MINDSPACE
Influencing behaviour through public policy

2Discussion document – not a statement of government policy

Contents

Foreword

4

Executive Summary

7

Introduction: Understanding why we act as we do

11

MINDSPACE: A user‟s guide to what affects our behaviour

18

Examples of MINDSPACE in public policy

29

Safer communities

30

The good society

36

Healthy and prosperous lives

42

Applying MINDSPACE to policy-making

49

Public permission and personal responsibility

63

Conclusions and future challenges

73

Annexes

80-84

MINDSPACE diagram80

New possible approaches to current policy problems

81

New frontiers of behaviour change: Insight from experts

83

References

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85

3Foreword

Influencing people‟s behaviour is nothing new to Government, which has often
used tools such as legislation, regulation or taxation to achieve desired policy
outcomes. But many of the biggest policy challenges we are now facing – such as
the increase in people with chronic health conditions – will only be resolved if weare successful in persuading people to change their behaviour, their lifestyles ortheir existing habits. Fortunately, over the last decade, our understanding of
influences on behaviour has increased significantly and this points the way to new
approaches and new solutions.
So whilst behavioural theory has already been deployed to good effect in someareas, it has much greater potential to help us. To realise that potential, we haveto build our capacity and ensure that we have a sophisticated understanding ofwhat does influence behaviour. This report is an important step in that direction
because it shows how behavioural theory could help achieve better outcomes for
citizens, either by complementing more established policy tools, or by suggesting
more innovative interventions. In doing so, it draws on the most recent academic
evidence, as well as exploring the wide range of existing good work in applying
behavioural theory across the public sector. Finally, it shows how these insights
could be put to practical use.
This report tackles complex issues on which there are wide-ranging public views.
We hope it will help stimulate debate amongst policy-makers and stakeholders andhelp us build our capability to use behaviour theory in an appropriate and effectiveway.

4

Sir Gus O‟Donnell

Sir Michael Bichard

Cabinet Secretary andExecutive Director,

Head of the Home Civil Service

Institute for Government

Discussion document – not a statement of government policy

About the authors

Paul Dolan is a Professor of Economics in the Department of Social Policy at theLSE. His research focuses on developing measures of subjective well-being foruse by policy-makers and applying lessons from behavioural economics tounderstand and change individual behaviour. Paul has advised various UK
government departments and he is currently chief academic adviser on economic
appraisal for the Government Economic Service.
Michael Hallsworth is a Senior Researcher at the Institute for Government. He
has conducted cross-government research into organisational behaviour,
machinery of government changes, and information technology. His current
research focuses on behaviour change and public policy-making. Previously, he
was at RAND Europe (a not-for-profit public policy research institute), specialisingin futures thinking and performance management.
David Halpern is Director of Research at the Institute for Government. He was
Chief Strategist at the Prime Minister‟s Strategy Unit between 2001 and 2007. He
is the author of Social Capital and The Hidden Wealth of Nations (both Polity
Press), and a co-author of the report Changing Behaviour and Personal
Responsibility. Prior to this, he was a University Lecturer in the Faculty of Socialand Political Sciences at Cambridge University.
Dominic King is a Specialty Registrar in General Surgery and a Clinical Research
Fellow in the Department of Surgery and Cancer at Imperial College London. He iscurrently researching the role of behavioural economics in developing effective
health policy, including the impact of personalised health budgets, the role ofincentives in changing health behaviours and the design of robust research
protocols in behaviour change research.
Ivo Vlaev is a Senior Lecturer in Psychology in the Faculty of Medicine at Imperial
College London. His research focuses on studying human judgment and decisionmaking by exploring models and methods from experimental psychology,
behavioural economics, and neuroscience. His specific research topics are
behaviour change, risk attitudes, consumer behaviour, cooperation, and well-being.
This report represents a truly collaborative effort between the five of us and, in theeconomists‟ tradition, we are listed alphabetically.

Discussion document – not a statement of government policy

55About this report

In 2009, Sir Gus O‟Donnell, Cabinet Secretary and Head of the Home Civil
Service, asked Matt Tee, Permanent Secretary for Government Communication, toreview the implications of behavioural theory for policy-making. The Cabinet Officecommissioned the Institute for Government to produce this report, exploring theapplication of behavioural theory to public policy for senior public sector leadersand policy-makers. It is a key part of a programme of work designed to build
capacity and capability in this area across the Civil Service.
We have approached the topic collaboratively. The programme began with abehaviour change summit in May 2009, which brought together senior policy,
strategy and insight officials from across government, alongside a number ofexternal experts.
We approached the report by first developing an understanding of how and where
behavioural theory is currently being used in public services, and the challenges it
presents. The report is grounded in a series of interviews with senior civil servants,
academics and behaviour change experts but the views expressed in the report
are those of the authors and Institute for Government. Our thanks go to the many
people we interviewed as part of our research. We would also like to thank Dr
Robert Metcalfe for his work analysing the effects that underpin MINDSPACE.
This is the full version of the report. Those looking for a summary of the main
practical applications may wish to consult the Short Version, also availableat www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk.

6Discussion document – not a statement of government policy

Executive summary

Influencing behaviour iscentral to public policy,
and government can draw
on a potentially powerful
new set of tools

Influencing behaviour is central to public policy. Recently, there have been majoradvances in understanding the influences on our behaviours, and government
needs to take notice of them. This report aims to make that happen.
For policy-makers facing policy challenges such as crime, obesity, or
environmental sustainability, behavioural approaches offer a potentially powerful
new set of tools. Applying these tools can lead to low cost, low pain ways of“nudging” citizens - or ourselves - into new ways of acting by going with the grain of
how we think and act. This is an important idea at any time, but is especiallyrelevant in a period of fiscal constraint.
Recently, many books and reports have highlighted the potential benefits thatbehavioural approaches can bring to public policy. This report is not just an
overview of theory; it addresses the needs of policy-makers by:

Policy-makers areinterested, but need help
in applying insights inpracticeCondensing the relevant evidence into a manageable “checklist”, to ensure
policy-makers take account of the most robust effects on our behaviour

Demonstrating how behavioural theory can help meet current policy
challenges, including full case studies of its application in the UKShowing how government can build behavioural theory into its current
policy-making practices

Exploring important issues around the need for public permission and therole of personal responsibility

This report has emerged from many discussions with senior civil servants andministers. All indicated that there was a real appetite to absorb and apply the latest
thinking, in order to equip the civil service to meet the pressing challenges ahead.
But they also felt that more help was needed to translate this appetite into action.
In practice, how can these ideas actually help government make policy better?
They are interesting effects but, fundamentally, “So what?”
This report tries to answer the “so what?” question for policy-makers.

MINDSPACE: a checklist for policy-makers
The vast majority of public policy aims to change or shape our behaviour. And
policy-makers have many ways of doing so. Most obviously, they can use “hard”
instruments such as legislation and regulation to compel us to act in certain ways.
These approaches are often very effective, but are costly and inappropriate inmany instances. So government often turns to less coercive, and sometimes very
effective, measures, such as incentives (e.g. excise duty) and information provision(e.g. public health guidance) – as well as sophisticated communications
techniques.

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77

Why, then, is there a need to change anything? Behavioural theory suggests two
reasons. First, the impact of existing tools such as incentives and information canbe greatly enhanced by new evidence about how our behaviour is influenced(some of which has already been incorporated into government communications).
Second, there are new, and potentially more effective, ways government could
shape behaviour.
Tools such as incentives and information are intended to change behaviour by“changing minds”. If we provide the carrots and sticks, alongside accurate
information, people will weigh up the revised costs and benefits of their actions andrespond accordingly. Unfortunately, evidence suggests that people do not always
respond in this „perfectly rational‟ way.
In contrast, approaches based on “changing contexts” - the environment within
which we make decisions and respond to cues - have the potential to bring aboutsignificant changes in behaviour at relatively low cost. Shaping policy more closelyaround our inbuilt responses to the world offers a potentially powerful way to
improve individual wellbeing and social welfare.

MINDSPACE is a checklistof influences on our
behaviour for use when
making policy

With this in mind, we set out nine of the most robust (non-coercive) influences on
our behaviour, captured in a simple mnemonic – MINDSPACE – which can beused as a quick checklist when making policy.
Messenger

we are heavily influenced by who communicates information

Incentives

our responses to incentives are shaped by predictable mental
shortcuts such as strongly avoiding losses

Norms

we are strongly influenced by what others do

Defaults

we „go with the flow‟ of pre-set options

Salience

our attention is drawn to what is novel and seems relevant to us

Priming

our acts are often influenced by sub-conscious cues

Affectour emotional associations can powerfully shape our actions

Commitments

we seek to be consistent with our public promises, andreciprocate acts

Ego

we act in ways that make us feel better about ourselves

Meeting policy challenges
We show how this framework can help tackle challenges in three major areas ofpolicy: crime and anti-social behaviour; pro-social behaviour, such as voting andvolunteering; and healthy and prosperous lifestyles. For each policy area we givecase studies of innovative evidence-based interventions, including:How the logic of gang membership was used to combat gang violence(Norms)

How inertia helped us save more for retirement (Defaults)How giant bananas reduced littering (Salience)

We also show how MINDSPACE can generate new approaches to specific policy
problems.

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Discussion document – not a statement of government policy

Building MINDSPACE into policy-making
MINDSPACE builds on
existing methods ofpolicy-making

Applying MINDSPACE in practice builds on existing methods of policy-making. To
illustrate this, we have drawn on the “4Es” policy framework, originally developedby DEFRA. The 4Es are four actions that should underpin government‟s attempts
to change behaviour: Enable, Encourage, Engage and Exemplify. MINDSPACE
requires two supporting actions: Explore, which takes place before policies are
implemented, and Evaluate, which judges the success of the policy.
• Legislation• Regulation• Incentives• Information

Encourage

Explore• Insight

EnableEngage• Infrastructure• Facilities• Design• Resources• Deliberation• Permission• Co-production

Evaluate• Evidence-based
innovation

Exemplify• Leading by example• Policy consistency• Organisational learning

Figure 1: The 6 Es framework for applying MINDSPACE

In basic terms, MINDSPACE represents the tools for changing behaviour, and the
6 Es constitute the framework within which they can be applied. Bringing them
together allows policy-makers to address the over-arching “so what?” question inpractical ways.

Civil servants need tobetter understand the
behavioural dimension of
their actions

But when applying MINDSPACE in practice, it should not simply be seen as analternative to existing methods. “Behaviour Change” is part of policy-making, rather
than a novel alternative that can be bolted onto policies. Therefore, civil servantsneed to better understand the behavioural dimension of their policies and actions.
MINDSPACE can help them do so in three different ways:

Enhance. MINDSPACE can help policy-makers understand how current
attempts to change behaviour could be improved, for example through abetter understanding of how people respond to incentives and which typesof information are salient. The logic here is that if government is alreadyattempting to shape behaviour, it should do so as effectively as possible.

Introduce. Some of the elements in MINDSPACE are not used
extensively by policy-makers, yet may have a considerable impact. For
example, there is room for more innovative use of social norms andcommitment devices in policies. Of course, introducing new measures inthis way may require significant efforts to ensure there is public permission
for the approach.

Reassess. Government needs to understand the ways it may be changing
the behaviour of citizens unintentionally. It is quite possible that

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99

government produces unintended – and possibly unwanted – changes inbehaviour. The insights from MINDSPACE offer a rigorous way ofanalysing whether and how government is shaping the behaviour of its
citizens.

Public permission and personal responsibility
The public need to give
permission and shape
how these tools are used

The use of MINDSPACE (or other „nudge‟ type policy tools) may require carefulhandling – in essence, the public need to give permission and help shape howsuch tools are used. With this in mind, we consider issues around gaining
democratic permission for behaviour change policies. We explain how three factors
are particularly useful for understanding controversy around behaviour change:
who the policy affects; what type of behaviour is intended; how the change will beaccomplished.
Behaviour change is often seen as government intruding into issues that should be
the domain of personal responsibility. However, it is possible for government just to
supply the trigger or support for individuals to take greater personal responsibility.
And we suggest that evidence from behavioural theory may, in some areas,
challenge accepted notions of personal responsibility.

Conclusion
MINDSPACE complements
and improves
conventional policy tools,
rather than replacing
them entirely

New insights from the science of behaviour change could lead to significantly
improved policy outcomes, and at lower cost, than the way many conventional
policy tools are currently used. For the most part, however, MINDSPACE
powerfully complements and improves conventional policy tools, rather than acting
as a replacement for them. MINDSPACE may also help identify any barriers thatare currently preventing changes in behaviour.
But there is still much that we do not know. There remains uncertainty over how
lasting many of the effects are; how effects that work in one set of circumstances
will work in another; and whether effects that work well with one segment of the
population will work with another, including their potential impact on inequalities –though there are grounds to think that going with the grain will help to reduce them.
There are also questions about how far such techniques should be employed bycentral government or left to local policymakers, professionals and communities.
One of the most important roles for central government in the coming years will beto ensure that local and professional applications of behavioural approaches are
rigorously evaluated, and the results made available for communities to debate andadopt as they see fit. When the cost-effectiveness for an application is clearlyshown, and the public acceptability has been established, central government
might them move to national implementation – be this to reduce crime, strengthencommunities, or support healthy and prosperous lives.
Whether reluctantly or enthusiastically, today‟s policymakers are in the business ofinfluencing behaviour, and therefore need to understand the various effects on
behaviour their policies may be having. MINDSPACE helps them do so, andtherefore has the potential to achieve better outcomes for individuals and society.

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Discussion document – not a statement of government policy

Introduction: Understanding why we act
as we doThere‟s no such thing as a free lunch“Want to grab some lunch?” ask a couple of colleagues as they walk past
your desk.
“Sure,” you say, as you save the Healthy and Green document you‟reworking on and join them as they head to the lifts. The lifts are busy, andyou think about walking over to the stairs - but you‟re already standing
there, so you just wait.
Down in the canteen you pick up your tray and join the line. It smells good.
You smile to the man behind the counter and he puts the beef stew on a hot
plate and hands it to you. You move along past the vegetarian option, andadd a heap of potatoes and carrots to your plate. Putting your plate back on
the tray, you pause briefly at the salad bar before adding a bowl of pudding
to your tray. As you head to the till, you glance at the bit of space left onyour tray and add a can of drink.
“Here you go,” your colleague says, as he puts some cutlery and a glass on
your tray and you join the queue together. “Damn, I left my card upstairs.”“Here, use mine,” you say.
Finally, you make your way towards an empty table. You spot the Perm
Sec. It would be great to ask her about that new job. She‟s at a table forfour with just one other person, but somehow you just walk on by and join
your colleagues. “I‟ll catch her another day,” you mumble to yourself.
Whether we like it or not, we are continually buffeted by a myriad of influences thatshape our behaviour. Some of them are obvious, but many go largely unnoticed.
There were many gentle effects on behaviour at your lunch in the canteen. Hereare just a few:Social influence and norms. You joined your friends, of course. You also
stood with them by the lifts and waited – but if they headed for the stairs
you‟d probably have followed (or they would have followed you, if you led).

Salience and priming. The food you chose and how much you took was
substantially shaped by what happened in the canteen. The smell primed
your hunger, but so too did the size of your plate and the fact that you had
a tray. Larger plates can make us take larger portions, and trays
substantially increase the total of volume of food we take. And perhaps
there is slightly more chance that you would have chosen the vegetarian
option if it had come first.

Commitment and reciprocity. One of the factors that kept you and yourcolleagues at the lift was that you had already psychologically committed to

Discussion document – not a statement of government policy

111the idea. A related effect is how readily you paid for your colleague once
he had shown you the kindness of getting your cutlery.


Incentives and choice environment. The psychological barrier of joining
the four-person table with your boss was too great – despite the potential
gains, you were worried about making a fool of yourself. In other words,
you were loss-averse, and stuck with the familiar company of your friends.
But if the table had eight places or more, with just the two occupied, you
might have joined her. The physical environment often subtly shapes our
behaviour and the ways in we interact with others.

Many of these influences are now well understood. Others have been
demonstrated in experiments, but their impact in everyday contexts is still unclear.
For example, we tend to like people more if they give us a hot drink rather than acold drink – did the warm plate make us feel more positively about the person who
gave us our lunch?
There is much more that we need to find out, but we do know enough to set out themain effects on behaviour and to show how they can help policymakers in practice.
This report does not just explain theory; it offers tools for government.

Behaviour change and policy
Influencing behaviour iscentral to public policy

In fact, influencing behaviour is central to public policy. As citizens, communities
and policymakers, we want to stop „bad behaviours‟: people vandalising our cars,
stealing our possessions, or threatening our children. We want to encourage „good
behaviours‟: volunteering, voting, and recycling. We even sometimes want a little
help ourselves to „do the right thing‟: to save a little more, eat a little less, andexercise a little more – though we may be ambivalent about how aggressively wewant the state intervene in these behaviours.
Sometimes we can agree on how we would like policymakers to change our
behaviour – and sometimes they „nudge‟ in those directions. But other times thosenudges have unintended consequences. Information about how many people areobese may actually encourage more people to join a “club” of which there aremany members, while introducing financial incentives to behave a certain way
could actually make people less likely to behave that way for free.

There is increasing
understanding about thefactors that shape our
behaviour

Over the last decade, behavioural economics, which seeks to combine the lessons
from psychology with the laws of economics, has moved from a fringe activity to
1
one that is increasingly familiar and accepted. More generally, there is increasing
understanding across the behavioural sciences about the factors that shape andaffect our behaviour.
Drawing on the most recent evidence, this report sets out the most robust effects
that influence individual behaviour; demonstrates how these have been applied tomajor policy issues – and what more can be done; and considers the practical
implications and political concerns about applying these methods. By applying
these advances to the real challenges that government faces today, it tries toanswer the „so what?‟ question for policy-makers.
This report complements the Government Social Research guide to Behaviour
Change (which outlines various models for understanding and applying different
models of behaviour), the Central Office of Information‟s Communications andBehaviour Change (which focuses specifically on the implications for2
Communications), and the Cabinet Office‟s Guide to Segmentation.
One obvious answer to the „So what?‟ question concerns value for money. Fiscal
challenges may sharpen interest in behaviour change further, as policymakers andpublic service professionals wrestle with the challenge of how to achieve „more

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Discussion document – not a statement of government policy

with less‟ – though it could also lead to some services and local areas abandoning
3
more innovative approaches to behaviour change altogether.

“Doing nothing” is never aneutral option

Whether we like it or not, the actions of policymakers, public service professionals,
markets and our fellow citizens around us have big, and often unintended, impacts
on our behaviour. „Doing nothing‟ is never a neutral option: we are always busy
shaping each other‟s behaviour. For example, if governments keep a distance,
markets may emerge to satisfy our preferences. While this often does not cause
major problems, it can do – markets rarely account properly for the good and bad
4
spill over effects of our own behaviour on others.
This picture shows the need to recognise that government is just one influence on
our behaviour amongst many others. And, indeed, commentators have been
sceptical about government‟s abilities in this area: most famously, David Humeargued that „all plans of government which suppose great reformation in the5manners of mankind are plainly imaginary‟.
Such sweeping scepticism is unfounded, since there have been many policy
successes in changing behaviour: for example, reducing drink driving, preventing
AIDS transmission and increasing seatbelt usage. Nevertheless, some behaviours– such as antisocial behaviour and lack of exercise - have remained resistant topolicy interventions. We need to think in more integrated and innovative ways
about how policymakers can intervene in ways that help people help themselves –and that also help society reduce inequalities in health and wellbeing that are
avoidable and considered unfair.

The most effective andsustainable changes inbehaviour will come fromthe successful integrationof cultural, regulatory andindividual change

We recognise that the most effective and sustainable changes in behaviour will
come from the successful integration of cultural, regulatory and individual change –drink driving demonstrates how stiff penalties, good advertising and shifting social
norms all combined to change behaviour quite significantly over a couple of6
decades. Here we focus on the role that behavioural economics can play inshaping individual behaviour, rather than on the ways in which the legal andregulatory systems can be used to compel us to behave in particular ways. We areinterested in the soft touch of policy rather than its heavy hand: going with the grainof human nature, rather than rubbing us up the wrong way.

The basic insight from behavioural economics
Drawing on psychology and the behavioural sciences, the basic insight of
behavioural economics is that our behaviour is guided not by the perfect logic of asuper-computer that can analyse the cost-benefits of every action. Instead, it is led
by our very human, sociable, emotional and sometimes fallible brain. Psychologists
have been studying these characteristics for more than a century, and writers and7
thinkers for much longer.
Skimming the titles of recent best-sellers on the topic gives a rapid sense of what
this century of research, and particularly that of the last 30 years, has concluded.
The Noble Prize winner Daniel Kahneman‟s ideas around Heuristics and Biases –the psychology of intuitive judgement – has been especially influential, though few
policymakers have read his work in the original. We are Predictably Irrational –8prone to reliable misjudgements.
Often the decisions we make in make in the Blink of an eye serve us well in
9everyday life. But for some of the more complex decisions we face in the modern
world, our unseen patterns of thought leave us puzzling and frustrated over ourown decisions - Stumbling on happiness rather than confidently making choices
10that get us there. These insights can be used by marketers and others to
11
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Influence or Nudge what we do and what we choose.

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131

In a nutshell, the sophisticated mental shortcuts that serve us so well in much oflife can also get us into trouble, both as individuals and as societies as a whole.

Changing behaviour
Broadly speaking, we canfocus on ‘changing minds’or ‘changing the context’

In broad terms, there are two ways of thinking about changing behaviour. The firstis based on influencing what people consciously think about. We might call this the„rational‟ or „cognitive‟ model. Most traditional interventions in public policy take thisroute, and it is the standard model in economics. The presumption is that citizens
and consumers will analyse the various pieces of information from politicians,
governments and markets, the numerous incentives offered to us and act in waysthat reflect their best interests (however they define their best interests, or - morepaternalistically - however policymakers define them).
The contrasting model of behaviour change focuses on the more automatic
processes of judgment and influence – what Robert Cialdini calls „click, whirr‟
processes of mind. This shifts the focus of attention away from facts andinformation, and towards altering the context within which people act. We might callthis the „context‟ model of behaviour change. The context model recognises thatthat people are sometimes seemingly irrational and inconsistent in their choices,
often because they are influenced by surrounding factors. Therefore, it focuses
more on „changing behaviour without changing minds‟. This route has received
rather less attention from researchers and policymakers.
These two approaches are founded on two different ways of thinking.
Psychologists have recently converged on the understanding that there are two
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distinct „systems‟ operating in the brain:
SystemReflective

Automatic

Characteristics

Controlled

Uncontrolled

Effortful

Effortless

Deductive

Emotional

Slow

Fast

Self-aware

Unconscious

Learning a foreign
language

Speaking in your mothertonguePlanning an unfamiliar
journey

Taking the daily commute

Counting calories

Desiring cakeExamples of use

The two systems have different capabilities: the reflective mind has limited
capacity, but offers more systematic and „deeper‟ analysis. The automatic mind
processes many things separately, simultaneously, and often unconsciously, but ismore „superficial‟: it takes short-cuts and has ingrained biases. As one academic
source explains, „once triggered by environmental features, [these] preconscious
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automatic processes run to completion without any conscious monitoring‟.
In practice, this distinction is not so clear-cut: a mix of both reflective and automatic
processes govern behaviour. When reading a book, for example, we canconcentrate and ignore our surrounding environment – but if someone calls ourname, we break off and look at them. Our reflective system is ignoring everything
15
but the book, but our automatic system is not. Policy-makers attempting tochange behaviour need to understand how people use these different systems andhow they affect their actions.

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Discussion document – not a statement of government policy

This report focuses on the
more automatic orcontext-based drivers of
behaviour

This report focuses on the more automatic or context-based drivers of behaviour,
including the surrounding „choice environment‟. There are three main reasons fordoing so. First, these automatic processes have been relatively neglected in policy
discussions, perhaps because „environmental effects on behaviour are a lot
16
stronger than most people expect‟. Second, because of questions about theeffectiveness and cost-effectiveness of interventions designed to change behaviour
by changing minds. Third, because of the possible value for money that this type of
behaviour change may offer. The following two sections address the latter two
points.

The limits to information
Not all government communications focus on simple information provision; often
they draw on more sophisticated techniques of persuasion. Nevertheless, giving
out information has become a prominent part of the policymaker‟s tool kit, and its
17importance is set to increase further. Across the world, policymakers are giving
citizens more and more information about the performance of schools, hospitals
and other public services, to be mashed and re-circulated in a myriad of innovativeand personalised ways.
The increased availability of information has significant effects, most of thempositive. For example, despite initial controversies, the wider availability of
18
information on surgical survival rates has been shown to drive up outcomes. The
19
release of public data could lead to a significant increase in economic growth.
And information is obviously important in its own right, as it leads to more fully
informed consumers and citizens - even if the information has no direct effect on
behaviour.

Simply providing
information often hasmodest and sometimes
even unintended impacts

But we also know that providing information per se often has surprisingly modest
and sometimes even unintended impacts when it attempts to change individuals‟
behaviour – at least when viewed through the conventional rational model ofbehaviour, and perhaps also when viewed by a policy-maker charged with getting
value for money and in reducing inequalities.
After public warnings of an „obesity epidemic‟, New York State passed legislationthat made restaurants post the calorific content of all regular menu items. Initialstudies found no detectable change in calories purchased after the introduction of20
labelling. The reason for this may be that to most New Yorkers this information
does not mean anything much, or – according to one early analysis - they are notaware of what levels of calories are good or bad. New York City has subsequently
initiated an educational campaign that informs residents that „2,000 calories a dayis all most adults should eat‟.
More generally, it has been found that existing „changing minds‟ theories andmethods leave a substantial proportion of the variance in behaviour to be21
explained. For example, one meta-analysis of pro-environmental behaviours
reported that at least 80% of the factors influencing behaviour did not result from22
knowledge or awareness. And insofar as the better educated, higher income,more advantaged minds are the first and easiest minds to change, inequalities inhealth and wellbeing may be widened by information campaigns. We therefore
need to see if accounting for and influencing the context – the „Automatic System‟– can help use resources more efficiently and fairly.

Value for money“Behaviour Change” is often seen as attractive because it appears to offer similaror better outcomes at less cost. The obvious rationale for this is that, since
government spends a considerable amount of money on influencing behaviour, its
success in doing so will be maximised if it draws on robust evidence of how people
Discussion document – not a statement of government policy

15

1

The money government
spends trying to change
behaviour will be
maximised if it draws on
evidence of how people
actually behave

actually behave. Indeed, there is also some evidence to back up the view thatchanging the context, rather than people‟s minds, may be more cost-effective. For
example, one study evaluating the cost effectiveness of physical activity
programmes found that context-altering interventions had the potential to be morecost-effective than more information-based ones (such as phone or papermaterials, consultations with an exercise development officer, counselling23
sessions). Indeed, the most cost-effective intervention was one that introduced
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bicycle and pedestrian trails to encourage healthy behaviours.
This type of intervention is similar to the „nudges‟ outlined by Thaler and Sunstein,which often involve apparently minor alterations to the choices and environment inwhich people act. For example, one intervention tried to provoke drivers to
reducing their driving speed by painting a series of white stripes onto the road thatare initially evenly spaced but get closer together as drivers reach a dangerous
curve. This environmental design gives the sensation that driving speed isincreasing (even when the speed does not really change), which in turn triggers thedriver‟s natural instinct to slow down. The cost of sending such a visual signal is25
close to zero, but the effectiveness is very significant.
Perhaps the strongest argument for cost-effectiveness is that, quite simply, there isno neutral option for government interventions – government influences behaviour
no matter what it does, and therefore it‟s likely that this ever-present behaviouraldimension can be harnessed at little cost. Defaults are the most obvious
candidates here: if government has to produce a particular form, it might as well be
26
structured in a way that may benefit both the user and the state. Such thinking
has obvious value in a constrained fiscal climate.

The structure of this report
This report outlines some of the most reliable tools that policymakers may wish touse for what we have termed „soft‟ behavioural change (as opposed to legislation
and regulation). One weakness of the literature around behavioural economics isthat there are now literally hundreds of different claimed effects and influences.
Some of the claims in the literature are based on just one or two studies orinterventions or may not translate well to different target audiences.

Outlining robust effects on
behaviour

Chapter 2 highlights a cluster of the most robust effects that have been repeatedly
found to have strong impacts on behaviour. We discuss these effects according to
the acronym MINDSPACE (Messenger, Incentives, Norms, Defaults, Salience,Priming, Affect, Commitment and Ego). We stress that this may not reflect an
exhaustive categorisation, but it does reflect where most policy interventions arelikely to focus. We give a graphical illustration of the effects underpinning
MINDSPACE in Annex 1. There is considerable overlap between the effects andthe most effective interventions will certainly combine different elements.

Relevance to policy

Chapter 3 applies the framework set out in Chapter 2 to policy. We focus on threeimportant areas of policy: safer communities, the good society, and healthier andmore prosperous lives. There have been many attempts to influence behaviour
through cognition (changing minds) in these areas, sometimes with quite limited
success. We therefore draw on case studies that are known to have worked, andalso point to innovative pilots and more speculative ideas that follow from theelements of MINDSPACE.

Applying the framework
in practice

Chapter 4 demonstrates how MINDSPACE could be applied in practice. Building
on work by DEFRA, we show that there are six main actions that need to be taken:
Explore, Enable, Encourage, Engage, Exemplify and Evaluate. We explain each ofthese actions and give examples to show how they fit together as a framework.

Public permission andpersonal responsibility

Chapter 5 considers the wider democratic and political implications of applying
behavioural economic principles to policy. It discusses the value judgements of

16

Discussion document – not a statement of government policy

citizens and policymakers about the extents and limits of personal responsibility
and the appropriate role of the state in influencing behaviour. As the profile ofbehavioural economics has grown in recent years, so too has controversy about its
acceptability and application to public policy.

Conclusions and futurechallenges

Chapter 6 summarises where we have got to and shows what more needs to be
done. Perhaps the greatest impact of behavioural economics will be improving theeffectiveness and acceptability of many of our existing policy tools. For example, it
offers the promise of making information and incentives – communications, social
marketing, fines, benefits and so on – more effective and cost-effective. Chapter 6
also provides some clear analysis of future challenges and likely developments.

Discussion document – not a statement of government policy

17

1

MINDSPACE: A user‟s guide to what
affects our behaviour

The elements described here are those that we consider to be the most robust
effects that operate largely, but not exclusively, on the „Automatic System‟. They
illustrate some of main tools at the disposal of individuals and policymakers in
influencing behaviour. We do not claim to cover all of the possible effects on
behaviour, and we do not deal with more traditional interventions that rely on
providing information and education.
We outline nine robust influences on human behaviour and change. These
principles are underpinned by considerable research from the fields of social
psychology and behavioural economics. They are therefore presented as the mostrobust effects that policy-makers should understand and, if appropriate, use. The
following sections briefly explain these effects, which we have arranged according
to the acronym: MINDSPACE.
Messenger

we are heavily influenced by who communicates information

Incentives

our responses to incentives are shaped by predictable mental
shortcuts such as strongly avoiding losses

Norms

we are strongly influenced by what others do

Defaults

we „go with the flow‟ of pre-set options

Salience

our attention is drawn to what is novel and seems relevant to us

Priming

our acts are often influenced by sub-conscious cues

Affectour emotional associations can powerfully shape our actions

Commitments

we seek to be consistent with our public promises, andreciprocate acts

Ego

we act in ways that make us feel better about ourselves

Some of the elements have been developed to explain largely automatic effects on
behaviour (e.g. N, D, S, P, A) while other effects relate to elements that draw more27
on reflective processing (e.g. M, I, C, E). We recognise there are importantlessons for policy-makers coming from more traditional theories of behaviourchange that relate to the Reflective System. But we can only understand how
incentives work, for example, when we account for the automatic effects of loss
aversion alongside the more considered weighing up of costs and benefits.
MINDSPACE is our judgment of how best to select and categorise the effects sopolicy-makers can use them. But it does not offer a clearly logical order, and there
is some overlap between the effects. Annex 1 gives a diagram that maps theconceptual space underlying the elements in MINDSPACE and also presents theinterrelationships between them.
The follow sections explain each effect in turn.
18

Discussion document – not a statement of government policy

Messenger
We are heavily influenced by who communicates information
The weight we give to information depends greatly on the reactions we have to thesource of that information. We are affected by the perceived authority of themessenger (whether formal or informal). For example, there is evidence thatpeople are more likely to act on information if experts deliver it. One study showedthat health interventions delivered by research assistants and health educators
were more effective in changing behaviour compared with interventions deliveredby either trained facilitators or teachers – and health educators were usually more
28
persuasive than research assistants.
It has also been shown that demographic and behavioural similarities between theexpert and the recipient can improve the effectiveness of the intervention.
Importantly in relation to addressing inequalities, those from lower socioeconomic
groups are more sensitive to the characteristics of the messenger, and thishighlights the need to use messengers from diverse demographic and behavioural29
backgrounds.
Whilst expertise matters, so do peer effects. The „Health Buddy‟ scheme involved
older students receiving healthy living lessons from their schoolteachers. The older
students then acted as peer teachers to deliver that lesson to younger „buddies‟.
Compared with control students, both older and younger „buddies‟ enrolled in thisscheme showed an increase in healthy living knowledge and behaviour and30
beneficial effects on weight. Another study found a 1,000% increase in smoking
amongst teenagers if two of their peers smoke, compared to a 26% increase if a31parent does.
We are also affected by the feelings we have for the messenger: for example, we
32
may irrationally discard advice given by someone we dislike. Feelings of this kindmay override traditional cues of authority, so that someone who has developed adislike of government interventions may be less likely to listen to messages thatthey perceived to come from „the government‟. In such cases, the most effective
strategy for changing behaviour may be to use third parties or downplay
government involvement in a campaign or intervention.
We also, of course, use more rational and cognitive means to assess how
convincing a messenger is. For example, we will consider such issues as whether
there is a consensus across society (do lots of different people say the samething?) and the consistency across occasions (does the communicator say the33same thing in different situations?).
As with other effects, combining the lessons from context with those from cognition
will lead to the most effective behaviour change interventions. In particular, we
34
should think more carefully about which messengers to mobilise, in which
circumstances, and whether they should focus mainly on the Automatic or
Reflective ways of thinking.

Incentives
Our responses to incentives are shaped by predictable mental shortcuts such as
strongly avoiding losses
Incentives are used across local and central government as a mechanism tomotivate behaviour change. The impact of incentives clearly depends on factors
such as the type, magnitude and timing of the incentive. Behavioural economics
suggests other factors can affect how individuals respond to incentives, which can
Discussion document – not a statement of government policy

191allow us to design more effective schemes. We stress that although our examples
mainly concern money, incentives often do not involve money but more generally
change the costs and benefits of behaving in particular ways.
The five main, related insights from behavioural economics are that:
1. Losses loom larger than gains.
We dislike losses more than we like gains of an equivalent amount. Most current
incentive schemes offer rewards to participants, but a recent review of trials oftreatments for obesity involving the use of financial incentives found no significant
35
effect on long-term weight loss or maintenance. An alternative may be to frame
incentives as a charge that will be imposed if people fail to do something. One
recent study on weight loss asked some participants to deposit money into an
account, which was returned to them (with a supplement) if they met weight loss
targets. After seven months this group showed significant weight loss compared totheir entry weight. The weight of participants in a control group was not seen to36change. The fear of losing money may have created a strong incentive to lose
weight. Therefore, policy-makers could emphasise the money that people will lose
by not taking an action, rather than the amount they could save.
2. Reference points matter.
Economic theory assumes that we care only about final outcomes. But, just as
objects appear to be larger the closer they are, evidence suggests that the value ofsomething depends on where we see it from – and how big or small the change
appears from that reference point. If the utility of money is judged relative to very
locally and narrowly determined reference points, a small incentive could have a37
great effect. As possible evidence of this, incentives were used in Malawi toencourage people to pick up their HIV result (many do not otherwise): take-up was
doubled by incentives just worth one-tenth of a day‟s wage. Although take-up did
increase slightly when more money was offered, this was to a much lesser degree(and to a much lesser extent than would be suggested by standard models of
diminishing marginal utility of income). This suggests that policy-makers could
make effective use of incentives by framing the reference point.
3. We overweight small probabilities.
Economic theory assumes that we treat changes in probability in a linear way – thechange from 5% to 10% probability is treated the same as the change from 50% to55%. But evidence suggests that people place more weight on small probabilities
38
than theory suggests. There are some obvious implications of this forgovernment: lotteries may act as a powerful motivation (since people overweighthe small chance of winning), while people are likely to overemphasise the small
chance of, say, being audited, which may lead to greater tax compliance thanrational choice models predict.
4. We mentally allocate money to discrete bundles.
We think of money as sitting in different “mental budgets” – salary, savings,
expenses, etc. Spending is constrained by the amount sitting in different
39
accounts and we are reluctant to move money between such accounts. Mental
accounting means that identical incentives vary in their impact according to thecontext: people are willing to take a trip to save £5 off a £15 radio, but not to save40
£5 off a refrigerator costing £210. This means that policies may encourage
people to save or spend money by explicitly „labelling‟ accounts for them, without
removing their control over exactly how the money is used. The impact of particularexpenditure could be boosted by linking it to one mental account rather than41
another.

20

Discussion document – not a statement of government policy

5. We live for today at the expense of tomorrow.
We usually prefer smaller, more immediate payoffs to larger, more distant ones.
£10 today may be preferred to £12 tomorrow. But £12 in eight days may be
preferred to £10 in a week‟s time. This implies that we have a very high discountrate for now compared to later, but a lower discount rate for later compared to later
still. This is known as „hyperbolic discounting‟ and it leads people to discount the
future very heavily when sacrifices are required in the present – for example, to42
ensure improved environmental outcomes in the future. There is evidence thatthe immediacy of reward has an impact on the success of schemes to treat
43
substance misuse disorders. Understanding hyperbolic discounting will allow
policy-makers designing incentive schemes to calibrate the size and timing of
rewards offered more effectively.
Financial incentives and „crowding out/in‟
Behavioural economics can also provide arguments against using financial
incentives. It is claimed that monetary compensation can lead to feelings that an
activity is worthy in itself („intrinsic‟ motivations) being „crowded out‟ or partiallydestroyed. Once an activity is associated with external reward („extrinsic‟
motivations), individuals are less inclined to participate with the activity in the future
44
without further incentives. An implication of this may be that if we provide an
incentive for people to stop smoking, they may be unlikely to give up otherdamaging activities (e.g. alcohol misuse) without similar rewards.
Conversely, incentives could „crowd in‟ desirable behaviour. The congestion
charge, for example, may have acted as a signal not to use cars in the centre of
London, and built up a cumulative behavioural response that extended beyond the45
financial incentive per se. We need to develop a better understanding of where
incentives have negative and positive spill over effects and design our researchand policy efforts accordingly.

Norms
We tend to do what those around us are already doing
Social and cultural norms are the behavioural expectations, or rules, within asociety or group. Norms can be explicitly stated („No Smoking‟ signs in public
places) or implicit in observed behaviour (shaking the hand of someone you meetfor the first time). People often take their understanding of social norms from thebehaviour of others, which means that they can develop and spread rapidly.
Some social norms have a powerful automatic effect on behaviour (e.g. being quiet
in a library) and can influence actions in positive and negative ways. Their power
may come from the social penalties for non-compliance, or the social benefit thatcomes from conforming. Behavioural interventions using social norms have beensuccessful in a number of areas, and most are based on telling people what otherpeople do in a similar situation. We draw out five lessons for policy-makers fromnorms.
1. If the norm is desirable, let people know about it.
In seatbelt use, the „Most of Us Wear Seatbelts Campaign‟ used a social norms
approach to increase the number of people using seatbelts. Initial data collection
showed that individuals underestimated the extent to which their fellow citizens
used seatbelts either as drivers or passengers: although 85% of respondents to asurvey used a seatbelt, their perception was only 60% of other citizens adults did.
An intensive social norms media campaign was launched to inform residents of thetrue proportion of people who used seatbelts. As a result of the campaign the self46
reported use of seatbelt significantly increased.

Discussion document – not a statement of government policy

2122. Relate the norm to your target audience as much as possible.
In recycling, when a hotel room contained a sign that asked people to recycle their
towels to save the environment, 35.1% did so. When the sign used social norms
and said that most guests at the hotel recycled their towels at least once during
their stay, 44.1% complied. And when the sign said that most previous occupantsof the room had reused towels at some point during their stay, 49.3% of guests
47
also recycled.
3. Consider social networks.
Norms may also have important effects in explaining „contagious‟ behaviour. Thereis still controversy surrounding the idea that we are more likely to get fat, for
48
49
example, if our friends get fat – and get happier if they do – but it is at leastplausible that social networks are at play here to some degree. Combined with theappropriate messenger (and other elements of MINDSPACE too), social norms
and networks could used to bring about behaviour change that passes throughgroups and communities.
4. Norms may need reinforcing.
In energy conservation, a large-scale programme (80,000 homes) sent letters thatprovided social comparisons between a household‟s energy use and that of its
neighbours (as well as simple energy consumption information). The scheme wasseen to reduce energy consumption by 2% relative to the baseline. Interestingly,
the effects of the intervention decayed over the months between letters and50
increased again upon receipt of the next letter. In other words, if the norm is not
immediately apparent to people, repeated efforts may be required for its effects tobecome self-sustaining.
5. Be careful when dealing with undesirable norms.
Sometimes campaigns can increase perceptions of undesirable behaviour. Whenhouseholds were given information about average energy usage, those who
consumed more than the average reduced their consumption – but those who wereconsuming less than the average increased their consumption. This „boomerang‟
effect was eliminated if a happy or sad face was added to the bill, thus conveying
51social approval or disapproval.
Similarly, messages aimed at reducing bad behaviour can be undermined by thesocial norms they implicitly signal. For example, two signs were placed in different
areas of a national park. One sign urged visitors not to take wood and depicted ascene showing three thieves stealing wood, while the second sign depicted asingle thief – indicating that stealing is definitely not a social/collective norm. The
first message, subtly conveying a norm, increased the amount of wood stolen by
52
7.92%, while the other sign increased it by 1.67%. Therefore, policymakers may
actually validate and encourage harmful actions by making them appear the norm
rather than the exception.

Defaults
We „go with the flow‟ of pre-set options
Many decisions we take every day have a default option, whether we recognise it
or not. Defaults are the options that are pre-selected if an individual does not makean active choice. Defaults exert influence as individuals regularly accept whatever
the default setting is, even if it has significant consequences. Whilst we behave incrazy ways according to the laws of standard economic theory, we behave in
predictably lazy ways according to the lessons of behavioural economics.

22

Discussion document – not a statement of government policy

Many public policy choices have a no-action default imposed when an individual
fails to make a decision. This default setting is often selected through naturalordering or convenience, rather than a desire to maximise benefits for citizens.
Structuring the default option to maximise benefits for citizens can influence
behaviour without restricting individual choice, as the following examples show.
Ventilators are frequently used to help very unwell patients who are breathing
insufficiently in Intensive Care Units. Ventilators have settings that allow doctors todecide how much air to blow into the lungs per minute. Doctors usually determine
the choice of volumes used and it is recognised that the lungs can be injured ifvolumes are too high. A research study changed the default setting of theventilators to provide lower volumes of air into patients‟ lungs. The mortality rate
was 25% lower with the new setting – such an improvement that the trial was
53
stopped early. In addition, there is evidence that the use of opt-out defaults canraise organ donation rates greatly (see Figure 2 below), although this remains a54
controversial issue.

Figure 2: Comparison of organ donation registration in opt-in and opt-out systems

55

Salience
Our attention is drawn to what is novel and seems relevant to us
56

Our behaviour is greatly influenced by what our attention is drawn to. In our
everyday lives, we are bombarded with stimuli. As a result, we tend tounconsciously filter out much information as a coping strategy. People are more
likely to register stimuli that are novel (messages in flashing lights), accessible(items on sale next to checkouts) and simple (a snappy slogan).
Simplicity is important here because our attention is much more likely to be drawn
to things that we can understand – to those things that we can easily „encode‟. And
we are much more likely to be able to encode things that are presented in waysthat relate directly to our personal experiences than to things presented in a moregeneral and abstract way. For example, the size of the current NHS budget is moresalient when expressed as an amount per tax payer than as the overall amount.
Similarly, because we find losses more salient than gains, we react differently
when identical information is framed in terms of one or the other (as a 20% chance

Discussion document – not a statement of government policy232

of survival or an 80% chance of death).
salience plays out in our behaviour.

57

Here are just some examples of how

In a recent US experiment, researchers chose 750 products subject to a sales tax
that is normally only applied at the till, and put additional labels next to the productprice, showing the full amount including the tax. Putting the tax on the label, rather
than adding it at the till, led to an 8% fall in sales over the three-week experiment.
In addition, it has been shown that, over a 30-year period, taxes that are included
in posted prices reduce alcohol consumption significantly more than taxes added at58
the register. Salience may therefore offer a way of complementing traditional
price levers in policy-making.
When making a decision, we often lack knowledge about a topic (for example,
buying a DVD player). Experiments show that we look for an initial „anchor‟ (i.e. a
price for a DVD player) on which to base our decisions. It has been shown that theminimum payment amount on credit card statements attracts our attention and„anchors‟ our decisions. When a credit card statement had a 2% minimum payment
on it, people repaid £99 of a £435 bill on average; when there was no minimum
payment, the average repayment was £175. In other words, presenting a minimum
59
payment dragged repayments down. Insights such as this may offer moresophisticated means of regulation.
The power of anchors is such that they work even if they are totally arbitrary. If
people are asked to write down the last two digits of their social security number,this „anchors‟ the amount they bid for items and their estimates of historical events
60– even though clearly there is no logical connection between the two.
Anchors endure over time, and continue to influence our decisions long after
61
conditions change. This is related to the well-known „confirmation bias‟: people
tend to pay little attention to information that challenges an existing belief or62
hypothesis, and focus intently on any supportive information. Therefore,
government advice may have extra power if it acts as an initial anchor, which may
be easier to do at moments when people enter a new situation or life-stage(moving house, going to university, pregnancy etc.).
Finally, salience explains why unusual or extreme experiences are more prominent
than more constant experiences. Our memory of experiences is governed by themost intense „peak‟ moments, as well as the final impressions in a chain of63
events. In other words, we may prefer the dentist that gave us three hours ofsteady discomfort over the one who gave us sharp pang of pain, because thatpang is particularly salient. Peak effects can, for example, help us predict which
medical treatments may be avoided by patients.

Priming
Our acts are often influenced by sub-conscious cues
Priming shows that people‟s subsequent behaviour may be altered if they are first
exposed to certain sights, words or sensations. In other words, people behave
differently if they have been „primed‟ by certain cues beforehand. Priming seems toact outside of conscious awareness, which means it is different from simply
remembering things. The discovery of priming effects has led to considerable
controversy, not least to the slightly sinister idea that advertisers – or evengovernments - might be able to manipulate us into buying or do things that we
didn‟t really want to buy or do.
Subsequent work has shown that primes do not have to be literally subliminal towork, as marketers have long understood. In fact, many things can act as primes,
including:
24

Discussion document – not a statement of government policy

1. Words
 Exposing people to words relating to the elderly (e.g. „wrinkles‟) meant they
subsequently walked more slowly when leaving the room and had a poorer
memory of the room. In other words, they had been „primed‟ with an elderly
64
stereotype and behaved accordingly.
 Asking participants to make a sentence out of scrambled words such as fit,lean, active, athletic made them significantly more likely to use the stairs,
65
instead of lifts.
 One group was asked to think about football hooligans for five minutes,
and another about university professors. When they were then given 44
66
Trivial Pursuit questions, the first set got 42.6% right, the second 55.6%.
2. Sights
 If a happy face is subliminally presented to someone drinking, it causes
67
them to drink more than those exposed to a frowning face.
 The size of food containers primes our subsequent eating. Moviegoers ate
45% more popcorn when it was given to them in a 240g container than a
120g container; even when the popcorn was stale, the larger container
68
made them eat 33.6% more popcorn.
 Deliberately placing certain objects in one‟s environment can alter
behaviour – „situational cues‟ like walking shoes and runner's magazines
69
may prime a “healthy lifestyle” in people. In this way, priming canreinforce existing intentions to act in a certain way.
3. Smells
 Mere exposure to the scent of an all-purpose cleaner made significantly
70
more people to keep their table cleaner while eating in a canteen.
These types of effects are real and robust: they have been repeatedly proved inmany studies. What is less understood is which of the thousands of primes that we
encounter every day have a significant effect on our behaviour.
Priming is therefore perhaps the least understood of the MINDSPACE effects, but
has significant implications for policy. For example, it is likely that the environmentsthat government constructs or influences are constantly „priming‟ people to act incertain, perhaps undesirable, ways. Government should seek the ways it may beunintentionally priming people – or it may seek to „build in‟ priming effects to its
current attempts to change behaviour.

AffectEmotional associations can powerfully shape our actions
Affect (the act of experiencing emotion) is a powerful force in decision-making.
Emotional responses to words, images and events can be rapid and automatic, sothat people can experience a behavioural reaction before they realise what they
are reacting to. Moods, rather than deliberate decisions, can therefore influence
judgments, meaning they end up contrary to logic or self-interest. People in good
moods make unrealistically optimistic judgements, whilst those in bad moods makeunrealistically pessimistic judgements.
It has been argued that all perceptions contain some emotion, so that „we do notjust see a house: we see a handsome house, an ugly house, or a pretentious
71
house‟. This means that many people buy houses not because of floor size or
location, but because of the visceral feeling they get when walking through thefront door – and may make a better decision as a consequence.

Discussion document – not a statement of government policy

25

2Emotional, rather than deliberative, responses can drive financial decisions. In one
experiment, direct mail advertisements for loan offers varied in the deal offered, butalso in elements of the advert itself. It was found that the actual advertising content
had a significant effect on take up of loans, rather than just prices. In particular,
including a picture of an attractive, smiling female increased demand for thefinancial product by the same amount as a 25% decrease in the loan‟s interest
72
rate.
Provoking emotion can change health behaviours too. Attempts to promote soap
use in Ghana were originally based around the benefits of soap – but only 3% ofmothers washed hands with soap after toilet use. Researchers noted that
Ghanaians used soap when they felt that their hands were dirty (e.g., after cooking
or travelling), that hand-washing was provoked by feelings of disgust. As a result,the intervention campaign focused on provoking disgust rather than promoting
soap use. Soapy hand washing was shown only for 4 seconds in one 55-second
television commercial, but there was a clear message that toilet use prompts
worries of contamination and disgust, and requires soap. This led to a 13%
increase in the use of soap after the toilet and 41% increase in reported soap use
73
before eating.
Affect can be very powerful, but should be used with care by policy-makers. In
particular, many interviewees suggested it was unhelpful to „create fear without
agency‟ – in other words, to create an emotional reaction without obviously
connecting it to a change in behaviour. Otherwise, people may simply continue
with the same actions but with increased anxiety. It has also been argued thatpeople can build up an expectation of being shocked in relation to certain
74
messages, which can make them less effective. A better tactic may be to present
these messages in a counter-intuitive manner instead, which points towards to theimportance of customer Insight (see page 50).

Commitment
We seek to be consistent with our public promises, and reciprocate acts
We tend to procrastinate and delay taking decisions that are likely to be in our
75
long-term interests. Many people are aware of their will-power weaknesses (suchas a tendency to overspend, overeat or continue smoking) and use commitment
devices to achieve long-term goals. It has been shown that commitments usually
become more effective as the costs for failure increase. One common method forincreasing such costs is to make commitments public, since breaking thecommitment will lead to significant reputational damage. Even the very act ofwriting a commitment can increase the likelihood of it being fulfilled, and76
commitment contacts have already been used in some public policy areas.
People may impose penalties on themselves for failing to act according to their77
long-term goals. Students, for example, are willing to self-impose costly deadlines78
to help them overcome procrastination. On a wider scale, it has been shown thatpeople who know they tend to „live for today‟ also desire commitment devices. One
major study designed a commitment savings product for a Philippine bank, which
was intended for individuals who want to commit now to restrict access to theirsavings. It turned out that Philippine women (who are traditionally responsible forhousehold finances and in need of finding solutions to temptation problems) were79
significantly more likely to open the commitment savings account than men.
An innovative commitment product has been used to help smokers quit. Individuals
were offered a savings account in which they deposited funds for six months, after
which they took a test for nicotine. If they passed the test (no presence of nicotine)80
then the money was returned to them, otherwise their money was forfeited.
26

Discussion document – not a statement of government policy

Surprise tests at 12 months showed an effect on lasting cessation: the savings
account commitment increased the likelihood of smoking cessation by 30%.
To increase physical exercise, commitment to achieving a goal (such as 10,000
steps a day using a pedometer) appears to significantly increase success. An
experimental study compared two groups; one group signed a contract specifying
the exercise goals to be achieved whilst a control group were simply given a
walking programme but did not enter any agreement or sign a contract. All
participants recorded daily walking activity for 6 weeks and the contract group were81
significantly more likely to achieve their exercise goals.

Success in Achieving Exercise Goal
100
90
81

Percentage success

80
70
60
50
40
31
30
20
10
0
Contract

No Contract

Figure 3: Comparative success in achieving a brisk walking goal for groups with andwithout contracts

A final aspect of commitment is the importance of reciprocity. We have a verystrong instinct for reciprocity, which is linked to a desire for fairness that can lead82
us to act irrationally. We can see the desire for reciprocity strongly in the attitudeof „I‟ll commit to it if you do‟. Reciprocity effects can mean that, for example,
accepting a gift acts as a powerful commitment to return the favour at some point,
83
which is why free samples are often effective marketing tools.

Ego
We act in ways that make us feel better about ourselves
We tend to behave in a way that supports the impression of a positive andconsistent self-image. When things go well in our lives, we attribute it to ourselves;
when they go badly, it‟s the fault of other people, or the situation we were put in –84
an effect known as the „fundamental attribution error‟. We think the same way forgroups that we identify with. Psychologists have found this group identification to
be a very robust effect, and its power is so great that – like a number of the other85
effects above – it changes how we see the world. The classic illustration of thiseffect is sports fans‟ memories of their team‟s performance in a match. Fanssystematically misremember, and misinterpret, the behaviour of their own teamcompared with the opponents. A match in which both teams appear equallyculpable of committing fouls to an impartial observer will be seen by a partial fan as86
one characterised by far more fouls by the opposing team than their own.
Discussion document – not a statement of government policy

272Advertisers are well aware that we view the world through a set of attributions that87
tend to make us feel better about ourselves. Male respondents donate more tocharity when approached by more attractive female solicitors for door-to-door fundraising, which suggests that giving is also the result of a desire to maintain a88
positive self-image (in the eyes of the opposite sex in this case). This suggests
that, for example, attempts to reduce smoking should consider if smoking is boundup with a desire for self-esteem and positive self-image, which means self-esteem
may be an effective route for change (pointing out that smoking causes yellow
89
teeth and impotence). Of course, this is not a blanket prescription – for people
with very low self-esteem, a more effective route may be to build their sense of
self-efficacy. This reinforces the need to combine MINDSPACE effects with anuanced understanding of the capabilities and motivations of the target audience(see Chapter 4).
We also like to think of ourselves as self-consistent. So what happens when our
behaviour and our self-beliefs are in conflict? Interestingly, often it is our beliefs
90
that get adjusted, rather than our behaviour. The desire for consistency is used in
the foot-in-the-door technique in marketing, which asks people to comply with asmall request (e.g. filling in a short questionnaire for free), which then leads tothem complying with larger and more costly requests (e.g., buying a related
91
product). Once they have made the initial small change to their behaviour, thepowerful desire to act consistently takes over – the initial action changes their selfimage and gives them reasons for agreeing to subsequent requests (“I did that, so
I must have a preference for these products”). In other words, small and easychanges to behaviour can lead to subsequent changes in behaviour that may go
92largely unnoticed. This approach challenges the common belief that we should
first seek to change attitudes in order to change behaviour.
Similarly, it has been shown that the greater the expectation placed on people, the93
better they perform. Thus, people with positive expectations internalise their“positive” label and succeed accordingly; but this influence can also be detrimental
94
if a negative label is used. A self-fulfilling prophecy is created, whereby people
behave in a way that is consistent with the expectation of others.
Our desire for positive self-image leads to an (often automatic) tendency to95
compare ourselves against others and “self-evaluate”. When we make thesecomparisons, we are biased to believe that we perform better than the average
person in various ways: 93% of American college students rated themselves as
96
being “above average” in driving ability. This bias may require policymakers to go
beyond what might be considered optimal in regulating some behaviours. For
example, it might be necessary to enforce stricter working hour limits for
professions that impose risk on others, such as long-distance drivers and medical
staff, because people will overrate their ability to cope with fatigue and stress; or
set very low levels of acceptable alcohol consumption when driving, because
drivers will overestimate their driving skills.

Conclusion
The MINDSPACE framework provides a brief overview of some of the most robust
and powerful automatic effects on behaviour, which can be used as tools forbehaviour change (in addition to more traditional interventions). These principles
are underpinned by laboratory and field research from social psychology, cognitive
psychology and behavioural economics. In the next section, we consider how
these tools can be applied to several key policy areas.

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Examples of MINDSPACE in public policy

The MINDSPACE framework provides a quick overview of some of the most robust
and powerful tools that can and have been used to influence behaviour. Here we
consider how these tools can be applied to three broad policy areas:
1.

“Safer Communities”. Challenges include: preventing crime,
reducing anti-social behaviour, preventing degradation of surroundings

2.

“The Good Society”. Challenges include: promoting proenvironmental behaviours, increasing voting, encouraging responsible
parenting3.

“Healthy and Prosperous Lives”. Challenges include: stoppingsmoking, reducing obesity, promoting responsible personal finances,encouraging take-up of education and training

We focus on these relatively broad policy areas to reflect some importantdistinctions that the public and policy-makers may draw between behaviour that97
affects others and ourselves, and between harms and benefits. Following John
Stuart Mill and liberal thinkers ever since, we have often been most concerned
about the impact of people‟s behaviour on others – especially when that behaviour
98
causes harm.
Challenges in relation to safer communities fall largely into this category. The
most obvious example is the reduction of crime and offending, but it also covers
issues such as littering and polluting the environment. In essence, the policy brief
is to stop a behaviour that is harming others. This is a relatively non-contentious
type of behaviour change for governments to take on, and has long been accepted,
and even demanded, by citizens. It covers much of the activity of the Home Office,but also that of departments such as the Ministry of Justice and the Department ofEnergy and Climate Change.
Challenges around the good society also relate largely to the impact on others,
but typically in relation to benefits rather than harms. Individual citizens may beless able to capture the benefits of such actions, and will tend to „under-invest‟ insuch behaviours, making a strong case for governments and communities to try toactively encourage them further. Classic examples include behaviours with positive
spill-overs such as volunteering, paying taxes and recycling. This involves a big
part of the activities of departments such as Communities and Local Government,
but also that of Department for Food, Environment and Rural Affairs, Department
for Culture, Media and Sport, and several others.
Challenges in healthy and prosperous lives also have some effects on others but
relate more directly to harm and benefits to the self. This is where the support forgovernment involvement may be weaker, since these types of behaviour are often
seen as more within the realm of personal responsibility. Nevertheless, there may
be strong financial reasons for acting, such as the Wanless Review‟s claim that thecost of a population „unengaged‟ in its health could be £30 billion more by 2022
99
than a population actively engaged in taking responsibility for its own health.
Classic examples include reducing smoking, preventing obesity and encouraging
savings. This type of behaviour change is a major focus of the Department of

Discussion document – not a statement of government policy

292Health, but also of departments such as the Department of Work and Pensions andDepartment for Children, Schools and Families.
Combining a) the goal of the behaviour change, b) the citizens who are affected,
and c) the perceived legitimacy of government action creates a flexible frameworkthat covers the major areas of government policy, as can be seen in Figure 4.

Affecting others

1

2

Safer
communities

The goodsociety
Benefit

Harm

Healthy andprosperous lives

3
Affecting self

State role
more acceptedState role more
controversial

Figure 4: Broad policy areas viewed in terms of behaviour

The following sections show how the behaviour change effects from MINDSPACE
can tackle common or pressing challenges under the three broad policy areas ofsafer communities, good society and healthy and prosperous lives.
We provide a range of case studies that demonstrate how some of the
MINDSPACE effects have already been used to change behaviour and cite
evidence of their effectiveness. We follow this with an exploration of how otherelements of MINDSPACE can be used to influence behaviour in that policy area.
These may be evidence-based examples, or suggestions for future policies.
The MINDSPACE framework can also show how policymaking can haveunintended and perverse effects on behaviour. Such insights can be as important,
if not more so, than the positive examples of MINDSPACE we provide.
In some of the case studies, it may be evident that more than one MINDSPACE
effect is influencing behaviour at any one time. While it may be easier toconceptualise these effects as if they work in isolation, in practice significant
overlaps will exist. If interventions are well designed, these overlaps are likely toenhance the effectiveness of attempts to shape behaviour.

Safer communities
A key and legitimate role of government is to discourage people harming eachother. Much of our legislation and system of justice is aimed at achieving exactly
this. We pass laws precluding unacceptable behaviour and look to the courts andcriminal justice system to catch and punish citizens who break these laws. But

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legislation is far from perfect at affecting behaviour change. Crime and fear remain
major concerns in most Western countries and – even in the context of thecountry‟s current economic problems – remain one of the British public‟s top
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concerns. The following case studies show how thinking differently about
criminal behaviour may tackle the pressing challenges it presents.
Case study: reducing gang violence in Strathclyde
The policy issue
The latest British Crime Survey (BCS) reports that violent crime has fallen by
49% since 1995, with provisional data showing 648 murders recorded by thepolice (the lowest in 20 years). The use of knives in all violent crime has
101remained fairly stable over the last decade. Although gun crime remains
very rare, the number of recorded crimes involving firearms (excluding air
102
weapons) doubled between 1998/9 and 2006/7. And there is considerable
public concern about knife and gun crime: 93% of BCS respondents thought
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knife crime had risen nationally, with 86% thinking the same for gun crime.
Many of these concerns have related to the activities of „gangs‟. It isextremely difficult to measure gang membership, but a 2004 Home Officestudy estimated that 6% of young people aged 10-19 belonged to a104
delinquent youth group. Offending rates were significantly higher for
members of these groups than for non-members, and 51% claimed to have105
taken illegal drugs with other members.
Using norms and messengers to change behaviour
It has been shown that people are strongly influenced by the behaviour ofothers, particularly by those who are similar to themselves. If delinquent
behaviour is seen as „normal‟ and widely practised by peers, this creates astrong attraction for gang members to join in and conform to the norm.
Scotland‟s Violence Reduction Unit has taken an innovative approach to
tackling Glasgow‟s gang culture, which is founded on turning the power ofsocial norms against gangs. Previous initiatives – including foot patrols and106
crackdowns on knife crime – had achieved only short-term success. Then
Scotland‟s Violence Reduction Unit turned to a US programme called theCincinnati Initiative to Reduce Violence (CIRV). A central plank of CIRV‟sapproach is to make one gang member‟s actions affect all his/her peergroup. So, if a gang member commits a murder, then the entire gang istargeted for offences: drug activities, weapon possession, and parole andprobation violation. In other words, punishment is replicated in the same way
as the delinquent behaviour was – through the social norm of gangmembership.
The American programme adopts other tactics for „changing operative
norms regarding violence‟. Gang members were summoned to face-to-faceforums as a condition of their parole. One purpose of these forums was toshow how the gang‟s „rules‟ or „code‟ was based on illusion and rarely
operated in reality. The other main purpose was to draw on wider social
norms, by getting members of local communities, victims‟ relatives and exoffenders to speak about the impact of the gang‟s violence on their area.
The messages have proven most effective when coming from figures thatgang members may respect, or to whom they can relate – as when themother of a dead gang member warned: ‟If you let yourself get killed, your107
mother will be standing here. She will be me.‟ As one of the American
scheme‟s architects has noted, „We‟re finding all of this matters more if you
can find someone who is close to the offender, who they respect, who will
Discussion document – not a statement of government policy

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reinforce these values.‟
effect, explained above.

This points again to the power of the „Messenger‟

Evaluation
There have been a series of gang violence initiatives, all based on a similar
model from the United States. One of the first programmes, Ceasefire, hasbeen well evaluated. When first launched in Boston in 1996, an evaluation
for the US National Institute of Justice found that the intervention reduced
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the average number of monthly youth homicides by 63%.
A more recent evaluation of a programme based on the Boston project foundthat shootings and killings dropped between 41% and 73% in Chicago andBaltimore; declines of between 17% and 35% were attributable to Ceasefire
110
alone. In Cincinnati, gang-related homicides fell by 50% in the first nine111
months. These improvements appear to be enduring – once a new social
norm has been embedded, it becomes self-sustaining.
Scotland‟s Violence Reduction Unit secured £1.6 million of funding for theirown CIRV (Community Initiative to Reduce Violence) project in 2008, which
has brought together workers from many different agencies (including
housing, education, social work and justice). The first face-to-face forum wasonly held in October 2008, with the first year‟s results published at the end of112
2009. The Home Affairs Select Committee recently praised Scotland‟s
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Violence Reduction Unit‟s „innovative‟ strategy in its report on knife crime.

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Thinking through the MINDSPACE framework offers many possible ideas for policy
to reduce crime and make our communities safer.
Messenger
Our reaction to information that specifies what is, and what is not, socially andlegally acceptable is often influenced by the messenger delivering it. In reducing
criminal activity, some people will respond better to authority figures, whilst others
are more sensitive to messages delivered from people with similar backgrounds.
The messengers used by the London borough of Brent to deliver information
successfully to youngsters about the risks of becoming involved in gun crime were114
youth officers who were previously in street gangs. BAC-IN, based in
Nottingham, is run for and by people from African/Caribbean and South Asianbackgrounds that have drug and alcohol problems. It provides culturally
appropriate peer support to address and treat substance misuse problems in
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communities where abuse is often hidden and denied.
There is strong evidence that the persuasive impact of close personal relationships
on behaviour and family and friends can be used to deliver messages that seek to116
reduce criminal activity. The Ceasefire programme, for example, uses mothers
to deliver messages to gang members. One idea, raised at a recent Prime
Minister‟s Strategy Unit seminar, is the practice of local mothers joining the policeon the beat in housing estates blighted by anti-social behaviour. Such interventions
not only strengthen the messenger (on both sides), they also help strengthen theestablishment of stronger local social norms.
Incentives
Behaviour shaping, such as in relation to troubled youth, is often best done throughpositive incentives – in other words, rewarding and encouraging pro-social andadaptive behaviour rather than negative incentives (penalties) for bad behaviour.
Hence effective parenting programmes focus heavily on helping the parents oftroubled youngsters to praise and encourage sometimes quite small steps towards

Discussion document – not a statement of government policy

positive behaviour (such as not leaving shoes lying around, or clearing plates fromthe table).

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Whether using incentives as a reward for positive behaviour or as a penalty for bad
behaviour it may be useful to consider loss aversion (the phenomenon that
individuals prefer to avoid losses than acquiring gains). It is likely that sanctions,such as fines, are likely to be more effective when framed as losses. For example,
the threat of crushing an offender‟s car (as represented in DVLA adverts) or taking
their new TV could be more powerful than a fine of the equivalent level.
Norms
Social norms are a very powerful driver of both minor and more serious forms ofcrime. Essentially, we often take our cues for „what goes‟ from those around us.
Hence if one or two people start vandalising an abandoned car, others are likely to117join in. Even amongst highly educated members of society, the propensity to118cheat is influenced by pervasive local norms.
As noted in the case study, Ceasefire uses norms extensively, in this case partly
trying to lever the social capital of the gang to less negative ends. This can work in
the other way, however, with custodial sentences in certain circumstances being
associated with higher rates of recidivism. It may be that custodial sentences breakan individual‟s remaining exposure to mainstream social norms and instead
immerse them in a crime-based set of norms and social networks. A more positive
example may be youth or teen courts, where young volunteers serve in various
capacities within the programme. There is evidence from the USA that these canbe highly effective. These seem to rest on several factors, a key one being thatyoung people are especially sensitive to the social norms and influences of their119
peers.
Defaults“Target hardening” – for example, making products harder to steal - offers anincreasingly familiar and effective form of harnessing the power of defaults. For
example, ensuring that mobile phones come with security passwords alreadyenabled or building cars that automatically immobilise the engine make successful
crimes more difficult. Such phones can still enable users to override the default, but
the chances are that most users will be happy with the default extra security inplace, just as they would have been without it. Speed limiters in cars (that could be
actively overridden) could work in the same way.
Salience
In general, the more the message or signal is specific and salient to us asindividuals, the more powerful it is likely to be. For example, campaigns toencourage people to drive more carefully or lock up their houses will be more
effective if they are segmented to match the audience. Hence, a speeding
campaign is more likely to be effective when tailored to young drivers and other atrisk segments, and „lock-up‟ campaigns when rooted in statistics about burglaries
on your own street. Again, the recent Cabinet Office report on segmentation
120
provides practical advice in this area.
Salience can also be applied to help public policy in more indirect ways too. For
example, recent evidence in the UK suggests that visible jackets and salient
121„unpaid work‟ can boost confidence in community punishment. This increased
confidence may provide a platform for policymakers to move the UK criminal justicesystem away from use of custodial sentences towards the greater use ofcommunity sentences that appear to work well, and be publicly acceptable, in our
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Northern European neighbours.

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Priming
Criminal activity can be made more likely by factors in the environment that „prime‟
an offender‟s behaviour. The „Broken Windows‟ theory suggested that if a few
windows of a derelict factory were not repaired, the tendency was for vandals to
break a few more. As such „one example of graffiti or littering, can indeed
123
encourage another, like stealing‟. Further work has shown that the sight of guns
can induce aggressive ideas and „can function as a conditioned stimulus, eliciting
both the thoughts and motor responses associated with its use‟. As a result, it has
been said that whilst „the finger pulls the trigger, the trigger may also pull the124finger‟. Hence, policy-makers should consider how the wider visible environment
in which people live may actually prime crime.
AffectRestorative justice is a process where parties with a stake in a specific crime work
together in dealing with the aftermath of the offence and its future implications.
Bringing offenders face-to-face with their victims can evoke a strong emotional
response – such as anger and guilt - in participants. The youth offending team in
Caerphilly believe that their restorative justice scheme empowers victims and can
125
reduce crime.
Of course, much of the impact of crime comes from the powerful negative emotions
it generates, not just directly for victims but because of the pervasive sense of fearthat it can engender. It can be challenging to value the psychological cost of126
crime but we know that fear of crime can affect our behaviour, which can lead towithdrawal into the home and abandonment of public space. Community building –getting to see and know your neighbours – can be an effective way of reducing
fear. A common response of fearful residents brought together is the relief when
they discover they are not alone.
Commitment
Policy-makers and those working in the criminal justice system should consider
how the power of commitment could reduce or prevent undesirable activities.
Acceptable Behaviour Contracts (ABCs) are a good example of the use ofcommitment devices in relation to crime. A meeting is held between the offender,
their parents (if applicable) and the police and all agree what is and is not
acceptable behaviour. Though there is no legal sanction, ABCs can nevertheless127
be effective in reducing antisocial behaviour.
Although reciprocity can sometimes be a powerful negative force, such as tit-for-tat
exchanges between rival gangs, commitment contracts could be enhanced bystrengthening their reciprocal element. It may be useful for the partners of theagreement to recognise when the contract has been successful and respond, withpositive feedback or reward.
Ego
The quest for a positive self-image is important for most of us but may beparticularly so in persistent criminal offenders. Research into the causes of violent
acts has traditionally focussed on risk factors rather than perpetrators‟ perspectives
on their actions. Violent crime in particular, is often entangled with a struggle for„respect‟, and there is evidence that violence often relates to (arrogant or
128
aggressive) protection of low self-esteem. The recent, and much quoted,
Australian campaign to reduce speeding by young men openly plays on this desire
for respect: an attractive young woman raises and bends her finger to signal that129
she thinks speeding a sign of having a small penis. Similar campaigns could belaunched to reduce the drink-related violence seen in many town centres at night,
130
often carried out as a sign of machismo.

Discussion document – not a statement of government policyIn contrast, the ever-popular but highly ineffective practice of „scaring straight‟ bytaking young people to prison may fail because it makes it easier for the young
person to think of themselves as an offender, and to incorporate this into their131
identity. The evidence indicates that it actually increases subsequent offending.
Similarly there are concerns that anti-social behavioural orders (ASBOs) aresometimes treated as a „badge of honour‟ in some social groups and may cue bad
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behaviour rather than restrain it.

Case study: Reducing littering in Southwark
The policy issue
Citizens consider the appearance of their local area as a major issue, and133
litter is perceived as the second biggest blight on the local environment.
Government attempts to alleviate these problems are considerable: the134estimated cost of street cleaning was £547 million in 2005-06. At a local
level, polling data in the London Borough of Southwark has indicated that
residents considered street cleanliness to be the council‟s main priority. By
2007, the council was spending approximately £20 million cleaning streets135
and housing estates.
Using norms and salience to change behaviour
Given public concern and government spending, littering presents a strong
case for attempting to change behaviour to prevent harm to others.
Southwark applied incentives to reduce littering by introducing £75 fixedpenalty notices (FPN). These notices are obviously more effective if people
are aware of them – which is why Defra recommends they are preceded by
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an awareness-raising campaign. But, just as concern about litter in137
general may not translate to changed behaviour in practice, there aresome real challenges to making the abstract threat of a fine „real‟ to citizens.
Starting in 2004, Southwark adopted „Stalking Litter‟, an innovative approachto making the issue of litter, and FPNs specifically, more salient to citizens.
In order to attract attention, the council hired actors in giant litter costumes to„create a scene‟ in busy streets throughout the borough. The actors (later
replaced by staff members) explicitly aimed to engage with the public, forexample by cheering and thanking passers-by who put litter in nearby bins.
There are three main advantages to exploiting salience in this way:a) The novelty and amusement of the giant litter provides a salient
opening for the serious messages about litter problems and FPNs. As one
participant argued, „It‟s hard to get your message across if you have a leaflet
in your hand. Dressing as a giant banana gives you a 10 to 15 second
window where people listen to you.‟b) The costumes connect the issueof litter and FPNs with distinctive visual
images. Not only do the images exploit
non-verbal means of communication,
their novelty makes it more likely thatthe accompanying message will be
138
retained.
c) The costumes were explicitly
designed to represent the most common types of litter found in Southwark(for example, coke cans, fast food, and cigarettes). These similarities arelikely to make the actual litter that citizens encounter more noticeable, and to
make them more aware of their own littering behaviour.
Discussion document – not a statement of government policy

353Evaluation
The programme has not been formally evaluated. There are informal reportsthat the novel approach was successful at tackling the apathy surrounding
littering, while the use of humour appealed to groups who may have notresponded to traditional information campaigns. The campaign was cited inSouthwark‟s „Overall Winner‟ title at the Cleaner Safer Greener Network
139
Awards in 2006. Naturally, it is very difficult to make a causal link between
the use of Stalking Litter and the incidence of littering, since the initiative
took place as part of a wider programme aimed at improving the cleanlinessof Southwark. Nevertheless, holistic programmes to change littering
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behaviour can achieve significant effects, as indicated in the graph below.

The good society
Nearly everyone wishes to live in a „good society‟, even if different people tend toemphasise different things when defining it. Government often intervenes topromote a better society, and may be seen to have legitimacy to do so if people
believe civil life has deteriorated. Although very few people when questioned want
the state intervening more in their lives, they are likely to give permission for new
policies in this area if the benefits are made salient to them.

Case study: Education-Related Parenting Contracts
The policy issue
Most people agree that parents need to be able to guide and nurture theirchildren and discipline them when necessary. As part of this, parents are
expected to support schools in making sure their children attend class
regularly and behave appropriately whilst there. In the Autumn 2008 andSpring 2009 terms, unauthorised absence statistics show that 1.03% of thehalf day school sessions were missed without permission. In the 2007/8
academic year, there were 8,130 permanent exclusions from primary,secondary and special schools in England, which represents 0.11% of thenumber of pupils in schools. The most common reason for exclusion was
141
persistent disruptive behaviour.
Using commitment contracts to change behaviour
Education-related Parenting Contracts and Parenting Orders wereintroduced in February 2004 to promote and reinforce parental responsibility
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for school attendance and behaviour. An education-related Parenting
Contract is a voluntary, written agreement between a parent and either thegoverning body of a school or a local authority. Parents cannot be compelled
to enter into a Parenting Contract and there is no obligation for local
authorities and schools to offer them. The contract includes a statement anda commitment by the parents that they agree for a specified period of time tocomply with the requirements set out in the agreement. Parents in manycases are encouraged to suggest their own solutions as to what measureswould be most effective. The school or local authority provides a statement
and similar commitment agreeing to provide support to the parents toimprove the child‟s behaviour and/or attendance. Support ranges from thefamily being bought an alarm clock to parents being offered a place onparenting skills courses.
After the Parenting Contracts have been signed off, an initial period of time isusually given for the pupil‟s behaviour or attendance to improve. If there islittle or no improvement then the period of the contract can be extended, withboth sides‟ agreement. There is no sanction for a parent‟s failure to comply
with or refusal to sign a Parenting Contract. However, if the pupil‟smisbehaviour or attendance continues or worsens and the school or local
authority applies for a Parenting Order (a civil order), then the Court can takenon compliance with the Contract into account when considering whether togrant an Order. In the case of poor school attendance the local authority
may consider prosecuting the parent, but this should be the last resort.
Evaluation
In 2008, a DCSF-commissioned evaluation of education-related Parenting
Contracts assessed their role in improving children‟s behaviour and reducing
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unauthorised attendance. The evaluation showed that there was a greateruse of Parenting Contracts for attendance problems rather than for bad
behaviour. The trigger for contracts due to poor attendance usually occurred
when unauthorised absences dropped below a specific level. For bad
behaviour, parenting contracts were often used as a last resort attempt whenother interventions had failed.
Schools, local authorities and parents were generally positive about the roleof Parental Contracts in reducing non-attendance and improving behaviour(see Figure 6). The majority of schools involved in the evaluation saw
attendance improve as a result of using these agreements. Although a fewer
number of contracts were used for bad behaviour, it was considered very
difficult to isolate their effectiveness, as a number of other interventions were
often running concurrently. However schools and local authorities did feelthat Parenting Contracts had helped to avoid the child in question being
permanently excluded and that generally, their behaviour had improved.

Discussion document – not a statement of government policy

373Figure 2: Perceived success of parental contracts by local authorities

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Messenger
Although much of the new legislation enacted in the last few years is
uncontroversial and would have widespread support, some people may not
approve of government interventions to encourage pro-social behaviours.
Therefore, in delivering messages that seek to create a good society, it may be
more effective to use messengers that are not seen as agents of the state.
Currently, there are a number of public campaigns, such as those for filing tax
returns or increasing recycling, that currently use public – and non-governmental figures to get the message across.
Peer to peer programmes can be used to target youngsters who are often hard toreach, with messages intended to enhance pro-social behaviours. As part of theAimhigher programme, a scheme has been established in which secondary school
pupils are mentored by university students to support them in continuing into higher
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education programmes. Peer education programmes have also been used toincrease the youth vote, with organisations like „Rock the Vote‟ using the power ofpeer messengers to increase voter turnout recent American elections.
Incentives
Providing incentives to promote pro-social behaviours can risk reducing people‟s
intrinsic motivation to make the right decisions in other areas of their lives. Intrinsic
motivations come from the reward from carrying out the task itself, the feeling ofsatisfaction or self-worth that comes from an act of altruism. Extrinsic motivation
comes from outside and usually takes the form of coercion or a financial reward or
penalty. It has been shown that extrinsic incentives relate to how people seethemselves and are therefore less effective in public than in private. For policymakers, this would suggest that monetary incentives are more likely to be
145
counterproductive for public pro-social activities than for private ones.
One area in which communities have grown in strength over recent years is online.
Wikipedia is an example of a social resource that has come together with the helpof a community of hundreds of thousands of editors who are not rewarded for theircontribution financially. So what incentivises these people to contribute? It has
been suggested that the motivations for contributing to such websites was notalways strictly altruistic, but relied on increased recognition, a sense of efficacy and146
anticipated reciprocity. Incentives may have a role in many areas of public policy
making, but other factors may be as or more important that financial rewards or

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penalties. Policy-makers should therefore try to identify whether there are any
intrinsic, altruistic motivations that could be harnessed for behaviour change.
Norms
People have been seen to contribute more to society and public goods when they147
see others contributing as well. This behaviour may be due to the specific normof „responsibility‟ generated when people recognise the impact their personal
behaviour has on creating a better society. The theory of responsibility-orientatedcontribution to society differs from other explanations of pro-social behaviour, suchas reciprocity and conformism, which also influence actions. In the setting of a
Norwegian recycling programme, perceived responsibility was found to be a major
determinant for reported recycling: an individual less certain that their neighbour148
was recycling was less likely to accept responsibility for their own recycling. It
seems that people determine appropriate pro-social contributions by looking attheir peers‟ actions.
Encouraging voter turnout is a priority for healthy democracies. The „Voter
Paradox‟ describes the fact that in spite of the economic prediction (rational model)that very few people would turn out to vote, significant numbers continue to do so.
There are a number of reasons for observed voter behaviour but a strong social
influence certainly exists. The British Election Survey found that, controlling for all
else, if a person believes that his or her peers think that voting is a waste of time,
149
that person is less likely to vote. To boost voter numbers, postal voting has been
introduced in many countries. When optional postal voting was introduced in
Switzerland, it reduced voting costs substantially but did not increase turnout.
150
Interestingly, voter turnout actually decreased in smaller communities. It has
been suggested that this reduction was because the social norm of being seen tovote was lost. This implies that policy-makers should pay particular attention to
encouraging or enabling a visible pro-social norm to take root in communities.
Defaults
Default payments or top up fees can be added to products which are then donatedto projects promoting a „good society‟. The change of default from one in which thecustomer has to opt into making the additional payment to one in which they must
opt out can dramatically influence behaviour. To maintain public parks in
Washington State, drivers renewing their licenses are charged an additional $5
donation unless they opt-out of not paying the fee. This has increased the amountdonated compared to the old system, where people were not charged the fee
unless they chose to pay it. In the previous model, only 1.4% of people donated,with the State collecting just over $600,000 dollars a year. The state has reported
151
making over $1million dollars a month from the scheme since the change.
Some organisations (for example, the ZSL London Zoo) now include a Gift Aid
contribution as a default in their standard prices, and this technique could be
encouraged for other causes promoting a „Good Society‟. Or optional payments
could be added to products that lead to external costs to society: for example,
some airlines already operate an opt-out default payment to offset the carbon
footprint associated with flying. This has implications for policy-makers either
concerned with raising revenues in a non-compulsory manner, or with morenuanced ways of regulating and adjusting for market failures.
Salience
Choice overload refers to the problem some consumers face when they arepresented with too many options. Too many choices can lead to people making
poor decisions and may even lead to people refraining from making any choice at
152all. As an example, people can sometimes be overwhelmed by the range ofoptions they have for recycling their waste and may consequently choose not to
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recycle at all. Better design could simplify the process by making recycling choices
more salient. Colour coded container lids increased the recycling rate by 34% in
one experimental study, suggesting that the lids colour communicated information
153
effectively through salience, thereby improving recycling compliance.
Priming
Original research on priming and social behaviour found that exposure to songs
154
with „pro-social lyrics‟ increased altruistic helping behaviour. Further studies
have shown providing participants with a picture of a library caused them to speak
155
more quietly. Features of our environment may be able to prime pro-social
behaviour; however, more research evidence is needed before such interventions
could be recommended.
AffectSocial marketing is the application of commercial marketing techniques to influence
the voluntary behaviour of target audiences and improve personal and societal
156
wellbeing. Many social marketing campaigns have used the power of affect oremotion to stimulate behaviour change. Drink driving and seatbelt awarenesscampaigns are good examples of where social marketing campaigns have playeda part in significantly changing behaviour. Social marketing that draws on the
power of affect could be used to encourage other pro-social behaviours such as
blood donation and community volunteering.
Commitment
The internet site www.stickk.com enables users to form commitment contracts to
help them achieve personal goals such as losing weight and stopping smoking.
The internet also provides a forum for people to make commitments to enhancetheir local community. Pledgebank.com is a site where people are able to commit
to doing things in their community. Users set up pledges and other people areencouraged to sign up to them. If the pledge attracts enough people then the groupis encouraged to go forward with the idea. Current examples include „I will start
recycling if 100 people in my town do the same‟ and „I will organise a love music,
hate racism event in South London, but only if 10 other people will help out‟.
Reciprocity can be used as a mechanism to improve social cooperation throughcitizen-to-citizen support schemes. The basis for such programmes is that people
can earn credits for pro-social behaviour in their local community. The idea comesfrom Japan, where a cashless currency (fureai kippu) or „caring relationship tickets‟
has been established. In the scheme, people are able to earn credits for looking
after an elderly neighbour, which can then be used to purchase similar care for
elderly relatives who live a significant distance away. A similar programme could be157
established in the United Kingdom.
Ego
Community improvement needs strong involvement and support. Enhancing thestatus of individuals who contribute to enhancing their local communities may
encourage more people to take an active part. „Community Champions‟ is anumbrella term, used by a number of organisations to describe people that work to
improve the environment in which they live or work in. For example, „Community
Champions‟ in Braintree inform the council about abandoned vehicles, graffiti,
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vandalism and street lights that have gone out.
The Honours system has been used in recent years to recognise people who havemade significant contributions to their local communities. It may be beneficial tocreate a more formal national award for young people and recent immigrants who
have already made a substantial contribution to their communities, but who may
not currently be recognised by the Honours system.

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Discussion document – not a statement of government policy

Case study: Increasing recycling through deposit schemes
The policy issue
The United Kingdom consumed approximately 14 billion litres of soft drinks
in 2007, equivalent to around 234 litres per person. In the same year nearly159
24 billion beverage packaging units were sold. Recycling rates of suchproducts is markedly less in the United Kingdom compared to other160
countries in Western Europe. In Denmark, a combination of a bottle
deposit scheme with a network of Reverse Vending Machines (RVMs) has
seen return rates of 84% for cans, 93% for plastic bottles and 91% for glass
161
bottles.
Using incentives and loss aversion to change behaviour
There is no doubt that better facilities have contributed to improved
household recycling. One area where recycling rates remain poor, however,is in the recycling of products purchased „on the go‟ (e.g. soft drinks
containers). Deposit schemes are used in many countries to encourage
people to return empty packaging, and there is evidence they can reduce
162
littering. The basic principle of the scheme is that consumers pay an
additional fee to the retailer when purchasing a bottle or associatedpackaging. The deposit is refunded when the consumer returns the empty
packaging. In a recent survey, 82% of people in the United Kingdom polled
said they would support a scheme whereby at least five pence was includedin the price of every drink container, with the deposit returned for163
recycling.
There are a couple of examples of incentive schemes that have been usedin the United Kingdom to improve recycling rates. IrnBru, which ismanufactured by AG Barr, is available in refundable glass bottles. Empty
bottles can be returned to retailers, who provide either cash refunds or acredit voucher. The current deposit value is 30p, and an impressive 70% of164bottles are returned for cleaning and reuse.
Reverse Vending Machines (RVM‟s) are devices that accept empty
beverage containers and can return money to the user. RVMs vary in size
and their price ranges from a few thousand pounds for smaller receptacles
to tens of thousands of pounds for larger units that can handle many
thousands of bottles a day. An organisation called Recoup have been
involved in a number of trials of RVMs, including one in Milton Keynes.
Initially no incentive was offered to encourage the public to recycle using theRVM but an incentive has recently been introduced. These voucher-based
incentives have not been seen to cause a significant effect on recycling
behaviour. Another scheme by The Body Shop offered its customers a 10%
price reduction if they returned containers to the shop for refilling. The
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scheme was dropped because only 1% of shoppers were using it.
There may be a number of reasons why IrnBru and other bottle deposit
schemes have been effective, whilst other programmes have been less so.
Behavioural economics provides us with one potential answer - loss
aversion. Loss aversion is the theory that states that losses loom larger thancorresponding gains and subsequently have a greater effect on preferences.
It is likely that part of the success of deposit schemes lies in generating loss
aversion in consumers. When customers hand over their deposit, loss
aversion predicts that failure to return the bottle and collect the payment
back will trigger a larger psychological cost than the monetary value of the
incentive would suggest. For this reason, deposit schemes may have a more
powerful effect on consumer behaviour than simple incentives alone.

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4Evaluation
Environmental Resources Management Limited (ERM) was commissioned
by DEFRA in 2008 to investigate whether a bottle deposit scheme should be
introduced in the United Kingdom. The findings of the evaluation were that
deposit schemes increase return rates in countries using them (often
reaching rates of over 85%) and that they may also contribute to reductions
in littering. ERM summarised that whilst it is not disputed that a deposit
scheme would increase recycling, alternative schemes may achieve similar166
or better results at less cost.
A subsequent report from DEFRA suggests that there is unlikely to be a167
national deposit scheme rolled out in England in the foreseeable future.
Such a scheme may be seen elsewhere in the United Kingdom, however,and The Climate Change (Scotland) Bill contains powers to introduce
168
deposit and return schemes. It may also be that retailers themselves takeon the responsibility for establishing bottle deposit schemes, and both
Sainsbury‟s and Tesco have already tried this in various guises.

Healthy and prosperous lives
A central goal of policymakers is to make citizens healthier and more prosperous.
Countless years of life continue to be lost as a result of the disease burden fromunhealthy choices. Similarly, the penalties of poor financial decision-making canadversely influence individual and societal well-being, in the short and long term.
People should be encouraged and supported in making healthier choices if theywish to, but there can be opposition to government involvement with these169
issues. Altering the choice environment with no restriction placed on individual
choice may provide an accepted way for policy-makers to influence behaviour inthese areas.
Case study: increasing contraceptive use
The policy issue
There are currently more than 33 million people living with HIV globally. SubSaharan Africa remains the region most heavily affected by HIV worldwide,
accounting for over two thirds (67%) of all people living with HIV and fornearly three quarters (72%) of AIDS-related deaths in 2008. Women are
significantly more likely to contract HIV: throughout the region, women170
account for 60% of all HIV infections. HIV clearly has importantconsequences for those infected and for wider society in terms of carerburden, lost output, etc. In an attempt to stem the epidemic, DfID hascommitted £6 billion over seven years to 2015 to improving health systems
171
in developing countries.
As the UK‟s AIDS strategy for developing countries notes: „Successful HIV
prevention is about enabling individuals, couples and communities to makehealthy choices about personal aspects of their lives – particularly sexual
behaviour. These are not just based on information and rational choice; they
are also influenced by complicated drivers of human action, including gender172
roles, inequality, norms around sexuality...‟ A key plank of the strategy isincreasing awareness and use of condoms. But DfID has also recognised
the need to incorporate the „complicated drivers‟ around how we deal withinformation – in particular, the importance we attach to the messenger.

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Discussion document – not a statement of government policy

Messengers
The weight we give to information depends greatly on the feelings andthoughts we have about its source. This principle is the foundation of the
DfID-funded „Get Braids Not Aids‟ campaign in Zimbabwe, which is one of173
the countries that has been worst hit by the virus. The scheme trains
hairdressers in low-income areas in informing their clients of the benefits offemale condoms, how they are used and how to introduce them into a174
relationship. This means the information is being provided by a familiar
person in a friendly, supportive and safe environment, which helps overcome
the stigma attached to female condoms and means the women feel freer totalk about their personal issues. Also, associating female condoms with afriendly person or enjoyable experience may lead them to be perceived in a
175
more positive light as a whole.

Evaluation
By 2005, „Get Braids Not Aids‟ had a network of 1,000 hair dressers in 500
176
salons, which sold 450,000 female condoms. This represented over half oftotal sales of female condoms in Zimbabwe, which have increased
177
dramatically since 1997. A DfID-funded study amongst 400 hair salonclients found that women who had seen a female condom demonstration bya hairdresser were 2.5 times more likely to use the product than those who
178
had not.
The study found that 28% of respondents reported using the female condom(called Care), compared to only 15% in 2002. 35% of respondents
spontaneously reported hair salons as a source of information about Care,
while 47% said they had specifically talked about Care with their
179
hairdresser. There are questions, however, over the sustained use of
female condoms, since it appears that half of the women who purchased the180
female condom only used it once.
Given the various complicating factors, it is not possible to draw a causal link
between this programme and AIDS prevalence. However, a recent United
Nations report attributes the significant decline in HIV prevalence in the last
decade to mortality and „a decline in HIV incidence due to behaviour
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change‟.

M
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Messenger
We usually think of parents moulding or influencing their children‟s behaviour, but
children similarly influence parents and other family members. A series ofDepartment of Health adverts have been used featuring children conveying thehealth risks of smoking to their parents. There may be a wider role for personal
health messages to be delivered by family members to other relatives. Teenagers
learn about healthy living as part of the social and health education programmesthat form part of their school curriculum. Teenagers of a certain age could be
encouraged to provide health information to relatives (e.g. grandparents).
Incentives
Payments for gym membership leave many people‟s bank accounts without a footstepping on the treadmill. A Danish chain of gyms is offering a new way of182
encouraging its members to visit the gym regularly. The gym offers freemembership, with the only condition being that if you fail to show up once per week
you will be billed a monthly membership fee. Traditional gym subscriptions (annual
subscriptions) can be considered in many ways as „sunk costs‟. In economics,
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4sunk costs are those that have already been incurred and cannot be recovered.
Whilst these costs will still motivate the gym member, the Danish scheme is likely
to be more successful (in terms of increasing usage, if not profit), since it will
generate continuing feelings of loss aversion for failure to go to the gym.

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General Practitioners are now prescribing a variety of exercise programmes to their
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patients, including gym memberships and golf lessons. The rationale is that thiswill offer preventative health benefits, but it has generated controversy and theeffectiveness of such schemes is not yet proven. A system that allows people toaccess similar free facilities could use the Danish model that only results in costs toparticipants if they do not keep to their targets.
Norms
The decision to smoke or drink alcohol is heavily influenced by the choices of thosearound us. Recent evidence suggests that the outside forces that make one
person‟s smoking less likely will also decrease the probability that close friends orfamily will also smoke. It was demonstrated that individuals whose spouse was
faced a workplace smoking ban were less likely to smoke themselves and that a
spouse quitting can lead to a 40% reduction in the probability of spousal smoking.
This evidence suggests that policy interventions affecting an individual‟s behaviour(e.g. workplace smoking bans) may have an additional indirect effect on their peer
184
group. This may increase the legitimacy of policies that are used to target otherunhealthy behaviours.
Defaults
Nudges can also use technology to deliver desired changes in behaviour. Statistics
185
suggest that there may be a group who repeatedly flout drink driving laws. A new
approach may be needed to deal with this group of persistent offenders. In certain
American states, those convicted of drunk driving have to install breath-monitoringgadgets in their car, which prevents engines from starting until drivers blow into
186
alcohol detectors. There is of course the risk that drivers get their sober friends
to blow into the device, but strict penalties have been introduced to counter thistactic. Such a scheme (acting as a default) could be used in the United Kingdom toreduce the damage done by these repeat offenders to themselves and others.
Salience
Traditional economic theory tells us that price is supposed to capture, rather thanshape, value. Recent behavioural research suggests that preferences can be
187
affected by how a price is presented or framed. The most obvious example isthat consumers are affected by setting prices just one penny below the nearest
188
pound value, since the pound value comes first and is thus more salient.
In recent years firms are increasingly displaying their prices not in terms of a single
price, but as a breakdown of separate charges. Examples include online retailers
who provide their price separated into product cost and handling and postage fees
and airlines who now routinely itemise fuel fees, baggage charges and landing189
fees. Consumers are often confused as to what products offer the best value.
This has been seen in the travel industry, where there are increasing complaints
about the transparency of prices for airline flights. Where confusion exists in pricing
structures, it may be necessary to require companies to present their prices instructured formats that allow consumers to make the choice that is best for them.
Priming
Inappropriate and unhealthy alcohol use is a source of significant concern in the
United Kingdom. There are a number of factors that may prime people into
excessive drinking. We know that people‟s portion sizes vary according thecontainer size and so people who use larger glasses will tend to pour themselves

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larger measures. Other elements of the environment in which we drink – music,
lighting, atmosphere - may also change our behaviour in relation to how much we
drink and how we subsequently act: we „go with the grain‟ of our environment.
AffectOur general mood can affect cognitive processes and choices. If we are in a goodmood we tend to make unrealistically optimistic judgements, and the opposite
191
applies. We will often make important decisions in such „hot‟ or „cold‟ states andthe choices taken may not always be in our long-term interests. Where it can bepredicted that our emotional state may affect our judgment, it may be useful tohave a formal „cooling off‟ period that allows us to come back and reconsider ourdecision at a later date. Examples include the purchase of insurance policies andagreement of personal loans. Government policies could better recognise thepower of these „hot‟ states and build in greater safeguards for people to ameliorate
the consequences of decisions taken under their influence.
Commitment
1-2% of the population in many developed countries suffer from pathologicalgambling. For those with such problems, some casinos (particularly in North
America) have offered self-exclusion programmes to limit an individual‟s gaming
opportunities. Self-exclusion provides the opportunity for gamblers to sign anagreement to ban them from gaming venues. This agreement may hold for alimited time or even a lifetime. An evaluation of people who had signed contracts in
Quebec showed many positive effects. The urge to gamble significantly reduced
192
while the perception of control increased significantly for participants.
Casinos in the United Kingdom could be encouraged (or forced) to make selfexclusion agreements more accessible to problem gamblers. In addition, there are
increasing concerns about the number of people who are developing serious
problems as a result of online gambling. Online casinos operating in the United
Kingdom could similarly be forced to offer self-exclusion contracts. Of course, withthe plethora of sites available it may be necessary to have a single agency towhich individuals can sign a self-exclusion agreement.
Ego
In recent years, health promotion strategies have focused attention from targeting
adult smokers into preventing smoking among children. There are a number ofproven determinants of smoking behaviour including socioeconomic status, peerpressure, and cigarette advertising. It is well recognised that smoking, self-image
193
and self-esteem are inextricably linked. Adolescents can see smoking as ameans to deal with stress and worry and there are particular problems withteenage girls whose smoking habits appear particularly resistant to change inmany countries. A significant number of teenage girls think smoking makes themlook experienced and sophisticated and they have concerns that if they quit that194
they will gain weight. Targeted programmes to raise the self-esteem of specificat risk groups may be necessary to prevent the long-term consequences ofcontinued smoking.

Case study: An „opt-out‟ system for private pensions
The policy issue
As the Pensions Commission made clear, the current system of pensions is
insufficient and „will deliver increasingly inadequate and unequal results‟. Not
only are private pension contributions failing to rise as expected, but
increasing life expectancy will create pressures that cannot be alleviated by195
raising the pensionable age alone. There are currently around 7 million
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people in the UK who are not saving enough to generate the income they196
are likely to want in retirement.

Using defaults to change behaviour
The Commission pointed out that „initiatives to stimulate personal pension
saving have not worked‟, and pointed to „the limited impact of providing
197
better information and generic advice‟. Indeed, in 2003 an estimated 4.6
million employees had not joined employer-based pension seems to which
198
they had access. Strictly speaking, this failure is irrational, since joining
such a scheme would bring considerable benefits to these employees.
There are many reasons for the low level of pension saving. Joining ascheme requires an active decision, but people often display inertia whenconfronted with such decisions. For example, many banks and credit cards
tempt people to open accounts with attractive introductory offers, knowing
199
that they will fail to move even when these offers elapse. The problem is
especially acute for pensions because they deal with a far-off futurescenario: since people find it difficult to imagine old age, the decision to act
does not seem to be a high priority and apparently can always be200deferred. Finally, people are more likely to defer decisions that arecomplex and confusing, and thus require significant mental effort – likeselecting a pension scheme.
Information provision alone fails because people may not act on thisinformation, for all the reasons given. In the words of one interviewee, „weknow we should be contributing to a pension plan, but it‟s never the right day
201
to start‟. In such a situation, should government just compel people tosave more? The Pensions Commission noted that „while many people say
they want to “have to save”, many respond adversely to the idea of
202
compulsory savings‟. How, then, should government take stronger action
without removing freedom? The answer from behavioural economics: usepeople‟s inertia to actually encourage saving.
Currently, the onus is almost always on employees to make the effort to join
their company‟s pension plan or buy a personal pension. In other words, the„default‟ option when employees join a company is for them not to join. The
concept adopted by the Pensions Commission was to change this default:
employees would automatically join the pension plan, but still have theopportunity to opt-out if they wish. Changing the default means that inertia is
now working in favour of savings – but preserving an opt-out means that the
government avoids introducing a compulsory saving system. The reform also
introduces a compulsory “matching” contribution from the employer, obliging
them to contribute to an employee‟s pension (unless the employee opts out).
203

It is an attractive position that has been labelled „libertarian paternalism‟.
Indeed, one interviewee explained that having a simple and intuitive
governing concept like „changing the default‟ has helped maintain focus andmomentum during the long process of implementing the Commission‟sfindings. Nevertheless, having a compelling theory alone is rarely enoughwhen creating policy; a crucial factor in gaining support for an opt-out default
was the compelling evidence of its effects in real life.
To take one of many examples, a study assessed the changes in pension
uptake when a large US corporation switched their default from active toautomatic enrolment. As the graph below shows, enrolment increased
204
significantly after the change in default. Interestingly, introducing
automatic enrolment also eliminated most of the previous differences in

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Discussion document – not a statement of government policy

participation due to income, sex, job tenure and race – the increase in takeup was particularly large for low and medium income workers.
The graph below shows pension participation rate by years worked in thecompany. For employees hired prior to automatic enrolment, participation
increases with tenure. But the highest participation rates are for theemployees hired under automatic enrolment.

Figure 8: Change in enrolment in pension plan, by length of employment

205

As well as sound theory and strong evidence, the movement to joining by
default, with an opt-out, was aided by support from stakeholders: forexample, pension providers can gain business and cut marketing costs,
while small businesses‟ pension contributions are in line with theiremployees‟ desire to save. As a consequence, the Pensions Act 2008
requires employers to automatically enrol all eligible workers over the age of
22 into the relevant workplace pension (with minimum total contributions of
206
8% of salary) from 2012.
Evaluation
Naturally, an evaluation of this policy does not exist as this change in thedefault does not come into force until 2012. Nevertheless, the practical stepsof translating an interesting concept into practice are worth reflecting on.
Changing default settings may be easy on a small scale and in informal
contexts, but there are challenges when national governments are required
to legislate:The power of inertia means that the nature of the default pension fundneeds to be chosen very carefully. As a result, the Personal AccountDevelopment Authority has just consulted on developing guidelines thatwill be used as investment principles for the fund managers of the207
proposed National Employment Savings Trust.
The use of legislation to compel employer contributions means that thePensions Regulator will need to take on considerable new powers toensure employers are complying with the new arrangements.
Finally, the setup needs to reflect the motivations of the different
parties. For example, the question of who provides the opt-out (i.e. who
the messenger is) needs to recognise that employers may have an
incentive to encourage employees to opt out.

Changing defaults is seen as a relatively cheap way of encouraging
beneficial behaviours. Of course, this depends on a) costs associated withthe actual change of the default; and b) the costs arising from more people

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choosing the new default option. In terms of changing the default, the DWP
208
has estimated there will be a one-off transition cost of £0.3 billion.
The average monetised costs and benefits of people choosing the newdefault are roughly equal at approximately £15 billion a year, although theyaccrue to different parties (combined individual and employer contributions
are offset by £15 billion of higher income for individuals in retirement).
However, the DWP believes that there will be additional non-monetised
benefits of £40 billion of social welfare benefit over 43 years (as a result ofsmoothing citizens‟ income over their lifetime), as well as a long-term
209
increase in UK incomes due to additional savings.

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Discussion document – not a statement of government policy

Applying MINDSPACE to policy-making

So far, we have explained MINDSPACE and shown its applications in the realworld. This chapter explains how policy-makers can put MINDSPACE into practice.
It focuses purely on how government could apply MINDSPACE. Of course,
ministers and policy-makers also need to consider fundamental questions aroundwhether government should attempt to change behaviour. We explain these
normative issues in the next chapter; for simplicity and ease of exposition, we
focus on practicalities first.
Traditional ways of changing behaviour, such as legislation, regulation, andincentives, can be very effective. MINDSPACE does not attempt to replace thesemethods. Rather, it extends and enhances them, adding new dimensions thatreflect fundamental, but often neglected, influences on behaviour.
Similarly, applying MINDSPACE in practice builds on existing methods of changing
behaviour. To illustrate this, we have drawn on the “4Es” policy framework,
originally developed by DEFRA, which has been applied in various behaviour
210
change strategies. The 4Es are four actions that should underpin government‟s
attempts to change behaviour: Enable, Encourage, Engage and Exemplify. We
have added two supporting actions: Explore, which takes place before policies are
implemented, and Evaluate, which judges the success of the policy.
In basic terms, MINDSPACE represents the tools for changing behaviour, and the
6 Es constitute the framework within which they can be applied. Bringing these
considerations together into a coherent narrative will allow policy-makers toaddress the over-arching “so what?” question in practical ways.
The diagram below shows how the various actions fit together, but it does notintend to offer a comprehensive overview of every element of the policy-making
process. Rather, it highlights areas which need extra attention, or a modified
approach, in order to change behaviour effectively.
• Legislation• Regulation• Incentives• Information

Encourage

Explore• Insight

EnableEngage• Infrastructure• Facilities• Design• Resources• Deliberation• Permission• Co-production

Evaluate• Evidence-based
innovation

Exemplify• Leading by example• Policy consistency• Organisational learning

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1. Explore
Understanding whose behaviour you are changing

Our behaviour is also
affected by conscious
understanding of ourneeds and desires

Any attempt to change behaviour needs to understand the behaviour it wishes tochange. MINDSPACE explains the robust effects that underpin human behaviour,
derived from our increasing understanding of how the Automatic System andcontextual cues affect us. However, our behaviour is also affected by a more
conscious and considered understanding of our needs, desires and priorities.
Recognising these various influences is crucial, given the complex environment inwhich people make decisions.
The discipline of „Customer Insight‟ generates a “deep” understanding of people‟s
211
experiences, beliefs, needs or desires. In order to develop a more sophisticatedunderstanding of these factors, Insight often divides the citizens whose behaviour
will be affected into different „segments‟. Naturally, there is considerable variation
in attitudes towards a particular issue, and segmentation allows government toframe behaviour change to „segments‟ of the population in ways they may findmore appealing. For further information, please consult the recent Cabinet Office212
guide to segmentation. Figure 9, below, gives an example of Defra‟s work tosegment the population by willingness and ability to act in „green‟ ways.

Figure 9: Example of customer segmentation

213

Whilst there may be debate about how best to represent and segment different
groups in society, Insight explicitly recognises that the „cultural ecology ofrationality‟ – the collective way of assessing information and making decisions –214
may vary between groups and communities. There is also great value inlistening to those working on the frontline of public services, who can provide
invaluable information on how individuals tend to make decisions in complex real
215
world situations – the hopes they harbour and the frustrations they experience.

Insight helps create amore nuanced
understanding of how
MINDSPACE can beapplied in practice50

Insight therefore helps create a more nuanced understanding of how MINDSPACE
can be applied in practice. The policy-maker can therefore draw on both the richmaterial from insight techniques and the generalisable effects of MINDSPACE.
Indeed, Insight may offer useful indications about which of the MINDSPACE effects
may be most appropriate for particular groups: if people express particularadmiration for certain figures or roles, these may make effective messengers; if
people show strong attachment to certain groups, then focusing on social norms

Discussion document – not a statement of government policymay be appropriate. Insight could also draw on scientific research: for example, arecent study showed that the impact of MINDSPACE effects varies greatly
216
between men and women in the context of encouraging hand-washing.

Exploring behaviour inthis way requires a
combination of different
skillsExploring behaviour by drawing on both MINDSPACE and Insight is not easy. Ourinterviewees suggested that senior policy-makers have a particularly important roleto play here. Ideally, they need to have a (rare) combination of analytical capacity
based on behavioural economics, imagination from strategic marketing, andawareness of social science. To ensure this combination of skills is available, it
may be profitable to bring together policy-makers with communications experts andpsychologists in the early stages of behaviour change initiatives.
Key questions for policy-makers
Whose behaviour are you attempting to change?

How do attitudes and motivations vary between the different groups
concerned?

How are you combining Insight with the MINDSPACE effects?

Does your team have the capacity to draw on both Insight andbehavioural theory?

2. Enable
Start from „where people are‟

Recognise the practicaland structural barriers
people face

Government needs to “enable” behaviour change by recognising the practical andstructural barriers that people face. Policy-makers should remember that thecontext in which people find themselves shapes the options that are available tothem and affects their ability to select these options. Attempts to encourage
behaviour change that do not recognise these contextual factors are likely to breed
frustration only.
For example, government may decide to encourage people to wash their clothes at
15°c, since this brings benefits for the environment. The purpose of the policy may
be to influence people to choose 15°c rather than, say, 40°c – and using
MINDSPACE may be very effective in encouraging people to do so. But the policy
will have limited impact if most people‟s washing machines simply do not have a
15°c option. Of course, the policy‟s attempts to influence people may have been so
powerful that people feel compelled to buy a washing machine with such an option.
But suppose these washing machines are far too expensive for most people: the15°c option effectively remains closed to them. In other words, contextual factors
217
are preventing behaviour change, despite people‟s best efforts. Government canhelp people surmount these barriers, but only if they are recognised.

The availability of choices Any attempt to encourage new behaviours needs to consider the wider context andchoices available to people, rather than focusing narrowly on the desired
is an important factor
behaviour. Are there underlying, compelling reasons why people will not be able tochange their behaviour? What can be done about them? The effects in
MINDSPACE are powerful and are likely to handle most of the “heavy lifting” inbehaviour change – but the very choices that exist are an important factor inthemselves.

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5Key questions for policy-makers
How does the wider context in which people act constrain or
encourage the change you seek?

What are the effective choices available to different sections ofsociety?



How do the choices that government presents affect behaviour?

3. Encourage
Applying MINDSPACE to change behaviour
Encourage covers the policies and government actions that (directly or indirectly)
try to change how people act. The 6Es diagram features the main „traditional‟
attempts to influence behaviour - legislation, regulation, incentives, and information– many of which are very effective. Given that this category includes coercive
measures, the label of “encourage” is used in a broad sense.

Civil servants need tobetter understand the
behavioural dimension of
their policies

As shown in the last chapter, MINDSPACE can add a lot to these policies. But that
does not mean that “behaviour change” can be understood as simply a novel
alternative to, say, legislation. As noted before, the majority of what government
does is intended to change behaviour in some way. Rather, civil servants need tobetter understand the behavioural dimension of their policies and actions.
Therefore, when policy-makers attempt to encourage certain behaviours,
MINDSPACE suggests there are three approaches that can be used:Enhance. MINDSPACE can help policy-makers understand how current
attempts to change behaviour could be improved. For example, incentives
are currently widely used to change behaviour, and are often effective –but MINDSPACE shows how their impact could be enhanced by a better
understanding of how people respond. Similarly, the impact of information
can be improved by considering salience effects. The logic here is that if
the state is already attempting to change behaviour, it should do so as
effectively as possible.

Introduce. Some of the elements in MINDSPACE are not used extensively
by policy-makers, yet may have a considerable impact. Most notably, there
is room for more innovative use of social norms and commitment devices
in policies. Of course, introducing new measures in this way may requiresignificant efforts to ensure there is public permission for the approach.

Reassess. Government needs to understand the ways it may be changing
the behaviour of citizens unintentionally. We have already seen that somepriming effects work in surprising ways that seem hard to explain. It is quitepossible that the state is producing unintended – and possibly unwanted –changes in behaviour. The insights from MINDSPACE offer a rigorous wayof reassessing whether and how government is shaping the behaviour of
its citizens. There is a further issue here around permission. If government
is changing behaviour unintentionally, then it is not seeking permission to
do so. Therefore, reassessing the government‟s role may increase
democratic accountability.

The factors in MINDSPACE invite these three approaches to varying degrees.


52

Incentives and Salience, for example, are existing tools to change
behaviour that could be enhanced.

Discussion document – not a statement of government policy

It is not just choices that
affect behaviour

Messenger and Defaults involve a greater degree of reassessment: they
are currently being used to change behaviour, but with less considerationand intent.

Priming may not be used intentionally very much (if at all), but its possible
introduction into policy is still rather unclear and controversial.

Norms are a more obvious candidate for introduction, but it‟s still importantto understand how government may be unintentionally influencing them.

Commitments are used to a limited extent, but could be introduced
further. Their use by government is generally intentional, and so they do
not invite much reassessment.

The key point is that government is always shaping behaviour. Often (as in Nudge)
this is framed in terms of the choices government offers. However, MINDSPACE
shows that it is not just choices that affect behaviour: a whole range of factors in
the environment affect behaviour without any “choices” taking place. For example,
a hospital may launch a policy to reduce violence against staff that focuses onchanging the interactions between staff and visitors: perhaps using social norms topoint out that most people behave politely, or relying on ego effects to draw onpeople‟s desired positive self images. But the design of the built environment of thehospital may have shaped behaviour so that people are stressed and prone toviolence before these interactions take place.
Part of this stress can be understood in terms of choices offered – for example, thepossible routes through a building – but it may also be created through factors
such as the clarity of the signs (salience) or the cleanliness of the floors (affect).
Indeed, Birmingham Heartlands hospital redesigned its Accident and Emergency
department with the aim of reducing environmental triggers for crime. After
analysing how people used the building, new signage was introduced and natural
surveillance was extended; as a result, the average number of aggressive
218
incidents fell from 13 a month in 2003 to 5 a month in 2005.
Key questions for policy-makers
Can you introduce any new elements from the MINDSPACE
framework?

How does MINDSPACE enhance your existing attempts to change
behaviour?

Do you need to reassess your existing actions using MINDSPACE?

4. Engage
Facilitating public debate and gaining approval

New methods of engaging
the public may be needed
to explore what is
acceptable

Behaviour change can be controversial, involve difficult tradeoffs, and concern
areas where government legitimacy is controversial. These questions are both
tricky and of general concern to the public. Therefore, new methods of engaging
the public may be needed to explore what actions are acceptable. COI haverecently published a guide to Effective public engagement that offers helpful219
guidance in this area. The question of gaining approval raises difficult questions
about how far elected representatives should seek specific permissions for theiractions. This is a much wider debate, but we argue that the potentiallycontroversial nature of behaviour change initiatives means gaining specificapproval is important.

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5

A deliberative format may
be most suitable

Given that there are still many unresolved questions around behaviour change, adeliberative format may be most suitable. Focus groups have often been used forsimilar purposes, but have the disadvantage of being small-scale as well as private– and therefore may not be seen as being able to give legitimate approval for apolicy. Citizens‟ juries are more transparent and attract relatively high trust: while
only a third of people say that they would trust a local group of councillors toresolve a difficult planning issue, two thirds say they would trust a decision made220
by twelve members of the public. But juries are still small samples and arevulnerable to domination by a few individuals. Both focus groups and juries may
have considerable value in giving policy-makers a new perspective on issues, butthey may only partially address the issue of giving „permission‟ for a major
behaviour change policy.
A policy-maker looking to gain permission for a policy may wish to turn to largerscale, public events. These often involve a representative sample of several
hundred people being brought together for a day or more to listen to evidence anddiscuss an issue. In „deliberative polling‟, participants are polled on their views at
the beginning and end of the process, and a shift in attitudes is often seen. In„deliberative forums‟ people often asked to reach a collective view, which cancreate more need for discussion and negotiation.
National Pensions Dayth

On 18 March 2006, 1,075 people, across six locations, took part in National
Pensions Day. Participants were selected to represent various sections of
the population. In demographically mixed groups of 10, they had detailed
discussions on the Pension Commission‟s proposals, and voted using key
pads. People also took part in online debates. 72% of participants voted infavour of automatic enrolment with the choice to opt-out (the adopted policy),221
and 20% for full compulsion with no opt-out.
Such events may have greater legitimacy than focus groups because they canoffer a more representative sample of the public, which means they give theimpression that the nation has had a “fair say” and no section of society has been222
excluded. Of course, policy-makers have to decide who the sample isrepresentative of: should it be the nation as a whole, or just those groups whose
behaviour will be affected? Much depends on how the opportunity costs ofintervention are framed, but they may decide that the most acceptable solution is tohave a cross section of relevant target audiences.

Such events may preserve
personal responsibility

If the event has such legitimacy, then it could be seen that some personal
responsibility has been preserved because people have been able to make aconsidered and informed decision to allow government to change their behaviour.
Of course, these types of events are only likely to succeed if they are seen to haveconsequences, rather than being “for show” only. There is potential for government
procedures to demand that policymakers explain how they have taken results of223
such an event into account – even if they do not act on them.

There are ways of
reducing costs

Although these events may seem expensive, they should be compared against the
total cost of government consultation – and there are some ways of minimising
their costs. For example, government could hold regular high-profile deliberative
forums (perhaps once every two months), with a refreshed sample of the public,
224
that departments would bid to use. In practice, the range of behavioural issues inpolicy is so large that government will not always be able to gain permission in thisway. Therefore, the most sensible approach for policy-makers is to anticipate
which policies are likely to be most controversial, and try to match the level ofengagement accordingly. We suggest how public acceptability can be anticipatedon page 64.

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Key questions for policy-makers
Are you seeking permission for a policy or new perspectives on a
behaviour change issue?



Are the consequences of your policy so wide-reaching or sopotentially controversial that a deliberative forum or poll may beneeded?



If so, how are you going to take the results of the event into account?

5. Exemplify
Changing government‟s behaviour

The actions ofgovernment
representatives send
messages about the
behaviour it condones

In most behaviour change interventions, exemplifying desired changes is important
for two main reasons. First, because the actions of high-profile representatives ofgovernment send implicit messages about behaviours it condones. If government
is not displaying the behaviours it is encouraging in others, this will act against
people‟s desire for reciprocity and fairness (see „Commitment‟), while inviting
charges of hypocrisy. Second, government policy should not give mixed messages
about whether certain types of behaviour are encouraged or not. Just as
individuals seek consistency (as shown in Ego effects), there needs to beconsistency in the behaviour of government and its representatives.

MINDSPACE principles
can be applied to theprocess of policy-making

MINDSPACE suggests a third dimension: its principles can be applied to improve
the process of policy-making. In other words, government attempts to change its
own behaviour. Are there instances where the status quo bias has led to thedefault being adopted? Does the status of the messenger sometimes outweigh thestrength of the message? Do loss aversion and mental accounting prevent
225
innovative reallocation of budgets? This is particularly resonant in the current
economic climate and the state of the public finances. Many public policy decisions
may simply reflect how things have always been done, and the potential losses
from moving away from this position may loom large, relative to the gains. Policymakers may overcome this inertia by framing the decision differently - for example,
by starting from the perspective of the alternative state of the world.

MINDSPACE could beapplied to organisationalchange in government

Furthermore, MINDSPACE could be applied to the process of achievingorganisational change in government. There are some obvious „easy wins‟ here,
such as lowering the default temperature in buildings to meet SOGE emissions
targets, or using Ego effects to lift employee engagement. But there are also more
fundamental applications. For example, incentives have been applied to encourage
226
cross-departmental working, with mixed success so far. Better appreciation of
the MINDSPACE effects, particularly the behavioural response to incentives andthe power of creating a collective social norm, may help government make greater
progress towards meeting this challenge. This is an area the Institute forGovernment will be exploring further.
Key questions for policy-makers


Are the actions and policies of government consistent with thechange you are seeking?

How could MINDSPACE be applied to improve the way you and yourteam make policy?

How could MINDSPACE be used to help achieve organisationalchange in government?

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56. Evaluate
Working out what works

It can be unclear how
various effects withinteract in specific cases

Any attempt to change behaviour must recognise the challenge it faces. Some of
the factors that influence behaviour are fairly obvious and easy for government to
influence; others are more elusive and require tradeoffs. And while the evidence forthe effects in MINDSPACE is very strong, it can be unclear how the various effects
will interact in specific cases. Behaviour change policy needs to understand thecomplex range of factors that affect behaviour, and good evaluation is a crucial
way of doing so.

We should aim forevidence-based
innovation

We know that some things work in some contexts but can they be translated
across contexts? Although there will always be a healthy tension between
evidence-based policy and innovation-based policy, our collective mission shouldbe evidence-based innovation. In other words, we should take what we know to berobust phenomena across a range of contexts and give them the best shot of
success where the evidence base does not exist. Considering the various
elements of MINDSPACE will be central in this regard.
The main challenges to determining „what works‟ are controlling for selection andestablishing causality. We suspect that commitments work, for example, but only inthose who chose to sign up to commitment devices.

There are four main
approaches todemonstrating causality

There are four main approaches to demonstrating causality. These can be pictured
as lying on a spectrum: at one end, there is the case of the researcher having nocontrol over the data; at the other end, there is the case of the researcher having
total control.

No control
1. Secondary data, inferring causality
2. Secondary data, natural experiment
3. Primary data, field experiment
4. Primary data, laboratory experiment
Total control

There are clearly pros and cons with all these methods. Data we have no control
over are more „real world‟; data we can control are less like the real world. To
establish causality, we must take full advantage of all the data and methods
available to us. We should continue to look for secondary data that can be used as
natural experiments – but the lack of suitable data does limit how far this approach
can take us. Much more can be done with field experiments, which have been
under-used in research into behaviour change but, with innovative designs and theright research partners, have the potential to shed some significant light on theunderlying causes of changes in behaviour.

There should be greatercollaboration between
policy-makers andacademics

Whatever the precise details of the studies, there should be greater collaboration
between policy-makers and academics. There has been enormous progress at thetwo ends of the control spectrum (analysis of secondary data and lab experiments)
and the time is ripe to enhance the evidence base by taking some control of thedata in a real world environment.
The same rigour that is used to evaluate the effectiveness and cost-effectivenessof health technologies and, increasingly, public health interventions must be
applied to behaviour change interventions. Therefore, there is a good case forestablishing an institutional centre that can evaluate behaviour change. This does

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not need to be a new body, but it does need scientific competence and a degree of
independence. The centre would be tasked with determining which methods were227
most effective and cost-effective for changing specific behaviours.
Of course, evaluation may allow us to develop a better understanding of whichgroups in society may respond best to which interventions. This knowledge willthen feed back into the initial process of exploring how to change behaviour
through Insight, segmentation, and the best robust evidence available.
Evaluation in practice: Camden council
Camden Council is currently evaluating the use of heat meters to change
energy use. In 2008, the council installed new radiator-based heating
systems in 150 houses in Gospel Oak. These new systems are popular withresidents, since they now have much more control over their heating. In
addition, the new systems incorporate heat meters that measure the hotwater used by a property. The heat meters can provide accurate data on
carbon emissions (whereas information on energy consumption is often selfreported and thus open to distortion).
Upgrading the heating systems has therefore had the side-effect of creating
an accurate and representative set of data for an important policy issue.
Indeed, the heat meters have now produced a full year of data, thereby
establishing a baseline for evaluation. Furthermore, the fact that every houseon the estate has a meter eliminates the „selection bias‟ that is created byrelying on volunteers (since volunteers are likely to be environmentallyconscious anyway and thus not be typical energy users)
Camden has now received funding from Mayor‟s Targeted Funding Stream toextend the heat meters scheme to 2,500 homes across the borough. Thislarger sample will present an excellent opportunity to evaluate attempts tochange energy usage through: a) judging the impact of particular behaviourchange effects relating to elements of MINDSPACE, b) examining how
results vary according to residents‟ characteristics, and c) studying how
impact varies over the longer term. For example, the power of social norms
could be tested by examining if allowing residents to compare their energy
consumption against the surrounding average affects their usage. To
minimise costs, this information can be provided on LCD displays on the heatmeters themselves.
A similar approach could be used to measure the impact of using pledges totake energy-saving measures (commitment); how the use of emotion affects
usage (affect); and the best way to frame incentives, as well as their costeffectiveness (incentives). Not only does this mean that, for example, theimpact of commitment devices can be tested robustly, but it can also becompared against the impact of social norms. In this way, policy-makers canbuild up an understanding of what are the most effective ways of changing
behaviour in a particular setting.
The actions listed above are suggestions only and have not been adopted by
Camden. However, the council has planned well for its evaluation bygathering expert academic input early on in the process. Collaboration of thiskind will bring benefits for both sides. Camden will be able to underpin theiractions with academic rigour, in order to understand where they can get mostvalue for money. On the academic side, this promises to be a high-quality
field experiment that will advance our understanding of behaviour change asa whole. Despite these mutual benefits, the link was only made through theenterprise of individuals. This suggests there is a significant role for

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5Intermediaries who can reconcile the desires and priorities of policy-makers
and academics, who can see the opportunities for mutual gain, and who know
the best people to contact in the various fields.
Looking at the example of Camden, there are some lessons for building
evaluation into policies aimed at behaviour change:
1.

Ensure you are actually measuring what you intend to measurerobustly. Heat represents 80% of a property‟s carbon emissions,whereas meters that track electricity usage only cover 11% ofemissions.

2.

Personal relationships and institutional outlook are important.
Camden was open to working with academics, while academics
understood the policy context and contingencies.

3.

Policy-makers should understand what they can gain from evaluation.
In a time of fiscal constraint, robust knowledge about the (cost)effectiveness of policies is particularly valuable. If evaluation is built inearly, any disruptions to implementation can be minimised.

Key questions for policy-makers
How will you evaluate the results of your intervention?

What measures will you put in place to ensure this evaluation isrobust enough to provide convincing evidence?

Is there an opportunity to get academic collaboration?

Making policy differently: an example of MINDSPACE inpractice
How can policy-makers apply this framework in practice? Below we explain how it
can all come together, step by step. We apply the framework to the fictional
example of a local authority attempting to change behaviour around short car
journeys. This example has been chosen because it gives a particularly clear
example of how the Es can be applied, rather than because it is likely to be themost effective on its own terms. In Annex 2, we show how the framework could
tackle teenage pregnancy.
The policy issue
A local authority is trying to reduce its LAA commitment to reduce CO2 emissions
in the area. It has identified reducing the high volume of short car journeys as a key
objective, since research suggests people could replace 78% of car journeys under228
five miles with a different mode of transport. Of course, they realise that doing so
will require considerable changes in behaviour. Owing to the short timeframe of the
LAA commitment, they decide to focus first on those journeys that are likely to beeasiest to change quickly. How does MINDSPACE help them do this?
ExploreThe local authority starts by trying to understand people‟s conscious motivations
and reasons for their current behaviour. The local authority uses the Department
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for Transport‟s National Travel Survey, which identifies four main reasons for trips:
commuting/business, social, shopping and „escort‟ travel (accompanying others,
229
such as children to school).
A short insight exercise helps the local authority explore local residents‟ thoughts
about these types of trips. They discover that commuting and „escort‟ travel are
difficult to change quickly because they often heavily ingrained habits that takeplace under „cognitive load‟ (in other words, in the morning we are under pressure
and just want get to work – or our children to school). Therefore, they initiallychoose to focus on shopping behaviour. Insight suggests that the main car use for
shopping consists of a weekly supermarket visit and various trips to more local
shops.
The local authority also explores residents‟ attitudes to changing their behaviour.
The purpose here is to see what MINDSPACE effects may be most appropriate –for example, whether there is potential to participate in activities that require more
conscious support (for example, commitments). It learns that most people arevaguely aware that the environment is an issue (mainly because of media
coverage), but it is not salient to them. As a result, there is a gap between attitudes
and behaviour. They are, however, very concerned about financial stability andwish to save money. Finally, they strongly associate, often unknowingly, the act ofusing a car with a positive self-image of capability and freedom.
These motivations and attitudes suggest some potential applications of
MINDSPACE:a) Salience may be important for re-framing the familiar act of taking a shortcar journeyb) Incentives may be useful to take advantage of people‟s desires to savemoneyc) Commitment or Ego devices may work by drawing on people‟s impressionsof themselves as „good citizens‟, to counteract their positive associations
with carsd) Priming may be effective, since there are some clear locations whereprimes could be deployed
There are also some MINDSPACE effects that may be less effective:a) There is no obvious way of setting a Default in the choice architectureb) There are few obvious ways of using Messengers that most people may
pay attention to for this behaviourc) These short car journeys are the dominant Social Norm in the local area,
which makes the exploitation of norms more problematic – but not
impossible
EnableThe local authority realised that it would be unhelpful to encourage behaviour thatwas constrained by many substantive barriers. They looked at the practicalities ofusing alternatives to cars for these journeys, including cost, infrastructure andtransport provision. Cost was not seen as a barrier, since the alternatives to car
journeys were usually cheaper; infrastructure presented some problems, since oneof the major supermarkets had limited pavement access; bus services wereplausible alternatives for most of the target population, with all three of thesupermarkets having a bus stop within two hundred metres.
Encourage
The local authority decided to draw on Salience, Priming and Commitment, as
follows:

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5

Salience and Incentives
In order to play on residents‟ desire to save money, the local authority distributed aseries of mock coupons offering “£3 off your next shop”, explaining that this is theaverage cost of a return car journey to the shops or supermarkets in the local area(including parking charges). This has the effect of framing car journeys in terms of
their cost, which is salient to residents; it also takes advantage of mental
accounting, since it attaches the cost to a specific account – if a trip is simply to
buy a £4 takeaway, £3 will seem large in this „mental account‟. This message wasalso backed up by a limited advertising campaign in main town centres.
Commitment and Ego
In order to counter positive self-images of using a car, the local authority wanted totap into alternate sources of positive self-image: the desire to be a responsible
citizen. Commitment devices were used in order to encourage people to beconsistent with this self-image. People were asked to commit to not using their car
on a Sunday with two other neighbours, perhaps with the forfeit of washing theneighbours‟ cars. It is likely that people will have a powerful motivation to present a
positive public image, while the involvement of two other neighbours means there
is low-key enforcement. Finally, the local authority concentrated on gaining many
commitments from selected streets (rather than spreading the commitments acrossstreet), in order to create a dominant and visible social norm. The local authority
also said it would come back every other month to see if the challenge had been
met. If this policy was successful, this could be extended to a more challenging„Car Free Saturday‟.
Priming
Before and after the initial campaign, the local authority ran a survey atsupermarket entrances and town centres, asking local residents about the numberof short car journeys they took a week. Not only did this provide valuable data, it
also „primed‟ people to be more receptive to the messages. Finally, the local
authority also agreed with the main supermarkets to put a large sign saying „WALK
IN‟ at their entrances: although this appeared to be an invitation to enter, it was
intended to associate supermarket visits with the act of walking.
Finally, the local authority also reassessed its current communications about car
journeys. It realised that its current tactic of warning people that widespread car
journeys were polluting the local area may have be reinforcing a negative social
norm, since it was highlighting how normal such behaviour was.
EngageThere was relatively little need for engagement in this instance:

Most people accepted the goal of the behaviour change: they recognisedthat they should be using their cars less, on the grounds that it will bring
benefits for others; and, to a lesser extent, health benefits for themselves



Although the use of priming is generally controversial, it was less so in thisinstance because most people are familiar with the practice of being asked
survey questions. The „Walk In‟ signs were also less controversial because
most people accept some degree of influence over their behaviour incommercial environments.

However, the local authority recognised that the commitment devices could beseen as neighbours „snooping‟ on other neighbours. Therefore, they stressed thevoluntary nature of the commitment and framed it more as a light-hearted
challenge to strengthen relations between neighbours.

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Exemplify
The local authority also recognised the importance of being seen to „practise what
it preached‟. Of course, many of the relevant images of government behaviour(such as the use of ministerial cars) are out of local government control, while theeveryday activities of local government may not be salient to residents.
Nevertheless, the council ensured that it minimised the short car journeys of
employees by organising car pool activities and providing adequate bicycle racks.
It also used incentives through a lottery that randomly attached a £10 high street
voucher under the saddle of one employee bicycle every month. The Leader‟sstatus as a messenger was exploited by publicising his achievement in going anentire week without using his car.
Finally, the local authority considered whether its own policy-making approach toshort car journeys could be improved. It decided to change practices so that themental default in road planning was to consider the possibility of non-car journeys
first, to ensure all options and perspectives had been registered. The council also
made a public commitment that future retail planning decisions must ensure there
is adequate provision of accessibility for non-car users.
Evaluate
The council evaluated the intervention through two main methods: surveys andselected follow-ups. Before the intervention started, the council conducted a daylong survey on a Sunday at the three supermarkets and town centre. The survey
asked: a) if the person had travelled by car to get there; b) if so, approximately how
far; c) how many short car journeys they took each week. This survey was thenrepeated a month after the initial campaign had been in force, and again threemonths after that. The surveys also acted as priming mechanisms for the main
campaign.
The follow-ups were for the commitment campaigns. As promised, the council
followed up a random sample of those who had committed to not use their cars todetermine if the commitment had been held. The council would check with at least
two members of each commitment group, to reduce self-reporting bias. They also
asked those who had been offered to participate but had declined, to see how their
car use had changed. Likely CO2 savings could then be calculated from theseestimates.

Who should act?
We have outlined how MINDSPACE could be applied in practice throughExploring, Enabling, Encouraging, Engaging, Exemplifying and Evaluating. But anobvious question follows on from such a guide: who should be undertaking theseactions? Are these mainly tasks for central or local government?
Of course, policies aimed at shaping behaviour often act at different levels, withlocal actions complementing national campaigns. The division of labour will beaffected by the obvious fact that certain policy responsibilities reside with different
tiers of government. But there are at least three other factors to consider:

Scale. Certain effects may rely on a level of co-ordination that requires
national government involvement. For example, norms may be more
quickly established through national media because it can supply greater
consistency of message.

Feedback. It has been shown that if people receive some feedback fromchanging their behaviour it can encourage that behaviour further.
Feedback may not need government involvement, just as people may
thank you if you start offering them your seat on the train. However, local

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6

government may be well-placed to provide feedback on behaviour change
in ways that are salient, perhaps by relating it to familiar local events and230
locations.


Local government may
have a particular role inengaging citizens

Points of contact. As well as high-level campaigns, there is a role for theorganisation charged with contacting the citizen to frame and shape thecontact using MINDSPACE. This could be, for example, a letter from the
DVLA or a visit from a social worker. People working at a local level(though not necessarily in local government) therefore have a significant
role to play. This is particularly true because they may be better informed
about the recipient‟s context, which may help them apply MINDSPACE inan effective way.

Local government may have a particular role in engaging citizens. The rationale
here is that local government is „local enough to engage directly in dialogue with
231
communities about the balance of values that „authorises‟ any intervention.‟
Similarly, local government is well-placed to „Enable‟ certain behaviours byidentifying and removing practical barriers. By understanding the overall context inwhich people act, local government may be able to see that, for example,
opportunities for exercise are limited by poor access to a park or recycling by thelocation of deposit banks. This may lead to opportunities for co-production that help
local government better direct its resources to encourage certain behaviours – or toapply for funding to address outstanding barriers.
Finally, local government is likely to be presented with more opportunities to pilot
and evaluate innovative ways of changing behaviour, as in Camden. In thisinstance, central government may have a role in holding a fund for piloting or
evaluation, and in providing guidance. The London Collaborative has recently
produced a guide for those wishing to identify specific roles that local government
232
can play in behaviour change.

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Public permission and personal
responsibility

This chapter considers issues around the legitimacy of government involvement inbehaviour change. First, we offer the different reasons why behaviour change may
spark controversy. Second, we outline public perceptions of personal responsibility
and explain how MINDSPACE may change the terms of the debate.

Potential for controversy
Citizens’ views need to betaken into accountPolicy-makers know that attempts to change citizens‟ behaviour may well becontroversial. This is particularly true given new evidence about how people act,
and new ways of applying this evidence. Government legitimacy rests on the fact it
represents and serves the people, and thus it is vital that their views are taken into
account when considering any attempt to influence their behaviour.
Framing is crucial when attempting to engage the public with behaviour change. As
Gillian Norton has pointed out, „talking about behaviour change is a sure fire way of233
making sure it doesn‟t happen‟. Across government, many of our interviewees
have argued that “behaviour change” is an unhelpful term. “Behaviour”, inparticular, has negative and paternalistic associations.

Public acceptability
should not be the solecriterion for action

Of course, there are good reasons why public acceptability should not be the soleor determining condition for going forward with behaviour change. We explore
some of these issues in a later section on personal responsibility, while Richard
Reeves has recently proposed tests of legitimacy, autonomy and effectiveness for234
health-related behaviour change. Furthermore, it may be that government needs
to take a lead on issues despite public opposition, since these public attitudes may
actually shift in response to the introduction of the policy. Consider, for example,
the shift in attitudes to the London congestion charge (see Figure 10, below).

235

Figure 10: Support for the London congestion charge, 2002-3
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63

6How preferences change in response to policies is a remarkably under-researched
area. Economists, for example, typically focus on people‟s preferences before achange and rarely go back afterwards to see how things actually panned out. How,
then, can policy-makers decide which policies have the greatest potential forcontroversy, and thus may require extra efforts to engage citizens?
Naturally, there are some criteria that determine the acceptability of policies ingeneral, including cost, benefits (and their distribution), and the number of people
affected. All these factors may put extra pressure on the state of the evidence –whether there are robust reasons to believe the policy will succeed.

Three factors forunderstanding
controversy

In addition to these general criteria, there are three factors that are particularly
useful for understanding controversy around behaviour change:
1. who the policy affects
2. what type of behaviour is intended
3. how the change will be accomplished
We show how policy-makers can apply each of these criteria to estimate thepotential controversy that may ensure from a proposed policy. We then show how
the framework could be applied to a hypothetical policy.

1. WhoWe generally accept
greater government
intervention for somegroups

We generally accept that government has greater scope for changing the
behaviour of some citizens more than others. Children, the mentally ill and (morecontroversially) those suffering from addictions are usually seen as not wholly
capable of making effective decisions about their own welfare. Paradoxically,
though, attempting to change the behaviour of these groups may be controversial
precisely because they lack autonomy – government is in a position of
considerable power, and so other citizens are likely to scrutinize its actions
carefully. One element of this controversy concerns whether these groups arecapable of fully understanding the behaviour change, and thus whether they cangive meaningful approval to what is being done.

Changes affecting
particular groups will
require carefuljustification

Any behaviour change that will affect certain groups in particular is likely to require
careful justification, not least to any associations that represent those groups. But
there may be particular controversy if the behaviour concerned is seen as integral
236
to a group‟s identity or culture. There may be good reasons for the change, but
policy-makers need to be aware of the potential charges of discrimination andintolerance.

Receipt of government
help is often seen tojustify requests to change
behaviour

We have seen that people have a strong instinct for reciprocity. Accordingly, recent
political discourse has emphasised the principle of „something for something‟:
those who have received certain benefits from state action should act in certain
237
ways, which may require changes in behaviour. However, when government
acts on this principle it may give rise to controversy – suppose, for example, therequired behaviour change is seen to outweigh the benefits received. Similarly,
people may feel that changing behaviour is a matter of personal responsibility,
rather than a matter for government (we discuss this more below).
A more extreme version of this perspective is that some people, by their actions,
may have forfeited some level of control over their behaviour. Most obviously,
those convicted of crimes are expected to receive some punishment that affects
their behaviour. But applying this principle more widely would be very controversial:
it would involve creating a class of actions that function like criminal acts. Drawing
these lines would be difficult and potentially harmful, although people themselves
238
often think this way (categorising certain people as “bad parents”, for example).

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Finally, policy-makers trying to change the behaviour of institutions face a complex
challenge. On the one hand, there is a good case that the freedoms of people,
rather than institutions, count the most – and government can change the239
behaviour of companies in ways it could not for private citizens.
On the other
hand, there is a strong impulse for government to encourage economic prosperity
and enterprise, a case which is made forcibly by business associations. Of course,240
many of these issues are now addressed at a European level.

2. WhatAssessing how much legitimacy the state has in changing certain types of
behaviour is a massive and complex area. And public reactions may not be
predictable or consistent: an apparently innocuous attempt to change behaviour,backed by strong evidence, may become a flashpoint. We give a few points thathave practical applications.
Harms and benefits to self and others. Our case studies were chosen to reflect
the distinctions that the public and policy-makers may draw between behaviour that
affects others and ourselves, and between harms and benefits. These are theobvious dimensions for understanding how people react to certain policy areas. On
this basis, there has been more support for interventions to promote safer
communities (reducing harm to others) than to encourage healthier lifestyles(especially if framed as promoting benefits to self).

Not all types of harm areweighed equally

But not all types of harm are seen as equally pressing cases for changing personal
behaviour. Harm may consist of: specific identifiable harm to others, such as antisocial behaviour or smoking; excessive calls on public resources, such as repeatedirresponsible behaviour; harm to „general others‟ within state boundaries, such as
241
littering; or to „future others‟, such as excessive depletion of natural resources.
While there is strong support for behaviour to change to prevent specific harm toothers, this often falls off as the consequences become more distant from theindividual making the sacrifice.
And not all dimensions of harm and benefit will be seen as equally important. Gangviolence and knife crime, for example, not only result in harm to others, they resultin harm that affects others in particular ways – the violation of rights, increased
fear, bodily harm, and so on. In contrast, littering, which also involves harms toothers, does not affect the wellbeing of other people in quite the same fundamental
ways.

Is self-harm reallypresent?

Finally, when actions affect individuals, we need to consider whether self-harm isreally present. A key challenge is to identify when „bad behaviours‟ as defined bypolicymakers really do reduce people‟s wellbeing – for example, people often really242
enjoy fatty foods and consumption of alcohol. If we can establish that the
behaviours do reduce wellbeing, the case for nudges is compelling; if not, thenudges (in the absence of important spill-over effects) are paternalistic, and will
therefore require greater justification.

We are more likely to act
if we are given a clear
reason for doing so

Clarity and apparent importance of goal. If people see the harm as distant fromthemselves, one response is to make these harms more salient. We are more likely
to act if we are given a reason for doing so that we can understand (although, as
we have seen, we do not always act on good reasons). Indeed, the Automatic
System means that the very act of giving explanations – regardless of their243
strength – increases people‟s willingness to agree to requests.
In other words, making the desired behaviour change salient and justified can
244
balance out people‟s tendency to care less about “distant” harms.
A 2007 MORI
survey found that 70% of respondents agreed (27% „strongly‟) that „the government
should take the lead in combating climate change, even if it means using the law to

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6

245

change people‟s behaviour‟. All this underscores the fact that the way in whichinterventions are framed has an effect on their acceptability.

Conclusive evidence canprovide powerfuljustification for behaviour

Availability and prestige of evidence and expertise. Conclusive evidence canprovide powerful justification for behaviour. Focus groups for a recent study
revealed that „the level of intervention and the degree of proactive government
intervention were accepted in proportion to the extent to which [participants]
246
believed there was evidence of harm from the behaviour in question‟. Similarly, a
recent study found that we accept our decisions may be impaired when there aretrusted experts to advise people in making choices about their behaviour (e.g.
247GPs). Of course, this varies between policy issues, since public trust in
248
professions varies considerably. But expertise may carry particular weight – andpeople may particularly welcome guidance – in those areas where they recognise249that decisions are difficult or they do not have a good sense of their preferences.

Government can act assurrogate willpower...

Assumption of “real” intentions. Not only does behavioural economics revealthat we are not rational, it also notes that we recognise this fact ourselves. We
know that we aren‟t good at resisting temptation, and this can cause guilt andanxiety. In these cases, behaviour change can be seen „to augment individual
250
freedom, helping us do what we want to but can‟t do, rather than constrain it‟.
In
this way, government acts as surrogate willpower and locks our biscuit tins (wediscuss the implications for personal responsibility in the next section).

...but our ‘real’ intentions
are not always clear

This argument works well for some cases, such as pensions reform, where there
was both a clear objective case that behaviour change would increase personal
benefit, and widespread public recognition that people were not acting in their bestinterests. Where the state is just helping us act on existing intentions, there is likely
to be less controversy. But what about the many cases where our intentions are
unformed, conflicted, mutable, and vary in intensity? Philosophy gives us ways to251
analyse such intentions, but policymakers may need to use new methods ofengaging people to discover and inform their intentions (see „Engage‟, above).
If intentions are unclear, there is a temptation that government will assume what
citizens‟ “real” intentions are; and this is something that many thinkers and citizens
252
find unpalatable. Most people agree that government should preserve people‟s“right to be wrong” (depending on the harms to others); being able to identify what
it would be rational for a person to do does not necessarily allow you to interfere253with that person‟s irrational action. Of course, the question is what constitutes“interfering”, which leads onto the final dimension: how behaviour is changed.

3. How
Even if people agree with the behaviour goal, they may object to the means ofaccomplishing it. The different MINDSPACE effects will attract different levels of254
controversy. There are several factors that determine controversy:

Automatic effects may
raise charges ofmanipulation

Degree of conscious control. As noted, MINDSPACE effects depend at least
partly on the Automatic System. This means that citizens may not fully realise that
their behaviour is being changed – or, at least, how it is being changed. Clearly,
this opens government up to charges of manipulation. People tend to think that
attempts to change their behaviour will be effective if they are simply provided
information in an “above board” way - people have a strong dislike of being“tricked”. This dislike has a psychological grounding, but fundamentally it is an
issue of trust in government.
A lack of conscious control also has implications for consent and freedom of
choice. First, it creates a greater need for citizens to approve the use of the
behaviour change – perhaps using new forms of democratic engagement. Second,
if the effect operates automatically, it may offer little opportunity for citizens to opt-

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out or choose otherwise; the concept of “choice architecture” is less use here. Any
action that may reduce the “right to be wrong” will be very controversial.
Of course, some traditional attempts to change behaviour are not explicit (as notedin the „Salience‟ section, some incentives are effectively invisible), and these haveattracted controversy. But they rarely attract the charge of „manipulation‟ because
they are based on conscious actions to supply and register information, rather thanrelying on unconscious reactions.

People may feelgovernment is affecting
their personality

Impact on personal identity. People have a strong instinct for reciprocity that
informs their relationship with government – they pay taxes and the government
255
provides services in return. This transactional model remains intact if
government legislates and provides advice to inform behaviour. But if government
is seen as using powerful, pre-conscious effects to subtly change behaviour,people may feel the relationship has changed: now the state is affecting “them” –256
their very personality.

Familiarity may increase
accepability

Familiarity. People are likely to be less suspicious of effects if they are alreadyfamiliar with them – for example, most people are acquainted with the principle of a
default setting. But even the less familiar effects, such as priming, may be present
in everyday life. For example, simply asking people how likely they are to perform atask in the future increases the likelihood that they will, yet it is a fairly common
257
action and so people are more likely to see it as innocuous. As always, framingis crucial.

Is the effect easy to
explain?

Ease of understanding. Closely related to familiarity is whether the effect can beeasily understood if explained. For example, most people can grasp the idea thatcertain actors are more persuasive than others (messenger). On the other hand,
the workings of social norms and (especially) priming are complex, difficult andoften counter-intuitive.

Does the effect violate asense of fairness?

Perceived fairness. Effects may be controversial if they have a particular impact
on certain members of society – clearly, this relates to the question of “Who” isaffected. But the nature of the effects themselves may be seen as unfair: financial
incentives to reduce harms are controversial because they are seen as rewarding258
bad behaviour.

Judging potential acceptability in practice
Policy-makers can apply the criteria of „Who, What, and How‟ to predict whether
certain behaviour changes are likely to be controversial. To give a simple andhypothetical example, consider how Acceptable Behaviour Contracts (ABCs) as
currently in use could be made less acceptable by changing each one of the threefactors.
Who. ABCs were originally introduced for 10 to 17 year olds. We generally
are more tolerant of changing children‟s behaviour because they may not
be fully aware of their roles and responsibilities in society. ABCs are
increasingly applied to adults, and there are grounds for this being more
controversial. In the event, the move has attracted little controversy
because the harms of anti-social behaviour are seen as the same
regardless of who causes them. But consider the controversy if ABCs hadtargeted particular groups of adults: Single Parent Acceptable Behaviour
Contracts, for example.

What. Suppose these adult ABCs were applied to a different policy issue,
perhaps that of healthy eating. Those who are overweight commit, withcertain penalties, to eating a certain amount every day. Now the behaviourchange aims to increase personal benefits, rather than reducing harms,
which is likely to be more controversial – especially if adults are therecipients.

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

How. Even though these „Acceptable Eating Contracts‟ would be very
controversial, they still act within conscious control – people know they
have signed up to them. Consider if the means of behaviour change acted
mostly outside conscious awareness. Suppose the government usedchannels such as posters, labelling or certain turns of phrase to „prime‟259
people to eat healthily. This role for government would be unfamiliar for
people and may trigger charges of manipulation.

Figure 11 below illustrates how these hypothetical policies become more
controversial based on the dimensions of Who, What and How. We havedeliberately chosen an extremely controversial hypothetical policy so the illustration
is as clear as possible.

Figure 11: Illustration of potential controversy from hypothetical policies

The value of thinking this way is that policy-makers can identify potential ways ofassuaging controversy, should they decide to proceed. For example, if the “Who”
dimension is controversial, then more assurances of equity and tolerance mayneeded; if “What”, then the quality and impact of evidence should be stressed; if“How”, then the methods may need to be demystified and more explicit approval
gained for using such methods.

It is very difficult toanticipate how policies
will be framed andperceived

68

Nevertheless, some risks will always remain. It is very difficult to anticipate how
policies will be framed by the media and perceived by the public: some aspects ofa policy may be strongly supported while others reviled. Indeed, this type of publicdebate may be a healthy and necessary part of government‟s use of behaviourchange; it may spark democratic engagement and lead to a clearer agreement on
the proper role of the state.

Discussion document – not a statement of government policy

Changing behaviour and personal responsibility
People want personal
responsibility and a rolefor government

What does the public think – and why?
The most striking thing about public attitudes to government‟s involvement inbehaviour change is that they show no clear underlying preferences. On the one
hand 48% of people think that “people should be responsible for making their own
decisions about their health and welfare” and on the other hand the same people
think that it is the government‟s responsibility to influence people‟s behaviour to260
encourage healthy lifestyles. The responses also show greater support for thestate to „influence‟ behaviour rather than to „protect‟ people (which could be seen
as more explicitly paternalistic).
% Strongly
disagree% Tend todisagree

The Government should domore to protect people bypassing laws that ban
dangerous activities“The Government does not trust
ordinary people to make theirown decisions about dangerous
activities”

8% Tend to
agree

15

% Strongly agree

29

32

38

24

61% agree

62% agree

4 12

Source: IPSOS Mori, 1,015 British adults aged 16+, January 1999

The Pensions Commission, for example, found that participants both a) wanted tomake their own decisions and b) wanted to be told what to do, since they did not261
always feel they could make the right decisions. Indeed, such imprecise andchangeable attitudes have been found across a range of contexts. Our responses– like our behaviour – are influenced greatly by framing and by context. Whilst we
sometimes recognise this about ourselves, we are not so good at appreciating it
when assessing the behaviour of others.
When we are successful, we are likely to overlook the situational context (a goodnight‟s sleep, a lack of distractions) and claim full credit for achievements. But
when we encounter failure, we are likely to blame the context rather thanourselves: when we get a parking ticket, we complain about the unclear information
sign or the sluggish service at the dry cleaners; we don‟t dwell on the fact that weshould have put more money in the meter.

We are biased towards
explaining the behaviourof others in terms of theirpersonality, not situation

On the other hand, we are biased towards explaining the behaviour of others interms of their personal qualities (e.g. their intelligence or self-control), rather than
the situation they find themselves in. For example, take two groups of people, andget one group to think up general knowledge questions to ask the others. Anyone
watching is likely to think the questioners are more knowledgeable and intelligent
than those answering – but this is irrational; they have forgotten that the situation
262
gives the questioners more opportunity to look knowledgeable.
Such considerations go to the heart of the debate about the boundaries between
government and personal responsibility. We are predisposed to see the actions ofothers as a result of their personal actions, and thus products of their personal
responsibility. Similarly, we think that our achievements result from our personalefforts. At the same time, we are predisposed to think of all the misfortunes that led
to our problems, which may imply that outcomes are also based on circumstances,263
as well as personal resources.

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6Perceptions of personal responsibility: the example of health
Evidence across a range of contexts using a range of methods shows thatthe general public hold individuals responsible for their health and264
wellbeing. There is also evidence in support of focussing on lifestyle as265
the main cause of conditions such as obesity. Such survey evidence isuseful, but we also require information on how the general public – in theirroles as citizens and as taxpayers – weigh concerns for reducing inequalities
on the one hand against holding individuals responsible for thoseinequalities on the other. An inequality only becomes an inequity when thecauses of the inequality are seen to be outside of people‟s control.
One popular way of thinking about this is to judge whether the behaviour isseen as the result of „bad luck‟ or „bad choices‟. Consider the fact that,
controlling for health status, men consult their GPs less than women do. On
the one hand, it could be seen as „bad luck‟ to be a man, in the sense thatfactors beyond his control (e.g. society‟s demands for men to be „macho‟)determine his behaviour. On the other, his behaviour could be seen as „bad
choices‟ that he can be held to account for.
In terms of policy-making, the public may be more likely to approve any
support measures for such a man if they think in terms of „bad luck‟, rather
266
than „bad choices‟. This may be related to people‟s strong instinct forreciprocity, which implies help is justified if someone has taken appropriate
actions to improve their situation, even if these were not successful.
However, there is some evidence that attitudes vary between policy areas:
while 78% of respondents said that it was right to limit access to benefits if
an unemployed person was not actively looking for work, just 24% said that it
would be right to limit NHS medical treatment for someone whose illness267
was due to heavy smoking or drinking.

The overall message, therefore, is that we tend to attribute outcomes to people‟s
personal actions. But what exactly do we mean by personal responsibility?
What is personal responsibility?
When we speak of „personal responsibility‟, we are often conflating at least three268
different concepts:
1. Causal responsibility. Many of our actions (or failures to act) expose us
to certain consequences that others don‟t face – playing rugby is more
likely to result in injury than playing the piano. How far should people
experience the consequences of their actions (or failure of action), andhow far should others relieve them of these consequences?
2. Moral responsibility. In what circumstances is it fitting to judge someoneby the standards of good conduct we expect of ourselves and others? For
example, most people would not judge someone morally responsible forcommitting a crime if they were mentally ill at the time. It is more difficult if
someone commits wrongdoing when acting under duress, as when269
someone steals from their employer to pay kidnappers.
3. Role responsibility. These are the responsibilities that people assume ina certain context, organisation or community. These can be more formal(spouse, doctor, minister) or informal (friend, neighbour, citizen). We
usually recognise that the actor who is best placed to address a problem or
prevent it happening again may not be the actor who caused it. Sometimes
the best placed actor may not be an individual, but government - therefore,
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the public often accepts that government has some role responsibility toprovide public services or address societal problems.

Government involvementin changing behaviour is
not mutually exclusivewith personal
responsibiltiy

The most important point is that the government‟s involvement in changing
behaviour is not mutually exclusive with personal responsibility. Personal
responsibility is often seen as a „zero-sum game‟: in other words, “if the state‟staking responsibility, that means I am not”. But it is perfect possibly for government
to just supply the trigger or support for individuals to take greater personal
270
responsibility. This is particularly true for those aspects of MINDSPACE that rely
more on the Reflective system. For example, the Prime Minister‟s Strategy Unit has
found that the process of developing, agreeing and monitoring personalised
agreements between services and citizens can prompt more responsible
behaviour.
If government were to use commitment devices to make an initial change tobehaviour, then people may build on that initial change and start taking personal
responsibility in related areas. Recycling of bottles may lead to broader proenvironmental behaviours; stopping smoking may encourage greater exercise. In
other words, government may spark initial changes that lead to reinforcing
behaviours that manifest personal responsibility; the fact that government supplied
the initial push does not devalue the subsequent responsibility.

The moral hazard
problem

We think people can beheld responsible if they
can act rationally withsome freedom of choice

Nevertheless, an important concern that plays directly into the generaleffectiveness of behaviour change interventions is the „moral hazard‟ problem. If
we think the state is making decisions for us, we may absolve ourselves of the
responsibility to take charge of our own behaviour. This is a statement about how
the world is, rather than a value judgment, although the degree of moral hazard
271
varies from case to case. Therefore, government may wish to be careful to frame
behaviour change as a pathway to increased personal responsibility.
How does MINDSPACE affect ideas of personal responsibility?
Clearly, judging whether and how much someone is responsible for an action
depends greatly on their circumstances and our judgment. But there are somebasic principles we apply when considering whether someone can be held
responsible or not: we don‟t judge the insane in the same way as the sane, for272
example. In essence, we think people can be held responsible if they can act
rationally, supported by substantive freedom of choice.
It has long been accepted that some citizens may be in a state where they cannot
exert rational responsibility for their actions: whether because they are children,
mentally ill or (more controversially) in the grip of addictions. On the other hand,most adults are seen as capable of reason, and hence responsibility, although they273
may not achieve such responsibility because of weakness of will.
Evidence from behavioural economics on the importance of the Automatic Systemcomplicates this view. As the Nobel Prize-winning psychologist Daniel Kahneman
has observed: “We tend to believe that somebody is behaving that way because hewants to behave that way, because he tends to behave that way, because that's
his nature. It turns out that the environmental effects on behaviour are a lot
274
stronger than most people expect.”

Contextual influences on
behaviour can be both
powerful and unnoticed

Of course, we may still reconcile personal responsibility with this view. We may say
that, although these environmental effects are strong, it is up to the responsible
individual to resist them where damaging to their wellbeing. But these are not the„environmental effects‟ of traditional political debate, which must be ameliorated bygovernment or overcome by individuals and communities. Rather, they offer achallenge to our understanding of how we think: as we have seen, many of theseeffects are not only strong but also operate with little or no conscious control.

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Can people resist things ifthey are not aware ofthem?

Can people resist things if they are not aware of them? How much substantive
freedom do their „reflective selves‟ actually have? Does this affect the way that wehold people causally or morally responsible? Certainly, it seems there is aconsiderable challenge to a strict understanding of responsibility: „Responsibility
requires that an agent acts in a reason-responsive way that he accepts as a way ofacting on his own reasons. An agent whose [„Automatic System‟] is manipulated byother agents in ways he would reject (were he aware of them) does not meet this275
condition for responsibility.‟
There are instances where effects can be produced that are both unconscious and276
in opposition to conscious will. But most of the time things are usually more
complicated: people often have some opportunity to decide differently when being
influenced.

Usually people have some
opportunity to decidedifferently when being
influenced

For example, it has been shown that the mere use of the word “because” triggers apowerful compliance reaction. When a group of people waiting for a photocopying
machine were asked “Excuse me, I have five pages. May I use the Xerox
machine?”, only 60% of those asked agreed. When the phrase was changed to“Excuse me, I have five pages. May I use the Xerox machine because I‟m in a277
rush?” compliance leapt to 94%.
But it was not simply the act of giving a reason that made the difference, it was theautomatic reaction triggered by the word “because”: when the phrase was simply“Excuse me, I have five pages. May I use the Xerox machine because I need tomake some copies?”, compliance was 93%. The „Automatic System‟ had reacted
to “because”, even though the Reflective system could have seen that no reason
had been given.
The fact is, though, that 7% of respondents did not respond to this automatic effect.
This may have been because their reflective systems cut in, they had a moral
objection to queue jumping, or they were uncaring or in a rush. Regardless, itappears that there was some freedom of choice. But other situations are moredifficult: what if the person concerned happens to be mentally or emotionallyvulnerable at the moment they are exposed to the effect, through no fault of theirown?

Judgments of personal
responsibility need to be
informed by evidence

In sum, MINDSPACE points out that we are all strongly affected by factors that
may lie outside our awareness and control – and this complicates ourunderstanding of personal responsibility. In practice, the question of how far
MINDSPACE effects preserve substantive freedom, and in which contexts, is likely
to come down to political judgment. Nevertheless, it should be informed by theevidence available: we need to acknowledge the nature and strength of the proveninfluences on human behaviour. This is one of the fundamental purposes of ourreport.

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Conclusions and future challenges

Conclusions
MINDSPACE is pervasive
For policymakers, professionals and communities facing policy challenges such as
crime, obesity, or environmental sustainability, behavioural approaches offer apotentially powerful new set of tools. Applying the insights of MINDSPACE canlead to low cost, low pain ways of nudging citizens - or ourselves - into new waysof acting by going with the grain of our automatic brain. This is an important idea at
any time, but especially relevant in a period of fiscal constraint.
Policymakers could, in theory, seek to restrict the use of behavioural change
approaches in general, such as banning advertising and other forms of marketing.
But as we have seen, behavioural influences go well beyond the narrow remit ofadvertising. Policy-makers could seek to equip the citizen with an armoury oftechniques to resist the influences that swirl around them - lessons for our childrenin „unwanted influences and how to resist them‟. Such ideas have merit, but theyalso have serious limitations, not least the fact that many influences (such aspriming effects) are quite hard to detect.

We are being influenced –and influencing others –all the timeMore fundamentally, policy-makers need to understand that we are being
influenced –and influencing others – all the time. This does not always lead tochange. Indeed, many of the influences on our behaviour are more „anchors‟ thannudges. What we eat, where we go, what we do – most of us are creatures of habit
and, in a very general sense, the environment that we live in. The point is thatgovernment often forms a significant part of this environment, whether intentionallyor not.
Therefore, policy-makers can use MINDSPACE to better understand the various
effects on behaviour their policies may be having. Fundamentally, government will
always be shaping choices: is the pension scheme opt-in or opt-out? Who iscommunicating the message? Behavioural science will continue to turn previously
invisible influences into explicit choices, and policymakers and professionals into„choice architects‟ whether they like it or not. And the more we come to know about
behavioural effects, the less „neutral‟ doing nothing will appear.
Whether reluctantly, or enthusiastically, today‟s policymakers are in the business ofinfluencing behaviour. One way of thinking about this is to view the role of thepolicymaker or public servant as trying to shape influences around us to maximise
the public and private good, while also leaving as much choice in the hands ofcitizens as possible. This is what is known as „libertarian paternalism‟, but it does
raise questions of its own.

Public approval is needed

Public permission matters
The more powerful and subtle behavioural change approaches are, the more they
may provoke public and political concern. Citizens may accept their application onother people, but may not be so happy about their use on themselves. Behaviouralapproaches embody a line of thinking that moves from the idea of an autonomous
individual making rational decisions to a “situated” decision-maker, much of whose
behaviour is automatic and influenced by their „choice environment‟. This raises the
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question: who decides on this „choice environment‟? This question has attracted
remarkably little attention. Policy-makers wishing to use these tools summarised in
MINDSPACE need the approval of the public to do so. Indeed, these approaches
suggest an important new role for policymakers as brokers of public views andinterests around the ecology of behaviour.

Future challenges
Reducing inequalities
An exciting but unresolved question thrown up by MINDSPACE is whether it has
any effect in reducing inequalities. Most traditional policy interventions aim to„change minds‟ – to produce rational changes in the way people think - in order tobring about behaviour change. Many (but not all) persuasion and education
campaigns still aim to change attitudes and then behaviour by relying on rational278
use of the information provided.
But who is most likely to benefit from such interventions? The intuitive answer isthat more educated individuals are more likely to comprehend such information
and, as result, act on it. More educated individuals, the argument goes, are also
more likely to have the habit and the resources to search for more information
which will provide them with even more reasons and tools to change their
behaviour. Indeed, it is well-established that better education causes better
279
health. Therefore, it may be that information campaigns widen inequalities inhealth and welfare, since they may reflect the fact that some citizens have a280
greater capacity (in the broadest possible sense) to change their behaviour.

MINDSPACE may be amore efficient andequitable way of
influencing behaviour
than information
provision

In contrast, the „Automatic System‟ relies mostly on contextual changes to bringabout behaviour change, without necessarily changing people‟s minds. The effectsof such contextual changes are therefore likely to be less dependent on educationand income. In other words, it may be a more efficient and equitable way of
influencing behaviour. As already noted, there is evidence that changing thepensions default to automatic enrolment brought a particularly large increase in
take-up for low and medium income workers, eliminating most of the previous
281
differences in participation due to income, sex, job tenure and race. Overall,though, evidence on the distributional consequences of MINDSPACE is stillsparse, and so there is a real need to evaluate whether it offers a way of using
resources more efficiently and fairly.
How long do MINDSPACE effects last?
Policy-makers reading this report may have a nagging question: how long do
MINDSPACE effects last? Is their impact on behaviour ephemeral or enduring?
How long should my intervention last?
Psychologists sometimes make a distinction between „compliance‟ and282„conversion‟. For example, someone with racist views may nonetheless be
careful not to show discriminatory behaviour at a job interview or when they are ina public setting. But in private, or one-to-one settings, they might show strong
discrimination. In effect, they show compliance when under scrutiny, but they
haven‟t converted, so their behaviour is prone to revert at any time.
We assume that the goal of any attempt to change behaviour is to create an
enduring change – indeed, one that becomes self-sustaining – although policymakers may also reckon that compliance is better than nothing. We suggest that
enduring change can be achieved through „trigger‟ effects, „self-sustaining‟ effects,
and cultural change. We explain each of these below.

74

Discussion document – not a statement of government policy„Trigger‟ effects: are these only fleeting?

Temporary effects do notmean fleeting impacts

As discussed earlier, some MINDSPACE effects are rapid and even subconscious,
notably priming, salience, and affect. On the face of it, their influence appears
fleeting. Thus, the effects of priming may only last for a short while after exposure
to the prime. But this does not mean that their impact is fleeting, since thebehaviour and decision may have been changed in that interval.
These effects may be thought of as „triggers‟. Priming may only last a short while,
but during that time it may lead to someone making a commitment that translates
into longer-lasting change. But people are not only a bundle of reflexes. We can„habituate‟ to repeated prompts, and we can learn to resist or reinterpret them inother ways. For example, a very effective trick is to give a busy stranger something– such as a flower – then immediately ask for some money. Because of the powerof reciprocity, most people will automatically comply with this request, and probably
be annoyed with themselves afterwards. But they are unlikely to fall for this ploy
more than one or two times.
The fact is, there is relatively little practical evidence about how the impact of
frequently used effects might habituate over time. Success will probably depend onwhether the citizen is broadly happy with the result – in other words, thereinforcement that follows it. For example, smokers trying to quit deliberately try to
avoid some of the primes that encourage their smoking, such as the habit of having
a cigarette with a drink. MINDSPACE effects that direct them away from smoking
are likely to be welcomed rather than consciously resisted (unlike the flower trick
mentioned above). The effect is then reinforced by the sense of feeling good.
Hence one intervention helped people to develop healthy habits by using themethod of context-dependent repetition, which was delivered in the form of
information or advice on weight control, such as “try to eat roughly at the sametimes” and “plan ahead to find ways to incorporate the behaviour into daily283
routines”. This approach recognises the power of automatic responses tocontext and tries to harness them for a specified goal.

Behavioural triggers canbe built into situations
and contexts

It is important to note that though behavioural triggers may be short-term in theirinfluence, they can be repeated by being built into situations and contexts. For
example, as mentioned earlier in relation to a dangerous road in Chicago or theapproach to some junctions in the UK, the increased salience of driving speed can
284
been „built into‟ a road by the simple act of painting white lines. And, of course, if
a short-term effect causes many people to change their behaviour, this itself
creates new kinds of social influence, notably the possibility of moving people to anew „behavioural equilibrium‟ (see below).
„Self-sustaining „effects: changing the equilibrium
At first glance, influences such as social norms, defaults and ego effects appear
to rest on deep-seated aspects of the environment and ourselves. For example, it
may be much harder for the policy-maker or community to change the social norm,
but if they can there is good reason to think that the effect will be widespread,
lasting and self-sustaining.
The most obvious example is defaults. For a start, the use of defaults is based on
the status quo bias, which encourages stability and minimum effort over time.
Governments have considerable control over many defaults, such as around
pensions, insurance rules or what side the steering wheel is on our cars. Not
surprisingly, defaults have become perhaps the most widely known element of
behavioural economics.
Other effects have a self-sustaining dimension, though. Commitments, forexample, are based around fidelity to a decision over time (assuming that thisdecision can be obtained in the first place). They „go with the grain‟ of how we act
Discussion document – not a statement of government policy

75

7Some effects have a selfsustaining dimension, but
their duration is notguaranteedby recognising that small changes in behaviour may lead to a subsequent change
in attitudes. However, the effects of commitments are less guaranteed to last thandefaults – if the costs of keeping to the commitment become higher and theconsequences less salient, the change in behaviour may not be sustained. In
short, there is greater scope for interfering factors.
Norms also have a powerful self-sustaining element, but again their duration is notguaranteed. As explained, norms can be explicit (where someone tells you what
others do) or implicit (where you observe what others do). We saw earlier that the
explicit social norm effect declined in the months after letters were sent out
detailing neighbours‟ energy consumption, but increased again on receipt of285
subsequent letters. Implicit norms are powerful and self-reinforcing, butgovernment‟s difficulty here is how much effort is required to trigger a new,sustainable norm. Social norms may change very slowly or quickly, they may
change because of a large, sudden event or a single invisible decision that creates286
a „tipping point‟.
Compensating behaviours

People may compensate
with other acts if their
behaviour is changed

Short of trying out a given intervention, we cannot be sure how much any given
MINDSPACE effect will lead to other „compensating behaviours‟ over time, as often
occur when attempting to „change minds‟. For example, we may eat more when we
give up smoking because we cognitively decide to quit smoking, but does the samething happen when we give up because the context has caused us to quit? Or,
while smaller plates may make us eat less initially, will we start to pile plates higher
in compensation? In this example, there are reasons to think not, since evidenceshows that levels of eating are strongly linked to the context and availability of food(at least once a certain level of hunger has been satisfied), but the generalchallenge stands.
Again, this points to the need for Insight to gain understanding of the people whose
behaviours you are attempting to change. For example, the geographer John
Adams argues that we each have an individual built-in „risk thermostat‟ – a level ofrisk we are ready to tolerate – which is a largely automatic instinct, derived from theaccrual of experiences throughout our lives. Adams argues this means thatchanging behaviour so people wear motorcycle helmets may actually increase thelikelihood of accidents: the risk thermostat kicks in, and people feel there is more
scope to drive faster as a consequence. Insight could therefore help understandhow people perceive and tolerate risk, and help build an intervention that limits
287
compensating behaviours like these.
Evidence from some policy areas, such as crime, suggests that compensating anddisplacement behaviours tend to be relatively limited. But in other policy areas
substantial and problematic compensatory behaviours have been found. For
example, it has been argued that attempts to reduce CO2 emissions throughencouraging people to drive smaller, more efficient cars are substantially offset by288
people‟s subsequent tendency to drive more often. And, of course, individuals‟
behaviour should be seen as the product of a wider system: if the pressures andincentives in this system remain the same, a person‟s attempts to change theiractions may not be sustained, and compensating behaviours may emerge instead.
From behaviour change to cultural change

MINDSPACE can create orchange habits by goingwith the grain of
behaviour: harnessing
automatic effects

As we have seen, much of behaviour change is about battling habits – either tochange them or to use other habitual or hard-wired responses to nudge ourselvesin a different direction. Habits are „behavioural dispositions to repeat well-practiced
actions given recurring circumstances‟, and they usually develop when actions are289
repeatedly paired with an event or context (e.g. drinking coffee after waking up).
Although the initial pairing may have had some conscious purpose, once acquired76

Discussion document – not a statement of government policy

the action can be triggered just by the event or context, even in absence of theperson‟s intention – or even in opposition to their intention.
Often attempts to break habits rely on providing information, but conscious
thoughts may not provide an effective means for addressing automatic behaviour –290
not least because people often shape their views around their behaviour. In
contrast, MINDSPACE suggests that the most effective way of changing or
creating habits is by going with the grain of behaviour: harnessing the same
automatic effects to nudge people onto a different, self-sustaining, track, without
always explicitly stating the need to pursue a particular goal.

Habits do not just exist at
the individual levelBut habits do not exist at the individual level only. When replicated across acommunity or society we call them „culture‟. The Italians drink on average 48 litres291
of wine per year, while Britons drink less than half that amount. In contrast, thevice of the Scandinavian nations is coffee: Finland, Norway, Sweden and Denmark
fill the top four slots for consumption, drinking more than five times the level we
292
do. Sometimes such differences exist within countries too, such as differences insmoking across socio-economic groups in the UK.
Ultimately, most policymakers are focused on this bigger picture – often known as293
culture change. There may be occasions when the power of argument alone caneventually such culture change, such as gender equality or race relations. But
generally the broader sweep of policy history suggests that such change is driven
by a mix of both broad social argument and small policy steps. Smoking is perhaps
the most familiar example. Over several decades the behavioural equilibrium has
shifted from widespread smoking to today‟s status as an increasingly minority
activity. Better information; powerful advertising (and the prohibition of pro-smoking
advertising); expanding bans; and changing social norms have formed a mutually
reinforcing thread of influence to change the behavioural equilibrium.
There is every reason to think that is a pattern that we will see repeated in manyother areas of behaviour too, from sexual behaviour to carbon emissions. At thesame time, new behavioural challenges will surely emerge too. For example, theUK leads the world in per capita spend on video games – roughly four times that of294
Germany and nearly 20 times the world average. Is that a virtue or vice? We
may have to wait a generation to decide.
What we can be sure of is that culture change is around us all the time, andcommunities and governments will continue to take views on how they do, and donot, want it to unfold.

The future of behavioural policies
Some leading proponents have portrayed the application of behavioural economics
as a radical „third way‟ between liberal and paternalistic approaches togovernment. Others have tended to dismiss the approach as a distraction to therobust application of „normal‟ economics to policy. In crude terms, the first campsays the way to reduce carbon emissions is through harnessing the power oftechniques such as comparisons with our neighbours‟ emissions; for the second
camp, it is simply to get the price of carbon right, and then to let markets sort it out.

Not a paradigm shift inpolicy-making, and not areason to give up on
conventional policy tools

Our position sits between the two camps. The application of behavioural
economics does not imply a paradigm shift in policy-making. It certainly does notmean giving up on conventional policy tools such as regulation, price signals andbetter information. Sophisticated behavioural programmes to reduce smoking orexcess drinking don‟t imply giving up on taxes on cigarettes and alcohol. Similarly,
programmes to persuade us to eat five portions of fruits or vegetables a day mean
still have to address practical barriers such as how the lack of supply of fresh food295
in poorer neighbourhoods.

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77

7

We can be confident that behavioural economic approaches offer policymakers
powerful new tools, but there is still much that we do not know. There remains
uncertainty over how lasting many of the effects are; how effects that work in one
set of circumstances will work in another; and whether effects that work well with
one segment of the population will work with another (including potential impacts
on inequalities – though there are grounds to think that more automatic
approaches will tend to reduce them).

Who should act?

There are also questions about how much such techniques should be employed bycentral government or left as tools for local policymakers, professionals andcommunities. One of the most important roles for central government in the coming
years will be to ensure that local and professional applications of behaviouralapproaches are rigorously evaluated, our knowledge systematically built, and theresults made available for communities to debate and adopt as they see fit. Whenthe cost-effectiveness for an application is clearly shown, and the public
acceptability has been established, central government might then move tonational implementation – be this to reduce crime, strengthen communities, or
support healthy and prosperous lives.
We saw at the beginning of this report how our decisions over a short time at lunch
are influenced by the context within those decisions are made – by various
elements of MINDSPACE. Accounting for these effects in public policy could result
in resources being used both more efficiently and more fairly. There may turn out
to be a free lunch after all.
Ideas for action
Changing policy-making
Nudging professionals. Breaking down all-in-one tick-box orders of medical
tests into smaller blocks with costs and frequency of use alongside.
Magistrates, doctors, and police provided with information on how theirdecisions compare with those of average and gold (evidenced-based)
standard.
Downplay negative norms. As we have seen, stressing the prevalence ofan undesirable behaviour can make people more likely to indulge in thatbehaviour themselves. A better tactic is to make these activities seem minorand socially undesirable, thereby bringing „in-group‟ effects on your side.
Help policy-makers reduce the debt burden. Applying MINDSPACE to
reducing the fiscal deficit, from building a mandate with the public to creating
a dynamic of collective ownership across Departments to reduce costs.
An institutional centre for evaluating behavioural change. There is agood case for establishing a central competence that can evaluate behaviourchange. This does not need to be a new body, but it does need scientificcompetence and a degree of independence. The centre would be tasked withdetermining which methods were most effective and cost-effective forchanging specific behaviours.
A “Dragon‟s Den” for innovative behaviour ideas. Professionals andcommunities who come up with innovative ideas have a means of submitting
their ideas for consideration. Those that get through an initial selection
process are invited to pitch to a panel of experts; convincing cases are given
support for piloting and evaluation, and, if shown to be effective, assistance tohelp wider participation and follow-up.

78

Discussion document – not a statement of government policy

Changing policies
Obesity in schools. Use all we know about choice architecture in school
canteens to improve diets, such as increasing the prominence of healthy
foods and offer a national points programme for healthy eating and exercise,with a range of rewards offered to classes, schools and cities.
Helping people help themselves. Use self-exclusion agreements to restrict
access to online casinos and betting sites. Set up a central website funded bygaming industry that allows people to sign agreements restricting access to
all registered online gaming sites.
Making the money go further. Refashion taxes, grants and benefits using
behavioural economics. For example, front-load grants to disadvantaged
students to make university feel more attractive, and offer lower but lessvariable tax credit options to those on variable incomes.
Citizen-to-citizen welfare. Online tax-free credit system set up to promoteexchange of care services between citizens, harnessing reciprocity on thelines of the Japanese system of fureai kippu (care credits for social care) or
the US Elderplan (where ex-patients help recent or current patients).

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79

7

Subliminal
effects

Psychologicalreactance

Hot-cold
empathygap

AffectPeak effects

Recencyeffects

Mood
congruence

Impact /durability
bias

Hedonic
adaptation

Multichannel
encoding

Priming

Mentalaccessibility

Key to nodes

Primary drive

Practical intervention

Perceived
intent /motivation

Excitationtransfer

Mereexposure
effectImpairmentof cognition
andadaptation

Anchoring /primacyerrorCommitment

Habit

Implementation
intentions

Life stage
changes

Need forconsistency

Goal-setting

Socially-grounded

Association /halo effectMessenger

Formalauthority

Choiceoverload

Confirmation
bias

Loss
aversion

Desire topreserve
self-image

Reciprocity

Defensive
attribution

Over-optimism
bias /
superiority bias

“Ego”

Diffusion of
responsibility

Fundamental
attribution
error

Pygmalion
effectEnvironment
grounded

Infrastructure

Resources

Self-efficacy

Anonymity /Spotlight
effects

Range ofpractical
barriers

Design (e.g.
as choiceediting)

Environment

Social proof /herdbehaviour

False
consensus
effectFormalsanctionsMarketprovision

Norms

Positive selfidentification

Self-serving
bias

Desire forfairness(proceduralutility)

Declarativenorms

PricesStatus quo
bias

Defaults

Socialinfluence

In-group /out-group
effects

Fear of lossof face80

Rewards
crowd out
intrinsic
motivations

InternallygroundedPrice signals
value

Endowment
effectIncentives

Overweighting ofcertainty /small risks

Mentalaccounting

Reinforcements

Scarcityeffects

Referencepoint / zero
price effect

Ambiguity
effectHyperbolic
discounting

Salience

Framing

Discussion document – not a statement of government policy

Annex 1: MINDSPACE mapped

Diagram presenting the concepts
related to the elements in
MINDSPACE. The solid lines indicatethat a given psychological process is
considered as being an essential part(as a direct consequence, cause or
manifestation) of the principle inquestion (e.g. framing is making
something salient, while saliencecauses recency effects). The dottedlines are secondary connections, while
the red/orange/yellow colouring of thecircles denotes whether the factor is a
primary drive (e.g. affect) or whether it
is more applied (e.g. defaults). The
red grouping lines denote theboundaries of MINDSPACE.

More details on the terms in the
diagram can be found in:

Hewstone, Stroebe, Jonas (2007)
Introduction to Social Psychology: A
European Perspective. Chichester:
Wiley, Fourth Edition.

Annex 2: Applying MINDSPACE to teenage pregnancy
A local authority has identified that it has unusually high rates, compared withcomparable areas, of both teenage pregnancies and STDs. They have been set achallenging LAA target for National Indicator 112 (PSA 24) „Under 18 Conception
Rate‟, but their performance indicators are not moving. How can MINDSPACE offer
a new approach?
ExploreThe Local Authority brings together key figures from the PCT, local schools and the
local community to assess levels of interest and current local strategies. This starts
to identify ideas about what might be going wrong in the local area, and establishes
common interests and resources to explore the issue further.
Insight research is commissioned locally involving focus groups and some one-toone interviews (given the personal nature of the subject). This research explores
the thoughts, feelings and pressures on teenagers (including teenage parents) andtheir parents. Evidence is also drawn from the new „What works?‟ data bank ofprevious evaluations and international evidence funded by several large central
government departments.
Insight found that one of the weaknesses of information and leaflets was that itconcentrated on facts and figures about sex and STDs rather than the more potent
influences on behaviour such as self-image and social pressure (Ego and Norms).
For example, young people often felt unsure about how widespread sexual activity
was, and those who were engaging in early sex felt uncomfortable about thereaction of their partner if they insisted on contraception, since it might imply they
were already promiscuous or that it somehow implied they didn‟t trust their partner.
It was also found that many young people did not relate to national-level statistics
and figures.
Ironically, the local practice of having previous teenage parents come and talk tochildren in schools about why they regretted getting pregnant so young was foundto have the exact reverse effect on many young people. It helped them imagine
themselves in that situation (Salience), made it seem more normal (Norms), andthe young mothers themselves seemed rather impressive and grown-up(Messenger).
Finally, it turned out that a major driver of early sexual activity, and indeed lower
educational attainment and behavioural problems in the classroom, turned out berooted in self-image. Many young people felt caught in a frustrating dynamic of„being treated like a child at home and school‟, and, in a slightly jumbled way, feltthat sex was a route to being respected and treated as an adult (Ego).
EnableFor the most part, lack of information about safe sex was not fund to be a major
barrier, but there was evidence that there were some specific gaps in knowledge,
such as some practical aspects of birth control use and a lack of understanding of
the long-term effects of certain STDs. Sex guidance and information was therefore
updated. Supply of contraception, including the cost of condoms, was a barrier insome at-risk younger groups, and dispensers were added in school toilets – within
cubicles rather than more public areas to avoid unwanted social pressure.
Encourage
Salience and Norms
Recognising the importance of self-esteem rather than facts, leaflets and classes
were changed to focus much more heavily on how other people, including peers
and the other sex, felt about birth control. In order to make statistics more Salient,

Discussion document – not a statement of government policy81a local survey of relationships and sexual behaviours was organised by parents
and a local school nurse. Students found the results from the local survey far moresalient, and it also served to break the taboo of younger age sex and relationships.
Many young people were surprised to find out that far fewer of their peers were
having sex than they thought, which they felt removed pressure on them (Norms).
Messenger
Schools also took a new approach to visits: rather than inviting just teenage
mothers in to talk, they set up a panel of five former pupils to talk about their lives
and relationships. Just like the teenage parents, they were articulate andimpressive – but, of course, most of those who left school were not teenage
parents. A typical panel of 20-something ex-students had three who were notparents, of whom one was recently married, one was in a long-term relationship,
and one who had recently broken up. The fourth was also recently married and had
just had a child. The fifth, on some of the panels, had been a teen parent. In otherwords, various „alternative futures‟ were made Salient, while it was clear that thedominant Norm was not being a single mother.
Commitment
Some schools and parents experimented with „compacts‟ – students would actually
make a pledge with themselves as part of PHSE classes that, if they were in a
relationship, they would agree with their partner to use birth control (Commitment).
Though some felt these „compacts‟ were embarrassing, many subsequently feltthat they were glad that they had done so.
EngageMany of the elements of the Borough‟s programme on teenage sexual behaviour
were controversial. Engaging with parents, professional and children was animportant part of getting „permission‟ for the programme. The local authority had tostress the scale of the problem in the area (although not to teenagers, to preventan undesirable social norm), and the difficulties that can ensue from teenage
pregnancy. The engagement itself helped to raise the profile of the issue andincreased the acceptability of talking about sex and relationships in the area,
thereby creating a self-reinforcing social norm.
Exemplify
In this instance, the local authority recognised that it would find it difficult to
exemplify actions that lead to lower teenage pregnancy. Therefore, it mostly
restricted its activities to ensuring that it was giving a consistent message on thedesirability of teenage pregnancy in all its areas of activity. In terms of policymaking, it was recognised that the Commitment to reach a certain LAA target had
encouraged the local authority to think differently. In addition, a local health worker
gave a hard-hitting presentation to the local authority‟s team on the real emotion
and social problems teenage pregnancy was creating in the local area (Salienceand Affect). As a result, the Default approach to information provision had beenshifted from „neutrality‟ to „socially situated‟ – unless decided otherwise, allinformation would be geared towards affecting self-esteem issues and socialpressures felt by teenagers.
Evaluate
There were various elements to the programmes that were tried in the area.
Schools and communities tended to use slightly different combinations. The
evaluation used this variation, or tapestry, of interventions to test the relative
efficacy of different aspects of the programme. Outcome variables included levelsof STDs, teen pregnancy rates, and a repeat of the local survey on sexual
behaviours.

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Discussion document – not a statement of government policy

Annex 3: New frontiers of behaviour change: Insight from experts
This annex gives short insights into some of the latest developments in behaviourchange from world experts.
1.

Virtual Worlds to test behavioural interventions
Virtual worlds are three-dimensional environments found online in which
communities of networked individuals interact. Millions of people use suchplatforms and they have become increasingly sophisticated. Within suchworlds (e.g. Second Life) individuals can make friends with like-mindedpeople or even do their weekly shopping. Researchers in my department
are currently using this technology to teach medical students how to begood doctors.
The potential exists to use virtual worlds to test out some new policies in
the area of behaviour change. In the past we have spent large amounts ofmoney on interventions to change behaviour with little idea of whether they
will work or not. It may be that we can try out various interventions within
virtual worlds first, so as to get an idea of their potential impact. Chesney
has recently explored the use of virtual worlds for experimental economics.
Overall the behaviour of virtual subjects was not found to differ significantly
from established standard results, suggesting their usefulness as
experimental subjects.
Professor The Lord Ara Darzi, Professor of Surgery, Imperial College
London. Formerly Under Secretary State for Health2.

Evaluating behaviour change policy
The next steps for behavioural economics are large field studies on policy,
since data collection may challenge governments‟ intuitions. Academics
could also invite people who are involved in legislation to come andpresent the assumptions they are making about human behaviour, givethem some feedback and work together on changes. Examples could be
legislation about driving while texting, energy usage, income tax, calorie
labelling, and so on.
Professor Dan Ariely, Alfred P. Sloan Professor of Behavioral Economics,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, author of Predictably Irrational(HarperCollins: 2008)3.

Neuroeconomics
Neuroscience now offers profound insights into how the human brain
implements high level psychological functions, including decision making.
Such knowledge when combined with insights from other disciplines has
spawned new disciplines, a pertinent example being the field of neuroeconomics. This new field has already generated remarkable findings into
questions as diverse as how people learn in an optimal fashion, howhuman preferences are formed and the mechanisms that explain common
deviations from rationality in our choice behaviour.
The wider impact of these findings is that they suggest a profound revisionin how we construe the architecture of the human mind. It now appears
that the brain comprises not a monolithic single executive decision making
system but instead comprises multiple distinct decision-making systems,
each competing for control over choice behaviour. The obvious analogy
here is that of a parliament of the mind. The challenge now is tounderstand how these systems interact during the expression of behaviour
including how they impact on self-control. A deeper understanding here is
likely to provide insights into the types of interventions or triggers that

Discussion document – not a statement of government policy

83

8engage these distinct systems, with potential beneficial or indeed
detrimental effects. It opens the distinct possibility that we can implement
effective policies that can provide powerful, yet simple, tools that engenderchange in behaviour across of range of societal contexts include our healthservice, schools and our general social environment.
Professor Ray Dolan, Director of the Wellcome Trust Centre for
Neuroimaging, University College London
4.

Influencing behaviour through design
Winston Churchill wrote: 'We shape our buildings; thereafter they shapeus." The built environment presents a series of 'clues' to the public andeffectively gives them permission to do certain things or behave in certain
ways. Whether it is the corporate employer which creates social spaces toencourage informal collaboration across disciplines inside its officebuilding, or the transport operator which deliberately denies passengers
even surfaces on which to place and discard coffee cups on the subway
system, organisations have used design to encourage behaviours best
suited to their mission.
Today one the leading-edge areas in which design can influence behaviourchange is in relation to safeguarding the environment. Having welldesigned recycling facilities can support greater recycling by communities,
for example; giving home owners immediate and understandable visualfeedback on the amount of energy they are consuming can encourage areduction in energy use.
Jeremy Myerson, Helen Hamlyn Professor of Design, Royal College of Art

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1See, for example: Prime Minister‟s Strategy Unit (2004) Personal Responsibility and
Behaviour Change; New Economics Foundation (2005) Behavioural Economics: Seven
Principles for Policy Makers; Lewis (2007) States of Reason: Freedom, responsibility andthe governing of behaviour change; Social Market Foundation (2008) Creatures of Habit?
The Art of Behavioural Change; Thaler and Sunstein (2008) Nudge: Improving decisions
about health, wealth and happiness; Mulgan (2009) Influencing Public Behaviour to Improve
Health and Wellbeing; Policy Studies Institute (2009) Designing policy to influence
consumers.
2

Darnton (2008) Practical Guide: An overview of behaviour change models and their uses.
London; Government Social Research; Central Office of Information (2009) Communications
and Behaviour Change; Cabinet Office (2009) Guide to Segmentation. At:
http://www.cabinetoffice.gov.uk/public_service_reform/innovation/segmentation.aspx
3

McCrae, Myers and Glatzel (2009) Undertaking a fiscal consolidation: A guide to action.
London: Institute for Government.
4

For a recent practical overview of these issues in the field of health, see Reeves (2009) A
Liberal Dose? Health and Wellbeing – the Role of the State.
5

Hume (1994) Idea of a perfect commonwealth. In Haakonssen (ed.) Hume: Political
Essays, pp.221-233.
6

Yanovitzky and Bennett (1999) Media attention, Institutional response and Healthbehaviour change: The case of drunk driving 1978-1996. Communication Research, 26(4):429-453
7

The laboratory experiments conducted by Triplett at the end of the nineteenth century are
generally considered to be the start of the systematic study of human behaviour. Triplettdocumented how the presence of other participants would drive up the performance of bothchildren and adults: „bodily presence of another contestant participating simultaneously inthe race serves to liberate latent energy not ordinarily available‟ – what came to be called“social facilitation”. An experiment by Triplett (1898) The dynamogenic factors inpacemaking and competition. American Journal of Psychology, 9: 507-533
8Ariely (2008) Predictably Irrational: The Hidden Forces that Shape our Decisions. London:
HarperCollins.
9

Gladwell (2005) Blink. London: Allen Lane.

10

Gilbert (2006) Stumbling on Happiness. London: Random House

11

Cialdini (2007) Influence: The psychology of persuasion. New York: HarperBusiness,
Revised Edition.
12

Thaler and Sunstein (2008) Nudge: Improving decisions about health, wealth andhappiness.
13

Adapted from Thaler and Sunstein (2008) Nudge, p.22.

14

Todorov and Bargh (2002) Automatic sources of aggression. Aggression and Violent
Behavior 7:53–68.
15

Vlaev and Dolan (2009) From changing cognitions to changing the context: a dual-route
model of behaviour change. London: Imperial College Business School.
16

Daniel Kahneman, quoted in conversation at:
http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/thaler_sendhil08/class4.html
17

Cabinet Office (2008) Power of Information Task Force: Final Report; HM Government(2010) Putting the Frontline First: Smarter Government.
18

Bridgewater, Grayson, Brooks, Grotte and Fabri, et al. (2007) Has the publication ofcardiac surgery outcome data been associated with changes in practice in northwest
England: an analysis of 25,730 patients undergoing CABG surgery under 30 surgeons overeight years. Heart 93(6):744-8
19HM Government (2010) Putting the Frontline First: Smarter Government, p.26.

20

Elbel, Kersh, Brescoll and Dixon (2009) Calorie labelling and food choices: A first look at
the effects on low-income people in New York City. Health Affairs. 28(6): w1110-w1121;thDowns et al. (2009) Eating by the Numbers. New York Times, 12 November. Downs
reports that a third study, conducted by the New York City Department of Health and Mental
Hygiene, may show reductions in calorie consumption, although the data had not yet been
published.

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85

21

Sheeran (2002) Intention-behaviour relations: A conceptual and empirical review. In
Stroebe and Hewstone (eds.) European review of social psychology, 12:1–36; Webb andSheeran (2006) Does changing behavioral intentions engender behavior change? A meta–
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account for 28% of the variance in behaviour change (r = .53), but when Webb and Sheeran(2006) based their meta-analysis only on (47) experimental (i.e., causal, not correlational)
studies, the estimated intention-behaviour correlation dropped to .18 (i.e., accounting for~3% of the variance).
22

Kollmuss and Agyeman (2002) Mind the Gap. Environmental Education Research 8(3):239-260.
23

Müller–Riemenschneider, Reinhold and Willich (2009). Cost–effectiveness of interventions
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24

Wang, Macera, Scudder–Soucie, Schmid, Pratt, and Buchner (2004) Cost effectiveness ofa bicycle/pedestrian trail development in health promotion. Preventive Medicine, 34:237–
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25

Thaler and Sunstein (2008), p.37.

26

Halpern, Ubel and Asch (2007) Harnessing the power of default options to improve healthcare. New England Journal Medicine 357(13):1340-4.
27

Vlaev and Dolan (2009) From changing cognitions to changing the context: a dual-route
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28

Webb and Sheeran (2006) Does changing behavioral intentions engender behavior
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29

Durantini, Albarracín, Mitchell, Earl and Gillette (2006) Conceptualizing the influence ofsocial agents of behavior change: A meta–analysis of the effectiveness of HIV–prevention
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30

Stock, Miranda, Evans, Plessis and Ridley et al. (2007) Healthy buddies: a novel, peer-led
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31

Duncan, Haller and Portes (1968) Peer influences on aspirations: A reinterpretation.
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32

Cialdini (2007) Influence: The psychology of persuasion. New York: HarperBusiness,
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33

Kelley (1967) Attribution theory in social psychology. Lincoln: University of Nebraska
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34

Mulgan (2009) Influencing Public Behaviour to Improve Health and Wellbeing, p.27.

35

Paul-Ebhohimhen and Avenell (2008) Systematic review of the use of financial incentives
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36

Volpp, John, Troxel, Norton, Fassbender J et al. (2008) Financial incentive-based
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37

Thornton (2008) The demand for, and impact of, learning HIV status. American Economic
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38

Kahneman and Tversky (1984) Choices, values, frames. American Psychologist
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39

Thaler (1999) Mental Accounting Matters. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 12: 183206.
40

Thaler (1985) Mental accounting and consumer choice. Marketing Science 4:199-214.

41

Reeson and Dunstall (2009) Behavioural economics and complex decision-making:
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42

Hardisty and Weber (2009) „Discounting future green: Money versus the environment.
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43

Lussier, Heil, Mongeon, Badger and Higgins (2006) A meta-analysis of voucher-based
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44

Deci, Koestner and Ryan (1999) A meta-analytic review of experiments examining theeffects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 125(6):627-68.

86

Discussion document – not a statement of government policy

45

London Assembly (2005) Evidence to the London Assembly Transport Committee on the
Proposed Congestion Charge Increase.
46

Linkenbach and Perkins (2003) Most of Us Wear Seatbelts: The Process and Outcomesof a 3-Year Statewide Adult Seatbelt Campaign in Montana. Conference presentation: The
National Conference on the Social Norms Model, Boston, MA, July 17.
47

Cialdini (2003) Crafting normative messages to protect the environment. Current
Directions in Psychological Science 12:105–109.
48

Christakis and Fowler (2007) The Spread of Obesity in a Large Social Network over 32
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49

Fowler and Christakis (2008) Dynamic Spread of Happiness in a Large Social Network:
longitudinal analysis over 20 years in the Framingham Heart Study. British Medical Journal
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50

Allcott (2009) Social norms and energy conservation. Discussion Paper. Center for
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51

Schultz, Nolan, Cialdini, Goldstein and Griskevicius (2007) The constructive, destructive,
and reconstructive power of social norms. Psychological Science 18: 429–434.
52

Cialdini (2003) Crafting normative messages to protect the environment. Current
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53

The Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Network (2000) Ventilation with lower tidal
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54

For a full consideration of the complex issues surrounding the use of defaults in organ
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especially its Annexes.
55

Data taken from Johnson and Goldstein (2003) Medicine. Do defaults save lives? Science
302(5649):1338-9.
56

Kahneman and Thaler (2006) Anomalies: Utility Maximisation and Experienced Utility.
Journal of Economic Perspectives 20(1):221-234.
57

Kahneman and Tversky (2000) Choices, Values, Frames. New York: Cambridge
University Press and the Russell Sage Foundation.
58

Chetty, Looney and Kroft (2009) Salience and taxation: Theory and evidence. American
Economic Review, 99(4): 1145–1177.
59

Stewart (2009) The cost of anchoring on credit card minimum payments. Psychological
Science 20:39-41.
60

Ariely (2008) Predictably Irrational: The Hidden Forces that Shape our Decisions. London:
HarperCollins.
61

Ariely (2008) Predictably Irrational.

62

Lord, Lee and Lepper (1979) Biased Assimilation and Attitude Polarization: The Effects ofPrior Theories on Subsequently Considered Evidence. Journal of Personality and Social
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63

Kahneman, Fredrickson, Schreiber, and Redelemeier (1993) When more pain is preferred
to less: Adding a better end. Psychological Science 4: 401-5; Redelmeier and Kahneman.
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evaluations of two minimally invasive procedures. Pain 66:3-8; Stone, Broderick, Kaell,
DelesPaul and Porter (2000) Does the peak-end phenomenon observed in laboratory pain
studies apply to real-world pain in rheumatoid arthritics? Journal of Pain 1: 212-7.
64

Dijksterhuis and Bargh (2001) The perception-behaviour expressway: Automatic effects ofsocial perception on social behaviour. In Zanna (ed.) Advances in experimental social
psychology 33:1-40.
65

Wryobeck and Chen (2003) Using priming techniques to facilitate health behaviours.
Clinical Psychologist 7:105–108.
66

Dijksterhuis and Knippenberg (1998) The Relation between perception and behaviour, or
How to win a game of Trivial Pursuit. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74(4):865-877.

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67

Winkleman, Berridge, Wilbarger (2005) Unconscious affective reactions to masked happy
versus angry faces influence consumption behavior and judgments of value. Personality andSocial Psychology Bulletin 31(1):121-135.
68

Wansink and Kim (2006) Bad popcorn in big buckets: Portion size can influence intake asmuch as taste. Journal of Nutrition and Behavior 37(5): 242-245.
69

Wryobeck and Chen (2003) Using priming techniques to facilitate health behaviours.
Clinical Psychologist 7:105–108.
70

Holland, Hendriks and Aarts (2005) Smells like clean spirit: Nonconscious effects of scenton cognition and behavior. Psychological Science 16:689–693.
71

Zajonc (1980) Feelings and thinking: Preferences need no inferences. American
Psychologist 35(2):151-175.
72

Karlan, Bertrand, Mullainathan, Shafir, and Zinman, (in press). What's advertising content
worth? Evidence from a consumer credit marketing field experiment. Quarterly Journal of
Economics.
73

Curtis, Garbrah–Aidoo and Scott (2007) Masters of marketing: Bringing private sector
skills to public health partnerships. American Journal of Public Health 97:634–641.
74

Mulgan (2009) Influencing Public Behaviour to Improve Health and Wellbeing.

75

O‟Donoghue and Rabin (1999) Doing it Now or Later. The American Economic Review,
89(1):103-124
75

Cialdini (2007) Influence: The psychology of persuasion. New York: HarperBusiness,
Revised Edition.
76

Cialdini (2007) Influence, pp.67-85.

77

Trope and Fishbach (2000) Counteractive self–control in overcoming temptation. Journalof Personality and Social Psychology 79:493–506.
78

Ariely and Wertenbroch (2002) Procrastination, deadlines, and performance: Self–control
by precommitment. Psychological Science 13:219–224.
79

Ashraf, Karlan and Yin (2006). Tying Odysseus to the mast: Evidence from a commitment
savings product in the Philippines. Quarterly Journal of Economics 121:635–671.
80

Gine, Karlan, Zinman (2008) Put your money where your butt is: A commitment contract
for smoking cessation. New York: World Bank.
81

Williams, Bezner, Chesbro, Leavitt (2005) The effect of a behavioral contract onadherence to a walking program in postmenopausal African American women. Journal of
Geriatric Physical Therapy 21(4):332- 342.
82

Experiments have shown that people will refuse an offer of money if: a) they feel it has
been allocated through an unfair process and b) by refusing they can punish the person who
allocated it unfairly. See Werner, Schmittberger, Schwarze (1982) An Experimental Analysis
of Ultimatum Bargaining. Journal of Economic Behaviour and Organisation 3(4): 367-88.
83

See Cialdini (2007) Influence: The psychology of persuasion. New York: HarperBusiness,
Revised Edition, Chapter 1.
84

These are known as attribution biases, and they share the common tendency to overvalue dispositional (i.e. personality-based) explanations for the observed behaviours ofothers, while under-valuing situational explanations for those behaviours. For example, selfserving bias occurs when people attribute their successes to internal/personal factors but
attribute their failures to situational factors beyond their control. Miller and Ross (1975) Selfserving biases in the attribution of causality: Fact or fiction? Psychological Bulletin 82:213225. Ross (1977) The intuitive psychologist and his shortcomings: Distortions in theattribution process. In Berkowitz (ed.) Advances in experimental social psychology 10:173–
220. New York: Academic Press.
85

Hewstone Rubin and Willis (2002) Intergroup bias. Annual Review of Psychology 53:575604.
86

Hastorf and Cantril (1954) They saw a game: a case study. Journal of Abnormal
Psychology 49:129-134.
87

The main theory explaining the motivations behind in-group biases is social identity
theory, which suggests that these biases protect high in-group status, thus providing a
positive social identity for group members and satisfying their need for positive self-esteem.
Tajfel and Turner (1979) An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In The Social
Psychology of Intergroup Relations, ed. Austin and Worchel, pp. 33–47. Monterey, CA:
Brooks/Cole.

88

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88

Landry, Lange, List, Price, Rupp (2006). Toward an understanding of the economics ofcharity: Evidence from a field experiment. Quarterly Journal of Economics 121:747–782.
89

This is related to the prototype-willingness model. See Gibbons, Gerrard, Blanton and
Russell (1998) Reasoned action and social reaction: Willingness and intention as
independent predictors of health risk. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74:
1164–1180. Gibbons, Gerrard, Lane, Mahler and Kulik (2005) Using UV photography to
reduce use of tanning booths: A test of cognitive mediation. Health Psychology 24:358–363.
90

Festinger (1957) A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University
Press. This class of effects is often referred to as cognitive dissonance.
91

Burger (1999) The foot-in-the-door compliance procedure: A multiple-process analysis
and review. Personality and Social Psychology Review 3:303–325.
92

Festinger‟s (1957) cognitive dissonance theory says that if people experience a
disjuncture between their attitudes and their behaviour, they change their attitudes so they
are consistent with their behaviour. Thus, smokers who know that their habit causes lungcancer will justify it to themselves as a way to stay thin or relieve stress. Similarly, Bem's(1967) self-perception theory proposes that we form our attitudes, opinions, and otherinternal states by observing our behaviour and concluding what attitudes must have caused
them. Bem (1967) Self-perception: An alternative interpretation of cognitive dissonancephenomena. Psychological Review 74:183–200.
93

This is known as the “Pygmalion effect”. Rosenthal and Jacobson (1992) Pygmalion in theclassroom. New York: Irvington. Expanded edition.
94

Rosenthal (1974) On the social psychology of the self-fulfilling prophecy: Further evidence
for Pygmalion effects and their mediating mechanisms. New York: Modular Publications.
95

Tesser's self-evaluation maintenance model. See: Tesser (1986) Some effects of selfevaluation maintenance on cognition and action. In Sorrentino and Higgins (eds.) Handbookof motivation and cognition: Foundations of social behaviour, pp. 435–464. New York, NY:
Guilford Press.
96

This is the “above average effect”. See: Svenson (1981) Are we all less risky and more
skilful than our fellow drivers? Acta Psychologica 47:143–148; Suls, Lemos and Stewart(2002) Self-esteem, construal, and comparisons with the self, friends and peers. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology 82: 252–261.
97

Halpern (2010) The Hidden Wealth of Nations. Cambridge: Polity.

98

For a recent practical overview of these issues in the field of health, see Reeves (2009) A
Liberal Dose? Health and Wellbeing – the Role of the State.
99

Wanless (2004) Securing Good Health for the Whole Population. London: HM Treasury.

100

See, for example, IPSOS MORI (2009) August Issues Index, where 32% of respondents
saw crime as being amongst the top issues facing Britain. At: http://www.ipsosmori.com/researchpublications/researcharchive/poll.aspx?oItemId=2452
101

Home Office (2006) Violent Crime Overview, Homicide and Gun Crime 2004/2005. Home
Office Statistical Bulletin 02/06.
102

Home Office (2007) Homicides, Firearm Offences and Intimate Violence 2005/2006.
Home Office Statistical Bulletin 02/07.
103

Walker et al. (eds) (2009) Crime in England and Wales 2008/9, Volume 1, p.6, p.10.
There is some evidence from NHS hospital episode statistics that „assault by a sharp object‟admissions increased by 30% between 1997 and 2005. Maxwell et al. (2007) Trends inadmissions to hospital involving an assault using a knife or other sharp instrument, England,
1997-2005. Journal of Public Health 29(2): 187.
104

Sharp et al. (2004) Delinquent youth groups and offending behaviour: Findings from the2004 Offending, Crime and Justice Survey, p.v.
105

Sharp et al (2004), p.vi.

106

Knight (2009) How to really hug a hoodie. Prospect Magazine, Issue 164, 24 October.

107

Knight (2009) How to really hug a hoodie. Prospect Magazine, Issue 164, 24 October.

th
th

108

Skogan, et al. (2008) Evaluation of Ceasefire Chicago: Executive Summary, p.1.
Northwestern University.
109

Kennedy et al. (2001) Reducing Gun Violence: The Boston Gun Project‟s Operation
Ceasefire, p.58. US Department of Justice.
110

Skogan, et al. (2008) Evaluation of Ceasefire Chicago: Executive Summary, p.1.
Northwestern University.
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111

Knight (2009) How to really hug a hoodie. Prospect Magazine, Issue 164, 24 October.

th

112

See www.actiononviolence.com

113

Home Affairs Select Committee (2009) Knife Crime, para 171.

114

http://www.lda.gov.uk/server/show/ConWebDoc.175

115

http://www.bac-in.co.uk

116

Sampson and Laub (1993) Crime in the making: Pathways and turning points throughlife. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press.
117

Zimbardo (1969) The human choice: Individuation, reason, and order versus
deindividuation, impulse, and chaos. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation 17:237-307.
118

Ariely (2008) Predictably Irrational: The hidden forces that shape our decisions. London:
Harper Collins.
119

Butts, Buck and Coggeshall (2002) The Impact of Teen Courts on Youth Offenders.
Washington: Urban Institute Press.
120

Cabinet Office (2009) Guide to Segmentation. At:
http://www.cabinetoffice.gov.uk/public_service_reform/innovation/segmentation.aspx
121

Cabinet Office (2008) Engaging Communities in Fighting Crime: A Review by Louise
Casey, pp.50-6.
122

Coyle (2007) Does Custodial Sentencing Work? Prison Service Journal 171: 13-17.

123

Keizer, Lindenberg, Steg (2008) The Spreading of Disorder. Science 322(5908):16811685.
124

Professor Leonard Berkowitz, quoted in Kramer (2005) Why guns share the blame. Time,th
May 8 . At: http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,982920,00.html
125

http://www.justice.gov.uk/inspectorates/hmiprobation/docs/caerphilly___blaenau_gwent_1-rps.pdf
126

Dolan and Peasgood (2007) Estimating the economic and social costs of the fear ofcrime. British Journal of Criminology 47:121-132.
127

http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs2/rdsolr0204.pdf

128Walker and Bright (2009) False inflated self-esteem and violence: a systematic review
and cognitive model. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology 20(1): 1-32.
129

Bullock and Jones (2004) Acceptable Behavioural Contracts Addressing Antisocial
Behaviour in the London Borough of Islington. Home Office Online Report 02/04.
130

Graham, West and Wells (2000) Evaluating theories of alcohol-related aggression using
observations of young adults in bars. Addiction 95(6): 847-863.
131

Petrosino, Tupin-Petrosino and Buehler (2002) “Scared straight” and other juvenile
awareness programs for preventing juvenile delinquency..Cochrane Database Syst Rev.
CD002796 (latest version 27 Feb 2002).
132

http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/6107028.stm

133

Data taken from Keep Britain Tidy (2009) The Word on Our Street, p.10, p.12. The otheroptions presented were: „global warming‟, „the price of fuel at the petrol pumps‟, „the level ofservice provided by the NHS‟, and „traffic congestion‟.
134

Keep Britain Tidy (2006) Your Rubbish and the Law: A Guide for Businesses, p.3.

135

Davis (2007) Southwark leads way on litter louts. Evening Standard, 17 October.

136

Defra (2006) Fixed Penalty Notices, p.6.

th

137

Despite the concern about litter in the Keep Britain Tidy survey, 42% of respondents
admitted to having dropped litter at some point. Keep Britain Tidy (2009), p.22.
138

In psychological terms, the costumes and performances make the issue of litter and FPN
more „available‟ in the mind. Availability has great power over how we think – for example,
people tend to overestimate the risk of dangers that come easily to mind (for example, planecrashes) and underestimate the dangers of those that are less obvious (for example, sunbeds). For a brief description, see Thaler and Sunstein (2008), pp.27-8.
139

http://www.southwark.gov.uk/public/newsarticle.aspx?articleid=16732

140

Data provided by Southwark Council. „Resident satisfaction‟ derived from biannual MORI
polling.

90

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141

Department for Children, Schools and Families (2009) Permanent and Fixed Period
Exclusions from Schools and Exclusion Appeals in England, 2007/08. At:
http://www.dcsf.gov.uk/rsgateway/DB/SFR/s000860/SFR18_2009_FINAL.pdf
142

Evans, Hall, Wreford (2008) Education-related parenting contracts evaluation.
Department for Children, Schools and Families. Research Report No DCSF-RR030.
143

Data taken from Evans, Hall, Wreford (2008).

144

http://www.aimhigherwm.org/content.asp?CategoryID=1930

145

Ariely, Bracha, Meier (2009) Doing Good or Doing Well? Image Motivation and Monetary
Incentives in Behaving Prosocially. American Economic Review 99(1), 544-55.
146

Kollock (1999) The Economies of Online Cooperation: Gifts and Public Goods in
Cyberspace. In Smith and Kollock (eds.) Communities in Cyberspace. London: Routledge.
pp. 220–239.
147

Krupka and Weber (2004) The Influence of Social Norms in Dictator Allocation Decisions,mimeo, Carnegie Mellon University.
148

Brekke, Kipperberg and Nyborg (2007) Reluctant Recyclers: Social Interaction in
Responsibility Ascription. Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=11161490
149

Whiteley, Clarke, Sanders, Stewart (2001) Turnout. In: Norris (ed.) Britain Votes 2001.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
150

Funk (2005) Theory and Evidence on the Role of Social Norms in Voting. Available at
SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=627347 or doi:10.2139/ssrn.627347
151

http://www.thenewstribune.com/news/government/story/916680.html

152

Schwartz (2004) The Paradox of Choice: Why More is Less. London: Harper Collins.

153

Duffy and Verges (2009) It matters a hole lot. Environment and Behaviour 41(5):741-749.

154

Greitemeyer (2009) Effects of songs with prosocial lyrics on prosocial behaviour: Further
evidence and a mediating mechanism. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 35(11):1500-1511.
155

Aarts and Dijksterhuis (2003) The silence of the library: Environment, situational norm,and social behaviour. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 84:18–28.
156

Andreason (1995) Marketing Social Change: Changing Behavior to Promote Health,Social Development, and the Environment. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
157

Halpern (2010) The Hidden Wealth of Nations. Cambridge: Polity.

158

http://www.braintree.gov.uk/Braintree/community/Volunteering+Opportunities/Community+C
hampions.htm
159

Rexam (2007) Beverage Radar Statistics.

160

http://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/packaging/data.htm

161

Defra (2008) Review of Packaging Deposits System for the UK.

162

Mckenzie-Mohr and Smith (1999) Fostering Sustainable Behavior, p.105. Gabriola
Island: New Society Publishers.
163

http://www.cpre.org.uk/news/view/558

164

AG Barr (2007) Annual Report 2007.
http://www.agbarr.co.uk//agbarr/newsite//ces_docstore.nsf/wpg/C7B3049D6CEA9D3780257
41800447930/$file/agb_annual_report.pdf
165

Defra (2008) Review of Packaging Deposits System for the UK.

166

Defra (2008) Review of Packaging Deposits System for the UK.

167

Defra (2009) Making the most of Packaging.

168

http://www.scottish.parliament.uk/s3/bills/17-ClimateChange/b17s3-introd.pdf

169This point is recognised in the 2004 Choosing Health white paper. Department of Health(2004) Choosing Health: Making healthy choices easier, p.3.
170

http://www.dfid.gov.uk/Media-Room/News-Stories/2008/World-AIDS-Day-2008-20-years20-facts/

Discussion document – not a statement of government policy

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171

UNAIDS (2009) Aids Epidemic Update.
http://www.unaids.org/en/KnowledgeCentre/HIVData/EpiUpdate/EpiUpdArchive/2009/default
.asp
172

DfID (2008) Achieving Universal Access: the UK‟s strategy for halting and reversing the
spread of HIV in the developing world. Fulfilling Britain‟s HIV commitments contributes tomeeting DfID‟s Departmental Strategic Objective 1.
173

In 2001, shortly before the programme commenced, HIV prevalence in the general
population was estimated to be 26.5%. UNGASS (2008) Zimbabwe Country Report, p.4.
174

http://www.dfid.gov.uk/Media-Room/Case-Studies/2006/How-Zimbabwes-hairdressersare-cutting-HIV-infection/
175

This type of cognitive bias is known as the „halo effect‟.

176

http://www.dfid.gov.uk/Media-Room/Case-Studies/2006/How-Zimbabwes-hairdressersare-cutting-HIV-infection/
177

Center for Health and Gender Equity (2008) Saving Lives Now, p.28.

178

PSI/Zimbabwe (2004) Hair Salon Initiative: Impact Assessment. Harare: Zimbabwe. Of
course, this does not prove that hairdressers are more effective messengers, since thecomparison is with a lack of information – rather than information coming from a different
source.
179

PSI/Zimbabwe (2004).

180

Hales, et al. (2004) PSI Zimbabwe Assessment Report, p.8.

181

UNGASS (2008), p.4.

182

http://www.equinox.dk/ (in Danish)183

http://www.telegraph.co.uk/health/healthnews/5635642/GPs-to-prescribe-golf-lessons-tooverweight-NHS-patients.html
184

Cutler and Glaeser (2007) Social Interactions and Smoking. NBER Working Paper No.
W13477.
185

http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/road-and-rail-transport/6906321/Nearly-one-infour-drink-drive-motorists-guilty-for-a-second-time.html
186

http://www.nj.com/news/index.ssf/2010/01/acting_gov_stephen_sweeney_app.html

187

Aradhna, Briesch, Lehmann, and Yuan (2002) A Meta-Analysis of the Impact of Price
Presentation on Perceived Savings. Journal of Retailing 78 (Summer): 101-18.
188

Anderson and Simester (2003) Effects of $9 Price Endings on Retail Sales: Evidence
from Field Experiments. Quantitative Marketing and Economics 1 (March): 93-110.
189

Bertini and Wathieu (2006)The Framing Effect of Price Format. Working Paper. See:
http://www.hbs.edu/research/pdf/06-055.pdf
190

Wansink and Cheney (2005) Super bowls: Serving bowl size and food consumption.
JAMA 293: 1727-1728.
191

Loewenstein, Weber, Hsee and Welch (2001) Risk as feelings. Psychological Bulletin
127: 267–286
192

Ladouceur, Sylvain, Gosselin (2007) Self Exclusion Program: A longitudinal Evaluation
Study. Journal of Gambling Studies 23:85-94.
193

Abernathy, Massad, Romano-Dwyer (1995) The relationship between smoking and selfesteem. Adolescence 30(120):899-907.
194

New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene (2006) Teenage Girls andSmoking. See: http://www.nyc.gov/html/doh/downloads/pdf/survey/survey2006teengirlsmoking.pdf
195

Pensions Commission (2005) Executive Summary.

196

DWP (2008) Royal Assent – Workplace Pension Reform – 15 Key Facts. At:
http://www.dwp.gov.uk/docs/key-facts-royal-assent.pdf
197

Pensions Commission (2005).

198

DWP (2004) Family Resources Survey.

199

This is known as the „status quo bias‟. Financial Services Authority (2008) Financial
Capability: A Behavioural Economics Perspective, p.33.

92

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200This is known as „time discounting‟. Frederick, Loewenstein and O'Donoghue (2002)
Time discounting and time preference: a critical review. Journal of Economic Literature
40:350-401.
201

This is analogous to the model developed by Becker for rational addiction. Becker andMurphy (1986) A theory of Rational Addiction. Journal of Political Economy 96: 675-700.
202

Pensions Commission (2005), p.3.

203

Thaler and Sustein (2008) Nudge: Improving decisions about health, wealth andhappiness.
204

Madrian and Shea (2001) The power of suggestion: Inertia in 401(k) participation andsavings behaviour. Quarterly Journal of Economics 116:1149-1187.
205

Data taken from Madrian and Shea (2001).

206

DWP (2008) Royal Assent – Workplace Pension Reform – 15 Key Facts.

207

DWP (2009) The use of default options in workplace personal pensions and the use ofgroup self invested personal pensions for automatic enrolment: Consultation on draft
guidance.
208

DWP (2009) Impact Assessment of Workplace Pension Reform (Completing the Picture)
Regulations 2010, p.2.
209

DWP (2009) Impact Assessment of Workplace Pension Reform (Completing the Picture)
Regulations 2010, p.2.
210

The framework was originally developed in the context of changing behaviour forsustainable development. See: DEFRA (2008) A Framework for Pro-environmental
behaviours, p.53. We also draw on some of the modifications suggested by Lewis (2007)
States of Reason.
211

Cabinet Office Delivery and Transformation Group (2007) Establishing an effective
Customer Insight Capability in Public Sector Organisations, p.4.
212

Cabinet Office (2009) Guide to Segmentation. At:
http://www.cabinetoffice.gov.uk/public_service_reform/innovation/segmentation.aspx
213

Defra (2008) A Framework for Proenvironmental behaviours.

214

Hurley (2006) The Public Ecology of Responsibility. Working Paper. At:
www.bristol.ac.uk/philosophy/hurley/papers/Responsibility.doc. This notion is similar to thecommunitarian concept of the situated self. See: Sandel (1982) Liberalism and the limits ofjustice.
215

The Cabinet Office has recently affirmed the value of drawing on the experience offrontline workers in Cabinet Office (2009) Listening to the Frontline: Capturing Insight andLearning Lessons in Policy-making.
216

Judah, et al. (2009) Experimental Pretesting of Hand-Washing Interventions in a Natural
Setting. American Journal of Public Health 99:S405-S411.
217

There are many other possible examples. Very poor availability of fresh food in thelocality may hinder any attempts to eat healthily. King‟s Fund (2005) Health Inequality.
219

COI and Cabinet Office. (2009) Effective public engagement: A guide for policy-makers
and communications professionals. Available at:
http://coi.gov.uk/documents/guidance/effective-public-engagement.pdf
220

Halpern (2010) The Hidden Wealth of Nations, pp.192-3.

221

Taken from House of Commons (2007) Citizens‟ Juries: Briefing Note; Hills (2007)„Pensions, public opinion and policy‟, in Hills and Le Grand (eds) Making social policy work,
pp.221-243. Bristol: Policy Press.
222

Perceived fairness of procedures („procedural equity‟) has been shown to be valued by
the public. See Pearce (2007) Rethinking Fairness. Public Policy Research 14(1): 11-22.
223

Brown (2009) Personal Responsibility, p.102.

224

Halpern (2010) The Hidden Wealth of Nations, p.196.

225

Applied this way, MINDSPACE can trigger a process of „double loop learning‟ – that is,learning about how an organisation learns, rather than just solving problems in accepted
ways. See: Argyris and Schön (1978) Organizational learning: A theory of action
perspective, Reading, Mass: Addison Wesley.

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226

Gash, Hallsworth, Ismail, Paun (2008) Performance Art: Enabling Better Management of
Public Services. London: Institute for Government.
227

The National Institute for Clinical Excellence has provided guidance on public healthinterventions designed to change behaviour. http://www.nice.org.uk/PH6
228

Mackett and Robertson (2000) Potential for mode transfer of short trips: Review ofexisting data and literature sources. University College London: Centre for Transport
Studies.
229

Department for Transport (2006) National Travel Survey.

230

Interestingly, one study found that simply leaving feedback cards was the most costeffective way of encouraging the correct sorting of rubbish for recycling. Timlett and Williams(2008) Public participation and recycling performance in England: A comparison of tools forbehaviour change. Resources Conservation and Recycling 52(4):622-34.
231

London Collaborative (2009) The Capital Ambition guide to behaviour change, p.35.

232

London Collaborative (2009) The Capital Ambition guide to behaviour change, p.35.

233

Kerswell and Goss (eds.) (2009) Challenging Behaviour, p.30. Solace Foundation.

234

Reeves (2009) A Liberal Dose? Health and Wellbeing – the Role of the State.

235

Taken from Knott (2008) Achieving Culture Change: A Policy Framework. Prime
Minister‟s Strategy Unit, p.68.
236

See the debate over the legal status of the drug khat, which plays a significant role in
East African culture. Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs (2005) Khat (Qat):
Assessment of risk to individuals and communities in the UK.
237

One of the “responsibilities” of the draft NHS Constitution states that „You should
recognise that you make a significant contribution to your own, and your family‟s, good
health and well-being, and take some personal responsibility for it.‟ Department of Health(2009) The NHS Constitution, p.9. See Brown (2009) Personal Responsibility, Chapter 7.
238

As noted earlier, the Pygmalion effect means that people tend to fulfil the roles or labelsthat are attached to them – whether positive or negative.
239

Reeves (2009), p.21.

240

See, for example, Hallsworth et al. (2008) The EU Platform on Diet, Physical Activity and
Health. Cambridge: RAND Europe.
241

Lewis (2007) States of Reason, p.7. London: IPPR.

242

This point is made at greater length in Reeves (2009), p.22.

243

As noted before, we have a very strong appetite for explanations (or „attributions‟). See:
Langer (1989) Minding matters. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 22, ed.
Berkowitz. New York: Academic Press. Sutherland (2007) Irrationality, p.110.
244

There is much useful information on this topic from the field of pro-environmental
behaviours. See: Jackson (2005) Motivating Sustainable Consumption;; Darnton (2004)
Driving Public Behaviours for Sustainable Lifestyles.
245

IPSOS MORI (2007) Tipping Point or Turning Point? Social Marketing and Climate
Change.
246

Reeves (2009), p.10.

247

IPSOS Mori Survey. Base: 1,070 UK adults age 16+, interviewed 3-6 Jan 2008.

248

Ipsos MORI/RCP. (2009). Trust in People. See http://www.judiciary.gov.uk/docs/polltrust-in-professions-topline-20091.pdf
249

Thaler and Sunstein (2008), pp.81-3.

250

Social Market Foundation (2006) Creatures of Habit? The Art of Behavioural Change,
p.8.
251

The philosopher Harry Frankfurt makes a useful distinction between „first order‟ and„second order‟ desires. First order wishes concern a person‟s contingent actions (behaving
in a certain way), while second-order wishes are about primary (wishes to wish to do or not
to do something). Frankfurt (1971) Freedom of the will and the concept of a person. Journalof Philosophy 68:5-22.
252

Most famously, Sir Isaiah Berlin argued against this way of thinking in his 1958 essay„Two Types of Liberty‟, in Berlin (2002) Liberty. Oxford University Press.
253

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Swift (2007) Political Philosophy: A beginner‟s guide for students and politicians, p.84.

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254

We are referring to the controversy that ensues when people consider whether the use ofa particular effect is justified, not whether the use of an effect increases or reduces
controversy. For example, a behaviour change that uses Messenger effects may reduce
controversy by recognising that we may listen more to a message from our GP than from theSecretary of State for Health. But people may consider the “use” of their GP in this way to beunacceptable and controversial.
255

This viewpoint is underpinned by a long tradition of “social contract” thinking. See
Boucher and Kelly (1994) The Social Contract from Hobbes to Rawls. Routledge.
256

Dean (2009) Governmentality: Power and Rule in Modern Society. Second Edition. Sage.

257

Morowitz et al. (1993) Does measuring intent change behaviour? Journal of Consumer
Research 20:46-61; Sherman (1980) On the self-erasing nature of errors of prediction.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 39:340-350.
258

Mulgan (2009) Influencing Public Behaviour to Improve Health and Wellbeing, p.27.

259

There are very good reasons for rejecting any such actions out of hand, but this is not to
say they would not work, if considered acceptable. See: Bargh (2006) „What have we beenpriming all these years? On the development, mechanisms, and ecology of nonconscious
social behavior‟, European Journal of Social Psychology 36: 147-169.
260

IPSOS Mori. 2,019 British adults, 9 May-5 June 2008.

261

Pensions Commission (2005) Pensions Commission Research: Appendix D, p.108.

262

Ross et al. (1977) Social roles, social control, and biases in social-perception processes.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 35:485-94.
263

These „circumstances‟ are different from the environmental cues we discuss elsewhere in
the document. These cues act on people without their conscious knowledge; indeed, people
actively resist the suggestion that their actions are being influenced.
264

For example, a recent IPSOS MORI poll gave the public a set of factors and asked
which, if any, they thought had „the biggest impact on your chances of living a long andhealthy life‟. 79% selected „Your lifestyle‟, 39% „Your genes‟, and 35% „Your social
circumstances‟. Of course, it is perfectly possible that genes and social circumstances canaffect lifestyle, but it seems likely that most people saw this as an issue of personal
responsibility. IPSOS MORI, 1,994 British adults, 14-21 August 2008.
265

Donaldson et al (2008) Weighting and valuing quality adjusted life years: preliminary
results from the Social Value of a QALY Project. At:
http://www.haps.bham.ac.uk/publichealth/methodology/docs/publications/JH12_Donaldson_
Social_Value_of_QALY_July2008.pdf
266

Dworkin (1981). What is Equality? Part 1: Equality of Welfare. Philosophy and Public
Affairs 10(3):185-246
267

Sefton (2005) Give and take: public attitudes to redistribution. In Park et al. British Social
Attitudes 22nd Report.
268

Brown (2009) Personal Responsibility, pp.21-27. Brown actually gives four types, but wehave conflated „causal‟ and „preventative‟ responsibility.
269

It is important to distinguish between consequential and moral responsibility because
sometimes it may be appropriate to criticise someone for their moral conduct but not force
them to bear the consequences. Brown (2009), p.26.
270

The philosopher Alexander Brown points out that „collective action can be a way for large
numbers of people to take personal responsibility together‟. Brown (2009) Personal
Responsibility, p.17.
271

See, for example, Pauly (1968) The economics of moral hazard: Comment. The
American Economic Review 58(3):531-537.
272

Hurley (2006) The Public Ecology of Responsibility, p.5.

273

Hurley (2003) Justice, Luck, Knowledge. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

274

Quoted in conversation at: http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/thaler_sendhil08/class4.html

275

Hurley (2006) The Public Ecology of Responsibility, p.15.

276

There is a large body of research which suggests the presence of automatic effects that
discriminate against racial minorities – whether or not the person being tested is themselvesa member of an ethnic minority or consciously holds discriminatory attitudes. For an
overview of the evidence, see Payne and Cameron (2010). Divided minds, divided morals:
How implicit social cognition underpins and undermines our sense of social justice. In
Gawronski and Payne (eds.) Handbook of Implicit Social Cognition: Measurement, Theory,
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95

9and Applications. New York, NY: Guilford Press. At:
http://www.unc.edu/~bkpayne/publications/PayneCameron.pdf
277

Langer (1989) Minding matters. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 22,
ed. Berkowitz. New York: Academic Press. Quoted in Cialdini (2007), p.4.
278

Norman, Abraham and Conner (eds.) (2000) Understanding changing health behaviour:
From health beliefs to self-regulation. Amsterdam: Harwood Academic.
279

See, for example, Silles (2008) The causal effect of education on health: Evidence fromthe United Kingdom. Economics of Education Review 28(1):122-128.
280

Although there is evidence that some interventions aimed at general populations widen
health inequalities, the specific link between information campaigns (as opposed to otherapproaches) and increasing inequality is not clear. Macintyre et al. (2001) Using evidence toinform health policy: case study. British Medical Journal 322:222-225; De Walle, van derPal, de Jong-van den Berg, Jeeninga, Schoute, de Rover, et al. (1999) Effect of mass media
campaign to reduce socioeconomic differences in women's awareness and behaviour
concerning use of folic acid: cross sectional study. BMJ 319: 291-292; Thomas et al. (2008)
Population tobacco control interventions and their effects on social inequalities in smoking:systematic review. Tobacco Control 17:230-237.
281

Madrian and Shea (2001).

282

See Moscovici. (1980) Towards a theory of conversion behaviour. In: Berkowitz (ed.)
Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, vol. 13, New York: Academic Press
283

Lally, Chipperfield and Wardle. (2008). Healthy habits: Efficacy of simple advice on
weight control. International Journal of Obesity 32:700–707.
284

Thaler and Sunstein (2008) p.37.

285

Allcott (2009) Social norms and energy conservation. Discussion Paper. Center for
Energy and Environmental Policy Research.
286

For more on this important issue, see Ball (2004) Critical Mass: How one thing leads toanother; Schelling (1978) Micromotives and Macrobehaviour; Gladwell (2000) The Tipping
Point: How little things can make a big difference.
287

Adams (1995) Risk. London: University College London Press.

288

This is known as the „rebound effect‟ or Khazzoom-Brookes postulate. See: Herring andRoy (2007) Technological innovation, energy efficient design and the rebound effect.
Technovation 27:4, pp.194-203. The intellectual roots of the concept are in the „Jevons
paradox‟. See: Jevons (1865) The Coal Question. London: Macmillan.
289

Wood, Tam and Witt (2005). Changing circumstances, disrupting habits. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology 88: 918–933; Wood and Neal (2007). A new look at
habits and the habit–goal interface. Psychological Review 114: 843–863.
290

Aarts, Verplanken and van Knippenberg (1997) Habit and information use in travel mode
choices. Acta Psychologica 96:1–14; Verplanken, Aarts and van Knippenberg (1997) Habit,
information acquisition, and the process of making travel mode choices. European Journalof Social Psychology 27:539–560.
291

2005 data. In contrast the world average is 4 litres – less than a tenth of the Italian rate.
See: http://www.wineinstitute.org/files/PerCapitaWineConsumptionCountries.pdf.
292

The Finns drink 12.0kg of coffee per capita per year compared with the UK‟s meagre
2.8kg (and the world average of 0.8kg). See http://www.ico.org/historical.asp.
293

See Knott. (2008) Achieving Culture Change: A Policy Framework. Prime Minister‟sStrategy Unit, p.68.
2942008 data, Euromonitor International.

295

Beaulac, Kristjansson, Cummins (2009) A systematic review of food deserts, 1966-2007.
Preventing Chronic Disease 6:3; King‟s Fund. (2005) Health Inequality.
Messenger image on p.19 is copyright Andrew Barron, licensed under Creative Commons Attribution Non Commerical No Derivative
Works 2.0 Generic, http://www.flickr.com/photos/twobigpaws/196562458/; Incentive image on p.19 is copyright Marco Oliver Rieger,
licensed under Creative Commons Attribution Share Alike 3.0, http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4e/Valuefun.jpg; Norms image on
p.21 is copyright C Ford / SecretLondon, licensed under Creative Commons Attribution Share Alike 2.5,
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Do_Not_Crowd_Surf.jpg; Defaults image on p.22 is copyright Bonelli, licensed under
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0, http://www.geograph.org.uk/photo/481148; Salience image on p.23 is copyright Silke
Gerstenkorn, licensed under Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial 2.0, http://www.flickr.com/photos/silkegb/2902397461/;
Priming image on p.24 is copyright Raphaël Labbé, licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0,
http://www.flickr.com/photos/ulikleafar/2773530949/; Affect Image on p.25 is copyright FotoRita, licensed under Creative Commons
Attribution Non-Commercial No-Derivative Works 2.0, http://www.flickr.com/photos/fotorita/1474834269/in/set-72157600275357399/;
Commitment image on p.26 is copyright Travis Seitler, licensed under Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial No-Derivative
Works 2.0http://www.flickr.com/photos/travisseitler/3490966831/ ; Ego image on p.27 is copyright Jason Pier, licensed under Creative
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Discussion document – not a statement of government policy