How does Buddhism Contribute to
the Environmental Problems?

Shuichi Yamamoto andVictor S. Kuwahara

Introduction

T

HERE are many environmental problems. The global problems
include the global warming, the depletion of the ozone layer, thedeforestation, and the decrease of biodiversity, desertification, acid rain,
and the seawater pollution etc. and there are an endocrine-disrupting
chemical, agricultural chemicals and the food additive for the problems
in livelihood zone. These problems become the biggest task in the world
because it means destruction of the living base of the human race at thepresent and the near future. Various counter measures have been taken
for environmental problems. These are basically divided into two measures by the development of the technology and by the control of thehuman activity besides the investigation of the cause. However, a religion cannot be expected to contribute directly from a quite same standpoint of the science and technology. If the religion could contribute thesolving problems, it would be that an examination of method thatenables control of human activities, i.e. conversions of lifestyle andsense of values, examination of the environmental ethics, brewing of the
ethical recognition, examination of the civilization and its conversion
from a global view. As for these, the positive participation of the religion might be possible.
We have examined up to now that how does Buddhism contribute to
the environmental problems from the basic viewpoints of that environmental problems will cause physical and mental suffering for all living
beings and that the mission of Buddhism is to reduce and remove thesuffering for them. They are that the views of nature and environment,
the cause and the feature of the environmental problems1, the meaningsof the Buddhist precepts2, the ideal way of a civilization3, the ideal waysof the environmental education and the environmental ethics4 and so on,
from the viewpoints of Buddhism. In the paper, in order to solve theproblems we would like to describe three points that recognition of theenvironmental problems, reexamination of lifestyle, practice and activity
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to solving the problems.

1. Recognition of Environmental Problems
A lot of people should share the problem for environmental problems.
First for that, it is necessary to recognize the current state and the causeof these problems deeply. The current recognition of the problem will
not be able to be requested besides the search for the science. However,the causes of the problems have to be investigated not only from the
movement and cycle of material by the human activity from the standpoint of science but also from the factors of society and the humanbeing. At the latter, Buddhism is able to study about the cause of the
problems. Moreover, Buddhism can also recognize it from the deeper
viewpoint of a person, and can show the principle of an evolution ofhuman beings and the environment. It is also important for keeping theenvironment and nature to be proper to recognize the meanings and theroles of them.
(1) Fundamental biospheric egalitarianism in living things andsymbiosis thought
It is an important aspect in environmental ethics as to how humanbeings, living things and non-living things are perceived. In respect to
Buddhism, humans, living things and non-living things are fundamentally recognized to be equal in life levels. The term “life levels” does notrefer to the common meaning of “life”, but refers to the fundamental
power as life energy which supports living beings. Buddhism teaches
that this fundamental power which can be called “life” potentially also
exists in non-living things.
One characteristic concept of Buddhism in recognizing the occurrence of every phenomena, i.e. living things and nature, is found in theconcept of Dependent Origination5 (engi; italic terms in parentheses are
Buddhist terms in Japanese, and so forth). The concept means that anentity does not exist and generate independently, but that every entity
exists only because of its relations with or the conditions of other entities. Buddhism teaches that an entity cannot exist independently becauseof the fundamental interdependence and interconnectedness of all phenomena. Relation of ontology (relation of space) and relation of formation (relation of time) are included in the concept. The concept of natureand environment seen in the concept of Dependent Origination (engi) issimilar to concepts of ecology. Everything is somehow connected.
Therefore, the very principles of bio-diversity and symbiosis of nature

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and living things are primary in maintaining our world. This concept ofDependent Origination (engi) underlies everything in Buddhism.
On the other hand, Buddhism has concepts that “life” can transmigrate and reborn (rinne-tensho) and that an ideal way of “life” in humanand living beings is enlightenment (Jobutsu)6. Here, the enlightenment
means the most ideal state of “life” and present the realm of “Buddha”
in the “life”. This recognition is derived from that every living being
have the same “life” as well as humans. Therefore, every living being isfundamentally equal in Buddhism.
(2) Non-duality of life and the environment and the principle ofevolution
An “environment” can only be defined when there is a corresponding
subject. The viewpoint of the environment in Buddhism recognizes not
only the relation of every living being and inorganic material like theecology but also the deeper layer of “life”. This is a viewpoint of karma
and a subject and the environment are the expression of the karma.
Buddhism has a concept of the non-duality of living beings and its
environment (e-sho-funi)7 which explains the relation between subject
and its environment. “E-sho” is a contraction of the Japanese terms “eho” and “sho-ho.” The syllable “ho” here means manifest effect, or
results of karma. “Sho-ho” indicates the living beings or the subjective
world, and “e-ho” indicates the insentient environment or the objective
world. The effects of an individual living being’s past karma manifest
themselves in both its subjective life and its objective environment.
Since the syllable “funi” means “two in phenomena but not two in
essence”, “e-sho-funi” means “life and its environment are two distinct
phenomena but non-dual in their fundamental essence.” Both the subject
and its environment coexist or are non-dual in a situation that is a resultof karma.
From the viewpoint of the Buddhist concept of karma, the environment is considered to be derived from the karma seed (go-shuji), marked
in the alaya-consciousness (araya-shiki) in the school of consciousness
only (Yuishiki-ha) which should be called Buddhist psychology8. The
karma seed (go-shuji) is composed by two kinds of common karma (gugo) and individual karma (fugu-go). While common karma (gu-go) is
karma shared with others, individual karma (fugu-go) is karma that isnot. These concepts of common karma (gu-go) and individual karma(fugu-go) are relative ones, and shared common karma (gu-go) ischanged according to the subject involved.
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that mountains, rivers, the earth and so on are born from common karma(gu-go), and living beings are born from individual karma (fugu-go).
Individual humans are, therefore, born from individual karma (fugu-go),and the natural environment of mountains, rivers and the earth is produced by common karma (gu-go) of the human race. As a result, theworld of human’s deep psychology is connected with the physical worldin the alaya-consciousness (araya-shiki). The improvement of the karma
of humans will improve its environment resulting from common karma(gu-go). Therefore, in the non-duality of living beings and its environment (e-sho-funi), the environment (e-ho) is derived from the common
karma (gu-go), while the living beings (sho-ho) is derived from the individual karma (fugu-go). That is, the subject and its environment is integral and not dual in the Buddhism.
The principle shows that the subject and its environment can bechanged and improved as well as that the environmental problems
caused by the karma in the deeper layer of the life. Therefore, the revolution of the subjective karma can revolve not only the subjective human
but also its environment.
The earth science has recently revealed that living beings and theenvironments had evolved both while mutually interacting. This is aconcept of the mutual evolution of living beings and the environments.
The Buddhism contains not only a physical side but also “mutual evolution” at the root level of “life” though the concept of the science contains only a physical side.

2. Reexamination of Lifestyle
Next, we should examine what way of life is suitable for solving theenvironmental problems. To say, this is reexamination of lifestyle. The
examination of the way of human life in Buddhism demands improvement of the ethics consideration including other living beings, people in
the world and generation in the future, reexamination of lifestyle andexamination of ideal way of own desire.
(1) Ethics for living beings and earth ethics
When the ethics for others of humans or living beings in Buddhism, twophilosophical concepts: the “Dependent Origination (engi)” and the“Middle-Way (chudo)” are important. Both concepts serve important
viewpoints that contribute to solving environmental problems. As mentioned above the doctrine of “Dependent Origination” denotes spatial
and time relations. The ethics for humans to nature would be able toHOW DOES BUDDHISM CONTRIBUTE

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examine from the “Dependent Origination”.
Diversions that harm these dependent origination relationships arecontradictory to Buddhist wisdom. Thus, maintaining a balanced
ecosystem with biodiversity is very important from the viewpoint ofconcept of “dependent origination” in Buddhism. Because every living
being can live in even by relations with other living beings and inorganic
nature, Buddhism must deny the human activities to cut the relations.
What should be considered in maintaining biodiversity is in that case,whether it thinks about continuing an individual living thing or it thinks
about continuing at the level of the species or the ecosystem. In otherwords, there are two standpoints where an individual life is esteem like“reverence for life” of Albert Schweitzer10, and where securing stabilityof ecosystem is valued like “land ethics” of Aldo Leopold11. This question is similar to the question in the “life centrism” of the environmental
ethics. Although Buddhism is the “life centrism”, it is necessary todescribe the wisdom of the “middle-way (chudo)” in Buddhism in order
to examine this.
The typical thinking way of the “middle-way” in Buddhism is wellshown in the “middle-way of suffering-and-happiness”. The “middleway of suffering-and-happiness” is led from the training of Shakyamuni.
This is neither standpoint that denies neither hedonism nor asceticism,and affirms it also. That is, while accepting the value of either principles
or extremes the “middle-way” demands harmony between the two anddoes not accept an inclination to either side. It is important for the middle-way to include both sides in balance. When Buddhism will examine
the ethics from the ideas of the “middle-way” and the “dependent origination”, the ethics will be the situation ethics. Here, Buddhism emphasizes “compassion” and “not killing (ahimsa)”. Buddhism that insists on
the equality of all living beings, naturally, “compassion” and “ahimsa”
will reach all living beings.
Then, Buddhism will examine the ethics to the living beings from the“dependent origination”, “middle-way”, “compassion”, and “ahimsa” inconsideration of each situation. It becomes a natural conclusion that the
Buddhist does not desert the seabird covered with the oil that had flownout from the stranded tanker, and also that he makes an effort to therelief of a dying animal. However, the Buddhist might adjust the numberof antelope that increases too much according to the situation. Buddhism basically esteems all living beings. However, when the otherspecies might become extinct by a certain species that increased too
much, Buddhism will not deny adjusting the latter species in order tokeep the harmony of the ecosystem and to conserve the former. Howev-

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er, the method of exterminating will adopt the method of not killing as
much as possible from “compassion” and “ahimsa”. Concretely, it islikely to practice birth control, and to be thought about the isolation of
the female and the male etc. The many human acts such as development
should be denied most because a decrease of the biomass and extinctionof the species by it will ruin the stability of the ecosystem and will affectthe other species. Therefore, the maintenance of the biodiversity and thestability of the global ecosystem will be valued from a standpoint of theearth ethics.
(2) Spiritual civilization and appropriate desire
The biggest problem for the solution of global warming is that theconsumption of a material necessary to support the human race in thelimited material system of the earth is too excess. Carbon dioxide nottreatable by photosynthesis of land plant and phytoplankton remains in
the atmosphere because the consumption speed is high. Therefore, oneof the measures is to maintain the human activity by the exhaust of lesser carbon dioxide with a new technology. The limit might exist though
the effort of this has done until now and is going to continue hereafter.
Therefore, another method of decreasing consumption by human being,that is, the human activity can do nothing but be controlled. Then, theissue is how to control the desire in the basis of the consumption activityof humans. However, it seems to have avoided the problem of the desire
up to now. At the present richness for humans is material richness, andthe index to measure is economy. Therefore, the human race who has
always located economical development as a proposition seems to haveavoided the problem of the desire to support an economic activity. Economical development is maintained by always stimulating the desire,and increasing consumption. On the other hand, an effort to technological development to decrease carbon dioxide exhausted has been made.
However, now, the method is breaking down with the depletion of
resource and the environmental problems.
Buddhism has insisted that the way of being for the desire is one of
the biggest problems of humans. When thinking about the solution ofenvironmental problems including the depletion of the resource, it isnecessary to consider about two in way of being for the human desire.
One is to control the desire for material, and another is to change thedirection for it.
In the human desire, there is a physiological, material, and mental
one. Especially desire for material might expand infinitely, though physiological desires, i.e. sleep desire, appetite and sexual desire, are adjust-HOW DOES BUDDHISM CONTRIBUTE

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ed by the central nervous system and the age, etc. Buddhism has
searched for the cause in which the desire happens, and has inquired
into controlling the desire and way of being for appropriate desire.
A Buddhist monk in ancient India, Vasubandhu (Seshin) explains thatthe desire is caused by devotion to the self (ga) in the manas-consciousness (mana-shiki) as the root ego12. The self attachment within theunconscious ego affects human behavior. That is, as a result, the self(ga) is greedy for its likings and is attached to them. In other words, this
attachment to likings is devotion to material dealing with sight, voice,smell, taste, and touch grasped by the fifth consciousness (go-shiki) on
the surface of the manas-consciousness. This attachment becomes devotion to fixed ideas and false views which are thought to be connected tohappiness. This devotion, however, is not connected to happiness in theleast. Accordingly, the more the devotion to one’s likings is strengthened, the more satisfaction is not obtained. And it becomes never-ending
desire for material.
Then, Mahayana Buddhism teaches, integrating an individual and thesmall self with the large self (the ninth clean consciousness: Konponjoshiki) as the whole cosmos, as the method of an elimination from self
attachment, and cleaning the ability equipped in the sense of organs as
the method of elimination of the desire for material. This is realisticallyto live with the sense of value that people who knows fulfillment will behappy even if he is poor, and people who does not know satisfaction ispoor even if he is rich, described in the sutra (Butsu-Yuigyo-Kyo)13. It is
indispensable that the human race’s sharing such sense of values, especially people in the developed country, embodies it. This practice of“knowing fulfillment” becomes ethically basic that controls the desire
for material.
Another method to reduce material consumption is to change thedirection where the desire proceeds. That is, the desire is made toward
not a direction where material richness is requested but a direction
where mental richness is requested. The never-ending desire for materialbounds to depletion of the resources and immediate deterioration of theenvironment directly. However, even if it is limitless, requesting mental
richness does not promote resource waste and environmental destruction. In this meaning, the direction of the vector in which the desire issatisfied should not make toward a material direction but a mental direction. The purpose of training in Buddhism is an enlightenment, that is,the completion of a human’s way of life. It is the completion of humans
for spiritual and completion of an action keeping compassion. Anyway,
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mental richness have a large meaning to solve environmental problems.

3. Practice and Action for Solving the Problems
Finally, we would like to describe the ideal code of conduct and ethics
norm in Buddhism as it relates to environmental problems. SchroederFrechet, K.S. (1981)14 describes that human beings are miserably incompetent in decision-making and ethical thinking, although they have
many analytical strengths in the area of science and technology. In otherwords, the behaviors of people are not inherently ideal, though many
people in the world recognize to have to solve environmental problems.
Then it is important how people behave ideally. We should ask whether
the practice to solve environmental problems can be continued there.
The motivation to continue might be needed. There is no problem if it ispossible to continue only by appealing for the meaning, though the purpose of solving the problems is not only for the self but also the entire
human race. However, it is not too easy actually.
Do human beings have the capability and methods for ideal behavior?
We think that maybe some contrivance is necessary. Human society generally requires a good reason (profit or incentives) for conducting goodintentions. Thus, it is important for a system to be designed that offerssome positive incentives or profit for good intentions towards environmental problems. This is only possible if an efficient profitable system isdesigned in society. For instance, some good examples are the tax reduction incentives and subsidy allocation when contributions are made toconserving and protecting the environment, such as buying energy
conserving products. In short, it is necessary to design a system that has
visible and concrete results for those who help solve environmental
problems. This is an issue that should be reflected in the policy.
From a Buddhist perspective, solving and contributing to the eradication of environmental problems is itself part of the practice of Buddhism. In other words, solving environmental problems is a natural
aspect of the Buddhist philosophy. One important example is the practice of the way of the Bodhisattva using the six paramitas. The six
paramitas are composed of Dåna paramita (generosity), Í¥la paramita(keeping precepts), Kshanti paramita (patience), V¥rya paramita(effort), Dhyåna paramita (unwavering) and Prajñå paramita (wisdom);Dåna paramita means giving a fortune, preaching a law or removing
fear, i.e., doing something good without regret for a person and nature,Í¥la paramita means keeping precepts such as not hurting or killing living entities and not stealing, Kshanti paramita means enduring sadness

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and pain, V¥rya paramita means doing your best and always making
effort to do better, Dhyåna paramita means being unwavering or steadfast in all endeavors, and Prajñå paramita means obtaining true cognition of wisdom from the concepts of “dependent origination” and the“middle-way”.
Thinking concretely the six paramitas from the viewpoint of practicefor solving environmental problems: Dåna paramita (generosity)
includes donating an environmental movement, making schools for the
improvement of education in the developing countries, teaching whereabouts of environmental problems and methods to solution, contributing
to technical co-operation and the development to decrease pollution, notgiving fruitlessly fear of the problems but giving the precise knowledge
and the sense of security, moreover offering appropriate living places forwildlife. Í¥la paramita means keeping precepts such as “precept of notkilling” and “precept of not stealing” in Buddhism. As we have alreadyexamined these precepts15, intentionally killing living beings commits“the precept of not killing” and destructing the living ground of wild
flora and fauna by development and the destruction of nature offend
against “the precept of not stealing”. Therefore, it is necessary to suppress such acts. Kshanti paramita (patience), V¥rya paramita (effort),
and Dhyåna paramita (unwavering) mean that enduring and getting overmuch difficulty caused by acting to solve the problems without disturbing. Prajñå paramita (wisdom) means that learning the wisdoms fromthe concepts of “dependent origination” and the “middle-way”, and thatobtaining truth recognition at a standpoint of correct views of nature andenvironment, or creating a method of solving the problems and practicing it.
Therefore, actions and perseverance for solutions towards environmental problems corresponds to the Bodhisattva way very well. It iseven more important to establish the true meaning of the six paramitas
as a intuitive part of Buddhist practice, which is not something separate
from protecting and conserving the environment. In other words, a Bodhisattva who practices the six paramitas is someone who is acting inaccordance with protecting the environment and reducing environmental
problems. Buddhists will be able to contribute to solving environmental
problems more positively if these codes of conduct and ethic norms aremaintained in Buddhist practice.
References
Yamamoto, S. (1998) Contribution of Buddhism to Environmental Thoughts, The
Journal of Oriental Studies, 8, 144–173, and Yamamoto, S. and Kuwahara, V.C. (2008)
1

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The Middle-way of Buddhism and Environmental Problems, The Journal of Oriental
Studies, 18, 89–101.
2
Yamamoto, S. (2002) Environmental Ethics in Mahayana Buddhism: The Significance of Keeping Precepts and Wisdom, The Journal of Oriental Studies, 12, 137–155.
3
Yamamoto, S. and Kuwahara, V.C. (2005) Deforestation and Civilization: A Buddhist Perspective.,The Journal of Oriental Studies, 15, 78–93.
4
Yamamoto, S. (2001) Mahayana Buddhism and Environmental Ethics: From the
Perspective of the Consciousness-Only Doctrine, The Journal of Oriental Studies, 11,
167–180, Yamamoto, S. (2003) Environmental Problems and Buddhist Ethics: From the
Perspective of the Consciousness-Only Doctrine, in “Psychology and Buddhism: From
Individual to Global Community”, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York,239–257, and Yamamoto, S. and Kuwahara, V.S. (2006) Symbiosis with the Global
Environment: Buddhist Perspective of Environmental Education, The Journal of Oriental Studies, vol. 16, 176–185.
5
ibid. The Journal of Oriental Studies, 8, 144–173.
6
ibid. The Journal of Oriental Studies, 8, 144–173.
7
ibid. The Journal of Oriental Studies, 8, 144–173.
8
ibid. The Journal of Oriental Studies, 8, 144–173, The Journal of Oriental Studies,11, 167–180, and Psychology and Buddhism, 239–257.
9Abhidhama-nyãyãnusãra (Junshori-ron) was written by Samghabhadra of theSarvãstivãda school (Ubu) and translated into Chinese by Hsüantsang (Genjo).
10Roderick Frazier Nash (1989) The Rights of Nature: A History of Environmental
Ethics (History of American Thought and Culture), Univ of Wisconsin Press, 1989.
11
Aldo Leopold (1949) A Sand Country Almanac, London, Oxford University Press.
12
ibid. The Journal of Oriental Studies, 8, 144–173.
13
Butsu-Yuigyo-Kyo (Sutra) Taisho-shinshu-daizo-kyo, vol. 12, 1111 (under).
14
Shrader-Frechette, K.S. (1981) Environmental Ethics, Boxwood Press. This sentence is translated from the Japanese book (1993) to English.
15
ibid. The Journal of Oriental Studies, 12, 137–155.