1. Introduction
2. Formation and evolution of dust in Population III Type II-P and pair-instability SNe 3. Formation and destruction of dust in Type IIb SNe with application to Cassiopeia A SNR 4. Missing-dust problem in core-collapse SNe 5. Formation of dust in the ejecta of Type Ia SNe 6. Summary 1. Introduction
• The submm observations have confirmed the presence of dust in excess of 108 Msun in 30% of z > 5 quasars
SDSS J1148+5251 at z=6.4
ー age : 890 Myr ー IR luminosity : ~(1-3)x10¹³ Lsun — dust mass : (2-7)x108 Msun — SFR : ~3000 Msun/yr (Salpeter IMF) — gas mass : ~3x10¹⁰ Msun (Walter+’04) — metallicity : ~solar ** Herschel (3.5m) ** • PACS : 70, 100, 160 μm • SPIRE 250, 350, 500 μm Leipski+’10, A&A, 518, L34
• Supernovae (Type II SNe) → ~0.1 Msun per SN is sufficient (Morgan & Edmunds’03; Maiolino+’06; Li+’08) → > 1 Msun per SN (Dwek+’07) • AGB stars + SNe (Valiante+’09; Gall+’11; Dwek & Cherchneff’11) → 0.01-0.05 Msun per AGB (Zhukovska & Gail ’08) → 0.01-1 Msun per SN • Grain growth in dense clouds + AGB stars + SNe (Draine’09; Michalowski+’10; Pipino+’11; Mattsson’11) → Tgrowth ~ 10^7 (Z / Zsun) yr • Quasar outflows (Elvis+’02)
Maiolino+’04, Nature, 431, 533 SDSS J1048+4637 at z=6.2 Broad absorption line (BAL) quasars different dust properties from those at low redshift
Gallerani+’10, A&A, 523, 85 7 of 33 requires substantial dust extinction, which deviates from the SMC quasars. For comparison the SMC extinction curve is also shown and labeled in the Figure (dotted black line). The panel on the left shows the results assuming a minimum intrinsic slope α λ min = −2.9, while the panel on the right is obtained with α λ min = −2.6. GRB 050904 at z=6.3 additional evidence for different dust properties at high-z Stratta+’07, ApJ, 661, L9
• There is clear evidence for huge amounts of dust at z > 5, but the dust sources remain unexplained → SNe? AGB stars? grain growth in the dense clouds? quasar outflow? any other sources? • Properties (composition & size) of dust at high z are likely to be different from those at low z → high-z quasars and GRBs are good targets to probe the extinction curves in their host galaxies At z > 4, short-lived SNe II (M = 8-40 Msun) dominate the dust production over AGB stars (M < 8 Msun) ??
at ~1 days He–layer (C>O) O=Ne-Mg layer Si-stlayet years Feafte layelosion
Nozawa+’03, ApJ, 598, 785 O Population III SNe model (Umeda & Nomoto’02) • SNe II-P  :  Mzams  = 13, 20, 25, 30 Msun (E 51 =1) • PISNe : Mzams = 170 Msun (E 51 =20), 200 Msun (E 51 =28) • nucleation and grain growth theory (Kozasa & Hasegawa’88) • no mixing of elements within the He-core • complete formation of CO and SiO
mass coordinate M, (M,) Nozawa+’03, ApJ, 598, 785 • Various dust species (C, MgSiO 3 , Mg 2 SiO 4 , SiO 2 , Al 2 O 3 , MgO, Si, FeS, Fe) form in the unmixed ejecta, according to the elemental composition of gas in each layer • The condensation time: 300-600 days for SNe II-P 400-800 days for PISNe
grain radius; a (μm) • grain radii range from a few A up to 1 μm • average dust radius is smaller for PISNe than SNe II-P amount of newly formed dust grains SNe II-P :  Mdust = 0.1-1  Msun, Mdust / Mmetal = 0.2-0.3 PISNe   :  Mdust =20-40 Msun, Mdust / Mmetal = 0.3-0.4
• a part of dust grains formed in SNe are destroyed due to sputtering in the hot gas swept up by the shocks (e.g., Bianchi & Schneider'07; Nozawa+'07, 10) → destruction efficiency of dust depends on the initial size distribution • It is necessary to treat formation and destruction of dust self-consistently
• Hydrodynamical model of SNE (Umeda & Nomoto'02) • SNe II : Mpr=13, 20, 25, 30 Msun (E 51 =1) • PISNe : Mpr=170 (E 51 =20), 200 Msun (E 51 =28) • The ambient medium (homogeneous) • gas temperature : T = 10 4 K • gas density : n H,o =  0.1, 1, and 10 cm -³
:  Dust Model
• initial size distribution and spatial distribution of dust → results of dust formation calculations • treating as a test particle The calculation is performed from 10 yr up to ~10 6 yr
Nozawa+’07, ApJ, 666, 955 Model : Mpr= 20 Msun (E 51 =1) nh,o =  1 cm-³ Dust grains in the He core collide with reverse shock at (3-13)x10³ yr The evolution of dust heavily depends on the initial radius and composition aini = 0.01 μm  (dotted lines) → completely destroyed aini = 0.1 μm (solid lines) → trapped in the shell aini = 1 μm (dashed lines) → injected into the ISM
progenitor mass; M total dust mass surviving the destruction in Type II-P SNRs; 0.07-0.8 Msun (nh,o = 0.1-1 cm ³) size distribution of dust after RS destruction is domimated by large grains (> 0.01 μm) Nozawa+’07, ApJ, 666, 955 10²5 after destruction of dus by reverse shock
Hirashita, TN, et al. 2008, MNRAS, 384, 1725 Gallerani+’10, A&A, 523, 85 Dust extinction curves in the early universe are expected to be flat Some studies have suggested that the extinction curve before the destruction is more appropriate in high-z and star-forming galaxies (Kawara+2011, Shimizu+2011, Jang+2011) 3
1/λ [ μm -1]
136 3. Formation and evolution of dust in SNe Ilb: Application to Cas A
Meje = 2.94 Msun Mzams = 18 Msun MH-env = 0.08 Msun E51 = 1.0 M(56Ni) = 0.07 Msun enclosed mass; M, (M,)
the radius of dust formed in H-stripped SNe is small • SN llb without massive H-env → adust < 0.01 μm • SN II-P with massive H-env → adust > 0.01 µm
enclosed mass; M, (M,)

nh,1 = 30, 120, 200 /cc → dM/dt = 2.0, 8.0, 13x10 -5 Msun/yr for vw=10 km/s Almost all newly formed grains are destroyed in shocked gas within the SNR for CSM gas density of nн > 0.1 /cc → small radius of newly formed dust → early arrival of reverse shock at dust-forming region Nozawa+’10, ApJ, 713, 356
wavelength (μm) • total mass of dust formed Mdust = 0.167 Msun • shocked dust : 0.095 Msun Md,warm = 0.008 Msun • unshocked dust : Md,cool = 0.072 Msun with Tdust ~ 40 K Nozawa+’10, ApJ, 713, 356 AKARI corrected 90 µm image AKARI observation Md,cool = 0.03-0.06 Msun Tdust = 33-41 K (Sibthorpe+10) Herschel observation Md,cool = 0.075 Msun Tdust ~ 35 K (Barlow+10)
ALMA Cycle 0 Proposal ‘Detecting cool dust in SN1987A’ (PI: Nozawa) Band 7 (850 μm) Band 9 (450 μm) 0.1 Msun Of silicate → 5σ detection This proposal is ranked in the highest priority to be observed ! J. Pyn (NASA(eSEQ) R  Krshner (CIA) 4. Formation of dust in SNe la
W7 model (C-deflagration) (Nomoto+’84; Thielemann+’86) enclosed mass; M, (M)
enclosed mass; M, (M,) Nozawa+2011, ApJ, 736, 45 • condensation time : 100-300 days • average radius of dust : Aave <～ 0.01 μm • total dust mass : Mdust  = 0.1-0.2 Msun newly formed grains are completely destroyed for ISM density of nh > 0.1 cm -³ → SNe la are unlikely to be major sources of dust
• Type II SNe with massive H envelopes — radius of dust formed : aave > 0.01 μm → H-retaining SNe may be important sources of dust, supplying 0.1-1.0 Msun of dust to the ISM • Type Ilb/Ib/Ia SNe without massive H envelopes — grain radius formed : aave < 0.01 μm → dust is almost completely destroyed in the SNRs → H-stripped SNe are not likely to be sources of dust *  Our model treating dust formation and evolution self-consistently can reproduce the IR emission from Cas A SNR • Mass of dust in young SNRs are dominated by cool dust ー FIR and submm observations of SNRs are essential → Herschel detected massive cool dust in SN 1987A
O metal-poor (high-z or starbust) galaxies • massive stars (SNe) are likely to be dominant • mass loss of massive stars would be less efficient → Type II-P SNe might be major sources of dust necessary for serving the seeds for grain growth in the ISM ー dust mass per SN II-P after the RS destruction Mdust = 0.1-0.8 Msun for nh,o = 0.1-1 cm²³ — average radius of dust is quite large (> 0.01 μm) • grain growth in the ISM makes grain size larger → dust extinction curve in the early universe might be gray (wavelength-independent) if SNe II-P (and grain growth) are main sources of dust at high redshift
O metal-rich (low-z or Milky Way) galaxies • low-mass stars are dominant • mass loss of massive stars would be more efficient → SNe (Ilb, Ib/c, Ia) might be minor sources of dust — dust is almost completely destroyed in the SNRs since size of newly formed dust is small (< 0.01 μm)