WHO Model List of Essential Medicines

WHO Model List of Essential Medicines
The WHO Model List of Essential Medicines (aka Essential Medicines List or EML), published by the World Health Organization (WHO), contains the medications considered to be most effective and safe to meet the most important needs in a health system. The list is frequently used by countries to help develop their own local lists of essential medicines. , more than 155 countries have created national lists of essential medicines based on the World Health Organization's model list. This includes both developed and developing countries.
The list is divided into core items and complementary items. The core items are deemed to be the most cost-effective options for key health problems and are usable with little additional health care resources. The complementary items either require additional infrastructure such as specially trained health care providers or diagnostic equipment or have a lower cost–benefit ratio. About 25% of items are in the complementary list. Some medications are listed as both core and complementary. While most medications on the list are available as generic products, being under patent does not preclude inclusion.
The first list was published in 1977 and included 208 medications. The WHO updates the list every two years. There are 306 medications in the 14th list in 2005, 410 in the 19th list in 2015, 433 in the 20th list in 2017, 460 in the 21st list in 2019, and 479 in the 22nd list in 2021. Various national lists contain between 334 and 580 medications. 23rd The Essential Medicines List (EML) was updated in July 2023. This list contains 1200 recommendations for 591 drugs and 103 therapeutic equivalents.
A separate list for children up to 12 years of age, known as the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines for Children (EMLc), was created in 2007 and is in its 9th edition. It was created to make sure that the needs of children were systematically considered such as availability of proper formulations. Everything in the children's list is also included in the main list. The list and notes are based on the 19th to 23rd edition of the main list. An α indicates a medicine is on the complementary list. Therapeutic alternatives with similar clinical performance are listed for some medicines and they may be considered for national essential medicines lists. The 9th Essential Medicines List for Children was updated in July 2023.
Anaesthetics, preoperative medicines and medical gases
General anaesthetics and oxygen
Inhalational medicines
Halothane
Isoflurane
Nitrous oxide
Oxygen
Sevoflurane
Injectable medicines
Ketamine
Propofol
Thiopental
Local anaesthetics
Bupivacaine
Lidocaine
Lidocaine/epinephrine (lidocaine + epinephrine)
Complementary:
Ephedrineα
Preoperative medication and sedation for short-term procedures
Atropine
Midazolam
Morphine
Medical gases
Oxygen
Medicines for pain and palliative care
Non-opioids and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory medicines (NSAIMs)
Acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin)
Ibuprofen
Paracetamol (acetaminophen)
Opioid analgesics
Codeine
Fentanyl
Morphine
Complementary:
Methadoneα
Medicines for other common symptoms in palliative care
Amitriptyline
Cyclizine
Dexamethasone
Diazepam
Docusate sodium
Fluoxetine
Haloperidol
Hyoscine butylbromide
Hyoscine hydrobromide
Lactulose
Loperamide
Metoclopramide
Midazolam
Ondansetron
Senna
Antiallergics and medicines used in anaphylaxis
Dexamethasone
Epinephrine (adrenaline)
Hydrocortisone
Loratadine
Prednisolone
Antidotes and other substances used in poisonings
Non-specific
Charcoal, activated
Specific
Acetylcysteine
Atropine
Calcium gluconate
Methylthioninium chloride (methylene blue)
Naloxone
Penicillamine
Prussian blue
Sodium nitrite
Sodium thiosulfate
Complementary:
Deferoxamineα
Dimercaprolα
Fomepizoleα
Sodium calcium edetateα
Succimerα
Medicines for diseases of the nervous system
Antiseizure medicines
Carbamazepine
Diazepam
Lamotrigine
Levetiracetam
Lorazepam
Magnesium sulfate
Midazolam
Phenobarbital
Phenytoin
Valproic acid (sodium valproate)
Complementary:
Ethosuximideα
Levetiracetamα
Valproic acid (sodium valproate)α
Medicines for multiple sclerosis
Complementary:
Cladribineα
Glatiramer acetateα
Rituximabα
Medicines for parkinsonism
Biperiden
Levodopa/carbidopa (levodopa + carbidopa)
Anti-infective medicines
Anthelminthics
Intestinal anthelminthics
Albendazole
Ivermectin
Levamisole
Mebendazole
Niclosamide
Praziquantel
Pyrantel
Antifilarials
Albendazole
Diethylcarbamazine
Ivermectin
Antischistosomals and other antinematode medicines
Praziquantel
Triclabendazole
Complementary:
Oxamniquineα
Cysticidal medicines
Complementary:
Albendazoleα
Mebendazoleα
Praziquantelα
Antibacterials
Access group antibiotics
Amikacin
Amoxicillin
Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid (amoxicillin + clavulanic acid)
Ampicillin
Benzathine benzylpenicillin
Benzylpenicillin
Cefalexin
Cefazolin
Chloramphenicol
Clindamycin
Cloxacillin
Doxycycline
Gentamicin
Metronidazole
Nitrofurantoin
Phenoxymethylpenicillin (penicillin V)
Procaine benzylpenicillin
Spectinomycin
Sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim (sulfamethoxazole + trimethoprim)
Trimethoprim
Watch group antibiotics
Azithromycin
Cefixime
Cefotaxime
Ceftriaxone
Cefuroxime
Ciprofloxacin
Clarithromycin
Piperacillin/tazobactam (piperacillin + tazobactam)
Vancomycin
Complementary:
Ceftazidimeα
Meropenemα
Vancomycinα
Reserve group antibiotics
Reserve antibiotics are last-resort antibiotics. The EML antibiotic book was published in 2022.
Complementary:
Cefiderocolα
Ceftazidime/avibactam (ceftazidime + avibactam)α
Ceftolozane/tazobactam (ceftolozane + tazobactam)α
Colistinα
Fosfomycinα
Linezolidα
Meropenem/vaborbactam (meropenem + vaborbactam)α
Plazomicinα
Polymyxin Bα
Antileprosy medicines
Clofazimine
Dapsone
Rifampicin
Antituberculosis medicines
Ethambutol
Ethambutol/isoniazid/pyrazinamide/rifampicin (ethambutol + isoniazid + pyrazinamide + rifampicin)
Ethambutol/isoniazid/rifampicin (ethambutol + isoniazid + rifampicin)
Ethionamide
Isoniazid
Isoniazid/pyrazinamide/rifampicin (isoniazid + pyrazinamide + rifampicin)
Isoniazid/rifampicin (isoniazid + rifampicin)
Isoniazid/rifapentine (isoniazid + rifapentine)
Moxifloxacin
Pyrazinamide
Rifabutin
Rifampicin
Rifapentine
Complementary:
Amikacinα
Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid (amoxicillin + clavulanic acid)α
Bedaquilineα
Clofazimineα
Cycloserineα
Delamanidα
Ethionamideα
Levofloxacinα
Linezolidα
Meropenemα
Moxifloxacinα
P-aminosalicylic acid (p-aminosalicylate sodium)α
Pretomanidα
Streptomycinα
Antifungal medicines
Amphotericin B
Clotrimazole
Fluconazole
Flucytosine
Griseofulvin
Itraconazole
Nystatin
Voriconazole
Complementary:
Micafunginα
Potassium iodideα
Antiviral medicines
Antiherpes medicines
Aciclovir
Antiretrovirals
Nucleoside/nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors
Abacavir
Lamivudine
Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate
Zidovudine
Non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors
Efavirenz
Nevirapine
Protease inhibitors
Atazanavir/ritonavir (atazanavir + ritonavir)
Darunavir
Lopinavir/ritonavir (lopinavir + ritonavir)
Ritonavir
Integrase inhibitors
Dolutegravir
Raltegravir
Fixed-dose combinations of antiretroviral medicines
Abacavir/lamivudine (abacavir + lamivudine)
Dolutegravir/lamivudine/tenofovir (dolutegravir + lamivudine + tenofovir)
Efavirenz/emtricitabine/tenofovir
Efavirenz/lamivudine/tenofovir (efavirenz + lamivudine + tenofovir)
Emtricitabine/tenofovir (emtricitabine + tenofovir)
Lamivudine/zidovudine (lamivudine + zidovudine)
Medicines for prevention of HIV-related opportunistic infections
Isoniazid/pyridoxine/sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim (isoniazid + pyridoxine + sulfamethoxazole + trimethoprim)
Other antivirals
Ribavirin
Valganciclovir
Complementary:
Oseltamivirα
Valganciclovirα
Antihepatitis medicines
Medicines for hepatitis B
Nucleoside/Nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors
Entecavir
Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate
Medicines for hepatitis C
Pangenotypic direct-acting antiviral combinations
Daclatasvir
Daclatasvir/sofosbuvir (daclatasvir + sofosbuvir)
Glecaprevir/pibrentasvir (glecaprevir + pibrentasvir)
Ravidasvir
Sofosbuvir
Sofosbuvir/velpatasvir (sofosbuvir + velpatasvir)
Non-pangenotypic direct-acting antiviral combinations
Ledipasvir/sofosbuvir (ledipasvir + sofosbuvir)
Other antivirals for hepatitis C
Ribavirin
Antiprotozoal medicines
Antiamoebic and antigiardiasis medicines
Diloxanide
Metronidazole
Antileishmaniasis medicines
Amphotericin B
Meglumine antimoniate
Miltefosine
Paromomycin
Sodium stibogluconate
Antimalarial medicines
For curative treatment
Amodiaquine
Artemether
Artemether/lumefantrine (artemether + lumefantrine)
Artesunate
Artesunate/amodiaquine (artesunate + amodiaquine)
Artesunate/mefloquine (artesunate + mefloquine)
Artesunate/pyronaridine tetraphosphate (artesunate + pyronaridine tetraphosphate)
Chloroquine
Dihydroartemisinin/piperaquine phosphate (dihydroartemisinin + piperaquine phosphate)
Doxycycline
Mefloquine
Primaquine
Quinine
Sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine (sulfadoxine + pyrimethamine)
For chemoprevention
Amodiaquine + sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine (Co-packaged)
Chloroquine
Doxycycline
Mefloquine
Proguanil
Sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine (sulfadoxine + pyrimethamine)
Antipneumocystosis and antitoxoplasmosis medicines
Pyrimethamine
Sulfadiazine
Sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim (sulfamethoxazole + trimethoprim)
Complementary:
Pentamidineα
Antitrypanosomal medicines
African trypanosomiasis
Fexinidazole
Medicines for the treatment of 1st stage African trypanosomiasis
Pentamidine
Suramin sodium
Medicines for the treatment of 2nd stage African trypanosomiasis
Eflornithine
Melarsoprol
Nifurtimox
Complementary:
Melarsoprolα
American trypanosomiasis
Benznidazole
Nifurtimox
Medicines for ectoparasitic infections
Ivermectin
Medicines for Ebola virus disease
Ansuvimab
Atoltivimab/maftivimab/odesivimab (atoltivimab + maftivimab + odesivimab)
Medicines for COVID-19
No listings in this section.
Antimigraine medicines
For treatment of acute attack
Acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin)
Ibuprofen
Paracetamol (acetaminophen)
Sumatriptan
For prophylaxis
Propranolol
Immunomodulators and antineoplastics
Immunomodulators for non-malignant disease
Complementary:
Adalimumabα
Azathioprineα
Ciclosporinα
Tacrolimusα
Antineoplastics and supportive medicines
Cytotoxic medicines
Complementary:
Arsenic trioxideα
Asparaginaseα
Bendamustineα
Bleomycinα
Calcium folinate (leucovorin calcium)α
Capecitabineα
Carboplatinα
Chlorambucilα
Cisplatinα
Cyclophosphamideα
Cytarabineα
Dacarbazineα
Dactinomycinα
Daunorubicinα
Docetaxelα
Doxorubicinα
Doxorubicin (as pegylated liposomal)α
Etoposideα
Fludarabineα
Fluorouracilα
Gemcitabineα
Hydroxycarbamide (hydroxyurea)α
Ifosfamideα
Irinotecanα
Melphalanα
Mercaptopurineα
Methotrexateα
Oxaliplatinα
Paclitaxelα
Pegaspargaseα
Procarbazineα
Realgar Indigo naturalis formulationα
Tioguanineα
Vinblastineα
Vincristineα
Vinorelbineα
Targeted therapies
Complementary:
All-trans retinoic acid (tretinoin) (ATRA)α
Bortezomibα
Dasatinibα
Erlotinibα
Everolimusα
Ibrutinibα
Imatinibα
Nilotinibα
Rituximabα
Trastuzumabα
Immunomodulators
Complementary:
Filgrastimα
Lenalidomideα
Nivolumabα
Pegfilgrastimα
Thalidomideα
Hormones and antihormones
Complementary:
Abirateroneα
Anastrozoleα
Bicalutamideα
Dexamethasoneα
Hydrocortisoneα
Leuprorelinα
Methylprednisoloneα
Prednisoloneα
Tamoxifenα
Supportive medicines
Complementary:
Allopurinolα
Mesnaα
Rasburicaseα
Zoledronic acidα
Therapeutic foods
Ready-to-use therapeutic food
Medicines affecting the blood
Antianaemia medicines
Ferrous salt
Ferrous salt/folic acid (ferrous salt + folic acid)
Folic acid
Hydroxocobalamin
Complementary:
Erythropoiesis-stimulating agentsα
Medicines affecting coagulation
Dabigatran
Enoxaparin
Heparin sodium
Phytomenadione
Protamine sulfate
Tranexamic acid
Warfarin
Complementary:
Desmopressinα
Heparin sodiumα
Protamine sulfateα
Warfarinα
Other medicines for haemoglobinopathies
Deferasirox
Complementary:
Deferoxamineα
Hydroxycarbamide (hydroxyurea)α
Blood products of human origin and plasma substitutes
Blood and blood components
Cryoprecipitate, pathogen-reduced
Fresh frozen plasma
Platelets
Red blood cells
Whole blood
Plasma-derived medicines
Human immunoglobulins
Rho(D) immune globulin (anti-D immunoglobulin)
Anti-rabies immunoglobulin
Anti-tetanus immunoglobulin
Complementary:
Normal immunoglobulinα
Blood coagulation factors
Complementary:
Coagulation factor VIIIα
Coagulation factor IXα
Plasma substitutes
Dextran 70
Cardiovascular medicines
Antianginal medicines
Bisoprolol
Glyceryl trinitrate
Isosorbide dinitrate
Verapamil
Antiarrhythmic medicines
Bisoprolol
Digoxin
Epinephrine (adrenaline)
Lidocaine
Verapamil
Complementary:
Amiodaroneα
Antihypertensive medicines
Amlodipine
Bisoprolol
Enalapril
Hydralazine
Hydrochlorothiazide
Lisinopril/amlodipine (lisinopril + amlodipine)
Lisinopril/hydrochlorothiazide (lisinopril + hydrochlorothiazide)
Losartan
Methyldopa
Telmisartan/amlodipine (telmisartan + amlodipine)
Telmisartan/hydrochlorothiazide (telmisartan + hydrochlorothiazide)
Complementary:
Sodium nitroprussideα
Medicines used in heart failure
Bisoprolol
Digoxin
Enalapril
Furosemide
Hydrochlorothiazide
Losartan
Spironolactone
Complementary:
Digoxinα
Dopamineα
Antithrombotic medicines
Anti-platelet medicines
Acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin)
Clopidogrel
Thrombolytic medicines
Complementary:
Alteplaseα
Streptokinaseα
Lipid-lowering agents
Simvastatin
Fixed-dose combinations for prevention of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease
Acetylsalicylic acid/atorvastatin/ramipril (acetylsalicylic acid + atorvastatin + ramipril)
Acetylsalicylic acid/simvastatin/ramipril/atenolol/hydrochlorothiazide (acetylsalicylic acid + simvastatin + ramipril + atenolol + hydrochlorothiazide)
Atorvastatin/perindopril/amlodipine (atorvastatin + perindopril + amlodipine)
Dermatological medicines (topical)
Antifungal medicines
Miconazole
Selenium sulfide
Sodium thiosulfate
Terbinafine
Anti-infective medicines
Mupirocin
Potassium permanganate
Silver sulfadiazine
Anti-inflammatory and antipruritic medicines
Betamethasone
Calamine
Hydrocortisone
Medicines affecting skin differentiation and proliferation
Benzoyl peroxide
Calcipotriol
Coal tar
Fluorouracil
Podophyllum resin
Salicylic acid
Urea
Complementary:
Methotrexateα
Scabicides and pediculicides
Benzyl benzoate
Permethrin
Diagnostic agents
Ophthalmic medicines
Fluorescein
Tropicamide
Radiocontrast media
Amidotrizoate
Barium sulfate
Iohexol
Complementary:
Barium sulfateα
Meglumine iotroxateα
Antiseptics and disinfectants
Antiseptics
Chlorhexidine
Ethanol
Povidone iodine
Disinfectants
Alcohol based hand rub
Chlorine base compound
Chloroxylenol
Glutaral
Diuretics
Amiloride
Furosemide
Hydrochlorothiazide
Mannitol
Spironolactone
Complementary:
Hydrochlorothiazideα
Mannitolα
Spironolactoneα
Gastrointestinal medicines
Complementary:
Pancreatic enzymesα
Antiulcer medicines
Omeprazole
Ranitidine
Antiemetic medicines
Dexamethasone
Metoclopramide
Ondansetron
Complementary:
Aprepitantα
Anti-inflammatory medicines
Sulfasalazine
Complementary:
Hydrocortisoneα
Prednisoloneα
Laxatives
Senna
Medicines used in diarrhoea
Oral rehydration salts + zinc sulfate (Co-packaged)
Oral rehydration
Oral rehydration salts
Medicines for diarrhoea
Zinc sulfate
Medicines for endocrine disorders
Adrenal hormones and synthetic substitutes
Fludrocortisone
Hydrocortisone
Androgens
Complementary:
Testosteroneα
Estrogens
No listings in this section.
Progestogens
Medroxyprogesterone acetate
Medicines for diabetes
Insulins
Insulin injection (soluble)
Intermediate-acting insulin
Long-acting insulin analogues
Oral hypoglycaemic agents
Empagliflozin
Gliclazide
Metformin
Complementary:
Metforminα
Medicines for hypoglycaemia
Glucagon
Complementary:
Diazoxideα
Thyroid hormones and antithyroid medicines
Levothyroxine
Potassium iodide
Methimazole
Propylthiouracil
Complementary:
Lugol's solutionα
Methimazoleα
Potassium iodideα
Propylthiouracilα
Medicines for disorders of the pituitary hormone system
Cabergoline
Complementary:
Octreotideα
Immunologicals
Diagnostic agents
Tuberculin, purified protein derivative (PPD)
Sera, immunoglobulins and monoclonal antibodies
Anti-rabies virus monoclonal antibodies
Antivenom immunoglobulin
Diphtheria antitoxin
Equine rabies immunoglobulin
Vaccines
Recommendations for all
BCG vaccine
Diphtheria vaccine
Haemophilus influenzae type b vaccine
Hepatitis B vaccine
Human papilloma virus (HPV) vaccine
Measles vaccine
Pertussis vaccine
Pneumococcal vaccine
Poliomyelitis vaccine
Rotavirus vaccine
Rubella vaccine
Tetanus vaccine
Recommendations for certain regions
Japanese encephalitis vaccine
Tick-borne encephalitis vaccine
Yellow fever vaccine
Recommendations for some high-risk populations
Cholera vaccine
Dengue vaccine
Hepatitis A vaccine
Meningococcal meningitis vaccine
Rabies vaccine
Typhoid vaccine
Recommendations for immunization programmes with certain characteristics
Influenza vaccine (seasonal)
Mumps vaccine
Varicella vaccine
Muscle relaxants (peripherally-acting) and cholinesterase inhibitors
Atracurium
Neostigmine
Suxamethonium
Vecuronium
Complementary:
Pyridostigmineα
Vecuroniumα
Ophthalmological preparations
Anti-infective agents
Aciclovir
Azithromycin
Erythromycin
Gentamicin
Natamycin
Ofloxacin
Tetracycline
Anti-inflammatory agents
Prednisolone
Local anesthetics
Tetracaine
Miotics and antiglaucoma medicines
Acetazolamide
Latanoprost
Pilocarpine
Timolol
Mydriatics
Atropine
Complementary:
Epinephrine (adrenaline)α
Anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) preparations
Complementary:
Bevacizumabα
Medicines for reproductive health and perinatal care
Contraceptives
Oral hormonal contraceptives
Ethinylestradiol/levonorgestrel (ethinylestradiol + levonorgestrel)
Ethinylestradiol/norethisterone (ethinylestradiol + norethisterone)
Levonorgestrel
Ulipristal
Injectable hormonal contraceptives
Estradiol cypionate/medroxyprogesterone acetate (estradiol cypionate + medroxyprogesterone acetate)
Medroxyprogesterone acetate
Norethisterone enantate
Intrauterine devices
Copper-containing device
Levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system
Barrier methods
Condoms
Diaphragms
Implantable contraceptives
Etonogestrel-releasing implant
Levonorgestrel-releasing implant
Intravaginal contraceptives
Ethinylestradiol/etonogestrel (ethinylestradiol + etonogestrel)
Progesterone vaginal ring
Ovulation inducers
Complementary:
Clomifeneα
Letrozoleα
Uterotonics
Carbetocin
Ergometrine
Mifepristone + misoprostol (Co-packaged)
Misoprostol
Oxytocin
Antioxytocics (tocolytics)
Nifedipine
Other medicines administered to the mother
Dexamethasone
Multiple micronutrient supplement
Tranexamic acid
Medicines administered to the neonate
Caffeine citrate
Chlorhexidine
Complementary:
Ibuprofenα
Prostaglandin E1α
Surfactantα
Peritoneal dialysis solution
Complementary:
Intraperitoneal dialysis solution (of appropriate composition)α
Medicines for mental and behavioural disorders
Medicines used in psychotic disorders
Fluphenazine
Haloperidol
Olanzapine
Paliperidone
Risperidone
Complementary:
Clozapineα
Medicines used in mood disorders
Medicines used in depressive disorders
Amitriptyline
Fluoxetine
Medicines used in bipolar disorders
Carbamazepine
Lithium carbonate
Quetiapine
Valproic acid (sodium valproate)
Medicines for anxiety disorders
Diazepam
Fluoxetine
Medicines used for obsessive compulsive disorders
Clomipramine
Fluoxetine
Medicines for disorders due to psychoactive substance use
Medicines for alcohol use disorders
Acamprosate calcium
Naltrexone
Medicines for nicotine use disorders
Bupropion
Nicotine replacement therapy (NRT)
Varenicline
Complementary:
Methadoneα
Medicines acting on the respiratory tract
Antiasthmatic medicines and medicines for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
Budesonide
Budesonide/formoterol (budesonide + formoterol)
Epinephrine (adrenaline)
Ipratropium bromide
Salbutamol
Tiotropium
Solutions correcting water, electrolyte and acid-base disturbances
Oral
Oral rehydration salts
Potassium chloride
Parenteral
Glucose
Glucose with sodium chloride
Potassium chloride
Sodium chloride
Sodium hydrogen carbonate
Sodium lactate, compound solution (Ringer's lactate solution)
Miscellaneous
Water for injection
Vitamins and minerals
Ascorbic acid
Calcium
Colecalciferol
Ergocalciferol
Iodine
Multiple micronutrient powder
Nicotinamide
Pyridoxine
Retinol
Riboflavin
Thiamine
Complementary:
Calcium gluconateα
Ear, nose and throat medicines
Acetic acid
Budesonide
Ciprofloxacin
Xylometazoline
Medicines for diseases of joints
Medicines used to treat gout
Allopurinol
Disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs)
Chloroquine
Complementary:
Azathioprineα
Hydroxychloroquineα
Methotrexateα
Penicillamineα
Sulfasalazineα
Medicines for juvenile joint diseases
Complementary:
Acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin)
Adalimumabα
Methotrexateα
Triamcinolone hexacetonideα
Dental medicines and preparations
Fluoride
Glass ionomer cement
Resin-based composite (low-viscosity)
Resin-based composite (high-viscosity)
Silver diamine fluoride
Notes
An α indicates the medicine is on the complementary list for which specialized diagnostic or monitoring or training is needed. An item may also be listed as complementary on the basis of higher costs or a less attractive cost-benefit ratio.
References
Further reading
External links
Drug-related lists
Publications established in 1977
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