Nihon University Inaugural International Symposium on Gender
Equality in Academia:
What is needed to unleash the potential of female researchers andfoster female leaders in research?
October 8, 2009,
Nihon University, Main Auditorium

Keynote address:
The role of female researchers in a new era: standard bearers for asocial revolution
Kuniko INOGUCHI, Ph.D.
Professor of Political Science
Member of the Science Council of Japan
Former Minister of State for Gender Equality and Social Affairs
Former Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of Japan to the Conference
on Disarmament(C) Kuniko INOGUCHI, Ph.D.

1

Falling behind in social development
Social Development
Political development, deepening of democracy, expansion of political participation,
stabilization of the policy-making process
Economic development, expansion of world trade, technological innovation andmass production have brought about changes such as overcoming poverty and a
growing middle-class.
Social policy, which should be propelled by social, political, and economic
development working in tandem, has been delayed in some countries leading to social
development incommensurate with economic standards due to various reasons andconstraints.
Japan is an example of this as, in the process of aiming for development under the
disadvantage of being a resource-poor nation, it was forced to prioritize economic
policy. Hence, though it became the second largest economy in the world, it also
lagged behind in policies for women, becoming a low birth rate society. Beyond
resource constraints, there are also countries forced to focus excessively on security,and therefore display the same imbalance. An example is the insufficiency of social
policy in Germany, which stood on the front line of the Cold War and has also
experienced the phenomenon of a low birth rate.
2(C) Kuniko INOGUCHI, Ph.D.

Social contradictions encapsulated in a low birth rate
Various indices of social development
Diffusion of education, substantiation of social security, realization of diversity,
proportion of women and minorities in the policy making process, etc.
In Japan, the average life expectancy and infant mortality rate have reached world
standard levels. On the other hand, the trend of exceptionally low fertility ultimatelyreflects contradictions in the structure of society.
The rapid decline in the total fertility rate encapsulates an extreme social contradiction,
namely that society cannot reproduce itself. It conveys the social outcome brought
about by an extreme imbalance, namely the second largest economy which isnevertheless ranked 54th in the Gender Gap Index.

Finally, an era of social development, a time of social revolution!
Is it possible to have clear awareness and change direction? This is a matter not only
for government policies. There must be a new social pact with a sense of ownershipthat resonates with private corporations, research bodies, information media, places of
education, and communities. It is a historic social revolution that will be createdthrough the great number of people who wish to be a part of a larger cause, with thespirit and courage of leaders of change, and through the heroic efforts of countless
individuals in their day-to-day lives.
3(C) Kuniko INOGUCHI, Ph.D.

Change is possible
It is possible to make a difference through a shift to reform andprioritization of social policy through the full efforts of society.
Germany is a good example. The total fertility rate in Germany toward theend of the Cold War fell to 1.25, lower than Japan. However, the dividendsof post-Cold War peace extended also to the field of social security, andwith the diversification and substantiation of family support policies, thebirth rate increased to 1.5 after 10 years, something thought to be
impossible in Japan at present. In 2005, Japan recorded a historical low of
1.26, and after a Special Minister dedicated to family policy was appointed,
the birth rate returned to growth after measures were strengthened,
although the birth rate is still only 1.34. The resolve to build a new society
without receding from the consensus for social development even within a
global recession is the challenge faced by Japan.
(C) Kuniko INOGUCHI, Ph.D.

4

The role of female researchers
As the vanguard of social revolution, researchers should be aware of their
special role. Times of political and social change have always been precededby new ideas and theories. Politics and society undergo change through theguidance of ideas. With regard to democracy, at the dawn of the democratic
revolution, there were guiding ideas about the freedom and equality ofhumankind.
Therefore, it is first necessary to erase the contradiction of delayed social
development in places of research. Nevertheless, in Japan the proportion of
female researchers is 12.4%, close to the lowest among advanced nations,and the gap is especially pronounced in the field of science. The proportion of
female university professors is: 2.2% for engineering, 3.9% for science, 8.2%
for medicine and dentistry, 8.9% for pharmacology, and only 8.1% ofuniversity deans are women. In this situation, female students cannot perceiverole models or a future in a research environment. The world of research,which should be leading by example in the implementation of ideas at theforefront of society, is at risk of becoming a vacuum of social development.
(C) Kuniko INOGUCHI, Ph.D.

5

Difficulties also persist in filling leadership positions with women in other fields. The
percentage of female parliamentarians is 12.3%, 6.4% of prefectural governors, 15.4%
of judges, 12.9% of certified public accountants, 3.6% of managers in private
corporations, 14.7% of journalists, and 4.2% of agricultural committee members.
There are few women in any field or in sufficient numbers to advocate social policies
which have been lagging behind in work/life balance, childrearing support, and family
policy. Even so, women should act rather than despair. They should become thestandard bearers of social revolution by gaining skills, demanding change, and formingcollectives that perceive the big picture. This is because if women do not stand up,
who will make the rapid gains in the fledgling stage of a social revolution of suchsignificance? The main current of social revolution often springs from the minority
faction of a pre-existing system. When the generation that struggles stands up andresolves that future generations will not repeat these hardships, they gain the empathyof forward-looking people who transcend age or gender and create a great tide forchange.
Women who are also researchers have the role of bearing two types of hardship forJapan's social revolution. I hope to discuss the issues and means for concrete change
for female researchers at this symposium.
(C) Kuniko INOGUCHI, Ph.D.

6

Gender Empowerment Measure and Human Development Index
Japan ranks 54th out of 93 countries, the lowest among developed countries, in the GEM (Gender Empowerment Measure) thatmeasures women’s participation in political and economic life as well as in decision-making processes. On the other hand, Japanranks 8th out of 177 countries in the HDI (Human Development Index) that looks at important dimensions of people’s well-being andhuman development.

HDI (Human Development Index)

GEM (Gender Empowerment Measure)1

GEM measures to what
degree women take part inpolitical and economic lifeand participate in decisionmaking. It tracks the share ofseats in parliament held by
women; of female legislators,
senior officials andmanagers; and of female
professional and technicalworkers; and the genderdisparity in earned income.

13 Austria
22 Portugal
23 Trinidad and Tobago
24 Costa Rica
25 Lithuania
26Cuba27Switzerland
28Israel
71 Russia …

Norway0.910

2

Sweden0.906

3Finland0.887

4

Denmark

0.875

5

Iceland0.862

6

Netherlands

0.859

7

Belgium

0.850

8Australia

0.847

9

Germany

0.831

10Canada0.820

Measures well-being ofpeople and the level ofhuman development in acountry by looking at life
expectancy, education(adult literacy and grossenrolment rate) andstandard of living(measured by purchasing
power parity).

1

Iceland0.968

2

Norway0.968

3Australia

0.962

4

Canada0.961

5

Ireland0.959

6

Sweden0.956

7

Switzerland

0.955

8

Japan

0.953

9

Netherlands

0.953

10

France

0.952

12

USA

0.951

14

UK

0.783

15

USA

0.762

18

France

0.718

16

UK

0.946

21

Italy

0.693

20

Italy

0.941

54

Japan

0.557

22

Germany

0.935

Source: “Human Development Report” UNDP, 2007

The State of Women’s Participation by Field
Although women's participation in each field is steadily expanding, the percentage of women remains
low. It is necessary to promote initiatives further still.
○ House of Representatives: 45 of 479 (9.4%) (2/2009)○ House of Councillors:

・138th of 187 nations (data: Inter-Parliamentary Union ＨＰ2008)
・1.9％（10/1952) ⇒ 45 members=9.4％（2008）

44 of 242 (18.2%) (2/2009)○ State deliberative councils:

32.4% (2008)○ Regional legislative assemblies: 10.4% (2007)

・6.0％（4/1953）⇒ 18.2％（2009）
・2.6％（1975）
・4/2006 New target by Headquarters for Promotion of Gender Equality
Members： at least 40% (men and women) of total members by 2020
33.3% female members by end of 2010
・ Prefectures：32.6％、City, wards, towns, villages: 25.2％(2008）○ Management positions in business: 9.7% (2007)

・1.2％（1975）
・Prefectural：8.0％、local：12.3％、town/village：7.7％（2007）○ State officials (management): 1.9% (1/2007)

・USA：41.8％、Germany：37.7％、Sweden：32.3％（2006）
・169 of 9,106 persons○ Legal profession Judiciary: 15.4%, Lawyers: 14.4%, ・USA: 26.3％ (2005)、France：14.0％（2003)
Germany：15.9％（2002）
Prosecutors: 12.2% (2008)
・Judges: 2.1％、Lawyers: 3.3％、Prosecutors：1.0％（1977）○ Researchers:

13.0% (2008)○ Successful candidates of national exam for
medical practitioners: 34.5% (2008)

・7.9％（1992）
・France：27.8％ (2004)、UK：26.0％ (2000)、
Germany：19.2％（2003）
・19.2％（1991）○ Women leaving employment upon 1st birth: 67.4% (2001)

Women in national politics
In the general election of 2005, the House of Representatives reached a historic high of 9%
women. The House of Councillors reached 17.4%.
50

9.4%

10.0%

9.0%
8.4%

Ratio: Women's Member of the House of Representatives (Right Scale)
44

40

45
8.0%

7.3% 7.1%

39
Women's Member of the House of Representatives (LDP)

35 34*LDP was formed in 1955

30

6.0%

Women's Member of the House of Representatives
4.6%
20
2.7%

2.6%

2.4%

15
10

12

1.9% 1.9%
9

9

1.7%
8

Data: House of Representatives

2.3%

2.2%

11 1.5% 1.5% 1.4% 1.6% 1.4%
7
3

0

4.0%

23

3.2%

2

7
2

7
3

8
3

7
2

1.8%
1.2%

11
9

6
1

1

(C) Kuniko INOGUCHI, Ph.D.

26

14
1.6%
8

1.4%

12

27
2.0%

7

10
1

9

4
0.0%

9

Women in local politics
The highest proportion of female legislators is 24.7% in special wards. The figure is 17.2% for Cabinet-designated cities,
11.8% for all cities, 8% for prefectures, 7.7% for local councils. The trend is upward in cities and downward in rural areas.
14.0%

14.0%

12.0%

10.0%

city assembly

Historical trends for women elected in Local Assembly

8.4%

8.0%

7.5%
6.0%

prefectural assembly
4.0%

2.0%

(C) Kuniko

town and village assembly
INOGUCHI
0.0%
1947

1951

1955

1959

1963

1967

1971

1975
1979
1983
(C) Kuniko INOGUCHI, Ph.D.

1987

1991

1995

10 2003

1999

2007

10

Women in education and research
A comparison between men and women teachers reveals that (excluding junior colleges) the higher the level,
the lower the proportion of women. Also, the number of female graduate students and women undertaking
research at universities is extremely low in the fields of science, engineering, and agriculture.
Men (left) vs. women (right) by field (graduate
students and researchers): arts, social, science,
250,000 engineering, agriculture, medicine, other

Comparison of male (left) and female teachers and principals:
primary to tertiary
男性

小学校

中学校
教
員

高等学校

短期大学

校
長
・
学
長

女性

37.2%
（155,993人）

62.8%（263,319人）

58.5%（145,893人）

41.5%（103,616人）

71.5%（172,416人）

200,000

28.5%（68,797人）

51.1%（5,381人）

48.9%（5,143人）

150,000

大学

81.1%（137,861人）

18.9%（32,051人）

小学校

82.2%
（17,838人）

17.8%（3,870人）

中学校
高等学校

0.0%

25.0%

100,000
5.2%（510人）

94.8%（4,729人）

50,0005.2%（262人）

50.0%

64,00950,381

16.3%
（41人）

91.9%
（662人）

大学

212,820

115,04294.8%（9,332人）

83.7%（210人）

短期大学

人文科学
社会科学
理学
工学
農学
医学・歯学
その他の保健その他（教育、芸術など）

8.1%
（58人）
75.0%

0
男性

女性

大学院（修士課程）の学生数

男性

女性

大学等の研究本務者数

100.0%(C) Kuniko INOGUCHI, Ph.D.

内閣府資料（2008）11

International Comparison of Proportion of Female Researchers
Current data (2008): USA: 34.3%, France: 27.8%, UK: 26.0%, Germany: 19.2%, Japan 13.0%(C) Kuniko INOGUCHI, Ph.D.

12

Women in the legal profession
The proportion of female judges, prosecutors, and lawyers is showing a steady increasing trend. Furthermore, thepercentage of female students in new graduate law schools is about 30%, so the role of women in the legal
profession can be expected to increase (red: pre-existing bar exam, dark blue: new bar exam, light blue: judges,
green:
lawyers, orange: prosecutors).
30.0%
27.3%
新司法試験合格者

旧司法試験合格者
25.0%

27.1%
20.0%

15.4%
14.4%
15.0%

裁判官

10.0%

弁護士

12.2%

5.0%

検察官
0.0%
1
9
7
6

1
9
7
7

1
9
7
8

1
9
7
9

1
9
8
0

1
9
8
1

1
9
8
2

1
9
8
3

1
9
8
4

1
9
8
5

1
9
8
6

1
9
8
7

1
9
8
8

1
9
8
9

1
9
9
0

1
9
9
1

1
9
9
2

1
9
9
3

1
9
9
4

(C) Kuniko INOGUCHI, Ph.D.

1
9
9
5

1
9
9
6

1
9
9
7

1
9
9
8

1
9
9
9

2
0
0
0

2
0
0
1

2
0
0
2

2
0
0
3

2
0
0
4

2
0
0
5

2
0
0
6

2
0
0
7

2
0
0
8

13

Women on state deliberative councils
The Headquarters for Promotion of Gender Equality, devised under Minister for gender equality Kuniko Inoguchi, in
its policy statement “Promotion of the advancement of female members of the state deliberative councils” set an
aspirational goal of 40% female membership of deliberative councils by 2020. The percentage of women is showing
a steady increasing trend and was 32.4% in 2008. However, the proportion of expert members that are female
remains small.
35.0%
32.3%
30.9%

30.0%

32.4%

31.3%

28.2%
26.8%
24.7%25.0%

25.0%
20.9%
19.8%

20.0%

18.3%
17.4%
16.1%
15.1%
14.1%

15.0%

9.0%

10.0%

13.9%
12.9% 13.1%

12.4%
11.9%
11.5%
10.6%

11.3%
10.4%
9.6%

7.9%

5.0%
2.4% 2.6%

2.8%

3.5%

4.0% 4.1% 4.3% 4.3%

5.5%
4.9% 5.2%

5.8%

6.3% 6.6% 6.7%

0.0%
1
9
7
5

1
9
7
6

1
9
7
7

1
9
7
8

1
9
7
9

1
9
8
0

1
9
8
1

1
9
8
2

1
9
8
3

1
9
8
4

1
9
8
5

1
9
8
6

1
9
8
7

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
9 9 9 9 9 9 9
8 8 9 9 9 9 9
8 9 0 1 2 3 4(C) Kuniko INOGUCHI, Ph.D.

1
9
9
5

1
9
9
6

1
9
9
7

1
9
9
8

1
9
9
9

2
0
0
0

2
0
0
1

2
0
0
2

2
0
0
3

2
0
0
4

2
0
0
5

2
0
0
6

2
0
0
7

2
0
0
8

14

Transition in Number and Proportion of Female Doctors
The number and proportion of female doctors is steadily increasing, though it has not reached 20% of the total.
From 1990, the number of female doctors has increased by an average of 6% annually. 2006 figure: 17.2%(C) Kuniko INOGUCHI, Ph.D.

15

Percentage of Women Passers of National Medical Examination, Doctors, andMembers and Officials of Japan Medical Association
The percentage of successful female candidates of the national exam for medical practitioners was 32.7%.
16.5% of doctors are women and it is expected that the percentage of female doctors will increase in the future
due to the higher ratio at younger generations. The percentage of female members of the Japan Medical
Association is 13.6%. In contrast, the percentage of the Association's officials that are women is 0%,
demonstrating the difficulty female members have of reaching official positions.

(C) Kuniko INOGUCHI, Ph.D.

16

The Basic Law for a Gender-Equal Society (1999)
Five Basic principles(Article 3) Respect for the 1946 The Constitution of Japan
Formation of a gender-equal society shall be promoted based on respect for the human rights of women and men.
(Article 4) Consideration of social systems or practices
Care should be taken so that social systems and practices have as neutral an impact as possible on selecting social activities.
(Article 5) Joint participation in planning and deciding policies, etc.
Formation of a gender-equal society shall be promoted based on securing opportunities for women and men to participate jointly
as equal partners in the society in planning and deciding policies of the State or local governments, or policies of private bodies.
(Article 6)Compatibility of activities in family life and other activities
Formation of a gender-equal society shall be promoted so that women and men can perform their roles smoothly as household
members in home-related activities.
(Article 7) International cooperation
In consideration of the close relationship between the internal promotion of the formation of a gender-equal society and efforts by
the international community, formation of a gender-equal society shall be promoted based on international cooperation.

(C) Kuniko INOGUCHI(C) Kuniko INOGUCHI, Ph.D.

17

17

Second Basic Plan for Gender Equality (Dec 27, 2005)
Expand women’s participation in decision-making processes
zPromote efforts to expand women’s participation in every field, sothat women will take at least 30% of the leadership positions in all
fields of society by 2020.
zEncourage voluntary positive action to expand women’s
participation in every field of society.
Challenge support for female workers
zPromote challenge support measures and create a one-stop
information service.
zEnhance support measures to assist unemployed women to return towork (e.g., to be re-employed or start a business).
zEncourage companies to openly offer full-time and other positions
to female workers who had left their prior jobs for child rearing orother reasons.
Secure equal opportunities and treatment between men andwomen in the field of employmentzExamine measures to ensure substantial equal opportunities in thefield of employment, and promote equal employment opportunities
and treatment on the job.

Efforts to promote gender equality in new fields
zPromote gender equality in new fields (e.g., science and technology,
disaster prevention, disaster recovery, regional development,
community revitalization, tourism, and environment) that require
new approaches to achieve gender equality.
zExpand employment opportunities for female researchers, andprovide support measures to balance work and family.
zFormulate disaster prevention measures to address the different
needs of women and men.
zHighlight successful examples of regional development in which
women have participated.
zExpand women’s participation in the field of environmental
conservation.

Promote appropriate medicines that address the specific needs ofwomen and men
zDisseminate knowledge about appropriate medicines that addresses
the specific needs of women and men among medical professionals,
as well as citizens.
Gender-equal society for men

Support the efforts of men and women to harmonize work with
their family and community life, and review the types of
employment
zConduct a significant and specific review of the types of
employment for women and men to assist them in balancing workand family and/or community life.
Promote gender equality through the enrichment of educationand learning

Eliminate all forms of violence against women
zPromote measures to protect and support victims of violence.
zPromote measures to prevent violence against women.

Related measures will be formulated and implemented from agender-equal perspective to promote gender equality in all fields(C) Kuniko INOGUCHI, Ph.D.

18

Total Fertility Rate, Number of Births
Both the total fertility rate and the number of births have seen a downward trend since the second baby boom between 1971 and 1974. The
trend reversed in 2006 when the number of births reached 1,112,278, which was an increase by 32,041 from the previous year. This is the firstincrease in 12 years since 1994 when the number of births increased by 51,672.
3,000,000

5.0

1947〜50 1st Baby Boom
TFR
4.32
Births 2,696,638 ※1950

Numbers of Births; Left Scale
Total Fertility Rate(TFR); Right Scale

2,500,000

1971〜74 2nd Baby Boom
TFR
2.14
Births 2,091,983 ※19731966
Year of Hinoeuma

2006
TFR 1.32
Births 1,112,278

2,000,000

2005
TFR 1.26
Births 1,090,237
1995〜99
Angel Plan

1,500,000

4.0

3.0

2000〜04
New Angel Plan
2.0

1,000,000

Rank
1
2
3
4
5
6

500,000

Rank of TFR Rise
previous by year
Year
1967
0.65
1965
0.09
1958
0.07
2006
0.06
1964
0.05
1994
0.04

1.0

2005〜09
Child/ Child care support Plan

2006〜
New Policies to Cope with the Declining Birthrate

0

0.0
1950

55

1960

65

1970

75

1980

(C) Kuniko INOGUCHI, Ph.D.

85

1990

95

2000

"Population Vital Statistics" Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare

2006

19

Trends of Population by Age Structure
If the declining birth rate continues, the total population of Japan will be 100 million by 2045. In 1967, when the
population reached 100 million, the aged ratio (% of population aged over 65) was only 6.6 % whereas in 2045, it isestimated to reach 38.2%.

World Aged Ratio
2006・・・ 7.3％
2050・・・16.2％(C) Kuniko INOGUCHI, Ph.D.
Source: “Population Projections for Japan" National Institute of Population and Social Security

20

New Policies to Cope With the Declining BirthrateChild-raising support measures
Ⅰ Newborn and infant stage（from pregnancy and birth through to the nursingof infants）① Improvement of procedures for the lump-sum allowance for childbirth andnursing② Reduction of the cost burden for medical expenses during pregnancy③ Expansion of public financial support for fertility treatment④ Ensuring thorough usage of and improvement in conditions for paid leave
during initial stages of pregnancy⑤ Enhancement of obstetric medical services through the employment of
more obstetricians, etc.
⑥ Establishment of an extra allowance for infants within the child-support
allowance system⑦ Creation of childcare support network, including home visits to families
engaged in the early stages of raising a family
Ⅱ Stage up to school entry① Enhancement of centers for child-raising support in the community,
targeting all families② Further promotion of Zero Waiting List Campaign③ Enhancement of childcare for sick and recuperating children, and children
with disabilities, etc.
④ Enhancement of the pediatric healthcare system⑤ Look into revising the Law for Promotion of Measures to Support theDevelopment of the Next Generation, including the announcement of an
Action Plan
⑥ Enhancement and Dissemination of system of child-care leave and reduced
working hours⑦ Promotion of childcare service provision to employees, including childcare
facilities established within offices⑧ Promotion of measures to prevent child accidents⑨ Enhancement of efforts to reduce the burden on parents or guardians forpre-school education
Ⅲ Primary school stage① Promotion of the After School Children’s Plan in elementary schools
nationwide② Implementation of further safety measures for children while at school or on
their commute to or from school, including the introduction of school buses
Ⅳ Junior high, high school, and university stage① improvement of scholarships, etc.
② Recommendation of student babysitters, etc.

Reform of working practices① Employment assistance measures for young people→Strengthening career development education to prevent youth frombecoming ‘permanent part-timer” and ‘NEET’ (Not in Education,
Employment or Training)→Support to ‘older’ permanent part-timers to become formal employee② Promotion of equal treatment for part-timers→Strengthened measures including in setting enabling legal frameworks③ Assistance measures for continuing employment or reemployment for
women→Measures to encourage women to take maternity/child care leave and tohelp them balance work and child rearing, including shorter working
hours→Vocational and skills training for women who seek reemployment④ Promotion of corporate efforts for child-raising support→Funding support to companies that deploy child-rearing support system⑤ Review of working practices, including revision of long working hours→Strengthened measures including in setting enabling legal frameworks⑥ Promotion of a joint public-private movement to jointly promote childraising assistance, including reviews of working practices→Promotion of good “Work-Life balance”

Other important areas① Consideration of a taxation system designed to assist those engaged inchild- raising, etc.
② Promotion of foster parent and adoption system, including publicity
activities to raise awareness③ Strengthening of measures to prevent child abuse and measures to support
children in care
④ Promotion of food education⑤ Assistance for family homes, and for situations in which three generationsof one family live together or in close proximity, etc.

(C) Kuniko INOGUCHI(C) Kuniko INOGUCHI, Ph.D.

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Special characteristics of Japan and the futureof the international community
１． Resource poor nation → education, innovation,science and technology
２. Victim of nuclear attack → disarmament andnonproliferation (nuclear and other weapons)• Epistemic Community = networks for resolving problems
devised through transnational frameworks with a view topolicy• Geriatric Peace （the antiwar structure of a low birth rate
aging society in a democracy)
butter or gun → medicine or gun(C) Kuniko INOGUCHI, Ph.D.

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ＳＯＳ＝Solution-Oriented Synergy(networking to resolve problems)• What is knowledge?
• Local knowledge• Affected partners• Raising up voices• Technological innovation to resolve hardships facedby society→ necessity of means with a view to resolution(C) Kuniko INOGUCHI, Ph.D.

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