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論文

Millais as a Sartorialist: Costuming and Dressing in the Early Worksby John Everett Millais
Naoko Asano
Introduction
A cold wintery day on 30th December in 1850, with a new year just aroundthe corner, the young John Everett Millais (1829-96) went into the draper ’ s
shop, where he asked for velvet fabrics and silk draperies (John Guille Millais).
The shopkeeper, Millais records, “ simper[ed] with astonishment ” (94) aspurchasing fabrics was an unlikely habit for Victorian men like Millais. The
artist ’ s son and biographer, John Guille Millais, notes that these fabrics
were for the paintings of Mariana (1850-51, Tate Britain) and The Woodman ’s Daughter (1850-51, Guildhall Art Gallery). As this anecdote from the artist ’s letter reveals, the young artist highly valued acquiring actual materials andconceiving suitable apparel for his subjects in his art making and thus most
likely, sartorial depiction occupied an important role in his pursuit for truth
to nature. Millais ’ keen interest in costume is fully reflected in his early PreRaphaelite subject pictures as well as the following “ highly evocative andsymbolic pictures ” (Rosenfeld, Millais, 51)1; and we as beholders can observe
his experimental depiction of different materials which includes thick velvets,
damp lacy fabric, and even, rustic pinafore.
This paper will trace how Millais investigated costuming in figure
paintings and developed sartorial illustrations throughout the culminationof his Pre-Raphaelitism and his gradual transition to more symbolic art fromthe end of the 1840s to the 1850s. As widely recognised and studied, sartorial
elements are inseparable from the works of the Pre-Raphaelite artists and2020『ヴィクトリア朝文化研究』第号（18年）
Studies in Victorian Culture,18No.
(2020)

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those closely associated with them. Preceding studies and exhibitions have
paid attention to the fashion depicted by certain artists such as Dante Gabriel
Rossetti, William Holman Hunt, Edward Burne-Jones and William Morris,as well as their extended interests in costume and jewellery designs2 — one
example being Roger Smith and Leonée Ormand ’ s examination of the useof Camille Bonnard ’ s collection of costumes from the twelfth to fifteenth
centuries. Their study has been developed by others such as Gail S. Weinburg
and Eriko Yamaguchi by examining the use of the Bonnard book by Rossetti
as well as identifying the plate from the same book as the source for his earlydrawings.3 Meanwhile, compared to his fellow Pre-Raphaelites, who are all
known for their engagement in design and craft, Millais ’ sartorial interestand fashion illustrations have thus far lacked a similar level of study. This
lack of attention extends to Millais ’ consistency of sartorial interest as well.
Although Jason Rosenfeld in the 2012 Tate exhibition catalogue commentsthat Millais ’ Isabella (1848, Walker Art Gallery) “ represents Pre-Raphaelite
practice in terms of novelty of source, thorough research into costume andsetting ” (46), scholarly interest in his consistency and dedication to dressing
his subjects remains limited. Prior studies have tended to focus instead on
natural scenery in Millais ’ early works as that is exactly what makes Millais
Pre-Raphaelite. While this focal point of course deserves attention, sartorial
details should likewise be given a prominent position in scholarly study,as they demonstrate the artist ’ s detailed interest and painstaking effort indepicting costumes, which are also a key characteristic of literary works in
the Pre-Raphaelite period and the more symbolic works from the following
period.
The Pre-Raphaelite and following periods were, as Rosenfeld states, atime full of experiments and growths for Millais in terms of artistic styles
and materials and this can be observed in his specific interest in costumeand design as well as his treatment of the materiality of fashion in his art.
His ardent interest and investigation of apparel never diminished, instead,remaining constantly present in the artist ’ s career. As evident in his lateMillais as a Sartorialist: Costuming and Dressing in the Early Works by John Everett Millais

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works, the sartorial element had played a significant role to appeal to a wider
audience — particularly that from the upper-middle and upper classes —in both popular society portraits and subject pictures. In addition to this,Millais ’ fashion illustrations in his early art are important for several reasons.
First, the sartorial depictions are where his artistic development in style canbe clearly observed. Secondly, they reflect the influence and involvementof women with Millais ’ works as his sartorial illustrations often resulted
from the collaboration between the artist and female members of his family
and friends. Thirdly, as will be further discussed later in this paper, Millais ’fashion illustrations, I believe, possess potential value in terms of modern
fashion design. Through detailed examination of specific works, this study
will attempt to uncover the artist ’ s unexplored quality as a Sartorialist andreveal that his interest in garments contributed to his overall artistry.

II Millais ’ s plausible encounter with historical costume through stage
What might have led Millais to this fascination with sartorial depiction,and in particular, historical and realistic costuming in the first place? In
the mid-nineteenth century when Millais and his Pre-Raphaelite peers wereactively engaged in their innovative art production, there existed a trend
in the realm of theatre of producing historical plays with an antiquarian
approach. This meant adopting “ detailed and historically realistic sets andcostumes ” ( “ 19th-Century Theatre ” ), as encouraged by the antiquarian
dramatist, James Robinson Planché. His collaboration with Charles Kemblein King John at Covent Garden Theatre in November, 1823, was noted asa landmark of the early Victorian theatrical reform for featuring costumes,armour and heraldry which were considered to be historically accurate(Jackson). This almost archaeological costuming approach was also followedby the actor-manager, Charles Kean, in his productions at Princess ’ s Theatrein the 1850s, where he “ not only consulted scholarly sources on the trappings
appropriate to the period of each play but flaunted them on his playbills,
with essays attesting to the historicity of his costumes and sets ” (Alan Fischer,

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341-42, in Herbert F. Tucker, ed.). Though many theatres remained hesitant
to adopt historical accuracy into their productions, the practice culminated in
the middle of the nineteenth century; and so, Millais must have been awareof the ongoing theatrical fascination with historicity. Specific evidence fora theatrical connection, or awareness, can be observed from Study of an actor
which is said to have been executed in Sadler ’ s Wells Theatre by the artistin 1845. Millais was evidently no stranger to sketching in theatres: in fact,
Millais frequented theatres “ to eke out his precarious income ” by “ making
sketches of the actors and actresses ” and selling them (J. G. Millais, 83).
In this sense, Millais certainly had the opportunities to observe historicalfashion brought to life and study such fashion on actual human bodies as theactors moved around on stage. As much as the young artist had been likely
influenced by the contemporary theatre in choosing subject matter for his
art, it is also likely that he was affected by its staging and costuming trends.
Even before his embarkation as professional artist, Millais conceived a seriesof elaborate illustrations of armour and heraldry as recorded in memoirs andthese drawings also suggest the fascination with historicity and actualism incostuming of this precocious talent had been present for some time.4 Having
been inspired by the theatrical trend of accurate representation, Millais might
have nourished and developed such an interest in fashion and adopted theconcept of historically accurate costume in his pursuit of realism through thecreation of art.

III Adopting medieval fashion through Bonnard’s Costumes
Historiques
Let us then shift our focus to the individual works as we trace thedevelopment of Millais ’ interest in costuming. Isabella (1848-49) is thefirst painting completed after the foundation of the Brotherhood andrepresents his painstaking attention to actualism including that in costume.
Depicting Boccaccio ’ s tragic heroine reimagined by John Keats in his poetic
adaptation, a highly medieval tone permeates this ambitious work by aMillais as a Sartorialist: Costuming and Dressing in the Early Works by John Everett Millais

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young Millais. In contrast to the aggressive movement and stern gazes of her
merciless brothers, Isabella here appears almost static and serene receiving the
cut blood orange from Lorenzo and patting a head of a nervous dog. Perhaps
trying to emphasize the short-lived romance between the two lovers as wellas the exact moment where her siblings sensed their mutual feelings, theartist also produced a contrast in colours by dressing his heroine in dimly lit
grey robe slightly tinted with basil colour which evokes the “ Pot of Basil ”
where she lays her dead lover ’ s head in the original poem by Keats, while
portraying the male characters around her in bright colours such as salmoncoloured garment on Lorenzo and a red tunic on one of the brothers.
As widely known and discussed, Millais drew the inspiration from Camille
Bonnard ’ s Costumes Historiques (1829) for the outfit of his eponymous
character as well as her hairstyle, which was likely modelled after the style ofBeatrice d ’ Este in the illustrated copy of the painting in 1494 (Rosenfeld,
Tate catalogue). In the midst of the Victorian medievalism, the interest in
the medieval dress and “ the wearing of costumes that represented medieval
clothing ” (Roberts, 11) had grown and it was heightened by the publicationof the literature on the related themes. Those included History of British
Costume (1834) by the aforementioned dramatist, Planché, and Costumes inEngland (1846) penned by the wood engraver, draughtsman and antiquarian,Frederick William Fairholt; and Bonnard ’ s Costumes Historiques was one ofsuch early examples. First published in 1827 under the different title, it had
undergone a complex publication history consisting of various editions andnames as uncovered by Michèle Hannoosh. It was officially introduced to
the English readers with the fourth ‘ London ’ edition published by Pauland Dominic Colnaghi in 1844, while the earlier Paris edition in 182930 was likely imported to the English market and had already fascinatedVictorian medievalists as well as artists like the Pre-Raphaelites. While there
is no proof of Millais ’ acquisition of this collection of fashion plates, it
has been recognised how it came into the artist ’ s hands: William Michael
Rossetti records that Millais borrowed a copy from his brother, Dante

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Gabriel Rossetti, who had proudly announced the acquisition of “ a moststunning copy [... of] india proof impressions ” (Alison Smith, 32). This isalso mentioned by John Guille Millais, by quoting his father ’ s remark, “[t]he only one of my pictures that I can think of as showing what is called
the influence of Rossetti is the ‘ Isabella, ’ in which some of the vestments
were worked out in accordance with a book of medieval costumes which he
was kind enough to lend me ” (55). Plausibly under the influence of Ford
Madox Brown, the young Pre-Raphaelite painters were first introduced to
Bonnard ’ s Costumes Historiques when pursuing reality in their picture-making
and nurtured their interests in historically accurate costumes for theirelaborate sartorial depictions. Lacking the experience and knowledge in early
Italian art as much as his peers, the young artist must have been allowed bythis Bonnard book to explore the style and technique in Italy of the twelfth
to fifteenth centuries, and eventually was able to create the atmosphere of theperiod in which the tale of Isabella takes place.

IV Costuming and posing his subjects based on the medieval
fashion plates
The influence of Bonnard ’ s book made its way to Millais ’ subsequent
painting, Ferdinand Lured by Ariel (1849-50, The Makins Collection, fig. 1),
as the artist depicted the outfit for his human subject modelled after oneof the fashion plates from the book. Having chosen the scene from Act 1
Scene 2 of Shakespeare ’ s Tempest where the shipwrecked prince of Naples,
Ferdinand, steps on to the mystical island ruled by Prospero as his subject
matter, the artist aimed to depict “ all [he] could see ” (Prettejohn, 2000, 172)and managed to capture the exact moment in a setting evocative of a tableau.
The luminous colours pervading the canvas, from the bright and clear
green of the grassland and fluorescent green of Ariel, and the subordinate
sprites almost blending into the botanical background, to the cardinal redof Ferdinand ’ s tunic and the white colour of his tights made to seem damp
from the seawater from which he has just emerged are the result of theMillais as a Sartorialist: Costuming and Dressing in the Early Works by John Everett Millais

99‘ wet-on-wet ’ technique Millais adopted for this work. The greenness of thegrassland and even the bodies of the sprites seem to echo the exclamationof Gonzalo, loyal courtier of King Alonzo, “ [H]ow green! ” (II. i. 55), in theoriginal text. As “ the artist ’ s first attempt to paint nature in a radical PreRaphaelite manner ” (Rosenfeld, Millais, 36), most attention has been paid
to the vividly and meticulously depicted nature in the background; yet, wemust not dismiss another detail on this work for which Millais creatively
incorporated his investigation and imagination — the costume and pose of
his human subject.

Fig.1. John Everett Millais. Ferdinand Lured by Ariel. 1849-50. Oil on panel. 64.8 x 50.8 cm.
The Makins Collection, Washington D. C. Public domain.

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Following Isabella, Millais once again looked into Bonnard ’ s plates
for inspiration, seen when attiring the Neapolitan prince in a luminous
vermillion tunic trimmed with fur over velvety, navy garment with brightwhite tights and golden, embroidered footwear known as ‘ poulaine ’ or
‘ Cracow ’ . The artist referred to Bonnard this time for both costume andpose of his human subject, and as stated in the Tate exhibition of 1984, it
is highly possible that Millais was particularly influenced by plate six (fig.2)
illustrated by Paul Mercuri where “ Jeune Italien ” from the fifteenth century
takes a bow touching his hat and stepping forward as Millais ’ Ferdinand takes
a similar action. In addition to the above example, there are four tracings

Fig.2. Paul Mercuri. “ MCCCC. — No 6: Jeune Italien. ” Costumes historiques des XIIe, XIIIe,
XIVe et XVe siècles. By Camille Bonnard. Vol.2. Paris: A. Lévy fils, 1860-61 (first published
1829-30). 3 vols.

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101of the subjects from Bonnard ’ s Costumes Historiques attributed to the artist
which were likely conceived in the same period as Isabella and Ferdinand.
Now housed at the Royal Academy of Arts in London, the figures in thesetracings — one depicting “ a man in medieval Italian military dress ” (fig.3)
and the other three showing women in Milanese, Florentine and French
medieval dresses respectively — bare no close resemblance to those in the
final paintings, and it is also possible that these tracings were by the hands of

Fig.3. Attributed to John Everett Millais. Tracing of a man in medieval Italian military dressfrom Camille Bonnard ’ s Costumes Historiques. Pre-1849. Pen, ink and watercolour (?) paint on
tracing paper. 20 x 13.5 cm. Royal Academy of Arts, London. © Photo: Royal Academy ofArts, London.

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Millais ’ father instead of the artist himself as Malcolm Warner proposes (TheRoyal Academy of Arts). Having said this, these can be a solid proof that the
young artist thoroughly studied and relied on Bonnard ’ s plates as well as an
early example of the partnership between Millais and his family, which wasinevitable in his creation process.

V Crafting a dress from velvet fabrics for his Mariana
In the following painting, Millais further developed his own passion
for fashion and purchased actual fabrics for his pictorial subjects as if the
fashion plates alone could not fulfil his artistic needs in terms of observation
and representation. In Mariana (1850-51, Tate), he distanced himself fromthe fashion plates in the Bonnard book while continuing to work on the
medieval subject as he did in Isabella and Ferdinand. What he crafted for his
new subject is a rather original costume which appears to be an amalgam ofthe medieval and Victorian sartorial tastes.
As already quoted, in the end of December, 1850, Millais ventured to adraper ’ s shop to purchase fabric for his new subject, Mariana. Tired andbored of her solitary and repetitive life, Mariana stands up from a vermilionstool, and stretches her back with her hands on her waist. Though presented
as a minor character compared to Isabella and the Duke in the original playby Shakespeare, Measure for Measure, the subject was reimagined by Tennyson
and transformed into a tragic heroine who invites people ’ s sympathy towards
the forsaken woman. Inspired by this Tennysonian representation of Mariana
as unfortunate heroine, Millais skillfully visualised the heartbroken woman
and heightened her solitude by placing her in the forlorn chamber, suggestinga sense of loneliness and fatigue. The costume of Mariana itself plays aparticularly important role in bringing these themes to fruition. While
fallen leaves on the embroidery insinuate her loss of youth and beauty, herlapis blue dress tailored fittingly to her body shows her mature beauty andwellbeing. For his own representation, Millais pictorially tailored the blue
dress out of the fabric he had acquired from the draper and its significant

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texture and colour set the tone and dominate the canvas. In contrast to thedesolate interior of the abandoned “ moated grange ” , the opulence of theVictorian-styled velvety gown on the forsaken heroine and the bejewelled,
golden girdle with a small purse — so-called ‘ gipser ’ (a purse or bag worn on
a girdle) — coiling around her waist truly stands out. The flowing, smooth
design of the garment itself evokes the vesture of the woman in Portrait of
Giovanni(?) Arnolfini and his Wife (1434), also known as The Arnolfini Portrait,
by Jan van Eyck displayed at the National Gallery where the Royal Academy
School then resided.5 The drapes and wrinkles of her blue dress and the gloss
and smoothness it creates are the result of Millais ’ painstaking research andobservation of the actual fabric.6 Even more, the colour contrast between theglowing blue of her gown, the vivid vermillion of her stool and the blended
green and brown of her meticulous embroidery and autumnal view from thewindow, seems to have been well calculated to draw the beholder ’ s eyes tothe main figure. Another notable point of her garment is its separation fromthe contemporary fashion worn by Victorian women. Precisely, the slender lineof the lower half of her garment suggests that she is not wearing a crinoline
which was to hold out a dress and create a ball-like shape. Meanwhile, fromthe details such as the lacy collar, her robe cannot be technically defined as
medieval as it rather evokes the Victorian style while maintaining medieval
sartorial elements with the golden girdle and gipser. In this way, Millais
creatively incorporated different elements from both medieval and Victorian
fashions while skilfully applying the result of his observation of the actual
fabric. As much as the theme this work represents, its elaborately crafted
costume might have attracted the audience ’ s attention and turned it into afavourite piece particularly of female beholders when first exhibited at R.A.
as witnessed by William Michael Rossetti. While neither Shakespeare nor
Tennyson had suggested the attire of Mariana, Millais, by costuming theisolated heroine in his own imaginary garment, managed to breathe life into
the subject and carefully accentuated the weariness and loneliness occupying
her mind.

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VI Procuring actual garment and footwear for the The Woodman ’ s
Daughter (1850-51)
While producing Mariana, the young artist further developed his researchand skills in costuming by simultaneously working on another poetrythemed painting, The Woodman ’ s Daughter (1850-51, Guildhall Art Gallery,fig.4). Coventry Patmore, the author of the poem on which this painting isbased, had been a close friend of the Pre-Raphaelite circle, even informing
Millais of Tennyson ’ s wish to have his own work painted by him (Rossetti).
The Woodman ’ s Daughter is similar to Ferdinand in terms of the structure as
the flourishing nature occupies the greater part of the canvas as a backdrop
in both paintings, while it echoes Mariana by connoting a similar theme —betrayal and abandonment as faced by Mariana and Maud, the heroineof Patmore ’ s poetry. As Rosenfeld notices, the latter refers to “ issues ofsocial injustice ” (Tate, 92) and so could the tale of Mariana. While The
Woodman ’ s Daughter recalls other works as suggested, it differs, especially interms of the source Millais adopted in costuming. Unlike other works forwhich Millais used a reference book and fabric, this time he showed moreenthusiasm for dressing his subjects realistically and also suitably for theirown circumstances. In order to pursue verisimilitude in costuming Maud,he required actual materials as models and asked for help from his friends.
On January 28th, 1851, Millais wrote to his patrons and friends in Oxford,
Thomas and Martha Combe, asking to procure certain items as quoted
below:
I have got a little commission for you to execute for me. You recollect
the lodge at the entrance of Lord Abington ’ s house, where I used toleave my picture of the Wood [ ‘ The Woodman ’ s Daughter ’ ] Well, in
the first cottage there is a little girl named Esther; would you ask themother to let you have a pair of her old walking-boots? I require themsent on to me, as I wish to paint them in the wood. I do not care how
old they are; they are, of course, no use without having been worn.

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Will you please supply the child with money to purchase a new pair?
I shall settle with you when I see you in the spring. If you should see
a country-child with a bright lilac pinafore on, lay strong hands on thesame, and send it with the boots. It must be long, that is, covering thewhole underdress from the neck. I do not wish it new, but clean, withsome little pattern — pink spots, or anything of that kind. If you havenot time for this task, do not scruple to tell me so. (J. G. Millais, 97)

Fig.4. John Everett Millais. The Woodman ’ s Daughter. 1850-51. Oil on canvas. 88.9 x 64.8
cm. Guildhall Art Gallery, London. Photo Credit: City of London Corporation.

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The couple carried out this task without fail as revealed in Millais ’subsequent letter to Mrs Combe on February 10th, 1851, that “ [t]he brevity
with which [his] troublesome request was executed astonished [him] ”
and both pinafore and boots would turn out beautifully (99). As he had
expected, these details were meticulously painted after these models: Maudappears in her rustic, dusky-lilac pinafore and dingy boots and the ochreof her shirt matches with the colour of her father ’ s trousers. This humble
attire makes a great contrast to the outfit of the squire ’ s son as remarked
by Rosenfeld that “ the contrast between her simple yet iridescent costume
and Merton ’ s brilliant red finery and riding crop marks their disparate
stations in life ” (Tate, 92). Elaborately depicted, such a contrast between
their costumes effectively intensifies the tragedy awaiting Maud in the end.
This level of effort and dedication suggests a growing interest in fashion andenthusiasm for costuming, and as such this work bears a great importancein Millais ’ early career as a Pre-Raphaelite. Compared to preceding works,
Isabella, Ferdinand and Mariana, the use of actual items which perfectly fit his
initial vision appears to be a considerable shift for the young artist. In the
pursuit of realism,7 Millais ’ sartorial study had developed from mimicking
fashion illustrations and imagining a dress from a piece of fabric to having aprecise vision and imagery of his ideal costume and depicting one based on
physically present items.

VII In search of an ideal costume for his Ophelia
Following his own practice of using actual garments, Millais further
pursued this actualism in his subsequent work, Ophelia (1851-52), whichbears the marks of Millais ’ sincere approach to the Pre-Raphaelite principleof ‘ painting all he could see ’ , including the costume of his subject. Just
as he had painted the foliage of Ferdinand at Shotover Park, Horspathin Oxfordshire (Millais, 84), Millais spent nearly four months painting
the background landscape in a natural setting. This avid observation anddraughtsmanship reflected in his natural depiction were also demonstrated

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in his portrait of the figure. In this case, the figure of Ophelia was modelled
by Elizabeth Siddall and her beauty as well as that of Ophelia were
simultaneously captured by Millais on canvas. While the fact that Millais
depicted a scene which had been neither enacted on stage nor depicted
in preceding art, as it is only narrated by Queen Gertrude in the original
text, is significant in itself, another notable feature of this painting are themeticulous details from her spreading hair to her gaping mouth whichevokes her final moments singing “ the old tunes ” (Hamlet, IV. Vii. 175) asrecounted by Gertrude. Once again, this attention to detail extends to thedepiction of Ophelia ’ s costume, exemplifying a continuing trait in Millais ’art. While he obtained the particular items which he thought fit for his
subject in his previous work, The Woodman ’ s Daughter, from second-handsources, Millais ventured out to explore the city and find the garment forhis heroine of Ophelia himself. In early March of 1852, the artist reports his
acquisition of the item to his patron-friend, Mr Combe as follows: “ To-day
I have purchased a really splendid lady ’ s ancient dress — all flowered overin silver embroidery — and I am going to paint it for ‘ Ophelia. ’ You may
imagine it is something rather good when I tell you it cost me, old and dirty
as it is, four pounds ” (Millais, 162). What especially merits attention here is
how minutely the elaborate pattern of this lacy dress is depicted: we barely
see the entirety of the dress, yet are allowed to make out some parts which
consist of botanical designs, which are, if borrowing Millais ’ expression,“ all flowered over in silver embroidery ” . These patterns seem to respond tothe opulent foliage on the riverbank and floating flowers around the body,which are likely inspired by the flowers and plants mentioned by Ophelia
in her songs of the original play. The shimmering effect of the dress partly
soaked in water is also a perfect example of Millais ’ attentive observationof his model, while the old dress floating in a bathtub seems to suggest the
flickering of this character ’ s life in the Shakespearean play.

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VIII Collaborating with the women in his family circle
Millais ’ pursuit of realism in dressing had continued, or rather, further
developed after Ophelia which “ marked a watershed in the Pre-Raphaelite
movement ” (Rosenfeld, Millais, 71), throughout the following period when
he produced more symbolic pictures. What we should note in exploring
Millais ’ following works is that they were not simply the result of his own
thorough investigation of his subject matters and themes, but in fact, they
considerably owed to the support from the female members of his family,
especially his mother,8 his wife, Effie Gray, and her younger sisters as well as
his friends.
For A Huguenot, on St. Bartholomew ’ s Day, Refusing to Shield Himself from
Danger by Wearing the Roman Catholic Badge (1851-52) simultaneously
produced with Ophelia, the artist asked his mother to visit the British
Museum to conduct research on the costumes. In addition, he also borroweda piece of lace from a certain lady via his patron-friend, Mrs Combe, for thewhite armband which the male subject refuses to wear on canvas. Millais ’own study of the actual cloth and the collaborative research of historicalcostume with his mother transformed this portrait of a couple into a highly
emotional, romantic scene. In the following year, 1853, Millais conceived aseries of elaborate designs of costume, accessories and furniture, now titledas Sketches for ‘ Natural Ornament ’ (following suggestions from John Ruskin) (partly
housed at Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery and the British Museum).
One of those pen and ink studies displaying a female figure, plausibly Effie
Gray (then-Mrs Ruskin), with whom he was infatuated, in a gown gorgeously
adorned with uniquely designed accessories and embroidery such as “ flower
bells round her neck, wheat in her hair, a lizard bracelet up her arm and apineapple and squirrel emblazoned in her breast ” (Mary Lutyens, 76; fig.5),
also exhibits Millais ’ consistent and growing interest in vesture.
In two subsequent works conceived during the period from 1854 to1856, Autumn Leaves (1855-56, Manchester city Art Gallery) and The BlindMillais as a Sartorialist: Costuming and Dressing in the Early Works by John Everett Millais

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Fig.5. John Everett Millais. Sketches for ‘ Natural Ornament ’— Effie Ruskin. 1853. Pen and
Brown Ink on Paper. 18.5 x 23.3 cm. Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery, Birmingham.
Public Domain.

Girl (1854-56, Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery), it was his newlywed wife, Effie, who filled in the post of an assistant. A marriage to Effie
Gray had certainly provided him another path to procure models — bothhumans and items — and made his sartorial research much easier thanks
to her refined taste in colour and design, as well as her sociable personality.
While having had her younger sisters, Sophy and Alice, model for two offour figures in Autumn Leaves, Effie ventured out to the local town to findthe remaining models and suitable props. The third girl with downcast eyes
is Matilda Proudfoot, a pupil at the School of Industry whose “ brilliantred hair ” attracted Effie ’ s eyes. Likewise, she discovered the model for the
fourth girl, Isabella Nicol, at the local house she visited to nurse the bedridden lady who happened to be Isabella ’ s grandmother. Again, Effie was

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particular about her hair, and she specifically instructed this little model towash and plait her hair overnight to bring out the waves to perfectly frame
her face (Cooper, 211). As fair as the models were, what particularly catches
the observer ’ s eye in this work are the garments on the figures. As pointed
out by Rosenfeld (Tate) and Cooper, the Gray sisters ’ plain yet fine linseywolseys in green with white lacy collars and the rough and dusty clothes
on Matilda and Isabella mark a stark contrast in their living environments.
Unlike his earlier pictures, Millais did not procure the vesture for his subjects
but instead, he depicted his models in their everyday clothes — Matilda
in her rustic school uniform and Isabella in her sooty dress in blue. For hisother highly sentimental work from the same period, The Blind Girl, Millais
again was helped by Effie ’ s intuition for procuring props. The anecdoteof Effie obtaining the petticoat for the coppery orange linsey-wolsey skirt
in this work by borrowing it from an old lady she spotted on the street of
Bridgend for a shilling (Cooper, 144)9 proves a collaborative process between
the couple. It also demonstrates the artist ’ s growing commitment to fashion
in his art, as well as the continuance of his elaborate research and attention
to the study of actual garments — particularly worn as everyday clothes — ,even after his gradual departure from the Pre-Raphaelite history paintings formore symbolic pictures.

IX The impact of Millais’ sartorial illustrations on fashion designsin later centuries
Having explored Millais ’ costuming illustrations in his early works andtraced the development of his sartorial interest and research, it is still noteasy to decide whether the sartorial aspect of Millais was different from thatof his contemporaries — particularly of the Pre-Raphaelites — or not, andif his investigation and illustrations of costume bear little significance orvalue in themselves. While the answer to this question has yet to be drawn inthe scholarly field as it still lacks sufficient attention and careful study, some
initial assessments can be observed in the practical field of fashion design.

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Contemporary designers such as Gareth Pugh, Anna Sui, past Alexander
McQueen, Roksanda Ilincic, to name a few, publicly state the influence of
Pre-Raphaelite art in their own designs and some of them reveal a directreference to Millais ’ sartorial drawings (Alexander Fury; Andrew Bolton;
Mariko Finch; Dean Mayo Davies). In the interview for his Spring/Summer
2009 collection, British designer, Gareth Pugh, admits he indebted to Millais ’Ophelia in his creating process. Fashion critic and writer, Alexander Fury, alsostresses the impact of Millais ’ artistry on some designers including Pughfrom 2000s and 2010s. More conspicuous influences can be traced in otherdesigners ’ creations such as Roksanda Ilincic ’ s lapis blue dress with coral
piped bow from her Spring/Summer 2013 collection and the velvety navy
gown by Maria Grazia Chiuri ’ s first ready-to-wear collection for Spring/
Summer 2017 at French fashion house, Dior, which both bear a close
resemblance to Mariana ’ s garment, and the kilt dress by the late Alexander
McQueen reminiscent of the costumes in The Order of Release, 1746 (1852-53).
To modern practitioners, fashion recreated and often imagined by Millais
on canvas appears worth studying and reproducing, and in their eyes, hissartorial illustration is instrumental in completing each painting.

X Conclusion
As seen in the works of his early career from the late 1840s to the 1850s,
Millais certainly nurtured and cultivated his own interest and study incostuming by exploring different sources and models, trying out various
drawing techniques and experimenting with different types of materials
and actual garments. This paper first examined the heightened interest in
historicity in the realm of theatre which possibly influenced Millais in
his early career. This was followed by the examinations of early works by
the artist from Isabella to The Blind Girl in their sartorial details as well as
the paths through which he procured the materials. Starting with Camille
Bonnard ’ s Costumes Historiques as the literary source for the first two
paintings, we have traced the actual models he procured and studied and

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observed how Millais had experimented with various materials and items
and developed his sartorial interest and draughtsmanship. As examined, thereference to Bonnard book for Isabella and Ferdinand had prepared the young
Millais with the basic knowledge in historical and accurate costuming. Having
lacked knowledge and understanding of early European art and crafts, such afoundation was surely crucial for his artistic development. In order to gain adeeper understanding and ideas of fashion while nourishing a skill to depict
various textures, Millais expanded his range of research and observation fromreferring to the book to actual garments and items and managed to bringrealism into his subjects on canvases. Having explored these early works, wehave also focused on the works from his post-Pre-Raphaelite period including
Autumn Leaves and The Blind Girl and the effects that the realistically depicted
everyday clothes create in these paintings. Particularly evident in works such
as Mariana and The Woodman ’ s Daughter, the effect of sartorial elements
derived from his meticulous observation and careful depictions is not only
limited to their impressions but extends to their intrinsic aspects; realistically
depicted, they subtly narrate the intricate positions and statuses of his
subjects and represent their sentiments. In addition to these examinations of
the sartorial feature in early Millais, we have extended our discussion to thesignificance of his fashion illustrations in the context of practical designs.
Finally, the sartorial interests and draughtsmanship Millais nurtured in his
early stages had remained throughout and were even developed further in thesubsequent phases of his career. Rarely featured and discussed unlike his PreRaphaelite fellows, the sartorial interest and study of John Everett Millais
was, as this paper has observed, a crucial element which defined his artistry
not only in his early career specifically, but in later years as well.
Notes*

An earlier version of this paper titled “ Millais as a Sartorialist: Costuming
the Literary Subjects by John Everett Millais ” was presented at the 19th VSSJ
Annual Conference, held on 23rd November, 2019, at Kindai University,

Millais as a Sartorialist: Costuming and Dressing in the Early Works by John Everett Millais

1

2

3

4

5

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Higashi-Osaka. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Professor
Eriko Yamaguchi at the University of Tsukuba for insights and expertise
she generously offered at the conference. Mr Peter Dustan had kindly
looked over the manuscript and I am truly grateful for his generosity andinvaluable comments. Finally, I would also like to express my gratitude to theanonymous reviewers for their insightful comments on the first version ofthis paper.
Rosenfeld, in his monograph of Millais, describes the 1850s as “ the mostthematically rich and artistically challenging period of [the artist ’ s] career ”
and states that the portrait of John Ruskin in 1853-54 was “ the summit ofMillais ’ s Pre-Raphaelitism ” (83). It was soon followed by the symbolic
paintings such as The Blind Girl and Autumn Leaves which “ anticipate thestrands in British Aestheticism ” (51) and these “ symbolic pictures ” represent
Millais ’ eventual departure from the Pre-Raphaelite style.
Hunt, for example, is known to have designed “ a Renaissance-style green
velvet dress ” worn by Ellen Terry in Choosing (1864), by her first husband,
George Frederic Watts (Tim Barringer, 165). Likewise, Rossetti ’ s design for awatch case made for Morris, Marshall, Faulkner & Company in 1863 reveals
his passion and involvement in designing adornments and applied arts (Burry,1976).
The plate titled “ Homme d ’ armes ” in Bonnard is, according to Yamaguchi,
the source for the figures of the youth in Rossetti ’ s Salutation of Beatrice(1849-1850) and To Caper Nimbly in a Lady ’ s Chamber (1850).
Three Swordhilts (1838-39) recorded by J. G. Millais was most likely designed
for Millais ’ Book of Armour (1845) along with other drawings such as Sketchesof Armour — Study for Henry VIII (1844). The artist is said to have made “ aseries of studies of armoury at the Tower of London ” (Pre-Raphaelite Online
Resource).
Marian connotation in the source text by Tennyson is deeply reflected upon
Millais ’ canvas and that also suggests its connection to van Eyck ’ s Arnolfini
Portrait as discussed by Alison Smith in the following remark:The pose of Mariana herself is the single most striking feature of thepainting — the rich blue of her dress having Marian connotations while
also accentuating the curvature of her figure in the same way that thebright green gown of the woman in van Eyck ’ s painting exaggerates theswelling of her belly. The intimation here that Mariana could have beenpregnant may have been prompted by the pregnancy theory raised in

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connection with the Arnolfini Portrait when it first appeared in public in
1841. (Smith, 2017, 39)
The round shape of the gown, in addition, evokes some of its beholders of
the combination of the undergarment and dress worn by the female figure in
The Eve of St Agnes by Millais in 1863.
Millais ’ devotion to pursue realism in his art was not certainly limited to thedepiction of fashion, but it extended to every detail on his canvases. In Christin the House of His Parents ( ‘ The Carpenter ’ s Shop ’ ) (1849-50), for instance, theartist took his canvas to an actual carpenter ’ s shop to depict its interior andpainted the flock of sheep in the background after the heads of two sheep
he obtained from the neighboring butcher. Likewise, for The Woodman ’ s
Daughter, Millais not only procured the clothes for Maud as mentioned but
also purchased four strawberries at the market in Covent Garden for “ fiveand-sixpence […] a vast sum for [the artist] ” to depict the fruits offered by
Merton (Millais, 111). According to the anecdote recounted by J. G. Millais,
he even used the dead mouse he found in his studio when illustrating theanimal which ‘ [b]ehind the mouldering wainscot shriek ’ d, Or from thecrevice peer ’ d about ’ (Tennyson) in Mariana.
“ […] But Millais ’ truest and most helpful friend was his mother, whose loveand foresight did so much to advance his aims and ambition, putting him I
the right path from the very outset. She herself undertook the greater partof his education, and being more gifted than most women, grounded him
in history, poetry, literature, etc., knowledge of costume and armour, all ofwhich was the greatest use to him in his career. ” (Millais, 3)Millais is said to have been satisfied with this collaboration with his wife as
described by Cooper below:
Everett was always impressed that Effie was able to procure props
and models for next to nothing. She had a good eye and was willingto haggle. He told Hunt that Effie was wonderful about ‘ going into
strange habitations and seizing adults and children without exception,and dragging them here, and sending them back to their homes with asixpence, when I should have been doubtful between a sovereign andthirty shillings ’ . Effie was equally happy to research details of historicalcostume, and run them up. For Everett ’ s picture of The Escape of Heretic,
Effie worked from some sixteenth-century woodcuts of ‘ condemned
prisoners of the Inquisition ’ that she saw at a friend ’ s house. She said
that ‘ the Girl was to be clothed in a sort of Sack-like garment of blackMillais as a Sartorialist: Costuming and Dressing in the Early Works by John Everett Millais

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serge painted over with red Devils ’ (145).
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of Arts, London. The Royal Academy of Arts (RA). Web. 5 June 2014. <www.
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---Associate Curator, The National Museum of Western Art―国立西洋美術館 学芸課（特定研究員）