Global History of Women and
Gender in Science
科学における女性とジェンダーに関するグローバル・ヒストリー
Londa Schiebinger
John L. Hinds Professor of History of Science

Questions and methods

Director, Gendered Innovations in Science, Health& Medicine, Engineering, and Environment

12Global History of Women and
Gender in Science

Global History of Women and
Gender in Science• Few historians have taken the challenge
because most of us are trained in national
history. Few scholars compare womenscientists across culture, and, indeed, formany countries, there are no comprehensive
analyses of gender in scientific culture fromwhich we could draw comparative
perspectives. This is something that should
be remedied!

• Today, I would like to set out a few
questions and methodologies for acomparative global history of women andgender in science. It would be exciting forsomeone, with good funding, to support
such a study to be done collaboratively. We
need experts from each country or global
region.

科学における女性とジェンダーに関するグローバル・ヒストリー
女性科学者について文化横断的な研究はほとんど見られない。 3

比較グローバル・ヒストリーについて、問題と方法論を提起。
そうした比較を行うには、資金はもとより各国からの専門家が必要。
4

Western or non-Western Science?

Western or non-Western Science?
The first question we need to ask: Is this a Comparative
Global History of Women and Gender in Western or nonWestern science? In this talk, I will focus on Western sciencethat developed in Europe from the 17th century forward andthen spread to many parts of the world. Along with Westernscience, Europe exported common structural problems for
women’s participation and specific cultural attitudes toward
gender.

We can also consider sciences (ways of knowing nature) fromaround the world. China was the first to invent the compass,
paper, gunpowder, and acupuncture. Ancient Islamic medical
traditions are famous. Women throughout the world developed
birthing and birth control techniques. Across the Americas,
women developed new crops by exchanging and managing
seeds.
To do a comparative global history of women and gender, we
would want to step outside Western scientific traditions.

Admittedly, this approach is problematic in that I am relying
on concepts developed in the US and Europe—because thatis what I know.

But today I will focus on what I know: Western Science. I hope
this will be fun and stimulating. I very much look forward to our
discussion.

西洋科学または非西洋科学における女性とジェンダー。17世紀以降の西洋科学に焦点。ただし、このアプローチには限界あり。ヨーロッパは、西洋科学とともに、女性
5参加に関する構造的問題、ジェンダーに向けられる文化特異的な態度も伝播させた。

世界の科学。中国の羅針盤、紙、火薬、鍼術。古代イスラムの医学的伝統。世界中
で女性は出産や避妊の技術を発達させた。南北アメリカで女性は穀物の育種を行った。女性とジェンダーの比較史に向けて、西洋科学の伝統から抜け出る必要がある。
6
しかし、私からは西洋科学の文脈で話題提供をし、後の議論を期待する。

“Women in Science ’94. Comparisons acrossCultures.” Science 263 (1994): 1389-93 & 1467-96.
I was excited to see this article in 1994. Here are the categories
set out for comparison:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Report the numbers of women scientists by country
国ごとの女性科学者の数
Status of science in a particular country
特定の国における科学の地位（威信）Political structure of a nation (LS modified)
国の政治的構造（著者が少し変更）
Class structure, or social economic status (SES)
階層構造、すなわち社会経済的状況
Educational system
教育制度
Support for combining work and family life
仕事と家庭生活の両立支援

The goal was to explain this type of chart.

7

1990 Women professors ofphysics, data from Jim Megaw in the 1994
Science article

1990年における物理学の教授に占める女性割合の国際比較

8

More questions—1994-2018
7. Gendering of fields of science
科学諸分野のジェンダー
8. Gender equality index
ジェンダー平等指数
9. Funding policies to support
女性研究者の助成政策
a. fixing the numbers of women
女性数の確保
b. fixing the institutions
制度の整備
c. fixing the knowledge
知識の再検討10. Ethnic diversity 民族的多様性
11. Development of gender studies ジェンダー学の発展
12. Gender norms in particular cultures 特定文化のジェンダー規範
13. Understanding of unconscious gender bias
無意識のジェンダー・バイアスに関する理解

14. Understanding of gender bias in science 科学におけるGB理解
15. Integrating sex and gender analysis into science, orGendered Innovations

セックス／ジェンダー分析を科学に

We will take each questionin turn—showing results
and citing classic articles.
For more classic articles,
see this 2014 book in four
volumes.

シービンガー編『科学技術における女性とジェンダー』
全４巻の各巻の内容①②③④

科学／技術における女性
ボディ・ポリティックス
科学／技術におけるジェンダー・バイアス
ジェンダード・イノベーション

9#1. Report the numbers of
women scientists by country• 1982 US Report on Women and Minorities inScience and Engineering. The NSF published thefirst congressionally-mandated report on diversity inscience and engineering fields. Persons with disabilities
were added in 1984. This report revealed that womenand African-American men were significantly
underrepresented in technical fields.

US科学技術分野における女性とアフリカ系アメリカ人男性の参画の少なさ。

• 2003 EU She Figures. EU-wide data on women inscience, starting from tertiary education through to
employment.

EUの統計書She Figuresで第3期の教育から雇用に至る女性研究者のデータ。

• My impression is that most countries have such figures.
11
US、EU以外の国もそのようなデータを蓄積している。

10

Combine #1. with#. 10 Ethnic diversity
科学分野における女性数（＃１）と民族的多様性（＃10）とを結びつける

In the US, we are interested in theparticipation of African-Americans, Asians,
Latinx and other minorities. (Related to“Intersectionality” below.)
アメリカにおいては、アフリカ系アメリカ人やアジア人、ラテンアメリカ系の研究者およびそのほかのマイノリティーの参画に関心がもたれている。
12

#2. Status of science in a particular country
科学の威信は国によって違う• Why do Portugal, the Philippines, Hungary, Turkey,
etc. have high numbers of women scientists andcountries such as Japan, Canada, the US, andGermany do not?
なぜポルトガルやフィリピンに女性科学者多く、日本、カナダ、アメリカ、ドイツに少ないのか。

• Does this general principle hold?: Where the statusof science is low and jobs in science are poorly
paid, we find more women. Perhaps not true any
more because of new funding policies. Public policy
can improve the status of women in science.

1990 Women professorsof physics, data from Jim Megaw in1994 Science article.

1990年における物理学の教授に占める女性割合の国際比較

この一般原則有効？科学の威信が低くて給料安い国は女性研究者多い。新たな助成
13
政策のためではない。公共政策は科学における女性の地位向上につながる。

□
□

14

Available in Japanese!

Women
Men

Women’s representationin science (measured bynames on publications).
Gender in the Global
Research Landscape.
Elsevier, 2017.
著者名によってカウントした科学分野での女性の活躍状況
15•Gender in the Global ResearchLandscape Report (2017) -- JapanFocused Infographic (one page).

『グローバル研究におけるジェンダーの現状報告』
2017年インフォグラフィック（訳注：情報、データ、知識の視覚的表現）に焦点を定めて。
16

#3. Political Structure of a Country
Foundings of democracies were challenging for womenin science. Closed pathways. Schiebinger, L. (1989). The
mind has no sex?: Women in the origins of modern science.
Harvard University Press.
邦訳『科学史から消された女性たち』

女性研究者にとって民主主義が要。閉ざされた進路。
China pre- and post-Cultural Revolution changed theposition of women in science
文化大革命前後で中国の女性研究者の地位に変化。
Soviet Union. Ideologically, women were consideredequal. There are many problems with that view, butmore women held positions in math and physics, forexample, than in the West.
ソ連：イデオロギー上、女性は平等。問題はあるが西17
洋に比べ一層多くの女性が数学や物理学でポストに。

#3. Political Structure of a Country• Another aspect is national legislation
supporting women in general in a country.
We could chart passage of legislation
supporting equal rights for men andwomen and equal pay for men and women,
for example.
もう一つの視点は、女性を支援する国家の法体系である。男女同権や男女平等賃金といった国内法の制定の比較。
18#4. Class structure or social
economic status (SES)#5. Educational system
教育制度

In 20th century Latin America, social class tended tocounterbalance gender. In Mexico, for example,
education is limited to the upper classes. The
advantages of class outweigh the disadvantages ofgender. “Women in science’94. Comparisons across cultures.”• When did universities open to women students? In theUS, it was in the second half of the nineteenth century.
大学はいつ女性に門戸を開放したか。USでは19世紀後半。

In 18th century France, Émilie du Châtelet traded herupper-class standing for access to learning. Schiebinger,• I have chosen to note here the article by my colleague,
Mariko Ogawa, on the History of Women’s
participation in STEM fields in Japan. We see thatwomen were admitted to bachelor degrees beginningin 1913, and to PhD programs in the 1920s.

L. (1989). The mind has no sex?: Women in the origins of modern science.
Harvard University Press. 邦訳：『科学史から消された女性たち』工作舎

日本の大学門戸開放1913年、博士取得者の誕生1927年から。

18世紀フランスでは、エミリー・デュ・シャトレは上流階級の地位にものを言わせて学問にアクセスできた。
19

Ogawa, M. (2017). History of Women's Participation in STEM Fields inJapan. Asian Women, 33(3).

Science 263 (1994): 1389-1394 & 1467-1496.

20世紀ラテンアメリカでは、ジェンダーより社会階層。
メキシコでは階層の有利がジェンダーの不利を凌駕。

20

1913～1945年間の理系女性学士の数

戦前における女性の博士取得者
1938 – 1945

Until the end of
WWII

Percentage

79

95

86%

7

10

9%

2 (age 45) +1*

1

4

4%

薬学

1 (age 50)

0

1

1%

15

全体

20 +3*

87

110

100%

0

1

出典：Mariko Ogawa, “History of Women’s Participation in STEM Fields in Japan,” Asian Women, 33: 65-85, 2017

0

0

3

3

5

62
21

大学名

東北

北海道

大阪

九州

名古屋

総数

受入認可

1913

1930

1931 1939

1942

医学

実際入学

1913

1930

1935 1942

1943

数学

10

10

5

1

4

30

理学

14 (age 39)+2*
3 (age 44)

化学

4

2

0

2

1

9

農学

物理学

1

3

0

0

0

4

生物学

10

5

0

0

0

地球物理学

1

0

0

0

地質学

0

3

0

総数

26

23

5

出典：Mariko Ogawa, “History of Women’s Participation in STEM Fields in Japan,” Asian Women, 33: 65-85, 2017

#5. Educational system• When did universities open to women professors?
How many are there?
• We know that Laura Bassi was the first professor (ofphysics) in Europe in 1732. But she was an exception.
Women did not become professors in Europe or the
US until the late nineteenth century, and most since
about 1960.
• Universities now publish their statistics on how many
women professors they have by rank. In 2017,
Stanford University has 29% women professors
across all ranks, and 24% full professors.
日本初の女性教授は？ ヨーロッパはラウラ・バッシの1732年の物理学教授就任が例外的に早い。欧米一般は1960年あたり。
23
スタンフォード大学では2017年女性教授は29％。24％は正教授。

1927 – 1937

訳注：1913年に東北帝国大学は日本で初めて3人の女性の入学を許可。当時、帝国大学医学部は女性に門戸を開いていなかった。
そのため専門学校や私大でまずは医学を修め、研鑽を続け、
22
概ね帝国大学に博士請求論文を提出して、博士号を取得。

#5. Educational system• Many years ago, Margaret Rossiter
discussed segregation in the US: As theprestige of the university goes up, thenumber of women professors goes down.
Rossiter, M. W. (1984-2012). Women scientists in America, 3 vols.
JHU Press.

マーガレット・ロシターは、 一流大学であるほど女性教授の数は減少することを仄めかしていた。
24

#5. Educational system#5. Educational system• Should math and science be required? Orelectives?
数学と科学は必修とすべきか、選択か。
• The 1994 Science article focused on countries
such as Italy or Poland, where all students are
required to continue in math and sciencethroughout secondary education. In the US, wheremath is an elective, girls often drop out of mathbefore they know what their future interests mightbe.
1994年の『サイエンス』誌によれば、イタリアやポーランドなどでは、中等教育を通して数学と科学必修。
USでは、数学は選択で、女子は将来の適性を知る前に数学を投げてしまっていることが少なくない。

• Should there be all girls schools? This was much debated in the 1990s.
In the US, we learned that a large percentage of our women science
had graduated from the all women universities in the Northeast—
Wesley, Smith, Radcliffe, etc. One problem with this finding is thatthese are also elite schools, and students there would have had
privileged educations from a young age.
女子校は存続すべきか？1990年代論争。USでは女子大卒が科学で活躍。
ただしそれら女子大エリート校への進学者は、幼少期から十分な教育に恵まれていたとも言えよう。

25#6-1. Dual-career hiring policies#6. Support for combining workand life
仕事と家庭生活の両立支援• Family-friendly policies, such as…
Stop the tenure clock
Parental leave
On-site child careHousework benefits
Dual-career hiring• One idea driving the push for all girls schools is that adolescent girls
suffer from a lack of confidence and easily fall prey to gender norms
that put boys in positions of leadership. In a lab, boys will lead and girls
will take notes. The idea is that if no boys are around during thisimpressionable period for girls, girls will turn in to women who lead inscience.
思春期の女子は自信に欠け、男子生徒がリーダーシップを発揮するジェンダー規範の餌食になりやすいが、女子校だとこれを回避できる。実験室では男子が操作をして、女子が記録係。多感な時期に男子不在の環境
なら女子は科学でリーダーシップを発揮するチャンスを得られる。 26

テニュア・クロックの停止
母親や父親の育児休暇
現場での育児支援
家事手当
配偶者雇用
27

Partner Status of U.S.
Academic Workforce

36%
Have
Employed(NonAcademic)
Partner

13%
Have Stayat-Home
Partner
Percentages do not
add to 100 due to rounding.

36%
Have
AcademicPartner

研究者の配偶者の就労状況調査
9,043 Full-Time Faculty from13 Leading Research Universities

14%
Are Single

Seventy-two percent
of full-time faculty in thisstudy have employed partners.
Thirty-six percent have academic partners.
28

#6-1. Dual-career hiring policies
Men and Women Have Different Partnering Patterns#6-1. Dual-career hiring policies
Schiebinger, L. L., Henderson, A. D.,& Gilmartin, S. K. (2008). Dualcareer academic couples: What
universities need to know. Michelle
R. Clayman Institute for GenderResearch, Stanford University.

男女で違う
配偶者の
就労状況

配偶者雇用（帯同雇用）政策
訳注：日本ではグラフ右側の無職の妻をもつ男性研究者の比率が50％以上を占める。
29#7. Gendering fields of science
1991-2010年における女性の学士取得状況

31

30

U.S. Women’s Shares of Science
Doctorates by Subfield, 2009

科学の分野別博士号取得者に占める女性割合32

専門分野別に見る医師の女性比率

U.S. Women’s Shares of Engineering
Doctorates by Subfield, 2009

U.S. Women Physiciansby Specialty, 2007

米国における専門分野別に見る女性工学博士の比率

33# 8. Gender equality indicesジェンダー平等指数• Gender Inequality Index from theUnited Nations Human Development
Report

国連人間開発報告書のジェンダー不平等指数。
訳注：国家の人間開発の達成が男女の不平等によってどの程度妨げられているかを明らかにするもの• http://hdr.undp.org/en/composite/GII
訳注：男女共同参画に関する国際的な指数としては、人間開発指数HDI、ジェンダー
開発指数GDI、ジェンダー不平等指数GII、ジェンダー・ギャップ指数GGIなど 35

整形外科や胸部外科など外科部門で女性比率低い

34

Gender Inequality Index from theUnited Nations Human Development Report• Compares countries on the basis of maternalmortality, adolescent birth rate, share of seats inthe parliament, education, and participation in thework force.
産婦死亡率、出産の未成年者率、女性議員比、教育、就労• Switzerland, Denmark, and the Netherlands rankvery high. Japan ranks # 21. The US ranks low(#43) because of our high maternal mortality rates
and poor representation of women in Congress.
スイス、デンマーク、オランダは高ランク。日本21位。
USのランクを落としているのは、産婦死亡率、女性議員比36

Global Gender Gap Index# 8. Gender equality indices• Slightly different measures: workforce
participation, literacy, health and survival,
political empowerment• Global Gender Gap Index, 2016 by theWorld Economic Forum

労働力率、識字率、健康、政治的エンパワーメント• Japan ranks high for education and health,and low for politics and economy—overall#111. Iceland, Finland, and Norway top thelist. US ranks #45.

• http://reports.weforum.org/global-gendergap-report-2016/rankings/

世界経済フォーラムのジェンダー・ギャップ指数 37#9. Funding policies to support

日本は教育と健康で高く、政治と経済で低く、111位。
アイスランド、フィンランド、ノルウェーがトップクラス。
38
USは45位。

#11. Development of Gender Studies

女性研究者支援の助成政策

a. fixing the numbers of women 数を増やす
b. fixing the institutions
制度の見直しc. fixing the knowledge
知識の再検討Distinguished sex and gender
セックスとジェンダーの区別• Sex refers to biological characteristics• Gender refers to cultural attitudes andbehaviors
The term gender was introduced in the late 1960s to reject biologicaldeterminism that links biology with rigid sex roles and expectations. "Gender"is used to distinguish socio-cultural factors shaping behaviors and attitudes
from biological factors related to sex. Gendered behaviors and attitudes
are learned; they differ by cultures.

http://genderedinnovations.stanford.edu/sex-and-genderanalysis-policies-major-granting-agencies.html
39

ジェンダーという用語は、生物学的決定論に反対して1960年代末に導入。
「ジェンダー」は行動や態度を形成する社会文化的要素を、性別に関係する
生物学的要素から区別して使用された。ジェンダー化された行動や態度は学40習されるものであり、したがって文化によって異なる。

Analyzing Gender

Consider difference and overlap

Points to Keep in Mind:
Gender consists of:
Gender Norms (spoken and unspoken cultural rules in the family, workplace, society,institutional or global culture that influence individual attitudes and behaviors).
Gender Identity (how individuals and groups perceive and present themselves in relation togender norms).
Gender Relations (the power relations between individuals of different gender identities).

身長に関して成人男女の調査群の重なり

Gender attitudes and behaviors vary by culture, historical era, ethnicity, socioeconomic status,
geographic location, and other factors. For example, gender norms may be very different on
the US West coast vs. East coast, or in Japan vs. India.
Investigators should recognize within group variations (differences in attitudes and behaviors
among women or among men) and between-group overlap (overlap in attitudes and behaviors
between women and men).
It is important to consider factors intersecting with sex and gender (e.g., age, socio-economic
status, or ethnicity).
There is no necessary relationship between gender characteristics and sex.

41

Sex and Gender Interact

42

Sex and Gender Interact

Regitz-Zagrosek, V. (2012). Sex and Gender Differences in Health. EMBO Reports, 13 (7): 596-603.

性別とジェンダーの相互作用• Classic texts:
Fausto-Sterling, A. (2005). The bare bones of sex:
Part 1—sex and gender. Signs: Journal of
Women in Culture and Society, 30(2), 1491-1527.

43

44

アメリカの統計数値

Reconceptualizing Sex

Statistics for US

性別の再概念化

Male
FemaleIntersexFausto‐Sterling, A. (1993). The five sexes. The sciences, 33(2), 20-24.
Ainsworth, C. (2015). Sex redefined: The idea of two sexes is
simplistic. Nature, 518(7539), 288.

45

Countries that allow a third option on birthcertificates or legal documents
Austria
出生証明書あるいは公文書について
Australia
第３の選択肢を容認している国々
Bangladesh
Germany (limited to 3 months after birth)
India
Malta
Nepal
New ZealandPakistan
DenmarkArgentina
Colombia
CanadaScotlandSome states in the US: California, Washington, Oregon
47

46

Reconceptualizing Gender
ジェンダーの再概念化

Gender as a spectrum assumes ideal
endpoints of masculinity and femininity. Our
goal is to get rid of these categories.
スペクトラムとしてのジェンダーは、男らしさと女らしさの理想のゴールを想定している。我々のゴールは男女のこれらのカテゴリーを除くことである。

2014 Facebook’s 51 gender options
2018 New visualizations are required

Japan??

48

“Intersectionality”considers factors that intersect with
sex and gender, such as ethnicity, social economic
status, abilities, etc.

#12. Analyzing Gender Norms

Classic article: Crenshaw, Kimberle. "Demarginalizing the Intersection of Raceand Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist
Theory and Antiracist Politics," University of Chicago Legal Forum: Vol. 1989:
Iss. 1, Article 8.

• Modern Western gender norms weredeveloped in the 18th century as a solution
to the “Woman Question” in the foundingof democratic states.

ジェンダー規範の分析

近代西洋ジェンダー規範は、民主的な国家を設立するに際し、「女性問題」の解決として18世紀に発達。

• Science served to set gender norms on a
supposedly objective natural basis.
•「重複部分」はたとえば民族性や社会経済的地位や能力などである、性とジェンダーと交差する要素を考慮に入れている。

史から消された女性たち』小川眞里子・藤岡伸子・家田貴子訳

工作舎

科学は、客観的で自然な基盤に基づくと50想定されるジェンダー規範の作るのに貢献。

49#12. Gender Norms 日本の規範について講演者から質問#12. Gender Norms: Stereotypes in Western
Culture reflect and reinforce physical, domestic,
and cognitive divisions of labor

日本のジェンダー規範（三成教授から回答）• 近代日本のジェンダー規範

ジェンダー規範：西洋文化におけるステレオタイプは様々な分業を強化

18th century consolidation: 18世紀における規範強化
Reason 理性
Objective 客観的
Self- Assertive 自己主張
Profession 職業
Public 公的
Male 男らしさ
Science 科学

Classic text: Schiebinger, L. (1989). The mind has no sex?: Women in
the origins of modern science. Harvard University Press.
邦訳『科学Feeling 感情
Subjective 主観的Socially Sensitive 社会的な気遣い
Home 家庭・家事
Private 私的
Female 女らしさ
Not Science 非科学– 父権的家父長制（男尊女卑+天皇制家族国家+家制度）→ 戦後
改革で否定• 戸主権（婚姻等には戸主の同意が必要）– 夫権的家父長制（夫の決定権+性別役割分業）• 戦後改革で夫の決定権は否定+戦後経済発展で性別役割分業が強化• 戦後日本– 「近代家族」（核家族）を法的単位として設定• 法的な男女平等の達成は早い（1946-47年憲法24条＋家族法改正）• 高度経済成長（1955-73年）による核家族型専業主婦世帯（夫＝稼ぎ主/
妻＝専業主婦兼パート労働者）の拡大– 「日本型福祉社会」（家族を福祉の代替者に）への転換（1978年）• 男女雇用機会均等法（1985年）と専業主婦優遇政策が同時進行– 21世紀21st century: rapid change51

ジェンダー主流化と「家族主義」（法律婚嫡出親子関係を規範化してケアを家族に委ねることを美化し、シングルマザーや事実婚・同性婚など家族の多様化を阻止しようとする立場）強化という矛盾• ジェンダー平等の停滞と家族主義の強化による個人主義の抑制

#13. Unconscious Gender Bias
無意識のジェンダー・バイアス

Hiring: Both women and men are
significantly more likely to vote to hire a man
applicant versus a woman applicant with thesame academic record.
雇用：同じ業績であれば、女性志願者よりも男性志願者の雇用を、男女ともが支持する傾向にある。
Moss-Racusin, C., Dovidio, J., Brescoll, V., Graham, M., & Handelsman, J.
(2012). Science Faculty’s Subtle Gender Biases Favor Male Students.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States ofAmerica, 109 (41),16474-16479.

53#13. Unconscious Gender Bias
無意識のジェンダー・バイアス

Hiring: Women may be penalized more thanmen for initiating negotiations for salary andresources.
雇用：給与等の雇用条件に関する交渉を切り出すと女性は男性に比べ不利に扱われる傾向にある。
Bowles, H., Babcock, L., & Lai, L. (2007). Social Incentives for GenderDifferences in the Propensity to Initiate Negotiations: Sometimes it Does
Hurt to Ask. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes,
103, 84-103.
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54#13. Unconscious Gender Bias
無意識のジェンダー・バイアス

Hiring: Gender bias may extend to lettersof recommendation.
雇用：ジェンダー・バイアスは推薦書にも及んでいるようだ。
Trix, F., & Psenka, C. (2003). Exploring the Color of Glass: Letters ofRecommendation for Female and Male Medical Faculty. Discourseand Society, 14 (2), 191-220.
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#13. Unconscious Gender Bias

#13. Unconscious Gender Bias
無意識のジェンダー・バイアス

無意識のジェンダー・バイアス

以下のサイトも参照してください。

Stereotype threat
ステレオタイプ脅威（固定観念によってもたらされるマイナス）

Imposter syndrome
インポスター症候群（自分の達成を内面的に肯定できない劣等感）• For the US, we have summarized thisliterature here:
http://genderedinnovations.stanford.edu/institutions/bias.html• This literature may be different for different
countries.

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Transformative Programs#14. Understanding gender bias in science

変革プログラム

科学におけるジェンダー・バイアスを理解する• In the US, many institutions have developed trainings to overcome
these problems. One transformative program was the STRIDE
program developed at the University of Michigan and funded by the
NSF ADVANCE program. By overcoming unconscious gender bias
in the hiring process, the School of Engineering was able todramatically increase the numbers of women hired.

The science of sex and the female body. Western sciencedeveloped a vast literature to explain why women innately
can not do great science. First it was the distinctive
skeleton, next it was raging hormones, now it’s differencesin the brain.
西洋科学は、女性に科学は生来無理だとしてきた。
まずは骨格、次に荒れ狂うホルモン、最近は脳の差。

A few classic texts:• Tuana, N. (1993). The less noble sex: Scientific, religious, andphilosophical conceptions of woman's nature. Indiana University
Press.

USでは多くの研究機関でバイアス克服のトレーニングがなされている。
変化に向けたプログラムの一つは、ミシガン大学で開発され、NSFの助成でなされたSTRIDE. 雇用過程における無意識のジェンダー・バイアスの克服によって、同大学工学部は雇用女性権者数を劇的に増加させ得た。
Danielle LaVaque-Manty et al., “A Very Scholarly Intervention: Recruiting Women Faculty in S
&E,” Gendered Innovations in S&E, ed. Londa Schiebinger (Stanford UP, 2008), 165-181.

59• Schiebinger, L. (2000). Feminism and the body. Oxford University
Press.
• Fausto-Sterling, A. (2008). Myths of gender: Biological theories
about women and men. Basic Books. 邦訳『ジェンダーの神話』池上
千寿子・根岸悦子訳

工作舎（ただし1985年版）

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#14. Understanding gender bias in science
Bias in the substance of science. Historians document
how biased notions of sex and gender constructed partial
and inaccurate science.

#15. Integrating sex and gender analysis intoscience, or Gendered Innovations

Purpose: To create excellent science by integrating sex andgender analysis in research design (at the beginning of the process)A few classic texts:•

Schiebinger L. (1993). Nature’s Body: Gender in the making of modern
science, Beacon Press.
邦訳：『女性を弄ぶ博物学』工作舎•

Spanier, B. (1995). Im/partial science: Gender ideology in molecularbiology. Indiana University Press.

•

Hager, L. D. (Ed.). (1997). Women in human evolution. Psychology Press.

•

Oudshoorn, N. (2003). Beyond the natural body: An archaeology of sex
hormones. Routledge.

•

Richardson, S. S. (2013). Sex itself: The search for male and female in thehuman genome. University of Chicago Press.

Methods: develops practical methods of sex and gender analysis

for scientists and engineers. These are methods currently not includedin science and engineering curricula. They are methods developed by
History of Science and Gender Studies of Science over the past
several decades.

Outcomes: provides case studies as concrete illustrations of how
sex and gender analysis leads to discovery and innovation.

61#15. Integrating sex and gender analysis intoscience, or Gendered Innovations

62#15-1. Basic Science

Basic Science
Health & Medicine

Basic Science
Health & Medicine
Engineering

Engineering

Environment

Environment
訳注：スタンフォード大学のGendered Innovations サイトには事例研究として
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上記4項目が立てられ、それぞれに5から6個の事例報告が掲載されている。

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#15-2. Health & Medicine

Example: “Male-Observer Effect”
実験で男性観察者によってもたらされる効果This example reveals interactions in the animal lab—in this case between
animals in the lab and the sex of the researcher. An important study bySorge et al. discusses the impact of experimenter sex! This example
focuses on pain research. The researchers induce pain in rats and mice.
What they found is amazing. They found that rats and mice don’t show
their pain to men researchers. This is really important because theresearchers are studying sex differences in pain response. Animals don’t
show their pain when a man is in the room, as compared to an empty
room, but they show their pain when a woman is in the room. Both maleand female mice displayed this “male-observer effect.”

男性骨粗しょう症患者の研究：
スタンダードの再考と参照モデル

What’s going on? The animals smell the men, they smell male pheromones.
According to Jeff Mogil, this phenomenon may throw into question all prior
results from pain research. This demonstrates that sex/sex interaction isimportant. The GI method used here is Analyzing Sex.

Sorge, R., Martin, L., Isbester, K., Sotocinal, S., Rosen, S., …& Mogil, J. (2014).
Olfactory Exposure to Males, Including Men, Causes Stress and Related Analgesia in
Rodents. Nature Methods, 11, 629–632.

Osteoporosis Research in Men：
Rethinking Standards andReference Models

65#15-2. Health & Medicine

訳注：骨粗しょう症は長らく閉経後の女性の病気とされてきたために、見過ごされがちであった男性の骨粗しょう症患者の見直しとジェンダーを踏まえた参照モデルの構築を意図。
66#15-3. Engineering

男性代名詞は、女性代名詞に比べ3から4倍の頻度で書籍に登場していた。

Example: Osteoporosis Research in Men
The Challenge
Men account for nearly a third of osteoporosis-related hip fractures in Europe and the U.S.
(Dhanwal et al., 2010). Nonetheless, osteoporosis is considered primarily a disease of
postmenopausal women, and men are rarely evaluated or treated for it (Szulc et al., 2012).
Method: Rethinking Standards and Reference Models
Research in many fields—for example, heart disease—has relied on reference models thattreat men as the norm. Women are often studied as deviations from that norm. In the case of
osteoporosis, however, diagnostic models have been developed for women using bonemineral density (BMD) norms of healthy young white women, and criteria to identify risk in
men are not well established. Researchers are improving these reference models andopening new areas of research by considering disease progression in both women and men,
and by evaluating risk using sex-specific reference models.
Gendered Innovations:
1. Establishing Male Reference Populations: By 1997, evaluation of men's bone quality was
based on BMD norms of healthy young men rather than healthy young women (Looker,
1997). More work needs to be done to redefine diagnostic cutoffs for both women andmen (Binkley et al., 2010).
2. Creating New Diagnostics Based on Secondary Contributors to Osteoporosis andMetabolic Bone Disorders: Researchers have identified medical conditions (such as
hypogonadism and hypercalciuria) and treatments (such as chemotherapeutics andanticonvulsants) that correlate with osteoporotic fracture, especially in men. New
diagnostics take SECOBs into account—along with variables such as BMD, sex, andlifestyle. Accounting for these factors improves diagnosis in both women and men.67

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Example: Machine Translation

機械翻訳#15-4. Environment

スペイン公共交通機関の目的別利用割合

The Challenge
Machine translation (MT) becomes increasingly important in a global world. Although error
rates are still high, MT system accuracies are improving incrementally. Some errors in current
systems, however, are based on fundamental technological challenges that require nonincremental solutions. One such problem is related to gender: State-of-the-art translation
systems like Google Translate or Systran massively overuse masculine pronouns (he, him) even
where the text specifically refers to a woman (Minkov et al., 2007). The result is anunacceptable infidelity of the resulting translations and perpetuation of gender bias.
Method: Analyzing Gender
The reliance on a "masculine default" in modern machine translation systems results fromcurrent systems that do not determine the gender of each person mentioned in a text. Instead,the translation is produced by finding all the possible matches for a given phrase in large
collections of bilingual texts, and then choosing a match based on factors such as its frequency
in large text "corpora" (or bodies of text). Masculine pronouns are over-represented in thelarge text corpora that modern systems are trained on, resulting in over-use in translations. In
July 2012 the Gendered Innovations project convened a workshop to discuss potential
solutions. Improving feminine-masculine pronoun balance in these corpora, for example,
would still not fix the problem, since it will simply cause both women and men to be randomlyreferred to with the wrong gender. Instead, it is crucial to develop algorithms that explicitly
determine the gender of each person mentioned in text and use this computed gender toinform the translation. Such algorithms could avoid the masculine default and also increase thequality of translation overall.
Gendered Innovations:
1. Studying the Male Default in Machine Translation
2. Detecting the Gender of Entities to Improve Translation Algorithms (research in progress)
3. Integrating Gender Analysis into the Engineering Curriculum69#15-4. Environment

Example: Public Transportation
The Challenge
Categories used in transportation surveys—and, hence, the way statistics aregathered and analyzed—may not properly account for caring work—that is unpaid
labor performed by adults for children or other dependents, including labor related tothe upkeep of a household. Public transport systems are typically designed aroundthe needs of commuters (people traveling between their homes and places of paid
employment). The mobility associated with caring work, including childcare and eldercare, has typically not figured into transportation design.
Method: Rethinking Concepts and Theories
The innovative concept "mobility of care" provides a perspective for "recognizing andrevaluing care work" (Sánchez de Madariaga, 2009). Incorporating "caring work" into
user surveys helps to identify the significant number of trips that women and men
make for this purpose. Understanding gender differences in public transportation isimportant for understanding climate change and planning efficient housing andneighborhoods.
Gendered Innovations:
1. Adding the concept, "mobility of care", to data collection variables may renderpublic transportation more responsive to users' needs.
2. Understanding gender differences in travel has led to the concept of "trip chaining"with ramifications for the design of public transport systems.
3. Gathering data disaggregated by sex and other factors intersecting with sex andgender (such as income, family status, etc.) improves transportation research andpolicy.
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Global History of Women and
Gender in Science• These are the 15 categories of analysis I
suggest.
• I’m excited to hear your suggestions!
Would these categories be relevant forJapan? Asia more generally?
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