Consonant voicing and devoicing

Consonant voicing and devoicing
In phonology, voicing (or sonorization) is a sound change where a voiceless consonant becomes voiced due to the influence of its phonological environment; shift in the opposite direction is referred to as devoicing or desonorization. Most commonly, the change is a result of sound assimilation with an adjacent sound of opposite voicing, but it can also occur word-finally or in contact with a specific vowel.
For example, the English suffix -s is pronounced when it follows a voiceless phoneme (cats), and when it follows a voiced phoneme (dogs). This type of assimilation is called progressive, where the second consonant assimilates to the first; regressive assimilation goes in the opposite direction, as can be seen in have to .
English
English no longer has a productive process of voicing stem-final fricatives when forming noun-verb pairs or plural nouns, but there are still examples of voicing from earlier in the history of English:
belief – believe
shelf – shelve
grief – grieve
life – live
proof – prove
strife – strive
thief – thieve
bath - bathe
breath - breathe
mouth – mouth
sheath - sheathe
wreath - wreathe
advice – advise
house – house
use – use
Synchronically, the assimilation at morpheme boundaries is still productive, such as in:
cat + s → cats
dog + s → dogs
miss + ed → missed
whizz + ed → whizzed
The voicing alternation found in plural formation is losing ground in the modern language,. Of the alternations listed below many speakers retain only the pattern, which is supported by the orthography. This voicing of is a relic of Old English, at a time when the unvoiced consonants between voiced vowels were 'colored' by an allophonic voicing (lenition) rule → . As the language became more analytic and less inflectional, final vowels or syllables stopped being pronounced. For example, modern knives is a one syllable word instead of a two syllable word, with the vowel e not pronounced and no longer part of the word's structure. The voicing alternation between and occurs now as realizations of separate phonemes and . The alternation pattern is well maintained for the items listed immediately below, but its loss as a productive allophonic rule permits its abandonment for new usages of even well-established terms: while leaf~leaves in reference to 'outgrowth of plant stem' remains vigorous, the Toronto ice hockey team is uncontroversially named the Maple Leafs.
knife – knives
leaf – leaves
wife – wives
wolf – wolves
The following mutations are optional:
bath - baths
mouth - mouths
oath - oaths
path - paths
youth - youths
house – houses
Sonorants following aspirated fortis plosives (that is, in the onsets of stressed syllables unless preceded by ) are devoiced such as in please, crack, twin, and pewter.
Several varieties of English have a productive synchronic rule of /t/-voicing whereby intervocalic /t/ not followed by a stressed vowel is realized as voiced alveolar flap [ɾ], as in tutor, with the first /t/ pronounced as voiceless aspirated [tʰ] and the second as voiced [ɾ]. Voiced phoneme /d/ can also emerge as [ɾ], so that tutor and Tudor may be homophones, both with [ɾ] (the voiceless identity of word-internal /t/ in tutor is manifested in tutorial, where stress shift assures [tʰ]).
In other languages
Voicing assimilation
In many languages, including Polish and Russian, there is anticipatory assimilation of unvoiced obstruents immediately before voiced obstruents. For example, Russian 'request' is pronounced (instead of ) and Polish 'request' is pronounced (instead of ). The process can cross word boundaries as well: Russian 'daughter would'. The opposite type of anticipatory assimilation happens to voiced obstruents before unvoiced ones: .
In Italian, before a voiced consonant is pronounced within any phonological word: 'mistake', 'sled', 'slender'. The rule applies across morpheme boundaries ('cancel') and word boundaries ('black pencil'). This voicing is productive and so it applies also to borrowings, not only to native lexicon: .
Final devoicing
Final devoicing is a systematic phonological process occurring in languages such as German, Dutch, Polish, Russian and Catalan. Such languages have voiced obstruents in the syllable coda or at the end of a word become voiceless.
Initial voicing
Initial voicing is a process of historical sound change in which voiceless consonants become voiced at the beginning of a word. For example, modern German , Yiddish , and Dutch (all "say") all begin with , which derives from in an earlier stage of Germanic, as is still attested in English say, Swedish , and Icelandic . Some English dialects were affected as well, but it is rare in Modern English. One example is fox (with the original consonant) compared to vixen (with a voiced consonant).
Notes
References
Phonology
Phonotactics
Assimilation (linguistics)