Georg Karo

Georg Karo
Georg Heinrich Karo (11 January 1872 – 12 November 1963) was a German archaeologist, known for his research into the Mycenaean and Etruscan cultures. He was twice director of the German Archaeological Institute at Athens (DAI), in which capacity he excavated the Mycenaean site of Tiryns and the Temple of Artemis on Corfu. A colleague of Wilhelm Dörpfeld, who had worked with Heinrich Schliemann at Troy, Karo published the findings from Schliemann's excavations of Grave Circle A at Mycenae, a work considered his greatest contribution to scholarship.
Initially educated in philology, Karo became interested in archaeology as a student of Georg Loeschcke at the University of Bonn. Following his receipt of his doctorate from Bonn in 1896, Karo travelled widely in the Mediterranean region, developing interests in Minoan civilisation, the Etruscans and on ancient biblical commentaries. He taught briefly at Bonn between 1902 and 1905, before moving to the DAI in Athens as Dörpfeld's deputy. Known for his urbane manner and fluency in several languages, he became well connected in the international circles of Greek archaeology, and maintained the favour of both the Greek and the German royal families. His outspoken German nationalism led to his dismissal from the DAI in 1916: he spent some time in the Ottoman Empire, where he worked to conserve cultural heritage and was linked with various efforts to appropriate ancient artefacts and bring them to Germany.
Karo's views made him unpopular with the Entente-backed government that ruled in Greece after the First World War, and he took an academic post at the University of Halle, which he held until 1930. That year, he returned to Athens as director of the DAI. Although an early supporter of the Nazi government of Germany, Karo was forced from his post in 1936 by antisemitism against his Jewish ancestry. In 1939, he fled to the United States, supported by American associates including Carl Blegen and Bert Hodge Hill, and obtained a series of visiting professorships at the University of Cincinnati, Oberlin College and Claremont Colleges. However, he was also accused of collaborating with the Nazi regime: though no evidence for this allegation was proven, he was denied US citizenship and listed as an "Enemy Alien". He returned to Germany in 1952, and became an honorary professor at the University of Freiburg.
Early life
Georg Heinrich Karo was born in the Palazzo Barbaro, Venice. His father, Moritz, the son of a rabbi from Königsberg, had built up a substantial fortune as a merchant in Berlin and served as honorary consul to Austria-Hungary. His mother, Helene Kuh, was Moritz's second wife and a native of Vienna. Both of Karo's parents were non-practising Jews, and baptised their children as Evangelical Protestant Christians; Karo remained a practising Protestant throughout his life. Karo lived in Berlin until the age of six, when his father, having lost his job due to illness, moved the family to Florence, where Karo spent the remainder his childhood. Until 1885, Karo was educated by private tutors in Florence, including Carl Schuchhardt, later known as a pioneer of prehistoric archaeology in Germany. Thereafter, he attended the Berthold-Gymnasium in Freiburg, from which he graduated on 30 July 1890.
In the same year, he began studying history, philosophy and archaeology at the University of Munich, under the art historian Heinrich Wölfflin and the philologists Wilhelm von Christ and Ludwig Traube. He initially specialised in philology, later writing in his memoirs that he found archaeology "completely foreign" and that he "only embarrassed himself" when attempting it. At the beginning of the 1892 winter term, he moved to the University of Bonn, where he studied under the classicist Franz Bücheler and the philologist Hermann Usener, but focused his studies in archaeology under Georg Loeschcke. Loeschcke held that the tradition of classical art should be traced into the Minoan and Mycenaean cultures of the second millenniumBCE: Karo received his doctorate under him in 1896, with a thesis entitled ('Questions on the Art of Most Ancient Vase Painting').
Following graduation in 1896, he moved to Rome, and spent the next six years on an extended study trip to Britain, France and the Mediterranean region, funded by his family wealth. In the winter of 1899–1900, he travelled along the Nile with his university friend, the Egyptologist Friedrich Wilhelm von Bissing. On the return journey, he visited Heraklion in Crete and met the British archaeologist Arthur Evans, the discoverer and excavator of the Minoan palace of Knossos. Karo later took part in Evans's excavations at Knossos, and the two became lifelong friends. He made his first visit to mainland Greece in 1900–1901. In Rome, he studied under the archaeologist Wolfgang Helbig and developed an interest in the culture of the Etruscans. During this period, Karo worked with the theologian Hans Lietzmann to produce the first catalogue of the known biblical catenae (commentaries composed entirely of excerpts from earlier commentaries), which was published in 1902. Most of Karo's early work, however, focused on Etruscan culture, particularly the connections between the Etruscans and classical Greece.
Archaeological career
Early career and first period in Athens
In 1902, Karo was awarded his habilitation at Bonn, and moved there to teach as a (a "private lecturer" without the rights or status of a full professor). He moved in 1905 to Athens to take up a post, at Loeschcke's recommendation, as second secretary of the German Archaeological Institute at Athens (generally known as the "DAI", an abbreviation of its name in German), deputising for the archaeologist Wilhelm Dörpfeld. He became editor of ('News from Athens'), an archaeological journal published by the DAI, and held the position until 1924. From 1909, Dörpfeld, who had reached the pensionable age of fifty-five, abdicated most of his duties as director in order to focus on his own research into the works of Homer; Karo was generally acknowledged as the institute's main figure and director from this point onwards. He turned down a post at the University of Giessen during this period. In response, the DAI submitted a request to Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg, the chancellor of Germany, that Karo be granted the title of professor; this was approved. Karo was formally given the director's title after Dörpfeld formally retired on 31 December 1911. He was made an officer of the Austrian Order of Franz Joseph shortly afterwards.
In Greece, Karo conducted archaeological excavations at Tiryns (from 1910) and of the Temple of Artemis on Corfu. He also became closely connected with the German court of Wilhelm II, who became interested in Karo's work at Tiryns and Corfu and whom Karo frequently visited at the Achilleion, the Kaiser's summer palace on Corfu. In 1911, Karo secured 10,000 marks from Wilhelm towards the DAI's budget, which he justified to the Kaiser as an essential means of ensuring German "national prestige" through establishing parity with Greece's other foreign archaeological schools. Karo maintained close relations with the directors of Athens's other foreign archaeological institutes, particularly Maurice Holleaux, the director of the French School at Athens, Alan Wace of the British School at Athens and Bert Hodge Hill of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens. He also took part in a tradition at the BSA, under the 1900–1906 directorate of Robert Carr Bosanquet, of comic lectures delivered on winter evenings: he attended in drag, while other members of the DAI came dressed as statues.
Karo became a favourite of Sophia of Prussia, Wilhelm II's sister, who married Constantine I to become Queen of Greece in 1913. During the First Balkan War of 1912–1913, he offered the unused first floor of the DAI's building as a hospital for wounded Greek officers; this service was recognised with the appointment as a Commander of the Order of the Redeemer, Greece's highest order of merit, in 1915. Between 1912 and 1933, Karo worked on the publication of the results of the excavation of Grave Circle A at Mycenae, carried out by Heinrich Schliemann and Panagiotis Stamatakis between 1876 and 1877: this publication was later described as Karo's greatest contribution to scholarship. Karo's work established the chronological relationships of the finds from Grave Circle A, and therefore allowed the beginning of the systematic study of Mycenaean material culture.
First World War and aftermath
During the First World War, Karo remained in Athens and worked to oppose the strong anti-German sentiment prevalent in the Greek press and popular opinion. He edited a pro-German magazine and argued against the so-called "atrocity propaganda" spread by the Allies about Germany and its Turkish allies. Between 1914 and 1916, the German Foreign Office's newly created Office for Propaganda occupied rooms in the DAI, and Karo provided them with assistance, particularly working as a translator. Shortly before Christmas 1915, excavators at Tiryns uncovered a cauldron filled with precious items, including a fifteenth-century BCE Minoan signet ring, deposited in the foundations of a house in the site's "Lower Town" during the LH IIIC period (after the destruction of the site in the late Bronze Age). Karo was not present for the discovery (known as the "Tiryns Treasure"); it was initially excavated by the Greek archaeologist , who was stationed in the region as a reserve officer of the Hellenic Army and who invited Karo to return and study the finds with him. Karo further excavated the find-spot in September 1916: he interpreted the discovery as loot piled up by tomb-robbers, a view which was immediately and almost universally accepted in the archaeological community, though further study in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries has suggested that the deposition was either a deliberate attempt by a family to conceal their valuable goods or a ritual deposition of them.
In late 1916, the DAI's Athens branch was taken under the control of the Greek Ministry for Education, following pressure from France and from anti-monarchist Venizelist elements within Greece. Karo was removed from his post as director, despite the objections of the Queen Sophia, though most of his subordinates remained in their roles. The institute's administration was taken over by the Greek archaeologist . In May 1917, Karo travelled to the Ottoman Empire to assist the archaeologist in preserving ancient monuments, though he was widely believed to be involved in attempting to secure ancient artefacts for illicit export to Germany. He complained that the rapid development of infrastructure by the Ottoman army frequently destroyed ancient sites, and that neither he nor the army itself could prevail upon the soldiers to preserve archaeological remains. In July, he was connected to a plan by the German embassy in Constantinople, led by the ambassador Richard von Kühlmann, to establish a ('Institute of Cultural History') to take over the administration of Turkish archaeology and remove the legal barriers to the acquisition of antiquities from Turkey by German museums. Karo was rebuked by Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, considered among the most respected of Germany's classicists, and forced to leave Turkey; he departed for a holiday in Switzerland.
Towards the end of the war, amid growing tensions between Greece and the Ottoman Empire over the status of western Anatolia, Karo was asked by Halil Edhem, the Turkish director of the Imperial Museum in Constantinople, to visit the ancient site of Sardis along with another archaeologist and to assess the veracity of reports that Ottoman forces had vandalised the ruins and excavations there. The two arrived on 21 June 1918, and reported that the site was largely undamaged: they did however pack several trunks of archaeological finds and the personal property of the site's American excavators, and had them transported away from the site for safekeeping. This proved prescient, as the site would be severely damaged during the war between Greece and Turkey, which began the following year. Karo was widely suspected of being in Turkey to spy on the situation of the Greek-speaking population of the eastern Aegean region. The art historian Wilhelm von Bode proposed to Karo that he steal the fifth-centuryBCE Sarcophagus of Sidon and take it back to the Berlin museums as recompense for Turkey's unpaid war debts: however, Theodor Wiegand, director of the museums' antiquities department, heard about the plan and ensured that it was not carried out. In the summer of 1920, Karo visited the excavations of Mycenae as a guest of the British archaeologist Alan Wace.
The Greek state retained possession of the DAI's premises in Athens after the end of the war in November 1918: part of the building had been turned into a girls' school. During a meeting with the Greek royal family and other Greek political figures in Switzerland in 1920, Karo had been informed that he would be expected to remain politically neutral on his return to the DAI. It was also suggested that Karo should not return, at least at first, as director, given his pro-German wartime activities: France had overthrown the Greek government of Constantine I in June 1917, and the government of the new king Alexander was considered a puppet of the Entente powers. Accordingly, in July 1920, Karo formally wrote to the directors of the DAI in Berlin, requesting to be dismissed from his post in Athens and complaining about the Greek government's treatment of him there.
In the winter term of 1920, Karo took up the role of professor of archaeology at the University of Halle, succeeding Carl Robert and also taking Robert's place in the central directorate of the German Archaeological Institute in Berlin. In 1922, Karo met Helene Wenck, the daughter of the historian , and a great-niece of Heinrich Schliemann. She was then working as a secretary at Halle, and like Karo published articles in the , a conservative magazine opposed to the Weimar government then ruling in Germany. From 1922, Karo contributed articles on Minoan and Mycenaean archaeology to the Pauly–Wissowa encyclopaedia of classical scholarship. However, his publications in his early years at Halle were dominated by political tracts, arguing against the Treaty of Versailles and denying claims of Germany's guilt for the start of the First World War.
Around 1924, Karo was a member of the acquisition committee of Athens's National Archaeological Museum, in which capacity he successfully argued against their acquisition of the so-called "Ring of Nestor", a purportedly Minoan artefact that Karo believed to be a forgery. In 1926, he travelled to western Crete with his former student Spyridon Marinatos, following a promise of 100,000 marks from the German-American businessman for renewed German excavations in Greece; however, the money was eventually exhausted on excavations in the Kerameikos cemetery of Athens. Karo remained at Halle until 1930, when he returned to Athens as director of the DAI. Helene Wenck moved with him as his secretary. During this period, Karo served as editor of the ('Archaeological Gazette'), the DAI's bulletin of research and excavation.
Exile in the United States
In September 1932, Karo was mooted as a potential candidate for the presidency of the DAI. The outgoing president urged against his appointment on the grounds that a Jewish president could be a political liability if the Nazi Party were to gain power, and Karo declined to stand. When the Nazis acquired control of Germany in 1933, they made an early priority of excluding those it deemed racially undesirable, including Jews and those married to or associated with them, from academic posts. Karo was one of several figures in German classical archaeology, including Ludwig Curtius, the head of the , to be removed from office under Nazi racial laws. Karo resigned as chair of the DAI's board in 1933, fearing that his Jewish ancestry would be used against the institute. He offered his resignation as director, but the DAI's Berlin president, Theodor Wiegand, refused it.
In the spring of 1934, Karo acted as a guide to Hermann Göring, his future wife Emma Sonneman and other high-ranking Nazi officials during their visit to Greece: Karo had only planned to accompany them for the first day, but Göring insisted that he remain with them for the whole week of the visit. In 1935, he again met Göring on the latter's honeymoon in Greece, and he went on to meet and entertain several other Nazi ministers during 1935–1936. In a letter of 1935 to his superiors in Berlin, Karo wrote that the DAI was working effectively, and that he was trying to "get rid of" his Jewish colleagues, whom he wrote were damaging the "uniform, clean atmosphere" of the institute. He was ordered to leave the directorship in November 1935, though the order was quickly amended to allow him to serve until 31 March 1936. After extensive political wrangling between Karo, the DAI's officials in Athens and Berlin and the German government, Karo left office in October 1936.
Karo moved to Munich, where he lived with his step-sister. Wenck moved into the same house, but lived in a separate apartment. He remained in contact with the DAI, both in Athens and Berlin, and was consulted in 1937 by the Reich Ministry of Science, Education and Culture about the salaries of DAI employees in Athens. From 22 May until 4 June, he worked with Carl Blegen, his long-time friend from the ASCSA, on the latter's excavations at Troy, and his former colleague Kurt Bittel arranged for Karo to be accommodated at the DAI to give a lecture on the finds from the site. During this period, Karo applied unsuccessfully, with support from the DAI, for the status of ('Reich citizen'). He was also made an honorary doctor of the University of Athens in 1937, as part of its centenary celebrations. He worked as a writer in Munich, but returned to Athens for study in 1938. Shortly after his arrival in Athens, Wenck was denied access to a German archive and lost a publishing contract over her relationship with the Jewish-born Karo. By the end of 1938, the publication of several of Karo's works had been cancelled, in line with German law prohibiting the publication of works by Jews.
Karo maintained close connections with archaeologists, particularly from Britain and the United States, throughout his career. He made a particular impression upon Ida Hill, the wife of Bert Hodge Hill. Ida wrote in 1900 that Karo was "more like an Englishman" than a German and was "a great ladies' man". Most archaeologists from the Entente powers in Athens had cut off their association with their German colleagues during the First World War – Zillah Dinsmoor, the wife of the architectural historian William Bell Dinsmoor, refused Karo's invitation to dinner shortly after the sinking of the Lusitania in 1917, ending the friendship between Karo and her husband. However, Karo's friends Blegen and Hill continued to associate with him and to attend lectures at the DAI, often as the only non-Germans in the audience. In January 1936, Blegen, Hill and the "Quartet" hosted a birthday party for Karo at their house at 9 Ploutarchou Street, intended as a gesture of support in the light of Karo's imminent dismissal: the guests included the American ambassador to Greece, Lincoln MacVeigh, as well as the Anglo-Dutch artist Piet de Jong, who gave Karo a caricature of him holding a Mycenaean kylix.
From 1938, Karo planned to leave Germany permanently: he later stated that he had intended to leave in September, but was required to remain to care for his elderly step-sister. She died on 19 December; Karo applied for a Greek visa early in 1939 in the hope of being able to pass from there to the United States as a refugee. He was supported by the Greek royal family, who allowed him to bypass the general refusal of the Greek government to issue visas to Austrian and German Jews. He left Germany for Greece on 30 June, and was briefly detained by the Gestapo at the Italian border; he was in Florence by 1 July, where he met King Georgios of Greece as well as Wenck, who had emigrated separately. On 12 July, Karo attended Wace's sixtieth birthday party at Mycenae, alongside several noted Greek and American archaeologists. On 27 September, he and Wenck sailed from Greece, and arrived on 11 October in New York. Karo obtained his American visa through the support of friends at the ASCSA, particularly Blegen and Hill. He first took up a visiting professorship at the University of Cincinnati, which he obtained through the assistance of Blegen, a professor at the same institution. Karo's arrival in Cincinnati was welcomed by the university faculty: friends there provided money to help him with living costs.
Karo married Helene Wenck on 24 April 1940. That same month, he applied for US citizenship. Karo left Cincinnati in 1940 and taught as a visiting professor at Oberlin. Once again, his friends at Cincinnati sent money to help with his expenses; the Blegens contributed most of his first year's salary. At Oberlin, he taught a course on the legacy of ancient Greece and Rome, in which he devoted the majority of his focus to Greece: this included reading from the Iliad to his students in the original Homeric Greek, out of the belief that the poetry could never be fully appreciated in translation. He delivered the eight 1941 and 1942 Charles Beebe Martin Classical Lectures at Oberlin, the first series of which were published as his monograph Greek Personality in Archaic Sculpture in 1948. In this work, Karo attempted to chart a movement in Greek statuary, beginning in the seventh centuryBCE, towards what he defined as a "Dorian" artistic styleculminating in the fifth-century works of Polykleitos– a line of argument popular in European scholarship of the early twentieth century, which sought to discriminate between so-called "occidental", "Dorian" characteristics and putatively "oriental", "Ionian" features, and to argue that the "Dorians" were more strongly associated with the Indo-European culture believed to be the root of northern European races. The archaeologist Jack Davis has judged that Karo's presence ultimately had little impact upon his primary field of Aegean prehistory in the United States.
Accusations of espionage
From his arrival in the United States, Karo was accused of working or spying for the Nazi government. During Karo's year at Cincinnati, the Greek archaeologist Spyridon Marinatos, who had been his student at Halle, undertook a lecture tour of the US: Marinatos was unable to speak at Cincinnati due to a bout of pneumonia, which left him hospitalised for a week. Unable to meet Marinatos in person, Karo sent him a letter containing eleven postcards, all showing an image of the Penn Museum and inscribed with a short greeting, signed pseudonymously "George Barbour". Karo asked Marinatos to send these from Greece to eight addresses in Germany and three in Prague, which had recently been annexed by Nazi Germany. Unsure of Karo's intentions, Marinatos gave the letters to his benefactor Elizabeth Humlin Hunt, in whose home he had been staying, to dispose of: she handed them to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), and further claimed to have been told by Harry A. Hill, director of the American Express office in Athens, that Karo had received money from the Nazi government while in the city. Hill's father-in-law, the philologist Edward Capps, was a personal enemy of Karo's friends Hill and Blegen: Capps denounced Karo to the FBI as "dangerous to the security of the United States". Meanwhile the director of the ASCSA's excavations in the Athenian agora, accused Karo of having been an agent for Germany during the First World War, an accusation repeated by the classicist Daniel Lewis. The classicist John Franklin Daniel accused Karo of being a sleeper agent for Germany in the US.
An Ohio district attorney sought to arrest Karo: his warrant was refused by the US Attorney General, but Karo was subpoenaed to testify in court in 1941. No evidence was found to connect him with the Nazi regime, and the record of the trial categorised the case against him as "fairly flimsy". He was nevertheless placed under parole, denied US citizenship, and labelled a "Nazi" in the official records of the affair. He was also required to testify before an Enemy Alien Hearing Board in Cleveland on 18 April 1942 to avoid internment, something that he wrote would be "a death sentence" at his advanced age. His parole was lifted on 15 November 1945, but he remained ineligible for American citizenship and retained the official status of "Enemy Alien" until the end of 1946. The affair caused him to abandon his planned return to Cincinnati, on the advice of William Semple, head of the university's classics department.
Return to Germany and death
After the end of his contract at Oberlin, Karo lived until 1945 largely on support from the Oberlaender Foundation, which funded the expenses of several German academics living as refugees in the United States. He received a scholarship from the Archaeological Institute of America in 1944–1945, and was also supported by donations from friends. However, the Karo family's wealth declined considerably over their time in the US. Karo took a visiting lectureship at the University of Kansas City in 1945, after the end of the Second World War in September, but generally lived in Oberlin until the summer of 1947. During the 1947–1948 academic year, he taught at the University of Iowa; in 1948, he took a one-year post at Claremont Colleges in California. His salary at Claremont was $40 per month, less than that paid to a typical lecturer, and barely enough to meet his living costs. His contract was extended each year until 1952, thanks to pressure on the college's president exerted by Karo's students; Karo also served as head of Claremont's classics department. His wife Helene acted as his research and teaching assistant.
On the occasion of his eightieth birthday in January 1952, he received congratulations from Konrad Adenauer, chancellor of West Germany. He applied to be recognised as a victim of Nazi persecution, which would entitle him to government support as well as a resumption of his pension as an employee of the DAI: his application was accepted late in 1952 after Adenauer's personal intervention. Dissatisfied with life in America, Karo returned to Germany on 9 July 1952. Shortly afterwards, he was awarded the Knight Commander's Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany. In 1954, he was made an honorary professor at the University of Freiburg, probably at the instigation of , a professor at the university and the son of Karo's childhood teacher.
In addition to his native German and Italian, Karo spoke English, French and Modern Greek. In his memoirs, which he published in 1959, Karo chose only to discuss his life until the early 1930s, leaving out any mention of his relationship with the Nazi government, of his persecution in Germany, or of subsequent events. He died in Freiburg im Breisgau on 12 November 1963.
Political views
Karo held strong German nationalist views. In September 1919, Karo contributed an article to the magazine demanding the revision of the Treaty of Versailles. In May 1921, he wrote again in the , including a suggestion that Germany's "most dangerous enemies" were "not outside, but inside" the country, a claim which the historian Michael Brenner has connected with the growth in the antisemitic stab-in-the-back myth and in hostility towards Jewish academics in Germany. In 1921, Karo wrote a book criticising the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, denying claims of Germany's guilt for the start of the war, and attacking British imperialism. He was called to testify before a district court in Munich in spring 1922 on the question of German war guilt; this appearance gained him international recognition as one of the foremost experts on the subject.
Karo's biographer Astrid Lindenlauf has written that he was "fond of the radical right", and that he was a member of the right-wing German Lecturers' Association for several years, giving speeches at the group's annual meetings until 1929. He also taught part-time at the in Berlin, which promulgated a nationalist, anti-democratic ideology; it was run by the historian , later an early member of the Nazi party. During his leadership of the DAI during Nazi rule, he attempted to avoid recruiting so-called "non-Aryans" and wrote of his efforts to drive out Jewish archaeologists; however, he also favoured and supported the Jewish-born Wulf Schäfer, and recommended him for archaeological posts outside Germany.
In 1932, Ludwig Curtius wrote that Karo "belong[ed] neither wholly to archaeology nor to politics", which Lindenlauf has interpreted as an indication of the importance of the political aspects of his role in German archaeology. During a visit to Athens in September 1933, the German archaeologist recorded in his diary that Karo and his colleagues at the DAI approved of the recent rise of Adolf Hitler to power in Germany. During his time in the United States, Karo told colleagues that he had been an early supporter of the Nazis, but found life under their rule "increasingly unbearable". The DAI became known for its support of the Nazi state, and Karo hoped that the new regime would bring about renewed excavations at Olympia, which indeed began in 1936. In 1941, Karo boasted of having personally secured the funding for these excavations in a meeting with Hitler. Notes taken by Bert Hodge Hill record that Karo was critical of Hitler's invasion of Poland in September 1939. In his memoirs, Karo condemned Hitler and described the Second World War as a "meaningless enterprise".
Selected writings
Footnotes
Explanatory notes
References
Bibliography
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Further reading
Works by and about Georg Karo, compiled by Astrid Lindenlauf in 2013
1872 births
1963 deaths
University of Bonn alumni
Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich alumni
Academic staff of the University of Halle
Academic staff of the University of Freiburg
German archaeologists
Archaeologists from Florence
Immigrants to the German Empire
Italian emigrants
Knights Commander of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
German expatriates in the United States
Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States