THE ＧＬＯＢＡＬＩＺＡＴＩＯＮ ＆ ＧＯVＥＲＮＡＮＣＥ ＰＲＯＪＥCＴ， ＨＯＫＫＡＩＤＯ ＵＮＩＶＥＲＳＩＴＹＷＯＲＫＩＮＧ ＰＡＰＥＲ ＳＥＲＩＥＳ

Globalizing The Policy Process:From Iron Triangles to Golden Pentangles
Ⅴ−０１

Philip G. Cerny, Manchester University＊

Paper for the seminar at Graduate School of Law, Hokkaido University
on April 18, 2003＊

None of these papers should be cited without the author’s permission.

GLOBALIZING THE POLICY PROCESS:FROM >IRON TRIANGLES= TO >GOLDEN PENTANGLES=?

by
Philip G. Cerny
Department of Government
University of Manchester
Dover Street
Manchester M13 9PL, United Kingdom
Tel. +44-161-275-4931
Fax +44-161-275-4925
Email: <philip.cerny@man.ac.uk>

Paper presented at the annual convention of the International Studies Association, New
Orleans, 24-27 March 2002. An earlier version was published in Global Governance, vol. 7,
no. 4 (October-December 2001), pp. 397-410.
1

ABSTRACT
Despite increasing scholarly attention devoted to globalization, approaches to the
public policy process have continued to focus primarily on the level of the nation-state. This
paper argues that globalization has become sufficiently generalized in structural terms that it
must no longer be treated as exogenous to public policy. This paper aims to >endogenize=international and transnational actors and processes within a broadened model of the policy
process. It outlines a five-component model of the policy process (>golden pentangles=)which includes those domestic political structures and actors that have traditionally beentreated as endogenous to so-called >iron triangles= C i.e., politicians, bureaucrats, andinterest groups C but also brings within the model two major categories of actors previously
treated as exogenous: (a) public intergovernmental institutions and bureaucratic processes;and (b) transnational market and >civil society= actors. It also argues that the interaction ofthese components has been altered by the impact of international variables, thereby
modifying the agenda, the menu of available options, and the range of potential outcomes ofthe policy process. The key intervening variable concerns how the actors within eachcategory come to perceive their own interests and goals differently in a more interdependentworld. This redefinition leads them increasingly to build coalitions around policy options
that are perceived to liberalize policy processes and adjustment mechanisms in issue-areas
characterized predominantly by non-specific assets while maintaining a margin of flexibility
for making side-payments to distributional coalitions in issue-areas characterized
predominantly by specific assets.

2

GLOBALIZING THE POLICY PROCESS:FROM >IRON TRIANGLES= TO >GOLDEN PENTANGLES=?

I.

The Limits of Traditional Approaches to Public Policy

Most academic discussion of the public policy process treats the international andglobal levels of analysis as exogenous. This reflects a general tendency in social science to
see domestic political systems as the paramount playing fields where political actors interact
and pursue their goals. This bias is reinforced by the study of International Relations, which
generally treats domestic actors as subsumed into reified states, deemed to be >unit actors=.
A >levels of analysis distinction= is thereby built into the basic analytical frameworks ofsocial science. This image of policymaking processes as being constituted predominantly
through endogenous variables C the image of the >inside= C is less and less valid. In thisprocess, the >outside= has dramatically changed too. However, because this evolution has
been extremely uneven, it has not been at all clear how these complex linkages should betreated in policy analysis. Indeed, given the democratic deficit of >global governance= C
and despite the growing institutionalization of transnational decision-making processes bothpublic and private1 C the analytical predominance of the inside continues to be underpinned
and reinforced by democratic notions of bottom-up legitimacy, however frayed.2
Today, however, inside and outside taken together form a complex, uneven andasymmetric set of multilayered cross-cutting processes and nodes of interaction. Different
economic sectors C not just firms or markets, but economic activities producing distinct typesof goods through distinct asset structures C are now organized formally and informally acrossborders. Collective goods too must increasingly be provided in a transnational context.3 At
the same time, non-governmental organizations or NGOs C i.e., transnational interest orpressure groups C have become much more central to processes of change in a range of issueareas. 4 Finally, government agencies and state actors are increasingly drawn into crossnational or >transgovernmental= policy networks of various kinds, both institutionalized andad hoc. These uneven and often quite divergent processes, however, interact with and cut
across not only each other but also traditional domestic processes, creating interaction effects
that alter both the way policy is made and the outcomes of the policymaking process. These
effects vary from issue-area to issue-area, depending on the structural characteristics of eachand on the ways key actors in each attempt to internalize, manipulate, and orchestrate their
responses.
In this context, the politics of the policy process cuts across borders as well as
domestic socio-economic categories, becoming less hierarchical and bureaucratic and more
and more market-like and network-like. Whereas statist, neopluralist, and new institutionalist
critiques of pluralism of the 1970s and 1980s sought to re-insert hierarchical structures into
American-style political science, 5 today analysts of transnational markets and globalizing
civil society are suggesting a new multilayered multipolarity, on at least three levels:

3

$
$
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the emergence of a new, more complex, cross-cutting pecking order to socioeconomic as well as political hierarchies;a transnational rearticulation of social and political coalitions as actors attempt tocope with and control the consequences of these changes; andthe development of a more complex and fluid governance structure or quasiinstitutional playing field through which these factors interact.

This new playing field reaches down to regional and local levels too. It increasingly
subsumes domestic-level policy processes themselves and incorporates domestic actors into
wider, cross-cutting arenas. This multilayered >web of governance= is linked and articulated
through a complex of public and private processes and institutions; the exemplar is global
finance, rooted in markets and networks.6 More widely, this web undermines state-embedded
hierarchies and overlays them with new kinds of quasi-pluralist groups, interests, and formsof political behaviour that often do not fit easily into traditional notions of politics in thedomestic arena. These newer forms of politics and politicking C which are of course nottotally new as such but blends of old and new factors C not only enable new political forces
to influence the policymaking process across borders but also generate innovative
combinations of old and new pressures and interests domestically, from the bottom up.
Broadly speaking, debates on the overall character of global politics focus on whether
this state of affairs reflects a new >highest stage of capitalism= based on a transnational classsystem or alternatively creates a more open >transnational opportunity structure=, thereby
expanding the potential for genuine pluralism. 7 More importantly, however, it creates
differential patterns of politics in which interest groups, political parties, and politicalentrepreneurs seek use the policy process in order to benefit from globalizing trends.
Different actors face divergent cost-benefit calculi. At one level, the policy process becomesa terrain of conflict and coalition-building between those actors and interests that believe theywould benefit on the whole from globalization, on the one hand, and those that believe theywould be disadvantaged. But at another level, globalization (especially globalization as
discourse) becomes a bargaining process among groups that are characterized by different
kinds of payoffs.
II.

The First-Order Problem: Endogenizing the Global

The model outlined here is based on two fundamental propositions. The first is thatmainstream approaches to policy analysis are not inherently limited to the domestic arena.
Most are rooted in methodological assumptions and practices that are quite easily translated
onto the international/transnational level. Pluralism, neo-pluralism, democratic elitism, andsome forms of neocorporatism are common to much of the empirical, taxonomic and modelbuilding literature in public policy. All can be applied in a transnational context. WithinInternational Relations too, a range of non->realist= approaches, traditional as well as critical,
already put analogous pluralistic or quasi-pluralistic processes of conflict, competition andcoalition-building at the centre of their analyses.
The second proposition is that globalization develops out of complexity and breeds
further complexity, opening up a widening range of international and transnational playing
fields and arenas. There is not just one >end state= of an integrated, globalized world, but
4rather a number of distinct trends involving both convergence and divergence, occurring at anumber of levels, across a range of distinctly organized sectors, issue-areas and social
processes.8 Of course, these complex trends do not occur in isolation from each other. They
generate interaction effects in both time and space. To point out a key aspect of thisinteraction process that has often been misunderstood by analysts, it can be argued that what
Paul Hirst and Grahame Thompson call >inter-nationalization= (with a hyphen C indicatingthat they are referring to traditional interstate or intergovernmental relations)9 amongst states
is not so much a separate and distinct process from transnationalization as a different but thatthe two are inextricably intertwined processes which, combined with other cross-cutting
structures and processes, together produce the complex outcome called globalization.
Indeed, these interaction effects further alter the distribution of resources across different
groups, sectors, issue-areas, etc.; thereby change the pecking order or distribution of
resources and authority in society; and, in turn, reshape the ways people interact, make senseof, and attempt to manipulate the world through politics and policymaking.
In this context, the constraints and opportunities actors face are increasingly in flux C
sometimes tightening structural constraints and creating new constraints, sometimes
loosening them and creating new opportunities for actors to expand the scale and scope of
their activities, even at times allowing actors to alter those constraints themselves, whether by
design or as a by-product of other political activities. Whether we are talking about
integration of global financial markets, internationalization of production, or the emergenceof intergovernmental institutions and transnational regimes, both new and transmogrified
constraints and opportunities transform political action in unanticipated ways. These changes
can be brought about in a range of different ways. Trial and error and tit-for-tat approaches
often trump both older embedded patterns and preconceived proactive strategies. Thus
globalization should not be seen merely as creating closure, but as opening up a wider andmore asymmetric transnational opportunity structure.
III.

The Accumulation of Counter-Paradigmatic Findings

Various studies have attempted to cross these boundaries in specific issue-areas,potentially creating a small Kuhnian revolution.10 One area concerns European public policy,
which focuses on the development of an intermediate institutionalized playing field, theEuropean Union, and the system of >multi-level governance= it has spawned.11 Another area
involves >epistemic communities= or transnational policy networks, focusing mainly on
issue-areas where high-level knowledge is a crucial element C e.g., environmental protection(where scientists, informed intellectuals, and NGOs play a key part), the role of >thinktanks,= studies of the internet and other aspects of technological interpenetration, >policy
transfer= (where key elites copy policy techniques seen in other countries), and the like.12
Furthermore, the study of >transnational advocacy networks= and other interest and pressuregroups capable of a kind of >variable geometry= in seeking out points of access at a varietyof levels has grown rapidly, reflecting the flexibilization of interest group politics in a
globalizing world. 13 Perhaps most salient is the development of International Political
Economy in general in issue-areas like trade, production, money, financial services, central
banking, immigration, some aspects of macroeconomic policy, and the like. None of these
specialized fields of study, however, has yet led to the development of an overall analyticalframework for the policy process.
5

Probably the most robust (if often criticized as limited) concept in the policy literatureis that of iron triangles. These lie at the heart of wider and more complex notions of issue
networks, policy networks, policy communities, and the like. 14 Iron triangles are notunproblematic. As Anthony King has written: >Within the federal government inWashington, the old Airon triangles@ ... have given way to much more amorphous issue
networks, to the description of which a simple Euclidian geometry is no longer
appropriate.=15 Nevertheless, the image they convey is still much clearer than those of thewider if still domestically rooted frameworks they spawned. The notion that relatively
narrow coalitions of actors, both in and out of governments, linked around specific issues anddistributions of resources, and brought together by regularized professional (and often
personal) contacts, would settle many ongoing and outstanding issues (especially routine
issues) and negotiate potential conflicts through bargaining amongst themselves is a common
sense one.
In iron triangles, the policy process consists mainly of three broad categories ofactors:(4)

relevant elected officeholders C members of legislatures, party officials, ministers inparliamentary governments, etc., as well as those in key lower-level institutions suchas American states, provincial governments and the like C whose policymaking
responsibilities and clout in terms of resource allocation are concentrated in specificissue-areas (e.g., membership of congressional or parliamentary committees);(5)bureaucrats employed in agencies that regulate, control resources for, propose andimplement policy towards, or otherwise deal with those same issue-areas; and(6)

non-officeholding actors, mainly in the business and voluntary sectors (and those thatcut across the public/private divide), who have (a) particular objectives they wish to
pursue with regard to those same issue-areas, whether as unorganized interests or asorganized groups, and (b) some combination of relevant mobilizable resources,
including specialized knowledge, direct economic interest, elite network contacts,financial and other material resources, a popular or group base, ideological affinity,
etc., which can enable them to influence government policy through their regularizedinteractions with (1) and (2).

Of course, actors in each of these categories are conceived as operating first and foremost
within a national playing field. There are several reasons for this.
In the first place, politicians in liberal democratic systems are widely seen to be
primarily concerned with staying in office and managing sufficient institutional and material
resources and prestige to gain not only regular re-election but also promotion on the basis ofexisting career ladders within institutions like legislatures and executives as well as
hierarchies of elected offices. Their priorities, even if dealing with transnational issues, areto play to their colleagues and electors. Secondly, bureaucrats are seen to be concerned
primarily with expanding the scope and scale of their empires (turf, prestige, and pay), as
well as rising in the bureaucratic hierarchy; at the same time, they want a >quiet life= and not6to be continually conflicting with politicians, private sector actors, or their colleagues in otheragencies. And finally, relevant non-governmental actors C whether those with direct materialinterests in the outcomes of particular policy processes (from individuals or firms to highlyorganized special interest groups) or other sorts of pressure groups (whether pursuing
sectional interests or causes), or even informally linked groups of electors with connections
to the issue-areas in question C are seen to be concerned primarily with maximizing outputs
from the governmental system. Of the four main types of public policy C regulatory,
productive, distributive, and redistributive 16 C national governments are still the main
providers of immediate material outputs.
Nevertheless, these actor categories are particularly useful to our model. Indeed, twoof them can be directly translated. The main exception concerns elected political
officeholders; it is highly problematic to extrapolate their roles onto the global ortransnational plane. In liberal democratic systems, such officeholders will always seethemselves first and foremost as beholden to domestic voters and interests or as embodying
the state in international affairs.
Even when operating on an international or quasidiplomatic plane and attempting to find cooperative ways to tackle international and global
issues, they will fiercely avoid acting in ways which might be seen by their domestic
constituencies as contrary to national interests or, indeed, to the interests of key groups ofvoters or special interest groups that put them into office. Of course, this incentive structure
can shift significantly where elected officeholders C especially legislative officeholders C
must deal on a regular basis with transnationally cross-cutting interests and/ortransgovernmentally linked bureaucrats; in such cases, however, their actions can be seen as
predominantly dependent variables. Normally their international and transnational roles arehighly circumscribed by their embedded state locations, whether as domestic policy players
or traditional foreign policy actors.
In contrast, however, domestically appointed bureaucratic actors are frequently in aposition relative to their agencies= concerns and to the interests of their main sectoral
constituencies C particularly with regard both to transnationally linked economic interests
and to advocacy coalitions (cause groups) C that they will internalize vital international andtransnational dimensions into their evaluation of a range of policy issues and potential
solutions. Furthermore, they also become enmeshed in transgovernmental networks around
specific issue-areas. This is particularly true where they are part of a bureaucratic hierarchy
C for example, an independent central bank or a securities regulator C relatively insulated
from direct political pressures, or where a relevant and relatively autonomous domestic
policy network or epistemic community exists to support transnationally innovative
approaches. Finally, increasing linkages at private sector and NGO levels continually draw
interest group and advocacy coalition actors into the international and transnational arenas,
often interacting with both domestic and international or transnational bureaucratic actors ona regularized basis. The iron triangles of the past are being overlaid, supplemented and evenreplaced by golden pentangles.
However, while the image of iron triangles symbolically represents giant Second
Industrial Revolution steel industries with their national markets and close corporatist
relationships with the state (and often with trade unions), that of golden pentangles evokes
global financial markets and international financial institutions. The growth of international
7

capital flows, cross-border price sensitivity, and related technological developments have
driven economic globalization and shaped policy responses along more market-oriented lines,
leading to the emergence of an embedded financial orthodoxy in public policymaking. 17
Golden pentangles represent in highly stylized fashion a five-sided policy process analogous
to the three-sided iron triangles. The first three sides of the former consist of the same three
categories represented in iron triangles: politicians, bureaucrats, and interests, broadened by
the endogenization of international and transnational actors and cross-cutting structural
factors.
This image is apt. The abstract, non-specific character of financial markets C thefungibility of money across economic sectors and socio-economic categories as well as its
increasingly dematerialized, electronic infrastructure C creates structural pressures for actors
to accept the rules of the game and conform to the imperatives of embedded financial
orthodoxy. Their global scope and their ability to bypass and constrain state actors createpressure for liberalizing and marketizing a whole range of sectors beyond the financial sector
per se. Thus the fourth of our five sides or actor categories involves those more formalized
or highly institutionalized public or quasi-public activities undertaken by the International
Monetary Fund, the World Bank, the World Trade Organization, the Bank for International
Settlements, the International Organization of Securities Commissions, the G7, the G20, andmany more. Finally, the fifth category is made up of the universe of interlocking >webs of
governance= constituted by mixed public/private sector quasi-institutions (markets in theactive sense) and non-state actors. As with interest groups or pressure groups in the
traditional pluralist literature of American political sociology, increasing weight in a
globalizing world must be accorded to cross-border non-governmental structures and actors,
from transnational markets to civil society.
IV.

How the Policy Process is Changing

Although such inside/outside linkages have existed since time immemorial,18 the pace,density and complexity of change today are unprecedented. Furthermore, globalization is not
merely an economic process but a political process. It involves building coalitions anddeveloping institutional strategies for coping with and controlling the globalization process
around criteria such as justice, fairness, and the effective provision of public goods.19 Suchdevelopments are intermediated through a range of salient issue-areas which present
unfamiliar challenges and opportunities, as well as creating new constraints, for policy actors.
These issue-areas run the gamut of different types of public policy, both domestic andinternational, traditional and emerging, as indicated in this brief provisional list.
$

Foreign economic policy is perhaps the most obvious area where a range ofcooperativeintergovernmental
practices,institution-building
processes,
transgovernmental networks, and transnationally linked sectional interest groups have
led to new arrangements practices on a trial-and-error, often ad hoc, basis. These newarrangements have been seen as necessary in order to cope with and promote suchinnovative policy trends as trade liberalization, financial deregulation andharmonization, energy policy, environmental policy, aid policy, and the like. National
economic interests are increasingly impossible to disentangle from theinterdependencies of the contemporary world. It must also be emphasized that many8

aspects of security policy too have been impacted by globalization, leading to a >New
Security Dilemma.=20$

Macroeconomic policy is also increasingly intertwined with international andtransnational processes. Fiscal, interest rate setting, money supply control, and othermeasures to >fine-tune= the domestic economy must increasingly be adjusted in ways
which take into account the interests of transnationally linked producers, investors,
consumers, and the like, as well as international economic institutions and othergovernments.

$

Domestic regulatory policy, especially deregulation and other forms of marketfriendly regulatory reform, is conceived and implemented today not merely throughdomestic policy processes but increasingly through transgovernmental networks,
institutions and informal governance processes. Sometimes government officials takethe lead in marketizing regulatory regimes in order to benefit from greaterinternational openness, and sometimes they are pushed and pulled towards change by
the rapid growth of international capital mobility, cross-border price sensitivity, andvarious forms of arbitrage, both economic political, engaged in by private sector
actors across a range of relevant issues, most notably financial liberalization.

$

Patterns of microeconomic and mesoeconomic policymaking are also changing in
response to global marketizing pressures. Political actors and governments no longer
stress taking whole issue-areas out of the market (>decommodification=), as they
once did in the past with regard not only to the welfare state but also to the promotionof particular industrial sectors, the pursuit of domestic self-sufficiency in sectors likeenergy, the subsidized provision of >patient capital=, etc. Declining sectors are
increasingly allowed to run down rather than be protected, and welfare and otherpublic services increasingly are meant to work according to quasi-market principles C
the >new public management= or >reinventing government=. Winners are no longer
directly >picked= through traditional forms of industrial policy; rather, governments
prioritize the creation of a market-friendly and competitive regulatory environment
applicable to all firms rather than a selected few. Although domestic politicalconditions still retain a range of options for >domesticating= globalization, those
options are both narrower and in some issue-areas quite different from earlier periods.
Social democracy, for example, is increasingly challenged to find alternatives to
traditional options of state-led policies of redistribution and public service provision
without sacrificing its traditional goals of social justice.21$

Moreover, key patterns of coalition-building are changing. Political actors are led
more and more to adopt approaches that prioritize capturing the benefits ofglobalization. 22 This potentially allows the creation of new material and politicalresources for rebuilding decaying bases of support and attracting new constituencies,
mass as well as elite, in a period of shifting identities, allegiances, and class structuresin a globalizing world. Conservative coalitions pioneered this form of realignment inadvanced industrial countries in the 1970s and 1980s, through Thatcherism andReaganism in particular, while on the center-left, the notion of the >Third Way= thathas been adopted in the 1990s by the New Democrats in the U.S., >New Labour= in
9the United Kingdom, and the Social Democrats= >Neue Mitte= in Germany, is
explicitly conceived as a response to globalization.
V.

How the Policy Process Works in a Globalizing World

Just as with iron triangles, some issue-areas will be dominated by only a subset of thebasic actor categories. Rarely will an issue-area be characterized by an ideal-type, balanced
five-node policy process as such. A number of more specific hypotheses can be suggested inthis regard.
(1)

With regard to foreign economic policy, for example, traditional foreign policy actors(diplomats and foreign ministry officials, members of national executive branches andtheir advisors, etc.) and those involved in intergovernmental processes are likely tobenefit from their positions in the domestic state hierarchy to exercise
disproportionate influence. Furthermore, such actors are more likely to be able toresist pressures from some kinds of domestic interests and see their primary role in a
traditional, somewhat insulated diplomatic context; they still often resemble thecategory of >cosmopolitan elites.=23(2)With regard to macroeconomic policymaking, economic experts, central banks,
treasury departments, and actors closely connected with particular phases of thelegislative process and legislative-executive bargaining, such as members of budget orbanking committees in the United States, will benefit from similar advantages; they
are increasingly likely to see their roles, however, as an attempt to lead or to respondto international market conditions, privileging such criteria as market confidence andstabilization.

(3)

With regard to regulatory policy, close links between particular regulatory bodies withtransgovernmental links, specialized private sector interests often with transnational
links, elected officials with particular expertise in such fields, and international
institutions will form a complex system of ongoing bargaining and reform, especiallywith regard to so-called >regulatory arbitrage= between different national regulatory
systems.

(4)

In microeconomic policy, domestic economic interests, especially producer andconsumer interests, have a much greater role to play. However, increasing
interpenetration of transnational markets for a widening range of goods and assets candramatically alter the perceptions of such actors and lead to a partial
internationalization from below along with demands for compensation for losers.

(5)

And finally, coalition-building strategies are likely to involve a much wider range oflatent and manifest groups. While class, regional, sectional, and other patterns ofvoting and interest group behavior still exist, they are increasingly cross-cut andrearticulated into competing >associations of consumers= in that even more
>multinucleated= political system that is created in the process of globalization.24
Therefore a number of different networking patterns or subsets C dyads, triads, quads,
10

or even full-blown pentangles C are likely to develop within different issue-areas, although
the development of a full-blown theory of how this will happen is premature. The literature
is likely to be built from the bottom up as empirical case studies are carried out and compared.
Nevertheless, the substantive content of the policy process in different issue-areas is likely tovary in relatively systematic ways. In particular, adapting the framework applied to demands
for protectionism developed Jeffrey Frieden and Ronald Rogowski, it can be hypothesizedthat the relative concentration and diffusion of costs and benefits for different groups ofactors in constrasting issue areas will lead to substantively different outcomes.25 Patterns ofaction are likely to vary substantially, as Eric Helleiner, for example, has shown in his
contrast between the politics of trade and that of finance. Trade openness depends on
multilateral action, over which state actors and domestic interests may have a veto, whereas
financial openness can effectively be pursued unilaterally by state actors responding tomarket developments.26
Perhaps the most obvious distinction shaping the content of the process is thatbetween those groups and actors who represent or are otherwise linked with economic sectors
characterized predominantly by non-specific assets on the one hand and those characterizedby specific assets on the other.27 In the first case, where the assets of a sector can easily betransferred from one use to another, where sufficient market liquidity exists for those assets tobe bought or sold in a market, and where a reliable market price for those assets can beestablished among a reasonably large range of buyers and sellers (non-specific assets),interest groups and those political entrepreneurs more closely linked with such sectors will
be likely to support policy measures and policymaking institutions that liberalize market
structures, maximize cross-border market opportunities, and/or promote competitive
advantages in those fields. Finance and tradable goods are key examples. On the other hand,where assets cannot easily be transferred and liquid markets and reliable market prices areproblematic, groups and political entrepreneurs will either oppose liberalizing measuresoutright, usually by demanding various forms of protectionism, or demand compensation for
their loss of structural clout by demanding tax breaks and benefits, adjustment assistance,
and/or other side-payments.
In this context, our main hypothesis is that the endogenization of international andtransnational elements into the policy process is likely over time (a) to further privilege those
sectors and actors in the former (non-specific asset) category in terms of agenda-setting,bargaining, and obtaining preferred policy outcomes and (b) to force those in the latter(specific asset) category to adopt strategies that are based less and less on protectionism andmore and more on side-payments. In both cases, the center of gravity of the policymaking
process in terms of setting the policy agenda, the payoff matrix for the bargaining processitself, and the range of feasible outcomes is shifted towards conditions that are broadly
liberalizing or globalizing, in a feedback process that reinforces transnationally intertwined
interests and actors and progressively marginalizes what used to be called >national capital=.
Indeed, the proportion of economic sectors and activities that is characterized by nonspecific asset structures is growing, for two reasons. The first is that even large-scale
manufacturing industries find it more difficult to establish and maintain monopolies,
oligopolies, formal or informal cartels, etc., at international and transnational levels than atnational or local levels. The world economy is too big for even the biggest economies of11scale to lead to market dominance. I am aware of only one large-scale industry which ischaracterized by growing international oligopolization to any great extent, the commercial
aircraft industry, although even here the evidence is ambiguous and governments (including
the European Union) have been assiduous in attempting to impose compensatory regulation.
Generally speaking, globalization promotes increased competitiveness in most sectors. The
second is that many industries are in the process of restructuring in order to reflect
technological changes that make them more flexible in terms of production processes,
management and organizational systems, marketing, the use of new information andcommunications technology, etc. C what is often called the >Third Industrial Revolution= or>post-Fordism=. Flexible structures are by definition more marketizable and therefore
structurally non-specific. The shift of the steel industry everywhere from large-scale plants(often now called >Rust Belts=) to mini-mills is typical, despite the fact that governments
often have to pander politically to older large-scale firms for electoral reasons.
In this changing structural context, globalization changes the cost-benefit calculus
away from the promotion of domestic self-sufficiency or insulation toward adjustment
mechanisms that integrate or endogenize internationalized and transnationalized agendas,
bargaining situations, and policy outcomes. The capacity to form protectionist or quasiprotectionist coalitions is thereby increasingly circumscribed as fewer actors C and fewer
economically heavyweight and/or politically significant actors C have a direct economic or
political interest in such policy measures. Broadly speaking, then, globalization increasinglycompels actors to seek liberal solutions because only by accepting such solutions is it
possible to form sufficiently large coalitions to gain tolerable compensatory benefits from thepolicy process in the medium-to-long term.
Nevertheless, there are important exceptions to this general rule, three of which areparticularly salient at the time of writing. The first involves exogenous shocks wherepreviously negotiated policy and/or institutional outcomes prove to be counterproductive andthe pressure of unfavorable events shifts the underlying pattern of coalition-building awayfrom what was previously agreed either into a reshaped bargaining process or toward thelimbo of an empty core among former coalition partners. An example of these (mainly thelatter, so far) is the collapse of Argentina=s peso/dollar convertibility policy (also known as
the >currency board=) in 2001-02 C a laboriously won settlement that after five years ofrelative success has since the mid-1990s unwound dramatically. The second involves
negative reactions to particular liberalizing measures on the part of >concentrated= domestic
interests, i.e. those groups and actors that are able to mobilize a well-defined sector of theelectorate in particular geographical regions and social categories where elections are tightand can be swung by political action. An example of this is the Bush Administration=sagreement to impose tariffs on several categories of steel imports, especially from Europe andJapan, in March 2002. The third, in this case only a partial (and at first glance paradoxical)
exception, is the spread C and often the transnational transfer C of tighter and stricter, rather
than looser and apparently more >liberal=, policy measures, such as increasingly strong
environmental regulations, health and safety regulations, and financial regulatory reforms.
An example of the last, still in the making, is the current pressure to tighten up on auditing
and accounting standards in the wake of the bankruptcy of the Enron Corporation in late 2001.
But this last exception may be the exception that proves the rule, as it is the transnationaltransfer of such regulatory measures that is turning the competition state into the regulatory12

state.28
Globalizing the policy process, therefore, although it is likely to lead to more liberaloutcomes over time C given the altered balance of interests, groups, actors, etc., involved inthat process C is unlikely to lead to a disarming of the state. Rather it is leading to areallocation of state resources and authority away from insulated domestic agendas toward
policy measures that promote coalitions among:(1)
actual cross-border interests, usually economic but also social and political;(2)
those domestic interests that are not merely vulnerable to international andtransnational conditions but also seeking to benefit from wider competitiveness; and(3)domestic interests seeking compensatory side-payments.
In this context, furthermore, two additional trends can be identified. The first is theattempt (or strategic decision?) on the part of a growing number of political entrepreneurs
whether on the Right or on the Left to focus on facilitating such bargaining processes.
Domestic populist politics are increasingly seen as marginal and unproductive, while thediscourse of political >modernisation= is increasingly hegemonic. The second is theapparent emergence of an awareness in a number of countries, and perhaps in the IMF, theWorld Bank and the WTO as well, that political bargains entered into in this context have awider political or ideational dimension. If the kind of shift of policy agendas, bargaining
processes, and policy outcomes discussed here are to be seen as legitimate in the future, they
will increasingly be presented as representing wider liberal social and political values C andnot merely >neoliberal= economic solutions (in the European sense). Margaret Thatcher=ssaying that >You can=t buck the markets= is being challenged within the politicalmainstream not by the recreation of the mid-20th century industrial welfare state, the state of
the iron triangles, but by the notion of >globalization with a human face= (Bill Clinton), theofficial promotion of poverty reduction approaches by the World Bank, or the need for a>global safety net=. Indeed, even outside that mainstream, today=s anti-globalization
protesters are increasingly aware that the nation-state no longer constitutes an effective arenafor protest and that opposition to economic globalization itself requires the globalization ofprotest from below.29
Finally, in terms of the inclusiveness or exclusiveness of the policy process intransnationally-linked issue-areas, mass-based or voter-oriented groups would at first glance
seem less likely to participate proactively than in traditional domestic policy processes.
However, this rule of thumb falls away when the issue-area concerned becomes clearly
perceived in popular consciousness as being inherently or structurally international,transnational, or global. Thus environmental protection increasingly involves mass input,
mobilized through transnational pressure groups like Greenpeace; nevertheless, epistemic
communities in this issue-area have managed to keep their central role through their
specialized scientific expertise. Trade as an issue-area is increasingly mobilizing massgroups in the wake of the Battle of Seattle, although results are limited and mainly symbolicat this stage.
Conclusions
At the core of the model, then, is an apparent paradox. For the most part, the addition13

of our two additional categories of actors to the golden pentangle model tends to give an evenlarger agenda-setting role to elite groups, because they are more likely to be transnationallylinked, than is the case for the iron triangle model. The >democratic deficit=, the growing
weakness of organized labor, constraints on the welfare state, and the like, seem to giveincreasing structural and relational power to the more mobile sectors of international capital,
especially in the financial sector. At the same time, however, expansion of the number of
relevant categories of actors also increases the possibilities for competition among various
groups at different levels and makes it less possible for a closed or monolithic national state Cor even some sort of emerging >global state=30 C to result. The process is more neo-pluralist
than either fully pluralist or elitist.
Thus the globalization of public policy is a complex process. At one level it creates
new playing fields for a wider range of groups to participate. At another level, however, it isalso a process characterized by a specific set of constraints and opportunites, especially thosestemming from the distinction between non-specific and specific asset structures.
Nevertheless, globalization of the policy process involves the continual and growinginteraction of both old and new elements of the political opportunity structure, giving
political entrepreneurs considerable scope to shape that evolution. Finally, it strengthens thehand of internationally linked interests and actors and shifts the balance of agenda-setting,policy bargaining, and policy outcomes towards globalizing coalitions and proto-coalitions.
The impact of globalization on the policy process is already both extensive and substantial
and is not likely to diminish.

14

NOTES

1.

Aseem Prakash and Jeffrey A. Hart, eds., Globalization and Governance (London:
Routledge, 1999; Karsten Ronit and Volker Schneider, eds., Private Organizations in
Global Politics (London: Routledge, 2000).

2.

P.G. Cerny, >Globalization and the Erosion of Democracy,= European Journal of
Political Research, vol. 26, no. 1 (August 1999), pp. 1-26.

3.

P.G. Cerny, >Globalization and the Changing Logic of Collective Action,=International Organization, vol. 49, no. 4 (Autumn 1995), pp. 595-626.

4.

Mustapha Kamal Pasha and David L. Blaney, >Elusive Paradise: The Promise andPeril of Global Civil Society,= Alternatives, vol. 23, no. 3 (Summer 1998), pp. 417450. P.G. Cerny, >Political Agency in a Globalizing World: Toward a Structurational
Approach,= European Journal of International Relations, vol. 6, no. 4 (December
2000), pp. 147-162.

5.

E.g., Theda Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1979); Charles E. Lindblom, Politics and Markets: The World=s
Political-Economic Systems (New York: Basic Books, 1977); Peter A. Hall,
Governing the Economy: The Politics of State Intervention in Britain and France(New York and Cambridge: Oxford University Press and Polity Press, 1986).

6.

P.G. Cerny, >Webs of Governance and the Privatization of Transnational
Regulation,= in David G. Andrews, C. Randall Henning, and Louis W. Pauly, eds.,
Organizing the World=s Money: Essays in Honor of Benjamin J. Cohen (Ithaca, NY:
Cornell University Press, forthcoming 2002).

7.

Sidney Tarrow, >Transnational Politics: Contention and Institutions in International
Politics=, Annual Review of Political Science (forthcoming); Cerny, >Political
Agency=, op. cit.

8.

Axel Hülsemeyer, ed., Globalization: Convergence and Divergence (London and
New York: Palgrave, forthcoming 2003).

9.

Paul Hirst and Grahame Thompson, Globalization in Question: The International
Economy and the Possibilities of Governance (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2nd edition
1999).

10.

Thomas Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1862).

15

11

.

Gary Marks, Liesbet Hooghe, and Kermit Blank, >European Integration from the
1980s: State-Centric v. Multi-level Governance,= Journal of Common Market Studies,vol. 34, no. 3 (September 1996), pp. 341-378.

12.

Peter M. Haas, >Introduction: Epistemic Communities and International Policy
Coordination,= International Organization, vol. 46, no. 1 (Winter 1992), pp. 1-35;
Diane Stone, Capturing the Political Imagination: Think Tanks in the Policy Process(London: Frank Cass, 1996); Raymund Wehrle and Volker Leib, >The InternetSociety and Its Struggle for Recognition and Influence=, in Ronit and Schneider, op.
cit., pp. 102-123; Mark Evans and Jonathan Davies, >Understanding Policy Transfer:
A Multi-Level, Multi-Disciplinary Perspective=, Public Administration, vol. 77, no. 2(Summer 1999), pp. 361-385.

13.

Pasha and Blaney, op. cit.; Tarrow, op. cit.; Margaret E. Keck and Kathryn Sikkink,
Activists Beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics (Ithaca, NY:
Cornell University Press, 1998).

14.

Hugh Heclo, >Issue Networks and the Executive Establishment=, in Anthony King,ed., The New American Political System (Washington, DC: American EnterpriseInstitute, 1978), pp. 87-124.

15.

Anthony King, >The American Polity in the Late 1970s: Building Coalitions in the
Sand=, in King, ed., The New American Political System, p. 391.

16.

P.G. Cerny, >Globalization, Governance, and Complexity,=, in Prakash and Hart,
eds., Globalization and Governance, op. cit., 188-212 (expanding on categories
developed by Theodore Lowi).

17.

P.G. Cerny, >The Dynamics of Financial Globalization: Technology, Market
Structure, and Policy Response,= Policy Sciences, 27:4 (November 1994), 319-342.

18.

See, for example, Kenneth Pomerantz and Steven Topik, The World That Trade
Created: Society, Culture, and the World Economy, 1400 to the Present (Armonk, NY,
and London: M.E. Sharpe, 1999).

19.

P.G. Cerny, >Globalizing the Political and Politicizing the Global: Reflections on
International Political Economy as a Vocation,= New Political Economy, vol. 4, no. 1(January 1999), pp. 147-162; Cerny, >Reconstructing the Political in a Globalizing
World: States, Institutions, Actors and Governance=, in Frans Buelens, ed.,Globalization and the Nation-State (Cheltenham, Glos.: Edward Elgar, 1999), pp. 89137; Theodore J. Lowi, >Our Millennium: Political Science Confronts the Global
Corporate Economy,= International Political Science Review, 22:2 (April 2001), 131150.

20.

P.G. Cerny, >The New Security Dilemma: Divisibility, Defection, and Disorder in the
Global Era,= Review of International Studies, vol. 26, no. 4 (October 2000), pp. 62316

646.
21

.

Will Hutton and Anthony Giddens, eds., On the Edge: Living With Global Capitalism(London: Jonathan Cape, 2000); Roy Hattersley, >Campaign for Real Labour is On,=The Observer (London), 8 July 2001; P.G. Cerny, The Changing Architecture of
Politics: Structure, Agency, and the Future of the State (London: Sage, 1990), 242246.

22.

I am indebted to Michael Shalev for this phrase.

23.

James N. Rosenau, National Leadership and Foreign Policy: A Case Study in the
Mobilization of Public Support (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1963).

24.

The concept of >publics= as >associations of consumers= draws from a strand of
public choice literature originally developed in the context of urban politics byscholars such as Elinor and Vincent Ostrom; see the discussion in P.G. Cerny,>Globalization, Governance, and Complexity,= op. cit.

25.

Jeffrey Frieden and Ronald Rogowski, >The Impact of the International Economy on
National Policies: An Overview=, in Robert O. Keohane and Helen V. Milner, eds.,
Internationalization and Domestic Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1996), pp. 25-47.

26.

Eric N. Helleiner, States and the Re-emergence of Global Finance (Ithaca, NY:
Cornell University Press, 1994).

27.

Jeffry A. Frieden, >Invested Interests: The Politics of National Economic Policies in a
World of Global Finance=, International Organization, vol. 45, no. 4 (Autumn 1991),
pp. 425-52; P.G. Cerny, >Globalization and the Changing Logic of Collective
Action,= op. cit,; Frieden and Rogowski, >The Impact of the International Economy
on National Policies: An Overview=, op. cit. Non-specific and specific assets are
categories developed by Oliver E. Williamson in Markets and Hierarchies (NewYork: Free Press, 1975) and The Economic Institutions of Capitalism (New York:Free Press,1985).

28.

Cf. P.G. Cerny, >Restructuring the Political Arena: Globalization and the Paradoxesof the Competition State=, in Randall D. Germain, ed., Globalization and Its Critics:
Perspectives from Political Economy (London: Macmillan, 2000), pp. 117-138
Michael Moran, >Understanding the Regulatory State=, British Journal of Politics
and International Relations, vol. 4, no. 1 (forthcoming April 2002); Evans and Davies,>Understanding Policy Transfer=, op. cit.

29.

Amory Starr, Naming the Enemy: Anti-Corporate Movements Confront Globalization(London, New York, and Australia: Pluto Press and Zed Books, 2000), especially
Chapter 3; Flora Lewis, >The Anti-Globalization Spoilers Are Going Global,=International Herald Tribune, 6 July 2001.
17

30

.

Martin Shaw, Theory of the Global State (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2001).

18