Adult Attachment and Parental Bonding:Correlations Between Perceived Relationship
Qualities and Self-Reported Anxiety

The Professional Counselor
Volume 6, Issue 1, Pages 33–49
http://tpcjournal.nbcc.org© 2016 NBCC, Inc. and Affiliates
doi:10.15241/ewa.6.1.33

Ellen W. Ambruster, David C. Witherington
Adult attachment and parental bonding have been linked to anxiety disorders, but rarely have theseassociations been demonstrated in the same study. To fill this gap in the research literature, we utilized
several different self-report measures to examine the relationships among adult attachment style, memories
of early bonding experiences, and five types of anxiety in a sample of 201 undergraduate psychology
students. Significant correlations were found between early bonding memories and secure, preoccupied
and fearful attachment styles, but not between early bonding memories and dismissing attachment style.
Secure attachment style negatively correlated with every type of anxiety, whereas preoccupied and fearfulattachment styles positively correlated with every type of anxiety. Dismissing attachment style did notcorrelate with any anxiety type. Results also indicated correlations between early bonding memories
and both post-trauma and social anxiety symptoms, but there was no relationship between bonding andobsessive-compulsive symptoms, panic or worry.
Keywords: attachment, bonding, anxiety, parental, relationships

The attachment work of John Bowlby (1988) affords clinicians and researchers the opportunity
to view psychopathology as relationally based, rather than as unique to the individual to whom a
specific label has been given. Anxiety is a particularly fitting place to focus this type of investigation
since understanding the meaning and function of anxiety within the context of human developmentlies at the center of attachment theory. Bowlby integrated the time-honored notion that the earlychild-caregiver bond is critical to the child’s survival and well-being into his knowledge of scientificfacts and meaning and provided an interpersonal understanding of healthy as well as pathologicaldevelopment. Bowlby’s thoughts, flowing as they did from psychoanalysis and object relations,revolutionized the analytic world by removing dysfunction from the center of the individual andplacing it in the space between interacting humans. Through the use of instruments designed tomeasure attachment style, early bonding memories and five different types of anxiety, this study
utilizes Bowlby’s viewpoint as a springboard from which to examine the correlations between adults’
perception of their past and present relational experiences and their current levels of anxiety.

Relationship of Attachment and Bonding to Anxiety Disorders
There is a sizeable body of research suggesting a relationship between anxiety and attachment
or bonding experiences (e.g., Cassidy, Lichtenstein-Phelps, Sibrava, Thomas, & Borkovec, 2009;
Cavedo & Parker, 1994; Chorpita & Barlow, 1998; Eng & Heimberg, 2006; Eng, Heimberg, Hart,
Schneier, & Liebowitz, 2001; Manicavasagar, Silove, Wagner, & Hadzi-Pavlovic, 1999; Marazziti et al.,2007; Meites, Ingram, & Siegle, 2012; O’Connor & Elklit, 2008; Pacchierotti et al., 2002; Parker, 1979;
Renaud, 2008; Seganfredo et al., 2009; Turgeon, O’Connor, Marchand, & Freeston, 2002). We will firstEllen W. Armbruster, NCC, is an Assistant Professor at Central Michigan University. David C. Witherington is an Associate Professor at
the University of New Mexico. The authors also wish to acknowledge the contributions of David Olguin, Jay Parkes, Gene Coffield, andJeffrey Katzman. Correspondence can be addressed to Ellen Armbruster, Education and Human Services Bldg. #353, Central Michigan
University, Mt. Pleasant, MI 48859, armbr1ew@cmich.edu.

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review the literature explicating the anxiety–attachment paradigm and then consider research thathas looked at anxiety and bonding, before turning to the studies that have incorporated measures ofboth attachment and bonding in an examination of individuals with specific anxiety states.
Anxiety and Attachment
Substantial investigation has considered anxiety-attachment associations. Potential links havebeen found between generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) and attachment, with indications that
increasing perceptions of difficult early attachment experiences are tied to a risk for GAD (Cassidy etal., 2009). Furthermore, investigation has shown individuals with GAD to report less secure parental
attachment, less trust, increased difficulty with communication, and more alienation than individuals
without the disorder (Eng & Heimberg, 2006). In other work, participants with panic disorder (PD),obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), major depressive disorder or bipolar disorder were found tohave higher levels of preoccupied attachment style, and participants without these conditions had
higher levels of secure attachment (Marazziti et al., 2007). Social anxiety also has been consideredin light of adult attachment, and individuals with an anxious-preoccupied attachment style havereported higher levels of social fear and avoidance than participants with a secure attachment style(Eng et al., 2001).
Attachment anxiety and avoidance have been connected to increased symptoms of post-traumaticstress disorder (PTSD) in veterans (Renaud, 2008). However, the vast majority of participants in
Renaud’s (2008) study reported a preference for attachment avoidance (either fearful or dismissing),
and PTSD symptoms were higher among these individuals. In young adults, secure attachment has
been associated with fewer PTSD symptoms; however, dismissing and fearful attachment preferences
have been tied to a higher number of PTSD symptoms (O’Connor & Elklit, 2008). Associations of thisnature may indicate that secure attachment offers potential protection against the development of
PTSD, whereas dismissing and fearful attachment may increase risk (O’Connor & Elklit, 2008).
Anxiety and Bonding
A noteworthy number of studies have looked at the relationship between anxiety and bonding.
For instance, associations have been demonstrated between both PD and GAD and the condition ofaffectionless control (lack of attunement and overprotection) by parents (Chorpita & Barlow, 1998).
In other research (Chambless, Gillis, Tran, & Stekettee, 1996), people with PD or OCD also mostcommonly perceived their parents’ style of caregiving to fall within the affectionless control category.
In addition, individuals who rated their mothers most highly on the overprotection scale experienced
the earliest onset of anxiety disorders.
Associations have been found between mother overprotection and PD in men and between father
overprotection and PD in women (Seganfredo et al., 2009), and a relationship has been noted between
perception of parental overprotection and adult symptoms of separation anxiety (Manicavasagar etal., 1999). Furthermore, in a study matching participants diagnosed with PD and healthy controls,
individuals with PD reported lower parental care than those without the disorder (Pacchierotti etal., 2002). A relationship also has been demonstrated between low parental care and generalized fear
among a large sample of undergraduates (Meites et al., 2012). Other researchers have conceded that thedevelopment of GAD may be related to unfavorable parental behavior (Silove, Parker, Hadzi-Pavlovic,
Manicavasagar, & Blaszczynski, 1991). However, they also suggested the alternative possibility thatmaternal overprotection could be a response to early signs of anxiety in people with PD.
Early bonding memories and obsessionality have been shown to be related as well. Positive
correlations were noted between obsessionality and parental overprotection for both males and
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The Professional Counselor/Volume 6, Issue 1

females, and between obsessionality and maternal care in females; however, negative correlations
were found between obsessionality and parental care in males (Cavedo & Parker 1994). In otherwork, outpatients with OCD or PD remembered their parents as being more overprotective than
did a control group of non-anxious participants, leading researchers to the conclusion that parental
overprotection may increase the risk that children will develop anxiety disorders (Turgeon et al.,2002). However, in another study investigating the link between early bonding memories andobsessive-compulsive behaviors in a non-clinical population, researchers concluded that low parental
care may represent a risk for emotional suffering in adulthood, but does not predict a specificpsychiatric disorder (Mancini, D’Olimpio, Prunetti, Didonna, & Del Genio, 2000).
The relationship between early bonding memories and agoraphobia or social phobia also has beenassessed (Parker, 1979). Parker (1979) found that people with agoraphobia reported their mothers tobe less caring than did participants in the control group, but differed in no other way. Individuals
with social phobia reported both their mothers and fathers to be less caring and more overprotective
than did the control group individuals.
Anxiety, Attachment and Bonding
Despite substantial evidence of correlation between adult attachment and anxiety and between
early bonding memories and anxiety, fewer empirical studies explicitly differentiate between adultattachment and parental bonding constructs, or consider both in relation to specific anxiety types.
Here, we will review studies that have investigated the association between anxiety and both adultattachment and parental bonding.
Myhr, Sookman, and Pinard (2004) examined adult attachment and early parental bonding
memories in a sample of individuals with OCD or depression. More relationship anxiety wasevident among participants with OCD or depression and more dependency discomfort (avoidance)
was seen in participants with depression and in unmarried participants with OCD. With regard to
early bonding memories, individuals with OCD did not differ from controls, and there was no clear
correlation between adult attachment and early bonding memories. The researchers suggested two
potential reasons for this finding: (a) the bonding instrument they were using may not have measured
relational elements necessary for adult attachment security; or (b) the responses may have reflected abias based on attachment security or specific diagnosis.
Ghafoori, Hierholzer, Howsepian, and Boardman (2008) investigated the protective value of adultattachment, parental bonding and divine love in adjustment to trauma experienced in the military.
They found that current PTSD symptoms in veterans who participated in the study negatively
correlated with secure attachment and positively correlated with insecure attachment. However, nosignificant relationship emerged between current PTSD symptoms and early childhood bonding
memories. Findings did indicate that adult attachment style contributes to the severity of PTSD andthat perceived parental care moderates that relationship (i.e., since parental care negatively correlatedwith insecure attachment).
Yarbro, Mahaffey, Abramowitz, and Kashdan (2013) used online self-report measures to explore
the relationship between memories of low care in early child–caregiver relationships and reports ofobsessive beliefs in a sample of undergraduate college students. Their findings indicated significant
associations between the two variables, lending support to the idea that there is a relationshipbetween obsessive beliefs and affectionless and neglectful parenting (Yarbro et al., 2013). The
researchers also considered whether attachment anxiety or avoidance may mediate this relationship.
Through the use of hierarchical regression models, they demonstrated that attachment anxiety
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may serve as a partial mediator of the relationship between memories of low care and self-reported
obsessive beliefs, but that attachment avoidance did not function in this way (Yarbro et al., 2013).
As well as providing additional support in favor of the relationship between attachment, bonding
and anxiety, the Myhr et al. (2004), Ghafoori et al. (2008) and Yarbro et al. (2013) studies lead us toconsider a further possibility. We offer the idea that adult attachment and parental bonding may
address qualitatively distinct aspects of human interaction, especially when considered in light ofdifferent types of anxiety. The work of the aforementioned authors highlights the need to investigate
adult attachment and parental bonding as distinct yet potentially interdependent constructs that
illuminate, from different viewpoints, the intricacies of interpersonal connection.

Constructs of Adult Attachment and Parental Bonding
The construct of adult attachment may be understood as resolving to two primary dimensions:model of self and model of others (Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991). In Bartholomew and
Horowitz’s (1991) work, the degree of positivity an individual experiences with regard to his or her
representation of self meets the degree of positivity that person experiences with regard to his or her
representation of others to yield four potential patterns of preference in relationships. Those whohave a positive view of themselves and of others are at ease in intimate and in autonomous situations
and have a secure style of attachment. Individuals with a preoccupied style of attachment have anegative view of self, but see others in a positive light; they look to their intimate relationships forfulfillment and validation. The fearful style of attachment involves a wish for closeness that remains
unfulfilled due to fears of rejection, whereas the dismissing style is typified by denial that intimacy
with others is needed or desired. According to Bartholomew and Horowitz’s (1991) model, the fearfulstyle reflects a negative view of self (undeserving of the love and support of others), as well as anegative view of others, whereas the dismissing style reflects a positive view of self (minimizing theawareness of needs or distress) and a negative view of others.
The construct of parental bonding and its classificatory scheme also can be understoodas resolving to two primary dimensions: (perceived) parental care and (perceived) parental
overprotection (Parker, Tupling, & Brown, 1979). The dimensions are presumed to contribute to
the bond that develops between a parent and a child early in life and, when considered together,result in four potential bonding experiences. Optimal bonding is said to occur when parental care(emotional warmth and acceptance) is high and overprotection (psychological control and intrusion)
is low; whereas affectionate constraint refers to bonding in which parents are highly overprotectiveof their children while exhibiting some caring behaviors toward them (Gladstone & Parker, 2005).
When parental care and overprotection are both low, the parent–child bond that develops may be
weak or absent, and when care is low (emotional coldness and rejection) and overprotection is high,affectionless control typifies the bonding relationship.
Although the constructs of adult attachment and parental bonding tap into the nature of
relationship quality, each construct views human connection from a different vantage point. Whereas
Bartholomew and Horowitz’s (1991) four-category adult attachment model considers individuals’
perceptions of their current close relationships with peers, Parker et al.’s (1979) conceptualizationof parental bonding involves recollections of early relationships with caregivers. That is, theattachment construct targets the manner in which people perceive their own worth and that ofothers in the context of current relationships; the bonding construct, however, targets a present-day
characterization of past caregiver style. Rather than addressing the perception of one’s upbringing,
adult attachment focuses on a current sense of worth and the expectation of how others will respond
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in relationship. Parental bonding, in contrast, focuses upon memories of early child–caregiverinteractions and the sense of how one was treated by one’s caregivers.
In consideration of the distinctions between the adult attachment and parental bonding constructs,
we may view the assessment of adult attachment as eliciting a general sense of how one fits intocurrent relationships and the assessment of parental bonding as specific to the memory of pastchild–caregiver interactions. In other words, adult attachment and parental bonding, while certainlyinterrelated in that both tap into the quality of relationships individuals form with others, nonetheless
do not actually target the same general conceptualization of relationship quality, but are instead
distinct constructs that capture slightly different aspects of human interaction from divergent pointsof view.

Purpose of the Study and Predictions
This study, in light of the relative paucity of research involving single-sample assessments of ourconstructs of interest, was designed to address more systematically the interconnections that may
exist between adult attachment, memories of early parental bonding experiences and various formsof anxiety. To accomplish this, we specifically targeted adults’ reports of early interactions withcaregivers, as well as their present interpersonal approach in relation to five different types of selfreported anxiety: obsessive-compulsive behavior, panic symptomatology, experience of worry andgeneralized anxiety, post-trauma symptomatology, and experience of social anxiety.
Predictions for the study flowed from our premise that adult attachment and parental bonding
are interconnected but separate aspects of relational experience. Although Myhr et al. (2004) foundno significant correlation between attachment and early bonding memories, the authors suggested
potential reasons for this finding, including instrument limitations and attachment or diagnosis biasesof the participants. Taking into account this explanation and our premise that the attachment andbonding constructs, while interrelated, capture relationship quality from different vantage points, wefirst conjectured that we would find a low to moderate relationship between these two variables.
With respect to relationships among adult attachment and anxiety, since the preponderance of theliterature (Cassidy et al., 2009; Eng & Heimberg, 2006; Eng et al., 2001; Ghafoori et al., 2008; Marazziti
et al., 2007; Myhr et al., 2004; O’Connor & Elklit, 2008; Renaud, 2008) indicates associations between
self-reports of adult attachment style and self-reports of anxiety, we predicted that the tendency
toward each of several different anxiety types would negatively correlate with secure attachment
style and positively correlate with the insecure styles of attachment, and that these associations would
be strong.
With respect to relationships between parental bonding and anxiety, some of the literature
indicates a clear association (Chambless et al., 1996; Chorpita & Barlow, 1998; Pacchierotti et al., 2002;
Parker, 1979; Turgeon et al., 2002; Yarbro et al., 2013), whereas other investigations have yielded
mixed results (Cavedo & Parker, 1994; Ghafoori et al., 2008; Mancini et al., 2000; Manicavasagar
et al., 1999; Myhr et al., 2004; Parker, 1979; Silove et al., 1991). Given these inconsistencies and ourassumption of adult attachment and parental bonding as measuring distinct aspects of relational
quality, we anticipated fewer significant correlations between parental bonding and different formsof anxiety. Nevertheless, where significant correlations arose, we predicted positive correlations
between anxiety and the overprotection dimension of parental bonding and negative correlations
between anxiety and the care dimension.
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MethodParticipantsParticipants for the study were 201 undergraduate psychology students (152 female, 48 male, with
one person not reporting gender) at a university located in the Southwestern United States. Latino/
Hispanic participants comprised 36.8% of the sample and Caucasian participants comprised 49.8%.
The remaining participants reported race or ethnicity as African American (3%), Asian (2%), Native
American (2%), Pacific Islander (.5%), or Other (6%). Participants’ ages ranged from 17 to 50 years,
with a mean of 19.86 (SD = 3.78).
Procedures
Approval for the study was granted by the Institutional Review Board at our university.
Participants were recruited through a Web-based recruitment system and their participation was an
optional part of their psychology course requirement. A description of the study and the dates andtimes during which data collection would take place were posted on the Web site and participants
signed up for the test period that was convenient for them. As participants arrived at the testing
location, they were greeted by the test administrator and seated around a table. After informed
consent was explained and a questionnaire packet provided, participants were allowed up to 1.5
hours to complete the surveys. A maximum of 25 participants were permitted to sign up for each test
period.
Variables and Instrumentation
Relationship Scales Questionnaire. To index adult attachment, we used the Relationship
Scales Questionnaire (RSQ; Griffin & Bartholomew, 1994). The RSQ consists of 30 items and asks
participants to rate, on a 5-point scale, how well each of the items fits their perception of the stylethey use in their close relationships. Individuals are scored on each of four attachment patterns:
secure, fearful, preoccupied, and dismissing. Internal consistencies for the RSQ range from .41 forsecure attachment to .71 for dismissing attachment. Although these alpha values may appear low,
it is a natural result of combining two orthogonal dimensions, including model of self and modelof others. It also is important to note that test–retest reliability may be inferred from the data on
internal consistency, since the RSQ indexes attachment using a dimensional approach (Griffin &Bartholomew, 1994). A psychometric examination of the RSQ in a French population demonstrated
good construct validity, test–retest reliability and internal consistency (Guédeney, Fermanian, &Bifulco, 2010). We chose the RSQ for its widespread application in counseling and other mental healthvenues to study attachment as it relates to topics such as parental bonding and anxiety (Ghafoori etal., 2008; Yarbro et al., 2013), perfectionism (Chen, Hewitt, & Flett, 2015), interpersonal sensitivity(Otani et al., 2014), and problematic substance use (Massey, Compton, & Kaslow, 2014).
Parental Bonding Instrument. To index parental bonding, we used the Parental Bonding
Instrument (PBI) developed by Parker et al. (1979). The instrument consists of 25 items, including
12 parental care items and 13 parental overprotection items, and asks participants to rate on a
4-point scale how they remember their primary caregiver. A test–retest reliability study yielded aPearson correlation coefficient for the care scale of .761 and a Pearson correlation coefficient for the
overprotection scale of .628 (Parker et al., 1979). A comparison of the psychometric properties of the
PBI and another measure of parenting behavior demonstrated that the PBI may be more stable overtime (Safford, Alloy, & Pieracci, 2007), and a Persian version showed high internal consistency andtest–retest reliability (Behzadi & Parker, 2015). We chose the PBI for its long history of utilizationin the study of familial relationships. It continues to be a frequently employed instrument in the38

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investigation of caregiver–offspring interactions in the context of problems such as anxiety (Meites
et al., 2012; Seganfredo et al., 2009), pathological gambling (Villalta, Arévalo, Valdepérez, Pascual,& Pérez de los Cobos, 2015), intermittent explosive disorder (Lee, Meyerhoff, & Coccaro, 2014) andsuicidality (Goschin, Briggs, Blanco-Lutzen, Cohen, & Galynker, 2013).
Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory-Revised. To assess tendency toward obsessive-compulsive
behavior, we used the Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory-Revised (OCI-R; Foa et al., 2002). This
questionnaire consists of 18 items and asks participants to rate, on a 5-point scale, how much each
item has bothered them in the last month. In their examination of the psychometric properties of the
OCI-R, Foa et al. (2002) demonstrated that test–retest reliability ranged from .74 to .91 for individuals
with OCD, and from .57 to .87 for non-anxious controls. In a recent psychometric examination, the
OCI-R was shown to be valid, reliable and diagnostically sensitive (Wootton et al., 2015). The OCI-R
also demonstrated good validity and reliability in an older adult population (Calamari et al., 2014).
Panic Disorder Severity Scale-Self Report. To assess tendency toward panic symptoms, we used
the Panic Disorder Severity Scale-Self Report (PDSS-SR; Houck, Speigel, Shear, & Rucci, 2002). The
PDSS-SR consists of seven questions rated on a 5-point scale. The questions explore the presence anddegree of panic in the lives of participants. Test–retest reliability was shown by Shear et al. (2001) tobe satisfactory, with a Pearson correlation coefficient of .71. More recently, a psychometric evaluationof the self-report and clinician-administered versions of the PDSS indicated adequate or promisingreliability and validity for each form (Wuyek, Antony, & McCabe, 2011). An examination of the
Spanish version of the PDSS-SR demonstrated that the psychometric properties were comparable tothose of other versions of this instrument (Santacana et al., 2014).
Penn State Worry Questionnaire. To assess tendency toward worry and generalized anxiety, weused the Penn State Worry Questionnaire (PSWQ; Meyer, Miller, Metzger, & Borkovec, 1990). Thismeasure consists of 16 items and asks participants to rate, on a 5-point scale, how characteristic each
item is of them. Meyer et al. (1990) found the PSWQ to possess high internal consistency and goodtest–retest reliability (r[45] = .92, p < .001) in clinical as well as in non-clinical samples, with alphacoefficients ranging from .88 to .95 for both groups. More recent examinations of the PSWQ haveindicated that the instrument is psychometrically sound in African American populations (DeLapp,
Chapman, & Williams, 2015), in online administrations of the Hungarian version (Pajkossy, Simor,
Szendi, & Racsmány, 2015) and among older adults (Wuthrich, Johnco, & Knight, 2014). The PSWQ
continues to be used to index worry in the study of therapeutic concerns such as psychologicalinflexibility (Ruiz, 2014), negative mood (Dash & Davey, 2012), and distress tolerance (Macatee,
Capron, Guthrie, Schmidt, & Cougle, 2015).
PTSD Checklist-Civilian Version. To assess tendency toward post-trauma symptoms, we used
the PTSD Checklist-Civilian Version (PCL-C; Weathers, Litz, Herman, Huska, & Kean, 1993). The
PCL-C consists of 17 items asking participants to rate, on a 5-point scale, how often each item hasbothered them in the last month. Weathers et al. (1993) studied veterans in their original research on
the psychometric properties of the PCL and found that test–retest reliability was .96 over a periodof 2 to 3 days. Recent investigation of the psychometric properties of the PCL-C indicated continued
high internal consistency and high test–retest reliability in a non-clinical population; in addition,
convergent and discriminant validity were satisfactory when compared to other assessments of PTSD
(Conybeare, Behar, Solomon, Newman, & Borkovec, 2012).
Social Interaction Anxiety Scale. To assess tendency toward social anxiety, we used the Social
Interaction Anxiety Scale (SIAS; Mattick & Clarke, 1998). The SIAS consists of 20 items. This
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The Professional Counselor/Volume 6, Issue 1questionnaire asks participants to rate, on a 5-point scale, how characteristic each item is of them.
In their examination of the psychometric properties of the SIAS, Mattick and Clark (1998) found thealpha coefficient for test–retest reliability to be .92 at both 4 weeks (range 3–5 weeks) and 12 weeks(range 11–13 weeks). More recently, the SIAS has been evaluated in several settings and formats,including the Internet (Hedman et al., 2010; Hirai, Vernon, Clum, & Skidmore, 2011) and in ashortened version (Fergus, Valentiner, Kim, & McGrath, 2014) with consistently adequate results. The
SIAS continues to be used to index social anxiety in the study of mental health related topics suchas participation in Alcoholics Anonymous (Moser, Turk, & Glover, 2015) and efficacy of cognitivebehavioral group therapy versus group psychotherapy (Bjornsson et al., 2011).
Data Analyses
Scoring. Scores and, when relevant, sub-scores were calculated for each instrument. Although the
PBI can yield specific categories of parental bonding (i.e., optimal bonding or affectionless control),for the purposes of our study each dimension of this instrument (care and overprotection) was scoredcontinuously. Like the PBI, the RSQ may be employed categorically; we elected, instead, to utilize
the multi-item nature of the RSQ to permit participants to express their attachment preferences on acontinuous scale so that overall attachment preferences would incorporate aspects of each of the fourattachment patterns (Griffin & Bartholomew, 1994). This approach allowed us to develop a correlation
matrix that included continuous scores not only for the PBI and RSQ, but also for each of the anxiety
indices utilized. Data analysis also involved the calculation of Pearson’s r for the relationships
between RSQ and PBI scores, between RSQ scores and scores on each of the five anxiety indices weused, and between PBI scores and scores on each of the five anxiety indices.
Reliability of scores. Reliability coefficients were calculated for each of the instruments utilized,
including the subscales of the PBI, the RSQ, and the OCI-R. Cronbach’s alpha for the instruments
ranged from .420 for the secure subscale of the RSQ to .938 for the PSWQ (see Tables 1 and 2). Due tothe low reliability for several of the scales, all observed correlations were disattenuated (corrected toaccount for measurement error) using the following equation (Osborne, 2003):

The reliability coefficients are represented by r11 and r22, while r12 is the observed correlation and r*12 isthe disattenuated correlation. Disattenuated correlations are listed in parentheses below the observed
correlations in Tables 1 and 2.
Significance level and magnitude of correlations. In order to reduce the risk of a Type I Error inthis study, a more stringent alpha level was adopted: only correlations that were significant at p < .01
were considered, while correlations significant at p < .05 were disregarded.
Correlation coefficients of 0 to .3 were considered to be of small magnitude, whereas correlation
coefficients of .4 to .7 were considered to be of moderate magnitude, and correlation coefficients of .8
or greater were considered to be of high magnitude.

Results
Tables 1 and 2 present the correlation coefficients for the relationships between RSQ and PBI
ratings and between each of these and ratings for all anxiety indexes utilized in this study. With
respect to correlations between scores on the RSQ and PBI, higher scores for the RSQ’s secure40The Professional Counselor/Volume 6, Issue 1

attachment preference positively correlated with higher scores on the PBI’s care dimension andnegatively correlated with higher scores on the PBI’s overprotection dimension (p < .01). Higherscores for the RSQ’s preoccupied and fearful attachment preferences negatively correlated withhigher scores on the PBI’s care dimension and positively correlated with higher scores on the PBI’s
overprotection dimension (p < .01), while scores for the RSQ’s dismissing attachment preference
were not correlated with the PBI’s care or overprotection dimension. All correlations were of small
magnitude, although the disattenuated correlations for care–secure (r = .526) and overprotection–
fearful (r = .497) were of moderate magnitude.
Table 1.
Means, Standard Deviations, Reliability and Correlation Coefficients (Disattenuated Correlation Coefficients in
Parentheses)
MN

SD

RL

PBI
(C)

PBI
(OP)

RSQ
(S)

RSQ
(D)

RSQ
(F)

RSQ
(P)

OCI-R
(Total)PDSS-SR

PSWQ

PBI (C)

2.55

.51

.892

PBI (OP)

.99

.56

.776

-.368**(-.422)

RSQ (S)

2.31

.68

.420

.322**(.526)-.183**(-.321)

RSQ (D)

2.20

.64

.566

.045
(.063).019(.029)-.198**(-.406)

RSQ (F)

1.78

.87

.507

-.245**(-.364).312**(.497)-.597**(-1.294).359**(.670)

RSQ (P)

1.89

.79

.568

-.187**(-.263).242**(.364)-.223**(-.457)-.316**(-.557).278**(.518)OCI-R (Total)

.85

.61

.869

-.100
(-.114).106(.129)-.388**(-.642).111(.158).309**(.466).246**(.350)

PDSS-SR

.43

.50

.820

-.071
(-.083).087(.109)-.274**(-.467).063(.092).320**(.496).309**(.453).551**(.653)

PSWQ

2.22

.93

.938

-.095
(-.104).176(.206)-.356**(-.567)-.005(-.069).321**(.466).291**(.399).476**(.527).508**(.579)

PCL-C

1.13

.799

.918

-.250**(-.276).186**(.220)-.386**(-.622).155(.213).441**(.646).285**(.395).526**(.589).539**(.621).483**(.521)

SIAS

1.199

.77

.929

-.289**(-.317).187**(.220)-.503**(-.805)-.012(-.017).337**(.491).413**(.569).371**(.413).376**(.431).424**(.454)

PCL-C

SIAS

.466**(.505)

Note. MN = Mean; SD = Standard Deviation; RL = Reliability; PBI = Parental Bonding Instrument; C = Care; OP = Overprotection; RSQ = Relationship Scales Questionnaire; S = Secure; D = Dismissing; F = Fearful; P = Preoccupied; OCI-R = Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory-Revised; PDSS-SR = Panic Disorder Severity Scale-Self
Report; PSWQ = Penn State Worry Questionnaire; PCL-C = PTSD Checklist-Civilian Version; SIAS = Social Interaction Anxiety Scale**Correlation is significant at p < .01

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Table 2.
Obsessive-Compulsive Subtypes: Means, Standard Deviations, Reliability and Correlation Coefficients(Disattenuated Correlation Coefficients in Parentheses)

OCI-R Hoarding

OCI-R Checking

OCI-R Ordering

MN

SD

RL

1.22

.999

.65

.82

1.14

.83

1.05

.73

.88

PBI
(C)

PBI
(OP)

RSQ
(S)

RSQ
(D)

RSQ
(F)

RSQ
(P)

OCI-R
(Total)PDSS-SR

PSWQ

PCL-C

SIAS

-.092

.136

-.260**

-.043

.172

.293**

537**

288**

.353**.355**.357**(-.121)(.191)(-.496)(-.071)(.299)(.481)(.713)(.394)(.451)(.459)(.458).004.017-.278**.086.208**

.112

748**

395**

.396**.344**.317**(.005)(.023)(-.504)(.094)(.343)(.175)(.942)(.506)(.480)(.422)(.386)

.088

-.006

-.231**.183**.208**

.087

707**

344**

.232**.430**.149(.099)(-.007)(-.380)(.259)(.311)(.123)(.808)(.404)(.255)(.378)(.165)OCI-R Neutralizing

.48

.77

.55

-.125
(-.179).164(.251)-.253**(-.527).063(.113).181(.343).066(.118).747**(1.081)

346**(.516).282**(.393).359**(.506).159(.223)OCI –R Washing

.51

.67

.66

-.051
(-.066).066(.092)-.193**(-.366).089(.145).142(.245).081(.132)

613**(.808)

371**(.503).244**(.309).266**(.341).088(.112)OCI-R Obsessing

.93

.96

.79

-.148
(-.176).145(.185)-.351**(-.608).075(.112).329**(.519).290**(.432)

741**(.892)

501**(.621).410**(.475).444**(.520).367**(.427)

Note. MN = Mean; SD = Standard Deviation; RL = Reliability; PBI = Parental Bonding Instrument; C = Care; OP = Overprotection; RSQ = Relationship Scales
Questionnaire; S = Secure; D = Dismissing; F = Fearful; P = Preoccupied; OCI-R = Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory-Revised; PDSS-SR = Panic Disorder Severity ScaleSelf Report; PSWQ = Penn State Worry Questionnaire; PCL-C = PTSD Checklist-Civilian Version; SIAS = Social Interaction Anxiety Scale** Correlation is significant at p < .01

With respect to correlations between RSQ scores and ratings on each of the five self-reportmeasures of anxiety (OCI-R, PDSS-SR, PSWQ, PCL-C, and SIAS), higher scores for the RSQ’s secureattachment preference negatively correlated with higher scores on all five self-report measures ofanxiety (p < .01). The disattenuated correlation between scores for the RSQ’s secure attachment
preference and ratings on the SIAS was of high magnitude (r = -.805), while the magnitudes of thedisattenuated correlations for scores for the RSQ’s secure attachment preference and scores on theother anxiety indices were all moderate (secure attachment–obsessive-compulsive, r = -.642; secureattachment–panic, r = -.467; secure attachment–worry, r = -.567; secure attachment–post-trauma,r = -.622). Higher scores for the RSQ’s preoccupied and fearful attachment preferences positively
correlated with higher scores on every type of anxiety indexed (p < .01), with all disattenuatedcorrelations nearing or reaching moderate magnitude. Dismissing attachment style was not correlatedwith scores for any type of anxiety assessed in this study.
With respect to correlations between PBI scores and ratings on each of the five self-report measuresof anxiety (OCI-R, PDSS-SR, PSWQ, PCL-C, and SIAS), neither PBI’s care nor overprotection
dimension correlated with obsessive-compulsive symptoms, panic, or worry. However, higher scoreson the PBI care dimension negatively correlated with higher scores for post-trauma and social anxiety
symptoms (p < .01), and higher scores on PBI’s overprotection dimension positively correlated withhigher scores for post-trauma and social anxiety (p < .01). All correlations were of small magnitude(care–post-trauma, r = -.276; care–social anxiety, r = -.317; overprotection–post-trauma, r = .220;
overprotection–social anxiety, r = .220).
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Discussion
This study examined the relationship between participant reports of adult attachment style, earlybonding interactions with caregivers, and five different anxiety types. Results of the study supported
our predictions of (a) a low to moderate relationship between adult attachment and parental bonding,(b) strong negative correlations between a secure attachment preference and all types of anxiety, (c)strong positive correlations between preoccupied and fearful attachment preferences and all typesof anxiety, and (d) fewer significant correlations between early bonding memories and different
anxiety types. With regard to this last prediction, only two types of anxiety (post-traumatic andsocial) were negatively associated with the care dimension of bonding and positively associatedwith the overprotection dimension; the other anxiety types were not correlated with either bonding
dimension. Contrary to prediction, dismissing attachment did not correlate with any anxiety type orwith either the care or overprotection dimension of parental bonding.
The positive correlation we found between secure attachment and early memories of high care andlow overprotection contrasts with the absence of significant correlation in Myhr et al.’s (2004)
results, but is in keeping with our assumption that adult attachment and parental bonding constructs
are distinct, as well as interrelated (hence our prediction of a low to moderate relationship). Also
noteworthy was the absence of significant correlation between dismissing attachment style and boththe care and overprotection scales of the PBI. Since insecure attachment is considered to result from
relationship experiences that do not support the optimal development of a child (Bowlby, 1988), it isinteresting that only fearful and preoccupied attachment preferences were correlated with less-thanoptimal caregiving (lower care scores and higher overprotection scores).
Further explanation for this result may lie in the inherent qualities of the dismissing attachment
pattern. Bartholomew (1993) suggested that dismissing attachment is characterized by a denialof the need for close relationships and George, Kaplan, and Main (1996) posited that individuals
with a dismissing attachment state of mind often idealize their caregivers. Participants with adismissing attachment style may have failed to report less-than-optimal caregiving, because they
did not feel close to their caregivers and were thus unaware of their caregivers’ deficiencies or evendismissed unpleasant early bonding memories. In addition, the absence of significant correlation
between dismissing attachment and total scores for all types of anxiety indexed in our sample
suggests that individuals with a dismissing attachment style may experience a lower level of thesubjectively disagreeable physiological reactivity that is often present alongside anxiety. If so, thismay help explain the decreased reporting of anxiety and unpleasant early bonding memories amongindividuals who reported a preference for the dismissing attachment pattern.
As expected, lower correlations emerged between memories of early parental bonding (both careand overprotection) and different types of anxiety than those observed between anxiety and the
secure, preoccupied, and fearful styles of adult attachment. Neither the care nor the overprotection
dimension of bonding significantly correlated with total obsessive-compulsive symptoms, panic
symptoms or generalized anxiety symptoms, which is partly consistent with Manicavasagar et al.
(1999), who determined that PD may not be correlated with parental overprotection. Congruent with
Parker’s (1979) investigation, which found that people with social phobia reported decreased careand increased overprotection in their caregivers, our results revealed significant correlations between
parental bonding and anxiety only with respect to post-trauma and social anxiety symptomatology,
and these correlations were of low magnitude.
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Given that our study revealed associations between early bonding memories and experiences ofboth post-trauma and social anxiety, but not the other types of anxiety indexed, it is necessary toconsider a possible etiology for this finding. Since our sample consisted of undergraduate psychology
students, we thought it likely that many of our participants might be young people who were awayfrom their homes and families for the first time and could be experiencing fear about their new social
environment and possibly even feel traumatized by the separation from their caregivers. Indeed,
our thinking is supported by the work of Manicavasagar et al. (1999), which indicated a potential
association between the perception of parental overprotection and adult symptoms of separation
anxiety.
Although results were consistent with predictions of lower correlations between parental bonding
and anxiety than between attachment and anxiety, our findings diverged from the work of several
other researchers. For example, Silove et al. (1991), Cavedo and Parker (1994), and Turgeon et al.
(2002) found significant correlations between various types of anxiety and early bonding memories. It
is possible that the lack of significant correlation in our sample between early bonding memories
and obsessive-compulsive, panic or generalized anxiety symptoms may indicate that people withthese types of anxiety remembered fewer adverse early bonding experiences as a means of selfsoothing during a difficult time (i.e., first experience living away from home). Even though these
individuals did not report enough positive or negative experiences with caregivers to result in careor overprotection correlations, they may have been unconsciously attempting to calm (or neutralize)
their anxiety by remembering their early experiences in a more favorable light.

Treatment Implications of Attachment Style and Early Bonding Memories
Given the findings of our study, we believe that awareness of client attachment style may enhancetherapeutic outcome in the treatment of anxiety conditions. For example, anxiety in individuals
with secure attachment may be due to recent trauma rather than to long-term pathology, and thecounselor’s role will be to help these individuals traverse their current obstacles and regain previous
effectual functioning (Pistole, 1989). On the other hand, fearful clients may need extra time to form an
attachment to their counselors and to use them as a “secure base” from which to explore the world ina less anxious way. Anxious individuals with a preoccupied style of attachment may have difficulty
managing their emotional responses and counselors may find it helpful to respond with empathic
listening, rather than becoming frustrated by emotional behavior (Pistole, 1989). Individuals with adismissing attachment style may deny anxiety, as well as any desire or need for closeness, and thecounselor may find it necessary to confront the dismissal of important relationships (including thetherapeutic bond) and the denial of emotions like anxiety (Pistole, 1989).
Awareness of clients’ early bonding memories may also inform therapeutic intervention whenworking with anxious individuals. In this study, post-trauma and social anxiety symptoms correlatedwith memories of early bonding, and understanding these connections may be meaningful in thetreatment of anxiety. Young adults, who are potentially living away from their families of origin
for the first time, may be particularly susceptible to post-trauma and social anxiety and may seek
counseling for their concerns. A therapeutic understanding that these anxiety symptoms may berelated to a less-than-optimal early environment, triggered by the uncertainties of being awayfrom home, could result in treatment that is more relevant and individualized to the situation.
Although medication may be appropriate for some clients contending with these circumstances, inother instances it could be especially beneficial to approach the treatment from the perspective ofunderstanding the early family environment.
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In contrast to post-trauma and social anxiety symptoms, obsessive-compulsive, panic andgeneralized anxiety symptoms were not correlated with early bonding memories. This may indicatethat these conditions have fewer roots originating within the family, and the use of medications
to control these particular anxiety symptoms may be appropriate. Despite the apparent lack ofassociation between these three types of anxiety and early bonding memories, however, we suggestthat involvement in counseling simultaneous to the use of any medication may increase the efficacyof treatment by providing a safe place for clients to discuss their concerns and consider solutions to
the difficulties they encounter as a result of their anxiety conditions.
Considering the findings of this study, it is fair to assume that those counselors who bear in mind
client attachment style and early bonding memories will provide a potentially more successfultreatment for clients with anxiety conditions. The idea that attachment and bonding are related but
distinct and separate constructs has the potential to broaden counselors’ conceptualization of themanner in which relational involvement may impact anxiety and therefore contribute to enhanced
treatment efficacy. Ideally, treatment of anxious clients will include an individualized approach thattakes into account the manner and style in which each person forms attachments to others and withregard for the relationship between the type of anxiety being treated and memories of the early child–caregiver bond.

Limitations and Future Directions
The choice to focus our investigation on a non-clinical population is consistent with the method ofseveral studies concerning this literature (e.g., Eng et al., 2001; Mancini et al., 2000; Meites et al., 2012;
O’Connor & Elklit, 2008; Yarbro et al., 2013). Nevertheless, the use of a non-clinical undergraduate
sample may have resulted in more limited variation within anxiety states, creating a potential
restriction of scores. Clearly, a clinical sample of individuals with previously diagnosed anxiety
disorders is necessary to substantiate the non-clinical findings of this study. In addition, our sample’s
overrepresentation of women relative to men may be considered a limitation in that the associations
between attachment, bonding, and anxiety could vary according to gender.
We also suggest that ongoing investigation of anxiety and attachment incorporate the use of
instruments that do not require participants to discern their own degree of relational capacity. For
example, the Adult Attachment Interview (George et al., 1996) provides a method for assessing
attachment state of mind through unconscious processes. The dismissing attachment style, whichitself merits further study, could be illuminated through the use of an instrument such as this. In
addition to this concern, several of the instruments we elected to use were older measures. Although
they continue to be utilized for investigatory purposes in the mental health field, their age may havebearing upon the data they yield, particularly since several of the instruments have not been renormed or validated with current populations.
Finally, although Latino participants comprised nearly 37% of our sample, we advocate that future
study of attachment, bonding and anxiety include a specific focus on multicultural populations. Theremay well be differences in the ways individuals from varied backgrounds experience anxiety and thisshould be investigated. People who have recently immigrated, for example, may experience changeof this magnitude as stressful and anxiety provoking. Understanding the role of attachment and earlybonding relationships in this population ultimately may provide information to support individuals,
families and children who transition from their original culture into a new one.
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Conflict of Interest and Funding Disclosure
The authors reported that the research was supported
in part by UNM’s Regent’s Fellowship Award andResearch Project and Travel Grant.

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