Hanbok

Hanbok
The is a traditional clothing of the Korean people. The term is primarily used by South Koreans; North Koreans refer to the clothes as .
Koreans have worn since antiquity. The earliest visual depictions of can be traced back to the Three Kingdoms of Korea period (57 BC to 668 AD) with roots in the Proto-Koreanic people of what is now northern Korea and Manchuria. The clothes are also depicted on tomb murals from the Goguryeo period (4th to 6th century AD), with the basic structure of the established since at latest this period. The ancient consisted of a (top), (pants), (skirt), and the (coat). The basic structure of was designed to facilitate the ease of movement and integrated many motifs of Mu-ism.
For thousands of years, the hanbok most people wore was pure white with no ornamentation. More ornate was typically reserved for special occasions such as weddings. For some periods, commoners were even forbidden from wearing colorful regularly. However, in other periods, commoners were not allowed to wear white, including during the Japanese occupation of Korea.
Modern are typically patterned after the worn in the Joseon dynasty, especially those worn by the nobility and royalty. There is some regional variation in design between South Korea, North Korea, and Koreans in China as a result of the relative isolation from each other that these groups experienced in the late 20th century. Despite this, the designs have somewhat converged again since the 1990s, especially due to increased cultural and economic exchange after the Chinese economic reform. Nowadays, contemporary Koreans wear for formal or semi-formal occasions and events such as weddings, festivals, celebrations, and ceremonies. In 1996, the South Korean Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism established " Day" to encourage South Korean citizens to wear the .
Etymology
The term appeared relatively recently and is connected with the historical context in which it appeared. The term emerged in the late Joseon period, when the Empire of Japan and other western countries competed to place Korea under their own sphere of influence. The first known use of the term is in an 1881 document from the late Joseon period entitled . There, is used to distinguish Korean clothing from Japanese- and Western-style clothing. was again used in an 1895 document to distinguish between Korean and Japanese clothing. These two usages predate the Korean Empire's popularization of the use of the hanja character to describe the Korean people.
Beginning in 1900, Korean newspapers used the hanja character in words that described Korean clothing, such as and . was used in a 1905 newspaper article to describe the clothing of one of the righteous armies. Other words with similar meanings, such as and , were concurrently used.
Since the division of Korea, South Korea has preferred the term while North Korea has preferred the term . This reflects the general trend of South Korea's preference for the term and North Korea's for .
Components and design
For women, traditional consist of the (top) and the (skirt). The ensemble is often known as . For men, consist of and loose fitting (trousers).
There are also a variety of vests, jackets and coats on top of this ensemble. For women, there are Jangsam, Dansam, Wonsam, and more. For men, some examples are Danryeong-ui, Joong-chimak, Sochang-ui, Daechang-ui, etc.
Jeogori
The is the basic upper garment of the , worn by both men and women. It covers the arms and upper part of the wearer's body.
There are various styles and types of varying in fabric, sewing technique, and shape. The basic form of a consists of gil, git, dongjeong, goreum and sleeves. Gil is the large section of the garment on both front and back sides, and git is a band of fabric that trims the collar. Dongjeong is a removable white collar placed over the end of the git and is generally squared off. The goreum are fabric-strings that tie the . Women's may have kkeutdong, a different colored cuff placed at the end of the sleeves. Contemporary are presently designed with various lengths.
Goreum
Goreum refers to the strings that fasten clothes together.
Traditionally, there are many types of goreum. Fabric goreum were potentially used since Gojoseon. They were originally practical but often decorative. Silla had regulations against types of Dae (belts) and decorative goreum for each Golpoom. Southern parts of Korea, including Silla, had a colorful goreum on the front of the neck, which influenced Yayoi culture. Parts of Goguryeo style had a fabric goreum loop around the waist with a decorative ribbon to the side like a belt. Generally, thin and short ones were used on the inside and more decorative, colourful ones were used on the outside. Since the early form of the was usually wrapped across the front, the outside goreum was placed on the side of the wearer, below the armpit. Starting in Joseon dynasty, the goreum slowly moved to the front of the . In the 20th century, the goreum became the commonly known long and wide decorative ribbons on the front of the and was coined the Ot-goreum.
Danchu
Danchu (buttons) can also be used as an alternative to Goreum.
There are many types of danchu. One example is the Maedeup-danchu which were often used to keep symmetrical collars together in the front and used for practical uses on military uniforms and court uniforms. They have long horizontal lines on either side like Manchurian buttons or looked like a ball and lasso. Magoja-danchu are often big decorative metal, gems or stones buttons usually on Jokki (vest).
Chima
Chima refers to "skirt", and is also called sang or gun in hanja. The underskirt, or petticoat layer, is called sokchima. Chima-malgi is the waistband that trims the top of the chima. Chima were typically made from rectangular panels that were pleated or gathered into the chima-malgi (waistband). This waistband also had goreum strings for fastening the skirt around the body. From the Goguryeo to Joseon periods, chima have been striped, pleated, patchworked, and gored.
Sokchima was largely made in a traditional way until the early 20th century when shoulder straps were added, later developing into a sleeveless bodice or "reformed" petticoat called Eo-Kkeh-Heo-ri-Chima. By the mid-20th century, some outer chima also gained a sleeveless bodice, which was then covered by the .
Baji
Baji refers to the bottom part of the men's . It is the formal term for "trousers" in Korean. Compared to western style pants, does not fit tightly. The roomy design is aimed at making the clothing ideal for sitting on the floor and an ethnic style that dates back to the Three kingdoms period. It functions as modern trousers do and the term is commonly used in Korea to refer to every kind of pants.
The baji-malgi is a waistband of the that has a long string of goreum.
can be unlined trousers, leather trousers, silk pants, or cotton pants, depending on style of dress, sewing method, embroidery and so on.
Sokgot
Sokgot is a collective noun for various types of traditional Korean undergarments. They were worn as part of a hanbok before the import of Western-style underwear. Women usually wore several layers of undergarments, the more layers they had the richer they were. Undergarments were considered very important, thus it happened that the quality and material of the underwear was better than that of the visible outer layers.
Deot-ot
Deot-ot refers to a category of outer layers worn on top of the . There are many varieties other than the ones listed here.
Po
Po is a generic term referring to an outer robe or overcoat. There are two general types of po, the Korean type and the Chinese type. The Korean type is a common style from the Three Kingdoms of Korea period, and it is used in the modern day. The Chinese type consist of different types of po from mainland China.
Durumagi is a type of po that was worn for protection against the cold. It has been widely worn as an outer robe over and . It is also called jumagui, juchaui, or juui.
Banbi
Banbi (Chinese: 半臂 bàn bì, literally “half sleeve”) are a type Hanfu that originated from the Tang dynasty. Banbi refers to variety of short sleeved garments worn on top of inner garments, typically the Yuanling pao (Chinese: 圓領袍， “round collar robe”). Numerous outer half-sleeved Banbi can be seen in ancient Tang-era paintings, murals, and statues.
Bigap
A sleeveless outer garment that was derived from Mongolian clothing worn during the Goryeo period.
Baeja and kwaeja
Baeja refers to sleeveless outer garments that are worn on top of inner garments. It can be different lengths, short to long. Kwaeja is interchangeable with baeja, but kwaeja often refers to men's clothing.
Dapho
The dapho is a short-sleeved men's outer garment, often part of military uniform or official uniform.
Jokki
Jokki is a type of vest, while magoja is an outer jacket. The jokki was created around late Joseon dynasty, as Western culture began to affect Korea.
Magoja
Magoja does not have a git, the band of fabric trimming the collar. The magoja for men sometimes has seop (overlapped column on the front) and is longer than women's magoja, with both sides open at the bottom. A magoja can be made of silk and often adorned with danchu which are usually made from amber. In men's magoja, buttons are attached to the right side, as opposed to the left as in women's magoja.
It was introduced to Korea after Heungseon Daewongun, the father of King Gojong, returned from his political exile in Tianjin in 1887. Long sleeved Magoja were derived from the magwae he wore in exile because of the cold climate there. Owing to its warmth and ease of wear, magoja became popular in Korea. It is also called "deot jeogori" (literally "an outer ") or magwae.
Children's hanbok
Traditionally, Kkachi durumagi (literally "a magpie's overcoat") were worn as seolbim (Hangul: 설빔), new clothing and shoes worn on the Korean celebration of Korean New Year, while at present, it is worn as a ceremonial garment for dol, the celebration for a baby's first birthday. It is a children's colorful overcoat. It was worn mostly by young boys. The clothes is also called obangjang durumagi which means "an overcoat of five directions". It was worn over (a jacket) and jokki (a vest), while the wearer could put jeonbok (a long vest) over it. Kkachi durumagi was also worn along with headgear such as bokgeon (a peaked cloth hat), hogeon (peaked cloth hat with a tiger pattern) for young boys or gulle (decorative headgear) for young girls.
Foreign influences in design
The clothing of Korea's rulers and aristocrats after AD 7, was influenced by both foreign and indigenous styles, including significant influences from various Chinese dynasties, resulting in some styles of clothing, such as the from Song dynasty, gwanbok worn by male officials were generally adopted from and/or influenced by the court clothing system of the Tang, Song, and Ming dynasties, and Court clothing of women in the court and women of royalty were adapted from the clothing style of Tang and Ming dynasties, the cheolik from the Mongol clothing and bestowed from the Ming court, and the magoja from Manchu clothing.
The cultural exchange was also bilateral and Goryeo had cultural influence on some clothing of Yuan dynasty worn by the upper class (i.e. the clothing worn by Mongol royal women's clothing and in the Yuan imperial court). Commoners were less influenced by these foreign fashion trends, and mainly wore a style of indigenous clothing distinct from that of the upper classes.
Design and social position
The choice of can also signal social position. Bright colors, for example, were generally worn by children and girls, and muted hues by middle aged men and women. Unmarried women often wore yellow and red chima while matrons wore green and red, and women with sons donned navy. The upper classes wore a variety of colours. Contrastingly, commoners were required to wear white, but dressed in shades of pale pink, light green, gray and charcoal on special occasions.
The material of the also signaled status. The upper classes dressed in of closely woven ramie cloth or other high grade lightweight materials in warmer months and of plain and patterned silks throughout the remainder of the year. Commoners, in contrast, were restricted to cotton. Patterns were embroidered on to represent the wishes of the wearer. Peonies on a wedding dress, represented a wish for honor and wealth. Lotus flowers symbolized a hope for nobility, and bats and pomegranates showed the desire for children. Dragons, phoenixes, cranes and tigers were only for royalty and high-ranking officials.
In addition, special variants were made for officials and shamans.
History
Three Kingdoms of Korea
The earliest visual depictions of can be traced back to the Three Kingdoms of Korea period (57 BC to 668 AD). The origin of ancient can be found in the ancient clothing of what is now today's Northern Korea and Manchuria. Some hypothesize that the of antiquity can trace its origin to nomadic clothing of the Eurasian Steppes (Scythian clothing), spanning across Siberia from western Asia to Northeast Asia, interconnected by the Steppe Route. Reflecting its nomadic origins in western and northern Asia, ancient shared structural similarities with hobok type clothing of the nomadic cultures in East Asia, designed to facilitate horse-riding and ease of movement, such as the use of trousers and jacket for male clothing and the use of left closure in its jacket. However, although the ancient reflects some similarity with the Scythian clothing, numerous differences between the two types of clothing have also been observed which led associated professor Youngsoo Chang from the Department of Cultural Properties in Gyeongju University in 2020 to suggest that the theory about Scythian clothing being the archetype of the ancient , a theory accepted as common knowledge in Korean academia, having to be revised. It is also important to note that the Goguryeo tomb murals were primarily painted in two geographical regions: Ji'an and Pyeongyang. The former is the second capital of Goguryeo while the latter is the third capital of Goguryeo from the mid-fourth to the mid-seventh centuries. While the mural paintings found in regions Ji'an typically shows the characteristics of Goguryeo people in terms of their customs and morals; those from the regions of Pyeongyang typically show the cultural influences of the Han dynasty as the Han dynasty had governed this geographical region for approximately 400 years, including Chinese-style clothing.
Goguryeo
Early forms of can be seen in the art of Goguryeo tomb murals in the same period from the 4th to 6th century AD. Trousers, long jackets and twii (a sash-like belt) were worn by both men and women. Women wore skirts on top of their trousers. These basic structural and features of remain relatively unchanged to this day, except for the length and the ways the opening was closed as over the years. The opening was initially closed at the center front of the clothing, similar to a kaftan or closed to the left, before closing to the right side eventually became mainstream. Since the sixth century AD, the closing of the at the right became a standard practice. The length of the female also varied. For example, women's seen in Goguryeo paintings of the late 5th century AD are depicted shorter in length than the man's .
In early Goguryeo, the jackets were hip-length Kaftan tunics belted at the waist, and the po overcoats were full body-length Kaftan robes also belted at the waist. The pants were roomy, bearing close similarities to the pants found at Xiongnu burial site of Noin Ula. Some Goguryeo aristocrats wore roomy pants with tighter bindings at the ankle than others, which may have been status symbols along with length, cloth material, and colour. Women sometimes wore pants or otherwise wore pleated skirts. They sometimes wore pants underneath their skirts.
Two types of hwa (shoes) were used, one covering only the foot, and the other covering up to the lower knee.
During this period, conical hat and its similar variants, sometimes adorned with long bird feathers, were worn as headgear. Bird feather ornaments, and bird and tree motifs of golden crowns, are thought to be symbolic connections to the sky.
The Goguryeo period royal attire was known as ochaebok. The precursor of what is now known as the durumagi was introduced during the Goguryeo period from a long coat worn by Northern Chinese. Originally the durumagi was worn by the upper class of Goguryeo for various ceremonies and rituals. It was later modified and worn by the general population. In Muyong-chong murals of Goguryeo, there are male dancers in short with long flexible sleeves and female dancers wearing long coats with long flexible sleeves, all performing a dance. This type of long sleeves, similar to the Chinese water-sleeves, was passed down to Goryeo, Joseon, and present day Korean court dances and mu-ism rituals.
North-South States period
In the North-South States Period (698–926 AD), Silla and Balhae adopted dallyeong, a circular-collar robe from the Tang dynasty of China. In Silla, the dallyeong was introduced by Muyeol of Silla in the second year of queen Jindeok of Silla. The dallyeong style from China was used as gwanbok, a formal attire for government officials, grooms, and dragon robe, a formal attire for royalty until the end of Joseon.
United Silla
The Silla Kingdom unified the Three Kingdoms in 668 AD. The Unified Silla (668-935 AD) was the golden age of Korea. In Unified Silla, various silks, linens, and fashions were imported from Tang China and Persia. In the process, the latest fashions trend of Luoyang which included Chinese dress styles, the second capital of Tang, were also introduced to Korea, where the Korean silhouette became similar to the Western Empire silhouette. King Muyeol of Silla personally travelled to the Tang dynasty to voluntarily request for clothes and belts; it is however difficult to determine which specific form and type of clothing was bestowed although Silla requested the bokdu (幞頭; a form of hempen hood during this period), danryunpo (團領袍; round collar gown), banbi, baedang (䘯襠), and pyo (褾). Based on archaeological findings, it is assumed that the clothing which was brought back during Queen Jindeok rule are danryunpo and bokdu. The bokdu also become part of the official dress code of royal aristocrats, court musicians, servants, and slaves during the reign of Queen Jindeok; it continued to be used throughout the Goryeo dynasty. In 664 AD, Munmu of Silla decreed that the costume of the queen should resemble the costume of the Tang dynasty; and thus, women's costume also accepted the costume culture of the Tang dynasty. Women also sought to imitate the clothing of the Tang dynasty through the adoption of shoulder straps attached to their skirts and wore the skirts over the . The influence of the Tang dynasty during this time was significant and the Tang court dress regulations were adopted in the Silla court. The clothing of the Tang dynasty introduced in Silla made the clothing attire of Silla Court extravagant, and due to the extravagance, King Heundeog enforced clothing prohibition during the year 834 AD. The general public of Silla continued to wear their own traditional clothing.
Balhae
Balhae (698–926 AD) imported many various kinds of silk and cotton cloth from the Tang and diverse items from Japan including silk products and ramie. In exchange, Balhae would export fur and leather. The clothing culture of Balhae was heterogeneous; it was not only influenced by the Tang dynasty but also had inherited Goguryeo and indigenous Mohe people elements. Early Balhae officials wore clothing appeared to continue the Three Kingdoms period tradition. However, after Mun of Balhae, Balhae started to incorporate elements from the Tang dynasty, which include the putou and round collared gown for its official attire. Male everyday clothing was similar to Gogoryeo clothing in terms of its headgear; i.e. hemp or conical hats with bird feathers; they also wore leather shoes and belts. Women clothing appears to have adopted clothing from Tang dynasty (i.e. upper garment with long sleeves which is partially covered by a long skirts and shoes with curled tips to facilitate walking) but also wore the ungyeon (Yunjuan; a silk shawl) which started to appear after the demise of the Tang dynasty. The Ungyeon use is unique to late Balhae period and is distinctive from the shawl which was worn by the women of the Tang dynasty. People from Balhae also wore fish-skin skirts and sea leopard leather top to keep warm.
Goryeo dynasty
The Chinese style imported in the Northern-South period, however, did not affect still used by the commoners, In the following Goryeo period, use of the Chinese Tang dynasty style of wearing the skirt over the top started to fade, and the wearing of top over skirt was revived in the aristocrat class. The way of wearing the top under the chima (Tang-style influenced fashion) did not disappear in Goryeo and continued to coexist with the indigenous style of wearing of the top over skirt throughout the entire Goryeo dynasty; this Tang-style influenced fashion continued to be worn until the early Joseon dynasty and only disappeared in the middle and late Joseon periods.
In Goryeo Buddhist paintings, the clothing and headwear of royalty and nobles typically follows the clothing system of the Song dynasty. The Goryeo painting "Water-Moon Avalokiteshvara", for example, is a Buddhist painting which was derived from both Chinese and Central Asian pictorial references. On the other hand, the Chinese clothing worn in Yuan dynasty rarely appeared in paintings of Goryeo. The Song dynasty system was later exclusively used by Goryeo Kings and Goryeo government officials after the period when Goryeo was under Mongol rule (1270 –1356). However, even in the Buddhist painting of the late Goryeo, such as the Royal Palace Mandala, the courting ladies are depicted in Tang and Song dynasty-style court dress clothing, which is a different style from the Mongol Yuan court.
went through significant changes under Mongol rule. After the Goryeo dynasty signed a peace treaty with the Mongol Empire in the 13th century, Mongolian princesses who married into the Korean royal house brought with them Mongolian fashion which began to prevail in both formal and private life. A total of seven women from the Yuan imperial family were married to the kings of Goryeo. The Yuan dynasty princess followed the Mongol lifestyle who was instructed to not abandon the Yuan traditions in regards to clothing and precedents. As a consequence, the clothing of Yuan was worn in the Goryeo court and impacted the clothing worn by the upper-class families who visited the Goryeo court. The Yuan clothing culture which influenced the upper classes and in some extent the general public is called Mongolpung. King Chungryeol, who was political hostage to the Yuan dynasty and pro-Yuan, married the princess of Yuan announcing a royal edict to change into Mongol clothing. After the fall of the Yuan dynasty, only Mongol clothing which were beneficial and suitable to Goryeo culture were maintained while the others disappeared. As a result of the Mongol influence, the chima skirt was shortened, and was hiked up above the waist and tied at the chest with a long, wide ribbon, the g (an extending ribbon tied on the right side) instead of the twii (i.e. the early sash-like belt) and the sleeves were curved slightly.
The cultural exchange was also bilateral and Goryeo had cultural influence on the Mongols court of the Yuan dynasty (1279–1368); one example is the influence of Goryeo women's on the attire of aristocrats, queens, and concubines of the Mongol court which occurred in the capital city, Khanbaliq. However, this influence on the Mongol court clothing mainly occurred in the last years of the Yuan dynasty. Throughout the Yuan dynasty, many people from Goryeo were forced to move into the Yuan; most of them were kongnyo (literally translated as "tribute women"), eunuchs, and war prisoners. About 2000 women from Goryeo were sent to Yuan as kongnyo against their will. Although women from Goryeo were considered very beautiful and good servants, most of them lived in unfortunate situations, marked by hard labour and sexual abuse. However, this fate was not reserved to all of them; and one Goryeo woman became the last Empress of the Yuan dynasty; this was Empress Gi who was elevated as empress in 1365. Most of the cultural influence that Goryeo exerted on the upper class of the Yuan dynasty occurred when Empress Gi came into power as empress and started to recruit many Goryeo women as court maids. The influence of Goryeo on the Mongol court's clothing during the Yuan dynasty was dubbed as Goryeoyang ("the Goryeo style") and was rhapsodized by the Late Yuan dynasty poet, Zhang Xu, in the form of a short banbi (半臂) with square collar (方領). However, so far, the modern interpretation on the appearance of Mongol royal women's clothing influenced by Goryeo is based on authors' suggestions. According to Hyunhee Park: "Like the Mongolian style, it is possible that this Koryŏ style [Koryŏ yang] continued to influence some Chinese in the Ming period after the Ming dynasty replaced the Yuan dynasty, a topic to investigate further."
Joseon dynasty
Neo-Confucianism as the ruling ideology in Joseon was established by the early Joseon dynasty kings; this led to the dictation of clothing style worn by all social classes in Joseon (including the dress of the royals, the court members, the aristocrats and commoners) in all types of occasions, which included wedding and funerals. Social values such as the integrity in men and chastity in women were also reflected in how people would dress. After the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–98) or Imjin War, economic hardship on the peninsula may have influenced the closer-fitting styles that use less fabric.
Women's everyday wear
Early Joseon continued the women's fashion for baggy, loose clothing, such as those seen on the mural from the tomb of Bak Ik (1332–1398); the murals from the tomb of Bak Ik are valuable resources in Korean archaeology and art history for study of life and customs in the early Joseon. The women of the upper classes, the monarchy and the court wore which was inspired by the Ming dynasty clothing while simultaneously maintaining a distinctive Korean-style look; in turn, the women of the lower class generally imitated the upper-class women clothing. During the Joseon dynasty, the chima or skirt adopted fuller volume, while the or blouse took more tightened and shortened form, features quite distinct from the of previous centuries, when chima was rather slim and baggy and long, reaching well below waist level.
In the 15th century, neo-confucianism was very rooted in the social life in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries which lead to the strict regulation of clothing (including fabric use, colours of fabric, motifs, and ornaments) based on status. Neo-confucianism also influence women's wearing of full-pleated chima, longer jeogori, and multiple layers clothing in order to never reveal skin. In the 15th century, women started wearing of full-pleated chima which completely hide the body lines and longer-length jeogori. The 15th century AD chima-jeogori style was undoubtedly a clothing style introduced from China consisting of longer and pleated chima.
However, by the 16th century, the had shortened to the waist and appears to have become closer fitting, although not to the extremes of the bell-shaped silhouette of the 18th and 19th centuries. In the 16th century, women's was long, wide, and covered the waist. The length of women's gradually shortened: it was approximately 65 cm in the 16th century, 55 cm in the 17th century, 45 cm in the 18th century, and 28 cm in the 19th century, with some as short as 14.5 cm. A (허리띠) or (졸잇말) was worn to cover the breasts. The trend of wearing a short with a heoritti was started by the gisaeng and soon spread to women of the upper class. Among women of the common and lowborn classes, a practice emerged in which they revealed their breasts by removing a cloth to make breastfeeding more convenient. As there was an excessive preference for boys in the Joseon dynasty, the deliberate exposure of breast eventually became a cultural practice and an indicator of women's pride and status symbol in having given birth to a son and thus she would "proudly bare her breasts to feed her child, deliberately provoking the envy of other women". During the 17th and 18th centuries the fullness of the skirt was concentrated around the hips, thus forming a silhouette similar to Western bustles. In the 18th century, the became very short to the point that the waistband of the chima was visible; this style was first seen on female entertainers at the Joseon court. The continued to shorten until it reached the modern times -length; i.e. just covering the breasts. The fullness of the skirt reached its extreme around 1800. During the 19th century fullness of the skirt was achieved around the knees and ankles thus giving chima a triangular or an A-shaped silhouette, which is still the preferred style to this day. Many undergarments such as darisokgot, soksokgot, dansokgot, and gojengi were worn underneath to achieve desired forms.
At the end of the 19th century, as mentioned above, Heungseon Daewongun introduced magoja, a Manchu-style jacket, which is often worn over to this day.
A clothes reformation movement aimed at lengthening experienced wide success in the early 20th century and has continued to influence the shaping of modern . Modern are longer, although still halfway between the waistline and the breasts. Heoritti are sometimes exposed for aesthetic reasons.
Men's everyday wear
Men's saw little change compared to women's . The form and design of and hardly changed.
In contrast, men's lengthy outwear, the equivalent of the modern overcoat, underwent a dramatic change. Before the late 19th century, yangban men almost always wore jungchimak when traveling. Jungchimak had very lengthy sleeves, and its lower part had splits on both sides and occasionally on the back so as to create a fluttering effect in motion. To some this was fashionable, but to others, namely stoic scholars, it was nothing but pure vanity. Daewon-gun successfully banned jungchimak as a part of his clothes reformation program and jungchimak eventually disappeared.
Durumagi, which was previously worn underneath jungchimak and was basically a house dress, replaced jungchimak as the formal outwear for yangban men. Durumagi differs from its predecessor in that it has tighter sleeves and does not have splits on either sides or back. It is also slightly shorter in length. Men's has remained relatively the same since the adoption of durumagi. In 1884, the Gapsin Dress Reform took place. Under the 1884's decree of King Gojong, only narrow-sleeves traditional overcoat were permitted; as such, all Koreans, regardless of their social class, their age and their gender started to wear the durumagi or chaksuui or ju-ui (周衣).
Hats was an essential part formal dress and the development of official hats became even more pronounced during this era due to the emphasis of Confucian values. The gat was considered an essential aspect in a man's life; however, to replace the gat in more informal setting, such as their residences, and to feel more comfortable, Joseon-era aristocrats also adopted a lot hats which were introduced from China, such as the banggwan, sabanggwan, dongpagwan, waryonggwan, jeongjagwan. The popularity of those Chinese hats may have partially been due to the promulgation of Confucianism and because they were used by literary figures and scholars in China. In 1895, King Gojong decreed adult Korean men to cut their hair short and western-style clothing were allowed and adopted.
Material and color
The upper classes wore of closely woven ramie cloth or other high-grade lightweight materials in warm weather and of plain and patterned silks the rest of the year. Commoners were restricted by law as well as resources to cotton at best.
The upper classes wore a variety of colors, though bright colors were generally worn by children and girls and subdued colors by middle-aged men and women. Commoners were restricted by law to everyday clothes of white, but for special occasions they wore dull shades of pale pink, light green, gray, and charcoal. The color of chima showed the wearer's social position and statement. For example, a navy color indicated that a woman had son(s). Only the royal family could wear clothing with geumbak-printed patterns (gold leaf) on the bottom of the chima.
Headdresses
Both male and female wore their hair in a long braid until they were married, at which time the hair was knotted; man's hair was knotted in a topknot called sangtu (상투) on the top of the head, and the woman's hair was rolled into a ball shaped form or komeori and was set just above the nape of the neck.
A long pin, or binyeo (비녀), was worn in women's knotted hair as both a fastener and a decoration. The material and length of the binyeo varied according to the wearer's class and status. And also wore a ribbon or daenggi (댕기) to tie and to decorate braided hair. Women wore a jokduri on their wedding day and wore an ayam for protection from the cold. Men wore a gat, which varied according to class and status.
Before the 19th century, women of high social backgrounds and gisaeng wore wigs (gache). Like their Western counterparts, Koreans considered bigger and heavier wigs to be more desirable and aesthetic. Such was the women's frenzy for the gache that in 1788 King Jeongjo banned by royal decree the use of gache, as they were deemed contrary to the Korean Confucian values of reserve and restraint.
Owing to the influence of Neo-Confucianism, it was compulsory for women throughout the entire society to wear headdresses (nae-oe-seugae) to avoid exposing their faces when going outside; those headdresses may include suegaechima (a headdress which looked like a chima but was narrower and shorter in style worn by the upper-class women and later by all classes of people in late Joseon), the jang-ot, and the neoul (which was only permitted for court ladies and noblewomen).
In the 19th century yangban women began to wear jokduri, a small hat that replaced gache. However gache enjoyed vast popularity in kisaeng circles well into the end of the century.
Later development
Today's is the direct descendant of patterned after those worn by the aristocratic women or by the people who were at least from the middle-class in the Joseon period, specifically the late 19th century. had gone through various changes and fashion fads during the five hundred years under the reigns of Joseon kings and eventually evolved to what we now mostly consider typical .
Beginning in the late 19th century, was largely replaced by new Western imports like the Western suit and dress. Today, formal and casual wear are usually based on Western styles. However, is still worn for traditional occasions, and is reserved for celebrations like weddings, the Lunar New Year, annual ancestral rites, or the birth of a child.
Modern usage
has been featured in international haute couture; on the catwalk, in 2015 when Karl Lagerfield dressed Korean models for Chanel, and during Paris Fashion Week in photography by Phil Oh. It has also been worn by international celebrities, such as Britney Spears and Jessica Alba, and athletes, such as tennis player Venus Williams and football player Hines Ward.
is also popular among Asian-American celebrities, such as Lisa Ling and Miss Asia 2014, Eriko Lee Katayama. It has also made appearances on the red carpet, and was worn by Sandra Oh at the SAG Awards, and by Sandra Oh's mother who made fashion history in 2018 for wearing a to the Emmy Awards.
South Korea
The South Korean government has supported the resurgence of interest in by sponsoring fashion designers. Domestically, has become trendy in street fashion and music videos. It has been worn by the prominent K-pop artists like Blackpink and BTS, notably in their music videos for "How You Like That" and "Idol."
In Seoul, a tourist's wearing of makes their visit to the Five Grand Palaces (Changdeokgung, Changgyeonggung, Deoksugung, Gyeongbokgung and Gyeonghuigung) free of charge.
North Korea
is also worn in present-day North Korea where it is known as . The thus highlights the identity of the Korean ethnic and has been more actively promoted under the rule of Kim Jong Un. The is currently typically worn during special occasions, e.g. weddings, and when North Koreans celebrate the 60th, 70th, and 80th birthdays of their parents. It is also mandated that women wear when attending National events, such as Kim Jong Il's birthday (16 February), International women's day (8 March), Kim Il Sung's birthday (15 April), Foundation Day (9 September). White colored is often used as the color white has been the traditionally favored by the Korean people as the symbolism of pure spirit.
The remains the clothing of women, including female university students who are required to wear it as part of their university school uniforms. The uniform of female university students has been a black-and-white since the early to mid 2000s. The can often be found at a length of about 30 cm from the ground for practical purposes in order to facilitate movements and to ensure that women could wear it during their daily workday with ease and comfort; this decrease in skirt length also gives a sense of modern style.
The patterns also have special meanings which are given by the North Koreans. Generally, young people in North Korea like floral prints and bright colours, while the older generations favour simple styles of clothing and solid colours. The in North Korea is sometimes characterized by its use of floral patterns which are often added to the sleeves of the and to the . Azaleas, in particular, are favoured in Yongbyon due to their association with the emotional poem Azaleas (《》) by Kim So-wol. Men occasionally wear .
However, are typically more expensive than ordinary clothing, and renting is available for people who cannot afford to purchase one; some are available for purchase at US$20 while the made in China with South Korean designs and fabrics are more expensive and can cost approximately US$3000. The mid-2010s also saw the increased popularity of children dressing in by their parents.
History
The 1950s and 1960s also saw women from the upper-class wear made out of rayon while a black-and-white consisting of a black long-length and white were used in the 1950s and 1960s where it was generally worn by women; this style can, however, be traced to a typical clothing style used in the Joseon dynasty period. This combination is still representative of the ideal woman and remains the official outfit for women in North Korea to this day. In the 1980s, the became the official attire of women when attending ceremonies while western-style clothing became the everyday, ordinary clothing.
After the mid-1990s due to extreme economic contractions, women could purchase their in private markers and were allowed to choose their desired colours and designs.
In 2001, Lee Young-Hee, a South Korean designer visited Pyeongyang to hold a fashion show at the Pyeongyang Youth Center on 4 and 6 June; and since the 2002, North Korea have held their own fashion show in Pyeongyang every spring. Since 2001, there have been an increase of shops specialized in the customization of in Pyeongyang which was reported by the KBCS.This increase was due to a project implemented by the public service bureau of the Pyeongyang People's Committee to increase tailoring shops. These shops are typically found in large cities, such as Pyeongyang and Gaesong but are rarely found in small cities and villages.
Modern usage by Korean diaspora
China
In China, the is referred as and is recognized as being the traditional ethnic clothing of in China. The is an official term and is recognized as one of the official 55 ethnic minority in China; people from ethnic are not recent immigrants in China but have a long history having lived in China for generations. They share the same ethnic identity as the Korean ethnic in both Northern and Southern Korea but are counted as Chinese citizens by nationality under the Constitution of China. Their traditions are not entirely the same due to their unique historical experiences, geographical location and mixed identities. The term literally correspond to , a non-official deragotory term in South Korea, to refer to , which is the actual legal term in South Korea. In the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture, where most reside, the was mostly worn on special occasions in the past; however, by 2019, they had regained popularity and have become fashionable.
Since the Chinese economic reform of China, there have been more exchanges with both Koreas leading to both the development and changes in chaoxianzu-style in China; some of designs of the chaoxianzu-style have been influenced and inspired by both South Korean and North Korean designs.
The originally preferred to wear white colours as it represented cleanliness, simplicity, and purity; however, since the 20th century, the colours started to become brigher and more vivid and diverse as woven fabrics, such as polyester and nylon sateen, started to be introduced. The "reform and opening up" of China also allowed for more exchanges with both Koreas, which lead to the both development and changes in the of China. Following the tradition, the has an A-line in silhouette to give it the appearance of a mountain as per the tradition, women are the host of the family, and thus, women holding the household need to be stable; the also covers the entire body. The have developed their own style of due to the isolation for about 50 years from both the North and South Koreas. As a result, the styles of in South Korea, North Korea, and China, worn by the Korean ethnics from these three countries have developed separately from each other. For example, Yemi Hanbok by Songok Ryu, an ethnic from the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture, is unique in both style and business model as it can operate in both South Korea and North Korea. In terms of design, Yemi Hanbok designs are based on Chinese-style designs. Over the years, the women's also changed in length for the and and changed in width for the sleeves, and . The and have evolved from straight to curve patterns. The wrinkle arrangement, length, and silhouette of the have also evolved; some of the skirts were sometimes decorated with gold embroidery or gold leaf at the bottom hem. The colours used were also very varied; for example, feminine colours such as pink, yellow, and deep red could be used. The 1990s saw the use of gold leaf, floral prints, embroidery on the women's ; the use of gradient colours also emerged. For men, their and sleeves were made longer; their also became wider. The continues to be worn, and the and are worn frequently in present-days.
On 7 June 2008, the were approved by the State Council of China to be included in the second layer of national intangible cultural heritage. And, in 2011, the was official designated as being part of the intangible cultural heritage of China by the Chinese government; while the announcement was welcomed by the ethnic in China as a proud indicator of their equal membership in a multi-ethnic and multicultuary country such as China, it received negative criticism in South Koreans who perceived it as a "scandalous appropriation of the distinctive national culture of Koreans". In 2022, a girl from the ethnic wore a on the 2022 Beijing Winter Olympics opening ceremony leading to an uproar from South Koreans who accused China of cultural appropriation.
Social status
Especially from the Goryeo dynasty, the started to determine differences in social status (from people with the highest social status (kings), to those of the lowest social status (slaves)) and gender through the many types, components, colours, and characteristics. Although the modern does not express a person's status or social position, was an important element of distinguishment especially in the Goryeo and Joseon dynasties. For example, farmers and commoners were not allowed to wear colour garments in their daily lives, excluding some categories of people, such as the shamans, gisaeng, and children, who were allowed to wear colourful clothing despite their social status. Occasions when all people were allowed to wear colourful clothing were for special ceremonial occasions (e.g. wedding, birthday, holidays).
Clothes
Hwarot
or was the full dress for a princess and the daughter of a king by a concubine, formal dress for the upper class, and bridal wear for ordinary women during the Goryeo and Joseon dynasties. Popular embroidered patterns on were lotuses, phoenixes, butterflies, and the ten traditional symbols of longevity: the sun; mountains; water; clouds; rocks/stone; pine trees; the mushroom of immortality; turtles; white cranes, and deer. Each pattern represented a different role within society, for example: a dragon represented an emperor while a phoenix represented a queen; floral patterns represented a princess and a king's daughter by a concubine, and clouds and cranes represented high ranking court officials. All these patterns throughout Korean history had meanings of longevity, good luck, wealth and honor. also had blue, red, and yellow colored stripes in each sleeve; a woman usually wore a scarlet-colored skirt and yellow or green-colored Jeogori, a traditional Korean jacket. was worn over the Jeogori and skirt. A woman also wore her hair in a bun, with an ornamental hairpin and a ceremonial coronet. A long ribbon was attached to the ornamental hairpin, the hairpin is known as . In more recent times, people wear on their wedding day, and so the Korean tradition survives in the present day.
Wonsam
Wonsam was a ceremonial overcoat for a married woman in the Joseon dynasty. The Wonsam was also adopted from China and is believed to have been one of the costumes from the Tang dynasty which was bestowed in the Unified Three Kingdoms period. It was mostly worn by royalty, high-ranking court ladies, and noblewomen and the colors and patterns represented the various elements of the Korean class system. The empress wore yellow; the queen wore red; the crown princess wore a purple-red color; meanwhile a princess, a king's daughter by a concubine, and a woman of a noble family or lower wore green. All the upper social ranks usually had two colored stripes in each sleeve: yellow-colored Wonsam usually had red and blue colored stripes, red-colored Wonsam had blue and yellow stripes, and green-colored Wonsam had red and yellow stripes. Lower-class women wore many accompanying colored stripes and ribbons, but all women usually completed their outfit with onhye or danghye, traditional Korean shoes.
Dangui
Dangui or tangwi were minor ceremonial robes for the queen, a princess, or wife of a high ranking government official while it was worn during major ceremonies among the noble class in the Joseon dynasty. The materials used to make varied depending on the season, so upper-class women wore thick in winter while they wore thinner layers in summer. The came in many colors, but yellow and/or green were most common. However the emperor wore purple , and the queen wore red. In the Joseon dynasty, ordinary women wore as part of their wedding dress.
Myeonbok and Jeokui
Myeonbok
Myeonbok were the king's religious and formal ceremonial robes while jeokui were the queen's equivalent during the Goryeo and Joseon dynasties. Myeonbok was composed of Myeonryu-Gwan and Gujang-bok. Myonryu-Gwan had beads, which hung loose; these would prevent the king from seeing wickedness. There were also wads of cotton in the left and right sides of Myeonryu-Gwan, and these were supposed to make the king oblivious to the influence of corrupt officials. Gujang-bok was black, and it bore nine symbols out of the Twelve ornaments, which all represented the king:
Dragon: A dragon's appearance paralleled how the king governed and subsequently brought balance to the world.
Fire: The king was expected to be intelligent and wise to govern the people effectively, like a guiding light represented by the fire.
Pheasant: The image of a pheasant represented magnificence.
Mountain: As a mountain is high, the king was on a par in terms of status and was deserving of respect and worship.
Tiger: A tiger represented the king's courage.
Monkey: A monkey symbolized wisdom.
Rice: As the people needed rice to live, the king was compared to this foodstuff as he had the responsibility of protecting their welfare.
Axe: This indicated that the king had the ability to save and take lives.
Water plant: Another depiction of the king's magnificence.
Jeokui
Jeokui or tseogwi was arranged through the use of different colors as a status symbol within the royal family. The empress wore purple-red colored Jeokui, the queen wore pink, and the crown princess wore deep blue. "Jeok" means pheasant, and so Jeokui often had depictions of pheasants embroidered onto it.
Cheolique
Cheolique (also Cheolick or Cheollik; Hangul: 철릭) was a Korean adaptation of the Mongol tunic, imported in the late 1200s during the Goryeo dynasty. Cheolique, unlike other forms of Korean clothing, is an amalgamation of a blouse with a kilt into a single item of clothing. The flexibility of the clothing allowed easy horsemanship and archery. During the Joseon dynasty, they continued to be worn by the king, and military officials for such activities. It was usually worn as a military uniform, but by the end of the Joseon dynasty, it had begun to be worn in more casual situations. A unique characteristic allowed the detachment of the Cheolique's sleeves which could be used as a bandage if the wearer was injured in combat.
Ayngsam
Ayngsam was the formal clothing for students during the national government exam and governmental ceremonies. It was typically yellow, but for the student who scored the highest in the exam, they were rewarded with the ability to wear green Aengsam. If the highest-scoring student was young, the king awarded him with red-colored Aengsam. It was similar to the namsam but with a different colour.
Accessories
Binyeo
Binyeo was a traditional ornamental hairpin, and it had a different-shaped tip again depending on social status. As a result, it was possible to determine the social status of the person by looking at the binyeo. Women in the royal family had dragon or phoenix-shaped Binyeo while ordinary women had trees or Japanese apricot flowers. And Binyeo was a proof of marriage. Therefore, to a woman, Binyeo was an expression of chastity and decency.
Daenggi
Daenggi is a traditional Korean ribbon made of cloth to tie and to decorate braided hair.
Norigae
Norigae was a typical traditional accessory for women; it was worn by all women regardless of social ranks. However, the social rank of the wearer determined the different sizes and materials of the norigae.
Danghye
Danghye or tanghye were shoes for married women in the Joseon dynasty. Danghye were decorated with trees bearing grapes, pomegranates, chrysanthemums, or peonies: these were symbols of longevity.
Kunghye
Danghye for a woman in the royal family were known as kunghye, and they were usually patterned with flowers.
Onhye
Danghye for an ordinary woman were known as onhye.
See also
List of Korean clothing
Hanfu - a Chinese equivalent.
Vietnamese clothing - a Vietnamese equivalent.
Wafuku - a Japanese equivalent.
Notes
Footnotes
References
An, Myung Sook (안명숙); Kim, Yong Ser (김용서) 1998. Hanʼguk poksiksa (한국복식사). Seoul. Yehaksa (예학사)
Kim, Ki Sun (김기선). 2005. Information about Mongolian pigtail 몽골의 辮髮에 대하여. The Institute of Asian Ethno-Forms and Culture. v. 5, 81-97
Kim, Moon Ja , 2004. A study on the Source of Hanbok in ancient times and the position of Hanbok on the Globalism (고대 한복의 원류 및 세계화 속의 한복의 위치), Society of Korean Traditional Costume, v. 7.1, 7-15
Lee, Kyung-Ja (이경자) , 2003, Uri ot ŭi chŏnt'ong yangsik (우리옷의 전통양식 The Traditional Style of Korean Clothes) Ewha Womans University Press.
McCallion, Aleasha; Condra, Jill. 2008. The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Clothing Through World History. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 221 - 228,
Nelson, Sarah. 1993. The archaeology of Korea. Cambridge University Press.
You, Soon Lye (유순례) 2006, Comparative Research on the Costume Aesthetic Korean & Mongolia (몽골과 한국의 전통복식 미의식 비교에 대한 연구), Society of Korean Traditional Costume, v. 6, 183-185
External links
Hanbok History Evolution
Hanbok History Infographic
History of Hanbok
Information about Hanbok
Traditional Korean Clothing - Life in Korea
Official Korea Tourism Organization - Hanbok Clothing
Korean culture
Korean clothing
Folk costumes