1. Introduction
— Properties of interstellar dust in the Galaxy ー Observations of dust at high redshift 2. Formation and evolution of dust in Population III Type II-P and pair-instability SNe 3. Formation of dust grains in various types of SNe 4. Missing-dust problem in core-collapse SNe 5. Implication and Summary 1. Introduction 1-1-1. Cosmic dust O Cosmic dust : solid particles with radii of a few nm to ~0.1 mm in astronomical environments interplanetary dust, interstellar dust, intergalactic dust … Milky Way (optical) Milky Way (infrared) Dust grains absorb UV/optical lights and reemit it by their thermal radiation at IR wavelengths!
O Dust in our Galaxy → where and when is dust formed? — composition : graphite (carbonaceous) grains silicate (SiO2, Mg2SiO4, MgFeSiO4, ...) grains n(a) = f(a)da = a-3.5 da (0.005~0.25 μm) ー size : ー amount : Mdust / Mgas ~ 1 / 140  (~10° Msun) → MRN dust model (e.g., Mathis+’77; Draine & Lee’84)
O Formation sites of dust • abundant metal (metal : N > 5) • Iow gas temperature (T < ~2000 K) • high gas density (n > ~10 8 cm -3) — mass-loss winds of AGB stars — expanding ejecta of supernovae (SNe) — molecular clouds (grain growth only) — red giant, W-R stars, novae, protoplanetary disk ... ejected gas : <magb> / <msn> ~ 1-2 ejected dust : fagb <magb> / fsn <msn> > 1-2?
• The submm observations have confirmed the presence of dust in excess of 10 8 Msun in 30% of z > 5 quasars → We see warm dust grains heated by absorbing stellar lights in the host galaxies of the quasars Leipski+’10. A&A. 518. L34 SDSS J1148+5251 at z=6.4    — age : 840-890 Myr ー IR luminosity : ~(1-3)x10¹³ Lsun ー dust mass : (2-7)x108 Msun ー SFR : ~3000 Msun/yr (Salpeter IMF) — gas mass : ~3x10¹⁰ Msun (Walter+’04) — metallicity : ~solar
• Supernovae (Type II SNe) → ~0.1 Msun per SN is sufficient (Morgan & Edmunds'03; Maiolino+'06; Li+'08) → > 1 Msun per SN (Dwek+’07) • AGB stars + SNe (Valiante+’09; Gall+’11; Dwek & Cherchneff’11) → 0.01-0.05 Msun per AGB (Zhukovska & Gail ’08) → 0.01-1 Msun per SN • Grain growth in dense clouds + AGB stars + SNe (Draine'09; Michalowski+'10; Pipino+'11; Mattsson'11) → Tgrowth ~ 10^7 (Z / Zsun) yr • Quasar outflows (Elvis+'02)
Dust model in MW (MRN) • silicate & graphite • f(a)da = a^{-3.5}da 0.001 µm < a < 0.25 µm • dust-gas ratio : 1/140 Maiolino+’04, Nature, 431, 533 SDSS J1048+4637 at z=6.2 Broad absorption line (BAL) quasars different dust properties from those at low redshifts Arest (A)
quasars. For comparison the SMC extinction curve is also shown and labeled in the Figure (dotted black line). The panel on the left shows the results assuming a minimum intrinsic slope α λ min = −2.9, while the panel on the right is obtained with α λ min = −2.6. Gallerani+’10, A&A, 523, 85 7 of 33 requires substantial dust extinction, which deviates from the SMC The mean Extinction curves for BAL quasars deviates from the SMC with level > 95 % Fig.6. Mean (MEC) and simultaneous/global (GEC) extinction curve of reddened quasars divided into BAL (left) and non-BAL (right). The coding is the same as in Fig. 5.
GRB 050525A at z=0.6 Heng+’08, ApJ, 681, 1116 additional evidence for different dust properties at high-z but see Liang & Li’09, ApJ, 690, L56 Zafar+’10, A&A, 514, 94 Zafer+’11, arXiv/1101.1503 Extinction curves from high-z GRBs Li+’08, ApJ, 678, 1136 Perley+’10, MNRAS, 406, 2473 Perlev+’11. AJ.
• There is clear evidence for huge amounts of dust at z > 4, but the dust sources remain unexplained → SNe? AGB stars? grain growth in the dense clouds? quasar outflow? any other sources? • Properties (composition & size) of dust at high z are likely to be different from those at low z → high-z quasars and GRBs are good targets to probe the extinction curves in their host galaxies At z > 4, short-lived SNe II (M = 8-40 Msun) dominate the dust production over AGB stars (M < 8 Msun) ??
• Dust absorbs stellar light and emits it by thermal radiation → plays a crucial role in interpreting the evolution history of the universe from high-z observations • Dust has great impacts on formation processes of stars ー forming molecules (mainly H,) on the surface (e.g., Cozaux & Spaans'04) — providing additional cooling pathways of gas through thermal emission (e.g., Omukai+’05; Schneider+’06) — controlling the energy balance in interstellar space We aim at revealing the evolution of composition, size, and amount of dust by taking account into the formation and destruction processes of dust self-consistently 2. Formation and evolution of dust in Pop III SNe II-P and PISNe
at ~1 days He–layer (C>O) O=Ne-Mg layer
Dust formation Si-stlayes years Feafth I ayolosion
Nozawa+’03, ApJ, 598, 785 O Population III SNe model (Umeda & Nomoto’02) • SNe II-P : Mzams = 13, 20, 25, 30 Msun (E 51 = 1) • PISNe : Mzams = 170 Msun (E 51 =20), 200 Msun (E 51 =28) • nucleation and grain growth theory (Kozasa & Hasegawa’88) • no mixing of elements within the He-core • complete formation of CO and SiO
Js(t) 2σ 777111 kT 4 | ) 3 chemical free energy AG es + sli a  energy μ : μ = 4παδσ / κ1  ; ellergy barrier for nucleation
Equation of conservation for key species J(t') 4π C1( t ) r³(t,t')dt' C 1 ( t ) c 1 ( t ′ ) 3 Ω ′ to V(t')J(t')n[r(t,t')]dt' V (t) c 1 (t) − V (t) c 1 (t) = C1( t ) Q 5 3 – α 0 T coll dt 3 2πm1 ∂Vd V C1 ( t ) kT c1(t) |to) ・ ra r(t, to) = r* + =aoT=1(t')dt'
mass coordinate M, (M,) Nozawa+’03, ApJ, 598, 785 • Various dust species (C, MgSiO 3 , Mg 2 SiO 4 , SiO 2 , Al 2 O 3 , MgO, Si, FeS, Fe) form in the unmixed ejecta, according to the elemental composition of gas in each layer • The condensation time: 300-600 days for SNe II-P 400-800 days for PISNe
grain radius; a (μm) • grain radii range from a few A up to 1 μm • average dust radius is smaller for PISNe than SNe II-P amount of newly formed dust grains SNe II-P :  Mdust = 0.1-1  Msun, Mdust / Mmetal = 0.2-0.3 PISNe   :  Mdust =20-40 Msun, Mdust / Mmetal = 0.3-0.4
T = (1-2)x10 4 K nh,o = 0.1-1 cm-³ |
● Basic equations (spherical symmetry) dp 1  r² gr (r²pv) = 0 dt
V
Agas(T) : cooling function of gas by the atomic process (Sutherland & Dopita 1993; Smith et al. 2001) Λic(T) : inverse Compton cooling (Ikeuchi & Ostriker 1986) Λic(T) = 5.41×10−32(1+z)4ne(T/104 K) (we adopt z = 20) Λd(nH,T) : cooling of gas through thermal emission of dust • numerical code : flux splitting method (van Albada et al. 1982)
• Hydrodynamical model of SNE (Umeda & Nomoto'02) • SNe II : Mpr=13, 20, 25, 30 Msun (E 51 =1) • PISNe : Mpr=170 (E 51 =20), 200 Msun (E 51 =28) • The ambient medium (homogeneous) • gas temperature : T = 10 4 K • gas density : n H,o =  0.1, 1, and 10 cm -³
:  Dust Model
• initial size distribution and spatial distribution of dust → results of dust formation calculations • treating as a test particle The calculation is performed from 10 yr up to ~10 6 yr
● deceleration of dust due to drag force (Baines et al. 1965)
Pd ; mass density of a grain A i ; the number abundance of gas species i normarized by nh
H
● dust destruction by sputtering (e.g., Dwek, Foster & Vancura 1996)
• rate equation over a modified Maxwellian distribution of gas taken account of relative velocity of dust to gas (e.g., Shull 1978)
where ∈ E/kT
Nozawa+’06, ApJ, 648, 435 • erosion rate by sputtering quickly increases above 105 K and peaks at 107 -108 K • erosion rate : da / dt ~ 10 -6 n H μm yr-1 cm³ for the primordial gas (H and He) at T > 106 K da/dt) (cm³µm/
Nozawa+’07, ApJ, 666, 955 Model : Mpr= 20 Msun (E 51 =1) nh,o =  1 cm-³ Downward-pointing arrows: forward shock in upper panel reverse shock in lower panel The temperature of the gas swept up by the shocks → 106-108 K Dust grains residing in the shocked hot gas are eroded by sputtering
Nozawa+’07, ApJ, 666, 955 Model : Mpr= 20 Msun (E 51 =1) nh,o =  1 cm-³ Dust grains in the He core collide with reverse shock at (3-13)x10³ yr The evolution of dust heavily depends on the initial radius and composition aini = 0.01 μm  (dotted lines) → completely destroyed aini = 0.1 μm (solid lines) → trapped in the shell aini = 1 μm (dashed lines) → injected into the ISM
progenitor mass; Mpr (Mp) total dust mass surviving the destruction in Type II-P SNRs; 0.08-0.8 Msun (nh,o = 0.1-1 cm²) size distribution of surviving dust is domimated by large grains (> 0.01 μm) Nozawa+’07, ApJ, 666, 955
Hirashita, TN,+’08, MNRAS, 384, 1725
• The fate of newly formed dust within primordial SNRs strongly depends on the initial radii and compositions. • The size distribution of dust surviving the destruction in SNRs is weighted to relatively large size (> 0.01 μm). • The total mass of surviving dust grains decreases with increasing the ambient gas density for nh,o = 0.1-1 cm-³ SNe II-P → Mdust = 0.1-0.8 Msun PISNe → Mdust = 0.1-15 Msun • Extinction curves in the early universe are expected to be flat if SNe II-P are main sources of dust at high z. 3. Formation of dust grains in various types of SNe
Meje = 2.94 Msun Mzams = 18 Msun MH-env = 0.08 Msun E 51 = 1 M(56Ni) = 0.07 Msun enclosed mass; M, (M,)
enclosed mass; M, (M,) – condensation time of dust 300-700 d after explosion — total mass of dust formed • 0.167 Msun in SN llb • 0.1-1 Msun in SN II-P Nozawa+’10, ApJ, 713, 356 — the radius of dust formed in H-stripped SNe is small • SN Ilb without massive H-env → adust < 0.01 µm • SN II-P with massive H-env → adust > 0.01 µm
nh,1 = 30, 120, 200 /cc → dM/dt = 2.0, 8.0, 13x10 -5 Msun/yr for vw=10 km/s Almost all newly formed grains are destroyed in shocked gas within the SNR for CSM gas density of nн > 0.1 /cc → small radius of newly formed dust → early arrival of reverse shock at dust-forming region Nozawa+’10, ApJ, 713, 356
Nozawa+’10, ApJ, 713, 356 wavelength (um) • total mass of dust formed Mdust = 0.167 Msun • shocked dust : 0.095 Msun Md,warm = 0.008 Msun • unshocked dust : Md,cool = 0.072 Msun with Tdust ~ 40 K AKARI corrected 90 µm image AKARI observation Md,cool = 0.03-0.06 Msun Tdust = 33-41 K (Sibthorpe+10) Herschel observation Md,cool = 0.075 Msun Tdust ~ 35 K (Barlow+10)
W7 model (C-deflagration) (Nomoto+’84; Thielemann+’86) enclosed mass; M, (M)
enclosed mass; M, (M,) Nozawa+’11, arXiv/1105.0973 • condensation time : 100-300 days • average radius of dust : Aave <～ 0.01 μm • total dust mass : Mdust  = 0.1-0.2 Msun newly formed grains are completely destroyed for ISM density of nh > 0.1 cm -³ → SNe la are unlikely to be major sources of dust
• There has been no evidence for dust formation in SNe la → Formation of massive carbon dust does not match the observations Observational data : SN 2005df at day 200 and 400 (Gerardy+’07) wavelength; λ (μm) Nozawa+’11, accepted massive unburned carbon (~0.05 Msun) in deflagration → change of composition of WD by He-shell flash → burning of carbon by a delayed detonation observationally estimated carbon mass in SNe la : Mc < 0.01 Msun (Marion+’06; Tanaka+’08)
super-Chandra SNe : M(56Ni) ~ 1.0 Msun detection of CII line → presence of massive unburned carbon SN 2009dc, Tarbenberger+’10 enhanced fading at ~200 day → formation of carbon dust? 4. Missing-dust problem in CCSNe
• Theoretical studies — at time of dust formation : Mdust=0.1-1 Msun in CCSNe Cherchneff & Dwek'10) (Nozawa+’03; Todini & Ferrara’01 — after destruction of dust by revers shock (SNe II-P)： Msurv~0.01-0.8 Msun (Nozawa+’07- ianchi & Schneider'07) dust amount needed to explain massive dust at high-z • Observational works — MIR observations of SNe : Mdust < 10 -3 Msun (e.g., Ercolano+'07; Sakon+'09; Kotak+'09) — submm observations of SNRs : Mdust > 1 Msun (Dunne+'03; Morgan+'03; Dunne+'09) — MIR/FIR observation of Cas A : Mdust=0.02-0.075 Msun (Rho+’08; Sibthorpe+’09; Barlow+’10)
Tanaka, TN,+’11, submitted Young supernovae:  Ercolano+07,Wooden+93, Dwck+92, Pozzo+04, Elmhamdi+03, Meikle+07, Szalai+10, Kotak+09, Mattila+08, Sakon+09 Supernova remnants: Rho+08, Sibthorpe+10, Barlow+10, Nozawa+10, Morton+07, Green+04, Temim+06, Rho+09, Sandstrom+09, Williams+08, Temim+10
5. Conclusion remarks
O metal-poor (high-z or starbust) galaxies • massive stars (SNe) are dominate • mass loss of massive stars would be less efficient → Type II-P SNe might be major sources of dust • average radius of dust is relatively large (> 0.01 μm) • grain growth makes grain size larger → dust extinction curve might be gray Stratta+’05, A&A, 441, 83

O metal-rich (low-z or Milky Way) galaxies
• low-mass stars are dominate • mass loss of massive stars would be → SNe (Ilb, Ib/c, Ia) might be minor sour • dust from AGB stars may also be larg → How are small dust grains produced?
grain shattering
warm ionized medium (WIM) relative velocity of dust in turbulence  : 1-20 km/s grain shattering is efficient in WIM at t=5 Myr if metallicity is solar and more the production of small grains by shattering steepens the extinction curve Dust size distribution at t=5 Myr (nh=1 /c Hirashita. TN. +’10. MNRAS. 404
• SNe are important sources of dust? — maybe, Yes in the early universe — at least, to serve the seeds for grain growth in the ISM • Size of newly formed dust depends on types of SNe — H-retaining SNe (Type II-P) : aave > 0.01 μm ー H-stripped SNe (Type Ilb/lb/lc and la) : aave < 0.01 μm → dust is almost completely destroyed in the SNRs → H-stripped SNe may be poor producers of dust • Our model treating dust formation and evolution self- consistently can reproduce IR emission from Cas A • Mass of dust in SNe must be dominated by cool dust → FIR and submm observations of SNe are essential