Between Ideals and Reality: Violence against Women andthe Real Image of Women in Islam
Zaleha Kamaruddin and Umar A. Oseni
It is often perceived that Islam is biased against women. Such percep­
tion, however, is not ill conceived. This is because the patriarchal
conjugal relationships practiced in countries such as Pakistan,
Afghanistan, and Saudi Arabia show the subservient roles women playin relation to their husbands. This perception is further aggravatedwhen honour killing is still being practiced in the name of Islam. Adding
salt to the wound, exploitations of abusive husbands, unfair treatmentswith regard to women’s legal, marital and financial rights by the shariah
courts in many parts of the Muslim world are also rampant. These
practices given as examples above are actually against the principles
and the spirit of the Qur’an and the Sunnah of the Prophet (s.a.w). For
example surah al-Baqarah verse 228 and the last sermon of Prophet
Muhammad (s.a.w) state the rights and responsibilities of both men andwomen where both are to honour and protect one another. This
discussion will therefore look into how Islam treats women, and themost accurate treatment of men over the women will be seen through thehistory of Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w). The biography of the Prophet istaken to be the main reference in this discussion because it is throughhis biography that Islam was practiced and exemplified. It is hoped thatafter the actual practice is explained, the ill conceived perception that
Islam is bias against women is dispelled and the real image of Islam andwomen will be appreciated.

1. IntroductionV

iolence against women is everywhere, and it is being orches­
trated in different manners, as it has appeared in the modern society
in different dimensions. The 2012 Delhi gang rape case has again
brought the issue of violence against women to limelight. 1 In somecountries in Asia such as India and Bangladesh, women are easy targetsof discrimination, violence, harassment and intimidation. With its
multidimensional character, violence against women is not only con­79

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sidered as a human rights violation but also an increasingly prominent
public health issue. The available statistics are alarming, as the rate ofviolence against women is increasing by the day. According to a recent
World Health Organization study, about 71% and 15% of women in
Ethiopia and Japan respectively were physically and/or sexuallyassaulted by their intimate partner. It is more disturbing to note that inrural Bangladesh, 30% of the women reported their first sexual experi­ence to be forced, i.e. rape.2 This universal phenomenon requires multi­
dimensional responses from cultural, religious, political and legal sides.
As discussed elsewhere:
Many researchers have correctly identified violence against women as auniversal problem, touching all aspects of women’s life, regardless ofreligion and culture. Although systematic efforts to understand thenature and global extent of violence against women are recent, activism
and theory building on women and violence are evolving rapidly. Every
year, new studies are made globally, conferences convened, andinnovative projects emerged. All these are aimed at understanding
violence against women and advancing strategies to confront it.3

Violence against women is becoming one of the most prevalent sociocultural problems of the modern society. This has appeared in different
dimensions in the society, which generally includes rape, sexual
harassment, honour killing, and domestic violence.4 In addressing thesemenaces, this paper encourages the adoption of a strategic policy
towards declaring a war against violence on women through sharedvalues in intercivilizational dialogue. While the prevalence of genderbased violence has increased exponentially in Muslim countries, such
untoward attitude does not necessary represent the ideals of Islam on
treatment of the female gender. Sieving through the Islamic ideals on thetreatment of women and juxtaposing such values with modern practices
will give a good understanding of the problem and provide a good basis
for declaring a war against violence. It is argued that for the modern
society to realise peace and harmonious coexistence, whether at thefamily or societal level, people of like minds, regardless of theirreligious or racial backgrounds, must work together to ensure thatgender-based violence becomes a thing of the past.

between ideals and reality81

2.	The Nature and Prevalence of Domestic Violence inMuslim Countries
One of the prevalent social problems in modern societies is genderbased violence which is often directed at women of different ages. The
theories about violence against women in South Asian societies arenotably four. According to Niaz, they are “the perception of males asmacho beings”, “male chauvinism”, “loss of control”, and lastly,“displacement of affect”.5 It is paradoxical to see the increasing rate ofviolence against women in Muslim countries, which has invariably led
to the negative stereotype that Islam condones such violence. This is oneof the many reasons that triggered the Islamic feminism debate acrossthe world. According to Mojab, “from the very beginning, the debate
was centred on the compatibility of the idea of women’s emancipation
with the principles of Islam.”6 The idea of Islamic feminism, thoughspecifically meant to provide the Islamic alternative to the modern
feminism discourse, tends to focus more on the emancipation andempowerment of women. This implies a rebuttable presumption thatwomen in Islam are subjugated and indeed considered as second-classcitizens or even sub-humans in the state.7 This jaundiced notion has been
unfortunately portrayed more in the mainstream media as mirroring thetrue nature of Islam. The practical realities on the ground in mostMuslim societies cannot really debunk such arguments; hence, theprominence of the Islamic feminist movements.
While it is believed by some feminist that the growing scourge ofviolence against women is as a result of misogyny, violence against
women is not only restricted to strangers but statistics reveal theincreasing rate of violence by their intimate partners. This has been felt
in a number of Muslim countries, which calls for concerted efforts ingoing back to the basis, i.e. the primary sources of Islam—the Qur’anand Sunnah to reinvent the wheel and apply the Islamic ideals to themodern societies. Therefore, even though countries like Malaysia havebeen at the forefront in empowering women in line with the justly
balanced nature and moderation-laden principles of Islam, the statistics
on violence against women in the country are still alarming. Table 1
below presents the statistics of violence against women tracked by theRoyal Malaysian Police between the year 2000 and 2011.
Apart from these documented violence against women, there are
numerous others which are either not documented or under-documented.
This is usually the challenge faced by experts when profiling cases ofviolence against women. In most cases, the unreported cases are far

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Table 1: Statistics on Violence against Women in Malaysia (2000–2011)
Police Domestic
Reports Violence Rape

IncestAbuse of
Domestic
Workers

Child
Abuse

SexualOutrage of Harassment
Modestyin the(Molestation) Workplace

2000
3468
1217
213
56
146
1234
112
2001
3107
1386
246
66
150
1393
86
2002
2755
1431
306
39
123
1522
84
2003
2555
1479
254
40
119
1399
82
2004
3101
1760
334
66
148
1661
119
2005
3093
1931
295
37
189
1746
102
2006
3264
2454
332
45
141
1349
101
2007
3756
3098
360
39
196
2243
195
unavailable unavailable
2008
3769
3409
334
2131
unavailable
unavailable
2009
3643
3626
385
203
2110
unavailable
2010
3173
3595 unavailable unavailable
257
2054
unavailable
unavailable unavailable
2011 unavailable 3301
342
1941
unavailable
Source: Royal Malaysia Police and Ministry of Women, Family and Community
Development8

more than the ones reported and documented in the available data. At
the international level, statistics indicate that the global patterns ofviolence against women reflect the cultural, religious and racial
traditions of individual society.9 In particular, there are no official
statistics from the Arab world and this has hindered the work on female
victims of violence in the region. “That also includes difficulties facedby researchers into the area due to subject sensitivity and personal
relevance.”10 This accounts for why there are no official statistics or
court records on such violence.
Of late, there is an increasing prevalence of ‘honour killings’ inMuslim states across the world. ‘Honour killing’ is one of the major
types of honour-based violence (HBV).11 While there is an estimate ofabout 5,000 honour killings per year, Pakistan—a Muslim majority
country—has up to 1,000 per year.12
In courts of law, the ‘honour defence’ is institutionalized in many
Middle Eastern and Latin American countries, allowing fathers,
husbands, brothers, and cousins to walk away from murder. Killing andphysical violence is the form of violence associated with honour
incidents in the Arab countries. A study conducted in the year 2001 in
Egypt (as quoted in the 2003 Cairo Conference on Violence Against
Women) showed that doubting women’s behavior constituted 79% of
honour crimes, while admitting misconduct constituted 9%. The studybetween ideals and reality

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also showed that 41% of honour crimes were committed against thewife, 34% against the daughter, 18% against the sister and 7% against afemale relative. In Jordan, honour crimes made up 23% of crimes ofviolence against women since 1986.13

This practice, which is completely antithetical to the fundamental basisof Islam, has worn a new look in the media as representing traditional
Islamic practices. This negative backlash has adversely affected theimage of Islam, particularly in the blogosphere and the social media
generally. One may not blame the common man who fails to understandthe difference between ideals and realities in Muslim societies. Once
Muslims are portrayed to be perpetuating a heinous act, especially whensuch relates to emerging social problems, there is that tendency thatpeople will easily believe such disposition represents the religion.

3. A War on Violence Against Women: The Islamic ApproachWith a view to declaring a war on violence against women, Islam has
provided a number of strict measures to ensure peaceful co-existence inthe society. For the purpose of this paper, the Islamic response toviolence against women has been limited to three major issues. These
are honour killings, rape and domestic violence.
3.1 Honour Killing
Islam seriously frowns at killing a soul for whatever reason other than inaccordance to the prescribed law. Honour killing is not known as apermissible act under Islamic law. Hence, it is a gross violation of oneof the five higher objectives of the law (maqasid al-Shariah). In Qur’an
4: 93, it is provided that: “And whoever kills a believer intentionally, his
recompense is Hell to abide therein; and the Wrath and the Curse of
Allah are upon him, and a great punishment is prepared for him.” This
totally proscribes discriminate killing of a human being in the name of
keeping the honour of the family. This is further buttressed in a prophet­
ic tradition narrated from Ibn ‘Umar that the Messenger of Allah said:“The believer will continue to be encompassed by the mercy of Allah solong as he does not shed blood that it is forbidden to shed.”14 Even if one
assumes without conceding that a person deserves to be killed forcommitting a crime known to Islamic law, which is not usually the casein honour killing, one is precluded from taking law into his hands. The
prescribed punishments in Islam cannot be carried out until they areproven and established in an open court or an outright confession of the

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accused. On top of that, individuals are not allowed to carry out suchpunishments, merely because the accused is a family member who hasbrought “disgrace” to their family. Any punishment recognized inIslamic law must be carried out by a competent authority such as thehead of state or his deputy. This is meant to avoid chaos and anarchy inthe society if people are freely allowed to take the law into their hands.15
In accordance to the principles of Islamic law, it is advisable toconceal the action of someone who has committed evil or “brought
shame” to the family in order to give him or her the opportunity torepent. This is the general attitude of Islam. It proactively favours
pardon above punishment. On this basis, Muslim scholars have unani­
mously agreed that the modern practice of honour killing is a total
violation of Islamic law and thus declared forbidden. It is instructive tocite an example that justifies the inappropriateness of honour killing inIslamic law. Most case of honour killing in Muslim societies involves asituation where a virgin fornicates. The applicable law for a virgin who
fornicates is merely a corporal punishment not the capital punishment
being meted out to innocent girls. Even if it is proven that the accused
person deserves to be killed, must an individual take the laws into his
hands?
3.2 Rape
Rape, as an abominable transgression against the honour of women
through the use of force, is generally known as ightisåb in Islamic law.
This is strictly forbidden in Islamic law, and as such the strictest
penalties are imposed to punish and deter others from falling into thesame sensual trap. The psychological trauma associated with rape cases
is clearly factored into the type of punishment prescribed in Islamic law.
The clear stance of Islam on rape is that of utter prohibition with aconsequential deterrent punishment. Islam takes a number of
precautionary measures to shut the door against criminals who might
exploit any given situation to perpetuate the heinous crime. Some ofthese measures include the prescription of marriage for matured people,
direct instruction to the female gender to draw their veils over theirbosoms to avoid molestation and sexual harassment, and prohibition of
alcohol and all dangerous drugs that intoxicates a normal human being.
In a situation where these precautionary measures have been put inplace and one still proceeds to commit the crime of rape, the perpetrator
will have to pay for such grievous crime.
The punishment for rape in Islam is similar to that of fornication andadultery but since force is applied in this case and may involve the use

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85

of a weapon such as knife or any other dangerous object, Muslim jurists
have suggested that he be considered as an armed robber who has
violated the honour of an innocent soul. Therefore, the punishment of a
rapist may involve crucifixion according to the Qur’anic requirement in
Qur’an 5: 33 which provides: “The recompense of those who wage war
against Allah and His Messenger and do mischief in the land is only thatthey shall be killed or crucified or their hands and their feet be cut off
from opposite sides, or be exiled from the land. That is their disgrace inthis world, and a great torment is theirs in the Hereafter.” Some Muslim
jurists also require some form of financial compensation to the victim
for violating her honour.16
3.3 Domestic Violence
There are numerous Islamic prescriptions that are targeted at preventing
domestic violence. These include some dispute avoidance as well as
dispute resolution mechanisms enshrined in the primary sources ofIslamic law. Islam does not in any way prescribe, condone or approve ofany violence whatsoever, particularly in family relationship.
Islam is often maligned and intellectually attacked when issues
relating to wife beating emerge in public discourse. To this end, Zaleha
Kamaruddin provides a general outlook of the position of Islamic law
on wife beating or wife battering:
The misconception of the divine sanction that the Qur’an and Islamic
tradition gives to violence against women is stated to be the core reason
why domestic violence is epidemic in some parts of the Islamic world.
This phenomenon reflects deep societal dysfunction ... Some Muslims
believe that the teachings of Islam allow wife-beating in certain
circumstances. For example, Kemal Guran, a Turkish Muslim clericmentioned in his booklet, The Muslim’s Handbook that men can beat
their wives moderately. On the other hand, Dr. Jamal Badawi, author of
Gender Equity in Islam, in his discussion of Surah An Nisa’ verse 34
which is often used by some to justify maltreatment of women,
indicates that, “under no circumstances does the Qur’an encourage,
allow, or condone family violence or physical abuse. In extreme
circumstances, and whenever greater harm, such as divorce, is a likely
option, in an effort to save the marriage it allows for a husband toadminister a gentle pat to his wife that causes no sort of physical harmto the body nor leaves any sort of mark.” He does not deny theprerogative, but explains that such a measure is more accurately
described as symbolic than punitive.17

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The above summarizes the position of Islam on domestic violence.
Islam does not in any way condone or prescribe the abuse of women. In
order to resolve marital discords (nushËz) which often lead to quarrels
and ultimately violence, Islam prescribes mediation (sulh) and arbitra­tion (tahkim) in an integrated process to resolve any disagreement
between the couple. It is a great disservice to Islam for one to still
believe a religion that prescribes such mechanisms for dispute manage­
ment in a family setting condones domestic violence.

4.	The Real Image of Women in Islam: Reflecting on theProphetic Precedents
Having highlighted the negative backlash against Islam which is theresult of increasing practices of violence against women in different
forms, it is pertinent to take a glimpse at the biography of the Prophet toestablish the real image of women in Islam. It goes without saying that
there are numerous prophetic precedents that show the true position of
women in Islam and why they must be accorded a high status in thesociety when compared with their male counterparts. The ill-conceived
perception that Islam is biased against women is dispelled through aconceptual analysis of how Islam and its law treats women in terms ofproperty rights, matrimonial rights and human rights generally with a
specific focus on certain prophetic precedents. It is imperative to begin
with the clarion call made by Prophet Muhammad during his last
sermon:O People, it is true that you have certain rights with regard to yourwomen but they also have rights over you. Remember that you havetaken them as your wives only under Allah’s trust and with His
permission. If they abide by your right then to them belongs the right tobe fed and clothed in kindness. Do treat your women well and be kindto them for they are your partners and committed helpers. And it is yourright that they do not make friends with any one of whom you do not
approve, as well as never to be unchaste.18

This last sermon was delivered on 9th of Dhu al-Hijjah (12 month of theIslamic calendar), 10 AH (9th March 632 CE) before the death of theProphet but one unique feature of the sermon is its general reference tomankind rather than Muslims.19 It was an important message comingfrom the horse’s mouth specifically meant to the generality of mankind
because the contents of the speech are of generally application up till

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87

today. This was the first platform where a Prophet made the firstdeclaration of women rights. Despite the fact that throughout his
prophetic sojourn, there have been numerous occasions where he hadclarified these rights and advised his companions to treat women kindly,
he had to reiterate this point during his farewell address since he wasalmost sure he would not have any better opportunity to personallyinform mankind of the significance of treating women kindly among
other values.
The real image of women in Islam and the multidimensional safe­
guards put in place to ensure their protection are based on a number of
mechanisms. While the Qur’an establishes the fundamental basis ofthese mechanisms through what may be called the Qur’anic constructs,
historical prophetic precedents which have similar binding effect com­plement the Qur’anic constructs. Furthermore, there is the maqasid
paradigm which specifically establishes the higher objectives of the
Shariah and stipulates what the law seeks to protect and preserve. In
doing this, the maslahah theory comes into play, as it seeks to bring
benefits to mankind and ward off all sorts of harm. An amalgam of thesetargets achieves one singular objective: protection of women. The
contextual application of these targets seeks to put in place reasonable
policies based on the principles of Shariah-oriented policy otherwise
known as siyasah shar’iyyah. Therefore the target of modern policy
makers in Muslim countries should look more like what is presented in
Figure 1 below.
ContextualApplication
Maslahah Theory
Maqasid
Paradigm
Prophetic
Precedents
Quranic
Constructs
Protectionof Womenin Islam

Figure 1. The General Basis of Protection of Women in Islam88

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4.1 Protection of the Female Gender
The female gender is jealously protected by Islam in different ways.
Whether as daughters, sisters and wives, women are honoured andprotected in Islam. Women are considered the twin half of men;20 andthus they are not in any way subservient to men. With regards to theprotection of women as mothers, Abu Hurairah narrated that: “A man
came to the Messenger of Allah and said, ‘O messenger of Allah, whoamong the people is most deserving of my good company?’ The Prophet
replied, ‘Your mother’. He asked, ‘Then who?’ The Prophet replied,‘Your mother’. He asked again, ‘Then who?’ The Prophet said, ‘Your
mother’. He asked once more, ‘Then who?’ The Prophet said, ‘Then
your father.’”21 This prophetic precedent explains the prime position
Islam places women with particular reference to mothers. In a similarvein, as daughters, Islam came to emancipate girls from the heinous
crime committed during the pre-Islamic period where female infanticide
was the norm. With unprecedented earth-shattering reforms, the adventof Islam in the 6th century totally proscribed female infanticide among
other obnoxious practices that were prevalent during the pre-Islamic era.
It is regrettable to note that in the modern highly advanced world, thescourge of female infanticide, sometimes called gynocide or femicide, isincreasing by the day. In India and China, the increasing rate of female
infanticide and female foeticide calls for concern. This is a practice thathas been totally forbidden by Islam over 1,430 years ago as clearly
established in the Qur’an and in a number of prophetic precedents.22
Apart from declaring a clear and unambiguous prohibition against
female infanticide, Islam also frowns at the preference of males overfemales particularly when the news of childbirth is given.23 Just as Islam
honours mothers, daughters are also revered with special reference tothe parent’s role in proper female child upbringing. In a prophetic
precedent, Abu Sa’id Al-Khudri narrated that the Prophet once said:“Whoever has three daughters or three sisters, or two daughters or twosisters, and takes good care of them and fears Allah with regard to them,will enter Paradise.”24
Having explained the image of women in Islam as daughters andmothers, it is important to now consider the status of women as wives.25
In a clear statement narrated by the wife of the Prophet, Aishah, shereported that the Prophet once told his companions: “The best of you arethose who are best to their wives, and I am the best of you to my
wives.”26 In essence, women are to be treated nicely as the law confers
on them rights similar to those of men in most situations. They have therights of inheritance, which was hitherto denied women in otherbetween ideals and reality

89

civilizations until about 2 centuries ago, and they can choose theirhusbands and acquire property of their own. These distinct rights
granted to women during a period when most parts of the world werestill wallowing in the dark with barbaric civilizations are establishedpermanently in Islamic law and cannot be changed by the change intime and space.
Furthermore, contrary to the general beliefs, there are some cultures,
though not contrary to Islam, that give women an edge in terms ofcontrol subject to the overarching provisions of the law. A prophetic
precedent explains this clearly. ‘Umar bin al-Khattab once said to theProphet: “We Quraish used to control our women, but when we came to
the Ansar (the helpers in Medina) we found that they were a people who
were controlled by their women. So our women started to adopt theways of the Ansari women. I got angry with my wife and she argued
with me and I did not like her arguing with me. She said, ‘Why do you
object to me arguing with you? By Allah, the wives of the Prophet argue
with him…’”27 It can be gleaned from this prophetic tradition that men
are prevented from being harsh to their women. According to Ibn Hajar
Al-Asqalani, “the Prophet adopted the way of the Ansar with theirwomen and forsook the way of his people.”28 The implication of thisinterpretation of the precedent is that the Prophet chose the easier pathby being nice to women and allowing them to have their ways in mostissues insofar they remain within the ambits of the law.

5. Intercivilizational Dialogue Towards Preventing Violence
Against Women
Some of the Islamic principles explained above runs through otherreligious traditions. This therefore calls for intercivilizational dialogue
towards preventing violence against women. One may begin by jointly
declaring a war on violence against women based on the shared valuesof most religions. Like minds need to come together to enlighten the
public on the need to shun violence against women. This broad
approach will assist in utilizing common values and shared interest in
solving this seemingly insurmountable social menace.
A close study of each of the world religions and their values
regarding the treatment of women and their respective positions onviolence against women reflects some sort of convergence in theirstances. None of the religions condone violence against women; hence,
this should be the starting point of the intercivilizational dialogue andcross-cultural and religious discourse on how to, first, dispel the

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overblown media backlash against Islam; and second, work together toform a formidable position on this growing menace which is expected toinfluence the policymaking process in most jurisdiction.
Table 2: Islamic Intervention in Preventing Violence Against Women
ApproachPreventive Measures

Remedial Measures

Intercivilizational Efforts

Laws/Policies

Media

Islamic Intervention• There should not be any harm or reciprocating harmwhatsoever. Men and women are supporters/
guardians of one another and none of them shouldharm the other.
• Special status of women in Islam. They occupy an
important position as daughters, sisters, wives andmothers as fragile vessels that must be preserved
and protected.
• Protect the victims and punish severely theoffenders as a deterrent to the public.
• Provide proprietary rewards for victims throughshelter and other financial support.
• Collaborative efforts with like minds across theworld who share the same values are encouraged inIslam.
• Concerted efforts from different civilizations may
result in a formidable policy framework which is
implantable across borders.
• Coming up with sustainable policies and laws tocombat violence against women is important.
• A move to codify the Islamic principles that seek toprotect women in the society is necessary to bridge
the gap between theory and practice in Muslim
societies.
• The above steps culminate into a framework that
displaces the negative stereotyping and media
backlash against Islam.
• Utilizing the social media and the blogosphere tocorrect the native perception of some untowardpractices perpetuated in the name of Islam.

As a general rule, Islam seeks to be the harbinger of benefits to thepeople; hence, its efforts toward addressing key social problems such as
violence against women. While different approaches are envisaged, theIslamic intervention in cases of violence against women is orchestrated
in different ways. As presented in Table 2, this ranges from preventing
measures, remedial measures, intercivilizational dialogue, to laws andpolicies, and providing an alternative media to dispel the wrong percep­
tions about the position of Islam on violence against women.

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91

6. Conclusion
An attempt has been made to clarify the actual image of women in Islamand the various mechanisms put in place to protect women at various
stages of their lives. As explained above, Islam goes beyond mere
rituals; it is a complete way of life which proactively pursues benefits(masåli˙) for mankind and blocks all means leading to evil or harm
(darar). Therefore, violence against women is strictly forbidden in
Islam. But one must admit that the prevailing trends in Muslim countries
such as Pakistan, Afghanistan and even Saudi Arabia have promoted apatriarchal marital relationship that have shaped the general perceptionof people about the subservient role of women in Muslim societies.
Despite the prevailing trends in Muslim societies, one must not shy
away from the fact that there is a glaring dichotomy between the Islamic
ideals and the realities on the ground. This is why the intercivilisational
dialogue comes into play. Once all like minds unite to fight thisuntoward phenomenon of violence against women, our societies which
are now becoming more multi-religious, multi-racial, and multi- culturalin nature, will be gravitating towards peace, harmonious co-existence
which will be sustainable in the long run. From the Far East to the West,one must admit that there is an eclectic wind of change blowing acrossthe world which has made most cities melting pots. In suchcircumstances, there is no better time than now to build bridges acrosscultural, racial and religious backgrounds to tame this rising tide of vio­
lence against women. It is logical for people to begin to think correctly
when people of other religious and cultural backgrounds remind them of
their unique religious values about peace, harmony and love. Above all,once these shared values are recognized and duly acknowledged, therole of law in curtailing such menace would have been greatly
facilitated. It is therefore pertinent to conclude that Islam as a complete
way of life transcends mere religious rituals but relates more to the wellbeing of mankind; hence, it forbids violence against women in its
totality.
Notes
1
Gardiner Harris, “Murder Charges Are Filed Against 5 Men in New Delhi GangRape”, The New York Times. (Accessed on 3 January 2013).
2
World health Organization, WHO Multi-country Study on Women’s Health andDomestic Violence against Women, November 2012, at http://www.who.int/mediacentre/
factsheets/fs239/en/ (Accessed on 12 February 2013).
3
Zaleha Kamaruddin, “Violence Against Women in the Muslim Communities”,
International Journal of Muslim Unity, vol. 5 (1) (2007), pp. 122–123.

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between ideals and reality

4
Lori L. Heise, “Violence Against Women: An Integrated, Ecological Framework”,
Violence Against Women, 4 (June 1998), pp. 262–290.
5
U. Niaz, “Violence against women in South Asian Countries”, Arch Womens Ment
Health, vol. 6 (2003), p. 180.
6
Shahrzad Mojab, “Theorizing the Politics of ‘Islamic Feminism’”, Feminist Review,
No. 69, The Realm of the Possible: Middle Eastern Women in Political and Social
Spaces (Winter, 2001), p. 127.
7
Zaleha Kamaruddin, Abdul Haseeb Ansari & Umar A. Oseni, “Equality Clause ofModern Constitutions, Women and Islamic Law”, Journal of Islamic Law Review, vol. 8
No. 1 (2012), pp. 33–63.
8
See the data online at “Police Statistics on Violence against Women 2000–2011”,
Women’s Aid Organization, http://www.wao.org.my/Police+Statistics+on+Violence+against+Women+2000+-+2011_64_5_1.htm (Accessed on 12 February 2013).
9
See the argument on the multi-dimensional social problem in Natalie J. Sokoloff
and Ida Dupont, “Domestic Violence at the Intersections of Race, Class, and Gender:
Challenges and Contributions to Understanding Violence Against Marginalized Womenin Diverse Communities”, Violence Against Women, 11 (January 2005), pp. 38–64.
10Nora Almosaed, “Violence Against Women: A Cross-cultural Perspective”, Journalof Muslim Affairs, Vol. 24, No. 1, (April 2004), p. 76.
11
Other forms of honour-based violence include honour suicide, forced marriage,
abduction and imprisonment, forced abortion and hymen repair.
12“Statistics and Data”, Honour-based Violence Network, at http://hbv-awareness.
com/statistics-data/ (Accessed on 12 February 2013).
13
Nora Almosaed, “Violence Against Women: A Cross-cultural Perspective”, Journalof Muslim Affairs, Vol. 24, No. 1, (April 2004), p. 74.
14
Related by Al-Bukhari. See Muhammad Muhsin Khan, The Translation of the
Meanings of Sahih Al-Bukhari (Arabic—English). Riyadh: Darussalam, 1997.
15
Ibn Muflih, Muhammad, Al-Furu’, Beirut: Dar al-Kitab al-'Arabi, 2002, vol. 6, p.
53. Also see Al-Mausu'ah Al-Fiqhiyah Al-Kuwaitiyah, 2nd Ed. Kuwait, Ministry of
Awqaf and Islamic Affairs, 1983, vol. 5, p. 280.
16
Al-Muntaha Sharh al-Muwatta’, vol. 5, pp. 268–269.
17
Zaleha Kamaruddin, “Violence Against Women...”, pp. 124–125.
18
Ibn Hisham, 'Abd al-Malik, The Life of the Prophet, Beirut: Dar al-Kutub alIlmiyyah, 1990.
19
Colin Turner, Islam: The Basics, New York: Routledge, 2006, pp. 35–36
20This is a prophetic saying reported as follows: “Women are the twin halves of men.”
This hadith was related by Abu Dawud in his Sunan, 236, from the hadith narrated by‘Aishah.
21
This hadith was related by Bukhari. See Muhammad Muhsin Khan, The Translationof the Meanings of Sahih Al-Bukhari (Arabic—English). Riyadh: Darussalam, 1997.
22
Qur’an 6: 151 provides: “Kill not your children on a plea of want. We provide
sustenance for you and for them. Come not near shameful deeds, whether open or secret.
Take not life which Allah has made sacred.” Qur’an 17:31 also provides: “Kill not yourchildren for fear of want: We shall provide sustenance for them as well as for you. Verily
the killing of them is a great sin.”
23
Qur’an 16: 58–59 provide: “When news is brought to one of them of (the birth of) a
female (child), his face darkness, and he is filled with inward grief! With shame does hehide himself from his people, because of the bad news he has had! Shall he retain it onbetween ideals and reality

93(sufferance) the choice they decide on?”24
This hadith was related by Ibn Hibban in his Sahih, vol. 2, p. 190.
25
For more discussion on the status of women in Islam, particularly the controversies
surrounding their rights and duties, see Zaleha Kamaruddin, Abdul Haseeb Ansari &Umar A. Oseni, “Equality Clause of Modern Constitutions, Women and Islamic Law”,
Journal of Islamic Law Review, vol. 8 No. 1 (2012), pp. 33–63.
26
Related by al-Tirmidhi. Al-Tirmidhi, ‘Isa Muhammad ibn Sawrat, Shama’il alMuhammadiyyah. Beirut: al-Yamamah lil-Tiba’ah wa al-Nashr wa al-Tawzi, 2009.
27
This hadith was related by Bukhari. See Muhammad Muhsin Khan, The Translationof the Meanings of Sahih Al-Bukhari (Arabic—English). Riyadh: Darussalam, 1997.
28
Ibn Hajar Al-Asqalani, Fath al-Baari Sharh Sahih Al-Bukhari, Cairo: Dar al-Hadith,
2004, vol. 9, p. 291.