Harmonic number

Harmonic number
In mathematics, the -th harmonic number is the sum of the reciprocals of the first natural numbers:
Starting from , the sequence of harmonic numbers begins:
Harmonic numbers are related to the harmonic mean in that the -th harmonic number is also times the reciprocal of the harmonic mean of the first positive integers.
Harmonic numbers have been studied since antiquity and are important in various branches of number theory. They are sometimes loosely termed harmonic series, are closely related to the Riemann zeta function, and appear in the expressions of various special functions.
The harmonic numbers roughly approximate the natural logarithm function and thus the associated harmonic series grows without limit, albeit slowly. In 1737, Leonhard Euler used the divergence of the harmonic series to provide a new proof of the infinity of prime numbers. His work was extended into the complex plane by Bernhard Riemann in 1859, leading directly to the celebrated Riemann hypothesis about the distribution of prime numbers.
When the value of a large quantity of items has a Zipf's law distribution, the total value of the most-valuable items is proportional to the -th harmonic number. This leads to a variety of surprising conclusions regarding the long tail and the theory of network value.
The Bertrand-Chebyshev theorem implies that, except for the case , the harmonic numbers are never integers.
Identities involving harmonic numbers
By definition, the harmonic numbers satisfy the recurrence relation
The harmonic numbers are connected to the Stirling numbers of the first kind by the relation
The functions
satisfy the property
In particular
is an integral of the logarithmic function.
The harmonic numbers satisfy the series identities
and
These two results are closely analogous to the corresponding integral results
and
Identities involving
There are several infinite summations involving harmonic numbers and powers of :
Calculation
An integral representation given by Euler is
The equality above is straightforward by the simple algebraic identity
Using the substitution , another expression for is
The th harmonic number is about as large as the natural logarithm of . The reason is that the sum is approximated by the integral
whose value is .
The values of the sequence decrease monotonically towards the limit
where is the Euler–Mascheroni constant. The corresponding asymptotic expansion is
where are the Bernoulli numbers.
Generating functions
A generating function for the harmonic numbers is
where ln(z) is the natural logarithm. An exponential generating function is
where Ein(z) is the entire exponential integral. The exponential integral may also be expressed as
where Γ(0, z) is the incomplete gamma function.
Arithmetic properties
The harmonic numbers have several interesting arithmetic properties. It is well-known that is an integer if and only if , a result often attributed to Taeisinger. Indeed, using 2-adic valuation, it is not difficult to prove that for the numerator of is an odd number while the denominator of is an even number. More precisely,
with some odd integers and .
As a consequence of Wolstenholme's theorem, for any prime number the numerator of is divisible by . Furthermore, Eisenstein proved that for all odd prime number it holds
where is a Fermat quotient, with the consequence that divides the numerator of if and only if is a Wieferich prime.
In 1991, Eswarathasan and Levine defined as the set of all positive integers such that the numerator of is divisible by a prime number They proved that
for all prime numbers and they defined harmonic primes to be the primes such that has exactly 3 elements.
Eswarathasan and Levine also conjectured that is a finite set for all primes and that there are infinitely many harmonic primes. Boyd verified that is finite for all prime numbers up to except 83, 127, and 397; and he gave a heuristic suggesting that the density of the harmonic primes in the set of all primes should be . Sanna showed that has zero asymptotic density, while Bing-Ling Wu and Yong-Gao Chen proved that the number of elements of not exceeding is at most , for all .
Applications
The harmonic numbers appear in several calculation formulas, such as the digamma function
This relation is also frequently used to define the extension of the harmonic numbers to non-integer n. The harmonic numbers are also frequently used to define using the limit introduced earlier:
although
converges more quickly.
In 2002, Jeffrey Lagarias proved that the Riemann hypothesis is equivalent to the statement that
is true for every integer with strict inequality if ; here denotes the sum of the divisors of .
The eigenvalues of the nonlocal problem
are given by , where by convention , and the corresponding eigenfunctions are given by the Legendre polynomials .
Generalizations
Generalized harmonic numbers
The nth generalized harmonic number of order m is given by
(In some sources, this may also be denoted by or )
The special case m = 0 gives The special case m = 1 reduces to the usual harmonic number:
The limit of as is finite if , with the generalized harmonic number bounded by and converging to the Riemann zeta function
The smallest natural number k such that kn does not divide the denominator of generalized harmonic number H(k, n) nor the denominator of alternating generalized harmonic number H′(k, n) is, for n=1, 2, ... :
77, 20, 94556602, 42, 444, 20, 104, 42, 76, 20, 77, 110, 3504, 20, 903, 42, 1107, 20, 104, 42, 77, 20, 2948, 110, 136, 20, 76, 42, 903, 20, 77, 42, 268, 20, 7004, 110, 1752, 20, 19203, 42, 77, 20, 104, 42, 76, 20, 370, 110, 1107, 20, ...
The related sum occurs in the study of Bernoulli numbers; the harmonic numbers also appear in the study of Stirling numbers.
Some integrals of generalized harmonic numbers are
and
where A is Apéry's constant ζ(3),
and
Every generalized harmonic number of order m can be written as a function of harmonic numbers of order using
for example:
A generating function for the generalized harmonic numbers is
where is the polylogarithm, and . The generating function given above for is a special case of this formula.
A fractional argument for generalized harmonic numbers can be introduced as follows:
For every integer, and integer or not, we have from polygamma functions:
where is the Riemann zeta function. The relevant recurrence relation is
Some special values are
where G is Catalan's constant,
In the special case that , we get
where is the Hurwitz zeta function. This relationship is used to calculate harmonic numbers numerically.
Multiplication formulas
The multiplication theorem applies to harmonic numbers. Using polygamma functions, we obtain
or, more generally,
For generalized harmonic numbers, we have
where is the Riemann zeta function.
Hyperharmonic numbers
The next generalization was discussed by J. H. Conway and R. K. Guy in their 1995 book The Book of Numbers. Let
Then the nth hyperharmonic number of order r (r>0) is defined recursively as
In particular, is the ordinary harmonic number .
Harmonic numbers for real and complex values
The formulae given above,
are an integral and a series representation for a function that interpolates the harmonic numbers and, via analytic continuation, extends the definition to the complex plane other than the negative integers x. The interpolating function is in fact closely related to the digamma function
where is the digamma function, and is the Euler–Mascheroni constant. The integration process may be repeated to obtain
The Taylor series for the harmonic numbers is
which comes from the Taylor series for the digamma function (is the Riemann zeta function).
Approximation using the Taylor series expansion
The harmonic number can be approximated using the first few terms of the Taylor series expansion:
where is the Euler–Mascheroni constant.
Alternative, asymptotic formulation
When seeking to approximate for a complex number , it is effective to first compute for some large integer . Use that as an approximation for the value of . Then use the recursion relation backwards times, to unwind it to an approximation for . Furthermore, this approximation is exact in the limit as goes to infinity.
Specifically, for a fixed integer , it is the case that
If is not an integer then it is not possible to say whether this equation is true because we have not yet (in this section) defined harmonic numbers for non-integers. However, we do get a unique extension of the harmonic numbers to the non-integers by insisting that this equation continue to hold when the arbitrary integer is replaced by an arbitrary complex number .
Swapping the order of the two sides of this equation and then subtracting them from gives
This infinite series converges for all complex numbers except the negative integers, which fail because trying to use the recursion relation backwards through the value involves a division by zero. By this construction, the function that defines the harmonic number for complex values is the unique function that simultaneously satisfies (1) , (2) for all complex numbers except the non-positive integers, and (3) for all complex values .
Note that this last formula can be used to show that
where is the Euler–Mascheroni constant or, more generally, for every we have:
Special values for fractional arguments
There are the following special analytic values for fractional arguments between 0 and 1, given by the integral
More values may be generated from the recurrence relation
or from the reflection relation
For example:
For positive integers p and q with p < q, we have:
Relation to the Riemann zeta function
Some derivatives of fractional harmonic numbers are given by
And using Maclaurin series, we have for x < 1 that
For fractional arguments between 0 and 1 and for a > 1,
See also
Watterson estimator
Tajima's D
Coupon collector's problem
Jeep problem
100 prisoners problem
Riemann zeta function
List of sums of reciprocals
False discovery rate#Benjamini–Yekutieli procedure
Notes
References
Ed Sandifer, How Euler Did It — Estimating the Basel problem (2003)
External links
Number theory