Resistance movement

Resistance movement
A resistance movement is an organized group of people that tries to resist the government or an occupying power, causing disruption and unrest in civil order and stability. Such a movement may seek to achieve its goals through either the use of nonviolent resistance (sometimes called civil resistance), or the use of force, whether armed or unarmed. In many cases, as for example in the United States during the American Revolution, or in Norway in the Second World War, a resistance movement may employ both violent and non-violent methods, usually operating under different organizations and acting in different phases or geographical areas within a country.
Etymology
The Oxford English Dictionary records use of the word "resistance" in the sense of organised opposition to an invader from 1862. The modern usage of the term "Resistance" became widespread from the self-designation of many movements during World War II, especially the French Resistance. The term is still strongly linked to the context of the events of 1939–45, and particularly to opposition movements in Axis-occupied countries. Using the term "resistance" to designate a movement meeting the definition prior to World War II might be considered by some to be an anachronism. However, such movements existed prior to World War II (albeit often called by different names), and there have been many after it for example in struggles against colonialism and foreign military occupations. "Resistance" has become a generic term that has been used to designate underground resistance movements in any country.
Background
Resistance movements can include any irregular armed force that rises up against an enforced or established authority, government, or administration. This frequently includes groups that consider themselves to be resisting tyranny or dictatorship. Some resistance movements are underground organizations engaged in a struggle for national liberation in a country under military occupation or totalitarian domination. Tactics of resistance movements against a constituted authority range from nonviolent resistance and civil disobedience, to guerrilla warfare and terrorism, or even conventional warfare if the resistance movement is powerful enough. Any government facing violent acts from a resistance movement usually condemns such acts as terrorism, even when such attacks target only the military or security forces. Resistance during World War II was mainly dedicated to fighting the Axis occupiers. Germany itself also had an anti-Nazi German resistance movement in this period. Although the United Kingdom did not suffer invasion in World War II, preparations were made for a British resistance movement in the event of a German invasion (see Auxiliary Units).
Geographies of resistance
When geographies of resistance are discussed, it is often taken for granted that resistance takes place where domination, power, or oppression occurs and so resistance is often understood as something that always opposes to power or domination. However, some scholars believe and argue that looking at resistance in relation to only power and domination does not provide a full understanding of the actual nature of resistance. Not all power, domination, or oppression leads to resistance, and not all cases of resistance are against or to oppose what is categorized as "power". In fact, they believe that resistance has its own characteristics and spatialities. In Steve Pile's (1997) "Opposition, Political Identities and Spaces of Resistance," geographies of resistance show:
We can better understand resistance by accounting different perspectives and by breaking the presumptions that resistance is always against power. In fact, resistance should be understood not only in relations to domination and authority, but also through other experiences, such as "desire and anger, capacity and ability, happiness and fear, dreaming and forgetting", meaning that resistance is not always about the dominated versus the dominator, the exploited versus the exploiter, or the oppressed versus the oppressor. There are various forms of resistance for various reasons, which then can be, again, classified as violent and nonviolent resistance (and "other" which is unclear).
Different geographical spaces can also make different forms of resistance possible or impossible and more effective or less effective. Furthermore, in order to understand any resistance its capacity to achieve its objective effectively, its success or failure we need to take closely into account many variables, such as political identities, cultural identities, class, race, gender and so on. The reason is that these variations can define the nature and outcome of resistance. Harvey (1993), who looked at resistance in relations to capitalist economic exploitation, took on a fire accident happened in the Imperial Foods chicken processing plant in Hamlet, North Carolina in 1991, in which 20 of 200 workers were killed and 56 were injured due to poor working conditions and protections. He compared this accident with a similar fire accident at Triangle Shirtwaist Company, New York, 1911, killing 146 workers, which caused a labor resistance by 100,000 people. He argued that no resistance took place in response to the fire accident in Hamlet because most of the people who died there were black and women workers, and he believed that not only class but also other identities such as race, gender, and sexuality were important factors in understanding nature and outcome of resistance. For an effective resistance, he proposed that four tasks should be undertaken:
There are many forms of resistance in relations to different power dominations and actors. Some resistance takes place in order to oppose, change, or reform the exploitation of the capitalist economic systems and the capitals, while other resistance takes place against the state or authority in power. Moreover, some other resistance takes place in order to resist or question the social/culture norms or discourse or in order to challenge a global trend called "globalization". For example, LGBT social movements is an example of resistance that challenges and tries to reform the existing cultural norms in many societies. Resistance can also be mapped in various scales ranging from local to national to regional and to global spaces. We can look at a big-scale resistance movement such as anti-globalization movement that tries to resist the global trend of capitalist economic system. Or we can look at the internal resistance to apartheid, which took place at national level. Most, if not all, social movements can be considered as some forms of resistance.
Not all resistance takes place in physical spaces or geographies but in "other spaces" as well. Some resistance happens in the form of Protest Art or in the form of music. Music can be used and has been used as a tool or space to resist certain oppression or domination. Gray-Rosendale, L. (2001) put it this way:
In the age of advanced IT and mass consumption of social media, resistance can also occur in the cyberspace.The Aboriginal Health and Medical Research Council of NSW's Tobacco Resistance and Control (A-TRAC) team created a Facebook page to help promote anti-smoking campaign and rise awareness for its members. Sometimes, resistance takes place in people's minds and ideology or in people's "inner spaces". For example, sometimes people have to struggle within or fight against their inner spaces, with their consciousness and, sometimes, with their fear before they can resist in the physical spaces. In other cases, people sometimes simply resist to certain ideology, belief, or culture norms within their minds. These kinds of resistance are less visible but very fundamental parts of all forms of resistance.
Controversy regarding definition
On the lawfulness of armed resistance movements in international law, there has been a dispute between states since at least 1899, when the first major codification of the laws of war in the form of a series of international treaties took place. In the Preamble to the 1899 Hague Convention II on Land War, the Martens Clause was introduced as a compromise wording for the dispute between the Great Powers who considered francs-tireurs to be unlawful combatants subject to execution on capture and smaller states who maintained that they should be considered lawful combatants.
More recently the 1977 Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts, referred in Article 1. Paragraph 4 to armed conflicts "... in which peoples are fighting against colonial domination and alien occupation and against racist regimes..." This phraseology, according USA that refused to ratify the Protocol, contains many ambiguities that cloud the issue of who is or is not a legitimate combatant: ultimately, in US Government opinion the distinction is just a political judgment.
By the way, some definitions of resistance movement have proved controversial.
Hence depending on the perspective of a state's government, a resistance movement may or may not be labelled a terrorist group based on whether the members of a resistance movement are considered lawful or unlawful combatants and whether they are recognized as having a right to resist occupation.
According to Joint Publication 1-02, the United States Department of Defense defines a resistance movement as "an organized effort by some portion of the civil population of a country to resist the legally established government or an occupying power and to disrupt civil order and stability". In strict military terminology, a resistance movement is simply that; it seeks to resist (change) the policies of a government or occupying power. This may be accomplished through violent or non-violent means. In this view, a resistance movement is specifically limited to changing the nature of current power, not to overthrow it; and the correct military term for removing or overthrowing a government is an insurgency. However, in reality many resistance movements have aimed to displace a particular ruler, especially if that ruler has gained or retained power illegally.
Freedom fighter
Freedom fighter is another term for those engaged in a struggle to achieve political freedom for themselves or obtain freedom for others. Though the literal meaning of the words could include "anyone who fights for the cause of freedom", in common use it may be restricted to those who are actively involved in an armed rebellion, rather than those who campaign for freedom by peaceful means, or those who fight violently for the freedom of others outside the context of an uprising (though this title may be applied in its literal sense)
Generally speaking, freedom fighters are people who use physical force to cause a change in the political and or social order. Notable examples include Umkhonto we Sizwe in South Africa, the Sons of Liberty in the American Revolution, the Irish Republican Army in Ireland and Northern Ireland, the Eritrean People's Liberation Front, and the National Resistance Army in Uganda, which were considered freedom fighters by supporters. However, a person who is campaigning for freedom through peaceful means may still be classed as a freedom fighter, though in common usage they are called political activists, as in the case of the Black Consciousness Movement. In India, "Freedom fighter" is an officially recognized category by the Indian government covering those who took part in the country's independence movement; people in this category (can also include dependant family members) get pensions and other benefits like special railway counters.
People described as freedom fighters are often also called assassins, rebels, insurgents or terrorists. This leads to the aphorism "one man's terrorist is another man's freedom fighter". The degree to which this occurs depends on a variety of factors specific to the struggle in which a given freedom fighter group is engaged.
During the Cold War, the term freedom fighter was first used with reference to the Hungarian rebels in 1956. Ronald Reagan picked up the term to explain America's support of rebels in countries controlled by communist states or otherwise perceived to be under the influence of the Soviet Union, including the Contras in Nicaragua, UNITA in Angola and the multi-factional mujahideen in Afghanistan.
In the media, the BBC tries to avoid the phrases "terrorist" or "freedom fighter", except in attributed quotes, in favor of more neutral terms such as "militant", "guerrilla", "assassin", "insurgent", "rebel", "paramilitary", or "militia".
Common weapons
Partisans often use captured weapons taken from their enemies, or weapons that have been stolen or smuggled in. During the Cold War, partisans often received arms from either NATO or Warsaw Pact member states. Where partisan resources are stretched, improvised weapons are also deployed.
Examples of resistance movements
The following examples are of groups that have been considered or would identify themselves as groups. These are mostly, but not exclusively, of armed resistance movements. For movements and phases of activity involving non-violent methods, see civil resistance and nonviolent resistance.
Pre–20th century
The Sicarii were a first-century Jewish movement opposing Roman occupation of the Jewish Promised Land.
The Yellow Turbans were peasant rebels against the Eastern Han dynasty, led by Zhang Jue, was crushed by the lack of co-ordination with other Yellow Turban groups as well as destabilization.
The Abbasid Revolution overthrow of the Umayyad dynasty under Abu Muslim, which was caused by discrimination against non-Arab Muslims and government corruption.
The Mamluks were Turkic slaves who overthrew the Ayyubid dynasty.
In opposition to British rule in Ireland and the subsequent Plantations of Ireland, the native Gaelic population, at times with and against the Hiberno-Normans lords, launched the Bruce campaign in Ireland (1315-1318), the Desmond Rebellions (1569–1573 & 1579–1583), the Nine Years' War, also known as Tyrone's Rebellion, (1593-1603), the Irish Rebellion of 1641 & the subsequent Irish Confederate Wars (1641-1653), the Williamite War in Ireland (1688–1691), the Irish Rebellion of 1798, also known as the United Irishmen Rebellion, and the Tithe War (1831-1836).
The Jacobite risings were a series of rebellions, uprisings, and wars to reinstate the Stuart dynasty.
The American Continental forces of the American Revolutionary War were essentially a resistance movement against the British Empire.
Francis Marion was an American Revolutionary War partisan who led a partisan guerrilla movement against Great Britain.
Indigenous Australians in the early history of Australia
Pemulwuy – An indigenous Australian who resisted the European colonization of Australia. In 1797, a state of guerrilla warfare existed between indigenous people and settler communities in Sydney. The Aboriginals were led by Pemulwuy, a member of the Bidjigal tribe who occupied the land. Pemulwuy was eventually shot and killed by Henry Hacking in 1802.
Jandamarra – The first Indigenous Australian to use firearms and conduct organized warfare in battle against settlers; leading a war against Euro-Australian settlers for three years, from 1894 to 1897. The resistance movement ended when Jandamarra was shot dead by an Aboriginal tracker.
Resistance movements against France also emerged during the Napoleonic Wars
The 1808 invasion of Spain by Bonaparte sparked a resistance movement composed mostly of the lower classes, who felt that the nobility was simply allowing themselves to fall under French control. Lord Wellington remarked that it was extraordinary that the French had managed to remain in the country for so long (about 4 years).
Landsturm – German resistance groups fighting against the French in the Napoleonic Wars.
Certain Native Americans during Manifest destiny.
Tsali – Cherokee tribal member who led a small band of Cherokee people against the United States military during the Trail of Tears era. Executed in exchange for the survival of his band, the band were integrated into the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians.
Osceola – Seminole chief who was very influential. Resisted deportation during the period of Indian removal. Led a number of successes until being captured by the United States during faux peace talks, died a few months later in prison.
During the American Civil War, there were also resistance movements on both sides
Bushwhackers were Confederate guerrillas who engaged in raids, robberies, and massacres against the Union forces and affiliated citizens. Continued resisting for some years after the American Civil War ended. Responsible for the Lawrence Massacre
Jayhawkers were Union guerrillas who engaged in the same acts as the bushwhackers did, they were also active during Bleeding Kansas, most prominent member was John Brown responsible for the Pottawatomie Massacre and John Brown's raid on Harper's Ferry.
Carbonari – 19th-century Italian movement resisting Austrian or Bourbon rule.
The Polish National Government – Underground Polish supreme authority during the January Uprising against Russian occupation of Poland. In 1863–1864, it was a real shadow government supported by majority of Poles, who even paid taxes for it, and was a significant problem for the Okhrana, the secret police of the Russian Empire.
Andrés Avelino Cáceres' resistance movement against invading Chilean forces during the War of the Pacific.
The Kataas-Taasang, Ka-Galang-galangang, Katipunan ng mga Anak Ng Bayan (KKK) was an organization in the Philippines that instigated the Philippine Revolution in 1896 against the Spanish colonials and resulted in the dissolution of the Republic of Biak na Bato and the exile of the Philippine Government, headed by Emillo Aguinaldo.
Pre–World War II
Filipino guerrilla units after official end of Philippine–American War (1902–1913)
Chinese Communist Party
Chinese Red Army
Chinese Soviet Republic
Communist-controlled China (1927–1949)
Fujian People's Government
Shaan-Gan-Ning Border Region
Charlemagne Peralte and his Cacos rebels who resisted the United States occupation of Haiti.
Freikorps
Ukrainian forces in the Ukrainian War of Independence (1917-1921)
House of Saud
Ikhwan
Forest Guerrillas (1921–1922)
Jewish paramilitary organizations that resisted the British authorities in Palestine (1920s until 1948) prior to the founding of the State of Israel include the Haganah, the Irgun, and Lehi.
Augusto César Sandino led a rebellion against the United States occupation of Nicaragua.
Lwów Eaglets
Black Lions (1936)
Irish Republican Army (1918–1922)
Turkish national movement
Association for the Defense of the Rights of Anatolia and Rumelia
TIGR (1927–1941)
Ustaše – Croatian nationalist and fascist resistance movement against the Kingdom of Yugoslavia
White movement
National Alliance of Russian Solidarists
World War II
Albanian resistance movement
Austrian resistance movement (O5)
Belgian resistance movement
British resistance movements
SIS Section D and Section VII (planned Resistance organisations)
Resistance in the German-occupied Channel Islands
The Auxiliary Units, organized by Colonel Colin Gubbins as a potential British resistance movement against a possible invasion of the British Isles by Nazi forces, note that it was the only resistance movement established prior to invasion, albeit the invasion never came.
Bulgarian resistance movement
Burmese resistance movement
Chechen anti-Soviet resistance
Chinese resistance movements
Anti-Japanese Army for the Salvation of the Country
Chinese People's National Salvation Army
Heilungkiang National Salvation Army
Jilin Self-Defence Army
Northeast Anti-Japanese National Salvation Army
Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army
Northeast People's Anti-Japanese Volunteer Army
Northeastern Loyal and Brave Army
Northeastern People's Revolutionary Army
Northeastern Volunteer Righteous & Brave Fighters
Hong Kong resistance movements
(Hong Kong-Kowloon big army)
East River Column (Dongjiang Guerrillas, Southern China and Hong Kong organisation)
Chinese Muslims in the Second Sino-Japanese War
Muslim Detachment (回民義勇隊 Huimin Zhidui)
Muslim corps
Czech Resistance movement
Danish resistance movement
Dutch resistance movement
The Stijkel Group, a Dutch resistance movement, which mainly operated around the S-Gravenhage area.
Valkenburg resistance
Estonian resistance movement
Forest Brothers
French resistance movement
Bureau Central de Renseignements et d'Action (BCRA)
Conseil National de la Résistance (CNR)
Francs-Tireurs et Partisans (FTP)
Free French Forces (FFL)
French Forces of the Interior (FFI)
Maquis
Pat O'Leary Line
German resistance to Nazism
Bästlein-Jacob-Abshagen Group
Confessing Church
Edelweiss Pirates
Ehrenfeld Group
European Union
Kreisau Circle
National Committee for a Free Germany
Anti-Fascist Committee for a Free Germany
Neu Beginnen
Red Orchestra
Robert Uhrig Group
Saefkow-Jacob-Bästlein Organization
Solf Circle
Vierergruppen in Hamburg, Munich and Vienna
White Rose
German pro-Nazi resistance
Volkssturm – a German resistance group and militia created by the NSDAP near the end of World War II
Werwolf – German guerrillas resisting Allied occupation of Germany, 1945
Greek resistance movement
List of Greek Resistance organizations
Cretan resistance
National Liberation Front (EAM) and the Greek People's Liberation Army (ELAS), EAM's guerrilla forces
National Republican Greek League (EDES)
National and Social Liberation (EKKA)
Indian resistance movements:
Quit India Movement, largely non-violent anti-British resistance within Indian territory
Azad Hind
Indian National Army, Indian force fighting alongside Imperial Japan against Allied forces
Free Indian Army, Indian unit in Nazi Germany fighting against the Allies for India's Independence
Italian resistance against fascism
Arditi del Popolo
Assisi Network
Brigate Fiamme Verdi
Comitato di Liberazione Nazionale
Concentrazione Antifascista Italiana
DELASEM
Democrazia Cristiana
Four days of Naples
Giustizia e Libertà
Italian Civil War
Italian Co-Belligerent Army, Navy, and Air Force
Italian Communist Party (PCI)
Italian Partisan Republics
Italian Socialist Party (PSI)
Labour Democratic Party (PDL)
Movimento Comunista d'Italia
National Liberation Committee for Northern Italy
Partito d'Azione
Scintilla
Italian pro-fascist resistance
Black Brigades
Italian guerrilla war in Ethiopia
Japanese anti-imperial resistance
Dissent in the Armed Forces of the Empire of Japan
Japanese in the Chinese resistance to the Empire of Japan
Japanese Communist Party
Japanese People's Emancipation League
Japanese People's Anti-war Alliance
League to Raise the Political Consciousness of Japanese Troops
Japanese pro-imperial resistance
Japanese holdout
Volunteer Fighting Corps
Jewish resistance movement, including Jewish partisans and Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee
Resistance movement in Auschwitz
Korean resistance movement
Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea
Korean Liberation Army
Korean Volunteer Army
Latvian resistance movement
Lithuanian resistance
Lithuanian, Latvian, and Estonian (Forest Brothers, Latvian national partisans, and Lithuanian partisans) resistance movements during the Soviet invasion and occupation of the Baltic countries (continued after the end of World War II).
Luxembourgish resistance movement
Norwegian resistance movement
Philippine resistance movement (Multiple, often opposing organizations, were active during the Japanese Occupation)
Polish Underground State and Polish resistance organizations, such as:
Armia Krajowa (the Home Army), Polish underground army in World War II (400 000 sworn members)
Narodowe Siły Zbrojne
Bataliony Chłopskie
Gwardia Ludowa (the People's Guard) and Armia Ludowa (the People's Army)
Żydowska Organizacja Bojowa (ZOB, the Jewish Fighting Organisation), Jewish resistance movement that led the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising in 1943
Zydowski Zwiazek Walki (ZZW, the Jewish Fighting Union), Jewish resistance movement that led the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising in 1943
Russian pro-Nazi German collaborationist movement
Anti-Soviet partisans
Committee for the Liberation of the Peoples of Russia (Russian pro-Nazi German collaborationist resistance movement)
Russian Liberation Army
GULAG Operation
Lokot Autonomy
Russian Fascist Party
Russian Liberation Movement
Union for the Struggle for the Liberation of the Peoples of Russia
White movement members within pro-Nazi circles
Slovak resistance movement
Soviet resistance movement of Soviet partisans and underground which had Moscow-organized and spontaneously-formed cells opposing German occupation.
Belarusian Soviet partisans
Estonian Soviet partisans
Latvian Soviet partisans
Moldovan Soviet partisans
Soviet partisans in Finland
Soviet partisans in Poland
Young Guard (Soviet resistance)
Thai resistance movement
Ukrainian resistance movements:
Ukrainian Insurgent Army (anti-German, anti-Soviet and anti-Polish resistance movement)
Ukrainian People's Revolutionary Army (anti-German, anti-Soviet and anti-Polish resistance movement)
Yugoslav resistance movements:
Yugoslav Army in the Homeland - the Chetniks
Blue Guard – Slovenian Chetniks
National Liberation Army – the Partisans
Croatian Partisans
Macedonian Partisans
Serbian Partisans
Slovene Partisans
Viet Minh
Post–World War II
Post-WWII anti-fascism (ongoing)
Africa
Casamance conflict (ongoing)
Conflict in the Niger Delta (ongoing)
Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (Frente para a Libertação do Enclave de Cabinda) (ongoing)
Harakat al-Shabaab Mujahideen (ongoing)
Lord's Resistance Army (ongoing)
Mai-Mai (ongoing)
March 23 Movement
Mau Mau
MPLA
Ogaden National Liberation Front
Sudanese resistance (ongoing)
Symbionese Liberation Army
Umkhonto we Sizwe/African National Congress
ZANU–PF
East Asia, Southeast Asia, and Oceania
East Turkestan Islamic Movement (ongoing)
Free Papua Movement (ongoing)
Kuomintang insurgency in China
Kuomintang Islamic insurgency
Kuomintang in Burma
New People's Army (ongoing)
Pathet Lao
People's Liberation Army/Chinese Communist Party
South Thailand insurgency (ongoing)
Tibetan resistance movement (ongoing)
Viet Cong
Viet Minh
Europe
Albanian insurgency in Yugoslavia
Kosovo Liberation Army
Kosovo Protection Corps
National Liberation Army
Liberation Army of Preševo, Medveđa and Bujanovac
Anti-communist resistance in Poland
Caucasus Emirate
Continuity Irish Republican Army
Crusaders – Croatian Ustaše guerrilla movement fighting against Yugoslav communist forces
Cursed soldiers Polish anticommunist resistance
Free Wales Army
Greek resistance
Hungarian Uprising
Irish National Liberation Army
Irish People's Liberation Organisation
Irish Republican Army
Insurgency in the North Caucasus (2009-2017)
Mudiad Amddiffyn Cymru
National Liberation Front of Corsica (Fronte di Liberazione Naziunale Corsu)
Óglaigh na hÉireann (ongoing)
Prague Spring
Provisional Irish Republican Army (1969–1997)
Real Irish Republican Army (ongoing)
Romanian anti-communist resistance movement
Spanish Maquis
Ukrainian resistance during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine (ongoing)
United Irishmen
Middle East
Armenian resistance
Afghan Mujahideen
Free Patriotic Movement (1988-2005)
Free Syrian Army (2011-2014; Splinter branches and groups who use the name ongoing)
Front for the Liberation of the Golan (ongoing)
General Military Council for Iraqi Revolutionaries (ongoing)
Gaddafi loyalism (ongoing)
Insurgency in the Maghreb (2002–present) (ongoing)
Iraqi insurgency (2003–2011)
Taliban (2001 to 2021)
Islamic Republic of Afghanistan (ongoing)
National Resistance Front of Afghanistan
Hezbollah (ongoing)
Houthis (Ansar Allah) (ongoing)
Popular Mobilization Forces
Lebanese Front/Lebanese Forces (1975–1990)
National Liberation Front (Algeria)
Palestinian militants (ongoing)
Al Aqsa Martyrs Brigade
Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine
Hamas (ongoing)
Palestinian Islamic Jihad (ongoing)
Palestine Liberation Organization (ongoing)
Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (ongoing)
Polisario Front (ongoing)
People's Mujahedin Organization of Iran
South Yemen Movement (ongoing)
Indian subcontinent
Mukti Bahini (1971)
Bangladesh Nationalist Party (ongoing)
Bhutan Tiger Force
Indian Independence movement and Pakistan movement
Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir (ongoing)
Khalistan
Sindhudesh (ongoing)
Tamil Tigers
Western hemisphere
American Indian Movement
Black Guerrilla Family (ongoing)
Black Panther Party
Boricua Popular Army
Contras of Nicaragua
Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front
Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (ongoing)
Front de libération du Québec
Fruit of Islam
Fuerzas Armadas de Liberación Nacional Puertorriqueña
Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity
Los Macheteros – Puerto Rican armed independence movement (ongoing)
MOVE
Montoneros,Ejercito Revolucìonario del Pueblo,Peronist Armed Forces of Argentina
Ñancahuazú Guerrilla
Paraguayan People's Army (ongoing)
Popular Revolutionary Army (ongoing)
Sandinistas
Shining Path (ongoing)
Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement
Tupamaros
Weather Underground
Zapatistas (ongoing)
Notable individuals in resistance movements
World War II
Mordechaj Anielewicz
Josip Broz Tito
Dragoljub "Draža" Mihailović
Edmund Charaszkiewicz
Charles de Gaulle
Mildred Harnack
Jan Karski
Henryk Iwański
Marcel Louette
Max Manus
Jean Moulin
Christian Pineau
Hannie Schaft
Aris Velouchiotis
Mao Zedong
Chiang Kai-shek
Sandro Pertini
Luigi Longo
Ferruccio Parri
Witold Pilecki
Sophie Scholl
Haile Selassie
Gunnar Sønsteby
Other resistance movements and figures
chief Mkwawa of Uhehe
chief Kimweri of Tanganyika
Kinjekitile Ng'wale
Michel Aoun
Hassan Nasrallah
Buenaventura Durruti
Corazon Aquino
Giuseppe Garibaldi
Geronimo
Ho Chi Minh
Kim Ku
Juan Peron
Lembitu
Louis Joseph Papineau
Nestor Makhno
Maria Nikiforova
Osceola
Red Cloud
Robin Hood
Juba
Rummu Jüri
Osman Batur
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
Sant Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale
Ülo Voitka
Pancho Villa
Emiliano Zapata
Ernesto Guevara
Abbas al-Musawi
Russel Means
Leonard Peltier
John Brown
Osama bin Laden
Cochise
William Quantrill
Crazy Horse
Tecumseh
Fidel Castro
Maqbool Bhat
Vladimir Lenin
Leon Trotsky
Sitting Bull
Mangas Colorado
Alfred the Great
El Cid
Lawrence of Arabia
Charlemagne Peralte
Boudica
King Arthur
Spartacus
Charles Martel
Nat Turner
Toussaint Louverture
Jean-Jacques Dessalines
Sans-Souci
Nelson Mandela
William Wallace
Robert the Bruce
Little Turtle
Mahatma Gandhi
Marvin Heemeyer
Republic of Rose Island
Blocking of Telegram in Russia
List of whistleblowers
See also
Anti-war
Anti-capitalism
Anti-communism
Anti-fascism
Anti-imperialism
Asymmetric warfare
People's war
Civil resistance
Civil rights movement
Collaborationism (and Collaboration), the opposite of resistance
Covert cell
Definitions of terrorism
Defensivism
Fictional resistance movements and groups
Fifth column – clandestine citizen operatives loyal to a foreign government
Guerrilla warfare
Insurgency
Irregular military
List of guerrillas
List of revolutions and rebellions
Nonviolent resistance
Opposition to the Iraq War
Opposition to the Vietnam War
Partisan (military)
Polish Secret State
Protesting
Propaganda
Reagan Doctrine
Rebellion
Resistance Studies Magazine
Riot
Social change
Sniper
Special Activities Division
Special Operations Executive
Unconventional warfare
Citations
General references
Gardam, Judith Gail (1993). Non-combatant Immunity as a Norm of International Humanitarian, Martinus Nijhoff. .
Ticehurst, Rupert. "The Martens Clause and the Laws of Armed Conflict" 30 April 1997, International Review of the Red Cross no. 317, pp. 125–34.
External links