The 8th Conferenceon

Replacement of
Neanderthals by Modern
Humans:Testing Evolutionary
Models of Learning
December 21~23, 2013
Inamori Zaidan Kinenkan, Kyoto University
Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research on Innovative Areas 2010-2014

Hideaki Terashima (ed.)
December 14, 2013

編集
寺嶋 秀明
神戸学院大学・人文学部
651-2181

神戸市西区伊川谷町有瀬518

TEL: 078-974-1551（代表）FAX: 078-976-7296
E-Mail: terasima@human.kobegakuin.ac.jp
発行
文部科学省・科学研究費補助金「新学術領域研究」2010-2014
研究領域名「ネアンデルタールとサピエンス交替劇の真相：学習能力の進化に基づく実証的
研究」
領域番号

1201

印刷
協和印刷株式会社
615-0052 京都市右京区西院清水町13
TEL: 075-312-4010
All communications pertaining to this Conference and Publication should be addressed to
Koutaigeki Project Oﬃce as below:
Tokyo Satellite Campus
Kochi University of Technology
CIC Tokyo 302, 3-3-6 Shibaura, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-0023, Japan
TEL: 03-5440-9093
URL: http://www.cictokyo.jp/
Email: akazawa.takeru@kochi-tech.ac.jp© Koutaigeki Project, 2013
領域ホームページ (Project HomePage)
URL: http://www.koutaigeki.org/

第８回研究大会

ネアンデルタールとサピエンス交替劇の真相：
学習能力の進化に基づく実証的研究
2013年12月21日（土）〜23日（月）京都大学・稲盛財団記念館 (京都市左京区吉田下阿逹町46)
科学研究費補助金「新学術領域研究」2010〜2014

寺嶋 秀明（編）2013.12.14

目次 / CONTENTS研究大会プログラム /Conference Programii

発表要旨 / Abstracts
特別講演
Keynote Lectures

1

シンポジウム１
Symposium 1

7

シンポジウム２
Symposium 2

19

シンポジウム３
Symposium 3

31

研究進捗報告要旨 / Abstracts
総括班
Steering Committee

43

研究項目A01
Research Team A01

47

研究項目A02
Research Team A02

59

研究項目B01
Research Team B01

69

研究項目B02
Research Team B02

81

研究項目C01
Research Team C01

97

研究項目C02
Research Team C02

109

ポスター発表要旨
Poster Session

121i

第８回研究大会プログラム
CONFERENCE PROGRAM
第１日：２０１３年１２月２１日（土）Saturday, December 21, 2013

開会の辞 / Opening Remarks

13:00~13:10

赤澤 威 (高知工科大学)
Takeru Akazawa (Kochi University of Technology)

13:10~15:20

特別講演 / Keynote Lectures

13:10~14:10

言語以前のコミュニケーションと社会性の進化
山極 寿一 (京都大学)(2)

Hominid communications and social evolution before emergence of language: Hints
from a comparison with communications among great apes
Juichi Yamagiwa (Kyoto University)
14:20~15:20

技術を学習するとは─ルヴァロア技法論は現代のモノ作り研究にいかなる示唆をあたえるのか
後藤 明 (南山大学)(4)

What does “leaning technology” mean?: How does the analysis of Levallois
technique have implications to the ethnographic study of technology?
Goto, Akira (Nanzan University)
15:20~15:40

休憩 / Coffee Break

15:40~18:40

シンポジウム１/ SYMPOSIUM 1

交替劇と芸術

オーガナイザー：窪田 幸子 (神戸大学)(8)

Art and the Replacement of Neanderthals by Modern Humans
Organizer: Sachiko Kubota (Kobe University)
15:40~16:10

なぜアボリジニの芸術はわれわれの心を打つのか? 交替劇の文脈から
窪田 幸子 (神戸大学)(10)

Why Australian Aboriginal Arts are so impressive for us?: A consideration on artistic
expression of Homo sapiens
Sachiko Kubota (Kobe University)ii

16:10~16:40

美術の起源：ショーヴェ洞窟壁画をめぐって
小川 勝 (鳴門教育大学)(12)

Origin of Art: Parietal Art from Chauvet
Masaru Ogawa (Naruto University of Education)
16:40~17:10「芸術」はどのような状況で生まれるのか─考古学的検討─
松本 直子 (岡山大学)(14)

How art was born: An archaeological examination
Naoko Matsumoto (Okayama University)
17:10~17:40

アートワークにおける学習諸相 ─バカピグミーの子どもたちの共同描画とコラージュから─山上 榮子 (神戸学院大学)(16)

The learning in art works: Through the collaborative collage-making and drawing ofBaka Pygmy children
Eiko Yamagami (Kobe Gakuin University)
17:40~18:00
18:00~18:40

休憩 / Coffee Break
コメント & 討論
早木 仁成 (神戸学院大学)
窪田 幸子 (神戸大学)
Comments and Discussions
Hitoshige Hayaki (Kobe Gakuin University)
Sachiko Kubota (Kobe University)

19:00~21:00

懇親会
Welcome Partyiii

第２日：２０１３年１２月２２日（日）Sunday, December 22, 2013
9:00~12:00

シンポジウム２ / SYMPOSIUM 2

メタ学習のメカニズム：創造性の進化史的基盤
オーガナイザー：大村 敬一 (大阪大学)(20)

Mechanism of meta-learning: The evolutionary basis of creativity
Keiichi Omura (Osaka University)
9:00~9:30

メタ学習と創造性の能力を育む「からかい」：カナダ・イヌイトの子どもの学習過程にみる身構えの習得
大村 敬一 (大阪大学)(22)

Ability of objectification as the basis for meta-learning and creativity: Teasing as thedevice for training children in Canadian Inuit society
Keiichi Omura (Osaka University)
9:30~10:00

Baka Pygmyの子どもの象徴遊びにみるメタ表象能力の発達
小山 正 (神戸学院大学)(24)

Development of the capacity for metarepresentation and symbolic play in Baka
Pygmy children
Tadashi Koyama ( Kobe Gakuin University)
10:00~10:30

考古資料から見たメタ学習
髙倉 純 (北海道大学)(26)

Metalearning process: An archaeological perspective
Jun Takakura (Hokkaido University)
10:30~11:00

メタ認知の神経基盤
田邊 宏樹 (名古屋大学)(28)

Neural basis of metacognition
Hiroki C. Tanabe (Nagoya University)
11:00~11:20

休憩 / Coffee Break

11:20~12:00

コメント & 討論
松本 直子 (岡山大学)
大村 敬一 (大阪大学)
Comments and Discussions
Naoko Matsumoto (Okayama University)
Keiichi Omura (Osaka University)

12:00~13:30

昼食 / Lunch Breakiv

ポスター発表 / Poster Session

12:45~13:30
P1

A01班とB02班の共同研究による「交替劇」進行期の生態文化ニッチモデリング近藤 康久 (東京工業大学)・佐野 勝宏・門脇 誠二・長沼 正樹・大森 貴之・米田 穰・
西秋 良宏

(122)

Eco-cultural niche modelling for the replacement of Neanderthals by modern humans based ona collaboration of the archaeology and palaeoenvironment teams
Yasuhisa Kondo (Tokyo Institute of Technology), Katsuhiro Sano, Seiji Kadowaki, Masaki
Naganuma, Takayuki Omori, Minoru Yoneda, Yoshihiro Nishiaki
P2

姶良火山の噴火と文化進化：日本列島中央部の例
仲田 大人（青山学院大学）(126)

The Aira caldera eruption and cultural evolution in the palaeolithic of central Japan
Hiroto Nakata (Aoyama Gakuin University)
P3

遺伝的基盤と認知・行動を結びつける
山口 今日子（琉球大学）(128)

Connecting genetic data with cognition and behavior
Kyoko Yamaguchi (University of the Ryukyus)
P4

記憶と累積的文化
中丸 麻由子（東京工業大学）(130)

Memory and cumulative culture
Mayuko Nakamaru (Tokyo Institute of Technology)
P5

CT 画像からの脳鋳型ポリゴン抽出手法
道川 隆士（東京大学）・鈴木 宏正・森口 昌樹・荻原 直道(132)

Endocast surface extraction from CT images
Takashi Michikawa (The University of Tokyo), Hiromasa Suzuki, Masaki Moriguchi,
Naomichi Ogihara

13:30~17:30

研究進捗報告 (招待研究/口頭発表）
Progress Reports (Invited Researchers)

13:30~14:00

投槍器を用いた槍投げにおける投射角と運動エネルギーの伝達
日暮 泰男（大阪大学）(56)

The release angle and kinetic energy transfer in spear throwing with a spear thrower
Yasuo Higurashi (Osaka University)
14:00~14:30

交替劇における芸術の進化と現代における芸術の機能
堀内 史朗（山形大学）(76)

Evolution and functions of art strategy in the Replacement and the present
Shiro Horiuchi (Yamagata University)v

14:30~15:00

ヒト特異的な脳での Siglec ペア型受容体の出現と学習能力の進化
早川 敏之（九州大学）(78)

Emergence of Siglec paired receptors in the human brain and the evolution oflearning ability of population in the human lineage
Toshiyuki Hayakawa (Kyushu University)
15:00~15:30

大気海洋大循環モデルと陸域生態系モデルを用いた古植生分布再現とその不確実性評価
大石 龍太 (国立極地研究所)・阿部 彩子・Wing-Le Chan

(94)

Reconstruction of paleo-vegetation distribution and evaluation of its uncertainty byusing an atmosphere ocean coupled general circulation model and a dynamic global
vegetation model
Ryouta O’ishi (National Institute of Polar Research), Ayako Abe-Ouchi,

Wing-Le Chan
15:30~16:00
16:00~16:30

休憩 / Coffee Break
霊長類の頭蓋内面の圧痕から見る脳表面形態
小林 靖(防衛医科大学校), 松井 利康,  (106)

Brain surface morphology inferred by intracranial impressions in primates
Yasushi Kobayashi (National Defense Medical College), Toshiyasu Matsui,

Naomichi Ogihara

16:30~17:00

学習意欲と疲労に関する神経基盤と脳形態についての検討水野 敬（理化学研究所）(116)

Investigations of neural and anatomical bases of motivation to learn and fatigue
Kei Mizuno (RIKEN)
17:00~17:30

飽きに対する対処戦略の神経基盤と創造性・学習能力との関連の解明
杉浦 元亮（東北大学）(118)

Neural correlates of coping strategy for boredom and its relationship with creativity
and learning ability
Motoaki Sugiura (Tohoku University)

17:30~18:00

一般研究進捗報告（口頭発表）
Progress Report (Oral Presentation)

17:30~18:00

RNMH-iii: 交替劇プロジェクトにおける研究情報統合事業
近藤 康久 (東京工業大学)・丸川 雄三・小口 高・赤澤 威(44)

RNMH-iii: The Replacement of Neanderthals by Modern Humans initiative to
integrate information
Yasuhisa Kondo (Tokyo Institute of Technology), Yuzo Marukawa, Takashi Oguchi,
Takeru Akazawavi第３日：２０１３年１２月２３日（月）Monday, December 23, 2013

9:00~12:00

シンポジウム３ / SYMPOSIUM 3

ライフヒストリーから見た学習能力・学習行動の進化─身体と心の成長・発達
オーガナイザー： 山内 太郎 (北海道大学)(32)

Evolution of learning capacity and learned behaviors of modern humans from theperspective of life history
Organiser: Taro Yamauchi (Hokkaido University)
9:00~9:30

ヒトの体と脳の成長：人類進化の視座から
山内 太郎 (北海道大学)(34)

Comparative and evolutionary perspectives on human body and brain growth
Taro Yamauchi (Hokkaido University)
9:30~10:00

ヒトの生活史における最適な学習スケジュール
若野 友一郎 (明治大学)(36)

Optimal learning schedule in human life history
Joe Yuichiro Wakano (Meiji University)
10:00~10:30

ヒトの心の発達と教育の進化的基盤?胎児期からたどる
明和 政子 (京都大学)(38)

Developmental and evolutionary foundation of the human mind: New perspectives
on human cognitive development from the prenatal period
Masako Myowa-Yamakoshi (Kyoto University)
10:30~11:00

なぜネアンデルタールの脳はサピエンスより大きかったのか? ?頭囲の成長速度と社会認知能力の遺伝的関連から?
安藤 寿康 (慶應義塾大学)(40)

Why did the Neanderthals have larger brains than Homo sapiens?: Relationshipbetween growth in head circumference and socio-cognitive abilities
Juko Ando (Keio University)
11:00~11:20
11:20~12:00

休憩 / Coffee Break
コメント & 討論
高田 明 (京都大学)
山内 太郎 (北海道大学)
Comments and Discussions
Akira Takada (Kyoto University)
Taro Yamauchi (Hokkaido University)

12:00~12:30

総合討論 / General Discussion

vii

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Hominid communications and social evolution before emergence of language: Hints from acomparison with communications among great apes
Juichi Yamagiwa
Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University
We, human beings, usually use language for communications. We use it even among relatives andamong close friends, who know each other very well. Language seems to be the best definition for
discrimination of humans from other animals. However, emergence of language is a recent invention
in the evolutionary history of hominds. Our ancestors acquired it long after establishment ofencephalization. Which factors, other than language, promoted encephalization of our ancestors formillions of years. Social brain hypothesis predicts positive correlations between group size and theratio of new cortex in brain size. Increased social complexity may have promoted encephalization ofboth human and non-human primates. Therefore, a comparison of social complexity with great apes
may provide us important hints for considering evolution of communicative abilities which led
encephalization in human lineage.
The ability of empathy is found non-human primates, but the ability of self-recognition is only
found hominidae including great apes. These cognitive differences are reflected in social interactions
among adults. For example, cercopithecus monkeys do not form face-to-face interactions, because
prolonged gaze implies a threat to others. Only dominant individuals stare at the subordinate
individuals during conflicts. By contrast, chimpanzees and gorillas frequently stare at each othereven in the situation of increased conflicts. Food transfer is rare among adult non-human primates,
while it occasionally occurs in great apes. Even dominant possessors tolerate subordinate beggers totake food in their mouths or hands. Chimpanzees and gorillas well use their cognitive abilities inthese interactions.
Our ancestors may have faced two major problems when they extended their habitats into arid
areas after differentiation from the common ancestors with Pan. One was shortage of nutritious
foods, and our ancestors promoted bipedalism as its solution. Another was increased risk ofterrestrial predators, and our ancestors may have increased fecundity to complement increased
mortality of immatures. The following revolution of feeding strategy may have increased thecapacity of social complexity and encephalization. Communal breeding may have formed the originof human family, which increased the ability of empathy and sympathy. Holistic communication ormusilanguage may have promoted such social interactions and cognitive abilities of our ancestors
before emergence of language.

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˸ʤESĺ˗EM¢{¾ (Haidle) [¼³ (cognigram) [ʦ̞XjшŬESʸδvѹ7Mɤг[̎҈XQ5SѡFM5+
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4

What does “leaning technology” mean?: How does the analysis of Levallois technique have
implications to the ethnographic study of technology?
Goto, Akira
Anthropological Institute, Nanzan University
The chaîne opératoire theory was pioneered by A. Leroi-Gourhan in his analysis of technologicalevolution of the Palaeolithic, and this theory has been developed in FTAT (Francophone Tradition of
Anthropology of Techniques), being applied to diverse subjects.

Although main discussants of thistheory, such as Pelegrin, Karlin and so on, belong to the Palaeolithic studies, there are many
ethnographers and anthropologists who have enlarged the scope of this theory by applying it to avariety of subjects, such as, salt making, water wheel, pottery, wood working, blacksmith, weaving,and so on (e.g. Cresswell, Lemonnier, Balfet, to mention a few).
If we intend to find a common framework to discuss technology of the Palaeolithic (e.g.
reduction process of Levallois technique) and modern technology (more precisely “techniques” in
FTAT), some kind of abstraction concerning technology (e.g. technicité) is necessary. In other words,
we have to grasp technology as a system and make comparison between technological systems. The
chaîne opératoire is the very method serving this purpose, and employing this method enables us toapproach the concept of technicité proposed by M. Mauss and Leroi-Gourhan.
In this context, the paper by Wynn and Coolidge (“How Levallois reduction is similar to, andnot similar to, playing chess,” 2010) is a guideline: they re-evaluate the analysis of Levallois
technique(Schlanger 1993, 1996) by examining the concepts of umbrella plan and constellations

that the Kellers have applied to the analysis of tool use and cognition of modern blacksmiths. In
addition to this paper, I would examine the usefulness of “cognigram” that Haidle has proposed in
her insightful analysis of tool use by Great Apes, and early as well as modern humans (Haidle 2010a,
2010b, Lombard and Haidle 2012).
After examining the similarities and differences of Palaeolithic and modern technologies, I will
discuss the vertical and horizontal technological transmissions (Stark et al. 2008). In particular, I will
overview the study of learning and diffusion process of technology on the basis of pottery (Gosselain
1998, 2008; Gelbert 2001; Dietler and Herbich 1998, etc.), stone axe (Stout 2002, 2005, 2011) andcontemporary apprenticeship (Marchad 2007, 2008, 2010).
Finally I will address a fundamental question: in what sense, we are able to say “technology islearned”?; or, if we are to be prepared for saying so, what should be learned?

I argue that, only

after disclosing these problems, we are entitled to discuss how the leaning ability of modern humans
equals or exceeds that of Neanderthal.

5

6

Ϳенʭ
ABSTRACT S

Â°}³ԛ SYMPOSIUM 1Â°}³ԛè˃ōUРг

SYMPOSIUM 1
Art and the Replacement of Neanderthals by Modern
HumansͿ е Ͽ : Speakers
θ ͭ Ȕ ǎ ԕ Ρ ə ƹ Ǒ Ԗԣ Sachiko Kubota (Kobe University)
Ǳ Ȃ Ř ԕ ԏ ӎ ʚ Ї ƹ Ǒ Ԗԣ Masaru Ogawa (Naruto University of Education)˕ ˍ Ή ǎ ԕ Ǽ Ǻ ƹ Ǒ Ԗԣ Naoko Matsumoto (Okayama University)Ǻ Ë ˱ ǎ ԕ Ρ ə Ǒ ә ƹ Ǒ Ԗԣ Eiko Yamagami (Kobe Gakuin University) ´ Â  Æ  ԣ Commentatorʮ ˊ ì ɖ ԕ Ρ ə Ǒ ә ƹ Ǒ Ԗԣ Hitoshige Hayaki (Kobe Gakuin University)7Â°}³ԛ/è˃ōUРг0Æ{Æԣθͭ ȔǎԕԩԚԜԖ
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8

SYMPOSIUM 1" Art and the Replacement of Neanderthals by Modern Humans"

9

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10

Why Australian Aboriginal Arts are so impressive for us?: A consideration on artistic
expression of Homo sapiens
Sachiko Kubota (A02)
Graduate School of Intercultural Studies, Kobe University
Since I started to take part in this project, I wanted to consider the replacement of Neanderthal by
Homo sapiens from the perspective of the emergence of art. It is commonly known that the
Neanderthal did not produce art. And the period between 45,000 BP to 35,000 BP when the
Neanderthal and Homo sapiens co-existed in Europe, is the very important. Because it is when thearts including cave paintings emerged. What kind of mental stage in Homo sapiens urged to paint theimaged objects?

And as an anthropologist who study modern Aboriginal people, what can I

contribute to such a question?
Australian Aboriginal people have been living as hunters and gatherers in Australian continent
for more than 50,000 years, they have been producing many rock paintings in various sites. Most ofthem are about their mythological spiritual beings and its creation stories. In the ‘Dreaming’ which
is Aboriginal mythological world view, ancestral spiritual beings are believed to travel across theland in Dream time producing human beings, animals, plants and various landmarks, and giving
rituals and customs to the people. Modern Aboriginal people still dance, sing and paint these travelsof ancestral spiritual beings.
Australian government since 1970s started to promote Aboriginal arts and crafts as a source ofeconomic income for them. As a result of it, Aboriginal arts & crafts have become a big industry by
1990s. They now internationally acclaim high popularity and appreciation. In the beginning when
the government started to promote the industry, the bark paintings from the north were the main
products and they were mainly seen as ethnographic materials or primitive art. But in 1970s when
the new form of paintings of dot paintings using acrylic paints and canvas, emerged in the central
desert. It gradually became famous and attracted art lovers both domestic and worlds-wide. Those
works appear as ‘modern-art’ at a glance, but they contain stories of travels and landscape ofancestral spiritual beings. In 1990s on, the styles of Aboriginal arts diversified and became freely
developed. Some are like the paintings of minimalism and others look as if action paintings. Thus
they are getting high appreciation as fine arts and are highly sought after by gallery owners and art
collectors.
It is very common worldly attempts to enhance arts & crafts to indigenous people to give thempossible economical means. But Aboriginal art is probably the most successful case so far. What isthe background of the success? Why are the Aboriginal arts have such strong impact on us? I will try
to consider the background of their art production and what is happening in the mind of modern
hunter and gatherers who are involved in art production in 21st century.

11Ϻг[ѷ̵ԣºÆÃ~̣ζƳͰvi>PSǱȂ ŘԕɯȱͿеϿԖԏӎʚЇƹǑ

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12

Origin of art: Parietal art from Chauvet
Masaru Ogawa (Invited Speaker)
Naruto University of Education
Parietal art from Chauvet in Southern France, discovered in 1994, has been dated about 32,000 BP
by AMS direct dating method with carbon pigments. Its artistic quality is extraordinarily high insuch a remote age. The oldest art was the most splendid works with presently confirmed testimonies,
it is true, and how do we estimate this artistic fact. With general explanation, Man invented art over
100,000 years ago with simple lines, and for proximately 70,000 years, made evolution to more
complicated forms such as Chauvet examples. With a first glance, this story is acceptable for
evolutional mind, but we must revise this speculation without any testimony.
In this presentation, we would like to point out the diversity of expressing methods for
Chauvet. One uses contour lines to grasp and depict objects, hence at Chauvet, they expressedvolume of objects with accumulation of dots. How can we evaluate such a methodical attitude? Forother animal figures, they adopted diverse ways of representation that have not been found in any
other examples up to present days. Such a diversity for artistic phenomenon would have derived
from the fact that they had not established their depicting system for objects with contour lines in flatspace, we consider. That is, before Chauvet, Man did never make art, and 32,000 years ago so-called
Big-Bang of art happened, then the first artists had tried several methods to make art, and posteriorly
the followers focused only to contour lines for its effectiveness of grasping objects.
Our hypothesis is dedicated to art origin, not for change from Neanderthal to Homo sapiens.
But, you should know that the very Cro-Magnon man did begin art around 32,000 years ago, andHuman has continued to make art without any interruption to present time. Discussing this problem,
we might get an answer to our fundamental question, what is Homo sapiens.

13

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14How art was born: An archaeological examination
Naoko Matsumoto (A01)
Graduate School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Okayama University
Morris-Kay’s inclusive definition of art encompasses: (i) the use of colour, applied to the body,natural or created 3D object or a flat surface; (ii) pattern, whether or not made with symbolic intent;(iii) the modification of naturally occurring forms; (iv) the de-novo creation of 2D or 3D images.
Based on the currently available archaeological evidence, evidence belonging to the category (iv)appears only after 40,000 years ago and have been attributed to the hand of Homo sapiens while
those belong to (i) to (iii) can be recognized sporadically prior to 50,000 years ago. Our cognitive
ability to find certain object or image aesthetically pleasing has deep evolutionary roots and ourability to produce ‘beautiful’ objects is closely related to the development of tool-making technology.
In order the understand why archaeological evidence of art seems to show dramatic development
after 40,000 by Homo sapiens needs examinations from both viewpoints of individual cognitive
ability and social situation.
Modern humans show considerable individual difference in artistic creativity. It is natural toassume that the ability or tendency to produce art was also variable among ancient populations
including Neanderthals and Palaeolithic Homo sapiens. Artistic activity as archaeologicallyrecognizable requires individuals with an ability of artistic creativity and those with an ability toappreciate and imitate the art. Difference between Neanderthals and Homo sapiens may beunderstood in terms of the frequency and/or the extent of the cognitive ability.
Archaeological data indicate that artistic activities don’t evenly distribute in our history but
particularly concentrate in certain areas and times. Examination of the cases of the Palaeolithic caveart and ritualistic artefacts in the Jomon period Japanese Archipelago may provide us with insights
on the nature of social factors related to the creation of art.

15yÆÁÆX8?rǑϽѢΊ*£§²Æ[ǎVjMO[īžʅͰU
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16

The learning in art works: Through the collaborative collage-making and drawing of Baka
Pygmy children
Eiko Yamagami (A02)
Faculty of Humanities and Sciences, Kobe Gakuin University
Objects: Certain learning aspects were observed and discussed through art works with Baka-Pygmy
children, hunter%gatherers, with the exploration of art expression.
Art Expression: Art expression is the externalization of images and also one kind of representation.
In this symposium it is discussed by referring to unconsciousness as posited by Freudԕ1915Ԗ andJungԕ1964Ԗ in terms of mind structure,

regression in the service of ego! by Krisԕ1952Ԗ andpotential space and transitional object! by Winnicottԕ1971Ԗ in terms of function andeffectiveness, andeyesight brain! by Zekiԕ1999Ԗ in terms of the neurological base.

Participants and Procedure: Small groups of children in Cameroon were asked to draw andmake collages.
Results: <Drawing> The children drew based on their own desire and interest while listening thedirection and being teased by onlookers. Imitation and conformity to the older people or skillful boy
revealed.
<Collage> The onlookers chatted about photos, teased and intervened with the participants.
There was intensive and courageous expression, and also a learning effect from previous experiences.
There were distinct themes by the boys and variety with “friendly people” by the girls.
Discussion: The childrens art works with the new materials can be termed affordance due to thecharacteristics of art astransitional object! and to the group function ofholding environment!
Ԥfeeling secure with onlookers and bands. In particular, the participants and onlookers, wereinterested to look at the photos together as they learned about an exciting different culture from thestandpoint of intensiveness of “eyesight brain”. Moreover, the learning aspects, “mastery andappropriation” (Bahtin, 1981) were found in the collaborative actions of art works. Basically,
individual resources and desires were respected as the central pillar of the work; it seemed to beharmonious with their casual cooperation and with the relationship between conservation andinnovation.

17

18

Ϳенʭ
ABSTRACTS Â°}³Ԝ
SYMPOSIUM 2Â°}³Ԝ´ǑϽ[´³*Ōҝɇ[ҠŚŸ΃ƨ·SYMPOSIUM 2
Mechanisms of Metalearning: Evolutionary foundation ofcreativityͿ е Ͽ : Speakers
ƹ ː ʝ È ԕ ƹ Ӕ ƹ Ǒ Ԗԣ Keiichi Omura (Osaka University)
Ǳ Ǻ ́ ԕ Ρ ə Ǒ ә ƹ Ǒ Ԗԣ Tadashi Koyama (Kobe Gakuin University)Ԍ Ē ϕ ԕ ś ̧ Ҩ ƹ Ǒ Ԗԣ Jun Takakura (Hokkaido University)ͭ Ҵ Ǘ ˹ ԕ ſ Ŵ Ƕ ƹ Ǒ Ԗԣ Hiroki Tanabe (Nagoya University) ´ Â  Æ  ԣ Commentator˕ ˍ Ή ǎ ԕ Ǽ Ǻ ƹ Ǒ Ԗ Naoko Matsumoto (Okayama University)19Â°}³Ԝ/´ǑϽ[´³ԣŌҝɇ[ҠŚŸ΃ƨ·0Æ{ÆԣƹːʝÈԕԩԚԜԖ
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20

SYMPOSIUM 2"Mechanism of meta-learning: The evolutionary basis of creativity"

Keiichi Omura (A02)
Modifying the hypothesis of ‘cumulative cultural evolution’ proposed by Tomasello according to theBateson’s model regarding the evolution of learning, we can build up the following hypothesis about
the difference in learning ability between Neanderthals and modern humans:
 If there is any one difference in learning ability between Neanderthals and modern humans, it is
the ability of meta-learning (corresponding to Learning III in Bateson’s model), which is thefoundation of ‘individual or collaborative creation;’ that is, the driving force of cumulative cultural
evolution. Thus, Neanderthals most likely acquired the ability of cultural Learning (corresponding to
Learning II in Bateson’s model), which enabled them to preserve their styles of problem-solving. On
the other hand, it might be supposed that they lacked the ability of meta-learning, that is, the ability
to make creative modifications to preserved styles of problem-solving, with the result that theymight not be able to fully operate cumulative cultural evolution and thus were conservative in theirtechniques of stone-crafting. In this sense, Neanderthals might have acquired but perhaps werestrictly bound by their cultures.
 If this hypothesis is accepted, it might be safely inferred from Tomasello’s model that
Neanderthals acquired the ability to understand conspecifics as beings that have intentional andmental lives like their own, because Tomasello pointed out that the ability of cultural learning isbased on the ability to understand the intentions behind the behaviors of others. In this sense,
Neanderthals might be considered to share the ability of ‘theory of mind’ with modern humans. On
the other hand, it could be safely inferred from Bateson’s model that only modern humans acquired
the creative ability to objectify, manipulate, and change what is already learned via cultural learningon the basis of a ‘theory of mind,’ because Bateson pointed out that meta-learning is based on theability to objectify, manipulate, and change the existing styles of problem-solving, which are learned
as unexamined premises through cultural learning.
 In short, the most important species-unique ability of modern humans might be the creative ability
to objectify, manipulate, and change the relationships between their own culture as unexaminedstyles of problem-solving and their surrounding environments. Modern humans acquired thiscreative ability so that they could fully operate cumulative cultural evolution and thus develop their
species-unique cognitive skills and products.
Then, what cognitive abilities are needed for this creative ability of meta-learning unique to modern
human? Is this ability biologically acquired or socially nurtured? Is it socially learned on the
biological basis? What mechanism, whether biological or social, enables modern humans to practicetheir creative meta-learning so that they could fully operate cumulative cultural evolution?
 In this symposium, in order to consider the difference in learning ability between Neanderthals
and modern humans, we will approach these problems from three angles: 1) ethnographic andpsychological considerations of the learning process of modern humans; 2) archaeologicalconsideration of the evolutionary history of modern humans, especially focusing on the evolutionary
process of tool industries; 3) neuroscientific consideration of the cognitive mechanism of modern
humans.

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22

+ 

Ability of objectification as the basis for meta-learning and creativity: Teasing as the device
for training children in Canadian Inuit society
Keiichi Omura
Graduate School of Language and Culture, Osaka University
Any human individual is born into each society and begins its lifelong learning process with social
learning of each culture. In this sense, social learning of cultures can be said to be the base for any
kinds of learning for Homo sapiens. Above all, as pointed out by Tomasello (1999), ‘culturallearning,’ (‘imitative learning,’ ‘instructed learning’ and ‘collaborative learning’) which is one of theforms of social learning but is unique to modern humans, plays the most important role in thelearning process of modern humans. This is because cultural learning is essential to modern humans’
species-unique modes of cultural transmission, that is, ‘cumulative cultural evolution.’ This uniquemode enables them to develop the cognitive skills necessary to invent and maintain complex
tool-use industries and technologies, complex forms of symbolic communication and representation,and complex social organizations and institutions. All of these developments only occurred in thelast 250,000 years, which is a very short time evolutionarily speaking.
However, although cultural learning, which functions as the ratchet of cumulative cultural
evolution, is the most important basis for the evolution, it is not enough for its full development.
Creative inventions or modifications, which function as the driving force of the evolution, arenecessary for its full development. Therefore, as I pointed out (Omura 2013), the following two
abilities are essential to cumulative cultural evolution: 1) the ability of ‘theory of mind,’ which, asTomasello pointed out, is the basis for cultural learning, that is, the ability to understand theintentions behind the behaviors of others and to understand conspecifics as beings that haveintentional and mental lives like one’s own; 2) the ability to objectify what is already learned via
cultural learning on the basis of a theory of mind. Then how do modern humans learn these twoabilities?
The purpose of this presentation is to examine the learning process of Inuit children, especially
focusing on Inuit adults’ teasing children for educational purposes, in order to understand thelearning process of these two abilities and thereby consider the evolutionary basis of the learning
ability of modern humans. Firstly, I will present some examples of the Inuit adults’ teasing children
in order to understand its characteristics. Then, I will situate it in the socio-cultural backgrounds ofthe learning process of Inuit children and show that the teasing functions as the device for educationof the art of patience, which is the emotional basis for observation learning and creative invention.
Finally, based on the results of these analyses, I will propose the hypothesis that the most importantability required for full achievement of ‘cumulative cultural learning’ is the ability to objectify andmanipulate the relationships between oneself and the environment, which might distinguish modern
humans from Neanderthals.

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p7M+´еѪU\ԗ1 ˽΃еѪ (primary representation) vѸ7MoqԌ˽[еѪT4qԗ
2 ˽΃еѪUj5usԗK[Ϳҩv Leslie (1987)\ԗͪȳ 18 9˅9p 24 9˅[ǎVj[`qҤ_XgM+Ƚ΃еѪ[ƨΛ΃WҠŚ΃°{Â\ԗƶͱ[ѢĚӮv́ΘXԗɂǜXԗ
4q[ffXеѪEW?s]WpW5 1 ˽΃еѪT4qԗƶͱU[ӒčX8?rΉʁ΃WɍƇT4r (Leslie,1987)+ǎVj[`qҤ_[ҧΩX85SԗLeslie (1987) \ԗ1 ˽΃еѪvšɁŚEԗǫѪ[Ό[͖ɇv/ĻqӧGAU (decoupling) 0XΏΈES5r+A[/ĻqӧE0\ԗfCXѪȻ˻Ѝ[ͿҩUj57rEԗ/ϟԊ[§Æ0XĻqӧE[ªÀ:ğ;ԗKsp:ϤŽCsԗͤǜÏͱUQW:sr (anchor) ªÀ\ԗǎVj[´еѪЍŎ[ͿҩX85S̠ΈCsrj[T4r+ ξϿ\ԗ͛͝ɿӥ̤ͪ[ÒTЇQ Baka Pygmy [ǎVj[ѪȻҤ_lK[ҧΩTgpsr
їΒ΃˟҄ɇXQ5S˫ъES;M+AAT\ԗface to face [ƭӮT[ëȫ (ë[¿ª½)vͬ5M`qlgMS[ƭӮvқESԗBaka Pygmy [ǎVj[´еѪЍŎ[ͿҩXQ5
S˫ъEMϠ˚vƬƅGr+šŎϿ\ԗ2011 ȓoqьsS5r´¾ÆÂ˔ҷȃÀ²ƆҎ[ 4 ӥЧ[ 3 ̅9p 7 ̅[ǎVj 30 ćT4r+џˠ\ԗ2012 ȓ 8 ˅XǜʧEM+ʦ̞\ԗξϿ[ÈҞ[џˠ[ҧΩTԗ¿ª½UES[ëȫԗ8jOk[ªUªÆÂԗ΅ԗ°ԗίˊvʆΜEԗKsp[ˏʡT[ǎVj[ЗͿ΃Wв͇vфǨEԗK[˴ǎv VTRXŰiԗĺ˗EM+K[Ϡ˚ԗԃâU56в͇lԗԇЇвŗ[ϟԊ[§ÆUϾ7psr
в͇9p McCune (2008) [56`q[в͇:ĥвGrĮ΃WɍƚXƨR=ӟǹ΃W`qT
4qԗĻqӧE:ğ5M͔[gMS:ƂfsMв͇b[Χв: 3 ̅9p 5 ̅X9?Sgp
sM+ǎVjMO\ʆΜCsrǫѪ[͖ɇvΘїEW:pjԗKspvϤŽEԗϟԊ[§ÆvБʠЏŚCsM͙̝TĆͬEԗoqԌ˽[еѪŚvвPS5rUϾ7psM+A[o6W`qҤ_XgpsrеѪЍŎ (´еѪЍŎ)\ԗʫȏ̤ͪX85S\ðħU[ӑTīˆCsrUUjXȰp[ʠŚǑϽ[ƨΛ΃ЍŎUES̠ΈCsr+

24

Development of the capacity for metarepresentation and symbolic play in Baka Pygmy
childrenTadashi Koyama (A02)
Faculty of Humanities and Sciences, Kobe Gakuin University
Tomasello (1999) pointed that human cultural learning processes were especially powerful. And
they are supported the uniquely human adaptation that is “understanding others as intentional beings
like the self.” Wynn & Coolidge (2011) pointed out that “Neanderthals cared for injured their family
member and protected corpses.” That might be empathic acts to others and required development ofTheory of Mind. Leslie (1987) proposed that the capacity for metarepresentation was required to
employ Theory of Mind. According to Leslie (1987), metarepresentation is a higher capacity basedon the primary representations that has direct sematic relation with world. And it is decoupled copies
of representation for reconstruction. Children have to decouple the primary representations and the
copy of their experiences for the development metarepresentation. These processes are observed inchild’s pretense play. Decoupling is an important process in forming metarepresentation. And theprocess of anchoring to the real world is also required.
The author investigated the representational play and cognitive flexibility in Baka Pygmy
children in the East Cameroon. About representational play, I set out the face to face situation that achild could extend his or her symbolic play with props which were blocks and replicas for thechildren; a doll (a replica of infant), a toy teapot, a toy saucer, toy cups. I conducted the study from14th to 18th August, 2012. The participants in the study were 30 Baka Pygmy children (14 girls and16 boys) aged from 3 to 7 years old. I recorded their acts by VTR and analyzed those VTR. As
results, hierarchical pretend requiring object substitution (that was metarepresentational) was
observed from 3 year old to 5year old Baka Pygmy children. Hierarchical pretend play includes
child’s internal designation or plan (McCune, 2008). It was thought that they decoupled the copy of
their daily experiences and integrated expressions in their plays returning to the information on theproperties of props in decontextualized condition. This capacity observed in pretend plays in Baka
Pygmy children is raised with other children in their daily life and would enhance their culturallearning.

25ϾŴѱʡ9pоM´ǑϽԍĒ ϕԕԩԚԛԖ
ş́ҨƹǑƹǑә ʠǑΖγΥƹːʝÈԕ2012ԗ2013Ԗ:ʆѷGrôћXos]ԗͤͪëԁU

yÂ¾Æ¾ëU[ӑ[ǑϽЍŎȈԗU=XŌҝɇX99urKsX\ԗ/´ǑϽ0[ЍŎȈ:ӒčES5rU
56+A[ôћvϾŴǑ΃X˫яGrX\ԗƹː[56/´ǑϽ0:ԗV[o6W͖ȻvjQǑϽвŗXеsԗKs:ëԁ[̉EM͔ѴѱʡXV[o6XůʴCsr[9vϾ7
S59W?s]WpW5+ѡͦӟƤ[¿Ã~¾:͵WrǑϽªÀ:ҢвCsrU56
͆XΏΈGrWp]ԗ/´ǑϽ0[ªÀX\/İȎɇ0ԕCorballis, 2011Ԗ[ф͆9pyªÀÆGrAU:ŶЍUá̱Csr+ˍͿеT\ԗνÈXԗ/İȎɇ0lÂÅ­¾¬¾ԕSperber, 1994Ԗ[ш6/´еѪµ¸Æ¾0vƂiԗ/´ǑϽ0XӒҞGrѢ˰Ʉ[ӒčvʟͦEM67TԗνãXԗ/İȎɇ0[Əӽvɞ:9qUESԗ/´ǑϽ0[ªÀvϾŴǑ΃XѦѡGrŶЍɇvѡFS5;M5+
Ȥͬʠ͞Corballis, M.C. 2011 The Recursive Mind: The Origin of Human Language, Thought, andCivilization. Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press.
ƹːʝÈ 2012/¤ÆǑϽҠŚôћʠŚëԁǑ9pgrͤͪëԁUyÂ¾

Æ¾[è˃ō0Ǫȁ΢ʱϭ1͛͝ɿӥ̏[џˠXƨR=¥[ǑϽвŗ[ǜя΃Ζγԣè˃ō A-02 ͣΖγƬƅ˂ 2223-40 ӳԗΡəǑәƹǑëʠǑҷƹːʝÈ 2013/ŌҝɇUǝāŚ[ЍŎvЇh19p952Å{{[ǎVj[ǑϽҧΩXgr҂˲7[Ͻȶ0Ǫȁ΢ʱϭ1͛͝ɿӥ̏[џˠXƨR=¥[ǑϽвŗ[ǜя΃Ζγԣè˃ō A-02 ͣΖγƬƅ˂ 3215-36 ӳԗΡəǑәƹǑëʠǑҷ
Sperber, D. 1994 The modularity of thought and the epidemiology of representations. In Mapping
the Mind: Domain Specificity in Cognition and Culture, edited by Hirschfeld, L.A., Gelman, S.A.,
39-67. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

26

Metalearning process: An archaeological perspective
Jun Takakura (A01)
Graduate School of Letters, Hokkaido University
Keiichi Ohmura’s hypothesis (2012, 2013) concerning the learning abilities of Neanderthals andmodern humans suggests that the metalearning process provides an essential role to understand adifference of their learning abilities. To test this hypothesis archaeologically, it is necessary toconsider what learning behaviors observed in the archaeological record can represent the past
metalearning process. The metalearning process is a special learning process, however, asecond-order one, so to speak. Thus “recursion”, recently discussed by Michael Corballis (2011),
may be probably linked to the metalearning process, and provide an imperative way to address it
archaeologically. In this presentation, I have two aims. The first is to present a review of someconcepts relevant to the metalearning process, including “metarepresentational module” (Sperber,
1994) and “recursion”. My second aim is to discuss a probability of archaeological approach foraddressing the metalearning process.

27´їΒ[Ρϟƨ·ͭҴ Ǘ˹ԕԫԚԜԖ
ſŴǶƹǑƹǑә ͩƱǑΖγΥȽͦǑѤȞǑϽ[ӀнWĚӮ[ԛQX͍ҩ:4r:ԗKsX\ãΫԁ4rAU:ΒpsS5r+ԛQ\ǚƤ΃͍ҩ (routine expertise) TԗƤX\fPMїΒlвŗ:ҐҜXĸ˓ro6XWrA
UT4r+ǚΔқqXϗʮ=́ΘXʞǑ[Əӽ:ц?rAUWV:K[ćT4r+ÈʦԗҮɁ΃͍ҩ (adaptive expertise) \ԗƤV8q[ʦ̞vİͤT;rN?TW=ԗʥE5ʦ̞v
j˟҄XűqĨsrAU:ĸ˓r͍ҩ[AUTԗAsX\´їΒЍŎԕЗȉ[ΒсÅɋŗÅыɔÅɅϾWV[їΒ̤ŗvǝф΃XUp7ѐĊEMËTńȷGrЍŎԖ:ȾнT4
rUшusS5r+AsfT[ȽͦǑ΃Ζγ9pԗ´їΒX\Βѥ΃ĚӮUńȷ΃ĚӮ[ԜQXƹ;=ĺ9srAUԗA[ЍŎ[ͿҩX\Ξ÷΃ΊäĄͬ:ӀнWȯŋv˚ME
S5rAU:ΜCsS5r+fMΡϟΥǑ΃Ζγ9p\ԗŇӺҞŽӁ:´їΒԗ͖X´їΒńȷXӀнT4rAU:ʱp9UWPS5r+A[Â°}³T\ԗ´їΒv
ʒ7rΡϟƨ·XQ5Sԗ͖X´їΒńȷX͉͆vȪSԗɗ,[AsfT[ΖγϠ˚v
è7W:pѦѡGr+ūϾʠ͞ÊǟΌʼǎԕϭԖԕ2008Ԗ/´їΒ ǑϽŎvʒ7rԌ˽їΒ˻Ѝ0śƹѽ˂ɛ

28

Neural basis of metacognition
Hiroki C. Tanabe (C02)
Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Nagoya University
As one of the important factors in learning is expertise, it is known that there are two kinds of them.
One is ‘routine expertise’, that is coming to be able to perform conventional cognition and action
quickly. There is an example that a mathematical problem is solved quickly and correctly using
standard tactics. In contrast, ‘adaptive expertise’ is to be able not only to reproduce the standard way
but also to take in a new method flexibly, and seems to require metacognitive ability (i.e. cognition
about cognition; awareness or analysis of one’s own learning or thinking processes). The previous
psychological researches have demonstrated that it has two aspects: metacognitive knowledge andmetacognitive regulation. In addition, social interaction plays a significant role to the developmentof this ability. The neurological and neuroscientific researches have shown that the function of theprefrontal cortex is important for this ability, especially metacognitive control. In this symposium, I
introduce and discuss the neural basis of metacognition. I also touch our recent results of theneuroimaging studies.

29

30

Ϳенʭ
ABSTRACTS Â°}³ԝ
SYMPOSIUM 3Â°}³ԝ¼{¨¥½Æ9pоMǑϽЍŎÅǑϽвŗ[ҠŚ*҂āUȽ[ɖӍÅͿҩ*

SYMPOSIUM 3
Evolution of learning capacity and learned behaviors ofmodern humans from the perspective of life historyͿ е Ͽ ԣ Speakers
Ǻ Į ƻ Ҷ ԕ ś ̧ Ҩ ƹ Ǒ Ԗԣ Taro Yamauchi (Hokkaido University)Т Ӂ ŭ È Ҷ ԕ ʱ ̚ ƹ Ǒ Ԗԣ Yuichiro Wakano (Meiji University)ʱ Ɗ ʖ ǎ ԕ é Һ ƹ Ǒ Ԗԣ Masako Myowa (Kyoto University)ǔ Ю Ǭ ȟ ԕ ɓ ɕ ƹ Ǒ Ԗԣ Juko Ando (Keio University) ´ Â  Æ  ԣ CommentatorԌ ͭ ʱ ԕ é Һ ƹ Ǒ Ԗԣ Akira Takada (Kyoto University)31 Â °  } ³ ԝ / ¼ { ¨ ¥   ½ Æ 9 p о M Ǒ Ͻ Ѝ ŎÅǑ Ͻ в ŗ [ Ҡ Ś * ҂ ā U Ƚ[ɖӍÅͿҩ0Æ{Æԣ ǺĮ ƻҶԕԩԚԜɯȱΖγϿԖ¥ԕͤͪëԁԗ§ÂԖ\ӪӍԁ[ÒT¹ÆWɖӍ¤ÆÂvɴQ+GWuOԗ
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5ǎVjˉ\ԗā[ɖӍҜȝvɫC7SВ[ɖӍvĎGMiUϾ7psS5r+ǜӡXā[ɖӍX̎cSВ[ɖӍ\ʮ=ԗ7 ̅Ԭ10 ̅TǖɖԕӀӂX85SԖGr+KESВ[ɖӍ:ϜuPS9pԗңsvűqɚG9[o6XɆ̿XΓˉӑTāvƹ;=ɖӍCIr+ ¥[¹ÆW҂āɖӍ¤ÆÂ\ԗžʸXїΒЍŎԗвŗKESȽ[ͿҩUҞŗE
S8qԗ¥͖ˆ[ǑϽЍŎÅǑϽвŗ[ƨ·UWPS5rUϾ7psr+ˍÂ°}³\ԗyÂ¾Æ¾U§Â[è˃ō[ÕнƖUESǑϽЍŎÅǑϽвŗ[Ȉ͵:4PMUGr/ǑϽôћ0[˫яXh?Sԗ҂ā[ɖӍԗȽ[Ϳҩԗ¼{¨¥½ÆԗʚΜвŗԗǑϽвŗ[ĚӮ9pӪӍԁԗъGr+yÂ¾Æ¾ԗ¥ԕ§ÂԖv̎҈˫yÂ¾Æ¾[ɖӍ¤ÆÂ\§ÂU\͵WPS8qԗ¼{¨¥½Æԕ̤ͪŸԖ[Ҫ5:їΒЍŎԗȽ[ͿҩCpX\ǑϽЍŎÅǑϽвŗ[Ȉ͵vͪgĸ
EMU56ôћvʆΜEԗ˫яŶЍɇXQ5SҖ̔Gr+

32

Symposium 3 "Evolution of learning capacity and learned behaviors of modern humans fromthe perspective of life history"
Organizer: Taro Yamauchi (A02 Invited Researcher)Among primates, modern humans (Homo sapiens) have a unique growth pattern: a prolonged periodof childhood and a rapid growth spurt in adolescence. It is considered that the long childhood period
evolved in order to promote brain growth and development by depressing body growth rate. In
reality, brain growth is much faster than body growth and it completes at the ages of 7–10 (inweight). Once brain growth is complete, a rapid body growth (the so-called adolescent growth spurt)
occurs to bring the body to adult size.
The unique growth pattern of humans coincides with the development of cognitive ability,
behavior, and mind, and we consider the human growth pattern to be the foundation of learning
capacity and learned behaviors.
This symposium discusses the growth and development of body and mind, life history, andteaching and learning behaviors to explore a “learning hypothesis” that claims that differences inlearning capacity and learned behaviors between Homo sapiens and the Neanderthals is a major
factor involved in the replacement of the two populations in the process of human evolution. We
would like to propose the hypothesis that differences in life history between Homo sapiens and the
Neanderthals caused differences in cognitive ability and development of mind and, finally,
differences in learning capacity and learned behaviors between the two populations.

33¥[āUВ[ɖӍԣëԁҠŚ[рȞ9pǺĮ ƻҶ ԕԩԚԜɯȱΖγϿԖş́ҨƹǑ ƹǑәďęΥǑΖγә¥[¼{¨¥½Æԕ̤ͪŸԖ\҂ā[ɖӍ̋ӟXoPSԗÝħˉԕinfancy, IԖԗǎVjˉԕchildhood, CԖԗǑκˉԕjuvenile, JԖԗɅʵˉԕadolescence, AԖԗɖëԕmature adults,MԖ[ 5 Q[ÆXĺԁGrAU:T;r+As\̄[Цĸԗνã˽ɇȻ[ͿͤԗїΒЍŎ[ͿҩWV͔ͪǑ΃W{¬ÂԗCpX\вŗ¤ÆÂlȽ[ͿҩX8?r{¬ÂXjo=ǫɁGr+
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34

Comparative and evolutionary perspectives on human body and brain growth
Taro Yamauchi (A02 Invited Researcher)
Graduate School, Faculty of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University
The stages of human life history after birth are as follows: infancy, childhood, juvenile, adolescence,
and adulthood. When we consider the growth rate (e.g., height [cm/year]) that takes place during
each of these stages, changes in growth rate are clearly associated with each stage of development.
Each stage also may be defined by characteristics of dentition, changes related to methods of feeding,physical and mental competencies, and maturation of the reproductive system and sexual behavior.
When we use the same criteria to describe and define the stages of the life cycle for nonhumanmammals and the human species, we know that the majority of mammals progress from infancy toadulthood seamlessly, without any intervening stages. In contrast, highly social mammals andprimates postpone adulthood by inserting a period of juvenile (defined as pre-pubertal individuals
who are no longer dependent on their mothers for survival) growth and behavior between infancy
and adulthood.
Humans have evolved a childhood stage of development, placed between the infant andjuvenile stages, and an adolescence stage between the juvenile and adult stages. Therefore, thechildhood and the adolescence stages are characteristics unique to humans. In this presentation, I
will propose some possible scenarios about the life history of the Neanderthals to find a way toverify the “learning hypothesis” that the Neanderthal-Homo sapiens replacement was the result of
the difference in learning capacity between archaic and modern humans.

35¥[̤ͪŸX8?r˄ҮWǑϽ¸Æ¾
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36

Optimal learning schedule in human life history
Joe Yuichiro Wakano(B01)

Meiji University, School of Interdisciplinary Mathematical Sciences
Inheritance of culture is achieved by social learning and improvement is achieved by individual
learning. To realize cumulative cultural evolution, social and individual learning should be
performed in this order in one's life. However, it is not clear whether such a learning schedule canevolve by the maximization of individual fitness. Here we study optimal allocation of life time tolearning and exploitation in a two-stage life history model under constant environment. We showthat the learning schedule by which high cultural level is achieved through cumulative cultural
evolution is unlikely to evolve as a result of the maximization of individual fitness, if there exists a
trade-off between the time spent in learning and the time spent in exploiting the knowledge that has
been learned in earlier stages of one's life. The present study suggests that such factors as group
selection, the ability of learning-while-working (“on the job training”), or environmental fluctuation
might be important in the realization of rapid and cumulative cultural evolution that is observed inhumans.
Learning is supported by the development of brain. Thus, in order to study optimal learningschedule, we have to consider when in life history one should develop brain. I have recently
launched the study of the optimal schedule of the ratios of the investments in brain growth and body
growth in human life history. Unlike other mammals, human shows a complex growth pattern. Thismight be related to the fact that the growth of brain after birth and the resulting enhanced learning
abilities have large impacts on individual fitness. I wish to discuss in the symposium on the directionof this research.

37¥[Ƚ[ͿҩUʚЇ[ҠŚ΃ƨ·Њħˉ9pMVrʱƊ ʖǎԕɯȱͿеϿԖéҺƹǑƹǑә ʚЇǑΖγΥÅΥǑɤгɸК˻˲ȫɐ΃W͖ȻUž˴ԗΈX\о7W5Ƚ[\Mp;jҠŚ΃̩̕[͔ͫT4r+Σ\ԗ/̎҈їΒͿҩΥǑԕComparative Cognitive Developmental Science, CCDSԖ0U56ʥMWyªÀÆ9pԗ¥[Ƚ[\Mp;[͜ЗɇԕwhatԖUK[ҠŚŸ΃ЉʻԕwhyԖvʱp9XE
o6UES;M+¥U¥XjPUjҒϰWͤͪΫT4rÂ¤ÂÆ[їΒ˻Ѝvǜя΃X̎҈GrAUԗCpX/Ϳҩ0[р͆ԕhow and whenԖjϝgĨsrAUTԗ¥[Ƚ[\Mp;vƷӮ΃Xɺ7r+As:ˍyªÀÆ[͖ȻT4r+
 ¥[Ƚ[\Mp;\ԗͪȳϸ9srΞ÷ԗͩƱU[ӒčX85SʦƀR?psr+ͩ
ƱXorȮӲvƹëdV\fNŲ?S5W5Ýħ[ȽԗU=XͪfsSӑjW5ÝħlĸͪŇ[ЊħvǫѪUEMΖγ\ԗ¥[їΒЍŎ[ŨĿ΃ȫɐԗKsp:ͪȳ[ϟԊԕǑϽԖUV[o6XϢgŽPSͿҩGr[9vʱp9XGr67TˆŕT4r+ЊħΖγ[ҠǷXú5ԗ¥[ЊĮT[ɏсҥŗǑϽ[ŶЍɇԗ8o_ĸͪŇȳ[Ϳҩ΃ҞϨɇ:о
ĸCsQQ4r+ΣMO[Ζγ¾Æª\ԗ¥[Њħ:ЗȉŲǢɏсXƨR=҂āеѪv͡ȶES5rAUԕMyowa-Yamakoshi & Takeshita, 2006Ԗԗ˶Ė[ŨĿȫɐUjocrīԏŗĄ:ЊħˉXGTXΘїT;rAUWVvΜES;M+Њħˉ[ƹВ[ɖӍvџcM
ΖγXorUԗ¥jÂ¤ÂÆjЊԒ 20 ҟӵfT\ŹІË:q[ΉϬ΃WͿҩҜȝv
ΜG+E9Eԗóӗ\Â¤ÂÆT\ͿҩҜȝ:þÌGr:ԗ¥T\ǅǌȳˉԗ8oKЊԒ 30 ҟG<fTŐҜ[ÈҚvMVrU56ԕSakai et al, 2012Ԗ+ЊĮT[ɏсҥŗϟԊUKsvƨ·UGrїΒ˻Ѝ[ͿҩU56͆T\ԗÐΫ\Њħˉ9pGTX͵WrҨGF
vMVqǈiS5rŶЍɇ:4r+
 ͪȳԢÄ˅vґ7rӵԗ¥[Ξ÷΃їΒ˻Ѝ\ō΃WƵŚvҢ@r+Ýħ\ԗоΒpY͔Xĸ=uGU̍уU͔UvèäXо̎crԕΞ÷΃ū͋Ԗ+Зĺ[КƇ4r͔lĸ˓â
vɵȈESðϿ[ӒȽvЗĺ[ӒȽXȤ;ǣIrԕīž̠ɍԖ+A6EMðϿ[р͆vқESͩƱX99ur͖ɇ\ԗÂ¤ÂÆT\ΘїCsS5W5+КƇ̫5AUXԗ¥[ͩƱTԇЇCsMÂ¤ÂÆT\ԗΞ÷΃ū͋līž̠ɍ:ҡѓ΃T\4r:gpsM
U56ԕTomasello et al., 1993Ԗ+¥͖ˆ[їΒ˻ЍvͿҩCIr[\ԗðϿ9p[ίˮ΃WѺƭĄqԗ/ʚЇԕactive teachingԖ0v͖ȻUGrԇЇͩƱT4r+ӁͪÅԄЇÌvƏuHԗÂ¤ÂÆ[ԇЇͩƱT\ԗ¥[ԇЇϿ:8AW6o6Wίˮ΃ʚЇ\gpsW
5ԕMatsuzawa, 2006Ԗ+¥͖ˆ[ԇЇͩƱ\ԗ¥͖ˆ[ԌȝWȽ[\Mp;[ËXɖqιPS5r+ΣMO\/ē0T4rUžʸXԗ¥pE5Ƚ[\Mp;vͿҩCIr/ͩƱ0UESҠŚES;MǏƠNU57r+

38

Developmental and evolutionary foundation of the human mind: New perspectives on humancognitive development from the prenatal period
Masako Myowa-Yamakoshi(Invited Speaker)

Kyoto University, Japan Science and Technology Agency
The human mind is a product of evolution. How have we evolved our unique minds? What hascaused the differences between humans and non-human primates? Our research teams have taken
evolutionary and developmental approaches to address these questions by engaging in ‘Comparative
Cognitive Developmental Science (CCDS)’: Comparing the development of cognition in humans
and non-human primates from their prenatal periods. The CCDS approach has enabled us to identify
the emergence and development of human intelligence and its evolutionary foundations, as well as
the biological variables behind the characteristics of the human mind that are both shared with
non-human primates and uniquely human.
To date, only a few studies have examined the relative effects of genetic predispositions andenvironmental influences on the development of cognitive skills. In this talk, I will introduce two
key approaches to addressing this issue. The first approach is to study ontogeny of cognition fromthe very early stages of life, including the prenatal period. The second is to identify key experiencesthat may play a critical role in the development of human cognition.
Investigating early stages of development may help elucidate the primitive roots ofspecies-specific predispositions, while minimizing the influence of experience and the environment.
Through the first approach, we have found that there is a clear continuity in human sensorimotor
development from prenatal to postnatal life. Human fetuses have gained some knowledge of theirown bodies by distinguishing themselves from other entities in the womb (sensorimotor learning).
Moreover, our recent data indicate differences in fetal behavioral patterns between humans andchimpanzee in acquiring knowledge about their own bodies. A recent study has also suggested thathuman fetuses show an accelerated increase in brain volume after 22 weeks of gestation, which is
not the case with chimpanzee fetuses (Sakai et al. 2012), which might be related to uniquely humansensorimotor learning from the perinatal period.
The second approach has identified an essential factor that leads human infants into theirremarkable cognitive transition (“nine-month revolution”). It is the uniquely human environmentthat includes active teaching and molding (Matsuzawa 2006). Furthermore, human infants are often“compelled” by adults to participate in triadic communicative activities in ways that chimpanzee
infants are not (Myowa-Yamakoshi 2010). Therefore, it is plausible that human environments may
have the ability to modify the emergence of key social cognitive skills in non-human primates aswell. This has been demonstrated with chimpanzees and Japanese monkeys (e.g., Tomasello et al.
1993; Kumasiro et al. 2003). Further studies are warranted to address the differential effects ofrearing environments and life histories on the subsequent development of cognition in the social
domain.

39

WJyÂ¾Æ¾[В\§Âoqƹ;9PM[9? Ӻƙ[ɖӍҜȝUΞ÷їΒЍŎ[ұø΃ӒҞ9pǔЮ Ǭȟ ԕԩԚԜԖ
ɓɕϼưƹǑ ʠǑҷyÂ¾Æ¾:§Âoqjƹ;WВvjPS5MAU\ԗè˃ō[ǑϽôћv
Ͼ7rËT¤¼¾WƏӽvʆѷGr+WJǑϽvQ9CVrВ[ƹ;CTyÂ

¾Æ¾Xőr§Â:ԗҠŚ΃X\ˆłWΫUESè˃ōTŘłEM[9+ ¥[Зӏͻħ:E]E]ȇӺT4rU56Ƭƅ:4r+E9jĸͪʸ9pӺƙ:ƹ;
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PS5W59[o6Xо7râǜU[ӒҞɇXQ5SjϾǨEM5+40

Why did the Neanderthals have larger brains than Homo sapiens?: Relationship between
growth in head circumference and socio-cognitive abilities
Juko Ando(A02)

Faculty of Letters, Keio University
The fact that the Neanderthals had larger brains than sapiens raises a paradoxical issue against thelearning hypothesis for evolutional replacement of the former by the latter. Why did sapiens who
was inferior in brain size exceed the Neanderthals as an evolutionally superior species?
There are evidences indicating that some children with autism tend to be macrocephalus(having large brain). It is not that they have large head circumference (HC) from birth, but that their
growth rate of HC in the first year of life is faster than normal (e.g. Courchesne & Pierce, 2005).
This seems to be because brain nerves are not cut off properly in the early stage of development
which leads to malfunction or over-function of brain.
We investigated whether HC growth and (poor) socio-cognitive abilities (e.g. joint attention,
imitation, pointing, etc.), which characterize cognition and behavior of autistic children, aremediated by genes or environment by longitudinal study of infant twins. The results showed thatgenetic influences on HC growth and those on socio-cognitive abilities were negatively associated,
whereas environmental influences on HC growth were positively associated with influences onsocio-cognitive abilities (Fujisawa et al., 2012). We also showed that a genetic factor regulating HC
growth is different from genetic factors of height, weight and chest circumference (Ando et al.,2006).
These results suggest that macrophalus Neanderthals had also different socio-cognitive
abilities compared to normal Sapiens which might be similar to human people with autism whoselearning abilities are based upon social learning by emulation of others’ observable behavior as wellas individual learning by involving in repetitive motions. It is also suggested that they were not sogood at imitative learning by “Theory of Mind”, an ability to infer intentions and thoughts of others
and learning by teaching. This hypothetic overgrowth of HC with possible rapid growth of theirbody sizes as well in the Neanderthals might make their juvenile period shortened to become
independent adults as hunter-gatherers much faster than sapiens. Relatively poorer development of
prefrontal cortex of the Neanderthals also suggests their undeveloped working memory capacity,
especial its executive function.
Relationship between those speculations and observations of current hunter-gatherer people
who have no customary and institutionalized education and seemingly no formal and abstract
thought (in western cultural sense) will be discussed.

41

42

ΖγҠɼнʭ
ABSTRACTSϫɳͣSTEERING COMMITTEEϫɳͣSteering Committee

43

RNM H-iii: è ˃ ō ª À  ~   X 8 ? r Ζ γ ɋ Ƭ Ϥ Ž â ˭ҒЮ ȟÖ 1, 2ÅÓȂ ӤÊ 3ÅǱų Ԍ 4ÅѶ̾ ǋ 51˔éȅ˭ƹǑ ƹǑәɋƬͦȅǑΖγΥ2ʫˍǑгɸК÷3Ɯι̏ʩǑŤ͔Ԉ ĥλëԁΥǑΖγҷ4˔éƹǑ δӑɋƬΥǑΖγÂÆ5ԌΒȅΥƹǑ ϫŽΖγɜ

Ζγˉӑ[ϜàfT̉GUAt 15 9˅UWPMè˃ōªÀ~T\ԗщͰΖγͣ[ƥˣvѹ7MīžΖγ:ҠwT;S5r+ϫɳͣT\ԗ͵ĺӁҞʌXorīžΖγvʒʊEԗΖγɖ˚vƜĮƶ[ӒčϿXƀ?SԕȘ=Ԗ̓Ϩ΃XԕӍ=ԖĪӐGrMiXԗΖγɋƬϤŽâ˭ԕRNMH-iii: Replacement of Neanderthals by Modern Humans initiative to
integrate informationԖvʂҠES5r+óÌXK[ϟϮU͙ͤvҕcr+ ϫɳͣT\AsfT/ʬëÅʥëè˃ō0Ӓčʠ͞[Æ¬Æv{ÂÆXĪӐEԗҥͬES;M+fMԗªÀ~Ľв͔[ PDF lʪͿеѡʠÅЩ˂½j}~©{ԕhttp://www.koutaigeki.org/ԖXSĪӐES5r+Asp[ɋƬvʠ͞Æ¬ÆXϤŽEԗCpX A01 ͣ[ұѼÆ¬ÆԕNeander DBԖl B02 ͣ[ŴͩƱʠ͞ WebGISԕPaleoGeoԖv\FiԗżͣÅͣƌ[jQʠ͞ɋƬjžFÆ¬ÆXӥϓGrAUXoPSԗªÀ~ĩāTΖγɋƬvīˆEԗƶҷ9pj˫ϘÅӓтT;ro6XGr+ íМԗÆ¬ÆÆ£v˔éƹǑδӑɋƬΥǑΖγÂÆXΧэGrX4Mqԗ
Ëы[Έ΃X̜6o6Xԗʠ͞Æ¬ÆXʓНvŐ7M+ʓНȳ[Æ¬ÆT\ԗ˂ϊXñÎCsr ISBNԕInternational Standard Book NumberԖlѡʠXñÎCsr doi
ԕdigital object identifierԖv{ÂÆË[ɋƬѥŁǎGWuO IRIԕinternational

resource identifier, URI Uj56ԖUESͬ5ԗēŁ[ʠ͞ɋƬXǫɁGrƚ˂Ԉlĸ͒Ξ [ ѡ ʠ  {  v ū ͋ T ; r o 6 X E M ԕ ƚ 1 Ԗ+ ʠ ͞  Æ  ¬ Æ  \http://www.koutaigeki.org/rdb X85SĪӐCsS5r+
 RNMH-iii ɋƬϤŽâ˭\ԗţWrɋƬ[ӥϓXUVfpHԗ/è˃ō0X99urīқ[Βѥƨ·UΖγ²¸z[Ҿɖvγˮ[Έ˵UGr+íȳԗͣƌżýX\ʠ͞ɋƬ[ʆĈWVv8Ԁ5GrAUXWr+A[ƭvĕqSԗżý[ʒʊUšŎvƈ_9?M5+

44ƚԛ ʓđȳ[ϫɳͣʠ͞Æ¬ÆԕͣƌǭͬѕϚ˫ϘͰӮԖ
Fig. 1: New interface of the RNMH bibliographic database (member’s search page)45

RNMH-iii: The Replacement of Neanderthals by Modern Humans initiative to integrate
information
Yasuhisa Kondo 1, 2, Yuzo Marukawa 3, Takashi Oguchi 4 and Takeru Akazawa 5
1

Department of Computer Science, Tokyo Institute of Technology

2

Japan Society for the Promotion of Science3

Department of Advanced Studies in Anthropology, National Museum of Ethnology

4Center for Spatial Information Studies, The University of Tokyo

5

Kochi University of Technology

A number of interdisciplinary subprojects are ongoing in the Replacement of Neanderthals byModern Humans (RNMH) project, which will be concluded in fifteen months. In order to facilitate
interdisciplinary research and publications, the steering committee is developing a shared andsustainable information infrastructure. This paper presents the motivations and current status of thisinitiative to integrate information (RNMH-iii).
The steering committee has developed a bibliographic database for RNMH studies and has
published it online. PDF documents and lists of the project’s publications are also disclosed at the
project’s website (http://www.koutaigeki.org/). The RNMH-iii will integrate these records into theabove-mentioned database. Furthermore, the archaeological database (Neander DB) of the researchteam A01 (archaeology), the WebGIS for the research information on the palaeoenvironmental
sciences (PaleoGeo), and other bibliographic information of project members will also be aggregatedinto the same database. These integrations allow project members and other people interested in
RNMH studies to retrieve and browse the research information.
The database server was moved to the Center for Spatial Information Science, The Universityof Tokyo, in August 2013, when the bibliographic database was also upgraded. In the new version,international resource identifier (IRI, or former URI) such as ISBN (International Standard Book
Number) and doi (digital object identifier) indicates the original resource in a digital library or
publisher’s website (Figure 1 [See the previous page]). The database is available at
http://www.koutaigeki.org/rdb.
The final goal of the RNMH-iii is to develop a shared knowledge base and research community for
RNMH studies. Project members will be asked to provide bibliographic information. Members’
cooperation is essential for the successful and sustainable development of the RNMH-iii.

46

ΖγҠɼнʭ
ABSTRACTS

ΖγӶΈԩԚԛRESEARCH TEAM A01

ΖγӶΈ ԩԚԛ
ϾŴѱʡXƨR=ʬëÅʥë[ǑϽвŗ[ǜя΃ΖγRESEARCH TEAM A01
Archaeological Research of the Learning Behaviors of the
Neanderthals and Early Modern Humans47ϾŴǑѱʡXjUR=ʬëÅʥëǑϽвŗ[ǜя΃ΖγмΤНǗ
˔éƹǑϫŽΖγŤ͔ԈϾŴǑͣ  [Ζγ\ԗŇȓȝUžF=ԗұѼÆ¬Æԕ Ԗĺ˗XƨR=ʬëÅʥë[ǑϽ¤Â[˫ъԗ͖ǚұѼX8?rǑϽвŗ[ÆzԗǜԊϾŴǑl̏ʩϾŴǑ[ɞ̞vͬ5Mͤòë[ǑϽ¤Âц˗ԗU5PMÊQ[ĺӁX85SҠw
N+ Æ¬Æĺ˗\ԗʬëʥëè˃ˉ[ϾŴǑ΃яɱц˗XŎ͆v85SGGiM+G
WuOԗy¨½9p¹Æ¼yb[ʥëɲʛˉX85Sԗʥë[ɜͫUCsrΔƒϻ:ɲʛEMϟѽԗȓòvǚirAUԗCpX\KspUżơ[Ơơ[ΔƒϻU[ӑXV[o6WΊäĄͬԗè˃:ͪFM9ԗv˫ъEM+\è˃ō[ªÀvʱΜGrΖγ
T4r+AsXQ5S[ƹ;Wɖ˚\ԗмyyԗ»ÆÀ¤X8?rʥëΔƒϻ[ĸͤȓòԗҠĸͩƱ:9WqϡqҏiMAUT4rԕӎЎԗҒЮԗˍ˂Ԗ+Èʦԗ[Ζγ\ʬëÅʥë[ǑϽвŗ[Ҫ5v̎҈GrAUXΉʁԗѱGr+КƇa95ѡ͆\ԗ͖Xś¹Æ¼yơƧT/Χвˉ0Uo]srΔƒϻ:ӻĸES5r͆T4r+ś¹Æ¼y[ÒˉʬΔƒʸòX\yÂ¾Æ¾ëԗÁëWVлʞ[ëԁӥƗ:5MAU:ŀʱES8qԕŐЮԗˍ˂Ԗԗ/Χвˉ0Δƒϻ[ɭ5ɞ:ѝT4PM9XoPSǑϽвŗ[цҿjȆŹCsr+ fMÆzX85S\ԗ½̣ζ[yÂ¾Æ¾ëΔƒϻ[ȓò΃ƵŚ[˫ъXɖ˚:4PMԕмΤԖ+ƵŚ[¤Â\Ŵ̐Ĕԗԃɇԗŗ͔ΊƵŚU;uiSo=ŽЙEM+Ks\ԗyÂ¾Æ¾ë:̤ͪȫɐԗɤгvҮɁCIMAUv͔јr+fMԗɤгƵŚ\ͤͪ͛͝ɿӥ̏[вŗ¤ÂXŽЙGrj[T4rAUjŀʱEM+˄ȳXԗͤòë[ǑϽ¤Âц˗X4PS\ԗʶȓȝXǜʧEM´¾ÆÂX8?ȑʩϾŴǑ΃џˠ[Æц˗:ҠwNԕΔåd9ԗˍ˂Ԗ+K[ɖ˚\ʪXѡʠvfUiM¤ªy¸Æy͛͝ɿӥ̏[ǑϽвŗU̎҈E6rN?TW=ԗϾŴǑ΃Æ[цҿXj̤ͬE6r+

48

An archaeological study of the learning behaviors of Neanderthals and modern humans:
Report on fiscal year 2013
Yoshihiro Nishiaki
The University Museum, The University of Tokyo
As of 2012, the main activities of the team A01 during the fiscal year 2013 consist of three types ofarchaeological research relating to various facets of the learning behaviors of Neanderthals andmodern humans as well as the replacement of these two groups of populations.
First, analyses using the database of archaeological records from the Middle and Upper
Paleolithic in Afro-Eurasia were conducted with a particular emphasis on clarifying the time-spacecontexts of lithic assemblages at the interface period. Remarkable progress was made on defining thetiming of emergence of the earliest Upper Paleolithic assemblages in regions of West Asia andEurope and their distribution across different environments (Kadowaki, Kondo, this volume). On theother hand, a literature survey of related sites in Northern Eurasia showed a different picture of thereplacement and/or transition due to the spread of different indigenous industries that were probably
made by multiple populations (Kato, this volume).
Second, the stratified Mousterian lithic assemblages from Dederiyeh Cave, Syria, wereanalyzed in relation to the reconstructed environmental changes (Nishiaki). Analysis of the available
records revealed a correlation between the variability in lithic technology, settlement patterns,
subsistence, and changes in the local and regional environments, providing an example of how
Neanderthals responded to their changing environment through cultural strategies. The analysis also
showed that Neanderthal behavioral changes identified at Dederiyeh can be interpreted using models
developed from studies of modern hunter-gatherers.
The third type of research concerns an analysis of ethnoarchaeological data that facilitatesinterpretation of the learning behaviors of prehistoric hunter-gatherers. Field data collected among ahunter-gatherer society in eastern Cameroon in 2012 was analyzed. The learning processes involvedin spear manufacturing technology (Ishii, this volume) and the function of hearths for daily activities
were set up as the focus of analysis.

49¬½yX8?r¦½¶Æ¢Å{Â½Æ[эǚUʬëӥƗŐЮ Ťʠş́ҨƹǑ y{Åĥÿ̏ΖγÂÆˍȓȝ\ԗΖγʒʊƌT4rӍ̛́˹:ÕXӣʁơƧT4rÒƜśҷ[ұѼÆ[ŰӥU DB b[ĨŎvƚPM+śƹÆ³UES\ԗ¬½yơƧT[ʥMWΖγɖ˚lұѼÆ[ώˠvҠiM+óÌԗíȓȝ[̠ΈCsrΖγŗƀ[Èҷvɖ˚Ƭƅ[ÈҷUESϛîGr+ ¬½yX8?rÒˉʬΔƒ{Â½Æ\ԗƹ;=ԝQ[ơƧ΃ĺȌ:ΒpsS5
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50

The Sibiryachikha industry and Neanderthals in Altai
KATO Hirofumi
Center for Ainu & Indigenous Studies, Hokkaido University
The main achievements of our team research in 2013 is the investigation of sites date in Northern
China and the confirmation of site date in Northern Eurasia. The investigation of site dates from
Northern China is mainly conducted by Dr. Naganuma, who is a research associate in Hokkaido
University. In this report, I would like to show some of current progress of Middle Paleolithic
studies in Siberia.
The Middle Paleolithic industries in Siberia have been found in the three main areas: the Ural
mountain, Mountain Altai and Southern part of East Siberia. Southern parts of Siberia, especially,
the Altai are the best-investigated area in Siberia. In the Altai, as a result of 30 years of studies, innine cave sites as well as ten open-air sites, the chronological interval from 100 to 30 ka BP well
represented.
At Denisova Cave, the earliest artefacts presumably attributable to the Late Acheulian periodof the early Middle Paleolithic were found in stratum 22 radiocarbon dated to 282±56 ka by RTL
dating method. Strata 20 to 12 are Middle Paleolithic and strata 11 and 9 belong to the Upper
Paleolithic. The earliest strata 22 and 21 with artefacts demonstrating the Levallois technique aredated to 280–150 ka. On the basis of presence of these variations, Middle Paleolithic industries in
the Altai have been classified into two major industries: industries with predominantly Mousterian
technology and industries with distinct Levallois tools.
The lithic complex from Okladnikov cave is quite unique, in considering the Middle to Upper
Paleolithic transition in the Altai. A distinct feature of the industry from Okladnikov Cave differs
principally from all other Middle Paleolithic assemblages of the Altai: it looks more Mousteroid andcontains a large number of convergent scrapers of the déjeté type. The time range of the lithic
complex falls within the range of c.45–40 ka. By that time, the Karakol and Kara-Bom variants ofthe early Upper Paleolithic culture had already formed in the Altai, whereas the Okladnikov industry
was dominated by Mousteroid artefacts with a minor proportion of Upper Paleolithic tools.
In 2007, S.V. Markin discovered the Chagyrskaya Cave in southwestern Altai. Excavations
continued in 2008 and 2009. The Chagyrskaya lithic assemblage is analogous to the Okladnikov
industry both in primary reduction strategy and typological characteristics. For a long time, it was
hard to find an explanation for the phenomenon of the Okladnikov Paleolithic complex. Whereas theUpper Paleolithic culture had already formed over a large part of the Altai territory, synchronous
Okladnikov and Chagyrskaya complexes possessed a Mousteroid character. This industry was
entirely different in terms of technology and typology as “Sibiryachikha” industry. The
Sibiryachikha industry represented by two sites were clearly associated with a small group of
Neanderthals who migrated from Central Asia.
In Siberia, several fossil remains have been found, especially from the Altai caves. As a result,
it is now clear that Neanderthals, Denisovans and modern human once occupied the region. Ancient
DNA from Denisovans suggests that their home range once stretched far beyond the Altai, into
eastern and southeast Asia. A consideration of the Middle to Upper Paleolithic transition in Siberia,
indicates a more complex aspects.
We have to consider the timing of human migration and its geographical routes in Eurasia.
Also it is important that reconstruct human environments around Neanderthals and Modern humanin Eurasia based on isotopic analysis and faunal remains.

51мyyX8?rÒҷʬΔƒʸòˌ9pËҷʬΔƒʸòŇŠb[ϾŴʠŚ[Ƶү[
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Re-examination of archaeological records during the terminal Middle Palaeolithic and theearly Upper Palaeolithic in west Asia: A view of lithic technological variability
Seiji Kadowaki
University Museum, Nagoya University
Current genetic, fossil and archaeological records collectively suggest that Homo sapiens dispersed
into Eurasia during ca. 50-35kya cal. BP, ultimately resulting in the demise or assimilation of local
archaic hominins. To examine whether any difference in learning behavior between Homo sapiens
and archaic hominins contributed to this anthropological processes, we focused on archaeologicalrecords in west Asia during this period, which corresponds to the terminal Middle Palaeolithic toearly Upper Palaeolithic. More specifically, we examined two lithic industries, i.e., the Emiran andthe Early Ahmarian, which many researchers investigated regarding their origins, variability, andrelevance to lithic industries in Europe. Some researchers suggest that these west Asianarchaeological cultures diffused into Europe accompanying the dispersal of Homo sapiens. If thisinterpretation is valid, it raises an interesting question of how such technological/cultural innovations
emerged in west Asia with implications to learning behaviors and their surrounding physical/social
environments. To examine this issue, we analyzed temporal and spatial variability of core reduction
methods (particularly, blank morphology and flaking direction) of lithic assemblages, expecting
these variables are suitable for more detailed study of human behavioral diversity than conventional
units of lithic industries. As a basis of temporal and spatial comparisons, we used published data on
stratigraphic sequences and radiocarbon dates compiled in our archaeological database (Neander
DB), as well as the results of our fieldwork at an Upper Palaeolithic site of Wadi Kharar 16R,
northern Syria. As a result, the following observations were obtained.
The Emiran industry includes two techno-typologically distinct groups: one represented byBoker Tachtit Levels 1-2, and the other represented by the Ksar Akil Phase 1. Although these twogroups are often interpreted as regional variations, we argue that they also involve chronologicaldifferences. It should be noted that relatively young dates (44-41kya cal. BP) and the production ofbeads and bone tools at Üçağɩzlɩ and Ksar Akil are associated with the latter group (a later phase?)of the Emiran, while those interpreted as origins of the Bohunician and Bachokirian in Europe
correspond to the former group (an older phase?) of the Emiran.
The Early Ahmarian involves, at least, two techno-typologically different groups: one
represented by the Ksar Akil Phase 2 and the other called “the Ahmarian of the marginal zone”.
Although they are usually interpreted as representing regional variability, they may also represent
chronological differences. Anyway, it is important to note their technological differences if one
regards the Ahmarian as the origin of the Proto-Aurignacian in Europe. It is the Ahmarian of themarginal zone, instead of the Ksar Akil Phase 2, that resembles the Proto-Aurignacian in Europe. To
clarify this problem, we need to increase radiocarbon dates for the Ahmarian of the marginal zone
because most of them were measured before the AMS method.
In summary, behavioral records of the early Upper Palaeolithic in west Asia are likely toinclude greater variability than that represented by conventional units of lithic industries, i.e., theEmiran and the Early Ahmarian. Thus, it is necessary to employ more detailed scales for their
examination and comparison with the European records. For this purpose, we focused on lithic
production technology and examined its temporal and spatial patterns in greater details.

53ʫˍľǿ®µÅ§Â[ʠŚҠŚõͭ ƹëӫǺǑәƹǑ ʠǑҷǑϽôћT\ʥë®µÅ§Â[ϾŴʠŚ\ʬëyÂ¾Æ¾[KsX=pcS

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54

The cultural evolution of Homo sapiens in the Japanese archipelago
Hiroto NAKATA
College of Literature, Aoyama Gakuin University
It is said that the archaeological culture of the Homo sapiens is different from that of the
Neanderthals in terms of the nature of its culture and its cultural process. I examined this model by
the archaeological evidence from Japan. Archaeological evidence about the extinct human fossil andtheir archaeological industry is unclear in Japan. So, I focused to examine the nature of culture andchange of evolutionary rate associated with the Homo sapiens. I described such issue with the pointof view from the way of making knife shaped tool that is one of the typical hunting weapon in
Japanese Palaeolithic.
I define the following three epochs; First epoch is, at 38-35ka. The core reduction systemchanged narrow-faced core to rotated blade core, increasing the various types of knife shaped tool.
Second, at 29-25ka. Stone tool assemblage underwent some change caused by the eruption and theash fall. Especially, the Kou type industry originated from western part of Japan diffused through thenortheast. Third, after 25ka. The projectile point production started as well as knife shaped tool
production. The most important phase in these three epochs is the Aira eruption. The change of stone
tool industry was very slowly prior to the eruption. Each span is expected to be approximately
3000-5000 years. After erupted the Aira caldera, the situation changed completely. When the Kou
industry expanded from western part of Japan around 29ka, the indigenous lithic industry contained
a variety of Kou industry based on wide flake technology and created new tool inventory. It has beenfound that the dating of these improved industries were different from each other. Hereafter until
22ka, the production of knife shaped tool has temporal change for 1000 to 2000 years. Many of themshow tendencies toward point production. Finally, typical tool type has taken over leaf point fromknife shaped tool.
Taking a closer look at the cultural change from the view of the Knife shaped tool, it seems
that eruption and AT (Aira-Tn) ash fall has caused the change of tool production. The technologicalchange rate is more quickly than before the AT ash fall. The new tool type such as projectile point
was finally developed. The effect of the eruption has been discussed in many times so far. In thatcase, the researchers has been mainly argued whether the regional lithic industry was continued or
discontinued. In terms of cultural evolution, it can be said that the eruption made the evolutionaryrate of lithic industry fast and caused improvement of the stone tool assemblage. The reason may be
the fact that the cultural innovation caused the response to cooling weather and the interaction ofhuman population.

55ɧ˳ƒvͬ5M˳ɧ@X8?rɧǮхUҥŗ

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56

The release angle and kinetic energy transfer in spear throwing with a spear thrower
Yasuo Higurashi (Invited Researcher)
Graduate School of Human Sciences, Osaka University
The spear thrower is a tool that increases the effectiveness of spear throwing. It consists of a shaft
with a hook or socket at the end that propels the tail of the spear. Spear throwers have been used for
hunting since prehistory. Although it is uncertain whether the emergence of this tool preceded thereplacement of Neanderthals by modern human, the use of spear throwers improved hunting
efficiency and broadened the range of prey species. Advantages over the hand-cast spear have been
claimed, but some of these arguments are based on qualitative observations. This study quantified
the advantages of the spear thrower, investigating the relationship between the release angle andkinetic energy transfer. Subjects threw a spear horizontally or obliquely with or without a spear
thrower. Javelin and body movements during throwing were analyzed using an accelerometer and avideo-based motion-capture system. How the characteristics of the spear thrower shown in this study
work in a real hunting situation are discussed. This study is a part of the project “Reconstruction of
Hunting Behavior with Projectile Weapons in Neanderthals and Early Modern Humans Based on
Differences in Skeletal Morphology”.

57

58

ΖγҠɼнʭ
ABSTRACTS

ΖγӶΈԩԚԜRESEARCH TEAM A02

ΖγӶΈԩԚԜ
͛͝ɿӥ̏[џˠXƨR=¥[ǑϽвŗ[͖ɇ[ǜя΃ΖγResearch Team A02
A Study of Human Learning Behavior Based on Fieldwork
Among Hunter-Gatherers59Ξ÷ɇ[ҠŚUǑϽЍŎ[ҠŚǪȁ ΢ʱΡəǑәƹǑ ëʠǑҷíȓȝ[ΖγўӽUESԗ&вµ¾[ϾǨԗ'yÂ¾Æ¾΃ǑϽ9p§Â΃ǑϽÅʚЇb[ΧyÂ¾Æ¾U§Â[ͪ˭³XӒGrͪɐ΃µ¾[ϾǨԗ( РгÅġΝÅ Â¯½³[ȯŋUǑϽÅʚЇ[ӒuqXQ5S[ϾǨvɶ@M+Asp[ϾǨvқESyÂ¾Æ¾9p§Âb[ǑϽвŗ[ƵŚvɥʈ

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60

Sociality and learning ability: An evolutionary perspective
Hideaki Terashima
Faculty of Humanities and Sciences, Kobe Gakuin University
The main research theme for this year is to make clear the difference of learning performance
between Neanderthals and Homo sapiens through wide and thorough comparisons of thebio-ecological, social and cognitive systems and their connection to learning capacity.
However, since it is impossible to observe directly the Neanderthal’s behavior, we firstinvestigate the difference of the learning capacity of modern humans and non-human primates, inparticular chimpanzees, and try to locate the Neanderthals on the spectrum of learning capacity from
non-human primates to Homo sapiens drawing on substantial and theoretical evidences fromarchaeology and cognitive sciences.
Modern humans show very strong sociality as skills to live together with co-species. Among
Homo sapiens, many kinds of interaction develop such as mutual cognition, communication,solidarity, sharing and generosity, exchange of gifts, collaboration, cohabitation, collective eating,cooperative childcare, and so on.

All of these amicable and intimate interactions contribute to

make human bio-ecological system and social organizations such adaptive to various ecological andsocial environments.
The development of sociality is closely related to the enhancement of learning behavior interms of motivations, opportunities, methods, and effects. Participation in communal activities
provides motivations and opportunities for social learning. Mutual cognition of learning andteaching intention is indispensable for cultural education, a kind of unique learning process forhumans. Without the bond of trust, there would be no way for effective teaching. Althoughchimpanzees have various learning behaviors, they practice less learning in social and communal
settings, and the least in teaching relationship. For Neanderthals the evidences of their sociality andcooperative behavior would inform us about their learning capacity, but there are scarce evidence on
sharing, communal activities, and transactions between persons and different groups.
Human beings are also good at finding social relationship not only among humans, but also
between humans and natural world, and even between natural phenomena. Ethno-biological studies
show contemporary hunter-gatherers’ meticulous observation on natural world that sometimes goes
far beyond the knowledge in modern sciences. Based on such intensive and extensive observation
many stories featured with various metaphorical meanings are produced and narrated. The ability ofimagination that creates social bonds between natural things has contributed much to the birth ofsymbolism and might have led to rock paintings of marvelous pictures of wild animals in the latepalaeolithic caves. The development of symbolic and abstract thought might thus have set a higher
step in learning capacity, i.e. meta-cognition and meta-learning in modern humans.

61

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62

Learning process on the skills of reading nature
Kaoru Imamura
Faculty of Economics, Nagoya Gakuin University
The foraging strategy of the Neanderthals is supposed to have centered around large mammals. On
the other hand, the tool manufacturing industry of early modern humans have shown a clear trend to
the diversification of food items, which shows the development of cognitive capacity on theirenvironment and food resources, i.e., nature.

The innovation of the skills of ‘reading nature’ might

have occurred in modern humans. To understand the characteristics of learning the skills of reading
nature, this study focuses on learning process of hunting skills among children of the San,
hunter-gatherers in the Kalahari desert of southern Africa.
San are well-known as large game hunters shooting with a bow and arrow, and/or a spear.
However, they get meat animals, not only large but also middle and small size animals and birds, byvarious methods, especially by snares. Traps provide a stable supply of animal meat. I collected
information about traps. The results are:1) They have many kinds of traps for large game such as gemsbok and kudu, middle size mammals
such as duiker and steenbok, small mammal such as mongoose and ground squirrel, middle and large
size birds such as ostrich, kori bustard and korhaan, and small birds.
2) Not only men but also women use snares especially for middle and large sized birds.
3) Boys play with trapping small animals.
Focusing on boys hunting, they use snares for small animals and middle size birds, a toy bow
and arrow for birds and lizards, a slingshot for small animals, birds and lizards, and traps withwaylay for catching small birds. On the other side, girls learn how to set snares for birds when they
go gathering with women. To get technique for traps children must know the behavior of animal andwhich vegetables animal eat. They learn ‘skills of reading nature’ by hunting.

63Ҥ_[ВΥǑßå ûǐɎΒ΋ιƹǑ
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µ §{ŲǢāUΞ÷΃Ҥ_[ӒčWVԖԕÒȂ, 2012Ԗ+ʠŚëԁǑ8o_Ξ÷Ǒ[ф͆X8?rԗëԁ[Ʒ˴WҤ_XоpsrʺҦɇUʠŚ΃ƛˆɇ[ͦѡ\ԗ/Ҥ_[ВΥǑ0[ͦѡXoPSCpXйȨCsrŶЍɇ:4rԕ{»Á, 1990; ßåϭ, 2009Ԗ+Ҥ_[ǚϼvi>PS\ԗ/As\Ҥ_T4r0U[´Å²¸ÆºÂXoPS˵ѥCsM4pmrвŗvҤ_UоWGΖγ[ιƭjǏƠGr:ԗKspjfMԗВΥǑ[ф͆T˫яCs6rͤѪT4rT4t6ԕ¬{Â, 1986Ԗ+/Ҥ_Ƚ0:ԗëԁX8?
rʠŚ[ӯʥUŌҝɇ[нƖ[^UQT4rUˉȱGrWp]ԗfMԗUqu?

yÂ

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GrËT˼9IW5ΖγĺӁUWrUϾ7psr+
{»Á, À~. 1958=1990. ƷͭҨƻҶÅƮȀȕƼю1Ҥ_Uëӑ2˔é: ѤѠΞ.
ßåûǐϭ. 2009.1Ҥ_[ëԁǑAU\Fi: ¨zÆ¾Tĸ÷PM-ǎVj.MO2éҺ:ʷƊƪ.
ÒȂʜǎ. 2012. /ВUҤ_0ǽͭљÅ̙ː̴ϭ1ВUyÆ: ɏсUеͤ[ВΥǑ2˔é: ŝǑ˂ә. 197-210.
¬{Â, ¿½Æ. 1972=1986. Āù̡˹ÅĀЮНʱÅԌ˺ƊÖю1ώΡ[ͪɐǑ2˔
é: ɅϘΞ.

64

Brain science on play
KAMEI Nobutaka
Aichi Prefectural University
If play activities are phenomena that are widely observed both among humans and animals, it ispossible to regard them as behaviors acquired in the process of evolution.
analyze and understand play behaviors in the aspect of brain science.

It is also important toRecent brain science argues

the relationships between categories of play behaviors and particular parts of the brain (for example,
the positive correlation between the frequency of social play and the size of the cerebellum among
several species of mammals).

Also, it is pointed out that some neurotransmitters and receptors are

related with particular categories of play (for example, the relationship between the µ-opioid
receptor and the social play) (Nakagawa, 2012).

The theory of universality and cultural

particularity found among diverse play of humans in the viewpoint of cultural anthropology andsociology can be reinforced with the theory of “brain science on play” (Caillois, 1957; Kamei ed.,2009).

There exist researches that define play as any behaviors that are marked bymeta-communication of "this is play" (Bateson, 1972).
the viewpoint of brain science.

These phenomena also can be examined in

If we expect playful mind as one of the factors of cultural

innovation and creativity among the humans, especially as the factor of the different history of H.
neanderthalensis and H. sapiens, “brain science on play,” perhaps with the “genetics on play” as its
background, will become indispensable area of research for the investigation of human evolution.
Bateson, Gregory. 1972. Steps to an ecology of mind: Collected essays in anthropology, psychiatry,evolution, and epistemology. San Francisco: Chandler Pub. Co.
Caillois, Roger. 1957. Les jeux et les hommes. Paris: Gallimard.
Kamei, Nobutaka ed. 2009. Introduction to the anthropology of play: Encounters with "children" in
the fields. Kyoto: Showado.
Nakagawa, Atsuko. 2012. Brain and play. In: Iwata, Makoto & Mitsuru Kawamura (eds.), Brain andarts. Tokyo: Igaku Shoin. 197-210.

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66

Ritualistic treatments, way-finding practices, and transmission of knowledge and skills
Akira Takada
The Graduate School of Asian and African Area Studies, Kyoto University
In fiscal year 2013, I promoted the following works based on the research data collected so far.
(1) The G|ui and G||ana, two neighboring groups of San, have been marginalized within theregionalized social structure of Botswana. Although they perform relatively few religious services or
ceremonies, they do engage in various preventive and curative treatments that have a number ofritualistic aspects. One remarkable example is the chebama treatment, which originated among theneighboring Kgalagadi people and is used as a treatment for abnormal delivery (Imamura 2010).
Abnormal birth is thought to lead to chest disease in the parents and child after birth. To avoid this,based on their folk pathology, they engage in the chebama treatment, which symbolically reiterates
birth. In 1997, the Botswana government relocated most of the G|ui and the G||ana to outside theirtraditional living area. The chebama treatment became widely practiced in the new settlement. In
this context, the chebama treatment should be understood not simply as a treatment for abnormaldelivery but also as a means of addressing broader discords in social relationships that have arisen in
the new settlements. Moreover, the practices were influenced by a number of demographic andsocioeconomic conditions, such as increased access to cash income and greater geographic
proximity to the medicine man. The chebama treatment, through which people symbolically re-enact
birth, is thus an attempt to contend with the social anxiety associated with resettlement. The patternof diffusion of this treatment suggests the mechanism of cultural transmission of knowledge andskills betwen hunter-gatherers and agro-pastoralists.
(2) In this study I will discuss about relationship between environmental knowledge and land among
hunter-gatherers, particularly the G|ui and G||ana of the Central Kalahari. The G|ui and G||ana have
lived in the central part of the Kalahari Desert, although Botswana’s development program has
encouraged them to live in permanent settlements and has had a major impact on their lifestyle.
Their spatial cognition is complemented by a multi-scaled integration of folk knowledge that enables
them to acquire ample bush food by moving frequently and flexibly within their immense living area,
now encompassed by the Central Kalahari Game Reserve. When they move through the bushveld,
they sometimes mark the environment. For instance, a hunter tracking an animal may leave twigs on
the ground to communicate the direction of his movement to his followers. However, thesemodifications to surroundings are limited primarily to simple, practical signs and rarely reach thesystematic articulation of sacred significance. This is because they are oriented to attuning theiracute senses to the complicated spatiotemporal structure of their surroundings rather than to trying tocontrol nature through grasping its entirety. For the G|ui and G||ana, n!oo (translated as “land”)
refers to a particular place in which a variety of cultural meanings operate. The cultural meanings arecontinuously constructed via unfolding social interactions embedded in the natural environment.

67

68

ΖγҠɼнʭ
ABSTRACTS

ΖγӶΈԪԚԛ
Research Team B01

ΖγӶΈԪԚԛ
¥[ǑϽЍŎ[ҠŚµ¾[ΖγResearch Team B01
Research on Evolutionary Models of Human Learning
Abilities

69

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Modeling the evolution of parental altruistic teaching
Kenichi Aoki 1, Joe Yuichiro Wakano 2, Marcus W. Feldman 3
1

Organization for the Strategic Coordination of Research and Intellectual Properties, Meiji

University
2

School of Interdisciplinary Mathematical Sciences, Meiji University

3

Department of Biology, Stanford University

There is currently a vigorous debate on how to define and identify teaching in nonhuman animals,
and indeed also in humans.

In its barest essentials, the operational definition of teaching due toCaro and Hauser (1992) entails that a knowledgeable individual (the “teacher”) alters its behavior in
the presence of a naïve individual (the “pupil”), suffering a cost to do so, and thereby promotessocial learning of beneficial knowledge or skill by that naïve individual.

The psychologicalmechanisms that support teaching, given that it occurs, are likely to differ across the taxonomicorders.

Nevertheless, this operational definition provides a useful framework for modeling theevolution of teaching.
Empirical surveys of teaching in nonhuman animals suggest that in a significant fraction of thepossible examples parents teach their offspring.

Hence, the parent-child relationship is arguably

the most important setting in which the evolution of teaching occurs.

We are particularly interested

in the balance of selective forces that resulted in the emergence of teaching in (some?) hominids.
The spatial distributions of refitted lithic materials from archaeological sites may suggest thatteaching occurred in modern humans but not in Neanderthals.

If teaching evolved in hominids

after the separation from the chimpanzee lineage—teaching is at best extremely rare inchimpanzees—then it evolved in the context of a hunter-gatherer life history.

Anthropologicalresearch on present-day hunter-gatherers suggests a developmental change in social learning from areliance on vertical transmission to oblique and/or horizontal transmission, which can occur between
non-kin and is thus expected to disfavor the evolution of teaching.
Our theoretical work in progress shows the following.

1. Teaching is more likely to evolve if

the beneficial knowledge or skill can be maintained in the population in the absence of teaching.

2.

Oblique transmission occurring after vertical transmission does not change the conditions forteaching to invade.

However, horizontal transmission results in more stringent conditions.

Environmental change makes it more difficult for teaching to evolve.

713.

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Formation of cooperative societies rescues risk-taking innovators and leads to rapid cultural
evolution
Ryosuke Kimura1 and Wataru Nakahashi2
1

Graduate School of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus

2

School of Advanced Sciences, Graduate University for Advanced Studies

Human culture is highly developed, which is the most important cause of our great success as a
species. To develop culture, innovation is essential. However, theoretical studies have pointed out
that, in the presence of imitation (social learning) strategy, risk-taking innovation behaviors do notsurvive and thus cultural evolution is not promoted. Therefore, some model will be required to breaksuch a paradox. In this study, we suggested using computer simulations that, in a resource-sharing
society, risk-taking innovators can survive in the population and drive cultural evolution. In addition,
the simulations demonstrated that, when the number of individuals in each sharing group is large, theproportion of innovators and the rate of cultural evolution in the total population increase. These
results indicate the possibility that formation of cooperative societies, rescuing risk-taking
innovators, was associated with evolution of the human learning strategy and ability. It has beensuggested that the Neanderthals had cooperative societies. Therefore, the size of sharing groups may
be one of the factors that sealed the fates of two species, Neanderthals and Homo sapiens.

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74

Estimation of the effect of traumatic injuries on Neanderthal culture
Wataru Nakahashi
School of Advanced Sciences, Graduate University for Advanced Studies
In many cases, we have to train our body to master cultural skills. More advanced cultural skills are
generally more difficult to master and demand more training. Therefore, if an individual suffers aserious traumatic injury on a body part that associates with an advanced cultural skill, thereafter
he/she may not hold the skill. Different from learning abilities, we can quantitatively estimate its
effect on Neanderthal culture by using fossil data. We consider a difficult advanced cultural skill, forexample, small animal hunting by complex projectile weapons, which may have been absent in
Neanderthal society and may have first appeared in modern human society. Since it demands highly
trained body motions, when an individual suffers a serious traumatic injury that reduces bodyfunction or eyesight, he/she cannot hold some of necessary techniques and therefore the skill
becomes meaningless and lost. Moreover, only matured adults can learn the skill by close and longcommunication with a teacher individual who can demonstrate the skill. To maintain a skill in a
population, before a skilled individual injures or dies to lose the skill, he/she must transmit the skill
more than one pre-skilled non-injured individual. When injury rate is high, two possibility increase,possibility of injury of a skilled individual and possibility that a learner already injured, so that it
becomes difficult to maintain the skill in the population. If loss of skill by injury never occurs, theskill can be maintained in the population provided each individual communicates with more than
one learner, but when it occurs, more number of learners is necessary. From Neanderthal fossil data,
I estimated that the frequency of individuals who suffered serious injury that inhibited holding theadvanced skill at their death is around 0.5-0.6. Including this value into a mathematical model, I
estimated that communicating more than five individuals during adulthood is necessary for
maintaining the advanced cultural skill in Neanderthal society. If the skill is more difficult or lost byless serious injuries, the necessary number of individuals increases. It is argued that Neanderthals
had patrilocal mating behavior and their social units consisted of around ten individuals. If theargument is correct, it may have been difficult to transmit the advanced cultural skill to more than
five individuals during adulthood. In conclusion, even if Neanderthals had the same learning abilities
as present-day humans, it was difficult for them to maintain advanced cultural skills that were asdifficult as the skill of small animal hunting by complex projectile weapons because of high injury
rate and small number of communicable individuals in Neanderthal society.

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Evolution and functions of art strategy in the Replacement and the present
Shiro Horiuchi
Yamagata University, COC Promotion Office
The art heritages tell us the difference between Homo sapiens and Neanderthals. The former
engaged in arts, whereas the latter did not. Archaeologists are still discussing why the former createdrock arts or the statue of Venus and which functions the arts had in time of the Replacement. This
study assumes that Homo sapiens, owing to their arts, could have exchanged various resources with
distant groups otherwise impossible. In other words, art enabled long-distance trade, which was alsocharacteristic of the Homo sapiens absent in the Neanderthals.
In order to clarify the environmental conditions in which individuals likely engage in arts, thestudy runs an agent based model simulation. In the model, multiple agents inhabit in
one-dimensional space. The agents allocate their time either to life strategy or art strategy. As theyuse more time in life strategy, they gain more resources there. As they use more time in art strategy,
they more likely succeed in exchanging resources with other agents of distant areas. As the distance
between agents involved in exchange is longer, the value of resources is smaller for the focal agents.
The simulations show that if the value of resources of distant areas is valued intermediate, a few
agents specialize in art strategy, so that all agents in sum gain great resources owing to the artists ascoordinators. The results suggest that art strategy likely evolves in the environmental conditions
where disturbances are not so frequent.
In order to clarify which functions arts have in the contemporary rural areas of Japan, thisstudy analyzes the data of questionnaire surveys on kagura groups in the Eastern area of Kyushu. It
divided the kagura groups into three, (1) the groups where the number of both dancers and audience
have decreased, (2) the groups where the number of either dancers or audience has increased and theaudience mainly composes of the residents, (3) the groups where the number of either dancers oraudience has increased and the audience includes more than a few tourists. This study assumes thegroups (3) perform arts, since the groups exhibit their kagura to outsiders. Comparing with thegroups (1), in the groups (2) the dancers find their kagura as more fun, but less friendship among theresidents. Comparing with groups (1), in the groups (3) the dancers less likely study their local
tradition but find their kagura more fun, their friendly relation with outsiders, and settlement ofyoung residents into their area. This study hence suggests that in mountainous areas wheredepopulations are serious problems, arts contribute to the local communities open to outsiders andcause young residents’ involvement into the communities.

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S5rUоpsr+ˍͿеT\ԗSiglec-11/Siglec-16 ­yƤŲǢā[¥В²À½yT[ĸͤUϤŽƾџͻU[Ӓč9pԗ¥ϑϤT[ӥƗUES[ǑϽЍŎ[ҠŚXQ5SϾ
ǨGr+

78

Emergence of Siglec paired receptors in the human brain and the evolution of learning abilityof population in the human lineage
Toshiyuki Hayakawa
Faculty of Arts and Science, Kyushu University
Learning through social communication is essential for the transmission of culture and civilization inmodern human populations. Schizophrenia is one of the mental disorders, and people suffering fromschizophrenia have trouble in social communication. It is therefore considered that learning throughsocial communication is disrupted by the onset of schizophrenia.
Sialic acids are a family of nine-carbon sugars that are found at the terminal end of glycan
chains on cell surface. Siglec-11 is a sialic-acid receptor that gained expression on brain microglia
uniquely in the human lineage, and shows a neuroprotective function in brain immunity. It has beensuggested that Siglec-11 is involved in schizophrenia. A mutation that conferred the brain expressionof Siglec-11 occurred about one million years ago. It is therefore possible that the neuroprotectivefunction of Siglec-11 reduced the risk of schizophrenia and enhanced the learning ability of
population in the later stage of human evolution.
Further analysis of Siglec-11 revealed that Siglec-11 functions as paired receptors withSiglec-16 on human brain microglia. Interestingly, Siglec-16 gained brain expression uniquely in thehuman lineage as well as Siglec-11. Siglec-11/Siglec-16 paired receptors contribute to thefine-tuning of immune responses of human brain microglia, and seem to be involved inschizophrenia. I will discuss about the role of Siglec-11/Siglec-16 paired receptors in the evolutionof learning ability of population in the human lineage.

79

80

ΖγҠɼнʭ
ABSTRACTS

ΖγӶΈ 
Research Team B02

ΖγӶΈ 
ʬëÅʥëʸδĺȌU̐ĔƵŗ[ӒҞɇ[ĺ˗Research Team B02
Reconstructing the Distribution of Neanderthals and Modern
Humans in Time and Space in Relation to Past Climate
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83

Reconstructing the distribution of Neanderthal and Modern Human in time and space inrelation to past climate change
Minoru YONEDA1, Ayako ABE-OUCHI2, Yusuke YOKOYAMA2, Hodaka KAWAHATA2, andTakashi OGUCHI3
1 The University Museum, The University of Tokyo
2 Atmosphere and Ocean Research Institute, The University of Tokyo
3 Center for Spatial Information Science, The University of Tokyo
In this project B02, the collaboration between anthropology, archaeology, geophysics, geochemistry,and geographical information science is conducting. Especially, the novel estimation of archaic andmodern human distribution and the paleoclimate map will our basic information to understand theback ground of difference in cognitive evolution of archaic human, such as Neanderthals, andmodern human, i.e. Homo sapiens. However, both distribution maps of human species and climate
including vegetation are still challenging and we are developing new methods in this project for thisgoal. Our research group B02 are now involved in the following three projects; (1) new estimation ofhuman occupational regions based on corrected chronological information, (2) development of highspatial resolution map of past climate based on a atmospheric-oceanic combining global model, and(3) GIS model extracting the relationships between human species distribution and paleoclimate,based on ecological niche models.
Our recent progress is including all aspects of project such as chronological approach,geophysical model approach and ecological niche model development. A novel method forcorrecting radiocarbon ages reported in previous studies is developed and applied for the dispersal oftransitional industries from the Middle to Late Paleolithic of Europa. This method revived old datawith possible contamination which can be only removed by new preparation techniques, such as
ultrafiltration for bone, wet oxidation and step combustion for charcoal, resulted in the morereasonable chronology and distribution maps of transitional Paleolithic industries with higher time
resolution. For the paleoclimate maps, a new approach referring the spatial availability of modern
climate is applied for the results of paleoclimate simulation for comparing the archaeologicalinformation and climate change. In general, this approach is able to make a map with spatial
resolution of several ten kilometers which is reasonable for archaeological discussions. Then, theapplication of ecological niche model becomes crucial to combine both distribution maps of humanoccupation and paleoclimate. In this fiscal year, an ecological niche model based on the maximum
entropy model was examined by using MaxEnt software. The comparison of published paleoclimate
data between a warmer phase at 6 ka and a cooler phase at 20 ka suggested the possible effect of theintensity of cooling, which may affect on the dispersal of modern human with new stone industries
into Europe. This tentative finding will be investigated more intensively using new reliablepaleoclimate data at 40 ka reported by our colleague in the next coming fiscal year.

84

85

Climate Linkages During the Last and Penultimate Glaciations
Stephen P. Obrochta and Yusuke Yokoyama
Atmosphere and Ocean Research Institute , The University of Tokyo
Climate was relatively unstable during the last glaciation, Marine Isotope Stages (MIS) 2-4, with
global variations linked to reorganizations in North Atlantic thermohaline circulation. Instability
appears to have been particularly related to surging of the North American Laurentide Ice Sheet(LIS) through the Hudson Strait (HS) (Hemming, 2004), producing a distinctive sedimentary recordof dolomite-rich ice-rafted debris (IRD) (Heinrich, 1988) that was deposited in the North Atlantic
Ocean during cold Greenland stadials. Known as Heinrich Events, the largest of these (H1, H2, H4,
and H5) consistently occurred during the coldest of a series of progressively cooler Greenland
stadials (i.e, a "Bond Cycle"; Bond et al., 1992; Broecker et al., 1992). Sediment provenance anddistribution patterns indicate that the HS was the source for the icebergs, and extremely highsediment accumulation rates and detectable sea level increase at far-field locations further indicate ameasurably large mass loss of up to 15 m sle during each Heinrich Event (Yokoyama et al., 2000,
2001).
Consistent with early modeling results (Manabe and Stouffer, 1988), such a large amount offreshwater would have greatly affected North Atlantic hydrography (Bond et al., 1992), decreasing
North Atlantic deepwater (NADW) production, reducing northward heat flow, and warming theSouthern Hemisphere (Crowley, 1992), Antarctic ice core δ18O and δD indicate that the balance ofheat shifted towards the Southern Hemisphere (Blunier and Brook, 2001) While resulting North
Atlantic surface circulation changes may have been complicated (e.g., Naafs et al., 2013), southward
displacement of circulation belts, most likely due to cooling and sea ice expansion (e.g., Denton etal., 2010), is indicated by globally altered precipitation patterns with Antarctic upwelling and CO2
ventilation (e.g., Obrochta et al., 2013 and references therein).
Observational data contributing to our understanding of abrupt climate change is primarily
limited to this most recent glaciation, mainly due to the shallow depths below seafloor of last-glacial
sedimentary sequences, facilitating recovery with traditional coring devices. There are relatively few
paleoceanographic records from earlier ice ages, and the available data indicate significant
differences between the last and penultimate glaciation (MIS 6). Though a similar series of events
likely occurred during MIS 6, data from the mid North Atlantic point towards solar insolation as
having been the primary forcing. Increased deposition of volcanic glass derived from Iceland (IG)reflects sea ice expansion at times of high precession (low insolation). Concurrent with sea ice
expansion are weak Asian monsoon and Antarctic warming events on both orbital- andsuborbital-scales. Though climate records from Africa spanning the penultimate glaciation are
relatively sparse, given the climate relationships of the last glaciation (e.g., Obrochta et al., 2013),
the correspondence between North Atlantic, Asian, and Antarctic records indicates that climate

86

changes in Africa were likely similar as during the last glaciation but with overall few abruptchanges.
Blunier, T and Brook, EJ 2001. Timing of Millennial-Scale Climate Change in Antarctica andGreenland During the Last Glacial Period. Science 291(5501) 109–112.
Bond, GC et al. 1992. Evidence for massive discharges of icebergs into the North-Atlantic Ocean
during the Last Glacial Period. Nature 360(6401) 245–249.
Broecker, W et al. 1992. Origin of the northern Atlantic’s Heinrich events. Climate Dynamics 6(3)265–273.
Crowley, TJ 1992. North Atlantic Deep Water cools the Southern Hemisphere. Paleoceanography
7(4) 489–497.
Heinrich, H 1988. Origin and consequences of cyclic ice rafting in the Northeast Atlantic Ocean
during the past 130,000 years. Quaternary Research 29(2) 142–152.
Hemming, SR 2004. Heinrich events: Massive late Pleistocene detritus layers of the North Atlantic
and their global climate imprint. Reviews of Geophysics 42(1).
Manabe, S and Stouffer, RJ 1988. Two stable equilibria of a coupled ocean-atmosphere model.
Journal of Climate 1(9) 844–866.
Naafs, BDA et al. 2013. Warming of surface waters in the mid-latitude North Atlantic during
Heinrich events. Paleoceanography 28(1) 153–163.
Obrochta, SP et al. 2013. Conversion of GISP2-based sediment core age models to the GICC05
extended chronology. Quaternary Geochronology, in press.
Yokoyama, Y et al. 2000. Last ice age millennial scale climate changes recorded in Huon Peninsula
Corals. Radiocarbon 42(3) 383–401.
Yokoyama, Y et al. 2001. Coupled climate and sea-level changes deduced from Huon Peninsula
coral terraces of the last ice age. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 193(3-4) 579–587.

87

PaleoGeo (WebGIS) [ ͖ Ȼ U ʓ Ɛ ˦Ǖ Сͨ 1ÅҒЮȟÖ 2, 3ÅǱų Ԍ 11˔éƹǑ δӑɋƬΥǑΖγÂÆ2˔éȅ˭ƹǑ ƹǑәɋƬͦȅǑΖγΥ3ʫˍǑгɸК÷̺Ͽp\ʬëÅʥëʸδĺȌU̐ĔƵŗ[ӒҞɇvʱp9XGrMi[ŴͩƱɋƬ[Æ¬Æv˲χES5r+͖XˁʥÏ[̑ʠÅеǹͩƱÅ̧̢Å͔ͪÅ̐ĔÅȓò̱ǚXӒGrѡʠ[џˠơƧ[ϮȝϟȝɋƬv\FiUGrʠ͞ɋƬvӥiS;M+ӥfPMɋ
Ƭ\{ÂÆ

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88

Characteristic of the PaleoGeo (WebGIS) and its improvement
Wonsuh Song 1, Yasuhisa Kondo 2, 3, Takashi Oguchi 1
1Center for Spatial Information Science, The University of Tokyo

2

Department of Computer Science, Tokyo Institute of Technology

3

Japan Society for the Promotion of Science     

We have been compiling the PaleoGeo, WebGIS (Web-based Geographical Information System)
database, for reconstructing the distribution of Neanderthals and modern humans in time and spacein relation to past climate change. For example, we have been collecting research articles dealing
with hydrology, earth surface processes, biology, oceanology, climatology, chronology in the
Pleistocene. information about over 7500 study sites are compiled from 13 major international
journals of the above-mentioned fields of research. The data we have collected are accessible via theinternet (http://neangis.csis.u-tokyo.ac.jp/paleogeo/). The strongest point of our system is to show
the locations of the investigated sites on maps using the WebGIS. However, the number of thepaleoenvironmental studies is growing rapidly and we have to effectively cover them as many as
possible. We plan to simplify the input data (latitude, longitude, title and DOI only) to include more
publications. Currently there are more items to input, i.e., title, author, country name, site name,latitude, longitude, journal title, issue, volume, page, DOI, keywords, theme, subtheme, and age.

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90

Modeling the climate of the Late Pleistocene and comparison of simulations with
proxy-derived data
Wing-Le Chan 1, Ayako Abe-Ouchi 1, 2, Ryouta O'ishi 1, 3 and Kunio Takahashi 2
1

AORI, The University of Tokyo, Kashiwa

2

JAMSTEC, Yokohama

3

NIPR, Tachikawa

The Late Pleistocene lasted from the Eemian interglacial phase, about 130,000 years ago, to about
11,700 years ago which saw the start of the warm Holocene. The Late Pleistocene was characterized
by repeated glaciation across much of North America, northern Europe and western Siberia. During
this period, modern humans began to spread throughout the world. All other human species in
addition to many forms of megafauna also became extinct. Climate change is often cited as one
theory explaining some of these extinctions.
We employed a global climate model, MIROC (The Model for Interdisciplinary Research on
Climate), for time slice experiments within the Late Pleistocene which saw fluctuations from cold
stadials to relatively milder conditions. To capture the climatic characteristics of the stadials,
meltwater discharge from Laurentide ice sheets was simulated by freshwater forcing over the North
Atlantic Ocean. Comparisons of climate simulations with proxy-derived data can help us to evaluate
the reliability of models. Proxy data are derived from a variety of sources, including ice cores, pollen
grains, corals and lake sediments. Speleothems, mineral deposits formed inside limestone caves,contain several useful climate records like carbon and oxygen isotopes and can provide clues totemperature and precipitation, and hence paleo-monsoonal changes, over long periods of time. We
comparedour climate model results with proxy data to investigate where simulations showed good

agreement in terms of climate changes between stadials and interstadials.

91ԌΘȝȓòʂǚXƀ?MʕǮɇͅϗȓòй́[űqϝgƹ˩ѯ×Åϋͭΰ˔éƹǑ ϫŽΖγŤ͔Ԉͤòëɲʛ[ʸδĺȌvѦѡGrMiX\ԗ́ΘWʸӑɋƬ:ȾнÍŶ˼T4r+AsfTԗɗ,\ԗĐӼɇXƏӽ[4rʕǮɇͅϗԕóÌԗ14CԖȓòvV[o6X́ΘȝŚGr
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92

Approach of radiocarbon correction for high accuracy date estimation
Takayuki OMORI, Minoru YONEDAThe University Museum, The University of Tokyo
In order to discuss dispersal of modern human from a viewpoint of time-space distribution,accurate radiometric dates are required.

We have examined about how to raise the accuracy ofradiocarbon ages that have problem with the reliability, so far.

In the 7th meeting of RNMH, wepresented the correction method using age differences in sample preparations, and introduced theprovisional hypothesis about the distributions of European lithic industries with the correctedradiocarbon dates (Omori and Sano 2013).
However, the correction method had some problems in a derivation process.

In order toestablish the robust correction method, it was necessary to present a logical derivation process forthe correction function and to show the usefulness of this method.

We improved the correction

function using the simulation of 14C measurements and the Kernel density estimator of the plot data.
Using the published problematic data and the obtained correction function, for example, the date ofCampanian ignimbrite at the Castelcivita archaeological site can be estimated at ca 3.9 kyr BP(Median; 4.0-3.7 kyr BP (68.2% Probability)).
40Ar/39Ar date.

The estimated date is good agreement with

The consistency between corrected dates and results of other dating have methods

has also appeared in other many sites.
In the next year, we will move forward with a rearrangement of the date for lithic industries
related to the dispersal of Modern human.

93ƹ̧̢̐ƹȹͩµ¾UӝƧͪɐϑµ¾vͬ5MŴ˪ͪĺȌİͤUK[ÍΘǜɇѐĊƹΔ ԓƻ 1, 2ÅӖҷ Ȭǎ 2, 3ÅWing-Le Chan 21ƜιˮơΖγɜ2˔éƹǑ ƹ̧̢̐Ζγɜ3

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94

Reconstruction of paleo-vegetation distribution and evaluation of its uncertainty by using an
atmosphere ocean coupled general circulation model and a dynamic global vegetation model
Ryouta O’ishi 1, 2, Ayako Abe-Ouchi 2, 3 and Wing-Le Chan 2
1

National Institute of Polar Research2

Atmosphere and Ocean Research Institute, the University of Tokyo

3

Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology

The replacement of Neanderthals by Modern Humans has been considered to have occurred during
60,000-30,000 BP, which is also characterized by millennial scale climate change known as theDansgaard–Oeschger events. The distribution of Neanderthals and Modern Humans during thisperiod suggests correlation with that of paleo-vegetation and animals. This relation reflects thedifference between the adaptabilities of Neanderthals and Modern Humans to environmental
changes by way of their ability to hunt animals as food resources. Hence, it is important for the
RNMH project to predict distribution of fauna, flora and climate change during this period. Whenestimating fauna distribution of the past, it is necessary to evaluate the changes in flora and thuschanges in climate of the past. This can be directly achieved by examining data from sedimentproxies, e.g. pollen records and isotopes.

However, the availability of such proxies to reproduce

the distribution of flora and climate changes is limited.
In the present study, we tried to reconstruct the vegetation distribution across North Africa, theMediterranean and Europe during 60,000-30,000 BP from the results of a paleo-climate
reconstruction by using a general circulation model as input for a dynamical global vegetation model.
GCMs consume huge amounts of computational resources and so experiments are usually run using
lower resolution models whose grid sizes are not sufficiently small for anthropological studies. In
this study, we developed an “anomaly procedure” in order to incorporate features from both ahigh-resolution model and paleoclimate information. As a result of this new method, we successfully
obtained a high-resolution vegetation distribution for a specific period of the past. However, it is not
yet clear how these results can be validated against paleovegetation records. We need further
discussions on how the appropriate paleoclimate can be reproduced by the GCM and how thevegetation model results can make a robust contribution toward the RNMH project.

95

96

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ABSTRACTS

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Research Team C01

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Reconstruction of Fossil Crania Based on Three-Dimensional
Surface Modeling Techniques97yÂ¾Æ¾ŚΔӺЫԋ[ȸģUŚΔВȫɐ[ʂǚХŨ ΉҨÅƺӁ УҋÅ˩ͭ ΟîɓɕϼưƹǑ ͦȅǑҷ˻˧ȅǑΥ
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98

Digital reconstruction of Neanderthal fossil crania and estimation of fossil brain morphology
Naomichi Ogihara, Hideki Amano, Yusuke Morita
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Keio University
The goal of our group is to examine the possible differences in learning ability between
Neanderthals and early modern humans in terms of the brain anatomy. To achieve this goal, originalantemortem appearance of fossil crania that enclose the brains of the Neanderthals and early modern
humans must be correctly restored. However, during fossilization, crania are often fractured,fragmented, and deformed due to compaction and diagenesis. Furthermore, all the component
fragments of fossil crania are rarely recovered. To restore the brain morphology of fossil crania, it istherefore necessary to correctly assemble the fragments, eliminate distortions, and compensate formissing parts. So far, we have proposed basic strategies for assembly of cranial fragments,
elimination of taphonomic deformation and compensation of missing cranial portions. This year, we
worked on the virtual reconstructions of three Neanderthal crania, Amud 1, Gibraltar 1, andChapelle-aux-Saints 1 and one early Homo sapiens cranium, Cro-Magnon 1.
We also analyzed the morphological variability of the endocanial shape among the modern
Japanese population using landmark-based geometric morphometrics. On the endocranial surface,
anatomical landmarks were digitized. Equally-spaced points along the anterior boundary of theanterior cranial fossa and the inferior border of the groove for transverse sinus were also defined as
landmarks. We define sliding semi-landmarks on the entire endocranial surface based on the shortest
paths connecting pairs of anatomical landmarks and equally-spaced points along the midsagittal
curve. Therefore, the variability in endocranial shape was examined based on a total of 171
anatomical and sliding semi-landmarks. Our results demonstrated that the most noticeable shapevariance observed in the modern Japanese endocrinal shape is the brachycephalic/ dolichocephalictendency. It is also noted that the parietal region tends to be lowered as the endocranial shape islonger.
Furthermore, we developed a method to mathematically estimate brain morphology of the
Neanderthal crania in collaboration with Group C02. We derive a non-linear spatial mapping
function from a template modern human cranium to each of the fossil crania using athree-dimensional discrete cosine function, and this function was used to deform the template humanbrain to estimate the fossil brain morphology. Although our attempt is still preliminary and somemethodological limitations certainly apply, the proposed computational approach may serve as aneffective tool to aid estimating brain morphology of the fossil crania.

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100

Estimating the cerebral and cerebellar volumes of Neanderthals and Middle Paleolithic
modern humans: A preliminary study
Daisuke KUBO, Osamu KONDO
Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo
We compare the cerebro-cerebellar volume ratio as a plausible way to infer the difference incognitive ability between fossil hominids such as Neanderthals and that of modern humans.
First, we devised a new method to estimate the cerebral and cerebellar volumes of
Neanderthals and early modern humans, which was derived from the volumetric relationships
between endocranial subregions (i.e. supratentorial and posterior cranial fossa regions) and brain
components (i.e. cerebrum and cerebellum) based on MRI data of living human subjects (n=32). To
validate the accuracy of MRI measurements, the volumes of endocranial portions were calibrated bycoefficient factors derived from paired comparison between the CT and MRI measurements of thesame individuals (n=3). We found that the volumes of endocranial subregions are useful estimators
for the cerebral/cerebellar volumes.
We then applied our estimation method to the Neanderthal (n=3) and the Middle Paleolithic
modern humans from Levant (n=2). The results were partly consistent with previous reports that the
Neanderthals have relatively smaller cerebella compared to the living human sample. On the other
hand, we also found that the earlier Levantine specimens are comparable to the living human sample
in their relative cerebellar volumes. These results indicate that the Middle Paleolithic modern
humans already have had cognitive functions comparable to present-day humans while the
Neanderthals have not. However, the result is preliminary because the sample number is small andthe reconstruction of missing/damaged portions of the fossil crania is far from the best. Refinementof the reconstruction and measurement of additional fossil specimens are necessary.

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ƚԛԘ̶˵ѥ͆[҅ıƏӽ ԕѶԣ˵ѥ͆ԗӫԣ̶˵ѥ͆Ԗ
Fig.1.

Mapping problem of semi-landmarks (Red: landmarks and Blue: Semi-landmarks)102

A geodesic-based semi-landmark transfer method for shape analysis of crania
Hiromasa Suzuki1, Fumihiro Miura1, Takashi Michikawa1, Masaki Moriguchi2 and Naomichi
Ogihara3
1

Research Center for Advanced Science and Technology, The University of Tokyo

2

Department of Information Engineering, Chuo University

3

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Keio University
In morphological analysis of cranium, landmarks are used which are placed at feature points ofa cranium. They must be stored in database as fundamental description of the crania with association
to their whole shape data. On the cranium, there are regions without salient features where few
landmarks are placed. It is usually necessary to add some number of semi-landmarks to such regions.
Their locations are often computed interpolating the positions of the landmarks.
In this study, we investigate such interpolation methods for placing semi-landmarks. Our
problem setting is shown in Figure 1 [See the previous page]. Given a template model S with thelandmarks !𝑖 !and semi-landmarks!!"!and a target model T, with only its landmarks !𝑖 , obtain thepositions of the semi-landmarks !𝑗 !!on T corresponding to those on S. We are investigating amethod based on distances of the semi-landmarks to the landmarks.

103ˀӮƵȫ[ˀ@¾Æ˄ǱŚXorӺЫӑ[ǫɁ͆щτ˩ų ʰ˹ 1Åӄˊ Ǘ́ 2ÅҨȂ Ӟƴ 2ÅХŨ ΉҨ 3ÅҒЮ đ 41ÒƽƹǑ ͦȅǑҷɋƬȅǑΥ

2˔éƹǑ ĥλΥǑɤгΖγÂÆ3ɓɕϼưƹǑ ͦȅǑҷ˻˧ȅǑΥ

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104

Constructing correspondences between two crania by minimizing bending energy of surface
deformation

Masaki Moriguchi1, Hiromasa Suzuki2, Takashi Michikawa2, Naomichi Ogihara 3, Osamu Kondo4
1

Department of Information and System Engineering, Chuo University

2

RCAST, The University of Tokyo

3

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Keio University

4

Department of Biological Sciences, The University of Tokyo

Construction of correspondences between multiple crania is an important problem in the analysis offossil crania. In this research, we consider the problem of constructing correspondences between two
crania both having landmarks. The bending energy is defined for transformations from one cranium
to the other. This energy measures the “smoothness” of the transformation. By minimizing thebending energy under the constraint that each landmark is transformed to the corresponding
landmark, we obtain “smooth” transformation between the crania. This transformation gives thecorrespondences between the points on the two crania and we succeeded in computing coarse
correspondences using this method. We plan to compute denser correspondences by obtaining better
solutions of the constrained minimization problem.

105ӪӍԁ[ӺЫĮӮ[Ɵͼ9pоrВеӮȫɐǱ˘ Ӭ 1Å˕å łȟ 1ÅХŨ ΉҨ 21ӕдŝΥƹǑˡ2ɓɁϼưƹǑ

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106

Brain surface morphology inferred by intracranial impressions in primates

Yasushi Kobayashi 1, Toshiyasu Matsui 1 and Naomichi Ogihara 2
1

National Defense Medical College

2

Keio University

In the previous study, we demonstrated 1) the marked correspondence between intracranial
impressions and cerebral sulci and gyri, and 2) the close relationship between the locations of thecoronal suture and the inferior limb of the arcuate sulcus. These findings prompted us to evaluate
them in other primate species. In the present study, we scanned 16 dry skulls using a CT scanner,and reconstructed virtual endocasts to examine the correspondence between intracranial impressions
and cerebral sulci and gyri, as well as the spatial relationship between the coronal suture and cerebral
sulci.
1: Correspondence of intracranial impressions to cerebral sulci and gyri
We identified the location of major sulci on the dorsal and orbital aspects of the brain in Lemur,
Alouatta, Lagothrix, Presbytis, Pygathrix, Macaca arctoides, Macaca fascicularis, and Hylobates. In
Macaca fuscata, impressions were particularly obscure in the parietal and posterior temporal regions.
In Pan troglodytes, we observed a number of impressions on the endocasts, although thecorrespondence to the cerebral sulci was not clear except for the lateral and superior temporal sulci.
2: Relationship between the locations of the coronal suture and the arcuate sulcus
In many skulls examined, we determined the location of the coronal suture on the endocasts (reddotted line in the Figure [see the previous page]). In the Lemur, and some of the Presbytis andMacaca fascicularis, the suture was not identified due to the complete ossification of the bones. In
the other skulls, the coronal suture was located slightly posterior to the inferior limb of the arcuatesulcus (inferior portion of the precentral sulcus). For the quantitative analysis of the spatial
relationship between the coronal suture and the arcuate sulcus, we need further methodologicaldevelopment, since unambiguous determination of the central line of the cerebral sulcus is often
difficult due to the shallowness of the impressions on endocasts.

107

108

ΖγҠɼнʭ
ABSTRACTS

ΖγӶΈ 
Research Team C02

ΖγӶΈ 
ʬëÅʥë[ǑϽвŗXӒGrВ˻Ѝ±ª[ĄɖResearch Team C02
Functional Mapping of Learning Activities in Archaic andModern Human Brains109¥͖ˆ[Ҥ_[Ρϟƨ·UKsvԉŗGrΒ΃ЍŎU[ӒčÊ̦ Ή˹ 1Åͭҳ Ǘ˹ 2ÅǚЮ пȥ 31˔śȅ˭ƹǑ ȅǑҷ

2ſŴǶƹǑƹǑә ͩƱǑΖγΥ

3

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110

Neural mechanism of human’s playing and relation with the mental faculties to drive play
Naoki Miura 1, Hiroki Tanabe 2, Norihiro Sadato 3
1

Faculty of Engineering, Tohoku Institute of Technology

2

Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Nagoya University

3

Division of Cerebral Integration, National Institute for Physiological Sciences

In order to clarify the neural mechanism of human’s playing, we examined neuroimaging study
using functional magnetic resonance imaging. In this study, we defined human’s play as voluntary
behavior to pursue an intrinsic reward, and we hypothesized that a self-efficacy in a behavior and a
feedback about a difference with the goal of behavior are required to materialize the behavior as play.
We controlled those two components on the experimental tasks and a brain activity duringperforming each experimental task.
As a result, specific brain activation was observed in the basal ganglia including ventral
striatum and also ventral tegmental area, which were closely related reward processing, andcerebellar vermis which was related motion control processing during performing the experimental
task with both factors of self-efficacy and feedback about a difference with the goal. Since, theexperimental task was unrelated with any extrinsic rewards, it is considered that the reward occurs
endogenously from the behavior itself when the behavior provide both of two factors.
When the mental faculties required for human specific play is taken into consideration, it isexpected that to require not only the neural mechanism to generate intrinsic reward for specificbehavior itself, but also the social cognitive ability to perceive the pleasure of other’s behavior andcreativity to invent a novel playing behavior. That ability may be one of the representations ofspecific cognitive ability for modern human.

111щτѡ΃цňǑvłͬEMŚΔВӺЫԋ9pВǜѴ[İ˲ɖ̙ĮǺ Ӟϒ 1ÅͭҴ Ǘ˹ 2ÅХŨ ΉҨ 3
1 Ɯӡө̐қĐƨΛɤгΖγɜВɋƬқĐϫŽΖγɜ, ATR-Promotions В̤ŗ{´Æ

ÂÂ
2

ſŴǶƹǑƹǑә ͩƱǑΖγΥ3ɓɕϼưƹǑ ͦȅǑҷ˻˧ȅǑΥˍΖγ¾Æª\ԗʬë[ŚΔВ[ȫɐц˗Ϡ˚Uͤòë[В˻ЍơƚUvϤŽEԗK[
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Subject 1
Skullwith ref. maker

Figure.

Subject 2
Skull based matching
Correct position

No marker

Wrong position
Wrong position+10 mm posterior +10 mm superior

Results of the brain extrapolation through skull shape matching with the reference landmark.

112

Reconstruction of the brain from skull fossil using computational anatomy
Takanori Kochiyama 1, 2, Hiroki C. Tanabe 3, Naomichi Ogihara 4
1

Brain Information Communication Research Laboratory Group, Advanced Telecommunications

Research Institute International
2

Brain Activity Imaging Center, ATR-Promotions

3

Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Nagoya University

4

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Keio University

We investigate the presumed differences in learning abilities between Neanderthals and modern
humans by combining the evidence from the morphological analysis of fossil brains and thefunctional brain mapping of modern human’s brain functions. To this end, we need to establish themethod for extrapolating human brain function to Neanderthal’s one with taking into account of the
anatomical difference between them. Under the collaboration with C01 and C02 group, we
successfully created the virtual Neanderthal brain from the modern human brain using the method of
the brain extrapolation through skull shape matching (tentatively-named as BETSSM) between
Neanderthals and modern humans. However, the complete rack of information in cranial cavity
resulted in the abnormal spatial transformation over the medial parts of brain and deep brain
structures. To avoid this problem, we need to establish the constraints to the deformation field or
landmark points in cranial cavity. In this report, as the first step in this direction, we assessed theimprovements of the skull based brain extrapolation when we used a landmark point on the deepbrain structure (e.g. brain stem). First, we added the reference landmark sphere of 6 mm radius
positioned directly under the pons to the subject 1 skull image. For subject 2, we made the following
four skull images to evaluate the effects of this additional landmark point: (1) Skull image with thereference landmark sphere located on the homologous position with subject 1, (2) No marker, (3)and (4) The landmark sphere with the wrong position. Then we applied the method of the brain
extrapolation through skull shape matching to these skulls of subject 2 and constructed the virtual
subject 1 brain from subject 2 brain. As a result, using the skull with the correct reference marker
improved the accuracy of the spatial transformation. In further study, we will determine appropriate
homologous landmark points, structures and anatomical constraints in between Neanderthals andmodern humans.

113ůȸ¾ÃxÀÁʦȢ[҂āŗĄÆц˗Xorͪͫɇ[˫яʳӁ ǐϫ 1ԗÊѨ ɓƻ 2ԗÊ̦ Ή˹ 3ԗͭҴ Ǘ˹ 4ԗӍå ѣ̚ 51ԌΒȅΥƹǑ ³ȅǑϻ

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[T\W=ԗ/ēāǑϽ0XoPSЗpȶMɤгNUɗ,\Ͼ7S5rԘ
 íȳ\ԗ͍ϯжԊϿ:ȶS5rUϾ7r:V[o6WɤгT4r9U56â
vԗ҂āŗĄÆvˁXц˗GrAUTҖ̔ES5=Ԙ
Reference
Onuma K, Nishiaki Y, Suzuki M (1998) Technology of knapped Stone, KUBAPRO

114

Productivity verification by 3D motion data analysis of recurrent Levallois method
Yukinobu Hoshino1, Keita Mitani 2, Naoki Miura 3, Hiroki Tanabe 4, Kenji Nagai 5
1School of Systems Engineering, Kochi University of Technology

2

Kochi University of Technology

3

Faculty of Engineering, Tohoku Institute of Technology

4

Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Nagoya University

5

Tohoku University of Art & Design

In this study, we measured and analyzed 3D motion data of a subject with expertise of the recurrent
Levallois method. Analysis experiment was conducted two times (Exp.1, Exp.2) in one day. The
skilled subject was taking the flakes until the core stone becomes small. Exp.1 took about 30
minutes and Exp.2 took about 70 minutes. In Exp.2, the experiment was suspended because cutoff
an injury to the hand. In this report, we discuss new analysis results of the productivity of thestone-tool production.
In the case of recurrent Levallois method, continuous flaking process of some Levallois flakes
is planned by the knapper, when the knapper watched a target core stone (Onuma et al. 1998).
Therefore, we verified whether subject was able to perform constantly over a long period of time.
We analyzed the maximum hammer speed. The average of max speed in Exp.1 and Exp.2 wereverified presence of significant difference. As a result, Exp.1 average speed and Exp.2 average speed
have a significant difference. The average speed of Exp.2 was 0.84[m/s] slower than Exp.1, and25[%] slower than Exp.1. The subject was not able to maintain a stable speed of knapped arm andhammer stone when flaking.
Next, the stone-tool productivity was verified using the number of flakes that were chippedaway in Exp.1 and Exp.2. Specifically, we measured productivity using the flaking time per one
flake from the experiment time and the number of flakes. Using this data, productivity wascompared between Exp.1 data and Exp.2 data. Comparing the results, productivity of Exp.2 was
4[%] lower than Exp.1.
From the above results, the top speed average of Exp.2 decreased 25[%] over Exp.1, but
productivity of Exp.2 decreased only 4[%] over Exp.1. Therefore, two conclusions were made. First,
the hammer-stone’s top speed and stone-tool productivity have a low dependence. Second, theknapper is able to produce stone-tools continually using recurrent Levallois method over a long
period of time. From the experiment results, it was found that the skilled subjects did not control the
speed of the arm swing arm to increase productivity, therefore we concluded that the subject wasable to increase productivity of stone-tool production using a complicated technique. This technique
may have been acquired by an individual learning process, not a social learning process.
Further research of the subject's knapping technique will be performed by additional 3D
motion data analysis.

115ǑϽɍ˿U͸ŔXӒGrΡϟƨ·UВȫɐXQ5S[˫ъ̑Ӂ ʝͦŚǑΖγɜ ¼{¨{Âɤгƨ·ΖγÂÆ ęȟÅͺɐΥǑΖγÆ³ƹӔȋιƹǑƹǑә ŝǑΖγΥ ͸ŔŝǑѤȞͤͪëԁvǫѪUEMΡϟȽͦǑ΃ɞ̞XƨR=Ξ÷ǑϽUēāǑϽ[ВǴƠUԗŚΔВȸģXorK[ВӹƧ[ȫɐȈ[̎҈˫ъXoqԗʬëUʥë[ǑϽЍŎȈ[ιя:ˉȱ
T;r+ȪєӹƧΖγԕRNMH ªÀ~Ԗ\ԗΖγӐǈȪĿԗΞ÷ǑϽX85S˶ĖǑϽ[Ρϟƨ·ԗēāǑϽX85SǑϽńȷԕȨŚǑϽԖ[Ρϟƨ·vÆUES
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116

Investigations of neural and anatomical bases of motivation to learn and fatigue
Kei Mizuno
Pathophysiological and Health Science Team, RIKEN Center for Life Science Technologies
Department of Medical Science on Fatigue, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine
The difference of learning abilities is expected to be demonstrated by elucidating the brain regions
involved in social and individual learning of the modern humans using neuropsychological methods
and comparing the differences of brain regions between them based on the reconstruction of fossil ofancient human brain.

For the first of study, the study project of RNMH is focusing on the neuralbases of imitative learning in social learning and of learning control (enforced learning) in individual
learning.

In addition, in individual learning, social rewards, such as acceptance and acclaim fromthe significant others, are setting as a reinforcement factor for learning, and a verification model ofthe effects of social rewards on learning are suggesting.

In the present study, I set motivation tolearn and fatigue resistance as another reinforcement factors for learning.

The aim of the present

study is to clarify the neural bases associated with the enforced learning affected by motivation tolearn and fatigue resistance using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI).

Our previous

studies revealed that the brain region involved in motivation to learn is the striatum; fatigue, which is
inextricably linked to motivation to learn, induces the decrease in striatal activation, and the medial
prefrontal cortex is related to emotional control such as motivation and fatigue sensation.

In thisconference, I report the individual differences in modern human’s brain morphology, gray-mattervolumes in region of interests related to motivation to learn and fatigue.

Both morphological andfunctional comparisons of these regions between modern and ancient humans would be expected tohelp elucidate differences in learning abilities between them.

117

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118

Neural correlates of coping strategy for boredom and its relationship with creativity andlearning ability
Motoaki Sugiura
Institute of Development, Aging and Cancer, Tohoku University
Boredom is a negative feeling, which is felt when we lose meaning in an act or situation, during
repeated presentation of a stimulus or performance of a task. Our behavior when bored is a coping
strategy to change such an external or internal situation (i.e., our own mental state). The feeling ofboredom and boredom-coping strategies are candidate cognitive processes that explain the creativity
and learning ability of Homo sapiens. In this functional MRI (fMRI) study, we investigate the neuralcorrelates of boredom and boredom-coping strategies using 46 healthy subjects. In the MRI scanner,
the subjects alternately performed an Appreciation task, in which they viewed a visual stimulus,
such as a photo or picture (4s), and an Evaluation task, in which the subjects rated the degree ofboredom, using four-grade scaling. When the subject selected 1, 2, or 3, in an Evaluation task, thesame stimulus was presented in the subsequent Appreciation task. When the subject selected 4, thesubject could see a new stimulus at the probability of 50%. During the Appreciation task, neural
response related to boredom was assumed to be correlated with the score of the degree of boredomin the subsequent Evaluation task. In the Appreciation task preceding the first and second or laterselections of 4 for a certain stimulus, we assumed the neural responses were affected by thestrategies of changing the external situation (i.e., stimulus) and internal situation. The neural
response for boredom was identified in the right superior frontal sulcus, middle frontal gyrus,bilateral inferior parietal lobules, and precuneus, which are involved in attention and working
memory. Neural activity related to boredom-coping strategies, irrespective of the situation change(i.e., internal or external) was identified in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), anterior cingulate
cortex (ACC), right frontal pole (FP), and posterior cingulate cortex (PCC), which have beensuggested to play a role in simulation of future events. The neural response specific to the change
strategy of external and internal situations were identified in the left intraparietal sulcus, which has
been implicated in the visuospatial motor control, and in the bilateral middle temporal gyri (MTG),
which in semantic representation, respectively. The fact that prospective event simulation is
involved in boredom coping, irrespective of strategy, suggests the potential importance of boredom
coping per se in the explanation of the creativity and learning ability of Homo sapiens.

119

120

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ABSTRACTS°ÆͿе

POSTER PRESENTATIONS

121

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Posters

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α(B02) 3ÅмΤ НǗ(A01) 3

1

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3˔éƹǑ ϫŽΖγŤ͔Ԉ4ſŴǶƹǑ Ť͔Ԉ5ş́ҨƹǑ y{Åĥÿ̏ΖγÂÆ ͪɐʠŚµ½Âԕeco-cultural niche modellingԖ\ԗʪΒ[ϾŴұѼ[ýϸṴ̐Åӗ̑ӂÅ˵Ԍο[ŴͩƱɋƬXƨR5SԗˋΒӹƧX8?rëԁ[ԕͪɐ
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Fig. 1.

Eco-cultural niche of the Emiran lithic industry group123

Eco-cultural niche modelling for the replacement of Neanderthals by modern humans basedon a collaboration of the archaeology and palaeoenvironment teams
Yasuhisa Kondo 1, 2 (A01), Katsuhiro Sano 3 (A01), Seiji Kadowaki 4 (A01), Masaki Naganuma 5(A01), Takayuki Omori 3 (A01), Minoru Yoneda 3 (B02), Yoshihiro Nishiaki 3 (A01)
1

Department of Computer Science, Tokyo Institute of Technology

2

Japan Society for the Promotion of Science

3

The University Museum, The University of Tokyo

4

Nagoya University Museum

5Center for Ainu and Indigenous Studies, Hokkaido University

Eco-cultural niche modelling (ECNM) is a computer-based method to extrapolate past human niche
based on the location of known archaeological sites and palaeoenvironmental factors such astemperature, precipitation and elevation. In the Replacement of Neanderthals by Modern Humans(RNMH) project, the collaboration between the research teams A01 (archaeology) and B02(palaeoenvironment) made it possible to run calculation experiments of ECNM using the dataset thatis scientifically competent in terms of archaeology, geochronology and climatology. This paper
presents the preliminary results of ECNM at ca. 50–46 ka within the time period during which the
RNMH are presumed to have taken place.
The study area (20°W to 160°E, 0° to 90°N) covered the most parts of Europe and Asia.
Archaeological sites were classified into five lithic industry groups––(1) the Late Mousterian, (2) the
Châtelperronean, (3) the Szeletian, (4) the Uluzzian, and (5) Emiran-related industries, including theEmiran, Kara Bom, the Bachokirian, and the Bohunician. Regarding the palaeoenviromental data,
ETOPO-1 was used for digital elevation model. Temperature and precipitation were temporarily
approximated by the 6 ka climate model of MIROC 3.2. Long-term climatic variability was indexed
for each topographic cell by the difference between values at 21 ka (relevant to Last Glacial
Maximum) and 0 ka (present days) of the MIROC 3.2.2. The maximum entropy model was applied
for calculating the niche probability. All output models show that the long-term variability in thecoldest month temperature significantly contributes to the model. The model for Eurasia indicatedpossible niche corridors between Europe, the Levant and the Altai (where Kara Bom is located) for
the Emiran-related industries (Figure 1 [See the previous page]).

124

125

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126

The Aira caldera eruption and cultural evolution in the palaeolithic of central Japan
Hiroto NAKATA (A01)
College of Literature, Aoyama Gakuin University
The eruption of Aira caldera in Kyusyu, southern part of Japan, was one of the largest volcanic eventof all volcanic events which happened in the past thirty thousand years in Japan. The eruption can bedated to 26-29ka, within the boundary of MIS3 to 2. The tephra called the AT (Aira-Tanzawa ash)expanded more than 1200 km from the volcanic origin and spread over the sea of Japan. The AT
caused cold weather all around the mainland of Japan.
The AT impact occurred in the sequence of Knife blade industries in the upper Palaeolithic andinfluenced industries from the early upper Palaeolithic (38-29ka) to the later upper Palaeolithic(29-21ka). The assemblage in the early upper Palaeolithic contain the tool type such as Knife blade,trapeze and edge ground axe. The production of Knife blade is characterized by blade technology
produced relatively narrow and elongated blade. The situation has barely changed for more than
8000 years. In the late upper Palaeolithic the typological and technological change is evident. The
assemblage is dominated by knife shaped tool produced by multi-directional core, geometricmicrolithic on flake and new tool types such as point. Each industry in the late upper Palaeolithic
indicates a relatively rapid change for almost 1000 or 2000 years.
The AT eruption which had influence to archaeological record is still a matter of debate. Many
researcher considers that there is no direct evidence as to the discontinuity of lithic industries.
However, the eruption was not so serious phenomena as human population which drasticallychanged their stone tool making. The relatively rapid changes of lithic industry in late upper
Palaeolithic indicate the cultural evolution caused by the response to the eruption. I consider that theeruption had a dramatic impact on human population and promoted cultural change in the transition
from MIS3 to MIS2. It is suggested that the eruption provided the marked technological innovation,such as leaf point production and microlithic production. Therefore we can define theregionally-distinct industries in the late upper Palaeolithic. The shift from the early to the late upper
Palaeolithic can be described by the cultural evolution related to the eruption.

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Connecting genetic data with cognition and behavior
Kyoko Yamaguchi (B01)
Graduate School of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus
Public databases on modern human genome would be a useful tool to test the involvement oflearning and social ability in the replacement of Neanderthals by modern humans. First, the author
selected single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) that showed significant associations with any of
171 traits of brain, nerve, and mental disorders that are possibly related to learning ability orsociality, using a database of genome-wide association studies (GWAS), “A Catalog ofGenome-Wide Association Studies”.
Among the traits/disorders, Asperger syndrome was focused first because of its relationshipwith logical thinking, a significant aspect of human learning ability. Also, the polymorphism(rs1322784, DISC1) that is associated with Asperger syndrome is known to have diverged allele
frequencies between Khoisan and non-Khoisan according to the recent study on the modern African
genome (Schlebusch et al., 2012). Thus, examining genetic basis of Asperger syndrome or Autism
spectrum would help us understand human specific learning ability, yet only a few GWASs has been
conducted. Therefore, other studies by candidate-gene approach have to be examined as well.
The present analysis also found connections between genetic basis, brain/nerve, andcognition/behavior. An example is an association of the amygdala reactivity with a SNP in a
regulatory region of the Paired-like homeobox 2b (PHOX2B), a gene necessary for the developmentof autonomic nervous system or synthesis of monoamines (Ousdal et al. 2012).

The amygdala isdemonstrated to have an association with social network size in modern societies (Bickart et al.
2011).

These results would allow us to estimate the level of individualism or collectivism based on

the PHOX2B genotype.
Based on the results of analysis described above, candidate genes and SNPs were selected foran association study with the result of questionnaires on personality including Autism spectrum andgames measuring cooperative behavior.

129

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Memory and cumulative culture
Mayuko Nakamaru (B01 Invited Researcher)Tokyo Institute of Technology
Evolution of learning is one of interesting research topics from the viewpoint of evolution and social
sciences. The cognitive abilities are required to learn cultural traits. Take memory for instance. After
we learn new cultural traits, we have to consolidate them. After keeping them in storage, memories
should be retrieved. Otherwise, we can neither utilize the traits to improve our fitness or social lives,
nor develop our cultural traits. However, many theoretical studies implicitly assume that humans areequipped with cognitive abilities to learn and utilize cultural traits perfectly because of simplifying
the assumptions for mathematical models.
We have to pay costs for having and utilizing cognitive abilities from the viewpoint of
evolution. We have not known which cost is higher, memory or learning. If the memory cost is
higher than the learning cost, it may be more efficient to forget the learned traits and learn them
repeatedly than to keep them in storage according to the cost-benefit analysis.
There may be some possible hypotheses to explain why human have the high cognitive abilityof memory. I propose the cumulative cultural hypothesis: to develop cultural traits, it is necessary for
us to have the high ability of memory even though it is costly. In this talk, to verify my hypothesis, I
make a simple mathematical model of learning and memory, which assumes consolidation, storage
and retrieval. Then we investigate how memory costs and a learning cost influence the evolution of
cumulative culture. Then we discuss the Tasmanian effect based on my research outcomes.

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Fig. 1.

Endocast polygonal model extraction (red) by our method132

Endocast surface extraction from CT images
Takashi Michikawa1(C01), Hiromasa Suzuki1(C01), Masaki Moriguchi2(C01) and Naomichi
Ogihara 3 (C01)1

Research Center for Advanced Science and Technology, The University of Tokyo

2

Department of Information Engineering, Chuo University

3

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Keio University

Endocast is an important clue for estimating brain shapes from the fossil crania. The goal of thisresearch is to extract an endocast polygonal model from CT images of the crania. The maindifficulty in this problem is to selectively extract a polygonal surface representing the endocast
excluding the other part of the crania. Because the Marching Cubes method -- a common method forextracting isosurfaces of CT images -- polygonizes the whole crania, users are required to perform
tedious manual operations for selective extraction of endocast models.
We propose an efficient method for extracting an endocast polygonal model by segmentationof the endocast region from CT images of the crania. Our method consists of two steps: endocast
segmentation and partial polygonization with the segmentation results.

In the first step,

segmentation of background voxels is computed with a Watershed-based segmentation method.
Endocast region can then be extracted automatically based on an assumption that an endocast is thelargest empty space in the crania. In the second step, we compute endocast polygonal model bypartial polygonization with the segmentation results. We use the segmentation images as mask
images and polygonize cells connected to the masked voxels in order to extract only endocast
polygonal surface.
Figure 1 [See the previous page] shows a result by our method. Our method is almost
automatic and needs little user intervention. Additionally, it achieves sub-voxel accuracy, because
our polygonization is based on the Marching Cubes method.

133