Ultranationalism

Ultranationalism or extreme nationalism is an extreme form of nationalism in which a country asserts or maintains detrimental hegemony, supremacy, or other forms of control over other nations (usually through violent coercion) to pursue its specific interests. Ultranationalist entities have been associated with the engagement of political violence even during peacetime. The belief system has also been cited as the inspiration for acts of organized mass murder in the context of international conflicts, with the Cambodian genocide being cited as an example.
In ideological terms, scholars such as the British political theorist Roger Griffin have found that ultranationalism arises from seeing modern nation-states as living organisms which are directly akin to physical people because they can decay, grow, and die, and additionally, they can experience rebirth. In stark mythological ways, political campaigners have divided societies into those societies which are perceived as being degenerately inferior and those societies which are perceived as having great cultural destinies. Ultranationalism is an aspect of fascism, with historic governments such as the regimes of Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany building on ultranationalist foundations by using specific plans for supposed widespread national renewal.
Ultranationalist characters have served as villains in multiple works of fictional media with popular acclaim as well. Examples include the dramatic productions Air Force One and Incitement, both being action films.
Background concepts and broader context
British political theorist Roger Griffin has stated that ultranationalism is essentially founded on xenophobia in a way that finds supposed legitimacy "through deeply mythicized narratives of past cultural or political periods of historical greatness or of old scores to settle against alleged enemies". It can also draw on "vulgarized forms" of different aspects of the natural sciences such as anthropology and genetics, eugenics specifically playing a role, in order "to rationalize ideas of national superiority and destiny, of degeneracy and subhumanness" in Griffin's opinion. Ultranationalists view the modern nation-state as, according to Griffin, a living organism directly akin to a physical person such that it can decay, grow, die, and additionally experience rebirth. He has highlighted Nazi Germany as a regime which was founded on ultranationalism.
Ultranationalist activism can adopt varying attitudes towards historical traditions within the populace. For instance, the British Union of Fascists inside the United Kingdom adopted a secularist-minded platform centered on perceived technological progress. In contrast, the Iron Guard inside Romania utilized a hardline form of mysticism-driven religion to encourage determination among the nation's ultranationalists. Nonetheless, obsessive views on ethnicity and other divisions as well as connecting politics to motifs of sacrifice generally constitute the psychological framework behind these movements.
According to American scholar Janusz Bugajski, summing up the doctrine in practical terms, "in its most extreme or developed forms, ultra-nationalism resembles fascism, marked by a xenophobic disdain of other nations, support for authoritarian political arrangements verging on totalitarianism, and a mythical emphasis on the 'organic unity' between a charismatic leader, an organizationally amorphous movement-type party, and the nation". Bugajski believes that civic nationalism and the related concept of patriotism both can contain significantly positive elements, contributing to the common social good at times such as during national calamities. These doctrines stand in contrast, in his opinion, to the extreme approach of certain ideologies with more irrational actions.
Historical movements and analysis
American historian Walter Skya has written in Japan's Holy War: The Ideology of Radical Shinto Ultranationalism that ultranationalism in Japan drew upon traditional Shinto spiritual beliefs and militaristic attitudes regarding the nation's racial identity. By the early twentieth century, fanaticism arising from this combination of ethnic nationalism and religious nationalism caused opposition to democratic governance and support for Japanese territorial expansion. Skya particularly noted in his work the connection between ultranationalism and political violence by citing how, between 1921 and 1936, three serving and two former Prime Ministers of Japan were assassinated. The totalitarian Japanese government of the 1930s and 1940s did not just rely on encouragement by the country's military; it also received widespread popular support.
The Cambodian historian Sambo Manara has found that the belief system sets forth a vision of supremacism in terms of international relations whereby xenophobia or hatred of foreigners to the point of extremism leads to policies of social separation and segregation. He has argued that the Cambodian genocide is a specific example of this ideology when it is applied in practice. "Obviously, it was ultranationalism, combined with the notion of class struggle in communism and a group of politicians, which lead to the establishment of Democratic Kampuchea, a ruthless regime which claimed approximately three million lives", he has remarked, with militant leaders finally deciding to "cut all diplomatic and economic ties with almost all countries" due to a "narrow-minded doctrine without taking into account all the losses they would face". In Manara's opinion, "this effectively destroyed the nation."
The absolute dictatorship of the Romanian leader Nicolae Ceausescu has also been described as an example of communism taking an ultranationalist approach by Haaretz. The Israeli publication cited the antisemitism of the dictator in terms of actions such as his historical denialism of the Holocaust. Ceausescu also made efforts to purge Romanians who had Jewish backgrounds from positions of political authority.
Haaretz has also labeled the Hungarian Prime Minister Viktor Orban an ultranationalist, due to his views on autocratic rule and racial identity, particularly, Orban's public condemnation of "race-mixing". He's also been called an ultranationalist by NPR, an American news agency, citing his opposition to democratic liberalism.
In late 2015, the Israeli political journalist Gideon Levy wrote that the Israeli–Palestinian conflict has led to the decay of the civil society within Israel, with an ultranationalist movement that "bases its power on incitement to hatred" using "folkloric religion" gaining ground over decades so that:
Russian irredentism, in which a militant imperial state that stretches across both Asia and Europe without regard for current international borders is proposed, has been described as ultranationalism by the U.S. publication the Los Angeles Times, with the aggressive actions of Russian President Vladimir Putin being credited as an evolution of political arguments which were made by multiple figures in the past. Examples include Nikolai Berdyaev, Aleksandr Dugin (the author of 1997's The Foundations of Geopolitics: The Geopolitical Future of Russia), Lev Gumilyov, and Ivan Ilyin. The newspaper highlighted the justifications which were given in support of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, quoting Putin's declaration that he must militarily combat an "empire of lies" which was created by the U.S. in order to justify its desire to suffocate Russia.
In a 2021 story, the business-centered publication Bloomberg News stated that the rise of ultranationalist viewpoints in China, particularly in terms of those who advocate extremism on social media, presents a direct challenge to the current government of the nation, with General Secretary Xi Jinping facing opposition to his attempts to set forth climate change economic reforms in relation to greenhouse gases. Chinese political activists have asserted, according to the publication, a conspiracy theory that said that the reforms represent some kind of capitulation to foreign interests at the expense of China's citizens. Environmentalist policies have come into being in a complex fashion inside China, facing complicated opinions among many.
Ultranationalist political parties
Currently represented in national governments or legislatures
The following political parties have been characterised as ultranationalist.
: Taliban
: Pauline Hanson's One Nation
: Freedom Party of Austria
: Vlaams Belang
: Revival
: Republican Party
: Chinese Communist Party
: Homeland Movement
: ELAM
: Freedom and Direct Democracy
: Danish People's Party
: Conservative People's Party of Estonia
: National Rally
: Finns Party
: Alternative for Germany
: Spartans, Greek Solution
: Our Homeland Movement
: Shiv Sena
: Religious Zionist Party, Otzma Yehudit
: Brothers of Italy
: Union Solidarity and Development Party
: Forum for Democracy
: National Movement
: Chega
: Alliance for the Union of Romanians
: Liberal Democratic Party of Russia, Rodina
: Dveri, Serbian Party Oathkeepers
: Economic Freedom Fighters
: Slovak National Party
: Vox
: Sweden Democrats
: Swiss People's Party
: Nationalist Movement Party
: Svoboda
The following political parties have been described as having ultranationalist factions.
: Liberal Party
: Fidesz
: Bharatiya Janata Party
: Gerindra
: Lega
: Liberal Democratic Party
: Law and Justice
: United Russia
Represented parties with former ultranationalist tendencies or factions
The following political parties historically had ultranationalist tendencies or factions.
: Serb Democratic Party
: Jobbik
: Kataeb Party
: Golkar
: Yisrael Beiteinu
: Kuomintang
: United Malays National Organisation
: VMRO-DPMNE
: Serbian Renewal Movement
: Syrian Social Nationalist Party
: Good Party
Formerly represented in national governments or legislatures
: Vlaams Blok
: Attack, VMRO, National Front for the Salvation of Bulgaria
: Communist Party of Kampuchea
: Ustaše, Croatian Party of Rights, Croatian Pure Party of Rights
: Rally for the Republic – Republican Party of Czechoslovakia
: Patriotic People's Movement
: National Socialist German Workers' Party, German National People's Party, German Right Party
: Freethinkers' Party, Golden Dawn, Popular Orthodox Rally
: Arrow Cross Party, Hungarian Justice and Life Party
: Hindu Mahasabha
: Pan-Iranist Party
: Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region
: Kach, Tehiya, Moledet, Hatikva, Jewish National Front, Herut – The National Movement
: National Fascist Party, Italian Social Movement
: Imperial Rule Assistance Association
: National Union
: Kilusang Bagong Lipunan
: Iron Guard, National Christian Party, National-Christian Defense League, Romanian National Unity Party, Greater Romania Party
: Coalition for the Defence of the Republic
: Serbian Radical Party, Party of Serbian Unity
: Slovak People's PartyPeople's Party Our Slovakia, Republic
: National Party
: National Youth
: FET y de las JONS
: Republican Villagers Nation Party, Victory Party, Great Union Party
: Right Sector
Ultranationalist organizations
: Suomen Sisu
: Action Française, Bloc Identitaire
: Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh, Bajrang Dal
: Pancasila Youth
: Golden Square
: Im Tirtzu, Lehava, Lehi, Brit HaBirionim
: Army Comrades Association
: CasaPound
: Nippon Kaigi, Zaitokukai
: Perkasa
: Nationalist Front of Mexico, National Synarchist Union
: Patriotic Association of Myanmar
: All-Polish Youth
: Club of Angry Patriots, Night Wolves, Russian Imperial Movement, Wagner Group
: Bodu Bala Sena, Sinhala Ravaya
: Grey Wolves, Turkish Revenge Brigade
: Azov Regiment
: English Defence League, Siol nan Gaidheal
: Proud Boys, Patriot Front
Portrayals of ultranationalism in fiction
The action film Air Force One features a terrorist mastermind named Egor Korshunov, played by actor Gary Oldman, who kidnaps a set of hostages including the U.S. President by hijacking the leader's plane. Korshunov seeks revenge due to the arrest of Kazakh dictator Ivan Radek, played by actor Jürgen Prochnow, and the militant became an ultranationalist radical after having formerly served as a Soviet soldier. In February 2022, the U.S. armed forces related website Military.com published a story labeling the character as one of the best "Russian Movie Villains" in American cinematic history. As well, writer Todd McCarthy of Variety lauded the nature of Oldman's "fanatical" character, McCarthy stating that "in his second malevolent lead of the summer, after The Fifth Element, [he] registers strongly as a veteran of the Afghan campaign pushed to desperate lengths to newly ennoble his country."
The Israeli movie Incitement portrayals a fictionalized account of ultranationalist activist and murderer Yigal Amir. The production details his personal life prior to his assassination of Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin. Film critic Nell Minow stated that the killer, played by actor Yehuda Nahari, projects a superficial charm and skill at persuasion while at the same time failing to generate audience sympathy due to his true nature still coming out. Amir seeing himself in a callous, "instrumentalist" way as a living weapon up to and including Rabin's assassination feeds into, in Minow's opinion, the movie's "chillingly" thriller-type quality. Writer Carla Hay of CultureMixOnline.com also found Nahari's performance to be a compelling portrayal of a sociopath in film, with much left to audience interpretations.
The video game Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare has gained notice for its depiction of a civil war in Russia between the country's government and an ultranationalist faction, with the entertainment production being released in 2007. Its sequels, Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2 (2009) and Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3 (2011), were set in the aftermath of an ultranationalist coup d'état in Russia and a subsequent war involving the American military. Militant leader Vladimir Makarov, a character in multiple games, notably declares at one point, "Russia will take all of Europe, even if it must stand upon a pile of ashes."
See also
Autarky
Far-right politics
Global Times – ultra-nationalistic Chinese media.
Ilminism
Jingoism
Palingenesis / Palingenetic ultranationalism
Putinism
Totalitarianism
Uyoku dantai
References
Fascism
Far-right politics
Nationalism
Neo-fascism
Political extremism
Political science terminology
Right-wing ideologies
Sectarianism
Xenophobia