Modern Cosmology and Buddhism

Shuichi Yamamoto andVictor S. Kuwahara

Introduction

SINCE ancient times, human beings have always pondered philosophical questions relating to living organisms, the planet Earth and theuniverse itself. What is life? Are human beings special living organisms? What is that twinkling star in the night sky? What is the universe?
How big is the universe and where does it begin and end? These are justa few questions. However, these questions can hardly be answered yet.
That is, life, the earth, and the universe are still deep with mysteries inmodern day science. In this article, we would like to explore the topic of
the universe and compare modern cosmology with Buddhist cosmology.

Inflationary Big Bang Theory
The most accepted theory in cosmology today is the Inflationary Big
Bang theory. This theory about how the universe was born is supported
by two specific observations describing the expansion of the universe
and its background radiation.
The expansion of the universe is considered the single most important
observation in the Big Bang theory. This observation is known as Hubble’s law. Hubble discovered in 1929 that there is a particular proportion
between the magnitude of red-shift and the distance between the Earthand galaxies. In other words, the larger the expansions of wavelength
towards the red end of the spectrum (red-shift), the faster the expansion
rate of the galaxy. It is understood that the larger the distance of a galaxyfrom Earth, the faster the galaxy moves away from the planet. In short,
this phenomenon describes that the universe is expanding.
A. A. Penzias and R. W. Wilson discovered background radiation(cosmic microwaves) in space in 1965. This is electromagnetic radiation
which exists in all directions in the universe and has a spectral peak at
1–2 mm in the electromagnetic wavelength spectrum. It is sometimes
referred to as cosmic background radiation since it fills the entire uni124

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verse and all of the background of space. Background radiation has two
important attributes: 1) background radiation in the universe is extremely uniform without a particular directionality and 2) it accounts for the
relatively stable temperature of the universe at 2.7 K or –270ºC.
The Big Bang theory is a method of recovering the history of the universe by returning to the origin of the universe which is theoreticallyexpanding today. Further, the following facts have been recentlyclarified by observations from the WMAP (Wilkinson Microwave
Anisotropy Probe) satellite. They are, 1) the history of the universe isabout 13.7 billion years old, 2) at about 380,000 years after the universe
was born in exponential expansion, the background radiation was dispersed, 3) the universe is geometrically flat (this is described later), and4) at about 200 million years after the universe started, the first stars andgalaxies were born. The most interesting findings from the WMAP isthat the universe, aside from all of the galaxies, is comprised of substantial proportions of baryonic material, unknown matter (dark matter) andmysterious energy (dark energy) which are not easily observed. As aresult, it is speculated that the universe is comprised of 4% so-calledbaryonic material, 23% dark matter and 73% dark energy. Unfortunately, the problem is that the universe is mostly comprised of dark matterand energy that cannot be easily observed.

Steady-State Cosmology
Another cosmology theory besides the Big Bang theory exists. This theory is called the Steady State theory which was advocated in 1948 byFred Hoyle, Thomas Gold, and Hellman Bondi. This cosmology, unlike
the Big Bang theory, suggests that the universe has fundamentallyalways had the same appearance up to the present time. The feature ofthis cosmology is that there is neither a beginning nor an end in the universe. In this scenario, the universe is naturally expanding. The universe
generally appears the same whenever newly-born stellar bodies expandand fill the universe. Thus, there is always a constant balance between
matter and energy in space.
The steady state cosmology has recently evolved into the quasi-steadystate cosmology which explains prior unexplained phenomena. The
quasi-steady state cosmology asserts that many small-scale mini-bangs
occur continuously with the passing of time. Since the appearance ofmatter and energy from nothing appears similar to that of the Big Bangtheory, the quasi steady state theory is a mini-inflation concept. The
observed background radiation is explained by minute dust particles of

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iron or carbon that exists innumerably in the universe between galactic
systems and emits light by low temperature degree.

Problems of Modern Cosmology
Between the two current cosmologies, the Big Bang theory is overwhelmingly supported. However, each cosmology also has respective
problems that need to be addressed and solved.
According to the Big Bang theory, the universe is comprised of twocompeting energy sources. One is the energy from the initial explosion
by the Big-Bang, that is, the energy of expansion, and the other energy
is that of gravity within the expansion such as gravity found in galaxies,
that is, the energy of contraction or shrinkage. The universe becomesgeometrically flat if these two energies are balanced and expanding. Theexpansion is expected to stop after an infinite amount of time. On theother hand, if the energy of the expansion is larger than that of gravity, it
becomes an open universe. The universe would keep expanding in thiscase through all eternity. Adversely, if the energy of gravity is larger
than the energy of the expansion, it becomes a closed universe. In thiscase, the universe will contract and shrink over time and finally settle
towards a single point. This is called the Big Crunch. The current observations support the idea that the energy of a geometrically flat universe
is balanced by expansion (Big Bang) energy and shrinkage (gravitational) energy. In both the inflationary Big Bang theory and the quasi-steadystate theory cosmology, the universe is expanding. The problems withthese two theories lie in the explanation of the red-shift of energy fromgalaxies. Both theories assume that the red-shift phenomenon is attributed to expansive movement. However, there are other possible explanations for the red-shift phenomena such as the natural diminish (loss ofenergy) of light or red-shift due to contraction.
In addition, there is another problem. The biggest problem common
to both cosmologies is the simple creation of matter in the vacuum ofspace. In the inflationary Big Bang theory, the idea is that the entire universe was created from a vacuum of nothing 13.7 billion years ago while
the quasi-steady state cosmology suggests that matter is created constantly in the vacuum of space. To put this simply, there is no differencein the conceptualization of matter from a vacuum of nothing.
The biggest problem for inflationary Big Bang cosmology is the existence of dark matter and dark energy. Dark matter and dark energy are
not necessarily relevant in the quasi-steady state theory since the universe has not changed over time. However, calculations of the mass-bal-

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ance of the universe suggest that the mass of galaxies (gravity) is lessthan that of the expansion energy. This anomaly is not possible inphysics. Thus, most astrophysicists attribute the compensation to themass of dark energy and dark matter. In other words, it is necessary toassume that the dark matter and the dark energy compensate for the inequality in balance. Thus, the two cosmologies are difficult to confirm
based on these discrepancies.

Cosmological and Anthropic Principles
There are philosophical cosmologies besides that of scientific cosmology. These are cosmological and anthropic principles.
In the case of the cosmological principle, the universe does not have aspecial place, that is, it is uniform and does not have direction. In thiscase, human beings are merely a product in the history of the universe.
On the other hand, the anthropic principle requires a reason for the existence of human beings in the present state of the universe. In this case,the universe is suitable for human beings. If this were not the case thenthe principle stands at the logical deduction that human beings cannot
observe the universe or the universe is unobservable.
In 1957 Robert H. Dicke suggested the age of the present universe at
13.7 billion years old. The calculation of this age was partly related tothe scientific experiences of human existence. In other words, the age
should range within an extent of ten billion years old based on thehuman experience that heavy elements such as carbon could not havebeen made if the universe were too young. Further, if the age of the universe were too old, stable planet systems would no longer exist. However, when considering the age of the universe, we must also take into
account the bias or privileged conditions of the human existence. In1974 Brandon Carter advanced Dicke’s argument suggesting that if
intelligent organisms such as human beings did not exist then the universe could not be readily observed and therefore not exist. This is theconcept of anthropic principle. That is, the universe exists because anobserver exists at a particular epoch, and the universe must have structure so that intelligence (human beings) can exist.
From the standpoint of anthropic principle, this universe is miraculously well-balanced. This balance is based on blended scientific observations and scientific theories. For example, if the physical constants innature (dimensionless physical constants) were variable in time andspace, then life on the planet could not exist and even a fixed star could
not exist. The possibilities in the universe, e.g. the physical constants in

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nature, are not uniform and thus space could not be three dimensional.
However, why does the universe have a suitable structure for generatinga high-degree living organism (intelligence)? Steven W. Hawking suggested that our universe is neither open nor closed, but exists with
no-boundaries in space and time. He discusses that although we canenvision various possible universes, the expansion of the universe is
mysteriously balanced. If the universe were expanding too quickly andpowerfully, then living organisms and galactic bodies could not evolvein time, yet if the universe were expanding too slowly and weakly thenliving organisms and galactic bodies could not yet exist. The only certainty from this deduction is that the universe is keenly balanced for theexistence of life and planetary bodies.

Buddhist Cosmology
The most interesting aspects of self-consistent ancient Indian Buddhist
cosmology are the conceptualizations of vast space, incomprehensible
time and the considerations of life existence. Buddhist cosmology iswell expressed in a category of Buddhist scriptures that explains all
worldly phenomena called the Abhidharmakoßa-bhásya by Vasubandhu(Seshin) in 5 A.D. The vast cosmology is described allegorically whereMt. Sumeru (Shumisen) is located at the center amongst a ring of seven
mountains ranges and dividing seas. There are also four continents surrounding the rings of mountain ranges and seas. Human beings live on
one of the four continents shaped in the form of a trapezoid called theEmbudai (Senbushu). The world of the Hell exists vertically under theEmbudai continent, while Heaven (Ten) and Meditator (Zenjo-sha)
exists vertically above it. The sun and moon rotate around the entire
one-world system.
The allegoric concept of the one-world system in Buddhism with Mt.
Sumeru at its center extends 13 million Yojana (Yujun) or 90 million km,
which is comparable to the distance between the Earth and Sun. This isin exact accordance with our solar system both in name and reality. Further, 1000 one-world systems are called a small-thousand-world system,
1000 small-thousand-world systems are called a medium-thousandworld-system, and 1000 medium-thousand-world systems are called alarge-thousand-world system. This system is called a three-thousandworld system which equates to 1 billion one-world systems! The galaxy
including our solar system has about 200 billion fixed stars. There may
be several hundred million planet systems in the galaxy. In this sense,
the galaxy corresponds to the medium-thousand-world system in Bud-

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129dhism and the large-thousand-world system may correspond to thewhole universe. There is no other ancient cosmology that grasps thevastness of the universe like Buddhism at a time when scientific knowledge was non-existent. When considering other ancient cosmology, i.e.
ancient Babylonia, Egypt, Greece, and China, we find that these cultures
were only able to grasp a limited one world centered on the planet Earth.
In comparison, Buddhist cosmology is astronomically robust.
There are other concepts of worlds and universes in Buddhism. Forexample, allegorically Aksobhya-buddha (Ashuku-butsu) lives in theAbhirata-buddha land (Myoki-koku) located one thousand Buddha lands
to the east of the planet Earth, Amitabha-buddha (Amida-butsu) lives inthe Sukhavati land (Gokuraku-jodo) 10 trillion Buddha lands to the west
while Bhaisajya-guru (Yakushi-nyorai) lives in the VaidËryanirbhåsaland (Joruri-sekai) over ten Ganga-nadi-valuka (Gogasha) Buddha lands
to the east. Here the distance of Ganga-nadi-valuka Buddha lands is 1052
which is equivalent to the number of sand granules in the Ganges River.
Current cosmology suggests there are 200 billion galaxies each of which
includes the 200 billion fixed stars. Therefore, there are 4×1022 fixedstars. In short, the universal view of the Buddha land suggested in Buddhism grasps a far larger world than those prescribed by modern science. One concept in present cosmology is the idea of a multi-dimensional cosmology which includes many universes. Thus, Buddhist cosmology can be said to be most similar to or resemble the multi-dimensional cosmology.
Buddhism also discusses the concept of the time continuum using thefour kalpa periods, i.e., jo-ko, ju-ko, e-ko and kuu-ko which are the foursteps from construction to destruction of a star, galaxy and universe.
Individually, they are; jo-ko: a period of creation, ju-ko: a period of continuity at a stable state, e-ko: a period of destruction, and kuu-ko: a period of transition in a state of emptiness. Each period is 20 kalpas. Theterm kalpas literally means a very long time in Buddhism, but in Hinduism it means 4.32 billion years. From this context, each step or period
is about 80 billion years equating to a full cycle at 320 billion years,
which is an extremely long time. These four periods are one cycle andcontinues eternally; the history from creation to extinction drawn in
Buddhism. Therefore, the period from creation to extinction of the universe in Buddhism is about 13.7 billion years in accordance with modern cosmology.
Here it is important to note some interesting points about the relationship between life and the four kalpa periods. During the pre- jo-ko stage
a faint wind begins to blow creating a one-world system with Mt.

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Sumeru at the center. The faint wind is generated from the karma of sentient beings. Once the one-world system is created the sentient beings
are reborn, returning and descending, for example, from heaven or thekuu-ko stage. When all sentient beings are reborn from the e-ko stage
via the kuu-ko stage, the jo-ko is completed. In Buddhism, the expression of the faint wind is the force of increasing karma, the commonkarma of sentient beings which creates their own environment, such as aplanet, a star, a galaxy and the universe. Furthermore, the living entity isconstructed by the five aggregates (i.e., body, mind and their behaviorsof sentient being) from individual karma. In the Buddhism, the body andmind of life is temporarily harmonized.

Conclusion
The inflationary Big Bang theory described in modern cosmology
adheres to a linear method of conception, because the open or flat universe in the theory has a starting point. On the other hand, a closed universe would be an oscillating enigma which repeats the expansion andcontraction cycle eternally; the universe would restart at the turning
point of the Big Crunch. However, based on recent observations itappears as though the closed universe is not a possibility. The quasisteady state cosmology continuing in a constant condition is similar tothat of Buddhist cosmology not having a beginning or an end. Buddhism
is circular in thought due to the fact that the four kalpas in stars andgalaxies repeat. Therefore, Buddhist cosmology might be similar to thequasi-steady state cosmology. Whether it is true or not, it is interesting
to ponder why ancient people in India were been able to recognize such
expansive world-systems and incomprehensible time continuums. Perhaps, it might not be that ancient India recognized it physically, but thatthey were able to perceive inconceivable worlds through the connection
between the spiritual world and the universe.
There is a large difference between modern cosmology and Buddhist
cosmology. While science is fixed on the functionality and creation ofmatter, Buddhism is focused on the life-centric view. A life in Buddhism
does not necessarily point only to a living entity, but also characterizes
life force as a fundamental power or principle. Modern science investigates all phenomena from the perspective of the evolution of matter incosmology. This is the cosmological principle. However, there is actually a large gap between material (matter) and life (living entities), andscience has yet to resolve this gap. In other words, science is tasked tosolve very large universal questions from only the viewpoint of the evo-MODERN COSMOLOGY AND BUDDHISM

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lution of material. The anthropic principle, categorically evaluates
human beings or intelligence. This principle standpoint is different fromthat of Buddhism by evaluating intelligence or human beings only,because Buddhism formulates a life-centric view.
The perspective of life and the universe in Buddhism positions life at
the center of everything. In Buddhism, since the universe and the Earth
are the environment for sentient beings, they are constructed by thecommon karma of the sentient beings themselves. The theory of “theEarth as Gaia” by Lovelock in 1979 is similar to that of Buddhism. In
the hypothesis of Gaia, life on Earth controls the environment and creates a suitable environment on the planet. In Buddhism, life activity is
not only regulated by materials (matter) recognized by science, but that
individual karma (life activity) also regulates and produces life itself
from material accumulated in the environment. Therefore, the conceptof karma persistently plays a central role in the functioning of the universe. Buddhism has the depth to explain well the functionality andimportance of life and the environment in parallel with scientific evidence. In that sense, modern times may require a conversion of ideals.