Japan-China Cultural Exchange Agreement 40th Anniversary Special Exhibition

Three Kingdoms

List of Works

Unveiling The Story
October 1, 2019 (Tue) – January 5, 2020 (Sun)

Organizers: Kyushu National Museum and Fukuoka Prefecture, Art Exhibitions China, NHK Fukuoka Station, NHK PlanNet, Inc. Kyushu Branch Office, The Nishinippon Shimbun, The Asahi Shimbun
Co-organizer: Kyushu National Museum Promotion Foundation
With the Support of: the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, NATIONAL CULTURAL HERITAGE ADMINISTRATION,
Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in Japan, Fukuoka Prefectural Board of Education, Fukuoka City, Fukuoka City Board of Education, Dazaifu City, Dazaifu City Board of Education,
Nishi-Nippon Railroad Co., Ltd., Fukuoka Chamber of Commerce & Industry, Dazaifu City Society of Commerce and Industry, Dazaifu Tourist Association
With the Sponsorship of: Dai Nippon Printing Co., Ltd., Mitsui Sumitomo Insurance Co., Ltd., MITSUI & CO., LTD.
With the Special Cooperation of: Dazaifu Tenmangu
With the Cooperation of: IIDA CITY KAWAMOTO KIHACHIRO PUPPET MUSEUM, KOEI TECMO GAMES CO., LTD., JAPAN AIRLINES, HIKARI Production LTD.

Notes
・Exhibition numbers correspond to the catalogue entry numbers. However, the order of the artworks in the exhibition may not necessarily be the same.
・Works are on view throughout the exhibition period.
・Exhibition lineup may change as circumstances require. Missing numbers refer to works that have been pulled from the exhibition.
・☆ = Chinese First Grade Cultural Relic.
・Audio Guide is available for ¥550 / unit.

Audio No.(), No., Designation, Title,
Excavation year / Location or Artist, etc., Period and date of production, Ownership

Explanatory notes of a work

Prologue: Legends of the Three Kingdoms Period
11Guan Yu
Ming dynasty, 15th–16th century
Xinxiang Museum

2

Zhuge Liang Emerges from the Mountain to serve Liu Bei
Ming dynasty, 15th century
Shanghai Museum

2

Guan Yu was worshipped by later generations as a god of war. This work
portrays him realistically. It is one of the finest examples of a Guan Yu
statue passed down through the generations.
This painting depicts Zhuge Liang (Kongming) finally joining the serviceof the warlord Liu Bei as a military strategist, after Liu Bei had visited him
in person three times to make that request.

3

Narrative Figure Painting

The artist Qiu Ying often painted subjects connected to the Records of
the Three Kingdoms. This work is thought to portray the warlord Liu Bei
visiting the strategist Zhuge Liang.

4

Former Ode on the Red Cliffs

Su Shi wrote the Former and Latter Odes on the Red Cliffs, a tribute to
the heroes of the Three Kingdoms period. This work features the Former
Ode on the Red Cliffs copied out by the calligrapher Zhang Ruitu.

5

Illustrated Scroll of the Latter Ode on the Red Cliffs

This calligraphy of Su Shi’s Latter Ode on the Red Cliffs by the Ming
dynasty artist and scholar Wen Zhengming is illustrated by the painter Lu
Zhi, in dedication to the heroes of the historic battlefield descibed in the
Records of the Three Kingdoms.

6

Guandi Temple Murals

By Qiu Ying
Ming dynasty, 16th century
Shanghai Museum
By Zhang Ruitu
Ming dynasty, dated 1626
Tianjin Museum
By Lu Zhi
Ming dynasty, dated 1553
Shanghai Museum

Passed down by Fulong Temple, Shuimenta, Qingshuihe County, Hohhot
City, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region
Qing dynasty, 18th century
Inner Mongolia Museum

This is a mural from a hall in Guandi Temple. It vividly depicts several
scenes, including: “Defeating the Yellow Turban Rebels,” and so on.

7

Guan Yu and Zhang Fei

Guan Yu was once captured by Cao Cao, who treated him well. On
his way back, he encountered his sworn brother Zhang Fei. Wrongly
assuming Guan Yu had joined the enemy, Zhang Fei flew into a rage,
though he later expressed remorse after realizing his error.

8

Zhao Yun

Pursued by Cao Cao’s forces, Liu Bei was separated from his wifeand child at Changban. Liu Bei’s general Zhao Yun raced alone to thebattlefield and miraculously managed to save Liu Bei’s son Liu Shan.

9

Episodes from the Three Kingdoms

These paintings of famous scenes from the Romance of the Three
Kingdoms show how narrative paintings of stories related to the Recordsof the Three Kingdoms achieved popularity among the common people.

3

By Zhang Yuting
Qing dynasty, 19th century
Tianjin Museum

Passed down by Huaxi building, Bozhou City, Anhui
Qing dynasty, 17th–18th century
Bozhou Museum

Qing dynasty, 18th–19th century
Tianjin Museum

1Audio No.(), No., Designation, Title,
Excavation year / Location or Artist, etc., Period and date of production, Ownership

Explanatory notes of a work

Audio No.(), No., Designation, Title,
Excavation year / Location or Artist, etc., Period and date of production, Ownership

Chapter 1: Cao Cao, Liu Bei and Sun Quan – Tracing the Roots of the Three Great Leaders
10☆

Excavated at Tomb No. 1, Dongyuan Village, Bozhou City, Anhui,1973
Eastern Han dynasty, 2nd century
Bozhou Museum

Brick with Memorial Inscription for Cao Jun

11

Excavated at Tomb No. 1, Yuanbaokeng, Bozhou City, Anhui, 1976–1977
Eastern Han dynasty, 2nd century
Bozhou Museum

13

14

15

Excavated at Tomb No. 1, Baiguoshu Village, Bozhou City, Anhui, 1976
Eastern Han dynasty, 2nd century
Bozhou Museum
☆

18

19

This lavish vessel fit for an emperor was excavated from the tomb of a
“General Zhang.” Zhang may have been a commanding officer underDong Zhuo, a warlord who wielded power during the late Eastern Han
dynasty.

27

Guards of Honor Figurines

This procession was apparently buried in the tomb of General Zhang, apowerful figure from modern-day Gansu province. He may have been
one of Dong Zhuo’s officers. Dong Zhuo temporarily ruled the imperial
court at the end of Eastern Han dynasty.

28

Xiping Stone Classics

The Xiping Stone Classics were carved out to correct discrepancies
in the writing of Confucian texts including The Analects and so on.
Unfortunately, most of these stones were soon destroyed during the
Dong Zhuo war.

29

Spade

The iron tool is the blade tip of a farming implement. During the Eastern
Han dynasty, control of iron farming tools shifted from the state tocivilians.

30

Plow

Excavated at the Yanzhao Site, Zhuozhou City, Hebei, 2001
Eastern Han dynasty, 1st–3rd century
Zhuozhou Museum

This is also the blade tip of a farming implement. Increases in productivity
facilitated the rise of powerful local ruling families.

31

Eating Utensils

These gilt and painted bronze eating utensils were made to be interred ina tomb rather than for practical use, though they still reveal how people
ate meals at that time. As chairs were unavailable, people sat on theirheels or sat cross-legged before the low table.

Mirror Stand

Although this was a model to be buried in a tomb, it demonstrates clearly
how mirrors were used at the time. The mirror is set on a U-shaped frame
toward the middle of the post.

Multi−tiered Lamp

Decorative elements such as human figures and animals are formed into
thin plates and arranged along seven tiers in a diorama-like construction
thought to represent the afterlife. The top plate is designed to hold avotive light.

Coffin with Wickerwork PatternThis earthenware coffin feature wickerwork-mat imprints on the surface
of its longer sides. The use of a coarse earthen coffin instead of a regularwooden coffin may reflect a preference for simple burials.

Five−storied Granary Tower

This object was excavated in Jiaozuo city, where Emperor Xian, the last
Eastern Han emperor, spent the remainder of his days after Cao Pi (WenDi) established the state of Wei in 220.

Four−storied Granary Tower

This model includes figures carrying sacks of grain to be stored inside
the granary, guards, and a watchdog. The figures on the top floor of the
granary is most likely the members of the landowner family.

Tripartite Granary Tower

During the Eastern Han dynasty, the ruling families of Jiaozuo attachedso much importance to granaries that even model ones were the objectof contest for opulence. The grain inside a storehouse was a source ofwealth and power.

MansionSurrounded by watchtowers and high walls, this residence model is as
impregnable as a fortress. Local ruling families during the Eastern Han
dynasty also possessed private army, using their grain reserves to posess
military forces.

26

The inscription on the brick reveals that an ancestor of the warlord
Cao Cao was a magistrate of Kuaiji Commandery (the area that is now
Zhejiang Province).

7☆

Excavated at Leitai Tomb, Wuwei City, Gansu, 1969
Eastern Han dynasty, 2nd–3rd century
Gansu Provincial Museum
Excavated at Leitai Tomb, Wuwei City, Gansu, 1969
Eastern Han dynasty, 2nd–3rd century
Gansu Provincial Museum☆

Jar

Excavated at the Tomb of King Liu Sheng of Zhongshan and His Wife,
Baoding City, Hebei, 1968
Western Han dynasty, 2nd century BC
Hebei Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics☆

This brick probably depicts a figure connected to the Cao clan.

Leopard

Excavated at the Tomb of King Liu Sheng of Zhongshan and His Wife,
Baoding City, Hebei, 1968
Western Han dynasty, 2nd century BC
Hebei Museum

The Liu Sheng era saw iron replacing bronze as a material for swords.
This is one of the last examples of a bejeweled bronze sword.

The artifact is gilt with gold and silver, and inlaid with green glass. No. 14
and 15 stand testament to the splendor of King Liu Sheng of Zhongshan,an ancestor of the warlord Liu Bei.

This is one of four bronze leopards. It is thought the leopards were used
to hold down the four corners of a floor covering where a person of highrank would have sat.

6

Cargo and Passenger Boat

Excavated at Tomb No. 14, Liangjuntong, Guigang City, Guangxi
Autonomous Region, 2010
Eastern Han dynasty-Three Kingdoms period (Wu), 3rd century
Guangxi Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology☆

Excavated at the Taixue Academy Ruins, Yanshi City, Henan
Eastern Han dynasty, 2nd century
Shanghai Museum

Lion

Formerly at the County Academy of Linzi, Shandong
Eastern Han dynasty, 2nd century
Shandong Museum

Animal−shaped Ornaments

Excavated at the Tomb of King Liu Chang of Zhongshan, Dingzhou City,
Hebei, 1969
Eastern Han dynasty, 2nd century
Dingzhou MuseumHorn−shaped Pendant

Excavated at the Jiayuan Site, Zhuozhou City, Hebei, 2004
Eastern Han dynasty, 1st–3rd century
Zhuozhou Museum

Excavated at the Shangniantou Tomb, Zhuozhou City, Hebei, 2005
Eastern Han dynasty, 2nd century
Zhuozhou Museum

32

☆

33

☆

Excavated at Tomb No. 1, Lingyun Kuodan Site, Zhuozhou City, Hebei, 2004
Eastern Han dynasty, 2nd century
Zhuozhou Museum

This type of vessel would have navigated around rivers or coastal areas.
It helped the state of Wu to conduct maritime journeys and foreign trade.

The inscription reads: “This lion was made in Luoyang.’’ Lion ornaments
like this were sometimes presented as gifts from China’s Western
Regions during the Han dynasty.
Small animal-shaped ornaments carved in the round and from all kindsof stones began to appear occasionally in various regions around theturn of the first century, and continued to be produced during the Three
Kingdoms period and later.

Excavated at Tomb No. 1, Lingyun Kuodan Site, Zhuozhou City, Hebei, 2004
Eastern Han dynasty, 2nd century
Zhuozhou Museum

34

8

Excavated at Tomb No. 3, Lingyun Kuodan Site, Zhuozhou City, Hebei, 2004
Eastern Han dynasty, 2nd century
Zhuozhou Museum

35☆

Excavated at Mazuo, Shanyang District, Jiaozuo City, Henan, 1973
Eastern Han dynasty, 2nd century
Jiaozuo Museum

Excavated at the Tomb of King Liu Chang of Zhongshan, Dingzhou City,
Hebei, 1969
Eastern Han dynasty, 2nd century
Dingzhou Museum

Carved from precious jade, this pendant was a tool for undoing knots
that might as well have symbolized the owner’s high-ranking status. It
belonged to a king of the Eastern Han dynasty.

36

☆

20

Metal Belt FittingThis silver belt fitting is modeled after the hair ornament worn by the
Queen Mother of the West, a goddess of immortality. Worship of the
Queen Mother began during the Han dynasty, and continued into theThree Kingdoms period.

37

☆

21

Man Riding an Elephant

22

Brick with Chinese Characters “Cang Tian” (Blue sky)23

Excavated at the Tomb of King Liu Chang of Zhongshan, Dingzhou City,
Hebei, 1969
Eastern Han dynasty, 2nd century
Dingzhou Museum
Excavated at Tomb No. 72, Flood Prevention Channel Section 2, Luoyang
City, Henan, 1954
Eastern Han dynasty, 2nd century
Luoyang Museum
Excavated at Tomb No. 1, Yuanbaokeng, Bozhou City, Anhui, 1976–1977
Eastern Han dynasty, 2nd century
National Museum of China

Tomb−Quelling Urn with the Chinese Characters“Huangshen Beidou” (Yellow God Northern Dipper)

Excavated at Tomb No. 1, Chanchechang, Baoji City, Shaanxi, 1979
Eastern Han dynasty, 2nd century
Baoji Bronzeware Museum

242Wine Cask

This jade pig was discovered in a tomb that most experts believe wasused to inter the bodies of Cao Cao’s father Cao Song and his wife.

Chapter 2: The Han Dynasty – Shadow and Light17

The pattern on the back surface is split into three tiers, with each tierdepicting deities, immortals and dragons. It is believed to be deeply
connected to the Way of the Five Pecks of Rice, a religious movementthat surrendered to Cao Cao in 215.

Excavated at Xishan, Mianyang City, Sichuan, 1984
Eastern Han dynasty, 2nd–3rd century
Mianyang Museum

Sword Adorned with Jades

Excavated at the Tomb of King Liu Sheng of Zhongshan and His Wife,
Baoding City, Hebei, 1968
Western Han dynasty, 2nd century BC
Hebei Museum

16

5

Mirror with Three−tiered Deity and Immortal Design

25

Brick with Illustration of Human Figure

124Jade Pig

Seal with the Chinese Characters “Tiandi Shizhe”(Envoy of the Heavenly Emperor)

Excavated at Jujia Village, Yangping Township, Baoji City, Shaanxi, 1987
Eastern Han dynasty, 2nd century
Baoji Chencang Museum

Explanatory notes of a work

38

Elephants were items of tribute from the southern lands to the Han
Emperors, and immortal sages were thought to ride them. Sun Quan, theruler of Wu, also presented an elephant to Cao Cao, the ruler of Wei.

Excavated at Baizhuang, Macun District, Jiaozuo City, Henan, 2009
Eastern Han dynasty, 2nd century
Jiaozuo Museum
Excavated at the China Construction Bank Site, Jiaozuo City, Henan, 2005
Eastern Han dynasty, 2nd century
Jiaozuo Museum
Excavated at the Jianye Company Site, Shanyang District, Jiaozuo City,
Henan, 2001
Eastern Han dynasty, 2nd century
Jiaozuo Museum

Chapter 3: Wei, Shu and Wu – A Tripartite Battle for Supremacy
This brick was used in the Cao family tomb. The Chinese charactersderives from the slogan of the Yellow Turban Rebels that read: “The blue
sky has died; the yellow sky is rising.”
The inscription reads, “The Yellow God and the Big Dipper shall sparethe deceased and the bereaved family as well as their descendants from
misfortune. Such is the law.” Although it is an incantation, the ending isstyled after administrative documents of the time.

9

39

40

Crossbow

Excavated at Tomb No. 1, Inkstone Pool at Former Residence of Wang
Xizhi, Linyi City, Shandong, 2003
Three Kingdoms period (Wei), dated 241
Linyi Museum

SpearsExcavated at the Tomb of King Liu Chang of Zhongshan, Dingzhou City,
Hebei, 1969
Eastern Han dynasty, 2nd century
Dingzhou Museum

Crossbows like this used a bronze mechanism built into the main bodysection to fire arrows.

These weapons were common during the Three Kingdoms period.
Spears consisted of flat, elongated heads mounted on wooden shafts,
used to stab at enemies.

This seal used by an early Daoist society during the Eastern Han dynasty
is carved with the inscription “Envoy of the Heavenly Supreme God.” The
tortoise-shaped handle imitates the official seal of a government office.
3

Audio No.(), No., Designation, Title,
Excavation year / Location or Artist, etc., Period and date of production, Ownership

Excavated at the tomb of King Liu Chang of Zhongshan, Dingzhou City,
Hebei, 1969
Eastern Han dynasty, 2nd century
Dingzhou Museum

Sword

42

Excavated at Qigou Village, Zhuozhou City, Hebei, 1989
Eastern Han dynasty, 2nd–3rd century
Zhuozhou Museum

Spears43

Excavated at Tomb No. 32, Baihuzui, Mianyang City, Sichuan, 1998
Eastern Han dynasty–Three Kingdoms period (Shu), 2nd–3rd century
Mianyang Museum

Ji Polearm

44

Excavated at Tomb No.1, Songlinpo, Mianyang City, Sichuan, 2007
Eastern Han dynasty–Three Kingdoms period (Shu), 2nd–3rd century
Mianyang Museum

46☆

These shields are of a type with a handle on the reverse side. The longshafts on the top and bottom and the central projection allowed thebearer to not only block the enemy's attacks, but even occasionally pushthem back.

Arrowheads

Excavated at the Ancient Chibi (Red Cliff ) Battlefield Site, Chibi City, Hubei[Iron arrowheads] Eastern Han dynasty–Three Kingdoms period (Wu), 3rd
century
Chibi Museum☆

50

Warrior Figurine

This warrior figurine was placed close to the entrance of a Wu tomb.
The helmet-clad appearance offers a valuable glimpse into how warriors
dressed during the Three Kingdoms period.

Model Warship

The kingdoms of Wei and Wu built floating fortresses called louchuan(literally “tower ships”) for their battles along the Chang Jiang (Yangtze
River). This model provides insight into louchuan of the time.

Dated 2015
Ezhou Museum

Caltrops

52

Excavated at Mount Dingjun, Mian County, Hanzhong City, Shaanxi, 1985
Eastern Han dynasty–Three Kingdoms period, 3rd century
Mian County Museum

Stone Rubbing of “Gun Xue” Chinese characters

53

54

Original work: Shimen Tunnel, Hanzhong City, Shaanxi
20th century (Original work: Eastern Han dynasty, 3rd century)
Hanzhong Museum☆

Gold Seal with Chinese Characters “Pian Jiangjun
Yinzhang” (Lieutenant General’s Seal)

Acquired close to Juxianyan, Jiangbei District, Chongqing City, 1982
Eastern Han dynasty, 1st century
Chongqing China Three Gorges Museum

11

55

56

4

Plate with Picture of Children

Excavated at the Tomb of Zhu Ran, Ma'anshan City, Anhui, 1984
Three Kingdoms period (Wu), 3rd century
Ma’anshan City, the Three Kingdoms Zhu Ran Family Cemetery Museum

Iron and Charcoal Stove

Excavated at the Tomb of Zhu Ran, Ma’anshan City, Anhui, 1984
Three Kingdoms period (Wu), 3rd century
Ma’anshan City, the Three Kingdoms Zhu Ran Family Cemetery Museum

Warriors Going to the Battlefield

Excavated at Tomb No. 1, Zhu Ran Family Cemetery, Ma’anshan
City, Anhui, 1996
Three Kingdoms period (Wu), 3rd century
Ma’anshan City, the Three Kingdoms Zhu Ran Family Cemetery Museum

The Chinese characters read “Lieutenant General’s Seal.” When Guan Yu,
originally a follower of the warlord Liu Bei, yielded to Cao Cao, he wasappointed as a lieutenant general, and at that time he must have received
a seal such as this one.
The inscription on the bottom tells us this was made in the country ofShu. It was excavated from the tomb of Zhu Ran, a Wu general who
captured the Shu military commander Guan Yu.
This set consists of an iron and charcoal stove. The heated charcoal wasplaced inside the iron and used to press the wrinkles out of clothes. It
may have been used by the Wu general Zhu Ran during his lifetime.

This hairpin was excavated from a tomb belonging to the generation of
the Wu general Zhu Ran's offspring. Images of women wearing a similar
kind can be seen in artifacts like pictorial stone carvings from the Handynasty.
Based on the shapes of their diadems and hats, these warriors arethought to be the “southwestern barbarians” described in history books.
Although they rebelled against Shu rule, they were suppressed andpacified by the Shu chancellor Zhuge Liang’s Southern Campaign.

Seals with Chinese Characters “Meng Teng”

The Three Kingdoms recounts how Zhuge Liang fought against a local
leader called Meng Huo during a military expedition in the south. These
seals reveal that there was a powerful leader called Meng family.

60

Wine Warming Vessel

The upper surface of this vessel’s handle features a dotted-line engravingof a dragon. Dotted-line engravings are a common feature of bronze
vessels from Jiaozhou in southern Wu. This vessel, excavated in southernShu, points to the close relations between the two regions.

61

Jar with a Handle

No. 60-63 were all excavated from the tomb of powerful clans that
migrated from the interior of China to the southern part of Shu. As far
as can be determined from these bronze vessels, their culture did not
differ much from that of the interior areas. The items offer a faint glimpse
into the true nature of the main force behind the “barbarous tribes” that
Zhuge Liang fought in his Southern Campaign.

62

Yan Food Steamer

Excavated at Tomb No. 2, Erpingzhai, Zhaotong City, Yunnan, 1954
Three Kingdoms period (Shu)–Western Jin dynasty, 3rd century
Yunnan Provincial Museum
Excavated at Tomb No. 1, Guijia Yard, Zhaotong City, Yunnan, 1960
Eastern Han dynasty, 2nd century
Yunnan Provincial Museum
Excavated at Tomb No. 1, Guijia Yard, Zhaotong City, Yunnan, 1960
Eastern Han dynasty, 2nd century
Yunnan Provincial Museum

Excavated at Tomb No. 1, Guijia Yard, Zhaotong City, Yunnan, 1960
Eastern Han dynasty, 2nd century
Yunnan Provincial Museum

It is a steamer consisting of a vat set on top of a cauldron.

Lamp Holder

64

She−Mao (Snake Spear)

Excavated at Tomb No. 3, Mount Shizhai, Kunming City, Yunnan, 1956
Shizhaishan culture, 2nd century BC
Yunnan Provincial Museum

This spear is reminiscent of the “snake spear” described as the favorite
weapon of the general Zhang Fei in the Romance of the Three Kingdoms.

1265

Seal with Chinese Characters “Cao Xiu”

This is the only seal attributed with certainty to a character from theRecords of the Three Kingdoms. The size and antiquity of the excavatedtomb leaves no doubt that this is indeed the seal of Cao Xiu, a relative of
Cao Cao who served as a Wei general.

12

66

These caltrops were planted along narrow paths, shallow, traversable
waters and other key thoroughfares to impede the progress of enemy
processions. A number have been excavated at Mount Dingjun, the siteof a fierce battle between Wei and Shu.
After capturing Hanzhong Commandery in the Battle of Yangping Pass,
Cao Cao wrote the Chinese characters gun xue (“flowing snow”) on arock face along the Bao River, inspired by how the splashing of its waters
resembled snow. When one of his subordinates commented that thecharacter gun was missing the radical for “water,” Cao Cao pointed to
the river beside him, and replied, “Is this not water?”☆

Explanatory notes of a work

63

Bronze arrowheads predominated in ancient China, but starting during
the Han dynasty, advances in iron-making techniques and improvements
on ever powerful crossbows facilitated the spread of stronger ironarrowheads.
The back of the sword bears an inscription inlaid in gold, praying forprotection against evil. The swords that King Sun Quan of Wu had forgedwith the inscription da Wu (“Great Wu”) are thought to have been similar
to this one.

Excavated at Tomb No. 1, Lulinfan, Chibi City, Hubei, 1999
Three Kingdoms period (Wu), 3rd century
Chibi Museum

51

The bronze launching device called crossbow is engraved with an era
name and year corresponding to 222, as well as the names of the maker,
the owner, and the subordinate users. The specification of the latter two
categories is a distinguishing feature of Wu examples.

Long Sword with Ring−shaped Ornament

Excavated at Tomb No. 1, Ezhou Iron and Steel Co. Materials Factory Site,
Ezhou City, Hubei, 1987
Three Kingdoms period (Wu), 3rd century
Ezhou Museum

58

59

Ji polearm grew more diverse in form over time, like this example with its
curved side blade. The existence of special types requiring expert skill inthe martial arts is also known.

Gou Xiang Shields

Crossbow

HairpinEastern Han dynasty–Three Kingdoms period (Shu), 2nd–3rd century
Yunnan Provincial Museum

This type of spear is completely made of iron, right down to the hilt. This
type of weapon is believed to have been thrown at enemies.

Thanks to innovations in blacksmithing techniques that allowed different
types of steel to be bonded together, long iron swords became common
during the Three Kingdoms period.

Excavated at Jinancheng, Jingzhou City, Hubei, 1972
Three Kingdoms period (Wu), dated 222
Hubei Provincial Museum

48

10

Sword was originally made of bronze, but cheaper, more durable ironswords eventually prevailed, and their blades became longer and larger
as well.

(1) Excavated at Hejiashan, Mianyang City, Sichuan, 1990
(2) Excavated at Yangjiadian, Mianyang City, Sichuan, 1987
(3) Excavated at Mianyang City, Sichuan, 1990
Eastern Han dynasty–Three Kingdoms period (Shu), 3rd century
Mianyang Museum
Excavated at Baihuzui Tombs, Mianyang City, Sichuan, 1998
Eastern Han dynasty–Three Kingdoms period (Shu), 3rd century
Mianyang Museum

57

The ji polearm was a weapon similar to a halberd or dagger-axe, which
was either mounted to the end of a shaft or held directly in the hands.

Long Swords with Ring−shaped Ornament

45

49

Audio No.(), No., Designation, Title,
Excavation year / Location or Artist, etc., Period and date of production, Ownership

Ji Polearm

41

47

Explanatory notes of a work

Excavated at Tomb No. 1, Guijia Yard, Zhaotong City, Yunnan, 1960
Eastern Han dynasty, 2nd century
Yunnan Provincial Museum

Excavated at the Tomb of Cao Xiu, Mengjin County, Luoyang City, Henan,
2009
Three Kingdoms period (Wei), 3rd century
Luoyang City Cultural Relics and Archaeology Research Institute☆

Daigou (Belt Buckle)

Excavated at the Tomb of Cao Xiu, Mengjin County, Luoyang City, Henan,
2009
Three Kingdoms period (Wei), 3rd century
Luoyang City Cultural Relics and Archaeology Research Institute67

Daigou (Belt Buckle)

68

Stone Sphere

Excavated at the Cihu Electromagnetic Wire Factory Site, Ma’anshan City,
Anhui, 1993
Three Kingdoms period (Wu), 3rd century
Ma’anshan Museum
Excavated at the ruins of New Hefei Castle, Hefei City, Anhui, 2004
Three Kingdoms period (Wei), 3rd century
Hefei Luyang Dongpu Wetland Park Management Center

Chariot Wheel Spikes

69

This artifact originally had a fire bowl on top, and the lamp would be lit
using oil and a wick made from plant matter.

Excavated at the ruins of New Hefei Castle, Hefei City, Anhui, 2004
Three Kingdoms period (Wei), 3rd century
Hefei Luyang Dongpu Wetland Park Management Center

This object was excavated from the tomb of Cao Xiu, Cao Cao’s nephew.
Cao Xiu died from an infection after fighting against the Wu forces.

This metal fastener for a waist sash is designed to represent an animal
grasping a fish. Although it was excavated from a Wu tomb, the similar
object (No. 66) was found in the tomb of the Wei general Cao Xiu.
New Hefei Castle was built by Wei forces. Stone spheres like theseserved as weapons at the fortress. It seems trebuchets were used tolaunch them at the Wu army.
These spikes were excavated from New Hefei Castle, the Wei forces’
frontline base against the Wu. They may have been weapons attached toboth ends of the axles of chariot wheels in order to scatter the enemy in
the field.

Chapter 4: A Journey Through the Three Kingdoms
13

70

☆

Gold Seal with Chinese Characters“Guannei Hou Yin” (Seal of Marquis Guannei)

Excavated at Dongshilai, Xintai City, Shandong, 1976
Eastern Han dynasty–Three Kingdoms period (Wei), 2nd–3rd century
Shandong Museum

71☆

Gold Seal with Chinese Characters“Wei Guiyi Di Hou” (Submitted Marquis Di of Wei)
Three Kingdoms period (Wei), 3rd century
Gansu Provincial Museum

Marquis of Guannei was a noble title that guaranteed a certain income.
It was a prestigious title that ranked fourth after the emperor, regional
kings, and full marquises.

This gold seal was presented by the state of Wei to the leader of the Di,an ethnic group that lived in northwestern China. The states of Wei, Shu,and Wu all gave gifts such as gold and silver seals to win favor with thelocal forces living along their borders.

5Audio No.(), No., Designation, Title,
Excavation year / Location or Artist, etc., Period and date of production, Ownership

72

☆

73

☆

74

☆

Inkstone with Five Dragons Design

This circular inkstone has a lid decorated with five dragons in relief. As
ink during the Three Kingdoms period was granulated, it was mixed withwater on top of the inkstone and ground with a stone to produce liquidink.

-3 “Pavillion”

The roof of the three-storied pavilion is decorated with a phoenix-shaped
ornament and long, thin banners. Figures in black are shown to the left ofthe pavilion, with acrobats and jugglers along with spectators to the right.

88

Tomb Guardian Figurine

This horned, fanged figurine with a long tongue dangling down to its
chest controls a poisonous snake with its left hand. It was excavatedfrom an Eastern Han dynasty tomb in Shu, where it was buried to protect
the tomb with its supernatural powers.

14

89

Dancing Figurine

1490Dancing Figurine

This figurine has the same posture as No.89. This might be a symbolic
depiction of a dance that was popular in Shu from the Eastern Han
dynasty to the Three Kingdoms period.

1491

Zither−playing Figurine

This type of figurine was made for burial in tombs. Colorful lifelike
figurines with gentle countenances were produced in the Shu-controlled
Yi province (modern-day Sichuan province and Chongqing).

14

92

Storytelling Figurine

The writing suggests this round sheet of paper served as a cushioning
material in a lacquered box used to store a bronze mirror before being
reused as writing material.

75

Mirror with Animal Motifs

Two animals are placed diagonally to each other. The inscription reads,“This mirror bears the auspicious creature, the tianlu. Thus it shall bringits owner such wealth as royalty or the nobility.” The tianlu was a mythicalanimal.

76

Table for Liubo (Ancient Chinese Board Game)This board was used for a game similar to snakes and ladders popular inancient China. Players placed pieces on the board, and rolled a die-likeobject to determine how far to move their pieces.

77

ToiletThis model shows a pig pen attached to an outhouse toilet. Humanwaste was used as feed for the pigs. Many models of this type of toilet
have been excavated from the Wei capital region in what is now Henan
Province.

78

Mirror with a Square and TLV Patterns, and Bird Motifs

79

Three−legged Kettle

80

Food and Drink Warming Vessel

Excavated at Fulongping Tomb, Lanzhou City, Gansu, 1987
Eastern Han dynasty, 2nd century
Lanzhou Museum
Acquired in 1994
Eastern Han dynasty, 1st–2nd century
Luoyang Museum
Excavated at Wu Village, Song County, Luoyang City, Henan, 1988
Eastern Han dynasty, 2nd century
Luoyang Museum
Excavated at Baoji City, Shaanxi
Eastern Han dynasty, 2nd century
Baoji Bronzeware Museum
Excavated at Tomb No. 1, Sandaohao, Liaoyang City, Liaoning, 1955
Eastern Han dynasty–Three Kingdoms period (Wei), 2nd–3rd century
Liaoning Provincial Museum
Excavated at the Dongmenli Tomb, Liaoyang City, Liaoning, 1983
Eastern Han dynasty, 2nd century
Liaoyang Museum

Both three-legged kettles and vessels (No.80) for warming wine were
widely prevalent throughout the territory of the Han dynasty.

These objects with rotund bodies (No. 79-80) were particularly preferredin the area of what is now Liaoyang City.

Vessel with Handle

This vessel features a handle resembling an upside-down letter “F”
attached to a body shaped like a truncated cone. This type of vessel was
mainly found in north-eastern China in Liaoyang, Liaoning province, theseat of power of the Gongsun clan regime. Similar vessels have beenfound on the Japanese archipelago near the Japan Sea.

Excavated at Tomb No. 16, Miaopu, Liaoyang City, Liaoning, 2008
Eastern Han dynasty–Three Kingdoms period (Wei), 3rd century
Liaoyang Museum

Oven

83

He Container

84

Cutting Board with a Blade and Fish Motif

85

Well

Excavated at Tomb No. 16, Miaopu, Liaoyang City, Liaoning, 2008
Eastern Han dynasty–Three Kingdoms period (Wei), 3rd century
Liaoyang Museum
Excavated at Tomb No. 50, Miaopu, Liaoyang City, Liaoning, 2008–2012
Eastern Han dynasty–Three Kingdoms period (Wei), 3rd century
Liaoning Province Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology
Excavated at Tomb No. 25, Miaopu, Liaoyang City, Liaoning, 2014
Eastern Han dynasty–Three Kingdoms period (Wei), 3rd century
Liaoning Province Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology
Excavated at the Painted Tomb of Che Qi, Liaoyang City, Liaoning, 1943
Eastern Han dynasty–Three Kingdoms period (Wei), 3rd century
Liaoyang Museum

Stele of Wuqiu Jian’s Achievements

Excavated at Banchaling, Ji’an City, Jilin, Early 20th century
Three Kingdoms period (Wei), dated 245
Liaoning Provincial Museum

Many ovens with this shape combining circular and trapezoidal portions
have been found in the area of Liaoyang City in northeastern China. They
may be linked to the Gongsun clan who held power in the area.
Many containers with curved sides have been excavated from the area ofwhat is now Liaoyang City.
Models of cutting board with a fish and sword design have been
excavated from Liaoyang City as well. No. 81-84 may also have somelink to the Gongsun clan.
This model of a well is unusual for the surrounding railing and the ramps
on each side. It may represent a communal well for fire fighting, etc.
The Record of the Three Kingdoms recounts how the state of Wei
attacked and thoroughly defeated the Goguryeo kingdom before erecting
a monument in the conquered land.

Copies of the Beiyuan No.1 Tomb Murals

Original: Tomb No. 1, Beiyuan, Liaoyang City, Liaoning
20th century(Original: Eastern Han dynasty–Three Kingdoms period (Wei), 3rd century)
Liaoning Provincial Museum-1 “Procession of Chariots and Horses”

Excavated at Tomb No. 47, Maituo, Wushan County, Chongqing City, 1999
Eastern Han dynasty, 1st century
Chongqing China Three Gorges Museum
Excavated at Chongqing City
Eastern Han dynasty–Three Kingdoms period (Shu), 2nd–3rd century
Chongqing China Three Gorges Museum
Excavated at Chongqing City
Eastern Han dynasty–Three Kingdoms period (Shu), 2nd–3rd century
Sichuan Museum
Excavated at Chongqing City
Eastern Han dynasty–Three Kingdoms period (Shu), 2nd–3rd century
Chongqing China Three Gorges Museum
Excavated at Tomb No. 11, Huadeng Tombs, Zhong County, Chongqing
City
Eastern Han dynasty–Three Kingdoms period (Shu), 2nd–3rd century
Chongqing China Three Gorges Museum

This mirror has a similar design to the Table for Liubo (No. 76). This
mirror’s design and inscription share many similarities with mirrors
excavated from kofun burial mounds in Japan.

Excavated at the Dongmenli Tomb, Liaoyang City, Liaoning, 1983
Eastern Han dynasty, 2nd century
Liaoyang Museum

8287This mural copy shows part of a procession on horseback. The pole in
the upper left has two tiers of black and red tasseled decorations. The“yellow banner” that the state of Wei presented to the ancient Japanese
queen Himiko is presumed to have resembled to this one in shape.

This ruler was made by carving graduations onto a thinly-whittled animalbone. This reveals that a “chi” unit during the Three Kingdoms period
measured around 24 cm.

Excavated at Tomb No. 2, Beizhai, Yinan County, Shandong, 1994
Eastern Han dynasty–Three Kingdoms period (Wei), 2nd–3rd century
Yinan County Museum☆

Explanatory notes of a work

Ruler

Paper with Ink Writing

86

Audio No.(), No., Designation, Title,
Excavation year / Location or Artist, etc., Period and date of production, Ownership-2 “Procession of People on Horseback”

Excavated at Tomb No. 2, Xincheng, Jiayuguan City, Gansu, 1972
Three Kingdoms period (Wei), 3rd century
Gansu Provincial Museum

81

6

Explanatory notes of a work

14

93

Lady Figurine

14

94

Cooking Figurine

Excavated at Dashiba Subdistrict Junior High School 72 Site, Jiangbei
District, Chongqing City
Eastern Han dynasty–Three Kingdoms period (Shu), 2nd–3rd century
Chongqing China Three Gorges Museum
Excavated at the Three Gorges Reservoir Area, Chongqing City
Eastern Han dynasty–Three Kingdoms period (Shu), 2nd–3rd century
Chongqing China Three Gorges Museum☆

A half-naked man kneels on one knee as he cheerfully tells a story. This
unusual type of entertainer was known as a shuochang or paiyou.

A woman holds what seems to be a fish in her left hand and a duck in
her right. The scene portrays Yi province as a land in rich agricultural
products.

A man kneels before a chopping block laden with food such as fish or
the heads of livestock.

Dog

This large statue of a watchdog was buried near the entrance to a Shu
tomb. Many similar figures dated to the late Eastern Han dynasty havebeen found, indicating the turbulent social climate of the times.

96

Model Pond

This model of an irrigation pond for paddy fields has a small boat, ducks,
lotuses, and fish. Paddy fields and ponds were the economic foundationof the manors run by the local ruling families of Shu, and the source of
their wealth.

97

Brick with Image of the Queen Mother of the West

The Queen Mother of the West, a goddess of immortality, sits on the
dragon and tiger throne in the center. The man before her pray to the
Queen Mother to make him fly to the abode of the Daoist immortals,
becoming one was believed to be the ultimate happiness.

Brick with Scene of Horses and Carts Embarking on a JourneyThis brick was set in the wall of a tomb. A horse-drawn cart crosses
a bridge, accompanied by an attendant on horseback. The group's
destination must surely be the paradise where the Queen Mother of theWest resides.

Brick with Scene of Salt Production

Though inland, the state of Shu was a producer of salt since ancient
times. Liu Bei earned vital funds for the state coffers by establishing asalt monopoly.

100

Bricks with Image of Sacred Tree

These bricks shows human figures worshipping trees. On one of them,an inscription next to the tree reads mulian, a type of sacred tree. Many
artifacts related to tree worship like Money Tree (No. 150) have beenfound in Shu.

101

Writing Knife with a Horse Motif

This is a shudao, a knife used like an eraser to scrape off characters
written on wood or bamboo tablets. The inscription, inlaid in gold,
indicates that it was produced at a government-managed workshop in
Shu.

95

Excavated at Tomb No. 3, Mount Tianhui, Chengdu City, Sichuan, 1957
Eastern Han dynasty–Three Kingdoms period (Shu), 2nd–3rd century
Sichuan Museum
Excavated at Tomb No. 3, Mount Tianhui, Chengdu City, Sichuan, 1957
Eastern Han dynasty–Three Kingdoms period (Shu), 2nd–3rd century
Sichuan Museum
Excavated at Zhaojue Temple, Chenghua District, Chengdu City, Sichuan
Eastern Han dynasty, 2nd century
Sichuan Museum

98

☆

99

☆

Excavated at Tiaodenghe, Chengdu City, Sichuan, 1956
Eastern Han dynasty, 2nd century
Sichuan Museum
Excavated at Huapaifang, Qionglai City, Sichuan
Eastern Han dynasty, 2nd century
Sichuan Museum
Excavated at Zitong County, Mianyang City, Sichuan
Eastern Han dynasty, 2nd century
Mianyang Museum

Eastern Han dynasty, dated 104
Liaoning Provincial Museum

This is a copy of a mural that decorated the wall of a tomb in what is now
Liaoyang City in Liaoning Province, which was the base of the Gongsun
clan. It depicts three chariots escorted by troops on horseback.

A cap-wearing woman stoops slightly. Her raised right hang grips a
sleeve while her left hand gently tugs at her robe’s long hem.

102

Bamboo Writing Strips

Excavated at Zoumalou, Changsha City, Hunan, 1996
Three Kingdoms period (Wu), 3rd century
Changsha Jiandu Museum

These are long, thin bamboo strip with writing. Many Wu bamboo writing
strips like this were found at Zoumalou in Changsha city, Hunan province.

7

Audio No.(), No., Designation, Title,
Excavation year / Location or Artist, etc., Period and date of production, Ownership

103 ☆

Wooden Tablets with Chinese Characters“Tongzi Shi Chuo” (The Boy Shi Chuo)

Excavated at Tomb No. 1, Echeng Cement Plant Site, Ezhou City, Hubei,
1978
Three Kingdoms period (Wu), 3rd century
Ezhou Museum

The inscription reads, "The boy Shi Chuo offers his regards. How areyou? My ancestral home is Gaoyou County in Guangling Commandery,
and my courtesy name is Jiaoyu." Tablets such as these were used likecalling cards, and there were rules regarding their size, etc.

104 ☆

Cosmetic Tray

Excavated at Tomb No. 1, Echeng Cement Plant Site, Ezhou City, Hubei,
1978
Three Kingdoms period (Wu), 3rd century
Ezhou Museum

Boards like this one are thought to have been used as makeup palettes
while drawing the eyebrows or preparing whiting. They are more often
than not found buried with women in Wu tombs.

105

Figurines

Although Wu figurines were unsophisticated, their depicted subjects
and formats were extremely diverse. These effigies, such as the ones
with conical hats, the ones wearing diadems, and the one seated with abound hairstyle, all reflect different official functions.

107 ☆

Cauldron

The inscription indicates that this cauldron was the 3,438th piece tobe produced at a government-managed workshop in the Wu capital of
Wuchang (now Ezhou) in 222. This was soon after the relocation of thecapital, making production and development urgent tasks for Wuchang.

108

Mirror with Images of Deities and Beasts

Production of bronze mirrors flourished in the area of Ezhou City in Hubei
Province during the Three Kingdoms period. Chinese mirrors depicting
deities and beasts with similar projecting parts have been excavated inJapan.

109

Mirror with Images of Deities and Beasts Viewed from a Single
Angle

Excavated at Tomb No. 1, Caitangjiao, Huangpi District, Wuhan City, Hubei,
2001
Three Kingdoms period (Wu), 3rd century
Wuhan Museum
Excavated at the Egang Factory Well Ruins, Ezhou City, Hubei, 1977
Three Kingdoms period (Wu), dated 222
Ezhou Museum
Excavated at Egang 630, Ezhou City, Hubei, 1970
Eastern Han dynasty–Three Kingdoms period (Wu), 2nd–3rd century
Ezhou Museum

Excavated at Egang Elementary School Site, Ezhou City, Hubei, 1979
Eastern Han dynasty–Three Kingdoms period (Wu), 2nd–3rd century
Ezhou Museum

110

Mirror with Images of Deities and Beasts and Chinese Characters“Jiahe Wu Nian” (Wu Jiahe Year Five)
Excavated at Tomb No. 1, Echeng Xinmiao Spring Steel Plate Factory Site,
Ezhou City, Hubei, 1991
Three Kingdoms period (Wu), dated 236
Ezhou Museum

111

Mirror with Buddhist Diety, Kui Phoenix Design

112

Flat Circular Flask

Excavated at Tomb No. 1, Echeng Power Plant Site, Ezhou City, Hubei,
1994
Three Kingdoms period (Wu), 3rd century
Ezhou Museum
Excavated at Tomb No. 7, Mount Guojia, Nanjing City, Jiangsu, 1984
Three Kingdoms period (Wu), dated 259
Nanjing Museum Administration

The smooth and lustrous green celadon glaze is typical of ancient
Yue ware. The Mount Guojia area of Nanjing City where this flask was
excavated contains many tombs of the Wu elite.

114 ☆

Funerary Jar

Funerary jars like this were made from the Wu period to the Eastern Jin
dynasty. As if to emphasize the prosperity of the Jiangnan area, the upper
section of this jar is tightly packed with pavilions, storage pots, cattle andpeople.

115 ☆

Ge−type Container

116 ☆

Seated BuddhaThis seated Buddha was placed in the corridor connected to the front
and back chambers of a tomb. This reveals how Buddhist statues werecreated to serve as objects of worship from the very beginning.

117 ☆

Jar with Plate−shaped Mouth

Dragons and phoenixes are painted using iron pigment, and figures of
Buddhist deities, etc. have been attached to the body. The exotic design
demonstrates how the state of Wu, which prospered through external
trade, became a fertile ground for culture.

Excavated at Tomb No. 1, Guojianao, Egang Technical Reform Area, Ezhou
City, Hubei, 2008
Three Kingdoms period (Wu), 3rd century
Ezhou Museum
Excavated at Tomb No. 4, Tangjiaotou, Shishan, Ezhou City, Hubei, 1992
Three Kingdoms period (Wu), 3rd century
Ezhou Museum
Excavated at Daxinggong District, Nanjing City, Jiangsu, 2002
Three Kingdoms period (Wu), 3rd century
Nanjing Museum Administration

Glass Bowl

15

120

String of Beads

15

121

String of Beads

17

Excavated at Tomb No. 13, Fengliuling, Guigang City, Guangxi Autonomous
Region, 1955
Eastern Han dynasty, 1st–3rd century
Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region Museum
Excavated at Tomb No. 15, Guigang City High School Site, Guangxi
Autonomous Region, 1955
Eastern Han dynasty, 1st–3rd century
Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region Museum

122

Raised−floor Storehouse

123

Stove

124

Wu Zhu Coin

Excavated at Tomb No. 8, Tuguiling, Hepu County, Guangxi Autonomous
Region, 1999
Eastern Han dynasty, 1st–3rd century
Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region Museum
Excavated at Tomb No. 1, East Lake New Village, Guigang City, Guangxi
Autonomous Region, 1955
Eastern Han dynasty, 1st–3rd century
Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region Museum
Excavated at the Tomb of Cao Xiu, Mengjin County, Luoyang City, Henan,
2009
Three Kingdoms period (Wei), 3rd century
Luoyang City Cultural Relics and Archaeology Research Institute125

Zhi Bai Wu Zhu Coins126

Da Quan Dang Qian Coins

Excavated at Shajiazhuang Village, Laodaosi Town, Mian County, Hanzhong
City, Shaanxi, 1985
Three Kingdoms period (Shu), 3rd century
Mianxian Museum(1) Excavated at the Tomb of Shangfang, Jiangning District, Nanjing City,
Jiangsu, 2005
(2) Excavated at Taowu, Jiangning District, Nanjing City, Jiangsu, 1982
(3) Excavated at Tomb No. 4, Daishan, Nanjing City, Jiangsu, 2009
Three Kingdoms period (Wu), 3rd century
Nanjing Museum Administration

127 ☆

-1 Stone Tablet with Inscriptions-2

Stone Tablets with Inscriptions-3
Excavated at the Cao Cao Mausoleum, Anyang City, Henan, 2008–2009
Eastern Han dynasty–Three Kingdoms period (Wei), 3rd century
Henan Provincial Institute of Cultural Heritage and Archaeology

18

Bronze drums like this one with three-dimensional ornaments of frogs,
figures on horseback, and birds are thought to be connected to a groupof tribes called the Shanyue that inhabited the Wu territories.

Excavated at Tomb No. 5, Road and Railway Intersection Site, Guigang City,
Guangxi Autonomous Region, 1955
Eastern Han dynasty, 1st–3rd century
Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region Museum

Explanatory notes of a work

Glass produced in Jiaozhou in southern Wu (modern-day Guangdong
and Guangxi, for example) used potassium nitrate and quartz, althogh
glass was mainly made from lead and barium in ancient China.

Shi Xie was a Wu vassal and a powerful figure in Jiaozhou (modernday Guangdong and Guangxi). Glass products were among the tributearticles that Shi Xie gave to Sun Quan each year.

Experts say the navy blue beads may have been produced in China andthe red beads in India or Southeast Asia.

In the province of Jiaozhou in the southern part of the Wu state (nowProvinces like Guangdong, Guangxi, etc.), storehouses, even model
ones, had raised floors.

The stove displays features designed for the hot and humid climate, suchas the chimney angled outward to expel both smoke and heat far away
as much as possible.

The state of Wei continued to use the Wu Zhu bronze coins of the Handynasty.

When the Shu ruler Liu Bei extended his domain to the area of Sichuan
Province, he issued Zhi Bai Wu Zhu coins with the offical value of one
hundred Wu Zhu in order to overcome financial difficulties.

In the state of Wu, Sun Quan also issued Da Quan Dang Qian coins
forcibly equivalent to one thousand Wu Zhu, but they had a poor
reputation and were eventually abolished.

Chapter 5: The Cao Cao Mausoleum and Other Grand Tombs from the Three Kingdoms Period

A ge was a container with different compartments. During a period that
continued from Wu through the Jin dynasty, more and more practicalceladon items that could be used in everyday life were mass-produced.

Bronze Drum

Excavated at Guzhu Village, Heping District, Teng County, Guangxi
Autonomous Region, 1964
Three Kingdoms period (Wu)–Northern and Southern dynasties, 3rd–6th
century
Guangxi Museum of Nationalities

119

A Buddhist deity with a halo is represented inside one of the leaves
stretching out in the four directions. This artifact provides valuable insight
into early Chinese Buddhism.

Full-scale celadon production began in the state of Wu during the Three
Kingdoms period. Ram-shaped vessels like this one are a prime example
of such stoneware.

Excavated at the Tomb of Shangfang, Jiangning District, Nanjing City,
Jiangsu, 1993
Three Kingdoms period (Wu), dated 272
Nanjing Museum Administration

15

Images of various deities are arranged in a staircase pattern, showingthat numerous deities were worshipped in Wu at the time. These ancientfaiths later developed into Daoism.

Ram−shaped Zun Wine Vessel

Excavated outside Caochang Gate, Nanjing City, Jiangsu, 1958
Three Kingdoms period (Wu), dated 265
Nanjing Museum Administration

Audio No.(), No., Designation, Title,
Excavation year / Location or Artist, etc., Period and date of production, Ownership

Deities and beasts are depicted as if viewed from one and the same
direction. Only a few parts of the inscription are decipherable.

113 ☆

118 ☆

8

Explanatory notes of a work

These are tablets inscribed with a list of burial objects. The verticallylong tablet read “The large and favorite ji halberd of the King Wu of Wei(Cao Cao) to strike down a tiger (-1).” As such, it played a decisive role inidentifying the tomb as the Cao Cao Mausoleum. The inscriptions on theother tablets read: “A collar with a red pattern and a white undergarment
fit together well (-2),” and “an 80cm tall folding screen (-3).”

128

Three−legged Kettle

129

Guan Jar

Excavated at the Cao Cao Mausoleum, Anyang City, Henan, 2008–2009
Eastern Han dynasty–Three Kingdoms period (Wei), 3rd century
Henan Provincial Institute of Cultural Heritage and Archaeology

This is a storage jar that most likely contained food or the like for thedeceased, and may have been produced in southern China.

130 ☆

Guan Jar

This jar is made of white porcelain fired at high temperatures. This jar isthe oldest example of white porcelain in the moment, so its provenancewill remain a mystery until we can discover some similar objects or otherrelated materials.

131
132

Hairpin
Ornamental Plate

133

Mold

Excavated at the Cao Cao Mausoleum, Anyang City, Henan, 2008–2009
Eastern Han dynasty–Three Kingdoms period (Wei), 3rd century
Henan Provincial Institute of Cultural Heritage and Archaeology

Excavated at the Cao Cao Mausoleum, Anyang City, Henan, 2008–2009
Eastern Han dynasty–Three Kingdoms period (Wei), 3rd century
Henan Provincial Institute of Cultural Heritage and Archaeology

Excavated at the Cao Cao Mausoleum, Anyang City, Henan, 2008–2009
Eastern Han dynasty–Three Kingdoms period (Wei), 3rd century
Henan Provincial Institute of Cultural Heritage and Archaeology
Excavated at the Cao Cao Mausoleum, Anyang City, Henan, 2008–2009
Eastern Han dynasty–Three Kingdoms period (Wei), 3rd century
Henan Provincial Institute of Cultural Heritage and Archaeology

Only powerful people could be buried with several ding vessels. No one
could bury twelve ding vessels, the largest number, at that time, but anemperor.

Many unique items were found buried in the mausoleum of Cao Cao, thefounder of the state of Wei. No. 131 and 132 are good examples; though
their purpose is unknown.
When the two prongs on top are held together, the shell-shaped part
opens laterally. There is no bottom plate. Since no similar examples have
yet been found, its purpose is unknown.

9Audio No.(), No., Designation, Title,
Excavation year / Location or Artist, etc., Period and date of production, Ownership

134

Horn−shaped Pendant

135

Round Agate Plate

136

137

19

Excavated at the Cao Cao Mausoleum, Anyang City, Henan, 2008–2009
Eastern Han dynasty–Three Kingdoms period (Wei), 3rd century
Henan Provincial Institute of Cultural Heritage and Archaeology
Excavated at the Cao Cao Mausoleum, Anyang City, Henan, 2008–2009
Eastern Han dynasty–Three Kingdoms period (Wei), 3rd century
Henan Provincial Institute of Cultural Heritage and Archaeology

Leg Supports

Excavated at the Cao Cao Mausoleum, Anyang City, Henan, 2008–2009
Eastern Han dynasty–Three Kingdoms period (Wei), 3rd century
Henan Provincial Institute of Cultural Heritage and Archaeology

Attendant Figurine

Excavated at the Cao Cao Mausoleum, Anyang City, Henan, 2008–2009
Eastern Han dynasty–Three Kingdoms period (Wei), 3rd century
Henan Provincial Institute of Cultural Heritage and Archaeology

This is a figurine buried so that it might serve its departed master in theafterlife. The finish is extremely crude, in contrast with the scale andstructure of the mausoleum.

139 ☆

Gold Metal Belt Fitting with Animal Design

An auspicious animal writhes across the body of this fitting, with gold
particles and precious stone inlays used to enhance the adornment.
Metal belt fittings like this were also coveted by Cao Pi, the emperor of
Wei.

140 ☆

Stone Tablets with Inscriptions

These tablets are inscribed with the names of funerary goods; similar
examples were excavated from the Cao Cao Mausoleum, including
belt fittings called xianbeitou and a silk fabric called jian that is alsomentioned in the "Book of Wei" in the Records of the Three Kingdoms.

141 ☆

Xianbeitou (Belt Buckle) with Dragon Design

Excavated at Shouchun Ancient Tomb, Shou County, Huainan City, Anhui,
2009
Eastern Han dynasty, 2nd century
Shou County Museum
Excavated at Tomb No. 1, Xizhu Village, Luoyang City, Henan, 2015–2016
Three Kingdoms period (Wei), 3rd century
Luoyang City Cultural Relics and Archaeology Research Institute

143
144

145

146

147

148

149

Gui Tablet and Bi Tablet

Excavated at the Tomb of Cao Zhi, Dong’e County, Liaocheng City,
Shandong, 1951
Three Kingdoms period (Wei), 3rd century
Cultural Relics Administration of Dong’e County

Round Plate
Round Plate

21

According to Chinese geological science, these objects are made of amaterial known as wormkalk. Artifacts made of the same stone material
have also been excavated from the tomb of Cao Cao’s son Cao Zhi.

The burial chamber of the Cao Cao Mausoleum was constructed frombricks, but pictorial stone carvings were used in some parts. Although
they were destroyed by grave robbers, some large fragments offer clues
to the subjects.

Excavated at the Cao Cao Mausoleum, Anyang City, Henan, 2008–2009
Eastern Han dynasty–Three Kingdoms period (Wei), 3rd century
Henan Provincial Institute of Cultural Heritage and Archaeology

Audio No.(), No., Designation, Title,
Excavation year / Location or Artist, etc., Period and date of production, OwnershipA very colorful agate piece like this is extremely rare.

Pictorial Stone Carvings

142

10

This is a tool that has been found exclusively in imperial and royal tombs(cf. No.19). It was used to untie sashes by inserting the end into the knot
for loosening.

138

Western Jin dynasty, 3rd century
Shanghai Museum

20

Explanatory notes of a work

22

150 ☆

Money Tree

Excavated at Shixiang Village, Xinfeng Town, Guanghan City, Sichuan, 1983
Eastern Han dynasty, 2nd century
Guanghan Cultural Relics Administration (Guanghan Museum)

Explanatory notes of a work

Board-shaped branches and leaves unfurl in all directions. They aredecorated with images of the ageless Queen Mother of the West and a
Daoist immortal riding on a deer. The branches are also festooned with
about 400 bronze coins. The objects probably had some kind of religious
significance in Shu regions.

151

Money Tree Stand

Excavated at Tomb No. 2, Linkou Cemetery, Fengdu County, Chongqing
City, 2012
Eastern Han dynasty–Three Kingdoms period (Shu), 3rd century
Chongqing Cultural Heritage Research InstituteThis is a stand for a bronze money tree like No.150, though only thestand was found in the tomb. The plinth resembles an imaginary creature
known as a bixie.

152 ☆

Coffin Ornament with Celestial Design

This disk that adorned a wooden coffin is engraved with an imageof a pair of covered gateposts, such as those found in a palace. The
inscription between the gateposts reads “Celestial Gate,” indicating that
this is the entrance to a heavenly realm where the immortals dwell.

153

Circular Tile with Human Face

154

Tiger−shaped Coffin Stand

Excavated at Xiaogouzi, Jiangdongzui, Wushan County, Chongqing City,
2005
Eastern Han dynasty–Three Kingdoms period (Shu), 2nd–3rd century
Chongqing China Three Gorges Museum
Excavated at Tomb No. 1, Shangfang, Jiangning District, Nanjing City,
Jiangsu, 2006
Three Kingdoms period (Wu), 3rd century
Nanjing Museum Administration

This is a circular eaves tile with a human face. Jianye (present-day
Nanjing) became the Wu capital after Sun Quan became the Wu emperor.
It subsequently became the center of a new cultural movement.

Excavated at Tomb No. 1, Shangfang, Jiangning District, Nanjing City,
Jiangsu, 2006
Three Kingdoms period (Wu), 3rd century
Nanjing Museum Administration

This is a stone coffin stand. In ancient times, a crouching tiger
symbolized the pacification of a region through military successes.

155

Ring

This ring is carved with a design of two dragons facing one another. The
item in their mouths may be a hair ornament symbolizing the Queen
Mother of the West, a goddess thought to possess the elixir of eternallife.

An auspicious animal writhes across the body of this belt fitting. Somescholars think the Western Jin emperor Sima Yan had this specially madeto coincide with his ascension to the throne.

156

Writing Brush and Writing Knife

During the Three Kingdoms period, bamboo and wood tablets werealso used as writing materials in addition to paper. This shudao knife forscraping writing errors off the surface of bamboo or wood tablets andwriting brush would have been essential items for an intellectual. The useof celadon-glazed stoneware makes them distinctively Wu relics.

Both of these are traditional Chinese ritual implements, though theserituals fell into disuse from the Eastern Han period onwards. When Cao
Cao became the Duke of Wei, he revived the ancient ceremonial system.

157 ☆

OxcartIn ancient China, nobles traveled around in carriages. Excavatedmaterials suggests ox-drawn carriages were also used from the end of
the 2nd century, with this usage increasing in the state of Wu during theThree Kingdoms period.

Excavated at the Tomb of Cao Zhi, Dong’e County, Liaocheng City,
Shandong, 1951
Three Kingdoms period (Wei), 3rd century
Cultural Relics Administration of Dong’e County

No. 143 and 144 are polished into lens shapes, and seem to have been
set inside plates.

Stone Sphere

Excavated at Tomb No. 1, Shangfang, Jiangning District, Nanjing City,
Jiangsu, 2006
Three Kingdoms period (Wu), 3rd century
Nanjing Museum Administration
Excavated at Tomb No. 1, Shangfang, Jiangning District, Nanjing City,
Jiangsu, 2006
Three Kingdoms period (Wu), 3rd century
Nanjing Museum Administration
Excavated at Tomb No. 1, Shangfang, Jiangning District, Nanjing City,
Jiangsu, 2006
Three Kingdoms period (Wu), 3rd century
Nanjing Museum Administration

Epilogue: The End of the Three Kingdoms Period and the Rise of a New Power
158

Brick with Inscription Reading “Jin Ping Wu Tianxia Daping”

The inscription reads: “This tomb’s occupant is named Zhu. He hailed
from Jiangcheng and he lived in Shangmiao. In 280, the Jin dynasty
subdued the state of Wu, with peace and tranquility then reigning.”

This may also be a part of fitting. The stone is known as "Wormkalk" in
Chinese geology, and examples from the Three Kingdoms period have
only been found in the Cao Cao Mausoleum (No. 136) and the tomb of
Cao Zhi.

Excavated at Tomb No. 1, Suoshu Brick Factory Site, Jiangning District,Nanjing City, Jiangsu, 1985
Western Jin dynasty, dated 280
Nanjing Museum Administration

159

Crown Decoration with Cicada Design

This gold crown ornament with a cicada design was worn by rulers
or chief vassals. This was excavated from a large brick-roomed tomblocated in an area associated with the renowned calligrapher Wang Xizhi.
The tomb’s occupant is thought to be a high-ranking figure.

Cups with ears were used for wine or soup. Perhaps Cao Zhi is still
composing poetry in the afterlife while drinking wine from these cups.

160

The Chinese characters for medicine were imprinted on these jars before
firing. The medicine was probably a longevity elixir imbued with a prayerthat the deceased would continue to live peacefully in the next world.

Excavated at the Tomb of Cao Zhi, Dong’e County, Liaocheng City,
Shandong, 1951
Three Kingdoms period (Wei), 3rd century
Cultural Relics Administration of Dong’e County

Wei animal figurines are simple compared to those of the Eastern Han
dynasty, yet have a certain charm. The garden of Cao Zhi's estate may
have contained domestic animals such as these.

Tomb Doors

These stone doors were installed in a large burial chamber. A guard lifting
up a shield is carved into the left door, with a man holding a broom on theright. Both have a respectful posture, as if greeting a person of exalted
rank at the entrance.

Excavated at the Tomb of Cao Zhi, Dong’e County, Liaocheng City,
Shandong, 1951
Three Kingdoms period (Wei), 3rd century
Cultural Relics Administration of Dong’e County

23

Cups of Handles

Excavated at the Tomb of Cao Zhi, Dong’e County, Liaocheng City,
Shandong, 1951
Three Kingdoms period (Wei), 3rd century
Cultural Relics Administration of Dong’e County

Guan Jars

Excavated at the Tomb of Cao Zhi, Dong’e County, Liaocheng City,
Shandong, 1951
Three Kingdoms period (Wei), 3rd century
Cultural Relics Administration of Dong’e County

Waterfowl, Chicken and Dog

Excavated at the Lanjia Courtyard Site, Pidu District, Chengdu City,
Sichuan, 1977
Eastern Han dynasty, 2nd century
Sichuan Museum

Excavated at Tomb No. 1, Inkstone Pool at Former Residence of Wang
Xizhi, Linyi City, Shandong, 2003
Western Jin dynasty, 3rd century
Linyi Museum

Guan Jars

Excavated at Tomb No. 1, Inkstone Pool at Former Residence of Wang
Xizhi, Linyi City, Shandong, 2003
Western Jin dynasty, 3rd century
Linyi Museum

These small jars in deep brown glaze were excavated from a large tombthat was the final resting place of three infants. They are sure to havecontained treasures befitting children of the Western Jin dynasty elite.

161

Jar

This jar was part of a set of about thirty pieces of fine celadon-glazed
stoneware from the same tomb. In addition to confirming booming celadon
production in the region just south of the lower reaches of the Yangtze
River at the time, they also demonstrate the high status of the deceased
and the local character of Linyi, an area of strategic importance.

162

Lion−shaped Water Pot

This lion-shaped celadon vessel stands out among similar objects for its
beautiful form. It was excavated from the Western Jin capital of Luoyang,which enjoyed a brief period of prosperity after such a long war-torn era.

Excavated at Tomb No. 1, Inkstone Pool at Former Residence of Wang
Xizhi, Linyi City, Shandong, 2003
Western Jin dynasty, 3rd century
Linyi Museum
Excavated at Mining Machinery Plant Site, Luoyang City, Henan, 1972
Western Jin dynasty, 3rd–4th century
Luoyang Museum

33

Naval Warfare and Arrows in the Romance of the Three Kingdoms

16

The Cao Cao Mausoleum

11No. 151 Money Tree Stand