicneolaíochtaí eile turgnamhacha An bhfuil Epilepsy ina ghalair? Ní galar é epilepsy. Is comhartha nó comhartha é de neamhoird néareolaíoch bunúsach. Cén uair a aimsíodh Epilepsy? Is é an t-eipilís an t-easpa inchinn is sine a bhfuil aithne air. Luaitear é níos mó ná 2,000 bliain roimh Chríost. Is féidir tagairtí a fháil i scríbhinní ársa Gréagacha agus sa Bhíobla. Cé mhéad duine a bhfuil Epilepsy? Tá an t-eipilísis níos coitianta ná mar a cheapann formhór againn. Tá Eipilís ar 1 as gach 100 Meiriceánach. An bhfuil Epilepsy oidhreachtúil? I bhformhór na gcásanna ní oidhreacht éileipciciam. I roinnt cásanna d'fhéadfadh go mbeadh an claonadh i dtreo Epilepsy oidhreachtúil, ach fiú leis an claonadh seo ní mór coinníollacha áirithe a bheith ann sa inchinn sula bhfaighidh duine cois na heipilíteas. Conas a dhéantar diagnóis Epilepsy? Tá sé ríthábhachtach gníomhaíocht na ngéarchéime a bhreathnú agus a thaifeadadh chun Epilepsy a dhiagnóisiú. Is féidir sonraí mar: am an lae, cad a tharla sula tharla an greim, an raibh corp an duine rigid, athrú ar anailís, agus fad an greim a bheith an-tábhachtach sa diagnóis. Ina theannta sin, d'fhéadfaí electroencephalogram (EEG), scanáil tomagrafaíochta achsaigh ríomhaireachta (CAT), íomháitheoir resonance maighnéadach (MRI), nó scanadh tomagrafaíochta astaíochta positron (PET) a úsáid. An bhfuil leigheas ar Epilepsy? Níl aon " leigheas " ar eolas le haghaidh Epilepsy. Is minic a bhíonn leigheas ar chógas ar na hairíonna, ach ní leigheas é. Ní tharlaíonn roinnt cineálacha Epilepsy ach sa óige, agus deirtear go bhfuil an duine tar éis dul thar na hairíonna. I gcásanna áirithe, bíonn maolú spontáineach ar an neamhord greime. Uaireanta, is féidir le máinliacht chun an chuid den inchinn a bhaint ina dtagann na hairíonna a chur ar scor go hiomlán agus go buan.

07 Nov Edition 3 – Nuclear Power Plants in South Australia, Western Australia and Queensland In this Edition 3 of the Australian Nuclear for Climate website we explore: - The number of nuclear power plants required in South Australia, Western Australia ad Queensland - We make projections for the number of nuclear power generators to provide some 70% of our our manufacturing sector assuming 80% electrification of the current fossil fuel consumption. - We add Small Modular Reactors into the mix. These are required to meet the needs of our states with low population densities and isolated grids We then add up the number of 1.1GW AP 1000 and 225MW small modular reactors required to meet these needs and apportion them to the various regions of Australia in areas called “Regions of Interest”.

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07 Nov Earraigh 3 Gléasraí Cumhachta Núicléacha i nDeisceart na hAstráile, i nAstráile Thiar agus i gCúinséal Sa 3ú hIontráil seo de shuíomh Gréasáin Núicléach na hAstráile don Aeráid, déanaimid iniúchadh: - An líon de ghléasraí núicléacha a theastaíonn i nAstráil Theas, i nAstráil Thiar agus i gCúinsil - Déanaimid réamh-mheastacháin maidir leis an líon gineadóirí cumhachta núicléacha chun thart ar 70% dár dtionscal déantúsaíochta a sholáthar ag glacadh le 80% de leictreachas an tomhaltais reatha breosla iontaise. - Cuirfimid Réatóirí Módail Bheaga isteach sa mheascán. Tá gá leo seo chun freastal ar riachtanais ár stáit le dlús daonra íseal agus líonraí iargúlta Ansin cuirimid suas líon na 1.1GW AP 1000 agus 225MW imoibrithe módail bheag a theastaíonn chun freastal ar na riachtanais seo agus iad a roinnt ar réigiúin éagsúla na hAstráile i gceantair ar a dtugtar 'Regions of Interest'.

Grants for Assistive Technology for the Blind Grants for assistive technology for the blind support funding programs for buying assistive devices that help improve the life of an individual with a visual impairment. According to the World Health Organization, in many middle-income and low-income countries, only 5-20% of people who need assistive technologies and devices have access to them. In the United States, a person who requires an assistive device can receive government funding for 75% of the costs of buying such devices, and even more if they are on some sort of social assistance. Grants for Assistive Technology for the Blind – How Assistive Technologies Extend Your Abilities? Assistive technology items are designed specifically to help individuals with vision loss or other disabilities. The items include braille watches and braille printers to screen readers for blind individuals, screen magnifiers, and video magnifiers for low-vision computer users to other devices for reading and writing with low vision. The potential benefits of augmentation with technology amplify the abilities and experiences of the blind. The production of innovative assistive devices is based on the concept of universal design. The results can help anyone who can benefit from the affordances of the new assistive technology. Assistive technologies for the blind are based on the abilities, limitations, and aspirations of an individual. With the strategic additions of the appropriate technology, it becomes remarkably easy to achieve the goals. However, it makes this technology expensive. Therefore, to support the purchase of these devices, grants for assistive technology for the blind are available. Grants for Assistive Technology for the Blind – Ways to Fund Assistive Technology Purchases Assistive technology can change the lives of people suffering from disabilities. However, these adaptive devices can cost thousands of dollars. Fortunately, there are grants for assistive technology for the blind that help with purchasing the solutions you need without paying the full price. Vocational Rehabilitation and Special Education Programs Students can get most assistive technology solutions through federally mandated programs such as Vocational Rehabilitation and Special Education. Schools receive these adaptive products as part of an Individual Education Plan (IEP) or can get them through the Rehabilitation Act provisions. Vocational Rehabilitation is a program designed towards self-sufficiency, where disabled students get help not only for paying the college but also to secure the adaptive devices and solutions they need to complete their coursework. After college, Transition Programs are available to assist students with job placement and training, sometimes including assistive devices in an Individualized Transition Plan. For more information, contact your state’s Parent Training and Information Center (PTI). Assistive Technology Fund (ATF) The Association of Blind Citizens (ACB) runs the Assistive Technology Fund (ATF) to support blind and visually impaired people accessing technology. Grants cover half the price of accessible software or equipment. Applicants must be legally blind, and the U.S. residents with annual household income below $50,000 and cash assets under $20,000. The application details and forms are available on the website. Visit https://www.blindcitizens.org/. Alternative Financing Technical Assistance Project (AFTAP) In the United States, funding to purchase assistive devices varies from state to state. The Rehabilitation Engineering and Assistive Technology Society of North America (RESNA) helps states offer low-interest loans under the Alternative Financing Technical Assistance Project (AFTAP). The RESNA maintains a list of contacts for the financing of assistive devices in each state and territory. Computer/Electronic Accommodations Program Technology & Evaluation Center (CAPTEC) The Computer/Electronic Accommodations Program Technology & Evaluation Center (CAPTEC) is the U.S. government support for the employees with a disability to purchase assistive devices. It is a facility dedicated to helping federal employees with disabilities find the best assistive technology (AT) solutions. National Deaf-Blind Equipment Distribution Program (NDBEDP) The NDBEDP is a pilot program for assistive devices. The idea is to provide people with combined hearing and vision loss access to modern telecommunication tools. The necessary training is also given so that they can communicate, interact, use the internet and contribute to their community. The program provides outreach, assessments, telecommunications technology, and training free of charge to those who meet federal eligibility guidelines. For more information, visit https://www.fcc.gov/general/national-deaf-blind-equipment-distribution-program. Technology is wonderful; however, if it is unaffordable for many people because of costs, its impact may be limited. Access to assistive devices is not a luxury, but a right! Grants for assistive technology for the blind help needy citizens to meet funding to purchase assistive devices. Various programs offer funding support for the latest assistive technology. Check them out!

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Deontais le haghaidh Teicneolaíocht Chúnamh do na Daoine dall Tacaíonn deontais le haghaidh teicneolaíochta cúnta do dhaoine dall le cláir chistiúcháin chun feistí cúnta a cheannach a chabhraíonn le saol duine aonair a bhfuil lagú amhairc aige a fheabhsú. De réir na hEagraíochta Domhanda Sláinte, i go leor tíortha a bhfuil ioncam meánach agus ioncam íseal acu, níl ach 5-20% de na daoine a bhfuil teicneolaíochtaí agus feistí cúnta ag teastáil uathu. Sna Stáit Aontaithe, is féidir le duine a bhfuil gá le gléas cúnta leis maoiniú rialtais a fháil ar feadh 75% de chostais na gléasanna sin a cheannach, agus níos mó fós má tá siad ar chineál éigin de chúnamh sóisialta. Deontais le haghaidh Teicneolaíocht Chabhrach do na Daoine dall Conas a Fheasaíonn Teicneolaíochtaí Chabhrach do Scileanna? Tá earraí teicneolaíochta cúnta deartha go sonrach chun cabhrú le daoine aonair a bhfuil caillteanas fís nó míchumas eile acu. I measc na n-earraí seo tá uaireadóirí braille agus printéirí braille chun léitheoirí scáileáin a úsáid do dhaoine dall, méadaitheoirí scáileáin, agus méadaitheoirí físe d'úsáideoirí ríomhaire a bhfuil amharc íseal acu, agus feistí eile le haghaidh léamh agus scríobh le daoine a bhfuil amharc íseal acu. Cuireann na buntáistí a d'fhéadfadh a bheith ag méadú le teicneolaíocht cumas agus eispéiris na ndall a mhéadú. Tá táirgeadh feistí cabhrach nuálacha bunaithe ar an gcoincheap de dhearadh uilíoch. Is féidir leis na torthaí cabhrú le duine ar bith a d'fhéadfadh leas a bhaint as na costais a bhaineann leis an teicneolaíocht chúnta nua. Tá teicneolaíochtaí cúnta do dhaoine dall bunaithe ar chumas, teorainneacha agus uaillmhianta an duine aonair. Leis na forlíonta straitéiseacha den teicneolaíocht chuí, bíonn sé thar a bheith éasca na spriocanna a bhaint amach. Mar sin féin, déanann sé an teicneolaíocht seo daor. Dá bhrí sin, chun tacú le ceannach na bhfeistí seo, tá deontais ar fáil le haghaidh teicneolaíochta cúnta do dhaoine dall. Deontais le haghaidh Teicneolaíocht Chabhrach do Daoine dall Bealaí chun Ceannach Teicneolaíochta Chabhrach a Chistiú Is féidir le teicneolaíocht chúnamh saol daoine atá faoi mhíchumas a athrú. Mar sin féin, is féidir leis na feistí oiriúnaithe seo na mílte dollar a chosc. Ar an dea-uair, tá deontais ann do theicneolaíocht chúnamh do dhaoine dall a chabhraíonn leat na réitigh a theastaíonn uait a cheannach gan an praghas iomlán a íoc. Clár um Athshlánú Gairmiúil agus Clár um Oideachas Speisialta Is féidir le mic léinn na réitigh teicneolaíochta is cúnaimhsithe a fháil trí chláir a ordú ag an rialtas cónaidhme mar Athshlánú Gairmiúil agus Oideachas Speisialta. Faigheann scoileanna na táirgí oiriúnaithe seo mar chuid de Phlean Oideachais Aonair (IEP) nó is féidir leo iad a fháil trí fhorálacha an Achta um Athshlánú. Is clár é Athshlánú Gairmiúil atá deartha chun féin-dháileacht a bhaint amach, áit a bhfaigheann mic léinn faoi mhíchumas cabhair ní amháin chun an coláiste a íoc ach freisin chun na feistí agus na réitigh oiriúnaitheacha a theastaíonn uathu a chur i gcrích a gcuid cúrsa a fháil. Tar éis an choláiste, tá Cláranna Aistrithe ar fáil chun cabhrú le mic léinn le hiarratas poist agus oiliúint, uaireanta lena n-áirítear feistí cúnta i bPlean Aistrithe Individualized. Chun tuilleadh eolais a fháil, téigh i dteagmháil le hIonad Teagasc agus Faisnéise do Thuismitheoirí (PTI) do stáit. Ciste um Theicneolaíocht Chúnamh (ATF) Tá an Ciste um Theicneolaíocht Chúnamh (ATF) á reáchtáil ag Cumann na Saoránach Daoine dall (ACB) chun tacú le daoine dall agus daoine faoi mhíchumas amhairc rochtain a fháil ar theicneolaíocht. Clúdaíonn deontais leath an phraghas ar bogearraí nó trealamh inrochtana. Ní mór d'iarratasóirí a bheith dall go dlíthiúil, agus cónaitheoirí na Stát Aontaithe a bhfuil ioncam bliantúil teaghlaigh acu faoi bhun $ 50,000 agus sócmhainní airgid faoi bhun $ 20,000. Tá na sonraí agus na foirmeacha iarratais ar fáil ar an suíomh gréasáin. Tabhair cuairt ar https://www.blindcitizens.org/. Tionscadal Cúnamh Teicniúil um Airgeadas Malartach (AFTAP) Sna Stáit Aontaithe, tá cistiú chun feistí cúnta a cheannach éagsúil ó stát go stát. Cuidíonn Cumann Innealtóireachta Athshlánúcháin agus Teicneolaíochta Cúnta Mheiriceá Thuaidh (RESNA) le stáit iasachtaí íseal-phráis a thairiscint faoin Tionscadal Cúnaimh Teicniúil Airgeadais Malartacha (AFTAP). Coinníonn an RESNA liosta teagmhála le haghaidh maoiniú feistí cabhrach i ngach stát agus i ngach críoch. Ionad Teicneolaíochta agus Meastóireachta Clár Comhlánaíochta/Eleachtrónta (CAPTEC) Is é an tIonad Teicneolaíochta agus Meastóireachta Clár Comhéadain Ríomhaireachta / Leictreonach (CAPTEC) tacaíocht rialtais na Stát Aontaithe do na fostaithe atá faoi mhíchumas feistí cúnta a cheannach. Is saoráid í atá tiomanta do chabhair a thabhairt d'fhostaithe cónaidhme faoi mhíchumas na réitigh is fearr teicneolaíochta cúnta (AT) a fháil. Clár Náisiúnta um Rochtain Trealamh do Dhaoine neirbhíseach agus do Dhaoine dall (NDBEDP) Is clár píolótach é an NDBEDP le haghaidh feistí cúnta. Is é an smaoineamh rochtain a sholáthar ar uirlisí teileachumarsáide nua-aimseartha do dhaoine a bhfuil caillteanas éisteachta agus amharc acu. Tugtar an oiliúint riachtanach freisin ionas gur féidir leo cumarsáid a dhéanamh, idirghníomhú, an t-idirlíon a úsáid agus cur lena bpobal. Soláthraíonn an clár soláthar, measúnuithe, teicneolaíocht teileachumarsáide, agus oiliúint saor in aisce dóibh siúd a chomhlíonann treoirlínte incháilitheachta cónaidhme. Chun tuilleadh eolais a fháil, tabhair cuairt ar https://www.fcc.gov/general/national-deaf-blind-equipment-distribution-program. Tá teicneolaíocht iontach; áfach, mura bhfuil an oiread sin daoine in ann í a cheannach mar gheall ar chostas, d'fhéadfadh a tionchar a bheith teoranta. Ní hé só, ach ceart, rochtain a bheith agat ar fheistí cabhrach! Cabhraíonn deontais do theicneolaíocht chúnta do dhaoine dall le saoránaigh atá i ngátar maoiniú a fháil chun feistí chúnta a cheannach. Cuireann cláir éagsúla tacaíocht airgeadais ar fáil don teicneolaíocht chúnta is déanaí. Seiceáil amach iad!

Why are we here? Why are we not happy with our lives? What is the cause of our unhappiness and unsatisfactoriness? How can we see the end of unsatisfactoriness and experience eternal peace? The Buddha’s Teaching is based on the Four Noble Truths. To realize these Truths is to realize and penetrate into the true nature of existence, including the full knowledge of oneself. When we recognize that all phenomenal things are transitory, are subject to suffering and are void of any essential reality, we will be convinced that true and enduring happiness cannot be found in material possessions and worldly achievement, that true happiness must be sought only through mental purity and the cultivation of wisdom. The Four Noble Truths are at the core of the teaching of the Buddha. He said that it is because we fail to understand the Four Noble Truths that we have continued to go round in the cycle of birth and death. The Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path was taught in the very first sermon of the Buddha, which he gave to the five monks at the Deer park in Sarnath. “Just as the ocean has one taste, the taste of salt, even so, this Dhamma has one taste too, the taste of freedom ~ Udana 56” What are the Four Noble Truths? They are as follows: 1. The First Noble Truth All beings, human and otherwise, are afflicted with all sorts of disappointments, sadness, discomfort, anxiety etc. In short they are subject to suffering. 2. The Second Noble Truth The cause of this suffering is craving, born of the illusion of a “soul”. 3. The Third Noble Truth Suffering has a final end in the experience of Enlightenment (Nirvana), which is the complete destruction of delusion and the consequent ending of craving and ill will. 4. The Fourth Noble Truth This peaceful and blissful Enlightenment is achieved through a gradual training, a path called the Middle Way, or the Eightfold Path. It would be mistaken to label this teaching as “pessimistic” on the grounds that it begins by focusing on suffering. Rather, Buddhism is “realistic” in that it unflinchingly faces up to the truth of life’s many sufferings, and it is “optimistic” in that it shows a final end to the problem: Nirvana’s Enlightenment in this very life! Those who have achieved this ultimate peace are inspiring examples that demonstrate that Buddhism is a path to true happiness. “Walking upon this path you will make an end of suffering. Having discovered how to pull out the thorn of lust, I make known the path. ~ Dhammapada 275” If we wish to cure ourselves from suffering, we must first identify its cause. According to the Buddha, craving or desire is the cause of our suffering. This is the Second Noble Truth. People crave for pleasant experiences, crave for material things, crave for eternal life, and when disappointed, crave for eternal death. They are not only attached to sensual pleasures, wealth and power, but also to ideas, views, opinions, concepts, beliefs. And craving is linked to ignorance, that is, not seeing things as they really are, or failing to understand the reality of experience and life. Under the delusion of his ego, a person clings to things which are impermanent, changeable, perishable. The failure to satisfy one’s desires through these things causes disappointments and suffering. “The gift of Truth excels all gifts, the flavour of Truth excels all flavours. The pleasure in Truth excels all pleasures. He who has destroyed craving overcomes all sorrow ~ Dhammapada 354” Craving is a fire which burns in all beings: every activity is motivated by desire. They range from the simple physical desire of animals to the complex and often artificially stimulated desires of the civilized man. To satisfy desire, animals prey upon one another, and human beings fight, kill, cheat, lie and perform various forms of unwholesome deeds. Craving is a powerful mental force present in all forms of life, and is the chief cause of the ills in life. It is this craving that leads to repeated births in the cycle of existence. Once we have realized the cause of suffering, we are in the position to put an end to suffering. So, how do we put an end to suffering? Eliminate it at its root by the removal of craving in the mind. This is the Third Noble Truth. The state where craving ceases is known as Nirvana. This is a state which is free from suffering and rounds of rebirth. This is a state which is not subjected to the laws of birth, decay and death. This sublime state is described as the Unborn, Unoriginated, Uncreated, Unformed. It is a state is beyond our normal concepts and experience. The Noble Eightfold Path is the Fourth Noble Truth which leads to Nibbana. It is a way of life consisting of eight factors. By walking on this Path, we will see an end to suffering. Because Buddhism is a logical and consistent teaching embracing every aspect of life, this noble Path also serves as the finest possible system for leading a happy life. Its practice brings benefits to oneself and others.

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Cén fáth a bhfuil muid anseo? Cén fáth nach bhfuil muid sásta lenár saol? Cad é an chúis atá le ár n-inbhá agus le neamhshásamh? Conas is féidir linn deireadh a chur le míshásamh agus síocháin shíoraí a fháil? Tá Múineadh an Bhúda bunaithe ar na Ceithre Fírinne Uasal. Is é a thuiscint na Fírinneanna seo ná ná a thuiscint agus dul isteach i bhfíor-nádúr na maireachtála, lena n-áirítear an t-eolas iomlán ar féin. Nuair a aithníonn muid go bhfuil gach rud iontach réalaíoch, faoi réir fhulaingt agus gan aon réaltacht bhunúsach, beidh muid cinnte nach féidir fíor-shástacht agus sonas buan a fháil i seilbh ábhartha agus i n-éacht sa domhan, nach mór fíor-shástacht a lorg ach trí íonacht intinne agus trí fhéiniúlacht a chothú. Tá na Ceithre Fírinne Uasal ag croílár theagasc an Bhúda. Dúirt sé gur toisc nach dtuigeann muid na Ceithre Fírinne Uasal go leanamar ar aghaidh ag dul timpeall i gciorcal na breithe agus na báis. Bhí na Ceithre Fírinne Uasal agus an Ochtú Slí ar an gcéad seanmóir a thug an Buddha, a thug sé do na cúig manach ag an pháirc Deer i Sarnath. Díreach mar a bhfuil blas amháin ag an aigéan, blas na salainn, fiú mar sin, tá blas amháin ag an Dhamma seo freisin, blas na saoirse ~ Udana 56 Cad iad na Ceithre Fírinne Uasal? Is iad seo a leanas iad: 1. an t-am a bhí ann. An Chéad Fírinne Uasal Tá gach uile dhuine, daonna agus eile, buailte le gach cineál díomá, brónach, míchompord, imní, srl. Go hachomair, tá siad faoi réir fhulaingt. 2. Seachadadh. An Dara Fírinne Uasal Is é an chúis atá leis an fhulaingt seo ná an t-iarracht, a rugadh as illusion of a soul. 3. Tá an t-am ann. An Tríú Fírinne Uasal Tá deireadh deiridh ag fulaingt i dtaithí an Soilsithe (Nirvana), is é sin an scrios iomlán ar mheabhlaíocht agus deireadh iarmhairtí an éagóireachta agus an droch-mheas. 4. Tá an t-am An Ceathrú Fírinne Uasal Baintear an Soilse síochánta agus blissful seo amach trí thráth oiliúna de réir a chéile, bealach ar a dtugtar an t-Astráid Mheánmhéide, nó an t-Ochtfold Path. Bheadh sé mícheart an teagasc seo a lipéadú mar pesimistic ar an mbonn go dtosaíonn sé ag díriú ar fhulaingt. Ina áit sin, tá an Búdachas réalaíoch sa mhéid go bhfuil sé ag tabhairt aghaidh go daingean ar fhírinne na beatha go leor fhulaingt, agus tá sé tuisceanach sa mhéid go léiríonn sé deireadh deiridh leis an bhfadhb: Nirvana Éillithe sa saol seo féin! Is samplaí spreagúla iad na daoine a bhfuil an tsíocháin dheireanach seo bainte amach acu a léiríonn gur bealach chun fíorshástacht é an Búdachas. Ag siúl ar an mbóthar seo cuirfidh tú deireadh le fulaingt. Tar éis a fháil amach conas a tharraingt amach an dorn de lust, mé a dhéanamh ar an mbealach ar eolas. ~ Dhammapada 275 Más mian linn leigheas a fháil ar fhulaingt, ní mór dúinn a chúis a aithint ar dtús. De réir an Búda, is é an t-éagóir nó an t-éagóir cúis ár n-fhulaingt. Is é seo an Dara Fírinne Uasal. Tá daoine ag iarraidh taithí taitneamhach a fháil, ag iarraidh rudaí ábhartha, ag iarraidh beatha síoraí, agus nuair a bhíonn siad díomá, ag iarraidh bás síoraí. Ní amháin go bhfuil siad ceangailte le pléisiúir sensual, saibhreas agus cumhacht, ach freisin le smaointe, tuairimí, tuairimí, coincheapa, creidimh. Agus tá an t-éagóir nasctha le heolas, is é sin, gan rudaí a fheiceáil mar atá siad i ndáiríre, nó gan tuiscint a fháil ar fhírinne na taithí agus na beatha. Faoi mhealladh a é féin, greamaíonn duine le rudaí nach bhfuil buan, athraitheach, inbhuanaithe. Tá an t-éagmais a bhaineann le haillsiú a bhaint amach trí na rudaí seo ina chúis le díomá agus le fulaingt. Is fearr an bronntanas Fírinne ná gach bronntanas, is fearr blas an Fírinne ná gach blas. Tá an pléisiúr i Fírinne níos fearr ná gach pléisiúr. Tá sé a bhfuil scrios craving thar a bheith gach sorrow ~ Dhammapada 354 Is tine é an t-éagóir a dhóann i ngach duine: is é an t-éagóir a spreagann gach gníomhaíocht. Tá siad ó mhianta fisiciúla simplí ainmhithe go mianta casta agus go minic spreagta go saorga do dhuine sibhialta. Chun a n-éileamh a shásamh, bíonn ainmhithe ag caitheamh le chéile, agus bíonn daoine ag troid, ag marú, ag magadh, ag bréagadh agus ag déanamh cineálacha éagsúla gníomhartha míshláintiúla. Is fórsa meabhrach cumhachtach é an t-éagóir atá i láthair i ngach foirm saoil, agus is í an phríomhchúis leis na droch-chomharthaí sa saol. Is é an t-éagóir seo a fhágann go bhfuil breitheanna athdhéanta i dtimthriall an tsaoil. Nuair a thuigeann muid cúis na fulaingt, is féidir linn deireadh a chur leis. Mar sin, conas a chuirfimid deireadh leis an fhulaingt? Cuir deireadh leis ag a fhréamh trí chómh i d'intinn a bhaint. Is é seo an Tríú Fírinne Uasal. An stát ina stopann craving ar a dtugtar Nirvana. Is é seo an staid atá saor ó fhulaingt agus babhtaí athbhreithe. Is é seo an stát nach bhfuil faoi réir na dlíthe na breithe, dí-mhilleadh agus bás. Tugtar cur síos ar an staid sublime seo mar an Unborn, Unoriginated, Uncreated, Unformed. Is stát é atá thar ár gcoincheapa agus ár dtaithí gnáth. Is é an Noble Eightfold Path an Ceathrú Fírinne Noble a thugann Nibbana. Is bealach maireachtála é a chuimsíonn ocht gcúis. Trí siúl ar an mBóthar seo, feicfimid deireadh leis an fhulaingt. Toisc go bhfuil an Búdachas ina theagasc loighciúil agus comhsheasmhach a chuimsíonn gach gné den saol, is é an Phríomhbhealach seo an córas is fearr is féidir chun saol sona a bheith agat. Tugann a chleachtadh tairbhe dó féin agus do dhaoine eile.

This article needs additional citations for verification. (September 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Eynesbury is a settlement in Cambridgeshire, England. Eynesbury forms part of present-day St Neots, but before 1876 was a separate village. It is situated within Huntingdonshire which is a non-metropolitan district of Cambridgeshire as well as being a historic county of England. St Mary's Church, Eynesbury |Sovereign state||United Kingdom| |Post town||St Neots| |EU Parliament||East of England| In 1085 William the Conqueror ordered that a survey should be carried out across his kingdom to discover who owned which parts and what it was worth. The survey took place in 1086 and the results were recorded in what, since the 12th century, has become known as the Domesday Book. Starting with the king himself, for each landholder within a county there is a list of their estates or manors; and, for each manor, there is a summary of the resources of the manor, the amount of annual rent that was collected by the lord of the manor both in 1066 and in 1086, together with the taxable value. Eynesbury was listed in the Domesday Book in the Hundred of Toseland in Huntingdonshire; the name of the settlement was written as Einuluesberiam and Einuluesberie in the Domesday Book. In 1086 there were two manors at Eynesbury; the annual rent paid to the lords of the manors in 1066 had been £44 and the rent had increased to £47.1 in 1086. The Domesday Book does not explicitly detail the population of a place but it records that there were 76 households at Eynesbury. There is no consensus about the average size of a household at that time; estimates range from 3.5 to 5.0 people per household. Using these figures then an estimate of the population of Eynesbury in 1086 is that it was within the range of 266 and 380 people. The Domesday Book uses a number of units of measure for areas of land that are now unfamiliar terms, such as hides and ploughlands. In different parts of the country, these were terms for the area of land that a team of eight oxen could plough in a single season and are equivalent to 120 acres (49 hectares); this was the amount of land that was considered to be sufficient to support a single family. By 1086, the hide had become a unit of tax assessment rather than an actual land area; a hide was the amount of land that could be assessed as £1 for tax purposes. The survey records that there were 52.5 ploughlands at Eynesbury in 1086 and that there was the capacity for a further 2.5 ploughlands. In addition to the arable land, there was 133.5 acres (54 hectares) of meadows, 60 acres (24 hectares) of woodland, three water mills and a fishery at Eynesbury. The tax assessment in the Domesday Book was known as geld or danegeld and was a type of land-tax based on the hide or ploughland. It was originally a way of collecting a tribute to pay off the Danes when they attacked England, and was only levied when necessary. Following the Norman Conquest, the geld was used to raise money for the King and to pay for continental wars; by 1130, the geld was being collected annually. Having determined the value of a manor's land and other assets, a tax of so many shillings and pence per pound of value would be levied on the land holder. While this was typically two shillings in the pound the amount did vary; for example, in 1084 it was as high as six shillings in the pound. For the manors at Eynesbury the total tax assessed was 24 geld. By 1086 there was already a church and a priest at Eynesbury. Eynesbury is made up of a number of different areas, the oldest area of which, around the Berkley Street/St Mary's Street area, predates any other part of St Neots. (The priory of St Neot was established after Benedictine monks stole the saint's remains from the Cornish and brought them to Eynesbury around 980 AD. This theft had the backing of the royal court.) In the 1960s and 1970s, Eynesbury grew quickly thanks to London overspill, along with various other parts of the town such as Eaton Socon. The areas around Hardwick Road, Duck Lane, Sandfields Road, Howitts Gardens and Potton Road absorbed much of the "immigration" from the city, and for a number of years had a reputation for being "rough", although this has in recent years improved beyond recognition. It now has a reputation for being an affluent area with house prices soaring. In the 1980s the Parklands estate was built, expanding Andrew Road and filling the gap between Potton Road and Barford Road. Most recently, the Eynesbury Manor development, which includes Eynesbury Marina, has been built between Ernulf Academy and the Tesco store by the bypass; and stretches to the River Great Ouse to the west. Eynesbury was in the historic and administrative county of Huntingdonshire until 1965. From 1965, the village was part of the new administrative county of Huntingdon and Peterborough. Then in 1974, following the Local Government Act 1972, Eynesbury became a part of the county of Cambridgeshire. The second tier of local government is Huntingdonshire District Council which is a non-metropolitan district of Cambridgeshire and has its headquarters in Huntingdon. Huntingdonshire District Council has 52 councillors representing 29 district wards. Huntingdonshire District Council collects the council tax, and provides services such as building regulations, local planning, environmental health, leisure and tourism. Eynesbury is a part of the district ward of St Neots Eynesbury and is represented on the district council by three councillors. District councillors serve for four-year terms following elections to Huntingdonshire District Council. For Eynesbury the highest tier of local government is Cambridgeshire County Council which has administration buildings in Cambridge. The county council provides county-wide services such as major road infrastructure, fire and rescue, education, social services, libraries and heritage services. Cambridgeshire County Council consists of 69 councillors representing 60 electoral divisions. Eynesbury is part of the electoral division of St Neots Eaton Socon and Eynesbury and is represented on the county council by two councillors. At Westminster Eynesbury is in the parliamentary constituency of Huntingdon, and elects one Member of Parliament (MP) by the first past the post system of election. Eynesbury is represented in the House of Commons by Jonathan Djanogly (Conservative). Jonathan Djanogly has represented the constituency since 2001. The previous member of parliament was John Major (Conservative) who represented the constituency between 1983 and 2001. For the European Parliament Eynesbury is part of the East of England constituency which elects seven MEPs using the d'Hondt method of party-list proportional representation. St Mary's, the parish church of Eynesbury, is mainly medieval. Parts of it show work of the Norman and all three Gothic periods; the tower is "Gothic Survival" and was built in 1687. The old east window was destroyed in ecclesiological changes to the chancel by the Victorians. Eynesbury was the birthplace in 1795 of James Toller, known as the Eynesbury Giant, who measured 7 feet 6 inches tall. Sport and leisureEdit - Ordnance Survey: Landranger map sheet 153 Bedford & Huntingdon (St Neots & Biggleswade) (Map). Ordnance Survey. 2013. ISBN 9780319231722. - Dr Ann Williams, Professor G.H. Martin, eds. (1992). Domesday Book: A Complete Translation. London: Penguin Books. pp. 551–561. ISBN 0-141-00523-8.CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link) - Dr Ann Williams, Professor G.H. Martin, eds. (1992). Domesday Book: A Complete Translation. London: Penguin Books. p. 1344. ISBN 0-141-00523-8.CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link) - Professor J.J.N. Palmer, University of Hull. "Open Domesday: Place – Eynesbury". www.opendomesday.org. Anna Powell-Smith. Retrieved 25 February 2016. - Goose, Nigel; Hinde, Andrew. "Estimating Local Population Sizes" (PDF). Retrieved 23 February 2016. - "Huntingdonshire District Council: Councillors". www.huntingdonshire.gov.uk. Huntingdonshire District Council. Retrieved 23 February 2016. - "Huntingdonshire District Council". www.huntingdonshire.gov.uk. Huntingdonshire District Council. Retrieved 23 February 2016. - "Ordnance Survey Election Maps". www.ordnancesurvey.co.uk. Ordnance Survey. Retrieved 23 February 2016. - "Cambridgeshire County Council". www.cambridgeshire.gov.uk. Cambridgeshire County Council. Retrieved 23 February 2016. - "Cambridgeshire County Council: Councillors". www.cambridgeshire.gov.uk. Cambridgeshire County Council. Retrieved 15 February 2016. - Betjeman, John (1968). Collins Pocket Guide to English Parish Churches; The South. London: Collins; p. 239. - George Cornelius Gorham, The History and Antiquities of Eynesbury and St. Neot's, in Huntingdonshire, and of St. Neot's in the county of Cornwall, 1820.

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Tá gá le hairíonna breise don alt seo chun a fhíorú. (Meán Fómhair 2014) (Féach conas agus cathain a bhaint an teimpléad teachtaireachta seo) Is lonnaíocht i Cambridgeshire, Sasana é Eynesbury. Tá Eynesbury mar chuid de St Neots an lae inniu, ach bhí sé ina sráidbhaile ar leith roimh 1876. Tá sé suite laistigh de Huntingdonshire, atá ina cheantar neamh-mhetropolitanach de Cambridgeshire chomh maith le bheith ina chontae stairiúil i Sasana. Eaglais Naomh Muire, Eynesbury Stát uachtaránachta Ríocht Aontaithe "Tá an baile postáilte agam agus tá na Neots agam" ☐Párlaimint an AE ☐East of England ☐ I 1085 ordaigh Uilleam an Conqueror gur chóir suirbhé a dhéanamh ar fud a ríochta chun a fháil amach cé acu a bhí i seilbh na gcodanna agus cad a bhí luachmhar. Tharla an suirbhé i 1086 agus taifeadadh na torthaí sa rud a bhfuil, ón 12ú haois, ar a dtugtar Domesday Book. Ag tosú leis an rí féin, le haghaidh gach sealbhóir talún laistigh de chontae tá liosta de a gcuid oidhreachta nó manors; agus, le haghaidh gach manor, tá achoimre ar acmhainní an manor, méid na cíos bliantúil a bailíodh ag an Tiarna an manor i 1066 agus i 1086, mar aon leis an luach inchánach. Liostáilte in Domesday Book in the Hundred of Toseland in Huntingdonshire; scríobhadh ainm an lonnaíochta mar Einuluesberiam agus Einuluesberie sa Domesday Book. Sa bhliain 1086 bhí dhá mhainistir ag Eynesbury; ba é £44 an cíos bliantúil a íocadh le húllachtaí na maininéirí sa bhliain 1066 agus d'ardaigh an cíos go £47.1 sa bhliain 1086. Ní thugann Leabhar Domesday sonraí go sonrach ar dhaonra áit ach taifeadann sé go raibh 76 teaghlach in Eynesbury. Níl aon chomhthoil ann maidir le meánmhéid teaghlaigh ag an am sin; tá meastacháin idir 3.5 agus 5.0 duine in aghaidh an teaghlaigh. Ag baint úsáide as na figiúirí seo, is é meastachán ar dhaonra Eynesbury i 1086 go raibh sé laistigh de raon 266 agus 380 duine. Úsáideann an Domesday Book roinnt aonaid tomhais d'áiteanna talún nach bhfuil téarmaí neamhchoitianta acu anois, mar shampla leatháin agus ploughlands. I gcodanna éagsúla den tír, ba téarmaí iad seo le haghaidh limistéar talún a d'fhéadfadh foireann ocht n-uibhe a bheith ag plougháil i séasúr amháin agus a chomhfhreagraíonn do 120 acra (49 heicteár); ba é seo an méid talún a measadh a bheith leordhóthanach chun tacú le teaghlach amháin. Faoi 1086, bhí an craiceann ina aonad measúnaithe cánach seachas limistéar talún iarbhír; ba é an craiceann an méid talún a d'fhéadfaí a mheas mar £ 1 chun críocha cánach. Taifeadann an suirbhé go raibh 52.5 plóghlands ag Eynesbury i 1086 agus go raibh an cumas ann le haghaidh 2.5 plóghlands eile. Chomh maith leis an talamh inbhuanaithe, bhí 54 heicteár de phláinéid, 60 heicteár (24 heicteár) de fhoraois, trí mhill uisce agus iascaireacht ag Eynesbury. Bhí an measúnú cánach sa Domesday Book ar a dtugtar geld nó danegeld agus bhí sé ina chineál cánach talún bunaithe ar an gcraiceann nó ar an ploughland. Bhí sé ar dtús ina bhealach chun ómós a bhailiú chun na Danmhairgeacha a íoc nuair a rinne siad ionsaí ar Shasana, agus ní raibh sé á ghearradh ach nuair a bhí sé riachtanach. Tar éis Conquest Normannach, baineadh úsáid as an geld chun airgead a bhailiú don Rí agus chun íoc as cogaí mór-roinneacha; faoi 1130, baineadh an geld a bhailiú go bliantúil. Tar éis luach talamh an mhainéir agus sócmhainní eile a chinneadh, ghearrfaí cánach de shillings agus péinteanna mar sin ar gach punt de luach ar shealbhóir na talún. Cé gur dhá scilling sa phunt a bhí ann de ghnáth, bhí an méid éagsúil; mar shampla, sa bhliain 1084 bhí sé chomh hard le sé scilling sa phunt. Maidir leis na mairnéidí in Eynesbury, ba é 24 geld an cháin iomlán a mheasadh. Faoi 1086 bhí sé cheana féin eaglais agus sagart ag Eynesbury. Tá Eynesbury comhdhéanta de roinnt ceantair éagsúla, agus is é an ceantar is sine díobh, timpeall limistéar Sráid Berkley / Sráid Naomh Muire, níos luaithe ná aon chuid eile de Naomh Neots. (Stáladh priory Naomh Neot tar éis do mhoncaí Benediktínigh iarsmaí na naoimh a ghoid ó na Cornchaillí agus iad a thabhairt go Eynesbury timpeall 980 AD. Bhí tacaíocht ag an gcúirt ríoga don ghoid seo.) Sna 1960idí agus sna 1970idí, d'fhás Eynesbury go tapa a bhuíochas le ró-scaoileadh Londain, mar aon le codanna éagsúla eile den bhaile mar Eaton Socon. Ghlac na ceantair timpeall Sráid Hardwick, Duck Lane, Sráid Sandfields, Gairdíní Howitts agus Sráid Potton le cuid mhór den " inimirce " ón gcathair, agus le roinnt blianta bhí cáil orthu mar "ruda", cé go bhfuil feabhas tagtha ar an méid sin le blianta beaga anuas thar a bheith aitheanta. Tá cáil air anois mar cheantar saibhir agus tá praghsanna tithe ag ardú go mór. Sna 1980idí tógadh eastát na bPáirceanna, ag leathnú Sráid Andrew agus ag líonadh an bhearna idir Sráid Potton agus Sráid Barford. Le déanaí, tógadh forbairt Eynesbury Manor, lena n-áirítear Eynesbury Marina, idir Acadamh Ernulf agus siopa Tesco ag an mbóthar; agus síneann sé go dtí Abhainn an Ouse Mór chun an iarthair. Bhí Eynesbury i gcontae stairiúil agus riaracháin Huntingdonshire go dtí 1965. Ó 1965, bhí an sráidbhaile mar chuid de chontae riaracháin nua Huntingdon agus Peterborough. Ansin i 1974, tar éis Acht Rialtais Áitiúil 1972, tháinig Eynesbury mar chuid de chontae Cambridgeshire. Is é an dara leibhéal rialtais áitiúil Comhairle Dúiche Huntingdonshire, atá ina cheantar neamh-mhéatropolitan de Cambridgeshire agus a bhfuil a cheanncheathrú i Huntingdon. Tá 52 chomhairleoir ag Comhairle Dúiche Huntingdonshire a léiríonn 29 ward dúiche. Baineann Comhairle Dúiche Huntingdonshire le cánach na comhairle a bhailiú, agus soláthraíonn sí seirbhísí amhail rialacháin tógála, pleanáil áitiúil, sláinte comhshaoil, fóillíochta agus turasóireachta. Tá Eynesbury mar chuid de bharda ceantair Naomh Neots Eynesbury agus tá trí chomhairleoir ina ionadaí ar chomhairle na ceantair. Tá téarma ceithre bliana ag comhairleoirí ceantair tar éis toghcháin do Chomhairle Ceantair Huntingdonshire. Maidir le Eynesbury is é Comhairle Contae Cambridgeshire an leibhéal is airde de rialtas áitiúil a bhfuil foirgnimh riaracháin aige i gCaibidil. Soláthraíonn an Chomhairle Contae seirbhísí ar fud na contae, amhail príomh-bhonneagar bóithre, tine agus tarrtháil, oideachas, seirbhísí sóisialta, leabharlanna agus seirbhísí oidhreachta. Tá Comhairle Contae Cambridgeshire comhdhéanta de 69 chomhairleoir a dhéanann ionadaíocht ar 60 rannán toghcháin. Tá Eynesbury mar chuid de roinn toghcháin St Neots Eaton Socon agus Eynesbury agus tá dhá chomhairleoir ina ionadaí ar chomhairle na contae. Tá Westminster Eynesbury i dtoghchán parlaiminteach Huntingdon, agus toghann sé Feisire den Pharlaimint (Fheisire) amháin trí chóras toghcháin an chéad phoist a chuaigh thart. Tá ionadaíocht ag Jonathan Djanogly (Conservative) ar Eynesbury i dTeach na dTeachtaí. Tá Jonathan Djanogly ag ionadaíocht ar an gceantar toghcháin ó 2001. Ba é John Major (Conservative) an comhalta roimhe seo den pharlaimint a bhí i láthair ag an gceantar toghcháin idir 1983 agus 2001. Maidir le Parlaimint na hEorpa, tá Eynesbury mar chuid de cheantar toghcháin Oirthear Shasana a thogh seacht mBall den Pharlaimint ag baint úsáide as modh d'Hondt an ionadaíochta cóimheasa liostaí páirtí. Tá sé de chineál lár-oideachais go príomha i séipéal Naomh Muire, eaglais paistí Eynesbury. Taispeánann codanna de obair na Normannach agus na trí thréimhse Ghotach; is é an túr "Ghotach Maireachtáil" agus tógadh é i 1687. D'éirigh leis an sean-uinneog thoir a scriosadh i ndathú ecclesiological ar an chancel ag na Victorians. Ba é Eynesbury áit breithe James Toller i 1795, ar a dtugtar Giant Eynesbury, a thomhas 7 troigh 6 orlach ar airde. Spórt agus fóillíochtEdit - Suirbhé Ordaithe: Leathanach léarscáileanna Landranger 153 Bedford & Huntingdon (St Neots & Biggleswade) (Map). Suirbhéireacht Ordainní. 2013. Ceoltóirí ISBN 9780319231722 (an t-eitleán) - An Dr. Ann Williams, an tOllamh G.H. Martin, Eds. (1992) agus Leabhar Domesday: A Complete Translation. Londain: Leabhair Penguin. pp. 551 561. ISBN 0-141-00523-8.CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link) - An Dr. Ann Williams, an tOllamh G.H. Martin, Eds. (1992) agus Leabhar Domesday: A Complete Translation. Londain: Leabhair Penguin. Leathanach 1344. ISBN 0-141-00523-8.CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link) - An tOllamh J.J.N. Palmer, Ollscoil Hull. "Open Domesday: Áit Eynesbury". www.opendomesday.org. Anna Powell-Smith. Faighte ar 25 Feabhra 2016. - Goose, Nigel; Hinde, Andrew. "Measúnú ar Mhéideanna Daonra Áitiúil" (PDF). Fuarthas ar ais é an 23 Feabhra 2016. - "Chomhairle Cheantar Huntingtonshire: Comhairleoirí". www.huntingdonshire.gov.uk Comhairle Dúiche Huntingdonshire. Fuarthas ar ais é an 23 Feabhra 2016. - "Comhhairle Cheantar Huntingtonshire". www.huntingdonshire.gov.uk Comhairle Dúiche Huntingdonshire. Fuarthas ar ais é an 23 Feabhra 2016. - "Míleanna Toghcháin an Suirbhéireachta Ordaithe". www.ordnancesurvey.co.uk Suirbhéireacht Ordainní. Fuarthas ar ais é an 23 Feabhra 2016. - "Comhhairle Contae Cambridgeshire". www.cambridgeshire.gov.uk Comhairle Contae Cambridgeshire. Fuarthas ar ais é an 23 Feabhra 2016. - "Comhhairle Chontae Cambridgeshire: Comhairleoirí". www.cambridgeshire.gov.uk Comhairle Contae Cambridgeshire. Faighte ar 15 Feabhra 2016. - Betjeman, John (1968). Treoir Pise Collins do Eaglaisí Paróiste na Breataine; An Deisceart. Londain: Collins; lch. 239. - George Cornelius Gorham, An Stair agus Antiquities de Eynesbury agus Naomh Neot, i Huntingdonshire, agus na Naomh Neot i contae na Cornwal, 1820.

Root canal therapy usually involves the removal of the tooth’s pulp, a small thread-like tissue that was important for tooth development. Once removed, it is replaced with materials that seal off the root canal from its surrounding tissues. Years ago diseased or injured teeth were often extracted. Today, even if the pulp in one of your teeth becomes injured or infected, the tooth often can be saved through root canal (endodontic) treatment. Root Canals have gotten a bad rap over the years for being a painful procedure. This is not true. Root Canals are the cure for a sometimes painful toothache that have been caused due to infection or injury to the pulp of the tooth. Often, patients are pleased and surprised how comfortable they are for this procedure.

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Is gnách go gcuimsíonn cóireáil canála fréamhacha baint as an bpóp fiacla, fíochán beag cosúil le snáithín a bhí tábhachtach d'fhorbairt fiacla. Nuair a aistrítear é, cuirtear ábhair ina ionad a sháraíonn an canáil fréamhacha ó na fíocháin atá timpeall air. Roimhe seo, ba minic a bhí fiacla tinn nó gortaithe á n-eisiúint. Sa lá atá inniu ann, fiú má bhíonn an phulpa i gceann de do fhiacla gortaithe nó ionfhabhtaithe, is minic gur féidir an fiaclóir a shábháil trí chóireáil chanála (endodontic). Tá droch-cháil ag baint le Canálaí Root thar na blianta mar gheall ar nós imeachta pianmhar a bheith acu. Níl sé seo fíor. Is é an leigheas atá ag Canálaí Root ná pian fiacla a bhíonn pianmhar uaireanta a tharla mar gheall ar ionfhabhtú nó díobháil ar phlúb an fiacla. Is minic a bhíonn na hothair sásta agus iontas orthu cé chomh compordach is atá siad don nós imeachta seo.

|AG_Net provides a cross-platform interface to network sockets, DNS and other network-related functions. Available backends include "bsd", "dummy", "winsock1" and "winsock2". The default backend is selected based on present platform capabilities.| The AG_NetResolve() function looks up a specified host hostname and port number (or service name) port. If the lookup is successful, the results are returned as a list of addresses. Optional flags include: The AG_NetGetIfConfig() function returns the list of addresses associated with local network interfaces (i.e., the list of addresses that would be displayed by ifconfig(8) under Unix). If the call is unsupported on the present platform, the function returns NULL. The AG_NetAddrList structure stores a list of network addresses. The AG_NetAddrListNew() function returns an empty, newly allocated list, AG_NetAddrListClear() removes all addresses from the given list and AG_NetAddrListFree() releases all resources allocated by the list. The AG_NetAddr structure stores a single network address and a port number. The AG_NetAddrNew() function returns a newly-allocated address. AG_NetAddrDup() returns a newly-allocated duplicate of a. AG_NetAddrCompare() evaluates to 0 if a and b represent the same address and port, otherwise a non-zero value (suitable for sorting) is returned. AG_NetAddrIsAny() returns 1 if the address represents "*" (any address). The AG_NetAddrNumerical() function returns a pointer to an (internally-managed) string buffer containing a numerical representation of the address. The buffer will remains valid until the AG_NetAddr is freed. The AG_NetAddrFree() routine destroys all resources allocated by a. The AG_NetSocketNew() function creates an endpoint for communication, returning a socket descriptor on success. The af argument indicates the address family of the socket: The proto argument is an optional protocol number (see protocols(5)). The type argument may be set to: The AG_NetSocketFree() function closes a socket, releasing all associated resources. The AG_NetConnect() call establishes a connection between sock and a remote host (specified as a list containing one or more addresses to try). The AG_NetBind() call assigns a local protocol address addr, to the socket sock. The AG_NetAccept() function should be called on a socket that was previously assigned a local address. From the queue of pending connections, AG_NetAccept() extracts the first connection request and returns a newly-created socket for the connection. The AG_NetClose() routine closes the connection on sock (without destroying the socket). The AG_NetRead() and AG_NetWrite() routines move data between the socket and a specified buffer data of size bytes. On success, 0 is returned, and the number of bytes successfully read/written is returned in the nRead and nWrite argument (which can be NULL). The AG_NetGetOption() function returns the current value of the socket option opt into data. AG_NetSetOption() sets the specified socket option to the contents of data. The AG_NetGetOptionInt() and AG_NetSetOptionInt() shorthands accept integer arguments for int socket options. Available socket options are as follows (unless indicated otherwise, int is the data type). The argument to AG_NET_ACCEPTFILTER is defined as follows: POLLING AND SOCKET SETS

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Soláthraíonn AG_Net comhéadan tras-ardán do shóicéid líonra, DNS agus feidhmeanna eile a bhaineann le líonra. I measc na gcúlchríochnaithe atá ar fáil tá "bsd", "dummy", "winsock1" agus "winsock2". Roghnaítear an cúlchríoch réamhshocraithe bunaithe ar chumas an ardáin reatha. Féachann an fheidhm AG_NetResolve() le hainm óstach agus uimhir chalafoirt (nó ainm seirbhíse) óstach sonraithe. Má tá an cuardach rathúil, déantar na torthaí a thabhairt ar ais mar liosta de sheoladh. I measc na mbratach roghnacha tá: Tugann an fheidhm AG_NetGetIfConfig() liosta na seoltaí a bhaineann le comhéadan líonra áitiúil (i.e., liosta na seoltaí a thaispeánfaí ag ifconfig(8) faoi Unix). Má tá an glao gan tacaíocht ar an ardán reatha, déanann an fheidhm NULL a thabhairt ar ais. Stórálann struchtúr AG_NetAddrList liosta de sheoladh líonra. Tugann an fheidhm AG_NetAddrListNew() liosta folamh, nua-leithdháilte ar ais, cuireann AG_NetAddrListClear() na seoltaí go léir as an liosta ar leith agus cuireann AG_NetAddrListFree() na hacmhainní go léir a leithdháil an liosta ar fáil. Stórálann struchtúr AG_NetAddr seoladh líonra amháin agus uimhir phort. Tugann an fheidhm AG_NetAddrNew() seoladh nua-a leithdháilte ar ais. AG_NetAddrDup() a aisíocann dúbailt nua-a leithdháilte de a. AG_NetAddrCompare (() luachann sé 0 má léiríonn a agus b an seoladh agus an calafort céanna, ar shlí eile déantar luach neamh-null (oiriúnach le haghaidh rangú) a thabhairt ar ais. AG_NetAddrIsAny() a aisíocann 1 má léiríonn an seoladh "*" (aon seoladh). Tugann an fheidhm AG_NetAddrNumerical() pointeoir ar ais chuig buiféir sraithe (a bhainistítear go hinmheánach) ina bhfuil léiriú uimhriúil ar an seoladh. Fanfaidh an buffer bailí go dtí go scaoiltear an AG_NetAddr. Déanann an AG_NetAddrFree() gnáthamh gach acmhainn a leithdháiltear ag a. Cruthaíonn an fheidhm AG_NetSocketNew (()) pointe deiridh don chumarsáid, ag filleadh tuairisceoir soicéad ar rath. Léiríonn argóint af teaghlach seoltaí an soicéad: Is uimhir prótacail roghnach é an argóint prótacail (féach prótacail ((5)). Is féidir an argóint cineál a shocrú go: Dúnann an fheidhm AG_NetSocketFree (() soicéad, ag scaoileadh na hacmhainní go léir a bhaineann leis. Bunaíonn glao AG_NetConnect (() nasc idir sock agus óstach iargúlta (a shonraítear mar liosta ina bhfuil seoladh amháin nó níos mó le triail a bhaint as). Cuirtear seoladh prótacail áitiúil, addr, leis an soicéad soicéad ag glao AG_NetBind (). Ba cheart an fheidhm AG_NetAccept (() a ghlaoch ar soicéad a raibh seoladh áitiúil sannta roimhe sin. Ón sraith de naisc atá ag fanacht, AG_NetAccept() aistarraingíonn an chéad iarraidh nasc agus a aisíocann soicéad nua-chruthaithe don nasc. Dúnann an AG_NetClose() an nasc ar an soicéad (gan an soicéad a scriosadh). Cuireann na gnáthaimh AG_NetRead ((() agus AG_NetWrite ((() sonraí idir an soicéad agus sonraí buiféir sonraithe de bhaitéanna méid. Má éiríonn leis, déantar 0 a thabhairt ar ais, agus déantar líon na mbíthe a léitear/a scríobhtar go rathúil a thabhairt ar ais san argóint nRead agus nWrite (a d'fhéadfadh a bheith NULL). Tugann an fheidhm AG_NetGetOption ()) luach reatha an rogha soicéad opt isteach i sonraí. AG_NetSetOption (() socraíonn sé an rogha soicéad sonraithe do ábhar na sonraí. Glacann na gearrthosca AG_NetGetOptionInt (() agus AG_NetSetOptionInt (() argóintí iomlána do roghanna soicéad int. Is iad na roghanna soicéad atá ar fáil mar seo a leanas (mura léirítear a mhalairt, is é int an cineál sonraí). Saineofar an argóint do AG_NET_ACCEPTFILTER mar seo a leanas: SETanna POILÍN agus SOCET

Sunday the Governor of South Carolina explained that the state has not seen the current level of flooding in 1000 years. I doubt that was what she was told. But I understand how she might have heard it. Monday morning’s headline in USA Today was 1,000-YEAR STORM SLAMS S.C. The millennial reference was not explained. ‘1,000-year’ rain floods South Carolina, and it’s not over yet is how the CNN website headlined their video-and-text reporting. The text-based version includes, “A “1,000-year rainfall” means that the amount of rainfall in South Carolina has a 1-in-1,000 chance of happening in any given year, CNN meteorologist Taylor Ward said.” A thousand-year-flood or a hundred-year-flood are shorthand descriptions for the annual exceedance probability for such a flood-event. Too often this is heard, as by the governor, as suggesting it has been a very long time since such an event and — of even more concern from a public understanding and public policy perspective — it will be a very long time until such an event recurs. Here’s how the U.S. Geological Survey explains exceedance probabilities: In the 1960’s, the United States government decided to use the 1-percent annual exceedance probability (AEP) flood as the basis for the National Flood Insurance Program. The 1-percent AEP flood was thought to be a fair balance between protecting the public and overly stringent regulation. Because the 1-percent AEP flood has a 1 in 100 chance of being equaled or exceeded in any 1 year, and it has an average recurrence interval of 100 years, it often is referred to as the “100-year flood”. Scientists and engineers frequently use statistical probability (chance) to put a context to floods and their occurrence. If the probability of a particular flood magnitude being equaled or exceeded is known, then risk can be assessed. To determine these probabilities all the annual peak streamflow values measured at a streamgage are examined. A streamgage is a location on a river where the height of the water and the quantity of flow (streamflow) are recorded. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) operates more than 7,500 streamgages nationwide (see map) that allow for assessment of the probability of floods. Examining all the annual peak streamflow values that occurred at a streamgage with time allows us to estimate the AEP for various flood magnitudes. For example, we can say there is a 1 in 100 chance that next year’s flood will equal or exceed the 1-percent AEP flood. More recently, people talk about larger floods, such as the “500- year flood,” as tolerance for risk is reduced and increased protection from flooding is desired. The “500-year flood” corresponds to an AEP of 0.2 percent, which means a flood of that size or greater has a 0.2-percent chance (or 1 in 500 chance) of occurring in a given year. I have done some modest work with the Charleston, South Carolina region on community resilience. They have been concerned about flooding and especially the potential impact of a strong hurricane. The current storm has been “just” a rain event, but it has exposed — again — many of the vulnerabilities of concern to the community. Even without strong winds and storm surge, massive volume and high tides have been destructive enough. The greatest challenge in Charleston — and everywhere else I have ever worked — is a strong tendency to diminish attention to what are perceived as rare risks. Too often I have seen individuals and organizations decide that since they just experienced something exceedingly rare they have essentially been indemnified from future losses. Rather, at least in many coastal communities, there is good cause — data-driven and statistically sound — to reasonably assume that this weekend’s extremes will recur with increasing frequency in the next hundred years. Instead of indemnifying, it is just a down payment. Late Monday USA Today reported: The biblical flooding in South Carolina is at least the sixth so-called 1-in-1,000 year rain event in the U.S. since 2010, a trend that may be linked to factors ranging from the natural, such as a strong El Niño, to the man-made, namely climate change. So many “1-in-1,000 year” rainfalls is unprecedented, said meteorologist Steve Bowen of Aon Benfield, a global reinsurance firm. “We have certainly had our fair share in the United States in recent years, and any increasing trend in these type of rainfall events is highly concerning,” Bowen said. TUESDAY MORNING UPDATE: Yikes! Here are the two opening sentences and the closing sentence of the lead editorial in the October 6 Charleston Post and Courier: Catastrophic rainstorms like this one happen only every thousand years, climate and weather experts explained as unprecedented flooding forced people out of their homes, closed roads and submerged stalled vehicles. One can only hope that assessment holds true… We must work to prepare for the next disaster, even if it doesn’t happen for a thousand years. The P&C is a much better than average daily newspaper. When they get this so very wrong, we can be sure most other folks will too.

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Dé Domhnaigh mhínigh Gobharnóir Carolina Theas nach bhfaca an stát an leibhéal reatha tuile i 1000 bliain. Tá amhras orm gurbh é sin a dúradh léi. Ach tuigim conas a d'fhéadfadh sí a bheith chuala sé. Bhí ceannlínte maidin Dé Luain i USA Today 1,000-YEAR STORM SLAMS S.C. Níor mhíníodh an tagairt do mhíle bliain. 1,000-bhliain rain floods South Carolina, agus is Ní thar fós is é an chaoi a bhfuil an suíomh Gréasáin CNN headlined a gcuid tuairisceáin físeán-agus-téacs. Ciallaíonn an leagan téacsbhunaithe, 1,000-bliain de thith go bhfuil seans 1 i 1,000 ag an méid báistí i Carolina Theas tarlú in aon bhliain ar bith, a dúirt meitéareolaí CNN Taylor Ward. Is iad tuile míle bliain nó tuile céad bliain tuairiscí gearrthóireachta do dóchúlacht na sárú bliantúil d'imeacht tuile den sórt sin. Is minic a chloiseann tú é seo, mar a dúirt an gobharnóir, ag rá go bhfuil sé an-fhada ó tharla an ócáid sin agus níos mó imní ó thaobh tuiscint phoiblí agus beartas poiblí de beidh sé an-fhada go dtí go dtarlóidh an ócáid sin arís. Seo mar a mhíníonn Suirbhé Geolaíochta na Stát Aontaithe dóchúlacht na sárú: Sna 1960idí, shocraigh rialtas na Stát Aontaithe an tiontú bliantúil 1 faoin gcéad (AEP) a úsáid mar bhunús don Chlár Árachais Náisiúnta Tuilte. Measadh go raibh an tuile AEP 1 faoin gcéad ina chothromaíocht cheart idir an pobal a chosaint agus rialachán ró-dhíreach. Toisc go bhfuil seans 1 i 100 ag tuile AEP 1 faoin gcéad a bheith comhionann nó níos mó ná aon bhliain amháin, agus tá eatramh athfhillteach meán de 100 bliain aige, is minic a thugtar ar an tuile 100-bhliain é. Is minic a úsáideann eolaithe agus innealtóirí dóchúlacht staidrimh (scéal) chun comhthéacs a chur le tuilte agus a dtarlaíonn. Má tá a fhios ag an dóchúlacht go mbeidh méid tuile áirithe comhionann nó níos mó ná sin, ansin is féidir an riosca a mheas. Chun na dóchúlachtaí seo a chinneadh, scrúdaítear na luachanna bliantúla is airde sruthshruth a thomhas ag gabháil sruthshruth. Is éard atá i gclár-chomhshrutha ná áit ar abhainn ina ndéantar airde an uisce agus méid an srutha (sruth srutha) a thaifeadadh. Oibríonn Suirbhé Geolaíochta na Stát Aontaithe (USGS) níos mó ná 7,500 geimhridh ar fud na tíre (féach léarscáil) a ligeann measúnú a dhéanamh ar dóchúlacht tuilte. Ag scrúdú gach luach barr-sreabhadh bliantúil a tharla ag streamgage le himeacht ama, is féidir linn an AEP a mheas do mhéideanna éagsúla tuile. Mar shampla, is féidir linn a rá go bhfuil seans 1 i 100 go mbeidh tuile na bliana seo chugainn comhionann nó níos mó ná tuile AEP 1 faoin gcéad. Níos déanaí, labhraíonn daoine faoi thuilte níos mó, mar shampla an tuilte 500-bhliana, de réir mar a laghdaítear an t-idirghabháil le riosca agus is mian leo cosaint níos mó ó thuilte. Freagraíonn an 500-bhliain tuile le AEP de 0.2 faoin gcéad, rud a chiallaíonn go bhfuil seans 0.2 faoin gcéad (nó seans 1 i 500) ag tuile den mhéid sin nó níos mó a tharlaíonn i mbliain ar leith. Rinne mé roinnt oibre measartha le réigiún Charleston, Carolina Theas ar athléimneacht pobail. Tá imní orthu faoi shárú agus go háirithe an tionchar a d'fhéadfadh a bheith ag hurricane láidir. Ní raibh sa stoirm reatha ach ócáid báistí, ach nocht sé arís go leor de na leochaileachtaí a bhaineann le imní don phobal. Fiú gan gaotha láidir agus tonnta stoirme, bhí méid ollmhór agus ard-thaibhse dochreidte go leor. Is é an dúshlán is mó i Charleston - agus in aon áit eile a d'oibrigh mé riamh - ná claonadh láidir aird a laghdú ar na rioscaí a mheastar a bheith annamh. Go minic, chonaic mé daoine aonair agus eagraíochtaí ag cinneadh go bhfuil siad, toisc gur tharla rud thar a bheith neamhchoitianta dóibh, díothraithe ó chaillteanais amach anseo. Ina áit sin, ar a laghad i go leor pobail chósta, tá cúis mhaith ann - bunaithe ar shonraí agus le bonn staidrimh - a mheas go réasúnta go dtarlóidh na foircinn an deireadh seachtaine seo le minicíocht méadaithe sna céad bliain amach romhainn. In ionad cúiteamh a dhéanamh, ní hé ach íocaíocht tosaigh. Dé Luain déanach, thuairiscigh USA Today: Is é an tuile biblical i Carolina Theas an séú rud ar a laghad ar a dtugtar 1 i 1,000 bliain imeacht báistí sna Stáit Aontaithe ó 2010, treocht a d'fhéadfadh a bheith nasctha le tosca a théann ó na nádúrtha, mar shampla El Niño láidir, go dtí an duine-dhéanta, is é sin athrú aeráide. Níl aon bhrú báistí chomh mór sin 1 in 1,000 bliain riamh roimhe, a dúirt an meitéareolaí Steve Bowen de Aon Benfield, cuideachta athárachais domhanda. Tá an méid sin againn sna Stáit Aontaithe le blianta beaga anuas, agus tá aon treocht méadaithe sna cineálacha seo de thorthaí báistí an-imní, a dúirt Bowen. UPDATE maidin Dé Máirt: Yikes! Seo an dá abairt oscailte agus an abairt deiridh den phríomh-eagarthóir i bPósta agus Courier Charleston an 6 Deireadh Fómhair: Ní tharlaíonn stoirmeacha báistí tubaisteach mar seo ach gach míle bliain, a mhínigh saineolaithe aeráide agus aimsire mar a chuir tuilte gan fasach daoine as a dtithe, bóithre dúnta agus feithiclí stoptacha faoi uisce. Ní féidir ach a bheith dóchasach go bhfuil an measúnú sin fíor... Ní mór dúinn oibriú chun ullmhú don chéad tubaiste eile, fiú mura dtarlóidh sé ar feadh míle bliain. Tá an P&C i bhfad níos fearr ná an meánghnótha nuachtán laethúil. Nuair a fhaigheann siad seo chomh dona, is féidir linn a bheith cinnte go mbeidh an chuid is mó daoine eile chomh maith.

The latest in DARPA’s ever-evolving line of headless robots is this cheetah right here. Clocking in at 18 miles per hour, it’s the fastest land robot ever. Watch it go to work on that treadmill! Cheetah comes from the same collaboration, Boston Dynamics and DARPA, that brought you BigDog and AlphaDog. They aren’t as fast, but what they lack in speed, they make up for in resilience. If you need someone—erh, some robot—to carry heavy loads across rough terrains, these robot “dogs” are the way to go. For the better part of a century, antibiotics have given doctors great powers to cure all sorts of bacterial infections. But due to bacteria’s nasty habit of evolving, along with widespread overuse of these drugs, disease-causing bacteria are evolving antibiotic resistance at an alarming rate, making it much harder, and at times impossible, to wipe them out. DARPA, the military’s research agency, is eyeing an innovative solution to the problem: Rather than struggling to make better antibiotics, ditch them altogether. It may be time to start killing bacteria a whole new way. What’s the News: Nature invented the wheel a good long time before we did: just look at the crazy antics of the mother-of-pearl moth caterpillar, which, when attacked, springs into an airborne coil in less than 60 milliseconds, spinning and twisting in the air like a snake from a can. Now robotics researchers have build a caterpillar robot that mimics that behavior, providing insight into how caterpillars manage it and suggesting new uses for some types of robots. What’s the News: DARPA wants to fund research into technologies that could be built into the genome of microorganisms and keep track of any changes made to the organism’s genes, according a call for proposals the agency made earlier this month. In other words, DARPA wants to “turn on Track Changes” in certain viruses and bacteria. What’s the Context: How the Heck: No idea. And, judging by its description, DARPA isn’t too sure either. The agency is asking for “multidisciplinary research proposals” and gives a nod to “possibly utilizing a cryptographical or complex mathematical approach.” Image: Wellcome Images / Peter Artymiuk The next time you enjoy the sight of a hummingbird in a garden, you might want to look twice–because it could be the government’s new avian-inspired drone. Dubbed “Nano Hummingbird,” this camera-toting, remote-controlled surveillance tool is the latest gadget to fly out the doors of DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Project Agency). Commissioned by the Pentagon in 2006 and designed by AeroVironment, this bird-drone’s abilities match its $4 million price tag: It flies forward, backward, and sideways, and it can even hover in mid-air. That’s not bad for a battery-powered, 6.5-inch long bundle of communication systems and motors that weighs in at two-thirds of an ounce. “We’ve achieved what our customer asked us to,” AeroVironment Vice President Steve Gitlin told TIME Magazine. But with the robot’s maximum speed clocking in at 11 miles per hour, natural hummingbirds can fly circles around this bot. DARPA hopes Nano Hummingbird could eventually be used as an extra eye on the battlefield. New sea creatures, humongous stars, and cockroach antibiotics: Those are just a few reader favorites from this year in science. As 2010 comes to a close, we bring you a dozen of the most popular 80beats posts of the year. For more great stories from the year in science, check out DISCOVER’s Top 100 Stories of the Year. They may not be as adorable as sugar gliders, but they’re just as accomplished: Five species of Asian snake have also developed the ability to “fly” or glide from tree to tree, flattening out their bodies to travel up to 80 feet. Researcher Jake Socha and his team studied the glide of Chrysopelea paradisi snake and took videos of the snakes in flight, which Socha presented at an ongoing meeting of the American Physical Society. He found that before a snake takes the leap it curls its body into a J-shape, and then launches itself from the tree branch. In the air, it flattens its body and undulates, as if slithering through the air. “The whole snake itself is just one long wing,” Socha said. “That wing is constantly reconfiguring, it’s constantly reforming and contorting.” [LiveScience] Hit the jump for a video of the snake in action. For DARPA, the secretive military research agency, it’s not enough for a prosthetic limb to simply resemble a normal one, or for a patient to be able to move it through some remote control. DARPA-backed engineers are attempting to build a system in which peripheral nerves would be reattached to artificial limbs, which could send signals to a brain sensor that could reply. This would be a vast improvement over prosthetics that require conscious directives, and could turn a prosthetic into something that responds the way an ordinary limb would. Darpa’s after a prosthetic that can record motor-sensory signals right from peripheral nerves (those that are severed when a limb is lost) and then transmit responding feedback signals from the brain. That means an incredibly sensitive platform, “capable of detecting sufficiently strong motor-control signals and distinguishing them from sensory signals and other confounding signals,” in a region packed tightly with nerves. Once signals are detected, they’ll be decoded by algorithms and transmitted to the brain, where a user’s intended movements would be recoded and transmitted back to the prosthetic. [Wired.com] According to the team behind the system at Johns Hopkins University’s Applied Physics Laboratory, tests on monkeys have shown that the primates have remarkable success controlling a prosthesis through a cortical chip implanted in their brains, and researchers have undertaken some human tests. What remains to be seen, though, is how much dexterity people can get through this process. “Don’t shoot until you see the whites of their eyes,” American revolutionaries supposedly yelled at the Battle of Bunker Hill. Legend has it that the rebels were trying to conserve ammunition, given the inaccuracy of their 18th century guns. But things have come a long way since 1775. With DARPA‘s new “One Shot” sniper system [PDF], scheduled to be in soldier’s hands by the fall of 2011, the U.S. military will give snipers the ability to take out an enemy at a distance of .7 miles in winds around 10 to 20 miles per hour. Military brass hopes the system will give snipers a perfect shot at least six times out of ten. The One Shot system still wouldn’t come close to matching the record for shooting accuracy: In November of last year, British Army sniper Corporal Craig Harrison made two shots at a distance of 1.53 miles in Helmand Province, Afghanistan. But Harrison modestly thanked perfect shooting conditions: no wind, great visibility, and mild weather. The DARPA program aims to give soldiers the technology to hit a target despite adverse conditions. Lately we’ve been covering the doings of DARPA, the Defense Department’s mad scientist wing that conducts kooky scavenger hunts and loses hypersonic gliders. But today the focus is on the Advanced Research Project Agency-Energy (ARPA-E)—an agency President Obama created last year to foster research on creative alternative energy projects rather than futuristic weaponry. ARPA-E, which is part of the $787 billion American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, announced this week grants totaling $106 million. The first of the three groups of projects funded by the ARPA-E uses microorganisms to create liquid fuels. Most of the leading fourth-generation biofuel companies that utilize bio-chemical approaches are modifying the genetic structure of the organism to transform a sugar substrate and secrete either pure “drop in” fuels like diesel, gasoline, or jet fuel, or gasoline substitutes like ethanol or biobutanol [Greentech Media]. The microorganisms in the liquid-fuel experiments need electricity to produce fuel, but many of the researchers are devising ways to use solar energy as the power source so the projects can use renewable fuels to create renewable fuels.

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Is é an ceann is déanaí i líne leanúnach éabhlóideach DARPA de róbaistí gan cheann an cheetah seo anseo. Ag clocáil isteach ag 18 míle san uair, is é an robot talún is tapúla riamh. Féach ar dul ag obair ar an treadmill! Tagann Cheetah ón gcomhar céanna, Boston Dynamics agus DARPA, a thug BigDog agus AlphaDog chugat. Níl siad chomh tapa, ach an rud a bhfuil a easpa acu i luas, a dhéanamh suas le haghaidh i athléimneacht. Má theastaíonn duine uait, robot éigin chun ualach trom a iompar ar thalamh garbh, is iad na "dóg" robot seo an bealach le dul. Le leath den chéad bliain anuas, tá na haithibhreacáin tar éis cumhacht mhór a thabhairt do dhochtúirí chun gach cineál ionfhabhtuithe baictéaracha a leigheas. Ach mar gheall ar an gnáthamh olc atá ag baictéir éabhlóidithe, mar aon le ró-úsáid forleathan na gcógas seo, tá baictéir a chuireann galar ag teacht chun cinn ag frithsheasmhacht in aghaidh antaibheathaigh ar ráta uafásach, rud a fhágann go bhfuil sé i bhfad níos deacra, agus uaireanta dodhéanta, iad a scriosadh. Tá DARPA, gníomhaireacht taighde na míleata, ag súil le réiteach nuálach ar an bhfadhb: In ionad streachailt chun antaibheathaigh níos fearr a dhéanamh, scaoileadh iad go hiomlán. B'fhéidir go bhfuil sé in am tosú ag marú baictéir ar bhealach nua go hiomlán. Cad é an Nuacht: D'fhorbair an Dúlra an roth fada roimh dúinn: féach ar an antics crazy an caterpillar moth-máthair-pearl, a, nuair a ionsaí, springs isteach i spoil aerfoirt i níos lú ná 60 milliseconds, spinning agus twisting san aer cosúil le nathair ó d'fhéadfadh. Anois tá taighdeoirí róbataí tar éis róbat caterpillar a thógáil a dhéanann aithris ar an ngníomh sin, rud a thugann léargas ar an gcaoi a ndéanann caterpillars é a bhainistiú agus a mholtar úsáidí nua do roinnt cineálacha róbataí. Cad é an Nuacht: Ba mhaith le DARPA taighde a mhaoiniú ar theicneolaíochtaí a d'fhéadfaí a thógáil isteach i ngínóm micreorganismí agus a choinneáil ar an eolas faoi aon athruithe a dhéantar ar ghíní na n-orgánach, de réir glao ar thograí a rinne an ghníomhaireacht níos luaithe an mhí seo. I bhfocail eile, ba mhaith le DARPA "athruithe ar rianú" a chur ar aghaidh i víris agus baictéir áirithe. Cad é an Comhthéacs: Conas an Heck: Níl aon smaoineamh. Agus, ag breithiúnas óna thuairisc, DARPA nach bhfuil ró-chinnte ar an oiread. Tá an ghníomhaireacht ag iarraidh tograí taighde ildisciplíneacha agus tugann sí a n-aigne chun is féidir úsáid a bhaint as cur chuige criptografach nó matamaiticiúil casta. Grianghraf: Íomhánna Wellcome / Peter Artymiuk An chéad uair eile a thaitníonn tú le radharc hummingbird i gclós, b'fhéidir gur mhaith leat breathnú dhá uair - toisc go bhféadfadh sé a bheith ina drón nua an rialtais a spreagadh ag éan. Is é an uirlis faireachais iompróra, atá á rialú go cianda, a thugtar 'Nano Hummingbird' air, an uirlis is déanaí a thit amach as doirse DARPA (Gníomhaireacht Tionscadal Taighde Ard-Leasa na Cosanta). Ar choimisiúnú ag an bPentagon i 2006 agus deartha ag AeroVironment, comhoiriúnaíonn na cumais seo le $ 4 milliún praghas an phaisinéara: Téann sé ar aghaidh, ar ais, agus ar thaobh, agus is féidir leis a bheith ag snámh i lár an aeir. Ní olc é sin le haghaidh pacáiste de chórais cumarsáide agus mótair a thiomáint le ceallraí, atá 6.5-orlach ar fhad agus a mheastar go bhfuil dhá thrian de unsa ann. "Táimid tar éis a bhaint amach a d'iarr ár gcustaiméir orainn", a dúirt Leas-Uachtarán AeroVironment Steve Gitlin le TIME Magazine. Ach leis an luas uasta an róbata ag 11 míle san uair, is féidir le hummingbirds nádúrtha dul i gciorcal timpeall an róbata seo. Tá súil ag DARPA go bhféadfaí Nano Hummingbird a úsáid sa deireadh mar shúil bhreise ar an bpáirc cath. Ní raibh aon rud ann a chuirfeadh ar an eolas faoi na créatúir mara nua, na réaltaí ollmhóra, agus na hidirbhithiúnais do bhratha: Ní raibh ach cúpla ceann de na rudaí a bhí ar spéis ag an léitheoir sa eolaíocht i mbliana. De réir mar a thagann 2010 chun críche, tugann muid duit an iliomad de na poist 80beats is mó tóir ar an mbliain. Chun tuilleadh scéalta iontacha a fháil ón mbliain i eolaíocht, féach ar DISCOVER's Top 100 Stories of the Year. B'fhéidir nach bhfuil siad chomh adorable mar gliaders siúcra, ach tá siad díreach chomh cumasach: Tá cúig speiceas de nathair na hÁise tar éis an cumas a fhorbairt freisin chun "eitilt" nó gliú ó chrainn go crann, ag pléascadh amach a gcorp chun taisteal suas le 80 troigh. Rinne an taighdeoir Jake Socha agus a fhoireann staidéar ar an sleamhnú de chrysopelea paradisi nath agus thóg siad físeáin de na nathracha ag eitilt, a chuir Socha i láthair ag cruinniú leanúnach de Chomhlacht Fisice Mheiriceá. Fuair sé amach go ndéanann nathair a gcorp a chraobhú i gcruth J sula ndéanann siad an léim, agus ansin scaiptear iad féin as brainse na craoibhe. Sa t-aer, déanann sé a chorp a phláintiú agus a thréimhseáil, amhail is dá mba ag sleamhnú tríd an aer. "Ní bhíonn an nathair iomlán ina aonad ach aon sciath fada amháin", a dúirt Socha. Tá an sciath ag athchomhdhéanamh i gcónaí, tá sé ag athchóiriú agus ag cur isteach i gcónaí. [LiveScience] Cliceáil ar an léim le haghaidh físeán den nathair i ngníomh. Maidir le DARPA, an ghníomhaireacht taighde míleata rúnda, ní leor go bhfuil cos próitéiseach cosúil le ceann gnáth, nó go mbeidh othair in ann é a bhogadh trí rialú iargúlta. Tá innealtóirí atá á dtacaíocht ag DARPA ag iarraidh córas a thógáil ina ndéanfaí néaróga imill a athcheangal le gaolta saorga, rud a d'fhéadfadh comharthaí a sheoladh chuig brainseasóir a d'fhéadfadh freagairt. Bheadh seo ina fheabhsú mór thar próitéis a éilíonn treoracha feasach, agus d'fhéadfadh próitéis a athrú ina rud a fhreagraíonn ar an mbealach a d'fhéadfadh a bheith ag gairm gnáth. Darpas tar éis próitéis a d'fhéadfadh a thaifeadadh comharthaí mótar-sensory díreach ó nerves forimeallach (na cinn a ghearradh nuair a cailleadh lámh nó lámh) agus ansin a tharchur comharthaí a fhreagairt ar ais ón inchinn. Ciallaíonn sé sin ardán thar a bheith íogair, "a bhfuil sé in ann comharthaí mótair-rialú atá láidir go leor a bhrath agus iad a idirdhealú ó chomharthaí braite agus comharthaí mearbhall eile", i réigiún atá lán de na néaróga. Nuair a bhrathfar comharthaí, déanfaidh algartam iad a dhíchódú agus a tharchur chuig an inchinn, áit a ndéanfaí gluaiseachtaí atá beartaithe ag úsáideoir a athchódú agus a tharchur ar ais chuig an próitéis. [Wired.com] De réir na foirne atá taobh thiar den chóras ag John Hopkins University's Applied Physics Laboratory, tá tástálacha ar mhúnlaí tar éis a thaispeáint go bhfuil rath suntasach ag na primates ag rialú próitéis trí scip cortical a chuirtear ina n-inchinn, agus rinne taighdeoirí roinnt tástálacha daonna. Is é an rud atá le feiceáil, áfach, cé chomh cliste is féidir le daoine a bheith tríd an bpróiseas seo. "Ná shoot go dtí go bhfeiceann tú an bán a súile", American réabhlóideach a shocraigh a shocraigh ag Cath Bunker Hill. Deir an finscéal go raibh na reibiliúnaithe ag iarraidh gunnaí a chaomhnú, mar gheall ar neamhchruinníocht a n-gunnaí an 18ú haois. Ach tá dul chun cinn mór tagtha ó 1775 i leith. Le córas nua sniper DARPA "One Shot" [PDF], atá sceidealta a bheith i lámha saighdiúir faoi titim 2011, tabharfaidh míleata na Stát Aontaithe an cumas do snipers namhaid a bhaint amach ag fad .7 míle i gaotha thart ar 10 go 20 míle san uair. Tá súil ag na haighneoirí go dtabharfaidh an córas lámhaigh foirfe do snaighneoirí sé uair as deich mbliana ar a laghad. Ní bheadh an córas One Shot fós in ann an taifead a chomhlíonadh maidir le cruinneas lámhach: I mí na Samhna an bhliain seo caite, rinne an saighdiúir saighdiúir na Breataine, an Caporal Craig Harrison, dhá shots ar fad 1.53 míle i gCúige Helmand, an Afganastáin. Ach buíochas leis an gcineál seo de shláinte, bhí Harrison ag iarraidh a bheith in ann an t-am a chaitheamh ag lámhach a dhéanamh: gan gaoth, le radharc iontach agus le aimsir mhaol. Tá sé mar aidhm ag clár DARPA an teicneolaíocht a thabhairt do shaighdiúirí chun sprioc a bhualadh in ainneoin coinníollacha díobhálacha. Le déanaí bhí muid ag clúdach na doings de DARPA, na Roinne Cosanta's scileanna mad scileanna a dhéanann scavenger caitheamh kooky agus cailleann gliders hipearsanic. Ach inniu tá an fócas ar an Advanced Research Project Agency-Energy (ARPA-E) - gníomhaireacht a chruthaigh an tUachtarán Obama an bhliain seo caite chun taighde a chothú ar thionscadail fuinnimh malartacha cruthaitheacha seachas arm futurist. D'fhógair ARPA-E, atá mar chuid den Acht um Athshlánú agus Athinfheistíocht Mheiriceá $ 787 billiún, deontais ar fiú $ 106 milliún iad an tseachtain seo. Baineann an chéad cheann de na trí ghrúpa tionscadal a mhaoiníonn ARPA-E úsáid as micreorganisimh chun breoslaí leachtacha a chruthú. Tá formhór na gcuideachtaí príomhfheoil bithbhreosla an ceathrú glúin a úsáideann cur chuige bithcheimiceach ag modhnú struchtúr géiniteach an ainmhí chun substrát siúcra a athrú agus drop in breoslaí íon mar díosail, gásailín, nó breosla eitilte, nó ionadaithe gásailín mar eitánól nó bithbhutanól a scaoileadh [Meáin Greentech]. Na miocrorgánaigh i dturgnamh le breosla leachtacha gá le leictreachas chun breosla a tháirgeadh, ach tá go leor de na taighdeoirí ag invent modhanna a úsáid fuinnimh gréine mar an fhoinse cumhachta ionas gur féidir leis na tionscadail breosla in-athnuaite a úsáid chun breosla in-athnuaite a chruthú.

Science at the end of the earth Ny-Ålesund is the most northerly permanent civilian settlement in the world. Here, at 79°N, twenty nations are conducting research projects, and now Ny-Ålesund is full. It’s an autumn evening in Ny-Ålesund in Svalbard and the normal working day is long over, but in a second-floor office in the Sverdrup station, a glaciologist is still immersed in his work. “It’s essential to spend my time here as effectively as possible, which makes for very long working days,” Jack Kohler explains. Kohler is the fourth scientist from the Norwegian Polar Institute, in a row to be monitoring mass movements on the glaciers around Kongsfjorden. The Norwegian Polar Institute has been taking measurements on these glaciers ever since 1967, which makes the data series one of the longest in Arctic regions. The Norwegian Mapping Authority’s geodetic earth observatory must tolerate harsh conditions. The new observatory is being constructed down the hill, north of the existing station. His main project has involved measuring the changes in the glaciers, how much snow falls on the glaciers in winter and how much melts in summer. Twice a year, Kohler comes from the Norwegian Polar Institute’s head office in Tromsø to the Institute’s research station in Ny-Ålesund. In the winter, he and his assistants set out collapsible aluminium rods, and the following autumn he returns to measure how much ice and snow have melted. The thickness of the glaciers ranges from 50-60 to 600 metres. “The glaciers are definitively getting smaller, and most of that is due to the increase in temperatures in Svalbard. Even though it can snow a lot on the glaciers in winter, that doesn’t compensate for the increasing temperature,” says Kohler. To get to and from the Kongsbreen and Kronebreen glaciers in the autumn, the scientists use a helicopter. In winter, they mostly use snow scooters, provided the glacier is within two hours’ drive each way. If they need to go further than that, the helicopter is preferable. “The alternative is to set up camp with tents, with everything that involves, including posting a lookout for polar bears. We’ve seen bears on the glaciers a number of times,” Kohler adds. Sverdrup station, inaugurated in 1999, is not the only research station in Ny-Ålesund. Walking through this community, you may be reminded of a district in a much bigger city –namely the streets around the United Nations Headquarters in New York, where countless countries are represented with their buildings. Research projects from twenty nations In 1968, the Norwegian Polar Institute was the first institution to establish an all-year research station. Today, Ny-Ålesund is also home to manned research stations from Germany, France, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, Italy, India, China, South Korea and Japan. Some twenty nations have research projects in and around the world’s northernmost settlement, though not all of these nations have activities year-round. Germany and China do, though. Since 1991, the Alfred Wegener Institute has operated the Koldewey Station, which is engaged in biological and atmospheric research. The Polar Research Institute of China opened the Yellow River Station in 2004, and conducts research on the atmosphere, northern lights, biology, glaciology, geology and marine biology. Above this cluster of research stations soars the mountain Zeppelinfjellet, with the Zeppelin Observatory 475 metres above sea level. This research station is key to monitoring the global atmosphere. The data collected here are central in mapping climate change, changes in stratospheric ozone and UV radiation, and environmental toxins and air pollutants transported over long distances. The station building is owned by the Norwegian Polar Institute, while NILU – the Norwegian Institute for Air Research, has scientific responsibility for the station. And down by the harbour, on Kongsfjorden, lies the well-equipped Marine Laboratory, operated by Kings Bay, the company that runs the entire town. The marine lab was opened 10 years ago, and there is now periodically a waiting list to book working space here. There is currently discussion about erecting a similar laboratory for non-marine scientific disciplines in Ny-Ålesund. Growing need for larger shared laboratories “We need more and larger shared laboratories,” explains Kim Holmén. As a climatologist, previously employed at NILU, and now International Director at the Norwegian Polar Institute, he knows the conditions at Ny-Ålesund extremely well. “This year it’s become quite clear that the marine lab is too small. Several of the research stations have had to resort to improvised workspaces that are far from satisfactory. But here we find several dilemmas cropping up: increased activity will increase the amount of stray light, which can perturb important optic measurements in the winter, but on the other hand, more activity will give Kings Bay stronger economic legs to stand on. The new fibre-optic cable to Ny-Ålesund will mean greater capacity to carry out remote sensing and less need for researchers to be physically present for long periods. At the same time, the cable will result in increased activity. We need to grow in terms of quality rather than in the number of scientists in the village,” says Holmén. Ny-Ålesund, 78°55′00″N 11°56′00″E is the world’s northernmost permanent civilian research station and has developed into what is today a modern, international, Arctic scientific research and environmental monitoring base. Up until 1962, Ny-Ålesund was a coal-mining town, but mining ceased following a major accident. Since 1964, Ny-Ålesund has been built up and developed as a centre of international Arctic research and environmental monitoring. Several countries have research stations in the village. During the summer season, research activity is high and the population mushrooms to 150 people, versus only about 35 in the winter. Several of the Fram Centre’s research institutions have considerable activity in and around Ny-Ålesund: the Norwegian Polar Institute, the Norwegian Mapping Authority, NILU – the Norwegian Institute for Air Research, UiT – the Arctic University of Norway, the University Centre in Svalbard, and the Norwegian Institute for Nature Research. The infrastructure and the Marine Laboratory in Ny-Ålesund are operated by Kings Bay AS. Christina A. Pedersen, research coordinator at the Norwegian Polar Institute, elaborates: “The main problem is that an increase in activity will lead to an increase in emissions. On the one hand, we want to offer the excellent opportunities we have in Ny-Ålesund to all other researchers, but on the other, it is incredibly important that we don’t affect the surroundings and the conditions we’re measuring, so that we draw faulty conclusions as to the causes of observed changes. This is our dilemma.” New observatory to keep track of satellites in polar orbits And while we are talking about size and quality, the decidedly largest project as regards research facilities in Ny-Ålesund is going to be inaugurated in June 2018. The Norwegian Mapping Authority’s new Geodetic Earth Observatory will be the latest addition to a global network of space geodetic stations, which measure and monitor the size and shape of the Earth, its orientation in space, the exact location of points on its surface and how these locations change over time. "From Ny-Ålesund we will combine several geodetic measuring techniques to map the Earth’s motion more accurately, says Per Erik Opseth, head of the Norwegian Mapping Authority's Geodetic Institute. The Norwegian Mapping Authority will monitor changes in the Earth and contribute to providing decision-makers with a framework of reference for climate research, for all mapping of – for satellite orbits – your and my GPS systems, and for navigation and positioning services. After a period of overlap, the existing geodetic antenna by the air strip will be phased out and all data will be acquired at the new observatory. Ny-Ålesund will play host to a station that is one of the foundation stones in the global infrastructure designed to underpin more accurate monitoring of, among other things, sea-ice melt and sea level change. The new station, which will be the northernmost facility of its kind, has an estimated cost of about NOK 300 million. Helge M. Markusson is the Outreach Coordinator at The Fram Centre (FRAM High North Research Centre for Climate and the Environment). Author and columnist. Former newspaper, radio and TV journalist. Has also been involved in a series of smaller and bigger culture projects. Raised in Northern Norway, living in Tromsø, Norway.

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Eolaíocht ag deireadh na cruinne Is í Ny-Ålesund an lonnaíocht shibhialta buan is faide ó thuaidh ar domhan. Anseo, ag 79°N, tá fiche náisiún ag déanamh tionscadal taighde, agus anois tá Ny-Ålesund lán. Is tráthnóna an earraigh é i Ny-Ålesund in Svalbard agus tá an lá oibre gnáth thar a bheith fada, ach i oifig sa dara hurlár i stáisiún Sverdrup, tá glaciologist fós tugtha dá chuid oibre. 'Tá sé ríthábhachtach mo chuid ama a chaitheamh anseo chomh héifeachtach agus is féidir, rud a fhágann go mbíonn laethanta oibre an-fhada agam,' a mhíníonn Jack Kohler. Is é Kohler an ceathrú eolaí ó Institiúid Polair na hIorua, i ndiaidh a chéile a bheidh ag faire ar ghluaiseachtaí mais ar na giléacháin timpeall Kongsfjorden. Tá an Institiúid Polair na hIorua ag tomhas ar na giléacháin seo ó 1967 i leith, rud a fhágann go bhfuil an tsraith sonraí ar cheann de na cinn is faide i réigiúin na hArtaice. Ní mór d'fhoraithneoir geodéiseach na talún de chuid Údarás Mhapála na hIorua fhulaingt ar choinníollacha crua. Tá an faireachán nua á thógáil síos an chnoc, ó thuaidh den stáisiún atá ann cheana. Ba é a phríomhphrojekta ná na hathruithe sna giléacháin a thomhas, cé mhéad sneachta a thiteann ar na giléacháin sa gheimhreadh agus cé mhéad a leá sa samhradh. Dhá uair sa bhliain, téann Kohler ó phríomh-oifig Institiúid Polair na hIorua i Tromsø go dtí stáisiún taighde an Institiúid i Ny-Ålesund. Sa gheimhreadh, leagann sé agus a chuid cúntóirí barraí alúmanaim collapsable amach, agus an t-fhoghar ina dhiaidh sin téann sé ar ais chun a thomhas cé mhéad oighear agus sneachta a thaisceadh. Tá tiús na ngléasraí idir 50-60 agus 600 méadar. Tá na giléirí ag éirí níos lú go cinnte, agus is é an chuid is mó de sin mar gheall ar an méadú ar thimpeachtaí i Svalbard. Cé go bhféadfadh sneachta a bheith go leor ar na géarchéimeanna sa gheimhreadh, ní chuireann sin cúiteamh ar an teocht atá ag méadú, a deir Kohler. Chun dul go dtí agus ó na glasraí Kongsbreen agus Kronebreen san earrach, úsáideann na heolaithe heileacóptar. Sa gheimhreadh, úsáideann siad scooters sneachta den chuid is mó, ar choinníoll go bhfuil an ghléasóir laistigh de dhá uair an chloig ar gach bealach. Más gá dóibh dul níos faide ná sin, is fearr an t-eileacaptar. Is é an rogha eile ná campa a chur ar bun le teanta, le gach rud a bhaineann leis, lena n-áirítear faire a chur ar ursaí polaracha. "Tá bears feicthe againn ar na glasraí roinnt uaireanta", a deir Kohler. Ní hé stáisiún taighde amháin i Ny-Ålesund stáisiún Sverdrup, a tugadh isteach i 1999. Ag siúl tríd an bpobal seo, b'fhéidir go gcuimhneofar ort ar cheantar i gcathair i bhfad níos mó - go háirithe na sráideanna timpeall ar Cheathrú na Náisiún Aontaithe i Nua Eabhrac, áit a bhfuil tíortha gan áireamh ionadaithe lena gcuid foirgnimh. Tionscadail taighde ó fiche náisiún Sa bhliain 1968, ba é an Institiúid Polair na hIorua an chéad institiúid a bhunaigh stáisiún taighde ar feadh na bliana. Sa lá atá inniu ann, tá stáisiúin taighde daonna ó Ghearmáin, an Fhrainc, an Ísiltír, an Ríocht Aontaithe, an Iodáil, an India, an tSín, an Chóiré Theas agus an tSeapáin i Ny-Ålesund freisin. Tá tionscadail taighde ag thart ar fiche náisiún i mbaile an domhain is ó thuaidh agus timpeall air, cé nach bhfuil gníomhaíochtaí ag na náisiúin seo go léir ar feadh na bliana. Tá an Ghearmáin agus an tSín ann, áfach. Ó 1991, tá Stáisiún Koldewey á oibriú ag Institiúid Alfred Wegener, atá ag déanamh taighde bitheolaíoch agus atmaisféarach. D'oscail Institiúid Taighde Polair na Síne Stáisiún na hIar Fuaine i 2004, agus déanann sé taighde ar an atmaisféar, na soilse thuaidh, bitheolaíocht, glaceolaíocht, geolaíocht agus bitheolaíocht mhuirí. Os cionn an ghrúpa stáisiúin taighde seo, tá sliabh Zeppelinfjellet ag ardú, leis an Oscailtireacht Zeppelin 475 méadar os cionn leibhéal na farraige. Tá an stáisiún taighde seo ríthábhachtach chun monatóireacht a dhéanamh ar an atmaisféar domhanda. Tá na sonraí a bhailítear anseo ríthábhachtach chun athrú aeráide, athruithe ar ozón sa strataosféar agus radaíocht UV, agus tocsainí comhshaoil agus truailleoirí aeir a iompar thar achar fada a mhapsáil. Tá foirgneamh an stáisiúin faoi úinéireacht Institiúid Polair na hIorua, agus tá freagracht eolaíoch ar an stáisiún ag NILU an Institiúid Iarnróid um Thaighde Aer. Agus síos ag an gcalafort, ar Kongsfjorden, tá an saotharlann Mara dea-aistrithe, arna oibriú ag Kings Bay, an chuideachta a ritheann an baile ar fad. Osclaíodh an saotharlann mara 10 mbliana ó shin, agus tá liosta feithimh ann anois go tréimhsiúil chun spás oibre a chur in áirithe anseo. Tá plé á dhéanamh faoi láthair maidir le saotharlann den chineál céanna a thógáil do dhisciplíní eolaíochta neamh-mara i Ny-Ålesund. Ní mór saotharlanna comhroinnte níos mó a bheith ag fás Tá gá le níos mó saotharlanna comhroinnte agus níos mó, a mhíníonn Kim Holmén. Mar chlimaiteolaí, a bhí fostaithe ag NILU roimhe seo, agus anois ina Stiúrthóir Idirnáisiúnta ag Institiúid Polair na hIorua, tá eolas an-mhaith aige ar na dálaí ag Ny-Ålesund. Tá sé soiléir go leor i mbliana go bhfuil an saotharlann mara ró-bheag. Bhí ar roinnt de na stáisiúin taighde dul i ngleic le spásanna oibre improvised atá i bhfad ó bheith sásúil. Ach anseo feicimid roinnt dúshláin ag teacht chun cinn: méadóidh gníomhaíocht mhéadaithe an méid solais stray, a d'fhéadfadh measúnuithe optúla tábhachtacha a chur i mbaol sa gheimhreadh, ach ar an láimh eile, tabharfaidh níos mó gníomhaíochta cosa eacnamaíocha níos láidre do Bhaile na Ríthe chun seasamh air. Beidh an cábla snáithín-optach nua go Ny-Ålesund ina chiall le cumas níos mó chun tearbhualadh a dhéanamh agus ní bheidh gá le taighdeoirí a bheith i láthair go fisiciúil ar feadh tréimhsí fada. Ag an am céanna, beidh an cábla mar thoradh ar ghníomhaíocht mhéadaithe. Ní mór dúinn fás i dtéarmaí cáilíochta seachas i líon na n-eolaithe sa sráidbhaile, a deir Holmén. Is í Ny-Ålesund, 78°55′00′′N 11°56′00′′E an stáisiún taighde sibhialta buan is faide ó thuaidh ar domhan agus tá sé tar éis forbairt go dtí an rud atá inniu ann mar bhonn taighde eolaíoch agus monatóireachta comhshaoil nua-aimseartha, idirnáisiúnta san Ard-Mhéara. Go dtí 1962, bhí Ny-Ålesund ina bhaile mianadóireachta guail, ach scoir na mianadóireachta tar éis timpiste mór. Ó 1964, tá Ny-Ålesund tógtha agus forleathnaithe mar ionad taighde idirnáisiúnta san Ard-Mhór agus monatóireacht chomhshaoil. Tá stáisiúin taighde ag roinnt tíortha sa sráidbhaile. Le linn shéasúr an tsamhraidh, tá an-ghníomhaíocht taighde agus tá an daonra ag fás go 150 duine, i gcomparáid le thart ar 35 sa gheimhreadh. Tá gníomhaíocht shuntasach ag roinnt de na hinstitiúidí taighde atá ag Ionad Fram i Ny-Ålesund agus timpeall air: Institiúid Polair na hIorua, Údarás Mapeála na hIorua, NILU Institiúid um Thaighde Aer na hIorua, UiT Ollscoil na hIorua san Aigéan Ciúin, an Ionad Ollscoile i Svalbard, agus an Institiúid um Thaighde an Dúlra na hIorua. Tá an bonneagar agus an tSaotharlann Mhuirí i Ny-Ålesund á n-oibriú ag Kings Bay AS. Christina A. Pedersen, comhordaitheoir taighde in Institiúid Polair na hIorua, a mhíníonn: Is é an phríomhfhadhb ná go dtiocfaidh méadú ar ghníomhaíocht le méadú ar astaíochtaí. Ar thaobh amháin, ba mhaith linn na deiseanna iontacha atá againn i Ny-Ålesund a thairiscint do gach taighdeoir eile, ach ar an taobh eile, tá sé thar a bheith tábhachtach nach ndéanaimid difear don timpeallacht agus do na coinníollacha atá á thomhas againn, ionas nach dtarraingeoimid conclúidí lochtacha maidir le cúiseanna na n-athruithe a breathnaítear. Is é seo ár dilema. Spéire nua chun rian a choinneáil ar satailítí i bhfithis pholaracha Agus cé go bhfuil muid ag caint faoi mhéid agus cáilíocht, tá an tionscadal is mó go cinnte maidir le saoráidí taighde i Ny-Ålesund le hiontráil i mí an Mheithimh 2018. Is é an Rúnda Geodetic Earth Observatory nua ó Údarás Mapeála na hIorua an breiseán is déanaí do líonra domhanda stáisiúin geodetic spáis, a thomhas agus a mhonatóireacht méid agus cruth na Talún, a treoshuíomh sa spás, an suíomh beacht phointí ar a dromchla agus conas a athraíonn na suíomhanna seo le himeacht ama. "Ó Ny-Ålesund cuirfimid roinnt teicnící tomhais gheodéiseacha le chéile chun léarscáil níos cruinne a dhéanamh ar ghluaiseacht na Talún", a deir Per Erik Opseth, ceann Institiúid Geodéise na hIonstraime Mapeála na hIorua. Déanfaidh Údarás Mhapála na hIorua monatóireacht ar athruithe ar an Domhan agus rannchuideoidh sé le creat tagartha a chur ar fáil do lucht déanta cinntí le haghaidh taighde aeráide, le haghaidh gach léarscáileanna do chiorbitaí satailíte do chórais GPS agus mo chórais GPS, agus le haghaidh seirbhísí loingseoireachta agus suímh. Tar éis tréimhse a bheith ag dul in éineacht, déanfar an t-antenna geodéiseach atá ann cheana ag an bpóc aer a chur amach agus tiocfaidh na sonraí go léir amach ag an bhfísfhísfhís nua. Beidh Ny-Ålesund ina óstach do stáisiún atá ar cheann de na clocha bunaidh sa bhonneagar domhanda atá deartha chun tacú le monatóireacht níos cruinne ar, i measc rudaí eile, leá na muirí-chomh-aise agus athrú leibhéal na farraige. Tá costas measta de thart ar NOK 300 milliún ag an stáisiún nua, a bheidh ar an áis is faide ó thuaidh dá chineál. Tá Helge M. Markusson ina Chomhordaitheoir Teorainneacha ag Ionad Fram (Ionad Taighde Ard Thuaisceart FRAM do Chlimaí agus don Chomhshaol). Scríbhneoir agus colúnóir. Seann iriseoir nuachtáin, raidió agus teilifíse. Bhí baint aige freisin le sraith tionscadal cultúrtha níos lú agus níos mó. Ardaíodh i dTuaisceart na hIorua, ina gcónaí i Tromsø, an Iorua.

Source: Flickr user Loren Kerns. Alzheimer's disease is believed to be caused by a buildup of beta-amyloid plaques in the brain, which interferes with neurons and disrupts cognitive function. More than 5 million people currently suffer from Alzheimer's disease in the United States based on estimates from the Alzheimer's Association; by 2050 close to 14 million people in the U.S. will have this terrible disease. It's a financially costly disease, with $100 billion spent on caring for Alzheimer's individuals annually and another $60 billion in indirect economic costs from absenteeism and lost productivity in the workplace. Between 2020 and 2040 the cost to treat Alzheimer's as a percentage of Medicare funding is expected to skyrocket from roughly 2% to 24%! Source: Alzheimer's Association. As if the idea of losing your cognitive abilities and these aforementioned costs weren't terrifying enough, the fact that the disease is incredibly difficult for researchers to fight makes it even scarier. On top of the fact that the blood-brain barrier is difficult for modern medicine to overcome, researchers aren't 100% certain how Alzheimer's develops. Don't get me wrong, researchers do have a generally good idea of what the risk factors for the disease are, such as age and family history, but there's no concrete formula that determines why one person develops Alzheimer's and another doesn't. Without knowing the catalysts of Alzheimer's, it can be difficult for pharmaceutical companies to develop a cure. Do this and your risk of developing Alzheimer's could go way up However, last week researchers at the Northern California Institute for Research and Education in San Francisco may have discovered another piece to the puzzle. Source: Flickr user Bill Honl. The study, officially known as the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults Study, tracked 3,247 participants for 25 years beginning between the ages of 18 and 30, and examined the association between sedentary lifestyles and cognitive performance. What researchers discovered was that participants who watched four hours or more of television each day tended to score significantly lower in cognitive performance tests once they reached middle age. Additionally, researchers note that low levels of physical activity tended to correspond with a lower cognitive score. Researchers came to these conclusions after participants completed three questionnaires over the 25-year period. These findings could prove to be a bit of a double-edged sword. On one hand, young adults and children have more electronic entertainment options than ever (the Internet, laptops, video gaming systems, smartphones, tablets, and so on), which could bode poorly for the future if the findings from the aforementioned study are correct. On the other hand, the study findings would seem to suggest that it's not too late for Americans to reverse or slow the effects of Alzheimer's or dementia by living an active lifestyle. Could relief be on the way? If there is a bit of a ray of sunshine to this otherwise terrible disease, it's that two drug hopefuls could be hitting pharmacy shelves within the next two or three years that have a genuine opportunity to improve Alzheimer's patients' quality of life. The first company, Axovant Sciences , which just went public in June, is developing RVT-101 for patients with mild-to-moderate Alzheimer's. RVT-101 was jettisoned by GlaxoSmithKlinein December for just $5 million, but less than two weeks ago Axovant showed that there could be significant value in RVT-101 as an adjuvant therapy with Aricept. According to the data from Axovant's 684-person phase 2b study, patients receiving Aricept and 35 mg of RVT-101 demonstrated statistically significant improvements in cognition and function at the 12-, 24-, 36-, and 48-week marks, as measured by the Alzheimer's disease Assessment Scale, compared to the Aricept monotherapy arm. Furthermore, the magnitude of the cognitive and functional benefits tended to improve as time passed. The combination was also well-tolerated by patients. Axovant anticipates starting a phase 3 trial by the fourth quarter of this year and could bring RVT-101 to pharmacy shelves by as early as 2017. Based on estimates from a number of Wall Street analysts, RVT-101 could have peak annual sales potential in the $2 billion to $3.5 billion range if it's successful in phase 3 studies. Keep in mind the failure rate of experimental Alzheimer's drugs is very high. The other experimental therapeutic worth monitoring is aducanumab from Biogen . Perhaps no drug wowed Wall Street more in 2015 than aducanumab, with its full data release in March. In Biogen's 166-patient phase 1b study involving aducanumab there was a pronounced decrease of beta-amyloid plaques that resulted in a statistically significant improvement in mental decline. The 30-point mental acuity test, which helped establish the performance of the aducanumab arm versus the placebo, showed a 3.14 point decline in the placebo group compared to just a 0.75 point and 0.58 point decline for the groups receiving 3 mg and 10 mg doses of aducanumab. A similarly strong result was established with the 10 mg dose of aducanumab in the 18-point Clinical Dementia Rating. The placebo group showed a 2.14 point decline, while the 10 mg aducanumab group sported a decline of only 0.59 points. It should be noted that the 3 mg aducanumab dose didn't meet statistical significance in the Clinical Dementia Rating. These results were so impressive that Biogen completely skipped phase 2 studies and jumped right into a large-scale phase 3 trial. It's possible we could have data as early as next year, with aducanumab hitting pharmacy shelves by as early as 2017 if everything goes as planned. Per Wall Street analysts, aducanumab has the potential for as much as $10 billion in peak annual sales. Long story short, Alzheimer's remains an elusive and terrifying disease, but researchers are throwing the metaphorical sink at this disease in the hope of sometime soon finding a cure. Even if RVT-101 and aducanumab aren't end-all cures, they do represent a marked step in the right direction if successful. I'm personally cheering both experimental therapies on and hoping for the best, but I also understand that the odds are very much against researchers succeeding. The article This Latest Study Adds 1 More Piece to the Alzheimer's Puzzle originally appeared on Fool.com. Sean Williamshas no material interest in any companies mentioned in this article. You can follow him on CAPS under the screen nameTMFUltraLong, track every pick he makes under the screen nameTrackUltraLong, and check him out on Twitter, where he goes by the email@example.com Motley Fool has no position in any of the stocks mentioned. Try any of our Foolish newsletter servicesfree for 30 days. We Fools may not all hold the same opinions, but we all believe thatconsidering a diverse range of insightsmakes us better investors. The Motley Fool has adisclosure policy. 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Foinse: Úsáideoir Flickr Loren Kerns. Creidtear go bhfuil galar Alzheimer mar thoradh ar chathú plaic béite-amiloid sa inchinn, a chuireann isteach ar néaróin agus a chuireann isteach ar fheidhm chognaíoch. Tá níos mó ná 5 mhilliún duine ag fulaingt ó ghalair Alzheimer sna Stáit Aontaithe faoi láthair bunaithe ar mheastacháin ó Chumann Alzheimer; faoi 2050 beidh an galar uafásach seo ag beagnach 14 mhilliún duine sna Stáit Aontaithe. Is galar costasach ó thaobh airgeadais de, le $100 billiún a chaitear ar chúram do dhaoine Alzheimer gach bliain agus $60 billiún eile i gcostas eacnamaíoch indíreach ó easpa lá oibre agus as táirgiúlacht caillte san ionad oibre. Idir 2020 agus 2040 táthar ag súil go dtiocfaidh méadú mór ar chostas cóireála Alzheimer mar chéatadán de mhaoiniú Medicare ó thart ar 2% go 24%! Foinse: Cumann Alzheimer. Mar nach raibh an smaoineamh ar do chumas cognaíocha a chailleadh agus na costais thuasluaite uafásach go leor, déanann an fhíric go bhfuil an galar an-deacair do thaighdeoirí troid a dhéanamh níos scanrúil fós. Ar bharr an bhfíric go bhfuil an bacainn fola-inchinn deacair don leigheas nua-aimseartha a shárú, níl taighdeoirí 100% cinnte conas a fhorbraíonn Alzheimer. Ná meabhrú dom, tá smaoineamh maith ag taighdeoirí ar ghnéithe riosca an ghalair, mar aois agus stair teaghlaigh, ach níl aon fhoirmle nithiúil ann a chinníonn cén fáth a bhforbraíonn duine amháin Alzheimer agus duine eile nach ndéanann. Gan eolas a bheith acu ar na catalaithe Alzheimer, d'fhéadfadh sé a bheith deacair do chuideachtaí cógaisíochta leigheas a fhorbairt. Déan é seo agus d'fhéadfadh do riosca Alzheimer a fhorbairt dul suas i bhfad ach, an tseachtain seo caite, d'fhéadfadh taighdeoirí ag Institiúid Northern California do Thaighde agus Oideachas i San Francisco píosa eile a fháil amach don pháisle. Foinse: Úsáideoir Flickr Bill Honl. Rinneadh an staidéar, ar a dtugtar go hoifigiúil an Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults Study, ar 3,247 rannpháirtí ar feadh 25 bliana ag tosú idir 18 agus 30 bliain d'aois, agus scrúdaíodh an comhlachas idir stíl mhaireachtála shuíochánta agus feidhmíocht chognaíoch. Ba é an rud a fuair taighdeoirí amach ná go raibh claonadh ag rannpháirtithe a bhreathnaigh ceithre uair an chloig nó níos mó ar theilifís gach lá scór níos ísle a bhaint amach i dtástálacha feidhmíochta cognaíocha nuair a shroich siad meánaois. Ina theannta sin, tugann taighdeoirí faoi deara go raibh leibhéal íseal gníomhaíochta fisiceach ag teacht le scór cognaíoch níos ísle. Tháinig taighdeoirí ar na conclúidí seo tar éis do rannpháirtithe trí cheistire a chomhlánú thar thréimhse 25 bliana. D'fhéadfadh na torthaí seo a bheith ina sciath dhá thaobh. Ar thaobh amháin, tá níos mó roghanna siamsaíochta leictreonacha ag daoine óga agus leanaí ná riamh (an tIdirlíon, ríomhairí glúine, córais cluiche físe, fóin chliste, táibléid, agus mar sin de), rud a d'fhéadfadh a bheith ina droch-scéal don todhchaí má tá torthaí an staidéir thuasluaite ceart. Ar an láimh eile, is cosúil go léiríonn torthaí na staidéir nach bhfuil sé ró-dhéanach do Mheiriceánaigh éifeachtaí Alzheimer nó díomhaoin a aisiompú nó a mhoilliú trí stíl mhaireachtála gníomhach a bheith acu. An bhféadfadh faoiseamh a bheith ar an mbealach? Má tá beagán de ghrianshruth ag an ghalair uafásach seo, is é sin go bhféadfadh dhá dhrugaí dóchúla a bheith ag bualadh le seilfeanna cógaisíochta laistigh de dhá nó trí bliana amach romhainn a bhfuil deis fíor acu cáilíocht saoil othair Alzheimer a fheabhsú. Tá an chéad chuideachta, Axovant Sciences, a chuaigh go poiblí i mí an Mheithimh, ag forbairt RVT-101 do othair a bhfuil Alzheimer éadrom go meánach acu. Níor dhíol GlaxoSmithKline RVT-101 i mí na Nollag ar feadh $ 5 milliún, ach níos lú ná dhá sheachtain ó shin léirigh Axovant go bhféadfadh luach suntasach a bheith ag RVT-101 mar chóireáil cúnta le Aricept. De réir na sonraí ó staidéar chéim 2b le 684 duine, léirigh othair a fuair Aricept agus 35 mg RVT-101 feabhsuithe suntasacha go staitistiúil i gcomhfhiosach agus i bhfeidhm ag na marcanna 12-, 24-, 36- agus 48- seachtaine, mar a dhéantar iad a thomhas leis an Scála Measúnaithe Breoiteachta Alzheimer, i gcomparáid leis an lámh monatóireachta Aricept. Ina theannta sin, bhí claonadh ag méid na sochair chognaíocha agus feidhmiúla feabhas a chur orthu de réir mar a d'imigh an t-am. Bhí an teaglaim go maith in ann a fhulaingt ag othair. Tá súil ag Axovant triail chéim 3 a thosú faoin gceathrú ráithe den bhliain seo agus d'fhéadfadh RVT-101 a thabhairt chuig seilfeanna cógaisíochta chomh luath le 2017. Bunaithe ar mheastacháin ó roinnt anailísithe Wall Street, d'fhéadfadh RVT-101 a bheith ar an bpróiseas díolacháin bliantúil is mó i raon $ 2 billiún go $ 3.5 billiún má tá sé rathúil i staidéir chéim 3. Coinnigh i gcuimhne go bhfuil ráta an fhéile de dhrugaí Alzheimer turgnamhacha an-ard. Is é an leigheas trialach eile a bhfuil luach faireacháin air ná aducanumab ó Biogen . B'fhéidir nach raibh aon druga níos mó i gceist ag Wall Street in 2015 ná aducanumab, lena scaoileadh sonraí iomlána i mí an Mhárta. I staidéar céim 1b de chuid Biogen a rinneadh ar 166 othar agus aducanumab i gceist, bhí laghdú suntasach ar phlácaí béite- amiloid a d'fhág go raibh feabhas suntasach go staitistiúil ar an laghdú meabhrach intinne. Léirigh an tástáil acuity mheabhrach 30- phointe, a chabhraigh le feidhmíocht an bhratach aducanumab a bhunú i gcomparáid leis an phláibéam, laghdú 3. 14 phointe sa ghrúpa phláibéam i gcomparáid le laghdú 0. 75 phointe agus 0. 58 phointe amháin do na grúpaí a fuair dáileoga 3 mg agus 10 mg de aducanumab. Bunaíodh toradh chomh láidir céanna le dáileog 10 mg aducanumab sa Rátaíocht Chliniciúil Dementia 18 phointe. Léirigh an grúpa placebo laghdú 2. 14 phointe, agus ní raibh laghdú ach 0. 59 phointe sa ghrúpa aducanumab 10 mg. Ba cheart a thabhairt faoi deara nach raibh an dáileog 3 mg aducanumab comhionann le tábhacht staidrimh sa Rátaíocht Chliniciúil Dimintiúlachta. Bhí na torthaí seo chomh suntasach gur thit Biogen go hiomlán ar staidéir chéim 2 agus chuaigh sé díreach isteach i dtrialach chéim 3 ar scála mór. Is féidir go mbeadh sonraí againn chomh luath le bliain amach romhainn, agus aducanumab ag teacht ar shilfeanna cógaisíochta chomh luath le 2017 má théann gach rud de réir an phlean. De réir anailísithe Wall Street, tá an cumas ag aducanumab suas le $ 10 billiún a bhaint amach i ndíolacháin bhliantúla buaic. Go gairid, tá Alzheimer fós ina ghalair dochreidte agus uafásach, ach tá taighdeoirí ag cur an t-aigéad metafhorical ar an ghalair seo i dóchas go bhfaighidh siad leigheas go luath. Fiú má RVT-101 agus aducanumab nach bhfuil deireadh-go léir cures, tá siad a ionadaíocht céim marcáilte sa treo ceart má tá rath. Táim féin ag glaoch ar an dá theiripe thrialacha agus ag súil leis an rud is fearr, ach tuigim freisin go bhfuil na seansanna go mór i gcoinne taighdeoirí a bheith rathúil. An t-alt This Latest Study Adds 1 More Piece to the Alzheimer's Puzzle a tháinig ar dtús ar Fool.com. Sean Williamshas aon leas ábhartha i aon chuideachta a luaitear san alt seo. Is féidir leat é a leanúint ar CAPS faoin ainm scáileáin TMFUltraLong, gach rogha a dhéanann sé a rianú faoin ainm scáileáin TrackUltraLong, agus seiceáil air ar Twitter, áit a dtéann sé ag an ríomhphost@example.com Motley Fool níl aon phost aige in aon cheann de na stoic a luaitear. Bain triail as aon cheann dár seirbhísí nuachtlitir Foolish saor in aisce ar feadh 30 lá. Ní fhéadfaidh go bhfuil na tuairimí céanna ag gach duine againn, ach creideann muid go léir go ndéanann raon éagsúil léargas a bheith againn orainn infheisteoirí níos fearr. Tá polasaí neamhfhoilsiú ag an Motley Fool. Cláirín 1995 - 2015 The Motley Fool, LLC. Coimeádtar na cearta go léir. Tá beartas nochtadh ag an Motley Fool.

Have you looked at the news recently? Every news site that you visit, the headlines are plastered with “HISTORICAL INFLATION RATES” or “HIGHEST INFLATION RATES IN THE LAST 39 YEARS”. As an employee of Chevron, what does this actually mean for you as you approach retirement? First off, let us define what inflation is. Inflation is known as the increase in general price levels of goods and services. Inflation is measured through the CPI, the Consumer Price Index, which is produced by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics found that a gallon of whole milk cost $3.66 in October 2021, which is 8% more from October 2020 at $3.38 per gallon. Combined with the other goods and services, we would find an average increase in prices and calculate how much prices have increased within a given time period. Normally, the Federal Reserve targets an inflation rate of 2% and since 2016, it has been pretty consistent, only off by about a half percentage point. However, in 2021, the annual inflation rate was 7%, drastically different from the 1.4% increase in 2020 and the 2.3% increase in 2019. To put this in perspective, from 2018 to the end of 2020, CPI grew at a cumulative 5.7%. So within a single year, inflation grew faster than the three years prior. Inflation is an expected occurrence and many people who retire tend to expect a consistent rate over their life span and calculate their retirement expenses with this in mind. However, these calculations quickly change when there are abrupt increases in inflation. Unexpected inflation can have devastating effects on a Chevron employee’s savings as it whittles away at your spending power faster than you expect it to. Today, you might be able to buy groceries within a certain budget, but during an inflation spike, groceries will outpace your budget and soon enough, you’ll find yourself spending considerably more for your normal grocery bundle. In order to control the rapid rise of inflation, the Federal Reserve uses interest rates to dissipate inflationary pressures. As interest rates increase, inflation generally decreases. This relationship is caused by how interest rates affect the rate of borrowing money. When interest rates are low, people will borrow money as they pay less in interest. This fuels the economy and increases inflation. As interest rates rise, people will borrow less and the markets will move slower as there is less fuel to add to the fire. These factors go hand in hand in an economic balancing act. You may be wondering: “How does this affect my Chevron pension? Should I be choosing lump-sum or annuity?” As pension lump sum amounts are calculated using the current interest rates, choosing lump-sum versus annuity can be a difficult decision. With interest rates still sitting near historical lows, the lump sum option has been as attractive as ever and with looming pressure on the Fed to raise rates, this decision will be less cut and dry. Since lump-sum pensions are inversely affected by interest rates, the higher interest rates rise, the less you will receive from your Chevron lump-sum pension. As interest rates rise however, annuity pensions become a lot more attractive as they use current interest rates to calculate your lifetime monthly payments. In regards to healthcare, it is lagging behind the country’s 7% inflation rate and has only risen 2.5% over this past year. However, we are seeing a labor shortage in the healthcare sector, which can lead to a rise in wages to attract workers and would ultimately increase prices and insurance premiums for patients. Many Chevron retirees typically rely on Medicare to support them in their healthcare costs, however, Medicare rarely covers all costs and patients are required to pay a premium on top of out-of-pocket expenses. These premiums will increase as inflation continues to increase, leading to an overall increase in expenses for healthcare. For the upcoming 2022 year, Medicare Part B premiums increased by 14.5%, pushing the standard monthly premium to $170.10. Even though, as a whole, healthcare costs have not risen in line with inflation, we have seen very high inflation for those nearing or at retirement age. With increasing prices in drug expenses and Medicare premiums, the Employee Benefit Research Institute (ERBI) found in their 2022 report that couples with average drug expenses would need $296,000 in savings to cover those expenses in retirement - a 10% increase from the year prior. Couples with higher drug expenses would need $361,000 to cover those healthcare costs - an 11% increase from the year prior. Overall, the landscape of the economy is rapidly changing and these recent developments have been shifting people’s expectations and forecasts for retirement. Understanding how inflation and interest rates will affect your retirement is a vital step in crafting a successful retirement plan.

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An ndearna tú féachaint ar na nuachtáin le déanaí? Gach suíomh nuachta a thugann tú cuairt air, tá na ceannlínte plástáilte le RÁTHAÍ INFLATUIS TÉARMACH nó RÁTHA INFLATUIS TIGHEARMA I LEI 39 BLIAN . Mar fhostaí Chevron, cad a chiallaíonn sé seo i ndáiríre duit agus tú ag druidim leis an scor? Ar dtús, déanaimis sainmhíniú ar cad is ionfhabhtú ann. Tugtar an t-inflachas mar ardú ar leibhéil ghinearálta praghsanna earraí agus seirbhísí. Déantar boilsciú a thomhas trí IPC, Innéacs Praghsanna Tomhaltóirí, a tháirgeann an Biúró Staidrimh Oibre. Fuair Biúró Staidrimh Oibre na Stát Aontaithe gur chosnaigh galún bainne iomlán $3.66 i mí Dheireadh Fómhair 2021, rud a bhfuil 8% níos mó ná mí Dheireadh Fómhair 2020 ag $3.38 in aghaidh an galún. I dteannta leis na hearraí agus na seirbhísí eile, gheobhaidh muid meán-ardú ar phraghsanna agus ríomhfaimid cé mhéad a d'ardaigh praghsanna laistigh de thréimhse ama áirithe. De ghnáth, tá an Rialtas Cúltaca Feidearálach ag díriú ar ráta boilscithe 2% agus ó 2016, tá sé go leor comhsheasmhach, ach amháin thart ar leath phointe céatadáin. Tá an ráta méadaithe seo ag cur le méadú an ráta boilscithe bliantúil i 2021 agus tá sé ag cur le méadú an ráta boilscithe bliantúil i 2019 agus i 2020, agus tá méadú an ráta boilscithe bliantúil i 2019 agus i 2020 ag cur le méadú an ráta boilscithe bliantúil i 2019. Chun é seo a chur i bpeirspictíocht, ó 2018 go deireadh 2020, d'fhás IPC ag 5.7% carntha. Mar sin laistigh de bhliain amháin, d'fhás an boilsciú níos tapúla ná na trí bliana roimhe sin. Is rud a bhfuil súil leis an boilsciú agus is gnách go mbíonn ráta comhsheasmhach ag súil le go leor daoine a théann ar scor thar a saolré agus a gcostas scoir a ríomh ag smaoineamh air seo. Mar sin féin, athraíonn na ríomhanna seo go tapa nuair a bhíonn méaduithe tobann ar an boilsciú. Is féidir le boilsciú gan choinne éifeachtaí tubaisteach a bheith aige ar shábháil fostaí Chevron de réir mar a laghdaíonn sé do chumhacht caiteachais níos gasta ná mar a bhfuil súil agat. Sa lá atá inniu ann, b'fhéidir go mbeidh tú in ann grósaeraí a cheannach laistigh de bhuiséad áirithe, ach le linn spíic an phráis, beidh grósaeraí níos mó ná do bhuiséad agus go luath go leor, gheobhaidh tú féin ag caitheamh i bhfad níos mó ar do ghnátha grósaeraí gnáth. D'fhonn an méadú tapa ar phraghasú a rialú, úsáideann an Cúlchiste Feidearálach rátaí úis chun brú praghais a scaipeadh. De réir mar a mhéadaíonn rátaí úis, laghdaíonn an boilsciú de ghnáth. Tá an gaol seo mar gheall ar an gcaoi a mbíonn tionchar ag rátaí úis ar ráta iasachta airgid. Nuair a bhíonn rátaí úis íseal, déanfaidh daoine airgead a fháil ar iasacht toisc go n-íocann siad níos lú úis. Cuireann sé seo an geilleagar ar aghaidh agus méadaíonn sé an boilsciú. De réir mar a ardóidh rátaí úis, ní bheidh daoine ag iasacht níos lú agus gluaiseoidh na margaí níos moille mar go bhfuil níos lú breosla le cur leis an tine. Téann na tosca seo lámh ar láimh i ngníomh cothromaíochta eacnamaíoch. B'fhéidir go bhfuil tú ag fiafraí: Conas a dhéanann sé seo difear do mo phinsin Chevron? An bhfuil suim aonfhada nó blianaíocht le roghnú? Ós rud é go ríomhtar méideanna aonfhada pinsin ag úsáid na rátaí úis reatha, d'fhéadfadh sé a bheith deacair cinneadh a dhéanamh maidir le suim aonfhada nó blianaíocht a roghnú. Agus na rátaí úis fós ag fanacht in aice le íseal-rátaí stairiúla, tá an rogha aon-suim chomh tarraingteach agus a bhí riamh agus le brú ag teacht ar an Fed rátaí a ardú, beidh an cinneadh seo níos lú gearr agus tirim. Ós rud é go mbíonn tionchar frithsheasmhach ag rátaí úis ar phinsin aon-chruinne, is é an ráta úis is airde a ardú, is é an méid is lú a gheobhaidh tú ó do phinsin aon-chruinne Chevron. De réir mar a théann rátaí úis chun cinn, áfach, bíonn pinsean bliantúla i bhfad níos tarraingtí toisc go n-úsáideann siad rátaí úis reatha chun do chuid íocaíochtaí míosúla ar feadh an tsaoil a ríomh. Maidir le cúram sláinte, tá sé ag dul siar ó ráta boilscithe 7% sa tír agus níor ardú ach 2.5% le bliain anuas. Mar sin féin, tá ganntanas saothair á fheiceáil againn san earnáil cúraim sláinte, rud a d'fhéadfadh ardú pá a bheith mar thoradh air chun oibrithe a mhealladh agus a d'fhéadfadh praghsanna agus préimheanna árachais do othair a mhéadú sa deireadh. Go minic, tá a lán de na daoine a fhillíonn ar Chevron ag brath ar Medicare chun tacú leo a gcostas cúraim sláinte, áfach, is annamh a chlúdaíonn Medicare na costais go léir agus éilítear ar othair préimhe a íoc ar bharr na gcostais as póca. Beidh méadú ar na préimheanna seo de réir mar a leanfaidh an boilsciú ag méadú, rud a fhágfaidh méadú foriomlán ar chostais le haghaidh cúraim sláinte. I gcás na bliana 2022 atá le teacht, méadaigh préimheanna Páirt B Medicare 14.5%, ag brú an phréimheanna míosúil caighdeánach go $ 170.10. Cé nach bhfuil an costas cúraim sláinte ar fad tar éis méadú i gcomhréir leis an bpeannaíocht, tá méadú an-ard tagtha ar na daoine atá ag druidim leis an aois scoir nó ag dul ar scor. Le praghsanna ag méadú i gcostais drugaí agus préimheanna Medicare, fuair Institiúid Taighde Sochair Fostaithe (ERBI) ina thuarascáil 2022 go mbeadh $ 296,000 ag teastáil ó lánúineacha a bhfuil costais meán drugaí acu chun na costais sin a chlúdach ar scor - méadú 10% ó na blianta roimhe sin. Ba mhaith le lánúineacha a bhfuil costais níos airde cógais $ 361,000 a chlúdach na costais cúraim sláinte - méadú 11% ó na bliana roimhe sin. Ar an iomlán, tá tírdhreach an gheilleagair ag athrú go tapa agus tá na forbairtí seo le déanaí ag athrú ionchais agus réamhaisnéisí na ndaoine maidir le scor. Tá sé ríthábhachtach go dtuigeann tú conas a dhéanfaidh an t-inflachas agus na rátaí úis difear do do phinsin chun plean rathúil phinsin a chruthú.

CAIRO — A prominent Egyptian businessman, asked recently why anyone would want the impossible job of prime minister here, answered with the tale of the king, the donkey and Egypt`s favorite folk hero, Goha. The king, seeking a future heir and suitable mate for his beautiful daughter, says he will give her hand in marriage to any man who can teach his donkey how to read and write. All sensible men realize the task His Majesty requires is impossible, but Goha readily accepts. He has one condition--that he be allowed 10 years to teach the donkey. Goha`s friends lambaste him for his foolish ambition, but Goha has the situation well in hand. ``In 10 years,`` he tells them, ``either the king or the donkey will be dead.`` In a private interview last summer, the minister of state for foreign affairs, Butros Ghali, said he believed Egypt had ``a 10-year grace period to find a solution`` to the country`s many problems. But Egyptian and Western analysts acknowledge that finding a solution may be as difficult as teaching a donkey to read and write. Egypt is caught in the historical limbo of a traditional society sustained by the waters of the Nile and a modern nation dependent on an enormous flow of foreign aid to develop its industry, technology and political systems. Peasants till fields near ancient tombs with the same tools used by their predecessors 5,000 years ago. Then they go home and tune in ``Knots Landing`` on television. Cairo, which Egyptians call ``the Mother of the World,`` is crumbling under the weight of its children. Urban crowding due to high birth rates has been compounded by a flood of peasants from the countryside who live in ramshackle shanties, mud-brick homes and, for hundreds of thousands of people, the tombs of the city`s ancient cemeteries. ``In the last 11 years, we are 15 million more (people), and in the next 11 years, we`ll have 15 million more again,`` said Ghali. ``About 95 percent of the land is barren desert. If you look to the future, you ought to be a pessimist.`` Ghali prefers ``to look at the glass as half full.`` Still, even the most optimistic people admit that without radical changes in the Egyptian economy, the country will soon be drained of its remaining resources and hope. It is under these conditions that President Hosni Mubarak, like his forerunners Gamal Abdel Nasser and Anwar Sadat, has tried to guide Egypt toward the 21st Century. If history provides any lesson, he has a nearly impossible task. Unlike Mubarak, both Nasser and Sadat are remembered for their courageous, historic decisions. Nasser`s nationalization of the Suez Canal and Sadat`s visit to Jerusalem both shocked the world and earned each man an important place in history. But great leaps also led to terrible falls. Nasser never fully recovered his stature after the humiliating defeat at the hands of the Israeli military in 1967. He died three years later. Mubarak witnessed Sadat`s last fall from close range. He was seated next to Sadat and was forced to duck for cover when soldiers in a military parade broke ranks and fired successive rounds into their president. It is said that Mubarak learned an important lesson that day: It is better to take short steps, and risk only minor stumbles, than to chance it all with dramatic and historic leaps forward. Mubarak`s supporters praise this more humble approach which, among other things, has led to greater freedoms of press and speech, and the beginnings of a democratic process. They say that Nasser and Sadat made great promises that mostly went unfulfilled. Mubarak avoids promises, and is not above talking about such mundane issues as the price of fodder and the consumption of kilowatt hours in his speeches. His message is that prosperity won`t be delivered from above or beyond. But the popular imagination, so fired under Nasser and Sadat, seems either lost or bored in today`s Egypt, and Mubarak`s talk of civic duty and elbow grease is smothered by a sense of national apathy at best, hopelessness at worst. In half a decade of Mubarak`s rule, the national pride inspired by Nasser has been crushed under the weight of a burgeoning population and collapsing economy, and the peace process begun by Sadat has dwindled into a wornout cliche. Mubarak, meanwhile, has inherited the unenviable task of having to dismantle the system of state handouts that were Egypt`s means of ensuring social justice. The subsidy system created by Nasser now drains the economy from the bottom, while corruption and high levels of conspicuous consumption fostered during the Sadat era skim the cream off the top. Both practices have contributed to the accumulation of a national debt exceeding $38 billion, interest on which the country is no longer able to pay. In the last year, the struggling Egyptian economy was further harmed by the shortfall in oil prices and an upsurge in terrorism that bit deeply into tourist revenues--the country`s fourth largest earner.

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CAIRO Iarrtar ar fhear gnó mór le rá san Éigipt le déanaí cén fáth go mbeadh duine ar bith ag iarraidh an post dodhéanta mar phríomh-aire anseo, d'fhreagair sé le scéal an rí, an asal agus laoch tíre is fearr le hÉigipte, Goha. Deir an rí, ag lorg oidhreachta amach anseo agus comhpháirtí oiriúnach dá iníon álainn, go dtabharfaidh sé a lámh i mbriathar le haon fhear is féidir a chur ar a asal conas a léamh agus a scríobh. Gach fir ciallmhar a thuiscint an tasc a éilíonn a Mhór-Aois is dodhéanta, ach Goha glacann go réidh. Tá sé amháin ar choinníoll - go bhfuil sé a cheadú 10 bliain a mhúineadh an asal. Goha's labaste cara dó as a uaillmhianta foolish, ach tá Goha an staid go maith i láimh. ∀∀∀ In 10 mbliana, ∀∀ dúirt sé leo, ∀∀nó an rí nó an t-asal a bheidh marbh. ∀∀ I agallamh príobháideach an samhradh seo caite, dúirt an tAire Stáit um Ghnóthaí Eachtracha, Butros Ghali, go gcreideann sé go bhfuil tréimhse trócaire 10 mbliana ag an Éigipt chun réiteach a fháil ar na fadhbanna iomadúla atá ag an tír. Ach admhaíonn anailísithe na hÉigipte agus an Iarthair go bhféadfadh sé a bheith chomh deacair réiteach a fháil agus madra a mhúineadh chun léamh agus scríobh. Tá an Éigipt gafa i mbóthar stairiúil sochaí traidisiúnta a choinníonn uisce na Níle agus náisiún nua-aimseartha ag brath ar shreabhadh ollmhór cabhrach eachtrach chun a thionscal, a teicneolaíocht agus a chórais pholaitiúla a fhorbairt. Tuathanaigh a bhfuil réimsí in aice le tuamaí ársa leis na huirlisí céanna a úsáideadh ag a réamhtheachtaí 5,000 bliain ó shin. Ansin téann siad abhaile agus téann siad ar an teilifís ag féachaint ar 'Knots Landing'. Tá Cairo, a ghlaonn na hÉigiptigh ‘‘Máthair an Domhain, ‘‘ag titim faoi mheáchan a leanaí. Tá an plódú uirbeach mar gheall ar rátaí ard breithe ag méadú le tuile feirmeoirí ó na tuaithe a chónaíonn i sléibhte ramshackle, tithe de bhrionglóid dhún agus, do na céadta mílte duine, i mbailte na gcumhraí ársa na cathrach. ``Le 11 mbliana anuas, tá 15 milliún níos mó againn (daoine), agus sna 11 bliana amach romhainn, beidh 15 milliún níos mó againn arís, 'a dúirt Ghali. `` Tá thart ar 95 faoin gcéad den talamh ina fhásach neamhtháir. Má fhéachann tú ar an todhchaí, ba cheart duit a bheith ina pessimist. Is fearr le Ghali ∀∀ féachaint ar an nglas leath-líonta. ∀∀ Mar sin féin, admhaíonn fiú na daoine is dóchasaí go mbeidh na hacmhainní agus an dóchas atá fágtha ag an tír gan athruithe radacacha sa gheilleagar Éigipteach. Is faoi na coinníollacha seo a rinne an tUachtarán Hosni Mubarak, cosúil lena réamhtheachtaí Gamal Abdel Nasser agus Anwar Sadat, iarracht an Éigipt a threorú i dtreo an 21ú haois. Má thugann an stair aon fhoghlaim, tá tasc beagnach dodhéanta aige. Murab ionann agus Mubarak, cuirtear Nasser agus Sadat ar a gcuimhne as a gcinntí cróga stairiúla. Chuir náisiúnaithe Nasser ar Chanáil Suez agus cuairt Sadat ar Iarúsailéim an domhan i bpríosún agus bhain gach fear áit thábhachtach sa stair. Ach bhí na léim mhóra ina chúis le titim uafásach freisin. Níor athshlánú riamh a stádas go hiomlán tar éis an defeat humiliating ar lámha na míleata Iosrael i 1967. Fuair sé bás trí bliana ina dhiaidh sin. Chonaic Mubarak Sadat 's titim deireanach ó cheantar gar. Bhí sé ina shuí in aice le Sadat agus bhí sé iallach air dul i gcúl chun clúdach a fháil nuair a bhris saighdiúirí i bparáid mhíleata na línte agus d'fhógair siad babhtaí i ndiaidh a chéile ina uachtarán. Deirtear gur fhoghlaim Mubarak ceacht tábhachtach an lá sin: is fearr céimeanna beaga a ghlacadh, agus gan ach tréithe beaga a chur i mbaol, ná gach rud a chur i mbaol le léim suntasach agus stairiúil ar aghaidh. Molaíonn lucht tacaíochta Mubarak an cur chuige níos umhal seo a thug, i measc rudaí eile, saoirsí níos mó preasa agus cainte, agus tús próiseas daonlathach. Deir siad gur gheall Nasser agus Sadat gealltanais móra nach ndearnadh a chomhlíonadh den chuid is mó. Is é Mubarak a sheachnaíonn gealltanas, agus ní bhíonn sé thar a bheith ag caint faoi shaincheisteanna mar phraghas na fóire agus tomhaltas na uair an chloig kilovatt ina óráidí. Is é a theachtaireacht ná nach mbeidh rathúnas á sheachadadh ó thuas nó níos faide. Ach is cosúil go bhfuil an samhlaíocht phoiblí, a bhí chomh te faoi Nasser agus Sadat, caillte nó tuirseach san Éigipt inniu, agus tá caint Mubarak ar dhualgas sibhialta agus ola almóide faoi stiúradh ag mothú neamhshuim náisiúnta sa chás is fearr, gan dóchas sa chás is measa. I leath-deich mbliana de réim Mubarak, tá an bród náisiúnta a spreag Nasser brúite faoi mheáchan daonra atá ag fás agus eacnamaíocht atá ag titim, agus tá an próiseas síochána a thosaigh Sadat tar éis titim i cliche wornout. Idir an dá linn, d'fhás Mubarak an tasc neamh-inbhéartach a bheith ag cur deireadh leis an gcóras de na handouts stáit a bhí ina mhodh Éigipt chun ceartais shóisialta a chinntiú. Tá an córas fóirdheontais a chruthaigh Nasser ag cur an gheilleagair as bun, agus tá an éilliú agus na leibhéil arda de thomhaltas suntasach a chothú le linn ré Sadat ag cur an uachtar as an mbarr. Tá an dá chleachtas tar éis cur le fiach náisiúnta a chruinniú atá os cionn $38 billiún, úis nach féidir leis an tír a íoc a thuilleadh. Le bliain anuas, d'fhulaing laghdú praghsanna ola agus ardú sceimhlitheoireachta a rinne go mór le hiníonanna turasóireachta - an ceathrú earcaitheoir is mó sa tír - an geilleagar Éigipteach atá ag streachailt.

50 SHADES OF PERIOD BLOOD: WHAT DO THEY MEAN? LEARN WHAT YOUR BODY IS TELLING YOU We all toss our used tampons, flushing them down the pipes or putting them in the trash without a thought. However, we’re actually tossing valuable information about our health away. Depending on the color, clots and thickness, your period blood can tell you a lot about what is going on with your body. Back up, what exactly happens during our period again? The lining of your uterus thickens throughout your cycle to prep for pregnancy. When your cycle is up and there isn’t a baby on the way, your body sheds the uterus lining that it worked so hard to build up along with some blood. Interesting to know, we lose about 5 to 10 teaspoons of blood and fluid each cycle. WHAT COLOR IS YOUR PERIOD BLOOD? Women will usually experience one of the three color patterns during their period: frozen mashed-up blueberries, strawberry jam, and cranberry juice, said Alisa Vitti, a holistic health counselor and functional nutritionist, on The Dr. Oz Show. Frozen Blueberry: this color is usually an indicator of higher estrogen levels, which can lead the lining of the uterus to thicken when this hormone is in excess; it is typically seen in heavier cycles. Strawberry Jam: a light pink appearance is a sign that estrogen levels are too low, which can lead to vaginal dryness, low libido, hair loss, and even fatigue. With women who have low estrogen levels, they experience patchy periods that come here and there and their periods frequently begin late. Cranberry Juice: the “normal” period color that tends to start and end on time. However, women with these periods should always be on the lookout for premenstrual syndrome (PMS). If you’re experiencing PMS, reach out to your doctor because it might be a sign of a hormonal imbalance. P.S. The dark brown color that you probably see in the beginning and end of your period is totally normal, too. This is older blood. During those light flow days, the blood takes longer to exit your body, and takes on a darker color as it makes its slow exit. Another reason is that some of us are slow-bleeders. Our uteruses are not always able to completely clean the slate each month so we get to see the leftovers on the next round. Blood clots in your period flow can be very normal and can simply be a natural part of menstruation. Many women pass period clots at some point during their menstrual lifetime so if you haven’t yet, you probably will in the future. But first, what are they exactly? When the lining of your uterus is breaking away, some parts of it will break away faster than others. During a heavier flow, when period blood is expelling faster, clots will sometimes form. So basically, your uterus is so kick-ass that it works too well and will give you a thick mass of period blood that we call clots. You’ll most likely see them in the first few days of your period, during the heaviest part of your flow. Period blood clots can vary in color and consistency. Blood clots are generally bright or darker red, and can sometimes make your menstrual flow seem dense and thick. It’s normal for the appearance to change from one period to the next. By the way, the use of tampons (points if they’re organic!) may help to decrease clots if you’re like me and don’t like the sight of blood. Period blood may have the normal viscosity, as blood from a bleeding finger or it could be watery and thin. It may also be stringy. If the blood is thin and watery, then there is some sort of a deficiency in the underlying reproductive energies. If it is thick, clumpy, stringy, or has clots, then there is an excess condition where the flow is compromised. Note that temporary thick, heavy flow isn’t necessarily a cause for concern. If you ever feel like something is just “off” with your period blood, call your doctor because it’s always better to ask questions than to sit at home and worry! So, next time you catch a glimpse of your 10 teaspoons of period blood, take a few seconds to look at it and touch it. What color is it? Are there clots? What kind of viscosity does it have? Don’t be afraid of your period blood, embrace it. The more that we learn and know about our bodies, the better we are at managing our periods.

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50 SÓINÍ DÍOL PÉIRÍOID: CÉ A BHAIRDÍOCHTA? Foghlaim Cad atá á rá ag do chorp leat Déanaimid go léir ár tampons a úsáidtear, iad a scriosadh síos na píopaí nó iad a chur sa dramhaíola gan smaoineamh. Mar sin féin, táimid ag cur faisnéis luachmhar faoi ár sláinte ar shiúl. Ag brath ar an dath, ar na coaglaí agus ar an tiús, is féidir le do chuid fola tréimhsí a insint duit go leor faoi cad atá ag tarlú le do chorp. Ar ais suas, cad go díreach a tharlaíonn le linn ár tréimhse arís? Téann cló do mháthair-fhíseáin tiubh le linn do timthriall chun ullmhú le haghaidh toirchis. Nuair a bhíonn do timthriall thart agus nach bhfuil leanbh ar an mbealach, scaoilfidh do chorp an liathróid uterus a d'oibrigh sé chomh crua chun a thógáil suas chomh maith le roinnt fola. Is suimiúil a fhios a bheith againn, go gcaillimid thart ar 5 go 10 spúnóg tae de fhuil agus sreabhach gach timthriall. CÉ DÓIN A BHEIL LEÓ DÓ THÍOCHT? De ghnáth, bíonn ceann de na trí chineál dath ag mná le linn a gcuid tréimhse: plúr gorm reoite, seam straobhrái, agus sú cranberry, a dúirt Alisa Vitti, comhairleoir sláinte iomlánach agus cothaitheoir feidhmiúil, ar The Dr. Oz Show. Blueberry reoite: is gnách go mbíonn an dath seo ina tháscaire ar leibhéil níos airde estrogen, rud a d'fhéadfadh go dtiocfadh le clúdach an uterus a thiúsú nuair a bhíonn an hormóin seo i bhfad níos mó; is gnách go bhfeictear é i dtimthriallta níos troime. Is comhartha é go bhfuil leibhéil estrogen ró-íseal, rud a d'fhéadfadh a bheith ina chúis le triomacht féitheacha, libido íseal, cailliúint gruaige, agus fiú tuirse. Le mná a bhfuil leibhéil íseal estrogen acu, bíonn tréimhse neamhfhillte acu a thagann anseo agus ansin agus is minic a thosaíonn a gcuid tréimhse go déanach. Cranberry Juice: an dath tréimhse normal a bhíonn ag tosú agus ag críochnú in am. Ba cheart do mhná a bhfuil na tréimhse seo acu a bheith ar an airdeall i gcónaí maidir le siondróm réamh-mhíosa (PMS). Má tá tú ag fulaingt ó PMS, téigh i dteagmháil le do dhochtúir mar d'fhéadfadh sé a bheith ina chomhartha ar neamhréireacht hormónach. P.S. Tá mé ag iarraidh a fháil amach. Tá an dath donn dorcha a fheiceann tú ag tús agus ag deireadh do thréimhse go hiomlán gnáth, freisin. Is é seo an fhuil níos sine. Le linn na laethanta seo a bhíonn an solas ag sreabhadh, tógann an fhuil níos mó ama chun do chorp a fhágáil, agus bíonn dath níos dorcha air de réir mar a théann sé amach go mall. Is é an chúis eile go bhfuil cuid againn ag fuil go mall. Ní bhíonn ár matáin in ann an t-easnamh a ghlanadh go hiomlán gach mí, mar sin feicimid na haiscí ar an gcéad bhabhta eile. Is féidir go mbeadh clúdach fola i d'fhorbairt tréimhse an-nádúrtha agus is féidir go mbeadh siad mar chuid nádúrtha den tréimhse. Tá go leor mná ag dul trí chúnamh tréimhsiúil ag pointe éigin le linn a saolré tréimhsiúil, mar sin mura bhfuil tú fós, is dócha go mbeidh tú sa todhchaí. Ach ar dtús, cad iad go díreach? Nuair a bheidh do chlóis ag briseadh as, beidh cuid de na codanna níos tapúla ná codanna eile. Le linn sruth níos troma, nuair a bhíonn fuil tréimhse ag cur amach níos tapúla, tá clútha ag teacht chun cinn uaireanta. Go bunúsach, tá do uterus chomh kick-ass go n-oibríonn sé ró-mhaith agus beidh tú a chur ar an mais tiubh de thréimhse fola go glaoimid clots. Is dócha go bhfeicfidh tú iad sna chéad chúpla lá de do thréimhse, le linn an chuid is trom de do shruth. Is féidir le clúdach fola tréimhse a bheith éagsúil i dhath agus i gcomhsheasmhacht. De ghnáth bíonn clúdach fola dearg geal nó dorcha, agus uaireanta is féidir leo do shreabhadh menstrual a dhéanamh tiubh agus tiubh. Tá sé gnáth go n-athraíonn an chuma ó thréimhse go tréimhse eile. Ar an láimh eile, úsáid tampóin (pointí má tá siad orgánach!) D'fhéadfadh sé cabhrú le clots a laghdú má tá tú cosúil liomsa agus nach maith leat an radharc fola. D'fhéadfadh go mbeadh an t-aisteas gnáth-ghlanas ag fuil tréimhse, mar fhuil ó mhéar a bhí ag fuil nó d'fhéadfadh sé a bheith uisceach agus tanaí. D'fhéadfadh sé a bheith ina shnáithe freisin. Má tá an fhuil tanaí agus uisceach, ansin tá roinnt cineál easpa sna fuinneamh atáirgthe bunúsacha. Má tá sé tiubh, clumpy, stringy, nó tá clots aige, ansin tá coinníoll iomarcach ann nuair a bhíonn an sreabhadh faoi bhagairt. Tabhair faoi deara nach gá go mbeadh sreabhadh tiubh, trom sealadach ina chúis imní. Má bhraitheann tú riamh go bhfuil rud éigin díreach 'seasta' le do chuid fola tréimhsí, glaoigh ar do dhochtúir mar is fearr i gcónaí ceisteanna a chur ná suí sa bhaile agus imní a dhéanamh! Mar sin, an chéad uair eile a gheobhaidh tú léargas ar do 10 spúnóg tae de fhuil tréimhse, glac cúpla soicind chun féachaint air agus teagmháil a dhéanamh leis. Cad é an dath? An bhfuil clúdach ann? Cén cineál greannmhar atá aige? Ná bíodh eagla ort ar do chuid fola tréimhsí, glac leis. An níos mó a fhoghlaimimid agus a fhios againn faoi ár gcorp, is fearr a bheidh muid ag bainistiú ár dtréimhsí.

Vertigo - Major causes & Management with Home Remedies Vertigo - Overview Vertigo refers to a sensation of feeling 'off balance' or spinning dizziness, commonly resulting from problems with the inner ear, the brain, or the sensory nerve pathway. Vertigo is a symptom associated with a number of conditions. Severe or persistent Vertigo is related to mental health issues and can lead to depression/anxiety as it can affect a person’s ability to carry out normal day-to-day functions. Vertigo can happen at any age, though it commonly occurs in people aged more than 65 years. Vertigo attacks are generally triggered by a change in the position of the head. Temporary attacks of Vertigo happen suddenly and last for a few seconds. However, in severe cases, Vertigo attacks last for a long period, with the feeling of dizziness remaining constant for several days. People suffering from Vertigo typically describe the feeling as that of dizzy spells, spinning, swaying, or a sense of being unbalanced or pulled to one direction. Some of the symptoms accompanying Vertigo are vomiting, feeling sick or nauseated,headache, sweating, abnormal involuntary eye movements (nystagmus), ringing in the ears(tinnitus), or loss of hearing. Vertigo - Ayurvedic Perspective According to Ayurveda, Vertigo is a result of some underlying health condition, especially the disorder of the nervous system. In Ayurveda, Vertigo is referred to as 'Brahma'. The spinning sensation linked to Vertigo is believed to be caused by vitiated Pitta and Vata doshas. The vitiated doshas combine with the attributes of rajas, because of which the balance mechanism that occurs due to the inner part of the ear attains equilibrium. This imbalanced mechanism -- called vestibular imbalance -- is considered the main cause of Vertigo attacks because the flow of oxygen to the ear is hampered. Ayurvedic management of Vertigo focuses on remedies for efficiently balancing the Pitta and Vata doshas. Vertigo - Major Causes Vertigo is usually caused by a problem in the inner ear which is responsible for sending signals to the brain about head and body movements relative to gravity. More specifically, some of the major causes include: - Benign Paroxysmal Positional Vertigo (BPPV): This is the most common cause of Vertigo because of which the affected individuals briefly feel that they are spinning or moving. The condition occurs because of the clumping up of small calcium particles (canaliths) in canals of the inner ear. - Meniere's Disease: This is an inner ear disorder which causes a build-up of fluid and changing the pressure in the ear. Meniere's disease can lead to Vertigo attacks which are accompanied by ringing in the ears and hearing loss. - Vestibular Neuritis or Labyrinthitis:This is also an inner ear condition, commonly linked to a viral infection. Due to the infection, there is an inflammation in the inner ear around the nerves which help the body to maintain - Migraine:People who commonly suffer from severe headaches like migraine can also experience Vertigo attacks. Such attacks can last for a few minutes or for hours and are linked to light and noise sensitivity, besides a headache. Along with the above-mentioned causes, Vertigo is also associated with a few other problems, such as head/neck injury, certain medications that lead to ear damage, drop in blood pressure, sleep deprivation, poor blood circulation, dehydration, anxiety disorders, and neurological disorders like Parkinson's disease and multiple sclerosis. Vertigo - Management Mild cases of Vertigo improve on their own over a period of time, without treatment. However, for severe cases, doctors mostly prescribe medications to treat the underlying condition that triggers Vertigo in the early stages. Most patients affected by Vertigo also benefit from Vestibular Rehabilitation Training (VRT), which comprises certain exercises to help treat dizziness and balance problems. Vertigo can be managed with the help of some time-tested home remedies discussed below. 1. Epley Maneuver Technique The Epley Maneuver technique is often advised by physical therapists for managing Vertigo at home. This technique involves a series of head-tilting exercises which Vertigo patients are required to do before they go to bed at night. The exercises involve head movements for repositioning loose calcium carbonate crystals inside the inner ear. 2. Ginger Tea Ginger tea is an excellent remedy for Vertigo as it can reduce the impact of the condition. To prepare Ginger tea, a piece of Ginger (rhizome)should be steeped in one cup of boiling water for 5 minutes. Regular intake of two cups of ginger tea every day can provide relief from Vertigo symptoms. 3. Sufficient intake of water Since dehydration is one of the causes of Vertigo, it is important for people affected by the problem to consume sufficient amounts of water and other liquids to stay hydrated and minimize balance issues. The optimum daily water intake to keep the body adequately hydrated is 8-10 glasses. 4. Essential Oils Essential oils can also be useful in managing Vertigo symptoms like headache, nausea, and dizziness. These oils can either be inhaled or applied topically to relieve the condition. Some beneficial essential oils for treating Vertigo include peppermint, lavender, lemon, and ginger essential oils. 5. Stress Management Stress management -- with the help of Yoga, meditation and deep-breathing techniques -- can reduce the occurrence of Vertigo attacks and improve balance. Stress management can control the causes of Vertigo, including Meniere’s disease, which are often triggered by nervous tension. 6. Adequate Amount of Sleep Sleep deprivation or lack of sleep can be one of the causes of Vertigo attacks. A short nap during a Vertigo attack can help in managing the condition in a natural way because the feelings of dizziness and spinning get resolved themselves. 7. Cutting Back on Alcohol Consumption Avoiding alcohol completely or cutting back on its consumption can be helpful in managing Vertigo symptoms. Alcohol can aggravate the feeling of dizziness, affect the balance of the body, and have a dehydrating effect on the body. Use of herbs The use of some well-known herbs can also be beneficial in managing Vertigo. These herbs include Brahmi (Bacopamonnieri), Vacha (Acoruscalamus), Shankhpushpi (Convolvulus pluricaulis), Amla (Emblica officianalis), and Licorice (Glycyrrhizaglabra). Though the management of Vertigo is possible at home, continuous occurrence of Vertigo attacks require immediate medical attention because it can be an indication of a serious health problem. Hence, people suffering from severe Vertigo attacks should consult a doctor for proper and expert management of the condition in a timely manner.

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Vertigo - Príomhchúiseanna & Bainistiú le Leigheasanna Baile Vertigo - Léargas Tagraíonn Vertigo do mhothú 'neamhchothrom' nó dizziness rothlú, de ghnáth mar thoradh ar fhadhbanna leis an gcluas istigh, an inchinn, nó an bealach néaróg braite. Is comhartha é Vertigo a bhaineann le roinnt riochtaí. Tá Vertigo tromchúiseach nó leanúnach bainteach le saincheisteanna meabhairshláinte agus is féidir leis díomá/fáras a bheith mar thoradh air toisc go bhféadfadh sé difear a dhéanamh ar chumas duine feidhmeanna gnáth-laethanta a dhéanamh. Is féidir le Vertigo tarlú ag aois ar bith, cé go dtarlaíonn sé go coitianta i ndaoine atá os cionn 65 bliain d'aois. De ghnáth, is é athrú i suíomh an chinn a spreagann ionsaí vertigo. Tarlaíonn ionsaithe sealadacha Vertigo go tobann agus maireann siad ar feadh cúpla soicind. Mar sin féin, i gcásanna tromchúiseacha, maireann ionsaithe Vertigo ar feadh tréimhse fada, agus fanann an mothúchán go bhfuil an dizziness buan ar feadh roinnt laethanta. De ghnáth déanann daoine a bhfuil Vertigo orthu cur síos ar an mothú mar bhraith na spíolta dizzy, rothlú, swaying, nó mothú a bheith neamhchothrom nó tarraingthe i dtreo amháin. Is iad na hairíonna a ghabhann le Vertigo ná vómó, mothú tinn nó mí-ádh, tinneas cinn, sweating, gluaiseachtaí neamhghnácha neamhfhoirmiúla súl (nystagmus), cnagadh na gcluasanna (tinnitus), nó caillteanas éisteachta. Vertigo - an Peirspictíocht Ayurvedic De réir Ayurveda, is é Vertigo toradh ar riocht sláinte bunúsach, go háirithe neamhoird an chórais néaróg. Sa Ayurveda, tugtar 'Brahma' ar Vertigo. Creidtear go bhfuil an mothúchán rothlaithe a bhaineann le Vertigo mar thoradh ar Pitta agus Vata doshas vicious. Comhcheanglaíonn na doshas vicious le tréithe rajas, mar gheall ar a bhfuil an mheicníocht cothromaíochta a tharlaíonn mar gheall ar an chuid istigh den chluas ag teacht ar chothromaíocht. Meicníocht neamhchothrom seo - ar a dtugtar míchothromú vestibular - meastar gurb é príomhchúis na n-ionsaithe Vertigo toisc go gcuirtear bac ar shreabhadh ocsaigine chuig an gcluas. Díríonn bainistíocht Ayurvedic Vertigo ar leigheasanna chun an doshas Pitta agus Vata a chothromú go héifeachtach. Vertigo - Príomhchúiseanna De ghnáth is fadhb sa chluas istigh a bhíonn i gceist le vertigo a chuireann comharthaí chuig an inchinn faoi ghluaiseachtaí an chinn agus an chomhlachta i ndáil leis an ngéarchéim. Go sonrach, tá cuid de na príomhchúiseanna seo a leanas: - Vertigo Poistithe Paroxysmal Benign (BPPV): Is é seo an chúis is coitianta le Vertigo mar gheall ar a bhfuil na daoine aonair a bhfuil tionchar orthu go gairid go mbraitheann siad go bhfuil siad ag casadh nó ag bogadh. Tarlaíonn an riocht mar gheall ar chlúdach de pharaiméadair cailciam beaga (canaliths) i gcainéal an chluas istigh. - galar Meniere: Is galar cluaise istigh é seo a chuireann le haontacht leachta agus athrú ar an bhrú sa chluais. Is féidir le galar Meniere ionsaí Vertigo a bheith mar thoradh air a bhfuil cluaise ag cnagadh agus caillteanas éisteachta ag gabháil leo. - Neoirit Vestibular nó Labyrinthitis: Is galar cluaise istigh é seo freisin, a bhaineann go coitianta le haire víreasach. Mar gheall ar an ionfhabhtú, tá athlasadh sa chluas istigh timpeall na néaróg a chabhraíonn leis an gcomhlacht - Migraine: Is féidir le daoine a bhíonn ag fulaingt ó cheann go minic mar mhigraine ionsaí Vertigo a fháil freisin. D'fhéadfadh na hairíonna sin a bheith ar siúl ar feadh cúpla nóiméad nó ar feadh uaireanta an chloig agus tá baint acu le íogaireacht do sholas agus do bhfuaim, chomh maith le tinneas cinn. Chomh maith leis na cúiseanna thuasluaite, tá Vertigo bainteach le roinnt fadhbanna eile, mar shampla díobháil ceann / muineál, cógais áirithe a fhágann go ndéantar damáiste do chluas, titim sa bhrú fola, díthréimhse codlata, droch-athshruthú fola, díhiodráitiú, neamhoird imní, agus neamhoird néareolaíocha cosúil le galar Parkinson agus sclerosis ilbhliantúil. Vertigo - Bainistíocht Fágann cásanna éadrom Vertigo feabhas orthu féin thar thréimhse ama, gan cóireáil. Mar sin féin, i gcásanna tromchúiseacha, déanann dochtúirí cógais a fhorordú den chuid is mó chun an coinníoll bunúsach a chuireann Vertigo i gconaí luath a chóireáil. Baineann an chuid is mó de na hothair a bhfuil Vertigo orthu leas as Oiliúint Athshlánúcháin Vestibular (VRT), lena n-áirítear cleachtaí áirithe chun cabhrú le mearbhall agus fadhbanna cothromaíochta a chóireáil. Is féidir vertigo a bhainistiú le cabhair ó roinnt leigheasanna baile a ndearnadh tástáil orthu a phléitear thíos. 1. an t-am a bhí ann. Teicníc Maoineoireachta Epley Is minic a mholann fisiceolaithe teicníc Epley Maneuver chun Vertigo a bhainistiú sa bhaile. Baineann an teicníc seo le sraith cleachtaí a bhfuil sé de cheangal ar othair Vertigo a dhéanamh sula dtéann siad a chodladh san oíche. I measc na n-oiliúintí tá gluaiseachtaí ceann chun criostail chárbónáit chailciam scaoilte a athshuíomh laistigh den chluas istigh. 2. Seachadadh. Te Ginger Is leigheas den scoth é tae ginger le haghaidh Vertigo toisc gur féidir leis tionchar an choinníoll a laghdú. Chun tae Ginger a ullmhú, ba cheart píosa Ginger (rhizome) a bheith i gceann cupán uisce fiuchta ar feadh 5 nóiméad. Is féidir le dhá chupan tae ginger a thógáil go rialta gach lá faoiseamh a thabhairt ó chomharthaí Vertigo. 3. Tá an t-am ann. Iontaobhas uisce leordhóthanach Ós rud é go bhfuil díhiodráitiú ar cheann de na cúiseanna atá le Vertigo, tá sé tábhachtach do dhaoine a bhfuil an fhadhb orthu go n-itheann siad méideanna leordhóthanacha uisce agus leachtacha eile chun fanacht hidrithe agus fadhbanna cothromaíochta a íoslaghdú. Is é an t-uisce is fearr a iontógáil in aghaidh an lae chun an corp a choinneáil hidrithe go leordhóthanach ná 8-10 gloine. 4. Tá an t-am Olaí Eitimiceacha Is féidir le olaí riachtanacha a bheith úsáideach freisin chun comharthaí Vertigo a bhainistiú mar tinneas cinn, nausea, agus dizziness. Is féidir na holaí seo a shlánú trína n-aimsithe nó trína n-aistrithe go háitiúil chun an staid a mhaolú. I measc na n-olaí riachtanacha tairbheacha chun Vertigo a chóireáil tá olaí riachtanacha pippermint, lavender, líomóide, agus ginger. 5. Tá an t-am ann. Bainistiú Stres Is féidir le bainistiú strus - le cabhair ó Yoga, meabhrú agus teicnící anála domhain - teacht ar ionsaí Vertigo a laghdú agus cothromaíocht a fheabhsú. Is féidir le bainistiú strus cúiseanna Vertigo a rialú, lena n-áirítear galar Meniere, a spreagtar go minic le teannas néarógach. 6. Ceacht. Caitheamh Am Leordhóthanach Codlata Is féidir le díthréigean codlata nó easpa codlata a bheith ar cheann de na cúiseanna le hionsaithe Vertigo. Is féidir le siopánta gearr le linn ionsaí Vertigo cabhrú leis an riocht a bhainistiú ar bhealach nádúrtha toisc go réitítear na mothúcháin dizziness agus spinning iad féin. 7. Ceacht. An t-Alcól a Dhéanamh Níos Lag D'fhéadfadh go mbeadh sé cabhrach alcól a sheachaint go hiomlán nó a thomhaltas a laghdú chun comharthaí Vertigo a bhainistiú. Is féidir le halcól an mothú dizziness a mhéadú, tionchar a imirt ar chothromaíocht an choirp, agus éifeacht díhiodráitithe a bheith aige ar an gcorp. Úsáid luibheanna Is féidir le roinnt luibheanna a bhfuil aithne mhaith orthu a úsáid chun Vertigo a bhainistiú. I measc na luibheanna seo tá Brahmi (Bacopamonnieri), Vacha (Acoruscalamus), Shankhpushpi (Convolvulus pluricaulis), Amla (Emblica officianalis), agus Licorice (Glycyrrhizaglabra). Cé gur féidir Vertigo a bhainistiú sa bhaile, ní mór aire leighis a thabhairt do thriomú leanúnach Vertigo toisc gur féidir é a bheith ina tháscaire ar fhadhb shláinte tromchúiseach. Dá bhrí sin, ba cheart do dhaoine atá ag fulaingt ó ionsaithe Vertigo tromchúiseacha dul i gcomhairle le dochtúir chun an riocht a bhainistiú go cuí agus go saineolach in am trátha.

*Accutane contains parabens, which are chemical preservatives known to display estrogenic activity and mimic the body's hormones. These chemical-disruptors may interfere with the body-s endocrine system: the adrenal glands, the pituitary gland, the hypothalamus (in the brain), the thyroid, the ovaries and testes, the pancreas (which secretes insulin and regulates the level of glucose in the blood), the stomach, the kidneys, the skin and virtually every body system. How Does Accutane (isotretinoin) Work? Accutane (isotretinoin) inhibits the body's cell growth and reproduction, and oil-gland function. Accutane also depletes the body's water-holding molecules, which bind, lubricate and protect tissue in the skin, scalp, eyes and joints. Erectile dysfunction (difficulty in maintaining erection) Psychosis (seeing or hearing things that are not real) Suicidal ideation (rare) Pseudotumor cerebri (swelling pressure in the brain) Osteopenia/osteoporosis (loss in bone mass and strength/weak and fragile bones) Hepatotoxicity (liver damage) Anaphylaxis (rapid and deadly allergic reaction) Allergic vasculitis (inflammation and damage to blood vessels) Major birth defects Cataracts/corneal opacities (can cause a decrease in vision and lead to eventual blindness) Premature epiphyseal closure (short stature) Neutropenia (low white blood cell count, which makes the body vulnerable to bacterial and fungal infections) Agranulocytosis (a serious condition in which white blood cells decrease in number or disappear altogether) (rare) Rhabdomyolysis (potentially fatal disease that destroys skeletal muscle) (rare) Inflammatory bowel disease (inflammation of the intestine and resulting in abdominal cramping and persistent diarrhea) Pancreatitis (inflammation of the pancreas, an organ important in digestion) Vascular thrombosis (heart attack) Accutane (isotretinoin) is Used for A two-year U.S. congressional investigation found that many dermatologists have effectively widened the scope of Accutane use to include even mild acne despite the fact that the drug is approved for only the most severe, scar-forming and disfiguring nodular acne, which is untreatable by other means. The government found that 90 percent of women and nearly half the teens who received Accutane suffered only mild cases of acne. Therein lies the controversy surrounding this high-risk drug. The Power of Accutane: Benefits and Risks of Isotretinoin Accutane is a very powerful drug that certainly works miracles to clear up acne in a matter of months. One course, which is typically five months, results in prolonged remission of acne in up to 85 percent of patients. "But as powerful as Accutane can be in improving patients' lives, the adverse effects can be just as powerful," states FDA Consumer magazine. "The drug is known to cause miscarriage and severe birth defects. Patients taking Accutane may develop potentially serious problems affecting a number of organs, including the liver, intestines, eyes, ears, and skeletal system. And some patients taking Accutane have developed serious psychiatric problems." Many former Accutane users say their hair, eyebrows, or eyelashes have fallen out months, or even years, after stopping the drug. Some claim their hair loss is permanent. Why does Accutane hair-loss happen? Accutane causes hair loss because it impacts the oil-gland function of the skin (including the scalp) and causes changes in cells that provide structure to hair and skin, all of which leads to hair and skin dryness and fragility, which can cause hair-thinning, hair-loss, and even baldness. Current and former Accutane users attribute aches and joint pains to the acne drug. A 37-year-old nurse with cystic acne claims Accutane caused her to develop permanent, severe low-back pain, severe joint pain and thinning hair. She writes: "Now, almost 7 years later, I suffer from severe back and generalized joint pain to the point I can no longer work full-time. Before Accutane, I was a healthy, active young woman. It definitely ages you prematurely. If you haven't had these awful symptoms, count yourself blessed." Experts agree that alternatives without serious side effects should be tried first. Accutane (isotretinoin) is the first drug in the history of medicine for which a woman has to sign a consent to read the warnings. FDA "Black Box" Warning The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) requires the following "black box" warning on isotretinoin, including Accutane, Amnesteem, Claravis, and Sotret, which means that medical studies indicate these drugs carry a significant risk of serious, or even life-threatening, adverse effects. Accutane (isotretinoin) causes VERY SEVERE BIRTH DEFECTS including: Severe Internal Defects: defects that you cannot see—involving the brain (including lower IQ scores), heart, glands and nervous system. Severe External Defects: defects that you can see—such as low-set, deformed or absent ears, wideset eyes, depressed bridge of nose, enlarged head and small chin. Read the Medication Guide that comes with Accutane before you start taking it and each time you get a prescription. There may be new information. This information does not take the place of talking with your doctor about your medical condition or your treatment. What is the most important information I should know about ACCUTANE? Accutane is used to treat a type of severe acne (nodular acne) that has not been helped by other treatments, including antibiotics. Because Accutane can cause birth defects, Accutane is only for patients who can understand and agree to carry out all of the instructions in the iPLEDGE program. Accutane may cause serious mental health problems. 1. Birth defects (deformed babies), loss of a baby before birth (miscarriage), death of the baby, and early (premature) births. Female patients who are pregnant or who plan to become pregnant must not take Accutane. Female patients must not get pregnant: for 1 month before starting Accutane while taking Accutane for 1 month after stopping Accutane. If you get pregnant while taking Accutane, stop taking it right away and call your doctor. Doctors and patients should report all cases of pregnancy to: FDA MedWatch at 1-800-FDA-1088, and the iPLEDGE pregnancy registry at 1-800-495-0654 2. Serious mental health problems. Accutane may cause: psychosis (seeing or hearing things that are not real) suicide. Some patients taking Accutane have had thoughts about hurting themselves or putting an end to their own lives (suicidal thoughts). Some people tried to end their own lives. And some people have ended their own lives. Stop Accutane and call your doctor right away if you or a family member notices that you have any of the following signs and symptom of depression or psychosis: start to feel sad or have crying spells lose interest in activities you once enjoyed sleep too much or have trouble sleeping become more irritable, angry, or aggressive than usual (for example, temper outbursts, thoughts of violence) have a change in your appetite or body weight have trouble concentrating withdraw from your friends or family feel like you have no energy have feelings of worthlessness or guilt start having thoughts about hurting yourself or taking your own life (suicidal thoughts) start acting on dangerous impulses start seeing or hearing things that are not real After stopping Accutane, you may also need follow-up mental health care if you had any of these symptoms. In small doses amphetamines can banish tiredness and make the user feel alert and refreshed. However, the burst of energy comes at a price. A "speed crash" always follows the high and may leave the person feeling nauseous, irritable, depressed and extremely exhausted. [More] Although Vyvanse is referred to as “pro-drug” of dextroamphetamine, it's still an amphetamine, meaning that it's easily abused and can cause insomnia, agitation, anxiety and sometimes psychotic symptoms like seeing things or becoming paranoid. [More] Fried, S.M. Bitter Pills: Inside the Hazardous World of Legal Drugs. New York, NY: Bantam Books, 1998. March of Dimes Fact Sheet, "Accutane and Other Retinoids," rev. 10/05. www.marchofdimes.com/printableArticles/14332_1168.asp. University of Maryland Medical Center, "Isotrerinoin." American Accreditation HealthCare Commission, 2007. www.umm.edu/altmed/drugs/isotretinoin-073700.htm. Tirado Sanchez, A, et al. (Nov-Dec 2005). "Erectile dysfunction during isotretinoin therapy". Actas urologicas espa-olas. 29 (10): 974-6. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16447596. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Daughton, C.G. et al., "Special Report: Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products in the Environment: Agents of Subtle Change?" Environmental Health Perspectives, vol. 107 sup. 6: National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, 12/99. www.epa.gov/ppcp/pdf/errata.pdf. As reported by the Organic Consumers Association, 07/04. www.organicconsumers.org/bodycare/ppcps.cfm. Kus, S., et al. "Vitamin E does not reduce the side-effects of isotretinoin in the treatment of acne vulgaris." Int J Dermatol 2005;44(3):248-51. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15807739. LEGAL DISCLAIMER: This website is for general information purposes only. Statements and excerpts from research literature are provided solely as a forum for commentary and specifically not as health or medical advice. Only your physician should diagnose your health problem and prescribe treatment. DO NOT CHANGE OR STOP TAKING MEDICATION BASED ON INFORMATION YOU READ AT THIS WEBSITE. If you have a question about a drug, or if you think you are experiencing a drug's side effect, consult with your doctor.

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* Tá paraibíní i Accutane, a bhfuil a fhios acu go bhfuil gníomhaíocht estrogánach acu agus go ndéanann siad samhail ar hormóin an choirp. D'fhéadfadh na suaitheadh ceimiceacha seo cur isteach ar chóras endocrine an chomhlachta: na glúine adrenal, an glúine pituitary, an hypothalamus (sa inchinn), an thyroid, na huibheacha agus na testes, an pancreas (a dhéanann inslin a scaipeadh agus a rialaíonn leibhéal glúcóis sa fhuil), an boilg, na duáin, an craiceann agus beagnach gach córas coirp. Conas a Oibríonn Accutane (isotretinoin)? Cuireann Accutane (isotretinoin) cosc ar fhás agus ar atáirgeadh cealla an choirp, agus ar fheidhm na nglandáil ola. Cuireann Accutane moileiclí coimeád uisce an choirp ar fáil freisin, a cheangail, a lubricate agus a chosaint fíochán sa chraiceann, scalp, súile agus joints. Dysfunction Erectile (deacair a bheith ag tógáil) Psychosis (a fheiceáil nó a chloisteáil rudaí nach bhfuil fíor) smaoineamh féinmharú (an-annamh) Pseudotumor cerebri (brú athlasadh sa inchinn) Osteopenia/osteoporosis (caillteanas i mais cnámh agus neart/chnámha lag agus frága) Hepatotoxicity (damáiste don ae) Anafilaxis (freagairt ailléirgeach tapa agus marbhtach) Vasculitis ailléirgeach (athlasadh agus damáiste do shoithí fola) Dea-dhea-chroí móra ó bhreith Cataracts/corneal opacities (is féidir leo laghdú ar an radharc a chur faoi deara agus dul i ngleic le dalltas sa deireadh) Dúnadh epiphyseal roimh am (fás gearr) Neutropenia (líon glúine bána íseal, rud a fhágann go bhfuil an corp leochaileach do ionfhabhtuithe baictéaracha agus fungacha) Agranulocytosis (suíomh tromchúiseach ina laghdaítear líon na gcealla bána nó ina n-imíonn siad go hiomlán) (ní bhíonn go minic) Rhabdomyolysis (ghalair a d'fhéadfadh a bheith marfach a scriosann muscle cnámh) (ní bhíonn go minic) Breoiteacht athlastach na n-éide (athlasadh na n-éide agus mar thoradh air sin crampanna boilg agus diarrhea leanúnach) Pancreatitis (athlasadh ar an bpancreas, orgán atá tábhachtach sa díleá) Trombóis Vascular (ionsaí croí) Úsáidtear Accutane (isotretinoin) le haghaidh Fuair imscrúdú dhá bhliain ó Chongres na Stát Aontaithe go bhfuil go leor dermatologists leathnaithe go héifeachtach ar an raon feidhme a úsáid Accutane a chur san áireamh fiú acne éadrom in ainneoin go bhfuil an druga ceadaithe ach amháin le haghaidh an chuid is mó tromchúiseach, scar-chruthaithe agus disfiguring nodular acne, nach bhfuil in-láimhseáil le modhanna eile. Fuair an rialtas amach nach raibh ach cásanna éadrom acne ag 90 faoin gcéad de na mná agus beagnach leath na n-óige a fuair Accutane. Is ann a bhíonn an chonspóid a bhaineann leis an druga ardriosca seo. Cumhacht Accutane: Sochair agus Rioscaí Isotretinoin Is druga an-chumhachtach é Accutane a oibríonn deifir cinnte chun acne a ghlanadh i gceann cúpla mí. Tá an leigheas seo ag cur deireadh le acne i suas le 85 faoin gcéad de na daoine a bhfuil an galar orthu, agus is gnách go mbíonn sé ar siúl ar feadh cúig mhí. "Ach cé go bhféadfadh Accutane a bheith cumhachtach i bhfeabhsú saol na n-othar, d'fhéadfadh na héifeachtaí díobhálacha a bheith chomh cumhachtach sin", a deir iris FDA Consumer. "Tá a fhios go gcuireann an druga mí-ghorta agus míchompord tromchúiseach breith. D'fhéadfadh fadhbanna a d'fhéadfadh a bheith tromchúiseacha a bheith ag othair a ghlacann Accutane a théann i bhfeidhm ar roinnt orgáin, lena n-áirítear an ae, na n- intestines, na súile, na cluasa agus an córas cnámh. Agus tá fadhbanna síceacha tromchúiseacha tagtha ar roinnt othar a ghlac Accutane". Deir go leor iar-úsáideoirí Accutane go bhfuil a gcuid gruaige, a mbróga nó a gcuid eyelashes tar éis titim míonna, nó fiú blianta, tar éis dóibh an druga a stopadh. Deir cuid acu go bhfuil a gcuid gruaige ag titim go buan. Cén fáth a dtarlaíonn caillteanas gruaige Accutane? Bíonn caillteanas gruaige ag Accutane toisc go mbíonn tionchar aige ar fheidhm ghland ola an chraiceann (lena n-áirítear an scalp) agus go mbíonn athruithe ann i gcealla a sholáthraíonn struchtúr don ghruaig agus don chraiceann, rud a fhágann go bhfuil an ghruaig agus an chraiceann tirim agus brách, rud a d'fhéadfadh a bheith ina chúis le gruaig a mhaolú, le cailliúint gruaige, agus fiú le baldness. Tugann úsáideoirí reatha agus iar-úsáideoirí Accutane pian agus pian i gcomhpháirteanna leis an druga acne. Éilíonn altra 37 bliain d'aois le acne cisteach gur chuir Accutane pian buan buan, pian chomhpháirteach agus gruaig a chailleadh uirthi. Scríobhann sí: "Tá mé ag fulaingt anois, beagnach 7 bliana ina dhiaidh sin, ó chúl agus ó pian ghinearálta chomh mór sin nach féidir liom obair lánaimseartha a dhéanamh. Roimh Accutane, bhí mé ina bhean óg sláintiúil, gníomhach. Is cinnte go ndéanann sé tú a aois roimh am. Mura raibh na hairíonna uafásacha seo agat, meas duit féin beannaithe". Aontaíonn saineolaithe gur chóir roghanna eile nach bhfuil fo-iarsmaí tromchúiseacha acu a thriail ar dtús. Is é Accutane (isotretinoin) an chéad druga i stair na míochaine a gcaithfidh bean toiliú a shíniú chun na rabhaidh a léamh. FDA "Cáipéis Dubh" Rabhadh Éilíonn an Riarachán Bia agus Drugaí (FDA) an rabhadh "ciste dubh" seo a leanas ar isotretinoin, lena n-áirítear Accutane, Amnesteem, Claravis, agus Sotret, rud a chiallaíonn go léiríonn staidéir leighis go bhfuil riosca suntasach ann go mbeidh fo-iarsmaí tromchúiseacha, nó fiú a chuirfidh an saol i mbaol, ag na drugaí seo. Accutane (isotretinoin) cúis LE DÍOLAÍ SEARFÁN A BHÁIRT, lena n-áirítear: Dea-Mhionsúchtaí Inmheánacha Tromchúiseacha: míchompordanna nach féidir leat a fheiceáil a bhaineann leis an inchinn (lena n-áirítear scóir IQ níos ísle), an croí, na glúine agus an córas néarógach. Dea-Mhiontais Eachtracha: miontais is féidir leat a fheiceáil, mar shampla cluasa íseal, dífhoirmithe nó gan cluasa, súile leathan, droim an tsíotha, méadú ceann agus chin beag. Léigh an Treoirlíon Leigheas a thagann le Accutane sula dtosaíonn tú ag glacadh é agus gach uair a fhaigheann tú oideas. D'fhéadfadh faisnéis nua a bheith ann. Ní ghlacann an fhaisnéis seo áit na haistriúcháin le do dhochtúir faoi do riocht leighis nó faoi do chóireáil. Cad é an t-eolas is tábhachtaí ba chóir dom a bheith ar an eolas faoi ACCUTANE? Úsáidtear Accutane chun cineál acne tromchúiseach (acne nodúil) a chóireáil nach bhfuil cabhair faighte aige ó chóireálacha eile, lena n-áirítear antaibheathaigh. Toisc gur féidir le Accutane míchumas breith a chur i gcontúirt, ní dhéantar Accutane ach do dhaoine atá in ann na treoracha go léir sa chlár iPLEDGE a thuiscint agus a chomhaontú iad a chur i bhfeidhm. D'fhéadfadh Accutane fadhbanna tromchúiseacha meabhairshláinte a chur faoi deara. 1. an t-am a bhí ann. Míchumas ó bhroinn (bean a bhfuil míchumas orthu), leanbh a chailleadh roimh bhreith (easpa páirte), bás an linbh, agus breith go luath (go luath). Ní chóir do mhná atá ag iompar clainne nó atá ag pleanáil a bheith ag iompar clainne Accutane a ghlacadh. Ní féidir le hothair a bheith torrach: ar feadh míosa sula dtosaíonn tú ag úsáid Accutane agus Accutane á ghlacadh agat tar éis Accutane a stopadh. Má fhaigheann tú torthúil agus tú ag glacadh Accutane, scoir é láithreach agus glaoigh ar do dhochtúir. Ba cheart do dhochtúirí agus do othair gach cás toirchis a thuairisciú do: FDA MedWatch ag 1-800-FDA-1088, agus an clár toirchis iPLEDGE ag 1-800-495-0654 2. Seachadadh. Fadhbanna tromchúiseacha meabhairshláinte. D'fhéadfadh Accutane a bheith ina chúis le: síceóis (ag féachaint nó ag éisteacht le rudaí nach bhfuil fíor) féinmharú. Bhí smaointe ag roinnt othair a bhí ag glacadh Accutane maidir le díobháil a dhéanamh dóibh féin nó deireadh a chur lena saol féin (smaoineamh féinmharaithe). Rinne daoine áirithe iarracht deireadh a chur lena saol féin. Agus tá daoine áirithe tar éis deireadh a chur lena saol féin. Stop Accutane agus glaoigh ar do dhochtúir láithreach má thugann tú nó ball teaghlaigh faoi deara go bhfuil aon cheann de na comharthaí agus na hairíonna seo a leanas ag tú de dhíth nó de shíceóis: tosú ag mothú brón nó ag caoineadh a bheith ag dul in olcas ar ghníomhaíochtaí a raibh taitneamh agat astu roimhe seo codladh ró-fhada nó fadhbanna codlata bheith níos irritable, feargach, nó ionsaitheach ná mar is gnách (mar shampla, ráigí temper, smaointe foréigneacha) athrú ar do bhia nó ar do mheáchan coirp go bhfuil deacracht acu díriú tarraingt siar ó do chairde nó do theaghlach go mbraitheann tú go bhfuil aon fhuinneamh agat mothúcháin neamh-luacha nó ciontachta ag tosú ag smaoineamh ar dochar a dhéanamh duit féin nó ar do shaol féin a thógáil (smaoineamh féinmharaithe) tosú ag gníomhú ar impulses contúirteacha rudaí nach fíor a fheiceáil nó a chloisteáil Tar éis duit Accutane a stopadh, b'fhéidir go mbeidh ort cúram sláinte meabhrach leantach a fháil freisin má bhí aon cheann de na comharthaí seo agat. I dáileoga beaga, is féidir le amfetamines tuirse a dhíbirt agus a dhéanamh ar an úsáideoir a bheith airdeall agus athnuaite. Mar sin féin, tá praghas ar an bpléascadh fuinnimh. Tarlaíonn "crash luas" i gcónaí tar éis an ard agus d'fhéadfadh sé go mbraitheann an duine nauseous, irritable, depressed agus an-éagórach. [Tuilleadh] Cé go dtugtar "pro-drog" dextroamphetamine ar Vyvanse, is amfetamine é fós, rud a chiallaíonn go ndéantar mí-úsáid é go héasca agus go bhféadfadh sé insomnia, corraitheacht, imní agus uaireanta comharthaí síceósacha a chur air mar rudaí a fheiceáil nó a bheith paranoid. [Tuilleadh] Fritti, S.M. Pills Bitter: Inside the Hazardous World of Legal Drugs (Pillí Bitter: Taobh istigh den Domhan contúirteach de Dhrugaí Dlícheartacha). Nua-Eabhrac, NY: Leabhair Bantam, 1998. Bille Físeacha Márta na Dime, "Accutane and Other Retinoids", rev. 10/05. www.marchofdimes.com/printableArticles/14332_1168.asp. Ionad Leighis Ollscoil Maryland, "Isotrerinoin". Coimisiún Cúntais Chúram Sláinte na Meiriceánach, 2007. www.umm.edu/altmed/drugs/isotretinoin-073700.htm. Tirado Sanchez, A, et al. (Samhain-Deireadh Fómhair 2005). "Disfunction Erectile le linn cóireála isotretinoin". Actas urologicas espa-olas. 29 (10): 974-6. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16447596. Gníomhaireacht um Chosaint Comhshaoil na Stát Aontaithe, Daughton, C.G. et al., "Tuarascáil Speisialta: Táirgí cógaisíochta agus cúram pearsanta san chomhshaol: Gníomhairí Athraithe Subtle?" Tuairimí Sláinte Comhshaoil, t. 107 sup. 6: Institiúid Náisiúnta Eolaíochtaí Sláinte Comhshaoil, 12/99. Tá an t-údarás inniúil freagrach as an gcúram a thabhairt do na daoine a bhfuil an t-údarás inniúil acu. Mar a thuairiscigh Cumann Tomhaltóirí Eacnamaíochta, 07/04. www.organicconsumers.org/bodycare/ppcps.cfm Kus, S., et al. "Ní laghdaíonn Vitimín E fo-iarsmaí isotretinoin i gcóireáil acne vulgaris". Int J Dermatol 2005;44(3):248-51. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15807739. AIGHEARNA: Níl an suíomh gréasáin seo ach chun críocha eolais ghinearálta. Ní sholáthraítear ráitis agus sliocht ó litríocht taighde ach mar fhóram le haghaidh tráchtála agus go sonrach ní mar chomhairle sláinte nó leighis. Ní féidir leat a bheith ag súil le do dhochtúir ach amháin má tá tú ag iarraidh a fháil amach an bhfuil tú tinn nó má tá tú tinn. NÁ MÓIR AIMHÍNN NÍ STOP AÍOMHÚ INÍOMHÚ AÍOMHÚ DE BHÍOSLACHT A DÉANTACH ANTÚ ar an bhfaisnéis a léann tú ar an suíomh gréasáin seo. Má tá aon cheist agat faoi chógas, nó má cheapann tú go bhfuil fo-éifeacht ag baint le cógas agat, téigh i gcomhairle le do dhochtúir.

Market Structure System Swag Market structures is defined as the characteristics of a market that influences the behave and results of what the firms are doing in the market. There are three main types of market systems: Monopolistic Competition, Oligopoly, and all the other stuff that falls under Monopoly and such. This is a competition that occurs when there are multiple sellers within the marketplace and they are all selling similar, however not standardized, products to the consumer. The market suits newer or upcoming businesses due to the fact that there is not a significant barrier to entry. This makes the market more contestable. Due to the differences within the market, it creates diversity and choice for the consumer. There are many different types of product makes it possible for each product to be subjected to certain people groups. This type of market is more efficient than a monopoly as it makes sellers having to develop new ways to get the attention of and even keep the consumer into buying their product. The differences in a multitude of a similar product creates a lot of unnecessary waste, such that producers would be making a lot of advertisements and such to get the consumers to buy their product, which just creates a lot of waste. This market system is both inefficient in the long and the short run as the prices of the products are above the marginal cost in both cases. Though it is more efficient in the long run than in the short run, it is still inefficient. This is a market structure that occurs where are few sellers and producers offering a similar product within the same market to many consumers. Basically, it is when the few rule over the many. The oligopolies may be able to obtain a highly competitive strategy, as each company is wanting to dominate the other within a certain market field. This means that would obtain the same benefits as more competitive market structures, such as a lower price on their product. Oligopolists may become more efficient in the fields of innovation, new product, and process development. Due to the amount of profit they make, they usually make innovates towards many aspects of their company, in which the consumer may be able to reap the benefits. Oligopolies usually have price stability, in which the prices for a product doesn't change much over long periods of time. This can help the consumer as they can usually plan ahead to see what they can and cannot buy within a certain period of time. Since there are only a few sellers and producers, the consumer doesn't have a lot of choices in what product they want to buy or not buy. New companies will have a hard time trying to get into an oligopoly due to many barriers to entry, such as predatory pricing, limit pricing, and a strong brand that they will have to compete with as per usually that strong brand is what is controlling the market at that moment. If the companies form a cartel-like marketing structure, than it could lead to higher prices and less of the product for the consumer to have to buy. If there are about 2-3 or so companies that are dominating the market, that they may allocate their resources and make their product inefficiently due to the fact that they are making so much money, they don't really care about how efficient they are. Types of Monopolies Monopolies are when there is one companies that is commanding a certain part of the market. However, there are many different types of monopolies that fall within this area, such as natural monopolies, geographical monopolies, technological monopolies, and government monopolies. This type of monopoly occurs when there is a very high fixed cost or other barriers to entry that it becomes more efficient for the consumer to just have have one producer to provide the product than to have multiple producers to provide the product. The natural monopolies usually are very efficient with their resources as it would be impractical if more than one company were to provide the same service. When more of the product is being produced, the cost for that product will decrease, which will offer substantial benefits for the consumer and such. Firms are the price setters as there is very little competition within this field, as there are no suitable substitutes that the consumers are able to buy. They also have no incentive to provide any new products ans such due to the little to no competition. This is a monopoly that occurs when a producer or seller has control over a certain area of land due to there being no other substitutes with this said area, which, if consumers want that producer, forces consumer to go and buy the product from that one producer. Since the product is only in a certain region, it makes more profit for the companies, which can be used to make production more efficient and better for all consumers. There will be less waste used due to the fact that other companies will not be advertised the same product that the producer will have a monopoly on. Since it is restrained to a certain area, there will be more productivity within that area due to the fact that the consumers will have to go to that are in order to obtain the said product. There is many barriers to entry for a producer that wants to sell the same or even similar product if that producer wants to be able to prosper within a certain area of the market. If that producer were to stop making a product within that area, then there are really no other substitutes that the consumer will be able to get to as that producer was the one controlling the market in that area. If a consumer were to hate the product in that geographical space, then that consumer would have to go way out of their way to find a substitute that they feel like getting, creating less diversity within that specific area. These monopolies occur when there is a product and/or service that a company has that has legal protection in the forms of patent or copyrights. These monopolies usually create new products that have no substitutes due to the fact that it is original and such. These monopolies create more innovations and advancements within the society of America and the rest of the world. These monopolies, unlike geographical monopolies, are not restricted to one area and every consumer is able to obtain the product. The monopoly only last as long as the patent for that certain product, which is about 20 years. This is enough time for the more and even new innovation to come out. These monopolies are protected by patents and other legal documents, meaning that if a company were to make a substitute that was even close to the patent product, then that company could be sued and such. Since no substitutes can be made, the producers are the controllers of the price, which means that they can sell for as high as they want and the consumers, if they want the product, will have to pay the price. This is a monopoly that is created by the government. This is when a government agency or corporation is the only producer of a certain good/service and any other substitutes of the product are prohibited. The government has monopolies on sector of the nation for the sake of security and so that the products and services that keep America running don't get into other people's hands. Provides services and goods that could not be provided by firms or other companies due to many factors such as demand, resources, and profit. Prices are usually stabilized to a certain price, so it is very predictable to the consumer what the price of a certain product/service will be and such. The government is getting involved with the market and such, which is not the definition of a free-market economy. This gets many people within the American society kinda made. Other companies may be restricted on what they can sell due to the government having controls over certain parts of the market and the legal barriers that the government puts up.

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Córas Struchtúr Margaidh Sainmhínítear struchtúir margaidh mar shaintréithe margaidh a dhéanann tionchar ar iompar agus ar thorthaí na n-fhiontair atá ag déanamh sa mhargadh. Tá trí phríomhchineál de chórais mhargaidh: Iomaíocht Mhonapólach, Oilipólach, agus gach rud eile a thagann faoi Mhonapólach agus mar sin de. Is iomaíocht é seo a tharlaíonn nuair a bhíonn díoltóirí iomadúla sa mhargadh agus go bhfuil siad go léir ag díol táirgí den chineál céanna, ach gan a bheith caighdeánaithe, don tomhaltóir. Tá an margadh oiriúnach do ghnólachtaí níos nuaí nó atá le teacht mar gheall ar an bhfíric nach bhfuil bac suntasach ar iontráil ann. Déanann sé seo an margadh níos iomaíche. Mar gheall ar na difríochtaí laistigh den mhargadh, cruthaíonn sé éagsúlacht agus rogha don tomhaltóir. Tá go leor cineálacha éagsúla táirge ann a fhágann go bhféadfar gach táirge a chur faoi réir grúpaí áirithe daoine. Tá an cineál seo margaidh níos éifeachtaí ná monaplaíocht toisc go gcaithfidh díoltóirí bealaí nua a fhorbairt chun aird an tomhaltóra a fháil agus fiú a choinneáil chun a dtáirge a cheannach. Tá an difríocht i iliomad táirge den chineál céanna a chruthaíonn go leor dramhaíola neamhriachtanach, mar sin go mbeadh táirgeoirí a dhéanamh go leor fógraí agus mar sin a fháil ar an tomhaltóirí a cheannach a gcuid táirgí, a chruthaíonn ach go leor dramhaíola. Tá an córas margaidh seo neamhéifeachtach san fhadtéarma agus san ghearrthéarma mar go bhfuil praghsanna na dtáirgí os cionn an chostais imealltach sa dá chás. Cé go bhfuil sé níos éifeachtaí san fhadtréimhse ná san ghearrtréimhse, tá sé fós neamhéifeachtach. Is struchtúr margaidh é seo a tharlaíonn nuair a bhíonn cúpla díoltóir agus táirgeoir ag tairiscint táirge den chineál céanna laistigh den mhargadh céanna do go leor tomhaltóirí. Go bunúsach, is é sin nuair a bhíonn an bheagán ag rialú an mhóra. D'fhéadfadh na oligóipí a bheith in ann straitéis ardchomparáideach a fháil, toisc go bhfuil gach cuideachta ag iarraidh ceannas a bheith ar an gceann eile laistigh de réimse áirithe margaidh. Ciallaíonn sé seo go bhfaigheadh siad na buntáistí céanna le struchtúir mhargaidh níos iomaíche, amhail praghas níos ísle ar a dtáirge. D'fhéadfadh go mbeadh oligopolists níos éifeachtaí i réimsí nuálaíochta, táirge nua, agus forbairt próisis. Mar gheall ar an méid brabús a dhéanann siad, de ghnáth déanann siad nuálaíochtaí i dtreo go leor gnéithe dá gcuideachta, ina bhféadfadh an tomhaltóir na buntáistí a bhaint amach. De ghnáth bíonn cobhsaíocht praghsanna ag oligopóil, i gcás nach n-athraíonn praghsanna táirge go mór thar thréimhsí fada ama. Is féidir leis an tomhaltóir cabhrú leis seo mar is gnách go bhféadann sé pleanáil roimh ré a dhéanamh chun a fheiceáil cad is féidir leis a cheannach agus nach féidir leis a cheannach laistigh de thréimhse áirithe ama. Ós rud é nach bhfuil ach cúpla díoltóir agus táirgeoir ann, níl mórán roghanna ag an tomhaltóir maidir leis an táirge is mian leo a cheannach nó nach bhfuil. Beidh sé deacair ar chuideachtaí nua dul isteach i n-oligóipil mar gheall ar go leor bacainní ar iontráil, mar phraghsáil chailleach, praghsáil theoranta, agus branda láidir a mbeidh orthu dul san iomaíocht leis mar is gnách gurb é an branda láidir sin a rialaíonn an margadh ag an nóiméad sin. Má chruthaíonn na cuideachtaí struchtúr margaíochta cosúil le cartel, d'fhéadfadh praghsanna níos airde a bheith mar thoradh air agus ní mór don tomhaltóir níos lú den táirge a cheannach. Má tá thart ar 2-3 nó mar sin cuideachtaí atá ag ceannas an mhargaidh, go bhféadfadh siad a leithdháileadh a n-acmhainní agus a dhéanamh a gcuid táirgí inefficiently mar gheall ar an bhfíric go bhfuil siad ag déanamh an oiread sin airgid, nach bhfuil siad i ndáiríre cúram faoi cé chomh héifeachtach atá siad. Cineálacha Maonaplaí Is éard atá i mhonaplaí nuair a bhíonn cuideachta amháin ag rialú cuid áirithe den mhargadh. Mar sin féin, tá go leor cineálacha éagsúla monaplaí ann a thagann faoin réimse seo, mar shampla monaplaí nádúrtha, monaplaí geografacha, monaplaí teicneolaíochta, agus monaplaí rialtais. Tarlaíonn an cineál monapla seo nuair a bhíonn costas seasta an-ard nó bacainní eile ar iontráil ann go mbíonn sé níos éifeachtaí don tomhaltóir táirge amháin a sholáthar ná táirge a sholáthar do tháirgeoirí éagsúla. De ghnáth bíonn na monaplaí nádúrtha an-éifeachtach lena n-acmhainní mar nach mbeadh sé praiticiúil dá mbeadh níos mó ná cuideachta amháin ag soláthar na seirbhíse céanna. Nuair a dhéantar níos mó den táirge a tháirgeadh, laghdófar costas an táirge sin, rud a thabharfaidh tairbhí suntasacha don tomhaltóir agus dá leithéid. Is iad na gnólachtaí a shocraíonn na praghsanna toisc nach bhfuil mórán iomaíochta sa réimse seo, toisc nach bhfuil aon athsholáthraí oiriúnacha ann a bhfuil na tomhaltóirí in ann a cheannach. Níl aon spreagadh acu freisin aon táirgí nua a sholáthar mar sin mar gheall ar an iomaíocht bheag nó gan aon iomaíocht. Is monapla é seo a tharlaíonn nuair a bhíonn rialú ag táirgeoir nó díoltóir ar limistéar áirithe talún toisc nach bhfuil aon athsholáthar eile leis an limistéar sin, rud a fhágann, más mian le tomhaltóirí an táirgeoir sin, go n-éireoidh leis an tomhaltóir an táirge a cheannach ó an táirgeoir sin amháin. Ós rud é nach bhfuil an táirge ach i réigiún áirithe, déanann sé níos mó brabús do na cuideachtaí, ar féidir iad a úsáid chun táirgeadh a dhéanamh níos éifeachtaí agus níos fearr do gach tomhaltóir. Beidh níos lú dramhaíola á n-úsáid mar gheall ar an bhfíric nach bhfógraítear do chuideachtaí eile an táirge céanna a bheidh monaplaíocht ag an táirgeoir air. Ós rud é go bhfuil sé teoranta do limistéar áirithe, beidh níos mó táirgiúlachta laistigh den limistéar sin mar gheall ar an bhfíric go mbeidh ar thomhaltóirí dul go dtí an limistéar sin chun an táirge sin a fháil. Tá go leor bacainní ar theacht isteach i bhfeidhm ag táirgeoir ar mian leis an táirge céanna nó fiú táirge den chineál céanna a dhíol más mian leis an táirgeoir sin rath a bheith aige laistigh de limistéar áirithe den mhargadh. Má stopann an táirgeoir sin táirge a dhéanamh sa limistéar sin, ní bheidh aon athsholáthar eile ann i ndáiríre a mbeidh an tomhaltóir in ann teacht air mar go raibh an táirgeoir sin ar an gceann a rialaíonn an margadh sa limistéar sin. Má bhí tomhaltóir fuath leis an táirge sa spás geografach sin, ansin go mbeadh tomhaltóir dul i bhfad as a mbealach a fháil ina ionad go mbraitheann siad cosúil le fáil, a chruthú níos lú éagsúlacht laistigh den limistéar sonrach. Tarlaíonn na monaplaí seo nuair a bhíonn táirge agus/nó seirbhís ag cuideachta a bhfuil cosaint dhlíthiúil aige i bhfoirm paitinne nó cóipchearta. De ghnáth cruthaíonn na monaplaí seo táirgí nua nach bhfuil aon athsholáthar acu mar gheall ar an bhfíric go bhfuil sé bunaidh agus mar sin. Cruthaíonn na monaplaí seo níos mó nuálaíochtaí agus dul chun cinn laistigh de shochaí Mheiriceá agus an chuid eile den domhan. Ní bhíonn na monaplaí seo, murab ionann agus monaplaí geografacha, teoranta do limistéar amháin agus tá gach tomhaltóir in ann an táirge a fháil. Ní mhaireann an t-aonphóil ach chomh fada agus a mhaireann an paitinn don táirge áirithe sin, ar feadh thart ar 20 bliain é. Tá an t-am seo go leor chun go mbeidh níos mó agus fiú nuálaíocht nua ag teacht amach. Tá na monaplaí seo cosanta ag paitinní agus doiciméid dhlíthiúla eile, rud a chiallaíonn go mbeadh cuideachta a dhéanamh ionad a bhí fiú gar do an táirge paitinní, ansin go bhféadfadh an chuideachta a d'fhéadfadh a bheith sued agus mar sin de. Ós rud é nach féidir aon ionadaithe a dhéanamh, is iad na táirgeoirí rialaitheoirí an phraghsanna, rud a chiallaíonn gur féidir leo a dhíol chomh hard agus is mian leo agus ní mór do thomhaltóirí, má theastaíonn uathu an táirge, an praghas a íoc. Is monaplaíocht é seo a chruthaigh an rialtas. Is é seo nuair is gníomhaireacht rialtais nó corparáid amháin atá ina táirgeoir ar earra/seirbhís áirithe agus go bhfuil toirmeasc ar aon ionad eile den táirge. Tá monaplaí ag an rialtas ar earnáil den náisiún ar mhaithe le slándáil agus ionas nach dtiocfaidh na táirgí agus na seirbhísí a choinníonn Meiriceá ag rith i lámha daoine eile. Soláthraíonn sé seirbhísí agus earraí nach bhféadfadh gnólachtaí nó cuideachtaí eile a sholáthar mar gheall ar go leor fachtóirí amhail éileamh, acmhainní agus brabús. De ghnáth, déantar praghsanna a chobhsú go praghas áirithe, mar sin tá sé an-in-aithne ag an tomhaltóir cad é praghas táirge/seirbhís áirithe agus mar sin de. Tá an rialtas ag dul i dteagmháil leis an margadh agus mar sin, nach bhfuil an sainmhíniú ar gheilleagar saormhargaidh. Seo a fháil go leor daoine laistigh den tsochaí Mheiriceá kinda déanta. D'fhéadfadh go mbeadh srianta ar chuideachtaí eile maidir leis an méid is féidir leo a dhíol mar gheall ar rialú an rialtais ar chodanna áirithe den mhargadh agus ar na bacainní dlíthiúla a chuireann an rialtas suas.

Storytelling is a teaching activity which can exchange feelings and emotions and also can develop many different skills for children. Children are fond of listening and reading stories. Storytelling is considered as a main teaching strategy for getting the educational objectives. First of all, storytelling can help children to increase their ability of memory. Children will remember the name of characters and order of events happening in story. To promote the children’ memory ability, teacher should ask student to retell the story that they have already listened. Secondly, children will be able to get wide knowledge from storytelling. You know that primary students have only a limited understanding of social aspects. Storytelling will give them practical overview such as experiences, relationships and so on. Through the stories, children know about a variety of lifestyle, customs and cultures of different countries in the world. In addition, each story always exist good characters and bad characters, so children are capable of distinguishing between the right and wrong behavior. Also, children can learn the moral standards or moral values to orient their personality. Thirdly, storytelling is a very important way to attract children’ attention. It makes children pay attention to learning, so they feel that English is an interesting subject. Finally, storytelling can help children to improve skills such as listening and speaking. When teacher tell a story, children will focus on listening to her intonation, pronunciation and so on. After that, they will imitate the new words or the whole sentence. At the end of story, teacher should make several questions to ask students. For example, asking them to retell story, requiring them share their feelings to characters, encouraging them to create their own story. Therefore, listening and speaking skills of children will improve gradually. Besides, children will be easy to remember vocabulary and learn sentence patterns through the context and images of story. Story is regarded as a real situation, so children are possible to guess the meanings of new words and learn the way to use these words in a certain context.

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Is gníomhaíocht theagaisc í scéal a insint a fhéadann mothúcháin agus mothúcháin a mhalartú agus a fhéadann go leor scileanna éagsúla a fhorbairt do leanaí. Is breá le páistí scéalta a chloisteáil agus a léamh. Meastar go bhfuil scéalaíocht mar phríomhstraitéis teagaisc chun na cuspóirí oideachais a bhaint amach. Ar an gcéad dul síos, is féidir le scéalta a insint cabhrú le leanaí a gcumas cuimhne a mhéadú. Is féidir le leanaí ainmneacha carachtair agus ord imeachtaí a tharlaíonn sa scéal a mheabhrú. Chun cumas cuimhne na leanaí a chur chun cinn, ba cheart don mhúinteoir a iarraidh ar an dalta an scéal a chuala siad cheana a athsheinm. Ar an dara dul síos, beidh na páistí in ann eolas leathan a fháil ó scéalaíocht. Tá a fhios agat nach bhfuil ach tuiscint theoranta ag mic léinn bunscoile ar ghnéithe sóisialta. Tabharfaidh scéalaíocht léargas praiticiúil dóibh ar thaithí, caidrimh agus mar sin de. Trí na scéalta, foghlaimíonn leanaí faoi stíl mhaireachtála, nósanna agus cultúir éagsúla ó thíortha éagsúla ar domhan. Ina theannta sin, tá carachtair mhaith agus carachtair olc i gcónaí i ngach scéal, mar sin tá leanaí in ann idirdhealú a dhéanamh idir iompar ceart agus mícheart. Ina theannta sin, is féidir le páistí na caighdeáin nó na luachanna morálta a fhoghlaim chun a n-iníonacht a threorú. Ar an tríú dul síos, is bealach an-tábhachtach é scéalaíocht chun aird na leanaí a mhealladh. Cuireann sé aird ar leanaí ar fhoghlaim, mar sin braitheann siad go bhfuil Béarla ina ábhar suimiúil. Ar deireadh, is féidir le scéalta a insint cabhrú le páistí scileanna mar éisteacht agus labhairt a fheabhsú. Nuair a insíonn an múinteoir scéal, díreoidh leanaí ar éisteacht lena intonace, a fhuaimniú agus mar sin de. Ina dhiaidh sin, déanfaidh siad na focail nua nó an abairt iomlán a shamhlú. Ag deireadh an scéil, ba cheart don mhúinteoir roinnt ceisteanna a chur ar na mic léinn. Mar shampla, ag iarraidh orthu scéal a ath-insint, ag iarraidh orthu a gcuid mothúchán a roinnt le carachtair, ag spreagadh iad a gcuid scéal féin a chruthú. Dá bhrí sin, feabhsóidh scileanna éisteachta agus labhairt na leanaí de réir a chéile. Thairis sin, beidh sé éasca ag leanaí foclóir a mheabhrú agus patrún abairtí a fhoghlaim trí chomhthéacs agus íomhánna na scéalta. Meastar go bhfuil scéal mar chás fíor, mar sin is féidir le páistí brí na bhfocal nua a bhrath agus foghlaim conas na focail seo a úsáid i gcomhthéacs áirithe.

|Two or more races2| |—Not available. Prior to 2008, “two or more races” was not an available category.| |1In 2008 and 2009, some students of both Asian origin and Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander origin were included in the two or more races category. In 2010, all students of both Asian origin and Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander origin were included in the two or more races category. For more information, see the Elementary and Secondary Enrollment section A.1 in the appendix. |2A person who has identified himself or herself of two or more of the following race groups: White, Black, Asian, Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, or American Indian or Alaska Native. |3Five states reported enrollment counts for students of two or more races.| |4Fourteen states reported enrollment counts for students of two or more races.| |NOTE: Some data have been revised from previously published figures. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. The historical racial/ethnic time-series were constructed using racial/ethnic enrollment data at the state level for individual grades. In some instances, enrollment data by race/ethnicity had to be imputed. Further, in some instances, the racial/ethnic enrollment data for individual grades had to be adjusted in order for them to sum to the state total for that grade. For additional information, see the Elementary and Secondary Enrollment section A.1 in Appendix A. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Mean absolute percentage errors of selected education statistics can be found in table A-2, appendix A.| |SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Common Core of Data (CCD), “State Nonfiscal Survey of Public Elementary/Secondary Education,” 1996–97 through 2010–11; and National Public Elementary and Secondary Enrollment by Race/Ethnicity Model, 1994–2010. (This table was prepared January 2012.)|

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Dhá rás nó níos mó 2 Níl sé ar fáil. Roimh 2008, ní raibh catagóir ar fáil ag 'beirt rásaí nó níos mó'. I 2008 agus 2009, cuireadh roinnt mac léinn de bhunadh na hÁise agus de bhunadh Haváí nó Oileáin an Aigéin Chiúin eile san áireamh sa chatagóir dhá rás nó níos mó. Sa bhliain 2010, cuireadh gach mac léinn de bhunadh na hÁise agus de bhunadh Haváí nó Oileáin an Aigéin Chiúin eile san áireamh sa chatagóir dhá rás nó níos mó. Chun tuilleadh Tá an t-eolas seo le fáil i bhfoirm an bhille agus i bhfoirm an bhille. 2Daoine a aithníonn iad féin nó iad féin mar bhall de dhá ghrúpa náisiúnach nó níos mó de na grúpaí náisiúnacha seo a leanas: Oileánach, nó Indiach Mheiriceá nó Alaska Dúchasach. 3Tuairiscíodh i cúig stát líon na ndaltaí a bhí ag clárú le haghaidh daltaí de dhá rás nó níos mó. 4Tuairiscíodh i 14 stát líon na ndaltaí a bhí ag freastal ar scoil a bhí dhá chine nó níos mó acu. ☐Tuairimí: Tá roinnt sonraí athbhreithnithe ó na figiúirí a foilsíodh roimhe seo. Ní chuimsíonn catagóirí ciníoch daoine de chine Hispanic. Tógadh na sraitheanna ama reiligiúnacha/eitníceacha stairiúla ag baint úsáide as sonraí clárúcháin reiligiúnacha/eitníceacha ar leibhéal an stáit do ghrádanna aonair. I roinnt cásanna, bhí ar shonraí clárúcháin de réir cine/eitneachais a chur san áireamh. Ina theannta sin, i gcásanna áirithe, b'éigean na sonraí clárúcháin ciníoch/eitneach do ghrádanna aonair a choigeartú ionas go bhféadfaidís an méid sin a chur le huimhir an stáit don ghrád sin. Le haghaidh tuilleadh faisnéise, féach an rannán A.1 de Chlárú Bunscoile agus Meánscoile in Iarscríbhinn A. Ní fhéadfaidh mionsonraí a bheith ag teacht le huimhreacha mar gheall ar bhabhtaithe. Tá meán-earráidí céatadáin abhlóideacha staitisticí oideachais roghnaithe le fáil i dTábla A-2, Iarscríbhinn A. FONT: Roinn Oideachais na Stát Aontaithe, Ionad Náisiúnta Staitisticí Oideachais, Céadchroí Coiteann Sonraí (CCD), Suirbhé Náisiúnta Neamh-Cánach ar Oideachas Bunscoile/Seicindéarach Poiblí, 199697 trí 201011; agus Clárú Bunscoile agus Seicindéarach Poiblí Náisiúnta de réir Múnla Rása/Eitneachta, 19942010. (Tógadh an tábla seo i mí Eanáir 2012. )

New electrochemical processes are being developed to help CPI companies reduce their carbon footprint For over a century, electrochemistry has played a crucial role in the chemical process industries (CPI), and many chemicals are still produced using traditional electrochemical processes, such as chlorine and caustic (chlor-alkali process), aluminum metal (Hall-Hérout process) and more (Chem. Eng., December 2014, pp. 17–22 www.chemengonline.com/electrolyzer-technologies-green-hydrogen). More recently, there has been a renewed interest in water electrolysis for producing “green” hydrogen (Chem. Eng., September 2020; pp. 26–30) and in large-scale batteries for storing renewable energy, including redox flow technology (Chem. Eng., September 2016, pp. 14–20). Now, with the goal of achieving carbon neutrality by 2050 or sooner, many producers are active in a number of projects to use electrochemistry with renewable energy and renewable feedstocks to make chemicals. Some of these new processes are now being tested at pilot scale (Figure 1). Before looking at the electrochemical production of chemicals, it is worth noting that major breakthroughs are still possible for traditional processes. One of the oldest industrial-electrochemical processes is still the conventional route for making aluminum — the 19th-centrury Hall-Héroult process. In this process, alumina (Al2O3) is dissolved in molten salts at temperatures up to 2,000°C and is electrolyzed in a smelter. The high temperature and large electrical currents used in the smelter make the process very energy intensive. Moreover, today’s aluminum smelters also use carbon-based anodes (graphite or petroleum coke), which are consumed in the reduction process. This not only requires costly anode replacement every 25 days or so of operation, but the consumed carbon-based anode is released as CO2 — a greenhouse gas — and other pollutants. To reduce the carbon footprint, a breakthrough technology that has the potential to transform the aluminum industry is now being developed by Elysis (Montreal, Queb., Canada; www.elysis.com) — a joint venture (JV), formed in 2018 and led by Alcoa (Pittsburgh, Pa.; www.alcoa.com) and Rio Tinto plc (London, U.K.; www.riotinto.com). At the end of June, Elysis started construction on the first commercial-scale prototype of its inert anode technology at Rio Tinto’s Alma smelter in Saguenay-Lac-Saint-Jean, Quebec. The prototype will operate on a scale typical for large aluminum smelters, using an electric current of 450 kA. The new anode is made of a proprietary material instead of carbon, and the only byproduct of the process is oxygen. Not only are CO2 emissions eliminated, but also other byproducts formed by traditional anodes, such as perfluorocarbons, CO, SO2, NOx, carbonyl sulfide, polycyclic hydrocarbons and benzol(a)pyrene. When powered by hydro-electricity, the overall process produces CO2 -free aluminum metal. The new anode is said to be stable and unreactive, and has an expected lifetime of several years. In addition to the proprietary electrode material, the new process also uses a vertical anode/cathode geometry, which is said to increase productivity for the same surface area. The technology was first demonstrated at the Alcoa Technical Center near Pittsburgh in 2009. In Q2 2020, Elysis opened a research and development center in Saguenay, Quebec. The Elysis technology was developed with support from the Canadian Government and Quebec Government, each investing CAN$60 million (about $48 million). The first commercial-scale unit is planned for 2024, and the technology will be commercialized globally. Although some commodity and fine chemicals are already being produced using electrochemistry at the industrial scale, there has been a renewed interest in electro-organic synthesis more recently, due to the increasing availability of low-cost electricity, but also the urgent need to reduce CO2 emissions and to develop more sustainable production routes for a cyclic economy. Electrosynthesis has several advantages over conventional chemical synthesis, says Sigfried Waldvogel, professor at the Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz (JGU; Germany; www.ini-mainz.de). Electrosynthesis is inherently safe; saves on precious and rare elements; has no reagent waste; is reactive power adjustable; introduces new synthetic approaches; and has green advantages, he says. “This is a disruptive game changer,” he says. For now, electrosynthesis is probably not suitable for synthetic fuels, because too much electricity would be needed and the volumes of products required are too large, says Waldvogel. Although there are possibilities for using electrosynthesis to make some commodity chemicals, for fine chemicals, there are already scenarios being realized, he says. Waldvogel and colleagues have been working on electrosynthesis for many years using a simple undivided cell — two electrodes dipped into an electrolyte containing the reactant. When a voltage is applied, the reagent is either oxidized or reduced by donating or gaining an electron at the surface of one of the electrodes. Such an arrangement, he explains, can use an inert electrode, such as graphite, platinum or boron-doped diamond; or an electrode with a catalyst on the surface; or by using a moderator in the reaction. Because there are many parameters that need to be determined in developing such a process (such as electrode material, electrolyte, voltage, current and so on), Waldvogel developed a screening system for conducting multiple experiments at the same time. When combined with design-of-experiments (DoE) and machine learning (ML), the number of experiments needed to determine process conditions is greatly reduced, he says. The screening system has since been further developed and commercialized by IKA-Werke GmbH & Co. KG (IKA; Staufen, Germany; www.ika.com), which offers two variations: one with six divided cells and another with eight undivided cells (Figure 2, left). The system includes the power and heating supplies, as well as the control system used for parallel processing of multi-batch electrochemical reactions. A large number of different electrode materials are also available. After the process has been developed at the laboratory scale, then scaleup is usually performed using continuous flow systems. IKA also offers ElectraSyn Flow (Figure 2, right), a small-scale reactor system for performing continuous-flow electrochemical reactions. However, the electrochemical process itself is not the only consideration, because the product has to be purified. “Downstream processing is usually the killer of all processes, because it is more expensive than the electrolysis itself,” says Waldvogel. Nevertheless, electrosynthesis has been shown to be advantageous for a number of reactions. In a recent example, Waldvogel’s group reported an electrochemical route to sulfonamides, which are used in many drugs (Chem. Eng., April 2021, p. 8–9). The new route requires only one synthesis step, compared to three required by conventional routes, which also require corrosive chemicals, high temperatures and expensive metal catalysts. JGU is also involved in a €10-million project under the E.U.’s Horizon program, which began in 2018 with the aim to produce chemicals from wood-based lignin. The Liberate project (Lignin Biorefinery Approach Using Electrochemical Flow) involves 16 partners, including chemical producers Evonik Operations GmbH (Essen, Germany; www.evonik.com), Perstorp AB (Malmo, Sweden; www.perstorp.com) and Oxiris Chemicals S.A. (Barcelona, Spain; www.oxirischemicals.com), as well as small-to-medium sized companies and universities and research institutes. In the Liberate project, a highly efficient and selective anodic electrochemical oxidation is being used to depolymerize lignin and produce chemicals. Three types of lignin are being studied: Kraft, organosolv and Fabiola (three different pulping processes). The depolymerization process developed at JGU takes place at 160°C in a caustic solution using nickel electrodes. Three different product trains are being developed: one for making vanillin; another for converting cyclohexanols into 3-propyl adipic acid, a precursor for making polyamides and unsaturated polyester resins; and mixed phenolic derivatives, which can be used for making antioxidants, phenol-formaldehyde resins and other chemicals. A pilot plant is being constructed at Liberate-partner Sintef AS’s site in Trondheim, Norway. “The reactor system (a plug-flow reactor) has now been implemented into the pilot plant, and we are working on commissioning,” says Bernd Wittgens, senior advisor at Sintef. He expects continuous operation to begin in Q3 2021. The project runs through December 2022. PowerPlatform (Perform) is another project of the E.U.’s Horizon 2020 program that is aimed at establishing a platform infrastructure for highly selective electrochemical conversions with the goal of the electrification of the chemical industry. This 4-year, €1.7-million project is led by the Netherlands Organization for Applied Scientific Research (TNO; The Hague, the Netherlands; www.tno.nl) with 11 other partners, including industrial participants Avantium Chemicals B.V. (Amsterdam, the Netherlands; www.avantium.com), Perstorp, AVA Biochem BSL AG (Muttenz, Switzerland; www.ava-biochem.com), Novamont S.p.A. (Novara, Italy; www.novamont.com) and Radici Chimica S.p.A. (Bergamo, Italy; www.radicigroup.com). The engineering company Hystech S.r.l. (Turin, Italy; www.hysytech.com) will design and manufacture the platform. Two different lines are being developed in the platform, which involve the use of biomass-derived C5-C6 feedstock. “Sugar is the new oil,” says Bart van den Bosch, an R&D chemist at Avantium. In Line 1, a paired electrochemical process is used, whereby furfural is oxidized at the anode to maleic acid, and levulinic acid is reduced at the cathode into valeric acid. Both of these value-added products are industrially relevant, and producing them simultaneously in the same cell has obvious economic advantages. In Line 2, paired tandem electrosynthesis is used to oxidize glucose to glucaric acid, which is then hydrodeoxygenated into adipic acid, another important commodity chemical. The core of the process is the catalyst, which is said to have a selectivity of over 80%. Currently, the project, which began in January 2019, is in phase 2 with scaleup to a 1,000-cm2 cell capable of producing 25 g/h of product, with integrated downstream processing (electrodialysis, nanofiltration, extraction and distillation, crystallization). Although the location is not yet decided, the pilot plant will be constructed in 2022 and the demonstration finished in 2023. After that, the platform will be available for others to develop electrochemical processes. For the last five years, TotalEnergies SE (Paris, France; www.totalenergies.com) and the research groups of David Sinton, professor of mechanical and industrial engineering and Ted Sargent, professor of electrical and computer engineering at the University of Toronto (Canada; www.utoronto.ca) have been developing an electrochemical process, based on a membrane electrode assembly (MEA), to convert CO2 into C2 compounds, such as ethylene (an important petrochemical) and ethanol (for biofuels). In the initial stages of the research, considerable work was done to improve the electrochemical conversion. First, nanocatalysts were developed, followed by microstructured electrodes “that made sure the reactants get to where they need to be,” explains Sinton. The researchers were then able to increase ethylene productivity by extending the active area of the electrode. This was done by using a metal:ionomer hybrid catalyst, which decouples gas, ion and electron transport, and enables the CO2 to be carried into the catalyst. In partnership with Total Energies and the University of Toronto, a pilot plant was constructed (Figure 1), which has been running 24 h/d for months. The pilot plant uses a MEA with area of 40,000 cm2 — a considerable scale up from the 5–100-cm2 units used in laboratory studies. Sinton says, to his knowledge, this is the largest C2-producing electrolyzer in the world. The pilot is being used to learn more about the process and for making improvements. For example, one of the problems associated with MEA is that when CO2 is introduced to the electrolyte, it is quickly converted to carbonate. To avoid this loss, the researchers recently showed that this loss can be avoided by using a tandem system. First CO2 is converted to CO in a solid-oxide electrochemical cell (SOEC), then the CO is converted to ethylene in a MEA. This study, published in the February 15 issue of Joule, found that the tandem configuration had an overall efficiency of 140 GJ/ton of ethylene — a 50% reduction from the direct route. Meanwhile, a flagship project involving industrial partners Royal DSM N.V. (Heerlen, the Netherlands; www.dsm.com) and Avantium, together with TNO and VoltaChem (Delft, the Netherlands; www.voltachem.com), aims to reduce the CO2 emissions from fermentation processes that are used for making higher value products. These fermentation processes use sugars as a renewable feedstock, but only a fraction of the sugar is used as a carbon source for the product; the rest of the sugar is used as an energy source for the microbes, which release CO2 as a waste product. The partners are working on a process that captures the released CO2, reduces it to formic acid electrochemically, and then feeding the formic acid back to the fermenter as an energy source. This not only eliminates the net CO2 emission, but reduces the amount of sugar needed for making the product. A similar project is now underway in the U.S. In May, researchers at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL; Golden, Colo.; www.nrel.gov) were awarded nearly $3 million from the U.S. Dept. of Energy’s Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy (ARPA-E) to lead a project to develop CO2 -free fermentation technology. Together with partners from the University of Oregon and industrial partners Genomatica (San Diego, Calif; www.genomatica.com) and De Nora Tech, LLC (Plainseville, Ohio; www.denora.com), NREL plans to integrate electrochemistry with sugar fermentation to produce fatty acid methyl esters (FAME), which are used to make biofuels. Like the Dutch project, the process (Figure 3) captures the CO2 from a fermentation process, and the CO2 is reduced to formate ions and O2 in an electrochemical cell powered by renewable electricity. The formate is then used as an energy carrier for the fermentation process, thereby reducing the demand for sugar and reducing CO2 emissions. Meanwhile, researchers from the Fraunhofer Institute for Interfacial Engineering and Biotechnology (IGB; Stuttgart, Germany; www.igb.fraunhofer.de) are working in two E.U. projects (EVOBIO and ShaPID) to develop ways to utilize CO2 using both biotechnology and electrochemistry. The research team works with native methylotrophic bacteria, which metabolize methanol, and yeasts that cannot metabolize methanol. Using metabolic engineering, genes are introduced into the microbes that provide the blueprint for certain enzymes, which are subsequently produced in the microorganism to catalyze the production of a specific product. Methanol and formic acid are used to feed these engineered microorganisms, which are grown in bioreactors (Figure 4). Both feedstocks are made from CO2 — methanol is made from a heterogeneous catalytic reaction of CO2, and formic acid is made by the electrochemical reduction of CO2. The CO2 generated by the fermentation can also be recovered and used for making more methanol or formic acid. Products being investigated include organic acids, which are building blocks for polymers, and amino acids as food supplements or animal feed. Printing better reactors Improving the performance of electrochemical reactors is a goal of everyone working in this field, and a step in this direction is being developed at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL; Livermore, Calif.; www.llnl.gov). In two recent publications, LLNL researchers and its team describe how 3D printing can be used to rapidly enhance electrochemical reactors for CO2 conversion. In an article published last month in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences ( PNAS), the LLNL engineers describe how it is possible to use 3D printing to make carbon flow-through electrodes (FTEs) from graphene aerogels. Using this technology, the researchers demonstrated that they could “tailor” the flow in FTEs, “dramatically” improving mass transfer of liquids or gas reactants through the electrodes and onto the reactive surfaces. Conventional materials, such as carbon-fiber-based foams or felts, have a randomly ordered microstructure, which leads to uneven flow and mass-transport distribution. In contrast, the flow channel geometry could be controlled using 3D printing, so that electrochemical reactions can be optimized (Figure 5). “By 3D printing advanced materials, such as carbon aerogels, it is possible to engineer microporous networks in these materials without compromising the physical properties, such as electrical conductivity and surface area,” says LLNL researcher and co-author of the PNAS paper. LLNL scientists and engineers are exploring the use of electrochemical reactors for a number of applications, including the conversion of CO2 into fuels and polymers, as well as applications in electrochemical energy storage. The researchers are working to produce more robust electrodes and reactor components at higher resolutions through light-based 3D polymer-printing techniques, such as projection micro-stereolithography, followed by metallization. The use of 3D printing not only helps to optimize the flow in FTEs, but it also makes it possible to quickly build and test new reactor designs. “The real advantage for using 3D printing is that we can literally have an idea, design a new reactor, print it and test it within 24 hours,” says LLNL scientist Jeremy Feaster, who co-authored a report published in the May 2021 issue of Energy & Environmental Science, with partners Stanford University (Calif.; www.stanford.edu) and Total American Services, Inc. (Houston). “What we’ve been able to show is that you can quickly iterate on the design and cut not only the time it takes, but also the cost to make these reactors by several orders of magnitude,” he says. For this study, the researchers used 3D printing for the reactor housings and rapidly iterated to find the optimal geometry, which improved the overall mass transport of reactant to the catalyst, and products from the catalyst. Benchmarking studies performed at Stanford demonstrated high yields for ethylene (3.36%) and record levels of ethanol (3.66%), compared to literature values.

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Tá próisis leictreachimiceacha nua á bhforbairt chun cabhrú le cuideachtaí CPI a gcuid caighdeáin charbóin a laghdú Le breis agus céad bliain, tá ról ríthábhachtach ag leictreachimiceacht sna tionscail próisis cheimiceacha (CPI), agus tá go leor ceimiceáin á dtáirgeadh fós ag baint úsáide as próisis thraidisiúnta leictreachimiceacha, mar shampla clóirín agus caustic (próiseas clóir-alcaile), miotail alúmanaim (próiseas Hall-Hérout) agus níos mó (Chem. Eng., Nollaig 2014, pp. 1722 www.chemengonline.com/electrolyzer-technologies-green-hydrogen). Níos déanaí, tá suim athnuaite ann i leictrealís uisce chun hidrigine glas a tháirgeadh (Chem. Eng., Meán Fómhair 2020; pp. 2630) agus i mbataill ar scála mór chun fuinneamh in-athnuaite a stóráil, lena n-áirítear teicneolaíocht sruth athshruthaithe (Chem. Eng., Meán Fómhair 2016, pp. 1420). Anois, leis an aidhm neodracht charbóin a bhaint amach faoi 2050 nó níos luaithe, tá go leor táirgeoirí gníomhach i roinnt tionscadal chun leictreachimic a úsáid le fuinneamh in-athnuaite agus amhábhair in-athnuaite chun ceimiceáin a dhéanamh. Tá cuid de na próisis nua seo á thástáil anois ar scála píolótach (Figiúr 1). Sula bhféachann muid ar tháirgeadh ceimiceacha leictreachimiceach, is fiú a thabhairt faoi deara go bhfuil teacht chun cinn mór fós indéanta do phróisis thraidisiúnta. Ceann de na próisis tionsclaíocha-leictreachimiceacha is sine fós is ea an bealach traidisiúnta chun alúmanam a dhéanamh próiseas Hall-Héroult an 19ú haois. Sa phróiseas seo, déantar alúmana (Al2O3) a dhíscaoileadh i salainn leáite ag teocht suas le 2,000°C agus déantar é a leictrealaithe i leáiteoir. Tá an próiseas an-dhlúth fuinnimh mar gheall ar an teocht ard agus na sruthanna leictreacha móra a úsáidtear sa mhionscrúdú. Ina theannta sin, úsáideann miotail alúmanaim an lae inniu anód carbóin (graifíte nó cóic peitriliam), a ídítear sa phróiseas laghdaithe. Ní amháin go dteastaíonn athsholáthair costasach anód gach 25 lá nó mar sin de oibriú, ach scaoiltear anód carbóin-bhunaithe a úsáidtear mar CO2 gáis cheaptha teasa agus truailleoirí eile. Chun an lorg charbóin a laghdú, tá teicneolaíocht shárthóireachta atá in ann tionscal an alúmanaim a athrú á fhorbairt anois ag Elysis (Montreal, Québec, Ceanada; www.elysis.com) comhfhiontar (JV), a bunaíodh in 2018 agus a bhí faoi stiúir Alcoa (Pittsburgh, Pa.; www.alcoa.com) agus Rio Tinto plc (Londain, an Ríocht Aontaithe; www.riotinto.com). Ag deireadh mhí an Mheithimh, thosaigh Elysis ag tógáil ar an gcéad fhréamhshamhail ar scála tráchtála dá theicneolaíocht anód inéadach ag leá Alma Rio Tinto i Saguenay-Lac-Saint-Jean, Québec. Oibreoidh an fhréamhshamhail ar scála tipiciúil do mhiotail alúmanaim mhóra, ag baint úsáide as sruth leictreach de 450 kA. Déantar an anód nua de ábhar dílseánaigh in ionad carbóin, agus is é an t-aon fho-tháirge den phróiseas ocsaigin. Ní amháin go ndéantar astaíochtaí CO2 a dhíchur, ach déantar fo-tháirgí eile a fhoirmiú ag anód traidisiúnta, amhail perfluorocarbons, CO, SO2, NOx, sulfíd carbónil, hidreacarbóin il-chlaonchaidrimh agus binsól (a) pyrene. Nuair a thiománaítear le hiodráitéar, déantar an próiseas iomlán a tháirgeann miotail alúmanaim saor ó CO2. Deirtear go bhfuil an anód nua seasmhach agus neamh-athghníomhach, agus go bhfuil saolré ionchasach de roinnt blianta aige. Chomh maith leis an ábhar leictreódach dílseánach, úsáideann an próiseas nua geometry anód / catód ingearach freisin, a deirtear go méadaíonn sé táirgiúlacht don limistéar dromchla céanna. Taispeánadh an teicneolaíocht den chéad uair ag Ionad Teicniúil Alcoa in aice le Pittsburgh in 2009. Sa dara ráithe de 2020, d'oscail Elysis ionad taighde agus forbartha i Saguenay, Québec. Forbraíodh an teicneolaíocht Elysis le tacaíocht ó Rialtas Cheanada agus Rialtas Québec, ag gach ceann acu infheistíocht a dhéanamh $ 60 milliún (thart ar $ 48 milliún). Tá an chéad aonad ar scála tráchtála beartaithe do 2024, agus déanfar an teicneolaíocht a thrádáil go domhanda. Cé go bhfuil roinnt earraí agus ceimiceáin bheaga á dtáirgeadh cheana féin ag baint úsáide as leictreachimicíocht ar scála tionsclaíoch, tá suim athnuaite ann i sintéis leictreach-orgánach le déanaí, mar gheall ar an bhféidearthacht atá ag méadú ar leictreachas ar chostas íseal, ach freisin an gá práinneach chun astaíochtaí CO2 a laghdú agus chun bealaí táirgthe níos inbhuanaithe a fhorbairt le haghaidh geilleagar ciorclach. Tá roinnt buntáistí ag leictreasintéis i gcomparáid le sintéis cheimiceach thraidisiúnta, a deir Sigfried Waldvogel, ollamh in Ollscoil Johannes Gutenberg i Mainz (JGU; an Ghearmáin; www.ini-mainz.de). Tá an leictreasintéis sábháilte ó thaobh a hinéacht de; sábhálann sé eilimintí luachmhara agus neamhchoitianta; ní bhíonn aon dramhaíl athghníomhaithe ann; is féidir an chumhacht imoibritheach a choigeartú; cuireann sé cur chuige sintéiseach nua isteach; agus tá buntáistí glas aige, a deir sé. "Is athrú mór é seo ar an gcluiche", a deir sé. Faoi láthair, is dócha nach bhfuil leictreasintéis oiriúnach le haghaidh breoslaí sintéiseacha, toisc go mbeadh an iomarca leictreachais ag teastáil agus go bhfuil na méideanna táirgí is gá ró-mhór, a deir Waldvogel. Cé go bhfuil féidearthachtaí ann leictreasintéis a úsáid chun roinnt ceimiceán tráchtearraí a dhéanamh, le haghaidh ceimiceáin bheaga, tá cásanna á ndéanamh cheana féin, a deir sé. Tá Waldvogel agus a chomhghleacaithe ag obair ar leictreasintéis le blianta fada ag baint úsáide as cille neamhroinnte simplí dhá leictreod a bhí curtha isteach i leictreal a raibh an imoibríocht ann. Nuair a chuirtear voltas i bhfeidhm, déantar an reáchtán a ocsaídiú nó a laghdú trí leictreon a thabhairt nó a fháil ar dhromchla ceann de na leictreoga. Is féidir le socrú den sórt sin, a mhíníonn sé, leictreoid neamhghníomhach a úsáid, mar shampla grafait, platainm nó diamond boron-doped; nó leictreoid le catalaí ar an dromchla; nó trí modhnóir a úsáid sa imoibriú. Toisc go bhfuil go leor paraiméadair ann a chaithfear a chinneadh chun próiseas den sórt sin a fhorbairt (mar shampla ábhar leictreóide, leictreolait, voltas, sruth agus mar sin de), d'fhorbair Waldvogel córas scagála chun turgnaimh iolracha a dhéanamh ag an am céanna. Nuair a chuirtear an t-eispéireas i dteannta le dearadh na turgnaimh (DoE) agus le foghlaim meaisín (ML), laghdaítear go mór an líon turgnaimh a theastaíonn chun coinníollacha próisis a chinneadh, a deir sé. Tá an córas scagála curtha chun cinn agus tráchtálaithe ó shin ag IKA-Werke GmbH & Co. KG (IKA; Staufen, an Ghearmáin; www.ika.com), a thairgeann dhá athrú: ceann le sé chill roinnte agus ceann eile le ocht gcill neamhroinnte (Figiúr 2, ar chlé). Áirítear leis an gcóras na soláthairtí cumhachta agus téimh, chomh maith leis an gcóras rialaithe a úsáidtear chun próiseáil chomhréireach a dhéanamh ar imoibrithe leictreachimiceacha il-baiste. Tá líon mór ábhair leictreodaí éagsúla ar fáil freisin. Tar éis an próiseas a fhorbairt ar scála saotharlainne, déantar scálaíocht de ghnáth ag baint úsáide as córais sruth leanúnach. Cuireann IKA ElectraSyn Flow (Figiúr 2, ar dheis) ar fáil freisin, córas imoibritheora ar scála beag chun imoibrithe leictreachimiceacha sruth leanúnach a dhéanamh. Mar sin féin, ní hé an próiseas leictreachimiceach féin an t-aon mheas, toisc go gcaithfear an táirge a íonú. Is é an próiseáil i dtreo an tsruth thíos de ghnáth an mharú ar gach próiseas, toisc go bhfuil sé níos costasaí ná an leictrealís féin, a deir Waldvogel. Mar sin féin, léiríodh go bhfuil an leictreasintéis buntáisteach do roinnt imoibrithe. I sampla le déanaí, thuairiscigh grúpa Waldvogel bealach leictreachimiceach do sulfonamídí, a úsáidtear i go leor drugaí (Chem. Eng., Aibreán 2021, p. 89). Ní gá ach céim shintéise amháin a dhéanamh ar an mbealach nua, i gcomparáid le trí chéim a theastaíonn ó bhealaí traidisiúnta, a éilíonn ceimiceáin creimthe, teochtaí ard agus catalaistí miotail costasacha freisin. Tá JGU páirteach freisin i dtionscadal €10 milliún faoi chlár Horizon an AE, a thosaigh in 2018 agus é mar aidhm aige ceimiceáin a tháirgeadh ó lignin atá bunaithe ar adhmad. I dtionscadal Liberate (Lignin Biorefinery Approach Using Electrochemical Flow) tá 16 pháirtí rannpháirteach, lena n-áirítear táirgeoirí ceimiceán Evonik Operations GmbH (Essen, an Ghearmáin; www.evonik.com), Perstorp AB (Malmo, an tSualainn; www.perstorp.com) agus Oxiris Chemicals S.A. (Barcelona, an Spáinn; www.oxirischemicals.com), chomh maith le cuideachtaí beaga go meánmhéide agus ollscoileanna agus institiúidí taighde. Sa tionscadal Liberate, tá ocsaídiú leictreachimiceach anodic ardéifeachtach agus roghnach á úsáid chun lignin a dhí-phólaiméiriú agus ceimiceáin a tháirgeadh. Tá trí chineál lignin á staidéar: Kraft, organosolv agus Fabiola (trí phróiseas éagsúla pulpaithe). Is é an próiseas dípolúimriú a forbraíodh ag JGU a tharlaíonn ag 160°C i tuaslagán caustic ag baint úsáide as leictreoga nicil. Tá trí thrian táirge éagsúla á bhforbairt: ceann chun vanillin a dhéanamh; ceann eile chun ciclehéacsanóil a thiontú go aigéad 3-propyl adipic, réamhtheachtaí chun polyamides agus reisiúin pholaistearacha neamhsháithithe a dhéanamh; agus díorthaigh phéinólach measctha, ar féidir iad a úsáid chun frithocsaídeoirí, reisiúin phéinól-fhormaldeahíd agus ceimiceáin eile a dhéanamh. Tá monarcha píolótach á thógáil ag suíomh Sintef AS, comhpháirtí Liberate, i Trondheim, an Iorua. 'Tá an córas imoibritheora (imoibreoir sruth plúc) curtha i bhfeidhm anois sa phlanda píolótach, agus táimid ag obair ar an gcumhachtú,' a deir Bernd Wittgens, comhairleoir sinsearach ag Sintef. Tá sé ag súil go dtosóidh oibríocht leanúnach sa tríú ráithe de 2021. Ritheann an tionscadal go dtí Nollaig 2022. Is tionscadal eile de chlár Fís 2020 an AE é PowerPlatform (Perform) a bhfuil sé mar aidhm aige bonneagar ardáin a bhunú le haghaidh tiontaithe leictreachimiceacha an-roghnacha agus é mar aidhm aige leictreachas a chur ar thionscal na ceimice. Tá an tionscadal ceithre bliana seo, €1.7 milliún, faoi stiúir na hOifige um Thaighde Eolaíoch Feidhmeach (TNO; An Háig, an Ísiltír; www.tno.nl) le 11 chomhpháirtí eile, lena n-áirítear rannpháirtithe tionsclaíocha Avantium Chemicals B.V. (Amsterdam, an Ísiltír; www.avantium.com), Perstorp, AVA Biochem BSL AG (Muttenz, an Eilvéis; www.ava-biochem.com), Novamont S.p.A. (Novara, an Iodáil; www.novamont.com) agus Radici Chimica S.p.A. (Bergamo, an Iodáil; www.radicigroup.com). An chuideachta innealtóireachta Hystech S.r.l. (Turin, an Iodáil; www.hysytech.com) a dhearfaidh agus a mhonaraíonn an t-ardán. Tá dhá líne éagsúla á bhforbairt sa ardán, lena n-áirítear amhábhar C5-C6 a dhíorthaítear ó bithmhéad a úsáid. 'Is é siúcra an ola nua,' a deir Bart van den Bosch, ceimigeach T&F ag Avantium. Sa Líne 1, úsáidtear próiseas leictreachimiceach péireáilte, lena n-óxídítear furfural ag an anód go aigéad maleic, agus laghdaítear aigéad levulinic ag an catód go aigéad valeric. Tá an dá tháirge breisluacha seo ábhartha ó thaobh tionsclaíochta de, agus tá buntáistí eacnamaíocha soiléire ag a dtáirgeadh ag an am céanna sa chill chéanna. Sa Líne 2, úsáidtear leictreasintéis pairtithe tandem chun glúcóis a ocsaídiú go aigéad glúcárach, a hidreacsaigineáiltear ansin go aigéad adipic, ceimiceán tráchtearraí tábhachtach eile. Is é croílár an phróisis an catalaí, a deirtear go bhfuil roghnaíocht níos mó ná 80% aige. Faoi láthair, tá an tionscadal, a thosaigh i mí Eanáir 2019, i gcéim 2 le scála suas go cill 1,000-cm2 atá in ann 25 g / h de tháirge a tháirgeadh, le próiseáil chomhtháite i ndiaidh an tsruth (eleictrodialysis, nanofiltration, eastóscadh agus díothú, criostailíocht). Cé nach bhfuil an suíomh cinneadh fós, tógfar an gléasra píolótach i 2022 agus críochnófar an taispeántas i 2023. Tar éis sin, beidh an t-ardán ar fáil do dhaoine eile chun próisis leictreachimiceacha a fhorbairt. Le cúig bliana anuas, tá TotalEnergies SE (Páras, an Fhrainc; www.totalenergies.com) agus grúpaí taighde David Sinton, ollamh innealtóireachta meicniúil agus tionsclaíoch agus Ted Sargent, ollamh innealtóireachta leictreach agus ríomhaireachta in Ollscoil Toronto (Ceanada; www.utoronto.ca) ag forbairt próiseas leictreachimiceach, bunaithe ar chomhthiomsú leictreóidí membrane (MEA), chun CO2 a thiontú ina chomhdhúile C2, amhail eitiléin (peitríochimic thábhachtach) agus eitánól (le haghaidh bithbhreoslaí). I gcéimeanna tosaigh an taighde, rinneadh obair shuntasach chun an t-athrú leictreachimiceach a fheabhsú. Ar dtús, forbraíodh nanocatalysts, agus ina dhiaidh sin leictreoidí mionstaicte a chinntigh go bhfaighid na réatántaí an áit a gcaithfidh siad a bheith, a mhíníonn Sinton. Bhí na taighdeoirí in ann táirgeacht eitiléine a mhéadú trí limistéar gníomhach an leictreóda a leathnú. Rinneadh é seo trí chatalaice hibrideach miotail:ionomer a úsáid, a dhíchúplálann gáis, iompar ian agus leictreon, agus a chuireann ar chumas an CO2 a iompar isteach sa chatalaice. I gcomhpháirtíocht le Total Energies agus Ollscoil Toronto, tógadh monarcha píolótach (Figiúr 1), a bhí ag rith 24 uair an chloig ar feadh míonna. Baineann an planda píolótach úsáid as MEA le limistéar 40,000 cm2 - scála suntasach suas ó na haonaid 5-100 cm2 a úsáidtear i staidéir saotharlainne. Deir Sinton, dá mbeadh a fhios aige, gurb é seo an leictrealaitheoir C2 is mó a tháirgeann ar domhan. Tá an píolótach á úsáid chun níos mó a fhoghlaim faoin bpróiseas agus chun feabhsuithe a dhéanamh. Mar shampla, is é ceann de na fadhbanna a bhaineann le MEA ná nuair a chuirtear CO2 isteach san leictreal, déantar é a thiontú go gcarbónáit go tapa. Chun an caillteanas seo a sheachaint, léirigh na taighdeoirí le déanaí gur féidir an caillteanas seo a sheachaint trí chóras tandem a úsáid. Is é an chéad CO2 a thiontú go CO i gclár leictreachimiceach ocsaíd soladach (SOEC), ansin déantar an CO a thiontú go eitiléin i MEA. Fuair an staidéar seo, a foilsíodh i dTuairisc Joule an 15 Feabhra, go raibh éifeachtúlacht iomlán de 140 GJ/tonna eitiléine ag an bhfoirmle comhthreomhar - laghdú 50% ó thuras díreach. Idir an dá linn, tá sé mar aidhm ag tionscadal príomhchomhartha ina bhfuil páirtithe tionsclaíocha, Royal DSM N.V. (Heerlen, an Ísiltír; www.dsm.com) agus Avantium, in éineacht le TNO agus VoltaChem (Delft, an Ísiltír; www.voltachem.com), astaíochtaí CO2 a laghdú ó phróisis fhrithghiniúna a úsáidtear chun táirgí a bhfuil luach níos airde acu a dhéanamh. Úsáidtear siúcraí mar amhábhar in-athnuaite sna próisis fhrithghiniúna seo, ach ní úsáidtear ach cuid den siúcra mar fhoinse carbóin don táirge; úsáidtear an chuid eile den siúcra mar fhoinse fuinnimh do na miocróib, a scaoileann CO2 mar thirim. Tá na comhpháirtithe ag obair ar phróiseas a ghabhann an CO2 a scaoiltear, a laghdaíonn sé go aigéad formic go leictreachimiceach, agus ansin ag cur an aigéad formic ar ais chuig an fermenter mar fhoinse fuinnimh. Ní amháin go ndéantar an glanastaíocht CO2 a dhíchur, ach laghdaítear an méid siúcra a theastaíonn chun an táirge a dhéanamh. Tá tionscadal den chineál céanna ar bun anois sna Stáit Aontaithe. I mí na Bealtaine, bronnadh beagnach $ 3 milliún ar thaighdeoirí ag an Saotharlann Náisiúnta Fuinnimh In-athnuaite (NREL; Golden, Colo.; www.nrel.gov) ó Roinn na Stát Aontaithe. Tá sé de phribhléid ag an Aire Stáit, an tAire Stáit, an tAire Stáit, an tAire Stáit, an tAire Stáit, an tAire Stáit, an tAire Stáit, an tAire Stáit, an tAire Stáit, an tAire Stáit, an tAire Stáit, an tAire Stáit, an tAire Stáit, an tAire Stáit, an tAire Stáit, an tAire Stáit, an tAire Stáit, an tAire Stáit, an tAire Stáit, an tAire Stáit, an tAire Stáit, an tAire Stáit, an tAire Stáit, an tAire Stáit, an tAire Stáit, an tAire Stáit, an tAire Stáit, an tAire Stáit, an tAire Stáit, an tAire Stáit, an tAire Stáit, an tAire Stáit, an tAire Stáit, an tAire Stáit, an tAire Stáit, an tAire Stáit, an tAire Stáit, an tAire Stáit, an tAire Stáit, an tAire Stáit, an tAire Stáit, an tAire Stáit, an tAire Stáit, an tAire Stáit, an tAire Stáit, an tAire Stáit, an tAire Stáit. In éineacht le comhpháirtithe ó Ollscoil Oregon agus comhpháirtithe tionsclaíocha Genomatica (San Diego, California; www.genomatica.com) agus De Nora Tech, LLC (Plainseville, Ohio; www.denora.com), tá sé beartaithe ag NREL leictreachimic a chomhtháthú le fíordheimhniú siúcra chun eistear meitile aigéid sailleacha (FAME) a tháirgeadh, a úsáidtear chun bithbhreoslaí a dhéanamh. Mar an tionscadal san Ísiltír, gabhaítear an CO2 ó phróiseas fíordheimhniúcháin sa phróiseas (Figiúr 3) agus laghdaítear an CO2 chun iainí agus O2 a fhoirmiú i gceall leictreachimiceach a thiománaítear le leictreachas in-athnuaite. Úsáidtear an formát ansin mar iompróir fuinnimh don phróiseas giostaithe, rud a laghdaíonn an t-éileamh ar shiúcra agus a laghdaíonn astaíochtaí CO2. Idir an dá linn, tá taighdeoirí ó Institiúid Fraunhofer um Innealtóireacht Idirchomhthosca agus Bithteicneolaíocht (IGB; Stuttgart, an Ghearmáin; www.igb.fraunhofer.de) ag obair i dhá AE. tionscadail (EVOBIO agus ShaPID) chun bealaí a fhorbairt chun CO2 a úsáid ag baint úsáide as bithteicneolaíocht agus leictreachimic araon. Oibríonn an fhoireann taighde le baictéir mhiothlóiteacha dúchasacha, a mhéadabailíonn meithanól, agus giostaí nach féidir le meithanól a mhéadabailíocht. Ag baint úsáide as innealtóireacht mheitibólach, cuirtear géiní isteach sna miocróib a sholáthraíonn an phleanphriont do einsímí áirithe, a tháirgtear ina dhiaidh sin sa mhiocráinitheacht chun táirgeadh táirge ar leith a chatalachtú. Úsáidtear meitanól agus aigéad formic chun na miocrorgánaigh innealtóireachta seo a chothú, a fhásann i mbia-réatóirí (Figiúr 4). Déantar an dá amhábhar ó CO2 déantar meitanól ó imoibriú catalóideach heterogánach de CO2, agus déantar aigéad formic trí laghdú leictreachimiceach de CO2. Is féidir an CO2 a ghintear ag an giostaíocht a aisghabháil agus a úsáid chun níos mó meitanóil nó aigéad formic a dhéanamh. I measc na dtáirgí atá á n-imscrúdú tá aigéid orgánacha, arb iad na bloic thógála do pholaiméirí, agus aimínaigéid mar fhorlíonta bia nó mar bheathú ainmhithe. Réatóirí níos fearr a phriontáil Is sprioc é feabhas a chur ar fheidhmíocht imoibritheoirí leictreachimiceacha do gach duine atá ag obair sa réimse seo, agus tá céim sa treo seo á fhorbairt ag an Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL; Livermore, Calif.; www.llnl.gov). I dhá fhoilseachán le déanaí, déanann taighdeoirí LLNL agus a fhoireann cur síos ar an gcaoi ar féidir priontáil 3D a úsáid chun imoibrithe leictreachimiceacha a fheabhsú go tapa chun CO2 a thiontú. I dtuarascáil a foilsíodh an mhí seo caite i Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS), déanann innealtóirí LLNL cur síos ar an gcaoi a bhféadfaí priontáil 3D a úsáid chun leictreoga sruth-trí-charbóin (FTEs) a dhéanamh ó aerogels graphene. Ag baint úsáide as an teicneolaíocht seo, léirigh na taighdeoirí gur féidir leo 'sreabhlóid' a dhéanamh ar an sreabhadh i FTEs, 'a fheabhsú go suntasach' ar aistriú mais na n-éisc nó na n-éisc atá ag freagairt trí na leictreodaí agus ar na dromchlaí imoibritheacha. Tá microstruchtúr ordáilte go randamach ag ábhair thraidisiúnta, mar shampla scamaí nó feilteacha bunaithe ar shnáithín charbóin, rud a fhágann go bhfuil scaipeadh sruth agus iompair mais neamhchothrom. Ar a mhalairt, d'fhéadfaí an t-imeolaíocht chainéil sreabhadh a rialú trí phriontáil 3D, ionas gur féidir imoibrithe leictreachimiceacha a bharrfheabhsú (Figiúr 5). "Le priontáil 3D ar ábhair chun cinn, mar aerogels carbóin, is féidir líonraí microporous a innealtóireacht sna hábhair seo gan na hairíonna fisiciúla a chur i mbaol, mar shampla seoltacht leictreach agus limistéar dromchla", a deir taighdeoir LLNL agus comh-údar páipéar PNAS. Tá eolaithe agus innealtóirí LLNL ag iniúchadh úsáid imoibrithe leictreachimiceacha le haghaidh roinnt feidhmchláir, lena n-áirítear tiontú CO2 ina breoslaí agus i bpoliméirí, chomh maith le feidhmchláir i stóráil fuinnimh leictreachimiceach. Tá na taighdeoirí ag obair chun leictreóidí agus comhpháirteanna imoibritheora níos láidre a tháirgeadh ag réitigh níos airde trí theicnící priontála polymer 3D atá bunaithe ar an tsolas, mar shampla micreastreolithografaíocht réamh-mheastacháin, agus ina dhiaidh sin miotail. Ní amháin go gcabhróidh úsáid priontáil 3D le sruth a bharrfheabhsú i FTEs, ach cuireann sé ar fáil freisin chun dearaí nua imoibritheora a thógáil agus a thástáil go tapa. 'Is é an fíor-bhuíochas a bhaineann le priontáil 3D a úsáid ná gur féidir linn smaoineamh a bheith againn, imoibreoir nua a dhearadh, a phriontáil agus a thástáil laistigh de 24 uair an chloig,' a deir eolaí LLNL Jeremy Feaster, a chomh-údar tuarascáil a foilsíodh i dtionól Bealtaine 2021 de Sceolaíocht Fuinnimh agus Comhshaoil, le comhpháirtithe Ollscoil Stanford (Calif.; www.stanford.edu) agus American Total Services, Inc. (Houston). "Is é an rud a bhí ábalta againn a thaispeáint ná gur féidir leat an dearadh a athdhéanamh go tapa agus ní hamháin an t-am a thógann sé a ghearradh, ach an costas a thógann sé chun na hionracóirí seo a dhéanamh trí roinnt ordú mór", a deir sé. Chun an staidéar seo a dhéanamh, d'úsáid na taighdeoirí priontáil 3D do chúlchistí an imoibritheora agus rinne siad athmhúnlú go tapa chun an t-eochairfhocal is fearr a fháil, rud a d'fheabhsaigh iompar mais iomlán an imoibritheora chuig an gcatalóir, agus táirgí ón gcatalóir. Léirigh staidéir mhianmharcála a rinneadh i Stanford go raibh toradh ard ar eitiléin (3.36%) agus leibhéil taifeadta ethanol (3.66%), i gcomparáid le luachanna litríochta.

As students step into the Science Lab each week they are actively engaged in the evidence-based approach of inquiry-based learning. Exploring the four topics of Biological, Chemical, Physical and Earth & Space Sciences, they develop their own explanations about scientific phenomena through reflecting on their prior knowledge, posing questions, participating in hands-on experiences, and conducting exploratory and formal investigations. The students develop and equip themselves with science inquiry skills to develop their current and future understanding of the nature of science. My name is Miss Rachel Skellett. I studied a Bachelor of Science in Microbiology and Immunology at the University of Western Australia. Thereafter, I completed a Master’s of Teaching to enable me to share my passion and love for science. As we move into an increasingly technology-based society I believe it is important to develop children’s science literacy as it challenges their critical thinking and leads to innovation. The Science Lab is located in Saddington Block in the upper area of the school. If you have any questions or concerns, please contact me in person or by email. My email address is: firstname.lastname@example.org.

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Agus na mic léinn ag dul isteach sa Laibriú Eolaíochta gach seachtain, bíonn siad ag gabháil go gníomhach leis an gcur chuige atá bunaithe ar fhianaise maidir le foghlaim bunaithe ar fhiosrúchán. Ag iniúchadh na gceithre ábhar de Eolaíochtaí Bitheolaíocha, Ceimiceacha, Físeacha agus Domhanda agus Spáis, forbraíonn siad a gcuid míniúcháin féin maidir le feiniméin eolaíocha trína gcuid eolais roimhe seo a léiriú, ceisteanna a chur, páirt a ghlacadh i dtaithí láimhe, agus imscrúduithe iniúchtacha agus foirmiúla a dhéanamh. Forbraíonn na mic léinn agus trealamh iad féin le scileanna fiosrúcháin eolaíochta chun a dtuiscint reatha agus todhchaí ar nádúr na heolaíochta a fhorbairt. Is é mo ainm Miss Rachel Skellett. Rinne mé staidéar ar Bakalair Eolaíochta i Maicribhiolaíocht agus Iomnáisiolaíocht in Ollscoil na hOstaire. Ina dhiaidh sin, chríochnaigh mé Máistreacht i Múineadh chun cur ar mo chumas mo shaothar agus mo ghrá don eolaíocht a roinnt. De réir mar a théann muid isteach i sochaí atá bunaithe ar theicneolaíocht i gcónaí, creidim go bhfuil sé tábhachtach litearthacht eolaíochta leanaí a fhorbairt toisc go gcuireann sé dúshlán ar a gcuid smaointeoireachta criticiúla agus go dtiocfaidh nuálaíocht orthu. Tá an Saineolas Lab suite i mBloc Saddington sa cheantar uachtarach den scoil. Má tá aon cheist nó imní agat, déan teagmháil liom go pearsanta nó trí ríomhphost. Is é mo sheoladh ríomhphoist: firstname.lastname@example.org.

In general, you will use parallel parking next to a curb in the space between two parked cars. Sometimes parallel parking is your only option. You will need to choose a space that is at least five feet longer than your car. It requires practice to master this maneuver. Always signal first, and then position your vehicle parallel with the vehicle parked (rear bumpers of both vehicles are aligned) in front of the empty spot. Keep at least two feet away from this vehicle (see figure). Check to make sure the way is clear behind you, and shift into reverse. Look over your shoulder and back slowly as you turn your wheel toward the curb. Back up slowly so that the front of the vehicle is even with the front door of the vehicle beside you. Turn the wheel sharply to the right and back up slowly until your vehicle is at a 45-degree angle from the curb. Turn the wheel sharply in the direction away from the curb and back slowly until your vehicle is parallel to the curb. Put the car into a forward gear and slowly center your vehicle in the space.

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Go ginearálta, úsáidfidh tú páirceáil chomhthreomhar in aice le curb sa spás idir dhá charr páirceáilte. Uaireanta is é páirceáil chomhthreomhar an t-aon rogha atá agat. Beidh ort spás a roghnú atá cúig troigh ar a laghad níos faide ná do charr. Éilíonn sé cleachtadh chun an beart seo a mháistir. Déan an comhartha ar dtús i gcónaí, agus ansin cuir do charr i gcomhthreomhar leis an bhfeithicil atá páirceáilte (tá buamair chúl na bhfeithiclí araon ailínithe) os comhair an phointe folamh. Coinnigh dhá chosa ar a laghad ar shiúl ón bhfeithicil seo (féach an figiúr). Seiceáil go bhfuil an bealach soiléir taobh thiar de, agus cas ar ais. Féach thar do ghualainn agus ar ais go mall agus tú ag casadh do rothar i dtreo an chonair. Ar ais go mall ionas go mbeidh tosaigh an fheithiclí fiú le doras tosaigh an fheithiclí taobh leat. Tiontaigh an roth go géar ar dheis agus téigh ar ais go mall go dtí go mbeidh do charr ag uillinn 45 céim ón gcorba. Déan an roth a thiontú go géar sa treo as an mbóthar agus ar ais go mall go dtí go mbeidh do fheithicil comhthreomhar leis an mbóthar. Cuir an carr i ngéar ar aghaidh agus go mall cuir do charr i lár an spás.

Learning with an abacus is a must for every chid. An abacus is instrumental in developing the entire brain which will last a lifetime. Using an abacus requires coordination of sight, sound and finger movement which will lead to the growth of brain cells. Learning an abacus stimulates the development of the right brain, the creative side of the brain, and will have benefits for your child in the long run. Abacus training differs greatly from traditional mathematics and is an alternative way to learn. Yes!!! Here is an example. When you work on addition and subtraction with ten 2-digit numbers, you have to move abacus beads approximately 30 times. If you make even one mistake, your answer will be incorrect.

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Tá sé riachtanach do gach páiste foghlaim le abacus. Tá abacus ina uirlis chun an inchinn iomlán a fhorbairt a mhaireann ar feadh an tsaoil. Ag baint úsáide as abacus éilíonn comhordú ar radharc, fuaim agus gluaiseacht mhéara a bheidh mar thoradh ar an fás cealla inchinne. Spreagann foghlaim abacus forbairt an cheoil dheis, an taobh cruthaitheach den inchinn, agus beidh tairbhe ag do leanbh ar feadh i bhfad. Tá oiliúint abacus difriúil go mór ó mhatamaitic thraidisiúnta agus is bealach malartach é chun foghlaim. Sea!!! Seo sampla. Nuair a oibríonn tú ar chur le chéile agus ar aistarraingt le deich n-uimhreacha dhá dhigit, ní mór duit na beanna abacus a bhogadh thart ar 30 uair. Má dhéanann tú fiú botún amháin, beidh do fhreagra mícheart.

Today, the pressure is always on increasing the level of interactivity in learning. In eLearning, interactivity drives engagement. Interactive elements help the learners actively participate in the learning. This, in turn, improves learning outcomes and facilitates better knowledge retention. Why Use Interactivity? The objective of using interactive elements is to facilitate learning, best explain the topic to the learner, and keep the learner actively engaged. Several studies show that the use of interactive elements improve learning outcomes and facilitate better retention of the learning objects. Interactivity in eLearning can extend from simple click-to-reveal kind of actions, to creating situations and scenario reproductions, and creating decision tests. With the use of interactive elements such as gamification, multimedia, video, simulations, digital avatars, virtual reality etc. the learner can develop a deeper comprehension of the subject via a protected, experimentation-like environment. However, not all interactivity levels are created equal. Organizations must apply interactivity levels in their eLearning programs according to the nature of the content, the technological infrastructure and environment, the desired outcomes, the target audience, and the budget. The level of interaction is the metric that refers to concepts such as learning complexity, user interaction levels, and sophistication level of the eLearning course. Interactivity in eLearning is broken down into the following levels: Low-Level Interactivity/Page Turners Level 1 or Page Turners is a very basic level of interactivity. Here, the learner watches a video or recording or receives the text on the screen with minimal media use. Media used here is in the form of photographs or icons. While the learner has minimal control of the learning environment as the level of interactions here are quite passive, this level of interactivity is still better than PowerPoint presentations since the content is broken down into smaller, bite-sized pieces, and each section could be followed by a basic assessment. Video provided by the client can also be cropped and embedded in this level and may or may not use audio. If audio is used, then it is used verbatim. This level of interactivity can be used effectively if the aim is to build awareness, is procedural in nature, or when the learners just need a ‘show me how to” kind of a presentation. Medium to High Interactivity (Audio-Driven) In this level, the learner is allowed more control, thus making this level the most favored approach to delivering eLearning. The use of animations, graphics (like photographs, icons, and infographics), and interactivities such as click-to-reveal activities like clickable tabs, icons, infographics, etc., roll-overs can be found in this level. This level can also employ audio and video elements such as introductory videos and product demonstrations for better learning. In this level, interactive elements appear at regular intervals, say every 5 screens. In this level, the learner must demonstrate the knowledge acquired from the content as the emphasis is on application objectives.icons, infographics, etc., roll-overs can be found in this level. This level is more audio-driven where the learner does a little more than just watch, read or navigate the learning material here and can associate with the learning conditions through “problem areas” employing interactive assets such as movement, sight, and sound. The navigation in this interactivity level expands to glossaries and links to external resources, and often has exercises such as quizzes, identification components, drag and drop, matching, etc. This level of interactivity is apt for eLearning situations that are focused on on-the-job-performance improvements such as process and product training and skill development, rather than just knowledge transfer. Because of the more media and audio-driven approach taken, content overload is not a concern and the learner can take in digestible chunks of information, at their own pace. Medium to High Interaction Using Conversation/Stories/Games/Branching, etc. Higher interactions are best suited for courses that have a moderately high degree of complexity, demand active learning due to the multiple inter-related concepts, and multidimensional problems that require authentic representation, and advanced practice. Graphics, animations, custom illustrations (characters or backgrounds relevant to the story or theme being used), and gamified quizzes are employed at this level. This learning method could also use multiple paths or branching to enable active learning. The learner has a higher degree of control over the course environment. The content is presented in the context of real business problems and employs audio, videos, and simulated environments with interactivity appearing more regularly, say on every 3rd screen. The content also has a flexible or customized navigation structure and employs more complex and narrated animations. There are more complex practice opportunities by using custom animations that test the learner’s investigative capabilities. This method is best suited for training on problem-solving capabilities such as performing financial calculations, introducing menu-driven applications or new software environments etc. This learning method also provides a ‘safe’ environment to learners as they can learn the impact of their decisions in a simulated environment. The emphasis is on application, knowledge transfers and retention. The learner here must make complex decisions and in case of poor performance, they receive immediate remediation. Advanced Interactivity (Videos/explainers) This level employs a high level of instructional and visual design, using an animated explainer or video-type approach. Simulations, high-impact graphics, complex animations, highly recharged interactivities, self-checks and practice sessions with a higher degree of sophistication. This level employs a story line with characters and may also have interactive elements. The creation of personalized or dynamic environments using real-life scenarios and digital avatars to teach complex theories or concepts with a professional run-through enable better comprehension and deliver a better learning impact. This approach works great for presenting how-to videos, product demonstrations, change management, story-telling, etc. This level of eLearning is a good learning option when the objective of the course is to help learners understand complex and multifaceted business problems or teach them high-level or advanced decision-making skills, or even to bring about in change in attitude and behavior. Live recordings of customer interactions, for example, can be used to training customer-facing teams where they get to see an actual or simulated interaction, thus helping them up their skills in a faster more relatable set-up. Level 1 and Level 2 interactivity is well suited for training that needs frequent updating such as new hire orientations or company policies. It is also great for larger training programs where budgets might also be a constraint.is to help learners understand complex and multifaceted business problems or teach them high-level or advanced decision-making skills, or even to bring about a change in attitude and behavior. Live recordings of customer interactions, for example, can be used to training customer-facing teams where they get to see an actual or simulated interaction, thus helping them up their skills in a faster more relatable set-up. Level 3 and 4 are ideal for situations where the learners need to be motivated to take the course, if they need to improve productivity, and where their actions have a direct business impact. Evaluating the technical environment such as bandwidth, software etc. is essential for employing Level 3 and 4 interactivities. When it comes to interactivity, sometimes less can be more and vice versa. The learning objectives and the desired outcomes must drive the level of interactivity your course needs. Consider your learner personas, their level of comfort with online training, their job requirements, and of course, your budgets and business needs, before applying a certain instructional and visual design strategy. Consult a Learning Solutions Specialist to help you define what is the best approach you need to take. At eNyota we strive to deliver the best experience your learners can get. Our interactive courses are based on the levels mentioned above and are designed and created to provide an optimal level of learner engagement and completion rates. If you’re interested in knowing more about the next course you want to build and how it can be achieved, reach out to us at Contactus@enyotalearning.com or click here to fill a form, and one of our representatives will reach out to you.

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Sa lá atá inniu ann, tá an brú i gcónaí ar leibhéal idirghníomhachta a mhéadú i bhfoghlaim. I r-fhoghlaim, is é idirghníomhacht a spreagann rannpháirtíocht. Cuidíonn gnéithe idirghníomhacha leis na foghlaimeoirí páirt ghníomhach a ghlacadh sa fhoghlaim. Mar sin féin, feabhsaíonn sé seo torthaí foghlama agus éascaíonn sé cuimhne níos fearr ar eolas. Cén fáth a n-úsáidtear Idirghníomhaíocht? Is é cuspóir na n-eilimintí idirghníomhacha a úsáid chun foghlaim a éascú, an t-ábhar a mhíniú ar an mbealach is fearr don fhoghlaimeoir, agus an fhoghlaimeoir a choinneáil páirteach go gníomhach. Léiríonn roinnt staidéir go bhfeabhsaíonn úsáid eilimintí idirghníomhacha torthaí foghlama agus go gcuireann siad cosaint níos fearr ar na rudaí foghlama. Is féidir idirghníomhachtúlacht in e-Fhoghlaim a leathnú ó ghníomhaíochtaí simplí den chineál cliceáil-le-fhorghairm, chun cásanna agus athdhéanamh cásanna a chruthú, agus tástálacha cinnidh a chruthú. Le húsáid eilimintí idirghníomhacha amhail gamification, il-meán, físe, insamhaltaí, avatars digiteacha, réaltacht fhíorúil srl. Is féidir leis an foghlaimeoir tuiscint níos doimhne a fhorbairt ar an ábhar trí thimpeallacht chosanta, cosúil le turgnamh. Mar sin féin, ní cruthaítear gach leibhéal idirghníomhachta ar an gcéanna. Ní mór d'eagraíochtaí leibhéil idirghníomhachta a chur i bhfeidhm ina gcláir e-oideachais de réir chineál an ábhair, an bhonneagair agus an chomhshaoil theicneolaíoch, na dtorthaí atá ag teastáil, an spriocghrúpa, agus an bhuiséad. Is é leibhéal an idirghníomhaíochta an méadrach a thagraíonn do choincheapa mar chastacht foghlama, leibhéil idirghníomhaíochta úsáideora, agus leibhéal sofisticeachta an chúrsa e-oideachais. Déantar idirghníomhaíocht i r-oideachas a bhriseadh síos sna leibhéil seo a leanas: Idirghníomhaíocht Ísealleibhéil/Tuairisceoirí Leathanaigh Leibhéal 1 nó Page Turners is leibhéal an-bhunúsach idirghníomhaíochta. Anseo, féachann an foghlaimeoir ar fhíseán nó ar thaifeadadh nó faigheann sé an téacs ar an scáileán gan úsáid chomh beag is féidir a bhaint as na meáin. Tá na meáin a úsáidtear anseo i bhfoirm grianghraif nó íomhaigh. Cé go bhfuil an t-oideachas ar an gcúramóir íosta ar an timpeallacht foghlama mar go bhfuil leibhéal na n-idirghníomhaíochtaí anseo go leor éighníomhach, tá an leibhéal idirghníomhachta seo fós níos fearr ná léargas PowerPoint ós rud é go bhfuil an t-ábhar briseadh síos i bpíosaí níos lú, beag, agus d'fhéadfaí bunmheasúnú a dhéanamh ar gach rannán. Is féidir físeán a sholáthraíonn an cliant a ghearradh agus a leabaithe sa leibhéal seo freisin agus d'fhéadfadh sé nó ní fhéadfadh sé fuaim a úsáid. Má úsáidtear fuaime, ansin úsáidtear é go focail. Is féidir an leibhéal idirghníomhachta seo a úsáid go héifeachtach má tá sé mar aidhm aige feasacht a thógáil, má tá sé de chineál nós imeachta, nó nuair nach gá ach do na foghlaimeoirí ach cineál cur i láthair "taispeáin dom conas é a dhéanamh". Idirghníomhaíocht Meánmhéide go Mór (Treoraithe-Fuaime) Sa leibhéal seo, tugtar níos mó smachta don fhoghlaimeoir, rud a fhágann gurb é an leibhéal seo an cur chuige is fearr chun e-Fhoghlaim a sheachadadh. Is féidir úsáid a bhaint as beochana, grafaicí (mar grianghraif, íomhaigh agus infagrafaicí), agus idirghníomhaíochtaí mar ghníomhartha cliceáil-le-nochtadh mar chluaisíní cliceáilte, íomhaigh, infagrafaicí, srl., a fháil sa leibhéal seo. Is féidir leis an leibhéal seo eilimintí fuaime agus físe a úsáid freisin, amhail físeáin tosaigh agus taispeántais táirgí chun foghlaim níos fearr a bhaint amach. Sa leibhéal seo, tá eilimintí idirghníomhacha le feiceáil ag eatraimh rialta, a rá gach 5 scáileán. Sa leibhéal seo, ní mór don fhoghlaimeoir a léiriú an t-eolas a fuarthas ón ábhar toisc go bhfuil an béim ar chuspóirí an iarratais. Tá an leibhéal seo níos mó tóir-thiomáint áit a dhéanann an foghlaimeoir rud beag níos mó ná féachaint, léamh nó nascleanúint an ábhair foghlama anseo agus is féidir a chur i gcomhar leis na coinníollacha foghlama trí "réimsí fadhbanna" ag baint úsáide as sócmhainní idirghníomhacha mar ghluaiseacht, radharc, agus fuaim. Leathnaítear an nascleanúint sa leibhéal idirghníomhaíochta seo go glosraí agus naisc le hacmhainní seachtracha, agus is minic a bhíonn cleachtaí ann mar cheisteanna, comhpháirteanna aitheantais, slaodadh agus scaoileadh, comhoiriúnú, srl. Tá an leibhéal idirghníomhachta seo oiriúnach do chásanna e-oideachais a bhfuil díriú orthu ar fheabhsuithe feidhmíochta ar an bpost, amhail oiliúint ar phróisis agus ar tháirgí agus forbairt scileanna, seachas aistriú eolais amháin. Mar gheall ar an gcur chuige atá níos meáin agus níos fuaime, ní bhíonn ró-ualach ábhar ina thrioblóid agus is féidir leis an foghlaimeoir chuntais in-diúscailte faisnéise a ghlacadh, ina luas féin. Idirghníomhaíocht mheánmhéide go ard ag baint úsáide as comhrá/scéalta/cluiche/bhrainse, etc. Tá idirghníomhaíochtaí níos airde oiriúnach go maith do chúrsaí a bhfuil leibhéal measartha ard castachta acu, a éilíonn foghlaim ghníomhach mar gheall ar na coincheapa il-idirnasctha, agus fadhbanna il-dimhionscanta a éilíonn ionadaíocht fhíorúil, agus cleachtas ardleibhéil. Úsáidtear grafaicí, beochan, léaráidí saincheaptha (carachtair nó cúlraí a bhaineann leis an scéal nó leis an téama atá á n-úsáid), agus ceisteanna gamified ag an leibhéal seo. D'fhéadfadh an modh foghlama seo úsáid a bhaint as bealaí il nó brainse chun foghlaim gníomhach a chumasú. Tá níos mó smachta ag an foghlaimeoir ar thimpeallacht an chúrsa. Cuirtear an t-ábhar i láthair i gcomhthéacs fhadhbanna gnó fíor agus úsáideann sé fuaime, físeáin agus timpeallachtaí samhlaithe le hidirghníomhaíocht a bhíonn ag teacht chun cinn níos minice, a rá ar gach 3ú scáileán. Tá struchtúr nascleanúnaithe solúbtha nó saincheaptha ag an ábhar freisin agus úsáideann sé beochan níos casta agus insint. Tá deiseanna cleachtais níos casta ann trí ainmhithe saincheaptha a úsáid a thástáil cumas imscrúdaitheach an fhoghlaimeora. Is é an modh seo an ceann is oiriúnaí le haghaidh oiliúna ar chumas réiteach fadhbanna amhail ríomhanna airgeadais a dhéanamh, feidhmchláir a stiúradh le roghchlár nó timpeallachtaí bogearraí nua a thabhairt isteach, srl. Soláthraíonn an modh foghlama seo timpeallacht "sábháilte" do na foghlaimeoirí freisin toisc gur féidir leo tionchar a gcuid cinntí a fhoghlaim i dtimpeallacht insamhlaithe. Tá an béim ar chur i bhfeidhm, ar aistriú agus ar choimeád eolais. Ní mór don fhoghlaimeoir cinntí casta a dhéanamh anseo agus i gcás drochfheidhmíochta, faigheann siad leigheas láithreach. Idirghníomhaíocht Ardteicneolaíochta (Físeáin/Scéalta) Baineann an leibhéal seo úsáid as ardleibhéal de dhearadh teagaisc agus amhairc, ag baint úsáide as cur chuige animáilte míniúcháin nó cineál físe. Similtí, grafaicí ard-ionsaithe, beochan casta, idirghníomhaíochtaí ard-athchúrsáilte, féin-sheiceálacha agus seisiúin chleachtais le céim níos mó sofistice. Baineann an leibhéal seo le líne scéala le carachtair agus d'fhéadfadh eilimintí idirghníomhacha a bheith aige freisin. Is féidir le timpeallachtaí pearsantaithe nó dinimiciúla a chruthú trí chásanna fíor-saoil agus avatars digiteacha a úsáid chun teoiricí nó coincheapa casta a mhúineadh le rith gairmiúil a chuireann tuiscint níos fearr ar fáil agus tionchar foghlama níos fearr a sholáthar. Oibríonn an cur chuige seo go hiontach chun físeáin conas a dhéanamh, taispeántais táirgí, bainistíocht athraithe, scéal a insint, srl. Is rogha foghlama maith é an leibhéal seo de e-Fhoghlaim nuair is é cuspóir an chúrsa cabhrú le foghlaimeoirí fadhbanna casta ilghnéitheacha gnó a thuiscint nó scileanna cinnidh ardleibhéil nó ardleibhéil a mhúineadh dóibh, nó fiú athrú a dhéanamh ar a gcaoi agus ar a iompar. Is féidir taifid bheo idirghníomhaíochtaí custaiméirí, mar shampla, a úsáid chun foirne atá os comhair an chustaiméara a oiliúint áit a bhfaigheann siad idirghníomhaíocht iarbhír nó samhlaithe, rud a chabhraíonn leo a gcuid scileanna a chur ar bun i socrú níos gasta níos so-ghaolmhara. Tá idirghníomhaíocht Leibhéal 1 agus Leibhéal 2 oiriúnach go maith do oiliúint a bhfuil gá le nuashonrú go minic air, mar shampla treoirlínte nua-fhostaithe nó beartais na cuideachta. Tá sé iontach freisin do chláir oiliúna níos mó ina bhféadfadh buiséid a bheith ina srianta freisin. Is é an rud is mó a chabhraíonn le foghlaimeoirí fadhbanna gnó casta agus ilghnéitheacha a thuiscint nó scileanna cinntí ardleibhéil nó ardleibhéil a mhúineadh dóibh, nó fiú athrú a dhéanamh ar a dearcadh agus ar a iompar. Is féidir taifid bheo idirghníomhaíochtaí custaiméirí, mar shampla, a úsáid chun foirne atá os comhair an chustaiméara a oiliúint áit a bhfaigheann siad idirghníomhaíocht iarbhír nó samhlaithe, rud a chabhraíonn leo a gcuid scileanna a chur ar bun i socrú níos gasta níos so-ghaolmhara. Tá leibhéal 3 agus 4 oiriúnach do chásanna ina gcaithfear na foghlaimeoirí a spreagadh chun an cúrsa a ghlacadh, más gá dóibh táirgiúlacht a fheabhsú, agus nuair a bhíonn tionchar díreach gnó ag a ngníomhartha. Measúnú a dhéanamh ar an timpeallacht theicniúil amhail bandaleithead, bogearraí, srl. Tá sé riachtanach chun idirghníomhaíochtaí Leibhéal 3 agus Leibhéal 4 a úsáid. Nuair a thagann sé chun idirghníomhachta, uaireanta is féidir níos lú a bheith níos mó agus vice versa. Ní mór do na cuspóirí foghlama agus na torthaí inmhianaithe an leibhéal idirghníomhachta a theastaíonn ó do chúrsa a thiomáint. Smaoinigh ar do phearsaí foghlaimeora, a leibhéal compordachta le hoiliúint ar líne, a riachtanais poist, agus ar ndóigh, do bhuiséid agus riachtanais ghnó, sula gcuireann tú straitéis áirithe oideachais agus dearadh amhairc i bhfeidhm. Déan teagmháil le Speisialtóir ar Réitigh Foghlama chun cabhrú leat an cur chuige is fearr a theastaíonn uait a chinneadh. Ag eNyota déanaimid ár ndícheall an taithí is fearr is féidir a fháil do do chuid foghlaimeoirí a sheachadadh. Tá ár gcúrsaí idirghníomhacha bunaithe ar na leibhéil a luaitear thuas agus tá siad deartha agus cruthaithe chun leibhéal is fearr de rannpháirtíocht agus rátaí comhlánaithe foghlaimeoirí a sholáthar. Má tá suim agat tuilleadh a fháil amach faoin gcéad chúrsa eile atá uait a thógáil agus conas is féidir é a bhaint amach, téigh i dteagmháil linn ag Contactus@enyotalearning.com nó cliceáil anseo chun foirm a líonadh, agus cuirfidh ceann dár n-ionadaithe i dteagmháil leat.

Engaging Men and Women in Maternal, Child, and Reproductive Health: a Critical Need in Nigeria By: Aisha Ahmed, Gender, Social Inclusion and Community Engagement Advisor, Sokoto State, Nigeria Cultural and traditional practices greatly affect women across different ethnic groups in Nigeria, and they especially influence maternal health challenges, particularly in Northern states where Sokoto is located. For example, women delay seeking care when their husband is absent. Today, Sokoto state has one of the highest rates of maternal deaths in the northwestern region of Nigeria. A majority of maternal mortality cases can be attributed to factors such as cultural and religious influences and other social elements that affect individual preferences. Men play a major role in all decisions, including those related to health, but often do not see a need to educate themselves on these issues. Communication between couples is also poor, and men often do not give standing permission to women to visit the hospital in case of health-related needs. Their reasons range from not understanding the importance of a healthcare visit to fear of cost and mistrust of the health systems. Essentially, women cannot use health services without their husband’s explicit permission. In light of this, the need for male involvement in maternal and child health (MCH) as well as reproductive health is critical in order to improve access to health facilities and services with skilled providers. To address these challenges related to MCH and reproductive health, USAID Integrated Health Program (IHP) brought together traditional and religious leaders to discuss what the health-seeking challenges were, why they occurred, and what could be done to improve the health outcomes for women as well as men. Throughout the interaction, something interesting was revealed: men have been engaged repeatedly, and they have some level of knowledge on the importance of seeking health services; meanwhile, the women have been left behind, and providers need to engage female caregivers, mother-in-laws, and women groups so that they also understand the importance of seeking health services. Once they have that knowledge they are better able to advocate for support for health services. The leaders also added that adolescent boys should be involved in the health discussions to not only empower them with health education while they are young, but so they can also serve as a support system for mothers and sisters within the system. As youth often live within the same community and marry amongst themselves, they can develop strong and holistic family health-seeking behavior.

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en

Ag baint úsáide as Fir agus Mná i Maithreacha, Leanaí, agus Sláinte Reproductive: riachtanas criticiúil sa Nigéir Ag: Aisha Ahmed, Comhairleoir um Inscne, Cuimsiú Sóisialta agus Iomaíocht Pobail, Stát Sokoto, an Nigéir Bíonn tionchar mór ag cleachtais chultúrtha agus traidisiúnta ar mhná ar fud grúpaí eitneacha éagsúla sa Nigéir, agus bíonn tionchar acu go háirithe ar dhúshláin sláinte mháithreacha, go háirithe i stáit Thuaidh ina bhfuil Sokoto suite. Mar shampla, déanann mná moill ar chúram a lorg nuair a bhíonn a bhfear céile as láthair. Sa lá atá inniu ann, tá stát Sokoto ar cheann de na rátaí is airde de bháis máithreacha i réigiún iarthuaisceart na Nigéire. Is féidir tromlach cásanna báis mháithreacha a chur i leith tosca amhail tionchair chultúrtha agus reiligiúnacha agus eilimintí sóisialta eile a théann i bhfeidhm ar roghanna aonair. Tá ról mór ag fir i ngach cinneadh, lena n-áirítear cinn a bhaineann le sláinte, ach is minic nach bhfeiceann siad an gá iad féin a oideachasú ar na saincheisteanna seo. Tá cumarsáid idir lánúineacha lag freisin, agus ní minic a thugann fir cead buan do mhná cuairt a thabhairt ar an ospidéal i gcás riachtanais a bhaineann le sláinte. Tá cúiseanna éagsúla ann, ó mhí-thuiscint ar thábhacht cuairte cúram sláinte go eagla ar chostas agus mí-chreidiúint ar na córais sláinte. Go bunúsach, ní féidir le mná seirbhísí sláinte a úsáid gan cead sainráite a bhfear céile. Tá sé tábhachtach go mbeadh an t-ionchas sin ag na fir i ndáil le sláinte mháthar agus leanaí (MCH) agus sláinte atáirgthe chun rochtain ar áiseanna agus ar sheirbhísí sláinte a fheabhsú le soláthraithe cáilithe. Chun aghaidh a thabhairt ar na dúshláin seo a bhaineann le MCH agus sláinte atáirgthe, thug Clár Sláinte Comhtháite USAID (IHP) ceannairí traidisiúnta agus reiligiúnacha le chéile chun plé a dhéanamh ar na dúshláin a bhí ag lorg sláinte, cén fáth a tharla siad, agus cad a d'fhéadfaí a dhéanamh chun torthaí sláinte na mban a fheabhsú chomh maith le fir. Le linn na hidirghníomhaíochta, nochtadh rud éigin suimiúil: cuireadh fir i mbun na hoibre arís agus arís eile, agus tá leibhéal eolais áirithe acu maidir le tábhacht na seirbhísí sláinte a lorg; idir an dá linn, tá na mná fágtha ar chúl, agus ní mór do sholáthraithe cúramóirí mná, máithreacha-in-dlí, agus grúpaí mná a chur i mbun na hoibre ionas go dtuigeann siad freisin an tábhacht a bhaineann le seirbhísí sláinte a lorg. Nuair a bheidh an t-eolas sin acu, beidh siad in ann tacú le seirbhísí sláinte. Dúirt na ceannairí freisin gur cheart buachaillí déagóirí a bheith páirteach sna pléanna sláinte chun iad a chumhachtú ní amháin le hoideachas sláinte agus iad óg, ach ionas gur féidir leo a bheith mar chóras tacaíochta do mháithreacha agus do dheirfiúracha laistigh den chóras. De réir mar a bhíonn daoine óga ina gcónaí sa phobal céanna agus ag pósadh eatarthu féin, is féidir leo iompar láidir agus iomlánach teaghlaigh a fhorbairt a chuideoidh le sláinte.

Many social skills curricula take basic social skills and break them into small steps for students to learn individually. Unfortunately, many of those are quite expensive and if your school is anything like mine, administrators aren’t flooding your offices with money to spend. So, I made my own! This pack is available for free on TeacherspayTeachers and contains skill cards for 5 crucial empathy and emotional regulation skills (30 cards in all with decorative card backs): 1. Expressing Your Feelings 2. Dealing with Stress 3. Dealing with Anger 4. Identifying Others’ Feelings 5. Responding to Others’ Negative Feelings Each skill is broken down into the mental and physical skills needed to carry out the task successfully, so that they can be taught individually. Cards include visuals for students that cannot read. I use these cards with almost all my social skills groups, but I’ve noticed they work especially well for students with Autism!

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en

Glacann go leor cúrsaí scileanna sóisialta scileanna sóisialta bunúsacha agus déanann siad iad a bhriseadh i gcéimeanna beaga le go mbeidh na mic léinn in ann foghlaim go aonair. Ar an drochuair, tá go leor de na cinn go leor daor agus má tá do scoil rud ar bith cosúil liomsa, ní administrators tuilte do oifigí le airgead a chaitheamh. Mar sin, rinne mé mo chuid féin! Tá an pacáiste seo ar fáil saor in aisce ar TeacherspayTeachers agus tá cártaí scileanna ann do 5 scileanna tábhachtacha comhbhá agus rialála mothúchánach (30 cárta ar fad le cúlchártaí maisiúla): 1. an t-am a bhí ann. A bhraitheann tú a chur in iúl 2. Seachadadh. Conas déileáil le strus 3. Tá an t-am ann. Déileáil le Fúr 4. Tá an t-am Aithint mothúchán daoine eile 5. Tá an t-am ann. Freagra a thabhairt do dhaoine eile mothúcháin dhiúltacha Déantar gach scileanna a bhriseadh síos ina scileanna meabhrach agus fisiciúla is gá chun an tasc a chomhlíonadh go rathúil, ionas gur féidir iad a theagasc go aonair. Tá léaráidí ar na cártaí do mhic léinn nach féidir leo léamh. Bainim úsáid as na cártaí seo le mo chuid scileanna sóisialta beagnach go léir, ach thug mé faoi deara go n-oibríonn siad go háirithe go maith do dhaltaí le hOitism!

English is a rich, complex language that poses challenges to English-language learners. If you teach English to native speakers of Spanish, you need to be aware of some of the particular differences between Spanish and English. Understanding these differences will equip you to help your students study and learn English with confidence. Alphabet and Spelling Beginning with the alphabet, the names of the letters themselves can be confusing. The letter "a" in English and "e" in Spanish have the same name as do "e" and "i." This can be frustrating for you and your students: you tell a student to write "S--E--A--T" and they write "S--I--E--T." The many different ways to spell the same sound in English can also be confusing. Words like "shoe" and "flew" frequently cause students' spelling to stumble. Reading level-appropriate books can help strengthen spelling over time. Spanish has many more possible verb endings than English, so a complete sentence in Spanish may not always need a subject. This is one reason why pronouns are often omitted by Spanish speakers of English and why you may hear students say "Is good" or "Was raining yesterday." Using "do" to create questions and negatives is also problematic because Spanish does not require helping verbs. This is why you may hear students say "Why you want that?" or "I no see her yesterday." Another difference between Spanish and English is the number of vowel sounds and how this affects pronunciation. Spanish has just five vowel sounds, while English has 12. Words like "seat" and "sit" or "beat" and "bit" will be difficult for your students. Practicing minimal pairs -- words that differ by just one sound like "seat" and "sit" -- will help your students learn to hear and produce the vowel sounds more effectively. Spanish also places an "e" before "s" at the beginning of words, which is why "school" and "student" are often pronounced "eschool" and "estudent" by native Spanish speakers. False Cognates and Phrasal Verbs Spanish has a lot of words that look and sound a lot like words in English but have very different meanings. These are called false cognates or sometimes "false friends." "Advice" in English, which means "recommendation," and "avise" in Spanish, which means "to warn," are good examples. Another difficult area for native Spanish speakers to master is phrasal verbs. These multi-word verbs exist in both languages, but Spanish has many more than English. The differences between "shut up," "shut in" and "shut out" can cause students to "shut down." - Gary Houlder/Lifesize/Getty Images

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Is teanga shaibhir, casta í an Béarla a chuireann dúshláin os comhair foghlaimeoirí Béarla. Má múineann tú Béarla do chainteoirí dúchais na Spáinne, ní mór duit a bheith ar an eolas faoi roinnt de na difríochtaí ar leith idir an Spáinnis agus an Béarla. Má thuigeann tú na difríochtaí seo, beidh tú in ann cabhrú le do mhic léinn staidéar a dhéanamh agus Béarla a fhoghlaim le muinín. Alfabéit agus Litriú Ag tosú leis an aibítir, d'fhéadfadh ainmneacha na litreacha féin a bheith mearbhall. Tá an t-ainm céanna ag an litir "a" i mBéarla agus "e" i Spáinnis agus atá ag "e" agus "i". Is féidir leis seo a bheith frustrach duit féin agus do do mhic léinn: deirimid le mic léinn "S-E-A-T" a scríobh agus scríobhann siad "S-I-E-T". Is féidir leis na bealaí éagsúla chun an fhuaim chéanna a litriú i mBéarla a bheith mearbhall freisin. Is minic a bhíonn focail mar "shoe" agus "flew" ina chúis le tréig a dhéanamh ag mic léinn maidir le litriú. Is féidir le leabhair a léamh atá oiriúnach don leibhéal cabhrú le litriú a neartú le himeacht ama. Tá go leor deireadh briathra féideartha ag an Spáinnis ná an Béarla, mar sin ní gá ábhar i gcónaí do abairt iomlán sa Spáinnis. Is é seo cúis amháin go bhfuil pronouns a eisiúint go minic ag cainteoirí Spáinnis Béarla agus cén fáth go bhféadfadh tú a chloisteáil mic léinn a rá "Tá sé go maith" nó "Bhí sé ag báisteach inné". Tá sé fadhbanna freisin "do" a úsáid chun ceisteanna agus diúltacha a chruthú toisc nach gá briathra cabhrach a bheith ag an Spáinnis. Sin an fáth go gcloisfidh tú mic léinn ag rá "Cén fáth a bhfuil tú ag iarraidh sin?" nó "Ní fheicim í inné". Tá difríocht eile idir an Spáinnis agus an Béarla i líon na n-uaireanta agus an tionchar a bhíonn ag an méid sin ar fhuaimniú. Níl ach cúig fhuaim bhriathra sa Spáinnis, agus tá 12 sa Bhéarla. Beidh focail mar "suíochán" agus "suíochán" nó "bualadh" agus "beat" deacair do do mhic léinn. Trí phéireanna íosta a chleachtadh -- focail nach bhfuil ach fuaim amháin difriúil iontu mar "suas" agus "suas" -- cabhróidh sé le do mhic léinn na fuaimeanna vocale a chloisteáil agus a tháirgeadh níos éifeachtaí. Cuireann Spáinnis freisin "e" roimh "s" ag tús focail, agus is é sin an fáth go ndéantar "scoil" agus "scoláirí" a fhuaimniú go minic mar "scoil" agus "scoláirí" ag cainteoirí dúchais na Spáinne. Cognates bréagacha agus Fiobáin Phrasal Tá go leor focal sa Spáinnis a bhfuil cuma agus fuaim acu cosúil le focail sa Bhéarla ach a bhfuil brí an-difriúil acu. Tugtar cognates bréagacha nó "cairde bréagacha" orthu seo uaireanta. Is samplaí maith iad "counsel" i mBéarla, rud a chiallaíonn "mhol", agus "avise" i Spáinnis, rud a chiallaíonn "a rabhadh". Ábhar deacair eile do chainteoirí dúchais na Spáinne a bheith ag maireachtáil ná briathra frasacha. Tá na briathra ilfhocail seo ann sa dá theanga, ach tá go leor níos mó i Spáinnis ná i mBéarla. Is féidir leis na difríochtaí idir "scaoileadh suas", "scaoileadh isteach" agus "scaoileadh amach" a chur ar na mic léinn "scaoileadh síos". - Gary Houlder/Lifesize/Getty Images

The Robert Wood Johnson Foundation and the University of Wisconsin’s Population Health Institute have released the sixth annual County Health Rankings. An easy-to-use snapshot, the Rankings reveal the overall health of nearly every county in the nation. It allows each state to see how people from one countyto another compare on a range of factors to housing to transportation to community safety and offers ways to take action to promote lifelong health and ensure that every community is a healthy place to live, learn, work, and play. Every county in the state is ranked on: Kane County ranks as the 6th healthiest in Illinois in health outcomes, according to the annual County Health Rankings, released March 14th by the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation (RWJF) and the University of Wisconsin Population Health Institute (UWPHI). The Rankings make it clear that good health is influenced by many factors beyond medical care including housing, education, jobs, access to healthy foods, and more. 2019 Kane County information County Health Rankings Overview FAQs about County Health Rankings County Health Rankings Report - Illinois 2019County Health Rankings Report - Illinois 2016 County Health Rankings Report - Illinois 2015 County Health Rankings Report - Illinois 2014 County Health Rankings Report - Illinois 2013 County Health Rankings Report - Illinois 2012 County Health Rankings Report - Illinois 2011 Find out the impact that social determinants like education and income can have on the health of your community:County Health Calculator

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Tá an Robert Wood Johnson Foundation agus Institiúid Sláinte Daonra Ollscoil Wisconsin tar éis an séú Rangaíocht Sláinte Contae bliantúil a scaoileadh. Léiríonn an Rangaíocht, a bhfuil sé éasca a úsáid, sláinte foriomlán beagnach gach contae sa náisiún. Ligeann sé do gach stát a fheiceáil conas a dhéanann daoine ó chontae amháin go dtí an chontae eile comparáid ar raon fachtóirí ó tithíocht go iompar go sábháilteacht an phobail agus cuireann sé bealaí ar fáil chun gníomh a dhéanamh chun sláinte ar feadh an tsaoil a chur chun cinn agus a chinntiú go bhfuil gach pobal ina áit shláintiúil chun cónaí, foghlaim, obair agus spraoi. Tá gach contae sa stát rangaithe ar: Tá Contae Kane ar an 6ú háit is sláintiúla in Illinois i dtorthaí sláinte, de réir na Rangacha Sláinte Contae bliantúla, a d'eisigh an Robert Wood Johnson Foundation (RWJF) agus Institiúid Sláinte Daonra Ollscoil Wisconsin (UWPHI) an 14 Márta. Cuireann na Rangaithe in iúl go soiléir go mbíonn tionchar ag go leor fachtóirí ar shláinte mhaith seachas cúram leighis lena n-áirítear tithíocht, oideachas, poist, rochtain ar bhia sláintiúil, agus go leor eile. 2019 Eolas ar Chontae Kane Léargas ar Rangaíochtaí Sláinte na gContae Ceisteanna Coitianta faoi Rangaíochtaí Sláinte na gContae Tuarascáil Rangaithe Sláinte Contae - Illinois 2019Tuarascáil Rangaithe Sláinte Contae - Illinois 2016 Tuarascáil Rangaithe Sláinte Contae - Illinois 2015 Tuarascáil Rangaithe Sláinte Contae - Illinois 2014 Tuarascáil Rangaithe Sláinte Contae - Illinois 2013 Tuarascáil Rangaithe Sláinte Contae - Illinois 2012 Tuarascáil Rangaithe Sláinte Contae - Illinois 2011 Faigh amach an tionchar a d'fhéadfadh a bheith ag sainchomharthaí sóisialta cosúil le hoideachas agus ioncam ar shláinte do phobail: Coireálaí Sláinte Contae

Sever’s disease (aka calcaneal apophysitis) is a painful condition which mostly affects active children usually between the ages of 8-15 years and is more commonly seen in boys. It is an injury or inflammation to the growth plate of the heel bone thought to be caused by rapidly growing bones and overuse, as the Achilles tendon pulls on the calcaneal apophysis. Pronation and obesity are contributing factors. Although the condition can be prolonged and treatment is often necessary, the condition is self-limiting, meaning that it usually goes away as the child ages. Symptoms are pain in the heel at the insertion point of the Achilles tendon, difficulty or pain when walking, running or jumping, as well as pain resulting from direct pressure being placed on the affected area. - Custom made orthotics or over the counter inserts to properly support the foot and reduce stress at the heel - Orthopedic footwear – properly fitted, strong, structured to reduce stress on the heel - Footwear modifications – heel lifts (internal or external), heel excavations, heel rockers, SACH modification or medial heel wedges Other Treatments/ Modalities - Change or reduction in physical activity - Anti inflammatory medication - Casting in more severe cases

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Is galar pianmhar é galar Sever (ar a dtugtar apophysitis calcaneal) a théann i bhfeidhm go príomha ar leanaí gníomhacha idir 8-15 bliana d'aois de ghnáth agus a fheictear níos minice i bhfear. Is díobháil nó athlasadh é seo ar phláta fáis cnámh an chlé a mheastar a bheith mar thoradh ar chnámha a fhásann go tapa agus ar ró-úsáid, mar a tharraingíonn tendon Achilles ar an apophysis calcaneal. Tá pronation agus murtall ina fhachtóirí rannpháirteacha. Cé gur féidir leis an riocht a bheith fada agus go bhfuil cóireáil riachtanach go minic, tá an riocht féin-teoranta, rud a chiallaíonn go dtéann sé ar shiúl de ghnáth de réir mar a théann an leanbh in aois. Is iad na hairíonna pian sa chúl ag pointe iontrála tendon Achilles, deacracht nó pian agus tú ag siúl, ag rith nó ag léim, chomh maith le pian mar thoradh ar bhrú díreach a chur ar an limistéar atá buailte. - Ortoisic arna ndéanamh de réir saincheaptha nó iontrálacha a fhaightear thar an gcuntar chun an chos a thacú i gceart agus strus sa chúl a laghdú - Footage orthopaedic fitting ceart, láidir, struchtúrtha chun strus a laghdú ar an chlé - mhodhnúí bróga liftí cnoc (laistigh nó lasmuigh), tochailtí cnoc, roicers cnoc, modhnú SACH nó cnoc meán Cóireálacha/ Modhanna Eile - Athrú nó laghdú ar ghníomhaíocht fhisiceach - Leigheas frith- athlastach - Caitheamh i gcásanna níos déine

Paul Dirac: The Mozart of Science When Hitler became Chancellor of Germany in January 1933, Albert Einstein had already left the country. He was in the United States and in contact with the founders of his new academic home, the Institute for Advanced Study, which would open in fall 1933. He and the mathematician Oswald Veblen would be the first Faculty members and plans were afoot to recruit their colleagues. When Veblen asked Einstein in March to name the physicist he would most like to join him, Einstein chose the English theoretical physicist Paul Dirac as “the best possible choice for another chair.” Einstein’s recommendation was not controversial. Dirac, then thirty, held the Lucasian Chair of Mathematics—once occupied by Newton—and was about to become the youngest theoretician to win the Nobel Prize for Physics, a record that stood until T.D. Lee, then a Member of the Institute, won the Prize in 1957. As Einstein and the Institute’s founders knew, it was going to be difficult to prise Dirac from his comfortable life at the University of Cambridge, where he had been based for almost a decade. In the end, it proved impossible to persuade Dirac to take a post at the Institute, but the Institute succeeded in becoming his second academic home for the next thirty-five years. In 1931, a year after the Institute was founded, Dirac had been invited to Princeton University by Veblen, then a professor at the University. By that time, Dirac had established himself as a world-class scientist, one of the discoverers of quantum theory, a revolutionary set of laws that describe matter on the smallest scale. Many of the early papers in this field now look dated and tentative, but Dirac’s have a timeless purity, written with a special grace, mathematical elegance, and concision. He never used a paragraph where a sentence sufficed, nor did he ever deploy an unfamiliar word when a common one would do. In the view of School of Natural Sciences Professor Emeritus Freeman Dyson, “Dirac’s great discoveries were like exquisitely carved marble statues falling out the sky, one after another.” One example of this was the beautiful equation Dirac found to describe behavior of every electron in a way consistent with both quantum theory and the special theory of relativity. In 1928, when he published this equation, physicists all over the world regarded it as wondrous, not least because it accounted naturally for the electron’s spin, a mystery since experimenters discovered it three years before. When Veblen’s invitation arrived in Cambridge, Dirac was working in St. John’s College on a new approach to theoretical physics. Dirac encouraged theoreticians to proceed not by taking their cues from new experimental results but by using appealing mathematics as their primary inspiration. Dirac described this idea in a landmark paper whose main purpose was to set out an innovative theory suggesting the existence of a single magnetic pole, hitherto undetected. Almost in passing, he also tentatively suggested the existence of an anti-electron, a particle with the same mass as the electron but with the opposite electrical charge. This paper, which appeared in American libraries a few days before his arrival in Princeton at the end of September 1931, formed the basis of his work in the plush new Fine Hall (now Jones Hall) at Princeton University. On the day after he arrived, Dirac gave a joint seminar with the Austrian theoretician Wolfgang Pauli, each of them describing how theoretical reasoning had led them to suggest the existence of a new particle. The colloquium—“a first national attraction,” Pauli wrote—was an exciting beginning to the new academic term for Princeton’s physicists. Dirac began by reviewing his theory of isolated magnetic poles, then Pauli went on to argue that there might exist an electrically neutral particle of roughly zero mass (later dubbed the neutrino). At that time, both contributions were regarded as extremely daring because, as Dirac later explained, it was almost universally assumed that the number of fundamental particles is tiny and that the existence of new ones (if there were any) was a matter for experimenters to explore, not theoreticians. A few weeks later, during a lecture course at the university on quantum theory, he spent just a few minutes discussing the anti-electron. Although he had hinted at the possibility of such a particle in his landmark paper, it was in Princeton that he came closest to predicting its existence. Contrary to current myth, hardly any physicists took Dirac’s idea seriously, and there was no fanfare when the experimenter Carl Anderson first caught sight of the anti-electron (the first observed anti-matter) among the cosmic rays raining down from the summer skies over Los Angeles in 1932. Anderson was unaware of the prediction made by Dirac, who, in turn, knew nothing of the discovery until a few months later. Today, this event is usually regarded as one of the great triumphs of modern science, because Dirac’s prediction is widely taken to be the first motivated solely by faith in pure theory, without a hint from data. Dirac began his first yearlong sabbatical at the Institute in the fall of 1934, a stay that later stood out as one of the most memorable times of his life. Working alone as usual, he intended to use his new approach of growing fundamental physical theories from purely mathematical seeds. But the year was dominated by two diversions. First, his closest friend, the Russian experimenter Peter Kapitza, was detained against his will by Stalin’s police during a summer visit when on vacation from Cambridge. As soon as Dirac heard about this, he spent months trying to get his friend released, on one occasion lobbying the Soviet Ambassador in Washington. Dirac’s second distraction began over lunch on Nassau Street when the Hungarian theoretician Eugene Wigner introduced him to his sister, who would later become Dirac’s wife, Manci Balazs. The Diracs were in many ways opposites—he was shy, modest, taciturn, and he often appeared cold and distant; she was outgoing, confident, talkative, a warm and considerate friend. It was an unlikely relationship, but their marriage worked and was ended only by his death almost half a century later. During the war, Dirac contributed more to engineering than he did to physics. Mainly working at home in Cambridge, he did demanding calculations for the British team working on nuclear weapons and developed a method of isotope separation using an apparatus with no moving parts, an invention he had made a few years before (the nuclear power industry still uses some of the concepts he introduced). After the conflict, he escaped the postwar austerities in the United Kingdom by accepting an offer from his old friend, J. Robert Oppenheimer, newly appointed Director of the Institute, to spend a sabbatical there in the 1947–48 academic year. In this restorative stay, Dirac did much-admired work on magnetic monopoles and quantum theory, regaining research momentum that he had lost during the war. The calm, the excellent facilities, and the quality of the academic company at the Institute were just what he needed: he worked in Fuld Hall alongside several friends—Niels Bohr, Albert Einstein, and Oswald Veblen—and toward the end of his stay, he made the acquaintance of a scientist he later much admired, Freeman Dyson. Dirac worked hard on weekdays but reserved weekends for family and for socializing with his colleagues (his elder daughter long remembered having tea one Sunday with the Einstein household). On Saturday mornings, Dirac would set off with an axe over his shoulder to help Veblen and others clear another path in the Institute’s woodlands. Having been assured by Oppenheimer of a permanent welcome at the Institute, Dirac stayed there many times during the next eighteen years. On one occasion, a failure in the arrangements made the front page of The New York Times: in the spring of 1954, at the height of the McCarthy era, Oppenheimer heard during a weekend break in his security hearing that Dirac had been refused a visa to travel to the United States (probably because of Dirac’s friendship with several Soviet scientists and his sympathies for Stalin’s government in the 1930s). After an outcry among American physicists, the government granted Dirac his visa in early August, but it was too late. He had already made arrangements to spend his year in India, having tried in vain—perhaps to cock a snook at the authorities—to take his sabbatical in Russia. Dirac continued to be productive in his fifties and sixties. During his sabbatical at the Institute in 1958–59, he developed an important new way of formulating Einstein’s theory of gravity, using his own preferred way of formulating the laws of quantum theory based on techniques originally set out by the Irish mathematician William Hamilton. Four years later, Dirac returned to quantum theory, beginning work that would later be valuable in research on gauge theories and string theories. He wrote these papers in his characteristic style, developing each new idea with an elegance and simplicity that gave the impression that the theory could not be realized in any other way, in much the same way as a great composer’s music often has a sense of inevitability. The Hungarian physicist Nandor Balazs had this analogy in mind when he described Dirac as “the Mozart of science.” From the early 1930s, he was convinced that quantum theory was unable to give a mathematically coherent account of even the simplest interactions between electrons and photons (particles of light) because, in his reading of the equations, they generated meaningless infinities when used to predict measurable quantities that must, perforce, be finite. For him, a fundamental theory of nature must be mathematically beautiful, whereas advanced quantum theory was unendurably ugly. Decades later, Dirac refused to accept the consensus that these problems had been solved, and he insisted repeatedly that nothing short of a radically new approach to quantum theory was needed. Aware that many theoreticians at that time privately regarded his views as principled but impractical or even cranky, Dirac’s morale was sometimes low. No doubt with this in mind, the late Princeton physicist John Wheeler wrote him a characteristically sensitive, encouraging note on his eightieth birthday, August 8, 1982: “I write to tell you what I am not sure you divine, how many of the younger generation as well as older ones look up to you as a hero, as a model of how to do things right, of passion for rectitude as well as beauty.” At about the time he received this note, Dirac talked at a summer school in Sicily with one of his young admirers, Edward Witten, later a member of the Institute’s Faculty. The admiration was mutual: in 1983, in a handwritten note to the chair of the Papal Awards committee, Dirac recommended Witten for his “brilliant solutions to a number of problems in mathematical physics.” This seems to have been the last reference Dirac wrote. Dirac’s final visit to the Institute had been in 1979, when he attended the symposium to mark the centenary of Einstein’s birth. By then, Dirac had accepted a Visiting Professorship at Florida State University in Tallahassee, partly so that he and his wife could be close to their elder daughter, Mary. Dirac was made exceptionally welcome in Tallahassee, where he did unconventional research on cosmology when he was not giving lectures all over the world. He had a comfortable and contented retirement, but I suspect it would have been even happier if he had accepted one of the offers the Institute had made him. In interviews to the Florida press before he died in 1984, he spoke warmly—and with more than a hint of nostalgia—of the Institute. It was, he said, “a paradise.”

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Paul Dirac: Mozart na heolaíochta Nuair a tháinig Hitler chun bheith ina Seansailéir na Gearmáine i mí Eanáir 1933, bhí Albert Einstein tar éis an tír a fhágáil cheana féin. Bhí sé sna Stáit Aontaithe agus i dteagmháil le bunúsóirí a bhaile acadúil nua, an Institiúid um Staidéar Ardleibhéil, a d'oscail i rith an tsamhraidh 1933. Ba é é féin agus an matamaiticeoir Oswald Veblen na chéad chomhaltaí den Choláiste agus bhí pleananna ar bun chun a gcomhghleacaithe a earcú. Nuair a d'iarr Veblen ar Einstein i mí an Mhárta ainm a thabhairt ar an fisiceoir ar mhaith leis a bheith páirteach leis, roghnaigh Einstein an fisiceoir teoiriciúil Béarla Paul Dirac mar "an rogha is fearr is féidir le haghaidh cathaoirleach eile". Ní raibh moladh Einstein contrártha. Bhí Dirac, a bhí tríocha bliain d'aois ag an am, i gceannas ar an Cathaoirleach Lucasian ar Mhatamaitic - a bhí á áitiú ag Newton uair amháin - agus bhí sé ar tí a bheith ar an teoiricéir is óige a bhuaigh Duais Nobel na Físe, taifead a sheas go dtí T.D. Bhuaigh Lee, ina Bhall den Institiúid ansin, an Duais i 1957. Mar a bhí a fhios ag Einstein agus bunaitheoirí an Institiúid, bhí sé deacair a bheith ag díriú ar Dirac óna shaol compordach in Ollscoil Cambridge, áit a raibh sé bunaithe ar feadh beagnach deich mbliana. Sa deireadh, bhí sé dodhéanta Dirac a chur ina luí post a ghlacadh san Institiúid, ach d'éirigh leis an Institiúid a bheith ina dara teach acadúil ar feadh na dtrí bliana déag amach romhainn. Sa bhliain 1931, bliain tar éis don Institiúid a bhunú, cuireadh do Dirac chuig Ollscoil Princeton ag Veblen, a bhí ina ollamh ag an Ollscoil ag an am. Ag an am sin, bhí Dirac bunaithe é féin mar eolaí den scoth, ar cheann de na daoine a fuair amach teoiric uimhreacha, sraith réabhlóideach dhlíthe a thuairiscigh ábhar ar an scála is lú. Tá go leor de na páipéir luath sa réimse seo anois ag breathnú dátaithe agus tearg, ach tá íonacht gan am ag Dirac, scríofa le grásta speisialta, grásta matamaiticiúil, agus concise. Níor úsáid sé mír riamh nuair a bhí abairt amháin le rá, ná níor úsáid sé focal neamhchoitianta riamh nuair a bheadh focal coitianta le déanamh. De réir tuairim Phrofesóir Emeritus na Scoile Eolaíochtaí Nádúrtha, Freeman Dyson, "Bhí na fionnachtana móra a rinne Dirac cosúil le deilbh mharaimire sculpted go hiontach ag titim amach as an spéir, ceann i ndiaidh a chéile". Sampla amháin de seo ná an chothromú álainn a fuair Dirac chun iompar gach leictreon a thuairisciú ar bhealach atá ag luí le teoiric chuantúil agus leis an teoiric shonraigh na coibhneasachta. Sa bhliain 1928, nuair a d'fhoilsigh sé an chothromóid seo, mheas fisiceoirí ar fud an domhain go raibh sé iontach, ní hamháin toisc go raibh sé freagrach go nádúrtha as spín an leictreon, mistéireach ó fuair turgnóirí amach é trí bliana roimhe sin. Nuair a tháinig cuireadh Veblen i Cambridge, bhí Dirac ag obair i gColáiste Naomh Eoin ar chur chuige nua i leith na fisice teoiriciúla. Spreag Dirac teoiricithe chun dul ar aghaidh gan a gcuid leideanna a thógáil ó thorthaí turgnamhacha nua ach trí mhatamaitic álainn a úsáid mar a bpríomh-inspioráid. Chuir Dirac an smaoineamh seo in iúl i bpáipéar réamhtheachtaíochta a raibh sé mar phríomhchuspóir aige teoiric nuálach a leagan amach a mhol go raibh póil mhaighnéadach amháin ann, nach ndearnadh a bhrath go dtí seo. Beagnach ar shiúl, mhol sé go seasta go raibh frith-eileactrón ann, cáithnín a bhfuil an mais chéanna aige leis an leictreon ach a bhfuil an muirear leictreach os coinne. Bhí an páipéar seo, a d'fhágtar i leabharlanna Mheiriceá cúpla lá roimh a theacht i Princeton ag deireadh mhí Mheán Fómhair 1931, mar bhunús dá chuid oibre sa Halla Fhine nua plúis (Hall Jones anois) in Ollscoil Princeton. An lá tar éis dó teacht, thug Dirac seimineár comhpháirteach leis an teoiricí na hOstaire Wolfgang Pauli, ag cur síos ar gach duine acu ar an gcaoi a raibh réasúnaíocht theoiricí ina chúis leo a mholadh go raibh coinníoll nua ann. Bhí an colóquium - an chéad mhealladh náisiúnta, a scríobh Pauli - ina thús spreagúil don téarma acadúil nua do fhisiceoirí Princeton. Thosaigh Dirac ag athbhreithniú a theoiric ar phoil mhaighnéadacha scoite, ansin chuaigh Pauli ar aghaidh ag argóint go bhféadfadh coirp leictreach neodrach a bheith ann de mhais thart ar nialas (ar a dtugtar an neutrino ina dhiaidh sin). Ag an am sin, measadh go raibh an dá ranníocaíocht thar a bheith dúshlánach toisc, mar a mhínigh Dirac níos déanaí, gur glacadh go beagnach go hidirnáisiúnta go bhfuil líon na bpáirtnéid bhunúsacha beag agus go raibh an fhianaise go raibh cinn nua ann (más ann dóibh) ábhar le himscrúdú ag turgnóirí, ní ag teoiricí. Cúpla seachtain ina dhiaidh sin, le linn chúrsa léachta san ollscoil ar theoiric chuantúil, chaith sé ach cúpla nóiméad ag plé leis an frith-eileactrón. Cé gur thug sé le fios go bhféadfadh píosa den sórt sin a bheith ann ina pháipéar réamhtheachtaíochta, ba i Princeton a tháinig sé an-gar do thuar a bheith ann. Murab ionann agus an miotas reatha, is beag fíisigh a ghlac smaoineamh Dirac go dáiríre, agus ní raibh aon fhéilire ann nuair a d'fhéach an turgnamhóir Carl Anderson ar an anti-eileactrón (an chéad anti-matter a breathnaíodh) den chéad uair i measc na ngrás cosmaí ag titim síos ó na spéartha samhraidh os cionn Los Angeles i 1932. Ní raibh Anderson ar an eolas faoin tuar a rinne Dirac, a raibh a fhios aige, ina dhiaidh sin, ar an bhforaith go dtí cúpla mí ina dhiaidh sin. Sa lá atá inniu ann, is gnách go meastar gurb é an t-imeacht seo ceann de na buaithe móra atá ag an eolaíocht nua-aimseartha, toisc go meastar go forleathan gurbh é tuar Dirac an chéad cheann a spreagadh go hiomlán ag creideamh i dteoiric íon, gan leideanna ó shonraí. Thosaigh Dirac a chéad bhliain-sabhtach ag an Institiúid i rith an earraigh 1934, fanacht a sheas amach ina dhiaidh sin mar cheann de na hamanna is cuimhní sa saol. Ag obair ina aonar mar is gnách, bhí sé i gceist aige a chur chuige nua a úsáid chun teoiricí bunúsacha fisiceacha a fhás ó shíolta matamaiticiúla go hiomlán. Ach bhí dhá thréimhse i gceannas ar an mbliain. Ar dtús, a chara is gaire, an turgnamhóir Rúiseach Peter Kapitza, a bhí i gcoinne a thoil ag póilíní Stalin le linn cuairte samhraidh nuair a bhí sé ar saoire ó Cambridge. A luaithe a chuala Dirac faoi seo, chaith sé míonna ag iarraidh a chara a scaoileadh, ag brústocaireacht ar Ambasadóir na Sóivéide i Washington uair amháin. Thosaigh an dara dí-aghaidh Dirac le linn lóin ar Shráid Nassau nuair a chuir an teoiricí Ungáirigh Eugene Wigner a dheirfiúr i láthair dó, a bheadh ina bhean chéile Dirac níos déanaí, Manci Balazs. Bhí na Diracs i bhfad i gcodarsnacht - bhí sé cúthail, measartha, taciturn, agus is minic a bhí sé fuar agus i bhfad i gcéin; bhí sí aschuir, muiníneach, cainteach, cara te agus measúil. Bhí caidreamh dochreidte ann, ach d'oibrigh a bpósadh agus níor chríochnaigh sé ach le bás an tí beagnach leathchéad bliain ina dhiaidh sin. Le linn an chogaidh, chuir Dirac níos mó le hinnealtóireacht ná mar a rinne sé le fisice. Ag obair go príomha sa bhaile i Cambridge, rinne sé ríomhanna éilitheacha don fhoireann Bhreatain a bhí ag obair ar airm núicléacha agus d'fhorbair sé modh scaradh iseatóp ag baint úsáide as gléas gan páirteanna gluaiseachta, aireagán a rinne sé cúpla bliain roimhe sin (níl an tionscal cumhachta núicléach fós ag baint úsáide as cuid de na coincheapa a thug sé isteach). Tar éis an choimhlint, d'éalaigh sé ó na géarchéimeanna iar-chogaidh sa Ríocht Aontaithe trí thairiscint a ghlacadh óna sheanchara, J. Robert Oppenheimer, Stiúrthóir nua-ainmní an Institiúid, chun sábhálach a chaitheamh ann sa bhliain acadúil 1947/48. Sa bhunaíocht athchóiritheach seo, rinne Dirac obair a raibh meas mór air ar mhónaipéil mhaighnéadacha agus ar theoiric chuantúil, ag teacht ar ais ar mhéiminteam taighde a chaill sé le linn na cogaidh. Bhí an tsíocháin, na háiseanna den scoth, agus cáilíocht na cuideachta acadúla san Institiúid díreach mar a theastaigh uaidh: d'oibrigh sé i Halla Fuld in éineacht le roinnt cairde - Niels Bohr, Albert Einstein, agus Oswald Veblen - agus i dtreo dheireadh a chónaithe, rinne sé aithne ar eolaí a raibh meas mór aige air ina dhiaidh sin, Freeman Dyson. D'oibrigh Dirac go crua i rith na seachtaine ach d'fhág sé deireadh seachtaine ar fáil don teaghlach agus chun caidreamh a dhéanamh lena chomhghleacaithe (chuimhnigh a iníon níos sine go fada ar tae a bheith aige ar an Domhnach le teaghlach Einstein). Ar maidin Dé Sathairn, d'imigh Dirac le haicéad thar a ghualainn chun cabhrú le Veblen agus le daoine eile cosán eile a ghlanadh i bhforaoisí an Institiúid. Tar éis dó a bheith cinnte ag Oppenheimer go raibh fáilte buan rompu san Institiúid, d'fhan Dirac ann go minic le linn na hocht mbliana déag eile. Ar ócáid amháin, rinne teip sna socruithe an chéad leathanach de The New York Times: in earrach 1954, ag airde ré McCarthy, chuala Oppenheimer le linn sos deireadh seachtaine ina éisteacht slándála go ndearnadh víosa a dhiúltú do Dirac taisteal go dtí na Stáit Aontaithe (is dócha mar gheall ar chairdeas Dirac le roinnt eolaithe Sóivéadacha agus a chomhbhrón le rialtas Stalin sna 1930idí). Tar éis éirí amach i measc fisiceoirí Mheiriceá, thug an rialtas víosa do Dirac go luath i mí Lúnasa, ach bhí sé ró-dhéanach. Bhí sé tar éis socrú a dhéanamh cheana féin chun a bhliain a chaitheamh san India, tar éis dó iarracht a dhéanamh - b'fhéidir chun snook a chur ar na húdaráis - a chuid sabhaicéalacha a thógáil sa Rúis. Lean Dirac ar aghaidh ag a bheith táirgiúil ina cúig déag agus ina sé déag. Le linn a shabhála san Institiúid i 1958-1959, d'fhorbair sé bealach nua tábhachtach chun teoiric thromchúiseamh Einstein a fhoirmliú, ag baint úsáide as a bhealach féin is fearr chun dlíthe teoiric uimhreacha a fhoirmliú bunaithe ar theicnící a leag an matamaiticeoir Éireannach William Hamilton amach ar dtús. Ceithre bliana ina dhiaidh sin, d'fhill Dirac ar theoiric chuantúil, ag tosú ar obair a bheadh luachmhar ina dhiaidh sin i dtaighde ar theoriúlachtaí tomhais agus ar theoriúlachtaí sreang. Scríobh sé na páipéir seo ina stíl shaincheaptha, ag forbairt gach smaoineamh nua le grinn agus simplíocht a thug an tuiscint nach bhféadfaí an teoiric a bhaint amach ar bhealach ar bith eile, ar an mbealach céanna a bhíonn mothú dochreidte ag ceol mór cumadóir. Bhí an analógas seo i gcuimhne ag an fisiceoir Ungáirigh Nandor Balazs nuair a thuairiscigh sé Dirac mar Mozart na heolaíochta. Ó thús na 1930idí, bhí sé cinnte nach raibh teoiric chuantúil in ann cuntas comhleanúnach matamaiticiúil a thabhairt ar na hidirghníomhaíochtaí is simplí idir leictreoin agus fóitíní (páirtíní solais) toisc, ina léitheoireacht ar na hachomaintí, gur ghiniúint iad infinities gan bhrí nuair a úsáidtear iad chun méideanna in-mheasta a thuar a chaithfidh, de réir riachtanas, a bheith críochnaithe. Maidir leis, ní mór go mbeadh teoiric bhunúsach an nádúir álainn go matamaiticiúil, ach bhí teoiric chuanmach chun cinn go hiontach. Deich mbliana ina dhiaidh sin, dhiúltaigh Dirac glacadh leis an gcomhthoil go raibh na fadhbanna seo réitithe, agus d'áitigh sé arís agus arís eile nach raibh aon rud eile ag teastáil ach cur chuige nua go bunúsach i dtaobh teoiric uimhreacha. Bhí Dirac ar an eolas go raibh a chuid tuairimí á mheas go príobháideach ag go leor teoiricithe ag an am sin mar phrionsabail ach neamhphraiticiúil nó fiú cranky, bhí morál Dirac íseal uaireanta. Gan amhras, ag smaoineamh air seo, scríobh an fisiceoir Princeton nach maireann John Wheeler nóta comhfhiosach, spreagúil dó ar a ochta bliain d'aois, 8 Lúnasa, 1982: 'Scríobh mé chun a insint duit an rud nach bhfuil mé cinnte go bhfuil tú ag rá, cé mhéad de na glúine óga chomh maith le cinn níos sine a fhéachann suas chugat mar laoch, mar mhúnla ar conas rudaí a dhéanamh i gceart, ar shaothar le haghaidh ceartas chomh maith le áilleacht. ' Ag an am a fuair sé an nóta seo, labhair Dirac ag scoil samhraidh i Sicily le ceann dá lucht admire óg, Edward Witten, ina dhiaidh sin ball de Choláiste an Institiúid. Bhí an admiration idirpháirteach: i 1983, i nóta lámhscríofa chuig cathaoirleach an choiste Gradaim Pápa, mhol Dirac Witten as a chuid réitigh shláintiúla do roinnt fadhbanna i fisice matamaitice. Is cosúil gurb é seo an tagairt dheireanach a scríobh Dirac. Bhí cuairt dheireanach Dirac ar an Institiúid i 1979, nuair a d'fhreastail sé ar an seimineár chun céad bliain ó rugadh Einstein a chomharrachadh. Ag an am sin, ghlac Dirac le hOllamh Cuairte ag Ollscoil Stáit Florida i Tallahassee, go páirteach ionas go bhféadfadh sé féin agus a bhean chéile a bheith gar dá n-iníon is sine, Mary. Bhí fáilte mhór roimh Dirac i Tallahassee, áit a ndearna sé taighde neamhchoitianta ar choscolaíocht nuair nach raibh sé ag tabhairt léachtaí ar fud an domhain. Bhí sé ina scor compordach agus sásta, ach tá mé amhras go mbeadh sé a bheith níos sona má ghlac sé ar cheann de na tairiscintí an Institiúid a bhí déanta aige dó. I agallaimh leis an bpreas Florida sular bhás sé i 1984, labhair sé go te - agus le níos mó ná hint nostalgia - den Institiúid. Bhí sé, a dúirt sé, "paradais".

The history of Albania is long and complex. This area has been populated for over 4,000 years, and has been conquered by the Romans, Goths, Huns, Bulgars, Normans, and Serbs. In 1468 Albania came under the rule of the Ottoman Empire, which remained the case until 1912 when independence was declared. The country's economy has seen an upturn since 2002, resulting in significant upgrades in infrastructure and facilities. The roads – which are mostly paved – are at times quite steep, but you will be distracted from the more demanding climbs by stunning views, and rewarded with adrenaline-pumping descents.

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Tá stair fhada agus casta ag an Albáin. Tá daoine sa cheantar seo le breis agus 4,000 bliain, agus bhuail na Rómhánaigh, na Gothaigh, na Hunnaigh, na Bulgáire, na Normannach, agus na Seirbiaigh é. I 1468 tháinig an Albáin faoi riail an Impireacht Ottoman, a d'fhan mar sin go dtí 1912 nuair a dhearbhaíodh neamhspleáchas. Tá feabhas tagtha ar gheilleagar na tíre ó 2002, rud a d'fhág go raibh feabhsú suntasach déanta ar bhonneagar agus ar áiseanna. Tá na bóithre atá ardaithe den chuid is mó go leor géar uaireanta, ach beidh tú ag díriú ar na cnuasaigh níos éigeanta le radharcanna iontacha, agus beidh tú ag fáil duais le tuilte a chuireann adrenaline ar fáil.

Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.Join Britannica's Publishing Partner Program and our community of experts to gain a global audience for your work! - Historical background - Technical preliminaries - The problem of continuity - Ordinary differential equations - Partial differential equations - Musical origins - Complex analysis - Measure theory - Other areas of analysis - History of analysis - The Greeks encounter continuous magnitudes - The fundamental theorem of calculus Newton and differential equations Analysis is one of the cornerstones of mathematics. It is important not only within mathematics itself but also because of its extensive applications to the sciences. The main vehicles for the application of analysis are differential equations, which relate the rates of change of various quantities to their current values, making it possible—in principle and often in practice—to predict future behaviour. Differential equations arose from the work of Isaac Newton on dynamics in the 17th century, and the underlying mathematical ideas will be sketched here in a modern interpretation. Newton’s laws of motion Imagine a body moving along a line, whose distance from some chosen point is given by the function x(t) at time t. (The symbol x is traditional here rather than the symbol f for a general function, but this is purely a notational convention.) The instantaneous velocity of the moving body is the rate of change of distance—that is, the derivative x′(t). Its instantaneous acceleration is the rate of change of velocity—that is, the second derivative x″(t). According to the most important of Newton’s laws of motion, the acceleration experienced by a body of mass m is proportional to the force F applied, a principle that can be expressed by the equation F = mx″. (4) Suppose that m and F (which may vary with time) are specified, and one wishes to calculate the motion of the body. Knowing its acceleration alone is not satisfactory; one wishes to know its position x at an arbitrary time t. In order to apply equation (4), one must solve for x, not for its second derivative x″. Thus, one must solve an equation for the quantity x when that equation involves derivatives of x. Such equations are called differential equations, and their solution requires techniques that go well beyond the usual methods for solving algebraic equations. For example, consider the simplest case, in which the mass m and force F are constant, as is the case for a body falling under terrestrial gravity. Then equation (4) can be written as x″(t) = F/m. (5) Integrating (5) once with respect to time gives x′(t) = Ft/m + b (6) where b is an arbitrary constant. Integrating (6) with respect to time yields x(t) = Ft2/2m + bt + c with a second constant c. The values of the constants b and c depend upon initial conditions; indeed, c is the initial position, and b is the initial velocity. Exponential growth and decay Newton’s equation for the laws of motion could be solved as above, by integrating twice with respect to time, because time is the only variable term within the function x″. Not all differential equations can be solved in such a simple manner. For example, the radioactive decay of a substance is governed by the differential equation x′(t) = −kx(t) (7) where k is a positive constant and x(t) is the amount of substance that remains radioactive at time t. The equation can be solved by rewriting it as x’(t)/x(t) = −k. (8) The left-hand side of (8) can be shown to be the derivative of ln x(t), so the equation can be integrated to yield ln x(t) + c = −kt for a constant c that is determined by initial conditions. Equivalently, x(t) = e−(kt + c). This solution represents exponential decay: in any fixed period of time, the same proportion of the substance decays. This property of radioactivity is reflected in the concept of the half-life of a given radioactive substance—that is, the time taken for half the material to decay. A surprisingly large number of natural processes display exponential decay or growth. (Change the sign from negative to positive on the right-hand side of (7) to obtain the differential equation for exponential growth.) However, this is not quite so surprising if consideration is given to the fact that the only functions whose derivatives are proportional to themselves are exponential functions. In other words, the rate of change of exponential functions directly depends upon their current value. This accounts for their ubiquity in mathematical models. For instance, the more radioactive material present, the more radiation is produced; the greater the temperature difference between a “hot body” in a “cold room,” the faster the heat loss (known as Newton’s law of cooling and an essential tool in the coroner’s arsenal); the larger the savings, the greater the compounded interest; and the larger the population (in an unrestricted environment), the greater the population explosion.

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Déanfar athbhreithniú ar an méid a chuir tú isteach agus cinnfidh ár n-eagarthóirí an cheart an t-alt a athbhreithniú nó nach ea. Bí páirteach i gClár Comhpháirtíochta Foilsitheoireachta Britannica agus i gcomhphobal na saineolaithe chun lucht féachana domhanda a fháil do do chuid oibre! - Cúlra stairiúil - Réamhtheachtaí teicniúla - An fhadhb leanúnachais - Coibhéisí difríochta coitianta - Eacnamaíochtaí difríochta páirteach - Bunús ceoil - Anailís Chasta - Teoiric tomhais - Réimsí anailíse eile - Stair na hanailíse - Na Gréagaigh ag teacht ar mhórthréimhsí leanúnach - An teoirím bhunúsach de chúlghluaiseacht Newton agus coibhneachtaí difríochta Tá anailís ar cheann de chúlchláir na matamaitice. Tá sé tábhachtach ní amháin laistigh den mhatamaitic féin ach freisin mar gheall ar a chuid feidhmchláir fairsing do na heolaíochtaí. Is iad na príomhfheithiclí chun anailís a chur i bhfeidhm ná ecuais dhifrinní, a bhaineann ráta athraithe na gcainníochtaí éagsúla lena gcuid luachanna reatha, rud a fhágann go bhfuil sé indéanta - i bprionsabal agus go minic i gcleachtas - iompar sa todhchaí a thuar. Tháinig an chothromóid dhifriúil chun cinn ó obair Isaac Newton ar dinimic sa 17ú haois, agus léirítear na smaointe matamaiticiúla bunúsacha anseo i léirmhíniú nua-aimseartha. Dlíthe gluaiseachta Newton Samhlaigh corp ag bogadh ar feadh líne, a bhfuil a fad ó phointe roghnaithe áirithe á thabhairt ag an ngníomha x ((t) ag am t. (Is é an tsiombail x traidisiúnta anseo seachas an tsiombail f le haghaidh feidhme ginearálta, ach is coinbhinsiún nótaíochta í seo go hiomlán.) Is é luas láithreach an chomhlachta atá ag gluaiseacht an ráta athraithe na fad, is é sin, an díorthaigh x′(t). Is é a luathaithe láithreach an ráta athraithe luasis é sin, an dara díorthaigh x′′(t). De réir an chuid is tábhachtaí de dhlíthe gluaiseachta Newton, tá an luathaithe a bhíonn ag corp a bhfuil mais m comhréireach leis an bhfeidhm F a chuirtear i bhfeidhm, prionsabal ar féidir a chur in iúl leis an chothrom F = mx ". (4) an Measann tú go bhfuil m agus F (a d'fhéadfadh athrú le himeacht ama) sonraithe, agus go dteastaíonn ó dhuine gluaiseacht an chomhlachta a ríomh. Ní leor a luathaithe a bheith ar eolas agat; ba mhaith le duine a seasamh x a bheith ar eolas agat ag am t. Chun an chothromóid (4) a chur i bhfeidhm, ní mór do dhuine réiteach a dhéanamh ar x, ní ar a dara díorthaigh x ′′. Mar sin, ní mór d'aon duine ecuacion don mhéid x a réiteach nuair a bhaineann an coibhneas sin le díorthaigh de x. Tugtar ecuaciones diferenciales ar ecuaciones den sórt sin, agus éilíonn a réiteach teicnící a théann i bhfad níos faide ná na gnáthmhodhanna chun ecuaciones algebraicas a réiteach. Mar shampla, déanaimis an cás is simplí a mheas, ina bhfuil an mais m agus an fórsa F seasmhach, mar atá i gcás comhlacht a thagann faoi mheáchain talún. Ansin is féidir an chothromóid (4) a scríobh mar x′′(t) = F/m. (5) Má dhéantar (5) a chomhtháthú uair amháin i ndáil leis an am faigheann sé x′(t) = Ft/m + b (6) áit a bhfuil b ina choinbhinsiún tofa. Má chomhtháthaítear (6) i ndáil le huaire, tá toradh x ((t) = Ft2/2m + bt + c le dara seasmhach c. Braitheann luachanna na seasmhach b agus c ar choinníollacha tosaigh; go deimhin, is é c an suíomh tosaigh, agus is é b an luas tosaigh. Fás agus díghrádú esponenciúil D'fhéadfaí an chothromóid Newton do dhlíthe na gluaiseachta a réiteach mar atá thuas, trí chomhtháthú dhá uair i ndáil leis an am, toisc gurb é an t-am an t-aon téarma inathraithe laistigh den fheidhm x ′′. Ní féidir gach chothromóid dhifriúil a réiteach ar bhealach chomh simplí sin. Mar shampla, rialaítear dílseacht radaighníomhach substaint ag an chothromóid dhifreálach x′(t) = −kx(t) (7) áit a bhfuil k ina choinbhinsiún dearfach agus is é x(t) an méid substainte a fhanann radaighníomhach ag am t. Is féidir an chothromóid a réiteach trí é a athscríobh mar x(t) / x(t) = −k. (8) Is féidir a thaispeáint go bhfuil an taobh clé de (8) mar dhíorthaigh de ln x(t), mar sin is féidir an chothromán a chomhtháthú chun ln x(t) + c = −kt a thabhairt do choinbhinsiún c a chinntear le coinníollacha tosaigh. Ar an gcaoi chéanna, x(t) = e−(kt + c). Léiríonn an réiteach seo dílseacht esponentiúil: in aon tréimhse ama seasta, déanann an céatadán céanna den tsubstaint dílseacht. Léirítear an t-earraí radaighníomhachta seo sa choincheap maidir le leathré substaint radaighníomhach áirithe, is é sin, an t-am a thógann sé ar leath an ábhair a dhíscaoileadh. Taispeánann líon mór ionadh próisis nádúrtha dí-bhualadh nó fás esponential. (Déan an comhartha ó dhiúltach go dearfach ar thaobh na láimhe deise de (7) chun an chothromóid dhifreálach a fháil le haghaidh fáis astaitheach.) Mar sin féin, ní haon ionadh é seo má chuirtear san áireamh go bhfuil na feidhmeanna amháin a bhfuil a díorthaigh comhréireach leo féin ina bhfeidhmeanna esponenciúla. I bhfocail eile, braitheann ráta athraithe feidhmeanna esponenceacha go díreach ar a luach reatha. Is é seo a chiallaíonn go bhfuil siad i ngach áit i múnlaí matamaiticiúla. Mar shampla, is é an níos mó ábhar radaighníomhach atá i láthair, is é an níos mó radaíocht a tháirgtear; is é an difríocht teocht níos mó idir corp te i seomra fuar, is é an caillteanas teasa níos tapúla (ar a dtugtar dlí fuaraithe Newton agus uirlis riachtanach i arsanail an coroner ); is é an méid a shábhálann tú, is é an t-ús mó a bhíonn ag an leas comhcheangailte; agus is é an líon is mó daonra (i dtimpeallacht neamhshrianta), is é an méadú is mó a bhíonn ag an bpléascadh daonra.

Legal Education(redirected from Law teaching) Also found in: Encyclopedia. There were no law schools in colonial America. Those who sought a legal career had several options. They could embark on a self-directed course of study; they could serve as an assistant in a clerk of court's office; or they could travel to England to study at the Inns of Court. The most common method of obtaining a legal education, however, was through the apprenticeship system. The apprenticeship system allowed men (it was generally unavailable to women) to acquire education and experience by working under an experienced practitioner. Ideally, an apprentice would spend several years learning both the law and the practical aspects of a law practice. The quality of apprenticeships varied greatly, however, depending on the administering attorney's skill and attention. Some apprenticeships were merely a source of cheap labor. Thomas Jefferson once commented that the services he was expected to render as an apprentice were worth more than the instruction he received. In 1779, Jefferson helped found the first chair of law, at William and Mary College, and appointed his mentor, George Wythe, to fill it. Yale, Columbia, the University of Maryland, and Harvard followed suit. The positions they established were part of the general university curriculum and were typically filled by practitioners rather than academicians. This early movement to emphasize the scholarship of law gained little momentum because most lawyers believed that apprenticeships provided sufficient legal training. In 1784, however, proprietary (for-profit) law schools began to spring up, which spurred the transformation of legal education. Proprietary law schools were essentially specialized and elaborate law offices. The first and most famous was Connecticut's Litchfield Law School. Its 14-month course provided instruction in subjects such as property, contracts, procedure, master-and-servant, and commercial law—similar to the subjects of some of today's first-year law school classes. Litchfield graduated about one thousand students in its 49-year history, including 2 future vice presidents, 101 congressmen, 28 senators, 14 governors, and scores of distinguished state jurists. The advent of law professorships, proprietary schools, and bar associations brought some standard of form to legal education. These standards deteriorated, however, thanks in part to Andrew Jackson, who was elected the seventh president of the United States in 1828. Jackson, a lawyer, considered himself to be a champion of the common person. State legislatures quickly followed his lead, eschewing anything elitist and reasserting authority formerly delegated to bar associations. Bar admission standards declined. Nearly anyone who could show "good moral character" was permitted to practice law, regardless of any knowledge of the field. bar examinations, if required at all, were usually perfunctory. Standards dropped even at Harvard Law School, which was founded in 1817 as the first academic law school. By the end of the 1820s, students who were denied admission to Harvard College could go directly into the law school; the school also quit giving exams. In 1829, however, Justice Joseph Story of the U.S. Supreme Court became a Harvard Law professor and augured Harvard's emergence as the first modern law school. In 1870, Christopher Columbus Langdell became dean of Harvard Law School, essentially launching the modern era of legal education. Langdell believed that law could be taught as a science. Rather than listening passively to lectures and reading treatises, Langdell's students dissected reported case decisions. Using a technique known as Socratic dialogue, professors bombarded their students with questions, forcing them to analyze the facts, reasoning, and law in each case. In addition, Langdell grouped related cases together, devoting separate books to different topics. Langdell's method of instruction through dialogue and case-study is standard in today's law schools. Langdell also instituted tighter admission standards, expanded the program from two to three years, and raised graduation requirements. Other university law schools soon began to adopt some of Harvard's lofty standards. The American Bar Association (ABA), founded in 1878, along with the Association of American Law Schools (AALS), formed in 1900, worked to consign apprenticeships to the pages of history. In 1917, 36 out of 49 jurisdictions still required a period of apprenticeship, but future lawyers could substitute law school. In the last half of the nineteenth century, a high school graduate could enter most law schools, but the ABA and the AALS worked to steadily increase admission standards. By 1931, 17 states required two years of college before admission, and 33 had a three-year law curriculum. Just eight years later, 41 states required at least two years of college. Today, law schools require prospective students to have a four-year degree from an accredited college or university. Professional legal development continues throughout a lawyer's career. In 1975, Minnesota was the first state to mandate Continuing Legal Education for practitioners, requiring 45 hours of approved legal study every three years. Since then, the majority of states have established rules that require some form of mandatory continuing education, although requirements vary by state. Continuing education is also required for attorneys who wish to be board certified as specialists in a certain area of law. Certified legal specialist programs are offered in many states, and are accredited by the American Bar Association (ABA). The law profession, like many others, was slow to open up to women. The first woman lawyer in the United States was Arabella Mansfield, who became a member of the Illinois bar in 1869. Mansfield studied in her brother's law office, and was admitted to the bar despite the fact that Illinois legislation required any person applying for bar admission to be white, male, and over 21 years of age. Ada Kepley was the first woman in the United States to earn a law degree. She graduated from Union College of Law (now Northwestern University Law School) in 1870. By 1930, most U.S. law schools were admitting women, but not Harvard Law School. The school remained closed to women until 1950. Although women were finally accepted into law schools, the number of women who attended was scant. Until the mid-1960s, less than 3 percent of law students were women. Those numbers surged during the 1970s. Today, women make up almost 50 percent of U.S. law school admissions. Desegregation of law schools came no more quickly than it did to other educational institutions, despite the pivotal role lawyers played in the desegregation process. Since the 1960s, minority enrollment in law schools has increased, but the numbers still remain low. In 1960, about one percent of law school students were African American. By the late 1990s, that number had grown to only 8 percent. As a result, a number of schools have active recruitment programs to help ensure greater diversity in their student body. When schools use race as a factor in the admissions process, however, critics charge that they are violating constitutional rights. Such charges have led to a number of controversial cases, including Grutter v. Bollinger (288 F. 3d 732 ), in which a prospective white student contended that she was denied admission to the University of Michigan Law School because the school uses race as a deciding factor in admissions. In a 5–4 opinion, the Supreme Court ruled that the school's admission policy did not violate the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment because there was a "compelling interest in obtaining the educational benefits that flow from a diverse student body." Alexander, Stacy, et a1. 1999. Legal Education for the 21st Century. Edited by Donald B. King. Littleton, Colo.: F.B. Rothman. Cooper, Byron D. 2002. "The Integration of Theory, Doctrine, and Practice in Legal Education." Erasing Lines: Journal of the Association of Legal Writing Directors 1 (October): 50–64. Drachman, Virginia G. 1998. Sisters in Law: Women Lawyers in Modern American History. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press. Gee, E. Gordon, and Donald W. Jackson. 1977. "Bridging the Gap: Legal Education and Lawyer Competency." Brigham Young University Law Review 1977.Katz, Barry E. 2002. "A Degree of Specialization." Student Lawyer 31 (December): 22–6. "Narrow Use of Affirmative Action Preserved in College Admissions." June 25, 2003. CNN.com: Law Center. Available online at <www.cnn.com/2003/LAW/06/23/scotus.affirmative.action> (accessed September 17, 2003). Rose, Jonathan. 1994. "The MacCrate Report's Restatement of Legal Education: The Need for Reflection and Horse Sense." Journal of Legal Education 44 (December). Schwartz, Bernard. 1974. The American Heritage History of the Law in America. New York: American Heritage. White, James Boyd. 1999. From Expectation to Experience: Essays on Law and Legal Education. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press.

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Oideachas Dlí (a atreoraíodh ó Theagasc Dlí) Freagra: Ní raibh scoileanna dlí i Meiriceá coilíneach. Bhí roinnt roghanna ag na daoine a bhí ag iarraidh gairme dlí a dhéanamh. D'fhéadfaidís dul i mbun cúrsa staidéir féin-stiúrtha; d'fhéadfaidís a bheith ina gcabhairneoirí i gclárlann oifige na cúirte; nó d'fhéadfaidís taisteal go Sasana chun staidéar a dhéanamh ag Inns of Court. Ba é an modh is coitianta chun oideachas dlí a fháil, áfach, trí chóras na brantúsaíochta. Thug an córas ceachtanna deis d'fhir (ní raibh sé ar fáil do mhná de ghnáth) oideachas agus taithí a fháil trí bheith ag obair faoi chleachtóir a raibh taithí aige. Go hidéalach, chaithfeadh brantúnaí roinnt blianta ag foghlaim an dlí agus gnéithe praiticiúla chleachtais dlí. Bhí éagsúlacht mhór ag baint le cáilíocht na bpríomh-oideachais, áfach, ag brath ar scileanna agus ar aird an aturnae a bhainistiú. Ní raibh roinnt ceachtanna ach mar fhoinse saothair saor. Dúirt Thomas Jefferson uair amháin go raibh luach níos mó ag na seirbhísí a bhí ag súil leis a thabhairt mar phrintíseach ná an teagasc a fuair sé. Sa bhliain 1779, chabhraigh Jefferson leis an gcéad cathaoirleach dlí a bhunú, i gColáiste William agus Mary, agus ainmníodh a mheantóir, George Wythe, chun é a líonadh. Lean Yale, Columbia, Ollscoil Maryland, agus Harvard an scéal. Bhí na poist a bhunaigh siad mar chuid den churaclam ginearálta ollscoile agus de ghnáth bhí cleachtóirí ag líonadh iad seachas acadúlaithe. Ní raibh an treocht luath seo chun béim a chur ar scoláireacht an dlí a fháil ar luas beag toisc go raibh an chuid is mó d'advokatanna den tuairim go raibh oiliúint dhlíthiúil leordhóthanach ag an bhfoghlaimeacht. Sa bhliain 1784, áfach, thosaigh scoileanna dlí dílseánaigh (le haghaidh brabús) ag teacht chun cinn, rud a spreag an t-athrú ar oideachas dlíthiúil. Bhí scoileanna dlí dílseachtúla go bunúsach ina n-oifigí dlí speisialaithe agus mionsonraithe. Ba é an chéad cheann agus an ceann is cáiliúla Scoil Dlí Litchfield i Connecticut. Bhí an cúrsa 14 mhí ann a thug teagasc i gcúrsaí mar mhaoin, conarthaí, nós imeachta, máistir-agus-seirbhíseach, agus dlí tráchtála - cosúil le hábhair roinnt de na ranganna céadbhliana scoile dlí an lae inniu. D'éirigh le Litchfield thart ar mhíle mac léinn a cheadú ina stair 49 bliain, lena n-áirítear 2 leas-uachtarán sa todhchaí, 101 coimisinéir, 28 seanaire, 14 rialtóir, agus scóir dlíodóirí stáit aitheanta. Thug teacht ollscoileanna dlí, scoileanna dílse agus comhlachais barra caighdeán éigin foirmeach d'oideachas dlí. Bhí na caighdeáin sin ag dul in olcas, áfach, buíochas go páirteach le Andrew Jackson, a toghadh mar seachtú uachtarán na Stát Aontaithe i 1828. Shíl Jackson, dlíodóir, gur bhuaigh sé an duine coitianta. Lean reachtóirí stáit a threoracha go tapa, ag seachaint aon rud elitist agus ag athdhéanamh údarás a bhí tar éis a tharmligean chuig comhlachtaí bar. Thit caighdeáin iontrála an bhára. D'fhág beagnach aon duine a d'fhéadfadh "dea-cháilíocht mhorálta" a thaispeáint cead a bheith ag cleachtadh dlí, is cuma cé chomh eolach a bhí air sa réimse. Bhí scrúduithe barra, más gá dóibh ar chor ar bith, superfunctory de ghnáth. Thit caighdeáin fiú in Scoil Dlí Harvard, a bunaíodh i 1817 mar an chéad scoil dlí acadúil. Faoi dheireadh na 1820í, d'fhéadfadh mic léinn a ndearnadh ligean isteach orthu i gColáiste Harvard dul go díreach isteach sa scoil dlí; scoil an scoil freisin ag cur scrúduithe. I 1829, áfach, tháinig an Breitheamh Joseph Story de Chúirt Uachtarach na Stát Aontaithe ina ollamh Dlí Harvard agus chuir sé i láthair éirí amach Harvard mar an chéad scoil dlí nua-aimseartha. Sa bhliain 1870, tháinig Christopher Columbus Langdell ina dhean ar Scoil Dlí Harvard, ag seoladh ré nua-aimseartha an oideachais dlí go bunúsach. Chreid Langdell gur féidir an dlí a theagasc mar eolaíocht. In ionad éisteacht go passively le léachtaí agus léitheoireacht trialacha, mhic léinn Langdell dissected cás cinntí tuairiscithe. Ag baint úsáide as teicníc ar a dtugtar an t-idirphlé Sócratach, chuir na próiféirí ceisteanna ar a gcuid mac léinn, ag cur orthu anailís a dhéanamh ar na fíricí, ar na réasúnaíochtaí agus ar an dlí i ngach cás. Ina theannta sin, chuir Langdell cásanna gaolmhara le chéile, ag tabhairt le leabhair ar leithligh do théamaí éagsúla. Tá modh teagaisc Langdell trí idirphlé agus staidéar cás caighdeánach i scoileanna dlí an lae inniu. Chuir Langdell caighdeáin iontrála níos déine ar bun freisin, leathnaigh sé an clár ó dhá bhliain go trí bliana, agus d'ardaigh sé riachtanais céimithe. Go luath thosaigh scoileanna dlí ollscoile eile ag glacadh cuid de chaighdeáin ard Harvard. D'oibrigh Cumann na mBarr Mheiriceá (ABA), a bunaíodh i 1878, mar aon le Cumann Scoileanna Dlí Mheiriceá (AALS), a bunaíodh i 1900, chun ceachtanna a chur ar fáil do leathanaigh an stair. Sa bhliain 1917, bhí tréimhse oiliúna ag teastáil fós i 36 as 49 dhlínse, ach d'fhéadfadh dlíodóirí sa todhchaí scoil dlí a chur ina ionad. Sa leath dheireanach den naoú haois déag, d'fhéadfadh céimí ardscoile dul isteach i bhformhór na scoileanna dlí, ach d'oibrigh an ABA agus an AALS chun caighdeáin iontrála a mhéadú go seasta. Faoi 1931, bhí 17 stát ag teastáil dhá bhliain coláiste roimh ligean isteach, agus bhí cúrsa dlí trí bliana ag 33 stáit. Níos lú ná ocht mbliana ina dhiaidh sin, éilíonn 41 stát dhá bhliain ar a laghad coláiste. Sa lá atá inniu ann, éilíonn scoileanna dlí ar mhic léinn ionchasacha céim ceithre bliana a bheith acu ó choláiste nó ollscoil creidiúnaithe. Leanann forbairt ghairmiúil dlí ar feadh gairme dlíodóra. I 1975, ba é Minnesota an chéad stát a d'ordaigh Oideachas Dlí Leanúnach do chleachtóirí, ag teastáil 45 uair an chloig de staidéar dlíthiúil ceadaithe gach trí bliana. Ó shin i leith, tá rialacha bunaithe ag formhór na stát a éilíonn foirm áirithe oideachais leanúnach éigeantach, cé go bhfuil riachtanais éagsúla ag an stát. Tá gá le hoideachas leanúnach freisin d'advokatanna ar mian leo a bheith deimhnithe ag an mbord mar speisialtóirí i réimse áirithe dlí. Tá cláir speisialtóireachta dlíthiúla deimhnithe ar fáil i go leor stáit, agus tá siad creidiúnaithe ag Cumann na mBarr Mheiriceá (ABA). Bhí an ghairm dlí, cosúil le go leor eile, mall chun oscailt do mhná. Ba é Arabella Mansfield an chéad dlíodóir bean sna Stáit Aontaithe, a tháinig chun bheith ina ball de bharr Illinois i 1869. D'fhoghlaim Mansfield in oifig dlí a deartháir, agus tugadh isteach sa bhfarraige in ainneoin go raibh reachtaíocht Illinois ag éileamh go mbeadh duine ar bith ag cur isteach ar iontráil sa bhfarraige bán, fireann, agus os cionn 21 bliain d'aois. Ba é Ada Kepley an chéad bhean sna Stáit Aontaithe a bhain céim dlí amach. Chríochnaigh sí Coláiste Dlí an Aontais (Nua Scoil Dlí Ollscoil Thuaisceart na hOllscoile) i 1870. Faoi 1930, bhí mná á nglacadh ag formhór na scoileanna dlí sna Stáit Aontaithe, ach ní raibh siad ag glacadh le Scoil Dlí Harvard. D'fhan an scoil dúnta do mhná go dtí 1950. Cé gur glacadh le mná go dtí go raibh siad in ollscoileanna dlí, bhí líon na mban a d'fhreastail ar bheagán. Go dtí lár na 1960idí, bhí níos lú ná 3 faoin gcéad de mhic léinn dlí mná. Tháinig méadú ar na huimhreacha sin le linn na 1970idí. Sa lá atá inniu ann, is mná beagnach 50 faoin gcéad de na hiontrálacha i scoileanna dlí sna Stáit Aontaithe. Níor tháinig dí-eagrú scoileanna dlí níos gasta ná mar a rinne sé le hinstitiúidí oideachais eile, in ainneoin an ról lárnach a bhí ag dlíodóirí sa phróiseas dí-eagrú. Ó na 1960idí, tá méadú tagtha ar chlárú mionlaigh i scoileanna dlí, ach tá na huimhreacha fós íseal. Sa bhliain 1960, bhí thart ar aon faoin gcéad de mhic léinn dlí Meiriceánach Afracach. Faoi dheireadh na 1990idí, ní raibh an líon sin tar éis fás go dtí ach 8 faoin gcéad. Mar thoradh air sin, tá cláir earcaíochta gníomhacha ag roinnt scoileanna chun cabhrú le éagsúlacht níos mó a chinntiú ina gcomhlacht mac léinn. Nuair a úsáideann scoileanna ciníochas mar fhachtóir sa phróiseas iontrála, áfach, déanann criticeoirí a líomhain go bhfuil siad ag sárú cearta bunreachtúla. Mar thoradh ar na cúisimh sin tá roinnt cásanna conspóideacha, lena n-áirítear Grutter v. Bollinger (288 F. 3d 732 ), ina raibh mac léinn bán ionchasach ag maíomh gur diúltaíodh ligean isteach í in Ollscoil Michigan Law School toisc go n-úsáideann an scoil ciníochas mar fhachtóir cinntitheach i gceadadh. I dtuairim 54, chinn an Chúirt Uachtarach nach raibh beartas iontrála na scoile ag sárú clásal cosanta comhionann an Cheathrú Leasú Déag toisc go raibh "a leas láidir i na buntáistí oideachais a fháil a thagann ó chorp dalta éagsúil". Alexander, Stacy, agus a1. 1999 - Tá an t-am ann. Oideachas Dlí don 21ú haois. Arna eagarthóireacht ag Donald B. Rí. Littleton, Colo.: F.B. Rothman. Cooper, Byron D. 2002. "An Comhtháthú ar Theoiric, Dochtúr, agus Cleachtas i Oideachas Dlí". Líneanna a scriosadh: Iris Chumann Stiúrthóirí Scríbhneoireachta Dlí 1 (Deireadh Fómhair): 5064. Drachman, Virginia G. 1998. Sráithre sa Dlí: Dlíodóirí Mná i Stair Nua-aimseartha Mheiriceá. Cambridge, Mass. - Tá sé ar fáil. : Ollscoil Harvard. Brúigh. Gee, E. Gordon, agus Donald W. Jackson. 1977. "An Spéis a Dhúnadh: Oideachas Dlí agus Inniúlacht Dlíodóir". Athbhreithniú Dlí Ollscoil Brigham Young 1977.Katz, Barry E. 2002. "Céim Speisialaithe". Mac léinn Dlíodóir 31 (Deireadh Fómhair): 226. "Úsáid Chaoltach Gníomhaíochta Daingne a Chaomhnaíodh i gColáistí Iontrála". An 25 Meitheamh, 2003. CNN.com: Ionad Dlí. Ar fáil ar líne ag <www.cnn.com/2003/LAW/06/23/scotus.affirmative.action> (rudaithe ar 17 Meán Fómhair 2003). Rose, Jonathan. Tá mé ag caint leat. 1994. "An Tuarascáil MacCrate ar Athdhéanamh ar Oideachas Dlí: An Teastaíonn Smaointe agus Féin-Séim". Journal of Legal Education 44 (Deireadh Fómhair). Schwartz, Bernard. Tá sé i gceist agam. 1974. - Tá tú i ndáiríre? An Stair Oidhreachta Mheiriceá ar an Dlí i Meiriceá. Nua-Eabhrac: Oidhreacht Mheiriceá. Bán, James Boyd. 1999 - Tá an t-am ann. Ó Fheithis go Saothar: Sábhálacha ar Dlí agus Oideachas Dlí. Ann Arbor: Univ. Michigan Press.

At the moment, there are 165 million tons of plastic in our oceans. If something doesn’t change, there will be more plastic than fish by weight in the oceans by 2050. The use of plastics has skyrocketed in the past 50 years, and this trend is likely to continue because it is in nearly all the products we consume. If the strong growth for plastics doesn’t subside, the plastics sector will account for 20 percent of total global oil consumption. Sadly, sea life and birds are dying from eating or becoming tangled in this debris. It is time to rethink the future of plastics, and this is just what TerraCycle, Procter & Gamble (P&G) and SUEZ are doing in an industry-first collaboration. The project between the recycling solutions company, multinational consumer goods corporation, and global leader in the water and waste segment has led to the first shampoo bottle made with 25 percent recycled beach plastic. This limited-edition Head & Shoulders bottle was released last summer in France and contains plastics collected by thousands of volunteers. “The Head & Shoulders recyclable shampoo bottle made with beach plastic is a world’s first in the hair care category. Increasing the use of recycled plastic in the packaging of our flagship brands … makes it easier for consumers to choose more sustainable products, without any trade-offs,” said Virginie Helias, vice president of global sustainability, P&G, in a statement. “So while we’re proud of what we’ve done and what we’re doing, we know there is much more work ahead.” Creating a New Plastics Economy Producing a bottle from beach plastic certainly has its challenges. UV exposure degrades plastic, making it difficult to recycle. Using beach plastics requires creating a new supply chain from collected materials across large areas and necessitates many hands to get the work done. It will be difficult to significantly scale up the production of items made with recycled beach plastic due to these restrictions. TerraCycle is a recycling company that specializes in hard-to-recycle waste, and it has relationships with many volunteer groups to source the materials for this new shampoo bottle. It is collaborating with hundreds of organizations to recycle rigid beach plastic into new products by sorting, cleaning and then melting it into hard plastic that will be remolded into new items. Challenges with Plastic Recycling Plastics are so difficult to recycle that a mere 14 percent of plastic packaging actually gets recycled. There are many types of plastic made from numerous kinds of resins, causing it to be complicated to automate the sorting process. Some plastic recycling centers actually manually sort plastic materials to avoid contamination, making the process expensive and time-consuming. Some plastics are also too small or are contaminated, thus they are discarded. As a result, a lot of plastic containers aren’t ultimately recycled. Design Constraints with Recycled Plastic Hair care product packaging contains high-performance polymers that need to be highly pliable. It isn’t possible to produce a functional shampoo bottle from 100 percent post-consumer recycled content with today’s technology because the bottle would crack when squeezed. In addition, it is difficult to create bright white bottles, like the typical Head & Shoulders shampoo bottle. Corporations Further the New Plastics Economy Corporate commitments to post-consumer recycled plastics are very important to further progress and create demand for recycled plastics. It requires companies to look upstream in creating solutions while still meeting consumer demand. P&G also announced it would produce half a billion bottles for hair care products in Europe with up to 25 percent post-consumer recycled plastic. Such actions help create a more consistent demand for recycled plastics, adding a financial incentive for recyclers to produce these materials. This announcement shows a commitment to post-consumer recycled plastics in general, in addition to beach plastic. “Creating the world’s first recyclable shampoo bottle with beach plastics is a start of an important journey,” said Tom Szaky, CEO of TerraCycle, in a statement. “With the circular economy gaining more traction, we hope that other global brands will work with green suppliers and use their influence to drive change for the benefit of the environment.” P&G, Suez and TerraCycle are among the 40 plastics-dependent organizations — including chemical manufacturers, consumer goods producers, and recyclers — to support the New Plastics Economy (NPEC). Led by the Ellen MacArthur Foundation and the World Economic Forum, this initiative is designed to dramatically increase plastics recycling in the next three years through a multi-stakeholder approach. “P&G believes transformational change can be achieved by combining the perspectives of all stakeholders, including industry, governments and consumers,” Helias said in a statement. “We are actively engaged in several multi-stakeholder collaborations that seek to improve recycling uptake, quality and economics. The New Plastics Economy initiative’s collaborative way of working is aligned with ours and represents a powerful opportunity to drive positive change in the plastics system.” Feature image courtesy of P&G

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Faoi láthair, tá 165 milliún tonna plaisteach inár n-aigéan. Mura ndéantar aon rud a athrú, beidh níos mó plaisteach ná iasc de réir meáchain sna farraigí faoi 2050. Tá an úsáid a bhaineann le plaisteach tar éis méadú go mór le 50 bliain anuas, agus is dócha go leanfaidh an treocht seo de toisc go bhfuil sé i mbeagnach gach táirge a itheann muid. Má leanann an fás láidir ar phlaisteach ag titim, beidh 20% de thomhaltas iomlán ola an domhain ar an earnáil phlaisteach. Ar an drochuair, tá an saol farraige agus na héin ag fáil bháis ó ithe nó ó bheith gafa sa scrios seo. Tá sé in am athbheochan a dhéanamh ar thodhchaí na plaisteach, agus is é seo go díreach atá TerraCycle, Procter & Gamble (P&G) agus SUEZ ag déanamh i gcomhar tionscal-an chéad uair. Tá an tionscadal idir an chuideachta réitigh athchúrsála, corparáid ilnáisiúnta earraí tomhaltóra, agus ceannaire domhanda sa roinn uisce agus dramhaíola tar éis an chéad bhuidéal seampú a dhéanamh le 25 faoin gcéad plaisteach trá athchúrsáilte. Scaoileadh an buidéal teoranta Head & Shoulders seo an samhradh seo caite sa Fhrainc agus tá plaisteach ann a bhailíodh ag na mílte de dheonaí. Is é an buidéal seampú in-athchúrsála Head & Shoulders a rinneadh le plaisteach trá an chéad cheann ar domhan sa chatagóir cúram gruaige. "Tá an t-ardú ar úsáid plaisteach athchúrsáilte i bpacáistiú ár mbrandaí príomhchlaonta ... ag éascú ar thomhaltóirí táirgí níos inbhuanaithe a roghnú, gan aon chomhaontaithe", a dúirt Virginie Helias, leas-uachtarán inbhuanaitheachta domhanda, P&G, i ráiteas. Cé gur bródúil muid as an méid atá déanta againn agus as an méid atá á dhéanamh againn, tá a fhios againn go bhfuil go leor oibre eile romhainn. Geilleagar Nua Plaisteacha a Chruthú Is cinnte go bhfuil a chuid dúshláin ag baint le buidéal a tháirgeadh ó phlaisteach trá. Déantar an plaisteach a bhriseadh síos ag nochtadh do UV, rud a fhágann go bhfuil sé deacair é a athchúrsáil. Éilíonn úsáid plaisteach trá slabhra soláthair nua a chruthú ó ábhair a bhailítear ar fud limistéir mhóra agus éilíonn sé go leor lámha an obair a dhéanamh. Beidh sé deacair táirgeadh earraí a dhéantar le plaisteach trá athchúrsáilte a mhéadú go suntasach mar gheall ar na srianta seo. Is cuideachta athchúrsála é TerraCycle a dhéanann speisialtóireacht ar dhramhaíl atá deacair a athchúrsáil, agus tá caidreamh aige le go leor grúpaí deonacha chun na hábhair a fháil don bhuidéal seampú nua seo. Tá sé ag comhoibriú le na céadta eagraíocht chun plaisteach crua na trá a athchúrsáil i dtáirgí nua trína scagadh, a ghlanadh agus ansin é a leá i bplaisteach crua a athmhúnlófar i míreanna nua. D'fhéadfadh sé go mbeadh sé deacair a bheith ag athchúrsáil plaisteach. Tá sé chomh deacair plaisteach a athchúrsáil nach ndéantar ach 14 faoin gcéad d'uaincheapaíocht plaisteach a athchúrsáil i ndáiríre. Tá go leor cineálacha plaisteacha déanta as cineálacha éagsúla réasanna, rud a fhágann go bhfuil sé casta an próiseas triail a uathoibriú. Tá roinnt ionad athchúrsála plaisteacha ag triall ábhair plaisteacha de láimh chun éagothroime a sheachaint, rud a fhágann go bhfuil an próiseas costasach agus ama-ithe. Tá roinnt plaisteach ró-bheag nó truaillithe, agus dá bhrí sin cuirtear ar ceal iad. Mar thoradh air sin, ní athchúrsáiltear go leor coimeádáin plaisteacha sa deireadh. Teorainneacha dearadh le plaisteach athchúrsáilte Tá polaiméir ardfheidhmíochta i bpacáistíocht táirgí cúraim gruaige a chaithfidh a bheith an-leasa. Ní féidir buidéal seampú feidhmiúil a tháirgeadh ó ábhar athchúrsáilte tar éis tomhaltóra 100 faoin gcéad le teicneolaíocht an lae inniu toisc go mbeadh an buidéal ag creathadh nuair a dhéanfaí é a shruthú. Ina theannta sin, tá sé deacair buidéil bhána geal a chruthú, cosúil leis an mbotella shampoo tipiciúil Head & Shoulders. Cuidíonn Corparáidí leis an ngeilleagar nua plaisteach Tá sé an-tábhachtach go dtiocfadh gealltanas corparáideach maidir le plaisteach athchúrsáilte iar-thomhaltóirí chun dul chun cinn a dhéanamh agus éileamh a chruthú ar plaisteach athchúrsáilte. Éilíonn sé ar chuideachtaí breathnú suasshrutha i réitigh a chruthú agus é ag freastal ar éileamh na dtomhaltóirí. D'fhógair P&G freisin go dtáirgeodh sé leath billiún buidéal le haghaidh táirgí cúraim gruaige san Eoraip le suas le 25 faoin gcéad de phlaisteach athchúrsáilte iar-thomhaltóirí. Cuidíonn gníomhaíochtaí den sórt sin le héilimh níos comhsheasmhaí a chruthú ar phlaisteach athchúrsáilte, rud a chuireann dreasacht airgeadais ar athchúrsálaithe chun na hábhair seo a tháirgeadh. Léiríonn an fógra seo tiomantas do phlaisteach athchúrsáilte iar-thomhaltóirí i gcoitinne, chomh maith le plaisteach trá. 'Is tús le turas tábhachtach é an chéad bhuidéal seampú in-athchúrsála ar domhan a chruthú le plaisteach trá,' a dúirt Tom Szaky, POF TerraCycle, i ráiteas. De réir mar a bhíonn an geilleagar ciorclach ag éirí níos mó, tá súil againn go n-oibreoidh brandaí domhanda eile le soláthraithe glasa agus go n-úsáidfidh siad a n-tionchar chun athrú a spreagadh chun tairbhe an chomhshaoil. Tá P&G, Suez agus TerraCycle i measc na 40 eagraíocht atá ag brath ar phlaisteach lena n-áirítear déantúsóirí ceimiceacha, táirgeoirí earraí tomhaltóra, agus athchúrsálaithe chun tacú leis an ngeilleagar nua plaisteach (NPEC). Tá an tionscnamh seo, atá faoi stiúir an Ellen MacArthur Foundation agus an Fhóraim Eacnamaíoch Domhanda, deartha chun athchúrsáil plaisteach a mhéadú go suntasach sna trí bliana amach romhainn trí chur chuige ilpháirtithe leasmhara. "Creideann P&G gur féidir athrú trasfhoirmiúcháin a bhaint amach trí dhearcadh na bpáirtithe leasmhara go léir a chur le chéile, lena n-áirítear an tionscal, rialtais agus tomhaltóirí", a dúirt Helias i ráiteas. Táimid páirteach go gníomhach i roinnt comhoibriúí ilpháirtithe leasmhara a bhfuil sé mar aidhm acu glacadh, cáilíocht agus eacnamaíocht athchúrsála a fheabhsú. Tá an bealach comhoibritheach oibre atá ag tionscnamh an Eacnamaíochta Nua Plastaí comhthreomhar lenár gcuid féin agus is deis láidir é athrú dearfach a spreagadh sa chóras plaisteach. Íomhá le cúirtéis P&G

Vaccines have been recognized as reliable and cost efficient ways to prevent some the most debilitating diseases in the US – Measles, Pertussis, Diphtheria, Polio and Mumps. Decades ago, these illnesses caused thousands to die in a span of a year. Currently, the development of vaccines has increased the chances of not contracting these infectious diseases, as well as, decreasing mortality and morbidity rates. The World Health Organization describes Vaccines as, “biological preparation that improves immunity to particular diseases. A vaccine typically contains an agent that resembles a disease-causing microorganism, and is often made from weakened or killed forms of the microbe, its toxins or one of its surface proteins stimulates the body’s immune system to recognize the agent as foreign, destroy it, and “remember” it, so that the immune system can more easily recognize and destroy any of these microorganisms that it will later encounter.” Although the supply of vaccines has remained sufficient and vaccination rates have consistently gone up in the past years, the challenge of achieving the number of vaccinations in the 50 states of US still exists especially in rural areas and in communities living in poverty and below the poverty line. If your community or your clinic is struggling to boost childhood vaccination rates, here are remarkable ways to help you increase the rate of administered immunizations. Educate Parents on the Importance of Vaccination and Answer FAQs Parents play an important role in ensuring that children are protected from diseases through immunizations. Unfortunately, a lot of parents are still unaware of the importance of vaccines. Therefore; they do not find vaccination necessary. Proper education on this subject along with the list of vaccination schedules and answers to common questions on the safety of vaccines can help motivate parents to bring their children their doctor for shots and increase the percentage of children immunized in your area. Your clinic can either conduct a talk on vaccination awareness where concerns can be raised by parents and can be directly answered by medical professionals. If time is not in your favor, you can hand out brochures or pamphlets containing pertinent information on vaccines, immunization schedules and FAQs. These handouts are readily available on CDC’s website or you can also compile the information yourself for distribution. Alerts and Reminders A reminder for parents will also play a big role in bringing up vaccination rates. Your facility can set up a reminder for patients on appointments and scheduled shots to avoid missed vaccinations. Currently, those under Medicare insurance receive letters when a vaccination or even a check-up is due. This allows for parents schedule a visit with their child’s doctor as soon as they are available. Another way to do it is to call each patient and remind them of their next visit. An EHR can also be utilized. The system can send email messages or text alerts for parents that has the ability to send alerts via email on when and what the next scheduled shot is. This is stated as a requirement in the meaningful use of EHRs and undoubtedly makes it easier for healthcare providers and patients alike in managing their time while effectively facilitating the administration of much needed immunizations. Partnership between community agencies is essential to achieving the goal of increasing immunization rates. These agencies include local hospitals, community health centers, daycare centers, county government, local universities or school districts, and local churches. Make sure to coordinate with these agencies as they can help increase awareness in regards to the importance of vaccinations and reminding the local community on future immunization schedules. By Christina Scannapiego Christina lives in San Diego and has a BA from Colby College and BFA from The Academy of Art. She has been a healthcare, wellness and active lifestyle writer and editor for more than 10 years. Christina has published material for American Mobile Healthcare, MedTravelers, Staff Care and NursesRX Healthcare as well as for the San Clemente Times, the Dana Point Times, FOAM magazine and ESPN.

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Aithníodh vacsaíní mar bhealaí iontaofa agus costéifeachtacha chun cuid de na galair is lagúcháin sna Stáit Aontaithe a chosc Measles, Pertussis, Diphtheria, Polio agus Mumps. Deich mbliana ó shin, ba chúis le na galair seo na mílte bás i rith na bliana. Faoi láthair, tá forbairt vacsaíní tar éis na seansanna nach bhfaightear na galair ionfhabhtaithe seo a mhéadú, chomh maith le rátaí básmhaireachta agus morbidity a laghdú. Déanann an Eagraíocht Dhomhanda Sláinte cur síos ar vacsaíní mar, ullmhúchán bitheolaíoch a fheabhsaíonn díolúine i gcoinne galair áirithe. De ghnáth bíonn gníomhaire ann a bhfuil cosúil le micreorganas a bhíonn ina chúis le galar, agus is minic a dhéantar é ó fhoirmeacha lag nó maraithe den mhicreab, spreagann a tocsainí nó ceann de na próitéiní dromchla an chórais imdhíonachta an chomhlachta an gníomhaire a aithint mar eachtrach, é a scriosadh, agus é a chuimhneamh, ionas gur féidir leis an gcóras imdhíonachta aon cheann de na micreorganas seo a aithint agus a scriosadh níos éasca a thiocfaidh sé amach ina dhiaidh sin. Cé gur fhan soláthar vacsaíní leordhóthanach agus gur tháinig méadú ar rátaí vacsaínithe go seasta le blianta beaga anuas, tá an dúshlán fós ann líon na vacsaínithe a bhaint amach sna 50 stát de chuid na SA go háirithe i gceantair thuaithe agus i bpobail atá ina gcónaí i mbochtaineacht agus faoi bhun an líne bochtaineachta. Má tá do phobal nó do chlinic ag streachailt chun rátaí vacsaínithe leanaí a threisiú, seo bealaí suntasacha chun cabhrú leat ráta na n-imdhíonaíochtaí a riaradh a mhéadú. Aithne a thabhairt do thuismitheoirí ar thábhacht an vacsaínithe agus Freagra a thabhairt ar na Ceisteanna Coitianta Tá ról tábhachtach ag tuismitheoirí i chinntiú go ndéantar leanaí a chosaint ó ghalair trí imdhíonachtaí. Ar an drochuair, níl a lán tuismitheoirí ar an eolas fós faoi thábhacht na vacsaínithe. Dá bhrí sin, ní dóigh leo go bhfuil gá le vacsaínú. Is féidir le hoideachas ceart ar an ábhar seo mar aon leis an liosta de sceidil vacsaínithe agus freagraí ar cheisteanna coitianta maidir le sábháilteacht vacsaíní cabhrú le tuismitheoirí a spreagadh chun a gcuid leanaí a thabhairt chuig a gcuid dochtúir le haghaidh shots agus céatadán na leanaí a imdhíonaítear i do cheantar a mhéadú. Is féidir le do chlinic labhairt ar fheasacht vacsaínithe a reáchtáil áit ar féidir le tuismitheoirí imní a ardú agus ar féidir le gairmithe leighis freagra a thabhairt go díreach orthu. Mura bhfuil an t-am i do bhfabhar, is féidir leat bróisiúir nó lámhleabhair a roinnt ina bhfuil faisnéis ábhartha faoi vacsaíní, sceidil imdhíonaithe agus Ceisteanna Coitianta. Tá na lámhleabhair seo ar fáil go héasca ar shuíomh Gréasáin CDC nó is féidir leat an fhaisnéis a thiomsú tú féin le haghaidh dáileadh. Tuairimí agus Meabhrúcháin Beidh ról mór ag meabhrúchán do thuismitheoirí freisin chun rátaí vacsaínithe a ardú. Is féidir le do shuíomh cuimhneamh a chur ar fáil do othair maidir le ceapacháin agus shots sceidealaithe chun vacsaínithe a chailleadh a sheachaint. Faoi láthair, faigheann na daoine atá faoi árachas Medicare litreacha nuair a bhíonn vacsaín nó fiú seiceáil le déanamh. Is féidir leis seo a dhéanamh go ndéanfaidh tuismitheoirí cuairt a chur ar dhochtúir a bpáiste a luaithe a bheidh siad ar fáil. Bealach eile chun é a dhéanamh ná glaoch ar gach othar agus iad a mheabhrú faoin gcéad chuairt eile a bheidh acu. Is féidir EHR a úsáid freisin. Is féidir leis an gcóras teachtaireachtaí ríomhphoist nó foláirimh téacs a sheoladh chuig tuismitheoirí a bhfuil an cumas acu foláirimh a sheoladh trí ríomhphost maidir le cathain agus cad é an chéad fhéachaint sceidealta eile. Tá sé seo luaite mar cheanglas maidir le húsáid chiallmhar EHRanna agus gan amhras go gcuireann sé níos éasca do sholáthraithe cúraim sláinte agus do othair araon a gcuid ama a bhainistiú agus é a éascú go héifeachtach riarachán na n-imdhíonaíochtaí atá an-riachtanach. Tá sé ríthábhachtach go mbeadh comhpháirtíocht idir gníomhaireachtaí pobail chun an sprioc a bhaint amach maidir le rátaí imdhíonachta a mhéadú. Áirítear leis na gníomhaireachtaí seo ospidéil áitiúla, ionaid sláinte pobail, ionaid lá, rialtas contae, ollscoileanna áitiúla nó ceantair scoile, agus eaglaisí áitiúla. Déan cinnte go ndéanfaidh tú comhordú leis na gníomhaireachtaí seo mar is féidir leo cabhrú le feasacht a mhéadú maidir le tábhacht na vacsaínithe agus an pobal áitiúil a chur i gcuimhne ar sceidil imdhíonaithe sa todhchaí. Le Christina Scannapiego Tá Christina ina cónaí i San Diego agus tá BA aici ó Colby College agus BFA ó The Academy of Art. Tá sí ina scríbhneoir agus eagarthóir cúram sláinte, folláine agus stíl mhaireachtála gníomhach ar feadh níos mó ná 10 mbliana. Tá ábhar foilsithe ag Christina do American Mobile Healthcare, MedTravelers, Staff Care agus NursesRX Healthcare chomh maith leis an San Clemente Times, an Dana Point Times, iris FOAM agus ESPN.

Kebayas were worn by nyonyas from the different ‘Peranakan’ communities, Malay and Indonesian ladies. The Thai ‘Baba’ ladies from Phuket Island in southern Thailand and the surrounding areas also wore them because of the Penang influence. Today, it is no longer exclusive to these communities. I believe nyonya kebayas evolved from either the kebaya panjang or white blouses worn by Indonesian Dutch ladies during the colonial rule. After all, most traditional ladies’ attire from the East…. the Japanese kimonos, Korean hanboks and Chinese robes were long flowing dresses with simple overlapping front openings. My paternal great, great grandmother was photographed in a beautiful Chinese silk hand embroidered robe on her 81st birthday in the late 1920s. She wore it with a long skirt. She was a typical Penang born nyonya, sanggul and all.On less formal occasions, she and her daughters and later her granddaughters (one was my paternal grandmother) wore the kebaya panjang/”t’ng sar“(Penang Hokkien for long blouse), a style very similar to her richly embroidered garment. These were simple, below the knee length robes worn over white short blouses/”tay sar” (Penang Hokkien for short blouse). They were paired with Indonesia batik sarongs. On a daily basis, nyonyas wore these short white blouses at home and would wear the kebaya panjang over them when they go out. Fabrics used for kebaya panjang then were cotton Javanese batiks with small patterns or cotton chequered weave. Transparent printed organdie and voile were later used. These printed floral fabrics were imported from Europe and India. Penang nyonyas also wore kebaya panjang made from pastel coloured organdie fabrics with delicate white factory embroidery in an overall pattern. The Indonesian Dutch ladies wore white blouses over their batik sarongs. They appliquéd lace trims which were later further enhanced with embroidery. The local Indonesian ladies and those from the Chinese community adopted these blouses as their own. After all, they were producing those beautiful batiks in districts such as Pekalongan, Cirebon, Lasem and Kedungwuni. I believe nyonya kebayas evolved from these. Our local young nyonyas shortened the long kebaya panjang and called them “pua t’ng tay” (Penang Hokkien for ‘half way between long and short’) The rest is history. There were no “poor” nyonyas then. To be considered a nyonya means you had “arrived”. Traditional kebaya makers were not nyonyas. Embroidered kebayas were specially commissioned by nyonyas who could afford to pay others for this labour intensive skill. Most were either Indonesians from Medan, Sumatra or Javanese from Bandung. The local Chinese also distinguished themselves as master embroiderers, probably from skills they inherited from mainland China and adapted to the requirements of a kebaya. Some nyonya maidens later picked up the skill of machine embroidery to pass time. Singer Sewing Machine Company conducted sewing and embroidery classes to promote its sales of sewing machines. Today, local master kebaya makers are a dying breed. The ladies of Indonesian origins have retired or simply vanished. As a child, I followed my mother to her kebaya maker on Macalister Lane, Penang. This wonderful Indonesian lady from Medan had many young Chinese girls doing all the beautiful embroidery work. Age has caught up with the very few remaining Chinese in this trade. Mr. Yeap, a Penang kebaya designer died more than 4 years ago. He and his late wife were a team. While he designed the different motifs, she and her team of embroiderers produced the beautiful kebayas. She took customers’ measurements, drafted, cut, transferred motifs and embroidered… basically transformed plain fabrics into works of art. She not only produced these beautiful garments, she taught the skill to others and many have benefited. I have inherited kebayas from her little workshop and others started kebaya businesses of their own. The skill is still being practiced by her descendants. Kebaya making is more a team effort now. Very few are skilled in the whole package. Some can just embroider while others can only pattern draft. While I have learnt the basics of machine embroidery for the kebaya motifs, I am a seamstress of Indonesian embroidered kebaya fabrics. Together with my team, we have produced many nyonya kebayas that have graced weddings, graduations, parties, grand dinners, annual company celebrations, corporate functions, special themed affairs, multi cultural ceremonies, gala openings and conventions. I wear them often simply to keep my tradition and heritage alive.

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Bhí Kebayas ag iompar ag nyonyas ó na pobail éagsúla Peranakan, mná Malai agus Indinéisis. Bhí mná Thai Baba ó Oileán Phuket i ndeisceart na Téalainne agus na ceantair máguaird ag caitheamh iad freisin mar gheall ar thionchar Penang. Sa lá atá inniu ann, ní hamháin do na pobail seo a bhaineann sé. Creidim go ndeachaigh nyonya kebayas ó na kebaya panjang nó blúiseacha bána a chaith mná na hOlandaigh in Indinéis le linn an rialachais choilíneach. Tar éis an tsaoil, is é an chuid is mó de na mná traidisiúnta éadaí ó an Oirthir.... Bhí na kimonos Seapáine, hanboks na Cóiré agus róbáin na Síne gúnaí fada sruthúil le hoscailtí tosaigh simplithe. Bhí grianghraf de mo shean-sheanmháthair ó thaobh m'athair i gcabhair álainn síoda Síneach, a bhí bródáilte de láimh, ar a 81ú lá breithe ag deireadh na 1920idí. Thóg sí é le sciorta fada. Bhí sí ina nyonya tipiciúil a rugadh i Penang, sanggul agus gach rud eile. Ar ócáidí níos foirmiúla, chaith sí féin agus a iníonacha agus ina dhiaidh sin a nighneacha (bhí ceann acu ar mo sheanmháthair) an kebaya panjang / tng sar ((Penang Hokkien le haghaidh blouse fada), stíl atá an-chosúil lena éadaí saibhir bródáilte. Bhí siad simplí, faoi na róbaí fada na glúine a bhí caite thar bhláis ghearr bán / tay sar (Penang Hokkien le haghaidh bhláis ghearr). Bhí siad péireáilte le sarongs batik na hIndinéise. Ar bhonn laethúil, chaith nyonyas na blúiseanna gearr bán seo sa bhaile agus chaithfeadh siad an kebaya panjang os a gcionn nuair a théann siad amach. Ba é an t-airgead a úsáidtear le haghaidh kebaya panjang ansin batiks Java cotton le patrún beag nó fíochán cotton chequered. Baineadh úsáid as organdie agus voile clúdaithe trédhearcach ina dhiaidh sin. Tugadh na fabraicí bláthanna priontáilte seo isteach ón Eoraip agus ón India. Bhí kebaya panjang déanta as fabraicí organdie datha pastel le bródú déine monarcha bán i bpatrún foriomlán ag nyonyas Penang freisin. Bhí blúiseanna bána ar na mná Ollainnis Indinéischa os cionn a gcuid sarongs batik. Chuir siad gearradh lace i bhfeidhm a bhí feabhsaithe níos déanaí le bródú. Ghlac na mná Indinéischa áitiúla agus na mná ón bpobal Síneach na blúiseanna seo mar a gcuid féin. Tar éis an tsaoil, bhí siad ag táirgeadh na batiks álainn sin i gceantair mar Pekalongan, Cirebon, Lasem agus Kedungwuni. Creidim go ndeachaigh nyonya kebayas ó na cinn seo. Chuir ár n-nyonyas áitiúla óga gearr ar na kebaya fada fada agus d'iarr siad orthu pua tng tay (Penang Hokkien le haghaidh leathbhealach idir fada agus gearr) Is stair an chuid eile. Ní raibh aon "bhocht" nyonyas ann ansin. Chun a bheith meastar a nyonya ciallaíonn tú a bhí Ar tháinig. Ní raibh na nyonyas ina ndéantóirí kebaya traidisiúnta. Bhí kebayas bródáilte ar an gcumas go speisialta ag nyonyas a d'fhéadfadh a bheith in ann daoine eile a íoc as an scileanna dian-obair seo. Ba iad an chuid is mó ná Indinéisigh ó Medan, Sumatra nó Javanese ó Bandung. Bhí na Síneacha áitiúla ar leith freisin mar mháistir-bhródairí, is dócha ó scileanna a d'fhás siad ó mhórthír na Síne agus a oiriúnaíodh do riachtanais kebaya. D'éirigh le roinnt cailíní nyonya níos déanaí an scileanna a bhaineann le ceardaíocht meaisín a fháil chun am a chaitheamh. Rinne Cuideachta Máistir Fuaimín Singer ranganna seolta agus bordála chun a díolacháin de mheaisíní seolta a chur chun cinn. Sa lá atá inniu ann, tá ceardaíocht mháistir kebaya áitiúla ag dul i ngleic le bás. Tá na mná de bhunadh na hIndinéise ar scor nó tá siad imithe go simplí. Mar leanbh, lean mé mo mháthair chuig a cuid ceapadóra kebaya ar Macalister Lane, Penang. Bhí go leor cailíní óga Sínis ag an bhean iontach Indinéisise seo ó Médán ag déanamh na hoibre bródúla go léir. Tá an aois tar éis teacht ar an líon beag Sínis atá fágtha sa trádáil seo. An tUasal Yeap, a dhearthóir Penang kebaya fuair bás níos mó ná 4 bliana ó shin. Bhí sé féin agus a bhean chéile mar fhoireann. Cé go ndearna sé na móitífeanna éagsúla a dhearadh, rinne sí agus a foireann de bhródaitheoirí na kebayas áille. Ghlac sí tomhais ó chustaiméirí, rinne sí dréacht, ghearradh, móitífeanna a aistriú agus a bhróideáil... go bunúsach déanann sí fíocháin shimplí a athrú ina saothar ealaíne. Ní hamháin go ndearna sí na héadaí áille seo, mhúin sí an scileanna do dhaoine eile agus bhain go leor tairbhe as. D'fhás mé kebayas óna ceardlann beag agus thosaigh daoine eile a ngnó ceabais féin. Tá a sliocht ag cleachtadh an scileanna fós. Is é an obair foirne anois é an ceabaia a dhéanamh. Tá an-bheagán acu a bhfuil scileanna acu sa phacáiste iomlán. Ní féidir le cuid acu ach an t-earráid a bhrú agus ní féidir le cuid eile ach an dréachtphróifíl a dhéanamh. Cé gur fhoghlaim mé na bunchomharthaí maidir le bródú meaisín do na móitífí kebaya, is seamstress mé de fhabraicí bródáilte kebaya na hIndinéis. In éineacht le mo fhoireann, tá go leor kebayas nyonya déanta againn a bhfuil bronntanas pósta, céimithe, páirtithe, dinnéir mhóra, ceiliúradh bliantúil cuideachta, feidhmeanna corparáideacha, gnóthaí téamacha speisialta, searmanais ilchultúrtha, oscailtí gala agus coinbhinsiúin. Déanaim iad a chaitheamh go minic chun mo thraidisiún agus mo oidhreacht a choinneáil beo.

Posted on August 6, 2010 by saya 3D technology is an important emerging technique developed quickly during the past few years and it has been widely applied in the fields of advertising, furniture and electronics. And recently, three designers have even collaborated with a new 3D printer that can spit out fabric structures for clothing. When three-dimensional body data is fed into the computer, certain software will then start to work and have the printer produce fabric structures, just as what you can see from the video below. On the other hand, the new technology will also result in great changes, such as much better efficiency, less needed labor and various customized fabric structures.

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Postáilte ar Lúnasa 6, 2010 ag saya Is teicníc nua-aimseartha tábhachtach í an teicneolaíocht 3D a forbraíodh go tapa le cúpla bliain anuas agus tá feidhm mhór aici i réimsí an fhógraíochta, na troscáin agus na leictreonaice. Agus le déanaí, d'oibrigh trí dhearthóir le priontóir nua 3D a d'fhéadfadh struchtúir fabraice a chur amach le haghaidh éadaí. Nuair a chuirtear sonraí comhlacht trí-thaobhach isteach sa ríomhaire, tosóidh bogearraí áirithe ag obair agus déanfaidh an printéir struchtúir fabraice a tháirgeadh, díreach mar a fheiceann tú sa físeán thíos. Ar an láimh eile, beidh an teicneolaíocht nua mar thoradh ar athruithe móra, mar shampla éifeachtúlacht i bhfad níos fearr, níos lú saothair a theastaíonn agus struchtúir éagsúla fabraice saincheaptha.

While almost half of people addicted to drugs or alcohol are also diagnosed with a mental health disorder, only a small fragment will suffer from something as troublesome as schizoaffective disorder and addiction. Schizoaffective disorder is difficult to diagnose. In fact, many people are misdiagnosed with either a mood disorder or schizophrenia—not both. In addition, schizoaffective disorder and drug addiction can occur in tandem, and often do. According to the National Alliance on Mental Illness, or NAMI, “Co-occurring substance use disorders are a serious risk and require integrated treatment.” At Cornerstone, our qualified dual diagnosis treatment center staff knows that recovery is possible, and we can begin helping you or your loved one today. Symptoms of Schizoaffective Disorder Schizoaffective disorder usually features cycles of severe symptoms followed by a period of less severe symptoms. They can vary widely between individuals. Symptoms of schizoaffective disorder include: - Behavioral problems or problems with hygiene According to NAMI, schizoaffective disorder can be distinguished from other similar disorders if there is: - A period of depression or mania that happens at the same time as symptoms of schizophrenia - Delusions or hallucinations that last for two or more weeks without symptoms of a mood disorder - Symptoms of a mood disorder that are present for the majority of time that someone is ill - No possibility that medications are causing the symptoms Are you Susceptible to Schizoaffective Disorder? The onset of schizoaffective disorder usually starts in young adulthood; it is rare, though, with less than 1 percent of the population developing symptoms. Psychiatrists still don’t know what causes it, but a combination of genetics, brain chemistry, and environmental stressors can impact your risk. Schizoaffective Disorder Linked to Substance Abuse Schizoaffective disorder often goes hand in hand with substance abuse. In fact, people diagnosed with schizoaffective disorder are at risk for drug addiction. Research points to marijuana, alcohol, amphetamine, and cocaine use as triggering psychotic illnesses like schizoaffective disorder. It’s easy to imagine that people might use drugs and alcohol to cope with the fear brought on by delusions, or the depression or mania that comes with severe mood swings. Dual Diagnosis Treatment At Cornerstone, we can help. Our Co-occurring Services program is tailored to address mental health disorders and substance abuse. A dual diagnosis rehab center like Cornerstone can offer the most effective addiction therapy because we don’t focus on the symptoms alone, we treat the underlying cause, which is often the co-occurring disorder. We develop targeted therapies for each person’s specific mental health and substance use disorders. If you or your loved one needs help dealing with any kind of mental health disorder along with addiction, please contact Cornerstone Recovery Center today for private admissions counseling. Contact us online or call 1-888-711-0354.

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Cé go ndéantar diagnóis ar neamhoird meabhairshláinte ar beagnach leath na ndaoine atá faoi réir drugaí nó alcóil, ní bheidh ach codán beag acu ag fulaingt ó rud chomh trioblóideach le neamhoird shizoaffeachtach agus andúil. Tá sé deacair neamhoird shizoaffective a dhiagnóisiú. Go deimhin, déantar diagnóis mhícheart ar go leor daoine le neamhoird giúmar nó le siochróine - ní an dá rud. Ina theannta sin, is féidir go dtarlódh neamhoird shizoaffective agus andúil drugaí i gcomhthráth, agus is minic a tharlaíonn sé. De réir an Chomhghuaillíocht Náisiúnta ar Fuarthas Meabhrach, nó NAMI, Is riosca tromchúiseach iad neamhoird a bhaineann le húsáid substaintí a tharlaíonn i gcomhthráth agus is gá cóireáil chomhtháite a dhéanamh orthu. Ag Cornerstone, tá a fhios ag ár bhfoireann cóireála cóireála díoghaineagrafacha cáilithe gur féidir é a leigheas, agus is féidir linn tosú ag cabhrú leat féin nó le do dhuine grá inniu. Comharthaí an Chaolais Schizoaffective De ghnáth bíonn timthriallta comharthaí tromchúiseacha ag an neamhoird shizoaffective ina dhiaidh sin tréimhse comharthaí níos lú tromchúiseacha. Is féidir leo a bheith éagsúil go mór ó dhuine go duine. I measc na hairíonna ar neamhord sceitsó-ghníomhach tá: - fadhbanna iompraíochta nó fadhbanna le sláinteachas De réir NAMI, is féidir neamhoird shizoaffective a idirdhealú ó neamhoird chomhchosúla eile má tá: - Am de dhíth nó máine a tharlaíonn ag an am céanna le hairíonna sceitseaphrine - Meabhlachtaí nó hallainneacha a mhaireann ar feadh dhá sheachtain nó níos mó gan comharthaí de thréimhse - Síomptóim neamhord a bhíonn i láthair don chuid is mó den am a bhíonn duine tinn - Níl aon fhéidearthacht go bhfuil cógais ag cruthú na hairíonna An bhfuil tú so-ghabhálach do Mhíchumas Scíosa-Gnéasach? De ghnáth tosaíonn an t-aimsir sceizoaffective ag teacht chun cinn i dtógáil óg; is annamh, áfach, agus bíonn comharthaí ag níos lú ná 1 faoin gcéad den daonra. Níl a fhios ag síceatraí fós cad a chuireann leis, ach d'fhéadfadh teaglaim de ghineolaíocht, ceimic na hinchinne, agus strusóirí comhshaoil tionchar a bheith aige ar do riosca. Athrú Schizoaffective a bhaineann le Mí-Úsáid Substaintí Is minic a théann an t-aontacht sceitsó-mhothúchánach i dteannta le mí-úsáid substaintí. Go deimhin, tá daoine a ndearnadh diagnóis orthu le neamhord sceizoaffective i mbaol go mbeidh siad ag dul i ngleic le drugaí. Léiríonn taighde go bhfuil marijuana, alcól, amfetamine, agus cóicín ag baint úsáide as galair síciotacha mar neamhoird sceizoaffeachtach. Tá sé éasca a shamhlú go bhféadfadh daoine drugaí agus alcól a úsáid chun déileáil leis an eagla a bhaineann le mí-chomharthaí, nó leis an dúlagar nó leis an máineas a thagann le hathruithe móra aigne. Cóireáil Dhéagnóis Dhá Ag Cornerstone, is féidir linn cabhrú. Tá ár gclár Seirbhísí Comhthráthúil deartha chun aghaidh a thabhairt ar neamhoird sláinte meabhrach agus mí-úsáid substaintí. Is féidir le ionad athshlánúcháin dé-dheagrúcháin cosúil le Cornerstone an teiripe andúil is éifeachtaí a thairiscint toisc nach ndírímid ar na hairíonna amháin, déanaimid cóireáil ar an gcúis bhunúsach, a bhíonn go minic mar an neamhoird chomhthráthúil. Forbraímid teiripeanna dírithe do gach duine ar a neamhord sláinte meabhrach agus úsáid substaintí. Má theastaíonn cabhair uait féin nó ó do ghaolmhar chun déileáil le haon chineál neamhoird sláinte meabhrach chomh maith le andúil, déan teagmháil le Cornerstone Recovery Center inniu le haghaidh comhairleoireachta iontrála príobháideach. Déan teagmháil linn ar líne nó glaoigh ar 1-888-711-0354.

When I read a nonfiction book, I have high expectations. I not only want to learn something, I want the language to be interesting. Appeals to the senses are a plus. So are original comparisons and interesting, varied sentences. The style of writing and the information should be a treat for the mind. So what happens when a book written by a well-respected author for an adult audience is “adapted” for children? What changes are made? Why? Although these questions merit considerable thought and study, I am in the midst of thinking about this right now as I am reading Thomas Jefferson: President and Philosopher by Jon Meacham. This book is based on his adult book Thomas Jefferson: The Art of Power and was adapted by Sarah L. Thomson. His name appears on the cover; hers only appears on the title page in small print. So here’s the question I want to think about: What does adapted mean? On the positive side, it means that additional information is provided about the historical context so that young readers develop a sense of time and place. This is helpful. But, what about the writing? Booklist calls Meacham’s writing “rich prose style,” and The New York Times Book Review referred to his writing as “nuanced and persuasive.” Let’s see what happens to this writing when it is adapted. Here are the first two or three sentences from both the adult and children’s book: Adult Book Children’s Book “He was the kind of man people noticed. An imposing, prosperous, well-liked farmer known for his feats of strength and his capacity for endurance in the wilderness, Peter Jefferson had amassed large tracts of land and scores of slaves in and around what became Albermarle County, Virginia. “ “Thomas Jefferson’s father, Peter, was the kind of man people noticed. He was an excellent rider and hunter, well-off and well-liked, known for his feats of strength. He owned large plots of land and many slaves.” The adult book builds interest from the beginning by making the readers wait until the second sentence to find out who we are reading about. Both sentences vary in length. There’s lots of description—“imposing,” “prosperous,” and “well-liked.” The children’s book identifies the subject of the paragraph from the start. “Imposing” and “prosperous” are dropped. “Well-off” is substituted for “prosperous.” The phrase “amassed large tracts of land and scores of scores of slaves” is changed to “owned large plots of land and many slaves.” Granted that this is a tiny sample, but I think it reflects what’s going on. That is, the lively prose has become less lively. Even more important, research tells us that simplifying a text does not always make it easier to understand. In fact, by taking out the markers of complex relationships between words and phrases, text becomes harder to understand. This may seem contradictory to our common sense understanding, but it’s true.

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Nuair a léim leabhar neamhfhíleach, tá ionchais arda agam. Ní hamháin go dteastaíonn uaim rud éigin a fhoghlaim, ba mhaith liom go mbeadh an teanga suimiúil. Tá sé ina ghné dhea-bhuntáiste go bhfuil an t-ábhar ag tarraingt ar na comharthaí. Tá comparáidí bunaidh agus abairtí suimiúla, éagsúla ann freisin. Ba cheart go mbeadh an stíl scríbhneoireachta agus an t-eolas ina bhféile don intinn. Mar sin, cad a tharlaíonn nuair a scríobhann údar mór le rá leabhar do lucht féachana fásta agus é "oiriúnaithe" do leanaí? Cad iad na hathruithe a dhéantar? Cén fáth? Cé gur chóir go mbeadh na ceisteanna seo le smaoineamh agus le staidéar, táim ag smaoineamh faoi seo anois agus mé ag léamh Thomas Jefferson: Uachtarán agus Fealsamh ag Jon Meacham. Tá an leabhar seo bunaithe ar a leabhar do dhaoine fásta Thomas Jefferson: Ealaín na Cumhachta agus oiriúnaigh Sarah L. Thomson é. Tá a ainm ar an gcumha; ní bhíonn a hainm ach ar an leathanach teidil i bpriontáil bheaga. Mar sin, seo an cheist ar mhaith liom smaoineamh air: Cad a chiallaíonn oiriúnaithe? Ar an taobh dearfach, ciallaíonn sé go soláthraítear faisnéis bhreise faoin gcomhthéacs stairiúil ionas go bhforbróidh léitheoirí óga tuiscint ar am agus ar áit. Tá sé seo cabhrach. Ach, cad faoi an scríbhneoireacht? Ghlaoigh Booklist ar scríbhneoireacht Meacham "stíl próise saibhir", agus thug The New York Times Book Review tagairt dá chuid scríbhneoireachta mar "nuanced and persuasive". Seo na chéad dá nó trí abairt ón leabhar do dhaoine fásta agus do leanaí araon: Leabhar do Dhaoine Fásta Leabhar do Leanaí Ba é an cineál fear a thug daoine faoi deara. Bhí feirmeoir mór, rathúil, maith le rá ar a dtugtar as a chuid feachtais neart agus a chumas seasmhachta sa bhfásach, bhí Peter Jefferson tar éis tréithe móra talún agus scór sclábhaithe a chruinniú i agus timpeall ar a tháinig chun bheith ina Chontae Albermarle, Virginia. Bhí athair Thomas Jefferson, Peter, an cineál fear a thug daoine faoi deara. Bhí sé ina chaiteoir agus ina sealgaire den scoth, saibhir agus maith le daoine, ar a dtugtar a chuid feachtais neart. Bhí píosaí talún móra aige agus go leor sclábhaithe. Déantar an leabhar do dhaoine fásta a spreagadh ó thús trína chur ar na léitheoirí fanacht go dtí an dara abairt chun a fháil amach cé a bhfuil muid ag léamh faoi. Tá na habairtí seo go léir éagsúil ina fad. Tá go leor tuairisc ann ar "imposing", "prosperous", "well-liked". Léiríonn an leabhar do leanaí ábhar na míre ón tús. Tá 'imposing' agus 'prosperous' imithe. Is é Well-off a chur in ionad rathúil. Athraíodh an frása tréithe móra talún a bhailiú agus scór scór scór sclábhaithe go bhí plotaí móra talún agus go leor sclábhaithe aige. Deimhnítear gur sampla beag é seo, ach sílim go léiríonn sé an méid atá ar siúl. Is é sin, tá an próis bheo níos lú beo. Níos tábhachtaí fós, léiríonn taighde nach ndéanann sé téacs a shimpliú níos éasca a thuiscint i gcónaí. Go deimhin, má tá na marcóirí a bhaineann le caidreamh casta idir focail agus frásaí á n-eisiamh, bíonn sé níos deacra téacs a thuiscint. D'fhéadfadh sé seo a bheith contrártha do thuiscint ár n-intinn choitianta, ach tá sé fíor.

Boer (IPA: /bur/) is the Dutch word for farmer which is used to call the descendants of the Dutch farmers of Southern Africa during the 1700s, as well as those who left the Cape Colony during the 1800s to live in the Orange Free State, Transvaal. They did this to escape the British rule, and the wars between the British imperial government and the native tribes on the eastern frontier. In 1657, “vrybriewe” was granted to 9 burgers, the first farmers or Boers (Boere) at the Cape. Although they were not known as Afrikaners, they did not regard themselves as living in a European country. As more and more immigrants from Europe arrived at the Cape the more international marriages took place. Soon their language and culture was lost and transformed into the Dietse nation. They regarded themselves as a new nation. Paul Heyns, born in 1696 christened his son Michiel Afrikanus (the Afrikaner). One Hendrik Bieslow in 1707 proclaimed in public “Ik ben een Afrikaander”. The Boer later created the Boer Republics, which were deafeated in the 1880-1881 and 1899–1902 Anglo-Boer wars (Anglo-Boere-oorlog). After that, many Boers emigrated to other countries, but many still live in modern South Africa, Swaziland and Rhodesia.

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Is éard atá i mBúr (IPA: /bur/) an focal Ollainnis le haghaidh feirmeoir a úsáidtear chun na sliocht de na feirmeoirí Ollainnis san Afraic Theas a ghlaoch le linn na 1700í, chomh maith leis na daoine a d'fhág Coláiste an Chápa le linn na 1800í chun cónaí i Stát Saor Orange, Transvaal. Rinne siad seo chun éalú ó riail na Breataine, agus na cogaí idir an rialtas impiriúil na Breataine agus na treibheanna dúchasacha ar an teorainn thoir. I 1657, tugadh an vrybriewe do 9 bhurg, na chéad fheirmeoirí nó Boers (Boere) ag an gCéip. Cé nach raibh aithne ar na Beirlínigh mar Afrikaners, ní mheas siad go raibh siad ina gcónaí i dtír Eorpach. De réir mar a tháinig níos mó agus níos mó inimircigh ón Eoraip go dtí an Chéip, tharla níos mó póstaí idirnáisiúnta. Go gairid chailltear a dteanga agus a gcultúr agus athraíodh iad go dtí náisiún Dietse. Chonaic siad iad féin mar náisiún nua. Ba é Paul Heyns, a rugadh i 1696 a bhaisteadh a mhac Michiel Afrikanus (an Afrikaner). D'fhógair Hendrik Bieslow i 1707 go poiblí "Ik ben een Afrikaander". Chruthaigh na Boers Poblachtaí Boers ina dhiaidh sin, a bhí dífhostaithe sna cogaí Angla-Boer 1880-1881 agus 1899-1902 (Anglo-Boere-oorlog). Tar éis sin, imirceodh go leor Boers go dtí tíortha eile, ach tá go leor acu fós ina gcónaí san Afraic Theas, sa Suaziland agus sa Ródesia nua-aimseartha.

The constant threat of global warming looms greater as each year passes and brings about negative consequences in our planet, with the melting of polar ice caps and extremes in natural disasters happening more frequently. Majority of us live in a consumerist and urban existence, leading to the consumption of natural resources every day. There’s nothing wrong with utilizing these resources for our survival. Still, we can minimize the impact of these activities and protect the earth for future generations by building a sustainable world, a world that can produce needs and maintain balance. A Sustainable Business Businesses today face pressure in terms of trying to remain relevant in many social issues such as inclusivity, convenience, and sustainability. Today, numerous companies have come up with innovations and solutions in helping build a greener future. This comes with the support of customers who are more aware of how important protecting the environment has become. Companies have started engaging in Green marketing initiatives, including but not limited to: - Hershey’s: The famous chocolate brand has made environmental friendly initiatives such as repurposing products for charitable purposes and reducing greenhouse gases by half by 2025. - IKEA: The Swedish furniture giant’s People and Planet strategy helps customers by not having to choose between environmental friendly choices and affordable, stylish options. IKEA is sustainable by using solar panels in most of their US buildings, acquiring cotton from sustainable sources, and working on renewable wood and energy sources in 2020. Green Marketing Tactics With the rise of environmental movements, green marketing has become a term and initiative that seeks to put the focus on benefitting the environment. Aside from the brands listed above, green marketing may also include services and products that: - Were produced from recycled material. - Follow environmentally friendly guidelines. - Are designed to be reused for the long term. - Do not use ozone-depleting materials. Also, not all businesses that say they are environmental friendly are necessarily true. Being sustainable can also have an impact on the products we return. Retailers typically have the most returns on months after Christmas, resulting in about 8% to 12% of overall sales. By utilizing and improving reverse logistics and warranty management technologies, businesses can reduce their costs. They also improve customer relations and experience, as well as become cost-effective and sustainable due to proper waste management and liquidation. Green Marketing for Small Businesses You might think that big companies like IKEA and Hershey’s can easily go green, but small businesses can too! Practicing green market initiatives are committed to sustainable development and social responsibility. Not only is it good for the environment, but also more marketable and appealing to more customers who are environmentally conscious. The good news is, people are indeed willing to pay more for environment-friendly options. According to a 2014 survey conducted by the Nielsen Global Corporate Social Responsibility, results showed that more than 50% of 30,000 respondents from 60 countries: - Check the packaging to see if the product is sustainable. - Had a purchase from at least one eco-friendly company within the last six months. - Will pay more money for products and services and brands that are eco-friendly. The Costs of a Sustainable Business It’s beneficial and friendly to the earth and is more appealing to more customers. Still, you’ll have to increase production costs a bit more when switching to green marketing initiatives and materials. You’ll also want to be authentic and not make false claims about your business being “eco-friendly,” which can harm your company’s credibility. Benefits vs the Costs If you have a small business and want to be more environment-friendly, doing it in these low doses can help you get started: - Turning off computers and electronics when not in use, being sustainable isn’t just limited to avoiding plastic, right? - Take advantage of digital files and rely less on print. - Promoting your initiatives to improve business and brand reputation. - Switching to recycled products and recycling trash. Eventually, your business can start getting more involved in more green marketing initiatives as well as increasing bottom lines, even in just the short term. Not only will your business benefit, but also our planet in the long run.

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Tá an bagairt leanúnach a bhaineann le téamh domhanda ag méadú de réir mar a théann gach bliain agus bíonn iarmhairtí diúltacha ag baint leis ar ár bpláinéad, le caipíní oighear polacha a leá agus le tubaistí nádúrtha a tharlaíonn go hiondúil. Tá formhór againn ag maireachtáil i saol tomhaltóra agus uirbeach, rud a fhágann go n-úsáidtear acmhainní nádúrtha gach lá. Níl aon rud cearr le húsáid na n-acmhainní seo le haghaidh ár maireachtála. Mar sin féin, is féidir linn tionchar na ngníomhaíochtaí seo a íoslaghdú agus an talamh a chosaint do ghlúin amach anseo trí shaol inbhuanaithe a thógáil, saol a fhéadfaidh riachtanais a tháirgeadh agus cothromaíocht a choinneáil. Gnó Inbhuanaithe Tá brú ar ghnólachtaí inniu maidir le dul i ngleic le go leor saincheisteanna sóisialta mar chuimsitheacht, áisiúlacht agus inbhuanaitheacht. Sa lá atá inniu ann, tá nuálaíochtaí agus réitigh ag go leor cuideachtaí chun cabhrú le todhchaí níos glaine a thógáil. Tá tacaíocht ag gabháil leis seo ó chustaiméirí atá níos mothaithe ar an tábhacht atá le cosaint an chomhshaoil a bheith acu. Tá cuideachtaí tar éis tús a chur le tionscnaimh mhargaíochta Glas, lena n-áirítear ach gan a bheith teoranta do: - Hershey's: Tá tionscnaimh atá neamhdhíobhálach don chomhshaol déanta ag an mbranda cáiliúil seacláide amhail táirgí a athúsáid chun críocha carthanachta agus gáis cheaptha teasa a laghdú faoi leath faoi 2025. - IKEA: Cabhraíonn straitéis na mórdhíola Suéise, People and Planet, le custaiméirí gan a bheith ag roghnú idir roghanna atá neamhdhíobhálach don chomhshaol agus roghanna inacmhainne, stíleacha. Tá IKEA inbhuanaithe trí phainéil ghrian a úsáid i bhformhór a bhfoirgnimh sna Stáit Aontaithe, ag fáil cadáis ó fhoinsí inbhuanaithe, agus ag obair ar adhmad in-athnuaite agus foinsí fuinnimh in 2020. Taicticí Margaíochta Glas Le méadú na ngluaiseachtaí comhshaoil, tá margaíocht ghlas ina théarma agus ina tionscnamh a dhéanann iarracht díriú ar leas an chomhshaoil. I dteannta na mbrandaí atá liostaithe thuas, féadfaidh margaíocht ghlas a bheith i gceist freisin le seirbhísí agus le táirgí a: - Tá siad déanta as ábhar athchúrsáilte. - Lean treoirlínte atá neamhdhíobhálach don chomhshaol. - Tá siad deartha le húsáid arís agus arís eile ar feadh tréimhse fada. - Ná húsáid ábhair a dhéanfaidh dochar don ozón. Chomh maith leis sin, ní gá go mbeadh gach gnó a deir go bhfuil siad neamhdhíobhálach don chomhshaol fíor. Is féidir le hinbhuanaitheacht tionchar a bheith aige freisin ar na táirgí a fhilleann muid. De ghnáth is iad miondíoltóirí a bhíonn an t-ioncam is mó acu i míonna tar éis na Nollag, rud a fhágann go bhfuil thart ar 8% go 12% de na díolacháin iomlána acu. Trí úsáid a bhaint as agus teicneolaíochtaí lóistíochta aisghabhála agus bainistíochta barántais a fheabhsú, is féidir le gnólachtaí a gcostais a laghdú. Feabhsaíonn siad caidreamh agus taithí na gcustaiméirí chomh maith le bheith costéifeachtach agus inbhuanaithe mar gheall ar bhainistiú agus díothú cuí dramhaíola. Margaíocht Ghluaiste do Ghnóthais Bheaga B'fhéidir go gceapann tú gur féidir le cuideachtaí móra cosúil le IKEA agus Hershey's dul go glas go héasca, ach is féidir le gnóthais bheaga é sin a dhéanamh freisin! Tá tionscnaimh mhargaidh ghlas á gcur i bhfeidhm ag tiomantas d'fhorbairt inbhuanaithe agus d'fhreagracht shóisialta. Ní amháin go bhfuil sé go maith don chomhshaol, ach freisin níos mó margaidh agus tarraingteach do níos mó custaiméirí atá comhshaoil-chomasach. Is é an dea-scéal, go bhfuil daoine sásta níos mó a íoc as roghanna atá neamhdhíobhálach don chomhshaol. De réir suirbhé 2014 a rinne Nielsen Global Corporate Social Responsibility, léirigh torthaí go raibh níos mó ná 50% de 30,000 freagróir ó 60 tír: - Seiceáil an pacáistiú chun a fháil amach an bhfuil an táirge inbhuanaithe. - Bhí ceannach ó chuideachta amháin ar a laghad atá cairdiúil don chomhshaol laistigh de shé mhí anuas. - Íocfaidh siad níos mó airgid le haghaidh táirgí agus seirbhísí agus brandaí atá cairdiúil don chomhshaol. Cosgais Gnó Inbhuanaithe Tá sé tairbheach agus cairdiúil don domhan agus tá sé níos tarraingtí do níos mó custaiméirí. Mar sin féin, beidh ort costais táirgthe a mhéadú beagán níos mó nuair a thiocfaidh tú ar thionscnaimh agus ábhair mhargaíochta glas. Ba mhaith leat a bheith fíor freisin agus gan éileamh bréagach a dhéanamh go bhfuil do ghnó "cairdiúil don chomhshaol", rud a d'fhéadfadh dochar a dhéanamh do chreidiúnacht do chuideachta. Buntáistí i mBainistiú Má tá gnó beag agat agus más mian leat a bheith níos cairdiúla don chomhshaol, is féidir leis na dáileoga íseal seo cabhrú leat tosú: - Ríomhairí agus leictreonaic a dhúnadh nuair nach bhfuil siad in úsáid, ní bhaineann le bheith inbhuanaithe ach le plaisteach a sheachaint, ceart? - Bain leas as comhaid dhigiteacha agus bí níos lú ag brath ar phriontáil. - Do thionscnaimh a chur chun cinn chun dea-cháil ghnó agus branda a fheabhsú. - Athrú ar tháirgí athchúrsáilte agus dramhaíl athchúrsála. Faoi dheireadh, is féidir le do ghnó tosú ag dul i mbun níos mó tionscnaimh mhargaíochta níos glaine chomh maith le línte bunlíne a mhéadú, fiú amháin sa ghearrthéarma. Ní hamháin go mbainfidh do ghnó tairbhe, ach beidh an pláinéad againn freisin ar fad.

Atrial tachycardia (AT) is a supraventricular rhythm originating in the atria outside of the SA node at a rate between 120 and 250 bpm. - Digitalis toxicity - Valvular (especially rheumatic) heart disease - Coronary Artery Disease - Acute Myocardial Infarction - Electrolyte disturbances - Regular rhythm (equal R-R intervals) - Atrial rate 120-250 bpm (equal P-P intervals) - Conduction is commonly 1:1 (one P wave for every QRS complex). However, conduction may be 2:1 or greater (> or = 2 Pwaves for every QRS complex with an isoelectric baseline between successive P waves), especially in the presence of digitalis toxicity. This phenomenon is sometimes called atrial tachycardia with AV block. The abnormal conduction ratios (2:1, 3:1. and so on) that often accompany digitalis toxicity reflect drug-induced conduction block (digitalis inhibits conduction through AV node) as well as efforts by the AV node to triage the impulse that are bombarding it. - PR interval short when conduction through the AV node is 1:1. The speed of conduction through the AV node accelerates as the rate increases, thereby shortening the PR interval. - P wave morphology is often different from that seen in normal sinus rhythm (NSR). At faster rates, the ectopic P waves may be difficult to see and may distort the T wave of the preceeding beat. Leads II, III, aVF, and V1 should be examined properly for their presence. - The shape of QRS is unchanged from that seen during NSR unless conduction in the ventricles is disturbed. - AT may occur in paroxysms (bursts); when it terminates, there may be a long pause before NSR resumes. - Withhold digoxin - Treat underlying heart disease - Correct electrolyte abnormalities such as hypokalemia and hypomagnesemia that commonly accompany this dysrhythmia during digitalis toxicity.

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Is rithim supraventricular é tachycardia atrial (AT) a thagann as na atriums lasmuigh den nóid SA ag ráta idir 120 agus 250 bpm. - Toxicity Digitalis - Aird- galar (go háirithe reamhóideach) - Galar Artair Corónach - Infarct Miocárdaigh Gorta - Athruithe ar leictreolaithe - Rath rialta (eachtraí R-R comhionanna) - ráta atrial 120-250 bpm (eachtraí P-P comhionann) - Is gnách go bhfuil an t-iompar 1: 1 (tonn P amháin do gach coimpléasc QRS). Is féidir, áfach, go mbeidh an t-aistriúchán 2:1 nó níos mó (> nó = 2 Pwaves do gach coimpléasc QRS le bunlíne isoelectric idir tonntaí P tar éis a chéile), go háirithe i láthair tocsaineacht digitalis. Uaireanta tugtar tachycardia atrial le bloc AV ar an bhfeiniméan seo. Léiríonn na cóimheasa seolta neamhghnácha (2:1, 3:1, agus mar sin de) a bhíonn i dteannta tocsaineacht digitalis go minic bloc seoltaí a spreagann drugaí (cuireann digitalis cosc ar sheolta trí nóid AV) chomh maith le hiarrachtaí an nóid AV an impulse a bhfuil bombarding air a triail. - Tá an t-eachtra PR gearr nuair a bhíonn an t-eachtra trí an nóid AV 1: 1. Déantar luas na hiondúthana tríd an nóid AV a luathachadh de réir mar a mhéadaíonn an ráta, rud a ghearrann an eatramh PR. - Is minic a bhíonn an mhorflóig P difriúil ón méid a fheictear i rithim sinus gnáth (NSR). Ag rátaí níos tapúla, d'fhéadfadh sé go mbeadh sé deacair na tonnta P ectopic a fheiceáil agus d'fhéadfadh siad tonn T an bhratach roimhe sin a chailleadh. Ba cheart na sliocht II, III, aVF, agus V1 a scrúdú go cuí ar a láithreacht. - Níl cruth QRS athraithe ó na cinn a fheictear le linn NSR mura ndéantar cur isteach ar thráchtáil sna ventricles. - Is féidir go dtarlóidh AT i bparóxisms (bursts); nuair a chríochnaíonn sé, d'fhéadfadh go mbeadh sos fada ann sula leanann NSR ar aghaidh. - Digoxin a choinneáil - Leigheas a dhéanamh ar bhreoiteacht croí bunbhunaithe - Athruithe leictrealaithe a cheartú mar hypokalaemia agus hypomagnesemia a bhíonn ag gabháil go coitianta leis an dysrhythmia seo le linn tocsaineacht digitalis.

Facts about Zirconium Facts about Zirconium - Element included on the Periodic Table Facts about the Definition of the Element Zirconium The Element Zirconium is defined as... A lustrous, greyish-white, strong, ductile metallic element obtained primarily from zircon and used chiefly in ceramic and refractory compounds, as an alloying agent, and in nuclear reactors as a highly corrosion-resistant alloy. Interesting Facts about the Origin and Meaning of the element name Zirconium What are the origins of the word Zirconium ? The name Zirconium originates from the Persian word 'zarkun' meaning gold-like. Facts about the Classification of the Element Zirconium Zirconium is classified as a "Transition Metal" which are located in Groups 3 - 12 of the Periodic Table. An Element classified as a Transition Metals is ductile, malleable, and able to conduct electricity and heat. Brief Facts about the Discovery and History of the Element Zirconium Zirconium was discovered by Martin Heinrich Klaproth in 1789. It was first isolated in 1824 by Jons Jakob Berzelius by heating a mixture of potassium and potassium zirconium fluoride. Occurrence of the element Zirconium in the Atmosphere Located in USA, Australia, Brazil, India and Russia Source of zirconium is the zirconium silicate mineral, zircon and baddeleyite Common Uses of Zirconium A natural gemstone used in jewelry - cubic zirconia Cubic zirconium rings and earrings Aluminum zirconium tetrachlorohydrex Nuclear energy uses Artificial joints and limbs The Properties of the Element Zirconium Name of Element : Zirconium Symbol of Element : Zr Atomic Number of Zirconium : 40 Atomic Mass: 91.224 amu Melting Point: 1852.0 °C - 2125.15 °K Boiling Point: 4377.0 °C - 4650.15 °K Number of Protons/Electrons in Zirconium : 40 Number of Neutrons in Zirconium : 51 Crystal Structure: Hexagonal Density @ 293 K: 6.49 g/cm3 Color of Zirconium : grayish-white The element Zirconium and the Periodic Table Find out more facts about Zirconium on the Periodic Table which arranges every chemical element according to its atomic number, as based on the periodic law, so that chemical elements with similar properties are in the same column. Our Periodic Table is simple to use - just click on the symbol for Zirconium for additional facts and info and for an instant comparison of the Atomic Weight, Melting Point, Boiling Point and Mass - G/cc of Zirconium with any other element. An invaluable source for more interesting facts and information about the Zirconium element and as a Chemistry reference guide. Facts and Info about the element Argon - IUPAC and the Modern Standardised Periodic Table The Standardised Periodic Table in use today was agreed by the International Union of Pure Applied Chemistry, IUPAC, in 1985 which includes the Zirconium element. The famous Russian Scientist, Dimitri Mendeleev, perceived the correct classification method of "the periodic table" for the 65 elements which were known in his time. Zirconium was discovered by Martin Heinrich Klaproth in 1789. It was first isolated in 1824 by Jons Jakob Berzelius by heating a mixture of potassium and potassium zirconium fluoride. The Standardised Periodic Table now recognises more periods and elements than Dimitri Mendeleev knew in his day but still all fitting into his concept of the "Periodic Table" in which Zirconium is just one element that can be found. Facts and Info about the Element Zirconium Information Facts about the Zirconium Element

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Fíricí faoi Zirconium Fíricí faoi Zirconium - Eileamh a chuimsítear ar an Tábla Peiriodóideach Fíricí faoi Shainmhíniú an Eileamaint Zirconium Sainmhínítear an Ghné Zirconium mar... Eileamh miotalach gleoite, bán-ghluaite, láidir, ductile a fhaightear go príomha ó shiorcóin agus a úsáidtear go príomha i gcomhdhúile ceirmeacha agus reifreactair, mar ghníomhaire cóimhiotail, agus i imoibritheoirí núicléacha mar chóimhiotail atá an-chosanta do chré. Fíricí Suimiúla faoi Thús agus Ciall an Ainm Eileamaint Zirconium Cad iad na bunús na focal Zirconium ? Tagann an t-ainm Zirconium ó fhocal na Peirsí 'zarkun' a chiallaíonn cosúil le ór. Fíricí faoi Chlabhsáil an Eileamaint Zirconium Tá an tsircóiniam aicmithe mar "Meitiltí Trédhearcacha" atá suite i ghrúpaí 3 - 12 den Tábla Peiriodúil. Tá Eileamh a aicmithear mar Mhéideanna Aistrithe dúictil, malleable, agus in ann leictreachas agus teas a sheoladh. Fíricí Beag faoi Fhaisnéis agus Stair an Eileamaint Zirconium D'aimsigh Martin Heinrich Klaproth an tsircóiniam i 1789. Bhí sé ar leithligh den chéad uair i 1824 ag Jons Jakob Berzelius trí mheascadh de photaisiam agus photaisiam-zircóiniam-fhluairíd a théamh. Taispeántas an eiliminte Zirconium san Atmaisféar Lonnaithe sna Stáit Aontaithe, san Astráil, sa Bhrasaíl, san India agus sa Rúis Is é foinse an tsircóiniam an mianraí síleatatsircóiniam, an tsircón agus an baddeleyite Úsáid coitianta an tsircóiniam Gáire nádúrtha a úsáidtear i jewelry - cubic zirconia Rangaí agus cluaise ciúbach ó shiorcóiniam Tetrachlóirhiodréacs alúmanaim siorcóiniam Úsáidte fuinnimh núicléach Comhlachtaí agus foirgnimh shaorga Príomhcháilíochtaí an Eileamaint Zirconium Ainm an Eileamaint: Zirconium Símbol an Eileamaint: Zr Uimhir Adamhach an tSiorcóim: 40 Mais Adamhach: 91.224 amu Píobán leá: 1852,0 °C - 2125.15 °K Píobán fiacla: 4377,0 °C - 4650,15 °K Líon Prótain/Eileacróin i Sírcóim: 40 Líon na nIontrónna i Sírcóim: 51 Struchtúr Criostail: Heicseagónach Tromlach @ 293 K: 6.49 g/cm3 Dath na Sircóiniam: bán-ghlór An eilimint Zirconium agus an Tábla Peiriodóideach Faigh amach níos mó fíricí faoi Zirconium ar an Tábla Peiriodúil a shocraíonn gach eilimint cheimiceach de réir a uimhir adamhach, de réir an dlí tréimhsiúil, ionas go mbeidh eilimintí cheimiceacha a bhfuil airíonna den chineál céanna acu sa cholún céanna. Tá ár Tábla Peiriodúil simplí le húsáid - cliceáil ar an siombail do Zirconium le haghaidh fíricí agus faisnéise breise agus le haghaidh comparáid láithreach ar an Meáchan Adamhach, an Phríomh-Láithriú, an Phríomh-Bholadh agus an Mais - G / cc de Zirconium le haon eilimint eile. Foinse luachmhar le haghaidh fíricí agus faisnéise níos suimiúla faoin eilimint Zirconium agus mar threoir thagartha Ceimic. Fíricí agus Eolas faoin eilimint Argon - IUPAC agus an Tábla Peiriodóideach Caighdeánaithe Nua-aimseartha An Tábla Peiriodach Caighdeánaithe atá in úsáid inniu a d'aontaigh an tAontas Idirnáisiúnta Ceimic Ghnóthaithe Píor, IUPAC, i 1985 lena n-áirítear an eilimint Zirconium. Chonaic an Eolaí cáiliúil Rúiseach, Dimitri Mendeleev, an modh aicmithe ceart den "tábla tréimhsiúil" do na 65 eilimint a bhí ar eolas ina am. D'aimsigh Martin Heinrich Klaproth an tsircóiniam i 1789. Bhí sé ar leithligh den chéad uair i 1824 ag Jons Jakob Berzelius trí mheascadh de photaisiam agus photaisiam-zircóiniam-fhluairíd a théamh. Aithníonn an Tábla Peiriodúil Caighdeánaithe níos mó tréimhsí agus eilimintí anois ná mar a bhí ar eolas ag Dimitri Mendeleev ina lá ach fós go léir a oireann a choincheap ar an "Tábla Peiriodúil" ina bhfuil Zirconium ach aon eilimint amháin is féidir a fháil. Fíricí agus Eolas faoin Eileamh Zirconium Fíricí Faisnéis faoi Eileamh Zirconium

Isolation, magnificent beauty, and interesting geometry help make Big Bend National Park one of my favorite places on earth. Granted, it takes work to get there—an eight hour drive from San Antonio, mostly through the Chihuahuan Desert. But your arrival is spectacular. As you descend from Persimmon Gap down to the desert floor, you watch the Chisos Mountains rise in front of you. And the long drive is a metaphor for your experience at the park. The best hike, up to the South Rim, is an all-day ordeal but your reward is an incredible vista looking hundreds of miles south across the sweep of the Rio Grande into the Mexican landscape. A trip to Big Bend requires a lot of effort, for which you will be richly compensated. As an architect, what interests me most are the geometries of the landscape. Nature is the model for how humans design, and few places evidence this like Big Bend. First is the geometry of symmetry. One sees this initially in the individual mountains that spring up on your approach to the park; then on a grander scale in the cluster of the Chisos. As one moves through the park, the Chisos form a visual anchor around which the vast landscape revolves. And once up in these mountains, the Basin—an ancient volcanic caldera—provides a hollowed out ampitheater to all that plays out around it. The park is a series of concentric visual rings, from basin to mountains, to desert, to river, to beyond. Recently I read a book about spatial organization which proposed that the simplicity and efficiency of ant hills demonstrated these insects’ genius for structure and composition. Big Bend appears to multiply the lessons of these little creatures a thousand fold. Within this overall composition, however, one sees a very different form-shaping at work—what is known as fractal geometry. Haphazard arrangements of geologic form in the crags and crannies of the Chisos contradict the overall sense of symmetry. Fractal geometries result not from imposing grander design schemes, but from series of random “decisions,” so to speak, which nature makes when its forces intersect. Imagine some lava shootong up through the air, trying to decide where to make landfall. It’s not likely to make a neat ant hill. Depending on its own temperature and that of the air, its viscosity, prevailing wind currents, and so forth, it may split into many smaller pieces, each of which is then subject to the same set of forces, and so on. When all is said and done, a very irregular pattern may emerge. It is this contrast—a symmetrical, seemingly ordered landscape, versus a series of randomly determined features—that makes the natural environment of a Big Bend so fascinating. We can see this in what we design too. For efficiency and order, we tend to arrange our structures in symmetry. Yet seemingly random influences—unusual site conditions or programmatic requirements—can be exploited to provide richness in detail (or even basic form!) that completes a good design. Nature is, after all, a good teacher.

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Is é an t-aonar, an áilleacht iontach, agus an gheoiméadar suimiúil a chabhraíonn le Páirc Náisiúnta Big Bend a bheith ar cheann de na háiteanna is fearr liom ar domhan. De réir mar a léiríonn an t-alt seo, ní mór dúinn a bheith ag obair chun teacht ar an áit sin - ocht n-uaire an chloig ar an mbóthar ó San Antonio, den chuid is mó tríd an Desert Chihuahuan. Ach tá do theacht iontach. Agus tú ag titim ó Persimmon Gap síos go dtí an talamh fásach, féachann tú ar na Sléibhte Chisos ag ardú i do choinne. Agus tá an tiomáint fada ina mhaitéara ar do thaithí sa pháirc. Is é an turas is fearr, suas go dtí an Rim Theas, ordeal lá ar fad ach is é do luach saothair a vista dochreidte ag breathnú na céadta míle ó dheas thar an scuab an Rio Grande isteach sa tírdhreach Mheicsiceo. Éilíonn turas go Big Bend go leor iarrachta, agus tabharfar cúiteamh saibhir duit as sin. Mar ailtire, is iad na geoimreachtaí an tírdhreacha a bhfuil spéis agam sa chuid is mó. Is é an dúlra an tsamhail maidir le conas a dhearann daoine, agus is beag áit a léiríonn sé seo mar Big Bend. An chéad cheann is ea géimeatraíocht na síimitéireachta. Feictear é seo ar dtús sna sléibhte aonair a thagann suas nuair a bhíonn tú ag cur isteach ar an bpáirc; ansin ar scála níos mó i ngrúpa na Chisos. Agus duine ag gluaiseacht tríd an bpáirc, cruthaíonn na Chisos béilí amhairc ar a bhfuil an tírdhreach ollmhór ag casadh timpeall. Agus nuair a bheidh sé ar na sléibhte seo, an Basin - caidéal volcán ársa - soláthraíonn amfiteátrán hollow amach go léir a imríonn amach timpeall air. Is sraith fáinní amhairc chuimsiciúla é an pháirc, ó bhéasc go sléibhte, go bhfásach, go abhainn, go níos faide. Le déanaí léigh mé leabhar faoi eagraíocht spásúil a mhol go léiríonn simplíocht agus éifeachtúlacht na mboll na n-amhrán na heisceabail seo le haghaidh struchtúr agus comhdhéanamh. Is cosúil go ndéanann Big Bend na ceachtanna a fhaigheann na créatúir bheaga seo a mhéadú míle uair. Sa chomhdhéanamh foriomlán seo, áfach, feictear foirm-chomhchruthú an-difriúil ag obair - rud ar a dtugtar geoimreacht fractal. Tá socrú randamach foirmeacha géolaíocha i gclochanna agus crannies Chisos contrártha don chiall comhthreomhar foriomlán. Ní as scéimeanna dearaidh níos mó a fhorchur a thagann géimeatraíochtaí frachtála, ach ó shraith de chinntí randamacha, mar a labhraíonn, a dhéanann an nádúr nuair a thrasnaíonn a fórsaí. Samhlaigh roinnt lava shooting suas tríd an aer, ag iarraidh a chinneadh cá háit a dhéanamh ar thalamh. Ní dócha go mbeidh cnoc mheaisín glan ann. Ag brath ar a thimpeallacht féin agus ar thimpeallacht an aeir, ar a leigeas, ar na sruthanna gaoithe atá i réim, agus mar sin de, d'fhéadfadh sé a bhriseadh ina lán píosaí níos lú, a bhfuil gach ceann acu faoi réir na ngrúpaí céanna fórsaí, agus mar sin de. Nuair a bheidh gach rud ráite agus déanta, d'fhéadfadh patrún an-earráideach teacht chun cinn. Is é an contrárthacht seo - tírdhreach siméadrach, ordúil, i gcoinne sraith de ghnéithe a chinntear go randamach - a dhéanann timpeallacht nádúrtha Big Bend chomh suimiúil. Is féidir linn é seo a fheiceáil sna rudaí a dhéanaimid a dhearadh freisin. Chun éifeachtúlacht agus ord a bhaint amach, bíonn claonadh againn ár struchtúir a shocrú i siméadracht. Ach is féidir tionchair a bhfuil an chuma orthu a bheith randamach - coinníollacha neamhghnácha an láithreáin nó riachtanais chlárúlacha - a shaothrú chun saibhreas mionsonraithe a sholáthar (nó fiú foirm bhunúsach!) go bhfuil críochnaithe dearadh maith. Is múinteoir maith í an dúlra, tar éis an tsaoil.

Crayola has been famous for their wide color spectrum of art devices since 1903, so you’d think the ability to see the full color spectrum would be a prerequisite for the job. But, just like that English teacher who never learned how to read, a man, who, in his thirty seven year career at Crayola, spanning 1.4 billion crayons, surprised everyone when he announced that he had been colorblind the entire time. Emerson Moser, a senior crayon maker for Crayola, made the announcement when he retired. Moser’s condition isn’t as uncommon as you may think. Up to eight percent of men have colorblindness in some form. The colorblind just have fewer photoreceptors in their eyes. The unfortunate thing is, that colorblindness can restrict some career choices. For instance, Air Force pilots cannot be colorblind, nor electricians or firefighters.

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Crayola Tá clú ar a speictream leathan dathanna de na feistí ealaíne ó 1903, mar sin bheadh tú ag smaoineamh go mbeadh an cumas a fheiceáil ar an speictream dathanna iomlán a bheith ina réamhriachtanas don phost. Ach, díreach cosúil leis an múinteoir Béarla sin nár d'fhoghlaim riamh conas a léamh, fear, a, ina ghairm bheatha tríocha seacht mbliana ag Crayola, a shíneadh ar 1.4 billiún crayons, iontas gach duine nuair a d'fhógair sé go raibh sé colorblind an t-am ar fad. Rinne Emerson Moser, déantóir crayon sinsearach do Crayola, an fógra nuair a d'éirigh sé as. Ní chomh neamhchoitianta is a cheapann tú é staid Moser. Tá an-chuid de 8 faoin gcéad d'fhir ag fulaingt ó dhaltar i bhfoirm éigin. Níl ach níos lú fothoghlacadóirí ag na daoine dall dathanna ina súile. Is é an rud trua, gur féidir le dallghluaiseacht dathanna roinnt roghanna gairme a shrianadh. Mar shampla, ní féidir le píolótaí na hAerfhórsa a bheith dall ar dathanna, ná le leictreoirí ná le tineoirí.

Introduction to World Religions by Felix Just, S.J., Ph.D. An Overview of the Qur'an (Koran) [still under construction] The Qur'an (usually spelled Koran in older English texts): the only "Holy Book" or "Sacred Scriptures" of Islam Title and History: The Arabic word "Qur'an" literally means "recitation" (see Q 96:1-5; the chronologically first or oldest surah). The Arabic root QR ' means both "read" and "recite" and "proclaim" - since almost all "reading" in the ancient and medieval worlds was done out loud, often for groups, rather than silently and privately, as we assume today. Muslims believe that the Qur'an contains the direct revelations of God's words, through the angel Gabriel, to the prophet Muhammad. The first revelation Muhammad received was on Lailat al-Qadr ("Night of Power"; see Q 97:1-5), during the month of Ramadan in the year 610 CE. After a pause of about one year, he received further revelations, which continued throughout the remaining 23 years of his life (until his death in 632 CE). Muhammad not only learned/memorized the revelations himself, but then "recited" them to his followers, who in turn memorized, recited, and transmitted them. The revelations were written down and collected during Muhammad's lifetime, although the present arrangement was not set until several decades after his death. The present text of the Qur'an was compiled and arranged in order under the direction of 'Uthman ibn Arran, the third Caliph (ruled 644-656 CE). Many Muslims believe that the Qur'an is itself a miracle, since they maintain that the original version is preserved with God in heaven, and the earthly text has never been changed since being revealed to Muhammad. Language and Genre: Muslims believe that since God's words were originally revealed in Arabic, it is "untranslatable" into any other language. Thus, most Muslims try to learn enough Arabic to be able to read the Qur'an, at least the parts commonly used in their prayers. With the spread of Islam to non-Arabic cultures, more and more translations have been made into English and other world languages. Yet Muslims usually emphasize (even in the book titles) that these books contain "The Message of the Qur'an" or "The Meaning of the Koran" or "An Interpretation of the Qur'an" - rather than the (original Arabic) Qur'an itself. In contrast to the Hebrew Bible and the Christian New Testament, both of which contain multiple literary genres, the Qur'an consists almost entirely of only one literary genre: prophecy (messages from God spoken through a prophet to be transmitted to people). Thus, when the Qur'an reads "I" (or even plural "we"), the speaker is almost always God, rather than Muhammad or anyone else. Contents and Arrangement: There are a total of 114 surahs ("chapters"), each containing between 3 and 286 ayahs (verses; lit. "miracles"). The surahs are not arranged in chronological order of when the revelations were first received by Muhammad (some surahs, in fact, contain various revelations dating from different periods of Muhammad's life). Nor are they arranged thematically, although some thematically or chronologically related surahs are grouped together in smaller blocks within the Qur'an. Instead, the surahs are arranged in decreasing order of length. more or less (except for the brief introductory Surah 1). The Arabic title of each surah is a prominent word or phrase found within the surah, often near its beginning. All but Surah 9 begin with the identical heading: "In the name of Allah, most Gracious, most Merciful." Many surahs also have one or more Arabic letters near the beginning, the meaning of which is mostly uncertain. Jews and Christians: The Qur'an mentions many characters and episodes familiar from the Bible, esp. the Hebrew Bible, but also including John the Baptist, Jesus, and Mary. However, there are no direct quotations of texts from the Bible, and some of the stories are told in versions significantly different from the Bible. The Qur'an frequently also refers to Jews and Christians in general as "People of the Book," since their scriptures (the Hebrew Bible and New Testament, respectively) play central roles in these religions. Reading the Qur'an: The Qur'an is divided in various ways for reading over a set period of days, with blocks of approximately equal size for each day. The Qur'an is divided into seven large blocks, so the whole book could be read within one week. It is also divided into 30 sections, called Juz; many Muslims use these divisions to read the entire text during the month of Ramadan. Thematic Blocks in the Qur'an: Although the 114 surahs of the Qur'an are arranged in more-or-less decreasing order of length, rather than in chronological order of when they were first revealed, there are some smaller thematic blocks of related surahs in certain sections, as the following table shows. The longest by far is Surah 2 (with 286 ayahs); next longest are Surahs 3-7 (ranging from 120 to 206 ayahs each). The shortest is Surah 108 (only 3 short ayahs); but most of the last 22 surahs are very brief (from 3 to 11 ayahs each). The length of the ayahs also varies greatly; for example, each ayah is very short in Surahs 78-82, but quite long in Surahs 48, 60, 65, and 66. The earliest/oldest revelation (from 610 CE) is generally recognized to be Surah 96 (at least its first 5 ayahs), followed by Surahs 68, 73, and 74. The last revelation (just before Muhammad's death in 632) is generally thought to be Surah 110. The exact dating of most of the other surahs is hard to determine, but is not important for their interpretation in most cases. It is useful to distinguish between those surahs that were revealed during Muhammad's time in Makka (610-622), and those that were revealed later, while he was living in Madinah (622-632): The earlier surahs (from the Makkan period) focus more on social justice, conversion, final judgment, and recognition of the one true God (monotheism). The later surahs (from the Madinan period) focus more on relationships within the Muslim community, and their relationships with Jews and Christians. Description of Content "The Opening": an introduction to the entire Qur'an. The Muslim community, its development, internal problems, and external relations. The unity of God. The battle of Badr, and the new Muslim community. Historical developments leading up to the Hijra (the migration to Madinah). Nature points to nature's God Worship and prayer; the Hajj and fasting. 22 & 24: Madinah 23 & 25: Makka Prophets of the past and the spirit of prophecy. Time and history: past, present, and future. On violence and slander; about the battle of Badr and other conflicts. Mysteries of the spiritual world. early to late Makka The "Ha Min" series. Internal & external community relations. God's revelation through nature, history, and prophets. [55 possibly Madinah] Short surahs about the social life of the Muslim community. Poetic surahs about various aspects of spiritual and mystical life; also human responsibility and destiny; judgment and the afterlife.

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Tús le Reiligiúin an Domhain le Felix Just, S.J., Ph.D. Léargas ar an gCúran (Cúran) [ag obair fós] An Qur'an (a scríobhtar de ghnáth Koran i téacsanna Béarla níos sine): an t-aon "Leabhar Naofa" nó "Scríbhinní Naofa" san Ioslam Teideal agus Stair: Ciallaíonn an focal Araibis "Curain" go litriúil "a léamh" (féach Q 96:1-5; an chéad surah nó an ceann is sine de réir aimsire). Ciallaíonn an fréamh Araibis QR ' "leughadh" agus "a léamh" agus "a fhógairt" araon - ós rud é go ndearnadh beagnach gach "leughadh" sna saol ársa agus meánaoiseach amach, go minic do ghrúpaí, seachas go ciúin agus go príobháideach, mar a cheapann muid inniu. Creideann Moslamaigh go bhfuil na focail dhíreach de chuid Dé, trí an t-aingeal Gabriel, chuig an fáidh Muhammad, i gCúran. Ba é an chéad nochtadh a fuair Muhammad ar Lailat al-Qadr ("Night of Power"; féach Q 97:1-5), i rith mhí Ramadan sa bhliain 610 CE. Tar éis sos thart ar bhliain amháin, fuair sé réamhaisnéisí breise, a lean ar aghaidh i rith na 23 bliana eile dá shaol (go dtí a bháis i 632 CE). Ní hamháin gur fhoghlaim Muhammad / go gcuimhneacháin na réamhaisnéisí é féin, ach ansin "a léigh" iad dá leanúna, a chuimhneacháin, a léigh agus a tharchur iad. Scríobhadh na réamhaisnéisí síos agus bailíodh iad le linn shaol Muhammad, cé nár socraíodh an socrú reatha go dtí roinnt blianta tar éis a bháis. Ba é 'Uthman ibn Arran, an tríú Caliph (rialaithe 644-656 CE) a rinne an téacs reatha den Churan a thiomsú agus a shocrú in ord. Creideann go leor Moslamach gur míorúilt é an Qur'an féin, ós rud é go gcreideann siad go bhfuil an leagan bunaidh caomhnaithe ag Dia sa spéir, agus níor athraíodh an téacs talún ó nochtadh é do Muhammad. Teanga agus Seánra: Creideann Moslamaigh gur foilsíodh focail Dé ar dtús san Araibis, agus go bhfuil sé "neamh-aistrithe" go dtí aon teanga eile. Dá bhrí sin, déanann formhór na Moslamach iarracht an t-Arabach a fhoghlaim go leor chun a bheith in ann an Qur'an a léamh, ar a laghad na codanna a úsáidtear go coitianta ina n-urnaí. De réir mar a scaipeadh an Ioslam chuig cultúir neamh-Arabacha, rinneadh níos mó agus níos mó aistrithe go Béarla agus teangacha eile an domhain. Ach is gnách go gcuireann Moslamaigh béim (fiú i dteideal na leabhar) go bhfuil "Teachtaireacht an Chúraim" nó "Mean an Chúraim" nó "Teagaisc ar an Chúraim" sna leabhair seo - seachas an Chúraim (an Chúraim) féin. I gcodarsnacht leis an mBíobla Heabhrach agus an Tiomna Nua Críostaí, a bhfuil go leor cineálacha liteartha acu araon, níl ach cineál liteartha amháin sa Churan: fáidh (teachtaireachtaí ó Dhia a labhraítear trí fháidh a tharchur chuig daoine). Dá bhrí sin, nuair a léann an Qur'an "I" (nó fiú an iomad "we"), is é an t-aistriúchán beagnach i gcónaí Dia, seachas Muhammad nó duine ar bith eile. Ábhar agus Réitigh: Tá 114 surahs ("caibidil") san iomlán, agus tá idir 3 agus 286 Ayahs (verses; lit. "míorúiltí"). Níl na súraim socraithe in ord cróineolaíoch nuair a fuair Muhammad na foilseacháin den chéad uair (tá foilseacháin éagsúla i roinnt súraim, i ndáiríre, a théann ó amanna éagsúla i saol Muhammad). Ní chuirtear iad ar fáil ar bhonn téamaí, cé go bhfuil roinnt súr a bhaineann le téamaí nó le cróineolaíocht grúpáilte le chéile i mblocanna níos lú laistigh den Churan. Ina áit sin, tá na súrsaí socraithe in ord ag titim i bhfad. níos mó nó níos lú (seachas an Surah 1 tosaigh gairid). Is é teideal Araibis gach soirear focal nó frása suntasach a fhaightear laistigh den soirear, go minic gar dá thús. Tosaíonn gach ceann acu ach an Surah 9 leis an teideal céanna: "In ainm Allah, an chuid is mó trócaire, an chuid is mó trócaire". Tá litir Araibis amháin nó níos mó ag go leor súraim gar don tús, agus níl a bhrí cinnte den chuid is mó. Giúdaigh agus Críostaithe: Tagraíonn an Qur'an do go leor carachtair agus eipeasóid atá ar eolas againn ón mBíobla, go háirithe. an Bíobla Eabhrais, ach freisin lena n-áirítear Eoin Baiste, Íosa, agus Máire. Mar sin féin, níl aon léachtaí dírithe go díreach ón mBíobla ann, agus insítear roinnt de na scéalta i leaganacha atá go suntasach difriúil ón mBíobla. Is minic a thagraíonn an Qur'an do na Giúdaigh agus do na Críostaithe i gcoitinne mar "People of the Book", ós rud é go bhfuil ról lárnach ag a gcuid scrioptúir (an Bíobla Heabhrach agus an Tiomna Nua, faoi seach) sna reiligiúin seo. Ag léamh an Qur'an: Tá an Qur'an roinnte ar bhealaí éagsúla le léamh thar thréimhse ama socraithe laethanta, le bloic de mhéid thart ar an gcéanna do gach lá. Tá an Qur'an roinnte ina seacht bhloc mór, ionas gur féidir an leabhar iomlán a léamh i gceann seachtaine. Tá sé roinnte ina 30 rannán, ar a dtugtar Juz; úsáideann go leor Moslamach na rannáin seo chun an téacs iomlán a léamh le linn mhí Ramadan. Bloic Téamacha sa Chúran: Cé go bhfuil na 114 surahs de na Qur'an socraithe in ord níos mó nó níos lú ag laghdú ar fhad, seachas in ord cróineolaíoch nuair a nochtadh iad den chéad uair, tá roinnt bloic téamacha níos lú de surahs gaolmhara i rannáin áirithe, mar a léiríonn an tábla seo a leanas. Is é an ceann is faide ná Surah 2 (le 286 Ayahs); is iad na Surahs 3-7 an ceann is faide (ag dul ó 120 go 206 Ayahs gach ceann). Is é an ceann is giorra Surah 108 (níl ach 3 Ayahs gearr); ach tá an chuid is mó de na 22 Surahs deireanach an-ghearr (ó 3 go 11 Ayahs gach ceann). Tá fad na n-aíonna ag athrú go mór freisin; mar shampla, tá gach aíon an-ghearr i Surahs 78-82, ach fada go leor i Surahs 48, 60, 65, agus 66. Is é an nochtadh is luaithe / is sine (ó 610 CE) a aithnítear de ghnáth mar Surah 96 (a chéad 5 Ayahs ar a laghad), agus Surahs 68, 73 agus 74 ina dhiaidh sin. Is é an réamhrá deireanach (go díreach roimh bhás Muhammad i 632) a mheastar go ginearálta a bheith Surah 110. Tá sé deacair dátaíocht chruinn an chuid is mó de na súr eile a chinneadh, ach ní bhíonn sé tábhachtach dá léirmhíniú i bhformhór na gcásanna. Tá sé úsáideach idirdhealú a dhéanamh idir na súrsa a nochtadh le linn am Muhammad i Mecca (610-622), agus iad siúd a nochtadh níos déanaí, agus é ag maireachtáil i Medina (622-632): Díríonn na súrsacha níos luaithe (ó thréimhse Mecca) níos mó ar cheartas sóisialta, tiontú, breithiúnas deiridh, agus aitheantas an t-aon Dia fíor (aon-dhíonú). Díríonn na súrsaí níos déanaí (ó thréimhse na Meadán) níos mó ar chaidrimh laistigh den phobal Moslamach, agus ar a gcaidrimh le Giúdaigh agus Críostaithe. Tuairisc ar Ábhar "An Oscailt": cur isteach ar an Qur'an ar fad. An pobal Moslamach, a fhorbairt, fadhbanna inmheánacha, agus caidreamh seachtrach. An aontacht Dé. Cath Badr, agus an pobal Moslamach nua. Forbairtí stairiúla a d'fhág go dtí an Hijra (an imirce go dtí Madinah). Léiríonn an nádúr Dia na nádúr Adhradh agus an t-amhrán, an Hajj agus an fasta. 22 & 24: Madinah 23 & 25: Mecca Na fáithe san am atá caite agus an spiorad na fáidh. Am agus stair: am atá caite, am atá ann, agus am atá le teacht. Ar fhoréigean agus ar cháin; faoi throid Badr agus coimhlintí eile. Mysteries an domhain spioradálta. luath go Mecca déanach An tsraith "Ha Min". Caidreamh inmheánach agus seachtrach an phobail. Nochtadh Dé trí nádúr, stair, agus fáithe. [55 b'fhéidir Madinah] Surahanna gearr faoi shaol sóisialta an phobail Mhuslamach. Surahs filíochta faoi ghnéithe éagsúla den saol spioradálta agus mistéireach; freisin freagracht agus cinniúint an duine; breithiúnas agus an saol ina dhiaidh.

The Religious Spirit of the Slavs (1916) by Nikolai Velimirovic The Holy Synod and Tolstoi. When Count Tolstoi was excommunicated by the Holy Synod of Russia because "he preached the teachings which are contrary to the Christian faith," the world was divided in opinion and sympathy into two parts. The partisans of Tolstoi were in the majority in the Western world; those of the Holy Synod in Russia and the Orthodox East. Yet Holy Russia rejected Tolstoi with much more compassion than Western Europe approved of him. It was a human tragedy which is not often repeated in history and was understood only by Russia. The conflict was more stern than appeared on the surface. The problems in question meant not less than the dilemma: either the Christian world was to continue or it must return to the starting point of human history and begin all anew. A little blade of grass in the field said to its green neighbours: "Why do we grow up? It is nonsense and pain. In growing up we grow in complications, which enhance the darkness and pain of our lives. I propose, therefore, to go back into seeds, from which we have grown big and So spoke one blade of grass to the field. And the field replied: "Although perhaps we are growing in nonsense and pain, still we cannot return, we must grow and go our way in the belief that we are not mistaken." That is the simile of Tolstoi and the Holy Synod. A Circle or a Drama. Tolstoi perceived life as a circle, with the beginning everywhere and with the end everywhere. The Holy Synod, representing Slav Orthodoxy, perceived life as a drama with a beginning and an end in space and time. From his point of view, Tolstoi thought it possible for mankind to stop a mistaken course of things and to begin anew, to cast away all the burdens of culture, of State, Church, militarism, worldly ambitions, the vanities of towns, to draw the curtain on the past and to come back to the field and forest, to plough and sow, to listen to the life of Nature and to live with Nature and God in unison. The Holy Synod, from their point of view, thought that the past is the very foundation of the present and future, and that in separating us from the past we were as an uprooted plant, condemned to inevitable death, while in continuing the world-drama we are going the only possible way. The beginning of sin in this drama is in Adam, the beginning of salvation is in Christ. We cannot live without taking notice even of the life of Adam and without connecting our life with Christ’s. And all the other millions of human beings between those two milestones, between Adam and Christ, and Christ and us, are greater or smaller foundations, or conditions, or even disturbances of our own life. "My understanding is against your traditions," said Tolstoi. "Our traditions are against your understandings," replied the Holy Synod. But that was not all. The difference existed also in views on HAPPINESS AND ATONEMENT. Tolstoi was much troubled by the suffering of men. He himself saw, felt and described an immense amount of this suffering in various forms. The problem of happiness was his most cherished problem. He believed that men can be made happy in this life, and even more–that they are created in order to be happy. He refused quite definitely the idea of atonement as inconceivable and contrary to the idea of God. Human life has been normal and happy as long as men lived their simple life without towns and without all urban complications. Life can again be made a normal and happy one as God wills, if we only return to the primitive simplicity of the peasants. The Holy Synod was not opposed to the happiness of men, but they did not believe either that happiness is attainable in this world or that it is the aim of our life on earth. Did it not occur quite in the beginning of the world’s history that there lived on earth two brothers, Cain and Abel, two farmers, without any burden of culture, and with all the Tolstoian simplicity of life? Yet is it not reported that one killed the other? Life is a drama, a tragic drama even, and not at all a metaphysical immobility or a quasi-mobility, or even an eternal _circulus viciosus_. There are three stages of human life: the first stage before the sin, in God-like _naïveté_, the second in sin, and the third after the atonement, life in perfection, when there will be "a new earth and a new heaven." We are in the middle stage, where life means sin and atonement, therefore in the most tragic stage. Life in the first and third stages may consist entirely in contemplation, but the life which we are actually living consists of deeds, of sins and virtues, _i.e._, of the struggle between good and evil, of suffering and purification, of a tragic heroism, of

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Spiorad Reiligiúnach na Slavaigh (1916) le Nikolai Velimirovic An t-Sínod Naofa agus Tolstoi. Nuair a bhí Count Tolstoi excommunicated ag an Sínod Naofa na Rúise toisc "chreid sé na teagasc atá contrártha don chreideamh Críostaí", an Bhí an domhan roinnte i tuairimí agus comhbhrón i dhá chuid. Na páirtithe de Bhí Tolstois i bhformhór an domhain an Iarthair; iad siúd ar an Sínod Naofa sa Rúis agus san Oirthear Orthodox. Ach dhiúltaigh an Rúis Naofa Tolstoi le go leor níos mó comhbhrón ná an Eoraip Thiar a cheadaíodh dó. Bhí sé ina tragóid daonna nach bhfuil a athdhéanamh go minic sa stair agus bhí tugtha faoi deara ach amháin ag an Rúis. Bhí an coimhlint níos déine ná mar a bhí le feiceáil ar an dromchla. Na fadhbanna i Bhí an cheist a chiallaíonn ní lú ná an dilema: nó an domhan Críostaí a bhí leanúint nó ní mór dó dul ar ais go dtí an pointe tosaigh de stair an duine agus tús go léir as nua. A beag blade de féar sa réimse dúirt a glas comharsana: "Cén fáth a bhfásann muid suas? Tá sé nonsense agus pian. Ag fás suas muid fás i gcoinbhleachtaí, a mhéadaíonn an dorchadas agus pian ár saol. Tá mé moltar, dá bhrí sin, chun dul ar ais go dtí síolta, óna bhfuil muid tar éis fás mór agus Mar sin labhair ceann blade de féar go dtí an réimse. Agus an réimse fhreagair: "Cé go bhfuil b'fhéidir go bhfuil muid ag fás i nonsense agus pian, fós ní féidir linn filleadh ar, ní féidir linn Ní mór dúinn a fás agus dul ar ár mbealach sa chreideamh nach bhfuil muid mícheart. " Is é sin an comparáid idir Tolstoi agus an tSaint Sínod. Ciorcal nó Drámaíocht. Tolstoi perceived saol mar chiorcal, leis an tús i ngach áit agus le an deireadh i ngach áit. An tSionód Naofa, a dhéanann ionadaíocht ar an Orthodox Slavic, a mheas saol mar drámaíocht le tús agus deireadh i spás agus am. Óna point of view, Tolstoi cheap sé go raibh sé indéanta don chine daonna chun stop a chur le mícheart cúrsa rudaí agus chun tús a chur as nua, a chaitheamh amach gach na n-ualach cultúr, an Stáit, Eaglais, militarism, uaillmhianta an domhain, na vanities de bailte, chun an chortán a tharraingt ar an am atá thart agus chun teacht ar ais go dtí an réimse agus foraoise, a plough agus a síol, chun éisteacht le saol an Dúlra agus chun maireachtáil le An nádúr agus Dia i unison. An tSionód Naofa, óna thaobh de, cheap sé go bhfuil an am atá caite an bunús an láthair agus sa todhchaí, agus go i scaradh dúinn ó na roimhe sin bhí muid mar phlanda a dhíbirt, faoi chionú chun bás dosheachanta, agus i leanann an domhan-drama táimid ag dul an bealach amháin is féidir. An tús an pheaca sa dráma seo i Adam, is é tús an slánú i Dia duit. Ní féidir linn a bheith beo gan aird fiú ar shaol Adam agus gan ár saol a nascadh le Críost. Agus na milliúin eile de daoine idir an dá mhíle-chloch, idir Adam agus Críost, agus Críost agus muid, is mó nó níos lú bunús, nó coinníollacha, nó fiú cur isteach ar ár saol féin. "Tá mo thuiscint i gcoinne do thraidisiúin", a dúirt Tolstoi. "Tá ár dtrádálacha i gcoinne do thuiscintí", a d'fhreagair an tSionód Naofa. Ach ní hé sin go léir. Bhí an difríocht ann freisin i SÁGHAIR agus Atonement. Bhí Tolstoi i bhfad buartha faoi fhulaingt na ndaoine. Chonaic sé féin, bhraith sé agus tuairisc ar an méid ollmhór de na fulaingt seo i bhfoirmeacha éagsúla. An fhadhb an sonas a bhí an fhadhb is mó cherished. Chreid sé gur féidir le fir a bheith go bhfuil siad sásta sa saol seo, agus níos mó fós go bhfuil siad cruthaithe d'fhonn a bheith sásta. Dhiúltaigh sé go hiomlán go cinnte an smaoineamh ar expiation mar unconceivable agus contrártha leis an smaoineamh Dé. Bhí saol an duine gnáth agus sásta chomh fada agus fir a bhí ina saol simplí gan cathracha agus gan gach deacracht uirbeach. Is féidir le saol a dhéanamh arís a bheith gnáth agus sásta mar Dé go bhfuil, más rud é go bhfuil muid ach ar ais go dtí an simplíocht primitive na peasants. Ní raibh an tSionód Naofa i gcoinne sonas na bhfear, ach ní raibh siad creideann an ceann go bhfuil sonas inrochtana sa domhan seo nó go bhfuil sé an sprioc ár saol ar an talamh. Ní raibh sé tarlú go leor i dtosach an stair an domhain go raibh cónaí ar an talamh dhá deartháir, Cain agus Abel, dhá feirmeoirí, gan aon ualach cultúir, agus leis an Tolstoian simplíocht na beatha? Ach nach bhfuil sé tuairiscíodh go bhfuil ceann maraíodh an ceann eile? Tá an saol ina dráma, dráma tragóideach fiú, agus ní ar chor ar bith a meiteafisic immobility nó quasi-mobility, nó fiú _circulus viciosus_ síoraí. Tá trí chéim de shaol an duine: an chéad chéim roimh an pheaca, i _naiveté_ God-like, an dara i bpeaca, agus an tríú tar éis an expiation, saol foirfe, nuair a bheidh "ar talamh nua agus ar neamh nua" Táimid Tá siad sa chéim lárnach, áit a bhfuil saol ciallaíonn peaca agus expiation, dá bhrí sin i an chéim is tragóide. Is féidir leis an saol sa chéad chéim agus sa tríú chéim go hiomlán i smacht, ach an saol a bhfuil muid ag maireachtáil i ndáiríre Is éard atá ann, de na gníomhartha, de na peacaí agus na dea-ghnéithe, _i.e._, an streachailt idir maith agus olc, de fhulaingt agus íonaithe, de heroism tragóideach, de

The study of a small sauropod trackway from the Late Cretaceous Fumanya tracksite (southern Pyrenees, Catalonia) and further comparisons with larger trackways from the same locality suggest a causative relationship between gait, gauge, and body proportions of the respective titanosaur trackmakers. This analysis, conducted in the context of scaling predictions and using geometric similarity and dynamic similarity hypotheses, reveals similar Froude numbers and relative stride lengths for both small and large trackmakers from Fumanya. Evidence for geometric similarity in these trackways suggests that titanosaurs of different sizes moved in a dynamically similar way, probably using an amble gait. The wide gauge condition reported in trackways of small and large titanosaurs implies that they possessed similar body (trunk and limbs) proportions despite large differences in body size. These results strengthen the hypothesis that titanosaurs possessed a distinctive suite of anatomical characteristics that are well reflected in their tracks and trackways. Citation: Vila B, Oms O, Galobart À, Bates KT, Egerton VM, Manning PL (2013) Dynamic Similarity in Titanosaur Sauropods: Ichnological Evidence from the Fumanya Dinosaur Tracksite (Southern Pyrenees). PLoS ONE 8(2): e57408. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0057408 Editor: Richard J. Butler, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Germany Received: November 27, 2012; Accepted: January 21, 2013; Published: February 25, 2013 Copyright: © 2013 Vila et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. Funding: Funding is provided by CGL 2008-06533-C03-02 and CGL2011-30069-C02-01 project (Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación; http://www.idi.mineco.gob.es/portal/site/MICINN/). B. Vila acknowledges support from the Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (Subprograma Juan de la Cierva (MICINN-JDC) 2011). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist. Sauropod dinosaurs represent one of the most diverse and evolutionary successful groups of terrestrial vertebrates that lived during the Mesozoic . The clade comprises the largest vertebrates that ever walked on land, with adult individuals of some species estimated to have reached up to 30 metres in length , . Sauropod locomotion has been a subject of intense research and in the last decades much insight has been gained from studies of ichnology and biomechanics – but very few studies have specifically examined the gaits of titanosaurs , . This is surprising given the dominance of this group in Cretaceous faunas and their possession of a suite of anatomical features thought to underpin a shift in locomotor dynamics relative to more basal neosauropods , , . Difficulty assessing titanosaur locomotion is largely attributable to their anatomy being poorly understood, with most taxa known from single bones or partial skeletons . However, limited skeletal evidence has suggested a link between anatomical characteristics and distinctive tracks and particularly so-called wide gauge trackways . Given this association between body proportions, skeletal anatomy and gait, any synchronous and spatiotemporal occurrence of trackways attributed to small and large titanosaurs represents a valuable source to assess scaling in this important locomotor system. In this paper we describe a small sauropod trackway from the Late Cretaceous Fumanya tracksite (southern Pyrenees, Catalonia), which is compared with larger traces attributed to large titanosaurs from the same locality. We compare ichnological parameters that are a function of body proportions and kinematics and consider results in the context of scaling predictions, specifically geometric similarity and dynamic similarity hypotheses , . These hypotheses state that two animals can be described as geometrically and dynamically similar if the shape and motion of one are identical to those of the other by multiplying all its linear dimensions, time intervals, and forces by different constant factors, respectively . The hypotheses to be tested in the present study are that a) small and large titanosaurs possessed a geometrically similar body plan and, b) they both moved in a dynamic similar mode. The first hypothesis predicts that the relative body geometry (limb length, leg space distance from medial line, and glenoacetabular distance) were identical in both animals after multiplying each linear dimension by a constant factor. The second hypothesis predicts that both small and large animals moved with identical Froude number and relative stride lengths. We test these hypotheses on the basis of the available fossil track record by comparing track parameters of recently discovered trackways of a small titanosaur with those of corresponding larger individuals from the same locality. In addition to testing these scaling hypotheses, the trackways from Fumanya provide data from which the gait and “gauge” in titanosaurs (based on inferred trunk and appendicular limb size and proportions) can be further discussed. The trackways included in the present study are found in Fumanya tracksites, within the Vallcebre Syncline (North of Barcelona, Catalonia, Fig. 1). Fieldwork conducted during the last decade in the Maastrichtian sediments of the Tremp Formation, yielding an important vertebrate body and trace fossils of dinosaurs, crocodiles, turtles and fishes –. In the Fumanya area an abundant dinosaur track record is present in lower Maastrichtian beds . The Fumanya tracksites crop out at four different localities (Fig. 1A and B) with tracks occurring at the base of the Tremp Formation, in at least four distinct stratigraphic levels. The trackways included in the present study are located in the “Fumanya” and “Mina Esquirol-2” track-bearing levels (Fig. 1B). (A) Location of Fumanya tracksites along the Vallcebre Syncline. (B) Stratigraphical position of the sites with indication of the track-bearing levels. The “Fumanya” track level (on top of the so-called “concrete level”) crops out at the Fumanya South, Mina Esquirol, Fumanya North and Mina Tumí sites, along a nearly continuous (∼1.5 kilometres) track-bearing surface. Tracks occur on top of a marly limestone (5 metres thick) with overlaying centimetric overbeds. The unit contains vertebrate remains as well as abundant plant and invertebrate fossil remains. This level was deposited in a tidal mud flat recording the transition from marine to lagoonal , . The “Mina Esquirol-2” track level crops out in the southern exposures of the Fumanya North site. The track-bearing layer comprises a medium-coarse limestone (grainstone-packstone texture) with fragments of gastropods shells (abundant cf. Pyrgulifera and some Lychnus and Cerithium), charophytes and undetermined plant debris. This layer is heavily bioturbated, with vertical galleries around 1 centimetre in diameter. The burrows are infilled with the lithologies of the overlying level, which is a limestone (mudstone-wackstone texture) with scarce shell fragments (only few cf. Pyrgulifera can be recognized). The invertebrate faunal content together with the sedimentological features indicates that these sediment packages were deposited in a lagoon environment with a freshwater influence , . Materials and Methods The ichnological data was obtained from eleven dinosaur trackways. Main ichnological study concentrates on one small trackway (#50, Fig. 2) located at Fumanya North. Ten additional titanosaur trackways (#9, #22, #24, #27, #28, #29, #31, #32, #37, #47; Fig. 3) located at Fumanya South, Fumanya North and Mina Tumí localities, were chosen for comparative purposes. All trackways were preliminarly mapped , –. They all have been analyzed and re-measured in detail in the present study with average values of main trackway parameters provided. (A) Field picture of the small trackways (#50 and #52) from the southern edge of Fumanya North locality. Note the faint impressed tracks at the lower area. Scale: hammer (length is about 33 cm). (B) 3-D LiDAR model of the succession of tracks making up the trackway #50 with trackway sketch on the left upper corner. Scale bar: 20 cm. Dashed area corresponds to C. m: manus track; p: pes track. (C) Close-up photograph of tracks. Red arrows indicate faint manus prints in front of pes prints. (D) Partial close-up view of trackway displaying the inner trackway width feature. Progression direction is towards the top of the picture. Scale bar: 15 cm. Dashed arrow indicates progression direction in (A) and (B). (A) trackway segment of #29 from Fumanya South locality. (B) trackway segment of #47 from Mina Tumí locality. (C) Scheme showing the trackway pattern of a large trackway based on A and B. Progression direction is towards the top of the picture. Scale bar: 1 m. Ichnological data was acquired by using a high-resolution Light Detection and Range (LiDAR) imaging method . Trackway #50 was scanned with portable a Z+F Imager 5006i laser scanner (www.zf-uk.com). All other trackways used in comparative analysis were scanned as during previous studies , with a RIEGL LMS-Z420i 3-D LiDAR unit. The Z+F unit provides a resolution of up to <0.3 mm making it possible to scan and image the smaller, shallower tracks in #50 and #52, which was not possible using the RIEGL LiDAR unit used in our previous studies. Data from both scanners was processed identically, using the approach described in detail by Bates et al , . Briefly, multiple scans of each outcrop were aligned to provide full 3-D coverage of the track-bearing surfaces. Merged point clouds were imported into Schlumberger’s reservoir modelling package Petrel. All measurements were made on gridded surfaces, as in Bates et al . All necessary permits were obtained for the described field studies. The Departament de Cultura de la Generalitat de Catalunya issued the permission for the Fumanya localities. In each trackway the following track and trackway parameters were measured and calculated on the 3-D model following Thulborn methodology (all measurements refer to pes tracks): track length (TL; distance from the rear to the front margin of the track), track width (TW; distance from the inner to the lateral margin of the track, measured at right angle to TL), external trackway width (Twe; distance between the outer edges of the left and right tracks), stride length (SL; distance between corresponding points (center to center) in two consecutive tracks made by the same foot), pace length (PL; distance between corresponding points (center to center) in two successive tracks of alternate feet; PLa, PLb from left to right and right to left successive tracks, respectively), and pace angulation (ANG; angle made between two successive tracks). Side width (SW; width of pes tracks measured perpendicular to the long axis of the trackway), overall width (OW = Twe; distance between outer margins of pes tracks of the left and right side) and pes trackway ratio (PTR; the ratio of the side width (SW) relative to the overall width (OW) of the trackway, (SW/OW) x 100%) were measured and calculated based on Romano et al . Manus-pes distance (Dm-p) was measured between the centers of the tracks of a manus-pes set (cf. ). The gleno-acetabular distance (Dg-a; distance between the centre of the shoulder joint and the centre of the hip joint) was calculated for an amble gait (Dg-a = Dm-p+SL), an alternate gait (Dg-a = Dm-p+SL/2), and an asynchronous gait (Dg-a = Dm-p+SL/3) for all the trackways, following the procedure of Farlow et al. . Acetabulum height (cf. hip height, h) was calculated for adult titanosaurs on the basis of the h/TL ratio (h = 4.586TL), proposed by González-Riga . The anatomical analysis of skeletons in titanosaurs reveals that the Dg-a/h ratio is close to 1 (Dg-a/h = 1.17 in the articulated specimen of Ophistocoelicaudia; Dg-a/h = 0.97 in the non-articulated specimens of Neuquensaurus and Pleurocoelus; ). For juvenile sauropods, we obtained the Dg-a/h ratio and h/TL ratios by using the formula proposed by González-Riga on the basis of the limb bone data from a juvenile titanosauriform , , and observations and measurements taken on photographs of a mounted and articulated skeleton of such specimen (courtesy of P. Larson). The resulting Dg-a/h ratio for juveniles is 0.92. The h/TL ratio (h = 4.542TL) is very similar to that of adult titanosaurs reported in the literature , so we used the new value for small tiatanosaurs. The absolute speed (v) and Froude number (v2/gh) were calculated using the formula proposed by Alexander . Trackway #50 is composed of 10 consecutive tracks over a length of 3.78 metres (Fig. 2B). Tracks are clearly distinguishable because overlaying sediment fills the tracks. The tracks are arranged in a zig-zag trackway pattern with some manus tracks located one third to halfway between two consecutive pes tracks (manus-pes distance = 21.4 cm; Dm-p/SL = 0.37; Fig. 2B, C). Pes traces are longer than wide (average TL = 16.7 cm; TW = 13 cm) and subtriangular to oval in shape. The manus are small, shallow, rounded in shape and very faintly impressed. Heteropody (manus-pes ratio) is about 1∶3. For pes tracks, the average stride length (SL) is 58.7 cm and the average pace length (PL) is 37.6 cm. The pace angulation (ANG) is 102.8° and the external trackway width (Twe) is 37.7 cm (Fig. 2D). Relative stride length (SL/h) is 0.77 (Table 1). The hip height is 75.85 cm, and the absolute speed estimate is about 0.44 m/s, with a calculated Froude number of 0.026. Trackway #50 shows a mean PTR value of about 34% indicating that gauge condition clearly lies in the wide-gauge category (≤36%) rather than that of medium or narrow category (≥50%). Whilst we recognize the wide- to narrow-gauge probably represents a false dichotomy or oversimplification (variation in gauge width is probably more of a continuum; e.g. , ), we nevertheless consider it valid to categorize them as wide-gauge trackways. On the same surface as trackway #50, there is an additional trace, here referred to as trackway # 52 (Fig. 2A). This is composed of six faintly impressed pes prints that can be observed under good light conditions. They comprise a trackway of about 2.25 metres. They are arranged in a zig-zag trackway pattern and are oval in shape. They probably represent another small sauropod trackway but because of the faint preservation we did not take trackway measurements or make further calculations. Trackway #50 and tentatively trackway #52 are assigned to sauropods because of the general trackway pattern and the track morphology. They display various features that support a sauropod-type affinity, notably tracks arranged in a zig-zag configuration pattern, and low pace angulation value . More specifically there is good evidence to suggest trackway #50 can be attributed to a titanosaur because of its wide gauge condition and other parameters such as the Dm-p/SL ratio. Previous works have also supported the conclusion that Fumanya trackways were produced by derived titanosaurs , , –. Their close location, size, and general appearance (track size and trackway pattern) suggest that animals of similar size produced both trackways (#50 and #52). The titanosaur trackways selected for comparative purposes represent complete sequences of pes and manus tracks (e.g. trackway #47 is composed of about 73 pes and 25 manus tracks) arranged in a zig-zag pattern and comprising trackways of up to 60 metres (Fig. 3). The pes tracks representing average morphology (from trackways #29 and #47) are longer than wide (average TL∼ 72 cm; TW = 62 cm) and subtriangular in shape. When preserved, they depict four outward rotated claw marks at the deeper impressed anterior margin and a narrow heel impression in the posterior, shallow edge (Fig. 1.11 in and Fig. 5 in ). All the pes tracks correspond to trackmakers of similar size (TL ranges from 56.14 to 72.66 cm; Table 2). The manus tracks are smaller and deeper impressed with a U-shaped outline. They are located one third to one half away from the center of the preceding pes track (Dm-p/SL ratio ranges from 0.28 to 0.50). Heteropody (manus-pes ratio) is 1∶3. All the trackways present a low pes trackway ratio (PTR = 24.24 to 31.16%) indicating very wide- to wide-gauge trackmakers (Table 2). Relative stride lengths (SL/h) are about 0.66–0.84. Estimated values for absolute speeds are low and range from 0.69 to 1.02 m/s. The respective Froude numbers range from 0.015 to 0.035. Hypothesis (a): Titanosaur Body Plan and Geometrical Similarity The geometric similarity hypothesis stated that two bodies are geometrically similar if one could be made identical to the other by multiplying all length dimensions by the same factor , . In animal biomechanics scaling is typically calculated relative to body mass, such that geometrical similarity in linear dimensions describes a situation in which lengths are proportional to body mass0.33. Body mass is notoriously difficult to calculate accurately for extinct animals like dinosaurs even when near-complete skeletons are available (e.g. ), and as yet no validated method has been derived to extrapolate masses from footprints. Here we diagnose geometric similarity from trackways using the relative proportions of body segment lengths (e.g. ); consistency relative to trackway geometry is interpreted as diagnostic of isometry in linear body proportions of the trackmakers. We recognise, however, that determining body dimensions from tracks must be catiously undertaken, given track size can easily be a function of substrate type and conditions (at the time of track formation), with variation in trackmaker size a function of rheology . It is worth to underscore that the studied sample refers to two discrete populations of one small versus ten large titanosaurs; thus, it is not a continous distribution of sizes (i.e., a small trackway being compared to a population of large trackways). In the present study the comparison of the values of gleno-acetabular distance (Dg-a) and hip height (h) of the small trackway (#50) with respective measurements of large trackways reveals that some of the ratios show very similar values (Table 2). The relationship between the trunk length and the hip height of the small trackmaker (Dg-a/h = 1.04) lies within the respective standard desviation values of the large trackmakers (mean Dg-a/h ratio ± SD is 1.07±0.08). This suggests that, on the basis of ichnological evidence, the trunk length (cf. gleno-acetabular distance) was proportionally similar to hindlimb length (cf. hip height) in both the small and large titanosaurs and that scaling was close to geometrical similarity. In respect to the body width, ichnological studies based on tracksites containing both small and large trackways reveal that juvenile and adult trackmakers of some sauropods, probably basal macronarians or “diplodocids”, would have produced narrow-gauge trackways . Medium to wide-gauge juvenile trackways have been attributed to “brachiosaurids” or “titanosaurids” . Wilson & Carrano suggested that skeletal morphology of titanosaurs is responsible for gauge differences and predicted that derived titanosaurs (∼saltasaurids or titanosaurids sensu ) possessed particular anatomical characteristics in their limb structure allowing the close adscription with wide gauge trackways. Wilson & Carrano went on to suggest that trackway gauge disparity does not result from differences in body size and therefore individuals of different sizes could not produce both narrow- and wide-gauge trackways. Lockley et al. , , proposed that gauge differences are in part a function of size and growth and pointed that gauge of juveniles appears to have ranged from narrow gauge to moderately wide. At the Fumanya tracksites, where more than 40 trackways have been reported, there is no evidence of narrow- or medium-gauge trackways , , and small and large titanosaurs produced wide to very wide-gauge trackways, respectively. PTR values are low (mean PTR ± SD for large trackways is 28.00% ±2.30; and 34.8% for the small trackway; Table 2) and are consistent with the hypothesis that both small and large titanosaurs were wide-gauge trackmakers (cf. ). Comparison of other relative body parameters such the gleno-acetabular distance and the trunk width or hip height relative to the trunk width (i.e. Dg-a/Twe and h/TWe, respectively) of small and large trackways indicate a remarkable similarity in trunk and limbs arrangement, in spite of some minor differences. For example, the Dg-a/Twe ratio of the small trackway (Dg-a/Twe = 2.10) lies within two SD of the large titanosaurs’ sample (mean Dg-a/Twe ± SD = 1.70±0.29). In a similar way, the h/Twe ratio of the small trackway lies within three SD of the large titanosaurs’ sample (mean h/Twe ± SD = 1.57±0.19). Such minor variations are probably due to the fact that, even though they both were wide-gauge trackmakers, the “wide condition” in small titanosaurs (high PTR values) might not be so exagerated as in the large individuals (very high PTR values), as suggested by Lockley et al. , and this influenced other relative body parameters. In any case and in spite that a larger sample size is probably needed, PTR values below 36% support a clear wide-gauge condition in both small and large titanosaurs. This implies that the general titanosaur bauplan in regards to the pelvic girdle and limb structure, that is associated with wide-gauge locomotion, was probably independent of size. Therefore, we conclude that small and large titanosaurs had similar body (trunk and limbs) proportions regardless of their size; thus, they scaled close to geometric similarity. This finding is in agreement with previous works reporting isometric growth in appendicular limbs of most sauropod groups , , . However, it is worth to underscore that from the data selected for the present study we cannot assure that differences in size observed in the trackways refer to growth stages. Juvenile individuals of the same species that produced the large trackways may have produced the small traces; alternatively, small and large trackways may represent individuals of different-sized species. With this in mind the authors acknowledge the limits of their inferences, which will refer to body plan, limb arrangement, and locomotion of different-sized titanosaurs regardless their taxonomic level. Hypothesis (b): Titanosaur Gaits and Dynamic Similarity Dynamic similarity hypothesis predicts that bodies that are comparable in shape, but different in size, move in dynamically similar ways if they have equal values of Froude number and relative stride length , . In consequence, they will produce similar trackway patterns due to their comparable motion and body plans (i.e. limbs and trunk proportions). In the case of sauropod dinosaurs, the relative proportions in gleno-acetabular distance (the distance between pelvic and scapular girdles) and length and excursion angles of the fore- and hindlimbs limit their movements in three main gaits: a) an amble pace gait; b) an alternate pace gait and c) an asynchronous pace gait . On trackways, distinct gaits are expected to produce differences in stride length and manus-pes distance as well as in calculation of the glenoacetabular distance. From the studied trackways several parameters and ratios indicate that both small and large titanosaurs moved in a dynamically similar fashion, with a similar gait. First, titanosaurs producing both the small and the large trackways present very similar Froude numbers (mean Fn ± SD = 0.026±0.007 for large trackmakers; Fn = 0.026 for the small trackmaker) and have low values for relative stride lengths (mean SL/h ± SD = 0.76±0.07 for large trackmakers; SL/h = 0.77 for the small trackmaker), clearly indicating a dynamically similar walking gait. Plotted data for all the trackways indicates that a strong positive correlation exists between Froude number and relative stride length parameters (R2 = 0.99206) in Fumanya titanosaurs, and that this relationship scales very close to the empirical prediction of dynamic similarity (Fig. 4). Second, we calculated the three possible gaits for all trackmakers following considerations of Farlow et al. and assuming the Dg-a/h relationship measured in reconstructions of sauropod skeletons (which is close to 1 for titanosaurs; see Materials and methods). We conclude that in all the cases, among the three calculated Dg-a (amble, alternate, asynchronous; ) the one that better fits with the Dg-a≥h value obtained from skeletons is that corresponding to an amble pace gait, where the ipsilateral limbs move almost synchronously. Third, this particular mode of locomotion is reflected in other ratios calculated from trackway parameters. For example, in the small trackmaker the values of the relationship between the length of the hindfoot and the excursion angle of the hindlimb (TL/SL = 0.28) or the excursion angle of the hindlimb relative to the body length (SL/Dg-a = 0.73) lie within the range of the large titanosaurs’ sample (mean TL/SL ± SD = 0.29±0.03; mean SL/Dg-a ±SD = 0.71±0.03). Therefore, present data indicate that small titanosaurs walked in the same general manner as large titanosaurs producing geometrically comparable trackways. This may concur with Carrano who stated that juvenile dinosaurs represented the locomotor morphology (and therefore the same gait, stance and gauge) of adult dinosaurs. The comparative analysis of the small and large sauropod trackways from the Late Cretaceous Fumanya tracksite (southern Pyrenees, Catalonia) in the context of the geometric and dynamic similarity hypotheses provides significant information on gait, gauge and body proportions of the respective trackmakers. Ichnological ratios reveal similarities in gait, body and limb proportions suggesting that trunk and limbs’s lengths of small titanosaurs were similar to that of large individuals. As a consequence, similar Froude numbers and relative stride lengths in both small and large trackmakers indicate that titanosaurs moved in a dynamically similar way regardless their body size. Finally, the wide condition reported in trackways of small and large titanosaurs implies that they both possessed the same pelvic girdle and limb structure, which is associated with wide-gauge locomotion. We thank David Hodgetts, Frank Rarity and Ivan Fabuel-Perez for their assistance with LiDAR data collection and processing and P. Larson for providing pictures on the juvenile mounted specimen (SMA0009, “Toni”). The authors thank VF dos Santos, JA Wilson and two anonymous reviewers for useful comments on an earlier version of the manuscript. Facilities provided by Departament de Cultura de la Generalitat de Catalunya and Consorci Ruta Minera are highly appreciated. We also thank Zoller+Fröhlich (http://www.zf-laser.com/e_index.html) for the loan of a Z+F Imager 5006i LiDAR unit. 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(2003) Preliminary report on the Courtedoux dinosaur tracksite from the Kimmeridgian of Switzerland. Ichnos 10: 209–219. - 40. Upchurch P (1998) The phylogenetic relationships of sauropod dinosaurs. Zool J Linn Soc-London 124: 43–103. - 41. Lockley MG, Wright JL, Lucas SG, Hunt AP (2001) The Late Triassic sauropod track record comes into focus. Old legacies and new paradigms. New Mexico Geological Society Guidebook, 52nd Field Conference: 181–190. - 42. Lockley MG, Wright JL, White D, Jianjun L, Lu F, et al. (2002) The first sauropod trackways from China. Cretaceous Res 23: 363–381. - 43. Wilhite RD (2005) Variation in the appendicular skeleton of North American sauropod dinosaurs: taxonomic implications. In: Carpenter K, Tidwell V, editors. Thunder-Lizards: The Sauropodomorph Dinosaurs. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. 268–30. - 44. Bonnan MF (2004) Morphometric analysis of humerus and femur shape in Morrison sauropods: implications for functional morphology and paleobiology. 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Tugann staidéar ar threochúr beag sauropod ó threochúr Fumanya Cretaceous Late (Pyrenees theas, Catalóine) agus tuilleadh comparáidí le threochúr níos mó ón áit chéanna le fios go bhfuil gaol cúisitheach idir gait, gauge, agus céatadáin choirp na gcraoltóirí titanosaur faoi seach. Léiríonn an anailís seo, a rinneadh i gcomhthéacs tuar scálaithe agus ag baint úsáide as comhchosúlacht gheoiméideach agus hipitéisí den chineál céannacht dinimiciúil, uimhreacha Froude den chineál céanna agus fad stride coibhneasta do dhéantúsóirí bealaí beaga agus móra ó Fumanya. Tugann fianaise maidir le cosúlacht gheoiméadacha sna rianta seo le tuiscint go ndeachaigh titanosaurs de mhéideanna éagsúla ar bhealach dinimiciúil den chineál céanna, is dócha ag baint úsáide as gait amble. Ciallaíonn an staid leathan-scaipthe a tuairiscíodh i rianta titanosaurs beaga agus móra go raibh cóimheas comhlacht (trunk agus foircinn) den chineál céanna acu in ainneoin difríochtaí móra i méid an chomhlachta. Cuireann na torthaí seo neart leis an hipitéis go raibh sraith shainiúil de shaintréithe anatamacha ag titanosaurs a léirítear go maith ina rianta agus ina n-ionsaithe. Citation: Vila B, Oms O, Galobart À, Bates KT, Egerton VM, Manning PL (2013) Cosúlacht dinimiciúil i Sauropods Titanosaur: Fianaise Ichnological ó Tracksite Fumanya Dinosaur (Piréin Theas). PLoS ONE 8(2): e57408. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0057408 Editor: Richard J. Butler, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, an Ghearmáin Fuarthas: 27 Samhain 2012; Glacadh: 21 Eanáir 2013; Foilsíodh: 25 Feabhra 2013 Cóipcheart: © 2013 Vila et al. Is alt rochtain oscailte é seo a dháileadh faoi théarmaí an Cheadúnais Creatúnais Creative Commons, a cheadaíonn úsáid, dáileadh agus atáirgeadh gan srian ar aon mheán, ar choinníoll go dtugtar creidmheas ar an údar bunaidh agus ar an bhfoinse. Tá an t-airgead seo á chur ar fáil ag an tionscadal CGL 2008-06533-C03-02 agus CGL2011-30069-C02-01 (Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación; http://www.idi.mineco.gob.es/portal/site/MICINN/). Tá an t-údarás inniúil i ndáil le cur chun feidhme na gclár sin, agus tá sé ag iarraidh go ndéanfar na bearta sin a chur i bhfeidhm. Ní raibh aon ról ag na maoinithe i ndearadh an staidéir, i mbailiú agus i anailís na sonraí, i gcinneadh a fhoilsiú, nó i ullmhú an lámhscríbhinní. leasanna iomaíocha: Dhearbhaigh na húdair nach bhfuil aon leasanna iomaíocha ann. Léiríonn dineasáir Sauropod ceann de na grúpaí is éagsúla agus is rathúla éabhlóideach de vertebrates talún a bhí ina gcónaí le linn an Measósaic . Is iad na vertebrataí is mó a shiúil ar an talamh riamh, agus meastar go raibh daoine fásta de roinnt speiceas suas le 30 méadar ar fhad, . Tá an t-aistriú Sauropod ina ábhar taighde dian agus le blianta beaga anuas tá go leor léargas faighte ó staidéir ar ichnology agus biomechanics ach tá an-bheagán staidéir a rinne scrúdú go sonrach ar gaits na titanosaurs , Tá sé seo iontas mar gheall ar an ceannasacht an ghrúpa seo i faunas Cretaceous agus a shealbhú sraith de na gnéithe anatamacha a cheapadh go bhfuil le cur le hathrú i dinimic locomotor i gcomparáid le níos mó neosauropods basal , , . Tá an deacracht a bhaineann le measúnú a dhéanamh ar ghluaiseacht titanosaur de bharr nach dtuigeann an chuid is mó dá n-anatamaíocht go maith, agus is easpa cnámha nó cnámha páirteach a bhfuil a fhios ag an gcuid is mó de na tacsaí. Mar sin féin, mhol fianaise chnámh teoranta nasc idir tréithe anatamacha agus rianta sainiúla agus go háirithe na rianta leathan-scaipthe . Ós rud é go bhfuil an comhlacht seo idir céatadáin an choirp, anatamaíocht cnámh agus imeacht, is foinse luachmhar é aon imeacht sioncrónach agus spáis-amúil de shlíbhealaí a thugtar do titanosaurs beaga agus móra chun scálaíocht a mheas sa chóras locomotor tábhachtach seo. Sa pháipéar seo déanaimid cur síos ar shlíbhealach beag sauropod ó shuíomh rian Fumanya na Cretaceous Late (Pyrenees theas, Catalóine), a chuirtear i gcomparáid le rianta níos mó a thugtar do titanosaurs móra ón áit chéanna. Déanaimid comparáid idir paraiméadair ichnólaíocha atá mar fheidhm de chuibhreanna comhlacht agus cinematics agus déanaimid na torthaí a mheas i gcomhthéacs na réamhaisnéisí scálaithe, go sonrach cosúlacht gheoimhréiteach agus hipitéisí cosúlachta dinimiciúla , . Deir na hipoteis seo gur féidir dhá ainmhí a thuairisciú mar aerach agus dinimiciúil cosúil má tá cruth agus gluaiseacht ceann acu comhionann leis na cinn eile trína thriomú a thomhais líneach, a eatraimh ama, agus a fórsaí ag fachtóirí seasmhacha éagsúla, faoi seach. Is iad na hipoteis atá le tástáil sa staidéar seo ná go raibh plean comhlacht gheoiméadacha den chineál céanna ag a) titanosaurs beaga agus mór agus, b) d'éirigh siad araon i modh dinimiciúil den chineál céanna. An chéad hipitéis a thuar go raibh an géimeatraíocht chomharsanachta coibhneasta (fhad na mball, fad spás na cosa ón líne mheán, agus fad glenoacetabular) comhionann sa dá ainmhí tar éis gach gné líneach a iolrú le fachtóir leanúnach. An dara hipitéis a thuar go ndeachaigh ainmhithe beaga agus móra le huimhir Froude comhionann agus le fad stride coibhneasta. Déanaimid tástáil ar na haiféiseacha seo ar bhonn an taifead fóisíneacha atá ar fáil trí pharaiméadair rian de rianta rian a fuarthas le déanaí de titanosaur beag a chur i gcomparáid le daoine aonair níos mó a fhreagraíonn don áit chéanna. Chomh maith le tástáil a dhéanamh ar na hipoteis scálaithe seo, soláthraíonn na rianta ó Fumanya sonraí as ar féidir an gait agus an gauge i titanosaurs (bhunaithe ar mhéid agus cion na gcroí agus na gcos appendicular) a phlé tuilleadh. Tá na rianta a chuimsítear sa staidéar seo le fáil i gcathair rianta Fumanya, laistigh de Syncline Vallcebre (Tuarthuaisceart Barcelona, Catalóine, Fig. 1) a chur i bhfeidhm. Tá obair ghairdín déanta le deich mbliana anuas i sedimintí Maastrichtian an Tremp Formation, rud a thug corp vertebrata tábhachtach agus foslaí rian de dhinosaur, crocodile, turta agus iasc . Sa cheantar Fumanya tá taifead saibhir ar dhínosaur i gcodanna níos ísle Maastrichtian . Tá na suíomhanna rian Fumanya ag teacht amach ag ceithre áit dhifriúla (Fig. 1A agus B) le rianta a tharlaíonn ag bun an fhoirmiú Tremp, i gceithre leibhéal stratigraphic ar a laghad. Tá na rianta a chuimsítear sa staidéar seo suite i leibhéil iompair rianta Fumanya agus Mina Esquirol-2 (Fig. 1B). (A) Suíomh na bpostanna rianta Fumanya ar feadh an Vallcebre Syncline. (B) Suíomh stratigraphic na suíomhanna le tásca ar na leibhéil traenacha. Tá an leibhéal rian Fumanya (ar bharr an leibhéal coincréite) ag crú i láthair Fumanya South, Mina Esquirol, Fumanya North agus Mina Tumí, ar feadh dromchla rian beagnach leanúnach (~1.5 ciliméadar). Tá rianta ar bharr carraigí greamaigh marly (5 méadar tiubh) le barr-leibhéid ceimeatacha a bhfuil uaslódáil orthu. Tá iarsmaí vertebrataí san aonad chomh maith le fáisíní agus foslaí neamhthriomach go leor. Bhí an leibhéal seo taiscthe i flat mud tide taifeadadh an t-aistriú ó mhuirí go lagoonal , . Tá an leibhéal rian Mina Esquirol-2 ag teacht amach i nochtadh ó dheas ar shuíomh Fumanya North. Tá an ciseal traochtaithe ag cloch chléire meán-chruasach (teacs grainstone-packstone) le codanna de shells gastropods (a bhfuil go leor acu, cf. Pyrgulifera agus roinnt Lychnus agus Cerithium), charophytes agus scriosanna plandaí neamhchinnte. Tá an ciseal seo go mór bioturbated, le gailearaí ingearacha thart ar 1 ceintiméadar ar trastomhas. Tá na burrows á n-infiltú le litheolaíochtaí an leibhéal os cionn, ar calchchloch é (teacsadh cloiche-chloch-chloch) le codanna scartha cnáib (níl ach cúpla cf. Is féidir Pyrgulifera a aithint). Léiríonn an t-ábhar faunal neamhthriomach mar aon leis na gnéithe sedimentological go ndearnadh na pacáistí sediment seo a thaisceadh i dtimpeallacht lagún le tionchar uisce úr , . Ábhair agus Modhanna Baineadh na sonraí ichnólaíocha ó aon cheann déag de shlí dinosaur. Díríonn an phríomh-staidéar ichnólach ar shlí bheag amháin (# 50, Fig. 2) atá suite ag Fumanya North. Deich titanosaur breise tracksways (# 9, # 22, # 24, # 27, # 28, # 29, # 31, # 32, # 37, # 47; Fig. 3) atá suite i gceantair Fumanya South, Fumanya North agus Mina Tumí, roghnaíodh iad chun críocha comparáide. Tá na rianta uile curtha ar léarscáil go réamhchríochnaithe, . Tá na sonraí a bhaineann le hiarmhairtí agus le hiarmhairtí a bhaineann le hiarmhairtí agus le hiarmhairtí a bhaineann le hiarmhairtí a bhaineann le hiarmhairtí a bhaineann le hiarmhairtí a bhaineann le hiarmhairtí a bhaineann le hiarmhairtí a bhaineann le hiarmhairtí a bhaineann le hiarmhairtí a bhaineann le hiarmhairtí. (A) Grianghraf ó thír na rianta beaga (# 50 agus #52) ó imeall theas na háite Fumanya Thuaidh. Tabhair faoi deara na rianta léim éadrom ag an limistéar níos ísle. Scála: hamair (is é an fad thart ar 33 cm). (B) Múnla 3-D LiDAR de shraith na rianta a dhéanann an rian #50 le sceitse rianta ar an gcúinne uachtarach ar chlé. Bar scála: 20 cm. Freagraíonn an limistéar stiúrtha do C. m: rian manus; p: rian pes. (C) Grianghraf dlúthdhiosca de rianta. Léiríonn na saigheadaí dearga léarscáileanna lag lámha os comhair léarscáileanna pe. (D) Léargas páirteach d'fhéile an rianta a thaispeánann gné leithead an rianta inmheánach. Tá treo an dul chun cinn i dtreo barr an phictiúr. Bar scála: 15 cm. Léiríonn an saighead dashed treo dul chun cinn i (A) agus (B). (A) codán bóthair de # 29 ó Fumanya South. (B) codán bóthair de #47 ó áit Mina Tumí. (C) Scéim a léiríonn patrún rianbhealach rianbhealach mór bunaithe ar A agus B. Tá treo an dul chun cinn i dtreo barr an phictiúr. Bar scála: 1 m. Baineadh sonraí ichnólaíocha amach trí úsáid a bhaint as modh íomháithe Ard-Réitigh Detection and Range (LiDAR). Rinneadh scanadh ar an rian #50 le scannóir léasair Z+F Imager 5006i in-chuairte (www.zf-uk.com). Rinneadh gach rian eile a úsáideadh san anailís choibhneasta a scanadh mar a rinneadh le linn staidéir roimhe seo, le haonaid LiDAR 3-D RIEGL LMS-Z420i. Soláthraíonn an t-aonad Z + F réiteach suas go dtí <0.3 mm rud a fhágann go bhfuil sé indéanta na rianta níos lú, níos lú, a scanadh agus a íomhá i # 50 agus # 52, rud nach raibh indéanta ag baint úsáide as an aonad RIEGL LiDAR a úsáideadh inár staidéir roimhe seo. Déantar sonraí ó na scanners araon a phróiseáil ar an mbealach céanna, ag baint úsáide as an gcur chuige a thuairiscíonn Bates et al. Go hachomair, scanadh iomadúla de gach outcrop a ailíníodh chun clúdach iomlán 3-D a sholáthar ar na dromchlaí traenacha. Iompórtáladh scamaill phointe comhcheangailte isteach i bpacáiste samhlaithe stór Schlumberger Petrel. Rinneadh na tomhais go léir ar dhromchlaí gridded, mar atá i Bates et al. Rinneadh na ceadanna riachtanacha go léir a fháil chun na staidéir ar an réimse a thuairiscítear. Is é an Roinn Cultúir de la Generalitat de Catalunya a d'eisigh an cead do na háiteanna Fumanya. I ngach rian, tomhaistear agus ríomhtar na paraiméadair rian agus rian seo a leanas ar an tsamhail 3-D de réir mhodheolaíocht Thulborn (tá gach tomhas ag tagairt do rianta pes): fad rianta (TL; fad ó chúl go dtí imeall tosaigh an rianta), leithead rianta (TW; fad ó imeall inmheánach go imeall taobh na rianta, arna thomhas ag uillinn cheart le TL), leithead rianta seachtrach (Twe; fad idir imeall seachtrach na rianta clé agus dheis), fad stride (SL; fad idir pointí comhfhreagracha (ó lár go lár) i dhá rian as a chéile a rinneadh leis an gcéanna luas coise), fad (PL; fad idir pointí comhfhreagracha (ó lár go lár) i dhá rian as a chéile de rianta as a chéile; PLa, PLb ó chlé go ceart agus ó dheis go ceart go rianta as a chéile, faoi seach), agus luas agus uillinn (ANG; uillinn a rinneadh idir dhá rian as a chéile). Rinneadh leithead taobh (SW; leithead na rianta pes a thomhas go perpendicular le hais fhada an rianta), leithead iomlán (OW = Twe; fad idir imeall seachtrach rianta pes an taobh clé agus an taobh dheis) agus cóimheas rianta pes (PTR; cóimheas an leithead taobh (SW) i ndáil le leithead iomlán (OW) an rianta, (SW/OW) x 100%) a thomhas agus a ríomh bunaithe ar Romano et al. Tomhaistear an fad Manus-pes (Dm-p) idir lárionad na rianta de shraith Manus-pes (cf. ) Rinneadh an t-achar gleno-acetabular (Dg-a; an t-achar idir lár an chomhpháirte ghualainn agus lár an chomhpháirte hip) a ríomh le haghaidh gait amble (Dg-a = Dm-p + SL), gait mhalartaithe (Dg-a = Dm-p + SL / 2) agus gait asynchronous (Dg-a = Dm-p + SL / 3) do na bealaí uile, de réir nós imeachta Farlow et al. . . go deo . airde acetabulum (cf. Rinneadh airde an chlé, h) a ríomh do thitánosaurs fásta ar bhonn an cóimheasa h / TL (h = 4.586TL), a mhol González-Riga. Léiríonn anailís anatamaíoch ar chnámha i titanosaurs go bhfuil an cóimheas Dg-a / h gar do 1 (Dg-a / h = 1.17 i speiceam comhpháirteach Ophistocoelicaudia; Dg-a / h = 0.97 i speiceam neamh-chomhpháirteach Neuquensaurus agus Pleurocoelus; ). Maidir le sauropods óg, fuair muid an cóimheas Dg-a / h agus cóimheas h / TL trí úsáid a bhaint as an fhoirmle a mhol González-Riga ar bhonn sonraí cnámh an chiúin ó titanosauriform óg , , agus breathnuithe agus tomhais a rinneadh ar ghrianghraif de chnámh mounted agus articulated de shampla den sórt sin (le cúirtéis P. Larson). Is é an cóimheas Dg-a/h a thagann as seo do na daoine óga ná 0.92. Tá an cóimheas h / TL (h = 4.542TL) an-chosúil le titanosaurs fásta a tuairiscíodh sa litríocht , mar sin d'úsáid muid an luach nua do tiatanosaurs beaga. Rinneadh an luas iomlán (v) agus uimhir Froude (v2/gh) a ríomh ag baint úsáide as an fhoirmle a mhol Alexander. Tá an rian #50 comhdhéanta de 10 rian as a chéile thar fhad 3.78 méadar (Fig. 2B). Tá na rianta inrochtana go soiléir toisc go líonadh an sediment a bhíonn os cionn na rianta. Tá na rianta socraithe i bpatrún zig-zag le roinnt rianta lámha atá suite ar an tríú cuid go dtí an leathbhealach idir dhá rianta lámha as a chéile (an t-achar lámha-as = 21.4 cm; Dm-p/SL = 0.37; Fig. 2B, C). Tá na rianta pes níos faide ná leathan (meán TL = 16.7 cm; TW = 13 cm) agus tá siad fo-thriantéagórach go oval i gcruth. Tá na manusanna beag, lom, babhta agus tá an-bhualadh orthu. Is é an cóimheas idir an duine agus an duine (heteropody) thart ar 13. I gcás rianta péis, is é an meánfhad céim (SL) 58.7 cm agus is é an meánfhad céim (PL) 37.6 cm. Is é an t-uillinn luas (ANG) 102.8° agus is é an leithead seachtrach (Twe) 37.7 cm (Fig. 2D). Is é 0.77 an fad coibhneasta stride (SL/h) (Tábla 1). Is é an airde cnámh 75.85 cm, agus is é an meastachán luas iomlán thart ar 0.44 m / s, le uimhir Froude ríomhaithe de 0.026. Léiríonn an rian #50 luach meán PTR de thart ar 34% a léiríonn go soiléir go bhfuil an staid scála i gcatagóir an scála leathan (≤36%) seachas i gcatagóir an scála mheánmhéide nó an scála caol (≥50%). Cé go n-aithníonn muid go bhfuil an léargas leathan go caol, is dócha go léiríonn sé díchotaimíocht bhréagach nó ró-shimpliú (is dócha go bhfuil athrú i leithead léargas níos mó de leanúnachas; e.g. ), ach is dóigh linn go bhfuil sé bailí iad a chatagóirú mar rianta le scála leathan. Tá rian breise ar an dromchla céanna le rian # 50, dá ngairtear rian # 52 anseo (Fig. 2A). Tá sé seo comhdhéanta de shé phriont pes a bhfuil léargas éadrom orthu agus is féidir iad a fheiceáil faoi choinníollacha solais mhaith. Tá bealaí thart ar 2.25 méadar ar an mbóthar. Tá siad socraithe i bpatrún zig-zag agus tá siad oval i gcruth. Is dócha go léiríonn siad cosán beag sauropod eile ach mar gheall ar an caomhnú lag níor ghlacamar tomhais cosán nó níor rinneamar ríomhanna breise. Tá an rian # 50 agus an rian # 52 faoi láthair sannta do sauropods mar gheall ar an bpatrún rian ginearálta agus an mhorfolaíocht rianta. Taispeánann siad gnéithe éagsúla a thacaíonn le caidreamh sauropod-chineáil, go háirithe rianta socraithe i bpatrún cumraíochta zig-zag, agus luach uillinn luas íseal . Níos sonrach tá fianaise mhaith ann a thugann le tuiscint gur féidir le titanosaur a bheith i gceist le rian # 50 mar gheall ar a choinníoll leathan-scála agus paraiméadair eile mar an cóimheas Dm-p / SL. Tacaigh saothair roimhe seo leis an gconclúid gur titanosaurs díorthaithe a tháirgigh rianta Fumanya , , . Tugann a suíomh gar, a mhéid, agus a chuma ginearálta (mhéid rianta agus patrún rianta) le tuiscint go ndearna ainmhithe de mhéid comhchosúil an dá rianta (# 50 agus #52). Léiríonn na rianta titanosaur a roghnaíodh chun críocha comparáide seicheamh iomlán de rianta pes agus manus (m.sh. Tá an rian #47 comhdhéanta de thart ar 73 pes agus 25 rian manus) arna socrú i bpatrún zig-zag agus a chuimsíonn rianta suas le 60 méadar (Fig. 3). Tá na rianta pes a léiríonn meánmhorfolaíocht (ó rianta # 29 agus #47) níos faide ná leathan (meán TL∼ 72 cm; TW = 62 cm) agus fo-thriantéagólach i gcruth. Nuair a chaomhnófar iad, léirítear ceithre shraith cló a thiomáint amach ag an imeall tosaigh níos doimhne agus léargas cnoc caol sa imeall cúl, cúl (Fig. 1.11 in agus Fig. 5 i). Freagraíonn na rianta pes go léir do threacairí rianta de mhéid comhchosúil (tarlaíonn TL ó 56.14 go 72.66 cm; Tábla 2). Tá na rianta manus níos lú agus níos doimhne le forlíonadh U-chruthaithe. Tá siad suite ar an tríú cuid go dtí an leath ar shiúl ó lár an rianta pes roimhe seo (réasúnaíocht Dm-p/SL idir 0.28 agus 0.50). Is é 13 an cóimheas idir an heteropod (manus-pes). Tá cóimheas íseal traenach traenach ar na rianta uile (PTR = 24.24 go 31.16%), rud a léiríonn go bhfuil na rianta an-leathan go mór le rianta le scála leathan (Tábla 2). Tá na fadanna coibhneasta stride (SL/h) thart ar 0.660.84. Tá luachanna measta le haghaidh luasanna iomlánacha íseal agus tá siad idir 0.69 agus 1.02 m/s. Tá na huimhreacha Froude faoi seach idir 0.015 agus 0.035. Hipitéis (a): Plean comhlacht Titanosaur agus Cosúlacht Geoimeatrach Dúirt hipoteis an chomhionannais gheoimreataigh go bhfuil dhá chomhlacht cosúil go heoimreatach má d'fhéadfaí ceann a dhéanamh comhionann leis an gceann eile trí na tomhais fad go léir a mhéadú leis an fhachtóir céanna , . I mbia-imicneachas ainmhithe, déantar scálaíocht a ríomh de ghnáth i ndáil le mais coirp, ar nós go ndéanann cosúlacht gheoiméadaí i méideanna líneacha cur síos ar chás ina bhfuil na fadanna comhréireach le mais coirp0.33. Tá sé deacair mais coirp a ríomh go cruinn d'ainmhithe atá imithe mar dineasáir fiú nuair a bhíonn cnámha beagnach iomlána ar fáil (m.sh. ), agus go dtí seo níor tugadh aon mhodh bhailíochtaithe chun maisí a eascraíocht ó shláin chos. Sa chás seo déanaimid diagnóisíocht ar an gcineál céannacht gheoimhréiteach ó threocha ag baint úsáide as na céatadáin choibhneasta de fhad na codanna comhlacht (m.sh. ); léirítear comhsheasmhacht i ndáil le heimeatraíocht an tslí mar dhiagnóisiú ar eisimeatraíocht i gcoinbhleachtaí líneacha comhlacht na gcosantóirí. Aithnímid, áfach, gur gá a bheith cúramach le tomhas na gcorp ó thrácaí a chinneadh, d'fhéadfadh méid na thrácaí a bheith ina fheidhm go héasca den chineál substrata agus de na coinníollacha (ag am na foirmiú thrácaí), agus athrú i méid an lucht ceoil a bheith ina fheidhm de reology . Is fiú a chur i bhfios go dtagraíonn an sampla a ndearnadh staidéar air do dhá phobal difriúil de titanosaurs beag amháin i gcoinne deich titanosaurs mór; dá bhrí sin, ní dáileadh leanúnach méideanna é (ie, tá rian beag á chur i gcomparáid le daonra rian mór). Sa staidéar seo, léirítear ó chomparáid a dhéanamh idir luachanna an chiorcal glíneo-acetabular (Dg-a) agus airde an chlé (h) den chraobh bheag (#50) le tomhais faoi seach de chraobh mhór go bhfuil luachanna an-chosúla ag cuid de na cóimheasaí (Tábla 2). Tá an gaol idir fad an chorn agus airde an chlé de chuid an chraoltóra beag (Dg-a/h = 1,04) laistigh de luachanna seachruithe caighdeánacha na gcraoltóra móra (tá meánmheas Dg-a/h ± SD 1.07±0.08). Tugann sé seo le tuiscint, ar bhonn fianaise ichin- Bhí an t- am a bhí ag an t- ollamh (i. e. airde cnámh) i titanosaurs beaga agus móra araon agus go raibh an scálaíocht gar do chothroime gheoimreatach. Maidir le leithead an choirp, léiríonn staidéir ichnólaíocha bunaithe ar threochláir ina bhfuil rianta beaga agus móra araon go mbeadh rianta caol-chuaird déanta ag rianta óige agus fásta de chuid sauropodaí, is dócha macronarians bunscoile nó diplodocids. Cuirtear cosáin óige meánmhéide go leathan-scaipthe i leith brachiosaurids nó titanosaurids . Mhol Wilson & Carrano go bhfuil morfolaíocht cnámh titanosaurs freagrach as difríochtaí gauge agus thuar go raibh tréithe anatamacha ar leith ag titanosaurs díorthaithe (∼saltasaurids nó titanosaurids sensu) ina struchtúr foircne a cheadaíonn an adscription dlúth le rianta gauge leathan. Dúirt Wilson & Carrano go raibh difríocht i gcaighdeán na mbóithre mar thoradh ar dhifríochtaí i méid an choirp agus dá bhrí sin ní fhéadfadh daoine aonair de mheáchain éagsúla a tháirgeadh bealaí caighdeánacha agus bealaí caighdeánacha araon. Lockley et al. , , mhol sé go bhfuil difríochtaí gauge ina bhfeidhm de chuid de mhéid agus fáis agus thug sé le fios go bhfuil an chuma ar gauge na n-ógánaigh ó gauge caol go meánmhéide leathan. Ag na suíomhanna rianála Fumanya, áit a ndearnadh tuairisc ar níos mó ná 40 rianáil, níl aon fhianaise ann go raibh rianáil throm- nó meán-scaipthe, agus go raibh titanosaurs beaga agus móra a tháirgtear ar rianáil leathan go an-leathan, faoi seach. Tá luachanna PTR íseal (PTR ± SD ar an meán do threocha móra 28.00% ± 2.30; agus 34.8% don threocha beag; Tábla 2) agus tá siad ag teacht leis an hipitéis go raibh titanosaurs beaga agus móra araon ina lucht déanta sliocht leathan (cf. ) Tá an t-am ar fad ag an bhfeiste chun an t-am a chaithfear a chaitheamh ar an gcluiche a dhéanamh. Dg-a/Twe agus h/TWe, faoi seach) de threocha beaga agus móra léiríonn sé go bhfuil cosúlacht suntasach i socrú an chorn agus na gcnámha, in ainneoin roinnt difríochtaí beaga. Mar shampla, tá cóimheas Dg-a/Twe an rianbhealach beag (Dg-a/Twe = 2.10) laistigh de dhá SD den sampla titanosaurs mór (meán Dg-a/Twe ± SD = 1.70±0.29). Ar bhealach den chineál céanna, tá cóimheas h / Twe an rian beag laistigh de thrí SD den sampla titanosaurs mór (meán h / Twe ± SD = 1.57 ± 0.19). Is dócha go bhfuil na héagsúlachtaí beaga sin mar gheall ar an bhfíric, cé go raibh siad araon ina lucht déanta rianta leathan-chlaoch, b'fhéidir nach mbeadh an "choinníoll leathan" i titanosaurs beaga (luachanna PTR ard) chomh ró-mhéadúil agus atá sna daoine aonair móra (luachanna PTR an-ard), mar a mhol Lockley et al. , agus bhí tionchar ag an méid sin ar pharaiméadair choibhneasta eile an chomhlachta. Ar aon chuma agus in ainneoin go bhfuil gá le méid sampla níos mó, tacaíonn luachanna PTR faoi bhun 36% le coinníoll soiléir leathan-scaire i titanosaurs beaga agus móra araon. Ciallaíonn sé seo go raibh an phlean bauplainne titanosaur ginearálta maidir leis an gcrios pelvic agus struchtúr an chomhlachta, a bhaineann le gluaiseacht leathan-chomhchúrsa, neamhspleách ar mhéid. Dá bhrí sin, déanaimid a thabhairt i gcrích go raibh comhréireanna comhlacht (trunk agus foircinn) den chineál céanna ag titanosaurs beaga agus mór, is cuma cén méid a bhí acu; dá bhrí sin, scálaigh siad gar do choltas géimeatrach. Tá an toradh seo ag teacht le saothair roimhe seo a thuairiscigh fás isometric i mbéal appendicular de chuid is mó de ghrúpaí sauropod , , . Is fiú a chur i bhfios, áfach, nach féidir linn a chinntiú ó na sonraí a roghnaíodh don staidéar seo go mbaineann na difríochtaí i méid a breathnaíodh sna rianta le céimeanna fáis. D'fhéadfadh go raibh na rianta beaga déanta ag daoine óg den speiceas céanna a tháirg na rianta móra; ar shlí eile, d'fhéadfadh rianta beaga agus móra a bheith ina n-ionadaí ar dhaoine den speiceas éagsúla. Agus é seo san áireamh, aithníonn na húdair teorainneacha a gcuid infheirgníochtaí, a thabharfaidh tagairt do phlean comhlacht, socrú gaoithe, agus gluaiseacht titanosaurs de mhéideanna éagsúla, is cuma cén leibhéal tacsainóimíochta atá acu. Hipitéis (b): Siúlóidí agus Cosúlacht Dinimiciúil Titanosaur Tugann hipoteis an chomhionannais dinimiciúil le fios go dtéann comhlachtaí atá inchomparáide i gcruth, ach difriúil i méid, ar aghaidh ar bhealaí dinimiciúla den chineál céanna má tá luachanna comhionanna acu ar líon Froude agus ar fhad stride coibhneasta , . Mar thoradh air sin, táirgeann siad patrún cosán den chineál céanna mar gheall ar a gcuid pleananna gluaiseachta agus comhlacht inchomparáide (i.e. Tá an t-am ar fad le haghaidh an t-amhrán. I gcás dineasáir sauropod, cuireann na céatadáin choibhneasta i bhfad gleno-acetabular (an fad idir criosanna pelvic agus scapular) agus uillinn fad agus eisiata na mbarr- agus na mbarr-chomhartha teorainn lena ngluaiseachtaí i dtrí phríomh-ghníomh: a) gnáth-ghníomh amble; b) gnáth-ghníomh malartach agus c) gnáth-ghníomh asynchronous. Ar threocha, táthar ag súil go dtabharfaidh gaití ar leith difríochtaí i fhad na mbó agus i bhfad lámha-pés chomh maith le ríomh an fad glenoacetabular. Ó na rianta a ndearnadh staidéar orthu, léiríonn roinnt paraiméadair agus cóimheas go raibh titanosaurs beaga agus móra ag bogadh ar bhealach dinimiciúil den chineál céanna, le gait den chineál céanna. Ar dtús, tá uimhreacha Froude an-chosúla ag titanosaurs a tháirgeann an rianán beag agus an rianán mór (meán Fn ± SD = 0.026 ± 0.007 do lucht déanta rianán mór; Fn = 0.026 don lucht déanta rianán beag) agus tá luachanna íseal acu le haghaidh fad stride coibhneasta (meán SL / h ± SD = 0.76 ± 0.07 do lucht déanta rianán mór; SL / h = 0.77 don lucht déanta rianán beag), ag léiriú go soiléir gait imeartha atá cosúil go dinimiciúil. Léiríonn sonraí a phlátaíodh do na bealaí uile go bhfuil comhghaol dearfach láidir ann idir uimhir Froude agus paraiméadair fad stride coibhneasta (R2 = 0.99206) i titanosaurs Fumanya, agus go bhfuil an caidreamh seo ag scála an-ghar do thuarthas empiriúil na cosúlachta dinimice (Fig. 4). Ar an dara dul síos, rinneamar na trí chobhsaíocht féideartha do gach ceoltóir a ríomh tar éis breithniú a dhéanamh ar Farlow et al. agus ag glacadh leis an gcaidreamh Dg-a / h a thomhas i athdhéanamh cnámha sauropod (ar a bhfuil gar do 1 do titanosaurs; féach Ábhair agus modhanna). Is é an rud a chuirimid i gcrích ná go bhfuil an luach Dg-a≥h a fuarthas ó chnámha níos fearr i ngach cás, i measc na dtrí Dg-a (amble, alternate, asynchronous;), ná an luach a fhreagraíonn do rith an chéim amble, áit a mbogann na foircinn ipsilateral beagnach go sioncronach. Ar an tríú dul síos, léirítear an modh gluaiseachta áirithe seo i gcaidrimh eile a ríomhtar ó pharaiméadair an rianta. Mar shampla, sa chraobhbhealach beag, tá luachanna an chaidrimh idir fad an chúlchosa agus uillinn eisiúna an chúlchosa (TL/SL = 0.28) nó uillinn eisiúna an chúlchosa i ndáil le fad an choirp (SL/Dg-a = 0.73) laistigh de raon an tsampla titanosaurs mór (meán TL/SL ± SD = 0.29±0.03; meán SL/Dg-a ± SD = 0.71±0.03). Dá bhrí sin, léiríonn na sonraí atá ann faoi láthair go raibh titanosaurs beaga ag siúl ar an mbealach ginearálta céanna le titanosaurs móra a tháirgtear rianta inchomparáide go géimeatrach. D'fhéadfadh sé seo a bheith ag teacht le Carrano a dúirt go raibh na dinosaurs óg ina n-ionadaí ar an morphology locomotor (agus dá bhrí sin an gait, seasamh agus tomhas céanna) de dinosaurs fásta. Tá an t-aistriúchán seo ar an mblag-eagarthóir a bhí ag an mblag-eagarthóir ar an mblag-eagarthóir ar an mblag-eagarthóir ar an mblag-eagarthóir ar an mblag-eagarthóir ar an mblag-eagarthóir ar an mblag-eagarthóir ar an mblag-eagarthóir ar an mblag-eagarthóir ar an mblag-eagarthóir ar an mblag-eagarthóir ar an mblag-eagarthóir ar an mblag-eagarthóir ar an mblag-eagarthóir ar an mblag-eagarthóir ar an mblag-eagarthóir ar an mblag-eagarthóir ar an mblag-eagarthóir ar an mblag-eagarthóir ar an mblag-eagarthóir ar an mblag-eagarthóir ar an mblag-eagarthóir ar an mblag-eagarthóir ar an mblag-eagarthóir ar an mblag-eagarthóir ar an mblag-eagarthóir ar an mblag-eagarthóir ar an mblag-eagarthóir ar an mblag-eagarthóir ar an mblag-eagarthóir ar an mblag-eagarthóir ar an mblag-eagarthóir ar an mblag-eagarthóir ar an mblag-eagarthóir ar an mblag-eagarthóir ar an mblag-eagarthóir ar an mblag-eagar-eagar-eagar-eagar-eagar-eagar-eagar-eagar-eagar-eagar-eag-eag-eag-eag-eag-eag-eag-eag-eag-eag-eag-eag-eag-eag-eag-eag-eag-eag-eag-eag-eag-eag-eag-eag-eag-eag-eag-eag-g-g-g-g-g-g-g-g-g-g-g-g-g-g-g-g-g-g-g-g-g-g-g-g-g-g-g-g-g-g-g-g-g-g-g-g-g-g-g-g-g-g-g Léiríonn cóimheasaí ichnólacha cosúlachtaí i gcaitheamh, i gcionm agus i gcionm a thugann le tuiscint go raibh fad trunk agus gcionn titanosaurs beaga cosúil le daoine móra. Mar thoradh air sin, léiríonn uimhreacha Froude den chineál céanna agus fad stride coibhneasta i ndéantóirí beaga agus móra araon gur ghluais titanosaurs ar bhealach dinimiciúil den chineál céanna beag beann ar a méid coirp. Ar deireadh, léiríonn an staid leathan a tuairiscíodh i rianta titanosaurs beaga agus móra go raibh an crios pelvic céanna agus struchtúr na gcomhalta acu araon, a bhaineann le locomórtas leathan-chlaoch. Go raibh maith agat David Hodgetts, Frank Rarity agus Ivan Fabuel-Perez as a gcuid cúnamh le bailiú agus próiseáil sonraí LiDAR agus P. Larson as grianghraif a sholáthar ar an speiceas óige (SMA0009, Toni). Go raibh maith agat VF dos Santos, JA Wilson agus dhá athbhreithnitheoir gan ainm as a gcuid tuairimí úsáideacha ar leagan níos luaithe den lámhscríbhinn. Tá meas mór ag an Roinn Cultúir de chuid Generalitat de Catalunya agus ag an gConsórtas Ruta Minera ar na háiseanna a sholáthraíonn siad. Go raibh maith agat freisin Zoller + Fröhlich (http://www.zf-laser.com/e_index.html) as an iasacht de aonad LiDAR Z + F Imager 5006i. Na turgnaimh a cheapadh agus a dhearadh: BV OO AG KB PM. Rinne na turgnaimh: BV OO AG KB VE PM. Rinne BV OO AG KB PM anailís ar na sonraí. Reactíon/ábhar/uirlisí anailíse a chuirtear isteach: BV OO AG KB VE PM. Scríobh an páipéar: BV OO AG KB VE PM. - Ceann. Sander PM, Clauss M (2008) Sauropod gigantism. Eolaíocht 322: 200201. - Dhá. Mazzetta GV, Christiansen P, Fariña RA (2004) Giants and bizarres: body size of some southern South American Cretaceous dinosaurs. Bithíocht Stairiúil 16: 7183. - Trí. Sander PM, Christian A, Clauss M, Fechner R, Gee CT, et al. (2011) Bithíocht na dtinosaur sauropod: éabhlóid an gigantism. Biol Rev 86: 117155. - Ceathrar. Mazzetta GV, Blanco RE (2001) luas na dínosaur ó Albian-Cenomanian Patagonia agus seasamh agus gait sauropod. Acta Palaeontol Pol 46: 235246. - Cúig. Christiansen P (1997) Iompar i dtinosairí sauropod. Gaia 14: 4575. - Sé. Christian A, Müller RHG, Christian G, Preuschoft H (1999) Leamh ag swinging in eilifintí agus girafaí agus impleachtaí maidir le hathchóiriú gluaiseachtaí leamh agus meastacháin luas i dtinosaúirí móra. Mitteilungen aus dem Museum für Naturkunde i mBeirlín, Geowissenschaftliche Reihe 2: 8190. - Seacht. Christian A, Heinrich W-D, Golder W (1999) Posture and mechanics of the forelimbs of Brachiosaurus brancai (Dinosauria: Sauropoda). Mitteilungen aus dem Museum für Naturkunde i mBeirlín, Geowissenschaftliche Reihe 2: 6373. - 8. - Tá sé. Carrano MT (2005) Eabhlóid locomotion sauropod: éagsúlacht mhorphological de radaíocht ceathrú-choirpigh. I: Curry Rogers KA, Wilson JA, eagarthóirí. Na Sauropods: Eabhlóid agus Paleobiology. Berkeley: Foilseachán Ollscoil California. 229251. - Naoi. Falkingham PL, Bates KT, Mannion PD (2012) Dáileadh sealadach agus paleo-chomhshaoil de threo-bhealaí sauropod a bhfuil lámha agus pes i gceannas orthu. J Geol Soc Londain 169: 365 370. - Déag. Lockley MG, Schulp AS, Meyer CA, Leonardi G, Mamani DK (2002) Sligheanna Titanosaurid ó Chríocha Uachtarach na Bóilíve: fianaise le haghaidh manus mór, gluaiseacht leathan-gauge agus iompar greagúil. Cretaceous Res 23: 383 400. - 11. - Tá sé. González-Riga BJ (2010) luas agus seasamh sauropods titanosaur: anailís ar rianta Titanopodus ó Chréatach Déanach Mendoza, an Airgintín. An Acad Bras Cienc 83: 112. - 12. - Tá sé. Wilson JA, Carrano MT (1999) Titanosaurs agus bunús na mbóithre leathan-scaipthe: dearcadh bithmheicniúil agus córais ar ghluaiseacht sauropod. Paleobiology 25: 252267. - 13. - Tá sé. Wright JL (2005) Céimeanna chun bithéolaíocht sauropod a thuiscint. I: Curry-Rogers K, Wilson JA, eagarthóirí. Na Sauropods: éabhlóid agus paileabhiolaíocht. Berkeley: Foilseachán Ollscoil California. 252284. - Ceithre bliana déag. Curry Rogers KA (2005) Titanosauria: léargas ar an phylogenetic. I: Curry Rogers KA, Wilson JA, eagarthóirí. Na sauropods: éabhlóid agus paleo-bhileog. Berkeley: Foilseachán Ollscoil California. 50103. - 15. - Tá sé. Wilson JA (2005) Léargas ar phylogeny agus éabhlóid sauropod. I: Curry-Rogers KA, Wilson JA, eagarthóirí. Na sauropods: Eabhlóid agus paileabhiolaíocht. Berkeley: Foilseachán Ollscoil California. 1549. - 16. - Tá sé. Alexander RMcN (1976) Meastacháin ar luas na dínosaur. An Dúlra 261: 129130. - 17. - Tá sé. Alexander RMcN, Jayes A (1983) Hipitéis chomhionannas dinimiciúil do gaits mamaigh cheathrú-choirp. J Zool 201: 135152. - 18. - Tá sé. Vila B, Galobart À, Oms O, Poza B, Bravo AM (2010) Measúnú ar straitéisí neadaithe titanosaurs Cretaceous Late: Geoiméide clutch 3-D ó uibheacha megaloolithid nua. Lethaia 43: 197208. - 19. - Tá sé. Bravo AM, Vila B, Galobart À, Oms O (2005) Restos de huevos de dinosaurio en el sinclinal de Vallcebre (Berguedà, Provincia de Barcelona). Revista Española de Paleontología 10: 4957. - 20. - Tá sé. Marmi J, Vila B, Galobart À (2009) Solemys (Chelonii, Solemydidae) fós ó Maastrichtian na Píreiné: fianaise ar stíl mhaireachtála leath-uisceach. Cretaceous Res 30: 13071312. - 21 bliain. Marmi J, Vila B, Oms O, Galobart À, Cappetta H (2010) Na taifid is sine de spineanna stingray (Chondrichthyes, Myliobatiformes). J Vertebr Paleontol 30: 970974. - 22. - Tá sé. Vila B, Oms O, Marmi J, Galobart À (2008) Léim Fumanya a rianú (Maastrichtian, Pyrenees): forbhreathnú stairiúil agus ichnólach. Oryctos 8: 150 130. - 23. - Tá sé. Oms O, Dinarès-Turell J, Vicens E, Estrada R, Vila B, et al. (2007) Strataigréip chomhtháite ó bhus Vallcebre (Piréiní oirdheisceart, an Spáinn): léargas nua ar an aistriú mór-roinneach Cretaceous-Tertiary i ndeisceart na hEorpa. Palaeogeogra Palaeoecol 255: 3547. - 24. - Tá sé. Riera V, Marmi J, Oms O, Gomez B (2010) Cuimsí plandaí dírithe a léiríonn palaeocurrentí taídeacha i bhflat muice Fumanya (Maastrichtian, Pyrenees theas): Insights in palaeogeographic reconstruction. Palaeogeogra Palaeoecol 288: 8292. - 25. - Tá sé. Le Loeuff J, Martínez-Rius A (1997) Afloramiento de icnitas de Titanosauridae en la zona de Fumanya (Maastrichtiense, Pirineo oriental): staidéar réamh. Geogaceta 21: 151153. - 26. - Tá sé. Schulp AS, Brokx WA (1999) Scagairí sauropod Maastrichtian ó shuíomh Fumanya, Berguedà, an Spáinn. Ichnos 6: 239 250. - 27. - Tá sé. Bates KT, Rarity F, Manning PL, Hodgetts D, Vila B, et al. (2008) Suirbhé LiDAR ard-chinntiúis agus fotogrammetric de na suíomhanna rianú dineasáir Fumanya (Catalonia): Impleachtaí ar chaomhnú agus léiriú suíomhanna oidhreachta gheolaíochta. J Geol Soc Londain 165: 115 127. - 28. - Tá sé. 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Schwarz D, Ikejiri T, Breithaupt BH, Sander PM, Klein N (2007) Creathan beagnach iomlán de diplodocid luath óg (Dinosauria: Sauropoda) ó Fhorbairt Morrison Íseal (Jurassic Déanach) i dTuaisceart Mheán Wyoming agus a impleachtaí ar ontogeny luath agus pneumaticity i sauropods. Bithíocht Stairiúil 19: 225253. - 34. - Tá mé. Carballido JL, Marpmann JS, Schwarz-Wings D, Pabst B (2012) Eolas nua ar speiceam sauropod óg ó Fhorbairt Morrison agus athmheasúnú ar a shuíomh córais. Palaeontology 55: 567 582. - 35. - Tá sé. Marty D (2008) Séidimentology, taphonomy, and ichnology of Late Jurassic dinosaur tracks from the Jura carbonate platform (Chevenez-Combe Ronde tracksite, NW Switzerland): insights into the tidal-flat palaeoenvironment and dinosaur diversity, locomotion, and palaeoecology. 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Marty D, Hug WA, Iberg A, Cavin L, Meyer CA, et al. (2003) Tuairisc réamh ar shuíomh rianú dineasáir Courtedoux ó Kimmeridgian na hEilvéise. Ichnos 10: 209 219. - 40 bliain. Upchurch P (1998) Caidreamh fillineiteach na dtinosaur sauropod. Zool J Linn Soc-Londain 124: 43 103. - 41. - Tá mé. Lockley MG, Wright JL, Lucas SG, Hunt AP (2001) Tagann an taifead sauropod Triassic Déanach i bhfolach. Seana-oidhreachtaí agus paradigms nua. Leabhar Treoirleabhar Cumann Geolaíochta Nua-Mheicsiceo, 52ú Comhdháil Réimse: 181190. - 42 bliain. Lockley MG, Wright JL, White D, Jianjun L, Lu F, et al. (2002) An chéad rianta sauropod ón tSín. Cretaceous Res 23: 363381. - 43. - Tá mé. Wilhite RD (2005) Athrú i gcnámh scamhóige na dtinosaúr sauropod Mheiriceá Thuaidh: impleachtaí tacsainimiceacha. I: Carpenter K, Tidwell V, eagarthóirí. Thunder-Lizards: Na Dinosaurs Sauropodomorph. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. 268 30. - 44. - Tá sé. 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Broad environment is the sub category of marketing environments which contains certain forces that have severe effects on the organizations. These forces are known as the forces of broad environments. Forces of Broad Environments - Controllable Forces - Uncontrollable Forces Marketing decisions are greatly influenced by these factors or forces of broad environments. Top management & marketers direct these forces from top to bottom. All decision that are taken by the top management but there are certain decisions that influence the markets directly. These decisions are as follow - Line of Business: It includes the category of goods & services, type of ownership, geographic coverage functioning and specific business of the organization. - Overall Objectives: It contains the overall objectives of the organization like numerical goals etc. - Role of Marketing: The significance & integration of services - Corporate Culture: It includes the environment of the inside organization These Forces of Broad Environments are related to the external environment. Following are included in this category. - Customers: Certain characteristics are included in this portion like income, education, race and status etc. - Competition: The plans & activities of the competitors are focused including their policies, strategies & research etc. - Government: It contains the laws, policies, controls, rules, international laws and framework etc. - Economy: It includes sectoral factors, rate of growth, the trends & many other elements. - Technology: It contains elements like machines, equipments, research and methods etc. - Media: It includes forces related to media like public opinion, the interdependence of media and the information mode etc. The marketing decisions of the organization are influenced directly or indirectly by all of the above mentioned broad environment factors. The policies & plans need to be adjusted in the light of any of above factors. Handling Broad Environment Broad environment is handled through the following steps. There should be closed monitoring & scanning of the broad environment so that proper adjustment can be made in the marketing decisions of the organization. When there emerges change, the organization should immediately responds by taking certain corrective actions so that the opportunity of the change can be availed. There should be inherent flexibility linked with marketing decisions in order to bring change in the broad environment. The change need to be properly managed & implemented. In the light of the changes taking place in the broad environment, the organization should have flexibility to alter its actions. - Information & Research: In order to make access to information & research, close & systematic mechanism should be developed. Either change occurs by itself like in legal system etc, or it needs to be broadcasted. But there are certain changes that should be forecasted. Trends should be observed continuously so that the information mechanism is built properly in advance. There should be full & careful monitoring of the marketing decisions. The environment must be taken into account before change & alteration is made. As the change occurs, the organization should properly adopt itself according to that change by adjusting its working conditions so that maximum benefit will be availed from that change. This approach is specifically called as Marketing-Environment Fit (MEF). There are not much associations of activities related to the broad environment so the marketing decisions are concentrated in this regard and certain changes & alteration is made to make them fit in the light of changing broad environment. When marketing decisions are taken in-time in the light of broad environment the following two advantages can be availed. - Losses are reduced or erosion of business profits is minimized. - There is some opportunity that should be cashed.

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Is é an timpeallacht leathan an fho-chatagóir de thimpeallachtaí margaíochta ina bhfuil fórsaí áirithe a bhfuil éifeachtaí tromchúiseacha acu ar na heagraíochtaí. Tugtar fórsaí na timpeallachta leathan ar na fórsaí seo. Fórsaí na dTimpeallachtaí Leathan - Fórsaí Inrialaithe - Fórsaí neamhrialta Bíonn tionchar mór ag na fachtóirí nó ag fórsaí na timpeallachta leathan seo ar chinntí margaíochta. Tá na fórsaí seo á stiúradh ag bainistíocht agus margaíochta ó thús go deireadh. Déantar gach cinneadh ag an mbainistíocht uachtarach ach tá cinntí áirithe ann a mbíonn tionchar díreach acu ar na margaí. Tá na cinntí seo a leanas - Líon Gnó: Cuimsíonn sé catagóir earraí agus seirbhísí, cineál úinéireachta, clúdach geografach agus gnó sonrach na heagraíochta. - Cuspóirí foriomlán: Tá cuspóirí foriomlán na heagraíochta ann, mar shampla spriocanna uimhriúla, srl. - Ról na Margaíochta: Tásc agus comhtháthú seirbhísí - Cultúr Corparáideach: Cuimsíonn sé timpeallacht an eagraíochta inmheánaí Tá na Fórsaí seo de Thimpeallachtaí Leathan bainteach leis an timpeallacht sheachtrach. Tá na cinn seo a leanas san áireamh sa chatagóir seo. - Custaiméirí: Cuirtear tréithe áirithe san áireamh sa chuid seo mar ioncam, oideachas, ciníochas agus stádas srl. - Iomaíocht: Tá pleananna agus gníomhaíochtaí na n-iomaitheoirí dírithe lena n-áirítear a mbeartais, a straitéisí agus a gcuid taighde, srl. - Rialtas: Tá na dlíthe, na beartais, na rialuithe, na rialacha, na dlíthe agus an creat idirnáisiúnta, etc. ann. - Eacnamaíocht: Cuimsíonn sé fachtóirí earnálacha, ráta fáis, na treochtaí agus go leor eilimintí eile. - Teicneolaíocht: Tá eilimintí ann mar mheaisíní, trealamh, taighde agus modhanna srl. - Meáin: Cuimsíonn sé fórsaí a bhaineann leis na meáin mar thuairim phoiblí, idirspleáchas na meáin agus an modh faisnéise srl. Bíonn tionchar díreach nó indíreach ag na fachtóirí comhshaoil leathan thuasluaite ar chinntí margaíochta na heagraíochta. Ní mór na beartais agus na pleananna a choigeartú i bhfianaise aon cheann de na fachtóirí thuasluaite. Ag déileáil le timpeallacht leathan Déantar an timpeallacht leathan a láimhseáil trí na céimeanna seo a leanas. Ba cheart monatóireacht agus scanadh dúnta a dhéanamh ar an timpeallacht leathan ionas gur féidir coigeartú cuí a dhéanamh i gcinntí margaíochta na heagraíochta. Nuair a thagann athrú chun cinn, ba cheart don eagraíocht freagairt láithreach trí bhearta ceartaitheacha áirithe a dhéanamh ionas gur féidir leas a bhaint as an deis a bhaineann leis an athrú. Ba cheart solúbthacht nádúrtha a bheith ann a bhaineann le cinntí margaíochta d'fhonn athrú a dhéanamh ar an timpeallacht leathan. Ní mór an t-athrú a bhainistiú agus a chur i bhfeidhm i gceart. I bhfianaise na n-athruithe atá ar siúl sa timpeallacht leathan, ba cheart go mbeadh solúbthacht ag an eagraíocht a ghníomhaíochtaí a athrú. - Fhaisnéis & Taighde: Chun rochtain a fháil ar fhaisnéis agus taighde, ba cheart meicníocht dlúth agus córais a fhorbairt. Tarlaíonn athrú de réir a chéile mar atá i gcóras dlí etc, nó ní mór é a chraoladh. Ach tá roinnt athruithe ann a ba cheart a thuar. Ba cheart treochtaí a bheith á mbreathnú go leanúnach ionas go mbeidh an sásra faisnéise tógtha go cuí roimh ré. Ba cheart monatóireacht iomlán agus cúramach a dhéanamh ar na cinntí maidir le margaíocht. Ní mór an timpeallacht a chur san áireamh sula ndéantar athrú agus athruithe. De réir mar a tharlaíonn an t-athrú, ba cheart don eagraíocht féin a chur in oiriúint i gcomhréir leis an athrú sin trína choinníollacha oibre a choigeartú ionas go mbainfidh sí leas as an athrú sin. Tugtar an cur chuige seo go sonrach mar Oiriúnú Margaíochta-Comhshaoil (MEF). Níl mórán comhlachais ann d'oibríochtaí a bhaineann leis an timpeallacht leathan agus dá bhrí sin déantar na cinntí margaíochta a dhíriú ar an gcúis seo agus déantar roinnt athruithe agus athruithe chun iad a oiriúnú i bhfianaise an timpeallachta leathan atá ag athrú. Nuair a dhéantar cinntí margaíochta in am i bhfianaise an chomhshaoil leathan, is féidir na dhá bhuntáiste seo a leanas a bhaint amach. - Laghdaítear caillteanais nó laghdaítear an laghdú ar bhrabús gnó. - Tá roinnt deis gur chóir a airgead tirim.

As anyone who's ever observed an ant farm will attest, ants tend to pick the most efficient route through their maze to a food source, even when confronted with two seemingly identical routes. Scientists weren't exactly sure how ants are able to do this, especially with limited vision and limited brainpower. So a team of researchers built a robotic ant army to find out. Researchers programmed the robots to mimic some basic ant behaviors For their study on swarm intelligence, researchers from the French National Center for Scientific Research (CNRS) and the New Jersey Institute of Technology turned to Alice, a type of tiny, wheeled cube robot developed several years ago by Swiss scientists. The researchers programmed the robots to mimic some basic ant behaviors, such as to avoid obstacles and to follow light trails, which were used to represent pheromone trails that real ants leave for each other. They discovered that relying on just these simple behaviors, the robots were able to select the shortest path through a maze most of the time (over 70 percent of trials), approaching ant-like levels of success. The high level of performance of robots using only simple programs led the researchers to conclude that ants aren't using any "complex cognitive process" to pick their route, and instead rely mainly on a loose obstacle-avoidance system and directions laid out by peers that have already successfully navigated the maze. The scientists published their results in an open access journal PloS Computational Biology this week. Their next step is to figure out how ants come up with the structure of their mazes in the first place. Don't worry about any robotic ants getting loose, though — the researchers returned their robots to a supply company, as one of the scientists leading the group told The Verge.

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Mar a dhearbhóidh duine ar bith a bhreathnaigh ar fheirm mhianra riamh, bíonn claonadh ag mhianra an bealach is éifeachtaí a roghnú tríd a labyrinth go foinse bia, fiú nuair a bhíonn siad i ngleic le dhá bhealach cosúil. Ní raibh eolaithe cinnte go díreach conas a dhéanann na miorcanna é seo, go háirithe le fís theoranta agus cumhacht brainsithe teoranta. Mar sin, d'fhostaigh foireann taighdeoirí arm mhianótach a dhéanamh chun é a fháil amach. Rinne taighdeoirí na róbathanna a chlárú chun roinnt iompar bunúsach na mbeithíní a mhalairt Chun staidéar a dhéanamh ar intleacht na scuaba, d'fhéach taighdeoirí ó Ionad Náisiúnta na Fraince um Thaighde Eolaíoch (CNRS) agus Institiúid Teicneolaíochta New Jersey ar Alice, cineál róbata beag ciúbach rothaí a d'fhorbair eolaithe na hEilvéise roinnt blianta ó shin. Rinne na taighdeoirí na róbathanna a chlárú chun roinnt iompar bunúsach na mbeithíní a mhalairt, mar shampla constaicí a sheachaint agus rianta solais a leanúint, a úsáideadh chun rianta pheromone a léiriú a fhágann beithíní fíor lena chéile. Fuair siad amach go raibh na robots in ann, ag brath ar na hiompar simplí seo, an bealach is giorra a roghnú trí labyrinth an chuid is mó den am (níos mó ná 70 faoin gcéad de thrialacha), ag teacht ar leibhéil rathúlachta cosúil le creimíní. Mar gheall ar an ardleibhéal feidhmíochta atá ag róbathanna nach bhfuil ach cláir shimplí acu, tháinig na taighdeoirí ar an gconclúid nach bhfuil na miorcanna ag úsáid aon "próiseas cognaíoch casta" chun a mbóthar a roghnú, agus ina ionad sin tá siad ag brath go príomha ar chóras scaoilte cosc-eisceacht agus treoracha a leagann amach peers a d'éirigh leo an labyrinth a nascleanúint cheana féin. D'fhoilsigh na heolaithe a dtorthaí i dtuarascáil oscailte PloS Computational Biology an tseachtain seo. Is é an chéad chéim eile ná a fháil amach conas a thagann na miorcanna suas le struchtúr a labyrinths sa chéad áit. Ná bíodh imní ort faoi aon fhíseáin róbata a bheith scaoilte, cé go bhfuair na taighdeoirí a gcuid róbataí ar ais chuig cuideachta soláthair, mar a dúirt duine de na heolaithe a bhí i gceannas ar an ngrúpa leis an Verge.

Linking Climate Injustice to Women’s Struggle By Rumana Hashem This is a reporting from the frontline of climate activism in northwest Bangladesh, and an eyewitness to coal-led bloodshed, and women’s resistance against mining in a post-colonial location in South Asia. The discussion tells us about the Truth – who should we save, on the one hand; and advocates for the need to change, and the need to prevent climate breakdown and environmental injustice, and killings by coal-mining and multinational corporations listed on London Stock Exchange. The story is important on this International Women’s Day because it reminds us why and how women fight coal mining, at the same time how rarely women get recognised by the nation. Women in northwest Bangladesh know that coal doesn’t only damage environment but also kills humans. On 26 August in 2006 three young people were shot dead and over 200 injured in Phulabri when paramilitary forced opened fire on a demonstration of more than 80,000 people who marched against a coal-mine proposed to be built by a British mining company, Asia Energy, thereafter the toxic Global Coal Management (GCM) Resources Plc. The Global Coal Management plans to extract 572millions tons coal from Phulbari and wants to build a massive open cast coal mine by displacing upto 220, 000 people and polluting 14, 600 hectares of fertile land (1 hectare is equal to 2.471 acres or 10,000 square metres) from Bangladesh’s only flood protected area. For the people in the region, this project would mean losing their livelihood and identities because the mining would disperse the communities. It would impact upto 50,000 indigenous people from the area. The three killed in August 2006 were teenagers aged from 11 years to 18 years. I was present in the spot and saw innocent children dying and people getting badly injured, while running away from the town as gunshots, tear gas and arrests continued in the afternoon on a sunny Friday. When most people had run away, a group of women peasants turned around and started to chase paramilitary personnel and Rapid Action Battle (RAB) who were torturing men, women and children of all ages. The fighter women were swearing at the male soldiers, Police and RAB, and running with their home made sweep, cooking sticks and bamboo sticks. The fight went on for nearly two hours and the BDR gradually moved away from the main road as women told them that they had no right to enter the civilian’s space. Police enforced section 144 and announced emergency leave so women were then forced to go home. The night came with darkness and silences everywhere, and police played a role of industrial security guards for the British mining company. They raided houses in the manless town from 1am to 3am in the morning of 27 August. Everyone except the women and their children left the town. The mothers, sisters, aunts and grandmas had stayed in the town to protect their children. The fight did not end until we won. People in Phulbari, Barapukruia, and all six neighbouring chapters took strike actions for five days. It was women who took on the leading road for strikes. Four thousands women in Khoiyrbari took over the highway and roads on 29 August and cooked meal in their handmade oven right on the road and stayed there with their babies, as young as 4 months old. Nurunnahar, a sex worker, who chased hundreds of RAB and Police alone in the morning of 27 August, was the leader of all of us in the town of Phulbari. Nurunnahar taught everyone how to be brave and told us never to give up. Nobody gave in. The men and children joined the women’s march, and continued strike actions till 31 August when government signed the six-point demand, ensuring that no mine will be built in Phulbari without public consent. People’s verdict won. Government has cancelled the deal with the company. The controversial GCM is a London-based AIM-listed extractive company, who do not have any valid asset anywhere. They do not hold a valid contract with Bangladesh since September 2006. People have put a halt to the mine for more than 13 years. But GCM are selling shares on Phulbari coal project’s name. They are to hold their AGM again this Tuesday on 10th March. This will be resisted. Women and men in Phulbari town will be demonstrating against the AGM of GCM on Monday 9th March. In London, we will convey the message from Phulbari communities at the AGM of GCM, by holding a picket outside of the venue. The Phulbari women know that coal mining is not about progression or development, it is about profit. Women continue to resist GCM and any plans for extractions in Barapukuria, and the neighbourhood of Phulbari. Nontheless, women’s contributions get rarely recognised by the male leadership in Bangladesh. We should not forget the invaluable contributions of women in Phulbari resistance. The narrative of anti-coal mine struggle in the South Asian country illustrates the links between climate injustices, the power of anti-coal struggles, and women’s organising in the global South, in this case, Bangladesh. We must not undermine the resistance movement and women’s power to halt the massive open cast coal mine. We will be joining the picket against GCM’s AGM in London as our duty to stand with the women, men and children in Phulbari. Everyone is invited to join the demo and picket at 9am on Tuesday 10th March at Glaziers Hall, 9 Montague Close, London, SE1 9DD. Join us! Further details is available on Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/events/698989857304401/ Pingback: Bangladesh: Phulbari Resistance was made possible by Women’s Uprising – AWSM

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An Neamhshlándáil Aeráide a Nascadh le Troid na mBan Le Rumana Hashem Seo tuairisceán ó thús cadhnaíochta gníomhaíocht aeráide i dtuaisceart Bhanglaidéis, agus finné súl ar fhuil a bhí faoi stiúir guail, agus frithsheasmhacht na mban i gcoinne mianadóireachta i suíomh iar-choilíneach i dTuaisceart na hÁise. Insíonn an díospóireacht dúinn faoin Fírinne - cé ba cheart dúinn a shábháil, ar thaobh amháin; agus abhcóideann sé an gá atá le hathrú, agus an gá atá le cur isteach ar an gcrios aeráide agus éagothroime comhshaoil, agus dúnmharaithe ag mianadóireacht guail agus corparáidí ilnáisiúnta atá liostaithe ar Eolais Stoc Londain. Tá an scéal tábhachtach ar an Lá Idirnáisiúnta na mBan seo toisc go gcuimhneoidh sé dúinn cén fáth agus conas a dhéanann mná troid i gcoinne mianadóireacht guail, ag an am céanna cé chomh gann is a aithníonn an náisiún mná. Tá a fhios ag mná i dtuaisceart Bhanglaidéis nach ndéanann an guail damáiste don chomhshaol ach go ndéanann sé daoine a mharú freisin. Ar 26 Lúnasa 2006 maraíodh trí dhuine óg agus gortaíodh os cionn 200 i Phulabri nuair a d'oscail páirmíleataigh tine ar léiriú de níos mó ná 80,000 duine a bhí ag imeacht i gcoinne mianach guail a bhí beartaithe a thógáil ag cuideachta mianadóireachta na Breataine, Asia Energy, ina dhiaidh sin an Coil Global Coal Management (GCM) Resources Plc. Tá sé beartaithe ag an Bainistíocht Ghola Domhanda 572 milliún tonna guail a bhaint as Phulbari agus mian leis miancháin guail ollmhór oscailte a thógáil trí suas le 220,000 duine a dhíbirt agus 14,600 heicteár d'fhearann talún a thruailliú (1 heicteár comhionann le 2.471 acra nó 10,000 méadar cearnach) ó cheantar cosanta tuile amháin na Banglaidéise. I gcás na ndaoine sa réigiún, ciallaíonn an tionscadal seo a mbeatha agus a bhféiniúlacht a chailleadh toisc go scriosfadh na mianaigh na pobail. Bheadh tionchar aige ar suas le 50,000 duine dúchasach ón gceantar. Ba iad na trí fhear a maraíodh i mí Lúnasa 2006 déagóirí idir 11 agus 18 mbliana d'aois. Bhí mé i láthair ag an láthair agus chonaic mé leanaí neamhchiontach ag fáil bás agus daoine ag fáil gortaithe go dona, agus iad ag rith amach as an mbaile agus gunnaí, gáis déanach agus gabháilí ag leanúint ar aghaidh i ndiaidh a chéile tráthnóna Dé hAoine ghrianmhar. Nuair a bhí an chuid is mó de na daoine imithe ar shiúl, d'fhill grúpa de mhná feirmeoirí ar ais agus thosaigh siad ag dul i ngleic le pearsanra paraimíleatacha agus Rapid Action Battle (RAB) a bhí ag tortú fir, mná agus leanaí de gach aois. Bhí na mná comhrac ag cur báire ar na saighdiúirí fireannacha, na Póilíní agus RAB, agus ag rith lena gcuid scuab déanta sa bhaile, bataí cócaireachta agus bataí bambú. Lean an troid ar aghaidh ar feadh beagnach dhá uair an chloig agus bhog an BDR go mall ar shiúl ón bpríomhbhóthar agus mná ag rá leo nach raibh aon cheart acu dul isteach i spás na sibhialta. Chuir na póilíní alt 144 i bhfeidhm agus d'fhógair siad saoire éigeandála ionas go raibh mná iallach orthu dul abhaile. Tháinig an oíche le dorchadas agus le silences i ngach áit, agus bhí ról na póilíní mar gháirdí slándála tionsclaíocha don chuideachta mianadóireachta na Breataine. Rinne siad raids ar theachanna sa bhaile gan fear ó 1am go 3am ar maidin an 27 Lúnasa. D'fhág gach duine an baile ach amháin na mná agus a gcuid leanaí. D'fhan na máithreacha, na deirfiúracha, na hainsí agus na seanmháthair sa bhaile chun a gcuid leanaí a chosaint. Níor chríochnaigh an troid go dtí go bhuaigh muid. Rinne daoine i Phulbari, Barapukruia, agus na sé chaibidil chomharsanacha gníomhartha stailce ar feadh cúig lá. Ba mhná a ghlac an bealach tosaigh le haghaidh stailceanna. Ghlac ceithre mhíle bean i Khoiyrbari an mhórbhealach agus na bóithre ar 29 Lúnasa agus rinne siad béile ina n-oigheann lámhdhéanta díreach ar an mbóthar agus d'fhan siad ann lena gcuid leanaí, chomh óg le 4 mhí d'aois. Bhí Nurunnahar, oibrí gnéis, a chasadh na céadta RAB agus na póilíní ina n-aonar ar maidin an 27 Lúnasa, ina cheannaire ar gach duine againn i mbaile Phulbari. D'fhoghlaim Nurunnahar gach duine conas a bheith cróga agus dúirt sé linn gan a thabhairt suas. Níor thug aon duine isteach. Chuaigh na fir agus na páistí isteach sa mharc na mban, agus lean siad ar aghaidh le gníomhaíochtaí stailce go dtí an 31 Lúnasa nuair a shínigh an rialtas an éileamh sé phointe, ag cinntiú nach ndéanfar aon mhian a thógáil i Phulbari gan toiliú an phobail. Bhuaigh breithiúnas na ndaoine. D'éirigh an Rialtas as an gcomhaontú leis an gcuideachta. Is cuideachta eastóscóireachta atá liostaithe ar AIM atá lonnaithe i Londain é an GCM conspóideach, nach bhfuil aon sócmhainní bailí acu in áit ar bith. Ní raibh conradh bailí acu le Banglades ó Mheán Fómhair 2006. Tá daoine tar éis stop a chur leis an mianach ar feadh níos mó ná 13 bliana. Ach tá GCM ag díol scaireanna ar ainm tionscadail guail Phulbari. Tá siad chun a AGM a shealbhú arís an Dé Máirt seo ar an 10ú Márta. Beidh sé seo a resisted. Beidh mná agus fir i gcathair Phulbari ag léiriú in aghaidh AGM GCM Dé Luain 9 Márta. I Londain, cuirfimid an teachtaireacht ó phobail Phulbari ag AGM GCM, trí picéad a choinneáil lasmuigh den áit. Tá a fhios ag na mná Phulbari nach bhfuil mianadóireacht guail faoi dhul chun cinn nó forbairt, is faoi bhrabús é. Leanann mná ag cur in aghaidh GCM agus aon phleananna le haghaidh eisiúna i Barapukuria, agus i gcomharsanacht Phulbari. Mar sin féin, is annamh a aithníonn ceannaireacht na bhfear i mBanglaidéis ranníocaíocht na mban. Níor cheart dúinn dearmad a dhéanamh ar ranníocaíocht luachmhar na mban i gcoinne Phulbari. Léiríonn scéal na streachailt i gcoinne mianraí guail sa tír san Áise Theas naisc idir éagothroime aeráide, cumhacht na streachailtí i gcoinne guail, agus mná ag eagraíocht sa Deisceart domhanda, sa chás seo, Bangladesh. Ní mór dúinn an gluaiseacht friotaíochta agus cumhacht na mban a chur faoi dhroch-bhlas chun stop a chur leis an mianach guail ollmhór a chuirtear ar oscailt. Beidh muid ag dul isteach sa picéad i gcoinne AGM GCM i Londain mar ár ndualgas chun seasamh leis na mná, fir agus leanaí i Phulbari. Tugtar cuireadh do gach duine a bheith páirteach sa mhéara agus sa phictiúr ag 9am Dé Máirt 10 Márta ag Halla na Glasaithe, 9 Montague Close, Londain, SE1 9DD. Bí linn! Tá tuilleadh sonraí ar fáil ar Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/events/698989857304401/ Pingback: Banglades: Bhí Frithsheasmhacht Phulbari indéanta trí Éirí Amach na mBan AWSM

Please enter your email address below ‘Perfect storm’ has heightened Atypical Myopathy risk warns the British Equine Veterinary Association (BEVA). Bare pastures and potential hay shortages, coupled with early transatlantic storms blowing seeds from laden sycamore trees, have created the ‘perfect storm’ to increase the risks of atypical myopathy for grazing horses, warns the British Equine Veterinary Association (BEVA). Experts are advising horse owners to take steps now to minimise the risks of this fatal disease. Atypical myopathy, as a sudden onset of muscle disease has been recognised in horses for over 60 years but its cause, the toxin hypoglycin A, was not identified until 2013. In the UK, the most common source of the toxin is now known to be the Sycamore tree (Acer pseudoplatanus), a member of the maple tree family. The Box Elder (Acer negundo) is the most common tree to cause the disease in North America. Both trees share the typical helicopter shaped fruit that help to distribute their seeds over long distances, typically several hundred metres, but reportedly up to 4km. The high winds we are experiencing early this autumn can result in greater spread of seeds for the simple reason that they have yet to fall naturally and the high winds will bring down large numbers of seeds over a short duration of time. “Horses do not typically choose to eat sycamore seeds, however when pastures are bare, there is a greater tendency for them to be ingested as horses are foraging for every last blade of grass,” explains BEVA member Adam Redpath, a member of the team of equine medicine experts working at Nottingham Vet School, who is particularly concerned about the combined disease threats that present this year. A range of factors affect the amount of toxin in sycamore seeds, meaning the 'toxic dose' can vary from less than 100 to several thousand single seeds. Given that each tree can shed over 20,000 fruit, each with two seeds, the amount on pasture can be considerable. In the spring, seedlings represent a risk to horses and can affect hay made from contaminated pasture. Seedlings at the edge of watercourses can also contaminate water supplies, especially when trampled as horses walk across them. BEVA is urging horse owners to take early steps to prevent the disease by limiting access to sycamore seeds: Identify trees both around grazed fields as well as those in close proximity. Trees are often easiest to identify in the summer when in full leaf, rather than in the autumn, when leaves have largely fallen. The characteristic maple leaf shape is easy to spot, although if in doubt a TEST is available from the Royal Veterinary College as a result of work funded by The Horse Trust. Collect seeds or exclude horses from affected areas using electric fencing or stabling. Feed supplementary hay to try and prevent horses from excessive foraging for short blades of grass and inadvertent ingestion of seeds. But ensure that hay does not become contaminated by seeds. Don’t rashly fell trees when laden with seeds as this can cause a sudden and massive contamination of the pasture. Consider local regulations, tree protection orders and tree ownership if felling is the only option. Monitor horses carefully even after they have been moved from affected pasture as disease can occur up to four days after exposure. The clinical signs of atypical myopathy vary considerably. Most consistent is the passing of dark brown urine (myoglobinuria) as a result of muscle breakdown. Horses usually become weak and reluctant to move and may lay down, but usually have a normal or increased appetite. In the most severe case the horse will develop very severe colic-like signs as a result of significant pain. In some horses the severity of muscle pain leads to euthanasia on welfare grounds. These signs occur as a result of the active toxin which prevents muscles from undergoing normal energy metabolism. It can affect all muscles in the body including the respiratory muscles and heart. For more information, see 'Poisonous Plants' under our USEFUL INFO section. “Early veterinary intervention is essential to achieve a favourable outcome,” explains Adam. You should contact your vet immediately if you spot any of the signs. Check your fields for sycamore seeds as this will help your vet to make a rapid diagnosis. Specific blood tests have been developed to both measure exposure to the toxin and to make a diagnosis, thanks to research funding from The Horse Trust.” For tree identification, please see the link HERE. (Article courtesy of the BEVA) Please enter your email address below

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Cuir do sheoladh ríomhphoist isteach thíos le do thoil Tá an t-éagóir foirfe tar éis riosca Myopathy Atypical a mhéadú, a thugann an Cumann Eivéadar-Eitilteach na Breataine (BEVA) rabhadh. Tá an fhásanna lom agus an easpa féine a d'fhéadfadh a bheith ann, mar aon le stoirmeacha luath trasatlantúla a bhris síolta ó chrainn síocamóir a bhí iallach orthu, tar éis an "stoirm foirfe" a chruthú chun na rioscaí a bhaineann le myopathy neamhghnácha a mhéadú do chapaill a bhíonn ag féile, a thugann an Cumann Eitilteach Eitilteach (BEVA) rabhadh. Tá saineolaithe ag comhairle a thabhairt do úinéirí capall céimeanna a ghlacadh anois chun na rioscaí a bhaineann leis an ghalair mharfach seo a íoslaghdú. Tá myopathy atypical, mar thús tobann ar ghalar muscle aitheanta i gcaorach le breis agus 60 bliain ach níor aithníodh a chúis, an tocsaine hypoglycin A, go dtí 2013. Sa RA, is eol anois gurb é an foinse is coitianta den tocsain an crann Sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus), ball de theaghlach na crainn máirín. Is é an t-Altair Ciste (Acer negundo) an crann is coitianta a chuireann an galar i Meiriceá Thuaidh. Tá an dá chrann ag roinnt an toradh tipiciúil a bhfuil cruth héileacóptar air a chabhraíonn lena gcuid síolta a dháileadh thar achar fada, de ghnáth roinnt céad méadar, ach tuairiscítear go bhfuil siad suas le 4km. Is féidir leis na gaotha ard atá á dtaithí againn go luath an fhoghairdeas seo scaipeadh níos mó síolta a chur ina dtorthaí ar an gcúis simplí nach bhfuil siad fós ag titim go nádúrtha agus go dtarlóidh go leor síolta thar thréimhse ghearr ama leis na gaotha ard. 'Ní roghnaíonn capaill de ghnáth síolta síocamór a ithe, ach nuair a bhíonn na féaraí gan ghreann, tá claonadh níos mó ann iad a ithe mar go bhfuil capaill ag lorg bia do gach blade talún deireanach,' a mhíníonn an comhalta BEVA Adam Redpath, ball den fhoireann saineolaithe leigheas eachaine a oibríonn in Scoil Vet Nottingham, atá buartha go háirithe faoi na bagairtí galar comhcheangailte a bhíonn i láthair i mbliana. Tá raon fachtóirí a dhéanann difear do mhéid na tocsaine i síolta síocamór, rud a chiallaíonn gur féidir leis an 'dóis tocsaineach' a bheith éagsúil ó níos lú ná 100 go roinnt mílte síolta aonair. Ós rud é go bhféadfadh gach crann níos mó ná 20,000 toradh a chaitheamh, gach ceann acu le dhá shíol, is féidir go mbeadh an méid sin ar phasúr suntasach. Sa earrach, is riosca do chapaill na síolta agus d'fhéadfadh siad difear a dhéanamh do shín a dhéantar as féar truaillithe. Is féidir le síolta ar imeall na sruthán uisce soláthar uisce a thruailliú freisin, go háirithe nuair a bhíonn siad á gcur faoi chois agus capaill ag siúl thar a gcodanna. Tá BEVA ag iarraidh ar úinéirí capall céimeanna luath a ghlacadh chun an galar a chosc trí rochtain ar shíolta sycamore a theorannú: Léigh an méid atá le feiceáil ar na crainn atá timpeall na bhfeirmeacha féaracha chomh maith leis na crainn atá in aice leo. Is minic a bhíonn sé níos éasca crainn a aithint sa samhradh nuair a bhíonn siad i lán-leaf, seachas san earrach, nuair a bhíonn na duilleoga titim go mór. Tá an cruth tréithúil duille maple éasca a fheiceáil, cé má tá amhras ann tá TEST ar fáil ón gColáiste Ríoga Eitil mar thoradh ar obair a mhaoiníonn The Horse Trust. Déan síolta a bhailiú nó cuir na capaill ar shiúl ó limistéir atá buailte trí fhál leictreach nó trí stailc a úsáid. Cuir síol forlíontach ar fáil chun iarracht a dhéanamh cosc a chur ar chapaill a bheith ag lorg bia iomarcach le haghaidh bpíosaí gearr féar agus síolta a ithe gan choinne. Ach déan cinnte nach ndéanann síolta truailliú ar an sliocht. Ná déan crainn a thriomú go mear nuair a bhíonn siad lán le síolta mar go bhféadfadh sé seo truailliú tobann agus ollmhór a chur ar an bhfásach. Smaoinigh ar rialacháin áitiúla, ar orduithe cosanta crainn agus ar úinéireacht crainn má tá an t-aon rogha ann ná an crainn a ghearradh. Déan monatóireacht chúramach ar chapaill fiú tar éis iad a aistriú ón bhfearainn atá i mbaol mar is féidir galar a bheith ann suas le ceithre lá tar éis an nochta. Tá éagsúlacht mhór ann i gcomharthaí cliniciúla myopathy atypical. Is é an rud is comhsheasmhaí ná fual donn dorcha a bheith ag imeacht (myoglobinuria) mar thoradh ar bhriseadh síos muscle. De ghnáth bíonn capaill lag agus diúltacha bogadh agus d'fhéadfadh siad a bheith ina luí, ach de ghnáth bíonn ocras gnáth nó méadaithe acu. Sa chás is déine, beidh comharthaí colic-like an-dáiríre ag an gcuain mar thoradh ar pian suntasach. I gcás roinnt capall, bíonn an pian matáin chomh tromchúiseach sin go mbíonn siad ag déanamh euthanasia ar chúiseanna leasa. Tarlaíonn na comharthaí seo mar thoradh ar an tocsain ghníomhach a chuireann cosc ar na matáin ó mheitibileacht fuinnimh gnáth a fháil. Is féidir leis difear a dhéanamh ar gach matáin sa chorp lena n-áirítear matáin anála agus an croí. Le haghaidh tuilleadh eolais, féach 'Phlantáin Poison' faoi ár rannán INFO USEFUL. Tá idirghabháil luath tréidliachta riachtanach chun toradh fabhrach a bhaint amach, a mhíníonn Adam. Ba chóir duit teagmháil a dhéanamh le do vet láithreach má fhaigheann tú aon cheann de na comharthaí. Seiceáil do chuid talún le haghaidh síolta sycamore mar go gcabhróidh sé seo le do vet a dhéanamh diagnóis tapa. Tá tástálacha fola sonracha forbartha chun an nochtadh don tocsain a thomhas agus chun diagnóis a dhéanamh, a bhuíochas le maoiniú taighde ó The Horse Trust. Chun crann a aithint, féach an nasc anseo. (Article de chúirtéis an BEVA) Cuir do sheoladh ríomhphoist isteach thíos le do thoil

A prisoner of war (POW, PoW, PW', P/W, WP, PsW) or enemy prisoner of war (EPW) is a person, whether civilian or combatant, who is held in custody by an enemy power during or immediately after an armed conflict. The earliest recorded usage of the phrase is dated 1660. Austro-Hungarian POWs in Russia, 1915 For most of human history, depending on the culture of the victors, combatants on the losing side in a battle could expect to be either slaughtered or enslaved. The first Roman gladiators were prisoners of war and were named according to their ethnic roots such as Samnite, Thracian and the Gaul (Gallus). Typically, little distinction was made between combatants and civilians, although women and children were more likely to be spared. Sometimes the purpose of a battle, if not a war, was to capture women, a practice known as raptio; the Rape of the Sabines was a large mass abduction by the founders of Rome. Typically women had no rights, and were held legally as chattel. In the fourth century AD, the Bishop Acacius of Amida, touched by the plight of Persian prisoners captured in a recent war with the Roman Empire—who were held in his town under appalling conditions and destined for a life of slavery, took the initiative of ransoming them, by selling his church's precious gold and silver vessels, and letting them return to their country. For this he was eventually canonized—which testifies to his act being exceptional. Likewise the distinction between POW and slave is not always clear. Some Native Americans captured Europeans and used them as both labourers and bargaining chips; see for example John R. Jewitt, an Englishman who wrote a memoir about his years as a captive of the Nootka people on the Pacific Northwest Coast from 1802–1805. Middle Ages and Renaissance See also: Prisoners of war in Islam During Childeric's siege and blockade of Paris in 464, the nun Geneviève (later canonised as the city's Patron Saint) pleaded with the Frankish King for the welfare of prisoners of war and met with a favourable response. Later, Clovis I liberated captives after Genevieve urged him to do so. In the later Middle Ages, a number of religious wars aimed to not only defeat but eliminate their enemies. In Christian Europe, the extermination of the heretics or "non-believers" was considered desirable. Examples include the 13th century Albigensian Crusade and the Northern Crusades. When asked by a Crusader how to distinguish between the Catholics and Cathars once they'd taken the city of Béziers, the Papal Legate Arnaud Amalric famously replied, "Kill them all, God will know His own". Likewise the inhabitants of conquered cities were frequently massacred during the Crusades against the Muslims in the 11th and 12th centuries. Noblemen could hope to be ransomed; their families would have to send to their captors large sums of wealth commensurate with the social status of the captive. Many French prisoners of war were killed during the Battle of Agincourt in 1415. In feudal Japan there was no custom of ransoming prisoners of war, who were for the most part summarily executed. Aztec sacrifices, Codex Mendoza. Every city or town that refused surrender and resisted the Mongols was subject to destruction. In Termez, on the Oxus: "all the people, both men and women, were driven out onto the plain, and divided in accordance with their usual custom, then they were all slain". The Aztecs were constantly at war with neighbouring tribes and groups. The goal of this constant warfare was to collect live prisoners for sacrifice. For the re-consecration of Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan in 1487, the Aztecs reported that they sacrificed about 80,400 people over the course of four days. According to Ross Hassing, author of Aztec Warfare, "between 10,000 and 80,400 persons" were sacrificed in the ceremony. In Mayan civilization of Mesoamerica more than a thousand years ago, prisoners of war were paraded before the king and his royal cohort and subjected to ritual humiliation and torture. In pre-Islamic Arabia, upon capture, those captives not executed were made to beg for their subsistence. During the early reforms under Islam, Muhammad changed this custom and made it the responsibility of the Islamic government to provide food and clothing, on a reasonable basis, to captives, regardless of their religion. If the prisoners were in the custody of a person, then the responsibility was on the individual. He established the rule that prisoners of war must be guarded and not ill-treated, and that after the fighting was over, the prisoners were expected to be either released or ransomed. The freeing of prisoners in particular was highly recommended as a charitable act. Mecca was the first city to have the benevolent code applied. It is misunderstood that the leader of the Muslim force capturing non-Muslim prisoners could choose whether to kill prisoners, to ransom them, to enslave them, or to cut off their hands and feet on alternate sides because this law is applied not to the of wars but instead to people (either Muslims or non-Muslims) who do mischief in the land, gangsters, killers of the people for robbery or raping of women or children. However, Christians who were captured in the Crusades, combatants and noncombatants alike, were sold into slavery if they could not pay a ransom. Modern times Russian and Japanese prisoners being interrogated by Chinese officials during the Boxer Rebellion The 1648 Peace of Westphalia, which ended the Thirty Years' War, established the rule that prisoners of war should be released without ransom at the end of hostilities and that they should be allowed to return to their homelands. Union Army soldier on his release from Andersonville prison in May, 1865. There also evolved the right of parole, French for "discourse", in which a captured officer surrendered his sword and gave his word as a gentleman in exchange for privileges. If he swore not to escape, he could gain better accommodations and the freedom of the prison. If he swore to cease hostilities against the nation who held him captive, he could be repatriated or exchanged but could not serve against his former captors in a military capacity. About 56,000 soldiers died in prisons during the American Civil War—almost 10% of all Civil War fatalities. During the 14 months the Camp Sumter, located near Andersonville, Georgia, existed, more than 45,000 Union soldiers were confined here. Of these, almost 13,000 (28%) died. At Camp Douglas in Chicago, Illinois, 10% of its Confederate prisoners died during one cold winter month; and Elmira Prison in New York state, with a death rate of 25%, very nearly equalled that of Andersonville. During the 19th century, there were increased efforts to improve the treatment and processing of prisoners. The extensive period of conflict during the American Revolutionary War (or American War of Independence) and Napoleonic Wars (1793–1815), followed by the Anglo-American War of 1812, led to the emergence of a cartel system for the exchange of prisoners, even while the belligerents were at war. A cartel was usually arranged by the respective armed service for the exchange of like-ranked personnel. The aim was to achieve a reduction in the number of prisoners held, while at the same time alleviating shortages of skilled personnel in the home country. Later, as a result of these emerging conventions a number of international conferences were held, starting with the Brussels Conference of 1874, with nations agreeing that it was necessary to prevent inhumane treatment of prisoners and the use of weapons causing unnecessary harm. Although no agreements were immediately ratified by the participating nations, work was continued that resulted in new conventions being adopted and becoming recognized as international law that specified that prisoners of war be treated humanely and diplomatically. Hague and Geneva Conventions Specifically, Chapter II of the Annex to the 1907 Hague Convention covered the treatment of prisoners of war in detail. These were further expanded in the Third Geneva Convention of 1929, and its revision of 1949. Article 4 of the Third Geneva Convention protects captured military personnel, some guerrilla fighters and certain civilians. It applies from the moment a prisoner is captured until he or she is released or repatriated. One of the main provisions of the convention makes it illegal to torture prisoners and states that a prisoner can only be required to give their name, date of birth, rank and service number (if applicable). However, nations vary in their dedication to following these laws, and historically the treatment of POWs has varied greatly. During the 20th century, Imperial Japan and Nazi Germany were notorious for atrocities against prisoners during World War II. The German military used the Soviet Union's refusal to sign the Geneva Convention as a reason for not providing the necessities of life to Russian POWs; and the Soviets similarly killed Axis prisoners or used them as slave labor. North Korean and North and South Vietnamese forces routinely killed or mistreated prisoners taken during those conflicts. To be entitled to prisoner-of-war status, captured service members must be lawful combatants entitled to combatant's privilege—which gives them immunity from punishment for crimes constituting lawful acts of war such as killing enemy troops. To qualify under the Third Geneva Convention, a combatant must have conducted military operations according to the laws and customs of war, be part of a chain of command, wear a "fixed distinctive marking, visible from a distance" and bear arms openly. Thus, uniforms and/or badges are important in determining prisoner-of-war status; and francs-tireurs, terrorists, saboteurs, mercenaries and spies do not qualify. In practice, these criteria are rarely interpreted strictly. Guerrillas, for example, usually do not wear a uniform or carry arms openly, but captured guerrillas are often granted POW status. The criteria are applied primarily to international armed conflicts; in civil wars, insurgents are often treated as traitors or criminals by government forces, and are sometimes executed. However, in the American Civil War, both sides treated captured troops as POWs, presumably out of reciprocity, although the Union regarded Confederate personnel as separatist rebels. However, guerrillas and other irregular combatants generally cannot expect to simultaneously receive benefits from both civilian and military status simultaneously. The United States Military Code of Conduct WAITING INTERROGATION, 199th LT INF BG by James Pollock, U. S. Army Vietnam Combat Artists Program Team IV, (CAT IV 1967). Watercolor by Pollock depicts enemy suspects waiting interrogation during the Vietnam War. Courtesy National Museum of the U. S. Army. The United States Military Code of Conduct was promulgated in 1955 via Executive Order 10631 under President Dwight D. Eisenhower to serve as a moral code for United States service members who have been taken prisoner. It was created primarily in response to the breakdown of leadership and organization, specifically when US forces were POWs during the Korean War. When a military member is taken prisoner, the Code of Conduct reminds them that the chain of command is still in effect (the highest ranking service member eligible for command, regardless of service branch, is in command), and requires them to support their leadership. The Code of Conduct also requires service members to resist giving information beyond identifying themselves, receive special favors or parole, or otherwise provide their enemy captors aid and comfort. Since the Vietnam War, the official US military term for enemy POWs is EPW (Enemy Prisoner of War). This name change was introduced in order to distinguish between enemy and US captives. World War I American prisoners of war in Germany in 1917 German soldiers captured by the British in Flanders During World War I, about 8 million men surrendered and were held in POW camps until the war ended. All nations pledged to follow the Hague rules on fair treatment of prisoners of war, and in general the POWs had a much higher survival rate than their peers who were not captured. Individual surrenders were uncommon; usually a large unit surrendered all its men. At Tannenberg 92,000 Russians surrendered during the battle. When the besieged garrison of Kaunas surrendered in 1915, 20,000 Russians became prisoners. Over half the Russian losses were prisoners as a proportion of those captured, wounded or killed. About 3.3 million men became prisoners. The German Empire held 2.5 million prisoners; Russia held 2.9 million, and Britain and France held about 720,000, mostly gained in the period just before the Armistice in 1918. The US held 48,000. The most dangerous moment was the act of surrender, when helpless soldiers were sometimes shot down. Once prisoners reached a POW camp conditions were better (and often much better than in World War II), thanks in part to the efforts of the International Red Cross and inspections by neutral nations. There was however much harsh treatment of POWs in Germany, as recorded by the American ambassador to Germany (prior to America's entry into the war), James W. Gerard, who published his findings in "My Four Years in Germany". Even worse conditions are reported in the book "Escape of a Princess Pat" by the Canadian George Pearson. It was particularly bad in Russia, where starvation was common for prisoners and civilians alike; roughly 25% of its 2 to 2.4 million POWs died in captivity. Nearly 375,000 of the 500,000 Austro-Hungarian prisoners of war taken by Russians perished in Siberia from smallpox and typhus. In Germany food was short but only 5% died. The Ottoman Empire often treated prisoners of war poorly. Some 11,800 British soldiers, most of them Indians, became prisoners after the five-month Siege of Kut, in Mesopotamia, in April 1916. Many were weak and starved when they surrendered and 4,250 died in captivity. During the Sinai and Palestine campaign 217 Australian and unknown numbers of British, New Zealand and Indian soldiers were captured by Ottoman Empire forces. About 50% of the Australian prisoners were light horsemen including 48 missing believed captured on 1 May 1918 in the Jordan Valley. Australian Flying Corps pilots and observers were captured in the Sinai Peninsula, Palestine and the Levant. One third of all Australian prisoners were captured on Gallipoli including the crew of the submarine AE2 which made a passage through the Dardanelles in 1915. Forced marches and crowded railway journeys preceded years in camps where disease, poor diet and inadequate medical facilities prevailed. About 25 % of other ranks died, many from malnutrition, while only one officer died. The most curious case came in Russia where the Czechoslovak Legion of Czechoslovak prisoners (from the Austro-Hungarian army): they were released in 1917, armed themselves, briefly culminating into a military and diplomatic force during the Russian Civil War. A Christmas greeting card sent home by a German POW in the UK in 1918 Release of prisoners A memorial with text dedicating it to the 153,281 German Prisoners of War who died in Allied captivity 1914–1920 Celebration for returning POWs, 1920 At the end of the war in 1918 there were believed to be 140,000 British prisoners of war in Germany, including 3,000 internees held in neutral Switzerland. The first British prisoners were released and reached Calais on 15 November. Plans were made for them to be sent via Dunkirk to Dover and a large reception camp was established at Dover capable of housing 40,000 men, which could later be used for demobilisation. On 13 December 1918 the armistice was extended and the Allies reported that by 9 December 264,000 prisoners had been repatriated. A very large number of these had been released en masse and sent across Allied lines without any food or shelter. This created difficulties for the receiving Allies and many released prisoners died from exhaustion. The released POWs were met by cavalry troops and sent back through the lines in lorries to reception centres where they were refitted with boots and clothing and dispatched to the ports in trains. Upon arrival at the receiving camp the POWs were registered and "boarded" before being dispatched to their own homes. All commissioned officers had to write a report on the circumstances of their capture and to ensure that they had done all they could to avoid capture. Each returning officer and man was given a message from King George V, written in his own hand and reproduced on a lithograph. It read as follows: "The Queen joins me in welcoming you on your release from the miseries & hardships, which you have endured with so much patience and courage. During these many months of trial, the early rescue of our gallant Officers & Men from the cruelties of their captivity has been uppermost in our thoughts. We are thankful that this longed for day has arrived, & that back in the old Country you will be able once more to enjoy the happiness of a home & to see good days among those who anxiously look for your return. While the Allied prisoners were sent home at the end of the war, the same treatment was not granted to Central Powers prisoners of the Allies and Russia, many of which had to serve as forced labour, e.g. in France, until 1920. They were released after many approaches by the ICRC to the Allied Supreme Council. World War II Soviet POW, August 1941. At least 50,000 Jewish soldiers were shot after selection. Niall Ferguson tabulated the total death rate for POWs in World War II as follows: POWs that Died Russian POWs held by Germans 57.5% German POWs held by Russians 35.8% American POWs held by Japanese 33.0% German POWs held by Eastern Europeans 32.9% British POWs held by Japanese 24.8% British POWs held by Germans 3.5% German POWs held by French 2.58% German POWs held by Americans 0.15% German POWs held by British 0.03% Treatment of POWs by the Axis See also: Nazi crimes against Soviet POWs and Japanese war crimes Empire of Japan Australian and Dutch POWs at Tarsau, Thailand in 1943 Portrait of POW "Dusty" Rhodes painted by Ashley George Old in Thailand in 1944 The Empire of Japan, which had never signed the Second Geneva Convention of 1929, also did not treat prisoners of war in accordance with international agreements, including provisions of the Hague Conventions (1899 and 1907), either during the Second Sino-Japanese War or during the Pacific War. Moreover, according to a directive ratified on 5 August 1937 by Hirohito, the constraints of the Hague Conventions were explicitly removed on Chinese prisoners. Many US and Filipino prisoners died as a result of the Bataan Death March, in May 1942 Prisoners of war from China, the United States, Australia, Britain, Canada, India, the Netherlands, New Zealand and the Philippines held by the Japanese armed forces were subject to murder, beatings, summary punishment, brutal treatment, forced labour, medical experimentation, starvation rations and poor medical treatment. The most notorious use of forced labour was in the construction of the Burma–Thailand Death Railway. Australian POW captured at New Guinea, Sgt. Leonard Siffleet, moments before his execution with a Japanese shin gunto sword. According to the findings of the Tokyo Tribunal, the death rate of Western prisoners was 27.1%, seven times that of POWs under the Germans and Italians. The death rate of Chinese was much larger. Thus, while 37,583 prisoners from the United Kingdom, Commonwealth and Dominions, 28,500 from Netherlands and 14,473 from the United States were released after the surrender of Japan, the number for the Chinese was only 56. After the war, it became clear that there existed a high command order – issued from the War Ministry in Tokyo – to kill all remaining POWs. No direct access to the POWs was provided to the International Red Cross. Escapes among Caucasian prisoners were almost impossible because of the difficulty of men of Caucasian descent hiding in Asiatic societies. Allied POW camps and ship-transports were sometimes accidental targets of Allied attacks. The number of deaths which occurred when Japanese "hell ships"—unmarked transport ships in which POWs were transported in harsh conditions—were attacked by US Navy submarines was particularly high. Gavan Daws has calculated that "of all POWs who died in the Pacific War, one in three was killed on the water by friendly fire". Daves states that 10,800 of the 50,000 POWs shipped by the Japanese were killed at sea while Donald L. Miller states that "approximately 21,000 Allied POWs died at sea, about 19,000 of them killed by friendly fire." Life in the POW camps was recorded at great risk to themselves by artists such as Jack Bridger Chalker, Philip Meninsky, Ashley George Old and Ronald Searle. Human hair was often used for brushes, plant juices and blood for paint, and toilet paper as the "canvas". Some of their works were used as evidence in the trials of Japanese war criminals. Western Allied POWs Germany and Italy generally treated prisoners from the British Commonwealth, France, the USA and other western Allies in accordance with the Geneva Convention (1929), which had been signed by these countries. Consequently, western Allied officers were not usually made to work and personnel of lower rank were usually compensated, or not required to work either. The main complaints of western Allied prisoners of war in German Army POW camps—especially during the last two years of the war—concerned shortages of food, although this fate was shared by German personnel and civilians, due to blockade conditions. Only a small proportion of western Allied POWs who were Jews—or whom the Nazis believed to be Jewish—were killed as part of the Holocaust or were subjected to other antisemitic policies. For example, Major Yitzhak Ben-Aharon, a Palestinian Jew who had enlisted in the British Army, and who was captured by the Germans in Greece in 1941, experienced four years of captivity under entirely normal conditions for POWs. Telegram notifying parents of an American POW of his capture by Germany However, a small number of Allied personnel were sent to concentration camps, for a variety of reasons including being Jewish. As the US historian Joseph Robert White put it: "An important exception ... is the sub-camp for U.S. POWs at Berga an der Elster, officially called Arbeitskommando 625 [also known as Stalag IX-B]. Berga was the deadliest work detachment for American captives in Germany. 73 men who participated, or 21 percent of the detachment, perished in two months. 80 of the 350 POWs were Jews." Another well-known example was a group of 168 Australian, British, Canadian, New Zealand and US aviators who were held for two months at Buchenwald concentration camp; two of the POWS died at Buchenwald. Two possible reasons have been suggested for this incident: German authorities wanted to make an example of Terrorflieger (“terrorist aviators”) and/or these aircrews were classified as spies, because they had been disguised as civilians when they were apprehended. As Soviet ground forces approached some POW camps in early 1945, German guards forced western Allied POWs to walk long distances towards central Germany, often in extreme winter weather conditions. It is estimated that, out of 257,000 POWs, about 80,000 were subject to such marches and up to 3,500 of them died as a result. Eastern European POWs An improvised camp for Soviet POWs. Between June 1941 and January 1942, the Nazis killed an estimated 2.8 million Soviet prisoners of war, whom they viewed as "subhuman". Germany did not apply the same standard of treatment to non-western prisoners, especially many Polish and Soviet POWs who suffered harsh conditions and died in large numbers while in captivity. Between 1941 and 1945, the Axis powers took about 5.7 million Soviet prisoners. About one million of them were released during the war, in that their status changed but they remained under German authority. A little over 500,000 either escaped or were liberated by the Red Army. Some 930,000 more were found alive in camps after the war. The remaining 3.3 million prisoners (57.5% of the total captured) died during their captivity. Between the launching of Operation Barbarossa in the summer of 1941 and the following spring, 2.8 million of the 3.2 million Soviet prisoners taken died while in German hands. According to Russian military historian General Grigoriy Krivosheyev, 4.6 million Soviet prisoners were taken by the Axis powers, of which 1.8 million were found alive in camps after the war and 318,770 were released by the Axis during the war and were then drafted into the Soviet armed forces again. By comparison, 8,348 Western Allied prisoners died in German camps during 1939–45 (3.5% of the 232,000 total). Naked Soviet prisoners of war in Mauthausen concentration camp. An official justification used by the Germans for this policy was that the Soviet Union had not signed the Geneva Convention. This was not legally justifiable, however, as under article 82 of the Geneva Convention (1929), signatory countries had to give POWs of all signatory and non-signatory countries the rights assigned by the convention. Beevor indicates that about one month after the German invasion in 1941 an offer was made by the USSR for a reciprocal adherence to the Hague conventions. This 'note' was left unanswered by Third Reich officials. In contrast, Tolstoy discusses that the German Government as well as the International Red Cross made several efforts to regulate reciprocal treatment of prisoners until early 1942, but received no answers from the Soviet side. Further, the Soviets took a harsh position towards captured Soviet soldiers as they expected each soldier to fight to the death and automatically excluded any prisoner from the "Russian community". Many Soviet POWs and forced labourers transported to Nazi Germany were, on their return to the USSR, treated as traitors and sent to gulag prison camps. The remainder were barred from all but the most menial jobs. Treatment of POWs by the Soviet Union German POW at Stalingrad Main articles: POW labor in the Soviet Union, Japanese prisoners of war in the Soviet Union, Italian prisoners of war in the Soviet Union, Romanian POW in the Soviet Union, Polish prisoners of war in the Soviet Union (after 1939), Finnish prisoners of war in the Soviet Union, German prisoners of war in the Soviet Union, Katyn massacre, and Gulag Germans, Romanians, Italians, Hungarians, Finns According to some sources, the Soviets captured 3.5 million Axis servicemen (excluding Japanese) of which more than a million died. One specific example of the tragic fate of the German POWs was after the Battle of Stalingrad, during which the Soviets captured 91,000 German troops, many already starved and ill, of whom only 5,000 survived the war. German soldiers were for many years after the war kept as forced labour. The last German POWs (those who were sentenced for war crimes, sometimes without sufficient reasons) were released by the Soviets in 1955, only after Joseph Stalin had died. At least 54,000 Italian POWs died in Russia, with a mortality rate of 84.5%. The Poles Katyn 1943 exhumation. Photo by International Red Cross delegation. As a result of the Soviet invasion of Poland in 1939, hundreds of thousands of Polish soldiers became prisoners of war in the Soviet Union. Thousands of them were executed; over 20,000 Polish military personnel and civilians perished in the Katyn massacre. Out of Anders' 80,000 evacuees from Soviet Union gathered in the United Kingdom only 310 volunteered to return to Poland in 1947. Out of the 230,000 Polish prisoners of war taken by the Soviet army, only 82,000 survived. With the Soviet invasion of Manchuria in 1945 Japanese soldiers became prisoners in the Soviet Union, where they, just as other Axis POWs, had to remain as labour for several years. The Americans As the Soviet Union entered into German territory during the later stages of the war, Soviet troops in some cases overran German camps containing US POWs. Allegations have been made that some of these POWs were never repatriated, instead they were allegedly sent to the USSR to be used as bargaining chips. Treatment of POWs by the Allies See also: List of World War II POW camps and Allied war crimes during World War II Main articles: Operation Keelhaul, Forced labor of Germans after World War II, Japanese prisoners of war in World War II, and German Prisoners of War in the United States Remagen POW camp US Army: Card of capture for German POWs - front The reverse of above card During the war the armies of Allied nations such as the US, UK, Canada and Australia were ordered to treat Axis prisoners strictly in accordance with the Geneva Convention (1929). Some breaches of the Convention took place, however. According to Stephen E. Ambrose, of the roughly 1,000 US combat veterans that he had interviewed, roughly one-third told him they had seen US troops kill German prisoners. Towards the end of the war in Europe, as large numbers of Axis soldiers surrendered, the US created the designation of Disarmed Enemy Forces (DEF) so as not to treat prisoners as POWs. A lot of these soldiers were kept in open fields in various Rheinwiesenlagers. Controversy has arisen about how Eisenhower managed these prisoners (see Other Losses). After the surrender of Germany in May 1945, the POW status of the German prisoners was in many cases maintained, and they were for several years used as forced labour in countries such as the UK and France. Many died when forced to clear minefields in Norway, France etc.; "by September 1945 it was estimated by the French authorities that two thousand prisoners were being maimed and killed each month in accidents" In 1946 the UK had more than 400,000 German prisoners, many had been transferred from POW camps in the US and Canada. Many of these were for over three years after the German surrender used as forced labour, as a form of "reparations". "The POWs referred to themselves as 'slave labour', with some justice." Their emotional state was worsened "from the anxiety and hope of the first half of 1946 to the depression and nihilism of 1948." A public debate ensued in the UK, where words such as "forced labour", "slaves", "slave labour" were increasingly used in the media and in the House of Commons. In 1947 the Ministry of agriculture argued against rapid repatriation of working German prisoners, since by then they made up 25 percent of the land workforce, and they wanted to use them also in 1948. The "London Cage", an MI19 prisoner of war facility in the UK used for interrogating prisoners before they were sent to prison camps during and immediately after World War II, was subject to allegations of torture. After the German surrender, the International Red Cross was prohibited from providing aid such as food or visiting prisoner camps in Germany. However, after making approaches to the Allies in the autumn of 1945 it was allowed to investigate the camps in the British and French occupation zones of Germany, as well as to provide relief to the prisoners held there. On February 4, 1946, the Red Cross was permitted to visit and assist prisoners also in the US occupation zone of Germany, although only with very small quantities of food. "During their visits, the delegates observed that German prisoners of war were often detained in appalling conditions. They drew the attention of the authorities to this fact, and gradually succeeded in getting some improvements made". The Allies also shipped POWs between them, with for example 6,000 German officers transferred from Western Allied camps to the Sachsenhausen concentration camp that now was under Soviet Union administration. The US also shipped 740,000 German POWs as forced labourers to France from where newspaper reports told of very bad treatment. Judge Robert H. Jackson, Chief US prosecutor in the Nuremberg trials, in October 1945 told US President Harry S. Truman that the Allies themselves: "have done or are doing some of the very things we are prosecuting the Germans for. The French are so violating the Geneva Convention in the treatment of prisoners of war that our command is taking back prisoners sent to them. We are prosecuting plunder and our Allies are practicing it." Hungarians became POWs of the Western Allies, some of these were just as the Germans used as forced labour in France after the cessation of hostilities. A group of Japanese captured during the Battle of Okinawa Although thousands of Japanese were taken prisoner, most fought until they were killed or committed suicide. Of the 22,000 Japanese soldiers present at the beginning of the Battle of Iwo Jima, over 20,000 were killed and only 1,083 taken prisoner. Of the 30,000 Japanese troops that defended Saipan, less than 1,000 remained alive at battle's end. Japanese prisoners sent to camps fared well; however, some Japanese were killed when trying to surrender or were massacred just after they had surrendered (see Allied war crimes during World War II in the Pacific). Some Japanese prisoners in POW camps died at their own hands, either directly or by attacking guards with the intention of forcing the guards to kill them. In some instances, Japanese prisoners were tortured by a variety of methods. A method of torture used by the Chinese National Revolutionary Army (NRA) included suspending the prisoner by the neck in a wooden cage until they died. In very rare cases, some were beheaded by sword, and a severed head was once used as a soccer ball by Chinese National Revolutionary Army (NRA) soldiers. After the war many Japanese were kept on as Japanese Surrendered Personnel until mid-1947 and used as forced labour doing menial tasks, while 35,000 were kept on in arms within their wartime military organisation and under their own officers and used in combat alongside British troops seeking to suppress the independence movements in the Dutch East Indies and French Indochina. In 1943 Italy overthrew the Dictator Mussolini, and became a co-belligerent with the Allies. This did not mean any change in status for Italian POWs however, since due to the labour shortages in the UK and the USA they were retained as POWs there. On 11 February 1945, at the conclusion of the Yalta Conference, the United States and the United Kingdom signed a Repatriation Agreement with the USSR. The interpretation of this Agreement resulted in the forcible repatriation of all Russians (Operation Keelhaul) regardless of their wishes. The forced repatriation operations took place in 1945-1947. Transfers between the Allies The United States handed over 740,000 German prisoners to France, a signatory of the Geneva Convention. The Soviet Union had not signed the Geneva Convention. According to Edward Peterson the U.S. chose to hand over several hundred thousand German prisoners to the Soviet Union in May 1945 as a "gesture of friendship". U.S. forces also refused to accept the surrender of German troops attempting to surrender to them in Saxony and Bohemia, and handed them over to the Soviet Union instead. It is also known that 6000 German officers were sent from camps in the West to the Soviets, who put them in the Sachsenhausen concentration camp which at the time was one of the NKVD special camp and from which it is known that there were transfers further east to Siberia. Post World War II An executed US Army POW of the US 21st Infantry Regiment killed July 9, 1950. Picture taken July 10, 1950 American POW being questioned by his North Vietnamese captors. The North Koreans have a reputation for severely mistreating prisoners of war (see Crimes against POWs). Of about 16,500 French soldiers who fought at Dien Bien Phu, more than 3,000 were killed in battle, while almost all of the 11,721 men taken prisoner died in the hands of the Viet Minh on death marches to distant POW camps, and in those camps in the last three months of the war. The Vietcong and North Vietnamese captured many United States service members as prisoners of war during the Vietnam War, who suffered from mistreatment and torture during the war. Some American prisoners were held in the prison called the Hanoi Hilton. Communist Vietnamese held in custody by South Vietnamese and American forces claimed they were treated badly. Regardless of regulations determining treatment to prisoners, violations of their rights continue to be reported. Many cases of POW massacres have been reported in recent times, including October 13 massacre in Lebanon by Syrian forces and June 1990 massacre in Sri Lanka. During the Gulf War in 1991, American, British, Italian and Kuwaiti POWs (mostly crew members of downed aircraft and special forces) were tortured by the Iraqi secret police. An American military doctor, Major Rhonda Cornum, a 37-year-old flight surgeon captured when her Blackhawk UH-60 was shot down, was also subjected to sexual abuse. During the 1990s Yugoslav Wars, Serb paramilitary forces supported by JNA forces killed POWs at Vukovar and Škarbrnja while Bosnian Serb forces killed POWs at Srebrenica. A Pakistan stamp depicting POWs in Indian camps after the 1971 Indo-Pakistani War. The stamp was issued with the political aim of raising global awareness to help secure their release. The POWs were released after the Simla Agreement In 2001, there were reports that India had actually taken two prisoners during the Sino-Indian War, Yang Chen and Shih Liang. The two were imprisoned as spies for three years before being interned in a mental asylum in Ranchi, where they spent the next 38 years under a special prisoner status. The last prisoners of Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988) were exchanged in 2003. Numbers of POWs This is a list of nations with the highest number of POWs since the start of World War II, listed in descending order. These are also the highest numbers in any war since the Convention Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War entered into force on 19 June 1931. The USSR had not signed the Geneva convention. Armies Number of POW held in captivity by the enemy Name of conflict Soviet Union 4–5.7 million taken by Germany (2.7–3.3 million died in German POW camps) World War II (Total) * 3,127,380 taken by USSR (474,967 died in captivity) (according to an other source 1.094.250 died in captivity (35,8 %)) * 3,630,000 taken by the United Kingdom * 3,100,000 taken by the United States * 937,000 taken by France * unknown number in Yugoslavia, Poland, Netherlands, Belgium, Denmark (the death rate for German prisoners of war was highest in Yugoslavia with over 50%) * 1.3 million unknown World War II France 1,800,000 taken by Germany World War II Poland 675,000 (420,000 taken by Germany; 240,000 taken by the Soviets in 1939; 15,000 taken by Germany in Warsaw in 1944) Invasion of Poland, and Warsaw Uprising United Kingdom ~200,000 (135,000 taken in Europe, does not include Pacific or Commonwealth figures) World War II United States ~130,000 (95,532 taken by Germany) World War II Pakistan 90,368 taken by India. Later released by India in accordance with the Simla Agreement. Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 Iraq ~175,000 taken by Coalition of the Gulf

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Is é príosúnach cogaidh (POW, PoW, PW', P/W, WP, PsW) nó príosúnach cogaidh naimhde (EPW) duine, cibé acu sibhialta nó comhrac, a choinníonn cumhacht naimhde i gcúram le linn coinbhleacht armtha nó díreach ina dhiaidh sin. Tá an úsáid is luaithe atá taifeadta den abairt de dháta 1660. Príosúnaigh chogaidh Austro-Hungarian sa Rúis, 1915 Le linn an chuid is mó de stair an duine, ag brath ar chultúr na n-uachóirí, d'fhéadfadh comhoibrithe ar an taobh a chailltear i gcath a bheith ag súil go ndéanfaí iad a mharú nó a sclábhaíocht. Ba prionsaí cogaidh na chéad glaidiadóirí Rómhánacha agus ainmníodh iad de réir a gcuid fréamhacha eitneacha mar Samnite, Thracian agus an Gaul (Gallus). De ghnáth, ní dhéanfaí mórán idirdhealú idir comhrac agus sibhialtaigh, cé go raibh seans níos mó ann go ndéanfaí mná agus leanaí a shábháil. Uaireanta ba é cuspóir cath, mura cogadh é, mná a ghabháil, cleachtas ar a dtugtar raptio; Ba é an Rún na Sabines fuadach mór mór ag bunaitheoirí na Róimhe. De ghnáth ní raibh aon chearta ag mná, agus bhí siad ar siúl go dlíthiúil mar chattel. Sa cheathrú haois AD, ghlac an t-Easpag Acacius de Amida, a raibh tionchar aige ar dhúshlán na bpríosúnach Peirsis a gabhadh i gcogadh le déanaí leis an Impireacht Rómhánach - a bhí i seilbh ina bhaile faoi choinníollacha uafásacha agus a bhí i ndán dóibh saol na sclábhaíochta, an t-ionsaí chun iad a fhuascailt, trí na soithí óir agus airgid luachmhara a bhí ag a eaglais a dhíol, agus ligean dóibh filleadh ar a dtír féin. Ar son seo, ceadaíodh é sa deireadhagus léiríonn sé go raibh a ghníomh eisceachtúil. Ar an gcaoi chéanna, ní bhíonn an idirdhealú idir POW agus sclábhaí soiléir i gcónaí. Ghlac roinnt Meiriceánaigh Dúchasacha na hEorpaigh agus d'úsáid siad iad mar oibrithe agus mar chipsí déileála; féach mar shampla John R. Jewitt, Sasanach a scríobh cuimhneacháin faoina blianta mar ghaisleán de mhuintir Nootka ar Chósta Thuaisceart na Mara ó 18021805. An Meán-Aois agus an Athbheochan Féach freisin: Príosúnaigh chogaidh san Ioslam Le linn léigear agus blocáil Pháras ag Childeric i 464, d'iarr an t-un Geneviève (a ceanóladh ina dhiaidh sin mar Naomh Patrón na cathrach) ar an Rí Francach leas príosúnaigh chogaidh agus d'fhreagair go fabhrach. Ina dhiaidh sin, scaoileadh Clovis I gaistí tar éis Genevieve a spreagadh dó é sin a dhéanamh. Sa Mheán-Aois níos déanaí, bhí sé mar aidhm ag roinnt cogaí reiligiúnacha ní amháin a naimhde a shárú ach iad a dhíchur. Sa Chríostaíocht san Eoraip, measadh gur mhaith na heiríteacha nó "ní chreidmheacha" a dhíothú. I measc na samplaí tá Cruisithe na nAlbaigh sa 13ú haois agus Cruisithe na Tuaiscirt. Nuair a d'fhiafraigh Crusader conas idirdhealú a dhéanamh idir na Caitlicigh agus Cathars nuair a ghlac siad cathair Béziers, d'fhreagair an Legate Pápa Arnaud Amalric go cáiliúil, "Marú iad go léir, beidh Dia a fhios ag a chuid féin". Ar an gcaoi chéanna, maraíodh cónaitheoirí cathracha a bhí curtha faoi chois go minic le linn na Crusades i gcoinne na Moslamach sna 11ú agus 12ú haois. D'fhéadfadh uasal a bheith ag súil go mbeadh faoisimh á fháil; bheadh ar a dteaghlaigh suim mhór saibhreas a sheoladh chuig a n-a n-airsí a bhí comhréireach le stádas sóisialta an ghaisigh. Maraíodh go leor príosúnaigh chogaidh na Fraince le linn Cath Agincourt i 1415. Sa tSeapáin feudal ní raibh aon nós ann príosúnaigh chogaidh a fhuascailt, a bhí ina gcuid is mó acu a bhí maraíodh go hachomair. Íobairtí Aztec, Codex Mendoza. Bhí gach cathair nó baile a dhiúltaigh tuilleadh agus a sheas an aghaidh na Mongóil faoi réir scriosadh. I Termez, ar an Oxus: "cuireadh an pobal go léir, fir agus mná araon, amach ar an gclann, agus roinnte de réir a ngnáthchleachtas, ansin maraíodh iad go léir". Bhí na Aztecs i gcónaí i gcogadh le treibheanna agus grúpaí comharsanacha. Ba é aidhm na cogaíochta leanúnach seo príosúnaigh bheo a bhailiú le haghaidh íobairt. Le haghaidh ath-consacration na Pirimid Mhór Tenochtitlan i 1487, thuairiscigh na Aztecs go bhfuil siad íobairt thart ar 80,400 duine i rith ceithre lá. De réir Ross Hassing, údar Warfare Aztec, "tá idir 10,000 agus 80,400 duine" íoctha sa searmanas. I sibhialtacht na Maya i Meis-Mheiriceá níos mó ná míle bliain ó shin, bhí príosúnaigh chogaidh ag paráid os comhair an rí agus a chohorta ríoga agus bhí siad faoi réir ummhilleadh agus tortúr deasghnátha. I Araib réamh-Ioslamach, nuair a gabhadh iad, bhí na gabhaigh nach ndearnadh iad a fhorghníomhú ag iarraidh ar a mbeatha. Le linn na n-athchóirithe luatha faoin Ioslam, d'athraigh Muhammad an nós seo agus rinne sé freagracht ar an rialtas Ioslamach bia agus éadaí a sholáthar, ar bhonn réasúnta, do ghaisithe, is cuma cén reiligiún a bhí acu. Má bhí na príosúnaigh i gcúram duine, ansin bhí an fhreagracht ar an duine aonair. Bhunaigh sé an riail gur chóir príosúnaigh chogaidh a choimeád agus gan droch-chúrsaí a dhéanamh orthu, agus tar éis an troid a bheith críochnaithe, bhíthar ag súil go scaoileadh saor nó go dtabharfaí fíréan dóibh. Moltar go mór saoradh príosúnaigh go háirithe mar ghníomh carthanachta. Mecca bhí an chéad chathair a bheith ar an cód benevolent a chur i bhfeidhm. Tá sé mí-thuigthe go bhféadfadh ceannaire na fórsa Moslamach a ghabhas príosúnaigh neamh-Moslamach a roghnú cibé acu príosúnaigh a mharú, iad a fhuascailt, iad a sclábhaíocht, nó a lámha agus a cosa a ghearradh ar thaobh malartaithe toisc nach gcuirtear an dlí seo i bhfeidhm ar na cogaí ach ina ionad sin ar dhaoine (Muslamach nó neamh-Muslamach) a dhéanann míchompord sa talamh, gangsters, marthain na ndaoine le haghaidh robáil nó raping na mban nó na leanaí. Mar sin féin, díoladh Críostaithe a gabhadh sna Crusades, comhrac agus neamh-iomaitheoirí araon, i sclábhaíocht mura raibh siad in ann fhiacha a íoc. Na laethanta nua-aimseartha Priosúnaigh na Rúise agus na Seapáine á n-agallaimh ag oifigigh na Síne le linn Rebellion na mBocsaire Le Síocháin Westphalia 1648, a chuir deireadh leis an gCogadh Tríocha Bliana, bunaíodh an riail gur chóir príosúnaigh chogaidh a scaoileadh saor gan fhuascailt ag deireadh na n-easaontais agus gur chóir dóibh a ligean ar ais chuig a dtír dhúchais. Saighdiúir Arm an Aontais ar a scaoileadh as príosún Andersonville i mí na Bealtaine, 1865. D'fhorbair an ceart chun parole, Fraincis le haghaidh "dhiscúrsa", ina raibh oifigeach gabhadh a chur ina luí a chlaíomh agus a chuid focal a thabhairt mar dhuine uasal i malartú le pribhléidí. Má gheall sé nach dtarlódh sé, d'fhéadfadh sé cóiríocht níos fearr a fháil agus saoirse na príosúin. Má mhionnaigh sé go gcuirfeadh sé deireadh le haimhreachtaí i gcoinne na náisiúin a bhí ina gabháil air, d'fhéadfaí é a thabhairt ar ais nó a mhalartú ach ní fhéadfaí é a sheirbheáil i gcáil mhíleata i gcoinne a shean-ghabhálaithe. Fuair thart ar 56,000 saighdiúir bás i bpríosúin le linn Chogadh Cathartha Mheiriceá - beagnach 10% de na básanna uile sa Chogadh Cathartha. Le linn na 14 mhí a bhí Camp Sumter, atá suite in aice le Andersonville, Georgia, ann, bhí níos mó ná 45,000 saighdiúir Aontais teoranta anseo. De na daoine seo, fuair beagnach 13,000 (28%) bás. Ag Camp Douglas i Chicago, Illinois, fuair 10% dá phríosúnaigh Chónaidhme bás le linn mí geimhridh fuar amháin; agus Príosún Elmira i stát Nua Eabhrac, le ráta báis de 25%, beagnach comhionann le rátaí Andersonville. Le linn an 19ú haois, rinneadh iarrachtaí méadaithe chun cóireáil agus próiseáil príosúnaigh a fheabhsú. Mar thoradh ar thréimhse fada coimhlinte le linn Chogadh Réabhlóideach Mheiriceá (nó Chogadh Neamhspleáchais Mheiriceá) agus Cogadh Napoleon (17931815), agus ina dhiaidh sin Cogadh Anglo-Mheiriceánach 1812, tháinig córas cártail chun priosúnaigh a mhalartú, fiú nuair a bhí na beligerents i gcogadh. De ghnáth, d'eagraigh an tseirbhís armtha faoi seach cártail chun pearsanra a bhí ag an gcéim chéanna a mhalartú. Ba é an aidhm laghdú a bhaint amach ar líon na bpríosúnach a bhí i seilbh, agus ag an am céanna, an easpa foirne cáilithe sa tír dúchais a mhaolú. Níos déanaí, mar thoradh ar na coinbhinsiúin nua seo, tionóladh roinnt comhdhálacha idirnáisiúnta, ag tosú le Comhdháil na Bruiséile i 1874, agus aontaigh náisiúin gur gá cóireáil neamhdhaonna a dhéanamh ar phríosúnaigh agus úsáid arm a d'fhéadfadh dochar neamhriachtanach a dhéanamh a chosc. Cé nár dhaingnigh na náisiúin rannpháirteacha aon chomhaontuithe láithreach, lean an obair ar aghaidh agus mar thoradh air sin glacadh le coinbhinsiúin nua agus aithníodh iad mar dhlí idirnáisiúnta a shonraigh go gcaithfí le príosúnaigh chogaidh go daonna agus go taidhleoireachta. Coinbhinsiúin na Háige agus na Ginéive Go sonrach, bhí tuairisc mhionsonraithe ar chóireáil príosúnaigh chogaidh i gCaibidil II den Iarscríbhinn a ghabhann le Coinbhinsiún na Háige 1907. Leathnaíodh na rialacha sin sa Tríú Coinbhinsiún Ghinéiv i 1929, agus ina athbhreithniú i 1949. Cosnaíonn Airteagal 4 den Tríú Coinbhinsiún Ginearálta pearsanra míleata gabhadh, roinnt trodaithe guerilla agus sibhialtaigh áirithe. Baineann sé ó thús an chogaidh go dtí go scaoiltear nó go n-aisghairtear an príosúnach. Ceann de phríomhfhorálacha an choinbhinsiúin déanann sé mídhleathach príosúnaigh a phionósú agus deir sé nach féidir a cheangal ar phríosúnach ach a n-ainm, dáta breithe, céim agus uimhir seirbhíse (más infheidhme) a thabhairt. Mar sin féin, tá éagsúlacht ann maidir le tiomantas na náisiún na dlíthe seo a leanúint, agus ó shin i leith tá éagsúlacht mhór ann maidir le cóireáil na bPríosúnach Cogadh. Le linn an 20ú haois, bhí an tSeapáin Impiriúil agus an Ghearmáin Naitsíoch clúiteach as atrocities i gcoinne príosúnaigh le linn an Dara Cogadh Domhanda. D'úsáid míleata na Gearmáine diúltú an Aontais Shóivéadaigh Conradh na Ginéive a shíniú mar chúis gan riachtanas na beatha a sholáthar do phríosúnaigh chogaidh na Rúise; agus maraíodh na Sóivéadaigh príosúnaigh Axis mar an gcéanna nó d'úsáid siad iad mar shaothar sclábhaí. Bhí sé de ghnáth ag fórsaí na Cóiré Thuaidh agus na Vítneam Thuaidh agus Theas príosúnaigh a glacadh le linn na gcoimhlintí sin a mharú nó a mhí-úsáid. Chun a bheith i dteideal stádas príosúnach cogaidh, ní mór do bhaill sheirbhíse gabhadh a bheith ina gcomhrac dlíthiúil a bhfuil sé de cheart acu pribhléid comhrac a fháil, rud a thugann díolúine dóibh ó phionós as coireanna a dhéanann gníomhartha coiriúla cogaidh mar mharú trúpaí namhaid. Chun a bheith cáilithe faoin Tríú Coinbhinsiún na Ginéive, ní mór do chomhracóir oibríochtaí míleata a bheith déanta de réir dhlíthe agus nósanna an chogaidh, a bheith mar chuid de shraith ordaithe, "mharcáil shaineolaíoch seasta, atá le feiceáil ó chiall" a chaitheamh agus arm a iompar go hoscailte. Dá bhrí sin, tá éide agus/nó léarscáileanna tábhachtach chun stádas príosúnach cogaidh a chinneadh; agus ní cháilíonn francs-tireurs, sceimhlitheoirí, saboteurs, mercenaries agus spiúin. I gcleachtas, is annamh a dhéantar léirmhíniú déine ar na critéir sin. De ghnáth ní bhíonn aonad ag guerrillas, mar shampla, ná ní bhíonn airm acu go hoscailte, ach is minic a thugtar stádas POW do guerrillas gabhadh. Baineann na critéir go príomha le coinbhleachtaí armtha idirnáisiúnta; i gcogadh sibhialta, déileálann fórsaí rialtais le ceannairí go minic mar thréadairí nó mar choiriúla, agus déantar iad a fhorghníomhú uaireanta. Mar sin féin, i gCogadh Cathartha Mheiriceá, baineadh go leor as an gcodarsnacht, is dócha, go gcaithfeadh an dá thaobh le trúpaí gabha mar POWs, cé go measadh an tAontas pearsanra Comhdhála mar reibiliúnaigh scaradh. Mar sin féin, ní féidir le guerrillas agus comhrac neamhrialta eile a bheith ag súil go bhfaighidh siad buntáistí ó stádas sibhialta agus míleata ag an am céanna. An Cód Iompair Mhilitreach na Stát Aontaithe Ag fanacht le fiosrúchán, 199ú LT INF BG ag James Pollock, U.S. Army Vietnam Combat Artists Program Team IV, (CAT IV 1967). Tá uisce-dath ag Pollock ag léiriú amhras ar naimhde ag fanacht le fiosrúchán le linn Chogadh Vítneam. Ar fáil ag an Músaem Náisiúnta Arm na Stát Aontaithe. Foilsíodh Cód Iompair Míleata na Stát Aontaithe i 1955 trí Ordú Feidhmiúcháin 10631 faoi Uachtarán Dwight D. Eisenhower chun freastal mar chód morálta do bhaill sheirbhís na Stát Aontaithe a glacadh ina bpríosún. Cruthaíodh é go príomha mar fhreagra ar an díbriseadh ceannaireachta agus eagraíochta, go sonrach nuair a bhí fórsaí na SA ina POWanna le linn Chogadh na Cóiré. Nuair a thógtar baill míleata ina bpríosún, cuireann an Cód Iompair i gcuimhne dóibh go bhfuil an slabhra ordaithe fós i bhfeidhm (is é an baill seirbhíse is airde rangaithe atá incháilithe le haghaidh ordaithe, is cuma cén brainse seirbhíse, atá i gceannas), agus éilíonn siad orthu tacú lena gceannaireacht. Éilíonn an Cód Iompair freisin ar bhaill seirbhíse gan faisnéis a thabhairt seachas iad féin a aithint, fabhraí speisialta nó paróil a fháil, nó cabhair agus comhghairdeas a thabhairt dá gcabhróirí namhaid ar bhealach eile. Ó Chogadh Vítneam, is é EPW (Prisoner of War Enemy) an téarma oifigiúil míleata na Stát Aontaithe do phríosúnaigh chogaidh naimhde. Cuireadh an t-athrú ainm seo isteach chun idirdhealú a dhéanamh idir naimhde agus gaolta na SA. An Chéad Chogadh Domhanda Prionsaí cogaidh Mheiriceá sa Ghearmáin i 1917 Saighdiúirí Gearmánacha a gabhadh ag na Breataine i Flanders Le linn an Chéad Chogadh Domhanda, thug thart ar 8 milliún fear suas agus bhí siad i gcampaí POW go dtí go ndeachaigh an cogadh i gcrích. Geallann na náisiúin go léir rialacha na Háige maidir le cóir chothrom a dhéanamh le príosúnaigh chogaidh a leanúint, agus go ginearálta bhí ráta maireachtála i bhfad níos airde ag na POWanna ná a gcairde nach ndearnadh gabháil leo. Ní raibh sé coitianta go raibh daoine aonair ag tabhairt suas; de ghnáth thug aonad mór a chuid fir go léir suas. Ag Tannenberg, thit 92,000 Rúiseach i mbun na cath. Nuair a shroich garnison faoi léigear Kaunas i 1915, tháinig 20,000 Rúiseach ina bpríosúnaigh. Ba iad príosúnaigh os cionn leath na gcaillteanas Rúise mar chéatadán de na daoine a gabhadh, a gortaíodh nó a maraíodh. Tharla go raibh thart ar 3.3 milliún fear ina bpríosúnaigh. Bhí 2.5 milliún príosúnach i Impireacht na Gearmáine; bhí 2.9 milliún príosúnach ag an Rúis, agus bhí thart ar 720,000 príosúnach ag an mBreatain agus an Fhrainc, a fuarthas den chuid is mó sa tréimhse díreach roimh an Armistice i 1918. Bhí 48, 000 ag na Stáit Aontaithe. Ba é an t-am is contúirteacha an gníomh a thabhairt suas, nuair a bhí saighdiúirí gan chabhair ag lámhach síos uaireanta. Nuair a shroich príosúnaigh campa POW bhí dálaí níos fearr (agus go minic i bhfad níos fearr ná sa Dara Cogadh Domhanda), a bhuíochas go páirteach le hiarrachtaí an Chrois Dhearg Idirnáisiúnta agus cigireachtaí ag náisiúin neodracha. Bhí cóireáil chrua ag POWanna sa Ghearmáin, mar a thaifead an ambasadóir Mheiriceá sa Ghearmáin (sular tháinig Meiriceá isteach sa chogadh), James W. Gerard, a d'fhoilsigh a chuid torthaí i "My Four Years in Germany". Tuairiscítear coinníollacha níos measa fós sa leabhar "Escape of a Princess Pat" ag an gCeanadach George Pearson. Bhí sé go háirithe dona sa Rúis, áit a raibh ocras coitianta do phríosúnaigh agus do shibhialtaigh araon; fuair thart ar 25% dá 2 go 2.4 milliún POW bás i ngéibheann. Chailleadh beagnach 375,000 de na 500,000 príosúnach cogaidh Austro-Hungarian a thóg na Rúiseacha sa tSibéir ó smallpox agus typhus. Sa Ghearmáin bhí ganntanas bia ach níor bhás ach 5% díobh. Is minic a bhí droch-chomhghairm ag an Impireacht Ottoman ar phríosúnaigh chogaidh. Tháinig thart ar 11,800 saighdiúir Bhreataine, an chuid is mó acu Indiach, ina bpríosúnaigh tar éis an chuairte cúig mhí ar Kut, i Meisopotáime, i mí Aibreáin 1916. Bhí go leor lag agus gortaithe nuair a thug siad faoi, agus fuair 4,250 bás i ngéibheann. Le linn feachtais Shinai agus na Palaistíne, gabhadh 217 saighdiúir Astrálach agus líon anaithnid saighdiúirí na Breataine, na Nua-Shéalainne agus na hIndia ag fórsaí Impireacht na hOtamánaí. Bhí thart ar 50% de na príosúnaigh Astrálacha ina rúnaithe éadrom lena n-áirítear 48 duine atá ar iarraidh a chreidtear a gabhadh ar 1 Bealtaine 1918 i Ghleann na hIordáine. Gabhadh píolótaí agus breathnóirí de chuid Chór na nAerfort Astrálach i bPiniméin Shíné, sa Phleastáin agus sa Levant. Gabhadh an tríú cuid de na príosúnaigh Ástráileacha go léir ar Gallipoli lena n-áirítear criú an fho-uisceadáin AE2 a rinne pasáiste trí na Dardanelles i 1915. Roimh na blianta, bhí imeachtaí éigeantacha agus turais iomlána iarnróid i gcampaí ina raibh galar, droch-aiste bia agus áiseanna leighis neamhleor. Fuair thart ar 25% de na grád eile bás, go leor mar gheall ar mhí-chothú, agus ní fuair ach oifigeach amháin bás. Tháinig an cás is aisteach sa Rúis nuair a d'eisigh Léigiún na Seiceaslóvaice príosúnaigh Seiceaslóvacha (ó arm na hOstaire-Ungáire): scaoileadh saor iad i 1917, armú iad féin, agus tháinig siad chun cinn go gairid i bhfeidhm míleata agus taidhleoireachta le linn Chogadh Cathartha na Rúise. Cárta beannachta Nollag a chuir príosúnach cogaidh Gearmánach abhaile sa RA i 1918 Scaoileadh príosúnaigh Cuimhneachán le téacs ag tabhairt faoi na Príosúnach Cogaidh Ghearmáinis 153,281 a fuair bás i ngéibheann na gComhghuaillithe 19141920 Ceiliúradh do phríosúnaigh chogaidh a d'fhill, 1920 Ag deireadh na cogaidh i 1918 chreidtear go raibh 140,000 príosúnach cogaidh na Breataine sa Ghearmáin, lena n-áirítear 3,000 iontráil a bhí i gConradh na hEilvéise neodrach. Scaoileadh na chéad phríosúnaigh Bhreataine agus tháinig siad go Calais ar 15 Samhain. Rinneadh pleananna chun iad a sheoladh trí Dhúncairc go Dover agus bunaíodh campa glactha mór ag Dover atá in ann 40,000 fear a chónaí, a d'fhéadfaí a úsáid ina dhiaidh sin le haghaidh dí-ghníomhachú. Ar 13 Nollaig 1918 síníodh an t-airmthréimhse agus thuairiscigh na Comhghuaillithe go raibh 264,000 príosúnach a aisíoctha ar an 9 Nollaig. Scaoileadh líon mór díobh seo go mór agus cuireadh trasna línte na gComhghuaillithe iad gan aon bhia ná cóiríocht. Chruthaigh sé seo deacrachtaí do na Comhghuaillithe a fuair iad agus fuair go leor príosúnaigh a scaoileadh saor bás as tuirse. Tháinig trúpaí cabhlaigh i gcomhairle leis na POWanna a scaoileadh agus chuir siad ar ais tríd na línte i dtráchtálaí chuig ionaid glactha áit a ndearnadh buataisí agus éadaí a athshlánú orthu agus a sheoladh chuig na calafoirt i dtraenacha. Nuair a tháinig siad chuig an gcampa glactha, cláraíodh na POWanna agus "bhordáil" iad sula ndearnadh iad a sheoladh chuig a dtithe féin. Bhí ar gach oifigeach coimisiúnaithe tuarascáil a scríobh ar chúinsí a ghabháil agus a chinntiú go ndearna siad gach rud is féidir chun gabháil a sheachaint. Tugadh teachtaireacht ó Rí George V do gach oifigeach agus fear a bhí ag filleadh ar ais, scríofa ina lámh féin agus atáirgeadh ar litograif. Bhí an méid seo a leanas ina léargas: "Na Banríona aontaíonn liom a fáilte a chur roimh tú ar do scaoileadh ó na miseries & trioblóidí, a bhfuil tú a sheasamh le go leor foighne agus misneach. Le linn na míonna fada seo den triail, tá an tarrtháil luath dár n-Oifigigh agus ár n-Eolaithe gallant ó cruálachtaí a n-ionsaí ar an gcéad dul síos inár smaointe. Táimid buíoch go bhfuil an lá fada le fada tagtha, agus go mbeidh tú in ann taitneamh a bhaint as áthas an bhaile arís sa sean-Tír agus go bhfeicfidh tú laethanta maithe i measc na ndaoine a bhfuil súil acu go mór leat. Cé gur seoladh na príosúnaigh Allied abhaile ag deireadh na cogaidh, níor tugadh an cóireáil chéanna do phríosúnaigh Cumhachtaí Ceannais na gComhghuaillithe agus na Rúise, a raibh ar go leor acu a bheith ag obair mar shaothar éigeantach, e.g. sa Fhrainc, go dtí 1920. Scaoileadh iad tar éis go leor cur chuige ag an ICRC chuig an gComhairle Uachtarach Comhghuaillíochta. An Dara Cogadh Domhanda POW Sóivéadach, Lúnasa 1941. Ar a laghad 50,000 saighdiúir Giúdach a lámhaigh tar éis roghnú. Chuir Niall Ferguson an ráta báis iomlán do phriabúnaigh sa Dara Cogadh Domhanda mar seo a leanas: Prionsaí Cogaidh a Fuair bás POWanna na Rúise atá i seilbh na nGearmáinise 57.5% Príosúnaigh POG Gearmánacha faoi shealbhú na Rúise 35.8% POWs Meiriceánach a bhí i seilbh na Seapáine 33.0% Príosúnaigh POG na Gearmáine a bhí i seilbh na hEorpa Thoir 32.9% Príosúnaigh POB na Breataine a bhí i seilbh na Seapáine 24.8% POWanna na Breataine a bhí i seilbh na nGearmáinise 3.5% POWanna Gearmánacha a bhí i seilbh na Fraince 2.58% POWanna Gearmánacha a shealbhaíonn Meiriceánaigh 0.15% POWanna Gearmánacha a bhí i seilbh na Breataine 0.03% Cóireáil na n-Príosúnach Cogadh ag an Axis Féach freisin: Coireanna na Naitsithe i gcoinne POWanna Sóivéadacha agus coireanna cogaidh na Seapáine Impireacht na Seapáine Prionsaí cogaidh na hAstráile agus na hÍsiltíre i Tarsau, an Téalainn i 1943 Phortaingéil de POW "Dusty" Rhodes a rinne Ashley George Old sa Téalainn i 1944 Níor chuir Impireacht na Seapáine, nár shínigh an Dara Coinbhinsiún Gineabhra de 1929, cosc ar phríosúnaigh chogaidh de réir comhaontuithe idirnáisiúnta, lena n-áirítear forálacha na gCoinbhinsiúin Hague (1899 agus 1907), le linn an Dara Cogadh Síneach-Seapánach nó le linn Chogadh an Aigéin Chiúin. Ina theannta sin, de réir treoir a dhaingnigh Hirohito an 5 Lúnasa 1937, cuireadh deireadh go sainráite le srianta Choinbhinsiúin na Háige ar phríosúnaigh na Síne. Fuair go leor príosúnaigh Mheiriceá agus na hOileáin Fhilipíneacha bás mar thoradh ar an Márta Bás Bataan, i mí na Bealtaine 1942 Bhí príosúnaigh chogaidh ón tSín, na Stáit Aontaithe, an Astráil, an Bhreatain, Ceanada, an India, an Ísiltír, an Nua-Shéalainn agus na hOileáin Fhilipíneacha a bhí á gcoimeád ag fórsaí armtha na Seapáine faoi réir dúnmharaithe, buille, pionóis achoimre, cóireáil thromchúiseach, saothair éigeantais, turgnamh leighis, raonta ocrais agus droch-chúrsa leighis. Ba é an úsáid is cáiliúla a rinneadh ar shaothar éigeantach ná i dtógáil Iarnróid Bháis na Birmíne agus na Téalainne. POW Astráiliúil gabhadh i Nua-Ghuine, Sgt. Leonard Siffleet, nóiméad roimh a fhorghníomhú le claíomh Shin Gunto Seapánach. De réir na bhfianaise ó Thionól Tóiceo, bhí ráta báis príosúnaigh an Iarthair 27.1%, seacht n-uaire an ráta báis príosúnaigh PO faoi na Gearmánaigh agus na hIodáile. Bhí ráta báis na Síne i bhfad níos mó. Dá bhrí sin, cé gur scaoileadh 37,583 príosúnach ón Ríocht Aontaithe, ón gComhdhaoine agus ó na hÁrd-Rialtasa, 28,500 ón Ísiltír agus 14,473 ó na Stáit Aontaithe tar éis na Seapáine a thabhairt suas, ní raibh ach 56 sa tSín. Tar éis an chogaidh, tháinig sé chun solais go raibh ordú ard-ordú ann - a eisíodh ó Aireacht an Chogaidh i dTóiceo - chun na POWanna fágtha go léir a mharú. Níor tugadh rochtain dhíreach ar na POWanna don Chros Dearg Idirnáisiúnta. Bhí éalú i measc príosúnaigh Caucasian beagnach dodhéanta mar gheall ar an deacracht a bhí ag fir de shliocht Caucasian dul i bhfolach i sochaithe na hÁise. Bhí campaí POW agus iompar long na gcomhghuaillithe ina spriocanna teagmhasacha uaireanta d'ionsaithe na gcomhghuaillithe. Bhí líon na mbásanna a tharla nuair a rinne fo-uisceadáin Navy na Stát Aontaithe ionsaí ar "loingseoirí i bhfíor-bhás" na Seapáine - loingseoirí iompair gan mharcáil ina ndearnadh príosúnaigh PO a iompar i ndálaí crua. Tá Gavan Daws tar éis a ríomh go raibh "de na POWanna go léir a fuair bás sa Chogadh an Aigéin Chiúin, a bhí ar an uisce ag tine a bhí ag a chara". Deir Daves gur maraíodh 10,800 de na 50,000 POW a d'iompair na Seapáine ar muir agus deir Donald L. Miller go "mharaigh thart ar 21,000 POW Comhghuaillithe ar muir, maraíodh thart ar 19,000 díobh ag tine cairde". Taifeadadh saol i gcampaí POW ag riosca mór dóibh féin ag ealaíontóirí mar Jack Bridger Chalker, Philip Meninsky, Ashley George Old agus Ronald Searle. Úsáidtear gruaig an duine go minic le haghaidh scuab, sú plandaí agus fuil le haghaidh péint, agus páipéar cithfholcadáin mar an "canvas". Baineadh úsáid as cuid dá gcuid oibre mar fhianaise i dtrialacha coiriúla cogaidh na Seapáine. Príosúnaigh Chogaidh na gComhghuaillithe Thiar Go ginearálta, déileáladh leis an nGearmáin agus leis an Iodáil le príosúnaigh ó Chomhchoitinn na Breataine, an Fhrainc, na Stáit Aontaithe agus na gComhghuaillithe eile san Iarthar de réir Choinbhinsiún na Ginéive (1929), a shínigh na tíortha sin. Dá bhrí sin, ní raibh oifigigh Allied an iarthair de ghnáth a dhéanamh chun obair agus pearsanra rang níos ísle a bhí de ghnáth cúiteamh, nó nach bhfuil ag teastáil chun obair a bheith. Ba é an príomh-chomhairle a bhí ag príosúnaigh chogaidh na gComhghuaillithe san iarthar i gcampaí POW Arm na Gearmáine - go háirithe le linn dhá bhliain dheireanacha na cogaidh - ná easpa bia, cé gur roinn pearsanra agus sibhialtaigh na Gearmáine an chinniúint seo, mar gheall ar na coinníollacha blocála. Ní raibh ach céatadán beag de na POWanna Allied an Iarthair a bhí ina nGiúdach - nó a chreid na Naitsithe gur Giúdach iad - a maraíodh mar chuid den Holocaust nó a bhí faoi réir beartais frith-Shéimiciúla eile. Mar shampla, d'fhulaing an Mór Yitzhak Ben-Aharon, Giúdach Palaistíneach a bhí cláraithe san Arm na Breataine, agus a gabhadh ag na Gearmánaigh sa Ghréig i 1941, ceithre bliana de ghabháil faoi choinníollacha gnáth go hiomlán do POWanna. Teileagraim ag cur tuismitheoirí príosúnach cogaidh Mheiriceá ar an eolas faoi a ghabháil ag an nGearmáin Mar sin féin, cuireadh líon beag pearsanra na gComhghuaillithe chuig campaí coimhlinte, ar chúiseanna éagsúla lena n-áirítear a bheith ina nGiúdach. Mar a dúirt an staraí Meiriceánach Joseph Robert White: "Is eisceacht thábhachtach é ... an fho-champa do phríosúnaigh chogaidh na SA ag Berga an der Elster, ar a dtugtar Arbeitskommando 625 go hoifigiúil [ar a dtugtar Stalag IX-B freisin]. Ba é Berga an dífhostú oibre is marbhúla do ghaismitheoirí Mheiriceá sa Ghearmáin. Chailleadh 73 fear a ghlac páirt, nó 21 faoin gcéad den dífhostú, i gceann dhá mhí. Bhí 80 de na 350 POWs Giúdaigh. " Sampla eile a bhfuil aithne mhaith air ná grúpa de 168 eitiltíóir ó Astráil, na Breataine, Ceanada, Nua-Shéalainn agus na Stát Aontaithe a bhí i gcoimeád ar feadh dhá mhí i gcampa comhchruinnithe Buchenwald; fuair beirt de na POWS bás i Buchenwald. Tugadh le fios dhá chúis a d'fhéadfadh a bheith leis an eachtra seo: bhí údaráis na Gearmáine ag iarraidh sampla a dhéanamh de Terrorflieger ( eitiltí sceimhlitheoireachta) agus / nó bhí na foirne eitilte seo aicmithe mar shpiún, toisc go raibh siad clúdaithe mar shibhialtaigh nuair a gabhadh iad. De réir mar a chuaigh fórsaí talún na Sóivéide i dteagmháil le roinnt campaí POW go luath i 1945, chuir gardaí Gearmánacha cos ar POWanna an Allied siar imeachtaí fada a dhéanamh i dtreo lár na Gearmáine, go minic i gcoinníollacha aimsire an gheimhridh chrua. Meastar, as 257,000 POW, go raibh thart ar 80,000 faoi réir imeachtaí den sórt sin agus fuair suas le 3,500 díobh bás mar thoradh air sin. POWanna Oirthear na hEorpa Campi improvised do POWs Sóivéadach. Idir Meitheamh 1941 agus Eanáir 1942, mharaigh na Naitsithe thart ar 2.8 milliún príosúnach cogaidh Sóivéadach, a mheas siad "níl-dhaonna". Níor chuir an Ghearmáin an caighdeán céanna cóireála i bhfeidhm ar phríosúnaigh neamh-thuaiscirt, go háirithe go leor príosúnaigh PO polacacha agus Sóivéadacha a d'fhulaing dálaí crua agus a fuair bás i líon mór agus iad i nglactha. Idir 1941 agus 1945, ghlac cumhachtaí an Axis thart ar 5.7 milliún príosúnach Sóivéadach. Scaoileadh thart ar milliún díobh le linn na cogaidh, sa mhéid go ndeachaigh a stádas in aghaidh na nGearmáinise ach d'fhan siad faoi rialú na Gearmáine. D'éalaigh beagán níos mó ná 500,000 nó d'eisigh an tSeirbhís Dearg iad. Fuarthas thart ar 930,000 duine eile beo i gcampaí tar éis an chogaidh. Fuair an 3.3 milliún príosúnach eile (57.5% den iomlán a gabhadh) bás le linn a n-ionsaí. Idir seoladh Oibríocht Barbarossa i samhradh 1941 agus an earrach ina dhiaidh sin, fuair 2.8 milliún de na 3.2 milliún príosúnach Sóivéadach a tógadh bás agus iad i lámha na Gearmáine. De réir an staire míleata Rúiseach, an Ginearálta Grigoriy Krivosheyev, ghlac cumhachtaí an Axis 4.6 milliún príosúnach Sóivéadach, agus fuarthas 1.8 milliún acu beo i gcampaí tar éis an chogaidh agus d'fhág 318,770 saor ag an Axis le linn na cogaidh agus cuireadh iad i mbun na fórsaí armtha Sóivéadacha arís. I gcomparáid leis sin, fuair 8,348 príosúnach de chuid na gComhghuaillithe Thiar bás i gcampaí na Gearmáine i rith 1939-45 (3.5% den 232,000 iomlán). Prionsaí cogaidh na Sóivéide nocht i gcampa comhchruinnithe Mauthausen. Is é údar oifigiúil a d'úsáid na Gearmánaigh don bheartas seo ná nár shínigh an tAontas Sóivéadach Coinbhinsiún na Ginéive. Ní raibh sé seo indéanta ó thaobh dlí de, áfach, mar go raibh ar na tíortha sínithe, de réir Airteagal 82 de Choinbhinsiún na Ginéive (1929), príosúnaigh na dtíortha sínithe agus neamh-sínithe a thabhairt do na cearta a thugtar leis an gcoinbhinsiún. Léiríonn Beevor gur thairg an USSR, thart ar mhí tar éis ionradh na Gearmáine i 1941, cloí le coinbhinsiúin na Háige. D'fhág oifigigh an Tríú Ríog an 'nóta' seo gan freagra. I gcodarsnacht leis sin, pléann Tolstoy go ndearna Rialtas na Gearmáine chomh maith leis an gCros Dearg Idirnáisiúnta roinnt iarrachtaí chun cóireáil fhrithpháirteach príosúnaigh a rialáil go dtí go luath i 1942, ach níor fuair siad aon fhreagraí ón taobh Sóivéadach. Ina theannta sin, ghlac na Sóivéadaigh seasamh crua i leith saighdiúirí Sóivéadacha gabhadh mar a bhí súil acu go mbeadh gach saighdiúir chun troid go dtí an bás agus go huathoibríoch eisiata aon príosúnach as an "pobail na Rúise". Go leor POWs Sóivéadacha agus oibrithe éigeantacha a bhí i nGaelscoil na Naitsithe, nuair a d'fhill siad ar an USSR, bhí siad i gcaitheamh le traidisiúin agus cuireadh i gcampaí príosúnaigh gulag iad. Bhí an chuid eile cosc ar gach rud ach na hoibreacha is lú. Cóireáil na nPríosúnach Cogadh ag an Aontas Sóivéadach POW Gearmánach i Stalingrad Príomh-ailt: Oibreacha POW san Aontas Sóivéadach, príosúnaigh chogaidh Seapánacha san Aontas Sóivéadach, príosúnaigh chogaidh na hIodáile san Aontas Sóivéadach, príosúnaigh chogaidh Rómhánaigh san Aontas Sóivéadach, príosúnaigh chogaidh na Polainne san Aontas Sóivéadach (tar éis 1939), príosúnaigh chogaidh na Fionlainne san Aontas Sóivéadach, príosúnaigh chogaidh na Gearmáine san Aontas Sóivéadach, géilleadh Katyn, agus Gulag Gearmánaigh, Rómhánaigh, Iodálaigh, Ungáiri, Fionlaigh De réir roinnt foinsí, gabhadh na Sóivéadaigh 3.5 milliún saighdiúir Axis (seachas na Seapáine) ar bhás níos mó ná milliún díobh. Sampla sonrach de chinniúint thragóideach na bPríosúnach Cogadh na Gearmáine a bhí i ndiaidh Cath Stalingrad, le linn a raibh na Sóivéadaigh ag gabháil 91,000 trúpa Gearmánach, go leor acu atá tuirseach agus tinn cheana féin, agus ní raibh ach 5,000 acu a mhair an cogadh. Bhí saighdiúirí Gearmánacha ar feadh blianta fada tar éis an chogaidh mar shaothar éigeantach. D'fhág na Sóivéadaigh na príosúnaigh chogaidh Gearmánacha deireanach (na daoine a bhí ciontach i gcoireanna cogaidh, uaireanta gan cúiseanna leordhóthanacha) i 1955, ach amháin tar éis bás Joseph Stalin. Fuair 54,000 príosúnach cogaidh na hIodáile bás ar a laghad sa Rúis, agus bhí ráta báis 84.5% ann. Na Polainnigh Katyn 1943 exhumation. Grianghraf ó thoscaireacht Chros Dearg Idirnáisiúnta. Mar thoradh ar ionradh na Sóivéide ar an bPolainn i 1939, tháinig na céadta mílte saighdiúir Polainnis ina bpríosúnaigh chogaidh san Aontas Sóivéadach. Cuireadh na mílte díobh chun báis; maraíodh os cionn 20,000 pearsanra míleata Polainnis agus sibhialtach i masc Katyn. As 80,000 díláithrithe ó Aontas na Sóivéide a bhailíodh i Ríocht Aontaithe le Anders, níor thairg ach 310 saoránach filleadh ar an bPolainn i 1947. As na 230,000 príosúnach cogaidh Polainnis a thóg arm na Sóivéide, níor chaith ach 82,000 beo. Le ionradh na Sóivéide ar Mhanchúria i 1945 tháinig saighdiúirí Seapánacha ina bpríosúnaigh san Aontas Sóivéadach, áit ar chaith siad, díreach cosúil le POWanna eile an Axis, fanacht mar saothair ar feadh roinnt blianta. Na Meiriceánaigh De réir mar a chuaigh an tAontas Sóivéadach isteach i gcríoch na Gearmáine le linn chéimeanna níos déanaí na cogaidh, sháraigh trúpaí na Sóivéade i gcásanna áirithe campaí Gearmánacha ina raibh príosúnaigh POFanna na SA. Tá líomhaintí déanta go raibh roinnt de na POWs riamh a repatriated, ina ionad sin a bhí siad a sheoladh go líomhnaithe chuig an USSR a úsáid mar chips bargaining. Cóireáil na gComhghuaillithe ar Phriail Chogaidh Féach freisin: Liosta de champaí POW an Dara Cogadh Domhanda agus coireanna cogaidh na gcomhghuaillithe le linn an Dara Cogadh Domhanda Príomh-ailt: Oibríocht Keelhaul, Obair éigeantach na nGearmáinigh i ndiaidh an Dara Cogadh Domhanda, príosúnaigh chogaidh na Seapáine sa Dara Cogadh Domhanda, agus Príosúnaigh Chogaidh na Gearmáine sna Stáit Aontaithe Cásca POW Remagen Arm na Stát Aontaithe: Cárta gabháil do phríosúnaigh chogaidh na Gearmáine - tosaigh An chúl den chárta thuas Le linn an chogaidh, ordaíodh d'arm na náisiún Comhghuaillithe mar na Stáit Aontaithe, an Ríocht Aontaithe, Ceanada agus an Astráil go gcaithfí go docht le príosúnaigh an Axis de réir Choinbhinsiún na Ginéive (1929). Bhí roinnt sárú ar an gCoinbhinsiún, áfach. De réir Stephen E. Ambrose, de na thart ar 1,000 veterans cogaidh Mheiriceá a d'fhiafraigh sé, dúirt thart ar an tríú cuid dó go bhfaca siad trúpaí Mheiriceá ag marú príosúnaigh Gearmánacha. I dtreo dheireadh an chogaidh san Eoraip, mar a thug líon mór saighdiúirí an Axis faoi, chruthaigh na Stáit Aontaithe ainmniúchán na Fórsaí Neamhnáin Neamh-armáilte (DEF) ionas nach gcaithfí le príosúnaigh mar POWs. Coinníodh go leor de na saighdiúirí seo i réimsí oscailte i roinnt Rheinwiesenlagers. Tá conspóide ar bun maidir le conas a bhain Eisenhower na príosúnaigh seo (féach Caillteanas Eile). Tar éis do Ghearmáin a thabhairt i mí na Bealtaine 1945, coinníodh stádas POW na bpríosúnaigh Gearmánacha i go leor cásanna, agus úsáideadh iad ar feadh roinnt blianta mar shaothar éigeantach i dtíortha mar an RA agus an Fhrainc. Fuair a lán bás nuair a bhí orthu páirceanna míne a ghlanadh san Iorua, sa Fhrainc, etc. "i mí Mheán Fómhair 1945, mheas na húdaráis na Fraince go raibh dhá mhíle príosúnach á gcúr agus á mbás gach mí i dtimpistí" Sa bhliain 1946, bhí níos mó ná 400,000 príosúnach Gearmánach sa RA, aistríodh go leor acu ó champaí POW sna Stáit Aontaithe agus i gCeanada. Bhí go leor acu le breis agus trí bliana tar éis an t-aistriú Gearmánach a úsáid mar saothair éigeantach, mar chineál "díolúcháin". "Tagraigh na POWs dóibh féin mar 'obair sclábhaí', le roinnt ceartais". Bhí a riocht mothúchánach ag dul in olcas "ó imní agus dóchas an chéad leath de 1946 go dtí an dúlagar agus an nihilism de 1948". Tháinig díospóireacht phoiblí i ndiaidh a chéile sa Ríocht Aontaithe, áit a raibh focail mar "obair éigeantach", "slaves", "obair sclábhaí" á n-úsáid go méadaithe sna meáin agus i dTeach na dTeach. I 1947 rinne an Aireacht Talmhaíochta argóint i gcoinne athdhíol tapa príosúnaigh oibrithe na Gearmáine, ós rud é go raibh siad ag 25 faoin gcéad den fhórsa saothair talún, agus theastaigh uathu iad a úsáid freisin i 1948. Bhí "Cage Londain", saoráid príosúnach cogaidh MI19 sa RA a úsáidtear chun príosúnaigh a cheistiú sula n-aistríodh iad chuig campaí príosúnaigh le linn an Dara Cogadh Domhanda agus díreach ina dhiaidh sin, faoi réir líomhaintí faoi cheistiú. Tar éis na Gearmáine a thabhairt suas, cuireadh cosc ar an gCros Dearg Idirnáisiúnta cabhair a sholáthar mar bhia nó campaí príosúnaigh a chuairteáil sa Ghearmáin. Mar sin féin, tar éis dó dul i dteagmháil leis na Comhghuaillithe i rith an earraigh 1945, ceadaíodh dó na campaí a imscrúdú i gcriosanna a raibh na Breataine agus na Fraince ag gabháil dóibh sa Ghearmáin, chomh maith le faoiseamh a chur ar fáil do na príosúnaigh a bhí i seilbh ann. Ar 4 Feabhra, 1946, ceadaíodh don Chros Dearg cuairt a thabhairt ar phríosúnaigh agus cúnamh a thabhairt dóibh freisin i gcrios a raibh na Stáit Aontaithe ag gabháil leis sa Ghearmáin, cé nach raibh ach cainníochtaí an-bheaga bia ann. "Le linn a gcuairteanna, thug na toscairí faoi deara go raibh príosúnaigh chogaidh na Gearmáine i gcoinníollacha uafásacha go minic. Thug siad aird na n-údarás ar an bhfíric seo, agus d'éirigh leo go mall le roinnt feabhsuithe a dhéanamh". Chuir na Comhlachtaí comhghuaillithe POWanna eatarthu freisin, mar shampla 6,000 oifigeach Gearmánach a aistríodh ó champaí na gComhghuaillithe Thiar go dtí campa coimhlint Sachsenhausen a bhí faoi riarachán an Aontais Shóivéadaigh anois. Chuir na Stáit Aontaithe 740,000 príosúnach cogaidh Gearmánach ar long freisin mar shaothair éigeantacha go dtí an Fhrainc as áit a ndearna tuairiscí nuachtáin tuairisciú ar chóireáil an-droch. Dúirt an Breitheamh Robert H. Jackson, Príomh-ionchúiseoir na Stát Aontaithe i dtrialacha Nuremberg, i mí Dheireadh Fómhair 1945 le hUachtarán na Stát Aontaithe Harry S. Truman go raibh na Comhghuaillithe féin: "Tá déanta nó ag déanamh roinnt de na rudaí go bhfuil muid ag ionchúiseamh na Gearmánaigh le haghaidh. Tá na Fraince ag sárú Coinbhinsiún na Ginéive i gcaitheamh le príosúnaigh chogaidh go bhfuil ár gceannas ag glacadh príosúnaigh a seoladh chucu ar ais. Táimid ag ionchúiseamh plúdaithe agus ár gcomhghuaillithe a chleachtadh é. " Tháinig na hUngáireacha ina bPríosúnaigh Chogaidh na gComhghuaillithe Thiar, cuid acu díreach mar a d'úsáid na Gearmánaigh mar shaothar éigeantach sa Fhrainc tar éis deireadh na naimhdeachtaí. Grúpa de na Seapáine a gabhadh le linn Cath Okinawa Cé gur glacadh na mílte Seapánach ina bpríosúnaigh, throid an chuid is mó go dtí go maraíodh iad nó go ndearna siad féinmharú. As na 22,000 saighdiúir Seapánach a bhí i láthair ag tús Cath Iwo Jima, maraíodh os cionn 20,000 agus ní raibh ach 1,083 i bpríosún. As na 30,000 saighdiúir Seapáine a bhí ag cosaint Saipan, bhí níos lú ná 1,000 beo ag deireadh na cath. Bhí go leor príosúnaigh Seapánacha a cuireadh chuig na campaí; áfach, maraíodh roinnt Seapánach nuair a bhí siad ag iarraidh a thabhairt suas nó maraíodh iad díreach tar éis dóibh a thabhairt suas (féach coireanna cogaidh na gComhghuaillithe le linn an Dara Cogadh Domhanda sa Aigéan Ciúin). Fuair roinnt príosúnaigh Seapánacha i gcampaí POW bás ina lámha féin, go díreach nó trí ionsaí a dhéanamh ar choimeádtóirí leis an gcuspóir na coimeádtóirí a chur chun báis orthu. I roinnt cásanna, cuireadh príosúnaigh na Seapáine i ngleic le modhanna éagsúla. Ba é modh na tortúir a d'úsáid Arm Réabhlóideach Náisiúnta na Síne (NRA) ná an príosúnach a chur faoi ghualainn i gcas adhmaid go dtí go bhfuair siad bás. I gcásanna an-annamh, bhí cuid acu a ghearradh le claíomh, agus bhí ceann a bhí gearrtha ar uair amháin a úsáidtear mar liathróid peile ag saighdiúirí Arm Réabhlóideach Náisiúnta na Síne (NRA). Tar éis an chogaidh, coinníodh go leor Seapánach mar Phearsanra Shábháil Seapánach go dtí lár 1947 agus úsáidtear iad mar shaothar éigeantach ag déanamh tascanna lú, agus coinníodh 35,000 ar arm laistigh dá n-eagraíocht mhíleata cogaidh agus faoi a gcuid oifigeach féin agus úsáidtear iad i ngleic in éineacht le trúpaí na Breataine ag iarraidh na gluaiseachtaí neamhspleáchais a chur faoi chois i nIndianna Thoir na hÍndí agus Indochina na Fraince. Sa bhliain 1943 thit an Iodáil an Dictóir Mussolini, agus tháinig sé ina chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh-chomh Níor chiallaigh sé seo aon athrú ar stádas príosúnaigh chogaidh na hIodáile, áfach, ós rud é go raibh easpa saothair sa Ríocht Aontaithe agus sna Stáit Aontaithe, coinníodh iad mar phríosúnaigh chogaidh ansin. Ar 11 Feabhra 1945, ag deireadh Chomhdháil Yalta, shínigh na Stáit Aontaithe agus an Ríocht Aontaithe Comhaontú um Athsheachadadh leis an URSS. Ba é an léiriú a rinneadh ar an gComhaontú seo ná go ndearnadh na Rúiseacha go léir a dhíbirt ar ais go brách (Oibríocht Keelhaul) gan aird a thabhairt ar a gcuid mian. Rinneadh na hoibríochtaí athchóirithe éigeantais i 1945-1947. Aistrithe idir na Comhghuaillithe Thug na Stáit Aontaithe 740,000 príosúnach Gearmánach ar láimh do Fhrainc, sínitheoir ar Choinbhinsiún na Ginéive. Níor shínigh an tAontas Sóivéadach Coinbhinsiún na Ginéive. De réir Edward Peterson roghnaigh na Stáit Aontaithe roinnt céad míle príosúnach Gearmánach a thabhairt don Aontas Sóivéadach i mí na Bealtaine 1945 mar "ghean cairdeas". Dhiúltaigh fórsaí na Stát Aontaithe freisin glacadh le haisíocaíocht trúpaí Gearmánacha a bhí ag iarraidh a n-aisíocaíocht a thabhairt dóibh i Sacsóin agus sa Bheim, agus chuir siad iad ar láimh don Aontas Sóivéadach ina ionad. Tá sé ar eolas freisin gur seoladh 6000 oifigeach Gearmánach ó champaí san Iarthar chuig na Sóivéadaigh, a chuir iad i gcampa comhchruinnithe Sachsenhausen a bhí ag an am ar cheann de champa speisialta NKVD agus a bhfuil a fhios go raibh aistrithe níos faide ó thuaidh go Sibéir. Tar éis an Dara Cogadh Domhanda Príosúnach cogaidh Arm na Stát Aontaithe a maraíodh de chuid an 21ú Rúnda Infantry na Stát Aontaithe a maraíodh an 9 Iúil, 1950. Grianghraf a tógadh ar an 10 Iúil, 1950 POW Meiriceánach a bheith ag ceistiú ag a captors Thuaisceart Vítneam. Tá cáil ar na hIodáileanna go ndéanann siad mí-oibriú go mór ar phríosúnaigh chogaidh (féach Coireanna i gcoinne POWanna). As thart ar 16,500 saighdiúir na Fraince a throid ag Dien Bien Phu, maraíodh níos mó ná 3,000 sa chath, agus fuair beagnach gach ceann de na 11,721 fear a gabhadh ina gabháil bás i lámha na Viet Minh ar mhártaí báis chuig campaí POW i bhfad i gcéin, agus sna campaí sin sna trí mhí dheireanacha den chogadh. Ghlac an Vietcong agus an Vítneam Thuaidh go leor baill seirbhíse na Stát Aontaithe mar phríosúnaigh chogaidh le linn Chogadh Vítneam, a d'fhulaing drochíde agus tortúr le linn na cogaidh. Bhí roinnt príosúnaigh Mheiriceá i bpríosún ar a dtugtar an Hanoi Hilton. Dúirt Vítneamigh choimisinéirí a bhí i gcoimeád ag fórsaí Vítneam Theas agus Mheiriceá go ndearnadh droch-chleachtadh orthu. Is beag beann ar na rialacháin a chinntíonn cóireáil na bpríosúnach, leanann siad ag tuairisciú sáruithe ar a gcearta. Tuairiscíodh go leor cásanna de mharaithe príosúnaigh cogaidh le déanaí, lena n-áirítear maraíocht 13 Deireadh Fómhair sa Liobáin ag fórsaí na Siria agus maraíocht Meitheamh 1990 sa Srí Lanca. Le linn Chogadh an Ghleann i 1991, rinne póilíní rúnda na hIaráige tortúr a dhéanamh ar POWanna Meiriceánach, Breataine, Iodálach agus Cúitíneacha (cláraithe ar mhéideanna a bhí ag lucht foirne eitleáin agus fórsaí speisialta). Dochtúir míleata Meiriceánach, Mór Rhonda Cornum, máinliachta eitilte 37 bliain d'aois a gabhadh nuair a lámhaíodh a Blackhawk UH-60 síos, bhí sé faoi réir mí-úsáid ghnéasach freisin. Le linn Chogaí Iúgslavacha na 1990idí, mharaigh fórsaí paramilitary na Seirbe, le tacaíocht ó fhórsaí JNA, príosúnaigh chogaidh ag Vukovar agus Škarbrnja agus mharaigh fórsaí na Seirbe Boisniacha príosúnaigh chogaidh ag Srebrenica. Stamp Phakistín a léiríonn POWs i gcampaí Indiach tar éis Chogadh Indo-Phakistín 1971. Foilsíodh an stampa leis an gcuspóir pholaitiúil feasacht domhanda a ardú chun cabhrú lena scaoileadh saor. Scaoileadh na POWs tar éis an Comhaontú Simla I 2001, bhí tuairiscí ann go raibh dhá phríosúnach ag an India i ndáiríre le linn Chogadh na Síne-India, Yang Chen agus Shih Liang. Bhí an bheirt i bpríosún mar shpiún ar feadh trí bliana sula ndearnadh iad a iontráil i n-aisling meabhrach i Ranchi, áit a chaith siad na 38 bliain ina dhiaidh sin faoi stádas príosúnach speisialta. Rinneadh na príosúnaigh deireanach de Chogadh na hIaráine-Iaráic (1980-1988) a mhalartú i 2003. Líon na n-Príosúnach Cogadh Seo liosta de na náisiúin a bhfuil an líon is airde POWanna acu ó thús an Dara Cogadh Domhanda, liostaithe in ord ag titim. Is iad seo na huimhreacha is airde in aon chogadh ó tháinig an Coinbhinsiún a bhaineann le Cóireáil Príosúnach Cogaidh i bhfeidhm an 19 Meitheamh 1931. Níor shínigh an tAontas Sóivéadach coinbhinsiún na Ginéive. Armanna Líon na n-aisle cogaidh a bhí i bpríosún ag an namhaid Ainm an choimhlint An tAontas Sóivéadach 45.7 milliún a thóg an Ghearmáin (2.73.3 milliún a fuair bás i gcampaí POW na Gearmáine) An Dara Cogadh Domhanda (Iomlán) * 3,127,380 a ghlac an USSR (474,967 a fuair bás i ngábh) (de réir foinse eile 1.094.250 a fuair bás i ngábh (35,8%) * 3,630,000 a thóg an Ríocht Aontaithe * 3,100,000 a thóg na Stáit Aontaithe * 937,000 a thóg an Fhrainc * líon anaithnid i Iúgslaiv, sa Pholainn, san Ísiltír, sa Bheilg, sa Danmhairg (ba é ráta báis i measc príosúnaigh chogaidh na Gearmáine an ceann is airde i Iúgslaiv le níos mó ná 50%) * 1.3 milliún gan a bheith ar eolas An Dara Cogadh Domhanda An Fhrainc 1,800,000 a thóg an Ghearmáin sa Dara Cogadh Domhanda An Pholainn 675,000 (420,000 a ghlac an Ghearmáin; 240,000 a ghlac na Sóivéadaigh i 1939; 15,000 a ghlac an Ghearmáin i Varsabha i 1944) Ionradh ar an bPolainn, agus Éirí Amach Varsabha An Ríocht Aontaithe ~ 200,000 (135,000 a tógadh san Eoraip, ní áirítear figiúirí an Aigéin Chiúin ná Comhphobail) An Dara Cogadh Domhanda Stáit Aontaithe Mheiriceá ~ 130,000 (95,532 a thóg an Ghearmáin) An Dara Cogadh Domhanda Phácastáin 90,368 tógtha ag an India. Seol an India é ina dhiaidh sin de réir Chomhaontú Simla. Cogadh Ind-Pacistín 1971 Iaráic ~ 175,000 a thóg Comhghuaillíocht na Murascaille

In its ongoing Energy Storage Insights series, Azelio breaks down everything you need to know about storage technologies. In part three, we look into the varying types of long-duration energy storage available on the market or in development today. Previously in our Energy Storage Insights series, we examined what long-duration energy storage actually is. We also looked at defining long-duration in terms of the length of time a system can store energy. Now let’s go a step further – it’s time to talk technology! Leading LDES technologies There are many innovative and interesting LDES solutions being developed or already out in the world today. These can be broadly classified into four technology groups: - ELECTROCHEMICAL – Including batteries of differing chemistries - MECHANICAL – Using storage of potential or kinetic energy - CHEMICAL – Storing electricity by creating chemical bonds - THERMAL – Using thermal energy to store & release electricity & heat All of these systems can store and release energy from clean sources, whether over hours or weeks. That’s better for the environment than burning polluting fossil fuels. It’s also needed for our energy systems, if we want to successfully ramp up solar and wind power. Adding flexibility while reducing CO2 In 2021, the Long-Duration Energy Storage (LDES) Council released its Net-zero power: Long duration energy storage for a renewable grid report. This advised that with a smart global deployment of LDES technologies by 2040, we can add the balance and flexibility needed to increase the share of renewables in our energy mix. Moreover, long-duration technologies, combined with clean energy sources, can decarbonize our economies at the lowest cost to society. Long-duration energy storage technologies can work together with solar PV to supply clean power even when the sun stops shining. In fact, there are many reasons why governments and grid operators are budgeting for and incentivizing LDES. One example is the US introduction of its groundbreaking Inflation Reduction Act last year. Find out more in Energy Storage Insights part two, where we looked into societies’ pressing need for energy storage. Next time in Energy Storage Insights Batteries are a popular topic in the wider energy storage conversation. In part four of our series, we take a closer look at LDES and batteries. How do the technologies compare to one another, and work together? In the meantime, find more insights on long-duration energy storage as a climate solution on Azelio's website.

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Ina shraith leanúnach de Thomhais um Stóráil Fuinnimh, déanann Azelio gach rud a theastaíonn uait a fháil faoi theicneolaíochtaí stórála a bhriseadh síos. Sa tríú cuid, déanaimid féachaint ar na cineálacha éagsúla stórála fuinnimh fadtéarma atá ar fáil ar an margadh nó atá á bhforbairt inniu. Roimhe seo inár sraith "Inseachtaí maidir le Stóráil Fuinnimh", rinneamar scrúdú ar cad é stóráil fuinnimh fadtéarmach i ndáiríre. D'fhéachamar freisin ar shainmhíniú fadtéarma i dtéarmaí an fhad ama is féidir le córas fuinneamh a stóráil. Anois, déanaimis céim níos faide - tá sé in am labhairt faoi theicneolaíocht! Teicneolaíochtaí LDES ceannródaíocha Tá go leor réitigh nuálacha agus suimiúla LDES á bhforbairt nó atá ar fáil cheana féin ar fud an domhain inniu. Is féidir iad seo a aicmiú go forleathan i gceithre ghrúpa teicneolaíochta: - ELECTRÓCHIMÍCÍL lena n-áirítear cadhnraí de cheimiceáin dhifriúla - MICHINIC Ag baint úsáide as stóráil fuinnimh féideartha nó cineitice - CIMÍOCHTA Stóráil leictreachais trí cheanglais cheimiceacha a chruthú - TEARMACH Fuinneamh teasa a úsáid chun leictreachas agus teas a stóráil agus a scaoileadh Is féidir leis na córais seo go léir fuinneamh a stóráil agus a scaoileadh ó fhoinsí glan, cibé acu ar feadh uaireanta nó seachtainí. Tá sé sin níos fearr don chomhshaol ná breoslaí iontaise truaillithe a dhó. Tá gá leis freisin dár gcórais fuinnimh, más mian linn fuinneamh gréine agus gaoithe a mhéadú go rathúil. Solúbthacht a chur leis agus CO2 a laghdú In 2021, d'eisigh Comhairle Stóráil Fuinnimh Fadthréimhseach (LDES) a chuid Cumhacht Glan-Zéaró: Stóráil Fuinnimh Fadthréimhseach le haghaidh tuarascáil ghréasáin in-athnuaite. D'aontaigh sé sin go bhféadfaimis leis an imscaradh cliste domhanda de theicneolaíochtaí LDES faoi 2040 an cothromaíocht agus an tsolúbthacht a theastaíonn a chur leis chun sciar na n-athnuaite in ár meascán fuinnimh a mhéadú. Ina theannta sin, is féidir le teicneolaíochtaí fadtéarmacha, i dteannta foinsí fuinnimh glasa, ár ngeilleagair a dhí-charbóinú ar an gcostas is ísle don tsochaí. Is féidir le teicneolaíochtaí stórála fuinnimh fadtéarmacha oibriú le PV gréine chun fuinneamh glan a sholáthar fiú nuair a stopann an ghrian ag solas. Tá an méid sin le rá go bhfuil an t-iarmhéid sin ag cur leis an méid a bhaineann le soláthar leictreonaí agus le soláthar leictreonaí. Is sampla amháin é an tAcht um Laghdú Inflachta a tugadh isteach sna Stáit Aontaithe i mbliana. Faigh tuilleadh eolais i gCuid a Dó de Thomhais maidir le Stóráil Fuinnimh, áit ar d'fhéachamar ar an ngá práinneach atá ag sochaithe le stóráil fuinnimh. An chéad uair eile i Insights Stóráil Fuinnimh Is ábhar tóir é ceallraí sa chaibidil níos leithne maidir le stóráil fuinnimh. Sa cheathrú cuid den tsraith seo, déanaimid léargas níos dlúithe ar LDES agus ar charrraí. Conas a dhéantar na teicneolaíochtaí a chur i gcomparáid lena chéile, agus a bheith ag obair le chéile? Idir an dá linn, faigh tuilleadh léargas ar stóráil fuinnimh fadtéarmach mar réiteach aeráide ar shuíomh Gréasáin Azelio.

Panasonic Develops High Efficiency CRT Recycling Technology Using Laser Panasonic has developed a recycling technology using laser beams to separate the front panel and back part (funnel) of a cathode ray tube (CRT) used in TV sets. This laser-cut technology, which is implemented at PETEC's plant in Hyogo Prefecture, allows for separating CRTs quicker and cleaner than before. With this highly-efficient technology, Panasonic is poised to respond to the increasing demand for recycling used CRT TVs, tons of which are expected to be thrown away as the shift to digital terrestrial broadcasting is scheduled for completion in 2011 in Japan. As different types of glass are used in the front panel and funnel, it is essential to separate them without mixing for recycling. The conventional method uses an electrically heated wire around the joint area of the front and funnel to separate them. However, this method not only requires time for the heating process but causes thermal stress fractures by the local heating, requiring manual corrections to clean the cut surfaces. Panasonic's CRT recycling technology utilizes laser radiation to drastically reduce the processing time with much less manual work, allowing one tube to be processed in 50 seconds, three times faster than the previous method. The laser head of the innovative system has a "surface profiling" function to maintain a constant distance between the focal point and surface of the glass. Coupled with the "radiation energy" control adjusting laser beam light intensity to the circumferential velocity, the system achieves a high quality cut with no mixing between the front and funnel glass. Moreover, Panasonic's laser cutter is fully automated to measure the size (from 14 to 36 inches) and types (normal and wide) of CRT TVs and process with the laser conditions (38 different sets of conditions) suited to the size and type of each CRT.

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Forbraíonn Panasonic Teicneolaíocht Athchúrsála CRT Ard-éifeachtúlachta Ag baint úsáide as Léasair D'fhorbair Panasonic teicneolaíocht athchúrsála ag baint úsáide as léasair chun an painéal tosaigh agus an chuid chúl (fonnel) de thábla cathódaigh (CRT) a úsáidtear i seataí teilifíse a scaradh. Is é an teicneolaíocht seo a úsáidtear chun lasersgearradh a dhéanamh, a chuirtear i bhfeidhm ag monarcha PETEC i gCúige Hyogo, a chuireann ar chumas CRTanna a scaradh níos gasta agus níos glaine ná mar a bhíodh roimhe. Leis an teicneolaíocht ardéifeachtúil seo, tá Panasonic réidh chun freagairt don éileamh méadaitheach ar athchúrsáil a dhéanamh ar theilifíseáin CRT úsáide, a bhfuilthar ag súil go gcaithfear tonna de a chaitheamh mar go bhfuil an t-aistriú go craoladh digiteach talún ar an bhfód beartaithe a bheith críochnaithe i 2011 sa tSeapáin. Ós rud é go n-úsáidtear cineálacha éagsúla gloine sa phainéal tosaigh agus sa chuisneán, tá sé riachtanach iad a scaradh gan a mheascadh le haghaidh athchúrsála. Úsáidtear an modh traidisiúnta sreang teite leictreach timpeall limistéar comhpháirteach an tosaigh agus an fonn chun iad a scaradh. Mar sin féin, ní hamháin go n-éilíonn an modh seo am don phróiseas téimh ach cuireann sé sracadh strus teiriúil leis an téamh áitiúil, rud a éilíonn ceartaithe láimhe chun na dromchlaí gearrtha a ghlanadh. Baineann teicneolaíocht athchúrsála CRT Panasonic úsáid as radaíocht léasair chun an t-am próiseála a laghdú go mór le go leor oibre láimhe níos lú, rud a ligeann do thábla amháin a phróiseáil i 50 soicind, trí huaire níos tapúla ná an modh roimhe seo. Tá feidhm "proifílí dromchla" ag ceann léasair an chórais nuálach chun fad chobhsaitheach a choinneáil idir an phointe fócasach agus dromchla an ghloine. Chomh maith leis an rialaitheoir "fuinneamh radaíochta" a choigeartú déine solas píosa léasair leis an luas imchlúdach, baineann an córas gearradh ardchaighdeáin amach gan aon mheascadh idir an ghloine tosaigh agus an ghloine fonn. Ina theannta sin, tá gearrthóg léasair Panasonic uathoibrithe go hiomlán chun méid (ó 14 go 36 orlach) agus cineálacha (gnáth agus leathan) teilifíseanna CRT a thomhas agus na coinníollacha léasair (38 tacar éagsúla de choinníollacha) a phróiseáil a oireann do mhéid agus cineál gach CRT.

Professor Carrie Harwood and colleagues have engineered a bacterium that can take carbon dioxide from the air and turn it into fuel in a single enzymatic step. The process draws on sunlight to produce methane and hydrogen inside the bacterium Rhodopseudomonas palustris, in essence reversing combustion. These engineered bacteria could guide scientists toward better carbon-neutral biofuels. Read more about the research here. The full paper is published in the September 22, 2016, edition of PNAS. Tuesday, August 23, 2016

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Tá baictéir a d'innealtú ag an Ollamh Carrie Harwood agus a chomhghleacaithe a d'fhéadfadh dé-ocsaíd charbóin a thógáil ón aer agus é a thiontú ina bhreosla i gcéim einsíméadach amháin. Baineann an próiseas le solas na gréine chun meitéin agus hidrigin a tháirgeadh taobh istigh den bhaictéar Rhodopseudomonas palustris, ag casadh dóiteáin go bunúsach. D'fhéadfadh na baictéir innealtóireachta seo eolaithe a threorú i dtreo bithbhreoslaí níos fearr neamhthrédhearcach carbóin. Léigh tuilleadh faoin taighde anseo. Foilsíodh an páipéar iomlán in eagrán PNAS an 22 Meán Fómhair, 2016. Dé Máirt, 23 Lúnasa, 2016

See on Scoop.it – tech | design | education You’re conducting walk-throughs and formal observation and you see teachers using technology. But, are they using it effectively? Are students being engaged, and is the teacher transforming learning through integration? In this session, you’ll learn about two models of technology integration (the TPACK, SAMR, LOTI, and TIM Models) that will give you a theoretical (yet practical) framework to help guide discussion about tech integration. A resource that every tech integration specialist should use so that they are aware of what strategies are being implemented and how they can be tweaked. Some links do not work, but are Googleable. See on sites.google.com

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Féach ar Scoop.it tech design education Tá tú ag déanamh siúlóidí agus breathnóireacht foirmiúil agus feiceann tú múinteoirí ag baint úsáide as teicneolaíocht. Ach, an bhfuil siad á n-úsáid go héifeachtach? An bhfuil na mic léinn á n-iomaíocht, agus an bhfuil an múinteoir ag athrú an fhoghlaim trí chomhtháthú? Sa seisiún seo, foghlaimfidh tú faoi dhá múnla comhtháthaithe teicneolaíochta (Múnlaí TPACK, SAMR, LOTI, agus TIM) a thabharfaidh creat teoiriciúil (ach praiticiúil) duit chun cabhrú le díospóireacht a threorú maidir le comhtháthaithe teicneolaíochta. Ba cheart go mbeadh acmhainn ag gach speisialtóir comhtháthú teicneolaíochta a úsáid ionas go mbeidh siad ar an eolas faoi na straitéisí atá á gcur i bhfeidhm agus conas is féidir iad a tweak. Ní oibríonn roinnt nasc, ach tá siad Googleable. Féach ar sites.google.com

Warmth of Other Suns Reader’s Guide SISTER DISTRICT ACTION NETWORK WARMTH OF OTHER SUNS – BOOK CLUB READER’S GUIDE Prepared by Gaby Goldstein, SDAN Director of Research Download the PDF: Sister District Book Club – Warmth Reader’s Guide Sister District Action Network (‘Sister District’, more info at the end of this document) hosts a quarterly book club. If you haven’t joined, please sign up here to vote on future books and keep in the loop with regard to book club events and information! Our current book selection is The Warmth of Other Suns by Isabel Wilkerson. This reader’s guide provides discussion questions and additional materials. A. Discussion Questions - The author equates the Great Migration with other vast movements of refugees from war or famine, where people must “go great distances… to reach safety with the hope that life will be better wherever they land.” Talk about migration due to necessity in terms of Ida Mae, George and Robert. Did each of them migrate out of necessity? How do their stories differ when put in that context? - Why did Isabel Wilkerson choose to focus on these three individuals after interviewing so many migrants? What similarities or contrasts between the three different stories might have influenced her decision? - How is reading this book a different experience than reading a straightforward history of the Great Migration? - Wilkerson calls the Great Migration “the greatest untold story of the 20th century.” What are some of the reasons this story was never told? - In his memoir Black Boy, Richard Wright wrote, “I had fled one insecurity and embraced another,” a quote Wilkerson uses at the start of her chapter “Transplanted in Alien Soil.” Discuss this in terms of Ida Mae, George and Robert. Was this true of them? Is this universally true for all migrants? - While Robert Foster had his sights set on a life in California, his brother Madison believed, “running away meant Jim Crow had won, and Madison wasn’t going to give the rascals that.” Discuss the African Americans who chose to stay in the South, and the conflict people face when they must choose between possibility and what they know. - Wilkerson mentions “The Negro in Chicago” (p. 275), a report published in 1922 that included recommendations for improving race relations. The report was largely unheeded, according to Wilkerson. Are we still feeling the ripple effects of race relations from 1922 today in Chicago? How did the conditions faced by African American migrants affect the race relations of the city for decades to come? - Discuss the life in the North that George found, and what he witnessed about the differences between North and South while traveling back and forth as a porter. Think of the African American passengers who would move to the segregated train as they entered the South. What would you have done, as a porter on that train? How did this experience shape George as a person? - What anecdote in the book made the most lasting impression? Which of the three main narratives was most memorable? - Wilkerson writes that “across the South, someone was hanged or burned alive every four days from 1889 to 1929” (p. 39). Public lynching is looked back upon with disgust as a barbaric act. What actions today will people look back upon in a hundred years as barbaric or inhumane? - How did the Great Migration influence Northern culture? Consider blues music or the literature of the Harlem Renaissance. - What similarities and/or difference does the Great Migration have with the experience of other migrations? Consider European immigrants from the early 20th century, or the many migrants coming to American cities today. - More people live in cities than anytime in history. Is Chicago still an attractive destination for people seeking a better life? - The Warmth of Other Suns combines a sweeping historical perspective with vivid intimate portraits of three individuals: Ida Mae Gladney, George Swanson Starling, and Robert Pershing Foster. What is the value of this dual focus, of shifting between the panoramic and the close-up? In what ways are Ida Mae Gladney, George Starling, and Robert Foster representative of the millions of other migrants who journeyed from South to North? - In many ways The Warmth of Other Suns seeks to tell a new story—about the Great Migration of southern blacks to the north—and to set the record straight about the true significance of that migration. What are the most surprising revelations in the book? What misconceptions does Wilkerson dispel? - What were the major economic, social, and historical forces that sparked the Great Migration? Why did blacks leave in such great numbers from 1915 to 1970? - What were the most horrifying conditions of Jim Crow South? What instances of racial terrorism stand out most strongly in the book? What daily injustices and humiliations did blacks have to face there? - In what ways was the Great Migration of southern blacks similar to other historical migrations? In what important ways was it unique? - After being viciously attacked by a mob in Cicero, a suburb of Chicago, Martin Luther King, Jr. said: “I have seen many demonstrations in the South, but I have never seen anything so hostile and so hateful as I’ve seen here today” (p. 389). Why were northern working-class whites so hostile to black migrants? - Wilkerson quotes Black Boy in which Richard Wright wrote, on arriving in the North: “I had fled one insecurity and embraced another” (p. 242). What unique challenges did black migrants face in the North? How did these challenges affect the lives of Ida Mae Gladney, George Starling, and Robert Foster? - Wilkerson points out that the three most influential figures in jazz were all children of the Great Migration: Miles Davis, Thelonious Monk, and John Coltrane. What would American culture look like today if the Great Migration hadn’t happened? - What motivated Ida Mae Gladney, George Starling, and Robert Foster to leave the South? What circumstances and inner drives prompted them to undertake such a difficult and dangerous journey? What would likely have been their fates if they had remained in the South? In what ways did living in the North free them? - Near the end of the book, Wilkerson asks: “With all that grew out of the mass movement of people, did the Great Migration achieve the aim of those who willed it? Were the people who left the South—and their families—better off for having done so? Was the loss of what they left behind worth what confronted them in the anonymous cities they fled to?” (p. 528). How does Wilkerson answer these questions? - How did the Great Migration change not only the North but also the South? How did the South respond to the mass exodus of cheap black labor? - In what ways are current attitudes toward Mexican Americans similar to attitudes toward African Americans expressed by Northerners in The Warmth of Other Suns? For example, the ways working-class Northerners felt that Southern blacks were stealing their jobs. - At a neighborhood watch meeting in Chicago’s South Shore, Ida Mae listens to a young state senator named Barack Obama. In what ways is Obama’s presidency a indirect result of the Great Migration? - What is the value of Wilkerson basing her research primarily on firsthand, eyewitness accounts, gathered through extensive interviews, of this historical period? - Wilkerson writes of her three subjects that “Ida Mae Gladney had the humblest trappings but was perhaps the richest of them all. She had lived the hardest life, been given the least education, seen the worst the South could hurl at her people, and did not let it break her . . . . Her success was spiritual, perhaps the hardest of all to achieve. And because of that, she was the happiest and lived the longest of them all” (p. 532). What attributes allowed Ida Mae Gladney to achieve this happiness and longevity? In what sense might her life, and the lives of George Starling and Robert Foster as well, serve as models for how to persevere and overcome tremendous difficulties? B. Additional Materials. - The Great Migration (Chicago Public Library curated reading list) - Isabel Wilkerson – discusses the book’s research process (Video clip – 5 mins) - Isabel Wilkerson – TED Talk about the Great Migration (Video clip – 20 mins) - Isabel Wilkerson – discusses the book and process at Yale University (Video clip – 60 mins) - Isabel Wilkerson – Q&A on CSPAN about the book (Video clip – 60 mins) - Ta-Nehisi Coates – Eight Thoughts on The Warmth of Other Suns (essay) Sister District Action Network (SDAN) is a 501(c)(4) organization that primarily focuses on nonpartisan education and advocacy on civic engagement issues. Specifically, SDAN aims to: - Educate voters on the importance of state and local elections; - Train new leaders interested in becoming community activists; - Conduct research in partnership with nonprofit and academic partners to test new methods to increase civic engagement and voter participation; - Disseminate best practices for voter engagement and civic participation. SDAN is affiliated with the Sister District Project, but it is a separate legal entity.

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Teas na Suns Eile Leabhar Slíomhanna an Léitheora GREAS GINCINNE GINCINNE WARMTH OF OTHER SUNS CLUB LEITHE GUIDÉAR LEITHE Ullmhaithe ag Gaby Goldstein, Stiúrthóir Taighde SDAN Íoslódáil an PDF: Club Leabhair Dúiche na mBan Treoir an Léitheora Teasa Tá Club Leabhair Chéimcheart gach ráithe ag Líonra Gníomhaíochta Ceantair an Mhaid (Céimcheart an Mhaid, tuilleadh eolais ag deireadh an doiciméid seo). Má tá tú gan a bheith páirteach, déan clárú anseo chun vótáil ar leabhair sa todhchaí agus fanacht i mbosca maidir le himeachtaí agus faisnéis chlub leabhar! Is é an leabhar atá á roghnú againn faoi láthair The Warmth of Other Suns le Isabel Wilkerson. Cuirtear ceisteanna plé agus ábhair bhreise ar fáil sa treoirleabhar seo do léitheoirí. A. Is é sin. Ceisteanna le plé - An t-údar equates an Migrú mór le gluaiseachtaí móra eile dídeanaithe ó chogadh nó ocrais, áit a gcaithfidh daoine dul fad mór ... chun teacht ar shábháilteacht leis an dóchas go mbeidh saol a bheith níos fearr cibé áit a dtáinig siad. Labhair faoi imirce mar gheall ar riachtanas i dtéarmaí Ida Mae, George agus Robert. An ndeachaigh gach duine acu ar imirce de bharr riachtanas? Cén difríocht atá idir a gcuid scéalta nuair a chuirtear sa chomhthéacs sin iad? - Cén fáth a roghnaigh Isabel Wilkerson díriú ar na trí dhuine seo tar éis agallamh a dhéanamh le go leor imirceach? Cad iad na cosúlachtaí nó na difríochtaí idir na trí scéal éagsúla a d'fhéadfadh tionchar a bheith aige ar a chinneadh? - Cén chaoi a bhfuil an leabhar seo á léamh mar eispéireas difriúil ná stair dhíreach an Mhór-Iomána a léamh? - Glaonn Wilkerson ar an Imirce Mhór an scéal neamh-in-dearbhaithe is mó den 20ú haois. Cad iad cuid de na cúiseanna nár inis an scéal seo riamh? - Ina chuimhní cinn Black Boy, scríobh Richard Wright, "Tá mé imithe ó neamhshlándáil amháin agus ghlac mé le ceann eile", a luaigh Wilkerson ag tús a chaibidil "Iontráladh i dtalamh eachtrannach". An raibh sé seo fíor dóibh? An bhfuil sé seo fíor go hidirnáisiúnta do gach imirceach? - Cé go raibh Robert Foster ag súil le saol i California, chreid a dheartháir Madison, "D'fhág Jim Crow gur bhuaigh sé, agus ní raibh Madison ag dul a thabhairt do na rascals sin. " Déan plé ar na Meiriceánaigh Afracacha a roghnaigh fanacht sa Deisceart, agus ar an gcomhrac a bhíonn ag daoine nuair a chaithfidh siad a roghnú idir an fhéidearthacht agus an méid atá ar eolas acu. - Luaitear ag Wilkerson "The Negro in Chicago" (p. 275), tuarascáil a foilsíodh i 1922 a raibh moltaí ann chun caidreamh cine a fheabhsú. Níor thugadh aird ar an tuarascáil den chuid is mó, de réir Wilkerson. An bhfuil muid fós ag mothú na héifeachtaí ribe de chaidrimh rás ó 1922 inniu i Chicago? Conas a raibh tionchar ag na coinníollacha a raibh ag imirceoirí Mheiriceá Afracacha orthu ar chaidrimh rás na cathrach le blianta fada amach romhainn? - Plé an saol sa Tuaisceart a fuair George, agus cad a bhí sé ag tabhairt faoi na difríochtaí idir an Tuaisceart agus an Deisceart agus é ag taisteal ar ais agus ar aghaidh mar porter. Smaoinigh ar na paisinéirí Meiriceánaigh Afracacha a d'athraigh go dtí an traein leithlithe nuair a tháinig siad isteach sa Deisceart. Cad a d'fhéadfadh tú a dhéanamh, mar porter ar an traein? Conas a mhúnlaigh an t-eispéireas seo George mar dhuine? - Cén anecdote sa leabhar a rinne an tuiscint is buan? Cén ceann de na trí phríomh-scéal a bhí i gcuimhne duit is mó? - Scríobhann Wilkerson go raibh duine ag crochadh nó ag dó beo gach ceithre lá ó 1889 go 1929 ar fud an Deiscirt (p. 39). Breathnaíonn daoine ar an líonadh poiblí le h-athghrádú mar ghníomh barbarach. Céard iad na gníomhartha atá á ndéanamh inniu a bheidh daoine ag breathnú siar orthu i gceann céad bliain mar ghné barbarach nó neamhdhaonna? - Conas a raibh tionchar ag an Mhiondúireacht Mhór ar chultúr na Tuaiscirt? Smaoinigh ar cheol bhlúis nó ar litríocht Réabhlóid Harlem. - Cad iad na cosúlachtaí agus/nó na difríochtaí atá ag an Mhiondúireacht Mhór le taithí na n-imirceanna eile? Smaoinigh ar inimircigh Eorpacha ó thús an 20ú haois, nó ar na haimircigh go leor a thagann go cathracha Mheiriceá inniu. - Tá níos mó daoine ina gcónaí i gcathracha ná riamh sa stair. An bhfuil Chicago fós ina cheann scríbe tarraingteach do dhaoine atá ag lorg saol níos fearr? - Comhcheanglaíonn Teas na griananna eile dearcadh stairiúil scuabtha le portráidí pearsanta beoga de thrí dhuine: Ida Mae Gladney, George Swanson Starling, agus Robert Pershing Foster. Cad é luach an fhócas dúbailte seo, an t-athrú idir an panorama agus an t-ard-fhócas? Ar na bealaí a bhfuil Ida Mae Gladney, George Starling, agus Robert Foster ionadaíocht ar na milliúin de na himirceoirí eile a thaistil ó Dheas go Tuaisceart? - I go leor bealaí Tá Teas na Suns Eile ag iarraidh scéal nua a insint "Ar an Mhiondú Mór de Dubh ó dheas go dtí an tuaisceart" agus an taifead a shocrú go díreach faoi fhíor-shainmhíniú na imirce sin. Cad iad na nochtadh is iontas sa leabhar? Cad iad na míthuiscintí a scriosann Wilkerson? - Cad iad na príomh-fhórsaí eacnamaíocha, sóisialta, agus stairiúla a spreag an Mhiondúireacht Mhór? Cén fáth a d'fhág na blacks i líon chomh mór sin ó 1915 go 1970? - Cad iad na coinníollacha is uafásacha de Jim Crow ó dheas? Cad iad na cásanna de sceimhlitheoireacht ciníoch a thagann amach go láidir sa leabhar? Cén éagóir agus náire a bhí ar na daoine dubha a bheith acu go laethúil ann? - Ar na bealaí a bhí an Mhiondúireacht Mór de dubh ó dheas cosúil le imirceanna stairiúla eile? Ar na bealaí tábhachtacha ar leith a bhí sé? - Tar éis dó ionsaí a dhéanamh go foréigneach ag slua i Cicero, bruachbhaile Chicago, dúirt Martin Luther King, Jr.: "Tá go leor taispeántais feicthe agam sa Deisceart, ach ní fhaca mé riamh rud chomh naimhdeach agus chomh fuathúil agus a chonaic mé anseo inniu" (p. 389). Cén fáth a raibh an chuid is mó de na daoine bán sa Tuaisceart chomh fíochmhar le hinimircigh dhubh? - Luann Wilkerson Black Boy ina scríobh Richard Wright, ar a theacht sa Tuaisceart: "Rith mé ó neamhshlándáil amháin agus ghlac mé le ceann eile" (p. 242). Cad iad na dúshláin uathúla a bhí ag imirceoirí dubha sa Tuaisceart? Cén tionchar a bhí ag na dúshláin seo ar shaol Ida Mae Gladney, George Starling, agus Robert Foster? - Taispeánann Wilkerson go raibh na trí figuir is mó tionchair sa jazz go léir leanaí den Mhór-Iompar: Miles Davis, Thelonious Monk, agus John Coltrane. Cad a bheadh ar chultúr Mheiriceá breathnú mar atá inniu má bhí an Migrú Mór nach raibh tharla? - Cad a spreag Ida Mae Gladney, George Starling, agus Robert Foster chun an Deisceart a fhágáil? Cad iad na cúinsí agus na tiomantais inmheánacha a spreag iad chun dul ar an turas deacair agus contúirteach sin? Cad a d'fhéadfadh a bheith ina gcinn dóibh dá mba fhan siad sa Deisceart? Ar na bealaí a raibh cónaí sa Tuaisceart saor iad? - Ag deireadh an leabhair, fiafraíonn Wilkerson: Le gach rud a d'fhás amach as gluaiseacht mhóra daoine, an d'éirigh leis an Imirce Mhór aidhm na ndaoine a bhí ag iarraidh é a bhaint amach? An raibh na daoine a d'fhág an Deisceart agus a dteaghlaigh níos fearr mar gheall ar a ndearna siad amhlaidh? An raibh an caillteanas a d'fhág siad ar ais fiú na rudaí a bhí os a gcomhair sna cathracha gan ainm a theith siad? (p. 528). Conas a fhreagraíonn Wilkerson na ceisteanna seo? - Conas a d'athraigh an t-Iompar Mór ní amháin an Tuaisceart ach an Deisceart freisin? Conas a d'fhreagair an Deisceart an eisiúint ollmhór saothair dhifneach dubh? - Ar na bealaí a bhfuil na dearcadh reatha i leith Meicsiceo-Mheiriceánaigh cosúil le dearcadh i leith Meiriceánaigh Afracacha a léirítear ag Northerners i The Warmth of Other Suns? Mar shampla, na bealaí a bhraith daoine den Tuaisceart den aicme oibre go raibh daoine dubh an Deiscirt ag fiach a gcuid post. - Ag cruinniú faire comharsanachta i Chicago South Shore, Ida Mae éisteacht le Seanadóir stáit óg ainmnithe Barack Obama. Cén chaoi a bhfuil uachtaránacht Obama mar thoradh indíreach ar an Mhiondúireacht Mhór? - Cad é an luach Wilkerson bunaithe a taighde go príomha ar chéad lámh, cuntas finnéithe súl, a bhailíodh trí agallaimh fairsing, den tréimhse stairiúil seo? - Scríobhann Wilkerson dá thrí ábhar go raibh na trapaí is humblest ag Ida Mae Gladney ach b'fhéidir gurb é an ceann is saibhre acu go léir. Bhí cónaí uirthi ar an saol is deacra, a tugadh an oideachas is lú, a fheiceáil ar an chuid is measa an Deiscirt d'fhéadfadh hurl ar a daoine, agus ní raibh ligean dó a bhriseadh í . . . go deo . . . go deo . . . go deo . Ba é rath spioradálta a bhí aici, b'fhéidir an ceann is deacra a bhaint amach. Agus mar gheall air sin, bhí sí an ceann is sona agus an ceann is faide a bhí ina gcónaí acu go léir (p. 532). Cad iad na tréithe a thug ar Ida Mae Gladney an sonas agus an fad saoil seo a bhaint amach? Cén chaoi a bhféadfadh a saol, agus saol George Starling agus Robert Foster chomh maith, a bheith ina samhlacha maidir le conas a bheith buan agus deacrachtaí ollmhóra a shárú? B. B. Ábhair bhreise. - The Great Migration (liosta léitheoireachta a choimeádann Leabharlann Poiblí Chicago) - Isabel Wilkerson ag plé le próiseas taighde an leabhair (Clip físe 5 nóiméad) - Isabel Wilkerson TED Talk faoin Imirce Mór (Clip físe 20 nóiméad) - Isabel Wilkerson ag plé leis an leabhar agus leis an bpróiseas in Ollscoil Yale (Clip físe 60 nóiméad) - Isabel Wilkerson Ceisteanna agus freagraí ar CSPAN faoin leabhar (Clip físe 60 nóiméad) - Ta-Nehisi Coates Ocht smaointe ar The Warm of Other Suns (easáid) Is eagraíocht 501c4 é Sister District Action Network (SDAN) a dhíríonn go príomha ar oideachas neamhphartaiúil agus ar abhcóideacht ar shaincheisteanna rannpháirtíochta sibhialta. Go sonrach, tá sé mar aidhm ag SDAN: - Vótálaithe a chur ar an eolas faoi thábhacht toghcháin stáit agus áitiúla; - ceannairí nua a oiliúint ar spéis acu a bheith ina ngníomhaithe pobail; - Taighde a dhéanamh i gcomhpháirtíocht le comhpháirtithe neamhbhrabúis agus acadúla chun modhanna nua a thástáil chun rannpháirtíocht shibhialta agus rannpháirtíocht vótála a mhéadú; - Na dea-chleachtais maidir le rannpháirtíocht na vótálaithe agus rannpháirtíocht na saoránach a scaipeadh. Tá SDAN cleamhnaithe le Tionscadal na gComhdhíre, ach is eintiteas dlíthiúil ar leith é.

National Guard April 2012 : Page 84 G UARD R OOTS : T HE C IVIL W AR Gettysburg of the West By Maj. Adam Morgan A bold raid by Colorado militiamen turned a battle in New Mexico and ended Confederate designs to take the fight all the way to the Pacific 84 LL WAS NOT quiet on the nation’s western front in the middle of the 19th century. While America braced for a civil war, frontiersmen traveling west carried with them their political leanings for either the North or the South. As both political bands began to form, President James Buchanan, in one his final acts before leaving office in 1861, declared Colorado a U.S. territory in an attempt to maintain Union control of the area. That same year, President Abraham Lincoln appoint-A | Na tional Guard Gettysburg Of The West Maj. Adam Morgan A bold raid by Colorado militiamen turned a battle in New Mexico and ended Confederate designs to take the fight all the way to the Pacific ALL WAS NOT quiet on the nation’s western front in the middle of the 19th century. While America braced for a civil war, frontiersmen traveling west carried with them their political leanings for either the North or the South. As both political bands began to form, President James Buchanan, in one his final acts before leaving office in 1861, declared Colorado a U.S. territory in an attempt to maintain Union control of the area. That same year, President Abraham Lincoln appointed his personal friend, William Gilpin, as the governor of the new U.S. possession. The new commander in chief could not know it at the time, but the decision turned out to be an important step in winning the war that would define his presidency. In 1858, settlers discovered gold and silver in the Rocky Mountains. The prospect of instant wealth lured eastern Americans westward to capitalize. The attention that the gold put on the mountain range led to the discovery of coal and other minerals abundant in the state, and soon there was a huge migration. Miners from Georgia and Pennsylvania, many sporting the famous “Pikes Peak or Bust” slogan on their wagons, headed to the territory. Others continued west after coming from as far north as Maine to Kansas in response to the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854, a governmental experiment in which popular sovereignty would decide the fate of slavery at statehood. Still others came to sell mining tools, booze and prostitutes to prospectors and miners. Everyone undoubtedly understood the urgency of the situation brewing in the country, and the Colorado Territory was Union in name only. It was severely divided between Unionists and Secessionists. This was evident when the first two militia units were formed in1860. One had sympathies with the South; the other leaned to the North. When a citizen raised the Confederate colors over a Denver business, the enraged response was a well-aimed mountain howitzer threatening the man and the business. The offending flag was quickly lowered. When Gilpin arrived in Denver, he immediately sensed trouble. Lincoln knew the political division within the territory and urged him to secure Colorado for the Union. As rumors of an invasion from the South grew, Gilpin organized the purchase and donation of all the guns in Denver in order to arm a Union force and leave nothing in the way of arms for underground Confederates. Gilpin issued unsigned and unauthorized drafts on the U. S. Treasury, claiming the government would make good on the payment. This wasn’t true, however, and Lincoln was forced to remove Gilpin in March 1862, but not before his quick organization of a military proved a prudent course of action. A WESTERN FRONT When the cannons boomed at Fort Sumter, S.C., signaling the start of the Civil War in April 1861, it became increasingly dangerous to publicly declare one’s political leaning. It was, however, generally known or assumed who was Secessionist and who was not. It wasn’t uncommon to meet in secret, and Confederate officers formerly in the service of the Union knew who was on their side at their former stations. One such officer, Henry Hopkins Sibley, inventor of the Sibley stove and Sibley tent used by the Union, devised a brilliant scheme that would eventually invite cooperation from other Southern sympathizers. When he proposed the plan to Confederate President Jefferson Davis, Sibley was immediately promoted to brigadier general and ordered to execute the plan. Sibley saw a way for the Confederacy to dominate the western portion of the continent. Texas Confederates would march through New Mexico and the Colorado and Dakota Territories, establishing a western front. The coal, gold and mineral reserves nestled beneath the Rockies would then finance a march eastward to flank Union forces and link up with Confederate forces in Virginia. Not to mention the lucrative opportunities available to slave-owners if that institution were brought out west. Control of the west coast would pique the military interest of Europe and perhaps Asia, while establishing trade with the countries of those continents. This would increase the legitimacy of the Confederate cause, Sibley reasoned. In February 1862, Sibley’s brigade planned to travel up the west bank of the Rio Grande, where many Union forts were aligned. His idea was to pack light and resupply at each captured fort along the way. Speed was paramount to gain the most ground before the Union could discover his intent. Sibley Had spent a significant portion of his career at posts along the Rio Grande and at Fort Union, and knew the area well. As rumors of this Confederate invasion migrated north, a Union colonel name Edward Canby appealed to Gilpin to gather all the soldiers and arms possible and send them south to assist in repelling the invaders. In one of his last acts as governor, Gilpin commissioned John Potts Slough, a lawyer, as a colonel and asked him to raise the First Colorado Volunteer Infantry. Slough offered a notable Denver Methodist minister a commission to serve as the regimental chaplain, but the minister refused, insisting upon a “fighting commission.” John Milton Chivington attained the rank of major for the Coloradoans. Sibley, meanwhile, failed to take the decisive and immediate action required for his plan to work, which allowed reports of the Texans’ northward movement to reach Denver. Slough and the unproven First Colorado were ordered from newly formed Camp Weld in south Denver to Fort Union, N.M. Marching southward through the Colorado countryside, the “Pikes Peakers” covered an average of 40 miles per day in near-blizzard conditions and reached Fort Union several days before Sibley’s Texans. Slough sent Chivington with three companies of foot soldiers and one mounted company—nearly 180 men— on a reconnaissance mission targeting Sibley’s advancing men. While camped for the night near La Glorieta Pass, N.M., a security detachment from the mounted company captured a contingent of Sibley’s scouts, who provided information on the whereabouts and intentions of the rebel force. Over the next three days, March 26 to 28, several Colorado units and individuals distinguished themselves. On March 26, the First Colorado and the Confederate force met at Apache Canyon on the west side of the huge mesa. A few companies of sharpshooters took to the high ground offered by Apache Canyon, and, after hundreds of well-aimed shots and a well-timed cavalry charge led by Capt. Samuel Cook and Company F, the counterattacking Rebels retreated. The day ended with the Coloradoans holding the field. After a day of consolidation and reorganization on both sides, the First Colorado executed a “bend but not break” defensive action, in which the Colorado soldiers ceded most of the field to the Texans over the course of an entire hard day’s fight. Under the brilliant leadership of Confederate Col. William R. Scurry, the Confederates out maneuvered the Coloradoans in the Battle of Pigeon’s Ranch in the heart of Glorieta Pass. Scurry quickly counteracted an aggressive and risky double envelopment attempt on the part of the Union, and was able to gain momentum and gradually push back Slough’s forces. Less than half a mile of the pass was contested over the course of the entire day, and the fighting at Pigeon’s Ranch ended with the Texans holding the key terrain and most of the contested field. The battle had seen flanking movements, hills taken and retaken, cavalry charges, artillery barrages and close hand-to-hand combat. But it was the Methodist preacher who had been given a fighting commission whose actions would prove decisive. Chivington, with the help of New Mexico’s Lt. Col. Manuel Chavez, led a 400-man column through the steep and rocky terrain and surprised the Texas supply train, destroyed it and freed several Union prisoners, while capturing several Confederates. Fortunately for Chivington’s forces, a local priest happened to encounter their column as darkness fell. He knew the trail system well enough to lead them back to the Union camp without incident. Ironically, Scurry’s forces were very close to delivering the same fate to the Union, and it was only the quick independent actions of the logistical commander combined with infantry support that saw the Union supply train maneuver to a secure location. In the meantime, Scurry received news of his logistical misfortune just as his tactical victory was concluding. He was forced to order his victorious soldiers to prepare for withdrawal. The bold raid led by a preacher turned out to be the decisive blow. The Texans were forced on a long, disastrous journey back to Texas, facing starvation the entire way.Forced to devour their mules for subsistence, they resorted to burying their cannons and unnecessary supplies rather than burdening themselves when the mules were gone. Though no Confederate campaign would ever again surface in the West, the Coloradoans and Union forces in the area remained on their guard until the completion of the Civil War in April 1865. Over the course of the three-day fight, 49 Colorado militiamen were killed, and remain to this day in unmarked graves near where they perished 150 years ago. The same number of Texans were killed in the skirmish, though most of their remains were reinterred in 1991 when they were discovered during a home-remodeling project in Pecos, N.M. The 49 Coloradoans who died in this battle 150 years ago, plus three who perished at Valverde, N.M. a month earlier, were the first Colorado Guardsmen to give their lives in defense of the nation. Their sacrifice helped end any Confederate threat in the West. This was the first hostile engagement of the First Colorado Volunteer Infantry and had implications for the entire war. It is often called the Gettysburg of the West because, like the famous battle in Pennsylvania the following year, it stopped for good a Rebel advance. PREVENTING AN EAST-WEST WAR In fact, according to the 1993 congressionally appointed Civil War Sites Advisory Commission, the battle had as much or more impact on the result of the Civil War as the battles of Gettysburg and Antietam. A Confederate victory could have transformed the conflict into an East-West battle and the outcome may have been different. This important turning point in our country’s history will be further memorialized this year. The National Guard Bureau has commissioned artist Domenick D’Andrea to render the battle in Apache Canyon as a Heritage Series painting. Maj. Adam Morgan is the historian for the Colorado National Guard. He can be reached via email@example.com. Read the full article at http://www.nationalguardmagazine.com/article/Gettysburg+Of+The+West/1018388/105804/article.html.

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Garda Náisiúnta Aibreán 2012: Leathanach 84 G UARD R OOTS: T HE C IVIL W AR Gettysburg of the West By Maj. Adam Morgan D'athraigh ionsaí bold milisigh Colorado cath i Nua-Mheicsiceo agus chuir sé deireadh le dearaí Comhdhúite chun an troid a thógáil go léir an bealach go dtí an Aigéan Ciúin i 1984 Ní raibh sé ciúin ar an bhfronta thiar den náisiún i lár an 19ú haois. Cé go raibh Meiriceá ag ullmhú le haghaidh cogadh cathartha, thug na teorainneacha ag taisteal siar a gcuid claonadh polaitiúil leo don Tuaisceart nó don Deisceart. De réir mar a thosaigh an dá mbanda polaitiúil ag teacht chun cinn, dhearbhaigh an tUachtarán James Buchanan, i gceann dá ghníomhartha deiridh sula bhfágann sé an oifig i 1861, go raibh Colorado ina chríoch na Stát Aontaithe i iarracht smacht an Aontais a choinneáil ar an gceantar. An bhliain chéanna sin, ceapadh an tUachtarán Abraham Lincoln - Gettysburg an Iarthair An Mhoirste Adam Morgan D'athraigh ionsaí bold ag milisigh Colorado cath i Nua-Mheicsiceo agus chuir sé deireadh le dearadh na gComhnaidhmeannaigh chun an troid a thógáil go dtí an Aigéan Ciúin NÍL gach rud ciúin ar an bhfronta thiar den náisiún i lár an 19ú haois. Cé go raibh Meiriceá ag ullmhú le haghaidh cogadh cathartha, thug na teorainneacha ag taisteal siar a gcuid claonadh polaitiúil leo don Tuaisceart nó don Deisceart. De réir mar a thosaigh an dá mbanda polaitiúil ag teacht chun cinn, dhearbhaigh an tUachtarán James Buchanan, i gceann dá ghníomhartha deiridh sula bhfágann sé an oifig i 1861, go raibh Colorado ina chríoch na Stát Aontaithe i iarracht smacht an Aontais a choinneáil ar an gceantar. An bhliain chéanna sin, cheap Uachtarán Abraham Lincoln a chara pearsanta, William Gilpin, mar rialtóir ar an seilbh nua de chuid na Stát Aontaithe. Ní fhéadfaí a fhios a bheith ag an gceannasaí nua ag an am, ach bhí an cinneadh ina chéim thábhachtach chun an cogadh a bhuachan a shainmhínigh a uachtaránacht. Sa bhliain 1858, fuair socraitheoirí ór agus airgead sna Sléibhte Carraig. Chuir an dóchúlacht ar saibhreas láithreach Meiriceánaigh ó thuaidh ar aghaidh go dtí an Iarthar chun caipitil a dhéanamh. Mar thoradh ar an aird a thug an t-ór ar an tslíbhealach, fuarthas guail agus mianraí eile go leor sa stát, agus go luath bhí imirce ollmhór ann. Bhí mianadóirí ó Georgia agus Pennsylvania, a raibh an sloinneadh cáiliúil Pikes Peak nó Bust ag go leor acu ar a gcuid carranna, ag dul go dtí an chríoch. Lean daoine eile siar tar éis dóibh teacht ó thuaidh chomh fada le Maine go Kansas mar fhreagra ar Acht Kansas-Nebraska 1854, turgnamh rialtais ina gcinnfeadh an t-uachtarán daonra an folláine a bhí ag an sclábhaíocht ag stáit. Tháinig daoine eile fós chun uirlisí mianadóireachta, alcól agus prostitutes a dhíol le mionscruithneoirí agus mionnairí. Is cinnte gur thuig gach duine práinn na staid a bhí ag teacht chun cinn sa tír, agus ní raibh ach ainm an Chríocha Colorado ar an Aontas. Bhí sé roinnte go dian idir Aonadhóirí agus Eagraithe. Bhí sé seo le feiceáil nuair a bunaíodh an chéad dá aonad míleata i 1860. Bhí comhbhá leis an Deisceart ag ceann acu; bhí an ceann eile ag claonadh go dtí an Tuaisceart. Nuair a d'ardaigh saoránach na bratacha Cónaidhme thar ghnó Denver, ba é an freagra feargach ná howitzer sléibhe a bhí dírithe go maith ag bagairt ar an bhfear agus ar an ngnó. Tugadh an bratach atá ag déanamh cionta síos go tapa. Nuair a tháinig Gilpin i Denver, bhraith sé trioblóid láithreach. Bhí Lincoln ar an eolas faoin dáileadh polaitiúil laistigh den chríoch agus d'iarr sé air Colorado a chinntiú don Aontas. De réir mar a d'fhás ráflaí faoi ionradh ón Deisceart, d'eagraigh Gilpin ceannach agus síntiús na n-arm go léir i Denver d'fhonn fórsa an Aontais a armú agus gan aon rud a fhágáil ar bhealach arm do Chónaidhmeoirí faoi thalamh. D'eisigh Gilpin dréachtaíochtaí gan síniú agus gan údarú ar Chisteanacht na Stát Aontaithe, ag éileamh go ndéanfadh an rialtas an íocaíocht a dhéanamh. Ní raibh sé seo fíor, áfach, agus cuireadh iallach ar Lincoln Gilpin a bhaint i mí an Mhárta 1862, ach ní sula ndearna a eagrú tapa ar mhíleata cúrsa gníomhaíochta stuama a chruthú. TÓCADÁIR TÓ CHEAN Nuair a bhí na canóin ag bualadh ag Fort Sumter, S.C., ag comharthaíocht thús an Chogaidh Shibhialta i mí Aibreáin 1861, bhí sé ag éirí níos contúirteacha chun a leithéid pholaitiúil a dhearbhú go poiblí. Bhí a fhios go ginearálta nó glacadh leis cé a bhí ina Séasóidigh agus cé nach raibh. Ní raibh sé neamhchoitianta bualadh i bhfolach, agus bhí a fhios ag oifigigh Chónaidhme a bhí i seirbhís an Aontais roimhe sin cé a bhí ar a taobh ina sean-stáisiúin. Ceann de na hoifigigh sin, Henry Hopkins Sibley, cruthaitheoir an stól Sibley agus an teinte Sibley a d'úsáid an tAontas, rinne sé scéim iontach a d'iarr go ndearna comhbhrón ó chomhbhróntaithe eile an Deiscirt sa deireadh. Nuair a mhol sé an plean do Uachtarán na Cónaidhme Jefferson Davis, uasghrádú láithreach Sibley go ginearál bríogáid agus ordú air an plean a chur i gcrích. Chonaic Sibley bealach chun an Chónaidhm a bheith i gceannas ar chuid thiar an mhór-roinn. Bheadh Cónaidhmeannaigh Texas ag imeacht trí Mheicsiceo Nua agus na Terrain Colorado agus Dakota, ag bunú tosaigh thiar. Ba cheart do na cúlchistí guail, óir agus mianraí atá suite faoi na Rockies a mhaoiniú ansin chun imeacht siar chun fórsaí an Aontais a fhlánadh agus ceangal a dhéanamh le fórsaí an Choinbhinse i Virginia. Gan trácht ar na deiseanna brabúsach a bhí ar fáil do úinéirí sclábhaithe dá dtarraingfí an institiúid sin amach san iarthar. Ba mhaith le rialú an chósta thiar leas míleata na hEorpa agus b'fhéidir na hÁise a spreagadh, agus trádáil a bhunú le tíortha na mór-roinn sin. D'fhág Sibley go méadódh sé seo dlisteanacht cúis na Cónaidhme. I mí Feabhra 1862, bhí sé i gceist ag brigád Sibley taisteal suas an taobh thiar den Rio Grande, áit a raibh go leor daingne de chuid an Aontais ailínithe. Ba é a smaoineamh pacadh éadrom agus soláthar a dhéanamh ag gach daingne a gabhadh ar an mbealach. Bhí luas ar an mbonn chun an talamh is mó a fháil sula bhféadfaí a intinn a fháil amach ag an Aontas. Chaith Sibley cuid shuntasach dá ghairm bheatha ag poist ar feadh an Rio Grande agus ag Fort Union, agus bhí aithne mhaith aige ar an gceantar. De réir mar a chuaigh ráflaí faoin ionradh Cónaidhme seo ó thuaidh, d'iarr colúnna an Aontais Edward Canby ar Gilpin na saighdiúirí agus na huirlisí is féidir a bhailiú agus iad a sheoladh go dtí an deisceart chun cuidiú leis na ionsaitheoirí a dhíbirt. I gceann dá ghníomhartha deireanach mar rialtóir, choimisiúnaigh Gilpin John Potts Slough, dlíodóir, mar choilíneach agus d'iarr sé air an Chéad Chéad Chéad Chéad Chéad Chéad Chéad Chéad a ardú. Thug Slough coimisiún do mháistir mór le rá de chuid Denver Methodist chun freastal mar chaplain regimental, ach dhiúltaigh an tAire, ag éirí as ar choimisiún troid. Bhuaigh John Milton Chivington céim mhóra do na Coloradoans. Idir an dá linn, theip ar Sibley an gníomh cinntitheach agus láithreach a dhéanamh a bhí riachtanach chun a phlean a oibriú, rud a thug deis do thuairiscí faoi ghluaiseacht thuaidh na Texans a bhaint amach Denver. Ordaíodh Slough agus an First Colorado neamhthrócaithe ó Camp Weld a bunaíodh le déanaí i ndeisceart Denver go Fort Union, N.M. Ag imeacht ó dheas trí thír thuaidh Colorado, chlúdaigh na Pikes Peakers meán 40 míle in aghaidh an lae i ndálaí gar do chliabhán agus shroich siad Fort Union roinnt laethanta roimh Sibley's Texans. Chuir Slough Chivington le trí chuideachta saighdiúirí cois cois agus cuideachta amháin ardaithe - beagnach 180 fear - ar mhisean scoilithe ag díriú ar fhir ag dul ar aghaidh Sibley. Agus iad ag campaíocht don oíche in aice le La Glorieta Pass, N.M., ghlac dífhostú slándála ón ghrúpa marcaithe coibhneasta de scouts Sibley, a thug faisnéis faoi áit agus intinn an fhórsa reibiliúnaigh. Le trí lá ina dhiaidh sin, an 26 Márta go dtí an 28 Márta, d'éirigh le roinnt aonaid agus daoine aonair Colorado iad féin. Ar an 26 Márta, bhuail an Chéad Colorado agus fórsa an Choinbhinsiúin ag Apache Canyon ar thaobh thiar an mesa ollmhór. Thóg cúpla cuideachta de sharpshooters an talamh ard a thairg Apache Canyon, agus, tar éis na céadta lámha a bhí dírithe go maith agus muirear cavalry dea-amthaithe faoi stiúir an Capt. Samuel Cook agus Cuideachta F, an Rebels contrártha a tharraing siar. Chríochnaigh an lá leis na Coloradoans ag coinneáil an réimse. Tar éis lá de chomhdhlúthú agus athchruthú ar an dá thaobh, rinne an Chéad Colorado gníomh cosanta "bend but not break", inar thit saighdiúirí Colorado an chuid is mó den réimse ar na Teicseannaigh le linn troid lá crua ar fad. Faoi cheannaireacht iontach Col Col William R. Scurry, rinne na Comhdhúiteoirí manoeuvre ar na Coloradoans i gCath Pigeon's Ranch i gcroílár Glorieta Pass. Rinne Scurry frithsheasamh go tapa ar iarracht ionsaitheach agus riosca dúbailte ar thaobh an Aontais, agus bhí sé in ann luas a fháil agus fórsaí Slough a bhrú siar de réir a chéile. Bhí níos lú ná leath míle den phas i ndán don lá ar fad, agus chríochnaigh an troid ag Pigeon's Ranch leis na Teicseannaigh ag gabháil leis an bpríomh-thír agus an chuid is mó den réimse a bhí i ndán dó. Bhí gluaiseachtaí taobh, cnoic a glacadh agus a athghabháil, muirir chabhairne, barrages ardaitheoireachta agus comhrac lámh-le- lámh. Ach ba é an searmanas a tugadh don searmanas troid a bhí ag an searmanas seo ná an searmanas a bhí ag an searmanas seo. Thug Chivington, le cabhair ó Leifteanant Col Manuel Chavez, Colún 400-fhear tríd an tírdhreach shleamhnach agus carraigí agus chuir sé iontas ar an traein soláthair Texas, scrios sé é agus scaoileadh roinnt príosúnaigh an Aontais, agus roinnt Cónaidhmeannaigh á gabháil. Ar ámharaí fórsaí Chivington, tharla go ndeachaigh sagart áitiúil i ngleic lena gcolún nuair a thit an dorchadas. Bhí a fhios aige go leor an córas rian chun iad a threorú ar ais go dtí campa an Aontais gan teagmhas. Go hionraic, bhí fórsaí Scurry an-ghar chun an chinniúint chéanna a sheachadadh don Aontas, agus ní raibh ach gníomhartha tapa neamhspleácha an ceannasaí lóistíochta in éineacht le tacaíocht na coisithe a chonaic gluaiseacht traein soláthair an Aontais go suíomh sábháilte. Idir an dá linn, fuair Scurry nuacht faoina mhí-ádh lóistíochta díreach mar a bhí a bhua tactach ag críochnú. Bhí sé iallach air orduithe a thabhairt dá shaighdiúirí buaiteoirí chun ullmhú le haghaidh tarraingt siar. Bhí an raidhse gan uaim faoi stiúir searmanaí mar an bua cinntitheach. Cuireadh iallach ar na Teicsiúnaigh turas fada, tubaisteach a dhéanamh ar ais go Texas, ag tabhairt aghaidh ar ghortaíocht an bealach ar fad. Ar éigean a gcuid muileáin a ithe chun maireachtáil, chuaigh siad chun a gcuid canóin agus soláthairtí neamhriachtanacha a adhlacadh seachas a gcuid féin a ualach nuair a bhí na muileáin imithe. Cé nach raibh feachtas Cónaidhme ag teacht chun cinn sa Iarthar arís, d'fhan na Coloradoans agus fórsaí an Aontais sa cheantar ar a gcúram go dtí go ndeireadh an Chogaidh Shibhialta i mí Aibreáin 1865. Le linn na troid trí lá, maraíodh 49 milisigh Colorado, agus fanann siad go dtí an lá atá inniu ann i uaigh gan ainm in aice leis an áit a bhfuair siad bás 150 bliain ó shin. Maraíodh an líon céanna Teicseach sa chréatúr, cé gur ath-thiomadh an chuid is mó dá gcuid i 1991 nuair a fuarthas iad le linn tionscadal athchóirithe tí i Pecos, NM. Bhí na 49 Coloradoans a fuair bás sa cath 150 bliain ó shin, móide triúr a fuair bás ag Valverde, N.M. mí roimhe sin, an chéad Colorado Guardsmen a thabhairt a saol i gcosaint an náisiúin. Chabhraigh a n-íobairt deireadh a chur le haon bhagairt Chónaidhmeach san Iarthar. Ba é seo an chéad chomhpháirtíocht naimhdeach den Chéad Chéad Colorado Volunteer Infantry agus bhí impleachtaí aige don chogadh ar fad. Is minic a thugtar Gettysburg an Iarthair air toisc, cosúil leis an gcath cáiliúil i Pennsylvania an bhliain ina dhiaidh sin, gur chuir sé stop go maith le dul chun cinn Rebel. COINNIGH IN AIGHEARRA an Oirthir-an Iarthair Go deimhin, de réir Choimisiún Comhairleach Suímh Chogaidh Sibhialta a ceapadh ag an gCongress i 1993, bhí tionchar an cath chomh mór nó níos mó ar thoradh an Chogaidh Sibhialta agus a bhí ag cathanna Gettysburg agus Antietam. D'fhéadfadh bua na gComhnaidhme a bheith tar éis an choimhlint a athrú go cath an Oirthir-an Iarthair agus d'fhéadfadh an toradh a bheith difriúil. Beidh an pointe tionchair tábhachtach seo i stair ár dtíre á mheabhrú tuilleadh i mbliana. D'ordaigh an Biúró Garda Náisiúnta don ealaíontóir Domenick D'Andrea an cath i Apache Canyon a dhéanamh mar phictiúr Sraith Oidhreachta. Is é an Mór Adam Morgan an staire do Gharda Náisiúnta Colorado. Is féidir teacht air trí ríomhphost@example.com. Léigh an t-alt iomlán ag http://www.nationalguardmagazine.com/article/Gettysburg+Of+The+West/1018388/105804/article.html.

U.S. Government Says 18 Volcanoes Are ‘High Threat’ Okay, that's the bad news. The good news is that none of them are anywhere near Rockford or anywhere else in the Midwest. Say what you want about Middle America, or "Flyover Country" as some call it. Sure we have our problems, and perhaps we are no where near as exciting as places along both coasts. You might even think of Middle America as being dull. However, far less people expire from boredom than they do from lava. Or boiling mudslides. Or Pyroclastic flow. Most of us would rather take our chances with sub-zero weather and the occasional January twister than mess around with something like the monster volcano (Vesuvius) that destroyed Pompeii and Herculaneum. Nonetheless, the U.S. Geological Survey is updating its volcano threat assessments for the first time since 2005. The danger list is topped by Hawaii’s Kilauea, which has been erupting this year. The others in the top five are Mount St. Helens and Mount Rainier in Washington, Alaska’s Redoubt Volcano and California’s Mount Shasta. The agency says a dozen volcanoes have jumped in threat level since 2005. Twenty others dropped in threat level. From the Washington Post: Among those where the threat score is higher are Alaska’s Redoubt, Mount Okmok, Akutan Island and Mount Spurr. Threat scores also rose for Oregon’s Newberry Volcano and Wyoming’s Yellowstone. There are 161 active U.S. volcanoes. The agency says a dozen volcanoes have jumped in threat level since 2005. Twenty others dropped in threat level. So maybe our new state tourism slogan should be something like: "Illinois. Mile after Magnificent Volcano-Free Mile."

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Deir Rialtas na SA go bhfuil 18 Volcanoes High Threat Okay, sin an droch-scéal. Is é an dea-scéal nach bhfuil aon cheann acu in aice le Rockford nó in áit ar bith eile sa Mheán-thiar. Inis cad is mian leat faoi Mheiriceá Mheánmhéide, nó "Flyover Country" mar a ghlaonn cuid acu air. Is cinnte go bhfuil ár gcuid fadhbanna againn, agus b'fhéidir nach bhfuil muid in aice le háiteanna chomh spreagúil le dhá chósta. D'fhéadfadh go mbeadh Meiriceá Mheánmhéide tuirseach fiú. Mar sin féin, is lú daoine a fhaigheann bás ó bhrón ná mar a fhaigheann siad bás ó lábha. Nó boiling mudslides. Nó sreabhadh Pyroclastic. Is fearr le formhór againn ár n-imthosca a ghlacadh le aimsir faoi bhun nialas agus an twister Eanáir ócáideach ná mess timpeall le rud éigin cosúil leis an bholcán monster (Vesuvius) a scrios Pompeii agus Herculaneum. Mar sin féin, tá Suirbhé Geolaíochta na Stát Aontaithe ag nuashonrú a mheasúnaithe bagairt bolcán den chéad uair ó 2005. Tá Kilauea, Hawaii, atá ag easpa an bhliain seo caite, ar cheann an liosta contúirte. Is iad na cinn eile sa chúig chéad ná Mount St. Helens agus Mount Rainier i Washington, Volcano Redoubt Alaska agus Mount Shasta California. Deir an ghníomhaireacht go bhfuil dosaen bolcán tar éis dul i ngleic le leibhéal bagairt ó 2005. Thit 20 eile i leibhéal bagairt. Ón Washington Post: I measc na ndaoine sin ina bhfuil an scór bagairt níos airde ná Redoubt Alasca, Mount Okmok, Oileán Akutan agus Mount Spurr. D'ardaigh scóir bagairt freisin do bholcán Newberry Oregon agus Yellowstone Wyoming. Tá 161 bolcán gníomhach sna Stáit Aontaithe. Deir an ghníomhaireacht go bhfuil dosaen bolcán tar éis dul i ngleic le leibhéal bagairt ó 2005. Thit 20 eile i leibhéal bagairt. Mar sin b'fhéidir gur chóir go mbeadh ár ndráma nua turasóireachta stáit rud éigin mar: "Illinois. Míle tar éis Magnificent Volcano-Free Míle. "

Plié means “bend”, from the verb plier, to bend. A smooth and continuous bending of the knees. A bending of the knees outward by a ballet dancer with the back held straight. Generally speaking, your plié can create your first impression, whether it be to an examiner or to an audition panel. Your plié can speak volumes about the type of dancer you are, as it is the glue that holds your steps together, or the mesh that links your steps. So much can be gained from each exercise at the barre, so be sure you utilise each and every one of them. Pliés can often look like a dancer is going through the motions of bending and stretching the legs, or perhaps warming up. In my opinion, class should never be for warming up, it should be for maintaining and/or extending a dancer’s technique. Every plié you perform in class can strengthen your legs, transforming you into a stronger, more controlled and fluid dancer. I have been to lots of different studios and seen lots of different pliés, and there are some common faults that I will point out, that will be very easy to correct. Pliés should be controlled, continuous movements, they should not appear brittle or sudden looking. There should not be any stops reaching the depth of your plié, nor alighting from the depth of your plié. Control equals strength, so the smoother your plié is, the better. Pliés can be used to strengthen your legs by actively working or engaging your legs, and not simply bending the legs and recovering. You can do this by resisting gravity to bend the legs on the way down to the base of your plié, and by using the resistance of the floor to recover to straight legs. With each plié you perform try to visualise opening your turn out from the hips. Unfortunately, the majority of students perform a grande plié with their backs on an inclination forward. Almost every definition of plié mentions a straight, held back. The hips, waist and shoulders should aim to be in a vertical line when viewed from the side. A dropped back makes it much more difficult to activate the turn out muscles at the tops of the legs, and is an unnecessary action. Another fault I witness regularly is when dancers descend into a grande plié too deeply by almost sitting on their heels. The correct version of this bad habit, is to allow the crotch to hover just above the heels by working the quadriceps strongly. It may be much easier to do it this incorrectly, however, you will be achieving far less. Your demi-pliés and grande pliés should be absolutely connected to your ports de bras. For example; if you commence with your arms in a la seconde, your arm should be in demi seconde in demi plié, bras bas at the depth of the grande plié, 1st position for demi plié and return to a la seconde on the recovery. I can’t stress enough that the use of the head in conjunction with the arm throughout all your work is imperative. Without this use of co-ordination, you can look disconnected and not involved in your work. This, in turn will not aid you in creating a fabulous first impression! Written by; Vicki Attard

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Ciallaíonn plié bend, ón briathar plier, a shleamhnú. Clúdach réidh agus leanúnach na gclann. Clúdach na glúine amach ag damhsaí ballet agus an cúl á choinneáil díreach. Go ginearálta, is féidir le do plié do chéad tuiscint a chruthú, bíodh sé le scrúdaitheoir nó le painéal iniúchta. Is féidir le do plié go leor a rá faoi an cineál damhsa atá agat, toisc gurb é an greamaí a choinníonn do chéimeanna le chéile, nó an líonra a cheanglaíonn do chéimeanna. Is féidir an oiread sin a fháil ó gach cleachtadh ag an barr, mar sin bí cinnte go n-úsáidfidh tú gach ceann acu. Is minic a fhéadann pliés breathnú cosúil le damhsaí ag dul trí na gluaiseachtaí a bhaineann le cur síos agus síneadh na cosa, nó b'fhéidir ag téamh suas. I mo thuairim, níor cheart go mbeadh rang riamh le haghaidh téimh suas, ba cheart go mbeadh sé chun teicníc damhsa a chothabháil agus / nó a leathnú. Is féidir le gach plié a dhéanann tú sa rang do chosa a neartú, ag athrú tú i damhsaire níos láidre, níos rialaithe agus níos sreabhach. Tá mé i go leor stiúideó éagsúla agus feicthe go leor pliés éagsúla, agus tá roinnt earráidí coitianta go mbeidh mé a chur in iúl, go mbeidh sé an-éasca a cheartú. Ba chóir a rialú plies, gluaiseachtaí leanúnacha, níor chóir go mbeadh siad ag breathnú brittle nó tobann. Níor cheart go mbeadh aon stad ag teacht ar do thomhais plié, ná ag teacht as do thomhais plié. Tá smacht ag an gcumas, mar sin is fearr an plié is réidh atá agat. Is féidir pliés a úsáid chun do chosa a neartú trína gcuid cosa a oibriú go gníomhach nó a chur i ngleic, agus ní amháin na cosa a chlúdach agus a ghnóthú. Is féidir leat é seo a dhéanamh trí sheasamh i gcoinne na mearthanachta chun na cosa a chlúdach ar an mbealach síos go bun do plié, agus trí sheasamh an urláir a úsáid chun na cosa a aisghabháil go díreach. Le gach plié a dhéanann tú déan iarracht a shamhlú go bhfuil do chuid ag oscailt amach as na hips. Ar an drochuair, déanann formhór na mac léinn grande plié lena gcúl ar claonadh ar aghaidh. Luaitear beagnach gach sainmhíniú ar plié díreach, a choimeád ar ais. Ba cheart do na cnámha, na cnámha agus na gualainn a bheith i líne dhíreach nuair a breathnófar orthu ó thaobh. Déanann cúl a thit i bhfad níos deacra na matáin casadh a ghníomhachtú ag barr na cosa, agus is gníomh neamhriachtanach é. Is é an locht eile a fheicim go rialta ná nuair a thagann damhsaithe isteach i grande plié ró-fhada trí shuí beagnach ar a n-aislingí. Is é an leagan ceart den droch-oideas seo, a cheadaíonn an crotch a bheith ag luí díreach os cionn na cloganna ag obair an quadriceps go láidir. B'fhéidir go mbeidh sé i bhfad níos éasca é seo a dhéanamh go mícheart, ach beidh tú ag baint amach i bhfad níos lú. Ba chóir do demi-pliés agus grande pliés a bheith ceangailte go hiomlán le do chuid port de bras. Mar shampla, má thosaíonn tú le do chuid arm in a la seconde, ba cheart do lámh a bheith i demi seconde in demi plié, bras bas ag doimhneacht an grande plié, 1ú seasamh le haghaidh demi plié agus filleadh ar a la seconde ar an aisghabháil. Ní féidir liom a chur i bhfios go leor go bhfuil an úsáid a bhaint as an ceann i gcomhar leis an lámh i rith do chuid oibre go léir ríthábhachtach. Gan an úsáid seo as comhordú, is féidir leat a bheith as nasc agus gan a bheith páirteach i do chuid oibre. Ní bheidh sé seo, ar a láimh, ag cabhrú leat an chéad tuiscint iontach a chruthú! Scríobh Vicki Attard

Galileo was a very talented astronomer. He was born in February 15, 1564, Pisa, Italy and he died on January 8, 1642. While Galileo was alive, he created one of his most famous and well known invention, the telescope. Galileo made the first telescope in 1609 and later that year he created a new, improved and upgraded telescope. The telescope was made of lenses, or refract light. They featured a concave eyepiece lens and a convex objective lens. The telescope was made to discover items in space or in a far away distance. The telescope was fairly easy, yet difficult to make. That's why Galileo was so famous for his discovery of the telescope.

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Bhí Galileo ina réalteolaí an-teann. Rugadh é ar 15 Feabhra, 1564, Pisa, an Iodáil agus d'éag sé ar 8 Eanáir, 1642. Cé go raibh Galileo beo, chruthaigh sé ceann dá aireagán is cáiliúla agus is cáiliúla, an teileascóp. Rinne Galileo an chéad teileascóp i 1609 agus níos déanaí sa bhliain sin chruthaigh sé teileascóp nua, feabhsaithe agus uasghrádú. Bhí an teileascóp déanta as lionsaí, nó solas a bhriseadh. Bhí lionsa oclaí cóncaif agus lionsa cuspóir cóncaif orthu. Déantar an teileascóp chun rudaí a fháil sa spás nó i bhfad i gcéin. Bhí an teileascóip sách éasca, ach deacair a dhéanamh. Sin an fáth a bhí Galileo chomh cáiliúil as a fhionnachtain ar an teileascóp.

A new study shows that how mice are picked up by the experimenter can substantially change their behaviour in cognitive tests. The work, by Dr Kelly Gouveia and Professor Jane Hurst from the University of Liverpool was funded by the NC3Rs and is published in Scientific Reports. The researchers discovered that mice handled by a ‘mouse-friendly’ tunnel for transfer to the test arena showed much more active exploration during testing than those picked up by the tail, which had a major positive impact on test performance. In the tests, mice were placed near a new attractive stimulus (urine from the opposite sex) that should stimulate approach and investigation, especially during the first contact. This was repeated in three sessions, to get animals familiar with the new scent. Throughout all the sessions, mice picked by the tail showed very little willingness to explore the test arena and therefore investigate the new stimulus. Many animals failed to sniff the stimulus even once, making it challenging to compare the sessions and to collect enough data to reach statistical significance. By contrast, mice picked up in a tunnel explored their environment readily, showed a strong interest in the new stimulus, and a clear effect of becoming familiar with it in the consecutive sessions. To test discrimination between two different scents, the mice were then placed near a different urine stimulus. Because the performance of mice picked up by the tail was so poor from the start, they did not discriminate between the known and new scents. Those handled by a tunnel showed robust discrimination, making them much more reliable experimental subjects. The traditional way to pick up a mouse from the cage is by grasping the base of the tail, although this has no scientific validation. This method, although fast and not painful, is known to be aversive to mice and to cause stress and anxiety. Commenting on the work, Professor Hurst said: ‘The method used to pick up laboratory mice has a surprisingly strong influence on their anxiety, and our study shows that this has a major impact on the reliability of their behavioural response to test stimuli. A simple change to picking up mice up in a tunnel rather than by the tail could have a really positive impact on the wide range of research that relies on behavioural testing, as well as improving the well-being of test animals.’ Dr Mark Prescott, NC3Rs said: ‘This study provides further evidence for the need to shift away from tail handling of laboratory mice, this time for scientific reasons. Tunnel handling should be the method of choice for researchers conducting behavioural tests with these animals.’ In previous work, Professor Hurst and the Liverpool team developed alternative methods of handling mice that are much more animal-friendly and just as quick once the handlers are trained. This involves picking up mice by guiding them into an open tunnel that is inexpensive and autoclavable. They showed that this technique makes a big difference to how mice respond to the handler – while mice picked up by the tail show caution and are reluctant to approach the handler, mice used to the tunnel interact with the tunnel and with the person handling them much more willingly. To help train handlers in the tunnel method the team, in collaboration with the NC3Rs, have created a mouse handling video tutorial. The NC3Rs has announced 2017 to be the ‘Year of laboratory rodent welfare’, launching a number of exciting initiatives focusing on the welfare of mice and rats.

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Léiríonn staidéar nua gur féidir leis an gcaoi a mbaintear na lucha ag an turgnamhóir a iompar a athrú go suntasach i dtástálacha cognaíocha. An obair, ag an Dr Kelly Gouveia agus an tOllamh Jane Hurst ó Ollscoil Liverpool, a mhaoinigh na NC3Rs agus a foilsíodh i dTuarascálacha Eolaíocha. Fuair na taighdeoirí amach go raibh iniúchadh i bhfad níos gníomhaí ag na lucha a láimhseáil túinéal "cairdiúil le luch" chun iad a aistriú chuig an réimse tástála ná iad siúd a thóg an eireaball, rud a raibh tionchar mór dearfach aige ar fheidhmíocht na tástála. Sna tástálacha, cuireadh luch in aice le spreagthaire tarraingteach nua (uisce ó ghnéas eile) a d'fhéadfadh cur chuige agus fiosrúchán a spreagadh, go háirithe le linn an chéad theagmhála. Athghiniodh é seo i dtrí sheisiún, chun na hainmhithe a chur ar an eolas faoin boladh nua. Le linn na seisiúin go léir, léirigh luch a roghnaíodh ag an eireaball go raibh an-bheag toilteanas acu an réimse tástála a iniúchadh agus dá bhrí sin an spreagadh nua a imscrúdú. Níor éirigh le go leor ainmhithe an spreagadh a sniffáil fiú uair amháin, rud a fhágann go bhfuil sé dúshlánach na seisiúin a chur i gcomparáid agus go leor sonraí a bhailiú chun tábhacht staidrimh a bhaint amach. Ar a mhalairt, rinne luch a tógadh i tanail iniúchadh go héasca ar a dtimpeallacht, léirigh sé spéis mhór sa spreagadh nua, agus éifeacht shoiléir a bheith eolach air sna seisiúin as a chéile. Chun triail a bhaint as idirdhealú idir dhá bholadh éagsúla, cuireadh na lucha in aice le spreagadh fual difriúil. Toisc go raibh feidhmíocht na luch a bhac an eireaball chomh lag ón tús, ní raibh idirdhealú acu idir na boladh is eol agus na boladh nua. Léirigh na daoine a láimhseáil túinéal idirdhealú láidir, rud a fhágann go raibh siad ina n-ábhar turgnamhach i bhfad níos iontaofa. Is é an bealach traidisiúnta chun luch a phiocadh suas as an cage ná ag greim ar bhonn an eireaball, cé nach bhfuil aon bhailíocht eolaíoch aige. Cé go bhfuil an modh seo tapa agus gan pian, tá a fhios go bhfuil sé neamh-inmhianaithe do mhiotaigh agus go gcuireann sé strus agus imní air. Ag trácht ar an obair, dúirt an tOllamh Hurst: "Tá tionchar an-láidir ag an modh a úsáidtear chun luch saotharlainne a phiocadh ar a n-eagla, agus léiríonn ár staidéar go bhfuil tionchar mór ag seo ar iontaofacht a bhfreagraí iompraíochta ar spreagadh tástála. D'fhéadfadh athrú simplí ar na lucha a phiocadh suas i dtonnal seachas ag an eireaball tionchar an-dearfach a bheith aige ar an raon leathan taighde a thacaíonn le tástáil iompraíochta, chomh maith le folláine ainmhithe tástála a fheabhsú. Dúirt an Dr Mark Prescott, NC3Rs: "Cuireann an staidéar seo fianaise bhreise ar fáil maidir leis an ngá atá le aistriú ó láimhseáil eireaball luch saotharlainne, an uair seo ar chúiseanna eolaíocha. Ba cheart go mbeadh bainteach le húsáid tonnlaigh an modh rogha do thaighdeoirí a dhéanann tástálacha iompraíochta leis na hainmhithe seo. I gcuid oibre roimhe seo, d'fhorbair an tOllamh Hurst agus foireann Liverpool modhanna malartacha chun luch a láimhseáil atá i bhfad níos cairdiúla don ainmhí agus chomh tapa agus a bhíonn na láimhseálaithe oiliúnaithe. Baineann sé seo le luch a phiocadh trína dtreorú isteach i dtonnal oscailte atá saor agus autoclavable. Léirigh siad go ndéanann an teicníc seo difríocht mhór ar an gcaoi a bhfreagraíonn luch leis an láimhseálaí cé go léiríonn luch a thógann an eireaball cúramach agus go bhfuil siad diúltaithe dul i dteagmháil leis an láimhseálaí, idirghníomhaíonn luch a úsáidtear leis an tollán leis an tollán agus leis an duine a láimhseálann iad i bhfad níos toilteanach. Chun cabhrú le láimhseálaithe a oiliúint sa mhodh tollán, chruthaigh an fhoireann, i gcomhar leis na NC3Ranna, teagasc físeán maidir le haisteáil luch. D'fhógair an NC3Rs 2017 a bheith ina 'Bliain leasa na gníomhairí grinn sa saotharlann', ag seoladh roinnt tionscnaimh spreagúla a dhíríonn ar leas na mbeithin agus na ngráin.

Here at the Marker Supply warehouse, one of the most common things people come looking for are opaque white ink pens for writing on paper. Unfortunately, we always have to say that these types of pens are still practically non-existent. The main reason? The type of ink required to make a functional white ink pen has been very difficult to produce. It would need to be both thin enough to flow through a pen tip AND thick enough to stay a visible white once it’s marked onto paper. Pigments vs. Dyes There’s a little illustration we’ve heard that can help explain a big difference between two types of ink- Pigments and Dyes: First, take 2 glasses of water. In one glass, pour in some sugar. In the other glass, pour in some dirt. Both begin to cloud the water as you stir them up. But notice what happens after just a minute when they settle.. The sugar is still there, but has fully dissolved into the water and everything returns to a totally liquid state. The glass with the dirt still has solid particles everywhere and a thick layer of mud has collected on the bottom. Most pen inks are colored with dyes (like the water example with the sugar), which are either liquid, or in a solid form that quickly dissolves, and then can easily flow through the pen. However, this property can also cause the ink to either leak through the pen tip too quickly, and/or soak completely into porous surfaces like paper and become transparent- meaning that this type of white ink won’t be seen because the ink isn’t thick enough to keep its color visible on top of an absorbent surface. What helps some colors to show up the best when making ink is to use pigment. Pigments (like the water example with the dirt) are dense, finely ground particles that stay solid as they add their color. They don’t dissolve into fluid, but are rather just suspended in it. To get a good, opaque white, you need a LOT of pigment. When you try and put too much into a pen however, it won’t flow through the tip like a normal ink without clogging or drying up. (Fun Fact: The most common pigment used to create the color white is Titanium Dioxide.) The marking pen world made a big step in the creation of white pens with the invention of Gel Ink. Originally marketed in 1984 by Japanese company Sakura, it finally allows a roller ball pen to use a white ink. (Fun Fact: As researchers worked to develop gel ink, they tried a wide variety of materials to get the consistency just right, including yams and egg whites! For some more great history on the invention of Sakura’s Gelly Roll pens, read this interesting article: Gel ink is not quite the same as ordinary pen ink, as it is a lot thicker- causing issues like needing to move the pen more slowly as you write, and the marks taking longer to dry. Also, the roller ball tips still can occasionally clog. (If this happens, rolling the pen tip over a wet paper towel may help.) Despite their issues, we are still very happy to have them as an option for white ink! White ink comparisons on black paper Other than gel pens, you can also find good white marking tools for paper when you look into pencils, oil-pastels, even correction pens! There are also valve-action markers that use more of a “paint” than an “ink”. Although paint markers tend to show up better on non-porous surfaces, such as glass or metal, some have been known to work adequately for certain paper projects. Have a look at this comparison chart showing several white marking tools on plain black paper to see the ones that may work best for you! Find them all at MarkerSupply.com. As experiments continue in the pen industry, white ink is getting closer and closer to becoming more common! But as for now, which white pen/marker have you found works best for you?? Let us know and feel free to share your white marker artwork on our social media pages!

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Anseo ag an stóras Soláthar Marker, ceann de na rudaí is coitianta daoine teacht ag lorg tá peann dubh bán opaque le haghaidh scríbhneoireachta ar pháipéar. Ar an drochuair, ní mór dúinn a rá go bhfuil na cineálacha plátaí seo beagnach gan bheith ann fós. An phríomhchúis? Bhí sé an-deacair an cineál liathróid a theastaíonn chun peann liathróid bán feidhmiúil a dhéanamh a tháirgeadh. Ba cheart go mbeadh sé tanaí go leor chun sruth a fháil trí cheann peann agus tiubh go leor chun go bhfanfadh sé bán le feiceáil nuair a dhéanfar é a mharcáil ar pháipéar. Pigmentí vs. Dye Tá léargas beag ann a chuala muid a d'fhéadfadh cabhrú le difríocht mhór a mhíniú idir dhá chineál inc - pigment agus dathanna: Ar dtús, tóg 2 ghloine uisce. I nglas amháin, tuir isteach roinnt siúcra. Sa ghloine eile, tuí isteach le roinnt salachar. Tosaíonn an dá cheann ag clúdach an uisce nuair a chuireann tú suas iad. Ach tabhair faoi deara cad a tharlaíonn tar éis nóiméad amháin nuair a shocrú siad .. Tá an siúcra fós ann, ach tá sé tuaslagtha go hiomlán san uisce agus gach rud ar ais go dtí staid leachtacha go hiomlán. Tá na cáithníní soladacha i gcónaí sa ghloine le salachar i ngach áit agus tá sraith tiubh muice tar éis a bhailiú ar an bonn. Tá an chuid is mó de na dúchanna peann datha le dathanna (cosúil leis an sampla uisce leis an siúcra), atá leachtach, nó i bhfoirm soladach a dhíscaoileann go tapa, agus ansin is féidir leo srutháil go héasca tríd an peann. Mar sin féin, is féidir leis an mhaoin seo an inc a scaipeadh trí cheann an pheann ró-tapa, agus / nó a shíntiú go hiomlán i dromchlaí porous cosúil le páipéar agus a bheith trédhearcach - rud a chiallaíonn nach bhfeicfear an cineál seo inc bán toisc nach bhfuil an inc tiubh go leor chun a dath a choinneáil le feiceáil ar bharr dromchla absorbent. Is é an rud a chabhraíonn le dathanna áirithe a thaispeáint ar an mbealach is fearr nuair a dhéanamh inbh é a úsáid pigment. Is deighilte, gráin bheaga í an píogamint (cosúil leis an sampla uisce leis an salachar) a fhanann soladach agus iad ag cur a dhath leis. Ní dhíscaoileann siad i leacht, ach go bhfuil siad ar fionraí ann. Chun bán maith, opaque a fháil, teastaíonn MÓIR pigmeant uait. Má dhéanann tú iarracht an iomarca a chur isteach i bpíosa, áfach, ní rachaidh sé tríd an mbéal mar innéad gnáth gan a bheith ag clogadh nó ag triomú. (Facta Suimiúil: Is é an píogamint is coitianta a úsáidtear chun an dath bán a chruthú ná Dí-ocsaíde Tíotáiniam.) Rinne domhan na peann marcála céim mhór i gcruthú peanna bána le hinfheachtadh an Íon Ghlais. Arna mhargú ar dtús i 1984 ag cuideachta Seapánach Sakura, ceadaíonn sé peann liathróid rolla a úsáid le mheaisín bán. (Fíric Suimiúil: De réir mar a bhí taighdeoirí ag obair chun incu géil a fhorbairt, rinne siad triail as réimse leathan ábhar chun an comhsheasmhacht ceart a fháil, lena n-áirítear yams agus bán uibheacha! Chun tuilleadh eolais a fháil ar stair iontach na ndeardacha gléas-réalta Sakura, léigh an t-alt suimiúil seo: Ní inic ghéil an-chosúil le inic peann gnáth, toisc go bhfuil sé i bhfad níos tiubh - ag cruthú saincheisteanna mar an gá a bheith ag bogadh an peann níos moille agus tú ag scríobh, agus na marcanna ag cur níos faide le tiormaithe. Chomh maith leis sin, d'fhéadfadh na barr rollaí rollaí a bheith clogged uaireanta. (Má tharlaíonn sé seo, d'fhéadfadh sé a bheith cabhrach an barr peann a rolladh thar tuáille páipéir fliuch.) In ainneoin a gcuid saincheisteanna, tá áthas orainn go bhfuil siad fós ar fáil mar rogha d'inch bán! Comparáidí inc bán ar pháipéar dubh Seachas peann géil, is féidir leat uirlisí maith marcála bán a fháil freisin le haghaidh páipéir nuair a fhéachann tú isteach i peann luaidhe, péinteanna ola, fiú peann ceartaithe! Tá marcóirí gníomhaíochta comhla ann freisin a úsáideann níos mó de paint ná ink. Cé go mbíonn sé de ghnáth go léirítear marcóirí péinte níos fearr ar dhromchlaí neamh-poróiseacha, mar shampla gloine nó miotail, tá a fhios ag cuid acu go n-oibríonn siad go leor le haghaidh tionscadal páipéir áirithe. Féach ar an gcairt chomparáide seo a léiríonn roinnt uirlisí marcála bán ar pháipéar dubh simplí chun a fheiceáil cé acu a d'fhéadfadh a bheith ag obair is fearr duitse! Faigh iad go léir ag MarkerSupply.com. De réir mar a leanann turgnaimh sa tionscal peann, tá an t-inne bán ag éirí níos coitianta! Ach faoi láthair, cén píon/ marcóir bán a fuair tú a oibríonn is fearr duitse? An bhfuil tú? Cuir in iúl dúinn agus bíodh a fhios agat do chuid saothar ealaíne marcóir bán a roinnt ar ár leathanaigh meán sóisialta!

Taking care of a child’s well-being in their first couple stages of life can be challenging. Parents need to watch out for signs of growth and signs of deficiencies. It’s easy to disregard the signs, especially when it comes to vitamins and minerals deficiency. Most parents wouldn’t recognize the signs until it’s too late. To combat mineral and vitamin deficiency, there are many supplement and meal replacement beverages specifically produced for young children. These baby drinks contain nutrients that your children might not be able to get from the regular formula. However, it is important to know that babies and toddlers shouldn’t become completely dependent on supplementary beverages. You should still feed your child their regular baby milk formula. Lack of Iron Although newborns have a storage of iron in their system, the supply will only last up to six months. As your baby grows, they will need iron supplements to maintain the level of iron. Babies who breastfeed constantly need to be given iron supplementary drinks for babies that can be introduced in the 4th month. Lack of Vitamin D The American Academy of Pediatrics suggests that all breastfed and formula-fed infants are to be given a Vitamin D supplement, especially if their daily intake is less than 32 ounces per day. Vitamin D is crucial for the development of healthy bones and it helps prevent chronic diseases. Lack of Vitamin B12 For vegan children, it might be hard to receive Vitamin B12 from their daily diet. This vitamin can only be found mostly in meat, fish, eggs, and dairy. There are soy-based supplementary drinks that can provide the Vitamin B12 replacement your child needs. These beverages can also act as a formula substitute until you can find a proper, vegan infant formula. Lack of Fluoride Fluoride is important for the development of gums and teeth, especially cavity prevention. Before you decide to give your little ones a fluoride replacement, ask your pediatrician about the proper dosage. Babies are prone to fluoride toxicity so taking the right amount of supplement is crucial for their well-being. Top Baby Beverage Brands - Happy Baby - Parent’s Choice Remember to always consult with your pediatrician before introducing your infant to supplementary beverages. Some nutritional drinks for toddlers may not be suitable for your baby’s condition and could cause allergic reactions and other side effects. Try feeding your young children soft food items that are rich in these minerals first before feeding them the supplementary beverages. If nothing has changed, then it’s time to browse through our catalog of baby beverages. Don’t forget to also check out other baby foods like biscuits, cereal, and snacks to accompany the supplementary beverages.

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Is féidir go mbeadh sé dúshlánach aire a thabhairt do leas leanbh ina chéad chéimí péire den saol. Ní mór do thuismitheoirí a bheith ag faire amach le haghaidh comharthaí fáis agus comharthaí easpa. Tá sé éasca neamhaird a dhéanamh ar na comharthaí, go háirithe nuair a bhaineann sé le heasnamh vitimíní agus mianraí. Ní aithneoidh an chuid is mó de na tuismitheoirí na comharthaí go dtí go mbeidh sé ró-dhéanach. Chun easnamh mianraí agus vitimín a chomhrac, tá go leor deochanna forlíontacha agus athsholáthair béile a tháirgtear go sonrach do leanaí óga. Tá cothaithigh sna deochanna seo do leanaí nach bhféadfadh do leanaí a fháil ó na foirmlí rialta. Tá sé tábhachtach, áfach, a fhios a bheith agat nár cheart do naíonáin agus do na páistí óga a bheith ag brath go hiomlán ar dheochanna forlíontacha. Ba chóir duit a bheith ag tabhairt do leanbh a bhformhuisce bainne do leanaí go rialta. Eacnamaíocht Cé go bhfuil stóráil iarann ag na leanaí nuabheirthe ina gcóras, ní mhaireann an soláthar ach suas le sé mhí. De réir mar a fhásann do leanbh, beidh sé ag teastáil uachtar iarainn a fhorlíonadh chun an leibhéal iarann a chothabháil. Ba chóir do leanaí a bhfuil bainne acu go leanúnach deochanna forlíontaí iarann a thabhairt do leanaí is féidir a thabhairt isteach sa 4ú mí. Easpa Vitimín D Molann Acadamh na Páistí Mheiriceá go dtabharfaí forlíonadh Vitimín D do na páistí go léir a bhfuil bainne cíche acu agus a bhfuil cógaisí cógaisithe acu, go háirithe má tá a n-iontógáil laethúil níos lú ná 32 unsa in aghaidh an lae. Tá vitimín D ríthábhachtach d'fhorbairt cnámha sláintiúla agus cabhraíonn sé le galair ainsealacha a chosc. Easpa Vitimín B12 D'fhéadfadh sé a bheith deacair do leanaí vegan Vitimín B12 a fháil óna réim bia laethúil. Ní féidir an vitimín seo a fháil ach den chuid is mó i bhfeoil, iasc, uibheacha agus déiríochta bainne. Tá deochanna forlíontacha bunaithe ar shói a sholáthraíonn an athsholáthar Vitimín B12 a theastaíonn ó do leanbh. Is féidir leis na deochanna seo gníomhú freisin mar ionad foirmle go dtí go bhfaighidh tú foirmle leanbh vegán cuí. Easpa Fluairíde Tá fluoríd tábhachtach d'fhorbairt na gcianna agus na fiacla, go háirithe cosc a chur ar chaitíocht. Sula gcinnfidh tú do pháistí a chur in ionad flúiríde, iarr ar do pháistí an dáileog ceart. Tá na páistí seans maith go mbeidh tocsaineacht fhluairíd orthu agus mar sin tá sé ríthábhachtach an méid ceart forlíonta a ghlacadh dá bhfolláine. Na Brands Bainne Leanaí is Fearr - Bean sona - Rogha na dTuismitheoirí Cuimhnigh i gcónaí dul i gcomhairle le do pháistí sula gcuireann tú do leanbh i dteagmháil le deochanna forlíontacha. B'fhéidir nach bhfuil roinnt deochanna cothaitheacha do leanaí óga oiriúnach do riocht do pháiste agus d'fhéadfadh siad frithghníomhartha ailléirgeacha agus fo-iarsmaí eile a chur faoi deara. Déan iarracht do leanaí óga a chothú le bianna bog atá saibhir sna mianraí seo ar dtús sula gcuireann tú na deochanna forlíontacha orthu. Má tá aon rud athraithe, ansin tá sé in am brabhsáil trí ár gcatalóg de dheochanna do leanaí. Ná déan dearmad freisin go bhfuil bianna eile do leanaí cosúil le biscuit, gráin, agus snacks le teacht leis na deochanna forlíontacha.

Research into the eternal human aspiration to stay forever young continues to bring forth new meanings for and sources of the elusive fountain of youth. In yet another attempt, scientists have taken a cue from the ubiquitous Fruit Fly to satiate our hunger for evergreen youth. A new study published in the journal Cell Metabolism, explains how an understanding of the Fruit Fly's intestine has helped researchers explore the impact of minimal diets on longevity. The new finding is seen as a precursor to discovering new clues on the impact of aging on stem cell behavior. The findings also suggest that the Fruit Fly version of a gene known as PCG-1, which is also found in human DNA, could act as a biological guide to slowing down the aging process. A further insight from the study suggests the possibility of exploring and finding targeted drug remedies to counter aging or age-related diseases. Although it is a well-documented fact that restricting calories during daily food intake is the easiest strategy to extend life spans for both humans and animals, little is known about biological mechanisms underlying this phenomenon. Previous studies, however, have shown that the cells of calorie-restricted animals have greater numbers of energy-generating structures known as mitochondria. Researchers at the Salk Institute for Biological Studies and from the University of California, Los Angeles, investigated the chain of connections between mitochondria and longevity. Fruit flies and humans have a lot more in common than most people think, said Leanne Jones, an Associate Professor at Salk's Laboratory of Genetics and a lead scientist on the project, There is a tremendous amount of similarity between a human small intestine and the fruit fly intestine. The researchers found that boosting the activity of dPGC-1, the Fruit Fly version of the gene, resulted in greater numbers of mitochondria and more energy-production in flies; the same phenomenon is seen in organisms on calorie restricted diets. When the activity of the gene was accelerated in stem and progenitor cells of the intestine, which serve to replenish intestinal tissues, these cellular changes correspond with better health and longer lifespan. The flies lived between 20 and 50 percent longer, depending on the method and extent to which the activity of the gene was altered. Their intestines were beautiful, said Christopher L. Koehler, a doctoral student at the University of California, San Diego, who conducts research in Jones' laboratory, The flies with the modified gene activity were much more active and robust than the other flies. Scientists theorized that one reason for this could be the boosting of PCG-1 led to stem cells being stimulated to replenishing intestinal tissues, thereby keeping the flies' intestines healthier. Slowing the aging of a single, important organ, in this case the intestine -- could have a dramatic effect on overall health and longevity, Jones said, In a disease that affects multiple tissues, for instance, you might focus on keeping one organ healthy, and to do that you might be able to utilize PGC-1. The PCG-1 gene regulates the number of these cellular power plants, which convert sugars and fats from food into energy for cellular functions. Previous studies have confirmed that animals on restricted diets lived more than twice as long, on average, as those on non-restricted diets.

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Leanann taighde ar an uaillmhiantacht shíoraí atá ag an duine fanacht óg go deo ag teacht le brí nua agus foinsí den fhoinse óige atá deacair a fháil. I iarracht eile fós, tá eolaithe tar éis a ghlacadh le cuidiú ó na Fruit Fly uileláithreach chun ár ngort a shásamh don óige síoraí. Míníonn staidéar nua a foilsíodh sa iris Cell Metabolism, conas a chabhraigh tuiscint ar intinn an Fliú torthaí le taighdeoirí tionchar a bheith ag aiste bia íosta ar fad saoil a iniúchadh. Feictear an teacht nua mar réamhtheachtaire chun leideanna nua a fháil ar thionchar na seanú ar iompar cealla bun. Tugann na torthaí le fios freisin go bhféadfadh leagan an Fhrith-Fhearaigh de ghine ar a dtugtar PCG-1, a fhaightear i DNA an duine freisin, gníomhú mar threoir bitheolaíoch chun moill a chur ar an bpróiseas ag dul in aois. Tugann léargas breise ón staidéar le fios go bhféadfaí leigheasanna dírithe ar dhrugaí a iniúchadh agus a aimsiú chun dul i ngleic le dul in aois nó le galair a bhaineann le dul in aois. Cé go bhfuil sé fíric dea-chomhaontaithe gur straitéis is éasca é calraí a theorannú le linn iontógáil bia laethúil chun fad saoil a shíneadh do dhaoine agus d'ainmhithe araon, níl mórán ar eolas faoi mheicníochtaí bitheolaíocha atá taobh thiar den fheiniméan seo. Léirigh staidéir roimhe seo, áfach, go bhfuil líon níos mó struchtúir a ghineann fuinneamh ar a dtugtar miotóchondria i gcealla ainmhithe a bhfuil teorainn calraí acu. Rinne taighdeoirí in Institiúid Salk um Staidéar Bitheolaíoch agus in Ollscoil California, Los Angeles, imscrúdú ar an slabhra nasc idir miotácondria agus fad saoil. Tá i bhfad níos mó i gcoiteann ag eitiltí torthaí agus daoine ná mar a cheapann an chuid is mó daoine, a dúirt Leanne Jones, Ollamh Comhlánaithe ag Saotharlann Gineolaíochta Salk agus príomh-eolaí ar an tionscadal. Fuair na taighdeoirí amach go raibh líon níos mó miticondria agus níos mó fuinnimh a tháirgeadh i mbéith ag cur le gníomhaíocht dPGC-1, an leagan de ghéin an Fhrith-Fheann, agus tá an feiniméan céanna le feiceáil in orgánaigh ar aistí bia teoranta calraí. Nuair a mhéadaíodh gníomhaíocht an ghéin i gcill stáit agus i gcill réamhghnéasach an intestine, a fhreastalaíonn ar fhíocháin intestine a athshlánú, comhoiriúnach na hathruithe ceallacha seo le sláinte níos fearr agus fad saoil níos faide. Bhí na flieagáin ina gcónaí idir 20 agus 50 faoin gcéad níos faide, ag brath ar an modh agus ar an méid a ndearnadh athrú ar ghníomhaíocht an ghéin. Bhí a n-intestin álainn, a dúirt Christopher L. Koehler, mac léinn dochtúireachta in Ollscoil California, San Diego, a dhéanann taighde i saotharlann Jones. Bhí tuairim ag eolaithe go bhféadfadh sé a bheith ina chúis leis seo go raibh an méadú ar PCG-1 mar thoradh ar shéimeanna a spreagadh chun fíocháin intestinal a athshlánú, rud a choinníonn intestines na mbéic níos sláintiúla. Ag moill ar an dul in aois de amháin, orgán tábhachtach, sa chás seo an intestine - d'fhéadfadh a bheith tionchar suntasach ar an tsláinte i gcoitinne agus fad saoil, dúirt Jones, i ghalair a théann i bhfeidhm ar na fíocháin il, mar shampla, d'fhéadfadh tú díriú ar a choinneáil ar an orgán amháin sláintiúil, agus chun é sin a dhéanamh d'fhéadfadh tú a bheith in ann a úsáid PGC-1. Déanann an géin PCG-1 líon na gcumhachtlann ceallacha seo a rialáil, a thiontú siúcraí agus saillte ó bhia go fuinneamh le haghaidh feidhmeanna ceallacha. Deimhníodh i staidéir roimhe seo go raibh ainmhithe ar a raibh a n-aiste bia teoranta ina gcónaí níos mó ná dhá uair níos faide, ar an meán, ná iad siúd ar a raibh a n-aiste bia neamh-thoranta.

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Sainmhíniú ar fianáin Is iad na fianáin aitheantóirí a sheolann muid chuig diosca crua do ríomhaire trí do bhrabhsálaí gréasáin ionas gur féidir lenár gcórais do bhrabhsálaí a aithint agus seirbhísí áirithe a thairiscint duit, tá na fianáin a úsáidtear ar an suíomh Gréasáin seo thíos. ☐Cód an chustaiméara ☐Cód an chustaiméara ☐Cód an chustaiméara ☐Cód an chustaiméara ☐Cód an chustaiméara ☐Cód an chustaiméara ☐Cód an chustaiméara ☐Cód an chustaiméara ☐Cód an chustaiméara ☐Cód an chustaiméara ☐Cód an chustaiméara ☐Cód an chustaiméara ☐Cód an chustaiméara ☐Cód an chustaiméara ☐Cód an chustaiméara ☐Cód an chustaiméara ☐Cód an chustaiméara ☐Cód an chustaiméara ☐Cód an chustaiméara ☐Cód an chustaiméara ☐Cód an chustaiméara ☐Cód an chustaiméara ☐Cód an chustaiméara ☐ Cúisí féin User identifyer, IP session. CúisisIdentify access for future statistics. Cúis2 years. CúisChanging the browser setup Cúis ☐ Tá an t-eolas a bhaineann le húsáid na bogearraí ar fáil. Ní mór do ghnáthúsáid an ghréasáin Cúltaca: ☐Faisnéis anailíseach faoin gcuairte, faoin am, faoin rannán, faoin gcliceáil agus faoin suíomh tagartha. ☐An anailís ar iompar úsáideoirí ar an ngréasán agus ar an gcaoi sin a bheith in ann an tseirbhís a fheabhsú. ☐Cookies seisiúin nó 2 bhliain ar a mhéad. ☐Installaíocht: Cúltaca: ☐Comhdaithe sonraí maidir le cé na leathanaigh a roinntear, cathain agus conas. ☐ComhdaitheSóisialta plug-in a ligeann d'úsáideoirí ábhar a roinnt ar líonraí sóisialta. ☐ComhdaitheDearbhaithe ag AddThis. ☐ComhdaitheTo disable: Conas fianáin a dhíchumasú i bpríomh- bhrabhsálaithe: De ghnáth is féidir stop a chur le glacadh le fianáin an bhrabhsálaí, nó stop a chur le glacadh le fianáin Seirbhís áirithe. Ligeann gach brabhsálaí nua-aimseartha duit na socruithe ar Chúicíní a athrú. Is gnách go bhfaightear na socruithe seo i Option nó Preferences i roghchlár do bhrabhsálaí. Is féidir leat do bhrabhsálaí nó do bhainisteoir ríomhphoist a chumrú freisin. Seo a leanas treoir don Úsáideoir maidir leis na céimeanna chun rochtain a fháil ar roghchlár chumraíochta fianáin agus, i gcás inarb iomchuí, brabhsáil phríobháideach i ngach ceann de na príomhbhrabhsálaithe: Le haghaidh tuilleadh eolais, is féidir leat dul i gcomhairle le tacaíocht Microsoft nó le Cabhair an bhrabhsálaí. Le haghaidh tuilleadh eolais, is féidir leat dul i gcomhairle le tacaíocht Mozilla nó le Cabhair an bhrabhsálaí. Le haghaidh tuilleadh eolais, is féidir leat tacaíocht Google nó Cabhair an bhrabhsálaí a sheiceáil. Le haghaidh tuilleadh eolais, is féidir leat tacaíocht Apple nó Cabhair an bhrabhsálaí a sheiceáil. Cad a tharlaíonn má tá fianáin neamhghníomhach? Beidh roinnt gnéithe de na Seirbhísí díghníomhaithe, mar shampla fanacht aitheanta, ceannacháin a choinneáil sa "carbad siopadóireachta", srl.

Calabar: Calabar is pronounced calabah. Before the colonial period, Calabar was originally known as Akwa Akpa. We are starting the travel page with Calabar, perhaps because the city is the first capital city of Nigeria. Not many people know this part of Calabar history. It served as the seat of government of the Niger Coast Protectorate, which is the Southern protectorate and oil river protectorate. As the first capital city of Nigeria, Calabar is also had the first social club in Nigeria, the Africa club, and hosted the competitive football, cricket and field hockey games in Nigeria. The first Roman Catholic mass in Nigeria was held at 19 Bocco Street, Calabar in 1903. The oldest secondary school in Eastern Nigeria in 1895 in Hope Waddell Training Institution which produced the first President of Nigeria, Dr Nnamdi Azikiwe. Weather: Calabar, also called Canaan city, features a tropical monsoon climate with a lengthy wet season, spanning ten months and a short dry season covering the remaining two months. Harmattan is less pronounced in calabar. Temperatures are relatively constant throughout the course of the year, with average high temperatures usually ranging from 25 to 28 degrees Celsius. There is also little variance between daytime and night time temperatures. It is weather good for tourists. The People: Calabar has three principal landlord kingdoms, namely the Qua Kingdom of Ejagham(Ekoi)/Bantu origin, the Efut and the Efik kingdoms. The Qua kingdom has the Ndidem of Qua nation as the grand patriarch, the Efut have the Muri Munene as the grand patriarch and the Efik kingdom patriarch is the Obong. Calabar people are mainly people from the greater calabar district- Calabar south, Calabar municipality, Akpabuyo, Bakassi,Biase, Odukpani, and Akpamkpa. In Nigeria, the term ‘Calabar people’ refers to people of old South Eastern state, which is todays Cross River state and Akwa Ibom state. Opportunities: Calabar is the headquarters of the Eastern Naval command. Calabar has an international museum, a botanical garden, and a free trade zone/port and international airport and seaport. The famous Tinapa resort is an internationally recognised resort which is located to the north of the city, beside the free trade zone. The Cross River State annual Christmas festival held every year attracts thousands of local and foreign visitors. The festival includes musical performance from local and international artists, the annual Calabar carnival, Boat regalia, Fashion shows, Christmas village, traditional dances and the annual Ekpe Festival is a yearly event that is already in the calendars of tourists around the world. “IPOB is being sponsored by those I will call the Coalition of the politically disgruntled and the treasury looters. They believe that by sponsoring this group to destabilize the country and trigger chaos, they will realize their ambition of escaping justice and then be free to dip their hands into the nation’s treasury again.” -Lai Mohammed(Nigeria’s Information Minister on IPOB) Restructuring: States step up push for more powers Presidency’s N137b virement not listed as Senate, Reps return Osinbajo to Meet National Assembly Leaders, CJN on Ease of Doing Business Action Plan Royal Jordanian Air Force to collaborate with NAF on counterterrorism Dubai’s self-flying taxi makes first concept flight © CybokNews 2016 | All Rights Reserved

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Calabar: Is calabah a fhuaimnítear Calabar. Roimh thréimhse na coilíneachta, bhí an t-ainm ar Calabar ar dtús Akwa Akpa. Tá an leathanach taistil á thosú againn le Calabar, b'fhéidir toisc gurb é an chathair an chéad phríomhchathair sa Nigéir. Níl a lán daoine a fhios an chuid seo de stair Calabar. Bhí sé mar shuíomh rialtais Chosaint Chósta na Nígear, a bhfuil an cois cois Theas agus cois cois uisce ola. Mar an chéad phríomhchathair sa Nigéir, bhí an chéad chlub sóisialta sa Nigéir, an club na hAfraice, i Calabar agus d'óstáil sé na cluichí iomaíocha peile, cricket agus haca allamuigh sa Nigéir. Bhí an chéad mhisean Caitliceach Rómhánach sa Nigéir ar siúl ag 19 Bocco Street, Calabar i 1903. An scoil mheánmhara is sine in Oirthear na Nigéire i 1895 in Institiúid Oiliúna Hope Waddell a d'eisigh an chéad Uachtarán na Nigéire, an Dr Nnamdi Azikiwe. Aeráid: Tá aeráid thrópaiceach ag Calabar, ar a dtugtar cathair Chánaán freisin, agus bíonn séasúr fada fliuch ann, a mhaireann deich mí agus séasúr gearr tirim a chlúdaíonn an dá mhí eile. Tá Harmattan níos lú le rá i calabar. Tá na teochtaí réasúnta seasmhach i rith na bliana, agus is gnách go mbíonn meán-teochtaí ard idir 25 agus 28 céim Celsius. Tá beagán difríochta idir teochtaí lá agus oíche freisin. Tá sé aimsir maith do thurasóirí. An Daoine: Tá trí ríocht phríomh-thiarna talún ag Calabar, is iad sin Ríocht Qua de bhunadh Ejagham ((Ekoi) / Bantu, ríochtaí Efut agus Efik. Tá Ndidem náisiún Qua ag ríocht Qua mar an phatriarch mór, tá an Muri Munene ag an Efut mar an phatriarch mór agus is é an Obong an phatriarch ríocht Efik. Is daoine ó Calabar is mó iad daoine ó cheantar Calabar níos mó - Calabar ó dheas, bardacht Calabar, Akpabuyo, Bakassi, Biase, Odukpani, agus Akpamkpa. Sa Nigéir, tagraíonn an téarma daoine Calabar do dhaoine den sean stát Oirdheisceart, atá inniu ann stát Cross River agus stát Akwa Ibom. Deiseanna: Is é Calabar ceanncheathrú na hÓmra Searaí Thoir. Tá músaem idirnáisiúnta, gairdín bhotáineach, agus limistéar / calafort saorthrádála agus aerfort agus calafort idirnáisiúnta ag Calabar. Is ionad saoire aitheanta go hidirnáisiúnta é an t-ionad saoire cáiliúil Tinapa atá suite ó thuaidh den chathair, in aice leis an gcrios saorthrádála. An Abhainn Chros Tarraingíonn féile bhliantúil na Nollag a bhíonn ar siúl gach bliain na mílte cuairteoir áitiúla agus eachtrannacha. Áirítear sa fhéile feidhmíocht ceoil ó ealaíontóirí áitiúla agus idirnáisiúnta, an Carnaval bliantúil Calabar, Boat regalia, Taispeántais Fhéile, sráidbhaile Nollag, damhsa traidisiúnta agus is ócáid bhliantúil é Féile Ekpe bliantúil atá cheana féin i gcláirnéil turasóirí ar fud an domhain. Tá IPOB á urraithe ag na daoine a ghlaoim ar an gComhghuaillíocht na míshásta polaitiúil agus na loitirí ríochta. Creideann siad go gcuirfidh siad a n-uaillmhian chun éalú ó cheartas i gcrích agus ansin a bheith saor chun a lámha a chaitheamh i gciste an náisiúin arís. -Lai Mohammed (Aire Faisnéise na Nigéire ar IPOB) Athstruchtúrú: Na Stáit ag cur níos mó cumhachta ar fáil Ní liostaítear aistriúchán N137b an Uachtaránachta mar Seanad, tagann Reps Osinbajo chun Cruinniú le ceannairí an Tionóil Náisiúnta, CJN ar Phlean Gníomhaíochta Éascaíochta Gnó Beidh Airm Ríoga na hIordáine ag comhoibriú le NAF i gcoinne na sceimhlitheoireachta Déanann tacsaí féin-eitilte Dubai a chéad eitilt coincheapa © CybokNews 2016 © CybokNews 2016 © CybokNews 2016 © CybokNews 2016 © CybokNews 2016 © CybokNews 2016

Inter-calibration methods compare a reference instrument, with well-known calibration characteristics, with collocated observations from another instrument, in order to derive calibration corrections for the latter. This ensures consistency between the products of the different instruments. Satellite inter-calibration is beneficial for the following reasons: - it can identify problems and increase the confidence in the operational calibration of individual satellites. Hence, inter-calibration can serve as a monitoring tool for the operational calibration; - it can provide the basis for a normalised calibration, which is a prerequisite for the derivation of global products from different satellites. EUMETSAT has performed inter-calibration using instrument measurements from both geostationary Meteosat satellites and the polar-orbiting Metop and NOAA satellites. EUMETSAT’s inter-calibration activities are now coordinated through the Global Space-based Inter-Calibration System (GSICS). GSICS Inter-Calibration Products The range of GSICS products includes the GSICS Correction and GSICS Bias Monitoring. GSICS Corrections are functions users can apply to correct the calibration of operationally-generated datasets from the Monitored Instrument so they are consistent with those of the Reference Instrument. GSICS Corrections are available for both Near-Real-Time and Re-Analysis applications, with different latencies. GSICS Bias Monitoring allow users to visualise the relative biases between the monitored and reference instruments for standard radiances. These take the form of time series plots in which the latest results can be compared with recent trends. The table (above) summarises the status of a number of different GSICS products being developed by EUMETSAT. Links are provided to the EUMETSAT GSICS Data and Product Server, where the coefficients of the GSICS Correction can be downloaded in netCDF format (PDF, 77.6 KB), and to the webpages where the GSICS Bias Monitoring plots are routinely updated. For example, the GSICS Meteosat IR Inter-Calibration page shows prototype GSICS Bias Monitoring results for the inter-comparison of the infrared channels of geostationary Meteosat imagers and the polar-orbiting IASI sounder. The results from the inter-calibration algorithm (PDF, 980 KB) can be downloaded as GSICS Correction Coefficients, in netCDF Format (PDF, 77.6 KB), from EUMETSAT GSICS Data and Product Server. netCDF files can be read and visualised using a variety of applications, including ncBrowse. GSICS Data and Products Server EUMETSAT has taken the lead in the design and development of the first operational GSICS Data and Product Server. The purpose of this server is to provide the platform for developing calibration products and to facilitate data exchange related to GSICS activities. Its purpose, operational concepts and data exchange format (netCDF) were presented to the GSICS partners, at the joint GSICS meeting in 2008, where its development was agreed and endorsed by the GSICS partners and, then, the Executive Panel. The EUMETSAT GSICS Data and Product Server became operational on 1 April, 2009. It currently serves the GSICS community with EUMETSAT’s instruments’ source data sets — as well as pre-operational GSICS products undergoing validation, according to the GSICS product acceptance procedure. Our GSICS partners are in the process of developing their operational GSICS Data and Product servers. Once this is realised, a network of collaboration data and production servers will share all GSICS data and products with each other, providing a reliable data distribution service to the user community. In the future, developments in the area of metadata conventions will be further examined. Using established conventions, or adding to them, adds value to data as all users of the convention will understand what the data is and use the same units. Another major benefit, for the user community, of using conventions is tools implemented to understand these conventions can immediately work with the data. Further information may be found in the GSICS Data and Products Server User Guide (PDF, 752 KB), EUMETSAT Data Centre Archive netCDF Formats (PDF, 258 KB) and a presentation on GSICS Collaboration Servers (PDF, 965 KB). Heritage Inter-Calibration Products The Meteosat-NOAA HIRS Inter-calibration page shows the calibration coefficients for infrared and water vapour channels of the Meteosat First Generation imagers, derived by comparison with collocated observations from the HIRS sounders on NOAA polar-orbiting satellites. The method is described in more detail on the MFG Calibration webpage. The calibration coefficients derived from this method are compared with those used operationally. This method is currently under review to align it with GSICS procedures with the intention of providing an inter-calibration product for the Meteosat archive, based on a homogenised series of HIRS data as a reference.

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Déantar modhanna idirchalabrála ag comparáid idir ionstraim tagartha, a bhfuil tréithe cáilibrála ar eolas aige, agus breathnuithe co-chalaoite ó ionstraim eile, d'fhonn ceartaithe cáilibrála a bhaint amach don ionstraim sin. Cinntíonn sé sin comhsheasmhacht idir táirgí na n-ionstraimí éagsúla. Tá idir-chalabráil satailíte tairbheach ar na cúiseanna seo a leanas: - is féidir leis fadhbanna a shainaithint agus an muinín a mhéadú i gcálú oibríochtúil na satailíte aonair. Is féidir leis an idir-chalabrú mar sin a bheith ina uirlis faireacháin don chalabrú oibríochtúil; - is féidir leis an mbonn a sholáthar do chalabrú caighdeánaithe, rud atá riachtanach chun táirgí domhanda a dhíriú ó satailítí éagsúla. Tá an t-iarsmaí a úsáidtear chun an t-iarsmaí a scagadh agus a scagadh, agus an t-iarsmaí a scagadh agus a scagadh, agus an t-iarsmaí a scagadh agus a scagadh. Tá gníomhaíochtaí idirchalabrála EUMETSAT comhordaithe anois trí Chóras Idirchalabrála Domhanda Spáis-bhunaithe (GSICS). Táirgí Idir-Chalibrála GSICS Áirítear ar raon táirgí GSICS an GSICS Correction agus Monatóireacht Bias GSICS. Is feidhmeanna iad ceartaithe GSICS is féidir le húsáideoirí a chur i bhfeidhm chun calibráil na sraitheanna sonraí a ghintear go hoibríoch ón Ionstraim Monatóireachta a cheartú ionas go mbeidh siad comhsheasmhach le cinn an Ionstraim Tagartha. Tá ceartaithe GSICS ar fáil d'iarratais Near-Real-Time agus Re-Analysis araon, le latencies éagsúla. Cuireann Monatóireacht Bias GSICS ar chumas úsáideoirí na biasachtaí coibhneasta idir na hionstraimí faireacháin agus na hionstraimí tagartha a fheiceáil le haghaidh radianta caighdeánacha. Tá siad i bhfoirm phlátaí sraithe ama ina bhféadfar na torthaí is déanaí a chur i gcomparáid le treochtaí le déanaí. Tugann an tábla (uas) achoimre ar stádas roinnt táirgí GSICS éagsúla atá á bhforbairt ag EUMETSAT. Tá naisc ar fáil chuig Seirbhéir Sonraí agus Táirgí EUMETSAT GSICS, áit ar féidir cóimheasaí na Ceartaithe GSICS a íoslódáil i bhformáid netCDF (PDF, 77.6 KB), agus chuig na leathanaigh ghréasáin ina n-uaslódáiltear plátaí Monatóireachta Bias GSICS go rialta. Mar shampla, léiríonn leathanach Idir-Calibráil IR GSICS Meteosat torthaí Prototaip Monatóireachta Bias GSICS le haghaidh idir-choigiltí na gcainéil infra-dearg de léarscáileanna geostaitíneacha Meteosat agus an léarscáileoir IASI atá ag dul i gciorcal polach. Is féidir torthaí an ailtriomála idir-chalabrála (PDF, 980 KB) a íoslódáil mar Chomhthocsaí ceartaithe GSICS, i bhFóráid netCDF (PDF, 77.6 KB), ó Sholáthraí Sonraí agus Táirgí EUMETSAT GSICS. Is féidir comhaid netCDF a léamh agus a fheiceáil trí úsáid a bhaint as feidhmchláir éagsúla, lena n-áirítear ncBrowse. Freastalaí Sonraí agus Táirgí GSICS Tá EUMETSAT i gceannas ar dhearadh agus forbairt an chéad Sheirbhíseora Sonraí agus Táirgí GSICS oibríochtúil. Is é is cuspóir don fhreastalaí seo an t-ardán a sholáthar chun táirgí cailíbríochta a fhorbairt agus malartú sonraí a bhaineann le gníomhaíochtaí GSICS a éascú. Cuireadh a chuspóir, coincheapa oibríochtúla agus formáid malartaithe sonraí (netCDF) i láthair do chomhpháirtithe GSICS, ag cruinniú comhpháirteach GSICS i 2008, áit a ndeachaigh comhpháirtithe GSICS agus an Painéal Feidhmiúcháin i gcomhaontú agus i bhfabhar a fhorbairt. Tháinig Seirbhéir Sonraí agus Táirgí EUMETSAT GSICS i bhfeidhm an 1 Aibreán, 2009. Faoi láthair, tá sé ar fáil do phobal GSICS le huirlisí EUMETSAT, le tacar sonraí foinse, chomh maith le táirgí GSICS réamh-oibríochtúla atá á bhfíorú, de réir nós imeachta glactha táirgí GSICS. Tá ár gcomhpháirtithe GSICS ag forbairt a gcuid freastalaithe GSICS Sonraí agus Táirgí oibríochtúla. Nuair a bheidh sé seo tugtha i gcrích, roinnfidh líonra de shláinéir sonraí comhoibrithe agus táirgeachta na sonraí agus na dtáirgí GSICS go léir lena chéile, ag soláthar seirbhís iontaofa dáileacháin sonraí don phobal úsáideora. Sa todhchaí, scrúdófar tuilleadh forbairtí i réimse coinbhinsiúin meiteadat. Le húsáid coinbhinsiúin bhunaithe, nó ag cur leo, cuirtear luach leis na sonraí toisc go dtuigeann úsáideoirí uile an choinbhinsiúin cad iad na sonraí agus go n-úsáideann siad na haonaid chéanna. Is é an buntáiste mór eile, do phobal na n-úsáideoirí, a bhaineann le coinbhinsiúin a úsáid ná gur féidir le huirlisí a chuirtear i bhfeidhm chun na coinbhinsiúin seo a thuiscint oibriú láithreach leis na sonraí. Tá tuilleadh faisnéise le fáil i dTreoirlínte Úsáideora Seirbhéir Sonraí agus Táirgí GSICS (PDF, 752 KB), i bhFóráidí netCDF Chartlann Ionad Sonraí EUMETSAT (PDF, 258 KB) agus i gcur i láthair ar Sheirbhéirí Comhoibrithe GSICS (PDF, 965 KB). Táirgí Idir-Calibrála Oidhreachta Taispeánann leathanach idir-chalabrála Meteosat-NOAA HIRS na comhéifeachtaí calabrála do chanálacha infra-dearg agus gaile uisce de na léaráidí Meteosat an Chéad Ghlúin, a fuarthas trí chomparáid le breathnóireachtaí co-locaithe ó léaráidí fuaime HIRS ar satailítí NOAA a bhíonn ag dul i bhfithis pholair. Tá an modh cur síos níos mionsonraithe ar shuíomh gréasáin MFG Calibration. Déantar comparáid idir na comhéifeachtaí cailíbríochta a fuarthas ón modh seo agus na comhéifeachtaí a úsáidtear go hoibríoch. Tá an modh seo á athbhreithniú faoi láthair chun é a ailíniú le nósanna imeachta GSICS agus é mar aidhm aige táirge idir-chalabrála a sholáthar don chartlann Meteosat, bunaithe ar shraith chomhlánaithe sonraí HIRS mar thagairt.

Gene variations linked to severity of Zika-related birth defects, small IRP study suggests The severity of birth defects caused by Zika virus infection may be influenced by natural variations in a pregnant woman’s genes for a key enzyme, according to a study by researchers at the National Institutes of Health, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, and Professor Joaquim Amorim Neto Research Institute in Campina Grande, Brazil. The enzyme, adenylate cyclase, is required to make cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), which plays a role in placental development and other cellular processes, including the immune response to infection. The findings appear in the Journal of Internal Medicine. The study enrolled 52 women who had given birth after testing positive for Zika virus infection. Of these women, 28 gave birth to children with reduced head size and other Zika-related birth defects; infants born to the remaining 24 women did not appear to have any Zika-related effects. After sequencing genes from the women, the researchers found that mothers of severely affected infants were more likely to have variations in two genes essential for making adenylate cyclase, ADCY3 and ADCY7. The variation in ADCY3 has previously been associated with higher levels of adenylate cyclase, leading to higher levels of cAMP. The researchers believe higher cAMP levels could stimulate reproduction of the virus. Similarly, a variation in ADCY7 has been linked to lower levels of cAMP, which could protect against the virus’ effects. The authors note that, because of the relatively small number of women studied, additional research is needed to confirm these results. However, future research on drugs that influence cAMP production might yield potential therapies that protect against Zika exposure during pregnancy. This page was last updated on Friday, January 21, 2022

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Tá éagsúlachtaí géinithe a bhaineann le déine na lochtanna breith a bhaineann le Zika, a léiríonn staidéar beag IRP D'fhéadfadh difríochtaí nádúrtha i ngéin mhná torracha le haghaidh ensím lárnach tionchar a imirt ar thromchúis mhíchlaonna breith a bhíonn mar thoradh ar ionfhabhtú víreas Zika, de réir staidéir a rinne taighdeoirí ag na hInstitiúidí Náisiúnta Sláinte, Ollscoil na Seirbhísí Uniformed de na hEolaíochtaí Sláinte, Ollscoil Chónaidhme Rio de Janeiro, agus Institiúid Taighde an Ollamh Joaquim Amorim Neto i Campina Grande, an Bhrasaíl. Tá gá leis an einsím, adenylate cyclase, chun adenosine monophosphate ciceallach (cAMP) a dhéanamh, a bhfuil ról aige i bhforbairt placenta agus próisis cheallacha eile, lena n-áirítear an fhreagra imdhíonachta ar ionfhabhtú. Tá na torthaí le feiceáil sa Journal of Internal Medicine. Cuireadh 52 bhean a d'fhás tar éis dóibh tástáil dearfach a dhéanamh ar ionfhabhtú víreas Zika san áireamh sa staidéar. D'fhág 28 de na mná seo leanaí le méid cinn laghdaithe agus lochtanna breith eile a bhaineann le Zika; ní raibh aon éifeachtaí a bhaineann le Zika ag na leanaí a rugadh do na 24 bhean eile. Tar éis géiní a sheachadadh ó na mná, fuair na taighdeoirí amach go raibh seans níos mó ag máithreacha naíonáin a raibh tionchar tromchúiseach acu ar athruithe in dhá ghéin atá riachtanach chun adenylate cyclase, ADCY3 agus ADCY7 a dhéanamh. Bhí baint ag an athrú i ADCY3 roimhe seo le leibhéil níos airde de adenylate cyclase, rud a d'fhág go raibh leibhéil níos airde cAMP ann. Creideann na taighdeoirí go bhféadfadh leibhéil níos airde cAMP atáirgeadh an víris a spreagadh. Ar an gcaoi chéanna, tá athrú in ADCY7 nasctha le leibhéil níos ísle cAMP, a d'fhéadfadh cosaint a thabhairt i gcoinne éifeachtaí an víris. Tugann na húdair faoi deara, mar gheall ar líon réasúnta beag na mban a ndearnadh staidéar orthu, go bhfuil gá le taighde breise chun na torthaí seo a dhearbhú. Mar sin féin, d'fhéadfadh taighde amach anseo ar dhrugaí a mbíonn tionchar acu ar tháirgeadh cAMP cóireálacha féideartha a thabhairt a chosnaíonn ó nochtadh Zika le linn toirchis. Nuashonraíodh an leathanach seo ar an Aoine, 21 Eanáir, 2022

Hoping to drop five pounds in a week? You might want to change your mindset and your strategy: Steady, and most often slow, weight loss is more likely to be long-lasting, researchers say. In a study that included 183 overweight or obese volunteers, those with consistent weight loss in the first couple of months were more likely to keep the pounds off long term than those whose weights fluctuated from week to week, according to the report published in Obesity. "While it’s possible that some people did have fast and consistent weight loss, for most who are consistent from week to week it’s probably slower,” said the study’s lead author, Emily Feig, who was a graduate student at Drexel University while doing the research and is now a clinical research fellow at Massachusetts General Hospital. Most people can lose weight — the hard part is keeping the pounds off. To figure out the factors for keeping weight off, volunteers were enrolled in one of three weight-loss programs that included some behavioral treatment. In addition to the standard counseling, one group was told to use two meal replacements per day and another was told to consume fewer energy-dense foods while increasing protein and fiber intake. The participants were also asked about food-related behaviors and attitudes, such as cravings, emotional eating, binge eating and confidence in regulating intake, and their weights were checked weekly. When the researchers checked in after a year and then again after two years, they found that when it came to long-term weight maintenance it didn’t matter which group the volunteers were from. What did matter was how consistently someone lost weight. So, those with more variability in their weight loss over the initial 12 weeks of the study tended to have poorer weight control at 12 and 24 months. Intriguingly, volunteers who reported lower emotional eating, binge eating and preoccupation with food when the study started were more likely to display higher weight variability and less weight loss overall. That may mean that consistent weight loss, rather than a person’s relationship with food, may be far more important in predicting who will be more successful long term. Another important point, Feig said, “It tells us that if you’re in a weight-loss program and you are not able to lose consistently, it’s a sign you may need to try something else." The bottom line: Find something you can stick with, even if it means not losing more than a pound, or even a half pound, a week. Dr. Zhaoping Li, who was not involved in the new research, said the study underscores the need for an individualized approach. “We need to find an intervention that fits the individual,” said Li, a professor of medicine and director of the Center for Human Nutrition at the David Geffen School of Medicine at the University of California, Los Angeles. “One issue we’ve been suffering from overall is trying to find one meal plan that works for everyone. That’s a recipe for disaster. If people are struggling in the very beginning, you need to modify the plan, otherwise it won’t stick long term.” For inspirational stories of weight-loss success, check out our My Weight-Loss Journey page.

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Ag súil le cúig phunt a chailleadh i seachtain? B'fhéidir gur mhaith leat do chuid smaointeoireachta agus do straitéis a athrú: Deir taighdeoirí go bhfuil seans níos mó ann go mbeidh meáchain caillteanas seasmhach, agus is minic go mall, fadtéarmach. I staidéar a raibh 183 saorálach róthrom nó murtall i gceist leis, bhí seans níos mó ag na daoine a chaill a meáchan go seasta sa chéad chúpla mí ná iad siúd a raibh a meáchan ag athrú ó sheachtain go seachtain, de réir na tuarascála a foilsíodh in Obesity. "Cé gur féidir go raibh meáchain caillteanas tapa agus comhsheasmhach ag daoine áirithe, is dócha go bhfuil sé níos moille don chuid is mó a bhíonn comhsheasmhach ó sheachtain go seachtain", a dúirt príomh-údar an staidéir, Emily Feig, a bhí ina mac léinn iarchéime in Ollscoil Drexel agus í ag déanamh an taighde agus atá anois ina chomhalta taighde cliniciúil in Ospidéal Ginearálta Massachusetts. Is féidir leis an gcuid is mó daoine meáchan a chailleadh - is é an chuid is deacra na punt a choinneáil ar shiúl. Chun a fháil amach cad iad na fachtóirí a choinníonn meáchan, cuireadh saorálaithe i gceann de thrí chlár meáchain caillteanas a raibh cóireáil iompair áirithe san áireamh iontu. Chomh maith leis an gnáthchomhairle, dúradh le grúpa amháin dhá bhia a úsáid in ionad bia in aghaidh an lae agus dúradh le grúpa eile níos lú bianna tiubh fuinnimh a ithe agus iad ag cur le hionchur próitéine agus snáithín. Iarradh ar na rannpháirtithe freisin faoi iompar agus dearcadh a bhaineann le bia, mar shampla cravings, ithe mothúchánach, ithe go hiontach agus muinín i rialú iontógála, agus seiceáladh a meáchain go seachtainiúil. Nuair a rinne na taighdeoirí seiceáil isteach tar éis bliana agus ansin arís tar éis dhá bhliain, fuair siad amach nach raibh sé tábhachtach cén grúpa a bhí na hoibrithe deonacha as nuair a bhí sé i gceist le meáchan a choimeád ar bun ar feadh i bhfad. Ba é an rud a bhí tábhachtach ná cé chomh comhsheasmhach a chaill duine meáchan. Mar sin, bhí claonadh ag na daoine a raibh níos mó éagsúlachta acu i gcaillteanas meáchain thar na 12 sheachtain tosaigh den staidéar rialú meáchain níos measa a bheith acu ag 12 agus 24 mhí. Is ábhar suimiúil go raibh níos mó seans ann go mbeadh athrú meáchain níos airde ag na saorálaithe a thuairiscigh ithe níos ísle mothúchánach, ithe go mór agus díriú ar bhia nuair a thosaigh an staidéar agus níos lú meáchain caillteanas san iomlán. D'fhéadfadh sé sin a chiallaíonn go bhféadfadh meáchain caillteanas leanúnach, seachas caidreamh duine le bia, a bheith i bhfad níos tábhachtaí chun a thuar cé a bheidh níos rathúla san fhadtéarma. "Tá sé tábhachtach go leor go bhfuil tú ag iarraidh a bheith níos measa agus níos measa, agus go bhfuil tú ag iarraidh a bheith níos measa agus níos measa". An pointe is mó: Faigh rud éigin is féidir leat a choinneáil, fiú mura gciallaíonn sé nach gcaillfidh tú níos mó ná punt, nó fiú leath punt, in aghaidh na seachtaine. Dúirt an Dr. Zhaoping Li, nach raibh páirteach sa taighde nua, go gcuireann an staidéar béim ar an ngá atá le cur chuige aonair. "Caithfimid idirghabháil a aimsiú a oireann don duine aonair", a dúirt Li, ollamh míochaine agus stiúrthóir an Ionad um Chothú Daonna ag Scoil Leighis David Geffen in Ollscoil California, Los Angeles. Is é an fhadhb a bhí againn ná iarracht a dhéanamh plean bia amháin a aimsiú a oibríonn do gach duine. Is é sin oideas do thubaiste. Má tá daoine ag streachailt ag an tús, ní mór duit an plean a mhodhnú, ar shlí eile ní bheidh sé i bhfeidhm go fadtéarmach. Chun scéalta spreagúla a fháil faoi rath meáchain caillteanas, féach ar ár leathanach Mo Thuras Meáchain caillteanas.

Lynda - Speed Reading Fundamentals | 409MB Duration: 0h 58m | Video: AVC (.mp4) 1280x720 30fps | Audio: AAC 48KHz 2ch Genre: eLearning | Level: Beginner | Language: English Learn how to improve your reading speed and comprehension. Speed-reading is a skill everyone can benefit from, and this course provides proven techniques to improve how much information you absorb and how fast you absorb it. Paul Nowak, the founder of Iris Reading, first asks you to measure your current reading rate, and explores the reading habits that slow people down. Then he introduces simple techniques for boosting your reading speed and practice drills to reinforce your new skill. The course then focuses on improving comprehension by understanding how memory works, practicing the "read and recall" method, and breaking down technical terms. The final chapter introduces some advanced tips and strategies for reading different types of media: news and magazine articles, textbooks, technical material, and ebooks. * Reading faster on the computer * Reading groups of words * Previewing and overviewing * Improving comprehension and retention * Understanding the 80/20 principle of reading * Reading magazines, textbooks, diagrams, and ebooks

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Lynda - Bunriachtanais Léitheoireachta Luath Tráth: 0h 58m Físeán: AVC (.mp4) 1280x720 30fps Fuaim: AAC 48KHz 2ch Seánra: eLearning. Leibhéal: Tosaí. Teanga: Béarla Foghlaim conas do luas léitheoireachta agus do thuiscint a fheabhsú. Is scileanna iad seo a d'fhéadfadh a bheith úsáideach do gach duine, agus tugann an cúrsa seo teicnící cruthaithe chun feabhas a chur ar an méid faisnéise a ghlacann tú agus an luas a ghlacann tú leis. Iarrann Paul Nowak, bunaitheoir Iris Reading, ar dtús go ndéanfaidh tú do ráta léitheoireachta reatha a thomhas, agus go ndéanfaidh sé iniúchadh ar na nósanna léitheoireachta a chuireann moill ar dhaoine. Ansin cuireann sé bealaí simplí ar fáil chun do luas léitheoireachta a mhéadú agus cleachtaí a chleachtadh chun do scileanna nua a threisiú. Ansin díreofar an cúrsa ar fheabhas a chur ar thuiscint trí thuiscint a fháil ar an gcaoi a n-oibríonn cuimhne, an modh "léigh agus cuimhnigh" a chleachtadh, agus téarmaí teicniúla a bhriseadh síos. Tugtar isteach sa chaibidil dheireanach roinnt leideanna agus straitéisí chun cinn maidir le cineálacha éagsúla meáin a léamh: alt nuachta agus irisí, téacsleabhair, ábhar teicniúil, agus ríomhleabhair. * Léitheoireacht níos tapúla ar an ríomhaire * Grúpaí focail a léamh * Réamhamharc agus foramhamharc * Tuiscint agus cuimhne a fheabhsú * Prionsabal 80/20 a thuiscint maidir le léamh * irisí, leabhair teagaisc, léaráidí, agus leabhair leictreonacha a léamh

It happens to everyone from time to time that your mouth smells bad, but this is a common problem that affects about 1 in 4 people. And the constant smell of bad breath is an embarrassing thing that makes a person feel shy, confused and embarrassed. It is easy to notice bad breath in others, but it is difficult for the owner of the smell himself to feel it. Therefore, if a person thinks that their mouth smells bad, they can do a simple test to make sure, they can lick the inner side of their wrist and then smell it. If the smell is bad, that confirms the bad smell of itself as well. Or he could ask someone he trusted to smell himself. It is wrong for him to feel offended if he tells him there is a problem, and wouldn’t it be better for him to know? Generally, bad breath (also called vaping) is not a serious condition. In most cases it is caused by: Poor dental hygiene, as food remains stuck between the teeth and on the tongue rot, and thus an unwanted odor can sometimes be emitted. Some types of food, such as: garlic, onions, some milk products (such as cheese), coffee, in addition to smoking and some medicines, can cause bad breath for a short time. The accumulation of food debris and rotten food on the surface of the tonsils is known as tonsil stones, which is another source of bad breath. Bad breath can arise as a result of some medical conditions, such as dry mouth, diabetes, gastritis, throat, nose or lung infections, as well as kidney and liver problems. Here are some tips for maintaining a fresh breath: • Brushing the teeth twice a day, using fluoride toothpaste. Also, proper and regular brushing of the teeth is important in maintaining fresh breath. • Tongue cleaning or scraping. There is a soft rubber piece called a tongue scraper that can remove germs at the back of the tongue, which may not be cleaned with a toothbrush normally. • Flossing the teeth. Brushing the teeth cleans approximately 60% of the tooth surfaces. However, flossing can remove food debris between the teeth that can rot and smell bad. There is also another product that can be used to clean the residue between the teeth and is the interdental toothbrush. • The use of antibacterial mouthwashes. The best time to use mouthwashes is just before bed. There are many types of mouthwashes, and most are alcohol-based. But alcohol can dry or irritate the mouth, and thus may cause some problems for the user, in which case it can be replaced by another alcohol-free rinse that contains chlorhexidine or oxygenated water. • Using sugar-free gum, as chewing stimulates the secretion of saliva and prevents dry mouth. Dry mouth can cause a foul odor. But chewing gum cannot be considered a substitute for dental care. Teeth should be cleaned well, even with chewing gum. • Having a check-up at the dentist at least once a year, as this is a good opportunity to do a good dental cleaning and review oral hygiene practices. At that, a sure answer can be obtained about the presence of an unpleasant odor in the breath. • Stop smoking, if that person smokes, it is more likely that a person’s breath will smell like putrid smoke. Cigarette smoking also increases the risk of gum disease, which is another cause of bad breath.

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Tarlaíonn sé do gach duine ó am go ham go mbíonn droch-bhriseadh ag do bhéal, ach is fadhb choitianta í seo a théann i bhfeidhm ar thart ar 1 as 4 dhuine. Agus is rud náire é an boladh leanúnach droch-anam a fhágann go mbraitheann duine náire, mearbhall agus náire. Tá sé éasca droch-aint a thabhairt faoi deara i ndaoine eile, ach tá sé deacair don úinéir an boladh é féin a bhraitheann. Dá bhrí sin, má cheapann duine go bhfuil droch-bhlas ag a bhéal, is féidir leo tástáil shimplí a dhéanamh chun a chinntiú, is féidir leo an taobh istigh dá n-armhéada a lick agus ansin é a bholadh. Má tá an boladh olc, a dheimhníonn an boladh olc é féin chomh maith. Nó d'fhéadfadh sé a iarraidh ar dhuine a raibh muinín aige a smelt féin. Tá sé mícheart dó a bheith mí-ghnóthach má insíonn sé dó go bhfuil fadhb ann, agus nach mbeadh sé níos fearr dó a bheith ar an eolas? Go ginearálta, ní cúis thromchúiseach é droch-allas (ar a dtugtar vaping freisin). I bhformhór na gcásanna tá sé de bharr: Ní bhíonn craiceann maith ag na fiacla, toisc go mbíonn bia greamaithe idir na fiacla agus ar an teanga, agus dá bhrí sin d'fhéadfadh boladh neamhghnácha a bheith ag teacht amach uaireanta. Is féidir le roinnt cineálacha bia, mar shampla: garlic, onions, roinnt táirgí bainne (mar shampla cáis), caife, chomh maith le caitheamh tobac agus roinnt cógais, droch-allas a chur ar bun ar feadh tréimhse ghearr. Is é an carraigí tonsail, a bhfuil foinse eile droch-allas ann, carraigí bia agus bia atá truaillithe a thiomáint ar dhromchla na tonsail. Is féidir droch-aint a bheith mar thoradh ar roinnt riochtaí sláinte, amhail béal tirim, diaibéiteas, gastrit, ionfhabhtuithe throat, srón nó scamhóg, chomh maith le fadhbanna duáin agus ae. Seo roinnt leideanna chun an gaoth a choinneáil úr: • Brushing na fiacla dhá uair sa lá, ag baint úsáide as toothpaste fluóiríd. Chomh maith leis sin, tá sé tábhachtach fiacla a scuabadh go cuí agus go rialta chun an gaoithe a choinneáil úr. • An teanga a ghlanadh nó a scraping. Tá píosa rubair bog ar a dtugtar scraper teanga a d'fhéadfadh microbes a bhaint ar chúl an teanga, nach féidir a ghlanadh le scuab fiacla de ghnáth. • Flossing na fiacla. Déanann an scuabadh fiacla thart ar 60% de na dromchlaí fiacla a ghlanadh. Mar sin féin, is féidir le flossing scriosadh na scriosanna bia idir na fiacla a d'fhéadfadh a bheith ag dul in olcas agus ag dul in olcas. Tá táirge eile ann freisin ar féidir a úsáid chun an iarmhar idir na fiacla a ghlanadh agus is é an scuab fiacla idirfhiacla é. • Úsáid liopaí béil frith-bhabhtáracha. Is é an t-am is fearr le huisceacha béal a úsáid díreach roimh an leaba. Tá go leor cineálacha uisce béal ann, agus tá alcól mar bhunús ar an gcuid is mó acu. Ach d'fhéadfadh alcól an béal a thriomú nó a iontógáil, agus dá bhrí sin d'fhéadfadh sé fadhbanna a chur ar an úsáideoir, agus sa chás sin is féidir é a chur in ionad sruthlú eile gan alcól ina bhfuil clóirheicsidín nó uisce ocsaigineach. • Gúm gan siúcra a úsáid, mar go spreagann an chewing secretion na salaigh agus go gcuireann sé cosc ar bhéal tirim. Is féidir le béal tirim boladh olc a chur ar bun. Ach ní féidir an t-im a mheas mar ionad cúram fiacla. Ba chóir fiacla a ghlanadh go maith, fiú le guma. • A bheith ag dul chuig an fiaclóir uair sa bhliain ar a laghad, mar is deis mhaith é sin glanadh maith fiacla a dhéanamh agus cleachtais sláinteachais béil a athbhreithniú. Ar an gcaoi sin, is féidir freagra cinnte a fháil maidir le boladh míshásta a bheith i n-aigne. • Stop a chaitheamh tobac, má tá an duine sin ag caitheamh tobac, tá sé níos dóchúla go mbeidh boladh an duine cosúil le deatach putrid. Méadaíonn caitheamh tobac an baol go bhfaighfeá galar na gcigí, rud a bhfuil ina chúis eile le droch-allas.

WASHINGTON (AP) — A 50-percent plunge in the price of crude oil, resulting from abundant global oil supplies and cheaper gasoline at the pump, raise critical questions about whether the Keystone XL oil pipeline is still needed or even makes financial sense. Oil prices always have been volatile, and both the pipeline company and the oil refiners and producers that would use the pipeline expect prices to rise and plunge throughout the project's life. When Keystone XL was first proposed in the fall of 2008, for example, oil was in the midst of an even bigger plunge, from nearly $150 a barrel to below $35, and the global economy was collapsing into recession. Opponents will use lower prices to argue that the pipeline now could pose a greater threat to the environment than originally thought. Low oil prices could make the pipeline more important to the development of new oil sands projects in Canada than anticipated by the State Department, which is conducting the environmental review, and therefore is more likely to increase emissions of carbon dioxide and other gases linked to global warming. The review found the pipeline was not likely to exacerbate global warming, but it based that conclusion on higher oil prices. At such prices, producers can afford the higher cost of transporting oil by rail or other means and still make a profit. At low oil prices, they might decide only to expand drilling if they have an inexpensive way of getting the oil to market. The price of oil closed at $48 a barrel on Friday. Proponents say that during periods of low oil prices, the pipeline is more important because oil companies would otherwise have less incentive to deliver what they say is important oil from a reliable source to U.S. refiners on the Gulf Coast. But they say the current price decline is not enough to change the long-term prospects for oil exploration in Canada, global demand for crude, or prices. Oil prices will have little impact on the politics. The Republican-controlled Congress has made passing a bill approving the pipeline a priority, despite a presidential veto threat. Q: Will Keystone XL lower gasoline prices? A: Probably not, but that has not changed. The price of crude oil does affect the price of gasoline, and refiners set up to use heavy crude would enjoy lower priced-oil. That would make those refiners more profitable, but it would not necessarily lower the price of gasoline. Wholesale gasoline prices are based on market benchmarks, which are more closely correlated to the highest-price crude oil on the market, not the lowest price crude. Q: Do lower oil prices mean a pipeline would have a bigger effect on oil sands development and emissions of the pollution linked to global warming? A: Possibly. How much the pipeline could increase production in the oil sands depends on an array of assumptions about global oil demand, prices and regulation. In theory, by increasing the price that oil sands producers could get for their oil, the pipeline encourages more development. But that's true at low and high prices, too, according to Michael Levi, senior fellow for energy and the environment at the Council on Foreign Relations. It could be, though, that at low oil prices the cheap transport provided by a pipeline would be just enough to make some new projects profitable enough to develop, and that concerns environmentalists. In either case, however, the Canadian producers would have to assume low prices will linger for years. Oil sands projects have long lives, so companies based decisions on whether to build them based on assumptions over oil prices over the long term, not based on current prices. Q: Does Keystone XL still make sense for TransCanada? A: It makes more sense than ever. TransCanada stands to make more money from the project now than it did when it was first proposed. That's because the cost of the project has increased from $5.4 billion to $8 billion, and most of the cost will be borne by TransCanada's customers, according to Carl Kirst, an analyst at BMO Capital Markets. Oil producers and refiners have agreed to pay 75 percent of the cost overruns up to $8 billion; anything over that will be split evenly. Q: Does it still make sense for oil companies operating in Canada? A: Probably. Periods of low prices are to be expected over the life of the pipeline, but to producers in Canada the lower the price, the more important it is to have additional low-cost ways to get oil to market. That way they can fetch a higher price for it where it is produced. Many have already started investing in expansion projects that would benefit from low-cost market access. If oil prices fall further or stay low for a long period, however, producers will have no choice but to delay or cancel new projects. If they do not think they would be able to fill the pipeline they would back out of the project because they have to pay for capacity on the line whether they use it or not. Q: Does it still make sense for refiners on the U.S. Gulf Coast? A: Yes. To refiners, more oil is better, and more of the type of oil they need is better still. Many complex Gulf Coast refineries are geared to process the heavy crudes that come out of Canada, Venezuela and Mexico. Because that crude is harder to process, it is cheaper than light sweet crude. If there is more heavy crude available, the price drops, lowering the price for refiners. Venezuelan and Mexican crude production has been falling, so refiners would like another reliable source. “We still want that crude,” said Bill Day, a spokesman for the refining company Valero, which would be a Keystone XL customer. “Canadian heavy crude is some of the lowest-priced crude on the planet.”

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WASHINGTON (AP) Tá plummet 50 faoin gcéad i bpraghas ola amh, mar thoradh ar soláthairtí ola domhanda abundant agus gáslóin níos saoire ag an bpompa, ceisteanna criticiúla faoi cibé an bhfuil an píblíne ola Keystone XL fós riachtanach nó fiú ciall airgeadais. Tá praghsanna ola neamhsheasmhach i gcónaí, agus tá súil ag an gcuideachta píblíne agus na scagthréitigh agus na táirgeoirí ola a d'úsáidfeadh an píblíne go dtiocfaidh praghsanna suas agus go dtiocfaidh siad síos i rith shaolré an tionscadail. Nuair a mhol Keystone XL den chéad uair i rith 2008, mar shampla, bhí ola i lár titim níos mó fós, ó beagnach $ 150 an bairille go dtí faoi bhun $ 35, agus bhí an geilleagar domhanda ag titim isteach i dtimthriall. Bainfidh na freagróirí úsáid as praghsanna níos ísle chun a argóint go bhféadfadh an píoblíne a bheith ina bhagairt níos mó don chomhshaol anois ná mar a cheapadh ar dtús. D'fhéadfadh praghsanna íseal ola an píblíne a dhéanamh níos tábhachtaí do fhorbairt tionscadal nua na n-iasc ola i gCeanada ná mar a bhíothas ag súil leis an Roinn Stáit, atá ag déanamh an athbhreithnithe comhshaoil, agus dá bhrí sin is dóichí go méadóidh sé astaíochtaí dé-ocsaíd charbóin agus gáis eile a bhaineann le téamh domhanda. Fuair an t-athbhreithniú nach dócha go gcuirfeadh an píblíne an téamh domhanda i gcodladh, ach chuir sé an conclúid sin ar bun ar phraghsanna ola níos airde. Ag praghsanna den sórt sin, is féidir le táirgeoirí a gcostas níos airde a iompar ola ar iarnród nó ar mhodhanna eile agus fós a dhéanamh brabús. Le praghsanna íseal ola, b'fhéidir nach gcinnfidh siad ach tochailt a leathnú má tá bealach saor acu chun an ola a chur ar an margadh. Dúnadh praghas na ola ag $ 48 an bairille Dé hAoine. Deir lucht tacaíochta go bhfuil an píblíne níos tábhachtaí le linn thréimhsí praghsanna ola íseal toisc go mbeadh níos lú dreasachta ag cuideachtaí ola a sheachadadh an méid a deir siad gur ola tábhachtach ó fhoinse iontaofa do shaotharlann na Stát Aontaithe ar Chósta na Murascaille. Ach deir siad nach leor an titim praghsanna reatha chun na hionchais fadtéarmacha maidir le hionchas ola a iniúchadh i gCeanada, an t-éileamh domhanda ar amh-ola, nó praghsanna a athrú. Ní bheidh tionchar ag praghsanna ola ar an pholaitíocht. Tá an Comhdháil faoi rialú na Poblachtánach tar éis a dhéanamh ar bhille a rith ag formheas an píblíne mar thosaíocht, in ainneoin bagairt veta uachtaránachta. C: An laghdóidh Keystone XL praghsanna gásailín? A: Is dócha nach bhfuil, ach níl athrú déanta air sin. Bíonn tionchar ag praghas na ola amh ar phraghas na gásailín, agus ba mhaith le hionstraimí a bunaíodh chun cruas trom a úsáid ola praghas níos ísle a bhaint amach. Bheadh an rud sin níos brabúsaí do na scagthóirí sin, ach ní bheadh sé sin ag laghdú praghas an ghinsíola go héigeantach. Tá praghsanna mórdhíola gásailín bunaithe ar thaighdeanna tagartha margaidh, a bhfuil níos dlúitheas acu leis an ola amh is airde ar an margadh, ní leis an ola amh is ísle. C: An gciallann praghsanna níos ísle ola go mbeadh tionchar níos mó ag píblíne ar fhorbairt na n-uisceolaí agus ar astaíochtaí an truaillithe a bhaineann leis an téamh domhanda? A: B'fhéidir. Braitheann an méid a d'fhéadfadh an píblíne táirgeadh a mhéadú sna gaineamh ola ar shraith de choinníoll maidir le éileamh, praghsanna agus rialáil ola domhanda. I dteoiric, trí mhéadú ar an bpraghas a d'fhéadfadh táirgeoirí na n-uisceola ola a fháil as a gcuid ola, spreagann an píblíne níos mó forbartha. Ach tá sé sin fíor ar phraghsanna íseal agus ard, freisin, de réir Michael Levi, comhalta sinsearach le haghaidh fuinnimh agus an chomhshaoil ag an gComhairle um Chaidreamh Eachtrach. D'fhéadfadh sé, áfach, go mbeadh an iompar saor a sholáthraíonn píblíne díreach go leor le roinnt tionscadal nua a dhéanamh brabúsach go leor chun forbairt a dhéanamh, agus is ábhar imní é sin do na comhshaoil. I ngach cás, áfach, bheadh ar tháirgeoirí Cheanada glacadh leis go mairfidh praghsanna íseal ar feadh blianta. Tá saolré fada ag tionscadail na n-airgead ola, mar sin tá cuideachtaí ag brath ar chinntí maidir le tógáil a dhéanamh orthu bunaithe ar bharúlacha maidir le praghsanna ola thar an fhadtéarma, ní bunaithe ar phraghsanna reatha. C: An bhfuil ciall fós ag Keystone XL do TransCanada? A: Tá sé níos ciallmhaire ná riamh. Tá TransCanada ag súil le níos mó airgid a dhéanamh ón tionscadal anois ná mar a rinne sé nuair a mholtar é den chéad uair. Tá sé sin toisc go bhfuil costas an tionscadail méadaithe ó $ 5.4 billiún go $ 8 billiún, agus beidh an chuid is mó den chostas ar chostas ag custaiméirí TransCanada, de réir Carl Kirst, anailísithe ag BMO Margaí Caipitil. Tá sé de chomhaontú ag táirgeoirí ola agus le hionstraimithe ola 75 faoin gcéad den chostas a sháraíonn suas le $8 billiún a íoc; roinnfear aon rud níos mó ná sin go cothrom. C: An bhfuil ciall fós ag cuideachtaí ola atá ag feidhmiú i gCeanada? A: Is dócha. Tá sé le súil go mbeidh tréimhsí praghsanna íseal le linn shaolré an phíblíne, ach is é an táirgeoir sa Cheanada, an praghas níos ísle, an bealach is tábhachtaí a bheith aige chun ola a fháil ar an margadh ar chostas íseal. Ar an mbealach sin is féidir leo praghas níos airde a fháil air sa áit a ndéantar é. Tá go leor acu tar éis tús a chur le hinfheistíocht a dhéanamh cheana féin i dtionscadail leathnaithe a thabharfadh tairbhe dóibh ó rochtain ar mhargadh ar chostas íseal. Má thiteann praghsanna ola tuilleadh nó má fhanann siad íseal ar feadh tréimhse fada, áfach, ní bheidh aon rogha ag táirgeoirí ach tionscadail nua a chur siar nó a chur ar ceal. Mura gceapann siad go mbeidís in ann an píblíne a líonadh, d'fhágfadh siad an tionscadal mar go gcaithfeadh siad íoc as acmhainn ar an líne cibé acu a úsáideann siad é nó nach n-úsáideann siad é. C: An bhfuil sé ciallmhar fós do na scagthóirí ar Chósta na Gailf? A: Sea. Maidir le hionstraimí, is fearr níos mó ola, agus is fearr fós níos mó den chineál ola a theastaíonn uathu. Tá go leor raffineries casta Cósta an Ghleann ag ullmhú chun an cruda trom a thagann amach ó Cheanada, Veiniséala agus Meicsiceo a phróiseáil. Toisc go bhfuil an cruda sin níos deacra a phróiseáil, tá sé níos saoire ná cruda éadrom éadrom. Má tá níos mó crua-ola trom ar fáil, titfidh an praghas, ag laghdú an phraghas do na scagthóirí. Tá táirgeadh amh Venezuelan agus Mheicsiceo ag titim, mar sin ba mhaith le hionstraimithe foinse iontaofa eile. "Tá an cruas sin ag teastáil uainn fós", a dúirt Bill Day, urlabhraí don chuideachta athsholáthair Valero, a bheadh ina chustaiméir Keystone XL. Tá ola crua trom Cheanada ar cheann de na ola crua is ísle ar an phláinéid.

Recently, I have been challenged to write beginning reader books for kindergartners. Easy, right? Easy, no! If you write for children, you know it’s not as easy as it seems. And writing for beginning readers is extremely word-limited. My trusty Children’s Writer’s Word Book by Alijandra Mogliner, is a must-have! It includes word lists for grades K – 6 plus a thesaurus with the grade level in parentheses for each word. She also gives sound advice on social changes, classroom themes, and publishing tips per each grade level, along with writing samples. I highly recommend this book, especially to those of you who are writing for early readers. Try writing a story at a kindergarten level using only the words provided in that list. Yes, you can do it. But this writing style comparable to the Dick and Jane books leaves out many details. Just remember, though, the illustrator can fill in where the limitation of words cannot. Have you ever read a book to your child, student, or grandchild and thought, “I could’ve written that!” I will admit I have. But once you get started and figure out the rules to what makes a story publishable for that age level, you might think again. It’s not nearly as easy as it seems. Pay attention. Browse through similar books at the book store or your library. Word count is minimal, too. Try writing a story with a 150 word limit. It’s a great writing exercise, actually! Once again, I’d really like to recommend the Children’s Writer’s Word Book. It will make a difference. As always… Keep on writing!

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Le déanaí, cuireadh dúshlán orm leabhair léitheoireachta tosaithe a scríobh do pháistí na scoile. Go héasca, ceart? Go mall, nach bhfuil! Má scríobhann tú do leanaí, tá a fhios agat nach bhfuil sé chomh éasca agus a fheictear. Agus tá scríbhneoireacht do léitheoirí tosaithe an-teoranta i bhfocal. Is é mo leabhar focal scríbhneoir leanaí iontaofa Alijandra Mogliner, ní mór a bheith aige! Áirítear leis liostaí focal do ghrád K 6 chomh maith le teasaurus leis an leibhéal grád i bprátais do gach focal. Tugann sí comhairle mhaith freisin maidir le hathruithe sóisialta, téamaí sa seomra ranga, agus leideanna foilsitheoireachta do gach leibhéal grád, chomh maith le samplaí scríbhneoireachta. Molaim go mór an leabhar seo, go háirithe dóibh siúd agaibh atá ag scríobh do léitheoirí luath. Déan iarracht scéal a scríobh ar leibhéal na páirceanna ag úsáid na bhfocal a sholáthraítear sa liosta sin amháin. Sea, is féidir leat é a dhéanamh. Ach tá go leor sonraí fágtha as an stíl scríbhneoireachta seo a bhfuil comparáid aige le leabhair Dick agus Jane. Cuimhnigh, áfach, go bhfuil an léargas in ann a chomhlánú nuair nach féidir leis an teorainn a bhaineann le focail. An ndearna tú leabhar a léamh do do leanbh, do mhic léinn nó do d'iníon riamh agus a cheap tú, 'D'fhéadfainn é sin a scríobh!' Admhaím gur scríobh mé é. Ach nuair a thosaíonn tú agus a thuigeann tú na rialacha a dhéanann scéal inrochtana don aoisghrúpa sin, b'fhéidir go smaoiníonn tú arís. Níl sé chomh éasca agus a fheictear. Tabhair aird. Brabhsáil trí leabhair den chineál céanna sa siopa leabhar nó i do leabharlann. Tá líon na bhfocal íosta, freisin. Déan iarracht scéal a scríobh le teorainn 150 focal. Is cleachtadh scríbhneoireachta iontach é, i ndáiríre! Arís, ba mhaith liom an Leabhar Cuimhneacháin Scríbhneora Leanaí a mholadh. Déanfaidh sé difríocht. Mar is gnách... lean ort ag scríobh!

Navigating the Teenage Phase: Understanding and Addressing Rebellious Behaviors of Dogs in Adolescence Adolescence is a transformative phase for both humans and dogs. Like teenagers, dogs go through a rebellious stage during adolescence. This period can be challenging for dog owners, as they witness sudden changes in their furry companions’ behavior. However, understanding the underlying factors and employing effective strategies can help navigate this phase with patience and compassion. In this blog, we delve into the world of adolescent dogs, exploring the rebellious behaviors they may exhibit and providing insights on how to understand and address these behaviors correctly. By understanding this developmental stage more deeply, dog owners can foster a harmonious relationship with their four-legged friends. - The Adolescent Phase: Adolescence marks a significant developmental milestone for dogs, typically between six and eighteen months. During this time, hormonal changes, increased independence, and a surge of energy can lead to the manifestation of rebellious behaviors. Remembering that these behaviors are a natural part of a dog’s growth and maturation process is essential. “Adolescence may test our patience, but with love and understanding, we can guide our dogs to become confident and well-behaved companions.” - Identifying Rebellious Behaviors: Rebellious behaviors in adolescent dogs can vary but often include disobedience, testing boundaries, selective listening, increased excitability, and a tendency to explore their surroundings more assertively. Recognizing these behaviors as a regular part of adolescence can help dog owners approach them with patience and understanding. - Hormonal Changes: Hormonal fluctuations play a significant role in the behavioral changes observed during adolescence. Dogs may experience increased sexual maturity, leading to mounting behaviors, territorial marking, and a heightened interest in other dogs. Spaying or neutering your dog can help alleviate hormonal influences, but behavioral training is still necessary to address other rebellious behaviors. - Consistency and Training: Consistency is critical when dealing with rebellious behaviors in adolescent dogs. Establishing clear boundaries, rules, and expectations early on and maintaining them throughout adolescence is crucial. Implementing positive reinforcement training techniques can help shape desired behaviors and reinforce obedience. Consistency in training methods and expectations will aid in establishing a harmonious and respectful relationship with your dog. - Mental and Physical Stimulation: Providing ample mental and physical stimulation is vital for adolescent dogs. Engaging them in activities that challenge their minds and expend energy can help redirect their focus and curb rebellious behaviors. Regular exercise, interactive play sessions, puzzle toys, and obedience training can provide outlets for their energy and stimulate their minds, preventing boredom-induced misbehavior. - Socialization and Exposure: Continuing socialization efforts during adolescence are crucial to ensure that dogs develop appropriate behaviors and coping mechanisms. Exposing them to various environments, people, and other animals in controlled and positive ways can help them learn how to navigate social interactions effectively. Proper socialization can also reduce fear-based aggression and anxiety in unfamiliar situations. - Patience and Positive Reinforcement: Patience and positive reinforcement are fundamental when addressing rebellious behaviors in adolescent dogs. Punitive measures or harsh training techniques can exacerbate the problem and damage the bond between you and your dog. Instead, focus on rewarding desired behaviors, offering praise and treats when they demonstrate obedience, and redirecting their attention away from undesired behaviors. Consistency, patience, and positive reinforcement will yield better results in shaping their behavior. Understanding and navigating the rebellious behaviors of dogs during adolescence requires patience, consistency, and a deep understanding of their developmental stage. Dog owners can guide their furry companions through this challenging phase by recognizing these behaviors as a regular part of their growth process and implementing effective training techniques. Embrace the journey with empathy and understanding, knowing that your adolescent dog will mature into a well-behaved and cherished family member with time, consistency, and positive reinforcement. “Through consistency and positive reinforcement, we can guide our dogs through their rebellious phase and foster a relationship built on trust and respect.” Read our Article: Embrace a Heartwarming Journey: Choosing Love through Animal Adoption

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Ag Dul ar aghaidh sa Chéim Dhéagóireachta: Gnéithe Rebellious na madraí a Thuiscint agus a Dhíriú orthu i dTeagóir Óige Is céim athraitheach é an déagóirí do dhaoine agus do mhadraí araon. Cosúil le déagóirí, téann madraí trí chéim rebelious le linn na déagóirí. Is féidir leis an tréimhse seo a bheith dúshlánach do úinéirí madraí, mar go bhfaigheann siad athruithe tobann ar iompar a gcairde gruaige. Mar sin féin, is féidir le tuiscint a fháil ar na fachtóirí atá bunús leo agus straitéisí éifeachtacha a úsáid chun cabhrú leat an chéim seo a shárú le foighne agus le trócaire. Sa bhlag seo, déanaimid dul isteach i saol madraí óige, ag iniúchadh na n-iompraíochtaí ceannairceacha a d'fhéadfadh siad a thaispeáint agus léargas a sholáthar ar conas na hiompraíochtaí seo a thuiscint agus a láimhseáil i gceart. Trí tuiscint níos doimhne a fháil ar an gcéim forbartha seo, is féidir le sealbhóirí madraí caidreamh comhionann a chothú lena gcairde ceithre chos. - An Céim Óga: Is é an déagóirí ceannródaíoch suntasach forbartha do chnátha, de ghnáth idir sé agus ocht mbliana déag. Le linn na tréimhse seo, d'fhéadfadh athruithe hormónacha, neamhspleáchas méadaithe, agus ardú fuinnimh a bheith ina chúis le hiompar rebellious a léiriú. Tá sé ríthábhachtach cuimhneamh go bhfuil na hiompar seo mar chuid nádúrtha de phróiseas fáis agus aibíochta madra. D'fhéadfadh an déagóirí ár n-fhuil a thástáil, ach le grá agus tuiscint, is féidir linn ár madraí a threorú chun a bheith ina gcairde muiníneacha agus dea-iompar. - Iompraíochtaí Rebellious a Aithint: Is féidir le hiompar rebellious i madraí déagóirí a bheith éagsúil ach is minic a chuimsíonn siad neamhfhreagracht, teorainneacha a thástáil, éisteacht roghnach, ardú excitability, agus claonadh chun a dtimpeallacht a iniúchadh níos dearfacha. Ag aithint na hiompar seo mar chuid rialta den aos óige is féidir le húinéirí madraí dul i ngleic leo le foighne agus tuiscint. - Athruithe Hormónacha: Tá ról suntasach ag luaineachtaí hormónacha sna hathruithe iompraíochta a breathnaítear le linn na hóige. D'fhéadfadh madraí a bheith ag fás níos sine ó thaobh gnéasach de, rud a fhágann go mbeidh iompar níos mó acu, marcáil chríochach, agus suim níos mó acu i mbabhlaí eile. Is féidir le do madra a spay nó a castráil cabhrú le tionchair hormónacha a mhaolú, ach tá oiliúint iompraíochta fós riachtanach chun aghaidh a thabhairt ar iompraíochtaí ceannairceacha eile. - Coibhéise agus Oiliúint: Tá comhsheasmhacht ríthábhachtach nuair a bhíonn sé ag déileáil le hiompar rebellious i madraí déagóirí. Tá sé ríthábhachtach teorainneacha, rialacha agus ionchais shoiléir a bhunú go luath agus iad a choinneáil le linn na hóige. Is féidir le teicnící oiliúna athneartaithe dearfacha a chur i bhfeidhm cabhrú le hiompar inmhianaithe a mhúnlú agus é a neartú. Cabhróidh comhsheasmhacht i modhanna oiliúna agus ionchais le caidreamh comhionann agus measúil a bhunú le do mhadra. - Spreagadh Meabhrach agus Fhisiciúil: Tá sé ríthábhachtach spreagadh meabhrach agus fisiceach a sholáthar do chuile madra óige. Is féidir le gníomhaíochtaí a chuireann dúshlán ar a n-intinn agus a chaitheann fuinneamh cabhrú leo a ndíriú ar athchúrsáil agus cur leis na hiompar ceannairceach. Is féidir le cleachtadh rialta, seisiúin chluiche idirghníomhacha, bréagáin phraiseach, agus oiliúint um éagóir a chur ar fáil chun a n-fhuinneamh a chur ar fáil agus a n-intinn a spreagadh, ag cosc a chur ar dhroch-iompar a spreagann an t-easpa. - Sóisialaíocht agus nochtadh: Tá sé ríthábhachtach iarrachtaí sóisialta leanúnacha a dhéanamh le linn na hóige chun a chinntiú go bhforbróidh madraí iompar cuí agus meicníochtaí comhshaoil. Is féidir le nochtadh a thabhairt dóibh do thimpeallachtaí éagsúla, do dhaoine, agus d'ainmhithe eile ar bhealaí rialaithe agus dearfacha cabhrú leo foghlaim conas idirghníomhaíochtaí sóisialta a nascleanúint go héifeachtach. Is féidir le sóisialaíocht cheart ionsaí agus imní atá bunaithe ar eagla a laghdú i gcásanna neamhchoitianta. - Foighne agus Neartaithe Poiblí: Tá foighne agus athneart dearfach bunúsach nuair a bhíonn iompar rebellious i madraí déagóirí á tabhairt faoi. Is féidir le bearta pionóis nó teicnící oiliúna crua an fhadhb a mhéadú agus damáiste a dhéanamh don cheangal idir tú féin agus do mhadra. Ina áit sin, díriú ar luach saothair a thabhairt ar iompar inmhianaithe, moladh agus déileáil a thairiscint nuair a léiríonn siad obedience, agus a dtráchta a thabhairt ar ais ó iompar neamh-inmhianaithe. Beidh torthaí níos fearr ag teacht ó chomhsheasmhacht, foighne, agus athneartú dearfach a bheith i gceist le cur lena n-iompar i bhfoirm. Chun tuiscint a fháil ar iompar rebellious madraí le linn na déagóirí agus dul i ngleic leo, teastaíonn foighne, comhsheasmhacht, agus tuiscint dhomhain ar a gcéim forbartha. Is féidir le húinéirí madraí a gcairde gruaige a threorú tríd an gcéim dúshlánach seo trí na hiompar seo a aithint mar chuid rialta dá bpróiseas fáis agus teicnící oiliúna éifeachtacha a chur i bhfeidhm. Glac an turas le comhbhá agus le tuiscint, ag a fhios go mbeidh do madra óg ag fás chun cinn ina bhall den teaghlach a bhfuil dea-iompar agus grá aige le himeacht ama, comhsheasmhacht, agus neartú dearfach. Trí chomhsheasmhacht agus athneartú dearfach, is féidir linn ár madraí a threorú tríd a gcéim reáchtála agus caidreamh a chothú atá tógtha ar muinín agus ar urraim. Léigh ár n-Airteagal: Embrace a Heartwarming Journey: Love Choosing through Animal Adoption

The GiHA WG, Protection Sector, Child Protection and GBV Sub-Sectors and the PSEA Network acknowledge the immense burden and pressure that covid-19 has put on the health system and the health workers. To address the gendered impacts of the pandemic, these immediate gender actions need to be included as part of the preparedness and response planning. They have been developed to recall the Key Action for Gender Equality and Empowerment of Women and Girls (GEEWG) in Humanitarian Action in line with Inter-Agency Standing Committee Gender Policy and Accountability Framework (2017) endorsed by the SEG co-chairs and the IASC Gender Policy. These are rooted in evidence from the field, as well as lessons learned from other countries dealing with Covid-19 and previous epidemics. UN Women in its role co-leading the Gender in Humanitarian Action Working Group (GiHA WG) and managing the ISCG Gender Hub stands ready to support the sectors and agencies to implement these actions. 1. Community engagement and consultations: Community engagement and consultations have not adequately targeted women and girls, including women leaders and networks. This poses serious risks to women and girls as they are not taken into account in the design of COVID interventions. While perceptions of women and girls are being collected with overall perceptions of Rohingya refugees, gendered differences have not been identified or analyzed, and therefore we do not yet have a good picture of the needs and concerns of women and girls. ● Engage Rohingya women volunteers, Rohingya and host community women leaders and their networks more to conduct consultations with women and girls ● Ensure sex, age and diversity disaggregated data is being collected and analyzed around the outbreak and preventive/response activities to identify gendered differences in exposure and treatment and to design targeted preventive measures ● Ensure all assessments, surveys, etc to understand perceptions and needs of refugees are done with a gender lens to ensure key differences between men and women are properly identified. ● Ensure that monitoring and evaluation mechanisms are gender and inclusion-responsive and capture the different needs of, and impacts for, women, girls, and all persons in the humanitarian response. 2. Access to reliable information: Women and girls have less access to information in the camps, due to the restrictive nature of social norms. With some women-friendly spaces now closed or staff in these being reduced, women have even less sources of information. Women with other vulnerabilities are even more excluded from information (i.e. BBC Media’s What Matters Bulletin #34 highlighted that older women had little access to information, with male members of their household being their only source). Overall IEC materials, as well as the Risk Communication and Community Engagement strategy do not take into account gender considerations, and instead use a one size fits all approach rather than a targeted one. ● Ensure that specific IEC materials targeting women and girls being finalized by GiHA WG and Gender Hub with PS, GBV SS, CP SS and PSEA is widely disseminated and endorsed by sectors. ● Support Rohingya women volunteers to continue reaching out to women with information on Covid-19 and how to protect themselves and support their safety. ● Ensure gender balance in staff and volunteers who deliver COVID messages for more equitable access of women and girls. ● Consult women and girls to understand what information they need and how they want to access it. ● Work with women leaders and women’s network to spread information to women and girls and support their safetys. 3. Women’s leadership, decision-making and engagement in prevention/response plans: Due to the restrictive norms and roles placed on women in the Rohingya communities, women lack access to leadership and decision-making structures and mechanisms. Without enhanced consultations targeting women, their needs, preferences and concerns are likely to be overlooked in the response (see point further below on the need for segregated facilities). This will also lead to the missed potential of engaging them, as their role in conveying information and promoting hygiene can have a critical impact on slowing the spread of the virus. ● Ensure communication with women and girls on all preparedness and response plans – including the changes in services and activities, the construction of isolation and treatment centers, the IEC materials and ways to disseminate information, etc. ● Strengthen engagement with existing women leaders and women’s network (many of whom UN Women and the GiHA WG members already work with) to plan preventive and response interventions or validate them. 4. Isolation and shielding: Consultations with men have already shown that they would not let their female household members be isolated in mixed facilities with unknown men. Women and girls are likely going to feel unsafe in mixed facilities and will be at higher risk of GBV and abuse. Families are also unlikely to want to separate, and parents may not want their children isolating by themselves. This is likely to lead to a lack of disclosure of cases to avoid having to go to these centers. More crucially it could lead to women’s lack of access to isolation and treatment, hence being left behind with a higher risk of infection and mortality, as well as being key vectors for spreading the virus further within families given their role of primary caregivers. ● Regularly consult with women, men, boys and girls to understand the different preferences and concerns they have on isolation/shielding, the location/structure, use of and access to these facilities. ● Ensure gender-segregated COVID-related services in isolation and treatment facilities, either through women-only facilities or by including gendered partitioning within mixed facilities. ● Adopt the gender-specific protection consideration checklist developed by the GiHA WG and the Gender Hub, in collaboration with the Protection Sector, GBV SS, CP SS and the PSEA Network. 5. Women and girls as caregivers: Women’s and girls’ role in the household, as primary caregivers of children, elderly and sick household members, puts them at higher risk of contracting the virus. Their time burden is likely going to increase significantly as their care work for family members, as well as their cleaning, washing and water collecting responsibilities become greater – this has already been reported by Rohingya women networks and UN Women’s Rohingya volunteers. For girls, this may result in lack of time to concentrate on educational activities and hinder their ability to go back to school after the crisis. As they are at higher risk while also have a greater potential to limit the spread of the virus, their access to information and materials, to protect themselves and their family is crucial. ● Ensure women, including all female frontline workers, have access to the information, tools and services needed to protect themselves and their families. ● Ensure all preventive measures and IEC materials do not disproportionately add to the time-burden of women and girls, but instead promote greater engagement of men in the household work (i.e. materials should promote men’s role in ensuring hygiene in the household). ● Ensure all home-based educational activities prioritize the needs of girls. 6. Gender-Based Violence: Limited access to GBV services following a reduction of the minimum standard package of services in a reduced number of facilities to only individual case management, individual psychosocial support, and the clinical management of rape. A significant number of GBV case workers are transitioning into providing remote support through teleworking. The overall impact on services is not yet known and a service gap analysis will be completed with GBV service providers once all information on services becomes available. Movement restrictions in the camps and ‘’stay at home’’ policies are strongly enforced by Camp in Charges and Majhis particularly for women and girls limiting their ability to access services. Preliminary indications suggest an increase in the number of GBV cases particularly intimate partner violence and child marriage. Due to cumulative factors including mobile network restrictions (still in place at the time of writing this report), limited presence of essential humanitarian staff in the camps, and limited access to mobile phones by women and girls, there are reasons to believe that GBV incidents are underreported. ● Prioritize GBV services as critical and do not divert resources away from these, but adapt them as necessary to address new restrictions in movements and access to services. ● Ensure women, girls, men and boys have information on which GBV services are available and how to access these, especially if/when changes occur in referral pathways or regular points of access for these services have closed. ● Maintain access to sexual and reproductive health services, including pre- and post-natal care, menstrual hygiene management and contraceptive needs. ● Advocate with the authorities for immediate measures to ensure safety of women and girls in the camps and host communities on the ongoing lockdown. ● Train all first responders and frontline workers on dealing with GBV disclosure and referrals of GBV cases. ● Maintain child protection services as critical, do not deprioritize or divert resources away from these. 7. Gender not seen as lifesaving or critical: During this emergency situation, gender issues have been often deprioritized or not seen as lifesaving. This has already been observed in intersectoral meetings where gender issues are not included as an agenda item, and comments are made about the importance of first prioritizing issues such as health or WASH. This has serious consequences as gender needs are then not being properly advocated for with the government and humanitarian actors or in appeal documents. ● Ensure gender issues are given importance and time in meetings, making them a standing agenda item. Actively engage the GiHA WG and the Gender Hub. ● Continuously advocate for the importance of gender equality and the empowerment of women and girls, especially during emergencies, and refer back to the six gender equality commitments endorsed by the SEG co-chairs, as well as gender guidance material developed for COVID-19 specifically under IASC Gender Reference Group and the Regional GIHA WG, all of which are represented in these key recommendations. ● Apply gender-responsive budgeting and earmark funds to fully resource gender mainstreaming in all sectors involved in COVID-19 response. This should include funding for a rapid and comprehensive gender assessments, and targeted gender programming (e.g. strengthening women’s leadership and its network, support for people with disabilities and transgender persons). ● Adopt the IASC Minimum Standards for gender and COVID-19 in the IASC Gender Alert for COVID-19 Outbreak ● Ensure the IASC Gender with Age Marker is applied into all appeals and funding mechanisms. ● Ensure all internal and external communication and reporting materials include a gender perspective (i.e. media talking points, sitreps, etc).

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Aithníonn an GiHA WG, an Roinn Cosanta, an Roinn Cosanta Leanaí agus na Fo-Ráinní GBV agus Líonra PSEA an t-ualach agus an brú ollmhór a chuir Covid-19 ar an gcóras sláinte agus ar na hoibrithe sláinte. Chun aghaidh a thabhairt ar thionchar inscne an phaindéime, ní mór na gníomhartha inscne láithreach seo a áireamh mar chuid den ullmhúchán agus den phleanáil freagartha. Tá na rialacha sin leagtha amach i gCuid A de Threoir 2008/57/CE ó Pharlaimint na hEorpa agus ón gComhairle, agus i gCuid A de Threoir 2008/57/CE ó Pharlaimint na hEorpa agus ón gComhairle, agus i gCuid A de Threoir 2008/57/CE ó Pharlaimint na hEorpa agus ón gComhairle, agus i gCuid A de Threoir 2008/57/CE ó Pharlaimint na hEorpa agus ón gComhairle, agus i gCuid A de Threoir 2008/57/CE ó Pharlaimint na hEorpa agus ón gComhairle. Tá na cinn seo bunaithe ar fhianaise ón réimse, chomh maith le ceachtanna a fuarthas ó thíortha eile a bhí ag déileáil le Covid-19 agus le haepidemies roimhe sin. Tá UN Women, ina ról mar chomh-chathaoirleach ar an nGrúpa Oibre um Gnéas in Gníomhaíocht Daonnúil (GiHA WG) agus mar bhainisteoir ar an ISCG Gender Hub, réidh chun tacú leis na hearnálacha agus na gníomhaireachtaí chun na gníomhaíochtaí seo a chur i bhfeidhm. 1. an t-am a bhí ann. Iomaíocht agus comhairliúcháin leis an bpobal: Ní raibh ionramháil agus comhairliúcháin leis an bpobal dírithe go leor ar mhná agus cailíní, lena n-áirítear ceannairí agus líonraí mná. Tá rioscaí tromchúiseacha ann do mhná agus do chailíní mar nach gcuirtear san áireamh iad i ndearadh idirghabhálacha COVID. Cé go bhfuil tuiscintí ar mhná agus ar chailíní á mbailiú le tuiscintí foriomlán ar dhídeanaithe Rohingya, níor sainaithníodh ná anailísíodh difríochtaí inscne, agus dá bhrí sin níl pictiúr maith againn fós de riachtanais agus imní na mban agus na gcailíní. ● Ba cheart do mhná saorálacha Rohingya, do mhná Rohingya agus do cheannairí mná an phobail óstach agus dá líonraí a bheith níos rannpháirtí chun comhairliúcháin a dhéanamh le mná agus le cailíní ● Cinntiú go bhfuil sonraí dí-aicmeáilte faoi ghnéas, aois agus éagsúlacht á mbailiú agus á n-anailís a dhéanamh maidir leis an ráig agus gníomhaíochtaí coiscthe/freagartha chun difríochtaí inscne a aithint i nochtadh agus i gcóireáil agus chun bearta coiscthe spriocdhírithe a dhearadh ● Cinntigh go ndéantar gach measúnú, suirbhé, etc. chun tuiscint a fháil ar thuairimí agus riachtanais na n-eitilteach le lionsa inscne chun a chinntiú go sainaithnítear go cuí na príomhdhifríochtaí idir fir agus mná. ● Cinntiú go bhfuil meicníochtaí faireacháin agus meastóireachta atá ag freagairt d'inscne agus d'ionchuimsiú agus go nglacann siad le riachtanais éagsúla na mban, na mban óg agus na ndaoine go léir sa fhreagra daonnúil agus na héifeachtaí a bhíonn acu orthu. 2. Seachadadh. Rochtain ar fhaisnéis iontaofa: Ní bhíonn rochtain níos lú ag mná agus cailíní ar fhaisnéis sna campaí, mar gheall ar chineál srianta na n-uirlisí sóisialta. De bharr go bhfuil roinnt spásanna atá oiriúnach do mhná dúnta anois nó go bhfuil líon na ndaoine a oibríonn sna spásanna sin á laghdú, tá níos lú foinsí faisnéise ag mná. Tá mná a bhfuil leochaileachtaí eile acu fós níos mó ar shiúl ó fhaisnéis (i.e. Chuir BBC Media's What Matters Bulletin #34 béim ar an bhfíric nach raibh rochtain bheag ag mná níos sine ar fhaisnéis, agus ba iad fir a dteaghlaigh an t-aon fhoinse a bhí acu). Ní chuirtear cúiseanna inscne san áireamh i gcúraimí IEC ar fad, chomh maith leis an straitéis um Chumarsáid Riosca agus um Iomaíocht an Phobail, agus is é an cur chuige a úsáidtear ina ionad sin ná cur chuige a oireann do gach duine in aon mhéid amháin seachas cur chuige spriocdhírithe. ● Cinntiú go scaiptear go forleathan agus go n-aontaíonn earnálacha ábhar sonrach IEC a bhfuil mná agus cailíní mar sprioc aige atá á thabhairt chun críche ag GiHA WG agus Gender Hub le PS, GBV SS, CP SS agus PSEA. ● Tacaíocht a thabhairt do mhná saorálacha Rohingya chun leanúint ar aghaidh ag teacht amach chuig mná le faisnéis faoi Covid-19 agus conas iad féin a chosaint agus tacú lena sábháilteacht. ● Coibhéis inscne a chinntiú i bhfoireann agus saorálaithe a sheachadann teachtaireachtaí COVID le haghaidh rochtana níos cothromaithe do mhná agus do chailíní. ● Déan comhairliúchán le mná agus le cailíní chun a thuiscint cén fhaisnéis a theastaíonn uathu agus conas is mian leo rochtain a fháil air. ● Oibriú le ceannairí mná agus líonra na mban chun faisnéis a scaipeadh chuig mná agus cailíní agus chun tacú lena gcuid sábháilteachta. 3. Tá an t-am ann. Treoirlínte maidir le bainistiú agus cur i bhfeidhm na gclár cosanta agus freagartha: Tá an t-idirbheart a bhaineann le bainistiú agus cur i bhfeidhm na gclár cosanta agus freagartha ag baint le bainistiú agus cur i bhfeidhm na gclár cosanta agus freagartha. Gan comhairliúcháin feabhsaithe a dhíreofar ar mhná, is dócha nach ndéanfar aird a thabhairt ar a gcuid riachtanas, roghanna agus imní sa fhreagra (féach an pointe níos faide síos maidir leis an ngá le saoráidí scaráilte). Beidh sé seo mar thoradh freisin ar an acmhainneacht caillte a bhaineann leo a bheith páirteach, toisc go bhféadfadh tionchar ríthábhachtach a bheith ag a ról i dtráchtáil faisnéise agus i gcur chun cinn sláinteachais ar scaipeadh an víris a mhoilliú. ● Déan cumarsáid le mná agus le cailíní maidir le gach plean ullmhachta agus freagartha lena n-áirítear na hathruithe i seirbhísí agus gníomhaíochtaí, tógáil ionaid leithleasaithe agus cóireála, ábhair IEC agus bealaí chun faisnéis a scaipeadh, srl. ● An rannpháirtíocht a neartú le ceannairí mná agus líonra mná atá ann cheana (a bhfuil cuid mhór acu ag obair le UN Women agus le baill Ghrúpa Gníomhaíochta GHAG cheana féin) chun idirghabhálacha coisctheacha agus freagartha a phleanáil nó iad a bhailíochtú. 4. Tá an t-am Aonarú agus sciathú: Léirigh comhairliúcháin le fir cheana féin nach ligfeadh siad dá mbaill teaghlaigh baineann a bheith ar leithligh i saoráidí measctha le fir anaithnid. Is dócha go mbraitheann mná agus cailíní neamhshláintiúil i saoráidí measctha agus go mbeidh riosca níos airde acu VED agus mí-úsáid a fháil. Ní dócha go mbeidh teaghlaigh ag iarraidh a bheith ar leithligh, agus b'fhéidir nach mbeidh tuismitheoirí ag iarraidh go mbeidh a gcuid leanaí ina n-aonar. Is dócha go dtiocfaidh sé seo le neamhfhoilsiú cásanna chun na hionaid seo a sheachaint. Níos tábhachtaí fós, d'fhéadfadh sé go mbeadh rochtain ag mná ar leithligh agus ar chóireáil, agus dá bhrí sin a bheith fágtha ar chúl le riosca níos airde ionfhabhtaithe agus báis, chomh maith le bheith ina príomh-fheithiclí chun an víreas a scaipeadh níos faide laistigh de theaghlaigh mar gheall ar a ról mar phríomhchuraitheoirí. ● Déan comhairliúchán rialta le mná, fir, buachaillí agus cailíní chun tuiscint a fháil ar na roghanna agus na hábhair imní éagsúla atá acu maidir le haonú/scáileáil, an suíomh/struchtúr, úsáid agus rochtain ar na háiseanna seo. ● Seirbhísí a bhaineann le COVID a bheith ar leithligh ó thaobh inscne de a chinntiú i saoráidí leithligh agus cóireála, trí áiseanna do mhná amháin nó trí pháirtithe inscne a áireamh laistigh de áiseanna measctha. ● An liosta seiceála maidir le cúinsí cosanta inscne-shonracha a ghlacadh a d'fhorbair Ghrúpa Oibre an GiHA agus an Mhonarcha Inscne, i gcomhar leis an Earnáil Cosanta, SS GBV, SS CP agus Líonra PSEA. 5. Tá an t-am ann. Mná agus cailíní mar chúramóirí: Cuireann ról na mban agus na gcailíní sa teaghlach, mar phríomhchúramóirí leanaí, daoine scothaosta agus baill teaghlaigh breoite, riosca níos airde acu an víreas a ghabháil. Is dócha go méadóidh a n-ualach ama go suntasach de réir mar a bheidh a gcuid oibre cúraim do bhaill teaghlaigh, chomh maith lena gcuid freagrachtaí glantacháin, níocháin agus uisce a bhailiú níos mó - tá sé seo tuairiscíodh cheana féin ag líonraí mná Rohingya agus deonaitheoirí Rohingya UN Women. I gcás cailíní, d'fhéadfadh sé seo a bheith ina chúis le easpa ama chun díriú ar ghníomhaíochtaí oideachais agus go gcuirfeadh sé bac ar a gcumas dul ar ais ar scoil tar éis na géarchéime. Ós rud é go bhfuil riosca níos airde acu agus go bhfuil acmhainneacht níos mó acu scaipeadh an víris a theorannú, tá sé ríthábhachtach go mbeidh rochtain acu ar fhaisnéis agus ar ábhair chun iad féin agus a dteaghlaigh a chosaint. ● Cinntiú go bhfuil rochtain ag mná, lena n-áirítear gach oibrí mná atá ar an líne tosaigh, ar an bhfaisnéis, na huirlisí agus na seirbhísí is gá chun iad féin agus a dteaghlaigh a chosaint. ● Cinntiú nach gcuireann gach beart coisctheach agus ábhair IEC go mór leis an ualach ama atá ag mná agus cailíní, ach ina ionad sin cuireann siad níos mó rannpháirtíochta fir sa obair tí (i.e. Tá sé tábhachtach go gcuirfí an ról atá ag fir i gcúram sláinteachais sa bhaile chun cinn. ● Déan cinnte go gcuirfear riachtanais na mban ar thús i ngach gníomhaíocht oideachais baile. 6. Ceacht. Foréigean ar Bonn Inscne: Rochtain theoranta ar sheirbhísí GBV tar éis laghdú ar an bpacáiste caighdeánach íosta seirbhísí i líon laghdaithe saoráidí go bainistiú cás aonair, tacaíocht shíceolaíoch aonair, agus bainistiú cliniciúil an éigniú amháin. Tá líon suntasach oibrithe cásanna GBV ag aistriú go dtí tacaíocht iargúlta a sholáthar trí theileobair. Níl an tionchar foriomlán ar sheirbhísí ar eolas go fóill agus déanfar anailís ar easpa seirbhísí le soláthraithe seirbhíse GBV a luaithe a bheidh an fhaisnéis ar fad maidir le seirbhísí ar fáil. Tá srianta gluaiseachta sna campaí agus beartais 'fhan sa bhaile' á gcur i bhfeidhm go láidir ag Camp in Charges agus Majhis go háirithe do mhná agus do chailíní ag teorainn a gcumas rochtain a fháil ar sheirbhísí. Tugann tásca réamh le fios go bhfuil méadú tagtha ar líon na gcásanna GBV go háirithe foréigean comhpháirtí pearsanta agus pósadh leanaí. Mar gheall ar fhachtóirí cardaithe lena n-áirítear srianta líonra soghluaiste (a bhí fós i bhfeidhm tráth scríbhneoireachta na tuarascála seo), láithreacht theoranta foirne daonnachta riachtanach sna campaí, agus rochtain theoranta ar fhóin phóca ag mná agus cailíní, tá cúiseanna ann a chreidiúint go bhfuil mí- tuairiscí ar eachtraí GBV. ● Seirbhísí GBV a chur ar thús mar sheirbhísí ríthábhachtach agus ní chuirfear acmhainní ar shiúl ó na seirbhísí sin, ach oiriúnaigh iad de réir mar is gá chun aghaidh a thabhairt ar shrianta nua i ngluaiseachtaí agus rochtain ar sheirbhísí. ● Cinntiú go bhfuil faisnéis ag mná, cailíní, fir agus buachaillí faoi na seirbhísí atá ar fáil maidir le VED agus conas rochtain a fháil orthu, go háirithe má tharlaíonn athruithe i mbealaí atreoraithe nó má dhúntar na pointí rochtana rialta do na seirbhísí seo. ● rochtain a choinneáil ar sheirbhísí sláinte gnéis agus atáirgthe, lena n-áirítear cúram roimh agus tar éis an bhreith, bainistiú sláinteachais menstrual agus riachtanais cosanta toirchis. ● A bheith ag plé leis na húdaráis le haghaidh bearta láithreach chun sábháilteacht na mban agus na mban i gcampaí agus i bpobail óstach a chinntiú ar an gclosadh leanúnach. ● Oiliúint a thabhairt do gach duine a fhreagraíonn ar dtús agus d'oibrithe an líne tosaigh maidir le déileáil le nochtadh agus atreorú cásanna GBV. ● Coinnigh seirbhísí cosanta leanaí mar thábhachtach, ná cuir tús áite ná aistrithe acmhainní ar shiúl ó na seirbhísí sin. 7. Ceacht. Ní fheictear inscne mar shábháil beatha nó mar ghéarchéim: Le linn na staid éigeandála seo, is minic a rinneadh saincheisteanna inscne a dhíthreoraithe nó gan a bheith ina shábháil beatha. Tá sé seo le feiceáil cheana féin i gcruinnithe idir-earnálacha nach gcuirtear saincheisteanna inscne mar phointe ar an gclár oibre, agus déantar tuairimí faoi thábhacht na príomhthosaíochtaí a thabhairt do shaincheisteanna mar shláinte nó WASH. Tá iarmhairtí tromchúiseacha ag baint leis seo toisc nach bhfuil riachtanais inscne á gcur i láthair go cuí ag an rialtas agus ag gníomhaithe daonnúla nó i ndoiciméid achomhairc. ● Cinntigh go dtugtar tábhacht agus am do cheisteanna inscne i gcruinnithe, agus go ndéantar iad a bheith ina bpointí seasta ar an gclár oibre. Cuir Ghrúpa Gníomhach GHA agus an Mhonarcha Inscne i mbun gníomhaíochta. ● Tacaíocht leanúnach a dhéanamh ar thábhacht an chomhionannais inscne agus ar chumasú na mban agus na mban, go háirithe le linn éigeandála, agus tagairt a dhéanamh do na sé tiomantas um chomhionannas inscne a fhormheas comhchathaoirleach na SEG, chomh maith le ábhar treorach inscne a forbraíodh go sonrach le haghaidh COVID-19 faoi Ghrúpa Tuairisc Inscne IASC agus WG GIHA Réigiúnach, a bhfuil ionadaíocht acu go léir sna príomhmholtaí seo. ● Bailíocht a chur i bhfeidhm atá freagrach ó thaobh inscne de agus cistí a leithdháileadh chun maintreamh inscne a chur i bhfeidhm go hiomlán i ngach earnáil a bhfuil baint acu le freagairt COVID-19. Ba cheart go n-áireofaí leis sin maoiniú le haghaidh measúnuithe gnéis tapa agus cuimsitheacha, agus clárú spriocdhírithe inscne (m.sh. Tá sé tábhachtach go mbeadh an t-eolas ar fáil do dhaoine a bhfuil míchumas orthu agus do dhaoine trasinscneacha. ● Glac na Caighdeáin Íosta IASC le haghaidh inscne agus COVID-19 i dTolachán Inscne IASC le haghaidh Eipidéim COVID-19 ● Cinntigh go gcuirtear Gnéas le Marcálaí Aois IASC i bhfeidhm i ngach achomharc agus i ngach meicníocht maoinithe. ● Cinntigh go gcuimsítear le gach ábhar cumarsáide inmheánaí agus seachtracha agus tuairiscithe dearcadh inscne (i.e. pointí cainte sna meáin, sitreps, etc.).

Going to kindergarten is an important step for your child. It will help them learn skills that they will build on throughout their life. Why should I send my child to kindergarten? At kindergarten your child will grow socially and emotionally. Their ability to think, use and recognise language and their fine motor skills will be developed through play, art, dance, music, movement and interacting with others. Most importantly, your child will be learning to become an effective learner as they develop and extend their communication skills, build their self-confidence, learn to be creative, and develop skills that assist them with reading, writing and mathematics. The benefits of kindergarten Kindergarten programs are designed to improve your child’s development in the following key areas: - social skills, like how to play with other children in a calm, sharing and rewarding way - self-awareness and respect for others - emotional skills, for example understanding their feelings - language, literacy and numeracy skills, such as reading stories and counting objects - a joy for learning and group activities, such as talking, drawing and making things together with other children their own age - ability to make new friends - exposure to new ideas and concepts. Kindergarten also provides families with access to: - support and assistance for children with special needs - resources and links to community support services. When should I send my child to kindergarten? Children go to kindergarten in the year before school, usually when they are four years old. However, some services and centres also offer kindergarten programs for three-year-old children. You can enrol your child in a funded kindergarten program in a variety of settings, including children’s centres, long day care centres, community kindergartens, independent schools and a small number of government schools. A range of organisations manage these programs including local government, parent committees, community organisations, private operators, independent schools and some government schools. Does my child need a second year of kindergarten? Your child is eligible for a second year of kindergarten if your child's early childhood teacher has assessed that your child has developmental delays in at least two key areas of development and will achieve better outcomes at kindergarten rather than going to school. During the kindergarten year, the early childhood teacher will work with you to plan together for your child's transition to school. In exceptional circumstances, a second year of funded kindergarten may be considered. To find out more, see: Fifteen hour programs Victoria provides all children with access to a quality early childhood education program for 15 hours a week in the year before they start school. There is significant benefit for children in attending a quality early childhood education program. Increasing kindergarten hours and access to programs in a range of different early childhood settings further increases that benefit. Providing all children access to quality 15 hour early childhood education programs in the year before school: - recognises that quality early childhood education programs improve children’s learning, health and behaviour with positive impacts extending into adult life - enables children and families to have access to a high quality developmental program in a range of settings such as public, private and community-based kindergartens and child care services - supports a successful transition to school. Early Start Kindergarten Early Start Kindergarten provides free or low cost kindergarten to eligible children where programs are offered by a qualified teacher. Your child is eligible if they are aged three by 30 April in the year they will be attending a kindergarten program, and: - your child is Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander, or - your family has had contact with Child Protection (or been referred by them to Child FIRST). To find out how to enrol your child, see: Find a kindergarten near you To find a kindergarten near you, see: To find out more about kindergarten and what to expect, see: To find out about the different types of services and the legislation and regulations around these, see: To find out about interpretation services and to access a list of translated resources, see:

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Is céim thábhachtach í dul chuig an gcúige do do pháiste. Cabhróidh sé leo scileanna a fhoghlaim a bheidh á bhforbairt acu i rith a saoil. Cén fáth a gcuirfidh mé mo pháiste chuig an óige? Sa pháirc-oide, fásfaidh do leanbh go sóisialta agus go mothúchánach. Forbraítear a gcumas smaointeoireachta, teanga a úsáid agus a aithint agus a scileanna mótair bheaga trí chluich, ealaín, damhsa, ceol, gluaiseacht agus idirghníomhú le daoine eile. Is é an rud is tábhachtaí ná go mbeidh do leanbh ag foghlaim chun bheith ina fhoghlaimeoir éifeachtach agus iad ag forbairt agus ag leathnú a gcuid scileanna cumarsáide, ag tógáil a muinín féin, ag foghlaim a bheith cruthaitheach, agus ag forbairt scileanna a chabhróidh leo le léamh, scríobh agus matamaitic. Na buntáistí a bhaineann leis an óstán leanaí Tá cláir na n-airdliosta deartha chun forbairt do pháiste a fheabhsú sna príomhchomharthaí seo a leanas: - scileanna sóisialta, mar shampla conas a bheith ag imirt le páistí eile ar bhealach socair, comhroinnte agus luachmhar - féin-fhios agus meas ar dhaoine eile - scileanna mothúchánacha, mar shampla tuiscint a fháil ar a gcuid mothúchán - scileanna teanga, litearthachta agus uimhreacha, amhail scéalta a léamh agus rudaí a chomhaireamh - áthas ar fhoghlaim agus ar ghníomhaíochtaí grúpa, amhail labhairt, líníocht agus rudaí a dhéanamh le chéile le páistí eile a aois féin - cumas cairde nua a dhéanamh - nochtadh do smaointe agus do choincheapa nua. Tugann an Kindergarten rochtain do theaghlaigh freisin ar: - tacaíocht agus cúnamh do leanaí le riachtanais speisialta - acmhainní agus naisc le seirbhísí tacaíochta pobail. Cén uair ba chóir dom mo pháiste a chur chuig an óige? Téann leanaí chuig an gcliant in am na bliana roimh an scoil, de ghnáth nuair a bhíonn siad ceithre bliana d'aois. Tá cláir á gcur ar fáil ag roinnt seirbhísí agus ionaid freisin do leanaí trí bliana d'aois. Is féidir leat do leanbh a chur ar chlár na n-airdlíne a fhaigheann maoiniú i gcúrsaí éagsúla, lena n-áirítear ionaid leanaí, ionaid lá fada, i gceardlanna leanaí pobail, i scoileanna neamhspleácha agus i roinnt scoileanna poiblí. Déanann raon eagraíochtaí na cláir seo a bhainistiú lena n-áirítear an rialtas áitiúil, coistí tuismitheoirí, eagraíochtaí pobail, oibreoirí príobháideacha, scoileanna neamhspleácha agus roinnt scoileanna rialtais. An gá do mo pháiste an dara bliain den óige a chaitheamh? Tá do leanbh incháilithe don dara bliain den óige má mheasann múinteoir luathóige do pháiste go bhfuil moill forbartha ag do leanbh ar dhá phríomh-limistéar forbartha ar a laghad agus go mbainfidh sé amach torthaí níos fearr sa óige ná dul ar scoil. Le linn na bliana óige, oibreoidh an múinteoir luathóige leat chun pleanáil a dhéanamh le chéile maidir le haistriú do pháiste chuig an scoil. I gcásanna eisceachtúla, féadfar an dara bliain de pháirc-oideachas maoinithe a mheas. Chun tuilleadh eolais a fháil, féach: Clár 15 uair an chloig Cuireann Victoria rochtain ar gach leanbh ar chlár oideachais den scoth luathóige ar feadh 15 uair sa tseachtain sa bhliain sula dtosaíonn siad ar scoil. Tá buntáiste suntasach ag freastal ar chlár oideachais luathóige ar ardchaighdeán do leanaí. Méadaíonn méadú ar uaireanta na n-aimsire agus rochtain ar chláir i raon suíomhanna éagsúla luathóige an tairbhe sin tuilleadh. Cur ar fáil do gach leanbh ar chláir oideachais luathóige 15 uair an chloig ar ardchaighdeán sa bhliain roimh an scoil: - aithníonn sé go bhfeabhsaíonn cláir oideachais luathóige ar ardchaighdeán foghlaim, sláinte agus iompar leanaí a bhfuil tionchair dhearfacha acu a shíneann go saol na n-aosaigh - cuireann sé ar chumas leanaí agus teaghlaigh rochtain a fháil ar chlár forbartha ardchaighdeáin i réimse suíomhanna amhail óige poiblí, príobháideach agus pobail agus seirbhísí cúraim leanaí - tacaíonn sé le haistriú rathúil chuig an scoil. Tús Luath le Gráinne Soláthraíonn Early Start Kindergarten kindergarten saor in aisce nó ar chostas íseal do leanaí incháilithe ina gcuirtear cláir ar fáil ag múinteoir cáilithe. Tá do leanbh incháilithe má tá sé nó sí trí bliana d'aois faoin 30 Aibreán sa bhliain a bheidh sé nó sí ag freastal ar chlár na n-airdliostaí, agus: - go bhfuil do leanbh Aboriginal agus/nó Torres Strait Islander, nó - go raibh teagmháil ag do theaghlach le Cosaint Leanaí (nó gur thug siad chuig Child FIRST é). Chun a fháil amach conas do leanbh a chlárú, féach: Faigh óige in aice leat Chun óige in aice leat a aimsiú, féach: Chun tuilleadh eolais a fháil faoi na scoileanna agus cad is féidir a bheith ag súil leis, féach: Chun tuilleadh eolais a fháil faoi na cineálacha éagsúla seirbhísí agus na reachtaíocht agus na rialacháin a bhaineann leo, féach: Chun eolas a fháil faoi sheirbhísí ateangaireachta agus chun teacht ar liosta de na hacmhainní a aistrítear, féach:

Horizontally aligned multi-walled carbon nanotube (CNT) sheets were produced from vertically aligned CNT arrays using drawing and winding techniques. Composites based on epoxy resin and an aligned 100-ply CNT sheet have been developed using hot-melt prepreg processing. However, wavy and poor-packed CNTs in the sheets have limited reinforcement efficiency of the CNTs in the composites. In this study, a new simple stretch-drawing method was used to modify the structures of the aligned CNT sheets for improving the composite properties. The stretch-drawing of the CNT sheets enhanced the composite properties considerably. The improved properties of the composites originated from straightening of the wavy CNTs and increasing the CNT dense packing in the composites. With a 3% stretch ratio, the aligned CNT/epoxy composites achieved their best mechanical properties in this study. The 3% stretched composites exhibit increased tensile strength by 113% and enhanced elastic modulus by 34% compared to non-stretched ones. Results show that the simple stretch-drawing is effective to produce highly aligned CNT sheets for the development of high-performance CNT composites. Compared to our previous stretching method, the stretch-drawing method in this study is more effective in improving the mechanical properties of aligned CNT/epoxy composites. Copyright: The Authors. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License CC-BY 4.0., which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. How to Cite Tran, N., Vu, H., & Pham, Q. (2016). Improving mechanical properties of multi-walled carbon nanotube/epoxy composites through a simple stretch-drawing method. VNUHCM Journal of Science and Technology Development, 19(4), 35-44. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.32508/stdj.v19i4.780 Science and Technology Development Journal (1859-0128) is published by VNUHCM Press Science and Technology Development Journal (STDJ) (1859-0128) is the official journal of Viet Nam National University Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam, published by Viet Nam National University Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam. Science & Technology Development Journal is a multiple discipline science journal covering from natural science, engineering & technology, humanities, art, laws, economics, earth science, environment, social sciences and health sciences.

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Táirgeadh bileoga nanotube carbóin il-bhallach (CNT) a bhí ailínithe go cothrománach ó shraith CNT a bhí ailínithe go ingearach ag baint úsáide as teicnící líníochta agus fillte. Forbraíodh comhcheangailteacha bunaithe ar fhéithín eipócsaide agus ar leathán CNT 100 sraith ailínithe trí phróiseáil prepreg te-léite. Tá an éifeachtúlacht athneartaithe ag CNTs sna comhdhúileanna teoranta, áfach, de bharr CNTs tonntacha agus droch-phacáilte sna bileoga. Sa staidéar seo, baineadh úsáid as modh nua simplí tarraingthe-sáraithe chun struchtúir na mblacaí CNT ailínithe a mhodhnú chun na hairíonna comhdhéanta a fheabhsú. D'aontaigh an t-easnamh a rinneadh ar na bileoga CNT go mór leis na hairíonna comhdhéanta. Is éard a chruthaigh na hairíonna feabhsaithe na gcomhdhéanta ná na CNTs tonnta a dhíreathnú agus an pacáistiú tiubh CNT sna comhdhéanta a mhéadú. Le cóimheas síneadh 3%, bhain na comhdhúile comhthreomhar CNT/epoxy a gcuid airíonna meicniúla is fearr amach sa staidéar seo. Tá neart teanntachta méadaithe 113% ag na comhdhúile 3% a shíneadh agus tá modúl réasúnta 34% feabhsaithe i gcomparáid le cinn nach bhfuil shíneadh. Léiríonn na torthaí go bhfuil an tarraingt síneadh simplí éifeachtach chun bileoga CNT atá an-ailíniú a tháirgeadh chun comhdhéanta CNT ardfheidhmíochta a fhorbairt. I gcomparáid lenár modh síneadh roimhe seo, tá an modh síneadh-dhréachtaithe sa staidéar seo níos éifeachtaí maidir le feabhas a chur ar airíonna meicniúla comhdhúile CNT / epoxy ailínithe. Cóipcheart: Na húdair. Is alt rochtana oscailte é seo a dháileadh faoi théarmaí an Cheadúnais Creatúnais Creative Commons CC-BY 4.0., a cheadaíonn úsáid, dáileadh agus atáirgeadh gan srian ar aon mheán, ar choinníoll go dtugtar creidmheas ar an údar bunaidh agus ar an bhfoinse. Conas a Luathú Tran, N., Vu, H., & Pham, Q. (2016). Feabhas a chur ar airíonna meicniúla na n-nanotube carbóin/comhlachtanna epoxy ilchruaithe trí mhodh shimplí tarraingthe. Journal of Science and Technology Development, 19(4), 35-44. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.32508/stdj.v19i4.780 Foilsíonn VNUHCM Press an Iris um Fhorbairt Eolaíochta agus Teicneolaíochta (1859-0128). Is é Science and Technology Development Journal (STDJ) (1859-0128) iris oifigiúil Ollscoil Náisiúnta Vítneam Cathair Ho Chi Minh, Vítneam, a fhoilsíonn Ollscoil Náisiúnta Vítneam Cathair Ho Chi Minh, Vítneam. Is iris eolaíochta il-dhisciplíneach é Science & Technology Development Journal a chlúdaíonn eolaíocht nádúrtha, innealtóireacht & teicneolaíocht, daonnachtaí, ealaín, dlíthe, eacnamaíocht, eolaíocht na talún, comhshaol, eolaíochtaí sóisialta agus eolaíochtaí sláinte.

A macro is the name used to describe lines of code that are used to automate repetitive tasks in Microsoft Office. These lines of code are written in a language called VBA which is an abbreviation for Visual Basic for Application. VBA is the language behind all the Microsoft Office applications (inc. Excel, Word, PowerPoint, Outlook, Access). Macros run inside the office application and require no additional software. The terms 'macro' and 'VBA Code' are equivalent and refer to the same thing. Macros can perform tasks a lot quicker than they can be done manually and often with greater accuracy. There are two ways to create a macro. You can either use the Macro Recorder or you can write the statements directly into the Visual Basic Editor (Alt + F11). There is a different object model for each of the Office applications and it is organised is a tree like structure. An object model defines the objects, properties and methods that can be used in your code to control the application. These can be anything really, workbooks, documents, paragraphs, ranges, slides etc. All VBA objects are either singular objects or objects in a collection. Objects in a collection are referenced by an index in the collection. Most of the time your code can operate on objects without activating or selecting them. Every object model consists of a list of objects. Excel has over 300 different objects. For example in Excel there is a Worksheet object a Chart object and a Cell object. Programs consist of sequences of statements. Each statement must end with a new line. A statement that evaluates to a value is called an expression. A subroutine is a series of statements that performs a specific task. A function is identical to a subroutine but also has the ability to return a value. A code module is the name of the component that contains a group of subroutines and functions There are a number of operations that macros/vba cannot perform: Create ActiveX Controls Integrate with Visual Source Safe Create ActiveX Dynamic Link Libraries Use or Integrate between multiple projects Reuse any Visual Basic Component Create OLE Automation Servers © 2020 Better Solutions Limited. All Rights Reserved. © 2020 Better Solutions Limited TopNext

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Is é macra an t-ainm a úsáidtear chun línte cód a thuairisciú a úsáidtear chun tascanna athdhéanta a uathoibriú i Microsoft Office. Tá na línte cód seo scríofa i dteanga ar a dtugtar VBA a bhfuil gearrthóg le haghaidh Visual Basic for Application. Is í VBA an teanga atá taobh thiar de gach feidhmchlár Microsoft Office (lena n-áirítear Excel, Word, PowerPoint, Outlook, Access). Ritheann maicrí laistigh den fheidhmchlár oifige agus ní gá aon bogearraí breise a bheith acu. Tá na téarmaí 'maicre' agus 'Cód VBA' coibhéiseach agus tagraíonn siad don rud céanna. Is féidir le maicríocha tascanna a dhéanamh i bhfad níos tapúla ná mar is féidir iad a dhéanamh de láimh agus go minic le cruinneas níos mó. Tá dhá bhealach ann chun macro a chruthú. Is féidir leat an Taifeadóir Macra a úsáid nó is féidir leat na ráitis a scríobh go díreach isteach in Eagarthóir Visual Basic (Alt + F11). Tá samhail réad difriúil ann do gach ceann de na hiarratais Oifige agus tá sé eagraithe i struchtúr cosúil le crann. Sainmhíníonn samhail réad na réada, na hairíonna agus na modhanna is féidir a úsáid i do chód chun an t-iarratas a rialú. Is féidir iad seo a bheith ar rud ar bith i ndáiríre, leabhair oibre, doiciméid, míreanna, réimsí, sleamhnáin etc. Is rudaí aonair nó rudaí i mbailiúchán iad na rudaí VBA go léir. Déantar tagairt do rudaí i mbailiúchán trí innéacs sa mbailiúchán. An chuid is mó den am is féidir le do chód oibriú ar rudaí gan iad a ghníomhachtú nó a roghnú. Tá liosta de na rudaí i ngach múnla réad. Tá níos mó ná 300 réad éagsúla ag Excel. Mar shampla in Excel tá réad Leabhar Oibre ann réad Chart agus réad Cill. Tá cláir comhdhéanta de shraith ráitis. Ní mór gach ráiteas a chríochnú le líne nua. Tugtar léiriú ar ráiteas a mheastar a luach. Is sraith ráitis é fo-ruthanna a fheidhmíonn tasc ar leith. Tá feidhm comhionann le fo-ruthanna ach tá an cumas aige luach a thabhairt ar ais freisin. Is éard atá i modúl cód ná ainm an chomhpháirte a bhfuil grúpa fo-rialacha agus feidhmeanna ann Tá roinnt oibríochtaí nach féidir le macros/vba a dhéanamh: Rialaithe ActiveX a chruthú Comhtháthú le Visual Source Safe Leabharlanna Ceangail Dinimiciúla ActiveX a chruthú Úsáid nó Comhtháthaigh idir tionscadail éagsúla Aon Choimhlint Visual Basic a Athúsáid Seirbhísigh Uathoibrithe OLE a chruthú © 2020 Slíonaí Níos Fearr Co. Gach Ceart Coimeádta. © 2020 Better Solutions Limited TopNext

Torrential Flooding In Great Britain On August 26, 1912 rain began at 3:00am in Norfolk, Great Britain. 7 inches of rain, more than three months average rainfall fell in the space of just 29 hours. The river Bure overflowed and rose to heights of 16 feet or more and people had to be rescued from upstairs windows by boat. Three lives were lost including that of a baby swept out of his mother’s arms. Many animals died, hundreds were left homeless and an estimated 52 Norfolk bridges were wrecked.Audio account of the Norwich/Norfolk Flood of 1912 by survivors :http://soundcloud.com/the-great-flood-1912/norfolk-flood Destroyed bridge at Coltishall Photo courtesy Aylsham Local History Society.

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Tuilte Torrential sa Bhreatain Mhór Ar 26 Lúnasa, 1912, thosaigh sé ag titim ag 3:00am i Norfolk, an Bhreatain Mhór. 7 orlach de bháisteach, níos mó ná trí mhí meán-réitigh thit i spás ach 29 uair an chloig. Bhí an abhainn Bure ag tuile agus d'ardaigh sé go airde 16 troigh nó níos mó agus b'éigean daoine a shábháil ó fhuinneoga an urláir arda le báid. Cailleadh trí shaol lena n-áirítear leanbh a bhí ar láimh a mháthar. Fuair go leor ainmhithe bás, d'fhág na céadta gan dídean agus tuairiscíodh go raibh 52 droichead i Norfolk dífhillte. Droichead scriosadh ag Coltishall Grianghraf de chúirtéisíocht ó Chumann Staire Áitiúil Aylsham.

Owl Butterfly Species How to Create a Butterfly Garden If you want to add some colour to your garden, why not create a butterfly garden? A butterfly garden is an environment designed to attract butterflies, as well as certain moths. It is also designed to allow butterflies to lay eggs and also to feed caterpillars. Basically, the garden must be appealing to the whole life-cycle of a butterfly! You need to have plants that attract both butterflies and caterpillars, not just focus on the one! Lots of colour will attract butterflies! Never use pesticide because butterflies are a type of insect! A nice sunny area is required for the plants that butterflies are attracted to! Plant Flowers that produce Nectar Nectar is a sweet fluid produced by the flower and butterflies love it! It encourages bees and butterflies to pollinate. Purple, pink and yellow coloured blossoms seem to be preferred by Irish butterflies. Clusters of short, tubular flowers or flat-topped blossoms provide the ideal shapes for butterflies to easily land on and feed. Flowers with “double flowers” i.e. more petals should be avoided as the nectar is harder to reach. Ensure Continuous Blossom Throughout the Season Butterflies are active from early spring until late autumn. Plant a selection of flowers that will provide nectar throughout the entire season e.g. spring – Hesperis, summer – Buddleia, autumn – Sedum. Add Caterpillar Host Plant Caterpillars only eat specific kinds of plants. Female butterflies usually lay eggs on or near the plants their caterpillars prefer to eat. If the desired food plants are not available, the butterflies will not lay eggs, or the caterpillars will starve rather than eat another type of leaf. Add Perches to Your Garden Place flat stones in your garden as butterflies enjoy siting in the sun and often land on stones, bare soil or vegetation to bask. Similar to reptiles, basking raises their body temperature, so they are able to fly and remain active. Use an alternative to Pesticides Butterflies are affected by most pesticides used in the garden. Using biological methods will get rid of the pests without killing butterflies. Make a little spa for your butterfly by placing shallow dishes or pans with damp sand in the sunny spots of your garden. Butterflies love puddling which means hanging out in damp mud and sand and drinking a bit of water.

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Speiceas na mbéile Owl Conas Gairdín Butterfly a chruthú Más mian leat dath a chur ar do ghairdín, cén fáth nach gcruthófaí gairdín liopaí? Is éard atá i gcarr-chruthán na mbrathair timpeallacht atá deartha chun bratachraobhair a mhealladh, chomh maith le moths áirithe. Tá sé deartha freisin chun ligean do bhrathair uibheacha a leagan agus freisin le caterpillars a chothú. Go bunúsach, ní mór go mbeadh an ghairdín tarraingteach do shaolré iomlán na maraitéire! Ní mór duit plandaí a bheith agat a mheallann an dá liathróid agus an caterpillar, ní díriú ar cheann amháin! Beidh go leor dathanna a mhealladh butterflies! Ná húsáid pesticide riamh toisc gur cineál insteachta iad na féileacáin! Tá gá le limistéar álainn ghrinn do na plandaí a mheallann na féileacáin! Plandaí Bláthanna a tháirgeann Nectar Is sreabhán milis é an nectar a tháirgeann an bláth agus is breá leis na féileacáin é! Spreagann sé beacha agus féileacáin chun pollination. Is cosúil go bhfuil na féileacáin Éireannacha níos fearr ag bláthanna corcra, bándearg agus buí. Tá na cnuasaigh de bhláthanna gearr, tiúbúla nó le barr cothrom ar na cruthanna is fearr le haghaidh na mbrathair a thagann go héasca ar talamh agus a ithe. Bláthanna le 'bláthanna dúbailte', i.e. Ba cheart níos mó péitíní a sheachaint mar go bhfuil an nectar níos deacra a bhaint amach. Déan cinnte go bhfuil bláthanna leanúnacha i rith na séasúir Tá na féileacáin gníomhach ó thús an earraigh go dtí deireadh an earraigh. Plandaigh rogha bláthanna a sholáthróidh neictear i rith na séasúr ar fad, e.g. earrach Hesperis, samhradh Buddleia, titim Sedum. Cuir plandaí óstach Caterpillar leis Ní itheann caterpillars ach cineálacha áirithe plandaí. De ghnáth cuireann na féileacáin baineann uibheacha ar na plandaí is fearr a n-caterpillars a ithe nó in aice leo. Mura bhfuil na plandaí bia atá ag teastáil ar fáil, ní chuirfidh na féileacáin uibheacha, nó ní ithfidh na caterpillars cineál eile duilleach ach fanfaidh siad gortaithe. Cuir Perches le Do Ghàrradh Cuir clocha cothrom i do ghairdín mar is maith le féileacáin suí sa ghrian agus is minic a thagann siad ar chlocha, ar thalamh no ar fhás chun an t-am a chaitheamh. Cosúil le creimirí, cuireann an t-oíche a teochta coirp, mar sin tá siad in ann eitilt agus fanacht gníomhach. Úsáid rogha eile seachas lotnaidicídí Bíonn tionchar ag formhór na lotnaidicídí a úsáidtear sa ghairdín ar bhrathléimíní. Bainfidh úsáid modhanna bitheolaíocha as na plágaidí gan na féileacáin a mharú. Déan spáis beag do do phéipéar trí mhiasanna nó páistí cistine le gaineamh taise a chur i láthair na gréine i do ghairdín. Is breá le féileacáin poill a bheith acu, rud a chiallaíonn go bhfuil siad ag crochadh amach i muice agus saille fliuch agus go bhfuil siad ag ól beagán uisce.

Definition of a Felony in California Those looking for the definition of a felony in California may be disappointed that the law is not very specific. The California Penal Code, which enumerates actions that are considered crimes in the state, starts by defining a crime or public offense. Essentially, it says that a crime can occur when an action is either committed in violation of a law – doing something illegal – or when an action is omitted – not doing taking an action that results in a law being breached. The Penal Code then states that crimes and public offenses include felonies, misdemeanors, and infractions. Only then does the law offer a definition of a felony in California: a crime punishable by death, a sentence in state prison, or – in specific circumstances – a sentence in county jail. That’s it. It’s necessary to dig deeper into the Penal Code to understand which crimes and public offenses are considered felonies in California. In California, the two major types of crime with which most people are familiar are “crimes against property” and “crimes against persons.” Felonies that fall into the “crimes against persons” category include robbery, assault, battery, sex-related crimes, kidnapping, and human trafficking. When outlining the definition of a felony in California, it’s important to understand that some crimes can be charged as either felonies or misdemeanors. These types of crimes are called “wobblers.” So, for example, if you’re arrested in Oakland on assault charges, you might be facing felony charges with the potential for a stiff prison sentence or you might be looking at a misdemeanor that carries little or no jail time. The difference in charges can be attributed to the circumstances of the crime, your criminal record, and the skill of your Alameda County criminal defense attorney. California Felony Charges Pertaining to Crimes Against Property We previously provided information about felony charges in California relating to crimes against persons. Now, let’s look at the definition of a felony in California as it pertains to crimes against property. Arson: Arson charges can be filed for purposefully setting fire to buildings, wildlands, or other property – or for helping someone set a fire. Arson is virtually always charged as a felony, but the punishment for an arson conviction varies greatly depending upon the circumstances. For example, a conviction involving burning an inhabited structure carries a three-, five-, or eight-year prison sentence, while causing great bodily injury carries a five-, seven-, or nine-year prison term. If the structure isn’t inhabited or if land was burned, then a conviction could mean two, four, or six years in prison. There are also circumstances under which an arson conviction can carry the original sentence plus a sentencing enhancement of three, four, or five years. This holds true if you’ve had a previous felony arson conviction, if emergency personnel suffered great bodily injury, if more than one person was injured, if multiple structures were burned, or if an ignition device was used. In addition to the crime of arson, aggravated arson fits the definition of a felony in California. Aggravated arson can be charged when there’s a willful intent to physically hurt someone and you’ve been convicted of arson within the past 10 years, when the damage totaled more than $8.3 million, or when more than five inhabited structures were involved. If so, an aggravated arson conviction can mean a sentence of ten years to life in prison, with no possibility of parole until ten years have been served. But what if the arson wasn’t intentional? If someone was injured, if the fire burned an inhabited structure, or if wildlands were burned, then the offense is considered a wobbler and can be charged as either a felony or a misdemeanor. The punishment for a misdemeanor conviction can be six months to a year in county jail, while the punishment for a felony conviction can range from 16 months to six years. This type of arson can also carry penalty enhancements of one, two, or three years if you’ve had a prior conviction, if first responders were injured, if someone suffers great bodily injury, or if multiple structures burned. Burglary: The crime of burglary in California encompasses more than one would suspect at first glance. Anyone who intends to commit grand or petit larceny or any felony and enters virtually any structure is guilty of burglary. The Penal Code enumerates houses, apartments, warehouses, stores, barns, boats, railroad cars, cargo containers, aircraft, mines, and even outhouses as potential burglary crime scenes. The crime of burglary is split up into first-degree burglary and second-degree burglary. First-degree burglary can be charged when the accused enters any inhabited dwelling (such as a house, houseboat, RV, or tractor-trailer cab), and a conviction can carry a two-, four-, or six-year prison sentence. Second-degree burglary is any other type of burglary and is charged as a misdemeanor. If the burglary or attempted burglary involves attempting to use or using a device or explosive to breach a vault or safe, then the accused can be charged with a felony and, if convicted, can be sentenced to three, five, or seven years in prison. Because burglary can be a wobbler, if you’re arrested in Alameda County, it’s important to have a seasoned Oakland criminal defense attorney by your side. An experienced attorney can work to have felony charges reduced to misdemeanor charges, or can possibly negotiate a plea agreement that enables you to avoid jail or prison time altogether and instead pay restitution and be released on probation. Embezzlement: Embezzlement is broadly defined in the California Penal Code, but at its core involves misusing your fiduciary responsibility to take money or property from the government, your employer, an organization, or your dependent. The punishment for embezzlement depends upon the kind and value of the funds or property embezzled. For that reason, embezzlement can be treated as a misdemeanor or a felony. If the embezzlement is from a state or local government entity, then it is treated as a felony. The same holds true if the embezzlement involves real estate. If the embezzlement victim is an elder or your dependent, then that is treated as an aggravating circumstance to a felony conviction. Forgery: In California, the crime of forgery encompasses a number of activities, most of which are treated as wobblers. For example, forging or altering a driver’s license or other government identification card can be charged as a misdemeanor or a felony, as can possessing that forged or altered ID. Check forgery, or forgery of another financial instrument like a traveler’s check or money order, is usually treated as a misdemeanor if it involves $950 or less. However, knowingly writing bad checks – either for yourself or on behalf of a company – can be charged as a misdemeanor or a felony. Even if the dollar amount is $950 or less, someone with a prior conviction can face felony charges. Extortion: Some authorities make a distinction between blackmail and extortion, but the California Penal Code considers both to be extortion. Essentially, extortion is getting something of value from someone else by force or by threat. The law says that threatening to hurt a person, their property, or a third party fits under the extortion umbrella, as does accusing the threatened person or their relative of a crime. Threatening to expose a person’s secret or their immigration status is also considered extortion. It’s critical to note that California law typically doesn’t differentiate between threatening to do something and actually carrying out the threat. You needn’t actually carry out the threat to be guilty of extortion. Extortion is typically charged as a felony, and a conviction can carry a prison sentence of two, three, or four years. If the victim is an elder person or your dependent, that’s considered an aggravating circumstance during sentencing. Identity Theft: In California, stealing someone’s identity and using it to obtain credit, goods, or services – or even medical information – can result in either misdemeanor or felony charges. If you have a prior conviction, you can be charged with a felony if you simply intended to defraud someone and never actually used their personal information. The same holds true if you have the personal information of ten or more people, or if you sell or transfer someone’s personal identifying information. Felonies Involving Crimes against Public Justice In addition to crimes against persons and crimes against property, the California Penal Code enumerates a variety of “crimes against public justice” that can be charged as felonies. For example, bribery and corruption involving public officials are often felonies. So are activities associated with prisoner escapes. Perjury, which means lying under oath, and suborning perjury, which is asking someone to lie under oath, are both felonies punishable by a two-, three-, or four-year prison sentence. Witness tampering and falsifying evidence can be charged as felonies, as can criminal profiteering and money laundering. Definition of a Felony in California: Offbeat Felony Charges The California Penal Code categorizes a variety of felonies, some of which are very familiar, and others of which are esoteric. The more esoteric felonies include: State Sovereignty Crimes: These offenses are two sides of the same coin, treason against the state and the knowledge or concealment of treason. Crimes Relating to the Executive Branch: These crimes pertain to attempting to influence or harm state officials and employees. For example, this part of the Penal Code prohibits and punishes offering or giving a bribe to someone in the executive branch of state government, or to a state employee or political appointee. It also encompasses attempting to prevent or discourage someone in the executive branch from doing their job, or threatening bodily harm to those people. Crimes Relating to Legislators: The California Penal Code makes it a felony to bribe or attempt to bribe state and local legislators, and likewise makes it a felony to ask for or accept a bribe. The Importance of Sound Legal Representation If you have been charged with a crime in Oakland – whether it involves a crime against a person or a crime against property – then it’s crucial that your first call is to an Alameda County criminal defense attorney. Having sound legal representation from the time of your arrest can help ensure that your criminal justice proceedings don’t spin out of control. For example, having an attorney at your side when the police question you will likely prevent you from making any incriminating statements that can later be used against you. An attorney may even be able to prevent you having to spend the night in jail, and can potentially keep you out of jail after your preliminary hearing. But that’s just the tip of the iceberg. A good Oakland criminal defense lawyer is familiar with all of the players in the Alameda County criminal justice system, from law enforcement staff to prosecutors to judges. This knowledge can help them achieve the best possible outcome in your case. For example, your Oakland lawyer may be able to poke holes in the prosecutor’s case, resulting in charges being dropped or reduced. Because your attorney understands plea agreements, it’s possible that they can negotiate a deal whereby felony charges are dropped in exchange for a misdemeanor guilty plea. Should your case proceed to trial, your attorney can use tried-and-true defenses to secure an acquittal. In the case of a plea agreement or following a conviction, your attorney can negotiate your sentence. This can mean the difference between probation and jail or between county jail and prison. In addition, many felonies involve fines, restitution, and court fees. Having an attorney advocate for you can help reduce the financial impact associated with a conviction, ensuring that increased financial stability for your future.

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Sainmhíniú ar Fellowness i California Is féidir leo siúd atá ag lorg sainmhíniú ar choir i California a bheith díomá nach bhfuil an dlí an-sonrach. Tosaíonn Cód Choiriúil California, a liostálann gníomhartha a mheastar gur choireanna iad sa stát, trí choireacht nó cion poiblí a shainmhíniú. Go bunúsach, deir sé gur féidir coir a tharlóidh nuair a dhéantar gníomh i gcion ar dlí rud éigin neamhdhleathach a dhéanamh nó nuair a fhágtar gníomh ar lár gan gníomh a dhéanamh a fhágann go ndéantar dlí a shárú. Deir an Cód Peanna ansin go n-áirítear coireanna agus cionta poiblí coireanna, mídhleathacha, agus sárú. Ní dhéantar an dlí a shainiú ansin ach amháin i California: coir a phionófar le bás, pianbhreith i bpríosún stáit, nó i gcúinsí sonracha pianbhreith i bpríosún contae. Sin é. Tá sé riachtanach dul níos doimhne sa Chód Coiriúil chun a thuiscint cé na coireanna agus na cionta poiblí a mheastar a bheith ina gcion i gCeilfíornia. I California, is iad an dá phríomhchineál coireachta a bhfuil an chuid is mó daoine eolach orthu ná coireanna i gcoinne maoine agus coireanna i gcoinne daoine. Áirítear ar na coireanna a thagann faoi chatagóir coireanna i gcoinne daoine robáil, ionsaí, bataraí, coireanna a bhaineann le gnéas, kidnapping, agus gáinneáil ar dhaoine. Nuair a dhéantar sainmhíniú ar choir i California a leagan amach, tá sé tábhachtach a thuiscint gur féidir roinnt coireanna a mhuirearú mar choireanna nó mar mhí-iompar. Tugtar 'wobblers' ar na cineálacha coireachta seo. Mar sin, mar shampla, má gabhadh tú in Oakland ar chúiseamh ionsaí, d'fhéadfadh go mbeadh cúisimh coiriúla agat a d'fhéadfadh pianbhreith phríosúnachta crua a bheith agat nó d'fhéadfadh go mbeadh tú ag féachaint ar chion-dhleathach a bhfuil beagán nó aon am príosúin aige. Is féidir an difríocht i muirir a chur i leith na cúinsí den choir, do thaifead coiriúil, agus an scileanna de do Alameda Contae dlíodóir cosanta coiriúil. Cúisimh Coirnéalacha California a bhaineann le Coireanna i gcoinne Maoine Thugamar faisnéis roimhe seo faoi chúiseamh coiriúil i California a bhaineann le coireanna i gcoinne daoine. Anois, a ligean ar breathnú ar an sainmhíniú ar choir i California mar a bhaineann sé le coireanna i gcoinne maoine. Arson: Is féidir cúisí arson a chomhdú le haghaidh foirgnimh, talún fiáine nó maoin eile a dhó go ciallmhar nó chun cabhrú le duine éigin tine a chur ar bun. Déantar ardaithe dóiteáin a ghearradh i gcónaí mar choir, ach tá an pionós le haghaidh ciontú dóiteáin ag athrú go mór ag brath ar na cúinsí. Mar shampla, is é an cion a bhaineann le foirgnimh ináitithe a dhó ná trí, cúig nó ocht mbliana príosún, agus cion cúig, seacht nó naoi mbliana príosún a bhaineann le díobháil mhór corporal a chur ar dhuine. Mura bhfuil duine ina gcónaí sa struchtúr nó má dhóitear talamh, d'fhéadfadh ciontú dhá bhliain, ceithre bliana nó sé bliana sa phríosún a chiallaíonn. Tá cúinsí ann freisin faoina bhféadfaidh ciontú dóiteáin a bheith ag an bhfíric go bhfuil an pianbhreith bunaidh ann chomh maith le méadú pianbhreith trí, ceithre nó cúig bliana. Tá sé seo fíor má bhí ciontú coiriúil ar an dúnmharú agat roimhe seo, má d'fhulaing foirne na heaglaise díobháil mhór do chorp, má gortaíodh níos mó ná duine amháin, má dúnadh struchtúir iolracha, nó má úsáideadh feiste ionsaithe. Chomh maith leis an coir arson, arson aggravated oireann an sainmhíniú ar choir in California. Is féidir le dóiteán ag éirí tromchúiseach a mhuirearú nuair a bhíonn intinn intinn ann dochar a dhéanamh do dhuine agus má bhí tú ciontach i ndúnmharú laistigh de na 10 mbliana anuas, nuair a bhí an damáiste níos mó ná $ 8.3 milliún, nó nuair a bhí níos mó ná cúig struchtúr áitiúla i gceist. Má tá, is féidir le ciontú dóiteáin éigeanta a chiallaíonn pianbhreith deich mbliana go saol sa phríosún, gan aon fhéidearthacht paróil go dtí go mbeidh deich mbliana curtha i bhfeidhm. Ach cad a tharlaíonn má nach raibh an t-ardú ar intinn? Má bhí duine díobhálaithe, má dhóitear struchtúr cónaithe, nó má dhóitear foraoisí fiáine, ansin meastar go bhfuil an cion ina wobbler agus is féidir é a mhuirearú mar choire nó mar mhí-dhleathach. Is féidir an pionós le haghaidh ciontú mídhleathach a bheith sé mhí go bliain i bpríosún contae, agus is féidir an pionós le haghaidh ciontú coiriúil a bheith idir 16 mhí agus sé bliana. Is féidir leis an gcineál seo dóiteáin a chur le feabhas ar phionós de bhliain amháin, dhá bhliain nó trí bliana má bhí ciontú roimhe seo agat, má gortaíodh na chéad fhreagróirí, má bhíonn díobháil mhór corporra ag duine, nó má dhóitear go leor struchtúr. Briseadh isteach: Tá níos mó i gceist le cion briseadh isteach i gCeanada ná mar a bheadh amhras ar dhuine ar an gcéad amharc. Is ciontach i bhfiacla é aon duine a bhfuil sé ar intinn aige grand nó petit larceny nó aon choir a dhéanamh agus a théann isteach i mbeagnach aon struchtúr. Liostaíonn an Cód Coiriúil tithe, árasáin, stórais, siopaí, greanta, báid, gluaisteáin iarnróid, coimeádáin lasta, aerárthach, mianaigh, agus fiú fo-thaiscí mar radharcanna coireachta féideartha burglary. Tá an coir bhréagála roinnte ina bhréagáil den chéad chéim agus i bhréagáil den dara céim. Is féidir é a chur i gcúis le briseadh isteach den chéad chéim nuair a théann an cúisithe isteach in aon áit chónaithe ina bhfuil daoine (mar shampla teach, báid tí, RV, nó cabán tarraingtheora-trailer), agus d'fhéadfadh cion dhá, ceithre, nó sé bliana príosúnachta a bheith ag ciontú. Is éard atá i ndroch-bhreac é aon chineál eile de bhreacadh agus tá sé cúisithe mar chion. Má bhaineann an bhfiacla nó iarracht bhfiacla le iarracht feiste nó pléascáin a úsáid nó a úsáid chun breach a dhéanamh ar sheaft nó ar shábháilteacht, ansin is féidir an cúisithe a bheith cúisithe le coir agus, má bhíonn sé ciontach, is féidir é a chionú go trí, cúig nó seacht mbliana i bpríosún. Toisc gur féidir le burglary a bheith wobbler, má tá tú arrested i Alameda Contae, tá sé tábhachtach a bheith le seasta Oakland dlíodóir cosanta coiriúil ag do thaobh. D'fhéadfadh dlíodóir a bhfuil taithí acu a bheith ag obair chun go laghdófaí cúisí coiriúlachta go cúiseanna mídhleathacha, nó d'fhéadfadh sé comhaontú plead a chabhróidh leat am príosúin nó príosúin a sheachaint go hiomlán agus in ionad sin aisíocaíocht a íoc agus a scaoileadh saor ar choinníoll. Saothrú: Tá sainmhíniú leathan ar saothrú i gCód Coiriúil California, ach sa chroílár, baineann sé le do fhreagracht iontaobhais a mhí-úsáid chun airgead nó maoin a thógáil ón rialtas, do fhostóir, eagraíocht, nó do mhuinín. Braitheann an pionós a ghearrtar ar mhíchumas ar chineál agus ar luach na gcistí nó na maoine a mhíchumas. Ar an gcúis sin, is féidir an dífháil a chóireáil mar mhí-iompar nó mar choirnéal. Má tá an díghalrú ó eintiteas rialtais stáit nó áitiúil, déileáiltear leis mar choir. Baineann an rud céanna má bhaineann an díghalrú le hábhar réadmhaoin. Má tá an íospartach dífhostaithe ina seanóir nó ina dhuine atá ag brath ort, déantar é sin a chóireáil mar imthosca tromchúiseacha chun ciontú coiriúil a dhéanamh. Falsificáil: I California, cuimsíonn an coir bréagaíochta roinnt gníomhaíochtaí, a gcaithfear leis an gcuid is mó acu mar wobblers. Mar shampla, is féidir breithiúnas tiomána nó cárta aitheantais rialtais eile a fhalsú nó a athrú a ghearradh mar mhí-iompar nó mar choir, mar is féidir leis an ID falsa nó athraithe sin a bheith aige. De ghnáth déantar bréagcheic, nó bréagcheic ionstraime airgeadais eile cosúil le seic taistil nó ordú airgid, a chóireáil mar mhí-dhleathach má bhaineann sé le $ 950 nó níos lú. Mar sin féin, is féidir seiceanna neamhdhíobhálacha a scríobh go feasach duit féin nó thar ceann cuideachta a ghearradh mar mhí-iompar nó mar choir. Fiú má tá an méid dollar $ 950 nó níos lú, duine le ciontú roimhe seo d'fhéadfadh cúisí coiriúla a chur i láthair. Extortion: Déanann roinnt údaráis idirdhealú idir chantaireacht agus extortion, ach meastar go bhfuil an Cóid Phinéalaigh California araon mar extortion. Go bunúsach, is é an t-eagrán rud éigin luachmhar a fháil ó dhuine eile trí fhoréigean nó trí bhagairt. Deir an dlí go dtagann bagairt chun dochar a dhéanamh do dhuine, dá mhaoin, nó do thríú páirtí faoi mhúnlaí an extortion, mar a dhéanann cúisíocht a dhéanamh ar an duine a bhagairt nó ar a ghaolta de choireacht. Meastar gur éagóir é bagairt rúnda duine nó a stádas inimirce a nochtadh. Tá sé ríthábhachtach a thabhairt faoi deara nach ndéanann dlí California idirdhealú de ghnáth idir bagairt rud éigin a dhéanamh agus an bagairt a chur i gcrích i ndáiríre. Ní gá duit an bagairt a chur i gcrích i ndáiríre chun a bheith ciontach i ndúnmharaíocht. De ghnáth, déantar é a ghearradh mar chion, agus d'fhéadfadh pionós príosúnachta dhá, trí nó ceithre bliana a bheith ag ciontú. Má tá an t-íospartach ina dhuine scothaosta nó ina dhuine atá ag brath ort, meastar gur imthosca tromchúiseacha iad sin le linn na breithiúnais a thabhairt. Gléasadh aitheantais: I California, is féidir le goid aitheantais duine agus é a úsáid chun creidmheas, earraí nó seirbhísí a fháil nó fiú faisnéis leighis a bheith ina chúis le mí-dhearmad nó le cúisí coiriúla. Má tá ciontú roimhe agat, is féidir leat a bheith cúisithe le coirfhiontair má bhí sé d'aidhm agat duine a chailleadh agus nár úsáid tú a gcuid faisnéise pearsanta riamh. Tá an rud céanna fíor má tá faisnéis phearsanta deichniúr duine nó níos mó agat, nó má dhíolann nó aistríonn tú faisnéis phearsanta aitheantais duine. Coireanna a Chuimsíonn Coireanna i gcoinne an Cheartais Phoiblí Chomh maith le coireanna i gcoinne daoine agus coireanna i gcoinne maoine, liostálann Cód Coiriúil California éagsúlacht de "choireanna i gcoinne ceartais phoiblí" ar féidir iad a mhuirearú mar choireanna. Mar shampla, is minic gur coireanna iad briobtaíocht agus éilliú a bhaineann le hoifigigh phoiblí. Tá gníomhaíochtaí a bhaineann le scaoileadh príosúnach ann freisin. Is coireanna iad an dá chás, a bhfuil pionós dhá, trí nó ceithre bliana príosúnachta orthu. Is féidir fírinne a dhéanamh ar fhianaise a bheith ina chionta, mar is féidir le brabúis choiriúil agus sciúradh airgid. Sainmhíniú ar Fheachtra i California: Cúisimh Fheachtraí Eacnamaíochta An California Cód Phinéal catagóiriú éagsúlacht de felonies, cuid acu an-aitheanta, agus cuid eile acu atá esoteric. I measc na coireanna níos éistearacha tá: Coireanna Uachtaránacht Stáit: Is dhá thaobh den bhuidéal céanna iad na cionta seo, traidisiún i gcoinne an stáit agus an t-eolais nó an rún a bhaineann le traidisiún. Coireanna a bhaineann leis an mBrainse Feidhmiúcháin: Baineann na coireanna seo le iarracht tionchar a imirt nó dochar a dhéanamh d'oifigigh agus d'fhostaithe stáit. Mar shampla, toirmeascann an chuid seo den Chód Coiriúil agus pionóis a chur ar fáil nó a thabhairt do dhuine i gcumhacht feidhmiúcháin rialtais stáit, nó d'fhostaí stáit nó d'ainmniúchán polaitiúil. Áirítear leis freisin iarracht a dhéanamh cosc a chur ar dhuine sa bhrainse feidhmiúcháin a phost a dhéanamh nó a scor, nó bagairt a dhéanamh ar dhaoine a dhéantar díobháil choirp dóibh. Coireanna a bhaineann le reachtóirí: Déanann Cód Coiriúil California é a bheith ina choire a bheith ag bribús nó iarracht a dhéanamh bribús a thabhairt do reachtóirí stáit agus áitiúla, agus mar an gcéanna, déanann sé é a bheith ina choire a bheith ag iarraidh nó ag glacadh le bribús. An Táscaíocht a bhaineann le hIonadaíocht Dlí Shábháilte Má tá tú cúisithe le coir in Oakland - cibé an bhfuil sé i gceist le coir i gcoinne duine nó coir i gcoinne maoine - ansin tá sé ríthábhachtach go bhfuil do chéad glaoch chun dlíodóir cosanta coiriúil Alameda Contae. Is féidir le ionadaíocht dhlisteanach dlí a bheith agat ó am do ghabháil chun a chinntiú nach mbeidh do imeachtaí breithiúnais choiriúla ag dul as smacht. Mar shampla, is dócha go gcuirfidh dlíodóir ar do thaobh nuair a bheidh an póilíní ag ceistiú ort cosc ort aon ráitis incriminating a d'fhéadfadh a bheith in úsáid ina choinne níos déanaí a dhéanamh. D'fhéadfadh sé go mbeadh dlíodóir in ann cosc a chur ort an oíche a chaitheamh i bpríosún, agus d'fhéadfadh sé go mbeadh tú amuigh ón bpríosún tar éis do sheisiúin réamh-eisteachta. Ach ní hé sin ach barr an chléibhe oighir. Tá dlíodóir cosanta coiriúil maith in Oakland eolach ar gach imreoir i gcóras ceartais choiriúil Chontae Alameda, ó fhoireann forfheidhmithe dlí go stát-fheidhmeannach go breithiúna. Is féidir leis an eolas seo cabhrú leo an toradh is fearr is féidir a bhaint amach i do chás. Mar shampla, d'fhéadfadh do dhlíodóir Oakland a bheith in ann poill a phlé i gcás an ionchúisitheora, rud a fhágfaidh go dtarraingfear cúiseanna nó go laghdófar iad. Toisc go dtuigeann do dhlíodóir comhaontuithe plead, is féidir go bhféadfaidh siad déileáil le déileáil ina dtarraingítear cúiseanna coiriúla i malartú le plead guilty mí-ghníomh. Má théann do chás chun trialach, is féidir le do dhlíodóir cosaint thrialaithe agus fíor a úsáid chun díolúine a chinntiú. I gcás comhaontaithe plea nó tar éis ciontú, is féidir le do abhcóide do phionós a chaibidlíocht. D'fhéadfadh sé seo a bheith mar an difríocht idir próiseáil agus príosún nó idir príosún contae agus príosún. Ina theannta sin, bíonn fíneálacha, aisíocaíocht, agus táillí cúirte i gceist le go leor coireanna. Is féidir le dlíodóir a bheith agat a chabhróidh leat an tionchar airgeadais a bhaineann le ciontú a laghdú, ag cinntiú go méadófar cobhsaíocht airgeadais do do thodhchaí.

Word of the day 1. Pipe organ - A keyboard instrument that is sounded by air moving through pipes. The pipe organ usually has several manuals as well as pedals that control the air flow through combinations of pipes. A rank of pipes constitutes one stop and consists of a row of pipes, one for each key on the keyboard. Organ pipes come in a variety of sizes, shapes, materials, and methods of setting the air columns to vibrate. The pipes can range in size from a quarter-inch in length to over 32 feet with the shorter pipes creating the higher pitches and the larger pipes creating the lowest pitches. Organ pipes can be any shape from round to square, conical to cylindrical, or from straight to curved. The differing shapes provide a variety of tone colors. The pipes are typically constructed from either wood or metal. These materials provide another factor in the tone color of the pipe. The pipes are broken into two categories for creating sound, flue pipes and reed pipes.The flue pipes produce sound on the same principle of a whistle or recorder. The reed pipes produce sound on the same principle as the clarinet. The organ is an ancient instrument popular since the Medieval era. The use of organs is most commonly associated with religious music. 2. Theater Organ - A pipe organ housed in an ornate cabinet and console that has in addition to the usual organ pipes, other instruments that are controlled by the keyboard. Other instruments commonly added include stringed instruments, snare drum, bass drum, cymbals, bells, and other various percussion instruments. Theater organs were used in the early 20th century to accompany silent films and and to provide entertainment to the movie audience prior to the advent of sound films (1929, The Jazz Singer). The various additional instruments offered a wider range of sounds that would allow the player to create special sound effects to heighten the sense of reality. Although most theater organs have been destroyed or fallen into disrepair, a few examples still illustrate the fantastic sound of the era. 3. Electric organ - A keyboard instrument that uses electronics to create sounds that closely resemble that of the pipe organ. The electric organ is used as a low-cost substitute for pipe organs and in popular music (i.e. rock, blues & jazz) as an alternate keyboard instrument sound.

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focal an lae 1. an t-am a bhí ann. Orgán píopa - Ionstraim chliste a bhfuil fuaim á chur air ag gluaiseacht trí phíopaí. De ghnáth bíonn roinnt lámhleabhar agus péidéal ag an orgán píopaí a rialaíonn sreabhadh an aeir trí chomhcheangail píopaí. Is éard atá i sraith píopaí ná stad amháin agus tá sraith píopaí ann, ceann amháin do gach eochair ar an méarchlár. Tá píopaí orgáin i méideanna, cruthanna, ábhair agus modhanna éagsúla chun na colúin aeir a shocrú go vibrate. Is féidir leis na píopaí a bheith éagsúil ó leath-orlach ar fhad go dtí os cionn 32 troigh leis na píopaí níos giorra ag cruthú na pitches is airde agus na píopaí is mó ag cruthú na pitches is ísle. Is féidir le píopaí orgáin aon chruth a bheith acu ó bhabhta go cearnóg, cónach go sileandrálach, nó ó dhíreach go cuartha. Tugann na cruthanna éagsúla éagsúlacht tonna. De ghnáth déantar na píopaí ó adhmad nó ó mhiotal. Soláthraíonn na hábhair seo fachtóir eile i dhath ton an phíopa. Tá na píopaí roinnte ina dhá chatagóir chun fuaim a chruthú, píopaí tobac agus píopaí reed. Tá na píopaí reed ag táirgeadh fuaime ar an bprionsabal céanna leis an clarinet. Is uirlis ársa é an orgán a bhí tóir air ó ré na Meánaoise. Is minic a bhaineann úsáid orgáin le ceol reiligiúnach. 2. Seachadadh. Orgán amharclainne - Orgán píopa atá suite i gcaibineacht agus console ornáideacha a bhfuil ionstraimí eile ann a rialaítear leis an méarchlár, chomh maith leis na píopaí orgáin is gnách. I measc na n-ionstraimí eile a chuirtear isteach go coitianta tá ionstraimí sreinge, druma snara, druma bass, cimbailí, cloigíní, agus ionstraimí buailte éagsúla eile. Úsáidtear orgáin amharclainne go luath sa 20ú haois chun dul le scannáin mhúin agus chun siamsaíocht a sholáthar do lucht féachana scannáin roimh theacht scannáin fuaime (1929, The Jazz Singer). Bhí raon níos leithne fuaimeanna ag na hionstraimí éagsúla breise a ligfeadh don imreoir éifeachtaí fuaime speisialta a chruthú chun an tuiscint ar réaltacht a mhéadú. Cé go bhfuil an chuid is mó de na huirgaí amharclainne scriosta nó tar éis titim i míchompord, léiríonn cúpla sampla fós fuaim iontach na tréimhse sin. 3. Tá an t-am ann. Orgán leictreach - Ionstraim chliste a úsáideann leictreonaic chun fuaimeanna a chruthú a bhfuil cosúlacht mhór acu le fuaimeanna an orgáin phíob. Úsáidtear an orgán leictreach mar ionad ar chostas íseal d'orgáin phéire agus i gceol tóir (i.e. Rock, blues & jazz) mar fhuaim uirlisí teibéadair malartach.

Samarium - Sm Samarium is a silvery-white metal belonging to the lanthanide group of the periodic table. It is relatively stable at room temperature in dry air, but it ignites when heated above 150 C and forms an oxide coating in moist air. Like europium samarium has a relatively stable oxidation state (II). Samarium is used as a catalyst in certain organic reactions: the samarium iodide (SmI2) is used by organic research chemists to make synthetic versions of natural products. The oxide, samaria, is used for making special infrared adsorbing glass and cores of carbon arc-lamp electrodes and as a catalyst for the dehydration and dehydrogenation of ethanol. Its compound with cobalt (SmCo5) is used in making a new permanent magnet material. Samarium in the environment Samarium is the fifth most abundant of the rare elements and is almost four times as common as tin. It is never found free in nature, but in contained in many minerals, including monazite, bastnasite and samarskite. Samarium containing ores are found in USA, China, Brazil, India, Australia and Sri Lanka. World production of samarium oxide is about 700 tonnes per year and world-wide reserves are estimated to be around 2 million tonnes. Back to the periodic table of elements.

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Samarium - Sm Is miotail bán-airgeadaí é samarium a bhaineann le grúpa lanthanide an tábla tréimhsiúil. Tá sé réasúnta seasmhach ag teocht an tseomra in aer tirim, ach déanann sé lasadh nuair a théitear os cionn 150 C agus cruthaíonn sé sciath ocsaíd in aer tais. Cosúil le samarium europium tá staid ocsaídiúcháin réasúnta seasmhach (II). Úsáidtear samáiriam mar chatalaí i imoibrithe orgánacha áirithe: úsáidtear an samáiriam iodíd (SmI2) ag ceimic taighde orgánach chun leaganacha sintéiseacha de tháirgí nádúrtha a dhéanamh. Úsáidtear an ocsaíd, samaria, chun gloine adsorbting infridhearg speisialta agus croí leictreóidí lampa arc carbóin a dhéanamh agus mar chatalaí le haghaidh díhiodráitiú agus díhiodroginithe ethanol. Úsáidtear a chomhdhéanamh le cobalta (SmCo5) chun ábhar maighnéadach buan nua a dhéanamh. Samarium san chomhshaol Is é samarium an cúigiú eilimint is iomarcaí de na heilimintí neamhchoitianta agus tá sé beagnach ceithre huaire chomh coitianta le tin. Ní fhaightear é saor in aisce sa nádúr, ach tá sé i go leor mianraí, lena n-áirítear monait, bastnasit agus samarskit. Tá mianta a bhfuil samáiriam iontu le fáil sna Stáit Aontaithe, sa tSín, sa Bhrasaíl, san India, san Astráil agus sa Srí Lanca. Tá táirgeadh domhanda ocsaíd samáiriam thart ar 700 tonna in aghaidh na bliana agus meastar go bhfuil cúlchistí domhanda thart ar 2 mhilliún tonna. Ar ais go dtí an tábla tréimhsiúil eilimintí.

Ann Pettifor is right: nothing in that lengthy communique suggests the G20 is prepared to engage with the underlying causes of the financial crisis, nor the chronic instability and injustice that characterise the current economic system. Chief among these is the deeply flawed mechanism by which money is created. Mainstream economists like Joseph Stiglitz are calling for a new financial architecture, but none acknowledge that the monetary system, and in particular the way money is created – as debt by commercial banks – dictates the way that architecture functions. Cif contributor Chris Colvin recently described the idea of monetary reform as a "wacky fix" and an "extravagant idea that involves removing the ability of private banks to create money and forcing them to adopt 100% reserve banking". Yet the respected alternative economist Herman Daly wrote recently: "I would certainly advocate 100% reserve requirements for banks (approached gradually). All banks should be financial intermediaries that lend depositors' money, not engines for creating money out of nothing and lending it at interest." Daly's argument for movement towards a just and sustainable steady-state economy offers a comprehensive solution to the current crisis. Colvin, by contrast, follows a long tradition of economists for whom the parameters of the discipline are set by academic orthodoxy. Colvin's principal complaint – that unless banks are able to create money through traditional means there would be insufficient cash in circulation – misses the point completely. Cash comprises just 3% of the money supply. The rest exists only as entries in banks' electronic ledgers. If banks can create electronic money at will through the process of fractional reserve banking, why shouldn't a democratically accountable central authority do the same. In this paper for the New Economics Foundation, James Robertson and Joseph Huber argue that central banks should determine the quantity of new non-cash money. Under their scheme, the central bank would credit new money to the government as public revenue which would then be spent into circulation. Bryan Gould is among the few public figures prepared to speak out in support of monetary reform. As he wrote here recently, "privately owned banks have been allowed to develop a virtual monopoly of credit creation for more than 200 years". Gould got a hard time in the thread for his suggestion that "only governments have the capability and the duty to act in the wider interest" in respect of money issue. In a properly functioning democracy, governments would represent the interests of the majority of citizens. As things stand, they don't. This helps explain why bankers are given a licence to create money, and are then bailed out when their actions bring the economy crashing down, while the rest of us face a pay freeze or redundancy. There is a direct link between the way money is created and the enormous debt bubble that preceded the credit crunch. The objective of monetary policy should be to ensure that the money supply accurately reflects the quantity of real wealth being created in the economy, and is sufficient to provide funds for new investment in real businesses to keep the economy ticking over. This is a difficult calculation to make, but under current arrangements nobody even attempts to make it. Central banks would be better placed than profit-motivated commercial banks to make that assessment. Chris Colvin is free to mock the Money Reform party for its candidate's poor performance in a 2006 byelection. But anyone wanting to better understand the impact of debt money could do worse than consult the party's website which includes a compelling explanation of the mechanics of money creation and its impact on society. If you like what you read, you might consider petitioning the prime minister to take monetary reform seriously by adding your name here.

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Tá an ceart ag Ann Pettifor: ní thugann aon rud sa chumarsáid fhada sin le tuiscint go bhfuil an G20 réidh chun dul i ngleic le cúiseanna bunúsacha na géarchéime airgeadais, ná leis an éagobhsaíocht agus an éagothroime ainsealach a shainaithníonn an córas eacnamaíoch reatha. Is é an príomh-fheidhmíocht a bhaineann leis an airgead a chruthú, atá go mór ciontach. Tá eacnamaithe príomhshrutha cosúil le Joseph Stiglitz ag iarraidh ailtireacht airgeadais nua, ach ní aithníonn aon duine go ndéanann an córas airgeadaíochta, agus go háirithe an bealach a cruthaítear airgead - mar fhiachas ag bainc tráchtála - an bealach a fheidhmíonn an ailtireacht. Chuir Chris Colvin, ranníocóir Cif, síos ar an smaoineamh ar athchóiriú airgeadaíochta le déanaí mar "cúnamh craiceáilte" agus "smaoineamh iomarcach a bhaineann le cumas na mbanc phríobháideacha airgead a chruthú a bhaint agus iad a chur i bhfeidhm chun baincéireacht cúlchiste 100% a ghlacadh". Ach scríobh an t-eacnamaí malartach measartha Herman Daly le déanaí: "Is cinnte go bhféachfainn le ceanglais cúlchiste 100% do bhaincí (a d'fhéachadh orthu de réir a chéile). Ba cheart go mbeadh gach banc ina idirghabhálaithe airgeadais a thugann airgead do thaisceadóirí, ní inneall chun airgead a chruthú as aon rud agus é a thabhairt ar iasacht ar úis". Tugann argóint Daly le haghaidh gluaiseachta i dtreo geilleagar cobhsaí cobhsaí cothrom agus inbhuanaithe réiteach cuimsitheach ar an ngéarchéim reatha. I gcodarsnacht leis sin, leanann Colvin traidisiún fada eacnamaithe a bhfuil na paraiméadair den disciplín leagtha síos ag orthoideachas acadúil. Is é príomh-chomhairle Colvin - mura bhfuil bainc in ann airgead a chruthú trí mhodhanna traidisiúnta ní bheadh airgead tirim leordhóthanach i gcúrsaíocht - a chailleann an pointe go hiomlán. Ní dhéanann airgead tirim ach 3% den tsoláthair airgid. Níl an chuid eile ann ach mar iontrálacha i leabhráin leictreonacha na mbanc. Má tá bainc in ann airgead leictreonach a chruthú de réir toilteana trí phróiseas baincéireachta cúlchiste braictiúil, cén fáth nach mbeadh údarás lárnach atá freagrach go daonlathach ag déanamh an rud céanna. Sa pháipéar seo don New Economics Foundation, déanann James Robertson agus Joseph Huber argóint gur cheart do bhainc cheannais méid an airgid nua neamh-airgid a chinneadh. Faoin scéim seo, bheadh an banc ceannais ag creidmheas airgead nua don rialtas mar ioncam poiblí a chaitear ansin i gcúrsaíocht. Tá Bryan Gould i measc na ndaoine poiblí a bhfuil sé ar intinn acu labhairt go poiblí chun tacú le hathchóiriú airgeadaíochta. Mar a scríobh sé anseo le déanaí, "Tá cead ag bainc faoi úinéireacht phríobháideach monaplaíocht bhfíor-ghníomhach a fhorbairt ar chruthú creidmheasa ar feadh níos mó ná 200 bliain". Fuair Gould am deacair sa sliocht as a mholadh nach bhfuil "ach rialtais an cumas agus an dualgas a bheith ag gníomhú ar mhaithe leis an leas níos leithne" maidir le saincheist airgid. I daonlathas a fheidhmíonn go ceart, léirítear le rialtais leasanna tromlach na saoránach. Mar a sheasann na rudaí, ní dhéanann siad. Cabhraíonn sé seo a mhíniú cén fáth go bhfuil ceadúnas a thabhairt do bhaincéirí airgead a chruthú, agus ansin a bailíodh nuair a a ngníomhartha a chur ar an ngeilleagar crashing, agus an chuid eile againn ag tabhairt aghaidh ar pá reo nó iomarcach. Tá nasc díreach idir an bealach a cruthaítear airgead agus an boilgeog fiachais ollmhór a chuaigh roimh an ngéarchéim chreidmheasa. Ba cheart cuspóir an bheartais airgeadaíochta a chinntiú go léiríonn an tsoláthair airgid go cruinn an méid saibhris iarbhír atá á chruthú san gheilleagar, agus go bhfuil sé leordhóthanach chun cistí a sholáthar le haghaidh infheistíochta nua i ngnólachtaí iarbhír chun an geilleagar a choinneáil ag dul. Is ríomhairí deacair iad seo a dhéanamh, ach faoi na socruithe reatha ní dhéanann aon duine iarracht iad a dhéanamh. Ba cheart do na bainc cheannais a bheith níos fearr ná bainc tráchtála a spreagann brabús chun an measúnú sin a dhéanamh. Tá Chris Colvin saor in aisce chun an Páirtí um Athchóiriú Airgeadaíochta a shéanadh as droch-fheidhmíocht a iarrthóra i dtoghchán comhleanúnach 2006. Ach d'fhéadfadh aon duine ar mian leo tuiscint níos fearr a fháil ar thionchar airgead fiacha a dhéanamh níos measa ná dul i gcomhairle le suíomh Gréasáin an pháirtí lena n-áirítear míniú láidir ar mheicníocht cruthaithe airgid agus a thionchar ar an tsochaí. Má thaitníonn an méid atá á léamh agat leat, b'fhéidir go mbreathnófá ar achainí a dhéanamh ar an bpríomh-aire athchóiriú airgeadaíochta a ghlacadh dáiríre trí do ainm a chur leis anseo.

eLearning Courses were created just for patient navigators. They are free, self-paced, and interactive. Learn more about patient navigation, chronic disease, and how to help your clients get the care they need and live healthier lives. Leave a course and come back any time. In this course you will learn about preventive healthcare, staying healthy and risk factors that may cause disease. You will also learn how to encourage clients to form healthy habits and avoid habits that may be harmful. Client stories and videos with quiz questions will apply what you learn. In this course you will learn about different types of healthcare systems, hospitals, clinics, community health agencies and the role of other healthcare team members. You will also learn the basics of health insurance and important things you need to know about legal issues related to patient navigation. About two-thirds of all deaths in the U.S. are due to chronic disease. The most common of these are heart disease, cancer, stroke, lung disease and diabetes. In this course you will learn about these common chronic diseases, mental illness, and how to recognize and help a client in crisis. You will also learn about health disparities and how chronic diseases affect people in different groups. A clinical trial is a medical research study. Clinical trials help find better and safer ways to prevent, screen for, diagnose, or treat disease. In this course you will learn the important role that patient navigators play in clinical trials. Navigators help patients understand how clinical trials work, support patients as they decide whether or not to join a clinical trial, then help patients address barriers that may keep them from joining a clinical trial. People with HIV have a unique set of medical issues and are more likely to have certain types of cancer. HIV-related cancer research studies look for better and safer ways to prevent, screen, diagnose or treat HIV-related cancers. This course gives an overview of research studies and describes ways patient navigators can help clients join or stay in a research study.

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Cruthaíodh Cúrsaí Ealaithe ach amháin do loingseoirí othair. Tá siad saor in aisce, féin-timpeall, agus idirghníomhach. Foghlaim níos mó faoi threoirlínte othar, faoi ghalair ainsealacha, agus faoi conas cabhrú le do chliaint an cúram a theastaíonn uathu a fháil agus saol níos sláintiúla a bheith acu. Fág cúrsa agus teacht ar ais am ar bith. Sa chúrsa seo, foghlaimíonn tú faoi chúram sláinte coisctheach, faoi bheith sláintiúil agus faoi fhachtóirí riosca a d'fhéadfadh galair a chur faoi deara. Foghlaimfidh tú freisin conas cliaint a spreagadh chun nósanna sláintiúla a fhoirmiú agus nósanna a d'fhéadfadh a bheith díobhálach a sheachaint. Cuirfidh scéalta cliant agus físeáin le ceisteanna trialach na rudaí a fhoghlaimíonn tú i bhfeidhm. Sa chúrsa seo, foghlaimíonn tú faoi chineálacha éagsúla córais cúraim sláinte, ospidéil, clinicí, gníomhaireachtaí sláinte pobail agus ról na mball eile den fhoireann cúraim sláinte. Foghlaimfidh tú freisin na bunriachtanais maidir le árachas sláinte agus rudaí tábhachtacha a chaithfidh a bheith ar eolas agat maidir le saincheisteanna dlíthiúla a bhaineann le haistriú na n-othar. Tá thart ar dhá thrian de na báis go léir sna Stáit Aontaithe mar gheall ar ghalair ainsealacha. Is iad na cinn is coitianta ná galar croí, ailse, stróc, galar scamhóige agus diaibéiteas. Sa chúrsa seo, foghlaimfidh tú faoi na galar ainsealach coitianta seo, tinneas meabhrach, agus conas cliant a aithint agus a chabhrú i ngéarchéim. Foghlaimfidh tú freisin faoi éagothroime sláinte agus conas a théann galair ainsealacha i bhfeidhm ar dhaoine i ngrúpaí éagsúla. Is staidéar taighde leighis é triail chliniciúil. Cabhraíonn trialacha cliniciúla le bealaí níos fearr agus níos sábháilte a aimsiú chun galair a chosc, a scagadh, a dhiagnóisiú nó a chóireáil. Sa chúrsa seo, foghlaimfidh tú an ról tábhachtach a imríonn stiúrthóirí othar i dtrialacha cliniciúla. Cabhraíonn na haisteoirí le hothair tuiscint a fháil ar conas a oibríonn trialacha cliniciúla, cuireann siad tacaíocht ar fáil do othair agus iad ag cinneadh cibé acu a ghlacfaidh siad páirt i dtriall cliniciúil nó nach nglacfaidh, agus cuireann siad cúnamh ar fáil do othair chun aghaidh a thabhairt ar na bacainní a d'fhéadfadh a bheith ina gcosaint leo dul i mbun trialach cliniciúil. Tá sraith saincheisteanna sláinte uathúla ag daoine le VEID agus tá seans níos mó ann go mbeidh cineálacha áirithe ailse acu. Tá staidéir taighde ar ailse a bhaineann le VEID ag lorg bealaí níos fearr agus níos sábháilte chun ailse a bhaineann le VEID a chosc, a scagadh, a dhiagnóisiú nó a chóireáil. Tugann an cúrsa seo forbhreathnú ar staidéir taighde agus tuairiscíonn sé bealaí ar féidir le haisteoirí othair cabhrú le cliant a bheith páirteach nó fanacht i staidéar taighde.

the more i search and trying to understand what is Finite State Machine, the more i understand and the more i realized how much i need to know when it come to programming . however i cant help but to see the similarity between Finite State Machine with the step sequence that i use to used when programming PLC The first job then would be getting comfortable with C/C++ then. OO coding isn't needed to do decent FSMs. Start with something simple, three or four states at most. Being able to understand the problem at hand and visualize it in terms of states can take a little practice, but usually comes pretty quickly. Lots of examples are available, several have been offered in this thread. A lot of good FSM exercises can be done with an Arduino, some switches to represent inputs, and LEDs to represent outputs. I'll offer one more at the risk of giving you more examples than you can enjoy, it's an implementation of the common garage-door controller project that a lot of folks have done. At this point it only senses the state of the door and lights up some LEDs accordingly, and just needs two switches and some LEDs to implement. I think it has four or five states at most. Not much code, and I also have state diagrams and tables to go with. You can think of other examples and invent your own exercises. Lots of things in everyday life can be seen as FSMs. Appliances like washing machines go through a series of states and control valves and pumps. Traffic signals and crosswalks. See Wikipedia's article for a simple FSM representing a turnstile. I've never programmed a PLC, but yes I wouldn't be surprised if there were a lot of similarities, so you probably have some good background there in thinking about the inputs, outputs, and states that represent a system.

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An níos mó a lorg mé agus ag iarraidh a thuiscint cad é Máistir Stát Finite, an níos mó a thuiscint mé agus an níos mó a thuig mé cé mhéad is gá dom a fhios nuair a thagann sé chun cláir. Mar sin féin ní féidir liom cabhrú ach a fheiceáil ar an cosúlacht idir Máistir Stát Finite leis an ordú céim a úsáid mé a úsáidtear nuair a chlárú PLC An chéad phost ansin a bheadh ag éirí compordach le C / C ++ ansin. Ní gá códú OO chun FSManna decent a dhéanamh. Tosaíonn sé le rud éigin simplí, trí nó ceithre stáit ar a mhéad. Is féidir a bheith in ann an fhadhb atá ar láimh a thuiscint agus é a shamhlú i dtéarmaí stáit a ghlacadh beagán cleachtais, ach is gnách go dtagann sé go leor go tapa. Tá go leor samplaí ar fáil, tá roinnt acu ar fáil sa treo seo. Is féidir go leor cleachtaí FSM maith a dhéanamh le Arduino, roinnt lascainí chun ionchuir a léiriú, agus LEDanna chun aschuir a léiriú. Beidh mé a thairiscint ceann amháin níos mó ag an riosca a thabhairt duit níos mó samplaí ná is féidir leat taitneamh a bhaint as, tá sé cur i bhfeidhm an tionscadal rialtóir garáiste-doirse coiteann go bhfuil a lán daoine a rinne. Ag an bpointe seo ní fheiceann sé ach staid an dorais agus lasann sé roinnt LEDanna dá réir, agus ní gá ach dhá lasc agus roinnt LEDanna chun é a chur i bhfeidhm. Sílim go bhfuil ceithre nó cúig stáit ar a mhéad ann. Níl an-chuid cód, agus tá mé freisin staid diagramaí agus táblaí a dul leis. Is féidir leat samplaí eile a cheapadh agus do chleachtaí féin a chruthú. Is féidir go leor rudaí sa saol laethúil a fheiceáil mar FSManna. Téann fearais cosúil le meaisíní níocháin trí shraith de stáit agus rialaíonn siad comhlaí agus caidéil. Sochair tráchta agus tras-chomhthóirí. Féach ar alt Wikipedia le haghaidh FSM simplí a léiríonn casadh. Níor chláraigh mé PLC riamh, ach ní bheadh iontas orm dá mbeadh go leor cosúlachtaí ann, mar sin is dócha go bhfuil roinnt cúlra maith agat ann ag smaoineamh ar na hionchuir, na hionchuir, agus na stáit a léiríonn córas.

General Animal Advice If you find an injured wild animal, watch it first to see how badly hurt it is. Then if you think it necessary you should preferably take it to a nearby vet. It’s often faster to take an animal to a vet yourself as our nearest volunteer collection driver may be out of the area attending other calls and it may take us some time to arrive. Be careful when approaching wild animals, they can scratch and bite when frightened, particularly if they’re injured. If in doubt, keep a safe distance. Animals in traps Never try to free an animal from a snare or trap – you risk hurting yourself and the animal and it could be an offence if the animal was legally caught. Stay back to avoid stressing the animal and call us with the location. If you need to handle an injured animal Only lift a wild animal if you’re sure that you can do so without risk to yourself or others. Make sure you also keep the animal away from your face. Wear gloves when handling all wild animals. Take care in dangerous locations, such as a busy road. Watch from a distance first to see whether the animal is still alive, call for help if you can’t reach it safely. Capture and boxing injured wildlife If it’s safe to catch and handle the animal, then, wearing suitable gloves, quickly place it into a secure cardboard box with ventilation holes, lined with a towel or newspaper.

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Comhairle Ginearálta maidir le Ainmhithe Má fhaigheann tú ainmhí fiáine gortaithe, féach air ar dtús chun a fheiceáil cé chomh dona is atá sé gortaithe. Ansin má cheapann tú go bhfuil sé riachtanach ba chóir duit é a thabhairt chuig vet in aice láimhe. Is minic go bhfuil sé níos tapúla ainmhí a thabhairt chuig vet féin mar go bhféadfadh an tiománaí bailiúcháin deonaí is gaire dúinn a bheith lasmuigh den cheantar ag freastal ar ghlaonna eile agus d'fhéadfadh sé go dtógfadh sé tamall orainn teacht. Bí cúramach nuair a théann tú in aice le hainmhithe fiáine, is féidir leo greim agus cnagadh nuair a bhíonn eagla orthu, go háirithe má tá siad gortaithe. Má tá amhras ort, coinnigh achar sábháilte. Ainmhithe i bpáistí Ná déan iarracht riamh ainmhí a scaoileadh ó ghaisle nó ó ghaisle tá tú i mbaol dochar a dhéanamh duit féin agus don ainmhí agus d'fhéadfadh sé a bheith ina chion más rud é go raibh an ainmhí gabháil go dlíthiúil. Fan ar ais chun strus a sheachaint an t-ainmhí agus glaoch orainn leis an suíomh. Má theastaíonn uait ainmhí gortaithe a láimhseáil Ní féidir leat ainmhí fiáine a ardú ach amháin má tá tú cinnte gur féidir leat é sin a dhéanamh gan riosca a chur ort féin nó do dhaoine eile. Déan cinnte go gcoinníonn tú an t-ainmhí ar shiúl ó do aghaidh freisin. Bain úsáid as lámhainní nuair a bhíonn tú ag déileáil le gach ainmhí fiáine. Bí cúramach i suíomhanna contúirteacha, amhail bóthar iomráiteach. Féach ar shiúl ar dtús chun a fheiceáil an bhfuil an t-ainmhí fós beo, glao ar chabhair mura féidir leat é a bhaint amach go sábháilte. An t-eagrán seo a leanas a chur i bhfeidhm: Má tá sé sábháilte an t-ainmhí a ghabháil agus a láimhseáil, ansin, gan lámhainní oiriúnacha a chaitheamh, cuir é go tapa i mbosca cártaí slán le tolltaí aeriúnaithe, a bhfuil tuáille nó nuachtán ar líne air.

The Constitution of the State of Illinois is the governing document of the state of Illinois. There have been four Illinois Constitutions; the fourth and current version was adopted in 1970. The current constitution is referred to as the "Constitution of Illinois of 1970" or less formally as the "1970 Constitition." The document is still referred to as the "Constitution of Illinois of 1970" even though there have been amendments to it after 1970. When statehood for Illinois was approved on April 18, 1818, the U.S. Congress approved the formation of a state constitution. An election for delegates to a state constitutional convention was scheduled for July 6, 1818. All white male U.S. citizens who had resided in the Illinois Territory for at least six months prior to the election, or whom were otherwise qualified to vote for representation, were permitted to vote. The main topics of the election were whether it was sensible to have a constitution at that time and, if so, whether to form it and how to select appropriate representatives to frame it. Madison, St. Clair, and Gallatin counties were allocated three delegates each, while all other counties were allocated two delegates each. Delegates elected were to attend a meeting at Kaskaskia on August 3. Any record of this election has been lost and it is uncertain where the subsequent meeting was held. However, John Reynolds later noted that the meeting was largely peaceful although there were questions about how to handle slavery. Delegation members were: St. Clair County Jesse B. Thomas was chosen president pro tempore while T. V. W. Varick was named secretary pro tempore and Ezra Owens was named doorkeeper. Thomas was later elevated to the full presidency, William C. Greenup was named secretary, and Ezra Owen was restyled sergeant-at-arms. On August 4, Elias Kane was tasked with forming a committee to estimate the population of the territory; they found it to be 40,258, although this number seems to be exaggerated. A committee was then formed of fifteen, one from each county, to frame and report a constitution. The convention met again on the 6th and approved the draft submitted by the committee. Robert Blackwell and Elijah C. Berry of the Illinois Intelligencer were given the responsibility of printing the document. John K. Mangham died on August 11. From the 13th through the 15th, the constitution was read aloud and minor changes were made. It was re-read on the 17th; to this point, there was little debate. On August 18, the convention discussed the matter of slavery. The majority of delegates sought a compromise between the pro-slavery group and the abolitionists. Three votes were held on the matter over the remainder of the convention. Slavery was outlawed throughout most of the state, but was permitted for the Illinois Salines near Shawneetown. Furthermore, any slave currently in the state would remain a slave, though their children would become free upon reaching adulthood. Two votes were held on the seat of government, and two votes were held on the question of suffrage. The sites considered for the capital included Kaskaskia, Covington, Pope's Bluff, Hill's Ferry, and Vandalia. In its final state, most of the state constitution followed the United States Constitution, with some provisions adopted from Ohio, Indiana, and Kentucky, the original homes of many of the delegates. At its conclusion on August 26, 1818, the first Illinois Constitution was adopted. Succeeding constitutions were ratified in 1848, 1870 and 1970. Important features of the fourth Illinois Constitution include the creation of home rule powers for larger municipalities and other units of local government. The current version of the Illinois Constitution was ratified by special election on December 15, 1970, and went into effect on July 1, 1971. However, some provisions, such as the change in the dates for the election of constitutional officers, did not take effect for several years. In 1862 a constitutional convention was held, but the changes known as the "Copperhead constitution" were not ratified by the voters. A constitutional convention was held in 1920, but in 1922 the changes were rejected by voters. Article XIV requires that Illinois voters be asked at least every 20 years if they desire a constitutional convention. In 1988 the measure failed 900,109 votes for and 2,727,144 against the measure. 1,069,939 other voters chose neither option. In 2008, there was an effort by citizens to support a convention. Ultimately, the measure was also defeated by a wide margin, 1,493,203 votes for and 3,062,724 against from a total of 5,539,172 votes cast. 983,245 voters chose neither option. The preamble is as follows: |“||We, the People of the State of Illinois—grateful to Almighty God for the civil, political and religious liberty which He has permitted us to enjoy and seeking His blessing upon our endeavors—in order to provide for the health, safety and welfare of the people; maintain a representative and orderly government; eliminate poverty and inequality; assure legal, social and economic justice; provide opportunity for the fullest development of the individual; insure domestic tranquility; provide for the common defense; and secure the blessings of freedom and liberty to ourselves and our posterity—do ordain and establish this Constitution for the State of Illinois.||”| The 1970 Constitution of Illinois has a preamble and 14 articles. Article 1 is a Bill of rights and contains similar provisions as the United States Bill of Rights, such as freedom of religion, freedom of speech and freedom of assembly. It also contains items not included in the United States Constitution like section 18, which prohibits discrimination based on sex and section 19, which prohibits discrimination based on physical or mental handicaps. Article 3, Suffrage and Elections, describes voting qualifications, disqualifications and other election rules. Section 1 stipulates that a person must be 18 years old and a resident of the state for 30 days to vote. Section 4 provides that the Illinois General Assembly establish rules for elections. Section 5 establishes rules for the state board of election, requiring that no political party have a majority on the board. Section 7 provides procedures to recall the Governor. Article 4, the Legislature, provides rules for the Illinois General Assembly. Section 1 divides the assembly into two bodies, the Illinois Senate with 59 legislative districts and the Illinois House of Representatives with 118 representative districts. Section 2 describes the composition of the two bodies and section 3 describes legislative redistricting procedures. Section 9 describes procedures involving executive vetos of legislation. Section 14 describes impeachment rules. Governor Blagojevich was impeached in the House, and removed from office after a trial in the Senate, under Section 14. Article 7, Local Government, provides rules for county, township and city governments and provides them with a limited ability to pass ordinances. Article 8, Finance, provides for financial matters including obligation of funds, budgeting, spending and audits. Article 9, Revenue, provides rules for various forms of taxation and state debt. Article 10, Education, establishes the goal of free schooling through secondary education, high school and creates a state board of education. Article 11, Environment, grants each person the "right to a healthful environment." It sets this as public policy and the duty of individuals to ensure a healthful environment be maintained. Article 12, Militia, sets rules for the state militia saying, "The State militia consists of all able-bodied persons residing in the State except those exempted by law." It establishes the Governor of Illinois as the commander in chief of the militia and grants authority to use the militia to "enforce the laws, suppress insurrection or repel invasion." Article 13, General provisions, establishes rules for persons holding public office. Section 5 prohibits reducing the pension benefits of public employees after the become public employees. Section 7 provides for public transportation, allowing the General assembly to spend money to provide it. Article 14, Constitutional Revision, describes procedures for amending the constitution of Illinois. Section one describes rules for constitutional conventions. |Wikisource has original text related to this article:| None of the audio/visual content is hosted on this site. All media is embedded from other sites such as GoogleVideo, Wikipedia, YouTube etc. Therefore, this site has no control over the copyright issues of the streaming media. All issues concerning copyright violations should be aimed at the sites hosting the material. This site does not host any of the streaming media and the owner has not uploaded any of the material to the video hosting servers. Anyone can find the same content on Google Video or YouTube by themselves. The owner of this site cannot know which documentaries are in public domain, which has been uploaded to e.g. YouTube by the owner and which has been uploaded without permission. The copyright owner must contact the source if he wants his material off the Internet completely.

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Is é Bunreacht Stáit Illinois doiciméad rialaithe stáit Illinois. Bhí ceithre Bhunreacht Illinois ann; glacadh an ceathrú leagan agus an leagan reatha i 1970. Tugtar "Bhunreacht Illinois 1970" ar an mbunreacht reatha nó níos lú go foirmiúil mar "Bhunreacht 1970". Tugtar "Bhunreacht Illinois 1970" ar an doiciméad fós cé go bhfuil leasuithe déanta air tar éis 1970. Nuair a ceadaíodh stáit Illinois ar an 18 Aibreán, 1818, cheadaigh Comhdháil na Stát Aontaithe bunreacht stáit a fhoirmiú. Ceapadh toghchán do thoscairí chuig tionól bunreachtúil stáit ar 6 Iúil, 1818. Ceadaíodh do shaoránaigh Mheiriceá fir bán go léir a raibh cónaí orthu i gcríoch Illinois ar feadh sé mhí ar a laghad roimh an toghchán, nó a bhí cáilithe ar shlí eile chun vóta a chaitheamh le haghaidh ionadaíochta, vóta a chaitheamh. Ba iad príomh-ábhar na toghcháin an raibh sé ciallmhar bunreacht a bheith againn ag an am sin agus, más amhlaidh, an ndéanfaí é a fhoirmiú agus conas ionadaithe oiriúnacha a roghnú chun é a chumadh. Bhí trí thoscaire ar leithdháilte do chontae Madison, St. Clair, agus Gallatin gach ceann, agus dhá thoscaire ar leithdháilte do gach ceann de na contae eile. Bhí toscairí tofa chun freastal ar chruinniú i Kaskaskia ar 3 Lúnasa. Tá aon taifead ar an toghchán seo caillte agus níl sé cinnte cá raibh an chéad chruinniú ina dhiaidh sin. Mar sin féin, dúirt John Reynolds ina dhiaidh sin go raibh an cruinniú go mór síochánta cé go raibh ceisteanna ann maidir le conas déileáil le sclábhaíocht. Ba iad seo a leanas comhaltaí na toscaireachta: Contae St. Clair Roghnaíodh Jesse B. Thomas mar uachtarán pro tempore agus ainmníodh T. V. W. Varick mar rúnaí pro tempore agus ainmníodh Ezra Owens mar chaomhnóir. Cuireadh Thomas ina uachtaránacht iomlán ina dhiaidh sin, ainmníodh William C. Greenup mar rúnaí, agus athshláníodh Ezra Owen mar shearmanas-ar-arm. Ar 4 Lúnasa, cuireadh i bhfolach do Elias Kane coiste a bhunú chun meastachán a dhéanamh ar dhaonra an chríoch; fuair siad go raibh 40,258 ann, cé gur cosúil go bhfuil an líon seo ró-mhéadúil. Bunaíodh coiste de chúigear, ceann ó gach contae, chun bunreacht a chur ar bun agus a thuairisciú. Tháinig an coinbhinsiún le chéile arís an 6ú agus cheadaigh sé an dréacht a chuir an coiste isteach. Tugadh an fhreagracht ar Robert Blackwell agus Elijah C. Berry den Illinois Intelligencer an doiciméad a phriontáil. Fuair John K. Mangham bás ar an 11 Lúnasa. Ón 13ú go dtí an 15ú, léitear an bunreacht amach agus rinneadh athruithe beaga. Athléitear é ar an 17ú lá; go dtí an pointe seo, ní raibh mórán díospóireachta ann. Ar an 18 Lúnasa, pléadh sa chomhdháil an tsaincheist a bhaineann leis an sclábhaíocht. D'iarr formhór na n-ionadaithe comhréitigh idir an grúpa a bhí i bhfabhar na sclábhaíochta agus na lucht diúltú. Rinneadh trí vótáil ar an ábhar thar an chuid eile den choinbhinsiún. Bhí an sclábhaíocht neamhdhleathach ar fud an chuid is mó den stát, ach ceadaíodh é do na Salines Illinois in aice le Shawneetown. Ina theannta sin, d'fhanfadh aon sclábhaí sa stát faoi láthair ina sclábhaí, cé go mbeadh a gcuid leanaí saor nuair a shroichfeadh siad a n-aos. Bhí dhá vótáil ar shuíomh an rialtais, agus bhí dhá vótáil ar cheist na vótaíochta. I measc na suíomhanna a ndearnadh breithniú orthu don phríomhchathair bhí Kaskaskia, Covington, Pope's Bluff, Hill's Ferry, agus Vandalia. Sa stát deiridh, lean an chuid is mó den bhunreacht stáit Bunreacht na Stát Aontaithe, le roinnt forálacha a glacadh ó Ohio, Indiana, agus Kentucky, baile bunaidh go leor de na toscairí. Ag a chríochnú ar 26 Lúnasa, 1818, glacadh leis an gcéad Bhunreacht Illinois. Ratificáladh bunreacht ina dhiaidh sin i 1848, 1870 agus 1970. I measc na ngnéithe tábhachtacha den cheathrú Bunreacht Illinois tá cumhacht rialaithe baile a chruthú do bhardas móra agus do aonaid eile rialtais áitiúla. Ratificáladh an leagan reatha de Bhunreacht Illinois trí thoghadh speisialta ar an 15 Nollaig, 1970, agus tháinig sé i bhfeidhm ar an 1 Iúil, 1971. Mar sin féin, níor tháinig éifeacht le roinnt forálacha, mar shampla an t-athrú ar na dátaí le haghaidh toghchán oifigeach bunreachtúla, ar feadh roinnt blianta. I 1862 tionóladh tionól bunreachtúil, ach níor dhaingnigh na vótálaithe na hathruithe ar a dtugtar "bhunreacht Copperhead". Tionóladh tionól bunreachtúil i 1920, ach i 1922 dhiúltaigh vótóirí na hathruithe. Éilíonn Airteagal XIV go n-iarrfar ar vótálaithe Illinois gach 20 bliain ar a laghad más mian leo coinbhinsiún bunreachtúil. I 1988, níor vótáil 900,109 vóta i bhfabhar an bhearta agus 2,727,144 vóta i gcoinne an bhearta. Níor roghnaigh 1,069,939 vótálaí eile an rogha seo ná an ceann eile. Sa bhliain 2008, bhí iarracht ag saoránaigh tacú le comhdháil. Sa deireadh, diúltaíodh don bheart freisin le maireachtáil leathan, 1,493,203 vóta i bhfabhar agus 3,062,724 i gcoinne as 5,539,172 vóta iomlán a caitheadh. Níor roghnaigh 983,245 vótálaí an rogha seo ná an ceann eile. Tá an preamble mar seo a leanas: "Táimid, Daoine Stáit Illinois, buíoch do Dhia Uilechumhachtach as an tsaoirse shibhialta, polaitiúil agus reiligiúnach a cheadaigh sé dúinn taitneamh a bhaint as agus a bheannacht a lorg ar ár n-iarrachtaí chun sláinte, sábháilteacht agus leas na ndaoine a sholáthar; rialtas ionadaíoch agus ordúil a chothabháil; bochtaineacht agus éagothroime a dhíchur; ceartais dhlíthiúil, shóisialta agus eacnamaíoch a chinntiú; deis a sholáthar d'fhorbairt iomlán an duine aonair; síocháin intíre a chinntiú; cosaint choitinn a sholáthar; agus beannachtaí saoirse agus saoirse a chinntiú dúinn féin agus dár sliocht. " ordaigh agus bunaigh an Bunreacht seo do Stát Illinois. Tá réamhrá agus 14 alt ag Bunreacht Illinois 1970. Is Bille um Chearta é Airteagal 1 agus tá forálacha den chineál céanna ann le Bille um Chearta na Stát Aontaithe, mar shampla saoirse reiligiúin, saoirse cainte agus saoirse cruinnithe. Tá mír ann freisin nach bhfuil san Bhunreacht na Stát Aontaithe, mar shampla alt 18, a chuireann cosc ar idirdhealú bunaithe ar ghnéas agus alt 19, a chuireann cosc ar idirdhealú bunaithe ar easnamh fisiciúil nó meabhrach. In Airteagal 3, Suffrage and Elections, tuairiscítear cáilíochtaí vótála, dícheadaithe agus rialacha eile toghcháin. Leagann alt 1 síos go gcaithfidh duine a bheith 18 mbliana d'aois agus ina chónaí sa stát ar feadh 30 lá chun vótáil. Foráiltear in alt 4 go mbunóidh Tionól Ginearálta Illinois rialacha le haghaidh toghcháin. Leagtar síos in alt 5 rialacha don bhord toghcháin stáit, ag éileamh nach bhfuil tromlach ag aon pháirtí polaitiúil ar an mbord. Soláthraíonn alt 7 nósanna imeachta chun an Gobharnóir a aisghairm. Foráiltear in Airteagal 4, an Reachtaíocht, do rialacha do Chomhthionól Ginearálta Illinois. Roinntear an Tionól i dhá chomhlacht, Seanad Illinois le 59 ceantar reachtach agus Teach Ionadaithe Illinois le 118 ceantar ionadaíoch. Déantar cur síos i gCuid 2 ar chomhdhéanamh an dá chomhlacht agus déantar cur síos i gCuid 3 ar nósanna imeachta athdhíonta reachtacha. Déanann Roinn 9 cur síos ar nósanna imeachta a bhaineann le vetos feidhmiúcháin ar reachtaíocht. Déanann alt 14 cur síos ar rialacha impeachment. Cuireadh an t-údarás i gcoinne an Rialtóra Blagojevich sa Teach, agus cuireadh as oifig é tar éis triail sa Seanad, faoi Alt 14. Foráiltear in Airteagal 7, Rialtas Áitiúil, do rialacha do rialtais chontae, baile agus cathrach agus soláthraíonn sé cumas teoranta dóibh ordúnuithe a rith. Foráiltear in Airteagal 8, Airgeadas, le hábhair airgeadais lena n-áirítear oibleagáid chistí, buiséadaíocht, caiteachas agus iniúchtaí. Leagtar amach in Airteagal 9, Ioncam, rialacha maidir le cineálacha éagsúla cánachais agus fiacha stáit. Le hAirteagal 10, Oideachas, leagtar síos an sprioc scoile saor in aisce trí mheánscoileanna, ardscoileanna agus cruthaítear bord oideachais stáit. Airteagal 11, Comhshaol, tugann gach duine an "ceart chun timpeallacht shláintiúil". Leagann sé seo amach mar bheartas poiblí agus mar dhualgas ar dhaoine aonair a chinntiú go gcoimeádtar timpeallacht shláintiúil. Leagtar síos in Airteagal 12, Mílíse, rialacha don mílíse stáit ag rá, "Tá na mílíse stáit comhdhéanta de gach duine atá in ann a bheith ina chónaí sa Stát seachas iad siúd atá díolmhaithe de réir dlí". Bunaíonn sé Gobharnóir Illinois mar phríomhchumannach na mílíse agus tugann sé údarás an mílíse a úsáid chun "na dlíthe a fhorfheidhmiú, insurrection a chur faoi chois nó ionradh a chosc". Leagtar síos in Airteagal 13, Forálacha Ginearálta, rialacha do dhaoine a bhfuil oifig phoiblí acu. Cuireann alt 5 cosc ar dheontais phinsin fostaithe poiblí a laghdú tar éis dóibh a bheith ina bhfostaithe poiblí. Foráiltear in alt 7 le hiompar poiblí, rud a ligeann don Tionól Ginearálta airgead a chaitheamh chun é a sholáthar. Déanann Airteagal 14, Athbhreithniú Bunreachtúil, cur síos ar nósanna imeachta chun bunreacht Illinois a leasú. Sa chéad chuid, déantar cur síos ar rialacha maidir le coinbhinsiúin bhunreachtúla. Tá téacs bunaidh ag Wikisource a bhaineann leis an alt seo: Níl aon ábhar fuaime/amhairc á óstáil ar an suíomh seo. Tá na meáin go léir leabaithe ó shuíomhanna eile mar GoogleVideo, Wikipedia, YouTube etc. Dá bhrí sin, níl aon smacht ag an suíomh seo ar shaincheisteanna cóipchirt na meán sruthú. Ba cheart na ceisteanna go léir a bhaineann le sáruithe ar chóipcheart a dhíriú ar na suíomhanna ina bhfuil an t-ábhar. Ní óstálann an suíomh seo aon cheann de na meáin sruthú agus ní chuir an t-úinéir aon cheann den ábhar ar na freastalaithe óstála físe. Is féidir le duine ar bith an t-ábhar céanna a fháil ar Google Video nó YouTube iad féin. Ní féidir le úinéir an láithreáin seo a fháil amach cé na cáipéisí faisnéise atá i dtóin phoiblí, a uaslódáil ar e.g. YouTube ag an úinéir agus a uaslódáil gan chead. Ní mór don úinéir cóipchirt teagmháil a dhéanamh leis an bhfoinse más mian leis a chuid ábhar a bhaint go hiomlán as an Idirlíon.

Bartholomew County is a county located in the U.S. state of Indiana, and determined by the U.S. Census Bureau to include the mean center of U.S. population in 1900. As of 2010, the population was 76,794. The county seat is Columbus. It is part of the Columbus metropolitan statistical area which encompasses all of Bartholomew County. Bartholomew County was formed February 12, 1821 and was named for Lt. Col. Joseph Bartholomew, wounded at the Battle of Tippecanoe. The site of the county seat was chosen on February 15, 1821 by a team of commissioners, who suggested the name Tiptona, in honor of John Tipton; on March 20, the name Columbus was adopted. The current Bartholomew County courthouse was built from 1870 to 1874 by McCormack and Sweeney of Columbus at a cost of $225,000. It was designed by architect Isaac Hodgson, who was born in Belfast, Ireland in 1826 and immigrated to the United States in 1848; he designed six Indiana courthouses, including the one in Henry County. The courthouse is built largely of brick and has mansard roofs typical of the Second Empire French style. Its asymmetrical "L" shape allows it to face two major streets in Columbus. The inscription indicating the commissioners, architect and date is high up on the east facade. Today the Bartholomew County Veterans Memorial designed by American architect Charles Rose sits adjacent to the Courthouse.

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Is contae é Contae Bartholomew atá lonnaithe i stát Indiana, na Stáit Aontaithe, agus a chinn Biúró Daonáireamh na Stát Aontaithe go raibh lár meán daonra na Stát Aontaithe ann i 1900. I 2010, ba é 76,794 an daonra. Is é Columbus cathair chontae na tíre. Tá sé mar chuid de limistéar staidrimh mhéadaipitil Columbus a chuimsíonn Contae Bartholomew ar fad. Bunaíodh Contae Bartholomew an 12 Feabhra 1821 agus ainmníodh é i gcomóradh le Leifteanant Col. Joseph Bartholomew, a gortaíodh i gCath Tippecanoe. Roghnaigh foireann coimisinéirí an suíomh ar an 15 Feabhra 1821, agus mhol siad an t-ainm Tiptona, in onóir John Tipton; an 20 Márta, glacadh leis an t-ainm Columbus. Tógadh an teach cúirte reatha i gContae Bartholomew ó 1870 go 1874 ag McCormack agus Sweeney of Columbus ar chostas $ 225,000. Dearadh é ag an ailtire Isaac Hodgson, a rugadh i mBéal Feirste, Éire i 1826 agus a imircigh go dtí na Stáit Aontaithe i 1848; dhear sé sé halla cúirte Indiana, lena n-áirítear an ceann i gContae Henry. Tá an teach cúirte tógtha den chuid is mó de bhriogán agus tá díon mansard aige atá tipiciúil den stíl Fraincis an Dara Impireacht. Ligeann a fhoirm "L" neamhréireach dó aghaidh a thabhairt ar dhá phríomhshráid i Columbus. Tá an t-aistriúchán ag an gcinnéal, a léiríonn na coimisinéirí, an t-ailtire agus an dáta, ar an taobh thoir. Sa lá atá inniu ann tá Cuimhneachán na nEalaíontóirí Contae Bartholomew, arna dhearadh ag an ailtire Meiriceánach Charles Rose, suite in aice leis an Teach Cúirte.

Defining global marketplace is very important because it will help organizations to formulate global strategies. This can help https://www.theglobe.lu/global-marketplace-rating organizations gain access to new market segments and client bases which will help them expand the sales. Global marketplace can be explained as the world of buyers and sellers, which is made up of a variety of neighborhood markets. It can also mean the global exchange of services and goods. Using a global marketplace can help organizations mitigate negative business incidents. It can also help organizations remain competitive against much larger entities and obtain access to a various consumer base. Companies that are going to extend internationally should be flexible and understand the potential risks. Global expansion is often intimidating intended for organizations at first. However , simply by understanding the risks and options, organizations can prepare for a very good globalization. Global marketplace surgical treatments can help firms save money and time. These operations also can help corporations connect with community resources. These kinds of resources range from technology, capital, and scarce recycleables. Having a global marketplace could also help establishments attract the best industry skill. These establishments have access to a big workforce that much more diverse than their home industry. This can help organizations customize their labor force to meet their very own business needs. These kinds of organizations have got the resources to expand their particular influence abroad. For example , organizations which have a clothes line can sell goods in the United Kingdom and India. Aquiring a global software industry can help businesses increase product sales exponentially. Companies that are going to widen internationally also needs to conduct internal audits and home inspections of their strategies. This will help stop surprises once pre-market activities begin. It will likewise help businesses be familiar with infrastructure of the particular nation.

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Tá an-tábhacht ag an sainmhíniú ar mhargadh domhanda toisc go gcabhróidh sé le heagraíochtaí straitéisí domhanda a fhoirmiú. Is féidir leis seo cabhrú https://www.theglobe.lu/global-marketplace-rating eagraíochtaí rochtain a fháil ar na codanna nua margaidh agus bunchláir cliant a chabhróidh leo a leathnú na díolacháin. Is féidir an margadh domhanda a mhíniú mar domhan na gceannaitheoirí agus na díoltóirí, atá comhdhéanta de mhargaí comharsanachta éagsúla. Is féidir leis a bheith ina chiall freisin le malartú domhanda seirbhísí agus earraí. Is féidir le margaí domhanda a úsáid chun cabhrú le heagraíochtaí teagmhas diúltach gnó a mhaolú. Is féidir leis cabhrú le heagraíochtaí dul i gcomórtas le hinstitiúidí i bhfad níos mó agus rochtain a fháil ar bhonn tomhaltóirí éagsúla. Ba cheart do chuideachtaí atá ag dul a leathnú go hidirnáisiúnta a bheith solúbtha agus a thuiscint na rioscaí féideartha. Is minic a bhíonn leathnú domhanda ina chúis eagla do eagraíochtaí ar dtús. Mar sin féin, trí na rioscaí agus na roghanna a thuiscint, is féidir le heagraíochtaí ullmhú do dhomhandaithe an-mhaith. Is féidir le cóireálacha máinliachta ar an margadh domhanda cabhrú le gnólachtaí airgead agus am a shábháil. Is féidir leis na hoibríochtaí seo cabhrú le corparáidí nasc a dhéanamh le hacmhainní pobail. Tá na cineálacha acmhainní seo idir teicneolaíocht, caipiteal agus inathchúrsála gann. D'fhéadfadh margadh domhanda a bheith ann freisin chun cabhrú le bunaíochtaí na scileanna is fearr sa tionscal a mhealladh. Tá rochtain ag na bunaíochtaí seo ar lucht oibre mór atá i bhfad níos éagsúla ná a dtionscal baile. Is féidir leis seo cabhrú le heagraíochtaí a lucht saothair a shaincheapadh chun freastal ar a riachtanais ghnó féin. Tá na cineálacha eagraíochtaí seo na hacmhainní chun a n-ionsaí ar leith a leathnú thar lear. Mar shampla, is féidir le heagraíochtaí a bhfuil líne éadaí acu earraí a dhíol sa Ríocht Aontaithe agus san India. Is féidir le tionscal bogearraí domhanda a fháil cabhrú le gnólachtaí díolacháin táirgí a mhéadú go hionraic. Ní mór do chuideachtaí atá ag dul a leathnú go hidirnáisiúnta iniúchtaí inmheánacha agus cigireachtaí baile a dhéanamh ar a straitéisí freisin. Cabhróidh sé seo le haon ionadh a sheachaint nuair a thosaíonn gníomhaíochtaí réamh-mhargaidh. Cabhróidh sé freisin le gnólachtaí a bheith eolach ar bhonneagar na tíre áirithe.

CREATING A “SAFE ROOM” IN YOUR HOME Your house provides a good first layer barrier against chemical airborne agents. Additional protection is achieved by tightly sealing one room of your home that you have pre-designated and prepared. A safe room is one that easily and quickly can be sealed to protect you from airborne agents. It has some supplies to get you through the few hours you may need to stay inside the room. All doors and windows of that room will be sealed with plastic sheeting and tape. Damp towels will seal cracks under doors. It’s likely you’ll have to stay in the room for a few hours, not days. Choose a room on an upper level, if possible. A master bedroom with an attached bathroom is an ideal safe room. PREPARING A SAFE ROOM - Choose one room of your home that you can seal tightly. - Purchase plastic sheeting, scissors and duct tape. - Pre-cut the plastic to fit all windows, vents and doors of the safe room, and label each piece. - Purchase a box or bin to hold the plastic and tape and these additional supplies: a battery-operated AM/FM radio, extra batteries, snacks and water. - Store these supplies in your safe room. - Shelter where you are, unless otherwise directed by emergency officials. - Do not attempt to get children at schools or day care. It’s likely they will be sheltered-in-place where they are. - Shelter-in-place events typically don’t last long. The hazardous vapors are moved about by air and wind, which is constantly moving. - In extreme cases, breathing through a wet cloth provides some additional protection. IN A CAR - Tightly roll up all windows. - Turn on the radio and listen to instructions. - Shut off the engine to avoid drawing outside air into the passenger area. - Turn off all heating and cooling systems. - Close all vents. - Breathe through a dampened cloth. 1. Go Inside Immediately. - Remember your pets. 2. Tightly lock all doors and windows. - The quicker you do this and the tighter the window seal, the less likely that contaminants will get inside the building. - Tape a status sign on an inside window to tell responders that you're inside or have left. 3. Shut off fans, furnaces, air conditioners and other devices that circulate air throughtout your home. - Adjust thermostats so that systems stay off. - Tightly close fireplace and wood stove dampers. - If a fire is lit, put it out, close the vents and doors. 4. Go into your pre-selected shelter-in-place room, and seal it tightly. - Tape plastic sheeting over windows, doors, vents, bathroom fans, electrical outlets, phone and cable TV jacks. Pre-cut pieces of plastic sheeting make this task go more quickly. - Place dampened towels under door cracks to form a tight seal. 5. Listen to the radio or TV for instructions. - Officials will be giving instructions about possible relocation and updates on when it is safe to come outdoors. 6. Thoroughly air out your home or building once authorities announce that the emergency is over. - Open all your doors and windows. This will allow small amounts of vapor that may have gotten in to leave.

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ACHTÚ ACHTÚRAÍ SAFE IN A THÁS Soláthraíonn do theach cosc maith den chéad scoth i gcoinne gníomhairí ceimiceacha a bhíonn ar an aer. Baintear cosaint bhreise amach trí sheomra amháin de do theach a shéaladh go daingean a bhfuil tú ceaptha agus ullmhaithe roimh ré. Is seomra sábháilte é an seomra is féidir a shéaladh go héasca agus go tapa chun tú a chosaint ó ghníomhairí aistrithe san aer. Tá roinnt soláthairtí ann chun tú a chur tríd na cúpla uair a chloig a d'fhéadfadh a bheith ag teastáil uait chun fanacht taobh istigh den seomra. Beidh gach doras agus fuinneog den seomra sin séalaithe le sciathán plaisteach agus téip. Cuirfidh tuáillí fliuch sceal ar sceitheadh faoi dhoras. Is dócha go mbeidh ort fanacht sa seomra ar feadh cúpla uair an chloig, ní laethanta. Roghnaigh seomra ar leibhéal níos airde, más féidir. Is seomra sábháilte idéalach é seomra leapa mháistir le seomra folctha ceangailte. ÁITHEÁR GÁITHE SAFE - Roghnaigh seomra amháin de do theach gur féidir leat a shéaladh go daingean. - Ceannaigh bileoga plaisteach, sciatháin agus téip dhúbailte. - Réam-ghearradh an plaisteach chun freastal ar gach fuinneog, vents agus doirse an seomra sábháilte, agus lipéad gach píosa. - Cás nó bin a cheannach chun an plaisteach agus an téip agus na soláthairtí breise seo a choinneáil: raidió AM/FM a oibríonn ar charbad, cadhnraí breise, sneaiceanna agus uisce. - Coinnigh na soláthairtí seo i do sheomra sábháilte. - Tearmann áit a bhfuil tú, mura rud é a mhalairt a ordú ag oifigigh éigeandála. - Ná déan iarracht leanaí a chur ar scoil nó ar chúram laethúil. Is dócha go mbeidh siad faoi chosaint san áit ina bhfuil siad. - Ní mhaireann imeachtaí Tearmann-sa-Áit go minic go fada. Tá an gaoth guaiseach á bhogadh timpeall ag aer agus gaoth, atá ag gluaiseacht i gcónaí. - I gcásanna iomarcacha, soláthraíonn an anailís trí chló fliuch roinnt cosaint bhreise. I GCÁIR - Rollaigh go daingean suas gach fuinneog. - Téigh ar an raidió agus éisteacht le treoracha. - an t-inneall a dhúnadh chun aer ón taobh amuigh a sheachaint isteach sa limistéar paisinéirí. - Dún gach córas téimh agus fuaraithe. - Dún gach ventilators. - Breathe trí éadach damped. 1. an t-am a bhí ann. Téigh isteach láithreach. - Cuimhnigh do pheataí. 2. Seachadadh. Dún na doirse agus na fuinneoga go dlúth. - An níos tapúla a dhéanann tú é seo agus an níos daingean an séala fuinneog, an níos lú seans go mbeidh truaillithe a fháil taobh istigh an fhoirgnimh. - Téip comhartha stádas ar fhuinneog taobh istigh a insint responders go bhfuil tú istigh nó a fhágáil. 3. Tá an t-am ann. Cuir lucht leanúna, oigheann, aerchóirithe agus feistí eile a chuireann aer ar fud do theach as feidhm. - Réitigh teirmostait ionas go bhfanfaidh na córais as. - Damshúirí tine agus stob adhmaid a dhúnadh go daingean. - Má tá tine ag éirí, cuir é amach, dún na haontais agus na doirse. 4. Tá an t-am Téigh isteach i do sheomra réamh-roghnaithe-i-áit-sáile, agus é a shéaladh go daingean. - Tá teip ar shéalaí plaisteacha thar fhuinneoga, doirse, ventilaí, lucht leanúna seomra folctha, soicéid leictreacha, ceangail teileafóin agus teilifíse cábla. Déanann píosaí de phlátaí plaisteacha réamhchliosta an tasc seo a dhéanamh níos tapúla. - Cuir tuáillí taise faoi bhratach doirse chun séala daingean a chruthú. 5. Tá an t-am ann. Éist leis an raidió nó leis an teilifís le haghaidh treoracha. - Beidh oifigigh ag tabhairt treoracha faoi athshuí féideartha agus nuashonruithe ar nuair a bheidh sé sábháilte teacht amach. 6. Ceacht. Déan aeráil go maith ar do theach nó ar do fhoirgneamh nuair a fhógairt na húdaráis go bhfuil an t-éigeandáil thart. - Oscail na doirse agus na fuinneoga go léir. Ligfidh sé seo do chainníochtaí beaga gaile a d'fhéadfadh a bheith tar éis dul isteach dul amach.

Actinopterygii (ray-finned fishes) > Pleuronectiformes (Flatfishes) > Paralichthyidae Etymology: Paralichthys: Greek, para = the side of + Greek, ichthys = fish + Greek, suffix, oides = similar to (Ref. 45335). More on author: Jordan, Gilbert. Environment / Climate / Range Marine; brackish; demersal. Subtropical; 37°N - 26°N Size / Weight / Age Maturity: Lm ?  range ? - 35 cm Max length : 83.0 cm TL male/unsexed; (Ref. 40637); common length : 50.0 cm TL male/unsexed; (Ref. 3275); max. published weight: 9.3 kg (Ref. 4699); max. reported age: 8 years (Ref. 46275) Western Atlantic: North Carolina to Texas in USA, but absent from southern Florida. A cryptic species that tolerates low salinities; occurs frequently in brackish bays and estuaries, even on occasion in fresh water (Ref. 9988). Adults are found mostly over mud bottoms in estuaries and coastal waters to about 40 m depth. Taken by anglers inshore from bridges, jetties and small boats. They move to deeper water in winter, but are still easily accessible (Ref. 9988). Adults feed chiefly on fishes, also on crabs and shrimps. Juveniles take mainly small bottom-living invertebrates. Marketed fresh and frozen; eaten steamed, fried, boiled, microwaved and baked (Ref. 9988). Robins, C.R. and G.C. Ray, 1986. A field guide to Atlantic coast fishes of North America. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, U.S.A. 354 p. (Ref. 7251) IUCN Red List Status (Ref. 90363) CITES (Ref. 94142) Threat to humans Fisheries: commercial; gamefish: yes Estimates of some properties based on models Phylogenetic diversity index (Ref. 82805 = 0.5000 [Uniqueness, from 0.5 = low to 2.0 = high]. Bayesian length-weight: a=0.00603 (0.00377 - 0.00963), b=3.18 (3.05 - 3.31), based on LWR estimates for species & Genus-body shape (Ref. 93245 Trophic Level (Ref. 69278 ): 3.6 ±0.6 se; Based on diet studies. Resilience (Ref. 69278 ): Medium, minimum population doubling time 1.4 - 4.4 years (K=0.21-0.23; tmax=8). Vulnerability (Ref. 59153 ): Moderate vulnerability (44 of 100) .

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CC-MAIN-2014-41

http://www.fishbase.org/summary/981

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en

Iasc a bhfuil sciatháin radaigh air > Pleuronectiformes (Iascaigh phlátaí) > Paralichthyidae Eitimeolaíocht: Paralichthys: Gréigis, para = an taobh de + Gréigis, ichthys = iasc + Gréigis, iar-aistriú, oides = cosúil le (Ref. 45335). Tuilleadh faoi údar: Jordan, Gilbert. Comhshaol / Aeráid / Réimse Mara; salach; démarsach. Subtrópúil; 37°N - 26°N Méid / Meáchan / Aois Mature: Lm ? raon ? - 35 cm Uasmhéid: 83,0 cm TL fear/gan ghnéas; (Ref. 40637); fad coitianta: 50.0 cm TL fireann/gan ghnéas; (Ref. 3275); uasmhéid meáchan foilsithe: 9.3 kg (Ref. 4699); uasmhéid. aois a tuairiscítear: 8 mbliana (Ref. 46275) An tAigéan Atlantach Thiar: Carolina Thuaidh go Texas sna Stáit Aontaithe, ach níl sé i láthair ó dheas Florida. Speiceas criptic a fhulaingíonn salannas íseal; a tharlaíonn go minic i bhfáigí agus i ndíoltóirí brackish, fiú in uisce milis uaireanta (Ref. 9988) a chur i bhfeidhm. Tá daoine fásta le fáil den chuid is mó thar bun na muice i n-aibhneacha agus in uiscí cósta go dtí thart ar 40 m ar doimhneacht. Tógann iascairí iad ó bhrú, ó bhraonta agus ó bhád beaga. Tá an t-uisce a úsáidtear chun an t-uisce a chur ar an mbord, agus tá an t-uisce a úsáidtear chun an t-uisce a chur ar an mbord, ag brath ar an méid a bhíonn ar fáil. 9988) a chur i bhfeidhm. Bíonn na daoine fásta ag ithe iasc go príomha, agus crabs agus creaga freisin. Tógann na daoine óga go príomha neamhthriomacháin bheaga atá ina gcónaí ar an mbonn. Margaidh úr agus reoite; itheadh steamed, friochta, bruite, micreathonn agus bácáilte (Ref. 9988) a chur i bhfeidhm. Robins, C.R. agus G.C. Ray, 1986. Treoir réimse ar iasc chósta Atlantach Mheiriceá Thuaidh. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, U.S.A. 354 p. (Ref. 7251) Staidéar ar Liosta Dearg IUCN (Ref. 90363) CITES (Ref. 94142) Ag bagairt do dhaoine Iascach: tráchtála; iascach gamefish: yes Meastacháin ar roinnt airíonna bunaithe ar mhúnlaí Tá an t-eispéireas seo ag feidhmiú go hiomlán i gcásanna áirithe. 82805 = 0.5000 [Udúlacht, ó 0.5 = íseal go 2.0 = ard]. Tá an t-ábhar seo ag brath ar an méid a bhaineann le táirgí a bhfuil an t-ábhar seo a leanas a úsáid: 93245 Ní mór an t-ábhar a bheith i gceart. 69278 an t-earrach ): 3.6 ± 0.6 se; bunaithe ar staidéir ar aiste bia. Athshlánú (Ref. 69278 an t-earrach ): Meán, is é an t-am íosta a dhéantar an daonra a dhúbailt 1.4 - 4.4 bliain (K=0.21-0.23; tmax=8). An so-ghabhálacht (Ref. 59153 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ): Laghdaithe go meánach (44 as 100).