REVIEW
Latest advances in antiaging medicine
Terry Grossman
Frontier Medical Institute, Golden, Colorado, USA(Received for publication on January 17, 2005)(Revised for publication on March 22, 2005)(Accepted for publication on April 21, 2005)

Abstract. Rapid progress is being made in our ability to modify the aging process. Rather than serving as a period of debility and decreasing health, for many people, the later years of life are becoming aperiod of continued productivity, independence and good health. Progress is also being made inincreasing average lifespan. The leading causes of death (cardiovascular disease, cancer, lung disease,diabetes) are the end result of decades-long processes. With current knowledge, it is possible to delay
the onset of these diseases. This can be assisted by lifestyle choices incorporating healthful diet, exercise, stress management, and nutritional supplementation. Emerging genomics technology will allow
individuals to establish personalized programs, while early detection of heart disease and cancer willcontribute to longevity. Biotechnological therapies involving stem cells, recombinant DNA, proteomics, therapeutic cloning and gene-based therapies are expected to play major roles in promoting
successful aging. We are at the threshold of artiﬁcial intelligence (AI) and nanotechnology (NT). AI
will allow for a merging of our biological thinking with advanced forms of non-biological intelligence tovastly expand our ability to think, create and experience. NT will ultimately allow us to build devices
able to build molecules much like our current cellular machinery does, one atom at a time. It is the goal of
today’s antiaging medicine to forestall disease and aging long enough for people to utilize the powerfulbiotechnology and nanotechnology therapies that will be developed over the decades ahead. Thesefuture therapies have the potential to greatly extend longevity. (Keio J Med 54 (2): 85–94, June 2005)
Key words: antiaging, longevity, genomics, biotechnology, nanotechnology

contribute to society, with several of these years often
requiring skilled care such as a nursing home. The newview of aging is that people will remain physically andmentally healthy until very old age. This is what people
today are looking for in their later years: to remain vibrant and in very good health, as contributing membersof society. This paradigm shift is possible for many
people today with present-day strategies, so this is arealistic goal for many people.
We have the technology and medical knowledge toenable a signiﬁcant portion of the population to live tomore than 100 years of age already. Several factors areintersecting to create a scenario where this will become
increasingly common in the years ahead.
It is even possible that within the next few decades,
life spans of 100 years may appear quite short. Today,
human life expectancy has been steadily increasing by
about 2.2 months per year.1 This progress has been

People are very interested in learning what they can
do to live longer as well as to remain healthy during
their later years. Numerous books have written about
this topic, and, in fact, I have contributed to the growing number of titles by writing two books speciﬁcallyaddressing this topic, The Baby Boomers’ Guide to
Living Forever (Hubristic Press, 2000) and Fantastic
Voyage: Live Long Enough to Live Forever (Rodale
Press, October 2004), which I coauthored with Ray
Kurzweil.
Changing Views of Aging
Views about aging are changing rapidly. The oldview of aging was that much of one’s latter years werebasically spent in a state of disability. Conventional
wisdom was that seniors of advanced age (the ‘‘oldestof the old’’) would spend their ﬁnal years unable to

Presented at the 1372nd Meeting of the Keio Medical Society in Tokyo, September 22, 2004
Reprint requests to: Terry Grossman, Frontier Medical Institute, 2801 Youngﬁeld Street, Golden Colorado 80401, USA, e-mail: terry@kurzweiltech.com
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Grossman T: Latest advances in antiaging medicine

80

78

76

Life Expectancy

74

72

70

68

66

64
Life Expectancy, All Races, Both Genders, U.S., 1942-2002
Source: National Vital Statistics Reports, Vol. 53, No. 6, Nov. 10, 2004

62

60
1942

1952

1962

1972

1982

1992

2002

Year

Fig. 1

Life expectancy U.S. 1942–2002.

steady for at least the past 60 years (see Figure 1). Dueto the acceleration in the rate of technological change,
within 10–15 years, some authors feel that life expectancy will continue to increase and at an increasing ratein the years ahead.2 Others researchers put the maximum life expectancy for the human population at 85–90
years, although individuals within the population may
live longer.3
Evolution Is Not on Our Side
The problem is that, historically, from a biologicalpoint of view, evolution was not on our side to live solong. We need to recall that biological evolution took
place in an era of scarcity. In primordial times, there
were a limited number of calories to go around for ourancient predecessors. Since older individuals in thecommunity were simply competing for the limited foodand other resources available, it was not in the best interest for the survival of the tribe or community to allow its elderly to remain alive too long. There was asurvival advantage to a community whose members
remained alive and healthy (just) long enough to reproduce and raise their children; but then it would be
best if ‘‘aging genes’’ were to express themselves andcause adults to age rapidly, essentially to shrivel up andblow away. A community whose individuals didn’t survive much beyond the time their offspring were selfsufﬁcient would possess a natural selection advantage
over a community where the members lived into ripeold age (and decrepitude). In the ﬁrst community, it ismore likely that the younger members would have agreater chance of surviving because of less competition
for scarce calories and these would be genes increasing
survival advantage. It is important to realize that our
DNA really hasn’t changed very much in the past
100,000 years or so. These ‘‘aging genes’’ remains key
letters in the genetic alphabet soup in which we still swim
today. But, in modern times, the conditions that selected
for these genes in millennia past no longer apply. Today
we live in an era of abundance. Granted, many people
still live under conditions where there isn’t enough foodto go around, and a signiﬁcant portion of human kind
still lives precariously close to starvation, but this reﬂects
political and social issues more than lack of technological capability. If allowed, technology could easily solve
the problem of inadequate food for all peoples of theworld.4 So, technology has allowed us to override thisremnant of our biological heritage, and, there is nolonger a survival advantage to short-lived humans.
The Grandmother Hypothesis
Keeping the elderly around longer is also good forbusiness: the business of the human race. Seniors represent a repository of wisdom. It is a shame and tragedy
for people to die at just the time they are at the apogeeof their accumulated knowledge. It seems ironic to allow people to accumulate knowledge over the course ofa lifetime and then cut them down at their pinnacle andallow this wisdom be lost to the cemetery plot or ‘‘go up
in smoke’’ on the funeral pyre. It is in the best interestof a modern, technological society to keep the elderly
alive and vibrant and to make use of their vast collec-

Keio J Med 2005; 54 (2): 85–94

tive knowledge base. This is the so-called ‘‘grandmother hypothesis’’ in which ‘‘older individuals speciﬁcally retain the ability to preserve their knowledge basethat allows them to focus on transmitting to children
knowledge accumulated over generations.’’5 This ismodern evolution at its ﬁnest, and by utilizing the intellectual resources of our seniors more effectively, we
will be able to evolve even more quickly. But we must
keep our bodies (and minds) in our senior years in goodcondition to accomplish this.
In most cases, people can achieve this goal ofremaining healthy until very late in life. The knowledge
to do so exists today. Chronic disease does not happen
overnight. While the overt clinical manifestation of adisease may appear suddenly, most of the disease processes that constitute the leading causes of death, suchas cancer, heart disease, kidney failure, etc. are almost
always decades in the making. We now have the ability
to assess where we are personally in the progression ofthese processes and, with this knowledge, take sensible
and effective and preventive action to halt and reverse
the lethal march towards disease, disability and death.
Effective testing is the key; uncovering incubating disease processes and curing them before symptoms appear and it is too late.
The leading cause of death in the United States iscoronary heart disease. Yet, 50 per cent of men and 64
per cent of women discover they have heart disease by
suffering a fatal heart attack. This means that half ofmen and almost two-thirds of women with heart diseasereceive no warning symptoms such as chest pain people
before succumbing to a fatal myocardial infarction.6
By aggressively utilizing non-invasive diagnostic testingavailable today, many people could take effective, preventive action before suffering a myocardial infarction.
The second leading cause of death is cancer, but, all
too often, cancer is not detected until after it has metastasized and then is very difﬁcult to treat. The same
applies to strokes, the third leading cause of death.
Strokes typically come on without warning, all too often
resulting in permanent damage.
But, it does not need to be this way. By aggressively
applying the medical knowledge we have today, people
can assess where they are in the progression of disease
and take effective action to halt and reverse the disease
process before irreversible damage occurs.
The Aging Process: No One’s Friend
We need to begin by taking aging for what it is.
Aging is no one’s friend. Aging is our enemy. A fundamental principle of antiaging medicine is, in fact, thataging can be regarded as a disease, an enemy. And, aswith any enemy, we must ﬁght it with all the tools andweapons at our disposal: with multiple independent87

methodologies. We don’t go to war with one soldier or
one weapon. If we want to win, we attack our enemy
with everything we have. Since aging is our enemy, we
should use everything we have to ﬁght it.
But, on the road to longevity, we have other enemies
as well. We need to acknowledge that we are our own
worst enemies. We sabotage our health by making poor
lifestyle choices. We know we shouldn’t eat doughnutsor potato chips, but we do. We know we should exercise
regularly and control the stress in our lives, but wedon’t. We ignore our genetics. We know that lung cancer runs in our family, but we smoke anyway. We know
alcohol-related liver disease and cirrhosis runs in ourfamily, but we still drink alcohol.
In addition, the disease processes themselves are
our enemy. Cardiovascular disease, cancer, pneumonia,
and Alzheimer’s disease are nobody’s friend. In addition, there is a vocal body of opposition to longevity
research. For instance, some researchers feel any efforts
to extend human longevity beyond its current 80 or so
years are actually immoral.7 This was epitomized by anenormously insensitive statement made by former governor of Colorado, Richard Lamm, who stated in 1984
that the elderly ‘‘have a duty to die.’’8 Some two decades later, Mr. Lamm is now approaching his 70 thbirthday. One wonders if he still feels the same way(and if he thinks it applies to him).
The Three Bridges to Longevity
One way to look at our path to longevity is to regard
it as a journey over three sequential bridges. Bridge
One is based on therapies that exist today. Bridge One
therapies consist of the best of present-day medicine,including biotechnology breakthroughs that are occurring every day. Bridge One will take us to Bridge
Two, which consists of the full blossoming of the biotechnology revolution. Then Bridge Two will take us to
Bridge Three, the nanotechnology/artiﬁcial intelligence
revolution, which will lead to life spans that are currently incomprehensible, but which will soon be commonplace, measuring in the hundreds of years.
There are several Bridge One technologies thatpeople can do themselves without the aid of medical
professionals. These include things like proper diet, caloric restriction, adequate exercise, stress management,
aggressive nutritional supplementation, detoxiﬁcationand proper care of your brain.
There are also things that can be done with the helpof medical professionals. For example, you can haveyour genomics tested; you can have tests done to determine speciﬁcs of your metabolism such as methylation, inﬂammation and glycation defects. You canundergo testing to detect heart disease early and thentake measures before it has a chance to strike. You

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Grossman T: Latest advances in antiaging medicine

can detect and prevent cancer before it has a chanceto spread. You can avail yourself of bio identical hormone replacement therapies.
Bridge One – What People Can Do Themselves
Diet
There are 4 sources of calories: carbohydrates, proteins, fats and alcohol. People can make good and bad
choices for each of these types of calories. Carbohydrates, for example, are not inherently bad; rather there
are good and bad carbohydrates. Similarly, proteins,fats and alcohol are not inherently bad, but there aregood and bad choices within each of these categories.
Whole grains like brown rice, legumes such as
lentils and beans, and above-ground green vegetables
are examples of good carbohydrates. They have a low
glycemic index, meaning they do not turn into sugar
quickly in the body. There are ‘‘bad’’ carbohydrates,
however. Bad carbohydrates are ones which tend toturn into sugar quickly, causing excessive weight. Reﬁned sugar, reﬁned ﬂour products, breads, root vegetables that grow underground, such as potatoes and beets,
have a high glycemic index and are not optimal sourcesof energy.9 Consumption of these should be limited.
Proteins are available in good and bad varieties. Fishand seafood, vegetable-based protein sources such as
tofu and other soy products are good proteins. Less
beneﬁcial proteins are fatty red meats, which are highin saturated fat, and egg yoke, high in inﬂammatoryarachidonic acid.
There are good and bad fats. Fish and ﬁsh oils aregood as are avocado and olive oils; raw, unsalted nuts
and seeds contain beneﬁcial fats. Bad fats include deepfried foods, processed vegetable oils like corn oil, and‘‘trans’’ fats such as are found in margarine.10,11
People are often surprised to learn that alcohol isalso available in good and bad varieties. Red wine has
beneﬁt, as it is rich in phytonutrients such as resveratrol, an anticancer agent.12–14 Beer is an example of asomewhat bad alcohol, since beer is rich in amylose,
which has a high glycemic index. Although this is theconventional wisdom, this is controversial.15
Caloric restriction
Caloric restriction has been proven to extend lifespan of laboratory animals.16,17 Lifespan is how long
the longest living individual in a species can live. Currently, the maximum human lifespan seems to be about
120 years. No human being has ever been scientiﬁcally
documented as living more than 124 years. But, like
Olympic records, we expect this soon to be broken andrebroken again and again as Bridge Two and Threetherapies come into their own.

For now, however, caloric restriction is the only thing
proven to help lifespan. For example, fruit ﬂies have alifespan measured in days or weeks; laboratory rodents
have a lifespan of two or three years. In animal experiments involving caloric restriction, researchers wereable to extend the healthy lifespan of laboratory animals and insects drastically. Increases in lifespan of 50–
100 percent or more were seen. We know that consuming excess calories reduce life expectancy; conversely,
restricting calories can extend lifespan, at least in laboratory animals.18
In yeast experiments done by David Sinclair, caloric
restriction was shown to activate the SIRT1gene that
expresses SirT1 deacetylase that stabilizes DNA, extending lifespan. The authors postulate that caloric
restriction ‘‘could extend life-span by inducing SIRT1
expression and promoting the long-term survival of irreplaceable cells’’.19 Polyphenols are a dietary substance that also activates this gene and may extend
lifespan by 70 percent in yeast. A potent polyphenol
known as resveratrol is found in red wine.
Rodent experiments have been done by Richard
Weindrich at the University of Wisconsin, and he hasdone gene proﬁling to ﬁnd out which genes are turnedon and which genes are turned off during the aging
process. It seems only a handful of genes are involved.
By caloric restriction, he was able to show 30–50% increase in lifespan in rodents, ﬁsh, spiders and otheranimals. We know that in youth certain genes are active
and certain genes are not, and in aging, these oftenchange. We know that caloric restriction can movethose genetic switches in older animals to more closely
resemble the gene expression of a younger animal.20
For humans we have the results of real life experiments, not laboratory data. For example, on the Japanese island of Okinawa, a common phrase is ‘‘hara
hachi bu,’’ which means ‘‘belly 80 percent full.’’ This
concept means you should try to eat approximately 80
percent of what you would need to feel full. You try toleave the table a little hungry. The caloric intake of theaverage adult Okinawan is 1800 calories per day compared to Americans who eat 2500 calories or more eachday. This seems clearly related to their lifestyle choices
and not genetics, because as Okinawans move awayfrom their homes on Okinawa and adopt different lifestyles, they live shorter lifespans like their neighbors.
So there is nothing genetic about their long lifespans.
They live longer because of their lifestyle choices, particularly caloric restriction.21,22
Other lifestyle choices
Japan is a land of other healthy lifestyle choices – atleast as far as diet is concerned. Even though many
Japanese smoke and live high stress lifestyles, theKeio J Med 2005; 54 (2): 85–94

number of Japanese over 100 years of age has doubled
in the past ﬁve years. This is a new phenomenon felt
to be due to improved health-care coupled with theirunderlying healthy diet. In 1998 there were 10,000 Japanese over 100 years of age. In 2003, ﬁve years later,
the number had doubled over 20,000. Women, by theway, constitute 85 percent of this centenarian population in Japan.
It is interesting to compare this to the United States,
a land characterized by bad lifestyle choices, certainly
as regards diet. A leading cause of death in the UnitedStates is, in fact, poor lifestyle choices. Half of thedeaths in the U.S. are the result of easily modiﬁable
lifestyle choices. The number one cause of death in the
U.S. is tobacco, which causes 18.1 percent of deaths.
The second is bad diet and lack of exercise, whichcauses 16.6 percent of deaths.23
Another healthy lifestyle choice that people canmake is regular aerobic exercise. Proper aerobic exercise consists of getting your heart rate up to 60–80 percent of your maximum predicted heart rate (which isequal to 220 less your age) and keeping it there for asustained period of time. Some type of aerobic exercise
should be done continuously for 30 minutes at least
every other day. In addition to aerobic exercise, weighttraining and stretching are valuable.
In addition we can take nutritional supplements.
Modern farming methods unfortunately have led tosigniﬁcant decreases in the vitamin and mineral content
of our food.24 Also, almost no one eats enough fruits
and vegetables to get adequate nutrition without taking
supplementation. Chemical reactions in the body occur
because of enzymes and many enzymes in the bodyneed vitamins and minerals as cofactors in order tofunction properly. By taking nutritional supplements,
you can ensure that the raw minerals are always available to ensure that your youth-sustaining enzymes
function optimally at all times. By taking supplements
we can help neutralize the now outdated genetic timebombs programmed within our genes designed to takeus out of competition for scarce calories as we age. We
can help accomplish some of the same goals by caloric
restriction, namely turning genes of youth on and genesof aging off at least for a while.25 In effect, by aggressive supplementation and other lifestyle choices we’retrying to ‘‘reprogram our biochemistry.’’
Bridge One – What People Can Do With
Physician Assistance
Genomics testing
One thing doctors can do is to help people test theirgenes. Genomics testing tells you what genes you have.
The Human Genome Project was recently completed

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and all 35,000 human genes have been identiﬁed. But,
the key to genomics is the realization that genes justrepresent tendencies in most cases. Most people do nothave a ‘‘breast cancer gene’’ or an ‘‘Alzheimer’s gene.’’
You may have a gene that increases your risk of breast
cancer or Alzheimer’s disease, particularly if you makethe wrong lifestyle choices. But you can often change
this outcome by making proper lifestyle choices. But
you won’t know what speciﬁc lifestyle choices to makeunless you know what speciﬁc genes you have, and thisis where genomics can provide critical information.
Here are some practical examples of what genomics
testing can tell you. The cytochrome P 450 (CYP 450)
genes code for proteins that help the body detoxify
toxins in the liver. One cytochrome P 450 gene is known
as C17. Women who have a mutated C17 gene can havean increased risk of breast cancer or osteoporosis.26,27
If a woman performs genomics testing and ﬁnds she
has mutated C17, she should avoid taking estrogen,since she would be at higher risk of developing breast
cancer by doing so. Another CYP 450 gene is 1A1.
Some mutations of this gene may render people much
more susceptible to lung cancer. Individuals who havemutated CYP 1A1 should be especially careful not tosmoke because they are at much higher risk of developing lung cancer. A mutated CYP 450 2E1 geneincreases susceptibility to alcohol-related liver diseaseand cirrhosis.28 People with this mutation should bevery careful with regard to alcohol consumption. So
these are examples of how genomics testing can help
you make speciﬁc lifestyle choices.
Early detection of cardiovascular disease and cancer
Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of deathin many developed countries. Medical professionals
can help their patients avoid heart disease with early
detection. The usual blood tests that are used to determine risk of heart disease (cholesterol subfractions, triglycerides, etc.) are not adequate. Highly sensitiveCRP, homocysteine and lipoprotein (a) levels need to
be checked as well. In addition, the ‘‘acceptable limits’’
given by many reference laboratories are also often inappropriate. As one example, the reference laboratory
I use in my medical practice considers levels of homocysteine less than 15 as acceptable; yet risk of heartdisease increases with levels greater than 7.0. Cholesterol levels under 200 are considered acceptable, butlevels between 130–160 may be optimal. Speciﬁc
cardiovascular-related genomics tests are available aswell and can provide useful patient-speciﬁc information.
Recently, non-invasive test for delineation of atherosclerosis have become available. Ultrafast CT scans
can quantitate the amount of calciﬁed plaque in thecoronary arteries. Virtual angiograms and MRIs are90

becoming available in several metropolitan areas, obviating the need for invasive angiography.
Cancer is the second leading cause of death. Medical
professionals can help with early detection and prevention of cancer. They can also suggest supplements likevitamin C, selenium, curcumin, ﬁsh oil, and folic acid.
A diet rich in soy products and green tea is cancerprotective as well. It is important to make lifestylechoices including regular aerobic exercise and strict
avoidance of smoking and exposure to passive cigarettesmoke as well. These are proven methods of reducing
cancer risk. Physicians can help detect cancer in thevery earliest stages even before a detectable lesion ispresent by utilizing the DR-70 test which is undergoing
FDA testing as a possible screening test for colorectal
cancer.29 This blood test only requires a few cancer
cells to be present in the body for detection. This canhelp detect cancer in a very early stage before it has hada chance to metastasize.
Hormone replacement
High hormone levels are a hallmark of youth, while
declining hormone levels are characteristic of advancing age. At around 30 years of age an individual’s hormones begin to decrease, which then begins to accelerate the aging process. By restoring hormone levels
to more youthful levels, people can often experience
the beneﬁts of higher hormone levels similar to what
they had when they were younger. Antiaging hormones
include estrogen, progesterone, testosterone, thyroid,
melatonin and human growth hormone (hGH). The
cornerstone of hormone replacement therapy, however,is to only replace hormones whose levels are low andfor which there is a demonstrable deﬁciency. The indiscriminate prescribing of anabolic steroid hormones,
such as human growth hormone for bodybuilders who
merely wish to enhance the appearance of their physique, yet have adequate levels of hGH, is an inappropriate use of hormone replacement therapy and is notrecommended.
Optimally one should use bio identical hormones,
hormones which are chemically identical in their structure to those found naturally in the human body. For
example when prescribing estrogen replacement for
women, we want to use estriol, estrone and estradiol,which are the same estrogens found naturally in the
body. Similarly, we prefer to use bio identical progesterone, not a progestin like medroxprogesterone (which
is not progesterone at all, but a synthetic drug, which
possesses progesterone-like activity). We use testosterone itself (not medroxytestosterone), which can improve muscle mass and sex drive in both men andwomen. Melatonin is useful in promoting deep sleep
and also ﬁghts some cancers30 and, in certain cases ofGrossman T: Latest advances in antiaging medicine

documented growth hormone deﬁciency, we have foundthe use of human growth injections of value.
Bridge Two (The Biotechnology Revolution)
Bridge Two consists largely of the biotechnology
revolution, which has already begun and which willﬁnd its full expression over the course on the next 15
years. Among the most important items of Bridge Twowill include stem cell therapy, therapeutic cloning,recombinant gene technology or ‘‘pharming’’ (genetically modifying bacteria, plants and farm animals to
produce desired proteins) and developing a deeper
understanding of the human genome with the ultimate
goal of creating designer proteins (‘‘proteomics’’). Allof these therapies are very exciting and will change
medicine as we know it, so that is completely unrecognizable from the medicine of today. By optimizingcare of our present biological bodies and eliminating
the expression of undesirable genes, the life expectancy
for most people should easily exceed 100 years.31
Stem cell therapies
Stem cells occur naturally in the human body andhave the ability to differentiate themselves into manydifferent cell types; for example, a stem cell found in a
hair follicle can be coaxed to turn into a heart muscle
cell or a nerve cell depending on the chemical environment in which it ﬁnds itself. Recently, there has been
considerable political and ethical debate about the useof a speciﬁc type of stem cell that is found early in fetal
development – the embryonic stem cell. Embryonicstem cells are characterized by an extreme degree of‘‘plasticity,’’ namely, the ability to change or differentiate into any type of tissue. Since the production of embryonic stem cells involves the destruction of humanembryos, this has created a moral dilemma for many
political and religious leaders, particularly in the UnitedStates.
Fetal stem cells are found in two main varieties:
totipotent and pluripotent stem cells. Totipotent stem
cells are found in the embryo immediately after fertilization. Because some people feel that as soon as theembryo starts to divide it constitutes a human being, it
is sacrosanct and must not be destroyed. A little further
along the line of cell division come the pluripotent stem
cells. These cells are not as plastic as the totipotent
stem cells and cannot form every cell type, at least notwith today’s technologies, so they are not as valuable toscientists as the embryonic stem cells. However, eventhe totipotent stem cells can be encouraged to differentiate into many different cell types under the inﬂuenceof speciﬁc growth factors. In the near future, it is notunrealistic to envision a scenario in which a patientKeio J Med 2005; 54 (2): 85–94

suffers, say, a myocardial infarction and receives atransplant of cloned heart muscle cells generated fromhis own stem cells to replace the region of infarcted
myocardium. Patients with spinal cord injuries or ahistory of cerebrovascular accident may soon be able
to receive stem cell implants to regenerate damaged
tissues and restore function.
A small number of stem cells persist into adult life.
Most adult tissues have a few stem cells, but they are
rare. Their function remains incompletely understood,
but we may soon be able to transform these adult stem
cells into any cell type in the body. As we perfect thistechnology the debate over embryonic stem cells willend, and we will be able to harness the full potential ofthis therapy. A group in South Korea recently was able
to create a pure clone of embryonic stem cells, obviating the need for actual embryos. Woo Suk Hwang andShin Yong Moon of Seoul National University havesuccessfully cloned a line of human pluripotent stem
cells. This research paves the way for production ofhuman-replacement tissues and organs from a cloned
stem cell line.32
Pharming
Another very powerful technique is known as‘‘pharming.’’ It involves recombinant technology. Thisrefers to modifying or inserting desired genes into
animals, plants and bacteria. Then these so-called‘‘pharm’’ animals or plants create the desired proteins.
An interesting variant of this therapy involves genetically modifying bananas or tomatoes to create a vaccine
against hepatitis B. In order to get vaccinated, the patient would simply eat the banana or tomato. It is estimated that these plant derived vaccines could be produced for less than 2 cents per dose, a 99 per centsaving from conventional vaccines. So, in effect, there
would be bananas and tomatoes growing in the ﬁeld
producing hepatitis vaccine. When we give patients human insulin, it is a bioengineered product that is madeby recombinant bacteria; similarly, human growth hormone for injection is fabricated in the laboratory byrecombinant bacteria. There now exist ‘‘pharms’’ comprised entirely of different ‘‘pharm’’ animals, in which
the milk of the goats is used to create silk threads
stronger than those created by spiders,33 and, in theﬁelds are grown plants that are particularly high inprotein such as tobacco and corn, which have had their
genetic structure modiﬁed to create other desirable
proteins.
Proteomics
Proteomics, in many ways, is an even more exciting
ﬁeld of development. Proteomics involves systemati-

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cally creating desired proteins in the laboratory de novo.
This may be the most important medical technologicaldevelopment to occur within the next two decades. In atypical scenario, doctors will determine what protein apatient needs to recover from a given illness and thenthe proteomics engineers in the laboratory will fabricate the needed protein molecules. The full expressionof this therapy still lies 10–15 years away, but when thistherapy is mature, it will offer incredibly powerfultherapies. Proteomics will also be utilized for diagnostic
tests, and medical diagnoses will be able to be mademuch more quickly.
A major problem with proteomics relates to thethree-dimensional conﬁguration of proteins. While thechemical structure of a protein molecule can be written
as a linear chain of amino acids, determining in advancethe sequence of amino acids that will be needed to create a desired three-dimensional protein molecule withfolding and cross-linking of the amino acids is an incredibly difﬁcult task. Determining what chain of aminoacids is required to create a desired three-dimensional
structure remains a problem that exceeds the computational capacities of even the world’s fastest computers.
There are some new supercomputers designed to workon the protein folding problem. IBM has just introduced the Blue Gene/L, a supercomputer that operates
at a speed out of 360 trillion operations per second andone of its main goals is solving the protein folding
problem. It is anticipated within the next 10 years someearly proteomics therapies will be available and signiﬁcantly affect our abilities to diagnose and treat many
diseases.
Cloning
There are two types of cloning: reproductive cloning
and therapeutic cloning. In reproductive cloning, yourecreate an entirely genetically identical organism. Reproductive cloning has already been used in animals,
but due to the thorny moral issues involved, has notbeen used in humans. ‘‘Dolly the sheep’’ was the ﬁrst
cloned animal, and there have been many additional
animal species that had been cloned. Genetics Savings & Clone, Inc., for example, is a private company
that is in business of cloning beloved pets for theirowners.
This is to be differentiated from therapeutic cloning in which you create individual tissues, not entire
organisms. Therapeutic cloning uses germ cell lines before they are implanted and causes them to differentiate
and develop into speciﬁc tissues or organs. Currently,
researchers are growing simpler organs such as corneas
and urinary bladders, and soon should be able to growskin, blood vessels and other complex tissues andorgans by cloning them from germ cells.

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Gene therapies
Gene therapies are also very powerful aspects of theBridge Two biochemical revolution. Some of the current therapies available include RNA interference(RNAi), and antisense RNA, which are available now,
but are in a very primitive stage of development. RNAinterference therapy involves taking short doublestranded segments of RNA and inserting them into thecytoplasm of the cell. These match and lock onto portions of the native messenger RNA (mRNA) that istranscribed from mutated genes. This causes the native
RNA segment to be cut apart and destroyed, silencing
expression of the undesirable gene. Antisense RNA
also blocks the mRNA created by the defective genes
so they are unable to make undesired proteins. Antisense therapy uses mirror-image sequences of RNA(antisense RNA), which stick to the abnormal proteinencoding RNA, preventing it from being expressed.34
It is hoped that these therapies which affect gene
expression indirectly, by interfering with the mRNA
coded for by the defective genes, will eventually lead to‘‘somatic gene therapy,’’ which is the holy grail of genetherapy. In somatic gene therapy the goal is to insert adesired gene directly into the patient’s genome and delete or turn off undesired or defective genes. Somaticgene therapy is most important gene therapy of all, but
is probably 25 years away. But when this therapy
is mature, it will be possible take any type of adult or
somatic cell in the body and turn it into any other cell
type because all somatic cells contain all the genes
needed to create every cell type. We will, for example,
be able to turn hair follicle or fat cells into heart muscle
cells simply by manipulating their genes.
Gains are already being made in this arena by using
adult stem cells. Adult liver stem cells have been transformed into pancreatic cells35 and adult muscle stem
cells have been transformed into heart muscle cells,
neural tissue, and blood vessels.36
Yet, as exciting as these Bridge Two therapies willbe, they will pale in comparison to the Bridge Threetherapies to which they will lead, the full ﬂowering of
which will occur 25 to 30 years from now.

Grossman T: Latest advances in antiaging medicine

time much like our cellular machinery does today. As
AI and MNT technologies combine with and are incorporated into our biological bodies, serious increases inhuman lifespan well beyond 120 years will be not only
possible, but highly probable.38
Artiﬁcial intelligence
Artiﬁcial Intelligence refers to forms of nonbiological intelligence that will soon rival the capacityof the human brain and then rapidly exceed human intelligence by a billion-fold or more within the next few
decades. Limited forms of artiﬁcial intelligence exist
today such as pattern recognition software programs
which allow computers to ‘‘understand’’ human language (and which I am using right now to type this article). Other AI programs write poetry and create original works of art. But the type of advanced AI that wewill see unfold during Bridge Three will center on the‘‘reverse engineering’’ of the human brain, a task which
experts in the ﬁeld estimate will be completed within
20 years. Reverse engineering (understand the innerworkings) of the brain will not only provide key insights
into how the brain performs its many functions, but willlead to a radical increase in human intelligence resulting from the merging of our current biological brain
power with nonbiological (computer) intelligence. As
we ultimately merge our biological thinking with artiﬁcial intelligence, we will vastly expand both the scopeand speed of the thinking experience.
This development will provide key insights into how
the human brain performs its pattern recognition andcognitive functions. These insights in turn will greatly
accelerate the development of artiﬁcial intelligence innonbiological systems such as nanobots, a key to the
biological application of nanotechnology. Microscopic,
but intelligent nanobots will course through our bloodstream, bodily organs, and brain, downloading software
either from the Internet or from our own personal ‘‘WiFi’’ network that will enable us to overcome virtually
any obstacle to keeping us healthy. This will ultimately
lead to dramatic increases in human longevity.
Nanotechnology

Bridge Three (The Nanotechnology/AI Revolution)
The hallmarks of Bridge Three include development of artiﬁcial intelligence (AI) and molecular
nanotechnology (MNT). Artiﬁcial Intelligence refers
to nonbiological (computer) intelligence, while nanotechnology is a term coined by Dr. K. Eric Drexler at
MIT in 1978 and which he elaborated in his seminal
book, ‘‘Engines of Creation.’’37 MNT refers to machinesthat operate on the scale of nanometers (10 9 m) andwhich will be able to create molecules one atom at a

Nanotechnology refers to engineering done on thescale of nanometers and will enable scientists to manipulate atoms, moving them from place to place, one
at a time. The textbooks for the practical medical application of nanotechnology are already being written,
and Robert Frietas, M.D. has already completed 2 of
the 4 volumes of his ‘‘Nanomedicine’’ series of books.
According to Dr. Freitas, ‘‘The comprehensive
knowledge of human molecular structure so painstakingly acquired during the 20th and early 21st centuries

Keio J Med 2005; 54 (2): 85–94

will be used in the 21st century to design medicallyactive microscopic machines. These machines, rather
than being tasked primarily with voyages of pure discovery, will instead most often be sent on missions ofcellular inspection, repair, and reconstruction.’’ He goeson to say ‘‘If the idea of placing millions of autonomous
nanorobots inside one’s body might seem odd, evenalarming, the fact is that the body already teems with avast number of mobile nanodevices.’’39
Nanobiotic red blood cells – respirocytes
Programmable red blood cells are an example ofnanotechnological devices on Freitas’ drawing board.
Like most of our biological systems, red blood cells
perform their function of oxygenating the body very
inefﬁciently. So, Freitas has redesigned them for optimal performance.
With an ounce or two of Freitas’ ‘‘respirocytes’’(nanobiotic red blood cells) circulating along with yournormal blood, you could go hours without oxygen. You
would be able to go ‘‘scuba diving’’ without scuba gear.
An ounce or two or respirocytes in your blood stream
could provide several hours worth of oxygen. An
untrained teenager with respirocyte-enhanced blood
would be easily able to outrun a highly trained, but
unenhanced Olympic athlete. Astronauts could explore
other planets without oxygen tanks. In a less frivolous
application, in the event of a cardiac arrest, an injectionof respirocytes administered by emergency medical
personnel would allow the patient’s brain and other vital organs to be perfused with oxygen for several hours
while they awaited deﬁnitive repair of the underlying
process that led to the cardiac arrest. Analyses haveshown that these respirocytes could be hundreds or
thousands of times more efﬁcient than our own biological blood.
In a television documentary entitled ‘‘Beyond Human’’, which was originally broadcast nationwide in the
U.S. on 15 May 2001, respirocytes were shown being
injected into the bloodstream of a smoke inhalation
victim who was suffering from carbon monoxide poisoning. The video depicted the respirocytes passing
through the arteries on their way to the capillary bed,
where they then released their store of oxygen in thepatient’s tissues to help keep the victim alive while
awaiting deﬁnitive care.
Nanobiotic white blood cells – microbivores
Nanotechnology will also create programmablewhite blood cells. These nanobiotic white blood cells(‘‘microbivores’’) will patrol the bloodstream, seeking
out and destroying undesirable bacteria, viruses andother pathogens.

93

These nanobots will download software from theInternet for particular problems, and could be programmed to recognize and destroy cancer cells before
they would have a chance to grow and spread.40
Won’t it be nice to have some programmable whiteblood cells in your blood stream to defend against thepossibility of biological warfare attack? It would be asimple matter to realize the organism that had beenreleased and your microbivores would immediately
download the appropriate program from the Internet todestroy that pathogen. So programmable microbivores
will be the ultimate defense against biological weaponsof mass distraction or biological warfare agents, as well
as against any inﬂuenza pandemic or other potential
pathogen.
Conclusion
According to Harvey Mackey, 61 percent of famous
people didn’t achieve their most noble achievements
until after 60 years of age. So, there is a great deal ofadvantage to remaining in good health until your later
decades of life. In the 19 th century, Victor Hugo said‘‘Forty is the old age of youth, ﬁfty the youth of oldage.’’ At the beginning of the 21 st century, we can now
safely say that 50 or 60 is only the beginning of thesecond half of life. On December 31, 2004, there were
41 documented ‘‘supercentenarians, individuals over
110 years of age.’’41 By the middle of this century,
many longevity researchers believe these numbers will
increase dramatically.
We have discussed some of the Bridge One strategies we can use to keep our bodies in good health until
the Biotechnology (Bridge Two) and Nanotechnology/
AI (Bridge Three) revolutions ﬁnd full expression.
There is no doubt that the 21 st century will be worth
living to experience. By following the Bridge One
strategies that exist today, many people alive today will
have the opportunity to see it in its entirety.
Acknowledgements: I wish to acknowledge Raymond Kurzweil, my
coauthor of Fantastic Voyage: Live Long Enough to Live Forever(Rodale, 2004) who originated many of the original concepts presented herein.
This paper is based on a lecture given at Keio University on 22
September 2004.

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