IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-1

Research articleerdFarmers and Wastewater Management - A Case Study ofIntegrated Urban Wastewater Management andAgriculture in Hanoi, Vietnam
NGUYEN LAN HUONG*
National University of Civil Engineering, Hanoi, Vietnam
Email: lanhuong1184@gmail.com

YAMAJI EIJI
Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, University of Tokyo, Chiba, Japan
Received 16 December 2011

Accepted 18 April 2012(*: Corresponding Author)

Abstract The amount of wastewater utilized by urban farmers worldwide is expected toincrease due to the rising amount of wastewater generated from urban population. Despite
the contribution of urban farmers to generate vast quantity of urban waste including solids
and wastewater through agricultural practices, these activities are little recognized bymunicipal’s   management   authorities   or looked down by the communities, resulting ininformal, unplanned and spontaneous practices. Twenty nine farmers from two
communities in peri-urban area of Hanoi were involved in the participatory investigationof individual managerial capacity on farming related to wastewater irrigation, i.e., personalcharacteristics and skills. GIS application and water sampling technique were employed to
study the physical environment; questionnaires, in-depth interviews and participatory
observation were used to investigate the social, economic and institutional environmentthat was hypothesized to influence farmers’ managerial capacity. From the assessment ofwater quality, it can be seen that wastewater irrigation has the potential to be reused forfarmers in terms of nutrient recovery and income generation as well as brings high risk forhuman health relating to pathogens. The factors that influenced farmer’s capacities ofwastewater irrigation governance can be categorized into: Internal factors: (1) age offarmers, (2) experience in wastewater irrigation, (3) knowledge and skill, (4) motivation in
wastewater agriculture; External factors: (1) institutional environment including
regulation on agricultural wastewater use, decentralized/centralized wastewater
management, spatial separation on governance responsibilities of different department,
state of participatory in local cooperatives; (2) physical environment such as climatechange, diseases outbreak, constituent in wastewater; (3) social environment consists ofsocial linkage and norms; (4) economic environment: consumer buying behavior andincome from wastewater agriculture. This research concludes that the farmers’ managerial
behavior were driven more by economical and physical factors, while institutional andsocial factors appeared to discourage farmers from high performance in wastewater
farming.
Keywords farmer managerial capacity, wastewater irrigated agriculture, sustainability andurban wastewater management.

INTRODUCTION
Due to the improper management of wastewater in many cities in Vietnam, a large number ofurban and peri-urban farmers are engaged in the practice of wastewater for irrigation andaquaculture. Especially in Hanoi, the total area irrigated with wastewater is 43,778 ha involving
658,300 farmers (Raschid-Sally and Jayakody, 2008). Despite the amount of wastewater utilized byurban farmers, it is expected to increase due to the rising amount of wastewater generated fromurban population, and the contribution of urban farmers to generate vast quantity of urban wasteⒸ ISERD162

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-1

including solids and wastewater through agriculture practices (Brody Lee et al, 2010), these
activities neither received much recognition by   municipal’s   management   authorities   (Do et al.,2006) nor looked down by the community. Hence, wastewater unitization by urban farmers
remains as informal, unplanned and spontaneous practices.
The farmers’   managerial capacity of wastewater irrigation was studied from both individual
aspect  of  farmers’  management  capacities  (i.e.  personal characteristics and skills including drives
and motivations, abilities and capabilities and biography) and farmers’ performance in theenvironment that is influenced by various factors. Boehlje and Eidman (1984) distinguished four
major dimensions: (1) the institutional environment; (2) the social environment; (3) the physicalenvironment; and (4) the economic environment.
MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY
Study area: Two communities in peri-urban, Thanh Liet and Dong Ba in Hanoi were selected dueto their typical practices of wastewater irrigation and characteristics of participatory irrigation
management (Fig. 1).
Thanh Liet is located about 9 km to the southwest of Hanoi along the 2 major drainage riversof metropolitan areas of the city (To Lich River to the East and Nhue River to the Southwest).
Domestic and industrial effluent from urban areas of Hanoi is diverted to the field with an area ofapproximately 194.51 ha through pumping stations along the Tolich River, which involved 201
Farmer Households. There were 105 ha of agriculture land used for cultivating rice; however, due
to contamination of wastewater, those rice paddies were converted to integrated rice paddy, aquaticplant and fish ponds. Fish and aquatic plant cultivation generates main income for farmers in Thanh
Liet.

Fig. 1 Agricultural land use map of study areas: Thanh Liet (left) and Dong Ba (right)
Dong Ba is located about 15 km from the centre of Hanoi. In dry season due to water shortage,
24 ha of agricultural area are irrigated with diluted wastewater which is the mixture of rainwater
and wastewater generated by the village’s daily activities. The dominant crop is rice with a yield of
5.15 ton/ha. 525 farmer households in Dong Ba only produce rice for family consumption.
Compared to Thanh Liet, agriculture production in Dong Ba does not have much economical value.
Site survey and water sampling: GIS device was used to map the study area, irrigation systems,
water sampling points and cropping pattern. Physical characteristics of irrigation water(temperature, pH, conductivity) were measured onsite using Hanna Instruments, portablemeasurement instrument. Chemical characteristics were measured onsite using test kits from
Kyoritsu Chemical Check Lab. Corp, Japan. Samples were stored in plastic bottles (PET) toⒸ ISERD163IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-1

examine Coliform and E.coli in laboratory using bacteria detection paper from SUNCOLI, Japan.
The samples were then diluted and incubated in 35-37 oC for 24 hours.
Data from water sampling (Table 1) showed that many water quality parameters in both areas
neither meet the National technical regulation on surface water quality - QCVN 08: 2008/BTNMT
nor National Standard -Water quality guidelines for irrigation - TCVN 6773:2000, especiallyshowing very high value of detected E.coli and total coliforms. However, when distributing into theplots, the quality of water showed some improvement from flowing through long distance ofchannels and undergone natural treatment (Fig. 2).
Table 1 Irrigation water quality in the study area at different points in March 2011
Parameter
Sample ID
pHConductivity (mS/cm)
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l)
Total Dissolved Solid (mg/l)
Chemical oxygen
demand (mg/l)
Ammonia Nitrogen(mg/l)
Nitrate-Nitrogen (mg/l)
Phosphate –Phosphorus(mg/l)
Total Iron Fe3++Fe2+ (mg/l)
Copper Cu(mg/l)
Zinc Zn (mg/l)
Lead Pb (mg/l)
E.coli (MPN/100ml)
Total coliforms(MPN/100ml)

QCVN

TCVN

Dong Ba
DI31DD98.56
7.52
0.27
0.32>96130
150
520TD22
7.37
0.67
4345
20

Thanh Liet
TD24 TD31
7.42
7.46
0.65
0.89
<1<1342
460
45120

TD32
7.46
0.99
<1500120

5.5 - 94
30

5.5 - 8.5
10+3(1)
-

0.5
10
0.3-

125
2
0.2>102.2
1.5>100.1
1.1>1002>1002

1.5
0.5
1.5

<0.3<0.5(2)0.215(3)
0.1200(4)200- 38x104<0.3<0.500.4
<0.5
0.5

0.8
<0.5
0.5

0.5
<0.5
0.5

0.5
<0.5
0.2-

0.2
233
26x1040.5
1400
23x105

0.5-

0.5-

0.05
100
7500

Note:
DI31: sample taken at the inlet of Dan Phuong water gate.
DD9: sample taken at the drainage canal to the pump stationin Dong Ba
TD24: sample taken at the Tolich river
TD22, TD31, TD32: samples taken at the Ba Xa drainage
canals(1) applied for agriculture land with irrigation
system(2) applied for agriculture soil with pH6.5(3) applied for agriculture soil with pH>6.5(4) applied for restricted crops ( vegetables andcrops that eaten raw)

Fig. 2 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) variation along main channels, March 2011
The risk of diarrheal disease from consumption of vegetables irrigated with wastewater were
estimated of 2 x 10–3 (WHO, 2006). Wastewater irrigation in the studied areas has some potentialⒸ ISERD

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to be reused by farmers in terms of nutrient recovery (e.g. rich content of Nitrogen and Phosphorus)
and income generation. However, it brings about high risk for human health relating to pathogen
and other hazardous substances.
Interview and participatory observations: General information of the communities andagriculture activities of the farmers were obtained from key informants. Combined informalinterviews and participatory observation were conducted to farmers either at the field whenworking or at their homes.
A total of 29 farmers were interviewed from both areas (Thanh Liet 13/Dong Ba 16). The
number of female participants outnumbered men (18 female /11 male farmers). Most farmers
interviewed were between age 40 and 60 (72.4%); all were literate with primary and upper
education and most were involved in rice cultivation. Farmers in Thanh Liet were more exposed towastewater than Dong Ba farmers in terms of exposure time and concentration of wastewater
because they spend more time on the field for vegetable farming. Most farmer households haveaccess to hygienic latrines with septic tank while fewer farmer households have access to tap water.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Perceptions on wastewater irrigation: Farmers in Thanh Liet have more experience inwastewater agriculture compared to farmers in Dong Ba. They have more knowledge about thecontaminants and risk posed by wastewater, mainly from physical symptoms and experience ofdiseases. Dong Ba farmers on the other hand are more concerned about invisible risks since they
were informed by various channels such as the media or relatives or neighbors, but they insisted
that the irrigation water in Dong Ba is from Red river, and therefore it is clean.
Regarding willingness of farmers to adopt measures in 2 study areas, 59% farmers agreed towear protective clothes; and 76% consider that keeping food and drinks hygienic are effective tokeep their physical health.
Behavioral outcome: It is observed that many farmers in Thanh Liet wear protective clothes,especially rubber gloves and rubber boots to protect the skin from contacting the wastewater. This
practice can be seen on both women and men. In contrast, very few farmers in Dong Ba answeredthat they wear gloves and boots, and many of them said it is not necessary and uncomfortable.
Endogenous environment: Managerial capacity can be reflected from age and experience offarmers. Most farmers interviewed were aged above 40. Hence, they gained more experience inmanaging the farm including irrigation to increase productivity compared to younger farmers.
Through practicing wastewater agriculture they receive more knowledge and develop management
skill to minimize wastewater risks on crops and health. But on the other hand, old farmers weremore hesitating to new technology adoption or carry out new experiments on crops; they prefertheir own way of farming that resulted from many years of experience or learnt from parents.
Motivation in farming also affects farmer’s managerial behavior by encouraging them todevelop knowledge and skills, invest labor and money in wastewater irrigation techniques toincrease productivity. Income from fish and flower farming in 2009 ranges from about 150 mil to
700 mil VND (7,500- 35,000 USD) per ha a year, therefore farmers have more motivation to invest
money and labor to improve irrigation condition, i.e. making settling ponds or pumping oxygen to
boost wastewater treatment processing in the pond and extracting groundwater.
Exogenous environment: The quality of water seems to affect the crop pattern. Thanh Lietfarmers show more adaptation than Dong Ba farmers, they shift from rice to other aquaticvegetables. For over the past 10 years, it is estimated that rice paddies were converted to more than
60 ha of fish pond area of a total of 85 ha in Thanh Liet. While in Dong Ba, 9 ha area of rice paddy
were converted to flower field (Fig. 1).
Sewage and drainage systems in Thanh Liet and Dong Ba were not served by Hanoi Sewage
and Drainage Company (SADCO) but were provided by local irrigation, drainage and sewerage
sectors under the Commune’s PCs. Wastewater discharged from the communes’ everyday activities
were collected through combined covered sewage ditches. These ditches transport wastewater toopen drains or nearby ponds, being the water area in the commune without any treatment ofⒸ ISERD165

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-1

effluent. Some ditches are connected directly to irrigation channel or drain channel in theagriculture areas. Wastewater irrigation management by farmers in these areas were recognized asinformal, short-term and self-interested due to the separation of farmers from urban wastewater
management, ignorance of wastewater irrigation agriculture in the urban food supply chain andlack of regulation relating wastewater reuse and food safety for wastewater irrigated crops. In
addition, centralized urban wastewater system in Hanoi makes barriers for farmers in utilizing
nutrients in wastewater without bearing the risks of hazardous constituents.
Participation in wastewater irrigation is a fundamental concern for wastewater governance at
local level. However, farmers are less motivated to participate and are more dependent on LCs
management scheme (normally 2 or 3 times a week), or by the state if the water is taken from Red
River through Dan Phuong water gate (about 1.5 km away from Dong Ba). They only need to pay
for irrigation service fee and leave the rest to the LCs’ responsibilities.
Physical environment includes weather, diseases on crops and state of wastewater influence on
productivity, cropping pattern and agricultural land use. These physical factors could either
encourage or discourage farmers’ motivation to improve the irrigation condition.
Weak social linkage among farmers, between farmers and local authorities, and between
farmers and consumers influence the information sharing, which prevent them from applying
innovation in farming. Moreover, the contamination of irrigation water seems invisible and is notconsidered important compared to the normal understanding of dirt. These results are not enoughmotivation to improve irrigation quality, while more efforts are put on making products look freshand clean.
Economic environment plays an important role in controlling farmers’ behavior toward
economic benefits and consumer buying habits. Most of wastewater crops and fish were supplied tourban or nearby markets. However, consumers are not aware of the irrigation aspect but only careabout appearance and price. This further induces farmers to produce cheaper products with niceappearance, while, according to farmers, investment in better irrigation conditions does not bringmuch benefit compared to selling wastewater irrigated products.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
Wastewater irrigation system in Hanoi peri-urban agriculture and urban wastewater management
system were found as an integrated system. Despite being linked together regarding urban
wastewater and urban food chain, waste-water farmers behaved independently and self interested
among peers and others, which results in some short terms measures such as to generate income
from wastewater fed fish ponds, aquatic plants or non-food crops, to reduce occupational healthrisks or to keep food and drinks clean to improve health.
Factors that influence farmer’s capacities of wastewater irrigation governance are determined
as: internal factors: (1) age of farmers, (2) experience, (3) knowledge and skill, and (4) motivationin waste-water agriculture; external factors: (1) institutional environment including regulation onwastewater use in agriculture, decentralized/centralized wastewater management, spatial separation
on governance responsibilities of different departments, state of participatory in local cooperatives;(2) physical environment such as climate change, diseases outbreak, constituent in wastewater; (3)social environment consisting of social linkage and norms; and (4) economic environment:
consumer buying behavior and income from wastewater agriculture.
Farmers’ behavior was more driven by economical and physical factors while institutional andsocial factors appeared to discourage farmers from high performance of farming.
Findings from this research were more focused on personal characteristics of farmers and theexternal factors that influence management capacity of farmers on wastewater irrigated agriculture.
However, it is suggested that farmer’s managerial capacity should involve decision making process
to try to optimize, or at least influence the technical and biological process at farms and to include
the assessment of farm results. Nevertheless, a farmer who has favorable characteristics is more
likely to have good results in management practices even if there might have some faults in hisdecision making process.
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RECOMMENDATIONS
From the dynamics of internal and external driving factors, the authors suggest that more efforts
should be made in institutional and social aspects of urban wastewater management relating toreuse of wastewater taken by farmers. The resilience transition of the system could be enhanced byempowering farmers’ managerial capacity toward institutional and social environment. Twomechanisms for strengthening farmers’ managerial capacity on wastewater governance via
wastewater irrigation are proposed, i.e. strengthening social participation and institutional
involvement of farmers.
Farmers should be more involved in the management of wastewater irrigation practice. Thereis a need for a farmer organization, which acts as a wastewater user association. This organization
should be given full authority including planning, design, operation, maintenance, re-habilitation,
resource mobilization and conflict resolution.
Cooperation of different governmental bodies and stakeholders along the urban wastewater
chain and food chain are vital for supporting and strengthening farmers’ managerial capacity. Eachstakeholder has to recognize the common goal of safe wastewater irrigated products. Farmers
should be recognized as the stakeholder in the management of urban wastewater systems. In thismanner, farmers could have access to information to get control over risks and to optimize benefits
from wastewater reuse and at the same time, have responsibility over their products. This could
therefore prevent farmers from behaving like self-interested or spot-market, and could lead to moresustainable and long-term management.
Projects relating farmer capacity building for wastewater irrigation in particularly, NGOs anddonors should consider managerial capacity of farmers within the wastewater farming. Farmers are
more likely to participate in irrigation management if they have more motivation in wastewater
agriculture and they could count on wastewater irrigation as the provision of their livelihood.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to thank the Japanese Ministry of Education, Science, Technology, Sportsand Culture (MEXT) for the financial support, as well as professors, staffs, colleagues and friends
from Graduate Program in Sustainablity Science (GPSS) and Agro-Environmental Engineering
Laboratory, The University of Tokyo for their supports and encouragement.
REFERENCES
Boehlje, M.D.and Eidman, V.R. 1984. Farm management. New York, John Wiley & Sons.
Do, T.T., Hoek, W., Vinh, K., Phung, C.D., Nguyen, H.V. and Dalsgaard, A. 2006. Low risk for helminth
infection in wastewater-fed rice cultivation in Vietnam. Journal of Water and Health, 321-331.
Lee, B., Binns, T. and Dixon, A. 2010. The dynamics of urban agriculture in Hanoi, Vietnam. Urban
Agriculture, The Journal of Field actions.
Raschid-Sally, L. and Jayakody, P. 2008. Drivers and characteristics of wastewater agriculture in developing
countries: Results from a global assessment. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management
Institute.
WHO. 2006. The WHO Guidelines for the safe use of wastewater, excreta and grey water in agriculture.
Volume II: Wastewater use in agriculture. France: The WHO Press, 06.

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