Science Council of Asia

19th Science Councilof AsiaConference(2019), SpecialIssue 2020

Journal of the
Myanmar Academy of Arts and Science
ISSN 2520-0186, LCCN 2003-323143

Special Issue
2020

19th Science Council of Asia Conference
3-5 December, 2019, Nay Pyi Taw

RESEARCH AND INNOVATIONFOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN ASIA
SUB-THEME IV
Alleviate Poverty
through Socio-economic Development

Journal of the
Myanmar Academy of Arts and Science
ISSN 2520-0186, LCCN 2003-323143

Special Issue
2020

19th Science Council of Asia Conference
3-5 December, 2019, Nay Pyi Taw

SUB-THEME IV
Alleviate Poverty through Socio-economic Development

Journal of the
Myanmar Academy of Arts and Science
ISSN 2520-0186

Special Issue
2020

Edition
2020, 400 Copies

Copyright
Ministry of Education

Published by
Dr Aung Min (00322) Chairman, Journal Publication Committee,
Myanmar Academy of Arts and Science

ISSN 2520-0186
ICCN 2003-323143

Printed by
U Win Aung (00171), Manager
Universities Press, Yangon, Myanmar

FOREWORD
We would like to thank His Excellency Dr. Myo Thein Gyi, Hon’ble Union Minister for
Education, for delivering the inaugural address at the Opening Ceremony of the 19th Science
Council of Asia Conference, and for the support His Excellency had given for holding thisinternational conference, for the first time, in Myanmar. We are also indebted to express ourheartfelt gratitude to His Excellency Dr Wang Xi, Vice Minister, Ministry of Science and Technology
of China, President, Science Council of Asia, and Vice President, China Association for Science andTechnology (CAST) for his presence at this opening ceremony. We would also like to extend our
gratitude to Professor Dr Hiroshi YOSHINO, the Secretary General/Treasurer of SCA. Special thanks
would go to Dr Juichi Yamagiwa, the President of SCJ and to all distinguished guests and scholars
from SCA member academies who, in one way or the other, contributed to the success of thisconference.
MAAS owes its apology to all participants for the delay in producing the papers presented at
SCA-19 Conference. The responsibility of opinions, statements, comments, etc. expressed in thepapers lie with those of the authors. The views expressed in the papers presented at the conference
did not reflect that of MAAS.

Dr Thet Lwin
President, Myanmar Academy of Arts and ScienceContents
Lists of Contributors
MessagesPage

A

Dr Myo Thein Gyi, Minister, Ministry of Educationi

B

Dr Wang Xi, President, Science Council of Asia

ii

C

Dr Thet Lwin, President of Myanmar Academy of Arts and Science

iii

D

Professor Hiroshi YOSHINO, Secretary General/ Treasure of SCA

iv

1

Co-creation of Sustainable Regional Innovation for Reducing Risk of HighImpact Environmental Pollution
Prof: Masayuki SAKAKIBARA

1

2

Sustainable Culture: Burmese Lacquerware
Ma Theint Theint Aung

93

Toward Rabies Elimination: Japan’s Experience, Sri Lanka’s Goal by 2020,
and its Application to Myanmar context
Dr Koji Kanda

19

4

The Porifera (Sponges) of Tanintharyi Region and Its Potential Used in
Natural Medicine
Dr Nang Mya Han

27

5

Monitoring and Modeling Environmental Sustainability Indices for
Intensified Agriculture in South Korea
Dr Seung Woo Park

35

6

Sustainable Power of Urban Growth from the Standpoint of Investment andGlobal Division for the Industry of Upscale clothing: The Case Study of
Jingu-mae Shibuya Ward Tokyo
Prof. Tomomi MITA

51

7

Study on Radiation Safety Activities for Health Sector in Myanmar
Dr Aye Aye Thin

77

8

Challenging Inequalities for Rural Communities in Thailand
Ms. Yumiko Okabe

83

9

Effect of Scattering Layer on Photovoltaic Performance of Solid-state Dyesensitized Solar Cells (ssDSSCs) using Red Spinach Dye Extracts
Dr Nan Kyi Kyi Thein

91

10

Simulation System of Heat Acclimation in Each Working Environment
Focusing on the Evaluation of Acclimation by Birthplace and Working
Wear
Mr. Hiroyuki Wariishi

101

PapersMessages

Page

11

Basic Study on the Foundation Pile Length Setting System and its 3D Display
Technique from the Viewpoint of Geo-environmental Engineering
Mr. Naito Tanji

109

12

Socio-economic Technique Changes in Myanmar (1953-1964 )Dr Khin Khin Si

115

13

Factors Influencing on Operational Sustainability of Selected Cooperative
Microfinance in Southern Shan StateDr Kyar Ngon Sann

123

14

Sustainable Rural Development: Significance of Geographical Indications(GIs) in Ayeyarwady Delta
Dr Htun Ko

129

15

GCMS Analysis and Antimicrobial Activity of Ginger (Zingiber officinale)
Essential Oil
Dr Myo Min

135

16

Greensynthesis of Silver Nanoparticles from Eupatorium odoratum Linn.
(Taw-Bizat) and Cymbopogon citratus Stapf (Lemon Grass) leaves
Dr NweThin Ni

141

17

Morphological, Phytochemical Investigation and Antimicrobial Activity on
Roots of Houttuynia cordata Thunb.
Dr Tin Tin Maw

149

18

Information System Development of Hotels in Naypyitaw, Myanmar
Dr Kyi Kyi Thant

157

19

The Strategic Analysis for Tourism Sector Development in Myanmar
Dr Yin Myat Phyu Win

165

20

Proposal of the Simple Rapid Measurement on the airbourn bacterial
concentration for the quality control in the industry
Mr. Ze Liu

171

21

Occurrence of Some Insect Pests and their Predators on Pigeonpea, Cajanus
cajan L. in Shwe Zaloke Area, Monywa Township
Dr. Cho Cho Win

181

22

Synthesis and Characterization of Lithium Iron Phosphate for Solid Oxide
Fuel Cell Application
Dr Aye Aye Lwin

189

Message

It is a great pleasure and inspiring experience to host the 19 th Science Council of
Asia Conference, held with the theme "Research and Innovation for Sustainable
Development in Asia" in Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar.
This conference is particularly timely as all Member States are unanimously
supporting research and innovation to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs) of the United Nations 2030 Agenda.
A comprehensive range of the conference sessions reflects a very topical agenda
as it provides a wonderful platform and opportunity for several experts, academia,
scholars and researchers to exchange their break-through ideas, profound knowledge
and invaluable experiences.
I sincerely hope this conference will help to identify ways to bring forward thetransformative sustainability agenda and better align research and innovation policies
with the SDGs, as set out in the United Nations Agenda 2030 for sustainable
development.
To all delegates, I would like to suggest that we adopt innovation in science,technology, engineering and mathematics as integral elements of the strategies for
SDGs. I would like to request you to produce action-oriented outcomes of theconference and keep supporting research and innovation for sustainable development in
Asia.
Before I conclude, I wish all delegates and participants an enjoyable stay in
Myanmar.
Thank you.
Dr Myo Thein Gyi
Union Minister for Education, Myanmar

Message

It is my great pleasure to welcome you all on behalf of Science Council of Asia(SCA) to the 19th

SCA conference that brings together experts of scientific organizations to discuss " Research andInnovation for Sustainable Development in Asia". I thank all the local conference hosts in Myanmar andthe SCA Secretariat. Thanks to their excellent effort, the SCA19 is organized jointly and successfully.
To a large extent, Asia's rapid economic development and subsequently booming consumption
have prompted critical challenge for environment sustainability. Recently, Oxford Dictionaries andCambridge Dictionary have named "climate emergency" and "upcycling" as their Word of the Year 2019,respectively. Change is necessary.
The 2030 Agenda, adopted at the United Nations Sustainable Development Summit in September
2015, positioned Science, Technology and Innovation as key means of implementation of the SDGs. Alsowith a new perspective of economic growth, there is a clear shift towards appreciating the adoption ofsustainability standards, which has a positive correlation with increased profit as demand for productswith sustainable credentials grows.
Many Asian countries have signed up to the SDGs, made growing commitment to address poverty,
clean energy and pollution. New science and technology achievements have been applied to solve specificissues, new approaches have been used towards more sustainable activities.
SCA provides such a collaborative platform for member organizations to promote scientificexchange and cooperation, and to reach mutual understanding. We will continue to play a central role toface the common challenges for sustainable development in Asia and lead to a bright future.
Wishing you all a fruitful and joyful stay in Nay Pyi Taw and looking forward to your active
participation in the Conference.
With best regards,

Prof. Dr. WANG Xi
President, Science Council of Asia

Message

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) came to an end in December 2015; certain agenda of
MDGs had been left unfinished. In 2015, UN General Assembly adopted the post 2015 Development Agenda
and set Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The 2030 Global Development Agenda came into effect onst

1 January, 2016 with the prospect of covering the five aspects: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace andProsperity. The approach to SDGs can be initiated through a different angle. For instance, People: End
Poverty and Hunger in all forms and ensure dignity and equality; Planet: Protect our planet's natural
resources and climate for future generations; Peace:

Foster peaceful, just and inclusive societies;

Prosperity: Ensure prosperous and fulfilling lives in harmony with nature.
Living beings inherited the earth, the only planet in the solar system, in which all known life forms
can flourish. Human beings are the most intelligent species on earth. Throughout history, they try tochange their environment to suit their needs and satisfy their desires. Among the continents, Asia happens
to be the most populous region in the world. China and India, each with one billion plus population, haveemerged as economic powers. Japan, Korea, Taiwan, and ASEAN TEN too witnessed economic growth.
Inventions and innovations contributed to industrial revolutions. The fourth forthcoming inventions of IT
and AI are expected to change traditional modes of manufacturing, transportation and urban amenities.
st

In 21 century, research across various countries in Asia highlight inter-linkages between natural
resources and sustainable development goals along with the impact of climate change. The human society
is seeking ways to safeguard human's wellbeing and to guarantee the sustainable use of resources. At thesame time, it also tries to conserve the environment from natural calamities like floods, earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, drought, etc. so that our future generations will be inherited with green and peacefulenvironment.
I, on behalf of Myanmar Academy of Arts and Science, would like to express my deep appreciation
to all those involved in making the conference a success. Special mention needs to be made to SCJ which
co-hosted the SCA19 conference with MAAS for their guidance, support, co-operation and coordination.
We fervently believe that the conference will provide our guests a cordial atmosphere for sharing
experiences and exchanging views. The deliberations from this conference are expected to bring into light,
effective means and ways for resolving common issues people are currently facing in Asia and elsewhere.

Dr. Thet Lwin
President of MAAS

Message

I am pleased to announce that the 19th Science Council of Asia (SCA) Conference is held in Nay
Pyi Taw, Myanmar. First of all, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Myanmar Academy of Arts
and Science (MAAS) for its enormous efforts to prepare for this Conference. I also would like to express my
deep appreciation to Member Organizations and SCA Secretariat for their cooperation and contribution inorganizing this Conference and all the people who support it.
th

The theme of the 19 SCA Conference is “Research and Innovation for Sustainable Developmentin Asia”. As you might already know, the purpose of SCA established in 2000 is “to facilitate scientificcooperation in Asia towards the progress in science and sustainable development of the region”. With thispurpose, SCA has contributed to society through the collaboration with academies in the region. Under
such circumstances, “Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development” with the 17
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and 169 targets was adopted at the UN General Assembly in 2015.
Since then, the efforts to realize the sustainable development in which a key principle is “no one will beleft behind” have started at global level. We must continuously and collaboratively address a wide range
of issues facing us since they are so challenging in the sense that human beings have never experienced
them before.
th

The 19 SCA Conference is held for 3 days and nearly 180 presentations (oral and poster) arescheduled. I am delighted to know that we have received many applications exceeding our expectation. It
indicates a high level of interest in this Conference’s theme, “Research and Innovation for Sustainable
Development in Asia”. In the Conference, there are four (4) sub-themes that are discussed in theirrespective sessions. The main theme and sub-themes of the Conference have been carefully selected inorder to inspire scholars and researchers in Asia to undertake interdisciplinary researches in partnership tocontribute to the realization of the 17 SDGs.
This Conference is an advantageous opportunity to build a network of scholars in and outside thecountry. I am sure that there would be abundant outstanding discussions at this Conference.
Professor Hiroshi Yoshino
Secretary General / Treasure of SCA

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

Co-creation of Sustainable Regional Innovation for Reducing Risk of Highimpact Environmental Pollution
Masayuki Sakakibara1 et al

Abstract
Mercury (Hg) is a toxic metal that seriously threatens the embryonic and early-childhood
development of humans, and extremely poisonous to the human body. Mercury pollution is oneof the most serious environmental issues and requires global action for its resolution. One of themain causes of Hg pollution is an artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM). Those ASGM
activities are also the sources of social problems. The objectives of the research project is 1) tounderstand the link between poverty reduction and environmental management in ASGM areas,2) to establish a process for constructing sustainable societies through regional innovations in
ASGM areas, and 3) to strengthen environmental governance in ASEAN countries. In the
project, we conduct within the context of all ASEAN countries: a) Case studies on reduction of
Hg pollution using a future scenario of ASGM in Indonesia and Myanmar, b) Study oninterregional networks that aim to generate Hg-free societies in Indonesia and Myanmar, c)Study on improvements in environmental governance in ASEAN countries, and d) Theoreticaland practical studies of the design, practical use, and evaluation of TBO (Transformative
Boundary Object), and cultivation, development process, and roles of TDCOP(Transdisciplinary Community of Practice).
Keywords: mercury, artisanal and small-scale gold mining, environmental pollution, regionalinnovation, transformative boundary object (TBO), transdisciplinary community ofpractice (TDCOP)

1. Introduction
Mercury pollution by ASGM
Mercury (Hg) is a toxic metal that seriously threatens the embryonic and early-childhood
development of humans and is extremely poisonous to the human body. All forms of Hg, fromelemental to inorganic and organic Hg, exert toxic effects on our nervous, digestive, and immune
systems, skin, and internal organs. Mercury pollution is one of the most serious environmental
issues and requires global action for its resolution [1].
One of the main causes of Hg pollution is ASGM, in which Hg is used as the traditional
method of amalgamation to extract gold from the ore rock. This method is quicker, simpler, andmore cost effective than alternative methods and widely used in many ASGM communities [1][2]. According to data from the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), ASGM
produces 20% of the gold produced throughout the world. Almost 15 million people, including
about 3 million women and children, participate in ASGM activities in more than 70 countries.
ASGM is the largest source (37%) of global anthropogenic of Hg emission into the atmosphere.
The Hg pollution generated during ASGM indirectly affects more than 100 million people
worldwide [3][4]. The extremely serious effects of Hg exposure are compounded by the1

Research Institute for Humanity and Nature, Kyoto 603-8047, Japan*Corresponding Author: Masayuki Sakakibara, sakaki@chikyu.ac.jp, phone numbers: +81-75-707-2333,
fax numbers: +81-75-707-2509
2. Katsuya Tanaka, 3. Hiroki Kasamatsu, 4. Motoko Shimagami, 5.Satoru Komatsu

2

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

widespread poverty and general lack of access to public health services and health awarenessprogrammes in many ASGM areas around the world [5]. This activity is also a source of social
problems, such as land tenure issues, migration and other forms of social instability, and conflict
between residents.
Although there is increasing global concern about the Hg pollution generated by ASGM,
the amount of Hg used worldwide is growing each year, with a particularly rapid increase in thatused in ASGM in developing countries. The rapid increase in the gold price since 2000 has
fostered a gold rush among poverty-driven residents in many developing countries. The
environmental destruction that results from development intensifies the poverty problem, andthose living in poverty become trapped in a cycle of poverty and environmental degradation,from which it is extremely difficult to escape [6].
Recent investigations by UNEP have highlighted the enormity of Hg pollution indeveloping countries and the associated harmful effects on human health and ecosystems. The
Minamata Convention on Mercury is a global treaty established to protect human health and theenvironment from the adverse effects of Hg. The Convention addresses ASGM and thedevelopment of national plans to manage ASGM. These plans include the development of publichealth strategies to address the problems associated with the exposure of miners and theircommunities to Hg pollution. It offers an opportunity for the world to address this problem
before it worsens. The implementation of international agreement on the Convention is expected
to reduce the Hg pollution arising from ASGM activities over the next few decades.
Transdisciplinary approach to solving environmental problems
A transdisciplinary approach is essential if scientists need to contribute to the social
innovation and transformation required to achieve global sustainability. This can be quite a useful
method for creating theoretical, methodological, and practical innovations to solve complex
environmental problems in society. Scientists recognize that by using this kind of approach, they
can communicate with stakeholders (SHs) to bring about the transformation of society [7].
Drawing on learning theory and transdisciplinary practice, Cundill et al. (2015) [8]introduced the concept of “transdisciplinary communities of practice” (TDCOPs). TDCOPs canenhance our understanding of how communities of practice ([9]; COPs) function and how theymight be nurtured. Greater attention to the social processes that underpin collaborative research
efforts, in general, will be required in the years to come if the goals of transdisciplinary
sustainability research are to be achieved. Cundill took a broader view and highlighted thepractical lessons that can be learnt from COP theory on how TDCOPs can be nurtured. In thisresearch project, it is appropriate that TDCOPs are groups that cross interdisciplinary boundaries,
with shared knowledge and a commitment to solving complex social–ecological problems.
Goal and objectives of the research
The purpose of this research project is to understand the link between the reduction ofpoverty and environmental management, and to establish a process with which to constructsustainable societies through regional innovations in ASGM areas and to strengthen theenvironmental governance in developing countries. These innovations will arise as aconsequence of the environmental and industrial innovations introduced with a transdisciplinary
approach, including the creation of future scenario for an Hg-free society, the co-creation andpractical application of TBOs, and the mobilization of TDCOPs. Furthermore, by strengthening

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)3environmental governance, which consists of multiple layers of co-operative organizations, wewill establish a route that leads to the solution of global Hg problem. In the research project, we
will conduct: a) case studies of reductions in Hg pollution using a future scenario of ASGM; b) a
study of regional networks that are working to generate Hg-free societies in Indonesia and
Myanmar; c) a study of the improvement of environmental governance in ASEAN countries; andd) a study of the design, practical use, and evaluation of TBOs and TDCOPs, based on atransdisciplinary approach.
2. Methodsa) Case studies of reduction of mercury pollution using a future scenario in ASGM
Research locations: Our research areas are North Gorontalo Regency and Bone Bolango
Regency in Gorontalo Province, Bombana Regency in Southeast Sulawesi Province, andsurrounding areas on Sulawesi Island, Eastern Indonesia.
In the case studies, we will conduct the following strategies, steps and procedures.
①

Environmental impact assessments: Before and after the environmental innovations
established with the co-created environmental remediation technology are implemented,
our project members will assess the environmental impact in each area and analyse theeffects of the project scientifically. In each area, our project members will investigate theecology, conduct chemical analyses of environmental Hg, including in soil, water, plants,
animals, and human hair, nails, and blood, to undertake epidemiological and public healthsurveys, and to simulate the oceanic dispersal of the Hg emitted from ASGM areas.

②

Research into living conditions, culture, history, and regional sociology: This will be
performed by reviewing existing data, investigating the circumstances of each community,
administering questionnaires and interviews to SHs, and collecting basic information in the
study areas.

③

Cultivation of TDCOPs: In the FR, the concept of TDCOPs is used to conducttransdisciplinary research projects. TDCOPs are consciously cultivated on a platformneeded for the TDCOPs to undertake the co-design. TDCOPs can involve large numbers ofparticipants, including scientists and SHs, who identify local knowledge. Once they identify
the local knowledge required for a seed for which environmental and industry innovations
can be co-created, they will use the “Kikigaki” method and work with young SHs todetermine the stories of their lives and their values. This should help them to better
understand the value of important local knowledge [10]. The core group of TDCOPs, which
will address the complex problems, will be required to establish a network among future
TDCOPs and create the TBO of the project.

④

Co-creation of a future scenario: The core group of the TDCOPs will create future scenarios
for constructing Hg-free societies in the case study areas. We will adopt the methodology ofDreborg (1996) [11] to construct the back-casting scenarios.

⑤

Co-design and co-production of transdisciplinary practical research by TDCOP’s members
and SHs: The co-creation of the integrated knowledge for sustainability will be conductedby the TDCOPs. The co-design and co-production of the transdisciplinary practicalresearches will be performed in collaboration with the institutions, including local

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)4governments, residents’ associations, and universities, to find a sustainable solution to Hg
pollution.
⑥

Evaluation of the progress of the research project with social and economic research: The
progress of the research project will be evaluated by studying the regional economies,
policies, and industries in the target areas. The effects of the introduction of new industries
that utilize ecosystem services or other environmental innovations will then be quantified
by integrating local and scientific knowledge. We will also evaluate the social acceptance ofeach environmental innovation.

b) Study on regional networks to aim at mercury-free societies in Indonesia and Myanmar
In this FR, we will study the validity and role of regional networks in solving the problem of
Hg pollution, and also their socio-economic effects and meaning in a developing country.
Following the cultivation of various TDCOPs, we will establish regional networks to expand theresidents’ networks further. When a regional network working towards an Hg-free society isformed, we will establish a collaboration between the members of various TDCOPs and carry it
out.
This research will be performed in three steps: (1) the construction of an exchange
platform for information andcollaborationon
Hgmanagement;(2)
theimprovement of organizing
ability and communication;and (3) strengthening thecommunication of policy to
local
and
centralgovernments. First, a website
for the Indonesian Hg-freesociety network will becreated for the circulation of
information.
Second,opportunities for exchange
among members will be
provided by seminars and aninternational forum. Third, theaccumulation of informationand the evolution of theorganization
will
beachieved by developing an
information-circulating
system and creating a policy
advocacy body to address
local
and
centralgovernments.

Figure1. Concept and degrees of TDCOP
participation.

c) Studying how to strengthen environmental governance in ASEAN countries
In this project, the principles and processes involved in using multilayer, co-operativeenvironmental governance will be investigated in collaboration with central governments, local
governments, some international organization or NGO, to tackle global environmental problems,
especially the Hg pollution generated by ASGM activities.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)5d) Study on the design, practical use, and evaluation of Transformative boundary object(TBO) as a tool for dynamically promoting SH dialogues and transformation
The most important factor in this transdisciplinary approach is the dialogue between
scientists and SHs, which drives the mutual changes of opinion required to resolve the problem.
However, in areas where high pollution loads have persisted for a long time, conflicts of interest
can block the dialogue between SHs. For example, there are negligible local dialogues among
governments, miners, and the local inhabitants of ASGM areas.
The concept known as the “boundary object” (BO) was introduced by Star (1989) [12] asa tool to promote dialogue between SHs with different perceptions and values. Star andGriesemer (1989) [13] defined BOs as arrangements that allow different groups to work together
without consensus. According to the literature, BOs have frequently been used to describeinteractions among communities in the environmental context.

Figure2. Whole structure of our research project

Although researchers maintain that BOs promote dialogue among SHs, it is still difficult
to promote constructive dialogue between SHs with conflicting interests. In the feasibility study
in RIHN, we examined not only the elements of the BO, including its credibility, salience, andlegitimacy, but also the SHs’ characteristics, including their economic interests, social
participation, environmental interests, local culture, history, geography, external environment,
and social acceptance, from various perspectives. Our research findings suggest that it is possible
to develop and apply a BO that dynamically promotes dialogue and mutual transformation
among SHs. In our research project, this type of BO is called a “transformative boundary object”(TBO). The concept of the TBO was introduced by Tsurusaki et al. (2013)[14], and was first
defined as the transformation of scientific learning into a context in which the traditionalboundaries between students’ lives and school science are blurred. In the research project, the
TBO is redefined as a functionally superior BO, such as a technology, occupational steppingstone, or collective action, that dynamically promotes dialogue among SHs with conflicting
interests, and the mutual transformation of those SHs. Together, these can make a considerable
contribution to the sustainability of a social–ecological system damaged by high loads ofenvironmental pollution.

6

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

In the project, we define “regional innovation” as a situation in which a TBO facilitates
the development of a new relationship among people who did not previously communicate with
one another, so that there is a dynamic change in society.
Reducing poverty by regional innovations using TBOs
To utilize a TBO effectively to bring about behavioural transformation, “communicators”
must offer relationship support to the poor. The creation of regional innovations to solve these
problems requires the activities of TDCOPs using TBOs, which should lead to the efficient andeffective co-creation of environmental and industrial innovations through the dynamictransformation of the participants. An environmental innovation consists of technical, social, andpolitical developments and uses newly integrated knowledge to manage various environmental
problems. An industrial innovation promotes sustainable industrialization that will develop into a
resilient industry based on a network of various SHs. A regional innovation is created when an
environmental innovation is combined with an industrial innovation.

3. Results and Discussion
In the case study (a), we have propelled the studies on the natural resource including thesolid and fluid earth resources, and biological resource, Hg pollution of the nature and human,and resident health effect, social-economy evaluation, and cultural history in Gorontalo andBombana areas in Indonesia [15][16][17]. In particular, in the Bone Bolango Regency, Gorontalo
Regency, and North Gorontalo Regency where the studies were conducted as the investigationsof each ASGM site by 16 members. The investigation of Hg pollution and resident health effectwere conducted in all the ASGM areas in these regencies. Moreover, baseline investigation forthe statistical social-economy evaluation in FR was conducted as the important result. 20 key
SHs were identified during the dialog process with the residents. In addition, we co-created adraft of the future scenario for the reduction of Hg pollution with some key SHs. Furthermore,
three TDCOPs were organized or cultivated by collaboration with the FR members and key SHs.
In the meantime, the establishment of a preparatory committee for the Gorontalo Global Geopark
was worked on. The seminar on preparatory committee establishment was held in September andit was sponsored by the Gorontalo Province, and the Project Lead gave a special lecture about thepotential and socioeconomic effect by the Gorontalo Global Geopark.
On (b) a study of interregional networks that aim to generate Hg-free societies inIndonesia, we have established the website of research network between areas in November: "Hg Free Society Networks " by the Indonesia citizen participation, and share the information
related with the Hg pollution by ASGM. More than 300 members already have joined to the
Facebook page of " Hg Free Society Networks " in the early January 2019.
In the research (c) on environmental governance strengthening by the countries’ citizen
participation in Southeast Asia, we started the concertation with the administration officials ofIndonesia and Myanmar in the PR.
In the research (d), the FR member show the results of some domestic case studies oncommunity of practice. We also started the dialog with the important and isolated SHs.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

7

4. Conclusions
The study began in earnest in April 2019. The regional innovation in Indonesia and
Myanmar will arise as a consequence of environmental and industrial innovations introducedwith a transdisciplinary approach, including the development of a future scenario for an Hg-freesociety, the co-creation and practical application of TBOs, and the mobilization of TDCOPs. By
strengthening environmental governance, which consists of multiple layers of co-operative
organizations, we will also develop a route via which the problem of global environmental Hg
pollution can be resolved.

Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the work of past and present members of our laboratory in RIHN and Ehime
University. This research was partially supported by the Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture, Grantin-Aid for Scientific Research (A), 2016-2018（16H02706, Masayuki Sakakibara）and Research Institute for
Humanity and Nature (RIHN: a constituent member of NIHU) Project No. 14200102.

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[8] Cundill, G., Roux, D.J., Parker, J.N., “Nurturing communities of practice for transdisciplinary research”. Ecology
and Society 20, 22. http://dx.doi.org/10.5751/ES-07580-200222, 2015
[9] Wenger, E., McDermott, R., Snyder, W. “Cultivating communities of practice: a guide to managing knowledge”.
Harvard Business School Press, 2002.
[10] Shirota N., Yoshino, N., “Listening and Documenting –“Kikigaki”: A tool for sharing wisdom for sustainable
societies-“, 2012.
[11] Dreborg, K., “Essence of Backcasting,” Futures, 28, 813-828, 1996.
[12] Star, S.L, “The structure of ill-structured solutions: Boundary objects and heterogeneous distributed problem
solving. In Readings in distributed artificial intelligence”, ed. M. Huhns and L. Gasser. Menlo
Park, CA: Kaufman, 1989.

8

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)[13] Star, S.L, Griesemer, J.R., “Institutional Ecology, 'Translations' and Boundary Objects: Amateurs andProfessionals in Berkeley's Museum of Vertebrate Zoology”, 1907-39. Social Studies of Science,
19, 387-420, 1989.
[14] Tsurusaki, B.K., Barton, A.C., Tan, E., Koch, P., Contento, I., “Using transformative boundary objects to create
critical engagement in science: A case study”. Science Education, 97, 1-31. DOI:10.1002/
sce.21037, 2013.
[15] Prasetia. H., Sakakibara, M., Omori, K., Jamie S.L., Sera, K. Kurniawan, I.A., “Mangifera indica as
Bioindicator of Mercury Atmospheric Contamination in an ASGM Area in North Gorontalo
Regency, Indonesia”. Geosciences, 8, 31pp: doi:10.3390/geosciences8010031, 2018.
[16] Gafur, N. A., Sakakibara, M., Sano, S., Sera, K., “A Case Study of Heavy Metal Pollution in Water of BoneRiver by Artisanal Small-Scale Gold Mine Activities in Eastern Part of Gorontalo, Indonesia”,
Water, 10, 1507, 10 pp ; doi:10.3390/w10111507, 2018,.
[17] Pateda, S.M., Sakakibara, M. Sera, K., “Lung Function Assessment as an Early Biomonitor of Mercury-Induced
Health Disorders in Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining Areas in Indonesia”, International
Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15, 2480; https://doi.org/10.3390/
ijerph15112480, 2018.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

Sustainable Culture: Burmese Lacquerware
Theint Theint Aung1

Abstract
This paper will focus on Burmese lacquerware in court art during the 19th Century Konbaung
period to highlight its sustained heritage. The history of Burmese lacquerware has survived
throughout the periods but particularly developed in the Konbaung. The Burmese kings usedlacquerware as a gift to foreign countries as well as in daily usage and religious contexts. A plain
lacquerware teak box is dated to the Bagan period when lacquerware may have been very popular.
King Bayin-Naung obtained the craftsmen, lacquer artists, elephants, silk, ponies from Thailand
during the reign of King Chieng-Mai in 1557. Mandalay is very renowned for glass mosaic
lacquerware, which was very popular in the Kongbaung period (1857-1885). The glass cutting
derived from western countries and developed in that time. It can be seen on the Hsiang-waing,
traditional Burmese drum circle, the lion throne and Buddha images. The glass-inlay lacquerware
technique was much used by the royal family. For example, a glass-inlay door of a royal family
was brought to London in 1885. It can be found in the Victoria Albert Museum, London. This
paper will discuss how lacquerware influence in the court art can be seen in Painting, furniture,
Sar deik or manuscript boxes during Konbaung Period. Today, lacquer continues to change but
remains popular with domestic and tourist markets. In summary, the lacquerware heritage spans
the Bagan period, peaked in the Konbaung and continues today. With this sustained heritage,
preserving its legacy for future generation is vital.
Keywords: Burmese Lacquer, court art, Sustained heritage

1. Introduction
The lacquer objects were greatly used by Burmese kings as a gift to the other countries.
Myanmar old lacquer objects were used for keeping letter at court. Burmese often used lacquer
objects for daily use. They used lacquer dishes for food. Most of royal family practiced thelacquerware to store jewelry. Moreover, lacquer objects were used for ritual. People bring thefood in the lacquer containers to offer to the monastery. This is very typical traditional Burmese
culture. Not only lacquer ware was used in royal family and monastery, but also it was used indaily life of normal people. Interestingly, they often keep the cosmetics, cloth in the lacquer
boxes.
This essay will discuss clearly highlight of the Burmese lacquer in court art in terms ofpainting, furniture for daily use and manuscript in 19th CE. The historical background of lacquerart, materials and techniques, the practice of the lacquer objects will be given and it is stillsustain from Bagan period to until the present time.

2. Methodology
This research paper includes library survey, data collection, interview the lacquerware
workshops in Bagan, and taking photograph of Burmese lacquer objects in UK art market.

1

Post Graduate student. SOAS University of London

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

3. The Background History of Lacquer Art
Myanmar is well known for cultural heritage, traditional technologies and cultural arts.
One of the most famous handicrafts, which represent the cultural and traditional heritage of
Myanmar, is lacquerware. Lacquerware can be defined as a smooth object with a framework ofbamboo and wood which is completely covered by lacquer (varnish).1 Named ‘Yun the’ in
Myanmar, lacquerware is a traditional art in Myanmar and has a unique style.2 Lacquerware isfound in various parts of Myanmar but Bagan, in the central part, is the predominant region forlacquerware industry.3 Lacquerware has been used in the daily use, decoration, and decorativearts for Buddha sculpture. The lacquerware products have been traded for a long times.4\

In terms of the historical background, lacquerware first arrived in Thaton from northern
Thailand.5 Thahton is located in the lower part of Myanmar and it was conquered by the kingAnawrahta in the 11th century AD. A number of craftsmen and artists were brought fromThahton to Bagan. Some Thaton artists were expert in making lacquerware art and many artists
were involved in the making of lacquerware in that period in Bagan.6 Possibly the earliest
Lacquer ware box with a date of 12th century AD was excavated at the Mingala Zeti pagoda in
Bagan.7 Lacqerware industry has been developed since the Bagan period (11th century to 13th
century AD).8 Antique lacquerware can be studied in Bagan Archaeological Museum.9

The raw materials for Burmese lacquer
The lacquer tree (Melanhorres Usitata) is an essential role in the production of thelacquer objects. The thitsi trees are divided into three kinds of colors such as the white, the black,and the red. The three kinds of thitsi tree is a slightly different. The black one is much used in
making of lacquerware in Myanmar. The thisti tree is growing in some areas of Myanmar.10 The
thitsi tree is about 7 feet- 10 feet in hight and it could be average size. Sometimes, it measures
14-6 inches in hight. There is an important time to collect the lacquer sap from June to January.
The size of thitsi tree about 6 feet, which can be tapped. It is interesting to note that the lacquer
sap can only be collected in plantation.11 The black lacquer sap (thitsi) can be occurred in Mawk

1

Lwin Lwin Mon, ‘The Social Value and Function of Myanmar Lacquer Ware in Bagan, International Conference
on Japan &- Myanmar’, 2014, https://uyr.uy.edu.mm/ handle/123456789/262.
2
A.P Morris, ‘Lacquerware Industries of Burma’, American Baptist Mission Press 9 (1919): 1–13.
3
Monika Kopplin, Lacquerware in Asia, Today and Yesterday (Paris: Unesco, 2002).
4
Kopplin.
5
Ralph Isaacs, T. Richard Blurton, and British Museum, Visions from the Golden Land: Burma and the Art of
Lacquer (Chicago: Art Media Resources, 2000).
6Morris, ‘Lacquerware Industries of Burma’.
7
Kopplin, Lacquerware in Asia, Today and Yesterday, 2002.
8
Isaacs, Blurton, and British Museum, Visions from the Golden Land.
9
UNIDO, ‘Diagnostic Study on a Lacquerware Cluster in Bagan and Nyaung-U, Myanmar’ (United Nation
Industrial Development Organization, June 2014), https://www.unido.org/sites/default/ files/201505/Diagnostic_Study_on_a_Lacquerware_Cluster_in_Report_0.pdf.
10
Dehra Dūn (India)., Dehra Dūn (India), and India) Forest Research Institute(Dehra Dun, The Indian Forest
Records., vol. v.6(1917-1918) (Delhi [etc.]: Manager of Publications., 1917), https://www.biodiversitylibrary.
org/item/240456.
11
Dehra Dūn (India)., Dūn (India), and Forest Research Institute (Dehra Dun).

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

11

Mai, May Myo, Monghong areas. Interestingly, it is only tapped for local use, not for export.12

The technique of the lacquerware
The technique of the lacquer was received from the China. There was a strong
relationship between Myanmar and China since Pyu in 5th to 9th century CE. There are several
basic techniques in Burmese lacquerware such as gold leaf technique, incised technique, glass
inlay technique, relief moulded technique, incised technique and modern technique. All of which
are incredible work.13 Myanmar is well known for incised lacquerware. Incised technique is still
use until the present time. Iron stylus has been used in the engraving on the surface of the lacquer
vessels.
Glass-Inlay is called Hman-zi Shwe-cha in the history of Myanmar. Hman-zi Shwei- chatechnique was arrived in Myanmar in 18th Century CE. Some scholar assumed that Hman-zi
shwe-cha technique originally came from Thailand when Burmese King conquered Thailand.
Hman-zi shwe-cha had become popular in Myanmar since 18th CE. The earliest Hman-zi shwecha was found in 1790 CE as a palm leaf manuscript. The use of glass is very simple in Hmanzi-swe-cha work in very first time. When European to arrive in Burma in 19th century CE, theybrought the fine cutting glass technique. As a result, the cutting glass had improved in
Myanmar. The artists richly used the fragments of the glass in Hman-zi shwe-cha. The emerald
and pink colour are very common colours in lacquer production with Hman-zi shwe –cha or
glass- inlay.14 For instance, the manuscript chest (sar deik) was made by Hman Si Shwe Cha
technique in late 19th CE (Fig.1). Manuscript chests were used in keeping the manuscripts inthe monastery. In terms of painting, the lacquer objects can be seen in the mural painting andthe artists painted the practice of lacquer objects (fig.2). Notonly the lacquer objects can be seenin the mural painting but also it can be found in the watercolor drawing (fig.3.a.b). Interestingly,
the royal families used the lacquer furniture in the glass inlay technique as showing theirwealthy status (Fig.4. a, b). The lacquer manuscript was used in 19th Century CE in Myanmar(Fig.5). The lacquer coated and gilt on the wooden cover of the manuscript. This manuscript
shows the religious symbols. Offering vessel has been used in Konbaung period (Fig.6). Betelbox is a very common in Myanmar in 20th Century CE.15 The practice of the betel box is a
traditional object for Burmese. It is possibly assumed that betel box had an important role as oneof the royal identity in the Burmese court (Fig.7).16 As a result, the influences of Burmese
lacquer objects can be found in court art.
The lacquer artists have always handed down techniques of making lacquer ware andcultural arts to the next generation of artists.17 The lacquer objects still produce from Bagan
period to until the present time and practice in Myanmar. It is produced for souvenir in Bagan.
12

George Watt., ‘Burmese Lacquer Ware and Burmese Varnish. (Melanorrhoea Usitata, Wall.)’, Bulletin of
Miscellaneous Information (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew) 1906, no. 5 (1906): 137–47, https://doi.org/
10.2307/4111295.
13
Sylvia Fraser-Lu, Burmese Lacquerware / Sylvia Fraser-Lu. (Bangkok: Tamarind Press, 1985).
14
Than Htun, Lacquerware Journeys: The Untold Story of Burmese Lacquer / Than Htun (Dedaye). (Bangkok:
River Books, 2013).
15
Ralph Isaacs, Visions from the Golden Land: Burma and the Art of Lacquer / Ralph Isaacs and T. Richard Blurton.
(London: British Museum, 2000).P. 76
16
Sylvia Fraser-Lu, Burmese Lacquerware / Sylvia Fraser-Lu.
17
UNIDO.

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

In addition, some large lacquerware workshops form a group of young trainees fromsurrounding villages and provide on-the-job training and accommodation.18 The government
also established the lacquerware training centre at Bagan in 1924. This became the Lacquerware
Technology Collage in 2003. However, at the moment it is seen only as a way of entering higheducation. It lacks facilities and also only takes high school graduates and does not give
vocational courses. Clearly it can be improved.
Another reason for sustainability for lacquer ware is the value of handicraft. Lacquer
ware production is a traditional handicraft and it is valued as tangible cultural heritage.
Lacquerware industry in Bagan has been gradually developed since 11th and become aremarkable traditional value.19 The custom and practice of Myanmar people reveal thistraditional value. For instance, the lacquerware item which is called hni daung lan has been used
to serve family’s daily meals since 17th century AD. In some villages and monasteries, this kindof lacquerware is still used to maintain their tradition. According to the Myanmar chronicles,
lacquerware items were used for formal state occasion and royal receptions. For example,
picked tea was served on a fire lacquerware cup which is called kalat to those missionary or
embosser of other countries. Moreover, it is assumed as royal gift of priority to show the
diplomatic mission. On the other hand, a responsibility of a nation is to preserve own traditional
culture. It is also true of Myanmar because most of the traditional culture were given as an heir
generation to generation. Among these traditional culture, lacquerware is a fabulous handicraft
tradition which has been maintained for centuries. For a sustainability of these popular crafts,
state school of lacquerware is opened to teach the Myanmar traditional crafts to young
generation. 20
The practice of using lacquerware as household items is important and it could be seen
for centuries to recent days. Particularly, to serve tealeaves to guest, lacquerware box is used not
only in rural area also in urban society. Another item called lacquer tray is used to put cold or
hot drink for guests in Myanmar families and to put prizes in traditional ceremonies. Moreover,form the aspect of religious affair, lacquerware bowls and boxes are showing the respect and it
is used to offer food to the Buddhist monks. These customs are standing as a social dignity of
Myanmar.

4. Conclusions
This research paper has described how Burmese lacquer ware could be sustained bygiving examples. It is true that lacquerware is one of the handicrafts of Myanmar, which has
been maintained since 11th century AD. As it is hand-made production, it takes a long time andhas to pass through several stages. It is highly assumed that the practice of Burmese lacquer
have been traced in terms of mural painting, watercolor paintings, and furniture.

18

UNIDO.
UNIDO.
20
Monika Kopplin, ed., Lacquerware in Asia, Today and Yesterday (Paris: Unesco, 2002).
19

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

5. Acknowledgements
I would like to express my special thanks to Alphawood scholarships.

Figure1. Manuscript Chest (Source from V@A)

Figure 2. The influence of lacquer objects on the mural painting in Taung Bi, Bagan

Figure3a. The influence of lacquer objects in the watercolour painting

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

Figure3b. The lacquer objects in the watercolour painting

Figure4a . The Mirror in the glass inlay technique from the Mandalay Palace(Source from V&A Museum)19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

Figure4b. The Arch door at the Mandalay Palace as architecture design 21

Figure.4c The furniture at the Mandalay Palace22

Figure5. The lacquer manuscript at British Museum (Photo by Researcher)

15

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

Figure6. Offering Vessel at Shin Pin Sar Gyo (Photo by Researcher)

Figure7. The Betel box (Photo by researcher from UK art Market)

17

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

References[1] Dehra Dūn (India)., Dehra Dūn (India), and India) Forest Research Institute (Dehra Dun. The Indian Forest
Records. Vol.v.6 (1917-1918). Delhi [etc.]: Manager of Publications., 1917. https://www.
biodiversitylibrary.org/item/240456.
[2] Htun, Than. Lacquerware Journeys: The Untold Story of Burmese Lacquer / Than Htun (Dedaye). Bangkok:
River Books, 2013.
[3] Isaacs, Ralph, T. Richard Blurton, and British Museum. Visions from the Golden Land: Burma and the Art of
Lacquer. Chicago: Art Media Resources, 2000.
[4] Kopplin, Monika. Lacquerware in Asia, Today and Yesterday. Paris: Unesco, 2002., ed. Lacquerware in Asia,
Today and Yesterday. Paris: Unesco, 2002. Mon, Lwin Lwin. ‘The Social Value and Function of
Myanmar Lacquer Ware in[5] Bagan, International Conference on Japan &- Myanmar’, 2014. https://uyr.uy.edu.mm/ handle/ 123456789/262.
[6] Morris, A.P. ‘Lacquerware Industries of Burma’. American Baptist Mission Press 9 (1919): 1–13.
[7] Ralph Isaacs. Visions from the Golden Land: Burma and the Art of Lacquer / Ralph Isaacs and T. Richard
Blurton. London: British Museum, 2000.
[8] Stephen A. Murphy. Cities and Kings Ancient Treasures from Myanmar, n.d. Sylvia Fraser-Lu. Burmese
Lacquerware / Sylvia Fraser-Lu. Bangkok: Tamarind Press, 1985.
[9] UNIDO. ‘Diagnostic Study on a Lacquerware Cluster in Bagan and Nyaung-U, Myanmar’. United Nation
Industrial Development Organization, June 2014. https://www.unido.org/sites/default/files/
2015- 05/Diagnostic_Study_on_a_Lacquerware_Cluster_in_Report_0.pdf.
[10] Watt., George. ‘Burmese Lacquer Ware and Burmese Varnish. (Melanorrhoea Usitata, Wall.)’. Bulletin of
Miscellaneous Information (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew) 1906, no. 5 (1906): 137–47.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

Toward Rabies Elimination: Japan’s Experience, Sri Lanka’s Goal by 2020,
and its Application to Myanmar Context
Koji Kanda1, Ananda Jayasinghe2, Chandrika Jayasinghe3, Takahiko Yoshida4
Abstract
Rabies is endemic in 150 countries and territories worldwide, particularly among the poorest of
the poor including children. Nearly 60% of global human rabies deaths occurred in Asia, but
Japan is one of a few countries have achieved rabies elimination. Japan has implemented strong
rabies control activities including registration of pet dogs over 91 days old to the municipality ofowner’s residence, annual regular vaccination of pet dogs, and elimination of stray dogs. Since
1957, only three imported human cases have been recorded. Then in Asia, Sri Lanka has been
tremendous efforts to combat human rabies by implementing female dog sterilization, animalbirth control, surveillance and community awareness, which resulted the remarkable reduction ofrabies deaths from 136 cases in 1991 to 24 in 2015. In contrast, Myanmar is still facing on theincreasing number of dog bites and records one of the highest rabies prevalence in the world. In
this paper, we reviewed the success stories of rabies control and its challenges overcome by our
epidemiological researches in Japan and Sri Lanka, and proposed effective recommendations
toward rabies elimination in Myanmar.
Keywords: Rabies, Elimination, Japan, Sri Lanka, Myanmar

1.

Introduction

Rabies is endemic in more than 150 countries and territories worldwide. There areapproximately 59,000 deaths of dog-mediated rabies annually, with an associated loss of 3.7
million Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) [1, 2]. Asia records the largest number of humanrabies deaths, which consists of nearly 60% of global deaths [2]. Only a few countries, such as
Japan, Maldives, and Timor-Leste enjoy rabies-free status in the region. Particularly, Japan has
recorded only three imported human rabies cases since the nationwide interruption of an
indigenous animal case in 1957.
WHO depicts the progress towards rabies elimination into five different phases fromendemicity to eradication: endemic, control, zero human deaths, elimination, and maintenance[2]. For more than a half century, Japan has kept the stage of “Maintenance” by pet dog
registration and their mandatory vaccination as well as stray dog confinements. There are also
several amendments of related laws and regulations to maintain no indigenous and imported
rabies for both humans and animals during the “Maintenance” stage. However, most countries
are still trying to reach the status of “Zero human deaths”, meaning no human rabies deaths for atleast 24 consecutive months. Sri Lanka is amongst the nations about to achieve this status in
Asia. The latest number of annual deaths from human rabies is 21 in 1 January - 28 December,
2018 [3]. The Sri Lankan government has shown tremendous efforts to eliminate rabies byimplementing female dog sterilization, animal birth control, and community awareness, which
resulted the remarkable decline of rabies deaths from 136 cases in 1991. Although the country1

Department of Social Medicine, Asahikawa Medical University, Japan, kkanda@asahikawa-med.ac.jp
Department of Community Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka,
ajaya83pera@gmail.com
3
Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka,
jayasinghe_chandrika@yahoo.co.uk
4
Department of Social Medicine, Asahikawa Medical University, Japan, tyoshida@asahikawa-med.ac.jp
2

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)20

faces on difficulties in reducing the number of human rabies deaths in the last several years(around 20-30 cases each year), this Sri Lanka’s successful experience can be applied to otherrabies endemic countries particularly in Asia. In contrast, Myanmar is still struggling with theincreasing number of dog bites and one of the highest rabies prevalence in the world. The current
statistics shows that there are more than 1,000 estimated human rabies deaths in the country,
which is the largest among the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) [4]. It is also
the third worst among the Member States of the WHO Regional Office of South-East Asia
(SEARO), followed by populous India and Bangladesh [5]. Unlike Sri Lanka, Myanmar hasabsence or shortage of national rabies control strategy, funding, coordination and collaboration
mechanism as well as low level of public awareness, limited dog population control andlaboratory and surveillance capacity on rabies control [4]. In order to catch up the regional goalof rabies-free by 2020, the above shortages or limitations need to be solved at national, regional,
and township levels, accordingly.
In this paper, we reviewed the success stories of rabies control and prevention in Japanand Sri Lanka and propose effective recommendations toward rabies elimination in Myanmar.
Information given here is based on literature review and existing data, and research outcomes ofrabies control and prevention in three countries.

2.

Japan’s experience

The first recorded rabies control activity has been read in the 8th century, when the basic
law of ancient Japanese political system called “Yoro Law” mentioned slaughter deposition ofdogs. By the 10th century, rabies was considered as a human disease. Since then, rabies outbreaks
have sporadically occurred until the modern era but not officially recorded. In 1896, Epizootics
Prevention Law was introduced throughout the country. The Law stipulated official recording ofanimal rabies cases started in 1897. The peak period of rabies endemic was during 1920s and
30s, when the nation’s public health infrastructure was damaged due to natural disasters such as
Great Kanto Earthquake in 1923. Also, the first Domestic Animal Infectious Diseases Control
Law was enacted to increase the reporting of animal rabies cases countrywide. The number ofboth human and canine rabies cases dropped in 1930s, but due to incomplete control activities aswell as unfavorable social situations the rabies epidemic was reverted again in the early 1940s.
After the World War II, rabies prevention and control were greatly improved by the country’s
reconstruction of public health system and regulations, including the enactment ofCommunicable Diseases Prevention Law (1947), Rabies Prevention Law (1950), and New
Domestic Animal Infectious Diseases Control Law (1951). In particular, the Rabies Prevention
Law mandated pet dog registration and twice-a-year anti-rabies vaccinations as well as stray dog
confinements. Civil servants with a veterinary license were also appointed as a rabies prevention
officer. These powerful control strategies with strong political commitment rapidly eliminated theindigenous human and canine rabies in 1954 and 1956, respectively. The annual reported dogmediated rabies cases during 1953-1956 were 176, 98, 23, and 6, respectively [6]. The last
animal case was recorded in 1957 as a feline rabies.
Due to its successful eradication of indigenous rabies during the short period of time,current strategies of keeping zero rabies are still based on the Rabies Prevention Law introduced
in 1950. Under the Law, pet owners require the registration of pet dog with age of 91 days andolder to their municipality. The registration fee is dependent on each municipality, but the current

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

21

average cost is approximately USD 30. After the registration, the municipality issues theregistration tag attach to the pet dog and sends a letter of anti-rabies vaccination schedule
annually. Then the pet owners visit an animal clinic with the letter and their pet dogs receive ananti-rabies vaccination, which costs another USD 30 per shot. According to the report from the
Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare of Japan (MHLW), there are approximately 6.3 million
registered dogs with 71.4% of vaccination coverage in 2017 [7]. However, it is estimated that
there are 8.9 million registered and unregistered pet dogs [8], meaning that the vaccination
coverage undergoes only to 50.7%, which is much lower than the WHO recommendation of atleast 70% coverage. The Rabies Prevention Law mentions the penalty for those failing to comply
with pet dog registration or annual vaccination with a maximum fine up to JPY 200,000(approximately USD 1,800), but the penalty has not strictly applied so that the vaccination
coverage dropped from nearly 100% in 1985 to current 71.4%. On the other hands, a national
quarantine system has been improved and strictly enforced at the port of entry. In 2003, amended
Infectious Disease Control Law introduced a notification form and a health certificate fromgovernment authorities of the exporting country for imported mammals [9]. In November 2004,
new quarantine regulation started for importation and exportation of dog, cat, racoon, fox andskunk, including the introduction of microtip prior to any animal vaccination and testing. So far,no rabies-suspected animals have been imported.
For human rabies prevention, the country needs increasing awareness of rabies prevention
among both pet owners and people going to non-rabies-free countries. As mentioned above,
annual dog vaccination rate has been gradually reduced to nearly 70% and there are certain
numbers of unregistered pets nationwide. Also, three imported cases were recorded since the lasthuman case in 1954. All victims traveled to rabies endemic countries, were bitten by dogs, andshowed rabies symptoms after several months of returning to Japan. None of them were
vaccinated against rabies prior to the departure. At present, it is reported that Japanese travelers
were unlikely to receive a pre-exposure prophylaxis prior to leaving the country, probably due topoor awareness and knowledge of pre-exposure prophylaxis to vaccine preventable diseases
epidemic outside of Japan [10, 11]. In fact, limited numbers of anti-rabies vaccines in the country
make the vaccination extremely expensive (USD 100-150 per shot) and a public awarenessleaflet of rabies prevention by MHLW is not well disseminated. No recent awareness raising
campaign has been heard in the World Rabies Day of 28 September.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

22

Table1. Human and canine rabies deaths in Japan since 1896 (Data source: Japan Veterinary
Medical Association, 2007 [12]; Metropolitan Police Department, 1938 [13]; Ohashi, 1927 [14];Tokyo Metropolitan Government [15])
Year

Human
RabiesCanineRabiesEvent / Law enforcement

1896-1900

N/A

509

• Epizootics Prevention Law (1896)

1901-1920※570

10 474※Data available since 1912

1921-1940834

14 448• Domestic Animal Infectious Diseases Control
Law (1922)

1941-1960※214※3 383• Communicable Diseases Prevention Law(1947)• Rabies Prevention Law (1950)• New Domestic Animal Infectious Diseases
Control Law (1951)※ Last human case in 1954, last canine case in 1956

1961-1980※10※ Imported case (1970)

1981-2000

00• Infectious Diseases Control Law (1999)※20• Amended Infectious Diseases Control Law (2003)

2001-• New Quarantine Program for Importation andExportation of Animals and Pets (2005)※ Imported cases (2006)

3.

Sri Lanka’s goal by 2020

Sri Lanka achieved a gradual decline of human rabies deaths after a long history tocombat against the disease over the decades. The first rabies control activity was recorded in thelate 19th century, when the nation was colonized by the British regime. Under the Rabies
Ordinance of 1893 with several amendments, the Act focused only on the enforcement ofpossible rabies outbreak prevention by local authorities, including a seizure of all stray dogs [16].
In late 1950s to 1960s, Department of Health Services of Sri Lanka took over the responsibilityof rabies control and formulated the rabies eradication plan, but it was not until 1970s that the
rabies control activities were active. In 1971, human rabies was identified as a notifiable disease.
Figure 1 shows that the death toll soon reached the highest number, 377 in 1973 [17, 18]. Then
two years later, in 1975, the Sri Lankan government launched the five-year national rabies
control and eradication program under the support of WHO [9, 17, 18]. WHO mainly assisted the
setup of a laboratory to produce Fleury type anti-rabies vaccine for animals [18]. The second

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

23

rabies control program followed in next five years. During the implementation of the programs,
the government provided various services including dog immunization, post-exposure
prophylaxis (PEP) for suspected animal bite victims and periodic evaluation of the control
program and removal of stray dogs [9]. These two programs resulted the sharp decline of humanrabies deaths in late 1970s to 1980s.

Figure1. Human rabies deaths, dog rabies vaccinations, human anti-rabies vaccinations and important events in Sri
Lanka, 1970-2015.
(Revision of Harischandra et al 2016 [17])In 1989, the government decided to decentralize the rabies control activities into
provincial level to enhance the roles of local governments to implement more communityparticipated rabies control activities [18]. At the national level, Sri Lanka reached the first nation
among South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) countries to havesuccessfully stopped using nerve tissue vaccine in 1995 [19]. The government implemented “Nokill policy” among the dog population in 2007 due to animal welfare and religious reasons;instead, animal birth control injection and female dog sterilization launched in the same year tominimize the explosion of the dog population [18]. Rabies in domestic animals became notifiable
in 2012 [17]. Cost-effective ID vaccination schedule has been also practiced [19]. At the end,
with strong political commitment, the number of human rabies deaths declined from 136 in 1991
to 21 in 2018 (up to 30 December) [3], despite the internal conflict lasted for nearly three decades
from early 1980s. The number of dog vaccination now also reached 1.5 million per year, as ofend 2015 [17].
The country now faces on the difficulties in reducing the number of human rabies deaths,
which have remained around 20-30 per year since 2013. In order to meet the goal of nationwide
rabies elimination, it is essential to boost up the ongoing control activities, including human and19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)24

dog rabies vaccination, dog population control, surveillance for both human and animal cases,
and public awareness campaigns. Of those, details and importance of scaling up first three
activities have been mentioned in several documents [17, 19]. Particularly, the PEP still remains a
key strategy for rabies prevention and control in spite of its high cost and the national dog
vaccination coverage of below 70% [19]. However, raising public awareness seems left behindand should be more intensified toward elimination. For example, people’s awareness andknowledge level of rabies prevention and control were sporadically assessed in limited region
and communities, reporting inadequate preparation against rabies [20, 21]. The National HealthStrategic Master Plan (2016-2025) also indicated that there was still a significant lack ofawareness and knowledge of PEP among some of the vulnerable population who are mostly thepeople who doesn’t have a permanent residency due to their occupation [22]. In fact, only threecommunity level awareness programs on rabies prevention were conducted in 2018 [23]. To
improve current conditions, the government should make best use of the outcomes of several
awareness and knowledge enhancing activities particularly focusing on Sri Lankan context,
which have been successfully implemented [24, 25].
Raising awareness is also quite important because Sri Lanka is now about to achieve therabies elimination. This means that rabies is really heading to a neglected tropical disease among
general population of Sri Lanka and public awareness will be finally decreased again like Japan.
Responsible pet ownerships should be more emphasized for proper pet dog management. Japan
used to maintain nearly 100% dog vaccination coverage for the thirty years after rabies
elimination. More difficulties are “Maintenance” so that it is not too late for the country to
prepare for the era of post-elimination.

4.

Conclusion: Application to Myanmar’s context

Myanmar is still a leading country of rabies epidemic in Asia. It is estimated that there areat least 1,000 human rabies deaths annually, with 600,000 dog bites [4, 26]. The ASEAN
Secretariat reported that Myanmar had constraints on rabies control, due to lack of a nationalrabies control strategy except the guideline for PEP, poor public awareness and limited
coordination and collaboration mechanism, funding, technical capacities including surveillance
and laboratory practices for rabies control [4]. At the national level, limited surveillance system
and laboratory capacities for the detection and confirmation of rabies virus infections cause
insufficient, underestimated epidemiological data [27]. On the other hands, poor knowledge ofrabies is common in local levels so that raising community awareness are crucial to further
interruption of rabies virus transmission cycle from animals to human [26, 27]. Control of straydog population and distribution of mass dog vaccination are also critical challenges [26].
Countries of enjoying successful rabies elimination strongly emphasized the intensive
activities of pet dog vaccination, stray dog elimination, surveillance, and raising publicawareness, all of which are necessary to be included in the rabies control strategies in Myanmar.
It is true that improving dog vaccination coverage in Myanmar is a huge hurdle due to its large
land size, inaccessibility to rural areas and varieties of ethnicities. A land area of Myanmar is 1.8
times bigger than Japan, but the population density is much lower. This indicates that a large
amount of budget is needed for transportation and other indirect costs as well as vaccination
itself. However, it is more cost-beneficial to reduce the chance of contracting rabies virus tocommunity people than to provide enough number of highly expensive PEPs in each accessible

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

25

local health center. A reliable surveillance system is also an asset. For example, Japan recognizedhuman and canine rabies in the late 19th century, resulting that the county was able to identify thetrend of rabies epidemic which helped establish the Rabies Prevention Law enacted in 1950. Sri
Lanka has also recorded rabies cases since early 1970s and already achieved the rabies-free status
in the several of 25 districts. Although Myanmar has a huge country size and many of ruralcommunities are hard to reach, a small-scale but routine data collection would help the nation toprecisely monitor the epidemic and to implement more effective rabies control and prevention
activities in national, district, and township levels.
Lastly, enhancing awareness of rabies control and prevention among general public is thepowerful, easy way to reach overall goal of rabies elimination and to maintain a zero-rabies
status thereafter. Raising awareness encourages community involvement and engagement in
activities to eliminate dog-mediated rabies [28]. So far, there are few studies and reports
regarding awareness raising activities in Myanmar, but a small-scale program would produce abigger outcome in a long run. Continuation of high awareness will maintain rabies-free status
after elimination. Sri Lanka recently eliminated malaria from the country and now rabies is about
to be removed. Myanmar has successfully reduced the mortality and morbidity of malaria bysustainable financial, technical and political commitments [27]. Therefore, it is believed that
Myanmar has a high potentiality to soon reduce rabies epidemic with high priority.

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, and the Medical
Faculty Library, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. This study was financially supported by JSPS KAKENHI
Grant Numbers 18H06337 and 19K21421.

References[1] Hampson K, Coudeville L, Lembo T, Sambo M, Kieffer A, Attlan M et al. Estimating the global burden of
endemic canine rabies. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2015; 9(4):e0003709[2] World Health Organization [WHO]. WHO Expert Consultation on Rabies: Third report. Geneva: WHO, 2018.
[3] Ministry of Health, Nutrition and Indigenous Medicine of Sri Lanka [MHNIM]. Weekly Epidemiologic Report
Sri Lanka 2019 Vol.46, No.01. Colombo: MHNIM, 2019.
[4] The ASEAN Secretariat. ASEAN Rabies Elimination Strategy. Jakarta: ASEAN, 2016.
[5] WHO Regional Office for South-East Asia [SEARO]. Strategic Framework for Elimination of Human Rabies
Transmitted by Dogs in the South-East Asia Region. New Delhi: WHO-SEARO, 2012.
[6] Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare of Japan [MHLW]. Rabies. Retrieved on 30 September, 2019, athttps://www.mhlw.go.jp/bunya/kenkou/kekkaku-kansenshou10/ (in Japanese).
[7] MHLW. Number of registered and vaccinated dogs by prefecture, FY2012-2017. Retrieved on 30 September,
2019, at https://www.mhlw.go.jp/bunya/kenkou/kekkaku-kansenshou10/01.html (in Japanese)[8] Japan Pet Food Association. A result on the national survey on pet dog and cats, FY2018. Retrieved on 30
September, 2018 at https://petfood.or.jp/data/chart2018/index.html (in Japanese).
[9] Tamashiro H, Matibag GC, Ditangco RA, Kanda K, Ohbayashi Y. Revisiting rabies in Japan: is there cause foralarm?, Travel Med Infect Dis, 2007, 5, 263-275.
[10] Basnyat B, Pokhrel G, Cohen Y. The Japanese need travel vaccinations. J Travel Med. 2000;7:37.
[11] Kashino W, Piyaphanee W, Kittitrakul C, Tangpukdee N, Sibunruang S, Lawpoolsri S, et al. Incidence ofpotential rabies exposure among Japanese expatriates and travelers in Thailand. J Travel Med.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

26

2014;21(4):240-247.
[12] Japan Veterinary Medical Association [JVMA]. Textbook of rabies prevention strategy. Tokyo: JVMA, 2007.
Retrieved on 4 October, 2019 at http://nichiju.lin.gr.jp/pdf/h190225_textbook.pdf (in Japanese)[13] Metropolitan Police Department of Tokyo [MPD]. Rabies epidemic in Tokyo. Tokyo: MPD, 1938. (in Japanese)[14] Ohashi S. Rabies. Chuoujuikaizasshi (Journal of Veterinary Medical Science), 1927;40(5):437-487.
[15] Tokyo Metropolitan Government. Rabies epidemiology in Japan. Retrieved on 4 October, 2019, at
http://www.fukushihoken.metro.tokyo.jp/kankyo/aigo/dog/kyouken/kyouken2.html (in Japanese)[16] An ordinance to provide for the suppression of rabies in Sri Lanka. 1984.
[17] Harischandra PAL. Gunesekera A, Janakan N, Gongal G, Abela-Ridder B. Sri Lanka takes action towards atarget of zero rabies death by 2020. WHO South-East Asia J Public Health, 2016;5(2):113-116.
[18] Public Health Veterinary Services of Sri Lanka [PHVS]. History of rabies control activities in Sri Lanka.
Retrieved on 3 October, 2019 at http://www.rabies.gov.lk/english/history.php.
[19] WHO-SEARO. Prevention and control of rabies in SAARC countries. New Deli: WHO-SEARO, 2016.
[20] Matibag GC, Kamigaki T, Kumarasiri PV, Wijewardana TG, Kalupahana AW, Dissanayake DR, et al.
Knowledge, attitudes, and practices survey of rabies in a community in Sri Lanka. Environ Health Prev
Med, 2007:12(2):84-89.
[21] Muthunuwan JT, Ganhewa AGKH, Perera HDSG, Hishaam M, Bandara WMMS, Gunasekera HAKM.
Preliminary survey on knowledge, attitudes and practices regarding rabies. Sri Lankan J Infect Dis,
2017;7(1):38-46.
[22] Ministry of Health of Sri Lanka [MOH]. National Health Strategic Master Plan 2016-2025: Vol II – Curative
Service. Colombo: MOH, 2016.
[23] MHNIM. Annual performance report 2018. Colombo: MHNIM, 2018.
[24] Matibag GC, Ohbayashi Y, Kanda K, Yamashina H, Kumara WR, Perera IN, et al. A pilot study on theusefulness of information and education campaign materials in enhancing the knowledge, attitude andpractice on rabies in rural Sri Lanka. J Infect Dev Ctries, 2009;3(1):55-64.
[25] Kanda K, Obayashi Y, Jayasinghe A, Gunawardena GS, Delpitiya NY, Priyadarshani NG, et al. Outcomes of aschool-based intervention on rabies prevention among school children in rural Sri Lanka. Int Health,
2015;7(5):348-353.
[26] Rabies updates in Myanmar. Retrieved on 2 September, 2019 at https://rrasia.oie.int/fileadmin/Regional_Representation/Programme/B_One_Health/2018.12_ASEAN_Rabies_H
anoi/Update_Rabies_Poster_Vietnam_Myanmar____%E4%BA_%E6__%E3%83_%E3%83_%E3%83_.pdf[27] Mu TT, Sein AA, Soe C, Aung NPP, Kyi TT, Hanson J. Rabies in Myanmar: Prevalent, Preventable but not
Prioritized. Am J Trop Med Hyg, 2017;97(4):989-991.
[28] WHO, World Organization for Animal Health. Global framework for the elimination of dog-mediated humanrabies. Retrieved on 2 September, 2019 athttps://www.who.int/rabies/control/Poster_Global_framework_for_the_elimination_of_dogmediated_human_rabies.pdf

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

The Porifera (Sponges) of Tanintharyi Region and its potential used in natural
medicine
Nang Mya Han1, Aung Aung Aye2

Abstract
The present research was carried out from the Ross Island, Pyinsabu Island, Zardetgyi Island,
Than Kyun Island and Boulder Island of the Tanintharyi Region in 2017 to 2019. The Phylum
Porifera has three classes, the Demospongiae (siliceous sponges), Calcarea (calcareous sponges)
and Hexactinellida (glass sponges). There are about 5000-6000 described worldwide species. The
sponges found in Tanintharyi Region are approximately 200 species. Among them the researchemphasized on the Class Demospongiae (siliceous sponges) which possess the Genus 1: Clathria,
Clathria prolifera species, the Genus 2: Amphimedon, Amphimedon erina species, the Genus 3:
Erylus, Erylus formosus species, the Genus 4: Stylissa, Stylissa massa species and the Genus 5 :Spongia, Spongia officinalis species. Sponges are significance for economic as undesirable
colonizers of man-made structures (and destructive pests of oysters), and their pharmaceuticalpotential (Hooper et al. 1998). In Tanintharyi Water Areas the ongoing research found thespecies Clathria prolifera possess a valuable source of pharmacologically active secondary
metabolites. Some of these metabolites are reported to have antitumor, antiviral, antiinflammatory, anti-malarial, immunosuppressive or antibiotic activities.
Keywords: Demospongiae, siliceous sponges, Clathria prolifera species, secondary
metabolites, pharmaceutical potential products

1. Introduction
The term sponge derives from the Ancient Greek word σπόγγος (spóngos). Marine
sponges are sessile animals that look like plants; they are multicellular, heterotrophic, lack cell
walls and produce sperm cells. Sponges have three body types: asconoid, syconoid, andleuconoid. They attached themselves to a rock, shell or seafloor when they are young and there
live for the rest of their lives. Most sponges eat tiny, floating organic particles and plankton thatthey filter from the water the flows through their body. Their "skeletons" are made of Spicules
consisting of fibers of the protein spongin, the mineral silica, or both.
The sponges Phylum Porifera have three Classes; the Demospongiae (siliceous sponges,
horn sponges, like the bath sponge), Calcarea (calcareous sponges) and Hexactinellida (glass
sponges). Globally there are from 5,000 to 10,000 known species of sponges. Most sponges livein salt water - only about 150 species live in fresh water. Sponges evolved over 500 million years
ago. The sponges found in Tanintharyi Region, Myanmar are approximately 200 species. The
present research emphasized on the Class Demospongiae (siliceous sponges) among the 3classes. This class possesses the Genus Clathria and Clathria prolifera species which possess avaluable source of pharmacologically active secondary metabolites.
The demo sponge is one of the few marine creatures that can live in both freshwater andsaltwater environments. Demo sponges are found in all oceans, most seas, and gulfs. The
Demospongiae can reproduce both sexually and asexually. Methods of asexual reproduction
include both budding and the formation of gemmules. In budding, aggregates of cells
differentiate into small sponges that are released superficially or expelled through the ocular1
2

Dr, Ext. Professor, Department of Marine Science, University of Myeik, Myanmar
Dr Assistant Lecturer, Department of Marine Science, University of Myeik, Myanmar.

28

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)("little mouth").These can survive even extremely unfavorable conditions. They survive evenafter the rest of the sponge dies due to the unfavorable conditions.
Sponge benefit to ocean: Inside the sponge, tiny hair-like structures called flagella create
currents to filter bacteria out of the sponge's cells and trap food within them. As sponges containenzymes that can prevent bacterial growth they can lower the bacterial contamination in theocean floor environment. Their strong skeletal structures help sponges withstand the highvolume of water that flows through them each day. Although most sponges are harmless tohumans, but some examples of toxic sponges are found world- wide. They occurred painful skinirritations, sometimes persisting for many hours, are the most common syndrome. No fatalities
are known. Sponges are also important in nutrient cycles in coral reef systems. This process
would lower excess nitrogen levels in coral reefs, also preventing harmful ecosystem changes.
Scientists believe that the conversion of nitrogen gas into useful nitrogen is also beneficial to thesurvival of other organisms in the area. Sponges breathe by taking oxygen from the water thatthey filter through the pores and canals in their bodies. They then send carbon dioxide out withthe water they excrete.
Sponges are also important in nutrient cycles in coral reef systems. This process would
lower excess nitrogen levels in coral reefs, also preventing harmful ecosystem changes. Scientists
believe that the conversion of nitrogen gas into useful nitrogen is also beneficial to the survival ofother organisms in the area. Sponges breathe by taking oxygen from the water that they filter
through the pores and canals in their bodies. They then send carbon dioxide out with the water
they excrete.
Early Europeans used soft sponges for many purposes, including padding for helmets,
portable drinking utensils and municipal water filters. Until the invention of synthetic sponges,
they were used as cleaning tools, applicators for paints and ceramic glazes and discreet
contraceptives. Typical materials used are cellulose foam, polyurethane foam, breast implants
and less frequently, silicone foam. On the plus side, many people consider natural sea sponges tobe eco-friendly. Sponges are able to grow back after they are harvested, so they could beconsidered a sustainable resource. However, by the mid-20th century, over-fishing brought boththe animals and the industry close to extinction.
Biologically active compounds and Pharmaceutical potential products of sponge: Amongthe marine organisms marine sponges have the richest sources of pharmacologically-active
chemicals and have medicinal potential due to the presence in sponges themselves or theirmicrobial symbionts of chemicals that may be used to control viruses, bacteria, tumors and fungi.
Sponges also have been found to have anti-cancer, anti-bacterial and anti-fungal properties in its.
More than 5,300 different products are known from sponges and their associatedmicroorganisms, and more than 200 new metabolites from sponges are reported each year. As
infectious microorganisms evolve and develop resistance to existing pharmaceuticals, the marine
sponge provides novel leads against bacterial, viral, fungal and parasitic diseases. (Laport MS,
Santos OC, Muricy G, 2019) Tough sponges can help scrape away dead cells lingering on yourskin with the potential to clog pores.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)29

2. Methods
2.1. Study Areas
The present research was carry out in 2017April to 2019 April from the five Islands ofTanintharyi Region (the southern coast of Myanmar), Ross Island (Lat 12˚ 11'45.9″ N Long 098˚
07' 44.3″ E), Pyinsabu Island (Lat 11˚48'46.6″ N Long 098˚ 01' 00.8″ E), Zardetgyi Island (Lat09˚59'23.1″ N Long 098˚ 16' 28.1″ E), Than Kyun Island (Lat 09˚47'24.1″ N Long 098˚ 01' 58.1″
E)and Boulder Island (Lat 10˚ 12' 05.8″ N Long 097˚ 52' 25.1″ E).
2.2. Samples Collection
Samples were collected at the depths of 0.5 - 3 m in the intertidal zone and gloves were
worn during collection. Collected samples were transferred directly to sterile plastic bags
containing seawater to prevent contact of sponge tissue from air. After that the samples weretransported to the laboratory and processed immediately for the identification.
All the sponge contained bottles and (TS 10) bottle which will place the specimens to
extracts the Spicules were cleaned and labeled.
Map showing the study areas(a) TS 10 bottlea(b). Sponge collection contained bottlesb

2.3. Methods Used
All the field specimens and a voucher specimen (TS.10) were deposited at Laboratory ofMarine Science Department of Myeik University. The identification of sponges is very difficult
due to their unique morphological traits and intra-specific variability in shape and colour.
Therefore, proper identification often requires collection and microscopic examination of theirskeleton (Spicules).
Common features used to identify sponges are the following:(1). Spongin fibres – organic skeletal elements made of collagen and forming very complex
networks in many sponges. (2).Dispersed collagen filaments – skeletal material found in all

30

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)sponges. (3). Spicules – inorganic elements present in almost all sponges’ skeleton and made ofeither calcium carbonate or silica.
The Classes of known sponges are separated based on these characteristics:(1) The Calcarea have calcium carbonate spicules,(2) The Hexactinellida; siliceous spicules and(3) The Demospongiae; siliceous spicules and sponging fibres or both.
Many observable morphological characters can be used to aid in sponge identification
including overall shape, distribution of surface pores, colour, texture and size. Knowledge ofother non-morphological characteristics, such as the ecological traits of the different species canalso be useful in sponge identification. Several tools, such as posters and field guides anddesigned to be used by non-specialist individuals while at sea observation have been developed.
As a field guide a selection of these is provided in the FAO Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems
webpage(www.fao.org/in-action/vulnerable-marine-ecosystems/background/vme-tools/en/). In
analyzing some specimens were identified down to species according to “Identification of sponge
species of FAO (2017)” and for preservation and isolated compounds were followed by themethod of Toyama Medical Institute, Japan. The chemical structures of the isolated compounds
were determined using extensive spectroscopic techniques, including NMR, HRESIMS, IR, andoptical rotation. To isolate the specimens, the isolation procedures are as follow; (1). The sponge
specimens were cut into small pieces and digestion in household bleach 30 minutes. (2). Then 10
minutes wash with distilled water were repeated 4 times. (3). Place the specimen on the glass
slide and covered by cover slid after washed. (4). Take the photos of sponge’s Spicules by using
microscope
Identified the Spicules Sponge under microscope

SpiculesSpicules3. Result and Discussion
Species identification is important for ecological, evolutionary, systematic, andbiodiversity studies which contribute too many of the development of conservation andmanagement plans of sponge. (Identification of sponge species, FAO, 2017)
The present study emphasized on the identification of Class Demospongiae (siliceoussponges) which possesses the Genus 1: Clathria, Clathria prolifera species,
the Genus 2: Amphimedon, Amphimedon erina species,
the Genus 3: Erylus, Erylus formosus species,
the Genus 4: Stylissa, Stylissa massa species andthe Genus 5: Spongia, Spongia officinalis species.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

31

Table3.1. Occurrence of sponges at the five sampling stations (+ = Present, - = Absent)
Sr No.

Species Name

Ross Is.

Pyinsabu Is.

Zardetgyi Is.

Than Kyun Is.

Boulder Is.

1.

C. prolifera

+

-

-

-

-

2.

A. erina

-

+

+

+

-

3.

E. formosus

-

-

+

+

-

4.

S. massa

+

+

+

+

+

5.

S. officinalis

-

-

-

+

-

3.1. Classification of TS 10
Phylum: Porifera (Grant, 1836)
Class: Demospongiae (Sollas, 1885)
Order: Poecilosclerida (Topsent, 1928)
Family: Microcionidae (Carter, 1875)
Genus: Clathria (Schmidt, 1862)
Species: Clathria prolifera (Ellis & Solander, 1786)
Description: Clathria prolifera has an encrusting base that may be up to 20cm (8in) across but
less than 3mm (0.12in) thick. It forms bushy masses up to 20cm (8in) tall of orange or red
branches up to 6mm (0.24in) thick. These resemble fingers, or may join together to form fan-likeor drapery-like folded sheets. The spongy surface is covered with minute pores through whichwater is drawn into the sponge.
Spicules of TS 10

3.2. Classification of No (1) Bottle to No (4) Bottle
No (1) Bottle
Phylum: Porifera (Grant, 1836)
Class: Demospongiae (Sollas, 1885)
Order: Haplosclerida (Topsent, 1928)
Family: Niphatidae (Van Soest, 1980)
Genus : Amphimedon (Duchassaing & Michelotti, 1964)
Species: A. erina (de Laubenfels, 1936)
Description: Massive lobate to ramose. Color: dark green externally, lighter internally. Surfaceof the texture is smooth with oscular chimneys which have 0.5 - 1 cm diameter mouth wide. The
species is compressible but crumbly in consistency. Maximum surface diameter is 1 cm.

32

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

Commonly found on shallow reefs, on the hard substrate of seagrass beds and mangroves.
Members of the Class Demospongiae are hermaphroditic. Life cycle: The zygote develops into
parenchymella larva (free-swimming) before settling down on a substrate where it grows into ayoung sponge.
No (2) Bottle
Phylum: Porifera (Grant, 1836)
Class: Demospongiae (Sollas, 1885)
Order: Astrophorida (Bowerbank, 1862)
Family: Geodiidae (Gray, 1867)
Genus: Erylus (Gray, 1867)
Species: E. formosus (Sollas, 1886)
Description: Repent branches or ridged masses or stalked lobes; detachable dermis black,internal color cream. Oscular flush water to the surface then scattered till reach on to the ridged
protuberances, it has 0.8– 1.5 cm diameter wide. Consistency of the dermis is slightly leathery,choanosome is crumbly. The material varies slightly with locality in the spicules complement(width and shape of aspidaster spicules, size of tylaster spicules, etc.), but the overall shape andcolor are quite similar and we are quite certain that there is a single open reef species.
No (3) Bottle
Phylum: PoriferaG (rant, 1836)
Class: Demospongiae (Sollas, 1885)
Order: Halichondrida (Gray, 1867)
Family: Dictyonellidae(Van Soest, Diaz &Pompoi, 1990)
Genus: Stylissa (Hallmann, 1914)
Species: S. massa (Carter, 1887)
Description: Massive lobate to ramose. Color: dark yellow externally. Surface texture issmooth with oscular chimneys which has 0.8– 1.5 cm diameter wide. The species iscompressible but crumbly in consistency. Maximum surface diameter is 3-4 cm. Commonly
found in shallow reefs and on the hard substrate among seagrass beds.
Bottle (4)Phylum: Porifera (Grant, 1836)
Class: Demospongiae (Sollas, 1885)
Order: Dictyoceratida (Minchin, 1900)
Family: Spongidae (Gray, 1867)
Genus: Spongia (Lennaeus, 1759)
Species: S. officinalis (Lennaeus, 1759)
Description: S. officinalis better known as bath sponge which is a commercially used sea sponge.
It is a hermaphroditic animal and can reproduce asexually by means of budding or through sexual
reproduction. When alive, its color is dark grey; upon drying it becomes either yellow or brown.
Young larvae swim freely until they attach themselves to the sea floor or other adequate ground.
After that, they start growing slowly, as it may take as much as 40 years to grow the size of abaseball.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

33

Table3.2. Pharmacologically active secondary metabolites of sponges
Species
antitumor
antiviral
inflammatory antibacterial++++
C. prolifera

antibiotic+

A. erina

-

+

-

+

+

E. formosus

-

+

-

+

+

S. massa

-

+

-

+

+

S. officinalis

+

+

+

+

+

Spicules of No (1) Bottle

Spicules of No (2) Bottle

Spicules of No (3) Bottle

Spicules of No (4) Bottle

2. Conclusions
The present study was recorded and identified the five species belonging to the five
Genus under the Class Demospongiae (siliceous sponges), they are the Genus 1: Clathria,
Clathria prolifera species, the Genus 2: Amphimedon, Amphimedon erina species, the Genus 3:
Erylus, Erylus formosus species, the Genus 4: Stylissa, Stylissa massa species and the Genus 5:
Spongia, Spongia officinalis species. This study showed that there are still a lot of sponges yet to
be discovered in Myanmar waters, hence the needs to conduct similar study in other areas of thecountry, possibly using the developments in natural science.

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

Acknowledgement
The first author is grateful to the Aquamarine Ecotourism Co., Ltd. and Boulder Bay Eco Resort Co., Ltd.
for their assistance in the field collection and sampling of sponges.

References[1] Alonso, D., Khalil, Z., Satkunanthan, N. andLivett, B. G. 2019. Drugs from the sea: conotoxins as drug leads forneuropathic pain and other neurological conditions.
[2] Collin, R., Díaz, M. C., Norenburg,J., Rocha, R. M., Sánchez,J. A., Schulze,A., Schwartz,M. and Valdés,A.
2005. Photographic Identification Guide To Some Common Marine Invertebrates of Bocas Del
Toro, Panama. Caribbean Journal Of Science. 41:3, 638-707.
[3] Donia, M. and Hamann, M. T. 2019. Marine natural products and their potential applications as anti-infective
agents.
[4] Laport, M. S., Santos, O. C. and Muricy, G. 2019. Marine sponges: potential sources of new antimicrobial drugs.
[5] Longakit, M. B. A., Sotto, F. B., and Kelly, M. 2005. The Shallow Water Marine Sponges (Porifera) of Cebu,
Philippines.Science Diliman 17:2. 52-74.
[6] So Yeun Woo, Nwet Nwet Win, Chin Piow Wong, Takuya Ito, Shotaro Hoshino, Hla Ngwe, Aung Aung Aye,
Nang Mya Han, Huiping Zhang, Fumiaki Hayashi, Ikuro Abe, Hiroyuki Morita. 2018. Two new
pyrrolo-2-aminoimidazoles from a Myanmarese marine sponge, Clathria prolifera. Journal of
Natural Medicines 72. Page no. 803–807.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

Monitoring and Modeling Environmental Sustainability Indices of Intensified
Agriculture in South Korea
Seung Woo Park1

ABSTRACT
Environmental sustainability is generally considered to be the final pillar of the sustainable
development goals (SDGs) in rural and agricultural development projects. Whereas intensified
agriculture has contributed to higher productivity, it also alters hydrology, accelerates soil erosion,and degrades downstream water quality. The agro-ecosystems are also affected. This paper
presents the results from long-term monitoring and modeling researches on the hydrology, soil
erosion, water quality, and agro-ecosystems in fields and watersheds. It also discusses theapplications of parametric models to simulate the environmental impacts of land-use variations
and agricultural management practices. Several hydrological parameters including the runoff
curve number and irrigation return flow for irrigated paddies are presented. The results from
ecological surveys of irrigated paddies and the surrounding territory are presented. Moreover,indicator biota species are proposed for characterizing the environmental integrity of the agroecosystem. The results of these studies may be applicable to the quantitative assessment of theenvironmental impacts.
Keywords: environmental sustainability, hydrological and water quality monitoring, parametricmodels, ecological surveys

1. Introduction
The total land area of the Republic of Korea (hereafter Korea) is 100,300 km2.
Approximately 2.9% of this comprises inland water areas. Forests and cultivated land occupy
63.4% and 16.4%, respectively. The acreage of paddy fields and the upland are 8,950 and 7,500
km2. Approximately 3% of the cultivated land is used for greenhouses. Moreover, 81.3% of
paddy fields is irrigated from public water sources, and the remaining is partially irrigated byindividual farmers (MAFRA2, 2017).
The annual water use for agriculture is reported to be approximately 15.2 billion m3 orapproximately 20% of the renewable (or available) water resources (ME3, 2016). The average
fertilizer application in 2016 was 274 kg/ha. According to a recent report by OECD (2019),
Korea’s surplus of N and P balances in agricultural lands (240 and 47 kg/ha, respectively) is oneof the highest among OECD countries.
These high inputs for intensified agricultural production systems have caused severe
environmental issues. Excessive water intake for transplanting rice seedlings generally reduces
the in-stream flow in small creeks and rural streams. In addition, the irrigation return flow frompaddy fields causes degradation of the water quality of the downstream water bodies. Nonpoint
source pollution from upland fields has also generated significant concern with regard to water
quality. For example, the soil erosion from vegetable crop fields in hill slopes degrade the water
quality of the Soyang Lake and other large lakes and significantly increases the downstream citywater treatment costs.
1

Ph. D, Professor Emeritus, Seoul National University and Member, The National Academy of Sciences, Republicof Korea
2
Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs
3
Ministry of Environment

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

36

Cultivated land is one of the five fundamental ecological systems, which include air,forest, water, and urban areas as well (Novotny and Olem, 1994). In addition to food production,
agricultural land offers conservation functions to the ecosystems. It is important to preserve theintegrity of the natural environment and ecosystems of agricultural land. Moreover, thesustainability of agricultural ecosystems should be maintained to the extent feasible.
The purposes of this paper1 are to review the national environmental monitoring systems;present experimental programs for monitoring watershed hydrology and water quality, and biota
for paddy and rural environments; and discuss hydrological and water quality models applicableto agricultural watersheds.

Environmental Indicators for K-Sdgs
The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development was committed to by the member statesof the United Nations in September 2015. The agenda contains 17 goals (SDGs) and 169 targets.
In addition, 232 indicators were specified to document the progress and achievements of themember states with regard to the SDGs. To comply with the agenda, the Korean-SDGs (KSDGs) were published. They comprised 17 goals, 132 targets, and 224 indicators to reflect thenation’s circumstances (Table 1).
Table1. Number of environmental indicators of the K-SDGs (Korea Government, 2018).

Total

1

5

2

SDGs

1

No. of Indicators in four dimensions*No. oftargets

Examples of environmental
indicators

SocialEconomic

Environ-mentalInternational

9

7

(1)

1

1

6

8

5

3

ratio of sustainable agriculture land
to total

3

8

17

14

3

ratio of population in cities ofunqualified air quality to total

4

8

14

12

5

9

20

20

6

7

17

17

wastewater reuse rate, water leakage
rate

7

4

7

4

1

2

ratio of renewable energy for power
generation

8

10

9

6

2

1

footprint of material

9

5

7

4

2

1

CO2 emission per added value

10

5

8

8

no. of casualties from natural
disasters

2This paper is a review of a few papers and reports written and published by the author and his associates andcolleagues.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

37

No. of Indicators in four dimensions*No. oftargets

Total

Social

11

9

17

15

2

air pollution of metropolitan

12

11

14

4

10

ratio of recycled plastics to total

13

3

4

1

3

ratio of greenhouse gas reduction
revenue to total

14

6

8

8

annual average pH in coastal zones

15

9

12

12

sustainable forest management,
Korean red list index

16

13

30

17

14

23

Sum

132

224

SDGs

Economic

Environ-mental28International

Examples of environmental
indicators

2
23

128

6

63

26

* Number of indicators for four dimensions was solely based on the author’s review.

The indicators for the K-SDGs on the water environment (flash water) and agriculturaland forest environments were altered during the past three years. In 2016, the water quality
conditions of the four rivers were included. They were not considered in the 2018 list of
indicators. Meanwhile, indicators for rural water environments are presented, such as the national
statistics of wastewater treatments and water reuse. It should be noted that Table 1 is a draft andmay not be the final statistics.
2. National hydrological and biosystems
Monitoring programs
Hydrological Investigations

Table 2 summarizes the hydrological and water quality survey programs that are being
implemented presently by government agencies and the three government investment
corporations. The densities of the hydrological measurements are 142 and 134 km2 for eachprecipitation and water stage station, respectively. These are higher than or equal to theinternational standards for hydrological gaging networks. The water discharge stations by
National Institute of Environmental Research (NIER) in Table 2 are for Total Water Pollution
Load (TWPL) programs.
The Basic Plan for Hydrological Investigation (BPHS) reported the uncertainties in thehydrological measurements (MOLIT2, 2008). The probable errors in the precipitation and waterstage data from 1997 to 2007 were reported as follows: 1) Missing data in precipitation and waterstage records owing to gage failure were determined 5.5% and 4.8%, respectively, on average,
and 2) incorrect data by irregular observations or recording were 0.9% and 7.5%, respectively.
Since then, no additional information on the uncertainty in hydrological records has been
documented. A few of those sources of errors could have been reduced. Nevertheless, it is likely
2

Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)38

that the hydrological records have approximately 10% or less of irregularities or uncertainties.
This needs to be reduced to less than 2–3%.

Table2.Summary of the hydrological and water quality monitoring programs (ME, 2019)
No. of gaging stations by agencies*
Parameters
ME

Hydrology

NIE
R

KM
A

Kwater

KEP
CO

80

186

15
7

Su
m

Km2
per
station

706

142

751

134

Precipitation

425

Water stage

549

2

156

Discharge

211

262

28

501

200

Sediment

14

8

22

4,564

Ground
water

442

442

227

River

221

160

31

271

685

Lake

81

7

80

23

198

agricultural

Industrial
park streams

37

955

Urban
conduit
Water
quality**

KR
A

Loc
al
gov
’t.

955
37

70

TWPL
stations

64

Automatic
WQ

70

37
70

273(
106)

Sum

337
(10
6)
70
2,2
49

44.6

*ME: Ministry of Environment, NIER: National Institute of Environment Research, KMA: Korea Meteorological
Administration, K-water: Korea Water Resources Corporation, KEPCO: Korea Electric Power Corporation, KRC: Korea Rural
Community Corporation, Local gov’t.: Cities and Provinces**TWPL: Total Water Pollution Load, WQ: water quality measurement

The total number of water quality observatories at rivers, lakes, agricultural reservoirs,city conduits, and industrial park streams is 2,249. These include general, TWPL, nonpoint
source pollution, sediment deposit, and radiation observatories. Two government agencies, 15
local governments, and two government investment corporations operate the observatories.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

39

The frequency of the general water quality investigations varies with the purpose of water
quality measurements. For the general water quality observatories for rivers and lakes, themeasurements are implemented once a month (12 samples a year). The results are used to define
the annual average water quality conditions of the rivers. Measurements are being performed
three times a month for TWPL observatories (36 samples a year). For agricultural reservoirs,water quality samples are extracted and analyzed two times a year.
Natural Environment and Forest Resources Investigations
Two nationwide surveys on natural resources and environment are carried out annually.
They are 1) Nationwide Natural Environment Survey (NNES) by ME and 2) National Forest
Resources Survey (NFRS) by Korea Forest Service (KFS). NNES is a map-based national
ecosystem survey program to be implemented once in five years. Each of the 824 basic
topographic maps of scale 1:25,000 is segmented into nine grids. The investigations are
conducted for nine categories of natural environment conditions: landforms, vegetation, flora,
benthic macro-invertebrates, terrestrial insects, freshwater fish, amphibians and reptiles, flora,
and birds and mammals. In addition, close examinations of the six types of ecological importanceincluding estuaries and national parks are carried out.
NFRS3 is being implemented for national forests in 4 × 4 km2 grids once in five years.
Approximately 800 sites have been surveyed each year, i.e., approximately 4,000 sites in five
years, during the past three decades. Figure 1 is an example of 2010 NFRS site map in thenorthern part of Korea (Kangwon Province).

Figure1. A map of Forest Resources Surveys during 2006-2010 (Kangwon Province) (NFCF)

3. Monitoring and Modeling Watershed Hydrology and Water Quality
The author had developed and implemented field and watershed monitoring programs forhydrology, soil erosion, and water quality for 20 years since 1996. The programs involved 1)
measurements of the runoff and soil losses from soil erosion experimental plots and an uplandfield, 2) hydrological and water quality measurements at rice paddies, and 3) measurements of
the hydrology and water quality of the streams and lakes from agricultural and forest watersheds.
In addition, surveys on geomorphological and land use characteristics, soil characteristics, andcropping and management practices were carried out. As the field and watershed data were filed
up, different hydrological and water quality models were applied and validated. Those models
3

http://nfric.nfcf.or.kr

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

40

have been developed for watershed conditions that are significantly different from Koreanwatersheds. They were observed to be inapplicable to irrigated paddy field conditions andtherefore required certain modifications.
The monitoring programs and observations from long-term study results are summarized
as follows.
Hydrological and Water Quality Measurements

Figure 2 shows a schematic diagram of the watershed monitoring program for the Baran
watershed at Hwasung city. The area of the watershed was 2,649 ha, and the land use was 23%
paddy, 4.5% upland field, and 63.3% forest. There are two agricultural reservoirs in the Baran
watershed: Gichun and Baran. It consisted of six hydrological measurements using recording
stage gages and nine water quality observatories for the watersheds. In addition, six hydrologicalmeasurements were implemented at six irrigation canals and paddies. They revealed when andhow much water was irrigated. Furthermore, the water depths of 61 paddy fields were surveyedeach day during the growing seasons. The irrigation return flow from the paddy blocks wasmonitored and estimated in the hydrological measurement programs.
Figure 3 shows various devices and settings for soil erosion and hydrologicalmeasurements. Soil erosion experiments were carried out in Yeoju and Suwon. Hydrological andwater quality measurements were implemented at the Baran watershed. For nonpoint source
pollution measurements, an automatic sampler was used to investigate the temporal variations inwater quality during flash floods at the discharge stations. All the water samples were taken to
the laboratory for analyzing the suspended sediment, nutrient, and coliform concentrations. The
details are presented in Table 3. The table also presents the frequencies of hydrological and water
quality measurements for the watersheds. The precipitation data were measured using a selfrecoding tipping bucket rain gage. Daily and hourly rainfall data for heavy storms were recorded.

Figure 2. Hydrological and water quality measurements and ecological survey programs at Baran watershed (Park, 2000).

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

41

Table 3. Summary of the hydrological and water quality investigation at the Baran watersheds.
Monitoring types

Items

No. ofstations

Instrumentation

Frequencyof surveys

1

recording rain gage

weeklyprecipitation
streamwater

daily, hourly
daily, hourly
floods)12stage(flashstage gage, staff
gage

weekly4

current meterbimonthly,
flash flood

average velocities over crosssection3

ground water level
ruler

weeklyground water
wells, weekly

stream7

grab sampling,

weekly,

water

lake

2

automatic sampler

flash flood

qualityground water3

grab samples

bi-monthly

Lab. analyses: DO, SS, NO3N, NH4-N, T-N, PO4-P, T-P,
coliform

water
stage

irrigation canal4

recording gage

weeklyno. of hours/day

paddies25

staff (ruler)daily

daily ponding depth

drainage(discharge)

5

H-L flume, stage
gage

weeklywater quality

2

grab sampling

weekly

stage

lake

daily stage,
relationship

2hydrology
discharge
watershedground
level

field

Survey methods andrecorded data

water

stage-discharge

observation

field measurement:
temperature, pH, EC

water

daily, hourly drainage amountsame as in watershed survey

Table4. Hydrological and water quality models applied and validated with the Baran watershed data.

CREAMSPADDY

O

SS

TN

TP

Modified

Validated

Referencesqp

OCon- tinuousO

Application
s

Q

AGNPS

Event

Field

ModelsSimulated/applied
parameters*

Temporal

Water shed

Spatial

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

GWLF

O

O

O

HSPF

O

O

O

IREFLOWOOONRCS CN

O

O

O

O

NRCS

O

O

O

O

O

Lee et al (2007), Chang et al(2011)

O

O

O

O

O

Jin et al (2002), Kim et al (2008)

O

O

O

O

Hwang et al (2006)

O

O

O

O

Ko et al (2007), Kim et al (2009)O

Im & Park (2006), Kim et al (2009)O

Im et al (2007)

O

Im & Park (1997)

OO

CN-PADDY
O

SSARR

O

SWAT
WEPP

O

O

O

O

O

O
O

O

O

O

O

O

Kang et al (2011), Kang & Park (2014)

O

O

O

O

Kim et al (2011), Jeong et al (2016)O

Kang et al (2004)

O

42

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

The stream discharge was determined by multiplying the cross-sectional area by theaverage velocities measured using a current meter (Figure 3). The velocity measurements wereobtained bimonthly at the low and medium water stages, and at intervals of at least 30 min during
flash flood events. Meanwhile, the drainage from five paddy fields was measured using H/Lflumes equipped with self-recording stage gages. Examples of the hydrological and water quality
data for the watersheds are available in a few references (e.g. Park, 2000; Im and Park, 2006;
Kim et al, 2009).

1) Soil erosion experimental plots, 2) H/L flume at upland field, 3) stage gaging site, 4) flow velocity
measurement, 5) downloading water stage data at irrigation canal, 6) measuring water depth in paddy field, 7)
water sampling in paddy field, 8) water sampling in irrigation ditch, 9) water sampling in stream

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Figure 3. Soil erosion experimental plots and hydrological and water quality measurements in Baran watershed.

The hydrology and water quality in irrigated paddy fields were observed to besignificantly different from those in upland fields or forest watersheds. The direct runoff frompaddy fields and the peak runoff were less than that of the forest watershed for storms larger than
60 mm of rainfall during the growing season. However, the hydrological differences between thetwo watersheds were reversed after the irrigation periods. This is because all the drainage sluicegates in the paddy fields were removed by the farmers.
Other noteworthy features of the paddy hydrology were as follows: 1) The drainage rates
decreased as the water depths reduced. Thereby, the drainage time in a large paddy field was overtwo days. 2) The ground water levels in the paddy fields were affected more by rainfall than by
the irrigation. 3) The water quality of the nearby streams deteriorated significantly during thetransplanting periods owing to muddy flow from paddy fields. Hydrological models for paddy
watersheds were recommended to consider the drainage hydraulic characteristics of paddy.
Certain issues with the monitoring programs that may be noteworthy were as follows: 1)
The investigation of water stage in the Baran watershed was not implemented during the frozen

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

43seasons (from late November to early March). 2) The hydrological data for the periods were
estimated to supplement the missing data by using mathematical models, although they were notused for the historical data. 3) It was expensive to frequently perform water quality analyses.
Nonetheless, bi-monthly water quality data were observed to be inadequate for accurately
depicting the variations in the nutrient concentrations, which varied with flash flood andirrigation return flow. 4) The water quality of streams and lakes revealed that the water pollution
concentrations were lower in March and higher in May. Irrigation return flow is likely to be thecause of the high concentrations in the transplanting period.

Geomorphological, Soil, and Land Use Surveys
Table 3 summarizes the geomorphological, soil, and land use surveys. The
geomorphological surveys detailed watershed parameters such as the watershed area, relief ratio,
shape factor, and river density of the six watersheds. Topographic maps of scale 1:25,000 wereused to define them. They were verified with satellite images using GIS tools.
The land use and its variations were also revised annually based on interviews with local
residents and satellite images. Geological information system (GIS) was used to define the data.
The soil survey was carried out to analyze the soil properties. A soil map of scale 1:25,000 wasused for the survey. Moreover, the hydrological soil groups were determined according to thepermeability of the soil series.
Table5. A summary of the geomorphological and land use investigations
Survey types

Target areas

Items

Geomorphological/

6 watersheds

watershed area, relief
ratio, shape factor, meanslope gradient, riverdensity

1/25,000 topographic map,
satellite images, GIS

land use changeinterview, satellite images, GIS

land use survey

Methods

Soil survey

6 watersheds

soil properties(physical), hydrologic
soil groups

1/25,000 soil map, soil
sampling & lab. Analyses, GIS

Stage-storage
relationship

2 reservoirs

Gichun, Baran
reservoirs

historical surveying data,
satellite images

Agricultural
practices survey

4 watersheds

cultural practice survey(interview*)

cropping records (crop types,
acreage), tillage, fertilizer andpesticide application rates,
seeding & harvesting dates,
irrigation water sources* Interviewing methods were used to keep agricultural practice records (representative farmers)

Cropping and management practice parameters including the times of tillage, seedling,
and fertilization days and amounts, and irrigation management information were surveyed19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

44through interviews with farmers and from the local extension officers. The interviews were
performed in early March. The land use and hydrological parameters such as the NRCS runoff
curve number were analyzed using GIS.

Modeling Field and Watershed Hydrology and Water Quality
Table 4 summarizes ten hydrological and water quality models applied and validated withthe data for a few of the Baran watersheds. Three models were developed for paddy field
applications. The remaining seven are parametric field and watershed models. All those models
were observed to be applicable to complex watersheds with forest and irrigated paddy fields
when parameters for irrigation practices were considered adequately.
The return flow from irrigated paddy consisted of two types of runoff processes (Im andPark, 2006). One was the quick return flow in the form of drainage or overflow from paddy
fields. The other was the delayed flow released from the recharged ground water owing toponding irrigation. Simulated irrigation return flow varied with the operation and management of
the reservoirs. The return flow at the Gichun reservoir irrigation area ranged from 39 to 48%,
whereas it was approximately 33% at the Baran reservoir area. The portions of quick return flow
ranged from 30 to 40% of the total return flow. Approximately 40% of the irrigated amount was
released in forms of return flow.
The NRCS runoff curve number for irrigated paddy fields was estimated to be 69, 82, and91 for antecedent moisture conditions (AMC) I, II, and III, respectively (Im et al., 2007). Field
measurement data and simulated values were used in the study. The curve number for AMC I
and III was derived from probability analyses.
The water quality in irrigated paddy fields revealed that the higher nutrient concentrations(TN and TP) from the fertilization decreased gradually in the form of recession curves whenaffected by the irrigation and rainfall. CREAMS-PADDY was developed to simulate dailyhydrological features and the TN and TP concentrations in a paddy field. It was applied topresent the effects of different management practices such as fertilization rates and irrigation
practices, on the pollutant loadings to the downstream stream.

Ecological Surveys on Forest, Stream, And Paddy
Three natural ecological surveys were carried out to determine the effects of spatial andtemporal intervals on the results from ecological surveys. These were 1) forest resource
investigations, 2) flora surveys on fluvial high-water zone and banks of stream reaches, and 3)
fauna (arthropod species) surveys in three paddy fields (Table 6). Detailed information isavailable in the reference (Park et al., 1996).
Forest Resources and Flora Survey
Forest resource investigations were carried out in the three zones: the upstream of the
Gichun and Baran reservoirs, exterior of reservoir watersheds, and remote areas from villages(Figure 2). Forest resource investigation was carried out for three 10 × 10 m rectangular zones at
30 m interval for three types of tree species: quercus, pinus, and sorbus.
Quercus, pinus, sorbus, and their combinations were observed to be the dominant trees in19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

45natural conditions. In plantation areas, pinus rigida, koraiensis, populas, acacia, and castanea
were surveyed. Oak trees were observed to encroach into pinus plantation areas and are likely to
be dominant in the near future.
Table 6. Summary of the forest, high-water zones and stream banks, and paddy ecologicalinvestigations.
Survey types
Forest ecology
surveyTargetareas
4 forestzones(12 sites)

Items

Methods

forest vegetation survey, forest
rectangular network setting,ecology and productivity survey, field survey
major forest groups

High-waterzone/ bank flora
survey15 sites

vegetation map, biomass,
ecology habitat survey, soils

field flora survey, soil
sampling & lab analyses

Paddy
arthropod
survey3 paddyfieldsarthropod distribution, density,
biomass

field survey, collecting fauna,
Tullgren funnel analyses

For herbaceous plant surveys, 1 × 1 m or 2 × 2 m rectangular plots were laid out. The
dominant plant species were determined using the Braun–Blanquet (1964) method. The total
number of herbaceous plant species ranged from 31 to 40. It was higher in April and May andlower in October. No significant variations were observed in the species in any of the sites during
the five year investigation. Thus, it was concluded that the five-year interval may be feasible forthe forest ecological surveys.

a) Forest resources and soil surveysb) High-water zone and riverbank flora survey sites and biomass measurements
Figure 4. Forest resource and stream bank flora investigation

46

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

Flora Survey in Stream High-Water Zones and Banks
Fifteen sites on high-water zones and banks along the streams in the watersheds wereselected for flora surveys. The investigation sites were selected at 400–500 m intervals. Amongthese, five sites were selected for biomass measurements and soil investigation at the upstream
and downstream of the two reservoirs.
The herbaceous species and their seasonal coverage were investigated at rectangularquadrat. Moreover, biomass samples were extracted from three 1 × 1 m quadrat for each site, andtheir 48 h dry weights were recorded in the laboratory. Soil samples were also extracted toanalyze physical and chemical properties.
The survey results revealed that the total numbers of herbaceous species in April, June,and August were 46, 101, and 79. Significant spatial variations in the herbaceous species werealso observed. However, there were no significant trends wherein the species depended on thesurrounding cropland conditions. The spatial variations were more closely related to thestreambed materials and soil properties.

Paddy Arthropod Survey
The paddy arthropod survey was conducted in three paddy blocks, as shown in Figure 2.
For each block, three zones were selected for the investigation. Before transplanting riceseedling, three tilled and one untilled paddy zones were selected and surveyed for arthropod
species on ten 1000 cm3 soil samples. The samples were placed in Tullgren Funnel to collect all
the arthropods for 72 h, which were then regrouped by species and counted. Figure 5 shows threetraps and their field applications, i.e., to catch and collect arthropod species.
To investigate the arthropod inside rice stalk, acrylic cages of size 0.5 × 0.5 × 0.7 m wereplaced over the sampled rice. The arthropod inside the cages was collected and analyzed for the
population. The total number of samples extracted in each zone was 10. All the three zones weresurveyed on the same day from 10 am to 5 pm.
The results from the survey were as follows: 1) No significant differences in arthropod
population were observed among the three zones. 2) The dominant species varied with thegrowing season. Midge was dominant in the first month following the transplanting. Insect pests
followed it, and the spider population increased. The number of natural enemy groups (spider)remained approximately 20 throughout the season. It was observed that the population of theenemy group of paddy was a good indicator of the paddy ecological conditions.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)a) Traps for Chironomidaeb) Wing traps

47c) Flypaper traps

Figure 5. Three traps and their field applications for arthropod sampling.

4. Conclusions
This paper presents the results from field and watershed monitoring and modelingprograms performed over 20 years to evaluate hydrology, water use for irrigation, soil erosion,water quality, and the agricultural and forest ecology. The monitoring schemes at the Baran
watershed are introduced in detail. Thereby, the frequencies and timing of the water quality
sampling and ecological surveys are discussed. The testing and validation of hydrological andwater quality models with data from the watersheds are also presented. The results are as follows:
1. The hydrological and water quality parameters are better indicators for sustainable
development because they are more sensitive to the variations in land use and management inagricultural and rural conditions. The K-SDGs programs need to be revised to include thoseparameters.
2. The frequencies and timing of water quality measurements are recommended to beadapted to the flow conditions. Better scheduling of the measurements that consider the flow
duration of water pollutant loads is necessary. At least one sampling should be performed during
the rainy seasons (June to September).
3. The forest resource investigation results reveal that the survey intervals for tree species
could be as long as five years similar to the National Program. The herbaceous plant surveys
need to be carried out three times annually, so that the dominant species are sampled.
4. The population of spider species is a good indicator of the arthropod ecology in paddy.
They better reflect the density of other insect populations, which is a good indicator of theecological conditions.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)48

Acknowledgments
This paper was partially supported by the Academic Activity Support Program by the Office of the National
Academy of Sciences, Republic of Korea.

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irrigation in the Osan River watershed in Korea using the SWAT model. Agr. Wat. Management.
163:393-402.
Jeong, H.S., H.K. Kim, C.H. Seong, T.I. Jang, and S.W. Park, 2013. Effects of wastewater effluent on riverdischarge using SWAT model. J. Agr. & Life Sci. 44(1): 32-38.
Jeong, H.S., T.I. Jang, C.H. Seong, and S.W. Park, 2014. Assessing nitrogen fertilizer rates and split applications
using DDSAT model for rice irrigated with urban wastewater. Agr. Wat. Management. 141:1-9.
Kang, M.G., S.W. Park, J.H. Son, and M.S. Kang. 2004. Applications of WEPP model to a plot and a small uplandwatershed. J. KSAE 46(1):87-97.
Kang, M.S., S.W. Park, J.J. Lee, and K.H. Yoo, 2006. Applying SWAT for TMDL programs to a small watershed
containing rice paddy fields. Agri. Wat. Management, 79:72-92.
Kang, M.G., S.W. Park, and J.M. Park, 2009. Identifying two-dimensional characteristics of surface water hydraulics
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Kim, H.K., E.J. Lee, S.W. Park, and M.S. Kang, 2009. Assessment of impacts of the impervious surface change inthe farm region on watershed hydrology. J. KSAE 51(6):17-23.
Lee, E.J., H.K. Kim, and S.W. Park, 2007. Assessing impact of non-point source pollution by management
4

The Korean Society of Agricultural Engineering
The Korean Society of Water Resources
6
Korea Commission on Irrigation and Drainage
7
Agricultural Water Management
8
American Society of Civil Engineers
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alternatives on arable land using AGNPS model. J. Agr. & Life Sci., 41(4):55-61.
MAFRA, 2017. Agriculture, food and rural affairs statistics yearbook 2017. 11-1543000-000261-10. 375p.
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Voluntary Review. 33p.

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Sustainable Power of Urban Growth from the Standpoint of Investment andGlobal Division for the Industry of Upscale clothing: The Case Study of
Jingu- mae Shibuya Ward Tokyo
TOMOMI MITA1

Abstract
This paper is uncovering the change of the main street and close alleys of backside in Omote
Sando District Tokyo, from the standpoint of the sign value of urban space and investment. The
first, close alleys were residential street until the 1980s. However, from the 1990's the close alleys
changed to the global hub of upscale clothing design. This change generated a sharp image of the
Omote Sando with the magazine exclusively for fashion. The second, bright image of this district
attracted many investment companies. The investment companies and large company of upscale
clothes are making some spatial renovation of the buildings. These processes make the land prices
in the Omote Sando raised slowly until now. As a result, investment companies and the residents
began to update the sign value of urban space to raising the exchange value of urban space. Thisfinding makes sign value of urban space secure connection to the global economy the investment
leads. From the case, the sustainable power of urban growth seems like only the design of upscale
clothing and investment. However, the potential power is also the global division works for
upscale clothing. The significance of this research is discussing the global restructuring of theindustry for upscale clothing from the standpoint of urban growth, cultural production, Asian laborand the investment, main theme of the Contemporary Urban Sociology. Also from the case, thesustainable power of urban growth seems like only the design of upscale clothing and investment.
However, the potential power is also the global division works for upscale clothing.

1. The purpose of this paper
The purpose of this paper is as follows. The first one is discovering the social process thatthe investment companies have raised the exchange value of commercial property in the mainstreet and close alleys of the Omote Sando district of Tokyo.
Moreover, the second one, we are discussing this case study from the standpoint of thecultural production, the urban growth and the global economy.
From the 1920s, the Urban Sociology has pursuit the process and social problem of theurbanization. For example, Robert E. Park, E. Burgess, and Luis Wirth did search the process ofurbanization with the case studies about the inner area of Chicago (Park, 1925; Burgess, 1925;
Wirth,1928). So, they made succeed in finding the social problems that urban growth generates.
In the 1920s of Chicago, with rapid urbanization, there are many jobless workers, a divorced
person, gangs and suicides. So, the urban sociology in this era is the required solutions to reducethese social problems.
However, from the 1970s, due to the Oil Shock, the sector of manufacture in the large
cities of the advanced countries were declined because the industrial plants moved from thedeveloped countries to the Newly Industrializing Economies (NIEs). For example, industrial
plants get away from advanced countries and made many enclaves in East Asia, South Asia,
1

Dr Associate Professor, Sociology Department of Administrative Studies Prefectural University of Kumamoto
Japan

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North Africa, and South America. These phenomena make developed countries around the world
experience declining. So urban researcher pursuit what is the power of urban regrowth.
The contemporary urban sociology has grasped the power of regrowth as knowledge
production. Case in point is the derivatives trading (Sassen, 2001). For example, in contemporary
Financial, Insurance, Property Sector and Producer Service, with derivatives, the secured asset
will be the core of the global economy (Sassen, 2001). There are increasing demands fromclients who prefer a variety of investment instruments, including foreign bonds, investment trusts
and derivatives traded under foreign currencies. So contemporary urban sociology grasped urban
regrowth power as investment trusts and derivatives. Sassen mentioned that the global economy
is proceeding the urban restructuring with the securities investment trust (Sassen, 2001).
From the standpoint of the economic geographies, Olds uncovers global social processes
underlying the production of contemporary urban renewal projects, with the case study of Pacific
Rim cities from the 1980s (Olds, 1995). Olds focuses on the exchange of real estate with
Securities as the way of the Urban Mega Project (Olds, 1995). Also, Neil Smith mentioned theideas of urban regrowth as the investment to real estate (Smith, 2002). Weber discovers thatspatial policies, such as urban renewal funding for slum clearance or contemporary financial
incentives, depend on discursive practices that stigmatize properties targeted for demolition andredevelopment (Weber, 2002).
In this way, Olds and Weber described global financial markets seeking short term returns
from subsidized property investments. Also, Toshio Kamo, economic geographer of Japan, saidin the urban restructuring, investment trusts and derivatives are the most critical factors (Kamo,
1995). Like this, knowledge production focused on urban sociology, and economic geographies
are from the standpoint of the global economy.
On the other hand, the contemporary urban sociology from the standpoint of the cultural
production by some researcher -The pursuit of the relation of urban growth and the design of art,
design of clothing, consumer of apparel, and so on. The case study about the art and the urban
growth (Zukin, 1988), the case study about the digital design (Lloyd, 2006), also, the case study
about the design of clothing and furniture (Bovone, 2005; Mita, 2013).
The production of the art is grasped as a power of urban growth and gentrification with
"Loft living" (Zukin,1988). Zukin argued that in the 1960s, the manufacturing buildings on theLower Manhattan had been closed because manufacturing got out to any other country or area.
So, the Lower Manhattan was like a wasteland in the last 1960s, so a rental fee of the building
was cheaper. On the other hand, there were young or poor artists searched lower pay in Lower
Manhattan. They gathered the vacant rooms. So, they were succeeding for updating the design ofthe space in these buildings. The image of the buildings and this area had been aesthetic.
However, the developers bought these buildings from the owners as high prices. Thesedevelopers and the owners swiped the artists and sold the room for young adults and whitecollars (Zukin, 1988). Also, Zukin grasped the young power of renewing the urban space andgentrification.
Richard Lloyd argued that the spatial change of Wicker Park in Chicago (Lloyd, 2006).
This district is near the Damen station and Division Station of the blue line train for O’Hare
Airport via the LOOP.

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This area is the inner area of Chicago city. Until the1980's, The Wicker Park district waswasteland (Lloyd, 2006). From the 1980s, Young artists have the skill about digital design, weregathering into the Wicker Park. The young artist rent the offices for digital design and the schoolof digital design near the Division Station and Damen Station of the Blue Line Train. Until the
2000s, Wicker Park has been a "farm league" of professional designers with digital skills (Lloyd,2006). Lloyd grasped the cultural production with digital skills is as the power of urban growthof the inner area of Chicago by "Neo-Bohemia" (Lloyd, 2006).
The paper of Mita (2013) describes the social process in which close residential alleys
developed into the global hub of clothing design by with the case study of Jingu Mae Shibuya
Ward Tokyo. Also, Mita (2013) discuss this social process from the standpoint of Urban
Sociology (Mita, 2013). This paper discovered as follows. In the 1990s, self-employed clothing
designers have established the offices on the nearby alleys in the Jingu Mae. Initially, thesenearby alleys were for residents. However, in the early 1990s, after the asset- inflated bubble
burst, these close alleys began to be transformed into the global hub for self-employed clothing
designers (Mita, 2013). The reason for this transformation of the nearby alley is as follows (Mita,2013). During the 1980s, when land prices went sky high, many residents who could not pay therising fixed property tax moved out to other areas and sold to the developers with high prices.
On the other hand, some residents scrapped their house and rebuilt the low- rise, and low
rents commercial buildings owned themselves. These buildings attracted some designers ofclothing, and they gathered to the close alleys and made the base for clothing design. They havesome global networks specialized for clothing design.
Moreover, they have created an advanced style with sophisticated knowledge andexcellent skills. These self-employed designers attract some large high brand clothing companies
made a business alliance with them. These large companies could buy a new design and sell it as
the latest fad clothing.
As a result, the close alleys in Jingu Mae have become "the global hub for research ofclothing design." (Mita, 2013). The academic significance of Mita (2013) is to focus on the
global network of self-employed designers. Also, this previous research focuses on the new role
as a global hub for clothing design of the close alleys in Jingu Mae Shibuya Tokyo, one of the
Global Cities (Sassen, 2001). The second significance is the discussion of the finding from thestandpoint of the income gap among producer services of the fashion design in the global city
(Mita, 2013).
In this way, the researcher of urban Sociology grasped the urban regrowth power ascultural production. Contemporary research of cultural production can understand as theknowledge production because contemporary designers and artists need much knowledge about
the trend of fashion and the style of contemporary art and high digital skill.
However, any previous case studies could not discuss with connecting the cultural
production, the investment the global economy leads, and the urban regrowth. From the 2000s,
by easing of regulation of the investment in Japan, the companies for investments in the realestate are inaugurated by the sector of global finance in Tokyo (Yabe, 2008). Global REIT
companies may do in New York, Sydney, Paris, Tokyo, and so on (Yabe, 2008). From the 2000s,
some companies for investment began trading the real estate in the fashionable street in the Jingu
Mae district Shibuya Ward Tokyo (Yabe, 2008). Because the investment companies grasp

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cultural production of upscale clothing and creating of the esthetic urban space as the powers ofmaking economic resources, these companies for investment may do; they could get theeconomic resources and distributes the margin to themselves and the client corporations aroundthe world.
So, we can understand the significance of grasping the cultural production not only as ofthe power of urban growth but also as the target of derivative financial instruments. Furthermore,
we will understand that contemporary urban sociology should discuss the cultural production andurban growth from the standpoint of the investment companies that the global economy lead. An
above story means the importance of considering fastening cultural production, urban growth,and the global economy. These descriptions are the academic significance of this research.
Then the purpose of this research is discovering the research questions as follows. The firstone is discovering the social process that the investment companies have raised the economic
value of commercial property in the main street and close alleys of the backside of it in Tokyo.
The second one is discussing this case study with fastening the cultural production, the urban
growth and the global economy.

2. Frame of Analysis: The Sign Value of Urban Space raising the Exchange Value of
Urban SpaceThis paper will focus on four values of the urban space. The first is the Value in Use of
Urban Space. The second is the Exchange Value of Urban Space. The third one is the Symbolic
Value of Urban Space. For Example, the Common and the Beacon Hill in Boston City (Firey,1945). Also, Matsumoto (2014) [ in Japanese] The Symbolic value of Urban Space in the casestudy of the “Creative Scene” in the Southside of MM21 District in Yokohama City, Greater
Tokyo (Matsumoto, 2014).
The last is the Sign value of Urban Space. “Sign Value” is a concept generated by Jean
Baudrillard (Baudrillard, 1970). Baudrillard thinks that sign value denotes and describes thevalue accorded to an object. Because he thinks that the style our lifestyle consists of the designof clothing, logo, architecture and space and so on. Baudrillard thinks sign value as important as
the value of the material.
So, he generates the concept "distinction."(Baudrillard, 1970). Baudrillard thinks
contemporary society is launched and operated by the distinction of sign value. For example, thedesign of clothing is changed frequently; we are buying a new style one.
In generally, the using value of urban space decides the exchange value of urban space.
However, not only the using value decides the exchange value. But also, the Symbolic Value andSign Value of Urban Space decide the exchange value of urban space. Because, we think not the
only economic issue in the urban life in every day, but also, we think the issue of social relation,
symbolic issue and cultural issue in the urban life in the everyday.
So, we should think not only the value of urban space but also the value of sign value(Boaurdrialled, 1970). That is to say, the chance of consuming is increased, contemporarysociety is operated sustainably. Then the society based on the consumption, Baudrillard calls“Consumption Society.”19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

55

In the Contemporary Consumption Society, the urban space consists of the fashionable
space in the boutiques, the flag shops of upscale clothing, the building the design office rent, andso on. So, the urban space may generate a fashionable atmosphere. This atmosphere is changing
into the new one with the fashion of clothing design are changing to the new one. So, the valueof urban space based on these atmospheres can be called as a new concept, the sign value of
urban space.
From the 1920s, Urban Sociology has pursuit the social process of the urbanization.
However, from the 1970s, due to the Oil Shock, the sector of manufacture in the main cities
around the world were declined. So, the urban sociology pursuit any answer to the researchquestion what the power of urban regrowth is.
However, they did not think the urban regrowth from the standpoint of the cultural
production in the global city and the investment sectors global economy lead. We present a new
hypothesis that the new image of the urban space as a fashionable cultural centre, the presence ofthe clothing design industry will generate the sign value of urban space. Also, the sign value of
urban space raises the exchange value of the clothes design there.
The hypothesis of this research is that not only Value in Use of Urban Space andSymbolic Value of Urban Space, but also Sign Value of Urban Space determines the Exchange
Value of Urban Space.
Support for this hypothesis would indicate that the distinction for the sign value of urban
space provides opportunities for getting economic resource with real estate investment. Also, thiscase study, local resident, culturally designed clothes, and retail companies will become strongly
connected to the global economy, which is already influenced by investment companies.
This connection of the sign value of urban space to the global economy could foster
sustained urban growth of the fashionable quarters with investment to the significant value anduse in value.

Fig. 1 Alternative Frame of the relationship around the value of urban space

3. The case and the way of Research
3.1 The Case
The place of this Case Study is the upscale quarter Omote Sando District, Jingu Mae
Shibuya Ward and Minami Aoyama Minato Ward Tokyo. The way of the survey is the interview
for Fashion Designers, the company of real estate in this area. The duration of this case study is56

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

four years. The estimated fiscal year of completing this research will be 2021.
The main street consists of large pliers beside the temple path and the close alleys in the
Minami Aoyama Minato Ward and Jingu Mae Shibuya Ward Tokyo Metropolis. We take around60 minutes from Tokyo Haneda International Airport with Shuttle Train and the Subway fromthe heart of Tokyo. Furthermore, we should take more than 120 minutes from Tokyo Narita
International Airport with the Airport Shuttle Train from North side of Tokyo. Also, the field of
this study is near the candidate venue of the main stadium for the Tokyo Olympics and theTokyo Paralympics 2020.

By Google Maps/ Reference on May. 1 - 2019.
Map 1: The location of the Shibuya Ward Tokyo57

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

By Google Maps/ Reference on May. 1 - 2019.
Map 2: The location of Jingu Mae

Map 2: The location of Omote Sando

By Google Maps/ Reference on May. 1 - 2019.

The field of this study is near the candidate venue of the main stadium for the Tokyo
Olympics 2020 and the Tokyo Paralympics 2020. The large pliers beside the temple path andclose alleys in the Omote Sando district were residential streets until the 1980s. However, fromthe 1990s, large pliers beside the temple path and the close alleys have changed to the global hubof clothing design and shopping. This change in the close alleys made with the sharp image ofthis area by doing make domestic and international magazines, TVs, Web, and so on. These
alleys prepared for use as a diversionary channel of the Meiji-Dori main avenue due to themassive traffic congestion. Also, the close alleys near the Omote Sando subway station are thecovered conduit of the sewerage between the Shinjuku and the Shibuya.

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

Tokyo Metro-politan Government suffers significantly from the traffic congestion of
Meiji Dori Avenue, in the Tokyo Olympic 1964. However, the close alleys are very narrow, so
the police and the Tokyo Metropolitan Government did not allow this alley as the diversionary
channel of Meiji-Dori Avenue.

Photo1. Omote Sando Street (Main Street)*Shooting it by Author

Photo 2. Omote Sando Street (Main Street) *Shooting it by Author

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Photo 3. Residential and shopping alley in the Jingu Mae district*Shooting it by Author

Photo 4. Omote Sando Hills

The Omote Sando Hills is operated by Mori Hills (REIT Company)*Shooting it by author

Moreover, the parts of large pliers beside the temple path in the Omote Sando district
consisted of the houses for the employee of Electric Tram, operated by Tokyo Metropolitan
Government. They were an employee of the Aoyama Car Base until the 1970s. The residents of

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

the Jingu Mae who did work on the Aoyama Car Base was the technology person of cars, thedrivers and the conductors.
The commercial property in this area should be designated more than one house-holdroom in every building, due to the zoning regulations by Shibuya Ward and Tokyo Metropolitan
Government. The close alleys in the Jingu Mae district were residential streets until the 1980s.
However, from the 1990s, the close alleys have changed into the global hub of clothing designand shopping with household rooms.

3.2 The Way of this ResearchThis research consists of four surveys and making some discussion on the base of
descript. The first, we will uncover the change of spaces with the case of the close allay in the
Jingu Mae (Harajuku) District. The second, we will get some knowledge around fashion andinvestment. The Final, we will discuss the case of this study from the standpoint of the Urban
Sociology.
The way of a survey is as follows. The first, this author has interviewed the designers
who have the design office in the close alleys of Jingu Mae district from 2003 to 2015. In 2003
to 2008 this author saw as the Kitchen staff and galley of café lounge in Minami Aoyama Minato
Ward Tokyo nearby the Jingu Mae Shibuya Ward.
The author has been speaking with customers of this lounge. In this way, the author has
been hearing them the workflow of an industry for fashion. Also, the author made a global social
network of designers for upscale clothing. So, this author could on going to hear them.
The designers and models have the office for design not only in Tokyo but also in Paris,
Antwerp, New York, and so on. The reason for gathering to this café lounge is that these
designers should participate in the Fashion Show "Tokyo Collection" and "Tokyo Fashion
Week." They finished the show and gathering to this café lounge.
Further, the owner and the staffs of this lounge have the other office for trading theimported clothing in the Jingu Mae, Minami Aoyama, and Gifu. So, the owner and the teams ofthis lounge have the global network of the designers of upscale clothing, press, and models.
Also, this author could be hearing the DJ working in this lounge and night jazz club, and so on.
The participant observation by the author could understand the cultural production of
upscale clothing. As well, the way of sampling is snow bawl sampling through the influence ofthe customers of lounge who are the designers of upscale clothing, the female fashion modelfrom the Euro and the chief of this lounge. The duration of the social survey on this lounge is 17
years (from 2002 to 2019).
The second, the author had heard the owner of the local shop for real estate in 2011 to2015. The hearing for the owners by this author could understand the history of the Jingu Mae
district. Also, the author grasps the owner and residents as the key person of spatial change in theclose alleys of this area. As well, the way of sampling is snow bowl sampling through the
influence of Professor Iguchi Norio Aoyama University. The duration of the social survey for
local real estate shop is from 2011 to 2015.
The third, the author had heard the staffs of some megabanks that established the paper

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companies. This author could listen to the flame of Real Estate Investment Trust "REIT." The
way of sampling is snow-bawl sampling through the influence of the customers of the lounge
who are the staffs of real estate companies in the heart of Tokyo. Duration of a social survey ofthis research is from 2012 to 2019.
So, the last, the author could hear the investment companies on the Aoyama Tokyo,
Osaka and the East 9th street in the Lower Manhattan New York. The author could get thestrategies for investment to the small offices of fashion design and retail companies. Duration ofthis social survey is 2014 to 2017 (four years). Thus, data of this paper consists of an interview
and free discussions.
The case study includes two points. The first point is the investment companies which
specialize in dealing with the commercial property in close alleys in Jingu Mae and MinamiAoyama. The second point is uncovering the economic value of the commercial property withchanging the image and brand value of the urban space made by cultural producers of upscale
clothing, sellers of upscale clothing, the developers and the investment companies for realestates.

4. The Change of the close alleys in the Jingu Mae District Shibuya Ward Tokyo
The Omote Sando district consisted of temple path and residential streets until the 1980s.
From the residential street to the global hub of clothing design, the area had consisted of several
residential neighbor hoods until the mid- 1980s. After the asset-inflated bubble economy has
burst, it has become a fashionable commercial district with many boutiques, hair salons, andsome clothing design firms. The transformation of the close alleys in the Jingu Mae is described
below.
Initially, the residents in the Jingu Mae had developed regional activities for
improvement of the living environment until the early 1980s. Because, Takeshita district, theSouth of Jingu Mae, had been accumulated the beaver bases from the 1950s to the 1970s.
Takeshita Avenue is the nearest the Meiji- Jingu Shrine. So many Japanese Inn is running in theTakeshita Avenue for the customers for worshipping at a Shinto shrine (only Japan) from theNorth Kanto,

Tohoku and so on, with an extra train to the Harajuku Station.
By the regulation of worshipping at a Shinto shrine, the Japanese Inn on the Takeshita
Avenue changed the business category from the Japanese into the beaver bases. In Takeshita
Avenue, the bad women are going on the prowl even as school-commuting roads to the Jingu
Mae Junior School. That is why the residents in the Jingu Mae had been on the high alert, andthey kept close tabs.
Not only that, the problem of Takeshita Avenue, but also the Jingu Mae district, hasmany problems. In 1964, Tokyo Olympic was ongoing in the National Sports Stadium near the
Jingu Mae district. The crowds were going home via the Jingu Mae district. They have a night
long Binge with themselves. Also, the bike gangs were gathering to Meiji Avenue in every latenight. The residents in the Jingu Mae district suffer torment due to the tremendous noise.

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In the late 1960s, the residents had a petition for the City Office of Shibuya Ward andTokyo Metropolitan Government for the formulation of the regulation of local government for
the improvement of the living environment. Also, then the Tokyo Metropolitan government set
the regulation of the local government that the prohibition of running all the accommodations
and the control of the Business category. In the Jingu Mae district, running is prohibited except
for the shop of clothing, the coffee shop, and the restaurant with a current environment.
Moreover, the local merchants' association of the Jingu Mae and Aoyama Minato Ward
Tokyo planted the Zelkova trees (Japanese Called "Keyaki") on the Omote Sando Street. They
are doing beautification activities in all areas of Jingu Mae district. Beautification activities by
the local merchants' association and agglomeration of trendy shops and offices for clothing
design make Jingu Mae fashionable district.
In the 1980s, the bubble economy period, the land price of Omote Sando Street wasexcessively high. After that, many investors, on the cities of the developing countries, did expect
the economic ripple effect to the close alleys in the Jingu Mae. So, some company members ofthe developer and the investment companies did advise the residents scraped their houses andrebuild the low rise buildings for the shops of upscale clothing and the offices of clothing design.
The residents and the developers did raise the high revenue.
In the mid-1980s, some residents who could not pay hefty property tax move out to otherareas and sold their land at a high price to the developer. As noted above, the other residents
scraped their house and built commer-cial buildings owned by themselves. The tenants of thesebuildings are bou-tiques, hair salons, and some clothing design firms, and the owners of thesebuildings are living upper floor. The owners of these buildings are making their living by rental
income. However, the setting rent is lower than initially expected. In this way, since the 1990s
self-employed clothing designers and the owners of the shops of upscale clothing haveestablished the offices on the close alleys in Jingu Mae.
After the asset inflated bubble burst, the land price of the close alleys of this district isgoing lower than the late of the 1980's. However, after the accumulations of the office of theclothing design and shops, the land prices make an appreciation. All right, the land priceslumped due to the financial crisis (of 2007–08), from 2011, the land price move ups again. The
cause of moving up of the land price in this district is the accumulations of the office of theclothing design and shops of the upscale clothing. Also, the investment companies move ups theland price with a design of clothing and fashion and clothing shops.
The designers of upscale clothing have global networks specialized for clothing design.
Also, they have cre-ated advanced style with sophisticated knowledge and sophisticated skills(Mita, 2013). So, some large clothing companies, attracted by self-employed designers, made abusiness alliance with them. In this way, these large companies could buy a new design and sell
it as the latest fad clothing. As a result, the close alleys in Jingu Mae have become a global hub
for the design of clothing.

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2013/1/1
2014/1/1
2015/1/10Graph 1. The Land Price of the land in Jingu Mae Shibuya Ward Tokyo (JPY) /per 1m2

Table 1. The Land Price of the land in Jingu Mae Shibuya Ward Tokyo (JPY) /per 1m2
Date

Price

Date

Price

1983/1/1

940,000

2000/1/1

822,000

1984/1/1

1,120,000

2001/1/1

866,000

1985/1/1

1,370,000

2002/1/1

860,000

1986/1/1

1,772,000

2003/1/1

903,000

1987/1/1

6,000,000

2004/1/1

955,000

1988/1/1

9,620,000

2005/1/1

1,200,000

1989/1/1

13,475,000

2006/1/1

1,700,000

1990/1/1

9,910,000

2007/1/1

2,200,000

1991/1/1

11,500,000

2008/1/1

1,940,000

1992/1/1

9,000,000

2009/1/1

1,940,000

1993/1/1

5,500,000

2010/1/1

1,460,000

1994/1/1

1,600,000

2011/1/1

1,500,000

1995/1/1

1,210,000

2012/1/1

1,460,000

1996/1/1

968,000

2013/1/1

1,460,000

1997/1/1

968,000

2014/1/1

1,530,000

1998/1/1

880,000

2015/1/1

1,580,000

1999/1/1

838,000

Authority: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport, and Tourism of Japan

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

5. The Investment Companies and REIT
Deregulation and the liberalization of trade and investment have laid the foundation for asingle world market. From the 2000's the investment companies based on the Tokyo, New York,Paris, Sydney and Sao Paulo has begun to trade the buildings in the close alleys of Jingu Maewith REIT. REIT means "Real Estate Investment Trust." The way of investment is the
securitization of land and building. This way banned until 1999. However, easing of regulation
in some advanced countries, there is a promotion of securitization of real estate.
So, in 2000, the New York Stock Exchange and Australian Stock Exchange began to makesecuritization of real estate and maximize their profit margin and make cash dividend to theirclients. This way is the unique characteristic of REIT. In 2005, the Financial Services Agency ofJapan (FSA), the Securities and Exchange Surveillance Commission and the Tokyo Stock
Exchange (TSE) easing of securitization of real estate and maximize their profit margin in 2005
so that some global financial companies began to make securitization of real estate.
Notably, in the greater Tokyo, the railway companies make dormitory suburb and sell thehouse in the 1970s. So many young people are born in the dormitory suburb in the greater
Tokyo. The many people who live in the dormitory suburb in the greater Tokyo, need to go for
office or school in the heart of Tokyo. The companies of the railway have built much retail of
fashion and food.
For example, in the Shibuya, a heart area of Tokyo, Tokyu Group, the most famousdeveloper and the railway's company in the Kanto district, built the building many buildings
around the Shibuya Station in the 1970s. Many young or young adult people live in the suburb of
Shibuya (e.g. Setagaya City, the North of Kawasaki City and North of Yokohama City,), Tokyu
has developed the dormitory suburb and sell many houses.
And, the Seibu group developed the department store "Ikebukuro Seibu," "Shibuya
Seibu," "Ikebukuro Parco," “P’ (dash) Parco,” in the Ikebukuro station, and "Shibuya Parco," thedepartment store for the young adult pursuit for creativity.
The customers of these megastores are living in the house which developed by the
Tokyu, Seibu, Keio Company of Railway and development and so on. So, the companies ofrailway and development succeeded to have many customers who live in the around the station
they had developed in the 1970s- 1980s. So, these developers have succeeded not only to raise
brand value but also to raise the economic value of the real estate of the heart of Tokyo and thesuburb of greater Tokyo. The company of railway and developer of real estate began to focus on
the culture of the upscale clothing and investment. So, the companies of railway anddevelopment make participation not only in the development but also in the investment.
One of the trends of Tokyo, in 2009, the subway of the sub centre line (The 13th Subway
Line of Tokyo) started the operation. The first, this subway line ongoing toward the south side ofgreater Tokyo on the Tokyu Line and more ongoing to the Waterfront district “MM21” on the
subway Line of Yokohama Kanagawa Prefecture (via the waterfront sub centre of Yokohama).
The second, the sub centre subway line is ongoing toward the North side of greater Tokyo (e. g.,
Wako City, Niiza city, Tokorozawa city, Saitama Pref, and Isesaki City, Utsunomiya, Sano,
Kurihashi and Kuki City, Nikko City, Tochigi Pref., near of the Fukushima Pref. and Niigata
Pref.).

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The nearest station of the Jingu Mae is Meiji-Jingu (Harajuku) Station, all the train stops
only on holiday. In the day at work, many young adults are going to the office in the heart ofTokyo. In the off days, they are gathering to Jingu Mae District and Omote Sando Street in orderto shop with their commuter pass. The Tokyu department company thinks that this station canpull in more customers because all the trains stop on holiday. So, the companies of the railway
and development established organizations for investment focusing on the real estate of MeijiDori Avenue and Omote Sando Street and made securitization of real estate. With this change,
the close alleys of Jingu Mae became associated with a fashionable image and were featured in
fashion magazines, which eventually attracted some investment companies.
The companies for investment in real estate on the Tokyo, New York, Paris and Sydneybegan to trade the articles in the close alleys of Jingu Mae with so called "REIT." REIT means“Real Estate Investment Trust.” From the 2000s, the value of a real estate in the close alleys of
Jingu Mae had been rise slowly by the companies for investment in real estate.
For example, the Activia REIT Company, established by Tokyu Group, makes as theLand of Blue Note Tokyo as the target of REIT. ―The fairground of Blue Note is operated by
Hanshin Contents Link., Inc (A company of Hankyu Hanshin Toho Group). And this building
has the United Allows Boutique as the tenant. This Activia REIT Company, established by
Tokyu, elevates the economic value with the bland value of this building. And Sakura REIT
Company consists of Galileo (Sydney), and Galileo Japan Trust (Tokyo), make someinvestments to Minami Aoyama, Azabu, Hiro-o districts. In this way, global REIT Companies
focused on the land and building for trendy shops for the upscale clothing on Meiji-Dori Avenue
and Omote Sando Street of the heart of Tokyo. Also, Omote Sando Street and Meiji-Dori
Avenue are nearest the New National Stadium, the main stadium of the Tokyo Olympic in 2020.
So, in the area along the Omote Sando, Meiji-Dori Avenue, and Aoyama-Dori Avenue is themost attractiveness of land as an investment.
Moreover, the nearest Shibuya station and Meiji Jingu Mae station (Harajuku station),
there the most buildings for shops of clothes. Because all passenger going to the dormitory
suburb (for Yokohama and the Northside of Kawasaki), should board on the subway lines
operated by the Public Company of Subway. So, the commuters from the dormitory suburbs
where are developed by the companies of railways as the Tokyu, are going to the office aroundthe Shibuya, Harajuku and Omote Sando on Monday to Friday.
Also, they can go to the department store and boutique with their commuter pass on
holiday. In weekend, around the Shibuya and Aoyama districts, many young adult commuters
who live in the dormitory suburb are the holder of a credit card issued by the companies ofrailways, subway, developer and real estate, will purchase their commuter pass from their
dormitory suburb to the heart of Tokyo with their credit cards issued by them. Because they wantto earn “shopping point” and Flight Miles as rewards from the companies’ issue credit card.
Also, at the weekend, they would purchase their clothing, furniture and music audio with thesame credit card in the department stores operated by the same company as the railway.
So, these customers can get some benefit from the companies of the railway, subway anddeveloper. This business, the company of railway, generates not only the vast economic
resources but also the chance of investment to the area of Jingu Mae. So, the railway companies
are making some investment in this district themselves.

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For example, Tokyu, Seibu, Odakyu, Tobu and the Subway companies make someinvestment around the Shibuya, Meiji Jingu Mae, Harajuku and Omote Sando stations. Because
they are operating directly or at second hand. They think that the investment to around the
Shibuya Ward Tokyo is the significant opportunity. Therefore, especially the companies ofrailway and development make some investment property.
6. Securitization of real estate in the close alleys of Jingu Mae
While on the other hand, there is the REIT Company for the close alleys of Jingu Mae.
As previously noted, the economic value of commercial property in the close alleys has been
rising slowly from the 2000s until now. They focus not only on commercial properties
themselves, but also, they focus on update the fad and the image of Jingu Mae district. Under
noted figure indicates the target of the REIT. For example, Japan Retail Investment Company
launches the strategies of investment management. This company started by the Mitsubishi
Corporation (Tokyo), UBS Real Estate Securities Inc. (New York), and MUFG (Tokyo).
Why the investors focus on the close alleys? Because they focus on adding a touch ofclass to the buildings and they are refreshing the brand value of the space in close alleys of the
Jingu Mae District. They think that if they did so, the price of the commercial properties would
be higher. Also, they think that if the close alleys in the Jingu Mae diffused as "the fashionable
street" for many young people who are loving the clothing design and loving the shopping ofclothing, the close alleys of the Jingu Mae district would be growing demand.
Thereby, the investment companies focus on the close alleys and make investments to theclose alleys of the Jingu Mae. In this way, they could get huge margins with dealing the land in
the close alleys of Jingu Mae.
As noted previously, in the 1990s, on the close alleys of the Jingu Mae, there were "ForRent" or vacant buildings. The investment company grasped the design office and the small
clothing shops opened with low price rent as the power of the rising real estate values. They
think if the close alleys in the Jingu Mae, the design offices of clothing and small clothing shops
would be opening; the narrow aisles could be focused on by the media (TV and Magazine).
The investment companies bought them buildings with many empty rooms and renovating the space of the rental office. So, the areas and amenities of the rental apartments are
immaculate. So that from the early 2000s, many aspirants or candi-dates of the clothing
designers or the owners of the upscale clothing shops rent the rooms and opening their Officeand the shops in the close alleys of the Jingu Mae. The investment companies operate many of
the rental places for the REIT.
Most buildings in the Jingu Mae consist of design offices, clothing shops, and some hairsalons. The buildings operated by REIT companies for investment management are increasing.
Also, the comradely investment companies sold the building to the other comradely investment
more expensive than they bought. If the land price is moving up, the comradely investmentcompanies sold the other comradely investment companies more costly than they purchased. In
this way, the controlling investment companies had gotten many economic amounts.
As just described, the close alleys of the Jingu Mae Shibuya Tokyo have transformed
from the residential streets to the hub of global networks of clothing design in the 1990s. In the
2000s, the close allays of the Jingu Mae have been the central hub of the investment companies

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)of real estate and the investment companies for the company of design, manufacturing, retail,and trading.
The close allays of Jingu Mae have been changed from the hub of the global cultural
production of clothing to the target of the investment companies. This description indicates thesector of investment based in the cities around the world began to command with money theurban cultural production of the upscale clothing and the downtown retail and the consumer
culture of the upscale clothing. Also, the price of the close alleys in the Jingu Mae is higher than
the 1990s to the 2000s.
Table 2. The targets of the REIT (e.g. Japan Retail Investment Company)
G Building Minami- Aoyama 02

MinamiAoyama5

G Building Daikanyama01

Ebisu-Nishi 1

Gyre

Jingu-Mae 5

Café, Restaurant and the
Café, Restaurant and the
Boutiques

G Building Kita Aoyama01

The Chanel, the Comme desGarcon, Martin Margirela,
MOMA and the Japanese mostKita-Aoyama 3 Hair salons and bridal salon

G Building Jingu-Mae 02

Jingu-mae 4

Design Sector and the restaurants

G Building OmoteSando01

Jingu-mae6High Brand Clothing Shops

G Building Jingu-Mae03

Jingu-mae3High Brand Clothing Shops

G Building Minami-Aoyama01

MinamiAoyama5

Design and High Brand Clothing

La Paul Aoyama

Jingu-Mae 5

G Building Jingu-mae06
The Urban Terrace Jingu-Mae

Jingu-Mae 6
Jingu-Mae 5

G Building Omote- Sando 02

Jingu-Mae 4

Shops
The restaurant of the Paris and the
DesignDesign Office and Shops
Wedding Salon, Design Sector,
High Brand Clothing Shops andHigh-quality restaurants
Design Sector and the Boutiques

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Map 3. The main commercial Properties of the Japan Retail Investment Company

Home Page of This Company. As of 12 Aug 2015.

Photo6. A Close Allay of the Jingu Mae District*shooting it by author

7. The change from Global Capital of Upscale Clothes to the Global Investment Capital:
The case of LVMH
On the other hand, the large global capital of upscale clothing has knowledge about thesign value and exchange value of urban Space. LVMH has bought many firms around upscale
clothes because LVMH wants to get fashionable buildings and the land in the heart of Tokyo. So
LVMH makes a specialization of trading real estate with sign value and exchange value of space

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)69

of shops and urban space.
LVMH farm out the other small firms for design, manufacture, logistics and retail. So
that LVMH, as the large global capital of upscale clothing, has changed from the firm of upscale
clothes to the investment company. These companies locate as the retail and branch office in the
upscale quarter Omote Sando.
The reason for their focus on the upscale street and close alleys is as follows. Because
they focus on adding a touch of class to the buildings and they are refreshing the space of close
alleys and upscale street on the Jingu Mae and Minami-Aoyama district.
They think that if they did so, the price of commercial property would be higher.
Therefore, the investment companies have been making and update commercial properties
in the close alleys of Jingu Mae. Also, the prices of commercial property in the close alleys arerising slowly again until now. With this change, the close alleys of Jingu Mae became
associated with a fashionable image and were featured in fashion magazines, which eventuallyattracted some investment companies.
The reason for their focus on the upscale street and close alley is as follows. Because they
focus on adding a touch of class to the buildings and they are refreshing the space of close alleys
on the Jingu Mae district. They think that if they did so, the price of commercial property would
be higher.
Therefore, the investment companies operated by LVMH have been making and update
the design of space for retail in the Omote Sando. Also, the prices of commercial property in theclose alleys are rising slowly again until now.
As well, because LVMH specializes in investment, LVMH is outsourcing from design toretail. The design sector is the self-employed small company in the close alleys in Jingu Mae
Shibuya Ward. Manufacturing is in two patterns. In the case of the clothes and bag for generalcustomers, products are made in Pudong, Shanghai, with high technology. In the case of clothes
and bag for premium members, reserved products are made in Kojima, Kurashiki City, Okayama
Pref., Hirokawa Town, Fukuoka Pref., Southside of Nagano Pref., West side of Shizuoka Pref.,Aichi Pref. Gifu Pref. and Mie Pref. and so on (Mita, 2014).
As just described, the products made by LVMH are designing and manufacturing in
Asian cities. Also, Japanese and Chinese labors are making them. This process is a negative
image for the customer of LVMH. Because their customers under the illusion that the products
are made in France, Dutch, Germany, or Italy. And the display of every shop is designated bydesigners from the EU countries. For the unity of images and actuals, LVMH is the outsourcing
of unregistering the manufacturing serial number in the small plants operated by Chinese
immigrants from Wenzhou in Milan and Bologna, so- called “Third Italy.” The final processes in
Italy, these products can be called “Made in Italy.” Upscale looking and serial number certificate
the authenticity.
The unity of material authenticity, luxurious looking design of the flag shop, backgroundmusic used in the Paris Collection and the Milan Collection and offering some concierge
services raised the sign value of space of the flag shop on the upscale street.
Also accomplished sign value of space raises the exchange value. In the Omote Sando
district, there are around ten affiliated shops of LVMH. The agglomeration of these affiliated70

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

shops for upscale clothes, the design offices of upscale clothes, Keyaki street and smart dressers
make the fashionable ambience of the main street in the Omote Sando district. The unity of thestyle, which the shops for upscale clothes consist of, determines the sign value of urban spaceand exchange value.
LVMH specializes in research and development of the unity of style. Every design office
is in the close alleys in the Omote Sando District. Manufacturing plants are in located in the westside from Shizuoka Pref. Also, large plants are in the Pudong, Shanghai City. The sectors of
manufacturing and assembly are in Milan and Bologna. Outsourcing of logistics companies isFederal Express, DHL, Air France KLM, Lufthansa, and so on. The last, outsourced company ofretail is Sumitomo Corporation. This global division for the industry of upscale clothes
establishes the smooth route for retail and the spatial unity of style. The unity of style determines
the sign value of urban space. Also, the sign value determines the exchange value of urban space.
8. The rise of the New Group for Area Management
Furthermore, recently, these residential building owners established a new area management
association which consists of residents, owners of new shops, new firms, developers, and a nonprofit organization managed by a professor. This association has administered these close alleys
in the Jingu Mae as an attractive commercial district for young adult consumers.
The reason for establishing a new association by residents in the Jingu Mae is that theywant to live with rental income, and they make a pleasant environment not only for the design
offices, the shops of upscale clothing and fad clothing but also for the residents and visitors. For
example, the residents need to make maintenance of the buildings together with merchants ofcleaning, electronics, a gas company employee, accident, prevention, and so on.
However, the residents who are the owners of the building in the close alleys of Jingu
Mae is elderly, so they cannot clean up and check the condition of the building quickly. At which
the REIT companies provide service for the building owner maintenance of the building,including the elevator maintenance, checking the security system and the cleaning of thebuilding with consigning to every professional company.
Additionally, the investment company need to take out the building a resident has. So, theinvestment company takes out the building in the close alleys of the Jingu Mae for a temporary
period. So, the investment company can deal with the building in the nearby alleys as the objectof the REIT. On these days that the investment company holds the building, they pay a part ofthe margin to the residents. For residents, they can get margin despite organizing commission
and delegating tasks for maintenance of the buildings to the REIT companies.
Seen in this light, the residents in the close alleys of the Jingu Mae are dealing with theinvestment companies successfully. The residents in the close alleys of Jingu Mae district seemto deal with their building with the investment companies strategically not to have debts but tohave an issue.
Thus nowadays, the local community in the Jingu Mae has been composed of the residents, the owner of upscale clothing shops, the firms of the upscale clothing design, the visitors
and the investors based on the Tokyo, New York, Paris, Sydney and Sao Paulo. So, theenvironment for residence has been made better than the past. Especially, residents’ plant Keyaki
trees on the main street of Omote Sando in order to make a leafy street. So that the main street of

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71

Omote Sando consists of not only stylish buildings and fashionable atmosphere but also naturalamenities. So, the main street of Omote Sando is raised of sign value of urban space. Also, it
determines the exchange value.
Nowadays, designer of upscale clothes, manufacturing plants, numbering plants, logisticcompanies and retail sectors are targets for investors. Also, the investors would think that theconsumers, staffs of shops, background music, a fad of one season and weather conditions areimportant composing elements. All the elements relating to the sign value of urban space aretargets of investment. So, the field of this research is not only grasped as the upscale street but
also grasped as the investment field.

9. Discussion and Conclusion
This paper is uncovering the change of urban space in the close alleys of Jingu Mae
Shibuya Ward Tokyo from the standpoint of the Cultural Production and the Investment
Company. Also, this paper will discuss this case study from a perspective of urban sociology.
More especially, the purpose of the final chapter consists of two issues. The first one is to discuss
the cultural production of upscale clothing with an investment of the real estate. Also, the second
purpose of this chapter is to discuss the type of change in the Jingu Mae Shibuya Ward Tokyo
with comparing the other case studies.
The first, the close alleys in the Jingu Mae Shibuya Ward Tokyo were residential streets
until the 1980s. However, from the 1990s, these close alleys changed from the residential streetsto the global hub of upscale clothing design.
The second, the change of the close alleys generated a sharp image of the close alleys in
the Jingu Mae with the magazine exclusively for fashion. The bright image of the close alleys in
the Jingu Mae attracted many investment companies. Especially, from the 2000s, the investmentcompanies are buying the commercial properties in the close alleys of Jingu Mae with operating
as the Real Estate Investment Trust (REIT).
The third, investment companies are making some spatial renovation of these buildings
and select the tenants to raise the value of these buildings. As a result, the land prices in the close
alleys of Jingu Mae is raised slowly until now.
From these three findings, we will make a new theoretical finding. The sharp image ofthe close alley makes the economic value of it higher. This pattern means that the global cultural
production of upscale clothing provides opportunities for raising investment of real estate. In
other words, the residents, the global cultural producer of clothing design, and the retailing begin
to make a strong connection to the global economy the investment companies lead. Also, it could
make sustainable urban growth in the current global economy.
As previously noted, the close alleys in the Jingu Mae Shibuya Ward Tokyo wereresidential streets until the 1980s. However, from the 1990s, these close alleys changed from theresidential streets to the global hub of upscale clothing design. The change of the close alleys
generated a sharp image of the close alleys in the Jingu Mae with the magazine exclusively for
fashion.
The sharp image of the close alleys in the Jingu Mae attracted many investments. Fromthe 2000s, the investment companies are buying the commercial property in the close alleys of

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

Jingu Mae with operating as the Real Estate Investment Trust. The investment companies aremaking renovation of these building and select the fashionable tenants. As a result, the prices ofcommercial property in the close alleys of Jingu Mae district are raised slowly until now. Also,
the land price is rising slowly with REIT.
On case study of this paper, we will make a new finding. The new finding is that thecultural producer of upscale clothes designer renewing the sharp image of urban space, sell their
new parts of the design to the large companies; they are making the sign value of clothes and theparts of the sign value of design space, retail space and the urban space of Omote Sando Avenue.
As a result, the exchange value of urban space would be raised.
Also, the new investment companies for the design of clothing and the selling of theclothing control the conditions of the urban space. When the cultural producer of upscale
clothing is designing it with knowledge about the trend of the global cultural production ofclothing, on the other hand, the investor to the fashionable quarter may do so with the knowledge
about the real estate.
We present a new hypothesis in which we predict that the sign value of urban space of
the Jingu Mae as a fashionable cultural centre due to the presence of the clothing design industry
will raise the exchange value of the clothes design and retail space there. Support for thishypothesis would indicate that the cultural production of upscale clothes for a global market
provides opportunities for real estate investment with the significant value and exchange value of
urban space.
In the Omote Sando district, the local resident, culturally designed clothes, and retailcompanies will become strongly connected to the global economy, which is already influenced
by investment companies. This connection of the sign value of urban space to the global
economy could foster sustained urban growth of the fashionable quarters in Jingu Mae.
The Urban Sociology has pursuit the social process of the Urbanization. Robert E. Park,
E. Burgess, and Luis Wirth pursuit the social process of the urbanization with the case studies
around the inner area of Chicago. However, from the 1970s, due to the Oil Shock, the sector of
manufacture on the main cities around the world declined. Also, these sectors getaways andmade many enclaves in Asia, North Africa, and South America.
These cases make the large city around the world experience the decline of the city. So,
the urban sociologists have pursuit what the power of urban regeneration or redevelopment is.
The global economy from the 1980s is proceeding with the securities investment trust (Sassen,2001).
Also, from the 2000s, by easing of regulation of investment, the companies forinvestment in the real estate are inaugurated by the sector of global finance (Yabe, 2008).
Notably, these companies inaugurated in New York, Sydney, Paris, Tokyo, and so on (Yabe,2008).
This paper describes that the companies for investment in the real estate began to trade
the buildings in the fashionable street of the global city. Because the investment companies think
the cultural production and the esthetic urban space make economic resources. If thesecompanies for investment may do, they could get the economic resources and distributes themargin to the clients around the world. Also, we will know that cultural production is grasped

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)73

not only as of the power of urban regrowth but also the target of derivative financial instruments
global economy leads.
As noted at the beginning, the production of contemporary art is grasped as a power ofurban regrowth by "Loft living" (Zukin, 1988). Zukin argued that in the 1960s, themanufacturing buildings on the Lower Manhattan had been closed because manufacturing got
out to any other country or area. So Young artists rent the vacant manufacturing buildings, andthey were updating the rooms of these buildings. In this regard, the developers bought thesebuildings from the owners as expensive. These developers swiped the artists and sold the room
for wealthy young adults and vibrant white colors. Zukin had been uncovering the agglomerationof an artist in the post industrial city and the change of the resident from the artist to the richyoung adult person who has a high wage. Zukin succeeded to watch the process of thegentrification (Zukin, 1988).
A character of gentrification in the United States is a contemporary artist and social class.
Richard Lloyd argued that the spatial change of Wicker Park Chicago (Lloyd, 2006). Until the
1980s, The Wicker Park was a wasteland. From the 1980s, Young artists have the skill of digital
design were gathering in Wicker Park. They rent the offices for digital design, clothing design,
the shops of upscale clothing, and so on. Until 2000s, Wicker Park has been "a farm league" of aprofessional designer with digital skills (Lloyd, 2006). Lloyd succeeded to uncover the processof the change from the waste street to the hip and quiet street in the inner city of Chicago. Also,
Lloyd argues the owner of buildings, the company particularized in the clothing design, and thedevelopers removed the gang and the poor residents from Wicker Park.
In construct, this paper has succeeded in the change of the close alleys from a residential
street to the fashionable street. In fact, in the Jingu Mae Shibuya Ward Tokyo, there were many
residential owners of the land until the 1980s. The personality of the centre of the capital in theTokyo Metropolis, many residents, are the owners of the property in the heart of Tokyo. This
personality is only in the upscale street, Shibuya, Harajuku and Aoyama districts in Tokyo as a
global city.
Under the situation, the City Planning Division of the Shibuya Ward and the Bureau of
Urban Development of the Tokyo Metropolitan Government, the Urban Renewal Convention of
the Harajuku Jingu Mae but also the companies that are operating the investment companies are
upgrading the sharp image of the close alleys in the Jingu Mae and raising the prices of thecommercial and residential properties. So, the land price in the Jingu Mae Shibuya Ward Tokyo
is rerising slowly from the 2000s expect in the Lehman Shock Crisis in 2008.
So new communities consist of the residential owners, the chiefs in the office for thedesign of upscale clothing, the owners of the upscale clothing, the professor and the heads in thecompanies of investments in the real estate. They make relations focus on making improvementof residential environment, the cultural production of upscale clothing and the investment. That,
they are working to achieve what was previously thought to be impossible in the upscale quarters
on the heart of Tokyo Metropolis.
As just described, from the case study in the close alleys and main street of Omote Sando
and close alleys in the back of Omote Sando. It is unidentified of the gentrification that the upperclasses boot out the lower classes. Because, in addition to the above case, the residents in theclose alleys of Jingu Mae, at the time of the last half 1980s and the first half of the 1990s, were74

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

not booted out but they moved out with command their property for high prices.
The academic significance of urban sociology of this paper is as follows. The previous
studies of urban sociology have shown that the transformation from residential neighborhoods
into a fashionable commercial district removes residents due to real estate inflation. In construct,
this paper has described a new form of area management association mediated by the real estate
deal in the fashionable commercial district from the standpoint of the sign value of urban space.
This Research uncovers the contemporary investment companies may do with the sign value andexchange value.
Moreover, the investment company has changed from the large firm of upscale clothing.
Nowadays, not only the design, manufacturing, logistics and retail of upscale clothing, but also
consumers are engines for the investment of real estate. So, this research located in thecontemporary urban sociology connecting urban culture of upscale clothes, real estate and theinvestment leading the global economy.
Especially, this paper described the contradiction that resident who had developed regional
activities focusing on improvement of the living environment until the early 1980s has
transformed the close alleys into a fashionable commercial district with establishing a new area
management association. These descriptions have academic significance for urban sociology
today.
However, this paper has some research task near in the future. The research task is to beresearching the network of the companies of clothing design, retailing and manufacturing on the
global level. So, we could discover the global divisional alliance of the clothing industries fromthe standpoint of urban sociology.
Also, we will find that the investment companies focus on the trend of global clothing
industries and make a new investment for the manufacture of clothing on the local cities of Japan(e.g., Kojima Okayama, Nishiwaki City, Hyogo, Miyoshi Tokushima, Gosen City Niigata
Prefecture, and so on). Because at the same time, the investment companies would make a newinvestment for the large plants on the East Asian Cities.
In the East Asian Cities, there are large plants for the clothing so called Fast Fashion. For
example, the plane of fast fashion is in the coastal Jiangsu area, Guangdong area and Shanghai
metropolis.
So, this paper should focus on the plants of Asian cities and discuss the case from thestandpoint of the urban sociology. In the end, we should uncover and describe the economic gap
among the companies of investment in real estate, the large capitals of an upscale brand, thesmall companies of clothing design, the companies for manufacturing of clothing and thecompanies for the retailing of the clothing. So, we should survey the ways of a deal thecompanies of clothing design, the companies of manufacturing for the large capitals of an
upscale brand.
With attaining of the new research task previously noted in near the future, we could
discover the new academic findings. The new finding is that the investment companies in thereal estate control the cultural production of the clothing, manufacturing of the clothing and theconsumer culture of the clothing on the global level.

75

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

Notes
1)

The investment companies are a bogus company. So, the investment companies areadministrated by business firm, bank, the companies of railway, developer and so on.

2)

The embassies and foreign affiliated banks are located on the Jingu Mae, Akasaka, Minami
Aoyama, Mita, Roppon-gi, Hiro-o, and Azabu.

3)

The wholesale insurance service companies are located on the Roppon-gi.
The most famous service company is Allen & Overy LLP is an international law firm,
advising national and multinational corporations, financial institutions, and governments.
Allen & Overy is a member of the UK's Magic Circle of leading law firms.

4)

An office of a Registered Foreign Lawyer is locating in the Roppon-gi: Morgan, Lewis &Bockius LLP.

5)

The most familiar example of real estate companies consists of the enterprises of Goldman
Sachs Group and the enterprises of West Monte Hospitality Group. There are ten enterprises
in Roppon-gi, Azabu and Mita district Minato Ward Tokyo.

6)

For example, There are the Embassy of the United states in Akasaka, the Embassy of theAustria locates in Moto-Azabu, the embassy of the France locates in Minami-Azabu and theembassy of the Germany locates in Minami-Azabu, The embassy of Republic, Estonia
locates, The embassy of Republic, Turkey locate in the 2 Cho-me Jingu Mae Shibuya Ward
Tokyo

7)

Huge luxury brand conglomerates, such as LVMH Moet Hennessy Louis Vuitton andGucci, gave their brands -- and their companies – drastic overhauls, in that they traditionally
had been regarded as companies run by individual designers. The core business isinvestment to other enterprises of the luxury accessories and upscale clothing.

8)

MC-UBS Realty and Kanden Realty & Development Corporation made in 2008 co-parent
company "MC-UBS Mid City." This co-parent company specialized in the investment toTokyo, Osaka and Nagoya. Kanden Realty & Development Corporation is a member of the
Kansai Electric Power Group, operational area is Osaka, Hyogo, Kyoto, Wakayama, Shiga,
Tokushima and Fukui Prefectures, Kansai, partly Shikoku and Hokuriku region of WestJapan.
References

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Bourdieu. P., 1992, Les regles de l'art: genese et structure du champ litteraire, Paris: Editions du Seuil.2
Bourdieu. P, 1979, La Distinction: Critique Sociale du Judgement, Paris: Editions de Minuit.
Bovone. L., 2005, "Fashionable Quarters in the Postindustrial City: The Ticinese of Milan." City and Community, 44: 359-380.
Castells. M., 1989, The Informational City, Chicago: Blackwell.
Clark, Terry. N., (ed.) 2003. The City as an Entertainment Machine, JAI: Elsevier Press.
Crane, D., 1976, "Reward Systems in Art, Science, and Religion," American Behavioral Scientist, 19(6): 713-734.
Crane, D., 1992, the Production of Culture, Newbury Park, CA: Sage. DiMaggio, P. and P. M. Hirsch, 1976,"Production Organizations in the Arts," American Behavioral Scientist, 19(6): 735-752.

76

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

Fischer, C. S., 1975. "Toward a Subcultural Theory of Urbanism," American Journal of Sociology, (80):1319-1341.
Fischer, C. S., 1984, the Urban Experience, New York: Harcourt Brace & Jovanovich.
Florida, R., 2002, The Rise of the Creative Class: And How It's Transforming Work, Leisure Community andEveryday Life, Basic Books.
Hirsch, P., 1972, "Processing Fads and Fashions: An Organization-Set of Cultural Industry System," American
Journal of Sociology 77: 639-659.
―――, 1978, "Production and Distribution Roles among Cultural Organizations," Social Research 45: 292-314.
Mita T., 2015, Transformation from a Manufacturing Base of School Uniform into a Global Hub for of HighManufacture Quality Clothing: [in Japanese] The Annals of Japan Association for Urban
Sociology 2015(33), 71-87.
Mita T., 2013, From Residential Close Alleys into the Global Science Park for Design of Clothing: A Case Study of
Jingu Mae District, Shibuya Ward, Tokyo [in Japanese] The Annals of Japan Association for
Urban Sociology 2013(31), 61-76.
Lloyd, R., 2002, "Neo-Bohemia: Art and Neighborhood Redevelopment in Chicago, Journal of Urban Affairs 24:
517-532.
Lloyd, R., 2004, "The Neighborhood in Cultural Production: Material and Symbolic Resources in the New
Bohemia" City and Community 3-4:343- 372.
Lloyd, R., 2006, Neo-Bohemia: Art and Commerce in the Postindustrial City, New York: Routledge.
Olds, K., 1995, ‘‘Globalization and the Production of New Urban Spaces: Pacific
Rim Megaprojects in the late 20th century," Environment and Planning A, 27: 1713−1743．
Sassen. S., 2001, the Global City: New York, London, Tokyo (New Updated Edition). Princeton, N.J. Princeton
University Press.
Weber, R., 2002, "Extracting Value from the City: Neoliberalism and Urban
Redevelopment," Antipode, 34：519-540．
Wirth, L., 1938, "Urbanism as a Way of Life" American Journal of Sociology, 44:1-24.
Yabe, N., 2008, "Impacts of Real Estate Securitization of Land Price Changes in the Inner City of Tokyo since2001," A Geographically Weighted Regression Analysis," Geographical Review of Japan,81:384−403．
Yabe, N., 2012, "Global Money Flow into the Asset-Backed Securities Market and Real Estate Development inTokyo," (<Special Issue>Metropolis in the Global Age: Focusing on Tokyo) [in Japanese] Annalsof the Association of Economic Geographers 54(4): 292-309.
Yabe, N., 2012, "Street Fashion in Ura-Harajuku, Factors in Retail Agglomeration and Effects on Apparel
Production," [in Japanese] Geographical review of Japan 85(4): 301-323.
Zukin, S., 1988, Loft Living: Culture and Capital in Urban Change, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press.
Zukin, S. and E. Kosta, 2004, "Bourdieu Off-Broadway: Managing Distinction on a shopping Block in the East
Village," City and Community, 3-2: 101- 114.
Zukin, S. et al. 2009, "New Retail Capital and Neighborhood Change: Boutiques and Gentrification in New York
City," City and Community 8(1): 47-65.

Remarks
Japan Society Promotion of Science (JSPS) supported this work for the Grant- in-Aid for Young Scientists (B).
Duration of Support: Arp2016-Mar2021. Estimated Duration of Support: Five years.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

Study on Radiation Safety Activities for Health Sector in Myanmar
Aye Aye Thin1, Nwet Nwet Win2, Tin Tin Khaing3

Abstract
Human health is one of the top priorities for Myanmar. The main uses of radioisotopes in thehealth sector are for nuclear medicine purposes. Nuclear medicine plays a great role for diagnosis
and treatment of cancer and cardiac diseases. Radioiodine (131I) therapy, SPECT gamma camera,
SPECT-CT, PET-CT and 18MeV cyclotron provide active clinical uses of Radio-isotopes in
Myanmar, improving health-care status. Nuclear related activities, all radiation safety andprotection matters such as occupational protection, public protection, medical exposure,radioactive waste are dealt with by the Division of Atomic Energy (DAE). The DAE is charged
with the task to develop peaceful applications of radioisotopes under appropriate radiation
protection and nuclear safety regime. DAE coordinates with Government and private sector in
nuclear medicine to protect the human and environment from radiation hazard. Radiation safety
inspections have started for private companies and government hospitals since 1997. National
Secondary Standards Dosimetry Laboratory (Phase I, Phase II) and personnel radiation monitoring
service has been established to ensure that the workers who exposed directly or indirectly toionizing radiation are kept within the dose limits recommended by the ICRP and to ensure that
nobody is exposed to maximum permissible dose. Disused radium sources from health sector are
being stored safely and no cases of overexposure were found in Myanmar. This paper will present
brief description of approaches to the radiation safety activities for human health in Myanmar.
Keywords: radioisotopes, radiation safety, protection, nuclear medicine

1. Introduction
The application of ionizing radiation and radioisotopes in various areas of Myanmar has
been performed with great momentum for the past sixty years. The various area such asradiotherapy, radio diagnosis, nuclear medicine, medical research, agricultural services, livestock
breeding, environmental radiation monitoring, training and research etc., ionizing radiation andradioisotopes have been widely applied in the country. The main uses of radioisotopes andradioactive wastes are in the health sector that uses short-lived radioisotopes (Ra-226) for nuclear
medicine purposes. Nuclear medicine plays a great role for diagnosis and treatment of cancer andcardiac diseases, which remain important concerns in the health and welfare of the people in
Myanmar [1]. According to the World Health Organization, over 60,000 new cancer cases are
estimated to occur each year in Myanmar, with breast cancer the most common among women,
and lung cancer the most common among men [2]. Currently, Sr-90, Cs-137 and Co-60 sources
are used for radiotherapy and I-131, I- 125 and Tc-99m are the common radiopharmaceuticals.
Am-241 and Ba-133 are used for calibration in the field of medicine. Health sector in Myanmar
are equipped with SPECT, SPECT/CT, PET/CT, and cyclotron, 99mTc generators in Yangon
General Hospital [3]. IAEA’s international basic safety standards (BSS) for protection against
ionizing radiation and for the safety of radioactive materials have been developed and issued torestrict radiation risks and to ensure radiological safety [4]. Division of Atomic Energy (DAE),
1

Deputy Director, Material Science Research Division, Department of Research and Innovation, Ministry of
Education, Myanmar ayethin2006@gmail.com
2
Division of Atomic Energy, Department of Research and Innovation, Ministry of Education, Myanmar
win.nwet2@gmail.com
3
Material Science Research Division, Department of Research and Innovation, Ministry of Education, Myanmar
tintinkhaing72@gmail.com

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

78

Ministry of Education has been established since 1997 to carry out research, development andtraining in the field of atomic energy, to ensure the safety of the radiation sources and theprotection from nuclear radiation hazards and to promote the applications of nuclear science andtechnology in Myanmar. DAE has taken the duties to establish the national legal framework andresponsibility for regulatory infrastructure of nuclear safety regime [5]. DAE coordinate with
Government and private sector in nuclear medicine for the safety of human and environment
from radiation hazard.

2.

Methods

The Government of Myanmar in collaboration with International Atomic Energy Agency(IAEA) has played a pivotal role not only for successful implementation of DAE’s projects, butalso for sustainable growth and upgrading of nuclear medicine services in Myanmar [3]. At
present, there are six nuclear medicine centers under the Ministry of Health and one in private
sector. With IAEA’s assistance, the main training fields of DAE include radiation protection, theapplications of radiological and nuclear techniques in agriculture, industry and medicine, such as
diagnostic radiology, radiotherapy, nuclear medicine, radioimmunoassay techniques. TC Projects
have provided assistance and expertise in strengthening the radiotherapy infrastructure and humancapacity, safety at the workplace in Myanmar. Currently, for national inventory of source, thesoftware used is RAIS (Regulatory Authority Information System) version 3.3 which is a tool
developed by IAEA for regulatory authorities. The list of private clinics and hospitals arecollected with the co-operation of DAE and Ministry of Health and Sport. All radioactive sources
are registered and licensed by DAE with authorization of Ministry of Education. X-ray machinesfrom Government hospitals and private health sectors are registered. DAE officers have started
inspection for private companies and government hospitals since 1997. They also inspectpermission licenses prior to importing and re-exporting of equipments from nuclear medicine
services shown in Figure 1. Inspection is carried out every Wednesday and Thursday to clinics
dand hospitals not only radiation leakage but also
quality control of their X-ray machines as voltage
accuracy test, timer accuracy test, collimator and beam alignment test, output tube consistency test
shown in Figure 2. The Inspectors from DAE also disseminate security culture for radioactive
sources to pave way for future use of nuclear security practices among private and government
health sectors.

ab

Figure1a. PET/CT and Cyclotron center,ecb: PET/CT Gemini, TOF,16 slices,
e:131I production fume cupboard

c:Cyclotron 18MeV Iba, d: 99mTc generator,

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

79

Figure2. Regular inspection active ities and quality control

For occupational exposure control, DAE is extending personnel dosimeter services tothe radiation workers on national level. Thermoluminescent dosimetry (TLD) badges andOptically Stimulated Luminescence Dosimetry System (OSLD) are distributed to the workers towear during their duty hours. OSLD is shown in Figure 3. For internal exposure, depending ontype of radionuclide used remedial action is taken as appropriate.

Figure3. Automatic reader 200-unit and dosimeter designation

National Secondary Standard Dosimetry Laboratory (Phase I, Phase II) has been
established with the aim of to ensure confidence in the radiation dose for radiation protection,
especially given to patients in radiotherapy and radio diagnostics and to calibrate the dosimetry
equipment in accordance with international standards and issue calibration certificates and toaccredit laboratory according to ISO17025[1].
The procedures of waste management activities are collection, treatment, conditioning,
packaging and storage [6]. Division of Atomic Energy is responsible for carrying out researchand development in radioactive waste management. The main sources of radioactive wastes in
Myanmar are mainly from hospitals that use short-lived radioisotopes for nuclear medicine
purposes. The process of conditioning for spent Ra226 from health sector had been performed in
DAE shown in Figure 4. The purposes of waste management policy are: the waste is returned tothe manufacturers, is stored by licensees, and is sent to National Waste Center [7].

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

80

Figure4. Conditioning process for spent radium-226 needles

3.

Results and Discussion

It is very important that radiation safety of patients for the reduction of patient doses
without losing diagnostic benefits and the exposure should be kept as low as reasonably
achievable. According to the hospital-based data, annually, approximately more than 7500 new
patients are registered in the four radiotherapy centers (Yangon, Mandalay, Nay Pyi Taw andTaungyi) and radiotherapy is offered to cancer patients for curative and palliative treatment freeof charge. Medical equipment's under Ministry of Health and Sport are shown in Table 1. The
facilities have be conducted within the framework of a well-established radiation protection
programme and personnel monitoring for all radiation workers, whole body or beta sensitive
extremity monitoring have be established by cooperation of Division of Atomic Energy, Ministryof Education. Radiation protection training for radiographers from health sector is being
conducted each year.
Table1. Division for Human Health DIRAC (Directory of Radiotherapy Centres)
Country

RegionRT
Centres

ClinicalAccel.

Co60

CT

Simul
.

TPS

LDR
Manua
l

LDR
Remot
e

HDR
Ir192

HDR
Co-60

MyanmarSouth east
Asia

8

15

4

7

1

8

0

0

0

2

Total license issued for radioactive sources and X-ray machined (up to 27 August 2018)is shown in Table 2. The personal doses were periodically analyzed to confirm that radiation
working conditions remained unchanged. An average dose of 0.50 mSv was received. All
measurements were found to be within acceptable limits of radiation protection. No cases ofoverexposure were found. The radiation workers in Myanmar are in safe working conditions ofradiation protection because radiation safety has been enhanced by improvement in shielding
design, good working practices and quality assurance policies.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

81

Table 2. License issued for radioactive sources and x-ray machine

LicenseIssued1997 to2018
Total

No. ofNo. of License

DentalNo. of Sources
X-RaysIssuedNew License Renew License
IssuedIssued
1442

3819

New

Renew

New

Renew

New

Renew

1191

975

1496

4591

71

176

No. ofReg

1600

As Secondary Standards Dosimetry Laboratory, IAEA requirements for SSDL
infrastructure have been designed, constructed and accepted during 2014-2015. Then Operational
SSDL upgraded. Accredited calibration services provided to end users. Membership in IAEA/
WHO network of SSDLs gained.
Disused radium sources that had been used by Yangon General Hospitals wereconditioned for safe storage with the assistance of the experts from the IAEA and Korea. One of
the spent Co-60 Gamma Chamber 900A has already been sent back to India. At this time,
radioactive wastes in Myanmar are being stored safely shown in Figure 5.

Figure5. Waste storages

4.

Conclusions

The safety of human life and the environment, against harmful effects of ionizing
radiation, enhancing the national nuclear medicine and radiotherapy infrastructure, training ofprofessional and assistance to improve QA/QC and safety of the patients and the staff at theworkplace to improve precision of cancer diagnosis and an increased quality of cancer therapy areimportant activities in the Republic of the Union of Myanmar. All the departments using ionizing
radiation sources have followed the safety rules and standard with care and caution, no radiation
hazard or accident or incident has ever occurred at all. Safety and radiation protections are being
taken as much as possible to comply with relevant IAEA regulations. As accuracy in radiation
dosimetry is required in every application of radiation technology, Myanmar needs to provide
calibration services, improve dosimetric accuracy and provide training in radiation measurement
and calibration techniques in National Secondary Standard Dosimetry Laboratory. The projectwill be of immense benefit to radiation workers and the general public in view of the availabilityof high quality control in radiation processing, more accurate calibration services for radiation
measurement instruments and personal dosimetry services. DAE has already adopted transparency
on any nuclear activities by implementing obligations contained in several international andregional legal instruments and is also cooperative in the human resource development programme

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)82

connection with Ministry of Health and Sport for standards, applications and quality assurance in
medical radiation dosimeter activities.
Acknowledgements
The author acknowledges deeply grateful to our Director General, Department of Research and Innovationand thanks to Deputy Director General, Material Science Research Division, colleagues at Division of Atomic
Energy, Ministry of Education for help of writing this paper, for fruitful discussions and valuable suggestions. The
author deeply thank to all of person who for co-operation and implementation for this paper. I would like to give
special thanks to Myanmar Academy of Arts and Science, organizing committee for giving a chance to participate
19th SCA conference.

References[1] IAEA-Myanmar Country Programme Framework 2016-2021.
[2] Bangladesh J. Nucl. Med. Vol. 20 No. 1 January 2017, “Current status of Nuclear Medicine services in
Myanmar”, Professor Kyin Myint, President, Myanmar Nuclear Medicine Society.
[3] Asia Ocean J Nucl Med Biol. 2018 Winter; 6(1): 68–74. “History and Perspectives of Nuclear Medicine in
Myanmar”, Win Mar[4] International Basic Safety Standards (BSS) for radiation protection against ionizing radiation and the safety ofradiation sources, IAEA, Safety Series No.115-1.1995.
[5] Myanma Nuclear Law, The Pyidaungsu Hluttaw Law No. -- / 2016.
[6] IAEA, “Handling, Conditioning and Disposal of Spent Sealed Sources”, IAEA-TECDOC-548, Vienna (1990)[7] IAEA, “Nature and Magnitude of the Problem of Spent Radiation Sources”, IAEA-TECDOC-620.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

Challenging Inequalities for Rural Communities in Thailand
The Decentralized Hands-on Program Exhibition (D-HOPE) as an Alternative Rural Development Approach

Yumiko Okabe1

Abstract
The Decentralized Hands-on Program Exhibition (D-HOPE) is designed as an alternative ruraldevelopment approach using the concept of experience economy. The technical cooperation
project between the governments of Japan and Thailand used the approach in nine provinces ofThailand. Since 2018, D-HOPE fostered the grassroots economy through the initiatives ofCommunity Development Department of Ministry of Interior. The purpose of this paper is todescribe the dynamics of implementing activities and examine the D-HOPE approach fromparticipation, facilitation, Appreciative Inquiry, and description point of views through action
research. The project supported 967 entrepreneurs from nine provinces and elevated theeconomic and social conditions of rural people. The D-HOPE approach is currently under
implementation as a main pillar of the Thailand’s community-based tourism policy with plans to
expand nationwide. D-HOPE is an effective approach in terms of group process concept andcommunity capacity. The approach contributes to the SDGs as an innovative, practical andreplicable approach in terms of women empowerment as well as inequality.
Keywords: D-HOPE, SDGs, Experience Economy, Empowerment

1. Introduction
Mainstream rural development is typically concentrated on infrastructure and sectororiented development where a vast amount of resources has been invested. Despite poverty rates
had declining in the past decades, extreme poverty and social inequalities are still the global
community’s vital responsibility as described in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
along with other essential issues such as gender, peace building and environment (UNDP, 2015).
There has been much research on sustainable livelihood approaches and microfinance schemes
targeting socially vulnerable people such as low-income level women, producers and farmers,
examining their effectiveness and impacts for rural development and poverty eradication.
Toyama (2015) reveals the apparent limitation on conventional approaches and claims that the
specific technical assistances alone cannot solve the issue of poverty. Furthermore, Collier (2008)
suggests “policies for rural development must be adopted to local circumstances and so require amuch larger investment in local knowledge (p62).”
Historically, rural development discourse reflects the international agenda “right from‘intellectual idealism’ to ‘techno-bureaucracy’, and eventually to the present ‘participatory
development’” even though many of the implemented policies and programs have been shortlived (Behera, 2006, p7). The problem is not how long one approach is used in this ever-changing
world, but it matters how to appropriately adapt an approach for what needs to be done for the
benefit of rural communities at the time. As evidenced from SDGs 5 and 10 on inequality, it isrequired to construct alternative approaches that are effective and innovative. However, theintegration of theory and practice is a universal challenge for policy-makers and development
practitioners for a democratic change. In this connection, this paper presents action research,
1

Executive Director, Institute for Community Design, yumimekko@mac.com

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)84

which ‘brings together action and reflection, theory and practice, in the pursuit of practicalsolutions to issues of pressing concern’ (Bradbury, 2015, p1) in the field of rural development.
Community Development Department (CDD) of the Ministry of Interior, the royalgovernment of Thailand, has been implementing the One Tambon One Product (OTOP) policy
since 2001. OTOP supports people in villages on product development and marketing through the
OTOP exhibitions along with other economic related policies to increase income. As of 2018, thenumber of registered OTOP group is 61,582, which includes a total of 817,056 individuals. The
exhibitions became the foundation of economic development nationwide and had contributed to
the rural communities because of increased sales year to year (Data Center management System
for Managing, Storing and Utilizing of CDD, 2019).
While there are excellent OTOP entrepreneurs, there are producers and service providers
who do not gain much income generation due to a lack of capacity in finding appropriate market
or need to shift their production or service based on the market needs. The CDD statistics in 2018indicates that most of the total sales are only shared by top 17% while the remaining 83% havelittle sales. There is a limitation to a product-oriented approach and display-oriented marketingfor vulnerable producers to be a part of the driving force in economic development.
Without emphasizing the grassroots economy, there will be more inequality, which
affects the achievement of the country’s mission to create a stable country through income
distribution and village capacity with strong networks and trust among community members.
Strategic economic policy needs to be open, inclusive, and participatory for vulnerable producers
and service providers without hurdles.
The technical cooperation project ‘the Project for Community-based Entrepreneurship
Promotion’ (The D-HOPE Project1) between the governments of Japan and Thailand wasestablished for promoting community-based entrepreneurs in rural Thailand based on the conceptof experience economy through diversification of economic opportunities while focusing onvillage capacity development. The first year of the project implementation in nine provinces wasfrom May 2018 until June 2019. The project supported 967 entrepreneurs2 in total. Therefore, thepurpose of this paper is to describe the dynamics of implementing activities and examine the DHOPE approach including the aspects of participation, facilitation, Appreciative Inquiry andparticipants’ point of view through action research.

1.

Framework of the D-HOPE Approach

The Decentralized Hands-on Program Exhibition (D-HOPE) Approach
The Decentralized Hands-on Program Exhibition (D-HOPE) is designed as an alternative
rural development approach to promote community capacity and rural development. One of themain issues of rural development is the scarcity of human, capital, and material resources.
Although there are potential resources available, they are not fully utilized by the people. Thus,
rural or community development projects tend to become big, high cost projects to bring in
outside resources, which is not replicable in many cases.
D-HOPE embodies the experience economy (Pine and Gilmore, 2011), which is themodern economic concept that describes a shift of economic value from commodity, product, andservices into experiences. Therefore, the concept benefits rural communities in terms of using

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)85existing resources, which leads to differentiation in experience between communities. This
results in an increase of competitiveness in the market. These experiences are the mechanism fordevelopment of small business and social changes in people because D-HOPE provides anopportunity for them to foster mutual effects with markets and consumers in order to improvetheir capacity as an entrepreneur. The experience economy benefits rural communities because
they do not to imitate urban development, but find their own path to economic development froma rural community point of view based on the local knowledge.
D-HOPE is an exhibition where small-scale producers, groups, and micro-enterprises
offer small hands-on programs to visitors, tourists or local people in their own place. Doing so
reduces costs much less than traditional exhibitions and typical market creations, which are held
in one place where people gather and exhibit products for sales and promotion. The
implementation organization of D-HOPE publishes the catalogue of all collected hands-on
programs and widely promote it as an event to “sell” hands-on programs normally for one to acouple of months. The visitors choose the ones they want to participate in and make a reservation
directly with program providers. Each visitor goes to the program location on the reserved day bythemselves and enjoy the activities.
D-HOPE primarily aims at indicating the mid and long-term direction of local economic
development by promoting overlooked small local activities through small-scale producers,groups, and micro-enterprises. It is a place to encourage potential entrepreneurs to be innovative
increasing their local attractions through the participation of strategic workshops and the event.
D-HOPE also aims at social change in terms of strengthen networks among people.
D-HOPE Implementation
Before implementing the D-HOPE approach at the provincial level, the project organizes
three day central workshops in Bangkok where all the target provinces gather and develop actionplans. D-HOPE implementation includes the collective activity of the strategic workshops inorder to develop community capacity through enhancing relational capital between people. The
workshop is a place where people learn by doing rather than instructional seminars or meetings.
D-HOPE projects need to be logically well designed for local people to find their interests or
benefits through the activities. D-HOPE steps are localized into each community’s context withthe project concept and purpose naturally being shared by practicing project activities. D-HOPE
brings communities to consensus facilitating development results.
The strategic workshops also emphasize on bringing different people from various fields
together to generate new knowledge and networks. It envisions a social movement where people
gather spontaneously for the same purposes or goals. Mobilization of local stakeholders is often a
discussion in development. If we organize fun, open, and dynamic workshops that are
fundamentally beneficial for local people, people will naturally gather to engage. The strategic
workshops must be public and localized so participants can exercise personal choice forparticipating in the projects. If participants choose to leave a project, they should be welcomedback with open arms.
The first strategic workshop aims at identifying potential champions by making a
resource list. The second strategic workshop invites potential champions identified in theprevious workshop to design hands-on programs. One part of the activity is to design hands-on
programs through group discussions. Champions then implement the idea and discuss further

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

86

issues such as price, time, activity contents, and promotion at the site. The third strategic
workshop develops the catalog of activities and plans promotion. This workshop focuses on
identifying the community identity with all the collected champions. Then the D-HOPE catalog
is published publicly, and each champion conducts their hands-on programs with their registeredvisitors as part of an event within a specific period. The last strategic workshop is for
empowerment evaluation. This evaluation is intended for project stakeholders to conduct selfevaluation through reflecting on activities.
Each activity is designed based on four perspectives; facilitation; participation;
appreciative inquiry; and description with a specific outcome as shown in table 1. As a project
implementer, facilitation is the key component to making the workshop a place where people candeeply engage in activities. This will secure participation and attitude and behavior changes inparticipants. Appreciative Inquiry is used as a facilitation tool to identify positive-core resourcesin people and communities (Cooperider, Whitney, & Stavros, 2008). Furthermore, using sticky
notes allows participants to give their voices as descriptions and encourages participation fromthose in the community who may be less vocal or hindered by power dynamics. In thisconnection, all the participants are divided into groups of six to eight people so that everyone hasan opportunity to give a voice in the workshop with sticky notes. The facilitators encourage themto write whatever they want. It is a brainstorming tool so that anyone can participate easily.
Table1. Stage and Nature of the D-HOPE Approach
Approach
Stage
Strategic
Workshop I:
Identificationof potential
champions
Strategic
Workshop II:
Designing ofHands-onprograms
Strategic
Workshop III:
Preparationof catalog andpromotion
Implementati
on of DHOPE event

Strategic
Workshop IV:
Empowerment evaluation

Appreciative
Inquiry

Facilitation

Participation

 Organization ofworkshop Encouragementof local people
and
their
wisdoms Organization ofworkshops andhands-onprogram testing Group discussion  Identification
potential
champions Organization ofworkshops Encouragementof descriptionof own story
 Encouragementof enjoying
hands-onprogram Encouragementof own story of
the hands-on
programof Group discussion  Examination of Hands-on
own strength
programexperience
training Presentation of Presentation ofown hands-on
own strength
program Organization andimplementationof own hands-on
program as amain player Identification ofgood experiencesin implementationof hands-on
program Presentation ofgood experienceof hands-on
program Sharing of goodexperiences

OutcomeDescription
 Descriptionof potential
champions Sharing local
resources
focusing on
human
resources Descriptionof ownresources Recognitionof ownresources Descriptionof own story

 Creation ofown story Descriptionof own story
through
implementati
on of handson program Descriptionof goodexperiences Photoelicitation

 Provision ofown story

 Recognition
andconfidenceof own life

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

87

3. Implementation Results and Discussion
Table 2 indicates the total output of each activity in the D-HOPE process in nine
provinces. Due to the budget availability in the project, each workshop had a limited number ofparticipants and the workshop was held at the provincial level. Although some people had totravel far, many provinces had participation from all over the province.
Table2. Activity Output
No. of Participants

Output of the Activity

1Strategic Workshop I

847

2,520 champions identified

2

Strategic Workshop II

1,499

1,379 hands-on programs
designed

3

Strategic Workshop
III

242

9 catalogs developed(due to another urgent policy
implementation, only 2 provinces
conducted this activity)

967 champions

-

-

4

D-HOPE Event(due to another urgent policy
implementation, only 2 provinces
conducted this activity)
5

Strategic Workshop
IV714

9 empowerment evaluation
conducted
9 questionnaire survey
conducted

Note: due to another urgent policy implementation, only 2 provinces conducted activity 3 andnone of the 4 was implemented.
Facilitation, Participation, Appreciative Inquiry and Description and Empowerment
The number of participants in the workshop indicates that the project target group was
appropriate and most of them found this project beneficial in terms of opportunity cost. The
group discussion method in the strategic workshop encouraged people to engage in thediscussions, as well as hands-on activities in the village. A participant from Chonburi province
spoke about her experience from the workshop as follows:“We found out more about our village and our people, how we own so many goodthings, including human and material resources. And also that these things areprofessionally valuable. We never knew how much potential we had until we went
to the workshop. We used our knowledge from the D-HOPE approach and weconnected with many of our village members and we believe that as of thismoment our village is quite successful in terms of career, development, and wewill create more income. Our people developed themselves more as well.”Table 2 is the summary of all the descriptions in Chonburi province from empowerment
evaluation workshop, which is categorized as 4-A changes; appreciation (I love/like); affirmation(I can); acknowledgement (I learned); and aspirations (I want to). In the empowerment evaluation

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)88workshop, many people discussed the new method of learning where “everyone is thinking”. The
strong reflection was revealed in the strategic workshops that they could “develop knowledge”
and “change the mindset” through discussions. One participant spoke in the workshop saying “inthe past, we said we don’t like to attend a meeting. It’s boring. But now we really like it because
we get to meet many people, exchange and obtain knowledge. We smile and we are happy. We
learned many things.” The activity gave them an opportunity to gain confidence and thechampions recognized the benefit of the group discussion as an opportunity to transformthemselves. Furthermore, hands-on program training at the village level was clearly a popular
activity in every province. From the description of the empowerment evaluation, the program
testing was a place to “make us realize and improve” through having the “real commenter” who“provides feedback”. There was another description saying, “seeing is better than hearing”.
Thus, this gave the project the clear idea on what to elaborate on and budget reallocation
for future implementation. The champions did not expect that learning could occur amongcommunity members. The meaning of good participation for them is to engage in somethingthemselves rather than listening to lectures and make decisions by themselves without evenrecognizing it. Moreover, getting know someone new was also something they appreciated a lot
and they learned from each other. They took full control in designing hands-on programs fromthese learnings, which is interactive participation (Cornwall, 2008). At the end of the workshop,
each champion made plans based on the experiences shared among them. The discussion led to
immediate action. People committed their time and many said, “I can do it right after theworkshop”. These attitudinal changes in people were the immediate effects of the workshop.
Table 3. Keywords of 4-A Changes in Chonburi Province
Appreciation

Affirmation

Acknowledgment

Aspirations(I love/like)(I can)(I learned)(I want to) Environmentalvalue Tourist visit
 Local lifestyle Nature + peopleFriendlinessIncome generation
Participation
Good collaboration
Tourist happinessTourismdevelopment
Identity of
ChonburiBrainstormingLearning method

Bring the result
Access to local
resource
Conserve natural
resourceIncome generationfrom tourism using a
local resourceConducting tourism
activityChange of mindset
Alternative
promotion

 Local resource
recognition
 Ownership fordevelopment
Tourismdevelopment
Teamwork
Marketing Environmental
conservation
Way of thinking

Product (hands-on
program, product,
activity)
development
Environmental
conservation
Participation
Motivation
Village development
Challenge spirit totry something newWay of learning
Way of improving
Source: Created by Okabe19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

89

Concept of Group Process
The D-HOPE approach has shown the effectiveness of the group process from four
different approaches that are appreciation, affirmation, acknowledgement, and aspirations asevidenced from the number of hands-on programs developed as well as the newly entrepreneurs
created. Appreciative Inquiry encouraged workshop participants to come up with new ideas andway of thinking, which affected their behaviors and attitudes changes as well.

Community Capacity Development
This kind of group process enhanced networking among people in terms of relational
capital. People recognized their core value and the value in other people, which is embodied in
the individual hands-on programs. This positive thinking led to increased trust among community
members, which is a foundation of capacity development.
SDGs’ innovative contribution
When discussing inequality, it is necessary to bring a perspective of how to makevulnerable people stronger. As Cornwall (2018) claims, participation solely is not enough tobring empowerment in people. The D-HOPE process with four approaches brought a kind ofinnovative contribution in terms of practical methods towards a holistic rural development
subsequent to mobilize resources and people empower themselves. This is a contribution to the
SDG’s goal on poverty issue specifically to the goal 1.a, 1.b as well as inequality, specifically to
the goal 10.1, 10.2 and 10.3 (UNDP, 2017).
Furthermore, the project achieved to women empowerment to some extent. Many active
participants in the workshops were women and they were taking initiatives in activities. As aresult, women entrepreneurs accounted for 71% from the D-HOPE catalogue in nine provinces.
This is a contribution to the SDG’s goal on gender equality and empowerment, specifically to thegoal 5.1, 5.5 and 5.a (UNDP, 2017).
Deepening the D-HOPE approach
The strategic workshops were effective in many ways. One participant commented that
“D-HOPE is like a role model. It helped us developed more with other small groups of projects.
D-HOPE helped us a lot, especially the workshop.” Each strategic workshop was incorporated
into different policies, programs, and projects at different levels. These workshops are now
incorporated individually into other Thai policies. For instance, empowerment evaluation forhuman resource development for officials as well as community leaders is now being, Each DHOPE component can inform other policies, programs or projects.
4. Conclusions
This case study has shown that rural communities can be independent and capable ofcarrying out economic activity without much investment. The first year of the project resulted in
967 community-based entrepreneurs involved in the new type of economic activity, theexperience economy, and 71% of them were women. The strategic workshops influenced theattitudinal changes in participants that increased confidence, which is a crucial to retain people inrural communities and maintain their livelihoods. Without economic activities anddiversification, rural disparity deteriorates even further. The D-HOPE approach shows that this19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)90kind of approach contributes to the SDGs as an innovative and practical approach that is
replicable. The key for rural development is to smoothly and effectively introduce economic
activities for sustainably where people in the community are empowered. This case study showsthe effectiveness of the D-HOPE approach in terms of sustainability and independent economic
activities.

Acknowledgements
I would like to thank all the people who are involved in the project from the nine provinces. Without their
participation in the project, this research and project would not be possible. Also, thank you to my counterpart, CDD
for support of the project implementation, as well as JICA for the financial support on this project. However, thispaper has been prepared by the author and it is not representing the views of the D-HOPE project nor organization’s
opinion.

References[1]

UnitedNations (2015). The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015. Retrieved fromhttps://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf[2] Toyama, K. (2015). Geek Heresy: Rescuing Social Change from the Cult of Technology. PublicAffairs.
[3] Collier, P. (2008). The Bottom Billion: Why the poorest countries are failing and what can be done about it.
[Kindle version] Retrieved from http://amazon.co.jp[4] Behera, M.C. (2006). Globalizing Rural Development: Competing Paradigms and Emerging Realities. Oxford
University Press.
[5] Bradbury, H. (2015). Introduction: How to Situate and Define Action Research. In Bradbury, H. Editor, The Sage
Handbook of Action Research (pp.1-9) [Kindle version] Retrieved from http://amazon.co.jp[6] Data Center Management System for Managing, Storing and Utilizing of Community Development Department,
Ministry of Interior (2019). Retrieved from http://logi.cdd.go.th/cddcenter/cdd_report/
otop_r06.php?year=2562[7] Pine, B. J., & Gilmore, J. H. (2011). The Experience Economy, Updated Edition. Harvard Business School
Publishing.
[8] Cooper rider, D. L., Whitney, D., & Stavros, J. M. (2008). Appreciative Inquiry Handbook: For Leaders ofChange, Second Edition. [Kindle version] Retrieved from http://amazon.co.jp[9] Cornwall, A. (2008). Unpacking ‘Participation’: models, meanings and practices. Community Development
Journal, 43 (3), 269-283. doi:10.1093/cdj/bsn010

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

Effect of Scattering Layer on Photovoltaic Performance of Solid-state Dyesensitized Solar Cells (ssDSSCs) using Red Spinach Dye Extracts
Nan Kyi Kyi Thein1, Than Zaw Oo2

Abstract
Solid-state dye-sensitized solar cells (ssDSSC) were fabricated using red spinach dye extracts andits photovoltaic performance was examined. The efficiency of red Spinach device (extracted at 45
C in ethanol (EtOH)) is 0.11 %. An additional TiO2 scattering layer was integrated in the red
Spinach device. Unexpectedly, the device efficiency decreased from 0.11 % to 0.01 % despite
having absorption enhancement with scattering layer. Electrochemical impedance measurement
pointed out that this efficiency detraction (mainly contributed from photocurrent) is attributed to
an increase in charge transfer resistances at the TiO2–related interfaces despite having more rapid
electron transport (longer electron lifetime) with scattering layer.
Keywords: red Spinach dye, TiO2 scattering layer, solid-state dye-sensitized solar cells

1. Introduction
Dye sensitized solar cell (DSSC) is one of the most promising photovoltaic technologies.
Liquid electrolyte-based DSSCs have reached efficiencies as high as 11.1% [1]. However, theseliquid based DSSCs suffer from potential leakage and corrosion which have sparked research insolid state hole transport materials (HTMs) instead of liquid electrolytes [2]. One of the mostwidely-used HTMs is spiro-OMeTAD (2,2’,7,7’-tetrakis-(N,N-di-p-methoxyphenylamine) -9,9’spirobifluorene) [3]. Solid-state dye-sensitized solar cells (ssDSSCs) with spiro-OMeTAD as
HTM have attained efficiencies exceeding 5%, which is still far below the efficiency of liquid
electrolyte DSSCs [4]. The lower efficiency is primarily a consequence of incomplete lightharvesting. The highest-performing ssDSSCs to date have a 2-3 m thick active layer [5], far
thinner than the thickness needed to achieve good optical absorption. There are two factors that
limit the ssDSSCs from being more efficient at thicknesses > 2 m: electron-hole recombinationand incomplete filling of the mesoporous TiO2 films with spiro-OMeTAD. Studies onrecombination show that recombination in ssDSSCs is two orders of magnitude faster than inliquid DSSCs [6] and the electron diffusion length (LD) in mesoporous TiO2 is 6-12 m, muchlarger than the optimized 2 m film thickness [7].
Since metal oxide nanoparticles [zinc oxide (ZnO) and titanium dioxide (TiO2)] havebeen used in DSSC as the photoelectrode sensitized by organic dyes. They have several
approaches to improve light-harvesting efficiencies and cell performance: developing
photoelectrodes with larger surface areas that could adsorb large amount of dye and synthesizing
dyes with broader absorption ranges [8]. In addition, the incorporation of TiO2 scattering layer on
top of mesoporous TiO2 photoanode is also a promising strategy to realize an improved device
performance. It can increase the path length of incident light and dye absorption that is usually
weak in low energy region due to low absorption coefficient of dye. Simulation results show thatthe scattering effect is especially observed in low energy region (650-900 nm) as the multiple
1

Dr. Assistant Lecturer, Materials Science Research Laboratory, Department of Physics, University of Mandalay,
nankyikyithein@gmail.com
2
Dr. thanzawoo06@gmail.com

92

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)reflection of low energy light by scattering layer is improved. In addition, the reverse saturation
current in the device can be minimized by a functional layer and a light scattering layer
introduced over the inorganic oxide layer. As a consequence, the reduced reverse current andincreased dye absorption collectively enhance the photocurrent, thereby increasing the overall
efficiency of the device [9].

2. Materials and Methods
This section details about the preparation of red spinach dye-sensitizer, fabrication ofsolid-state dye-sensitized solar cells (ssDSSCs) and device efficiency measurement.
Preparation of Red Spinach Dye-sensitizer
The natural dye solution was extracted from red Spinach leave. The fresh red Spinach
leaves were washed with distilled water, crushed into pieces using a mortar and pestle. Those red
spinach pieces were immersed and stirred in 10 ml EtOH (95 % absolute ethanol) at room
temperature for 45 min. The solid residues in solution were then filtrated out, and the filtrates
were concentrated for the use as sensitizer.
Fabrication of Solid-state Dye-sensitized Solar Cells(i)
Substrate Preparation
Fluorine-doped SnO2 (FTO) coated glasses (2 cm x 10 cm) were etched with zinc powder
and HCl (2M) to obtain the required electrode pattern. They were pre-treated with a 1M aqueous
TiCl4 at 70 C for 30 min followed by washing with detergent (2% Hellmanex in water), distilledwater, ethanol and acetone for 15 min each. Finally, they were blown with N2 gas for drying
purpose and treated under UV Ozone for 20 min for removing the last traces of organic residues.
The FTO sheets were subsequently coated with a compact layer of TiO2 by aerosol spraypyrolysis deposition at 450C using a commercial titanium diisopropoxide bis (acetylacetonate)solution (75% in 2-propanol, Sigma-Aldrich) diluted in ethanol (volume ratio of 1:9) as precursor
and oxygen as carrier gas. After cooling to room temperature they were treated in a 1M aqueous
solution TiCl4 for 30 min at 70C, rinsed with distilled water and dried at 500C for 30 min.
Formation of Mesoporous TiO2 Photoanode and TiO2 Scattering Layer
The mesoporous TiO2 layer was developed to be used as working electrode in ssDSSC. A
3-m-thick mesoporous TiO2 layer composed of 30-nm-sized particles was deposited by screen
printing using a commercial TiO2 paste (Dyesol 18NRT, Dyesol). Mesoporous TiO2 films were
slowly heated to 500C (ramped over 30 min) and baked at this temperature for 30 min using tap
control hot plate. The last step is to allow the TiO2 films to cool down naturally to room
temperature. Mesoporous TiO2 paste was screen printed on the FTO glass to make a thickness of
3 m on the top of which the TiO2 paste composed of ~250-nm-sized particles (Dyesol 18NRAO, Dyesol) was screen printed again, resulting in a light scattering TiO2 film of 3 m, and total
thickness of 6 m. TiO2 scattering layer on top of the mesoporous TiO2 photoanode was thensintered over the same heating profile as previously employed. They were cut into the dimensionof 21.5 cm and rinsed with distilled water and ethanol each. They were blown with N2 gas andtreated under UV Ozone for 20 min. Prior to their use as electrode, they were again dried at
500C for 30 min using heat-blower.
(ii)

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

93

(iii)

Infiltration of Dye and Hole-transporting Materials (HTM)
In order to load the dye on the TiO2 mesoporous electrode, the film electrodes were
submerged in 3ml of a dye solution at room temperature for 12 hr in a dark place. The dyeadsorbed TiO2 thin film was rinsed gently with distilled water to remove unwanted solids, andthen with the ethanol which serves to remove water from the porous TiO2. The dyed films wererinsed briefly in acetonitrile and dried in air for 1 min. The HTM was then deposited by spin
coating at 4000 r.p.m. for 30 s in nitrogen atmosphere. The 2, 2’, 7, 7’-tetrakis(N,N-di-pmethoxyphenyamine)-9,9’-spirobifluorene (spiro-OMeTAD) was dissolved in 1 ml
chlorobenzene. After fully dissolving the hole transporter, 4-tert-butylpyridine (TBP) was addedwith a volume-to-mass ratio of 1:26 µl mg-1 TBP: spiro-OMeTAD. Lithium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl) imide salt (Li-TFSI) was pre-dissolved in acetonitrile at 170 mg ml-1
and added to the hole transporter solution at 1:12 µl mg-1 of Li-TFSI solution: spiro-OMeTAD.
The spin coating formulation was prepared by dissolving 180 mg (spiro-OMeTAD), 6.92 l 4tert-butylpyridine, 14.99 l of a stock solution of 170 mg ml-1 lithium bis(trifluoromethylsulphonyl)imide in acetonitrile and 2.88 l of a stock solution of 320 mg ml-1
tris(2-(1H-pyrazol-1-yl)-4-tert-butylpyridine) cobalt (III) bis(trifluoromethylsulphonyl)imide(FK102) in acetonitrile in 1 ml chlorobenzene.
The concentration of spiro-OMeTAD in the solution, so that the ratio of spiro-OMeTAD
to TBP, Li-TFSI and FK102 was kept constant. For spin-coating, a small quantity of the holetransporter solution (50 µl) was dispensed onto each substrate and left to wet the films for 5s
before spin-coating. After spiro-OMeTAD infiltration, a chlorobenzene-soaked cotton swab wasused the substrate that was not on top of the mesoporous TiO2 film to remove the excess spiroOMeTAD.
(iv)

Deposition of Gold ElectrodeThe films were left overnight in an air atmosphere before placing them in a thermal
evaporator (EDWARDS AUTO 306) where 180-nm-thick gold electrodes were deposited
through a shadow mask under high vacuum (10-6 mbar). The active areas of the devices were
defined by metal optical masks with 0.4 cm  0.5 cm apertures.
Characterization and Efficiency Measurement
The characterization methods used are UV-vis spectrophotometry, field-emission
scanning electron microscopy, cyclic voltammetry and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy.
Power conversion efficiency of the device under white light (AM 1.5 solar illumination) and
incident photon to current conversion efficiency of the device under monochromatic light were
evaluated.
Optical and Physical Characterization(i)
UV-vis Spectrophotometry
The optical transmission properties of multilayered TiO2 and dye solution were measured
by UV-vis spectrophotometry. The scanned range of is from 300 nm to 900 nm with step intervalof 0.5 nm. The UV-vis spectra were recorded with respect to an uncoated clean glass of the same
type as the reference for solid samples and to the solvent used as the reference for solution
samples.

94

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)(ii)

Field-Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM)
The morphological features of TiO2 films were observed by field-emission scanningelectron microscopy. It is a compact field emission scanning electron microscope ((JEOL JSM7600F FE-SEM) for imaging a variety of nanoscale objects and materials. It is controlled by adesktop computer that is connected to the system via a USB cable. The FESEM software runs on
this computer and provides point-and-click operation, configuration and status monitoring of the
FESEM. The images were obtained at a voltage of 5.0 kV and a current of 2.2 A.
(iii)

Cyclic Voltammetry
The electrochemical energy levels of TiO2 photoanode was investigated by using cyclic
voltammetry (CV). Cyclic voltammetry measurements were carried out in three-electrodesystems consisting of a TiO2 film as working electrode, platinum counter electrode, and Ag/AgCl
reference electrode at a scan rate of 50mV/s. The potential scanned range is from 1 V to -1 Vwith step interval of 0.001 V. The supporting electrolyte was 0.1M KNO3 in distilled water.

Measurement of the Device Efficiency and Electrochemical Impedance
The power conversion efficiencies (PCE) of DSSCs were evaluated by recording J-V
characteristics of the device. It was measured using a computer-controlled digital source meter(Keithley 2400) under illumination with a Newport solar simulator (AM 1.5, 1000 W/m2). A
Keithley source meter was used to supply an input voltage and measure the output current of
DSSCs. The light source was a 450 W xenon lamp (Oriel) equipped with a Schott K113 Tempax
sunlight filter (Praezisions Glas & Optik GmbH) to match the emission spectrum of the lamp to
the AM 1.5 G standards. Before each measurement, the exact light intensity was determinedusing a calibrated Si reference diode.
The incident-photon-to-current conversion efficiency (IPCE) spectra were recorded asfunctions of wavelength under a constant white light bias of approximately 5 mWcm-2 suppliedby an array of white light-emitting diodes. The excitation beam coming from a 300 W xenon
lamp (ILC Technology) was focused through a Gemini-180 double monochromator (Jobin Yvon
Ltd) and chopped at approximately 2 Hz. The signal was recorded using a Model SR830 DSP
Lock-In Amplifier (Stanford Research Systems). All measurements were conducted using a nonreflective metal aperture of 0.2 cm2 to define the active area of the device and avoid lightscattering through the sides.
In addition, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) is used to analyze the chargetransport resistance and associated charge recombination process in the ssDSSCs. The
photoelectrochemical characteristics and the AC impedance measurements of the ssDSSCs wererecorded with a potentiostat/galvanostat (AUTOLAB PGSTAT) under constant light illuminationof 1000 W/m2. The applied bias voltage and AC amplitude were set at open-circuit voltage of thessDSSCs at 0.7 V between the Au counter electrode and the FTO-TiO2-dye working electrode,
respectively, starting from the short-circuit condition. AC impedance spectrum of ssDSSCs was
acquired in the frequency range from 1.429  105Hz to 2.099 Hz. All measurements were carriedout with the NOVA software. The resultant impedance spectrum was analyzed using the Z view
software.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)95

3. Results and Discussion
The section mainly discusses the effect of scattering layer on photovoltaic performance ofsolid-state dye-sensitized solar cells (ssDSSCs) using red spinach dye extracts.
The incorporation of TiO2 scattering layer on top of mesoporous TiO2 photoanode is apromising strategy to realize an improved device performance. The mesoporous photoanodes
used in ssDSSC are composed of (20-30 nm) sized TiO2 nanoparticles. These electrodes are
essentially transparent since visible light is not scattered for TiO2 nanoparticles of sizes on theorder of the few tens of nanometers. The incorporation of TiO2 scattering layer can increase thepath length of incident light (light harvesting efficiency), thereby increasing dye absorption due
to the multiple reflection of light by scattering layer. A porous network connection between bothlayers is needed to allow the dye loading and a proper diffusion of the charge carriers.
First we studied the effect of scattering layer on dye absorption at TiO2 photoanode.
Figure 1. shows the absorption spectra of red Spinach dye adsorbed on TiO2 photoanode with andwithout TiO2 scattering layer. The absorption peak maximums are almost invariant at 670 nm
upon incorporation TiO2 scattering layer. However peak intensities is higher in the sample with
TiO2 scattering layer indicating the dye-absorption enhancement with TiO2 scattering layer.
Addition of TiO2 scattering layer with the large nanoparticles (200-300 nm) ensures adequate
light trapping due to the increase of absorption path length of photons and optical confinement.
Taking advantage of dye-absorption enhancement with TiO2 scattering layer, the TiO2 scattering
layer of the thickness 3 m were incorporated in the ssDSSC devices with red Spinach dyes as
photosensitizer.
2.0

Dye absorption
without scattering layer
with scattering layer

Absorbance

1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0

400

500
600
700
Wavelength (nm)800

Figure1. Optical absorption spectra of red spinach dye on TiO2 photoanode with and without additional TiO2 scattering layer.

Figure2. (a) shows J-V characteristics of ssDSSCs under illumination with and without
scattering layer. The photovoltaic device parameters are summarized in Table 1. Despite
expecting an enhanced device efficiency via dye absorption enhancement, the efficiency
measurement showed that the device efficiency decreased from 0.11 % to 0.01 %. A decreased
efficiency is contributed from the detraction of all device parameters, VOC, JSC and FF. As seen in
Table 1, the VOC decreased from 0.61 V to 0.58 V, the JSC from 0.34 mA/cm2 to 0.03 mA/cm2
and the FF from 0.55 to 0.40.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

96

0.2

20

Under illumination
without scattering layer
with scattering layer

Without scattering layerWith scattering layer

15
0.0

IPCE (%)

2

Current Density (mA/cm )Figure 2. (b) shows the plot of IPCE (Incident Photon to Current Conversion Efficiency)
as the function of wavelength and the increased in the JSC is verified using IPCE measurements.
The quantum efficiency at 345 nm and 395 nm for ssDSSC with a scattering layer was lower
than ssDSSC without a scattering layer. One can observe that the IPCE in the longer wavelength
regime (425–600 nm) for the ssDSSC with scattering layer was significantly improved comparedover that of the ssDSSC without scattering layer. The integrated current under the IPCE spectra(350 – 800 nm) are consistent with the observed JSC in the photovoltaic J-V measurement.

-0.2

10
5

-0.4
(a)

0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Voltage (V)

0

(b)

400

500
600
700
Wavelength (nm)800

Figure2. (a) Current-voltage (J-V) characteristics of red Spinach ssDSSCs with and without 7scattering layer and (b) incident
photo to current conversion efficiency (IPCE) of the same devices.

The FESEM micrograph (cross sectional view) of solid-state dye-sensitized solar cell isshown in Figure 3. The mesoporous TiO2 film had an optimized thickness of around 3 m andwas infiltrated with the local dyes using the soaking method. The HTM was subsequently
deposited by spin coating. It also infiltrates into the TiO2 film. A thin gold layer was thermallyevaporated under vacuum onto the HTM, forming the back contact of the device. The thin TiO2
compact layer that has been deposited on top of the FTO substrate to avoid direct contact to the
HTM is not resolved in the SEM image depicted in figure.
As mentioned previously, with scattering layer, the open circuit voltage (VOC) slightly
reduced from 0.61 V to 0.58 V. The open circuit voltage in ssDSSC is related to the highest
occupied molecular orbit (HOMO) level of redox mediator/hole transporter and the lowest
unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) level of dye (or) the Fermi level of TiO2 electrode [10].
We determined the LUMO of dye loaded TiO2 using cyclic voltammetry. The cyclic
voltammograms (CV) of dye loaded TiO2 photoanode with and without scattering layer are
shown in Figure 4. The position of LUMO level has been determined from the analysis of
reduction potential behavior observed in cyclic voltammogram curves, using the following+ 4.4 V) whereis the onset potentials of reduction. The onset
equation: ELUMO=-e (potentials are determined from the intersection of the two tangents drawn at the rising current andbaseline charging current of the CV traces. From the cyclic voltammograms, the onset potentials
for the reduction of TiO2 photoanode with and without scattering layer were found to be -0.585 V
and -0.610 V respectively. The LUMO of dye loaded TiO2 with and without scattering layer are-3.82 eV and -3.79 eV respectively. Thus the slightly lowered VOC with scattering layer is likely
due to the lower LUMO energy level (-3.82 eV) of dye loaded TiO2.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)97(0.18 m)
(3.01 m)Compact TiO2 layer(0.48 m)
Glass substrate

Figure3. Cross-sectional field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) image of solid-state dye-sensitized solar cell.
Please note that the thin compact TiO2 layer that has been deposited on top of the FTO is not resolved in the image.

Table1. Device parameters of red Spinach ssDSSCs with and without additional scattering layer.
o

Red Spinach dyes were extracted in ethanol at 45 C.
Red Spinach ssDSSC

VOC (V)

Reference device (without
scattering layer)

0.61

Device with scattering layer

0.58

JSC

FF

PCE (%)

0.34

0.55

0.11

0.03

0.40

0.01

2

(mA/cm )without scattering layer

with scattering layer

0.6

0.6

0.4

Current (mA)

Current (mA)

-0.610 V

0.2-0.585 V

0.4
0.2

0.0
0.0
(b)

(a)

-0.5
0.0
Potential (V vs Ag/AgCl)

2

Current Density (mA/cm )

-1.0

0.2

0.5

-1.0

-0.5
0.0
Potential (V vs Ag/AgCl)

0.5

Under illumination
1
V

Rs 
slo p eJ
without scattering layer
with scattering layer
Rs= 1980 

0.0

J1

V1

Rs=1421 

J2
V2

-0.2

-0.4
0.3

0.4

0.5
0.6
Voltage (V)0.7

Figure 5. J-V characteristic of the DSSCs at the open circuit point with and without scattering layer. The series resistance of
DSSCs is calculated from the slope of the linear region of J-V curve.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

98

Table 2. EIS data of ssDSSCs without and with TiO2 scattering layer.
SamplesRh ()

R1 ()

R2 ()

R3 ()Rs ()

e(s)

Mesoporous TiO2 (3 m)

215.59233.83609.28

285.9

1345

0.794

Mesoporous TiO2 + Scattering layer

225.62

270.38809.40568.20

1874

1.634

(6 m)

FF is sensitive to the morphology and the series resistance (Rs) of the device [10]. The Rs
should be minimized to achieve higher FF. A decrease in FF with scattering layer (from 0.55 to0.40) is thus related to a change in Rs. The Rs of the devices was estimated from the slope of thelinear region of J-V curve near the open circuit point. The reciprocal of the slope ( R  1  V ) isslope J
the series resistance of the device. Detailed calculation of Rs is depicted in Figure 5. The
calculated Rs are 1980  and 1421  for the devices with and without scattering layer. A lower
FF of 0.40 generated from the ssDSSC with TiO2 scattering layer is attributed to the higher Rs of
the device.
s

The short circuit current (JSC) mainly depends on the charge carrier’s density and themobility of charge carriers. The density of charge carriers would be correlated to the photoinduced electron excitation (photo response of the materials to visible light), exhibited by thedye-sensitized TiO2 film [11]. Although the dye absorption increased with scattering layer, theJSC decreased from 0.34 mA/cm2 and 0.03 mA/cm2. It may be due to the limit of charge transfer,charge transport and charge recombination inside the ssDSSCs. Thus the charge transport andassociated charge recombination process in the ssDSSCs were investigated by electrochemical
impedance spectroscopy.
In electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) measurement, AC impedance spectrumof ssDSSCs was acquired in the frequency range from1.429  105Hz to 2.099 Hz. The schematic
diagram of the internal resistance related to the charge transfer kinetics in the ssDSSCs is shownin Fig. 4.16. Figure7. (a) Shows the electrochemical impedance Nyquist plot under illumination
for the red spinach ssDSSCs with and without scattering layer. It exhibited three semicircles
which depend on the ssDSSCs with and without TiO2 scattering layer. The three semicircles are
attributed to the HTM at counter electrode (Z1) in the high-frequency region, the electron transfer
at the TiO2/dye/HTM interface (Z2) in the mid-frequency region, and carrier transport by ions
within the HTM (Z3) in the low-frequency region. The resistance elements R1, R2, and R3 aredescribed as the real parts of Z1, Z2, and Z3, respectively. Z1 is parallel combination of R1 and C1,
Z2 is parallel combination of R2 and C2, and Z3 is parallel combination of R3 and C3. The first
semicircle represents the resistance at the Au (counter electrode)/HTM interface (R1)
corresponding to the high frequency region. The second semicircle covers the resistance from theconduction band of TiO2 film to HTM interface (R2) corresponding to the intermediate-frequency
regime. The third semicircle represents the resistance (R3) is associated with the Nernstain
diffusion within the HTM corresponding to the low frequency region. The capacitance used in
the model is regarded as double layer capacitance due to the porous surface of the photoelectrode[12].

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

99

Figure 6. The schematic diagram of the internal resistance related to the charge transfer kinetics in the ssDSSCs.

with scattering layer

without scattering layer

0.6

0.6

0.4

Current (mA)

Current (mA)

-0.610 V

0.2
0.0
-0.5
0.0
Potential (V vs Ag/AgCl)

400

0.2

(b)

0.5

-1.0

Without TiO2 scattering layerWith TiO2 scattering layer

-0.5
0.0
Potential (V vs Ag/AgCl)

R2

R1

1.7 kHz, 19.3

R3

-Phase ( )

o 

Rh

0.5

Without TiO2 scattering layerWith TiO2 scattering layer

20

300-Z'' (

0.4

0.0

(a)

-1.0

-0.585 V

200
100
(a)

0

10

0
0
10

3.5 kHz, 15.5

(b)

5
1000
1500
2000
10
10
10
10
10
Frequency(Hz)TiO scattering layer.
Z' (and (b) Bode plots for red spinach ssDSSCs without
Figure7. (a) EIS Nyquist plot
and with
2

0

500

1

2

3

4

Finally, the ohmic serial resistance (Rs) is associated with the series resistance of the
HTM and electric contacts in the ssDSSCs. The series resistance Rs can be written as

where Rh is the sheet resistance of FTO glass substrate.
The observed resistances (Rs, R1, R2 and R3) at various interfaces are listed in Table 2.
The charge transport resistance R1 is 233.83 and 270.38 , R2 is 609.28 and 809.40 , and R3 is285.90 and 568.20  for ssDSSC without and with TiO2 scattering layer, respectively. ssDSSC
with TiO2 scattering layer appeared to have higher total resistances in the current path across thedevice than those without TiO2 scattering layer. The increased of R2 with the decrease of thessDSSC efficiency indicates that electron generation and transfer at the TiO2/dye/HTM interface
are decreased with low absorption and use of the incident photons [13]. This result revealed thatelectron transfer difficultly occurred over ssDSSC withTiO2 scattering layer, and thereby
decreasing the photocurrent and power conversion efficiency of ssDSSC.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

100

The electron lifetime for the recombination (e) is determined by the charge
recombination between the injection electrons transported within the TiO2 film and HTM [14].
The Bode phase plots of EIS spectra Fig. 7 (b) display the frequency peaks of the charge transfer
process at different interfaces for the two devices with and without scattering layer. The
characteristic low-frequency peak (max) of the cell with TiO2 scattering layer shifts slightly to alower frequency (1.7 kHz) compared with the ssDSSC without TiO2 scattering layer(3.5kHz).The peak shift from high frequency to low frequency reveals a more rapid electrontransport process. These results indicate that the introduction of the TiO2 scattering layer favors
the electron transfer and suppresses electron recombination. The lifetime of electrons within the
TiO2 photoanode (e) was estimated from the maximum angular frequency (max) of the
impedance semicircle arc at middle frequencies, according to the relation:
e 

1

max



1
2f max

where f max is the maximum frequency of the mid-frequency peak [15].e increased from 0.794 s
to 1.634 s when scattering layer was incorporated on top of mesoporous TiO2 photonode.
Integration of scattering layer enabled to increase the charge transfer resistances at the interfacesof the device and extended the electron lifetime.
4. Summary and Conclusion
In this work, taking the advantage of dye-absorption enhancement with TiO2 scattering
layer, the TiO2 scattering layer of the thickness 3 m were incorporated in the ssDSSC devices
with red Spinach dyes as photosentizer and the effect of scattering layer on the device
performance were evaluated. Unexpectedly, the device efficiency decreased from 0.11 % to0.01 % despite having absorption enhancement with scattering layer. Electrochemical impedance
measurement pointed out that this efficiency detraction (mainly contributed from photocurrent) is
attributed to an increase in charge transfer resistances at the TiO2–related interfaces despite
having more rapid electron transport (longer electron lifetime) with scattering layer.
Acknowledgements
One of the authors (Nan Kyi Kyi Thein) gratefully acknowledges Associate Professor Nripan Mathews forthe measurements including field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), electrochemical impedance
spectroscopy (EIS) and device efficiencies during her internship at Energy Research Institute @ NTU (ERI@N),
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.

References[1] F. Gao et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 130, (2008) 10720.
[2] H. J. Snaith and L. Schmidt-Mende, Adv. Mater 19, (2007) 3187.
[3] U. Bach et al., Nature 395, (1998) 583.
[4] H. J. Snaith et al., Nano Lett. 7, (2007) 3372.
[5] L. Schmidt-Mende et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 86, (2005) 013504.
[6] F. Fabregat-Santiago et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 131, (2009) 558.
[7] H. J. Snaith and M. Gratzel, Adv. Mater. 19, (2007) 3643.
[8] S. Anderson et al., Nature 280, (1979) 571.
[9] Y.W. Jang et al., J. Chem. 11, (2011) 1.
[10] S. Gunes et al., Chem. Rev. 107(4), (2007) 1330.
[11] J. M. Shyla et al., Arch. Appl. Sci. Res., 4(5), (2012) 2126.
[12] S. Agarwala et al., J. Power Sources 196,(2011) 1651.
[13] H. Kim et al., Mater. Chem. Phys. 117, (2009) 26.
[14] G. D. Sharma et al., J. Power Sources 195, (2010) 2053.
[15] R. Sastrawan et al., Electrochim. Acta 47, (2002) 4213.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

Simulation System of Heat Acclimation in Each Working Environment
Focusing on the Evaluation of Acclimation by Birthplace and Working Wear
Hiroyuki Wariishi1, Takehiro Tanaka2

Abstract
Over several years, the authors have developed the evaluation system about prediction ofheatstroke occurrence and simulation of heat acclimation. The occurrence of heatstroke depends
on environmental factors such as temperature and Over several years, the authors have developed
the evaluation system about prediction of heatstroke occurrence and simulation of heatacclimation. The occurrence of heatstroke depends on environmental factors such as temperatureand humidity. However, the occurrence of heatstroke significantly varies depending on individual
attributes such as body weight, blood pressure, and physical condition. This evaluation system isthe system that evaluates the possibility of occurrence of heatstroke based on WBGT values by
inputting environmental factors such as temperature and humidity of the working area, physicalattributes of individuals, and kinds of clothes. In this thesis, the prediction of heatstroke
occurrence and simulation of heat acclimation in Asian regions are evaluated by the newly
developed evaluation system. And it evaluates the heat acclimation in the labor environment ofeach major city in Asia. The results will help to prevent heatstroke and acclimate heat in the work
environment.
Keywords: Labor working environment, Risk analysis, Heat acclimation

1. Introduction
Few researches and studies have been conducted in such fields as safety activities,
trainings/exercises, danger/risk prevention measures and analysis/evaluation methods for labor
working environment. Under these circumstances, the purpose of this study is to examine safety
and quality improvement technique for labor working environment. To study the measures forthe heatstroke prevention is indispensable for labor working environment. Also, it has beenfound out that the number of heatstroke cases has increased due to aging among workers, andglobal warming under the influence of abnormal weather and other factors. The rainy season
particular to Japan and the summer season also have some impact. It is hoped to takeappropriate methods for the prediction of heatstroke occurrence and simulation of heatacclimation in labor working environment in Asian regions. Over several years, the authors
have developed the evaluation system about prediction of heatstroke occurrence and simulationof heat acclimation. The occurrence of heatstroke depends on environmental factors such astemperature and humidity. However, the occurrence of heatstroke significantly varies depending
on individual attributes such as body weight, blood pressure, and physical condition. Thisevaluation system is the system that evaluates the possibility of occurrence of heatstroke based
on WBGT values by inputting environmental factors such as temperature and humidity of theworking area, physical attributes of individuals, and kinds of clothes. In this thesis, theprediction of heatstroke occurrence and simulation of heat acclimation in Asian regions areevaluated by the newly developed evaluation system. And it evaluates the heat acclimation in
the labor environment of each major city in Asia. The results will help to prevent heatstroke andacclimate heat stroke in the work environment.

1
2

Postgraduate Student, Toyo University, Kanto Polytechnic College, whtaan@nifty.comm, 049-239-1827
Toyo University, tanaka@toyo.jp

102

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

2. Heatstroke and heat acclimation
Humans possess inherent adaptability to seasonal changes. A process of the human body
becoming accustomed to the heated environment (hot season) is called “heat acclimation.” Heatacclimation promotes perspiration even if a body temperature is low, increasing a sweat rate ofan adapted person even at a same body temperature and raising a maximum sweat rate.
Furthermore, it stimulates the circulation of blood under the skin. Because the body heat isreleased fast, a rise of body temperature (core temperature) is controlled. As a result, people areable to stay in the heated environment at ease. With the successful heat acclimation, theefficiency of salt reabsorption into the body increases and the salt content in sweat is reduced.
Heatstroke is a generic term for physical disorders which occur when the water andsodium balance in the body system fails or the body is no longer able to regulate its internal
temperature in a climate of high temperature and high humidity. Its symptoms include
dizziness, faint, muscle pains/cramps, excessive perspiration, headache, indisposition, nausea,
vomiting, fatigue, despondency, consciousness disorder, convulsion, limb movement disorder,and hyperthermia.
Table 1. Relations between WBGT, temperature and relative humidity Relative humidity (%)(Dry-bylb temperature)
Temperature (°C)

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

103

Table 2. WBGT index
Risk level(WBGT)
Hazardous(31ºC<)

Intensity of physicalactivity

Remarks

related to heat illness
Any physical activities An old person is susceptible to heat illness
even though he/she stays still．
Avoid going out, and stay in a cool room.

Stern warning

Avoid going out under a blazing sun.

(28ºC-31ºC)

Beware of increase in room temperature.

(25ºC-28ºC)

Medium and heavy
physical activities

When intensive physical activity is required,take a rest regularly.

CautionHeavy physical(<25ºC)

activities

The risk is low, but heavy and intensive
physical activity might cause the onset of heat
illness.

Warning3.

Input data into the simulation system for evaluation of heat acclimation

Input data into the simulation system for evaluation of heat acclimation proposed by theauthors are introduced in this section. This simulation system for evaluation of heat acclimation
predicts how long it takes for a given worker from a particular birthplace (city) to become
acclimated to heat in a given working place (city) and in what period or month he/she easily
catches heatstroke.
Figure 1 presents sample data to be put into the simulation system for evaluation of heatacclimation proposed by the authors. Figure 2 shows some items for which input data need to becorrected or weighted. As Figure 1 illustrates, there are nine items to be completed in thissystem. The following are detailed input information for each of the nine items, including
corrections and weights shown in Figure 2.
1.

Time period: People in Asia suffer heatstroke more frequently between April andOctober because of the rise in temperature. In this simulation system, users are allowed
to arbitrarily put in the month and time period.

2.

Working area: This simulation system for evaluation of heat acclimation predicts how
long it takes for a given worker from a particular birthplace (city) to become acclimatedto heat in a given working place (city) and in what period or month he/she easily catches
heatstroke. Thus, the place name (city) where the work is actually taken place is enteredin the second item. The name of a nearby city can be put in as a working area surveyed.

3.

Physical workload: The physical workload is defined as the degree of heaviness of acertain work on the human body. In Japan, the Labor Standards Bureau in the Ministryof Health, Labour and Welfare issued a notification regarding “the WBGT heat index in
response to the physical workload.” In its guidelines, temperature control is suggested inaccordance with the metabolic rate (i.e. rest, light, moderate, heavy, and very heavy) for104

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)both heat-acclimated and non-heat-acclimated workers. Furthermore, in the environment
with heavy and very heavy metabolic rates, temperature is adjusted depending onwhether airflow is felt or not. In this regard, the authors provided finely divided
correction values to be put in this simulation system for evaluation of heat acclimation.
4.

Clothing: Workers are clothed appropriately according to work site conditions. In thissimulation system, the following six categories are set up for clothing: ordinary working
wear (long-sleeved shirt and slacks); fabric (woven) overalls; two-layered fabric(woven) clothes; polypropylene overalls; and special purpose airtight overalls.
Correction values are also provided to feed detailed information.

5.

Age: In consideration of actual working sites, the age of a worker was made to range
from teens to eighties with additional correction factors. The input of age data under ten
and over ninety is also possible.

6.

BMI: Body Mass Index (BMI) is defined as the body weight (kg)divided by the square of the body height (m).
In addition to “weight” and “height,” six categories of physiques were also madeavailable by adding correction factors: underweight; normal weight; obesity class I;
obesity class II; obesity class III; and obesity class IV. These six categories are based on
the definition provided by the World Health Organization (WHO).

7.

Blood pressure: Blood pressure is one of major factors which trigger heatstroke. In thissimulation for evaluation of heat acclimation, the systolic blood pressure or maximal BP(unit: mmHg) is put in, and six categories of blood pressures are used by adding
correction factors: optimum (<120); normal (<130); high normal (<140); hypertension
stage I (<160); hypertension stage II (<180); and hypertension stage III (180≦).
These six categories are based on the definition provided by the World HealthOrganization (WHO).

8.

Birthplace (within Japan): This simulation system for evaluation of heat acclimation
predicts how long it takes for a given worker from a particular birthplace (city) to
become acclimated to heat in a given working place (city) and in what period or month
he/she easily catches heatstroke.
To complete this item, the name of native city if within Japan is put in. The name of anearby city can be also put in as a birthplace surveyed.

9.

Birthplace (overseas): If the birthplace is in a foreign country, the name of the country(city) is put in. The name of a nearby city can be entered as a birthplace surveyed. In
addition, it is optional for a user to put in temperature (℃) and relative humidity (%) of
the birthplace. A user is required to complete either Item (8) or (9) depending onwhether his/her birthplace is within Japan or overseas.

One example of the simulation result for evaluation of heat acclimation
The WBGT values of workers, who had come from Tokyo, Singapore, Myanmar, New
York, Alaska and Moscow, and worked in the five work sites of Tokyo, Hokkaido, Osaka,
Fukuoka and Okinawa, wearing (1) an ordinary working wear, (2) an SMS polypropylene wear,or (3) a limited-use vapor-barrier coverall, were compared. (Other attributes include height:

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

105

170cm, age: 30s and 50s, weight: 50kg and 100kg, and blood pressure (BP): 110mmHg and
160mmHg.)
The results are shown in Tables 3 to 5.
Table 3 indicates the monthly WBGT values of workers at their age of 30s, weighing
50kg with a blood pressure of 110mmHg, when they worked in Sapporo, Tokyo, Osaka,
Fukuoka and Okinawa, having an ordinary working wear on. Their birthplaces are Tokyo,
Myanmar, Singapore, New York, Alaska and Moscow in a descending order.
The following findings are drawn up from Table 3.
The workers coming from high latitudes showed high WBGT values no matter which
Japanese cities they worked in. For instance, the difference among workers working in Tokyo in
September is colored conspicuously. The result of the one fromAlaska (58.3°N) is colored inlight red meaning “stern warning” under the WBGT standard while that of the one from Moscow(55.8°N) is given “warning” in yellow. Under comparison among the work sites, any workers
working in cities at lower latitudes have higher WBGT values. Particularly in April, their WBGT
values are colored in white calling for “caution” to prevent heatstroke in all the cities except for
Okinawa where the WBGT is yellowed giving “warning” to all workers no matter where they
were from.
Table3. Ordinary working wear
Age: 30s Weight: 50kg BP:
Tokyo (Tokyo: 35.7° N)
Myanmar (Naypyidaw: 19.8° N)
Singapore (Singapore: 1.4° N)
New York (42.6° N)
Alaska (Juneau: 58.3° N)
Russia (Moscow: 55.8° N)
Age: 30s Weight: 50kg BP:
Tokyo (Tokyo: 35.7° N)
Myanmar (Naypyidaw: 19.8° N)
Singapore (Singapore: 1.4° N)
New York (42.6° N)
Alaska (Juneau: 58.3° N)
Russia (Moscow: 55.8° N)
Age: 30s Weight: 50kg BP:
Tokyo (Tokyo: 35.7° N)
Myanmar (Naypyidaw: 19.8° N)
Singapore (Singapore: 1.4° N)
New York (42.6° N)
Alaska (Juneau: 58.3° N)
Russia (Moscow: 55.8° N)
Age: 30s Weight: 50kg BP:
Tokyo (Tokyo: 35.7° N)
Myanmar (Naypyidaw: 19.8° N)
Singapore (Singapore: 1.4° N)
New York (42.6° N)
Alaska (Juneau: 58.3° N)
Russia (Moscow: 55.8° N)
Age: 30s Weight: 50kg BP:

Work site:
4
5
11.26
20.90
11.26
20.90
11.26
20.90
11.26
20.90
11.26
20.90
11.26
20.90
Work site:
4
18.49
27.06
18.49
27.06
18.49
27.06
18.49
27.06
18.49
29.26
18.49
29.26
Work site:
4
16.66
25.26
16.66
25.26
16.66
25.26
16.66
25.26
16.66
27.46
16.66
25.26
Work site:
4
19.74
27.88
19.74
27.88
19.74
27.88
19.74
30.08
19.74
30.08
19.74
30.08
Work site:
4

6
24.04
24.04
24.04
24.04
26.24
24.04

7
29.33
29.33
29.33
31.53
31.53
31.53

8
29.41
29.41
29.41
31.61
31.61
31.61

9
21.56
21.56
21.56
21.56
21.56
21.56

19.32
19.32
19.32
19.32
19.32
19.32

5
29.61
29.61
29.61
31.81
31.81
31.81

6
34.39
34.39
34.39
36.59
36.59
36.59

7
35.08
37.28
35.08
37.28
37.28
37.28

8
25.87
25.87
25.87
25.87
28.07
25.87

9
26.96
26.96
26.96
26.96
29.16
29.16

5
28.51
28.51
28.51
30.71
30.71
30.71

6
33.52
33.52
33.52
35.72
35.72
35.72

7
34.77
36.97
34.77
36.97
36.97
36.97

8
25.46
25.46
25.46
25.46
27.66
25.46

9
26.73
26.73
26.73
26.73
28.93
28.93

5
31.01
31.01
31.01
33.21
33.21
33.21

6
37.98
37.98
35.78
37.98
37.98
37.98

7
38.76
38.76
36.56
38.76
38.76
38.76

8
27.00
27.00
27.00
27.00
29.20
29.20

9
28.71
28.71
28.71
30.91
30.91
30.91

7

8

9

5

6

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

106

Age: 30s Weight: 50kg BP:
Tokyo (Tokyo: 35.7° N)
Myanmar (Naypyidaw: 19.8° N)
Singapore (Singapore: 1.4° N)
New York (42.6° N)
Alaska (Juneau: 58.3° N)
Russia (Moscow: 55.8° N)

Work site:
4
5
25.56
30.68
25.56
30.68
25.56
30.68
25.56
32.88
27.76
32.88
25.56
32.88

6
33.88
33.88
33.88
36.08
36.08
36.08

7
37.52
37.52
35.32
37.52
37.52
37.52

8
37.67
37.67
35.47
37.67
37.67
37.67

9
28.93
28.93
28.93
31.13
31.13
31.13

31.43
31.43
31.43
33.63
33.63
33.63

Table 4 shows the WBGT values of the workers wearing an SMS polypropylene wear.
When they worked wearing an SMS polypropylene wear which is thicker than an ordinary
working wear, their WBGT values increased no matter where they were from. A rise in risk
level requires workers to take precautions against heatstroke more in an SMS polypropylene
wear than in an ordinary working wear.
Table 4. SMS polypropylene wear
Age: 30s Weight: 50kg
Tokyo (Tokyo: 35.7° N)
Myanmar (Naypyidaw: 19.8° N)
Singapore (Singapore: 1.4° N)
New York (42.6° N)
Alaska (Juneau: 58.3° N)
Russia (Moscow: 55.8° N)
Age: 30s Weight: 50kg BP:

Work site:
4
5

11.81
21.45
11.81
21.45
11.81
21.45
11.81
21.45
11.81
21.45
11.81
21.45
Work site: Tokyo
4
5
Tokyo (Tokyo: 35.7° N)
19.04
27.61
Myanmar (Naypyidaw: 19.8° N)
19.04
27.61
Singapore (Singapore: 1.4° N)
19.04
27.61
New York (42.6° N)
19.04
27.61
Alaska (Juneau: 58.3° N)
19.04
29.81
Russia (Moscow: 55.8° N)
19.04
29.81
Age: 30s Weight: 50kg BP:
Work site: Osaka
4
5
Tokyo (Tokyo: 35.7° N)
17.21
25.81
Myanmar (Naypyidaw: 19.8° N)
17.21
25.81
Singapore (Singapore: 1.4° N)
17.21
25.81
New York (42.6° N)
17.21
25.81
Alaska (Juneau: 58.3° N)
17.21
28.01
Russia (Moscow: 55.8° N)
17.21
25.81
Age: 30s Weight: 50kg BP: Work site: Fukuoka
4
5Tokyo (Tokyo: 35.7° N)
20.29
28.43
Myanmar (Naypyidaw: 19.8° N)
20.29
28.43
Singapore (Singapore: 1.4° N)
20.29
28.43
New York (42.6° N)
20.29
30.63
Alaska (Juneau: 58.3° N)
20.29
30.63
Russia (Moscow: 55.8° N)
20.29
30.63
Age: 30s Weight: 50kg BP:
Work site: Naha
4
5
Tokyo (Tokyo: 35.7° N)
26.66
31.78
Myanmar (Naypyidaw: 19.8° N)
26.11
31.23
Singapore (Singapore: 1.4° N)
26.11
31.23
New York (42.6° N)
26.11
33.43
Alaska (Juneau: 58.3° N)
28.31
33.43
Russia (Moscow: 55.8° N)
26.11
33.43

6

7

24.59
24.59
24.59
24.59
26.79
24.59

29.88
29.88
29.88
32.08
32.08
32.08

29.96
29.96
29.96
32.16
32.16
32.16

6
30.16
30.16
30.16
32.36
32.36
32.36

7
34.94
37.14
34.94
37.14
37.14
37.14

37.83
37.83
35.63
37.83
37.83
37.83

6
29.06
29.06
29.06
31.26
31.26
31.26

7
34.07
34.07
34.07
36.27
36.27
36.27

37.52
37.52
35.32
37.52
37.52
37.52

6
31.56
31.56
31.56
33.76
33.76
33.76

7
38.53
38.53
36.33
38.53
38.53
38.53

39.31
39.31
37.11
39.31
39.31
39.31

6
34.98
34.43
34.43
36.63
36.63
36.63

7
38.62
38.07
35.87
38.07
38.07
38.07

38.77
38.22
36.02
38.22
38.22
38.22

8

22.11
22.11
22.11
22.11
22.11
22.11

8

9

19.87
19.87
19.87
19.87
19.87
19.87

9
26.42
26.42
26.42
26.42
28.62
28.62

8

27.51
27.51
27.51
27.51
29.71
29.71
9

26.01
26.01
26.01
26.01
28.21
26.01
8

27.28
27.28
27.28
27.28
29.48
29.48
9

27.55
27.55
27.55
27.55
29.75
29.75
8

29.26
29.26
29.26
31.46
31.46
31.46
9

30.03
29.48
29.48
31.68
31.68
31.68

32.53
31.98
31.98
34.18
34.18
34.18

Finally in Table 5, the WBGT values of the workers wearing a limited-use vapor-barrier
coverall are indicated. Workers wearing a limited- use vapor-barrier coverall are advised to takeprecautions against heatstroke in any work sites almost throughout the period except April in19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

107

Sapporo as the WBGT points out “hazardous” more stringently than when wearing an above
mentioned SMS polypropylene wear.
Limited-use vapor-barrier overall
Table 5. Limited-use vapor-barrier coverall
Age: 30s Weight: 50kg BP:

Work site:
4
5
Tokyo (Tokyo: 35.7° N)
23.36
33.00
Myanmar (Naypyidaw: 19.8° N)
23.36
33.00
Singapore (Singapore: 1.4° N)
23.36
33.00
New York (42.6° N)
23.36
35.20
Alaska (Juneau: 58.3° N)
23.36
35.20
Russia (Moscow: 55 8° N)
23 36
35 20
Age: 30s Weight: 50kg BP:
Work site:
4
Tokyo (Tokyo: 35.7° N)
30.59
41.36
Myanmar (Naypyidaw: 19.8° N)
30.59
41.36
Singapore (Singapore: 1.4° N)
30.59
39.16
New York (42.6° N)
32.79
41.36
Alaska (Juneau: 58.3° N)
32.79
41.36
Russia (Moscow: 55.8° N)
32.79
41.36
Age: 30s Weight: 50kg BP: 110mmHg
Work site:
4
Tokyo (Tokyo: 35.7° N)
28.76
39.56
Myanmar (Naypyidaw: 19.8° N)
28.76
39.56
Singapore (Singapore: 1.4° N)
28.76
37.36
New York (42.6° N)
30.96
39.56
Alaska (Juneau: 58.3° N)
30.96
39.56
Russia (Moscow: 55.8° N)
30.96
39.56
Age: 30s Weight: 50kg BP:
Work site:
4
Tokyo (Tokyo: 35.7° N)
31.84
42.18
Myanmar (Naypyidaw: 19.8° N)
31.84
42.18
Singapore (Singapore: 1.4° N)
31.84
42.18
New York (42.6° N)
34.04
42.18
Alaska (Juneau: 58.3° N)
34.04
42.18
Russia (Moscow: 55.8° N)
34.04
42.18
Age: 30s Weight: 50kg BP:
Work site:
4
Tokyo (Tokyo: 35.7° N)
39.86
44.98
Myanmar (Naypyidaw: 19.8° N)
39.86
44.98
Singapore (Singapore: 1.4° N)
37.66
44.98
New York (42.6° N)
39.86
44.98
Alaska (Juneau: 58.3° N)
39.86
44.98
Russia (Moscow: 55.8° N)
39.86
44.98

4.

6
38.34
38.34
36.14
38.34
38.34
38 34

7
43.63
43.63
43.63
43.63
43.63
43 63

8
43.71
43.71
43.71
43.71
43.71
43 71

9
33.66
33.66
33.66
35.86
35.86
35 86

31.42
31.42
31.42
33.62
33.62
33 62

5
43.91
43.91
43.91
43.91
43.91
43.91

6
48.69
48.69
48.69
48.69
48.69
48.69

7
49.38
49.38
49.38
49.38
49.38
49.38

8
40.17
40.17
37.97
40.17
40.17
40.17

9
41.26
41.26
39.06
41.26
41.26
41.26

5
42.81
42.81
42.81
42.81
42.81
42.81

6
47.82
47.82
47.82
47.82
47.82
47.82

7
49.07
49.07
49.07
49.07
49.07
49.07

8
39.76
39.76
37.56
39.76
39.76
39.76

9
41.03
41.03
38.83
41.03
41.03
41.03

5
45.31
45.31
45.31
45.31
45.31
45.31

6
50.08
50.08
50.08
50.08
50.08
50.08

7
50.86
50.86
50.86
50.86
50.86
50.86

8
41.30
41.30
39.10
41.30
41.30
41.30

9
43.01
43.01
43.01
43.01
43.01
43.01

5
48.18
48.18
48.18
48.18
48.18
48.18

6
49.62
49.62
49.62
49.62
49.62
49.62

7
49.77
49.77
49.77
49.77
49.77
49.77

8
43.23
43.23
43.23
43.23
43.23
43.23

9
45.73
45.73
45.73
45.73
45.73
45.73

Conclusion

As discussed above, it is assumed that the WBGT value is subject to the latitude of worksites and that heat acclimation may be largely accounted for by the latitude of a worker’s
birthplace. In addition, heat insulation and humidity conditioning properties of clothing havesome influence on the WBGT value.
References[1] The Japan Construction Occupational Safety and Health Association, Statistics in Web site (www.kensaibou.
or.jp).
[2] Tanaka, T., and Warmish, H. Toyo University. Heat acclimation evaluation tool. Heat acclimation evaluation
method.. Computer program for evaluation of heat acclimation and computer readable recording
medium. Patent application #2018-13474.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

Basic Study on the Foundation Pile Length Setting System and its 3D Display
Technique from the Viewpoint of Geo-environmental Engineering
Naito Tanji1 et al

Abstract
In this study, fundamental investigations on the foundation pile length setting system and its 3D
display technique are carried out from the viewpoint of geo-environmental engineering. To
promote the study, the foundation pile length setting system was built in accordance with thefollowing procedure. (1) Digitization of ground data Geologic columnar section data to bedigitized were retrieved mainly from the official websites of the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure,
Transport and Tourism and other Japanese administrative organs. Pile lengths were estimatedbased on the data obtained from the points within the concentric circles of radii 100m, 300m,
500m and 1km around a given center. (2) Five model areas were selected from Japan’s capitalregion (i.e. Tokyo, Saitama and Yokohama) and 20 places for each area were analyzed. (3)Major construction methods adopted in Japan were compared.
Keywords: Geo-environmental, 3D Display, Digitization, Foundation Pile

1.

Introduction

The importance of “ground” as one of the environmental components has come to bekeenly recognized while social issues concerning environment, disaster prevention, and waste
disposal have presented themselves more seriously. The ground is precious assets to the humanrace, which must be handed down to the next generation, as it essentially carries out multiple
functions (i.e. bearing load; holding water; venting air; purifying filth; storing nutrients;
absorbing shock, etc.) and plays concomitant crucial roles (i.e. places where living and social
facilities are built; various organisms inhabit; groundwater develops; foods are produced; andwaste materials are deposited, etc.) However, human activities have exploited the ground to
install living, social and industrial infrastructures and facilities by placing a premium on
economy and efficiency without paying due attention to the ground’s multifaceted functions
and roles in the history of development. As a result, the geo-environment has beenconspicuously deteriorating.
Not to spoil the potential of future generations for sustainable development, it isinevitable to use the ground in harmony with environment1), and the discipline dedicated to theabove issues is geo-environmental engineering, which is considered an old-yet-new field oflearning.
In this study, fundamental investigations on the foundation pile length setting system
and its 3D display technique are carried out from the viewpoint of geo-environmental
engineering.
2.

Definition of geo-environmental engineering
Geotechnical engineering is the study aiming to build basic social infrastructures

1

Undergraduate Student, Tanaka Laboratory, Toyo University, s16f01601287@toyo.jp
2.Ryoma Komuro, 3.Takehiro Tanaka, 4. Kojiro Yanaura, 5.Haruo Takeda, 6. Yasuhiro Goto

110

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)necessary for enriching human life by dynamically safe and economical methods in such fields ascivil engineering, architecture, mining, and agriculture. Through the efforts devoted over past
several decades, the study has been systematized and developed as a basic compulsory subject.
As a consequence, ground behavior has come to be successfully described through technicalinvestigation of soil characteristics and their numerical analyses. Because the ground is
indispensable for any structures to be founded on, geotechnical engineering as one conventional
engineering subject has contributed significantly to the improvement of safe and secured
infrastructure and the designing and execution for disaster prevention in actual construction sites
and infrastructure managements, in keeping with soil mechanics, foundation engineering, andagricultural engineering.
In the year of 2000, the Science Council of Japan presented a proposal to establish
and organize “geo-environmental engineering” as a new engineering domain. Geoenvironmental engineering is granted status as the integrated science aiming at creating thebest suited social system, founded on the conventional dynamics-based geotechnical engineering,to which such subjects as soil engineering, microbiology, chemistry, chemical engineering,
ecological and environmental engineering, and toxicology, are applied, and social sciences andhumanities are widely related.
Ground-related engineering is interdisciplinary in the first place, which has a history of
having extended its domain to meet social demands. Accordingly, its name has changed from soil
engineering and soil mechanics and foundation engineering togeotechnical engineering. The
newly advocated geo-environmental engineering covers a considerably wide range, as it involves
the conventional geotechnical engineering and further deals with various environmental issues.
In recent years, issues on global environment have been highlighted as critical problems.
The changes in natural as well as social environments urge the society of civil engineers as awhole to make its paradigm shift. After the age of continuously growing socioeconomic
development supported by mass production and mass consumption, the establishment of low
carbon societies and sustainable societies is being called for, naturally requiring people tochange their lifestyles and the managerial principle of social infrastructure to be reformed.
In the field of geo-environmental engineering as well, its priorities have changed
substantially. Pertaining to the above mentioned paradigm shift in the management of social
infrastructure, elements in the context of geo-environmental preservation have become more
important. Furthermore, it has become much crucial to improve social infrastructure for safe
and secured life of people by taking natural environment into consideration. While geoenvironmental engineering contains the disciplines of conventional geotechnical engineering andsoil mechanics to maintain the balance with natural as well as social environments in a broad
sense, environmental geo-technics is a narrower academic discipline established specifically tosolve environmental problems from the viewpoint of geotechnical engineering.
Issues to be dealt with in environmental geo-technics are those related to restoration ofcontaminated land; treatment of waste materials (hazardous and non-hazardous); storage andtreatment of nuclear wastes; acid rain and acid soil; prevention of desertification; sea-level riseand social infrastructure; substances of concern circulated across ground; water cycle; and geoenvironment related to biology and ecology. It covers a considerably wide range of issues, eventhough it is regarded as a narrower academic discipline.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

111

Internationally, the subject was taken up as one of the major themes at the 9th Tokyo
Conference of the International
Society for Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering (ISSMFE) in 1977 and sincethen discussed extensively in its regional conference held every four years. In 1994, the first
International Congress on Environmental Geo-technics (ICEG) was called in Edmonton, Canada.
Then, the second conference was held in Osaka, Japan, in 1996, followed by the third in Lisbon,
Portugal, in 1998. Their contributions were reflected in the activities of TechnicalCommittees (TC) of the International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering(ISSMGE), TC5 in particular. Since then, ICEG has been continuously held every four years,
convening the 2002 fourth conference in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and the 2006 fifth conference in
Cardiff, UK. Their scientific solutions specific to geo-environmental issues would be
regarded as achievements in the study of environmental geo-technics.
In summary, the following four aspects are key approaches of geo-environmental
engineering.
(1)

Management and restoration of social infrastructure: as for the management of social
infrastructure in the aged society with a low birth rate, it is necessary to build hubs ofinternational economics and disaster prevention activities in wide areas by making more
efficient capital investment and developing technologies to maintain and restore existingsocial infrastructure.

(2)

Establishment of sustainable societies: to successfully implement 3R approaches(reducing, reusing and recycling) to cope with waste materials, their acceptance as groundmaterials would be contributory to solving the problem. Appropriatem treatment of wastematerials is one of the most crucial missions of geo-environmental engineering. To build
sustainable decarbonized societies by recycling energies, efforts need to be dedicated to theachievement of urban functions in harmony with nature.

(3)

Preservation of natural environment: people are required to reconfirm that ground andecosystem react in close association and take measures to sustain the linkage of forests,
rivers, cities, and seas.

(4)

Commitment to preservation of global environment: efforts must be exerted to realize
co-development of human societies with nature and secure biodiversity worldwide.

3.

Procedure to build the foundation pile length setting system

The foundation pile length setting system was built in accordance with the following
procedure. (1) Digitization of ground data. Geologic columnar section data were retrieved mostly
from the official websites and then digitized. Figure-1 shows a part of Shinjuku, the sub-centerof Tokyo. Pile lengths were estimated based on the data obtained from the points within theconcentric circles of radii 100m, 300m, 500m and 1km around a given target center as Figure-1
indicates. (2) Model areas in this study
The following four areas were selected as model areas, where analytical investigation was
carried out at 20 points each.

112

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)①

Sunshine City in Toshima-district, Tokyo (Ikebukuro area) (analytical result is partiallyshown in Table-1)②

Fuji TV office building site at Odaiba area, Koto-district, Tokyo (analytical result ispartially shown in Table-2)③

Tokyo Metropolitan Government office building site, Shinjuku-district, Tokyo④

Sakuragicho Sta. Naka-district, Yokohama, Kanagawa(3)

Methods examined in this study①

Rotational pile construction method (EAZET method)②Pre-boring and enlarged foot protection method (HiFB method)③

Rotational pile construction method with soil cement (ATT column method)

4.

Outlines of the construction methods examined in this study

The features of the three construction methods introduced in this study, namely the
EAZET method, the HiFB method, and the ATT column method, are outlined below.
(1) EAZET method
The EAZET method is a pile installation technique by rotating and burying a steel pipe
equipped with a spiral plate at the tip. By embedding the spiral plate expanding 1.87 to 3 times
the steel pipe width into a bearing layer, the significant bearing capacity is obtained. The method
is environmentally friendly, producing no waste. By selecting the compact operation machine,
work can be completed even in the very restricted and confined situation.
(2) HiFB method
The HiFB method is a bored pile construction method, a kind of pre-boring and enlarged
foot protection method. Drilling fluid is poured into construction ground while a borehole iscreated down to a specified depth by an excavator. At the specified depth (near the bearing
layer), foot protection fluid is poured in and a foot protection bulb is created at the bottom. As the
excavator is being pulled up, circumference fixation liquid is poured in to build a soil cement
borehole.
(3) ATT column method
The ATT column method is a hybrid of a soil improvement column and a winged steel
pipe. The integration of a column and a winged steel pipe enhances vertical bearing capacity,pullout bearing capacity, and horizontal resistance. Because not only end bearing capacity but
also frictional force is large, appropriate design planning can be made according to the type ofground. Construction can be done with a compact machine in an environmentally friendly
manner making low noise, low vibration, and little surplus soil.
5.

Summary(1) In this study, the foundation pile length setting system was newly developed, underwhich four areas treated with the three construction methods were analyzed. As a result, the19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

113

system was found prospective and applicable for wider use, demonstrating its capabilities ofchoosing a proper method and making an adequate judgment for a target site.
(2) Regarding the construction method, each of the three methods, namely EAZET, HiFB
and ATT column, has its own advantages and disadvantages, from among which the method
suitable to a target site could be chosen. Partially though, they were three-dimensionallyvisualized and successfully implemented.
(3) The allowable vertical bearing capacity and the pile length in the four districts withthe three methods were surveyed under the foundation pile length setting system. The survey
results are reviewed below. The ground under Ikebukuro area seems stable, where the threeconstruction methods displayed steady bearing capacity. Among the three, ATT column and
HiFB presented the bearing capacity overpoweringly higher than EAZET. Nevertheless, EAZET
also exhibited fairly high bearing capacity, suitable for the construction in a narrow space and aresidential area. Thus, these three methods can be used for different places.
Shinjuku, similarly to Ikebukuro area, stands on the stable ground, where the threemethods exhibited steady outcomes. Thus, the proper method should be selected according to thelocation.
Finally, the ground of Odaiba area proximity of the sea is not thoroughly solid, where
EAZET is not applicable because of its short pile length. For this reason, the method must be
selected from between HiFB and ATT column depending on the location. The ATT column iscompact, producing low noise, little surplus soil, and low vibration, which is suitable for theconstruction in a narrow area and a residential district.

References[1] Science Council of Japan. (2000). Geo-environmental engineering in the 21st century--Toward the creation of
new disciplines. Report of Geo-environmental Engineering Special Committee, Socioenvironmental
Engineering Working Liaison Committee.
[2] Kamon, M., Omine, K., & Katsumi, K. (2010). Geo-environmental Engineering. Tokyo: Kyoritsu Shuppan.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

Socio-Economic Technique Changes in Myanmar (1953-1964)
Khin Khin Si1

Abstract
The first effective contacts with western civilization were commercial. Beginning of thenineteenth century money economy meant a change in the level of aspiration of the Burmese who
had to learn to want and value material things. There were a few aspects of the transformation of
British Burma between 1861 and 1885 as a result of the opening of the Suez Canal. It was during
this period that the whole machinery of administration took on its modern character. Everything
happened after 1885 up to the introduction of constitutional reforms in 1923 or even up to thetime of the Japanese invasion, was merely a development of conditions already in existence in
1885. Apart from the execution of development projects there is a wide range of social andeconomic functions which a Socialist Government must perform. The present civil service
system, administrative set-up and procedures are vestiges of the past colonial regime, of the pastlaissez faire economy. When social, economic and technical ministries and departments havesprung up, as they have done in Burma lately, and especially when they have to be built up fromvery foundation, expert professional and technical knowledge has become indispensable. In
agriculture, the first steps were to be the redistribution of land with a view to eliminating
landlordism and promoting modern methods in cultivation. After World War II the forests in
Burma became entirely State owned and all organized forestry became the responsibility of theForest Department. A State Timber Board was set up to look after economic exploitation,commercial transactions and exports concerned with the resources of the entire reserve forests.
Burma is an overwhelmingly agricultural country. The main farming areas are concentrated in the
alluvial lands of the delta and in the valley lands of the prominent rivers, particularly the
Irrawaddy, Chindwin and Sittang. There are approximately 25 million acres of land in the country
which can ultimately be brought under cultivation by means of irrigation or drainage works.
Keywords: social change affairs, economic change affairs, economic position, forest techniques’changes

1. Introduction
The industrial policy of the Government was made known in a resolution of the
Economic Council which was subsequently laid on the tables of Parliament on 28th September
1949. Production of atomic energy and manufacture of arms and ammunitions were reserved fordevelopment as State enterprises and/or monopolies. But until such time as the State canundertake sufficient production private enterprise shall be permitted to develop them either on
their own or in partnership with the State, on terms and conditions to be settled with eachenterprise. Industries not included in the preceding two categories were to be open todevelopment by private enterprise. The resolution also indicated the terms and conditions on
which foreign capital may be accepted for the rehabilitation or development of industries in
Burma.
Apart from the execution of development projects there is a wide range of social andeconomic functions which a Socialist Government must perform. The Government has, ofcourse, gone ahead with or is contemplating a number of reforms. Devolution of power,
democratization of the administrative machinery etc., which were recently announced at the1

Dr Professor, Department of History, University of Pathein, Myanmar, drkhinsi2017@gmail.com

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

116

Welfare State Conference in Rangoon, are certainly very commendable and necessary reforms.
The present civil service system, administrative set-up and procedures are vestiges of the pastcolonial regime, of the past laissez faire economy. Secretaries to the Government, able but
amateur all the same, may be able to run with reasonable efficiency a government machineryalready established and consisting for the most part of housekeeping departments. But whensocial, economic and technical ministries and departments have sprung up, as they have done in
Burma lately, and especially when they have to be built up from the very foundation, expert
professional and technical knowledge has become indispensable.

2. Methodology
Research design is Historical Method. It writes research paper according to the present
Myanmar Era. There rise step by step on changes of events. The cause of happening will beinspected. The basic principle was discussed. It put forward coming into being of events.
Consequence and offense were criticized and considered.

Objectives of the study
The Republic of Myanmar is a developing country and agriculture is the main stream of
its economy. Agricultural products are also the most prominent items over total exports. As
shown in the “Four economic objectives” of the political slogan, development of agriculture
should be the basis for economic development in this country. In particular, agriculture-relatedindustries such as fertilizer, agricultural machinery and equipment and others should be
strategically developed to improve agricultural productivity and raise farmers’ income.
Therefore, the best way to develop the economy in Myanmar is to engineer a framework basedon the agricultural development and agricultural development must be the engine for economic
and rural development.

3. Result
Myanmar opened its doors to the rest of the world in the midst of a period of
globalization and regionalization. Consequently, the open-door policy drastically changed
Myanmar’s external sector. As the volume of trade grew, Myanmar expanded its trade relations
with neighboring countries, having become integrated into the regional markets. The commodity
composition of both exports and imports also changed throughout the transitional period.

Discussion
Social change affairs (1861-1923)
Under contact with the West, deep changes such as immigration and commercial
cultivation of land made the first move. The heaviness of population upon land in certain areas
became a background condition for a kind of poverty and unrest. In the past, government had
been a matter of guidance and arbitration, the introduction of government by legal precedent anddirect executive decision was difficult for Burmese and Western administrators alike. The

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

117

presence of the “sphere of villages” under the administration of one headman looked like andwas converted into a district form of administration. The Burmese had only a personal affiliation
to this head man and their leader by heredity.1
Burmese culture was a culture of differences, confusing to administrators used to themodels of European or other Asiatic cultures. Although the everyday life of the people wassimple, a large proportion of the men in the villages learned to read. The official religion was
Buddhism. The literacy was associated with religion and the reading of sacred texts andknowledge of the contemporary world outside Burma was not absorbed. The literacy andcomplication of the Burmese belied the simplicity of their economy. There was a money
economy. Their personal autonomy contradicted the pattern of interdependence of young
children on parents and old parents on children.2
The first effective contacts with western civilization were commercial. 3 Teak wasexported and cotton goods were imported. At the beginning of nineteenth century, money
economy meant a change in the level of aspiration of the Burmese who had to learn to want andvalue material things instead of concentrating on immediate states of being, to spend their moneyfor foreign goods and their labor in making money to buy these goods rather than devoting theirsmall traditional redundancies to religious donations that would increase their personal merit. 4
Law and orderly social behavior had been based on an accepted pattern of living which only
incidentally, not directly, was seen as related to village welfare. A man acted with whatamounted to honesty and uprightness because that was the way to act rather than out of social
responsibility, or out of concern for others. When the organic unity of the village was shattered,
when external authority with penal sanctions was substituted for the authority inherent in a
traditional way of life, the traditional guiding principle of social conduct was destroyed and there
was nothing to take its place. With the increase in population, and the breakdown of traditional
patterns of behavior, new lands which had been set aside for communal grazing or fuel orsanitary arrangements were appropriated by individual villagers, and individual villagers
interfered, for instance, with the irrigation system with a view to their own profit only, evenwhen this caused damage to the whole village.

Administrative affairs
There were a few aspects of the transformation of British Burma between 1861 and 1885
as a result of the opening of the Suez Canal .It was during this period that the whole machinery ofadministration took on its modern character. Everything happened after 1885 up to theintroduction of constitutional reforms in 1923, or even up to the time of the Japanese invasion,
was merely a development of conditions already in existence in 1885.It was during this periodthat the system of land revenue assumed the characteristic features which distinguished it fromland revenue in India generally. The system which originated in the days when taungya (hill-side
cultivation) cultivation prevailed in the rice plains of the delta was subsequently applied, though
it was quite unsuitable, to upper Burma. During the same period, forest administration procured
1

Margaret Mead, Cultural patterns and technical change, printed by the IJse press, ltd Deventer (Holland), publishedin 1953 by the United Nations, p.43,44(Hereafter cited as Margaret, technical change)
2
Ibid,p.44
3Myanmar socialist course party’s economic affair No.3,sa pei bei hman press, first print ,September 1965.pp.85,87
4
Ibid,pp.44,45

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

its later features and the working of the forests was passed from Burmans and Karen to foreign
firms. It was also then that there were the first experiments in so-called self-government inmunicipalities, which throw much light on the development of local government after 1923.
There are still instructive with reference to local administration at the present day. 5In Burma,
attitude against the accumulation of capital, the tendency to spend much money for religious
purposes, the tenet that a Buddhist cannot make a valid will, all militate against the creation ofcapital needed for industrial enterprise of any major scope. However, small mills and small plants
in rural areas have been increasing and fit into Burmese pattern.

Economic change affairs after 1923
Apart from the execution of development projects there is a wide series of social andeconomic functions which a Socialist Government must perform. The present administrative
machinery was not adequate to the proper discharge of these functions. Really the government
has gone ahead with or is considerate a number of reforms. Devolution of power,
democratization of the administrative machinery etc., which were recently announced at the
Welfare State Conference in Rangoon, are certainly very commendable and necessary reforms. It
is said that along with decentralization and democratization, there should be rationalization of theadministrative machinery. The present civil service system, administrative set-up and procedures
are remnants of the past colonial regime, of the past laissez faire economy.6 Secretaries to theGovernment are able men but amateur all the same, may be able to rush with reasonable wellorganized a government machinery already established and consisted for the most part ofhousekeeping department. But when social, economic and technical ministries and departments
have sprung up, as they have done in Burma lately, and especially when they have to be built up
from very foundation, expert professional and technical knowledge has become indispensable. It
is said that either the present civil service system should go or professional men should beallowed to hold the posts of secretaries or as another alternative the method of recruitment andtraining of the civil service men should be radically changed. Some knowledge of social scienceshould be required as part of the qualification of entrants to the service or imparted to newrecruits in their probationary period. Furthermore, professional and technical services of theGovernment should be upgraded to the same level of importance and power as the civil service.
A new service should also be established for the increasing number of government employees inthe expanding state enterprises. 7 Although every country tries to move toward in creating an
information-oriented society, through the world, Myanmar seems to have barricaded itself to theworld, and the introduction of advanced technology is delayed and regulated. The economy of
the Union of Myanmar had market-oriented economy from 1948 to 1962, when this country wasa parliamentary democratic country just after its regain of independence from the Great Britain.
However, the economy was under the centrally planned system from 1962 to 1988, which iscalled the Burmese Way of Socialism.

5

J.S. Furnivall, Safety first- A study in the economic history of Burma,Copyright©1998-Myanmar Book Centre &Book Promotion & Service ltd, Bangkok, Thailand, p.35
6
Khin Maung Kyi, U, Western Enterprise and Economic Development in Burma, JBRS, Liii,I,June1970,
Copyright©1998-Myanmar book Centre &Book promotion &Service lid, Bangkok, Thailand,p.30
7Thet Tun,U, B.A.(Rgn) B.sc.(London), Outline of a socialist economy for Burma, Copyright©1998-Myanmar
Book Centre & Book Promotion & Service ltd, Bangkok, Thailand, p.75

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

119Background of economic position in postwar period
On the eve of World War II, agriculture was still backward and tradition relievable andremained in the hold of the money lender. Industry and transportation were mainly in foreign
hands and the majority of the industrial labor force was also non-Burman. About 70 percent of
the working population was engaged in agriculture and extractive pursuits. World War II had
disastrous results for Burma. There was interruption in all branches of the national economy.
Before the war there were 1,027 factories employing 83,383 workers. In 1946, about a year after
the cessation of hostilities, only 355 factories were in operation, employing 31,521 workers. 8
The economy of the new state was planned upon principles of socialism and the country
was consigned to the concept of a welfare state. A Two-Year- Plan of Economic Development
was ready in April 1948. The great significance of the plan was that until 1969, it was the only
attempt at broad economic planning made by Burma without the assistance of foreign advisors. It
continued to shape and influence basic agricultural and industrial planning and policy for several
years. Indeed, the planners were conscious of the fact that the pattern of the colonial economy
could not be altered within a period of two years and that numerous limitations stood in the wayof measurable success, but they felt it was essential to make a beginning. 9It is essential to a
Socialist Economy and of the machinery of execution which is no less important. There define adesirable attitude towards Burmese business. It is a well-known fact that business in Burma in
pre-war days was an almost exclusive monopoly of the non-Burmans. But during and after thewar, a large number of Burmans has taken to business, small or big, industrial or commercial.
Forest techniques’ changes
In agriculture, the first steps were to be the redistribution of land with a view toeliminating landlordism and promoting modern methods in cultivation. After proper survey, allbasic industries were to be established and developed as state enterprises. Other proposals were
for: complete nationalization of electric power generation, development of all forms oftransportation, the nationalization of inland water transport services and employment of Burmans
in all of them. Fishing and fisheries were to be encouraged and organized along modern lines.10
After World War II the forests in Burma became entirely State owned and all organized
forestry became the responsibility of the Forest Department. A State Timber Board was set up tolook after economic exploitation, commercial transactions and exports concerned with theresources of the entire reserve forests. Around 1955-56, the Board employed over 4,200
permanent workers in its saw mills and over 15,000 seasonal workers in logging camps. In
October 1963, the State Timber Board assumed sole responsibility for extracting, converting anddistributing all kinds of timber. All shops in the country dealing in timber have been nationalized
and reorganized into 250 People’s Timber Shops.
Burma’s production of timber as well as export trade in timber declined after World War
II. But in recent years, slow yet steady recovery has been maintained.(See Table XX).
In 1952-53, the foreign consultants of the KTA(Knappen Tippetts Abbett Engineering
Company, New York, were invited by the Burmese Govt. in 1951 to prepare a report on planning
8

Nafis Ahmad, Economic resources of the Union of Burma, Earth Sciences Laboratory, U.S. Army NatickLaboratories, Natick, Massachusetts 01760, May 1971, p. 13(Hereafter cited as Nafis, Economic resources)
9
Ibid, p.13,14
10
Nafis, Economic resources,p.14

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economic development of Burma. They made recommendations in a Preliminary Report and 2
Vols. Of detailed reports.) Did not go fully into the question of the forest resources of Burma, but
made a number of useful general suggestions for improvement. These included the stepping up ofteak girdling in the forest, emphasis on mechanized traction, and the gradual replacement ofelephant power. KTA also recommended a greater utilizing of Burma’s forest resources by theestablishment of six factories at a total cost of K 77million, of these; the largest was to be abamboo pulp and paper mill, estimated to cost K 66million. Other plants recommended were asaw mill, a wallboard plant, a plywood plant, a joinery plant and a furniture factory. Table XX(Burma: production of timber) 11
The newly constituted State Timber Board made some interim recommendations to theimplementation Conference of the Pyidawtha. These were implemented by the government.
Designs were prepared for the proposed Forest Research Institute in 1958 but the major forestindustries recommendations of the KTA consultants were not carried out. One of the chief
deterrents in extending extraction and expanding production and processing was the insecurity
experienced by the Forest Department due to the continued insurgency. However, during 195557, the rate of girdling teak trees was raised and in 1963-64 it stood at 24,000 six to seven times
that of 1954.The loss of elephants were partly met by the employment of buffaloes. In 1957-58,
the three mechanical timber extraction units added about 20,000 tons each to the volume ofextraction. The work of the State Timber Board was made more difficult by the obsolescence andlimited capacity of the six existing mills. Thus, improved quality exports required for the United
Kingdom and other European markets were not easy to achieve.12 Apart from the execution ofdevelopment projects there is a wide range of social and economic functions which a Socialist
Government must perform. The Government has, of course, gone ahead with or is contemplating
a number of reforms. Devolution of power, democratization of the administrative machinery etc.,
which were announced at the Welfare State Conference in Rangoon, are certainly very
commendable and necessary reforms. But in my opinion along with decentralization anddemocratization, there should be rationalization of the administrative machinery. Our present
civil service system, administrative set-up and procedures are vestiges of the past colonial
regime, of the past laissez faire economy.
4. Conclusion
Although every country tries to move toward in creating an information-oriented society
through the world, Myanmar seems to have barricaded itself to the world, and the introduction ofadvanced technology is delayed and regulated. The economy of the Union of Myanmar had amarket-oriented economy from 1948 to 1962, when this country was a parliamentary democratic
country just after its regain of independence from the Great Britain. However, the economy was
under the centrally planned system from 1962 to 1988, which is called the Burmese Way of
Socialism. The changes planned will undoubtedly affect many areas of activity- sanitation,
nutrition, wages and conditions of labor, agricultural techniques, pediatrics, obstetrics, preventive
medicine, etc. In the past the introduction of new techniques and practices into the life of socalled under- developed peoples has usually been undertaken without adequate consideration of
the effects of such changes on mental health and social adjustment. Burma must be industrialized
and must change to a predominantly cash crop economy if it is to be able to support its growing
11
12

Nafis, Economic resources,p.80
Ibid,p.82

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

121

population, and to raise its standard of living. There is a practical problem of how best toreconcile cultural pattern with technical changes. In general, mechanization can have an
overwhelming effect on human welfare by rupturing the nourishing continuity of man with theland, with his own body rhythms, and with his traditional past.

Acknowledgements
I would like to thank to them that the data required for this paper have been mainly collected from National
library of Yangon and universities’ Central library.

References
1. J.S. Furnivall (1998) Safety first- A study in the economic history of Burma, Copyright ©1998-Myanmar Book
Centre& Book Promotion &Service ltd, Bangkok, Thailand
2. Khin Maung Kyi, U (1970) Western Enterprise and Economic Development in Burma, JBRS, Liii, I, June,
Copyright©1998-Myanmar book Centre &Book promotion &Service lid, Bangkok, Thailand
3. Margaret Mead (1953) Cultural patterns and technical change, printed by the IJse press, ltd Deventen (Holland),published in the United Nations
4. (1965) Myanmar socialist course party’s economic affair No.3, sa pei bei hman press, first press, September 1965.
5. Nafis Ahmad (1971) Economic resources of the Union of Burma, Earth Sciences Laboratory, U.S. Army NatickLaboratories, Natick, Massachusetts 01760, May
6. Thet Tun, U, B.A.(Rgn) B.Sc. (London) (1998)Outline of a socialist economy for Burma, Copyright©1998Myanmar Book Centre & Book Promotion & Service ltd, Bangkok, Thailand

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

Factors Influencing on Operational Sustainability of Selected Cooperative
Microfinance in Southern Shan State
Kyar Ngon Sann

1

Abstract
Access and efficient provision of microcredit can enable the poor to smooth their consumption,
develop their micro enterprises, and improve quality of life. The main objectives of the study are
to examine clients’ socioeconomic conditions and the influencing factors on sustainability. This
study uses both primary and secondary data. Primary data are collected from 33 primary
cooperative societies and 20% of total clients from those cooperatives in Southern Shan State. Indepth interview are also conducted with responsible persons of Union of Southern Shan State
Cooperative Syndicates, and chairman and committee members of primary cooperative societies.
Secondary data are available from journals, books, articles, and reports issued by Cooperative
Syndicates. This study uses both descriptive and analytical research methods. The result showsthat there are increases in socioeconomic conditions of clients. The influencing factors ofproviders on sustainability are organization and management, development in human resource,and supporting activities. Improvements in economic conditions of clients have significantly
decreased sustainability. However, improvements in social conditions have significantly increased
sustainability. Clients’ experience, participation in social, types of investments, and frequency oftaking loan have a significant influence on sustainability. Thus, both providers and clients are thegoverning body of sustainability of microfinance.
Keywords: Improvement in socioeconomic conditions, sustainability, cooperative microfinance

1. Introduction
Microfinance institutions (MFIs) that promote commercial microfinance can attain wide
outreach sustainably and profitably whereas Microfinance institutions that operate withsubsidized loan portfolios cannot achieve wide outreach. In the field of microfinance,sustainability means the institution’s ability to continue as a going concern by providing financial
services to a wide range of clients who are disregarded by the regular financial institutions.
Sustainable microfinance institutions means that the ability to continue operating as adevelopment financial institution for the rural poor. As a poverty reduction tool, Microfinanceprogramme has been introduced in Shan State since 1997. Union of Southern Shan State
Cooperative Syndicates began Microfinance operations in 2011 according to the newly enacted
law. It provided loans to fifteen townships including 480 cooperatives with the amount of3329.22 million kyats covering its operation costs on Microfinance operations (Union ofSouthern Shan State Cooperative Syndicates, 2016).
Previous researchers conducted research on factors affecting operational sustainability
and financial sustainability (Aderaw and Manjit, 2015; Lawrence et al., 2012; Rahman and
Mazlan, 2014; Tehulu, 2013). These studies found that operational sustainability depends on suchfactors as the number of borrowers, good governance, cost allocation, size of microfinanceinstitutions, and cost per borrower. In order to achieve sustainability, microfinance program needs
to be managed in a rigorous and professional manner, tight credit control procedures and followup on defaulters. Operational sustainability measures operating revenue as a percentage of
1

Dr, Lecturer, Department of Commerce, Meiktila University of Economic, Myanmar. kyarngon@iuj.ac.jp

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

operating and financial expenses, including loan loss provision expense and the like. If this ratio
is greater than 100 percent, the MFI is covering all of its costs through own operations and is notrelying on contributions or subsidies from donors to survive (Guntz, 2011). According to Anh
and Tam (2013), Microfinance institutions are considered to be in sustainable operation if
Operational Self-sufficiency (OSS) > 100%, but international practices show that, to achieve thesustainable long-term operation, the OSS must be more than 120%.
Okumu (2007) studied the microfinance industry in Uganda with sustainability, outreachand regulation. The result indicated that sustainability is positively and significantly driven byreal effective lending rates and age of an MFI, and negatively by the ratio of gross outstanding
loan portfolio to total assets, the ratio of average loan size to the national per capita income, theunit cost of loans disbursed, and a group-based delivery mechanism compared to an individualbased delivery mechanism. Lawrence et.al, (2012) studied the factors affecting sustainability of
microfinance institution. It is found that financial regulations, number of clients served, financial
coverage and volume of credit transacted were the factors that highly affected the sustainabilityof microfinance institutions. Tehulu (2013) conducted empirical study on the determinants offinancial sustainability of microfinance institutions in East Africa. Research found that MFI’s
financial sustainability is positively and significantly driven by loans intensity and size.
Management inefficiency and portfolio at risk have a negative and significant impact on financial
sustainability. Breath of outreach, and deposit mobilization are not important determinants offinancial sustainability.
Schafer and Fukasawa (2011) also studied the factors best describing a microfinanceinstitution’s (MFI’s) operational self-sufficiency (OSS). This study found that the number ofborrowers, the write-off ratio, and the depositors/borrowers ratio were found to be importantfactors determining the sustainability of an MFI. Rahman and Mazlan (2014) described thedeterminants of Operational Efficiency of Microfinance Institutions in Bangladesh. The
regression result revealed that size of MFIs, cost per borrower and personnel productivity ratio
positively explain the financial self-sufficiency of MFIs in Bangladesh. On the other hand,variables of average loan balance per borrowers, age of MFIs, debt to equity ratio, operating
expense ratio, and number of active borrowers have a negative effect on the financial selfsufficiency at a significant level of FSS of MFIs in Bangladesh whereas the yield on gross loan
portfolio of MFIs is also positive but not at a significant level. According to the literature, several
researchers studied factors influencing on sustainability in different ways. Most of the study
focused on providers’ point of view of influencing factors on sustainability. The independent
variables used in literature are mostly quantitative measures such as number of clients served,
loans intensity and size, breath of outreach, deposit mobilization, staff productivity, age of
microfinance, depth of outreach, etc. In this study, both sides of microfinance operations,providers and clients, are used for factors influencing on sustainability. It is assumed thatsustainability cannot be attained only by the performance of providers, the characteristics ofclients are also important to attain sustainability. Thus, the independent variables such as
elements of sustainable microfinance providers, characteristics of clients and improvements inclients’ economic and social conditions are used in this study.
The objectives of this study are to examine the improvements in economic and social
conditions of clients and to analyze the influencing factors on sustainability of cooperative
microfinance.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

125

2. Methods
This study focuses on microfinance operations provided by cooperatives in Southern
Shan State, namely Ywarngan Township Cooperative Syndicates, Nyaungshwe Township
Cooperative Syndicates, and Yatsauk Township Cooperative Syndicates. This study uses
convenience sampling method. First, three townships are selected based on the portion of villages
included and the number of cooperatives. Second, 15 primary cooperative societies in Ywarngan
Township, 12 primary cooperative societies in Nyaungshwe Township, and 6 primary
cooperative societies in Yatsauk Townships which have started microfinance operations in 2011
are selected. There are altogether 1650 clients in those 33 primary cooperative societies because
each primary cooperative society includes about 50 clients. Third, 20% of total clients (330clients) are selected again as the respondents of this study to answer the questionnaires forclients.
This study uses both primary and secondary data. Primary data are collected from
responsible persons of Union of Southern Shan State Cooperative Syndicates, chairman of threeselected township cooperatives, chairman and committee members of respective primary
cooperative societies, and clients from those primary cooperative societies. Secondary sources ofdata are available from journals, books, articles, and reports and periodicals issued by Union ofSouthern Shan State Cooperative Syndicates.
Types of data used in this study are both qualitative and quantitative data. Data analysis isconducted in both descriptive and analytical research method. For analytical procedure, STATA
10 is used. Based on questions with five-point Likert scale, the extent of improvements ineconomic and social conditions of clients is explored. The influencing factors on sustainability
are determined by using binary logistic regression analysis. The dependent variable,"Sustainability”, is a dichotomous variable, 0 and 1. If the cooperative is sustainable, thedependent variable is 1 and otherwise, the dependent variable is 0. The independent variables inthis study are “Elements of Sustainable Cooperative Microfinance Providers”, “Improvements ineconomic conditions and social conditions of clients”, and “Characteristics of Clients". Elementsof sustainable microfinance providers (cooperatives) are knowledge, institutional ownership,organization and management, development in human resource, cooperate philosophy, andsupporting activities. This is modified by the work done by Robinson (2001). Characteristics ofclients in this study include demographic, experiences, ability, participation in social, types ofinvestments, and frequency of taking loan. This is modified by the work done by Mazumder andWencong (2013), and Quach et al., (2005).

3. Results and Discussion
According to survey result, the overall mean value of economic conditions of clients gets
3.89 and this result highlights that there is a strong agreement on` improvements in economic
conditions of clients. Improvements in social conditions are analyzed in accordance with thesocial variables such as children education, household health condition, sanitary condition,
sources of drinking water, and self-confidence, skills, and knowledge of clients. The overallmean value of social conditions of clients gets 4.04 and it can be said that there is an agreementon the level of improvements in social conditions of clients.

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

According to regression analysis, Sustainability = -5.00 + 4.81(Org&mgt)- 6.42(HR) +2.56(Support) + ε . It shows that the log odds for sustainability would increase by 4.81for every
unit change in organization and management when all others variables are constant. It means that
if providers have good management and organization, the sustainability of cooperative
microfinance will increase. Consistent to this finding, Tehulu (2013) also found that management
inefficiency has a negative impact on the financial sustainability of microfinance institutions. The
logistic coefficient for development in human resource is -6.42. It can be said that the log odds
for sustainability would decrease by 6.42 for every unit change in development of humanresources when all others variables are constant. The result shows that there is negative
relationship between development of human resource and sustainability at 1% significant. The
logistic coefficient for supporting activities is 2.56. It means that the log odds for sustainability
would increase by 2.56 for every unit change in supporting activities when all others variables
are constant. This implies that providing supporting activities to clients increases sustainability ofcooperative microfinance at 5% significant.
Factors influencing of social and economic conditions of client on sustainability showsthat:
Sustainability = -1.84 – 1.04(economic)+ 1.41(social)+ ε. It means that improvements insocial conditions of clients have positive relationship with sustainability whereas improvementsin economic conditions of clients have negative relationship with sustainability. Improvement insocial conditions such as having good communication skills, having business skills, having
decision making roles, and having knowledge about family planning enable clients to havebusiness network and business opportunities. With the help of microfinance, clients have moreincome and make repayment of loan and interest. Thus, there are increases in sustainability. On
the other hand, since clients have improvement in economic conditions, clients do not rely on
microfinance. Thus, there are decreases in sustainability. With the evidence of successful story ofold clients, new clients come in and there are increases in sustainability as well.
The result also shows that Sustainability = -3.84 -0.48(experience)+ 0.45(social) +0.78(investment) +0.19(frequency) + ε. It shows that there is negative relationship between
experiences and sustainability at 5% significant. This implies that having working experiences
reduces sustainability of cooperative microfinance. It may also be true that clients can earn moremoney since they have working experiences. Clients’ economic conditions may also be
improved. They can make investments with their own income and they do not rely on
microfinance. Thus, there is decrease in sustainability. This finding is consistent with theprevious finding that the improvements in economic conditions of clients decreased
sustainability. In addition, the log odds for sustainability would increase by 0.45 for every unitchange in participation in social when all others variables are constant. The result shows that
there is positive relationship between participation in community social welfare andsustainability of cooperative microfinance at 5% significant. It is true that participation in social
makes clients more confident and have wider social network, have more business partners, andincrease in income. Thus, clients make repayment of loan and interest to cooperatives and there isno default rate. This leads to increase in sustainability. The log odds for sustainability would also
increase by 0.78 if clients made investment in small business, husbandry, and agriculture rather
than used in education and basic necessities. This means that there is positive relationshipbetween productive businesses and sustainability of cooperative microfinance at 1% significant.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)127

According to survey results, most clients conduct productive businesses such as agriculture,small businesses, and husbandry. Hence, clients get higher income and make repayment of loan
and interest. It leads to increases in sustainability. The log odds for sustainability would increaseby 0.19 as well for every unit change in frequency of loan when all other variables are constant.
It shows that there is positive relationship between frequency of loan and sustainability at 5%
significant. This implies that the larger the frequency of taking loan, the higher the level ofsustainability of cooperative microfinance.
4.

Conclusion

The study confirmed that clients’ economic conditions have improved in terms of starting
new businesses, increases in savings and income, and the improvement in financial situation of
the family. Likewise, the study found that clients’ social conditions have improved in terms ofsocial skills such as communication skills and business skills. Moreover, clients have improvedin their knowledge about family planning, nutrition, health care and water supply. However, due
to limited infrastructure and limited knowledge available in rural areas, microfinance is found tohave lesser impact on improvement in life style, living standard, healthcare and education. The
results of logistic regression on Elements of Sustainable Cooperative Microfinance Providers andSustainability shows that all independent variables (organization and management, developmentin human resource, and supporting activities) have a significant influence on sustainability.
Among these variables, organization and management, and supporting activities significantly
increased sustainability. However, development in human resource significantly decreased
sustainability. The results of logistic regression on Clients’ Economic and Social Conditions andSustainability shows that all independent variables (economic conditions and social conditions)have a significant influence on sustainability. Improvements in economic conditions significantly
decreased sustainability. However, improvements in social conditions significantly increased
sustainability due to the fact that clients have better social status. For example, goodcommunication skills, business skills, and good at decision making, have more social awarenessand eager to make payment on interest and principal according to the terms and conditions. The
results of logistic regression on Clients’ Characteristics and Sustainability show that all
independent variables (experience, participation in social, types of investments, and frequency oftaking loan) have a significant influence on sustainability. Among these variables, participation insocial, types of investments, and frequency of taking loan significantly increased sustainability.
However, experience significantly decreased sustainability.
It is suggested that primary cooperative societies should practice good organization andmanagement system such as effective asset-liability management, high-quality supervision,internal control and internal audit system. In addition, primary cooperative societies should
provide not only financial assistance but also technical and operational assistance to clients.
Likewise, clients should invest their loan on productive business activities. It results in getting
higher income and standing themselves without the support of loan in near future.

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

Acknowledgements
I would like to acknowledge my heartfelt thanks to responsible persons from Union of Southern Shan State
Cooperative Syndicates, Township Cooperatives, and Primary Cooperative Societies for their patient andenthusiastic supports on my data collection periods. I also gratefully acknowledge to my students for their active
participation throughout the research work.

References[1] Aderaw, G. and Manjit, S. (2015). Factors that Affect Financial Sustainability of
Literature Review. European Journal of Business Management, 7(7).

Microfinance Institutions:[2] Anh, N. K., and Tam, L. T. (2013). The Sustainability of Microfinance Institutions in Vietnam: Circumstancesand Implications. Transport Publishing House. Hanoi, 2013.
[3] Guntz, S. (2011). Sustainability and Profitability of Microfinance Institutions. Research paper in International
Finance and Economics. Research paper 4/2011.
[4] Lawrence, N. K., John, M. K., and Grace, W. N. (2012). Factors Influencing the Sustainability of MicrofinanceInstitutions in Murang’a Municipality. International Journal of Business and Commerce, 1 (10).
[5] Mazumder, M. S. U., and Wencong, L. (2013). Micro-Credit and Poverty Reduction, A Case of Bangladesh,Prague Economic Papers,3, 2013[6] Okumu, L. J. (2007). The microfinance industry in Uganda: sustainability, outreach and regulation. Dissertation,
Doctor of Philosophy (Economics) at the University of Stellenbosch, 2007.
[7] Quach, M. H., Mullineux, A. W., and Murinde, V. (2005). Access to Credit and Household Poverty Reduction in
Rural Vietnam: A Cross sectional Study[8] Rahman, M. A., and Mazlan, A. R. (2014). Determinants of Financial Sustainability of Microfinance Institutions
in Bangladesh. International Journal of Economics and Finance, 6 (9).
[9] Robinson, M. S. (2001). The Microfinance Revolution. Sustainable Finance for the Poor. The World Bank.
[10] Schafer, K., and Fukasawa, Y. (2011). Factors Determining the Operational Self-Sufficiency Among
Microfinance Institutions. Advances in Business Research, 2 (1), 172-178.
[11] Tehulu, T. A. (2013), "Determinants of Financial Sustainability of Microfiance Institutions in East Africa",
European Journal of Business and Management, 5 (17).

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

Sustainable Rural Development: Significance of Geographical Indications(Gis) in Ayeyarwardy Delta
Htun Ko1, Aung Swe2

Abstract
Sustainable rural development is a popular term in rural areas of Myanmar that over 70 % of
people is lived in rural areas. Sustainable rural development is not merely the long-term economic
viability of rural areas but rather an enduring balance of economic growth, social stability andenvironmental protection within localized areas. In Myanmar, most of the people designated the
Ayeyarwady Delta as a Myanma Rice Bowl. It is referred and pointed out that Ayeyarwady Delta
has possessed the vast fertile cultivated lands, good agriculture practices and good agro-economic
opportunities. After 1988, the attraction of open-market economy became the changing ofagricultural practices in Ayeyarwady Region. Double cropping, Multi-cropping practices can befound in everywhere. Unsystematic uses of fertilizer and pesticide in paddy cultivation areaccompanied with above mentioned intensive agriculture. Local people has been received theLand degradation, water and air pollution and scarcity of the skilled and interested local people.
World Trade Organization (WTO) defines GIs as: “indications that identify a good as originatingin the territory of a particular country, or a region or a locality in that country, where a given
quality, reputation or other characteristic of the good is essentially attributable to its geographicalorigin”. This study investigates the relationship between GIs and sustainable rural development in
Ayeyarwady Delta area, considering Government Roles and Producers’ Strategies. The
quantitative approach like image classification will be used to evaluate the land cover changing
which can be detected to land degradation. Especially, structure interview method with expert
sampling procedure will also be used to evaluate the trend and future prospect of agro-baseeconomic activities and to reach the sustainable economic development.
Keywords: Geographic Indications (GIs), Ayeyarwady Delta, sustainable rural development,
intensive agriculture, Land degradation, geographic origin.

1. Introduction
Calboli (2015) stated that geographical Indication is a name or a sign used on products
which relate to a specific geographical location or origin. The major objectives of Geographic
Indication have provided to identify the quality of local products which are accompanied withgeographic locational characteristics, promote brand identify and increasing the job opportunities
in rural areas. Actually, implementing the geographical indications have not fully approved tocommercial as well as legal instrument. GIs promote the rural development that offer profitablesystem of geographic characteristics in rural areas.
In Myanmar, most of the people designated the Ayeyarwady Delta as a Myanma Rice
Bowl. It is referred and pointed out that Ayeyarwady Delta has possessed the vast fertile
cultivated lands, good agriculture practices and good agro-economic opportunities. After 1988,
the attraction of open-market economy became the changing of agricultural practices in
Ayeyarwady Region. Double cropping, Multi-cropping practices can be found in everywhere.
Being increased yield per acre fully overwhelmed in most of the farmers because of the improved
1
2

Dr, Professor and Head of Geography Department, University of Yangon, (htunko66@gmail.com)
Dr, Associate Professor, Department of Geography, University of Yangon (aungswegeog.70@gmail.com)

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

urban facilities and upgrading social standard. Unsystematic uses of fertilizer and pesticide inpaddy cultivation are accompanied with above mentioned intensive agriculture. Local people has
been received the land degradation, water and air pollution and scarcity of the skilled andinterested local people. Therefore, rural farmers in Ayeyarwady delta faced with economic andsocial defective.
However, some people had created the alternative economic activities to support thedecreasing family income earning from paddy cultivation. This paper also study on how they
implement and create new economic opportunity by using plenty local raw material being
geographic origin? how they provide to improve from small scale to large scale economy? The
quantitative approach like image classification will be used to evaluate the land cover changing
which can be detected to land degradation. Especially, structure interview method with expert
sampling procedure will also be used to evaluate the trend and future prospect of agro-baseeconomic activities and to reach the sustainable economic development.
Study Area
Nyaungdon Township is one of the township in Maubin District, Ayeyarwady Region.
Apart from southeastern boundary, it has entirely been bounded by Ayeyarwady River andPanhlaing River. Bank erosion, riverine flooding and flash flooding have experienced in this area
since ancient time. While the new alluvial plains are emerging by changing the river course of
Ayeyarwady and loading the sedimentation in western part of the township, the matured lands innortheastern part of the township have been collapsed by bank erosion and fluctuation of thethalweg line of Panhlaing River. As the economic activity, agriculture especially paddy
cultivation is still as a major activity but arable crop lands are gradually decreasing by flooding
the crop land, land degradation and salinity effects in crop land which are impacted by abrupt
growth of fish farming.
Fish Farming is historically experienced in Nyaungdon Township and a lot of fish ponds
had been existed in the Dabay Kalar, Ma Letto, and Hsa Malout villages in southern part oftownship since ancient time. After decreasing the yield per acreage in paddy cultivation, losing
the cultivable lands by bank erosion and flooding of Ayeyarwady and Panhlaing rivers, andmissing the balance of traditional cultivated system and paddy seed, the fish farming industry is
also quickly increase in those areas. Before 1975, there have 93 fish ponds and are increase to2400 fish ponds in 2010. (Township reports of GAD). However, construction and increasing thefish ponds and changing the land utilization from cultivation to fish farming become to thesalinity of farm lands in surrounding areas.
Because of the huge investment enterprise, almost of owners in fish farming areentrepreneurs who came from other regions like Yangon. They have already possessed the cold
storage plants which are setting up in the fringe of Yangon. So, they are more interest theirbusiness than regional development. As the nature of fish farming, they cannot contribute theemployment creation for local people.
As the figure (1), the significant landuse change can be found in crop land. Former crop
land area have been changed to fish ponds, saturated crop land, built up area and some bare land.
According to the climate change impact since 1990, Nyaungdon situated as the islands in theconfluence of Ayeyarwady and Panhlaing rivers has been faced with annual riverine flooding,19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

131bank erosion and dynamic situation of cultivated lands and settlement area by changing the rivercourses.

Land use Category

1995 (Acre)2017 (Acre)

Built up Area

62424.23

69230.85

Bare Land

14337.57

18493.69

Crop Land

53979.90

26716.96

Lake and Pond

20081.14

27698.39

River and stream

10834.85

12914.02

Figure1. Land cover changes in Nyaungdon Township.

Note: The calculation of land cover changes is based on Landsat data (1995 and 2017) and pixel based image
classification with minimum distance classifier have been used.

After decreasing the yield per acreage in paddy cultivation, losing the cultivable lands bybank erosion and flooding of Ayeyarwady and Panhlaing rivers, and missing the balance oftraditional cultivated system and paddy seed, the fish farming industry is also quickly increase in
those areas. Fish Farming is historically experienced in Nyaungdon Township and a lot of fish
ponds had been existed in the Dabay Kalar, Ma Letto, and Hsa Malout villages in southern partof township since ancient time. Before 1975, there have 93 fish ponds and are increase to 2400
fish ponds in 2010. (Township reports of GAD). However, construction and increasing the fish
ponds and changing the land utilization from cultivation to fish farming become to the salinity offarm lands in surrounding areas. Because of the huge investment enterprise, almost of owners infish farming are entrepreneurs who came from other regions like Yangon. They have alreadypossessed the cold storage plants which are setting up in the fringe of Yangon. So, they are moreinterest their business than regional development. As the nature of fish farming, they cannot
contribute the employment creation for local people.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)132

3. Sustainable Rural Development and Geographic Indication
Nyaungdon Township is a one of the vulnerable areas in Ayeyarwady delta by impact ofnatural and anthropogenic factors. Local people from south and southeastern part of the townshipwhere natural lakes and ponds with fish farming had the habit of banana cultivation in all banks
or levees of fishery ponds for their extra income and family consumption. Moreover, Most of the
farmers from Nyaungdon and its hinterland areas nearby confluence of Ayeyarwdy andPanhlaing rivers had cultivated the banana in their not appropriate lands for paddy cultivation.
Their banana product exported to main market: Yangon for major material of offertory in
Myanmar cultural and religious ceremony. They produced the surplus materials as the dried
banana for their family consumption in former time but later, they had changed this as themarketed products. The banana cultivation had been experienced in Nyaungdon area since last
50s years ago.
In 1990s, some people (intelligent person) from Has Malaut Village upgraded theirtraditional banana industry and products to reach the marketability (commercialize) bananasnacks based on consumer preference and expend the items of product. Actually, Banana Snackculture and habit are not new one in Nyaungdon. As the result documentations of in depth
interview, banana snack production had been started since 1970s. They can change theirtraditional dried banana product to fried green plantains and fried ripe plantains. They can set up
their traditional snack with banana to the firm industry surrounded by new packing system,
health oriented product processing, existing cultural style and media supporting. At present,
banana snack industry can be stand as legendable economic activities in Nyaungdon andsurrounding areas by clustering with banana cultivation, production of fried plantains and sale thebanana snacks.
Suggestions and Recommendations
Nowadays, the banana snack industry have already reached in the matured stage of
economic activities in Myanmar. Why they have stand as the success model industry in
Myanmar? How do their future prospect? Actually, they had an entrepreneur sprit. Moreover,they had the fitting time to alter their product from traditional small scale foodstuff industry tomarketable economic activities. Because, in that time, 1990, is transition period from closed door
policy to open door economic policy. So, most of the people were longing for new items for theirfoodstuffs. They can right choice their industry and products based on main raw materials ofgeographic origin. This paper would like to suggest upon banana snack industry of Nyaungdon
based on interview results for their future prospect as following:
Strengthening

Challenges

 Accessible situation of Nyaungdon (Geographic
Origin) Available land for Banana Cultivation
 Skill labour for banana snack production
 Entrepreneurship Sprit Increasing rate of Fish Farming
Ponds
 Substitution of modern production
system as well as systematic
cultivation
 Lack of government policy with
GI principle

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4. Conclusion
When the sustainable rural development has been implemented in Ayeyarwady delta,
lifelong industry appropriated with legendable economy should be promote by supporting above
suggestions. There are fried banana snack in Nyaungdon Township, Thin mat which is one of thetypes of cane in Pantanaw Township, prepaid dried fish in Phapon Township, rice noddle snackin Myaungmya Township and so on. All of the main raw materials of those economic activities
are based on geographic origin of those areas. If the fried banana production will have GI
properties, under appropriate conditions, GI can contribute to development in rural areas because
the scope of this industry harmonize between GI centers and hinterland areas .The entitlement touse a GI generally lies with regional producers and the added value generated by the GI accrues
to all such producers. They can contribute to local employment creation, which ultimately may
help to prevent rural exodus to urban.

Acknowledgements
The major issue of this study is mainly focused on qualitative assessment of group discussion and in depth
interview with local entrepreneurs. Therefore, we would like to special thanks to CDT teams of social studies from
CREATE team and U Kyaw Lwin Oo, Lecturer of Geography Department, YUOE, for their valuable efforts ininterviewing processing.

References
Calboli Irene. (2015). Geographical indications of origin at the cross roads of local development, consumer
protection and marketing strategies. International review of intellectual property and competition
law. 47 (7). 760-780.
GAD (Nyaungdon Township) (2017). General Township Report
Ojha Megha. (2017). geographical indications and rural development; opportunities and economic impact ofprotection of fruit crops in India. International Research Journal of Human Resources and Social
Sciences. 4. (11). 12

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

GCMS Analysis and Antimicrobial Activity of Ginger (Zingiber officinale)
Essential Oil
Myo Min1, Pyae Phyo Kyaw2, Nyi Moe Lwin3

Abstract
The present research deals with the preparation and identification of Ginger essential oil and its
antimicrobial activity. Many essential oils are effective against harmful organisms. Essential oils
are commonly used in aromatherapy and health benefits. Therefore, the essential oil was prepared
to study the chemical compositions and antimicrobial activity from ginger. The fresh ginger werecleaned and cut into small sample size. Then, the essential oil from ginger sample was prepared byhydro-distillation method. The ginger oil was identified by GCMS method. By GCMS method,
the ginger oil could be deduced as α- Phellandrene, Cineole, α - Citral, Nerol acetate, Zingibereneand α-farnesene. The observed compounds of essential oil by GCMS were monoterpene andsesquiterpene which can be used in aromatherapy. Aromatherapy uses essential oils toimprove quality of life and reduce unpleasant side effects of aggressive therapies and healthconditions. The antimicrobial activity of ginger oil was also investigated by agar well diffusion
method. From antimicrobial screening, the microorganisms such as Bacillus subtilis,
Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus pumilus, Candida albicans and E.coli
were used. According to antimicrobial screening, the ginger oil possesses the antimicrobialactivities. Therefore, the ginger oil may be used in medicinal formulation of human health.
Keywords: Antimicrobial activity, Ginger essential oil, GCMS method, Hydro-distillation method,
Human health

1. Introduction

Figure1. Plants and rhizome of ginger (Zingiber officinale)

Essential Oil of Ginger
Ginger essential oil is derived from the rhizomes of the Zingiber officinale herb, better
known as Ginger. [1] In Ayurvedic medicine, Ginger Oil has traditionally been believed tosoothe emotional difficulties such as nervousness, sadness, low self-confidence, and a lack ofenthusiasm. The health benefits of Ginger Oil are the same as that of the herb from which it
originates, with the oil even being considered to be more beneficial due to its higher Gingerol
content, a constituent that is mostly reputable for its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory
properties. With a warm, sweet, woody, and spicy scent that has an energizing effect, especially
1

Associate Professor, Department of Chemistry, West Yangon University
Captain, Assistant Lecturer, Department of Chemistry, Defence Services Academy
3
Captain, Department of Chemistry, Defence Services Academy
2

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

136

when used in aromatherapy, ginger oil has earned the nickname “The Oil of Empowerment” forthe feeling of confidence that it is known to inspire. [2]2. Materials and Methods
The ginger samples were collected from Pyin Oo Lwin Township, Mandalay Region,
Myanmar. The essential oil of fresh ginger was prepared by hydro distillation method. The
prepared ginger oil was identified by GCMS method. The antimicrobial activity of ginger oil wasinvestigated by agar well diffusion method. [3]

(A)

(B)

Figure2A. Preparation of ginger essential oil by hydro distillation method
B. Analysis of ginger oil by GCMS Autosampler

3. Results and Discussion
Preparation and Identification of Ginger Essential Oil
The fresh ginger was used for the preparation of essential oil by hydro distillation
method. From the essential oil of ginger, α - citral was observed as the highest composition.
According to literature, it can prove to have anticancer properties in various human cancer cells
lines and useful in treating gastro-intestinal infections, including heliobacter pylori, which is
responsible for many cases of gastric ulcer. From the essential oil of ginger, Zingiberene waspresent at 7.77 min. It is a carminative herbal compound. So, it can help fight infections causedby virus, protect against stomach ulcers, and ease the pain and discomfort caused by stomach gas.
GC-MS analyzed data are shown in Figure 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10.

Figure3. Total Ion Chromatogram of Essential Oil from Ginger

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)137

α- Phellandrene, C10H16, M.W= 136,
3-methylene-6-(1-methylene)Cyclohexene

Figure4. Matching of the Mass Fragmentation Patterns of Prepared Compound at 3.54 min and that of α- Phellandrene from
GC-MS Data Library

Figure5. Matching of the Mass Fragmentation Patterns of Prepared Compound at 3.57 min and that of Cineole from GC-MS
Data Library

Cineole, C10H18O,
α –Citral,
C10H
M.W= 152,
M.W=
154,
16O,Eucalyptol
3 ,7- dimethyl- 2, 6- Octadienal

Figure6. Matching of the Mass Fragmentation Patterns of Prepared Compound at 5.55 min and that of α –Citral from GC-MS
Data Library19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

138

Figure7. Matching of the Mass Fragmentation Patterns of Prepared Compound at 5.83 min and that of α - Citral from GC-MS
Data Libraryα – Citral, C10H16O, M.W= 152,
3 ,7- dimethyl- 2, 6- Octadienal
NerolAcetate, C12H20O2, M.W= 196,3, 7-dimethyl-acetate-2, 6- Octadien- 1- ol,

Figure8. Matching of the Mass Fragmentation Patterns of Prepared Compound at 6.77 min and that of Nerolacetate from GCMS Data Library

Zingiberene, C15H24, M.W= 204,5-(1,5-dimethyl-4-hexenyl)-2-methyl1,3-Cyclohexadiene

Figure9. Matching of the Mass Fragmentation Patterns of Prepared Compound at 7.77 min and that of Zingiberene from GC-MS
Data Library

α-farnesene, C15H24, M.W= 204, 7,11-dimethyl3-methylene- 1,6,10-Dodecatriene

Figure10. Matching of the Mass Fragmentation Patterns of Prepared Compound at 8.05 min and that of α- Farnesene from GCMS Data Library

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

Antimicrobial Screening of the Essential Oil from Ginger
According to antimicrobial screening, the ginger oil showed the high activities on tested
microorganisms. The antimicrobial activities with B. subtilis, S. aureus, B. pumilus, E.coli
showed the high potent. There were moderate antimicrobial activities with P. aeruginosa and C.
albicans. According to literature survey, B. subtilis and B. pumilus can cause food poisoning, ear
and ocular infections. S. aureus can stay on our skin and nose, it can cause illness infection.
E.coli can stay in the lower intestine of warm-blood organisms in our body, it can cause severe
abdominal cramps, bloody diarrhea and vomiting diseases. The ginger oil can effective against
tested microorganisms. Therefore, it may be used in the medicinal formulation of human health.
The results obtained are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Results of Antimicrobial Activity of Essential Oil from Ginger
Diameter of inhibition zone
(mm)
No.

Organisms
Ginger oil

n-hexane(Control)1

Bacillus subtilis

25 mm
(+++)

-

2

Staphylococcus aureus

30 mm
(+++)

-

3

Pseudomonas aeruginosa

16 mm
(++)

-

4

Bacillus pumilus

25 mm
(+++)

-

5

Candida albicans

18 mm
(++)

-

6

E. coli

22 mm
(+++)

-

Agar well ~ 10 mm, 10 mm - 14 mm = (+), 15 mm - 19 mm = (++), 20 mm - above = (+++)
4. Conclusion
This research concerns with the GCMS analysis of prepared essential oil andantimicrobial screening of ginger oil. The preparation of essential oil from ginger was carried out
by hydro distillation method. Then, the prepared essential oil was analyzed by GCMS method.
The ginger essential oil could be deduced as α- phellandrene (3.54 min), cineole (3.57 min), α –citral and its isomer (5.55, and 5.83 min), nerol acetate (6.77 min), zingiberene (7.77 min) and αfarnesene (8.05 min). From the essential oil of ginger, α - citral was observed as the highest
composition. According to literature, it can prove to have anticancer properties in various humancancer cells lines and useful in treating gastro-intestinal infections. From the essential oil ofginger, Zingiberene was present at 7.77 min. It is a carminative herbal compound. So, it can help
fight infections caused by virus, protect against stomach ulcers, and ease the pain and discomfort
caused by stomach gas. Ginger oil helps for the normal blood circulation and digestive problems.

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

The antimicrobial screening of ginger essential oil was carried out by agar well diffusion
method. From the screening, the antimicrobial activities with B. subtilis, S. aureus, B. pumilus,
E.coli showed the high potent. There were moderate antimicrobial activities with P. aeruginosaand C. albicans. According to literature survey, B. subtilis and B. pumilus can cause foodpoisoning, ear and ocular infections. S. aureus can stay on our skin and nose, it can cause illness
infection. E.coli can stay in the lower intestine of warm-blood organisms in our body; it cancause severe abdominal cramps, bloody diarrhea and vomiting diseases. The ginger oil caneffective against tested microorganisms. Therefore, it may be used in the medicinal formulationof human health.

Acknowledgements
We would like to express deep sense of gratitude to Rector Dr. Tin Maung Tun, West Yangon University
for their kind provision of the research facilities. We also wish to express our profound gratitude to Dr Hlaing Hlaing
Oo, Professor and Head of Chemistry Department, West Yangon University for their encouragement and comment
without which this work would not have been completed.

References[1] Sutarno, H., Hadad, E.A. and Brink, M., “Zingiber officinale Roscoe”. - In: De Guzman, C.C, Siemonsma, J.S.
(eds.) “Plant resources of South-East Asia: No.13 : spices”. - Leiden (Netherlands): Backhuys,
1999, pp. 238-244.
[2] Zafar, Sultan, Misbah, Bhatti and Nawaz, H., “Chemical analysis of essential oil of ginger (Zingiber
officinales)”. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences (11). 2005, pp. 1576-1578.
[3] Mar Mar Nyein, Chit Maung, Mya Bwin and Tha, S.J., “In Vitro Testing of Various Indigenous Plant Extracts on
Human Pathogenic Bacteria”, Myanmar Health Science Research Journal, 1991, vol. 3, pp.
89-99.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

Greensynthesis of Silver Nanoparticles from Eupatorium odoratum Linn.
(Taw-Bizat) and Cymbopogon citratus Stapf (Lemon Grass) leaves
Nwe Thin Ni1, Aung Kyaw Moe2, Kyaw Swer Htun3

Abstract
The watery extracts of Eupatorium odoratum Linn. (Taw-Bizat) leaves and Cymbopogon citratus
Stapf (Lemon Grass) leaves were mainly conducted for production of silver nanoparticles. Silver
nitrate was used as a metal precursor and two selected leaves extracts were applied as reducing
agent for synthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs). The surface morphology of fabricated silver
nanoparticles (AgNPs) were mentioned with FESEM (Field Emission Scanning Electron
Microscopy). From the result of XRD (X-ray diffraction), the average particle size of TBAgNPs(32 nm) from E. odoratum and LGAgNPs (38 nm) from C. citratus were observed. The size
distribution of each prepared (AgNPs) were analysed on advanced techniques Zeta potential-DLS(Dynamic Light Scattering). The localized surface plasmon resonance band for formation of
TBAgNPs (440 nm), from leaves of E. odoratum and LGAgNPs (435 nm) from C. citratus in theratio of 1:3, 1:5 were exhibited under UV-visible spectrometer. Moreover, the reducing agent(capping agent) of bio-based extracted matter such as proteins, phenols and amino acids were
determined by using the FTIR (Fourier Transform-Infrared Spectroscopy). The role of selectedstabilizing agent of E. odoratum, C. citratus leaves extract and the effect of stirring time on
synthesis of AgNPs were reported. Furthermore, the laser beam of reflected rays were observed in
the fabrication of AgNPs by the Tyndall effect. In addition, the antioxidant activity of TBAgNPs
and LGAgNPs (49.27 g/ml, 94.32 g/ml) from two plants were determined by DPPH radical
scavenging assay method. In the comparative zone diameter of antimicrobial activity of reducing
agent of two kinds of pure leaves extract, prepared TBAgNPs and LGAgNPs were discussed
against on different strains of microorganisms.
Keywords: green synthesis, fabrication, morphology, average particle size, antioxidant,
antimicrobial

1. Introduction
Nowadays, the nanomaterials become critically important because of their uniqueproperties such as physical, magnetic, structural, thermal, mechanical, chemical and electronic
properties. Nanoparticles can be divided into two groups: (i) organic nanoparticles and (ii)inorganic nanoparticles.
Organic nanoparticles contain carbon nanoparticles. Inorganic
nanoparticles involve magnetic nanoparticles, noble nanoparticles (like gold and silver),semiconductor nanoparticles (like titanium dioxide) possess optical properties [1],[2]. The
synthesis of NPs are broadly divided into two main classes: (1) bottom-up approach and (2) topdown approach [3]. Some researchers have been reported that silver nanoparticles were used invarious fields, especially in biomedical industry or diagnosis, drug delivery, cell imaging, andimplantation. Biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles could be advantages than photochemical
reduction and chemical reduction methods [4], [5],[6]. Therefore, in this research proposal,
biosynthesis of obtained silver nanoparticles (TBAgNPs, LGAgNPs) were conducted by using
green synthesis of the two selected plants namely: E. odoratum and C. citratus. [7], [8]. Then,characterization of fabricated silver nanoparticles were studied by applying advanced modern
1

Associate Professor, Dr., Department of Chemistry, Taungoo University
Research Scientist, Chulalongkorn University, Petroleum & Petrochemical College, The Centre of Excellent inPetrochemical and Material Science, Bankok, Thailand
3
Lecturer, Department of Pharmacology, DSMA
2

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

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technique. In additional, the antioxidant activity and antimicrobial activity of fabricated AgNPs
were carried out in this research work.

2. Materials and Methods
Sample Collection and Preparation of Extract of Reducing Agent and Silver nanoparticles]
The leaves of E. odoratum and C. citratus were collected from Hmon- Pyar village, Daw
Khu quarter, Loikaw Township, Kayah State, Myanmar in the middle of November, 2017
[Figure 1 (a), (b)]. These selected plants were identified at the Department of Botany, University
of Yangon [9], [10]. Dried powdered sample of E.odoratum and C. citratus (30 g) were boiled in
150 mL 5% of sodium bicarbonate solution under 48 h to obtain the extract. This obtained extract
was filtered through Whatman filter paper No.1. These filtrate were cooled down at 4 C. The
extracted matter can be applied the capping agent as well as the reducing agent for the reductionof silver ions. In the preparation of 0.001 M of AgNO3 solution,was used in this biosynthesis ofsilver nanoparticles. Two to three milliliter of prepared extracted matter from E.odoratum and C.
citratus leaves was added to the 0.001 M of silver nitrate solution in 100 mL conical flask andincubated at 40C for (20-60) min. Then, this reaction process was carried out in dark to avoid
unnecessary photochemical reactions [11]. The colour change of silver nitrate solution was
occurred and some phytochemical constituents such as amino acid, hydroxyl groups wereobserved under UV-vis spectroscopy. This obtained AgNPs were purified through centrifugation
at 6000-8000 rpm for 20 minutes. The dispersion of AgNPs were washed with deionized waterand dried in an oven at 100C for 24h.

(a)

(b)

Figure1. Plant of (a) E. odoratum (b) C. citratus

Characterization of Prepared AgNPs
The Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM) technique was provided toanalyzes the surface morphology of fabricated TBAgNPs and LGAgNPS . Then, themeasurement of average particle size prepared AgNPs was detected under XRD (X-ray
Diffractometer) by using Debye- Scherrer equation. In addition, determination of particle size
distribution of AgNPs was measured by using Zeta potential-DLS instruments at 25C withpercent intensity. The localized surface plasmon resonance band of AgNPs were observed on
Shimadzu UV-1800 spectrometer. Besides, the main chemical constituents of carbohydrate, andproteins etc., present in reducing agent of E.odoratum, C. citratus, fabricated TBAgNPs and
LGAgNPs were mentioned by using the FTIR spectroscopic method.

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Screening of Antioxidant Activity and Antimicrobial Activityof the Prepared AgNPs
Antioxidant activity of prepared TBAgNP and LGAgNPs in the ratio of 1:3 and 1:5 of thestirring time with one hour were determined UV-visible spectroscopically by using DPPH (1,1diphenyl, 2-picryl, hydrazyl) radical scavenging assay method [12],[15]. Firstly, a blank solution
a control solution, DPPH solution, and the sample solution were prepared with different
concentrations (3.125, 6.25, 12.5, 25, 50, 100, 200 and 400 g/mL) by using serial dilution
method. The solutions were allowed to stand at room temperature for 30 min and absorbancewere measured at 517 nm by UV-visible spectrophotometer and IC50 (50 % oxidative inhibitory
concentration) was calculated by linear regressive excel program [12],[15]. Agar well diffusion
method was employed for determining antimicrobial activity of the extracted reducing agent
and prepared AgNPs by biosynthesis of two plants: E.odoratum and C. citratus against six
pathogenic microorganisms namely Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococus aureus, Pesudomonas
aeruginosa, Bacillus pumilus, Candida albicans and Escherichia coli [13],[14].

3. Results and Discussion
Sample Collection, Preparation of Reducing Agent and Silver Nanoparticles (AgNPs)
Currently, after cleaning, the leaves were air-dried at room temperature for three weeks
and the dry sample were ground into powder and stored separately in air-tight containers toprevent moisture changes and other contamination. The leaves of E.odoratum and C. citratus
was extracted with 5% sodium bicarbonate at alkaline medium and it was used as reducing agent
as well as capping agent in the preparation of AgNPs. The solution of silver nitrate (0.001 M)
was used as a metal precursor for this synthesis of silver nanoparticles. The fabricated silver
nanoparticles (TBAgNPs, LGAgNPs) were mentioned under visual condition. AgNPs wereformed with a colour change from yellow to brownish-black colour during the reaction period
within 20 min. The two extracts of capping agent E. odoratum and C. citratus (20 mL) was added
to different volume of silver nitrate solution (60, 80,100) mL. The various ratio of (reducing
agent: AgNO3) (1:3, 1:4, 1:5) solution were placed in a conical flask. The flask was heated withmagnetic stirrer at 50C. After stirring time for (20, 40, 60) min and it was kept in the dark place.
The colour intensity was raised with the increased of stirring time.

Characterization of Fabricated AgNPs
The surface morphology of prepared TBAgNP and LGAgNP were provided by the fieldemission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) images in the ratio of (1:5) after 60 min stirring
time. From these observation, the surface morphology of each prepared silver nanoparticles
TBAgNPs were observed very smoothly and in more spherical nature than LGAgNPS
respectively, [Figure 2 (a), (b)].

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

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(a)

(b)

Figure 2(a) FESEM spectrum of fabricated (a) TBAgNPs (b) LGAgNPs in the ratio of (1:5) (reducing
agent:AgNO3 solution) after 60 min stirring time

From XRD spectrum of the average crystalline size of TBAgNP, the four distinct
diffraction peaks at 2 values of (29.879, 30.128, 36.401 and 44.566 were indexed to (111, 200,
220 and 311) reflection planes of face centered cubic structure of silver. In addition, the average
particle size of LGAgNP were calculated from three distant peaks (111, 220, 200) with 2 valuesof (35.138, 40.401, 37.495). From the average particle size of TBAgNP (32 nm) from E.
odoratum was occurred smaller than and LGAgNPS (38 nm) from C. citratus respectively,
Figure 3 (a) and (b).

(a)

(b)

Figure 3(a). XRD spectrum of (a) TBAgNPs (b) LGAgNPs in the ratio of 1:5 (reducingagent:AgNO3) after one hour stirring
time

Furthermore, the size distribution of Fabricated AgNPs were reported with intensity
using zeta potential-DLS, it is shown in Figure 4 (a) and (b). From this result, the size
distribution of AgNPs were observed between (1-100) nm range. In addition, the localized
surface plasmon resonance band of 1:3 and 1:5 ratio of reducing agent and AgNO3 wereobserved at 440 nm for TBAgNPs and 435nm for LGAgNPs by using Shimadzu UV-1800
spectrometer. The increase in the concentration of the silver nitrate will be increased theabsorbance intensity but the wavelength was not changed it is described in Figure 5 (a) and(b).

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

(a)

145

(b)

Figure 4(a). The average particle size of fabricated (a) TBAgNPS (b) LGAgNPS into 1:5 (reducing agent: AgNO3 solution) on
zeta potential- DLS after 60 min stirring time

(a)

(b)

Figure 5(a). Absorption spectra of (a) TBAgNPs (b) LGAgNPs in different ratio of (reducing agent: AgNO3) after one hour
stirring

According to FTIR spectral data, 3700-3400 cm-1 which may be due to the overlappingof O-H and N-H stretching bands, 2980- 2970 cm-1 represents aliphatic C-H stretching , 17001550 cm-1indicates N-H bending, 1400-1040 cm-1also indicates C-H bending of E.odoratum andC. citratus. After reaction with silver, the new moderate intensity peak Ag…O were observed at500- 550 cm-1 from TBAgNP and LGAgNP. It is described in Figure 6 (a) and (b).

(a)

(b)

Figure 6(a). FTIR spectrum of (a) TBZAgNPs (b) LGAgNPs in the ratio of 1:5, stirring time 1h19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

146

The silver nanoparticles can be scattered light, the Tyndall effect was occurred. If thecolloidal particles are present, the laser beam passed and if the particles are absent, the beam did
not pass through it. From these observation, the laser beam was completely passed through thetwo prepared nanoparticles of TBAgNPS and LGAgNPs,
Antioxidant Activity and Antibacterial Activity of Reducing Agent and Fabricated AgNPs
By using DPPH free radical scavenging assay method, the IC50 value of the prepared
TBAgNPs (76.78, 49.27) g/ml, LGAgNP (126.28, 94.32) g/ml in the ratio of (1:3,1:5) andstandard ascorbic acid (6.28g/ml) were observed in antioxidant activity, Figure 7 and 8.
Antibacterial activity was observed that the most potent activity of TBAgNPS in the ratio of 1:5(reducing agent: AgNPS) (18 mm) than LGAgNPs (15 mm) against on Escherichia coli and
Bacillus pumilus.

% Inhibition

Figure 7.

% inhibition of different concentration of prepared TBAgNP (1:3, 1:5)

120
100
80
60
40
20
0

LGAgNP(1 to 3)
LGAgNP (1 to 5)
Standard Ascorbic
Acid
Concentration (μg/mL)

Figure 8.

% inhibition of different concentration of prepared LGAgNPs (1:3, 1:5)

4. Conclusion
From this research work, biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles is environmental friendly
and non-toxic effect in environment. In the preparation of AgNPs from E.odoratum (Taw-Bizat)
leaves and C. citratus (Lemon-Grass) were used as reducing agent as well as capping agent. The
surface morphology of TBAgNPs were predicted that more spherical shape and more smoothly
than LGAgNPs from the result of FESEM. In addition, the particle size distribution of TBAgNPs
and LGAgNPs were showed with intensity in the range of (10-100) nm range under the zeta

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

147

potential-DLS. The average particle size of TBAgNPs (32 nm) was smaller than LGAgNPs (38nm) by applying the of XRD spectrum. The intensity colour of fabricated TBAgNPs (440 nm)
and LGAgNPs (435 nm) in the ratio of 1:3 and 1:5 stirring time (1h) were conducted under theUV- visible spectrometer. According to FTIR analysis, the constituents of amino group present in
the stabilizing agent of E.odoratum and C. citratus were denoted that reduction of Ag+ to metallic
silver nanoparticles. In addition, according to Tyndall Effect a laser beam was passed presence ofa colloidal suspension prepared TBAgNPs and LGAgNPs. Besides, if the nanoparticles wereabsent the beam did not pass through it and therefore the beam didn’t pass through the pure
AgNO3 pounded. Furthermore, the antioxidant activity of prepared TBAgNPs in the ratio of 1:5
was more potent antioxidant activity than LGAgNPs (1:5). Furthermore, the evaluation of
antimicrobial effect, by comparing the zone diameters, the fabricated TBAgNPs (18 mm) in theratio of (1:5) was more antimicrobial activity than pure extracts of Taw-Bizat, Lemon-Grass and
LGAgNPs (15 mm) by using agar well diffusion method.

Acknowledgements
We would like to express sincere gratitude to Rector Dr Tin Tun and Pro-rector Dr Yee Yee Oo for theirguiding the good opportunities to do this research and for allowing to submit this paper in Science Council of Asia,
SCA. We would like to express my deepest gratitude to Dr. Mi Mi Kyaing (Professor and Head) and Professor Dr.
Nay Mar Soe, Taungoo University, for allowing us to carry out this research work and for providing all of
department facilities and encouragement.

References[1] M.G. Guzman, et al., “Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticle by Chemical Reduction Method and their Antibacterial
Activity.” World Acad Sci Eng Technol, 2008, Vol 4, pp.357-364.
[2] M.A. Albrecht, “Green Chemistry and the Health Implications of Nanoparticles”, J of Green Chemistry, 2006,
Vol 8, pp.417-432.
[3] R.Veerasamy, et al., “Biosynthesis of Silver Nanoparticles Using Mangosteen Leaf Extract and Evaluation of
their Antimicrobial Activities”, J of Saudi Chem, Society, 2011, vol 15, pp.706.
[4] A. Saxena, et al.,“Green Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles Using Aqueous Solutions of Ficus Benghalensisn
Leaf Extract and Characterization of their Antibacterial Activity” J of Materials, 2012, vol.67,
pp.100.
[5] A.F. Fatma, and A. N. Nivien, “Green Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles Using Leaf Extract of Rosmarinus
officinalis and its Effect on Tomato and Wheat Plants” Journal of Agricultural Science; 2015,
vol.7, pp.11.
[6] K.R., Kumar, et al., “Synthesis of Eco-friendly Silver Nanoparticles from Morinda tinctoria Leaf Extract and isLarvicidal Activity Against Culexque in quefasciatus” J of Parasitol Research, 2014, vol.114,
pp.411-417.
[7] A. Emmanuel and A.Anthony, “Green Synthesis, Characterization and Biological Activities of Silver
Nanoparticles from Alkalinized Cymbopogon citratus Stapf” Journal of Advances in Natural
Sciences: Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, 2017,vol. 8, (1)[8] S. Masurkar. et al., “Rapid Biosynthesis of Silver Nanoparticles Using Cymbopogan Citratus (Lemon Grass)and its Antimicrobial Activity”Micro & Nano Letters, 2011, vol. 3(3), pp.189-194.
[9] M-Tin Wa, , “Phytochemical Screening Method and Procedures”, Phytochemical Bulletin of Botanical Society ofAmerica Inc. 1972, vol. 5 (3), pp. 4-10.

148

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)[10] J.B. Harborne Phytochemical Methods: A Guide to Modern Techniques of Plant Analysis, Chapman and Hall,
London, pp. 76-78, 1984.
[11] A. T. Harris, and R.Bali, “On the Formation and Extent of Uptake of Silver Nanoparticles by Live Plants.”
Journal of Nanoparticle Research, 2008, vol.10, pp.691-695.
[12]H B. alliwell, “Free Radicals and Antioxidants, Updating a Personal View”, Journal of Nutrition Reviews, 2012,vol.70 (5), pp. 65-257.
[13] M. Balouiri, et al.,, “Methods for in vitro Evaluating Antimicrobial Activity”, J of Pharmaceutical Analysi,
2016,vol. 6, pp 71-79.
[14] R. Cruickshank, Medical Microbiology, London, 1st Ed., E.E. Livingstone Ltd, pp 81-95, 1960.
[15] P. Kahlonene, "Antioxidant Activity of Plant Extracts Containing Phenolic Compounds", Journal of
Agriculture., Food Chemistry., 1999,vol. 47 (3), pp.3954-3962.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

Morphological, Phytochemical Investigation and Antimicrobial Activity on
Roots of Houttuynia cordata Thunb.
Tin Tin Maw1

Abstract
The present studies provide an account of the knowledge on morphology, phytochemical
investigation and antimicrobial activity on roots of Houttuynia cordata Thunb. It is an important
medicinal plant widely distributed in East Asia, which is belonging to the family Saururaceae.
The specimens were collected from Kyaing Tong Township and identified with the help ofavailable literatures such as Heywood, 1978; Hooker, 1879; Lawrence, 1951; Hutchinson, 1967;
Cronquist, 1981; Brummitt ,1992; Wu. et al., 2010. In morphological studies, this plant isperennial herbs; leaves simple, alternate; inflorescences terminal involucrate spike; flowers
minute; stamens 3; ovary superior and fruits capsular. In phytochemical investigation of
powdered roots were carried out British Pharmacopoeia, 1968; Marini Bettalo et al., 1981,
Central Council for Research in Unani Medicine, 1987 and Trease and Evans, 2002, indicated thepresence of carbohydrate, glycoside, phenol, α- amino acid, tannin, flavonoid, terpenoid, reducing
sugar and starch, which may be bioactive compounds. In antimicrobial activities of root extracts
is performed by using agar well diffusion method, methanol, ethyl acetate and ethanol extracts ofroots are effective on six tested organisms and the ethyl acetate extract is found to be significant
against Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
Keywords: Houttuynia cordata Thunb., morphology, phytochemical, investigation, antimicrobialactivities

1. Introduction
There is a long history of herbal medicine in far Eastern countries; in Chinese people have
utilized herb and plants to treat various diseases for more than 8000 years [15]. With the advanceof modern medicine and drug research, chemical synthesis has replaced plants as the primarysource of medicinal agents in industrialized countries. However, in 1985, the World HealthOrganization estimated that about 80% of the world's population relied on traditional medicine
including herb medicines for their primary health care needs [14].
Houttuynia cordata Thunb. belongs to the family Saururaceae, also known as fish mint,fish leaf, rainbow plant, chameleon plant, heart leaf, fish wort, chinese lizard tail, or bishop's
weed, is one of two species in the genus Houttuynia (the other being H. emeiensis). It is aflowering plant native to Southeast Asia [Website 1]. This plant is widely distributed in Kachin
State, Mandalay Division and Shan State of Myanmar [11].
Several researches describes therapeutic efficacy of the whole plant and its extracts,
fraction and isolated compounds in different diseased condition. Among the important
pharmacological activity reported includes anti-mutagenic, anti-cancer, anti-obesity,
hepatoprotective, anti-viral, anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory, free radical scavenging, antimicrobial, anti-allergic, anti-leukemic, sinusitis and nasal polyps activities [Website 2]. During
the period of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), prevention formulas recognized by the
Health Ministry of China. Recently, several studies also provided scientific data to support andunveil its anti-SARS [10]. The present research investigates the morphological, phytochemical
constituents and antimicrobial activity on roots of Houttuynia cordata Thunb.
1

Dr. Associate Professor, Department of Botany University of , Kyaing Tong, Myanmar, dr.tintinmaw 49@gmail.com.

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

The aim and objectives of the present research are mainly to record the knowledge on
medicinal plant of Houttuynia cordata Thunb, to give medicinal information for native tribes andto help in improving human health care system of Myanmar.
Several researches describes therapeutic efficacy of the whole plant and its extracts,
fraction and isolated compounds in different diseased condition. Among the important
pharmacological activity reported includes anti-mutagenic, anti-cancer, anti-obesity,
hepatoprotective, anti-viral, anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory, free radical scavenging, antimicrobial, anti-allergic, anti-leukemic, sinusitis and nasal polyps activities [Website 2]. During
the period of severe Acute Respiratory Syndrone (SARS), prevention formulas recognized by the
Health Ministry of China. Recently, several studies also provided scientific data to support andunveil its anti-SARS [10]. The present research investigates the morphological, phytochemical
constituents and antimicrobial activity on roots of Houttuynia cordata Thunb.
The aim and objectives of the present research are mainly to record the knowledge on
medicinal plant of Houttuynia cordata Thunb, to give medicinal information for native tribes andto help in improving human health care system of Myanmar.

2. Methods
2.1. Samples collection, identification and preparation
The specimens were collected from Kyaing Tong Township, Eastern Shan State of
Myanmar during July to December, 2018. The collected specimens were identified and described.
According to resulting morphological characteristics, the specimen can be identified by theliteratures [Heywood, 1978; Hooker, 1879; Lawrence, 1951; Hutchinson, 1967; Cronquist, 1981;
Brummitt, 1992; Wu. et al., 2010].The roots of Houttuynia cordata Thunb. were washed withwater and cut into small pieces. Then these samples were air dried in shade at room temperature
for two to three weeks. After completely dried, the samples were ground by grinding machine toget powders and stored in air tight containers for further studies.

2.2. Phytochemical investigation of the samples
The phytochemical constituents of the samples were determined by the methods of British
Pharmacopoeia, 1968; Marini Bettalo et al., 1981; Central Council for Research in Unani
Medicine, 1987; Trease and Evans, 2002.

2.3. Antimicrobial activities of the samples
The powdered samples were used to measurement of antimicrobial activities. The samples
were extracted with petroleum ether, methanol, ethyl acetate, ethanol, water. In this experiment,
antimicrobial activities of five solvent extract samples were test on six organisms such as Bacillus
subtilis, staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus pumalis, Candida albicans,
Escherichia coli. Agar well diffusion method was used [5]. These investigations were carried out
in Myanmar Pharmaceutical Industrial Enterprise Research Department, Ministry of industry,
Insein, Yangon Division.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)151

3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Morphological description
Family name: Saururaceae

Myanmar name

: Htin-kae

English name

: Heart-leaved houttuynia; chameleon

Flowering period: July to OctoberPart used: Roots

Houttuynia cordata Thunb. Kongl. Vetensk. Acad. Nya Handl. 4 : 149. 1783.
Perennial herbs with creeping rhizomatous root stalks, up to 25 cm high, with aromatic;
branch puberulous. Leaves simple, alternate; stipules long, linear-oblong, membranous, adnate to
the petiole; petiole sheathing at the base, 2.5-3 cm by 1.5-2.5 mm, grooved above; blades ovatecordate, 4-6 cm by 3.5-6 cm, widely cordate at the base, entire along the margin, acute toacuminate at the apex, hairy on both surfaces, thinly papery, densely glandular glabrous.
Inflorescences terminal involucrate spike, 1-1.5 cm long, becoming longer in fruiting; involucral
bracts usually 4, oblong, 7-9 mm by 3.5-4.5 mm, white, glabrous, rounded at the apex. Flowers
sessile, congested, minute. Perianth absent. Stamens 3, free, exserted; filaments filiform, white,
glabrous, minute, anthers dithecous, basifixed, yellow, minute. Ovary trilocular, two ovules ineach locule on parietal placenta; white, glabrous, minute; stigma 3, simple. Fruits capsular,
subglobose, 2-3 mm long, with persistent styles. Seeds globose [Figure 1].
Distribution : Siam, China, Japan [7]. India, Korea, Myanmar, Nepal, Thailand [Website 3].
India to Indochina, China, Taiwan and Japan [Website 4]. Kress et. al. (2003) stated that thisspecies was distributing in Kachin State, Mandalay Division and Shan State of Myanmar.
Cultivated and wild species were found in Kyaing Tong Township.
Specimen examined : Eastern Shan State, Kyaing Tong Township, Dr. Tin Tin Maw, August 5,
2018.
Uses
: Rhizome is used in stomach ulcer. Boiled extract of rhizome is taken formuscular pains [Website 5]. In Kyaing Tong, The roots are taken raw as salad. The roots are
sometimes ground and used along with chilies, citrus fruit and soy sauce.

Habit

Flower

Roots

Roots

Figure1. Morphological characters

3.2. Phytochemical investigation
Phytochemical test showed the presence of carbohydrate, glycoside, phenol, α-aminoacid, saponin, tannin, flavonoid, terpenoid reducing sugar and starch. Alkaloid, steroid andcyanogenic glycoside are absent [Table 1].

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

Table 1. Phytochemical investigation of samples
No.

Tests

Extracts

Reagents

Observations

1.

Alkaloid

1% HCLNo pptNo ppt.
No ppt.
No ppt.
Red ring
White ppt.
Greenishbrown ppt.
Purple colour
No persistent
foam
ppt.

+
+
+

Pink colour
-

+
-

Pink

+

Brick red
ppt.
Bluish brown
No colourchange

+

2.
3.
4.

Carbohydrate
Glycoside
Phenol

H2O
H2O
H2 O

Mayer's reagent
Wagner's reagent
Dragendroff's reagent
Hager's reagent
10% α-naphthol & H2SO4
10% Lead acetate solution
5% FeCl3 solution

5.
6.

α-amino acid
Saponin

H2O
H2 O

Ninhydrin reagent
Distilled water

7.

Tannin

H2 O

8.
9.

Flavonoid
Steroid10.

Terpenoid

11.

Reducingsugar
StarchCyanogenic
glycoside

70% EtOH
Petroleum
ether
Petroleum
ether
H2 O

1% Gelatin & NaClsolution
Mg ribbon & Conc: HCl
Acetic anhydrate & Conc:
H2SO4
Acetic anhydrate & Conc:
H2SO4
Fehling's solution

12.
13.

(+) = presence

H2O
PowderIodine solution
Distilled water, Conc:H2SO4, Sodium picrate
paper(-) = absence
ppt = precipitate

Results

-

+
+

+
-

3.3. Antimicrobial activities
The antimicrobial activities of petroleum ether extract, methanol extract, ethyl acetate
extract, ethanol extract, water extract of Houttuynia cordata Thunb. roots were studied by Agarwell diffusion method against various microorganisms.

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

P.E = Petroleum ether, EtOH = Ethanol, MeOH = Methanol, EtOAc = Ethayl acetate
Figure 2. Antimicrobial activities of different solvent extracts of Houttuynia cordata Thunb. Roots

Organisms
No

Solvents

Bacillus
subtilis

staphylococcu
s aureus

Pseudomonas
aeruginosa

Bacillus
pumalisCandidaalbicansEscheric
hia coli

1.

Petroleum
ether

-

-

-

-

-

-

2.

Methanol

12 mm
(+)

13 mm
(+)

12 mm
(+)

13 mm
(+)

13 mm
(+)

13 mm
(+)

3.

Ethyl
acetate

28 mm
(+++)

30 mm
(+++)

35 mm
(+++)

30 mm
(+++)

28 mm
(+++)

33 mm
(+++)

4.

Ethanol

15 mm
(++)

14 mm
(+)

15 mm
(++)

14 mm
(+)

15 mm
(++)

14 mm
(+)

5.

Water

-

-

-

-

-

-

Agar well ~ 10 mm, 10 ~ 14 mm (+), 15 mm ~19 mm (++), 20 mm above (+++)
In antimicrobial activities, methanol, ethyl acetate and ethanol extracts of roots are
effective on six tested organisms. But petroleum ether and water extracts of roots are no effectiveon all tested organisms. Among them, ethyl acetate extracts of roots exhibit the largest inhibition
zones. It is more sensitive against six organisms. The more large inhibition zone showed on
Pseudomonas aeruginosa (35 mm). Ethanol extracts of roots sample responds medium activity
on all tested organisms but methanol extracts of roots sample gave low activity on all tested
organisms [Table 2, Figure 2].
In morphology studies, the plant is perennial herbs; leaves simple, alternate;inflorescences terminal involucrate spike; flowers minute; stamens 3; ovary superior and fruits
capsular [Figure 1]. Houttuynia cordata Thunb. included the IUCN (International Union for theConservation of Nature) Red list of threatened species [Website 6]. In photochemical tests
showed the present of carbohydrate, glycoside, phenol, α-amino acid, saponin, tannin, flavonoid,
terpenoid reducing sugar and starch [Table 1]. Carbohydrate will provide energy for human

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

body and brain function. It decrease disease risk; improve the health of digestive system andweight control [Website 7]. Glycoside showed significant antioxidant activity, anticancer andantitumor activity, hepatoprotective activity, anti-inflammatory activity, anti-diabetes activity
and antifungal activity [Website 8]. Phenol treat Parkinson' disease, cerebral palsy, sore throat[Website 7]. Amino acid increase muscle growth, decrease muscle soreness and benefit liverdisease [Website 9]. Tannin showed anti-carcinogenic activity, anti-mutagenic activity andantimicrobial activity [Website 8]. Flavonoids are reduced risk of a number of chronic diseases
including cancer, cardiovascular disease and neurodegenerative disorders [Website 8]. Terpenoid
may help to produce anti-inflammatory, antibacterial and antidepressant [Website 10]. Reducing
sugar promotes weight loss, lower cholesterol level and blood pressure level, reduce
inflammation [Website 11]. Starch reduces colon cancer, diabetes and heart disease [Website 12].
In antimicrobial activities of various extracts of roots showed active against six microorganisms.
The methanol, ethyl acetate and ethanol extracts of roots played antibacterial activity against
Bacillus subtilis, staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus pumalis,
Escherichia coli and antifungal activity against Candida albicans [Table 2, Figure 2]. So roots of
Houttuynia cordata Thunb. can be used for illness, food poisoning, sore throat, skin infection,
toxic shock, eye infection syndrome, respiratory tract infection, dermatitis, soft tissue infection,
joint infection, gastrointestinal infection, cancer and AIDS, diarrhea, pneumonia, urinary tract
infections, genital yeast infection.

4. Conclusions
In this research works, determination of morphological, phytochemical investigation andantimicrobial activity on roost of Houttuynia cordata Thunb. were carried out. The
morphological characters were recorded for other researchers. Phytochemical investigation
contains bioactive compounds and antimicrobial activities can be used to treat in many diseases.
Houttuynia cordata Thunb. has also been observed in medicinal value of plant. So this paper
gives medicinal information for native tribes. Finally, it is also hope that this research paper will
help in improving human health care system of Myanmar.

Acknowledgements
I would like to express my deep gratitude to Dr San San Mar, Rector and Dr Myat Nyunt, Pro-rector,
Kyaing Tong University, for their permission to conduct this research paper. I wish to greatly thanks Dr San San Oo,
Professor and Head, Dr Moe Moe Lwin, Professor, Department of Botany, Kyaing Tong University, for theirinvaluable suggestion and permission to this paper.

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

References[1.] British Pharmacopoeia, "The Pharmaceutical Press", London and Bradford, 17 Bloomsbury Square, London,
1968.
[2.] Brummitt, R. K., "Vascular Plant Families and Genera", Royal Botanical Garden, Kew, Printed and bound by
Whistable Litho Ltd., Great Briantain. 1992.
[3.] Central Council for Research in Unani Medicine, "Phytochemical Standads of Unani Formulation", Ministry of
Health and Family Welfare, India, New Delhi, 1987.
[4.] Cronquist, "A integrated system of classification of Flowering plants", Columbia University Press, New York,
1981.
[5.] Cruickshank, R. J. P., "Medicinal microbiology", Landon: Livingstone Led., 1975.
[6.] Heywood, V.H., "Flowering plants of the World", Oxford University Press, London, 1978.
[7.] Hooker, J. D.,"The Flora of British India", L. Reeve & Co. 5 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden London, 1879.
[8.] Hutchinson, J., "Key to the Families of Flowering Plants of the World", Claredon Press Oxford, 1967.
[9.] Hundley, H.G. "List of Trees, Shrubs, Herbs and Principal Climbers, etc". fourth Revised edition Shwe Daw Oo
Press, Mayangon Yangon, Myanmar, 1987.
[10.] K. M. Lau, K.-M. Lee, C.-M. Koon, C.S.-F. Cheung, C.-P. Lau, H.-M. Ho, M.Y.-H. Lee, S. W.-N. Au, C. H.-K.
Cheng, C. B.-S Lau,et al., "Immunomodulatory and Anti-SARS Activities of Houttuynia cordata", Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 2008, vol. 118, no. 1, pp. 79-85[11.] Kress, J. et al., "A Checklist of the Trees, Herbs and Climbers of Myanmar", Department of Systematic
Biology-Botany, National Museum of Natural History, Washington DC, USA, 2003.
[12.] Lawrence, George H. M. "Taxonomy of Vascular Plants", the Macmillan Company, New York, 1951.
[13.] Marini Bettolo, G. B. M. Nicolettic and M Patamia, "Plant Screening by Chemical Chromatographic Procedure
under Field Conditions", Journal of Chromatogram, 1981.
[14.] N. R. Farnsworth, O. Akerele, A. S. Bingel, D. D. Soejarto and Z. Guo, "Medicinal Plants in
Therapy", Bulletin of the Whorl Health Organization, 1985, vol. 63, No. 6, pp. 965-968.
[15.] P. Darsar and J. Moravcova, "Recent Advances in Analysis of Chinese Medicinal Plants and Traditional
Medicine", Journal of Chromatography B, 2004, vol. 812, no. 1-2, pp. 3-21.
[16.] Trease and Evan, "Pharmacognosy", 11th Ed. Edinburgh, London, New York, 1978.
[17.] Wu, Z. Y. Raven, P. H. & Hong, D. Y, "Flora of China (Cycadaceae through Fagaceae)", , Science Press &Missouri Botanical Garden Press, Beijing & St. Louis., 1999, vol. 4. pp.109.
Websites[1] https:// en.m.wikipedia.org> wiki.
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[3] https:// indiabiodiversity.org. > show
[4] https:// uses.plantnet.project.org. > H.
[5] www. flowers of indica. net.> slides.
[6] www. iucngisd.org > gisd > species[7] https:// www. healthline. com > health[8] https:// www. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov > pub.
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[12] https:// www. healthline. com > some.s.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

Information System Development of Hotels in Naypyitaw, Myanmar
Kyi Kyi Thant1

Abstract
With the advent of information technology, hotels make development of information system tocreate efficient internal operations and effective connection with associated parties. This study
aims to identify the information system development and to analyze the effects of information
system development on organizational effectiveness of hotels. The primary data was collectedfrom responsible persons in 24 hotels in Naypyitaw by using structured questionnaire during July
2019. The respondents were selected with simple random sampling method. The secondary data
was collected from the records of the Ministry of Hotels and Tourism, Myanmar. Descriptive
statistics and multiple regression analysis were mainly applied in this study. Accounting
information system development show the maximum mean score comparatively. According to
the multiple regression analysis result, it was found that accounting information systemdevelopment, human resources information system development, and integrated information
system development show positive and significant effects on organizational effectiveness.
Remarkably, marketing information system development shows negative but insignificant
effect on organizational effectiveness. It was highlighted that integrated information systemdevelopment was most important to contribute to the improvement of organizational
effectiveness.
Keywords: Information system development, Organizational effectiveness1. Introduction
System, strategy, and structure are essential components of an organization [1] andthey are being developed all the time to achieve organizational effectiveness. Nowadays,organizations make changes components by coping with the rapid advancement of information
technology. They make continuous and small changes or drastic and large changes in theirorganizational design. In shifting their design, all firms including service, distribution, andmanufacturing firms are applying information technology fostering to fulfill customer orders
at the right place and the right time. To be responsive to customer needs, decision makers
are required to have timely and accurate information so that they can make arrangement
correctly. Luxury and upscale hotels developed their systems by applying information
technology comparatively [2]. Thus, they prioritize developing information system such asaccounting information system, marketing information system, human resources management
information system, and integrated information system respectively in their organizations.
Currently, hotels can make accounting information system development without
disturbing the current system [3]. By using accounting information system, budgeting,inventory control, and cost control can be implemented effectively in hotels [4]. As theeffects of accounting information system, planning, controlling, and decision making are putin the study of hotels [5]. Hotels need to make improvement in accounting information
system to cope with the new invention of information technology [6]. Development inaccounting information improves the capability of producing large amount of informationand quality of decisions in hotels [7].
1

Dr Lecturer, Department of Management Studies. Meiktila University of Economics, kyikyithant@gmail.com

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

The collection, storage, retrieval, and dissemination of market information are requiredfor hotels and information processing capability can be enhanced by marketing information
system [8]. First class and luxury hotels mostly use integrated marketing information systemthrough the use of information and communication technology to keep existing customers’
information which help implementing customer loyalty program [9].
Similarly, the impact of integrated marketing communication on hotel brand equity,which is comprised of brand image, perceived quality, and brand loyalty, is positive andsignificant [10]. In measuring the effectiveness of marketing information system, increasing
functional effectiveness, improving organizational climate, adapting market conditions, andresponding customer demand are used as indicators [11].
The previous empirical studies highlighted the importance of human resource
information system in business organizations [12]. Hotels are able to take strategic andoperational advantages through implementing human resources information system [13].
Staff is trained on working activities to utilize effectively the information technology sothat human resources management decisions can correctly be made in hotels [14]. It isobserved that cloud human resource information systems show impact on human resource
activities in hotels [15].
All functions in operations management and continuous business process
reengineering are implemented in hotels with the application of information system [16].
Integrated information system development provides information among different departments
in hotels and it can minimize unnecessary activities [17]. The effectiveness of human resource
information system contributes to the strategic direction of businesses [18].
This study aims to identify the information system development of hotels in Naypyitaw
and to analyze the effects of information system development on organizational effectivenessof hotels in Naypyitaw. Based on the previous literature, the conceptual framework depicting
the effects of information system development on organizational effectiveness is developed.
Information System Development
Accounting Information
System Development
Marketing Information
SystemHuman Resources
Information System Development

Organizational
EffectivenessIntegrated Information
System Development
Figure1. Conceptual framework of the study

The study focuses on information system developments: accounting information systemdevelopment, marketing information system development, human resources information

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system development, and integrated information system development. These were used as
independent variables and organizational effectiveness was used as dependent variable in thisstudy.
2. Methods of the Study
The primary data was collected from responsible persons of 24 hotels out of 65
registered hotels in Naypyitaw. The sample was selected by using simple random sample method
and it represents (37) percent of total population. The primary data was collected by using
structured questionnaire measured with five point Likert scale during July 2019. The secondary
data was collected from the records of the Ministry of Hotels and Tourism, Myanmar.
Descriptive statistics was used to reveal the mean values of information system development
and multiple regression analysis were mainly applied to analyze the effects of information systemdevelopment on organizational effectiveness of hotels in Naypyitaw.
3. Results and Discussion
In identifying the information system development of hotels in Naypyitaw, the meanvalues are firstly described in Table (1).
Table (1) Descriptive statistics
Sr.
Variables1
Accounting Information System Development
2
Marketing Information System Development
3
Human Resources Information System
4
Integrated Information System Development
5
Organizational EffectivenessSource: Survey Data 2019)

Mean
4.00
3.92
3.16
2.51
3.71

SD
1.092
0.800
1.318
1.316
0.953

Items
6
6
6
6
6

Alpha
0.790
0.835
0.769
0.838
0.738

The mean value indicates the average perception of respondents on information systemdevelopment; the standard deviation indicates the extent of deviation from the mean values;
items show the number of items for each variable; and the alpha value reveals the internalconsistency among variables.
It is found that accounting information system development reveals the maximum mean value
in this study. The majority of hotels are using accounting software and application for theadvancement of handling accounting data. By making accounting information systemdevelopment, hotels can assess sales revenues and expenses timely and make decisions
correctly. However, it can be concluded that some hotels are still using manual accounting
procedure as the standard deviation shows more than one.
It is observed that marketing information system development is above the neutrallevel. It explains that hotels are currently using own web page, facebook page, platform
such as agoda.com, birma.com, and mymagicalmyanmar.com to reach their updated
information to prospective customers. In addition, customers can make reservation andcancellation easily through internet; and they can acquire information and can give feedback
as well. Moreover, they make customers convenient for their payment through using visa
card and mobile wallets.
The expansion of human resources information system development is required to bemade by hotels in Naypyitaw because it is at the neutral level. Hotels are traditionallyimplementing human resources management activities especially employee attendance,
training and development, compensation and benefits, and performance appraisal although therecruitment is made through online. The linkage among human resources management
activities is not strong enough so that managers can use those data during the short period.

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Although the integration of departments in hotels is of vital importance, theintegrated information system development reveals the minimum mean value. It shows under
the neutral level and thus it needs to improve the cooperation among individuals anddepartments.
Table (2) Correlation between information system development and organizational effectiveness
Sr
Variables
1 Accounting Information System

1
1

2

3

4

5

l
2 Marketing
Information System

0.701**

1l Resources Information
3 Human0.523**

0.311

1

S
l
4 Integrated
Information
System

0.240

0.190

0.606**

1l
5 Organizational
Effectiveness0.758**

0.452*

0.770**

0.604**

1

Note: ** and * are significant at 1% and 5% levels respectively. Source: Survey Data (July 2019)

Before analyzing with multiple regression analysis, the correlation between variables
is firstly calculated as shown in Table (2). It reveals that the correlation between the
independent variables and dependent variable. Specifically, accounting information systemdevelopment, marketing information system development, human resources information
system development, and integrated information system development are positively andsignificantly correlated with organizational effectiveness.
To prove the effects of information system development on organizational
effectiveness, multiple regression analysis is conducted as shown in Table (3).
Table (3) Multiple regression analysis
Variables

UnstandardizedStandardized

Std.

T

Sig.

VIF

Constant

0.931

0.469

Accounting Information
System0.539**

0.133

0.618

4.042 0.001

2.525-0.1580.162-0.133-0.974 0.342

2.003

Human Resources Information
System0.225*

0.101

0.311

2.220 0.039

2.117

Integrated Information System

0.212*

0.089

0.293

2.395 0.027

1.619

D l
t
Marketing Information System
Development

Development
R-square0.908

Adjusted R2

0.824

F

22.278**

Dependent Variable: Organizational effectivenessNote: ** and * are significant at 1% and 5% levels respectively. Source: Survey Data (July 2019)19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)161

According to Table (3), accounting information system development is related toorganizational effectiveness (b=0.539, p<0.01). It explains that accounting information systemdevelopment has positive and significant effects on organizational effectiveness at 1% level.
It means that one unit increase in accounting information system development leads to0.539 unit increase in organizational effectiveness of hotels in Naypyitaw. Accounting
information system development indicates the positive and significant effects onorganizational effectiveness of hotels. It is prominent that providing the exact payment
information to customers leads to attaining trust from them. Hotels have to keep the recordsof customers concerning with their stay and frequency of visit and calculate differently forthe loyal customers. In such situation, the discounted amount has to be calculated
correctly. If there is an error in asking for bill, customers will be frustrated and it is notprobable to come back to the hotels again. Thus, accounting information system is crucial
for creating customer satisfaction and positive word-of-mouth. In addition, the usage ofaccounting information system is able to reduce the fraud of employees and to control theaccounts internally. Managers can make cost analysis so that the unnecessary expenses can bealleviated timely. Hence, accounting information system is required for achievingorganizational effectiveness of hotels in Naypyitaw.
However, marketing information system development is not related to organizational
effectiveness (b=-0.158, p>0.5). It reveals that marketing information system development
has negative but insignificant effects on organizational effectiveness. Today, hotels makechanges in marketing activities such as developing new products and services for solving
customer problems well, using high-tech payment system for reducing customer cost, applying
virtual network to make customers convenient, and making contact with customers forproviding updated information such as promotion programs. As their functions mainly depend
on information technology, hotel staff needs to be proficient technically for responding
customers. They sometimes have difficulties in human error or machine error in handlingvirtual network and advanced technology. In this condition, customers feel inconvenient,complain hotel’s supporting services, and reconsider to visit there again. Even though the
hotels are making marketing information system development extensively, their effects
describe negative.
Human resources information system development is related to organizational
effectiveness (b=0.225, p<0.05). It explains that human resources information systemdevelopment has positive and significant effects on organizational effectiveness at 5% level.
It means that one unit increase in human resources information system development leads to0.225 increase in organizational effectiveness. Human resources are the valuable assets as they
directly contact with customers and thus are major service providers of hotels. Human
resources management functions such as recruitment and selection, training anddevelopment, performance appraisal, and compensation and benefits can be conducted byusing information technology. The attendance of employees can be recorded with the help ofmachines which data automatically send to the calculation of compensation of benefits, andtraining can be provided with the use of internet by uploading text, audio files, and video files.
To conduct human resources management activities effectively, hotels are increasingly using
human resources information system. It is observed that human resources information
system development indicates positive and significant effects on organizational effectiveness.

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

Likewise, integrated information system development is related to organizational
effectiveness (b=0.212, p<0.05). It pinpoints that integrated information system development
has positive and significant effects on organizational effectiveness at 5% level. It means that
one unit increase in integrated information system development lead to 0.212 unit increase inorganizational effectiveness. The cooperation among departments such as security, front office,housekeeping, food and beverage departments is essential to provide services to customers
satisfactorily. According to the findings, integrated information system development shows
positive and significant effects on organizational effectiveness of hotels. The internal linkage
makes customers feel convenient and impressed on hotels because they are not willing to wait
for long time during connecting each other. Front office department has to inform
housekeeping department to be ready before customer arrival; security department has tocontact front office department car parking situations; and food and beverage has to send billto front office department. The disruption among departments make customers feel dissatisfied
and hotels cannot maintain current customers to stay long and visit next time. Thus, integrated
information system development plays vital role in increasing organizational effectiveness ofhotels.

4. Conclusion
The information system development is increasing in hotels especially withincreasingly entering international software developing companies into Myanmar. As theavailability of standardized and customized software in the market, hotels apply it to makedecisions correctly. The study highlights accounting information system development which
represents the maximum mean value relatively. On the other hand, integrated information
system development indicates the minimum mean value. Although hotels in Naypyitaw widely
access accounting information system development, a few of them uses integrated information
system development. As accounting software has come out more than one decade ago and ischeaply available in the market at present, most hotels are applying accounting information
system largely. However, the use of integrated information system is in weak position as it isrequired to have customized software which can be acquired from the software company
expensively.
The effects of accounting information system development, human resources
information system development, and integrated information system development onorganizational effectiveness are prominent. As it reveals the importance of information systemdevelopment in hotels, it is recommended that hotels in Naypyitaw should adopt and makedevelopment in these systems. Among them, the accounting information system development
shows the most significant effects on organizational effectiveness. Thus, it is suggested that
hotels have to use accounting information system development to sustain efficient operations,
to make corrective decision, and to achieve customer satisfaction. Although the effect ofmarketing information system development on organizational effectiveness is not significant, it
will be beneficial that hotel staff and customers are familiar with using pages, websites, andapplications. Thus, hotels are recommended to take time for training employees to be
proficient in using information technology.
The study focuses only on information system development of hotels in Naypyitaw
and its effects on organizational effectiveness. Further studies can emphasize hotels situated in163

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)other areas to prove the effects of information system development of hotels in Myanmar.
Besides, the effects of sub-systems on organizational effectiveness can be analyzed to give thespecific recommendation to the hotels. The study can be extended by exploring the driving
forces of information system development of hotels. The causal effects of information systemdevelopment of hotels can be analyzed in further studies.

Acknowledgements
My special thanks go to Professor Dr. Tun Aung, Rector of the Meiktila University of Economics for his
continuous encouragement for conducting qualified researches. My great appreciation also goes toProfessor Dr Thida Kyu, Pro-Rector of the Meiktila University of Economics for her sustained support for
publishing academic researches. It would not be possible to accomplish this research without the supervision ofProfessor Dr Khaing Mar Hlaing, Head of the Department of Management Studies, Meiktila University of
Economics. My heartfelt thanks go to the managers working at the hotels in Naypyitaw as well.

References[1] Philip Sadler, “Designing Organizations. The Foundations for Excellence”, Kogan Page India Private
Limited, 991.
[2] Judy A. Siguaw, Cathy A. Enz, Karthik Namasivayam, “Adoption of Information Technology in U.S.
Hotels: Strategically Driven Objectives”, Journal of Travel Research, 2000, vol. 39, pp. 192-201.
[3] Majed Adel Alsharayri, “The E-Commerce Impact on Improving Accounting Information System in
Jordanian Hotels”, International Research Journal of Finance and Economics, 2011, ISSN 14502887, pp.14-23.
[4] Vincent Cho, James Wong, “Measuring Service Quality of the Computerized Food and Beverage Cost
Control System in Hong Kong Hotels Using a Gaps Model Approach”, Journal of Hospitality
and Tourism Research, 1998, vol. 22, pp. 268-287.
[5] Omar A. A. Jawabreh, Ali Mahmoud Abdallah Alrabei, “The Impact of Accounting Information System inPlanning, Controlling, and Decision-Making Processes in Jodhpur Hotels”, Asian Journal of
Finance and Accounting, 2012, vol. 4, pp. 173-188.
[6] Mohammad Nayef ALsarayreh, Omar A. A. Jawabreh, Muneer Mohamad Falah Jaradat, Sameer Ahmed
ALamro, “Technological Impacts on Effectiveness of Accounting Information Systems(AIS) Applied by Aqaba Tourist Hotels”, European Journal of Scientific Research, 2011, vol. 59,
pp. 361-369.
[7] Nina Downie, “The Use of Accounting Information in Hotel Marketing Decisions”, International Journal of
Hospitality Management, 1997, vol. 16, pp. 305-312.
[8] Kalliopi C Chatzipanagiotou, Aikaterini Vassilikopoulou, George J Siomkos, “An Empirical Investigation of
the Relationship between Market Orientation and MrkIS Effectiveness in Upscale Hotels in
Greece”, Journal of Targeting, Measurement, and Analysis for Marketing, 2008, vol. 16, pp. 285297.
[9] Maja Šerić, Irene Gil-Saura, “Integrated Marketing Communications and Communication and Information
Technology in the Hotel Sector: An Analysis of Their Use and Development in DalmatianFirst-Class and Luxury Hotels”, Journal of Retail and Leisure Property, 2011, vol. 9, pp. 401-414.
[10] Maja Šerić, Irene Gil-Saura, María Eugenia Ruiz-Molina, “How can Integrated Marketing Communications
and Advanced Technology Influence the Creation of Customer-Based Brand Equity?
Evidence from the Hospitality Industry”, International Journal of Hospitality Management,
2014, vol. 39, pp. 144-156.

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)[11] Spiros P. Gounaris, George G. Panigyrakis, Kalliopi C. Chatzipanagiotou, “Measuring the Effectiveness ofMarketing Information Systems”, Marketing Intelligence and Planning, 2007, vol. 25, pp. 612631.
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[13] Karam Zaki, Hisham Saad, “Adoption of Cloud Human Resource Information System in Egyptian Hotels: An
Experimental Design Research”, International Journal of Heritage, Tourism, and Hospitality,
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pp. 830-839.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

The Strategic Analysis for Tourism Sector Development in Myanmar
Yin Myat Phyu Win1

Abstract
In the context of both rural and urban tourism sector development, little attention has been paidby academics and the sector is largely neglected. The purpose of the study is to identify the
deficiencies in ethical issues, facilities, standards, services, etc. at the touristic destinations in
Myanmar. The SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats) analysis, the method
allegedly originated from Albert Humphrey, is used to strategically identify internal and external
factors affecting the sustainable development of the industry. The internally-related strengths andweaknesses, and the external environment of opportunities and threats were focused through theanalysis of online survey data and documents. The result showed that although sustainable
development is repeatedly mentioned by the authorities, there are still fewer implementations andinitiatives to achieve the development goal. It is hoped that this research contributes someknowledge to the people from the tourism sector by identifying the gap and promoting somesocio-cultural initiatives and implementing them into practice.
Keywords: sustainable development, strengths, weaknesses, threats, opportunities

1. Introduction
Situated between the two populous countries of China and India, the geographicallystrategic country Myanmar opened its doors after its political reform. Diverse landscapes, over
one hundred ethnic groups’ unique traditions and cultures, rich cultural heritage sites are
attracting tourists from the whole world. However, there are many limitations left to make theirvisits convenient and a success. For the sustainable development of Myanmar’s tourism sector,
government and private sectors awareness are needed to be raised as the tourism sector is closely
related to international trades, and a close tie between borders is for the economic developmentof the country.
To support the tourism and hospitality sector, banking system and money transaction
processes are started to be planned well. According to the Directorate of Investment andCompany Administration, between the FY 2018/19 and early May, Myanmar’s hotel and tourism
sector have attracted $60 million of a total of $2.5 billion in foreign direct investment (FDI).
Backed by the Myanmar Tourism Federation, the first branch of Myanmar Tourism Bank
(MTB), funding provided by 26 shareholders from the local tourism industry, was opened in
Yangon in May 2019. The opening of Myanmar’s the very first tourism bank proved that
Myanmar tourism and hospitality sector began to be supported and encouraged by thegovernment bodies to be flourished in the upcoming years.
Aim and Objectives
Currently, Myanmar’s domestic tourism has faced its competitiveness and has to try tosurvive among conflicts and instabilities. If the domestic tourism gains its momentum, then it
will largely contribute to the less privileged communities, those who live in the rural, hilly or
remote areas. That is why, the aim of this paper is to identify the deficiencies in ethical issues,
facilities, standards, services, etc., the weaknesses of the current situation of tourism industry are
to be pinpointed and searched for ways to promote Myanmar as a tourism destination of the1

Dr Associate Professor, Department of English, Yangon University of Foreign Languages.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

166

world. To achieve the aim of the paper, the following preliminary questions have been raised andthe objectives of the study are specified.
(1) What would be our greatest strength to draw the attention of our prospective customers?
(2) Which opportunities can we exploit or grasp?
(3) What are our deficiencies to be corrected?
(4) What sorts of threats or challenges are we facing?
Based on the research questions mentioned above, the objectives have been specified asfollows:‐‐‐‐

to search for our greatest strength that is to be promoted to the largest degree
to study our would-be chances for exploitation
to upgrade our deficiencies, including our outdated intellectual properties
to identify the external factors that threaten us

2. Methodology
For the evaluation of Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats of a businessproject, an American business and management consultant Albert Humphrey developed SWOT
analysis. This analysis is to specify the objectives of the marketing or business projects, and then,identify the external and internal factors that can give a positive or negative impact on the set
objectives. As we need to bring our country on the world’s tourism map as a holiday destination,in this study, SWOT method was used to strategically identify internal and external factors that
affect the sustainable development of Myanmar’s tourism industry. The survey data wererandomly collected from the currently running hotels and tour businesses, medium and small
local enterprises and tourists visiting Myanmar. The internally-related strengths and weaknesses,
and the external environment of opportunities and threats were the focus subject matter of thedata collection.
Analysis of Data
The collected data of the survey results are classified under Humphrey’s four categories
of Strength, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threat, and then, analyzed.
Strength
Altogether 135 ethnic groups with their own traditions and culture showcase thediversified local communities, in which the use of different dialects and languages are one of the
key attractions to the visitors.
The locals have a more natural and less aggressive attitude to tourists, compared to othercountries. Myanmar welcomes foreigners with smiles. Locals are eager to deal with them andtreat them as “guests” and try to show Myanmar families’ hospitability. This is another key
attraction to visitors.
The diverse and different landscapes of hilly highlands, low-lying areas, scenic beauty intemperate, favorable climate, especially in December and January i.e. the holiday seasons formost tourists, are attractions to those from the severe weather conditions, and to those who haveto survive within heaters or cooling systems.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

167

Weaknesses
Compared to our neighboring countries, the hotel occupancy rates are comparatively
high, especially for local visitors, but the quality of service and the provision of facilities are, tosome extent, poor. For foreigners, the infrastructure along the ways to the tourist destination
areas is needed to be promoted.
The level of prices is comparatively higher, unstable and this is unacceptable for cost
conscious tourists. Myanmar’s handicrafts and the souvenirs are needed to be diversified andupgraded. Moreover, well-qualified products are needed to create more.
For the influx of tourists, government’s policy of issuing different types of visas or visafree entry to some Asian countries should be changed.
As tourism is a sector where many young and unskilled workers can learn a trade, it
offers equal opportunities to all genders in different education levels without any discrimination.
Hotels, transportation services, catering services, tour operations, entertainment, garment,
souvenir shops, etc. are different work places for different education levels. As all inclusive
service-businesses are to serve customers professionally, both at the management levels and at
working group levels, all working bodies are needed to be trained well when we are approaching
the sustainable development goal.

Opportunities
The development of tourism sector can improve locals’ awareness for the conservation of
their identity as well as their cultural values. The more they value their culture and their identity,
the more they conserve them. The result is we do not need to worry about the extinction of ourdistinctive cultures and traditions. This is one of the opportunities that the booming tourism cangive to us all.
As the developments can provide local peoples with lots of job opportunities and highincome rates, it can automatically reduce unemployment rates and consequently, reduce thecrime rates. Increased income can uplift standards of living and educated ratio, and thisadditionally can attract more and more tourists for safe environs.
In Myanmar, commodity prices are comparatively low. Organic foods are plentiful andavailable in low prices. This amazingly low cost expenditure is a new experience for tourists, oneof the significant changes from their lifestyles.

Threats
Our neighboring countries are making different promotion systems, e.g. using media as a
powerful tool in their advertising, to boom up their different types of tourism by upgrading theirindustries as highly-yield tourism, instead of high volume tourism. In this case, if we cannot
upgrade our systems to modern standards, we would lose our customers who expect our quality
and services up to the highest level.
Concerning prices, we need to be honest with our customers. Between buyers and sellers,
most Myanmar shoppers, sellers and businesspersons usually try to add skyrocketing prices to168

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

foreigners. In some situation, the prices become doubled compared to the original prices. The
negotiated prices can never get the trust of the customers and so, such dishonest manners should
definitely be avoided. In doing smokeless businesses, if we do not correct our characters in time,the morals that all humans respect and pay heed to will teach us lessons that we could never becorrected again and get regrets in some days of our very future. At the same time, our people andthe country will sooner or later be downgraded as notorious and the unsafe place to visit.
Food safety is a matter to be considered. Currently, the government bodies cannot handle
it effectively. People have to wisely choose for their own healthy living. It is a matter for the lessprivileged communities, and for the ones who tour from places to places are difficult to bechoosy under different circumstances. If it is not handled effectively in the long run, it would still
be one of the major threats for the sustainable tourism development. From the national level, it
should be effectively reinforced with policy, planning, laws and judicial systems.
3. Findings and Discussion
For the future development, suggestions and recommendation are to be provided as follows:
The areas where there is a potential for the booming of tourism industry are to be selected
and then try to transform the areas into the tourist zones. The tourist destination zones are to becreated for educational tourism, business tourism, historic-related tourism, rural observatory,
ecotourism, sports tourism, etc.
Connections and alliances are the major factors to achieve the success of any businesses.
Thus, for preparation and planning for the influx flow of visitors in the long run, to set up
networks with the inland and outbound alliances are of crucial importance.
Business licenses should be provided only to those who offer a certain standard ofservices and quality. Government should implement control system to guarantee and assure theproduction of quality products for the promising future.
In any cases, funding is needed to be sufficient enough. Thus, investments in and abroad
are important to be invited because these investments can determine technological development,
infrastructure development, prestige of tourism industry, good accommodation, bettertransportation, catering and magnificent entertainment, etc.
Vocational training schools should be established to meet the needs of professional
services and skills jobs, as well as for the productions of quality products. Moreover,management training schools should also be set up for small business enterprises to improve
managerial skills for small and medium business levels.

4. Conclusion
Rich national resources can make Myanmar a strong competitive destination in the
tourism market. Varieties of high-quality products and souvenirs in reasonable prices, three tofive stars hotels with the provisions of state-of-the-art technology, good transportation systems,
low crime rates with high security standard, honest and reliable locals, healthy catering services,
etc. are all essential elements for the sustainable developments of Myanmar’s tourism sector.
Tourism development processes should also be based on the private and public sector co-19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

169

operation. All working groups from all walks of life should carry out matters hand-in-hand inunity, and should solve unexpected problems co-operatively.

Acknowledgements
First and foremost, I would profoundly like to express my deepest gratitude to Sayagyi Dr. Kyi Shwin,
Rector, Yangon University of Foreign Languages, from whom I have always received kindness and moral courage. I
would like to thank him for his invaluable advice, guidance and encouragement to do this research analysis, and for
his valuable suggestions.
I would profoundly like to express my gratitude to Dr. Thi Thi Tun, Professor, Department of English, Dagon
University, for her invaluable advice, guidance, kindness and help in various ways during my data collection anddata analysis period.
My sincere thanks are extended to all responsible persons and owners of hotels, restaurants, souvenir shops andguesthouses in Bagan, Bago, Inlei, and Yangon where I have collected my data and to all those who patiently gaveme answers to my questions and shared their opinions to me.
I am also indebted to all my teachers who taught and trained to broaden my knowledge throughout my school,
university days and in my work places.
Further acknowledgements go to my colleagues, Dr. Khin Moe Moe Kyu and Dr. Thida Oo, who kindly helped
and encouraged me, without whom this research paper would never come into existence.

References:
Coccossis, H., & Mexa, A. (2004) The Challenge of Tourism Carrying Capacity Assessment. Burlington: Ashgate.
Charmaz, K. (2006). Constructing Grounded Theory: A Practical Guide Through Qualitative Analysis. London:
Sage Publications.
Djachenko, L. P. (2007). Tourism Business and Economy. Kiev: Sage Publications.
Formica, S. & Kothari, T. (2008). Strategic Destination Planning: Analyzing the Future of Tourism. Journal ofTravel ResearchHall, C. M. (2000). Tourism Planning: Policies, Processes and Relationships. Harlow: Pearson Education Ltd.
Krippendorff, K. (2004). Content Analysis: Introduction to its Methodology (2nd ed.). California. Sage Publications.
Malska, M. P., Antonuk, N. V., & Ganuch, D. (2008). International Tourism and Hospitality. Lviv: Open University
Publication.
Malska, M. P. & Burdun, O. J. (2003). Tourism Policy and Planning. Lviv: Open University Publication.
Online Resources:
https://oxfordbusinessgroup.com/news/how-myanmar-aims-stimulate-investment-tourism

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

Proposal of the Simple Rapid Measurement on the Airborne Bacterial
Concentration for the Quality Control in the Industry
Ze Liu1, Takehiro Tanaka2, Shuji Fujii3

Abstract
Airborne microbes are examined generally by sampling them on culture media and counting thenumber of their colonies formed. However, because it takes at least two days for bacteria and fivedays for fungi to be cultivated, the obtained data may not be usable to monitor in the industry.
Therefore, the simple and quick detection methods are required to be applicable in the industry. In
this study, rapid detection methods of indoor airborne bacteria are reviewed and examined formonitoring the indoor bacterial contamination risk in the industry at first. As the simple rapid
methods, ATP method and Bioluminescence/fluorescence method are selected and theexperimental surveys are carried out. The authors propose that these methods are applicable tomonitor the airborne bacteria in the industry by a shorter time.
Keywords: Rapid measuring method, Fluorescent vital staining, ATP, Industry, Quality control

1.

Introduction

Airborne microbes are examined generally by sampling them on culture media andcounting the number of their colonies formed. However, because it takes at least two days forbacteria and five days for fungi to be cultivated, the obtained data may not be usable to monitor
in the industry. Therefore, the simple and quick detection methods are required to be
applicable in the industry. Rapid detection methods of indoor airborne microbes arereviewed and examined for monitoring the indoor bacterial contamination risk in the industry
at first. As the simple rapid methods, ATP method and bioluminescence/fluorescence method are
selected and the experimental surveys are carried out.

2. Rapid detection methods
Rapid measuring methods are outlined in Table 1. They are classified into direct
methods or indirect methods. Direct methods include solid-phase cytometry and flow
cytometry. Indirect methods include immunological methods such as nucleic acidamplification, bioluminescence (ATP etc.), micro colony method, gas measuring method, fatty
acid profile, genetic finger-printing method (DNA). These are using bacterial physiologicalactivities and intracellular components such as antigen, nucleic acid, ATP, growth, fatty acid, cellcomponent, DNA.
As the direct bacteria fluorescent counting method by flow cytometry, ATP method
and bioluminescence/fluorescence method are selected for the suitable monitoring methods inthis study, ATP method are mainly used for bacteria detection. The micro-colony method isapplied to the ATP method to amplify the intention and the bioluminescence/fluorescencemethod are used for the reference. The direct bacteria fluorescent counting method is not dealt
1

Toyo University, hiya3506@gmail.com
Toyo University, tanaka@toyo.jp
3
Toyo University, Tokyo Institute of Technology, sf0007@yahoo.co.jp
2

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

in this study because the commercial instrument is expensive to apply simple rapid method atpresent.

2.1 Direct bacteria fluorescent counting method
Particle Counters are commonly used to measure particle concentration. Microbes are
known to have characteristics to generate fluorescence by irradiation with ultraviolet rays.
Recently the measuring instrument applied with the characteristics, Instantaneous Microbial
Detection (IMD) system, is developed and commercially supplied. Yanagi et. al.1) surveyed andstudied the system. The IMD value was nearly 100 times more than that of colony forming
unit with the simultaneous measurements of the IMD and general colony forming method. Thatmeans that the IMD value shows total number of bacteria but colony forming method shows only
the colony formed bacteria. This IMD system as the direct bacteria fluorescent counting method
is applicable for the rapid measuring method but is not dealt in this study because thecommercial instrument is expensive to apply simple rapid method at present.

2.2 Sampling of indoor airborne bacteria
In this study, the membrane filter technique are used for sampling indoor airborne bacteriawith pump. Isopore filter (Merck Millipore GTBP04700) is selected for the membrane filter ofbacteria sampling because the bacteria should be sampled on the filter surface. The filter
diameter is 47 mm and pore size is 0.4 micro meters. Durapore filter (Merck Millipore
HVLP04700) is also used for the case the more sampling air volume is needed.

2.3 ATPATP is the abbreviation for “Adenosine Tri-Phosphate,” which is an energy-carrying
molecule found in the cells of any plants, animals and microbes, exhibiting a molecular structure
shown in Figure 1. ATP is a chemical compound used by all living things to provide energy inmany metabolic processes: e.g. cell proliferation, muscle contraction, photosynthesis by plants,
bacterial respiration, and yeast fermentation. ATP is contained in all organic matters (living
things and their traces) including foods, bacteria, molds and other microbes. In this context, ATPdetected on the surface and in the washing water suggests the presence of biological substances(e.g. food residue) which may promote contamination or proliferation of microbes invisible tothe naked eye. ATP is released from microorganisms on the basis of luminous or fluorescencephenomena occurred by enzyme reaction. Recently ATP measuring instruments arecommercially usable to apply bacterial measurements on surfaces or liquids. This instrument isrecently applied to monitor the surface cleanliness in the several fields such as food industry,
medical fields by swab or wash technology. The authors apply the instruments to measure thesurface concentration of membrane filter. This can make rapid estimation of sampled airborne
bacteria on the membrane filter. It may take less than one hour to apply this method comparedto the conventional cultivated method which takes several days.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

173

Figure1. Molecular structure of ATP

2.4 ATP instrument
The principle of ATP measurement is based on the mechanism of fireflybioluminescence as shown in Figure 2 which makes it possible to measure an extremely small
quantity of ATP. In the ATP assay, specific reagents are applied to ATP samples swabbed off orcontained in water to let the following chemical reaction occur and the amount of luminescenceproduced in the reaction is measured.
This study used the Lumitester (Kikkoman Biochemifa Company) for the ATP measuring
instrument.

Figure 2. Principle of ATP measurement

Table1. Outline of rapid measurement method
Techniques
1) Direct methods
Solid-phase
cytometry

Target substancePrinciples/characteristics

Bacterial cell

Signals emitted by bacteria trapped on a filter orother carriers are
Directly detected. Signals related to physiologicalactivities can be picked up depending on the kindof stain, or autofluorescence may be also used. In
some cases, gene probes, antibodies or fluorescentLabeled phages are utilized to selectively detectspecific bacteria.
Various types of optical devices such as
fluorescence microscopes and laser microscopes
are used as detectors/measuring instruments.

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Techniques
Flow cytometry

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

Target substancePrinciples/characteristics
Bacterial cell Signals emitted by bacteria passing throughpassages are directly
Detected. Signals related to physiologicalactivities can be picked up depending on thekind of stain, or auto fluorescence may be used.
In some cases, gene probes, antibodies or
fluorescent labeled phages are utilized to
selectively detect specific bacteria. As detectors/
measuring instruments, various types of opticaldevices are used.

2) Indirect methods
Immunoassay

Antigen

Bacterial antigen is made to react with specificantibodies, and their color development andfluorescence are visually observed or assessed witha microplate reader. Immunologicalchromatography is one of the simplified methods.

Nucleic
acid amplification

Nucleic acid

Microbial nucleic acids, amplified by applying
specific primer to target microbes, are detected.
Quantitative PCR is also applicable.

Bioluminescence/

ATP etc.

ATP contained in bacterial cells is assessedin the luminescent/ fluorescent phenomena
induced by enzymatic reactions.

biofluorescence
Microcolony analysis Proliferation
potency(microcolony)
Impedance

Gas measurement

Fatty acid analysis

Infraredabsorption
spectrometry

Proliferation
potency(electric
characteristics)
Proliferation
potency

Microcolonies in the early development stage
are detected and counted. The requirements fortheir cultivation (e.g. medium composition andtemperature) are the same as those of plateculture.
This method focuses on the change of electriccharacteristics in growing metabolites produced bybacteria as they proliferate in use of medium
components.

This method focuses on the change in thequantity of gases, including carbon dioxide(gas production) produced and oxygen consumed when bacteria
proliferate.
Bacterial fatty
The difference in the composition of bacterial fatty
acidacid depending on the bacterial type is taken into
consideration in the analysis.
Bacterial
component

Bacteria are exposed to infrared rays and thepattern of their infrared absorption spectrum is
examined.

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

Techniques
Mass spectrometry

Target substancePrinciples/characteristics
Bacterial
Bacterial components are evaluated with a masscomponent
spectrometer and collated with the database.

FingerprintingDNA

DNA extracted from a sample is cut with arestriction enzyme, and the migration pattern of
DNA fragments is analyzed. They are identifiable
by reference to the database. T-RFLP is effective
in analyzing the structure of microbialcommunities.

High-throughput
sequencing

Nucleic acid

The arrangements of nucleic acids extracted fromvarious bacteria in a sample are determined, basedo n which the community structure is analyzed.

(Source: Japanese Pharmacopoeia)

Notes) PCR: polymerase chain reaction

T-RFLP: terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism

3.

Bioluminescence/fluorescence method

For the reference method, Bioluminescence/fluorescence method is used in this study. The
Bioluminescence/fluorescence method studied by Nasu et al. had been developed in the 1970s
and implemented since1990s. But in the field of indoor environments, there are almost no
studies and it is not applied jet. Table 2 shows fluorescent stains used for microorganism
detection. It is necessary to select stains effective to the measurement and establish a method
for analysing the concentration of indoor airborne bacteria.
Table 2. Fluorescent stains used for microorganism detection
Excitation Fluorescent
Fluorescent stain

Tet

Main application

nm

nm

FITC

490

520

proteinintracellular proteins

Rhodamine 123507

529 cell membrane cell membrane activity

Acridine orange

490

Chronomycin A3

450

570

G-C

DNA quantification

DAPI

358

461

A-T

DNA quantification

Hoechst 33258

352

461

A-T

DNA quantification

Ethidium bromide

545

605 Nucleic acid DNA quantification, dead cell
detection

Propidium ipdide

530

615 Nucleic acid DNA quantification, dead cell
detectionSYTOX Green

502

523

626, 650 Nucleic acid Nucleic acid staining, RNA / DNA
ratio measurement

DNA

DNA quantification, dead cell
detection

176

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)SYBR Green

497

520

DNA

DNA quantification, virus detection

CFDA

495

520

esterase

Live cell detection

Calcein-AM

490

525

esterase

Live cell detection

CTC

488

602

breathingLive cell detection

TRITC

542

572

Labeling of probe for FISH

Texas Red

568

610

Labeling of probe for FISH

Cy3

550

570

Labeling of probe for FISH

Cy5

649

670

Labeling of probe for FISH

ATP measurement of airborne bacteria(1)Result of ATP method
The results of these experiments are shown in Table 3 and Table 4. The experimental
results show that as time increases, the increase in the number of bacteria in the descent method(sedimentation method) can be clearly seen. The authors consider that the collection method
results in a relatively close number of bacteria due to the collection of microorganisms arelocated at the side surface of pore structure of membrane filter.
Table3. Experimental results of Falling bacteriaTime(H)
24
24
48
48
96
96

Falling bacteria
RLU(relative light unit)
17
16
39
27
43
30

Table4. Experimental results of Airborne bacteria
Airborne bacteriaTime(H)

Flow rate

RLU(relative light unit)

1

5L/min12

2

5L/min13

1

10L/min

14

2

10L/min

12

1

15L/min30

2

15L/min

15(2) Micro-colony method
The authors try to introduce micro-colony method to apply the ATP method to amplify
the intention. In the micro-colony method, after airborne bacteria is sampled on a membrane

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

filter and incubated with glucose for 1 or 2 hours on 35 degree C in incubator, the bacteria isgrown up to micro-colony. The concentration of glucose ranged from one to four percent.
The Experimental results are shown in Table 5. The empirical data displayed nosignificant difference.
Table5. Experimental results of Micro-colony method
Test site: laboratory
RLUTest conditions① 1-h sampling, 1.5 L/min 15 1% glucose, Cultured at 35

for one hour, 0.45

μm Durapore② 1-h sampling, 1.5 L/min

12 1% glucose, Cultured at 35

for one hour, 0.45

μm Durapore③ 1-h sampling, 1.5 L/min

14 2% glucose, Cultured at 35

for one hour, 0.45

μm Durapore④ 1-h sampling, 1.5 L/min

10 2% glucose, Cultured at 35

for one hour,0.45

μm Durapore⑤ 1-h sampling, 1.5 L/min

15 3% glucose, Cultured at 35

for two hours, 0.2

μm Isopore⑥ 1-h sampling, 1.5 L/min

9 3% glucose, Cultured at 35

for two hours, 0.2

μm Isopore⑦ 1-h sampling, 1.5 L/min

15 4% glucose, Cultured at 35

for two hours, 0.2

μm Isopore⑧ 1-h sampling, 1.5 L/min

12 4% glucose, Cultured at 35

for two hours, 0.2

μm Isopore⑨ 1-h sampling, 1.5 L/min

14 Not cultured, 0.2 μm Isopore⑩ 1-h sampling, 1.5 L/min

10 Not cultured, 0.2 μm Isopore

Examples of results by bioluminescence/fluorescence method
Figure 3 and Figure 4 shows an image of the fluorescent staining detection method
under the microscope. This test results are using another type of membrane filter, which collectparticle or bacteria on the surface and inside the filter. So almost all collected samples are locatedat the side surface of pore structure of membrane. Importance of surface collection technique isfound out through the test measurements.
In future experiments, we will change the type of filter and use the method of surface
collection methods such as impaction.
In addition, the fluorescent staining method are conducted for the comparison of the ATP
method. Based on the results of future experiments, we hope to be able to confirm these data in178

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

this experiment. If it is not the cause of the filter, we may need to consider the experiment again.

Figure3. An image illuminated under a light source of a specific wavelength

Figure4. An image illuminated at a specific wavelength of light and under microscope light.

4. Summary and future issues
In this study, the simplified methods for monitoring airborne bacteria were examined forthe improvement of quality and environmental management in the Japanese food industry. The
execution of the membrane filter technique to collect indoor airborne microbes and thefluorescent staining technique to evaluate cleanliness would realize a highly accurate monitoring.
The Micro-colony method are used for the reference. In addition, for strict evaluation, the A3
assay (ATP + ADP + AMP) is proposed as a comparison. In the future experiments, ATPmeasurement methods will be introduced for further inspection, and the simplified monitoring
methods developed in this study will be put into practical use in the future.

Acknowledgments
We owe our deep gratitude to Masao Nasu, the professor emeritus of Osaka University, and Hiroki
Arakawa, the researcher of Takasago Thermal Engineering for their support to establish our simplified monitoring
methods.

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

References[1] Yanagi, U. (2018). Current status of rapid microbial detection systems. Journal of Japan Air Cleaning
Association, 56(1).
[2] Nasu, M. (2016). To understand environmental microbes from a new viewpoint - From household to spaceliving. Lecture and Abstract for the proceedings of the 33rd Annual Technical Meeting on
Air Cleaning and Contamination Control.
[3] Fujii, S., Yagani, U., Tanaka, T., Tomizuka, K., Arakawa, H., & Nasu, M. (April 2019). Study on the simplified
rapid measurement of airborne microbial concentration. The proceedings of the 36th Annual
Technical Meeting on Air Cleaning and Contamination Control.
[4] Kikkoman Biochemifa Websitehttps://biochemifa.kikkoman.co.jp[5] Kikkoman. AMP-based measurement technique. Japanese patent: No. 3409962.
[6] Ze Liu, Takehiro Tanaka. Examination on Risk Prevention Measures for Environment and Safety of Food
Plants in Japan, EDP Sciences Journal／E3S Web of Conferences, Vol.53, (03075), 2018.09[7] Inoue, F. (October, 1996). Bacteriological inspections for environmental management of food factories. es, No. 6.
[8] Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (Ed.). (2004). Standard Methods of Analysis in Food Safety
Regulation for Microorganisms.
[9] Tomizuka, K, Fujii, S, Yagani, U, Tanaka, T, Arakawa, H. Examination of Simple Monitoring Method of
Airborne Bacteria for the Application of Quality Control in the Industry、Proceedings of the
Symposium of the Society of Heating, Air-Conditioning and Sanitary Engineers of Japan.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

Occurrence of some insects pests and their predators on pigeonpea, Cajanus
cajan L. in Shwe Zaloke Area, Monywa Township
Cho Cho Win1

Abstract
Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan L.) is a perennial legume crop and providing high quality vegetable
protein, animal feed, and firewood. The present study was carried out from June to November
2018 at Shwe Zaloke Area, Monywa Township. A total of 15 insect pest species and six
predatory species belonged to six orders, 18 families and 21 genera. Order Lepidoptera
represented the highest number of species composition followed by Hemiptera, Coleoptera,
Diptera, Odonata and Mentodea. Insect pests feeding on flowers, pods, and seeds were the mostimportant biotic constraint affecting pigeonpea yields. In this study, the most pest and predatory
species numbers were investigated in August and first week of September because this period isvegetative, flowering and pod stages in this crop. This study summarizes the feeding types ofpests and their predators on the pigeonpea plants.
Keywords: Pigeonpea, Cajanus cajan, Insect, Pest, Predator,

1.

Introduction

Insects are small animals without backbone. They have an external skeleton, which ismainly hard but with membranous areas at the joints. The body is segmented and has three pairsof jointed legs and one or two pairs of wings. The body is divided into three segments, head,thorax and abdomen (Borror, Triplehorn and Johnson, 1992)
Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan L.) is a perennial legume crop and belongs to family Fabaceae.
It is leguminous shrub that can attain height of 5 m. Leaves are trifoliate and spirally arranged on
the stem. Flowers occur in terminal or axillary racemes and are usually yellow, sometimes
flocked or streaked with purple or red. Pods are flat, usually green in color, sometimes hairy or
streaked or colored dark purple, with 2-9 seeds / pod. Seeds contain high quality dietary protein
and are consumed in several ways (Ranga Rao and Shanower1999).
Pigeonpea is grown in 50 countries in Asia and Africa. Unlike other grain legumes,
pigeonpea production is concentrated in developing countries particularly in a few South East
Asian countries. In Myanmar, it is the second most important crop next to chickpea. It is
cultivated worldwide on 4.42 million hectares. In Myanmar, it is extensively cultivated on 5,
80,000 hectares (Chitralekha, 2014).
Shinde and Patel (2014) studied succession of insect pests and their natural enemies on
pigeonpea. Lingaraju and Biradar (2015) described seasonal abundance of major sucking insect
pests of pigeonpea and their natural enemies in northern dry zone of Karnataka. Aye Thandar
Win (2014) studied on investigation on some insects of pigeonpea in Zaloke Agricultural Center,
Monywa.
Many different species of insect might be present in a crop but not all of them are pests.
More than 250 species of insects live and feed on pigeonpea. Insect pests have natural enemies(predatory insects) such as other insects and spiders, and it is therefore very important to1

Dr Associate Professor, Department of Zoology, University of Kalay, winc21091@gmail.com, 09-256308276

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

182

correctly identify insect species before attempting any control measures in a crop. Biologicalcontrol is the reduction of pest populations. Effective biological control often requires a goodunderstanding of the biology of the pests and its natural enemies in the field. Effective biologicalcontrol has many advantages, especially if it is of the self-sustaining type. A substantial effort inlocating species-specific pests or predators is necessary (Gullan and Cranston, 2010). Therefore,
the present study was undertaken on pigeonpea plants in study area.

2.

Materials and Methods

Shwe Zaloke Quarters (391.7342 ha) is located in Monywa Township, Sagaing Region.
The study area was conducted in (1.0117) ha pigeonpea field (Figure 1). Insect pests and theirpredators occurring on pigeonpea plants were observed weekly in the study area, during theperiod from June to November 2018. Collection was done twice a week from 7:00 to 10:00 am in
the mornings and 4:00 to 6:00 pm in the evenings on ten randomly selected plants at the study
area. The immature (larvae/nymphs) forms were reared in the plastic boxes (18×13×6.5cm) up to
adult stage. Fresh pigeonpea leaves and pods were fed every day. The emerged adults were
provided with cotton wool soaked in honey solution. The insects were identified according toPol, Belfied and Martin (2010), Crowson (2012), Ranga Rao and Shanower (1999). The
classification suggested by Borror, Triplehorn and Johson (1992) was used in the present study.

Figure1. Pigeonpea field of study area

3.

Results and Discussion

In the present study, a total of 21 species belonging to six orders, 18 families and 21
genera was identified from the study area (Table 1). From the study, 15 species are pests and theremaining Pantala flavescens, Archimantis spp., Oechalia schellenbergii, Menochilus
sexmaculatus, Zosteria sp. and Syphus sp.are predatros (Table 2 and 3) respectively.
Aye Thandar Win (2014) studied 13 species of insects of pigeonpea in Zaloke
Agricultural Center, Monywa. She described three orders of insect pests on pigeonpea. In thepresent study six orders were observed. Order Odonata, Mantodea and Diptera were not found in
her study. The most species numbers percentage were observed in order Hemiptera (38.10%),
followed by Lepidoptera (28.57%), Coleoptera (14.29%), Diptera (9.52%), Odonata and
Mentodea (Figure 2).
Dasbak et al. (2012) described eight pest species on pigeonpea. They mentioned that theinsect pest infestation was high at the reproductive stage because of the pod flies, pod-sucking
bugs and pod borers which inflicted damage to pigeonpea flowers and pods. In the present study

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

183

Clavigralla gibbosa and Helicoverpa armigera were observed in maturation stage of the crop.
The results of the present study were similar to above mentions.
Srilaxmi and Ravindra Paul (2010) reported that 18 species of insect pests on the
pigeonpea crop during the vegetative, flowering and pod maturity stages and the highest species
numbers occurred during the vegetative and pod filling stages of the crop, a few during flowering
stage while the pod borers attacked the crop from flowering stage to pod-maturity stage. The pod
sucking bugs, C. gibbosa and Riptortus serripes appear during the pod maturity while Nezara
viridula during flowering and pod filling stage (Table 4).
Most insects that attack on pigeonpea crops are readily controlled by predators. Shinde
and Patel (2014) and Lingaraju and Biradar (2015) studied succession of insect pests and theirnatural enemies on pigeonpea. They described that many species of insects and other animals arefound on pigeonpea plants and a substantial number of these are beneficial, feeding on the pests,
either as predators or parasitoids.
In the present study, praying mantis is highly predaceous and feed on other insects.
Oechalia schellenbergii bug insects suck the juice of its prey. The larvae and adults of lady
beetles feed on aphids and larvae of moths. The robber flies inject to the prey by strong proboscis
and then suck the liquefied material from the prey. Adult dragonflies and larvae of hoverflies
prey on small moths, aphids, and other plant- sucking insects (Table 5). Virtually all pests havenatural enemies, and many pests can be controlled by managing these natural enemies or
predators.
4.76%
9.52%

4.76%

38.10%

14.29%

28.57%

Lepidoptera
Hemiptera
ColeopteraFigure2. Recorded insect species percentage in different orders within the studyarea19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

184

Table 1. List of pests and predators on pigeonpea plants from the study area
Order

FamilyScientific Name

Common Name

Odonata

Libellulidae

Pantala flavescens

Wandering glider

Mantodea

MantidaeArchimantis spp.

Praying mantis

Hemiptera

CoreidaeClavigralla gibbosa

Spiny brown bug

Alydidae

Riptortus serripes

Large bean brown bug

Pentatomidae

Oechalia schellenbergii

Stink bug

Nezara viridula

Green stink bug

Membracidae

Oxyrachis tarandus

Treehopper or cow bug

Aphididae

Aphis craccivora

Cowpea aphid

Coccinellidae

Menochilus sexmaculatus

Six-spotted ladybug

Curculionidae

Hypomeces squamosus

Gold-dust weevil

Phyllobius pomaceus

Nettle weevil

Asilidae

Zosteria sp.

Robber fly

Syrphidae

Syphus sp.

Hoverflies

Tortricidae

Archips micaceana

Leaf-roller mothPterophoridae

Exelastis atomosa

Plume mothPyralidae

Maruca vitrata

Legume pod borer

Crambidae

Spoladea recurvalis

Beet webworm moth

Noctuidae

Helicoverpa armigera

Seasame bollworm

ErebidaeMocis trifasciata

Three barred moth

Noctuidae

Chrysodeixis eriosoma

Green garden lopper

Spodoptera littoralis

Beet armyworm

Coleoptera

DipteraLepidoptera

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185

Table2. Weekly occurrence of pest species during July to September 2018

July (Weekly)

August (Weekly)

September(Weekly)I

II III IV

I

II

III

IV

I

II

III

IV

Clavigralla gibbosa

‐

‐

‐

‐

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

Riptortus serripes

‐

‐

‐

‐

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

Nezara viridula

‐

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

‐

‐

‐

Oxyrachis tarandus

‐

‐

‐

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

Aphis craccivora

+ +

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

‐

‐

‐

Hypomeces squamosus

‐

‐

‐

+

+

+

+

+

‐

‐

‐

‐

Phyllobius pomaceus

‐

‐

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

‐

‐

Archips micaceana

+ +

+

+

+

‐

‐

+

+

‐

‐

‐

Exelastis atomosa

+ +

+

‐

+

+

+

+

+

‐

‐

‐

Maruca vitrata

‐

‐

‐

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

Spoladea recurvalis

‐

+

+

+

+

+

‐

‐

‐

‐

‐

‐

Helicoverpa armigera

‐

‐

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

Mocis trifasciata

+ +

+

‐

+

+

+

‐

‐

‐

‐

‐

Chrysodeixis eriosoma

‐

‐

‐

+

+

+

+

+

+

‐

‐

‐

Spodoptera littoralis

+ +

+

+

+

+

+

‐

‐

‐

‐

‐

Total species numbers

5 7

9

11 15 15 13

13

11

6

5

5

Scientific Name

Table3. Weekly occurrence of predators during July to September 2018
July (Weekly)

August (Weekly)

September(Weekly)I

II III IV

I

IV

I

II

III

IV

Pantala flavescens

+

+

+

+

+ +

+

+

+

+

+

+

Archimantis spp.

+

+

+

+

+ +

+

+

+

+

+

+

Oechalia
schellenbergii

‐

‐

‐

+

+ +

+

+

+

+

+

+

Menochilus
sexmaculatus

+

+

+

+

+ +

+

+

+

+

+

+

Zosteria sp.

‐

‐

‐

‐

‐

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

Syphus sp.

‐

‐

‐

‐

+

‐

+

+

+

+

+

+

species 3

3

3

4

5 5

6

6

6

6

6

6

Scientific Name

Total
numbers

II III19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

186

Table4. Feeding habits of insect pests on different parts of pigeonpea plants from the study area
Pigeonpea plant
SpeciesStem

LeavesFlowers

Pods

Clavigralla gibbosa

-

-

+

+

Riptortus serripes

-

-

+

+

Nezara viridula

-

+

+

+

Oxyrachis tarandus

+

+

+

+

Aphis craccivora

+

+

+

-

Hypomeces squamosus

+

+

-

-

Phyllobius pomaceus

-

+

+

-

Archips micaceana

-

+

+

-

Exelastis atomosa

-

-

+

+

Maruca vitrata

-

+

+

+

Spoladea recurvalis

-

+

-

-

Helicoverpa armigera

-

+

+

+

Mocis trifasciata

-

+

-

-

Chrysodeixis eriosoma

-

+

+

-

Spodoptera littoralis

-

+

-

-

Table5. Feeding habits of predators on different stages of other insect pests from the study area
Insect pests
Species
Pantala flavescens

Eggs

LarvaeAdults

-

Moths

Moths

Moths

Moths

Archimantis spp.
Oechalia schellenbergii-

Moths, Grasshoppers-

Menochilus sexmaculatus

Aphis, Moths

Aphis, Moths

Aphis,Moths

Zosteria sp.

-

-

Moths

Syphus sp.

--

Aphis, Moths

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

4.

187

Conclusions

From above results it can be concluded that natural enemies or predators occurred inpigeonpea crop and preyed on the young larvae of other insect pests. Among them praying
mantids and Coecinellids have the potential in regulating the pest suppression on pigeonpea crop.
Lady beetles are possibly the most universally recognized group of beneficial insects. Local
cultivators need to grow awareness about the relationships between the pests and predators. This
could be suggested that the natural enemies may be utilized by mass rearing and releasing in
pigeonpea field.
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to Department of Zoology, Monywa University for financial support this research work. May
I extend my profound gratitude to Professor Dr Khin Soe Win, Head of Zoology Department, Monywa University,
for providing all the departmental facilities during the preparation of this paper.

References[1] Aye Thandar Win, “An investigation on some insects of pigeonpea in Zaloke Agricultural Centre”, Monywa.
MSc thesis, Department of Zoology, Monywa University, 2014[2] Borror, D.J, Triplehorn, C.A., Johnoson, N.F, “An introduction to the study of insects” 6th edition, Saunders
College Publishing, New York, 1992, P. 875.
[3] Chitralekha, “Bionomics and behaviour of tur pod bug (Clavigralla gibbosa Spinola) on pigeonpea”, MSc thesis,
Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University, Haryana, India, 2014.
[4] Crowson, R.A, “Handbooks for the identification of British insects” Royal Entomological Society, England,
2012, P. 134.
[5] Dasbak, M.A., Echezona, B.C., Asiegbu, J.E, “Field insect pests and crop damage assessment of pigeonpea(Cajanus cajan L.) grown under Ratoon and in mixture with maize”, Chilean Journal of
Agricultural Reserach, 2012, vol. 72, pp. 45-52.
[6] Gullan, P.J., Cranston, P.S, “An outline of Entomology” In: The insects, 4th edition, John Wiley & Sons Limited,
2010, P. 564.
[7] Lingaraju, G.H., Biradar, A.P, “Seasonal abundance of major sucking insect pests of pigeonpea and their natural
enemies in northern dry zone of Karnataka”, Karnataka J. Agric. Sci., 2015, vol. 28, pp. 274-276.
[8] Pol, C., Belfield, S., Martin, R, “Insects of upland crops in Cambodia”, Australian Centre for International
Agricultural Research, Canberra, 2010, P.132.
[9] Ranga Rao, G.V., Shanower, T.G, “Indentification and management of pigeonpea and chickpea insect pests in
Asia”, ICRISAT, Andhra Pradesh, India, 1999, P. 96.
[10] Shinde, Y.A., Patel, B.R, “Succession of insect pests and their natural enemies on pigeonpea”, Insect
Environment, 2014, vol.19, pp. 253-256.
[11] Srilaxmi, K., Paul, R, “Diversity of insect pest of pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan L.) and their succession in relation
to crop phenology in Gulbarga, Karnataka”, The Ecoscan., 2010, vol. 4, pp. 273-276.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

Synthesis and Characterization of Lithium Iron Phosphate for Solid Oxide
Fuel Cell Application
Aye Aye Lwin1, Win Kyaw2, San San Wai3
Abstract
Lithium Iron Phosphate (LiFePO4) solid electrolyte was prepared by solvothermal method.
Structural, microstructural, vibrational and optical characteristics were studied by XRD, SEM,FTIR and UV-VIS-NIR spectroscopic techniques. XRD pattern indicated that the sample
analogous to orthorhombic structure with the lattice parameters a = 10.22 Å, b = 6.15 Å and c =4.70 Å. The average crystallite size was obtained as 44.62 nm. SEM micrograph revealed that the
sample was spherical shape with the grain sizes in the range of 0.10 m – 0.25 m. Four
fundamental modes of PO43- were found by in FTIR spectrum. UV-VIS-NIR transmission
spectrum showed that a low cut off wavelength 397 nm along with a large transmission window
in the entire visible and near infrared region of 455 nm – 900 nm. The optical band gap was
obtained as 2.38 eV from Tauc’s relation of (αhυ)2 vs hυ graph. For the application of solid oxide
fuel cell material, the sample was made into the pellet and temperature dependent electricalconductivity was investigated in the temperature range of 299 K – 873 K. The sample exhibited
as a superionic conductor in the temperature range of 473 K – 873 K. The activation energy Ea
was obtained as 0.11 eV.
Keywords: LiFePO4, XRD, SEM, UV-VIS-NIR, electrical conductivity.

1. Introduction
Solid state ionic conductors are important from an industrial viewpoint. A variety of suchconductors have been found. In order to understand the reasons for high ionic conductivity inthese solids, there have been a number of experimental, theoretical and computational studies in
the literature [1]. There exist many solids with high ionic conductivity (>10-6 S m-1) and they areof immense use in diverse technological applications. Some of these solids which are also goodelectronic conductors, are often referred to as ‘mixed conductors’, while the term ‘superionic
conductor’ or ‘fast ion conductor’ is reserved for good ionic conductors with negligible
electronic conductivity [2, 3]. One of the most important use of superionic conductors is, as
electrolytes in battery applications and hence, often, they are referred to as ‘solid electrolytes’ aswell. There are many advantages in electrochemical devices using solid electrolytes instead ofliquid electrolytes. These include, among others, longer life, high energy density, no possibilityof leak etc., and are particularly suitable in compact power batteries used in pace-makers, mobile
telephones, laptops etc. [4 – 6]. For the application of solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) material, in
this paper, SOFC material of LiFePO4 was prepared by solvothermal method and its structural,
microstructural, vibrational and optical characteristics were reported by XRD, SEM, FTIR and
UV-VIS-NIR spectroscopic techniques. Furthermore, the sample was made into circular shapedpellet and temperature dependent electrical conductivity was reported for the application of fuelcell material in rechargeable battery.

Dr Associate Professor, Department of Physics, Loikaw University, Loikaw, Myanmar, ayeayelwin635@gmail.com
Associate Professor, Department of Physics, Pyay University, Pyay, Myanmar
3
Professor and Head, Department of Physics, Loikaw University, Loikaw, Myanmar
1219th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

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Lithium-ion batteries are widely utilized as the power sources in a wide range ofapplications, such as mobile phones, laptop computers, digital cameras, electrical vehicles, andhybrid electrical vehicles. Rechargeable lithium battery is of present interest. There are manykinds of rechargeable lithium batteries. They have different classifications according to the formsof lithium (e.g. lithium metal as anode directly, we call it lithium battery. For lithium trans-metalsalt as anode, we call it lithium ion battery. Usually, we simply call them lithium battery). There
are many types of electrolytes (such as lithium aqueous battery, lithium-organic battery), and thekinds of cathodes (such as lithium cobalt oxide battery, lithium nickel oxide battery, lithium
manganese oxide battery, lithium iron phosphate battery, sulfur battery). [5 – 7]

2. Materials and Method
Preparation of LiFePO4 Sample
LiFePO4 was prepared by solvothermal method. Analytical reagent (AR) grade
FeSO4.7H2O, H3PO4, and LiOH were used to prepare the sample with the composition of (3:1:1)
molar ratio. The mixed solution was stirred and heated from 29°C (ambient) to 170°C todecompose and dehydrate of the precursor solution. After reaching the temperature at 170°C,
sugar was added as an agent to form precipitated particles. The precipitates were collected byfiltration and dried at 60°C for 3 h. The collected samples were heated at 500°C for 1 h in thevacuum chamber to form as-prepared LiFePO4. Photographs showing the experimental setup of
sample preparation system and as-prepared LiFePO4 are shown in Figures 1(a) and (b).

(a)

(b)

Figure1. (a) Experimental setup of sample preparation system and (b) as-prepared LiFePO4

XRD, SEM, FTIR, UV-VIS-NIR and Temperature Dependent Electrical Resistance
Measurements
To determine the phase formation temperature of the sample, the precipitated
LiFePO4was first investigated by Thermogravimetric Analysis and Differential Thermal Analysis(TG-DTA) technique. TG-DTA thermograms were observed by DTG-60H Thermal Analyzer.
XRD measurement was carried out by using RIGAKU MULTIFLEX X-Ray Diffractometer with
CuK radiation (=1.54056 Ǻ) to investigate the structural phase formation of the sample.
Microstructural characteristic was examined by using JEOL JSM-5610LV SEM with theaccelerating voltage of 15 kV, the beam current of 50 mA and 10,000 times photo magnification.
FTIR transmission spectrum was observed by SHIMADZU FTIR-8400 Spectrophotometer in thewavenumber range of 400 cm-1 – 4000 cm-1 to analyze the vibrational characteristics of19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

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constituent molecules of the sample. TG-DTA, XRD, SEM and FTIR measurements were
performed at Universities' Research Centre (URC), University of Yangon, Yangon, Myanmar.
UV-VIS-NIR transmission spectrum of the sample was observed by SHIMADZU UV-1800
Spectrophotometer in the wavelength range of 350 nm – 900 nm to investigate the region of
optical window and to determine the optical energy band gap.
For the electrical resistance measurement, the sample was made into circular shape pellet(1.1410-4 m2 in area and 5.0510-3 m in thickness) by SPECAC hydraulic pellet-maker using 70
MPa. The silver paste was made over the sample to ensure good electrical contacts. The electricalresistances were observed by FLUKE 189 digital multi-meter in the temperature range of 299 K– 873 K with the step of 20 K. In this measurement, Autonics TCN4L – 24R Temperature
Controller (up to 1273 K), K-type thermocouple and 300 W heater rods were used as thetemperature controller, temperature sensor (up to 993 K) and heating elements. Experimental
setup of electrical resistance measurement and thickness of the pellet are shown in Figure 2.

Thermocouple

Chamber

FLUKE 189
Digital Multi-meter

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure2. (a) Experimental setup of electrical resistance measurement, (b) Autonic TCN4L – 24R and (c) thickness measurement ofsample3. Results and Discussion
Thermal Analysis of Coordination Compound
The TG-DTA thermograms of precipitated LiFePO4 are shown in Figure 3. The
decomposition temperatures of precipitate to as-prepared sample are found in the temperature
range of 35°C – 500°C in TG thermogram with the mass variation of 63.35% due to thedehydration and decomposition of starting materials and organic solvent such as sulphate andwater. A deep endothermic peak around 67°C indicates the dehydration of water in DTA
thermogram. A broad exothermic reaction peak around 346°C indicates the decomposition ofsulphate from the starting materials. An exothermic reaction peak at 436°C and beyond indicate
by the combustion reaction was completed or the formation of the desired LiFePO4 sample. Thus,
the desired phase formation temperature of the precipitates is well determined around 500°C.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

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Figure3.TG-DTA thermograms of precipitated LiePO4

XRD, SEM, FTIR and UV-VIS-NIR StudyXRD pattern of LiFePO4 is shown in Figure 4. The observed XRD lines were identified
by using file of Cat. No. 81-1173, to assign the collected XRD lines. The appearance of thediffraction peaks demonstrated that the fabricated specimen is LiFePO4. XRD pattern shows that
LiFePO4 analogous to orthorhombic structure. The lattice parameters were evaluated by1
h 2 k 2 l 2 4 sin 2 




,
2
d 2 a2 b2 c2
where d is the atomic spacing (Å), λ is the wavelength of incident X-ray (Å), θ is the diffraction
angle of the peak under consideration at FWHM (°), a, b and care the lattice parameters and (hkl)
is the Miller indices. The lattice parameters were obtained as a = 10.22 Å, b = 6.15 Å and c =4.70 Å respectively. Volume of the unit cell is 295.74 (Å)3. Whittingham, et.al. (2004) reported
that the LiFePO4 was orthorhombic structure with the lattice parameters a = 10.33 Å, b = 6.01 Åand c = 4.69 Å respectively. The observed XRD data of the sample are listed in Table 1. The
crystallite size of sample was estimated by using the Scherrer formula, D = (0.9/B cos), where
D is the crystallite size (nm) and B is observed FWHM (rad). The average crystallite size of thesample was obtained as 44.62 nm.
SEM micrograph of the sample is shown in Figure 5. Scanning electron microscopy
studies showed a gray color was found in the case of the samples. The grain shape was sphericalwith extremely fine particles and the grain sizes were in the range of 0.10 – 0.25 µm. Some pores
were found due to the decomposition of starting materials.
FTIR spectrum of the sample is shown in Figure 6. Vibrational characteristics andcorresponding mode assignments of molecules are tabulated in Table 2. As shown in FTIR
spectrum, ten absorption lines were observed and nine absorption lines represented thevibrational characteristics of (two different types of molecules) PO43- and Li3+―PO43-―Fe3+.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

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Table 1. XRD data of LiFePO4

Figure4. XRD pattern of LiFePO42 (º)

(hkl)

d
(Å)

FWHM
(º)

Height
(%)

D
(nm)

20.78

(101)

4.27

0.21

100.00

37.89

22.66

(210)

3.92

0.15

25.30

54.01

25.61

(111)

3.48

0.14

22.80

58.18

29.44

(211)

3.03

0.23

50.60

35.71

32.23

(301)

2.77

0.21

24.10

39.37

36.52

(121)

2.46

0.32

31.60

25.52

46.55

(420)

1.95

0.16

10.10

54.04

52.94

(600)

1.73

0.17

12.70

52.20

Figure5. SEM micrograph of LiFePO4 Figure 6. FTIR spectrum of LiFePO4

Table 2.Wavenumbers and corresponding vibrational characteristics and mode assignments of
LiFePO4
Wavenumber (cm-1)

Vibrational Characteristics

Mode Assignment

419

Bendingυ2(PO43-)536, 577

Polarization (splitting)υ4(PO43-)

631

Librational wagging

υω(Li3+―PO43-―Fe3+)

685

Librational twistingυτ(Li3+―PO43-―Fe3+)932, 959, 976

Symmetricstretching(splitting)υ1(PO43-)

1088

Dipoleυ3(PO43-)

1535

Bendingυ2(H2O)UV-VIS-NIR spectrum of the sample is shown in Figure 7. The sample demonstrates thatless than 100% transmittance throughout the UV-VIS-NIR region. In the wavelength range of19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

194

393 nm – 455 nm, the transmission of the UV and VIS light rapid increased and in 455 nm – 900
nm, the transmission of the high UV, VIS and NIR light slowly increased. It is evident that the
sample has a low cut off wavelength about 393 nm along with a large transmission window in theentire visible region. The theory of optical transmission gives the relationship between theabsorption coefficient  and the photon energy has a relation; α = -ln (1/T). Figure 8 shows theplot of the variation of (αhν)2 with photon energy hν of the sample. The average band gap Eg wasdetermined from the interception of linear portion of the (αhν)2 versus hν graph on hν axis. The
optical energy
0.14

0.12

2

(h) (nm eV )

0.10

2

-2

0.08

0.06

0.04
2.38 eV

0.02

0.00
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00 5.50 6.00 6.50 7.00h (eV)

Figure7. UV-VIS-NIR spectrum of LiFePO4

Figure 8. Plot of the (hυ)2 versus hυ graph of
LiFePO4

band gap of the sample was obtained as 2.38 eV. Zhang, et.al. (2012) reported that the energy
band gap of the bulk LiFePO4 was 2.38 eV [7]. The obtained energy band gap, thus, was found tobe agreed with the result of Zhang et.al.\Temperature Dependence Electrical Property Study
Figure 9(a) shows the variation of electrical conductivity σ with increase in temperature Tof the sample. It was found that electrical conductivity increased with increase in temperature.
The sample exhibited as the superionic conductor (SIC) in the temperature range of 473 K – 873
K because it electrical conductivity was greater than 110-3 S m-1. The electrical conductivities
were obtained as 1.1310-3 S m-1 at 473 K and 4.3510-3 S m-1 at 873 K. In a wide temperature
range, the dependence of the dc conductivity σ of an ionic material and other disordered systems
approximately follows the Arrhenius form, σ = σ0 exp(-Ea/kT), where σ is the conductivity), σ0 isthe pre-exponential factor, Ea is the activation energy, k is the Boltzmann constant and T is theabsolute temperature. Arrhenius plot of the variation of dc electrical conductivity in thetemperature range of 299 K – 873 K is shown in Figure 9(b). It can be seen that the electricalconductivity increased with increase in temperature. The conductivity in the solid state depends
on the concentration of charge carriers, temperature of the crystal, the availability of vacantaccessible sites and the ease with which an ion can jump to another site etc. The activationenergy Ea can be evaluated by using the slope of the ln(σ) versus 103/T graph and obtained as
0.11 eV. Since, the activation energy Ea of normal ionic conductors (NICs) have greater than 1eV (Ea> 1 eV) and Ea of superionic conductors have smaller than 1 eV (Ea < 1 eV). The obtained
activation energy Ea (Ea = 0.11 eV) in this work is reliable with theoretical point of view.
Variation of the dc electrical resistivity (ρ) with temperature is shown in Figure 9(c). The
electrical resistivity ρ rapid decreased with temperature (metal like behavior), followed by adecrease in resistivity above the metal to semiconductor transition temperature. The metal-19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

195

semiconductor transition (MST) region of the sample is found in the temperature range of 395 K– to 535 K. Such resistivity-temperature behavior can be attributed to several factors likeoccurrence of phase transition, cation migration, cation re-ordering and presence of impurities.

4.

Conclusion

Lithium Iron Phosphate, LiFePO4, was successfully synthesized by solvothermal method.
XRD pattern shows that the LiFePO4 analogous to orthorhombic structure with the lattice
parameters a = 10.22 Å, b = 6.15 Å and c = 4.70 Å. The crystallite size was obtained as 44.62
nm. Microstructural study showed that the spherical shape of fine particles was found with thegrain sizes in the range of 0.10 µm to 0.25 µm. FTIR spectrum indicated that four fundamental
modes of PO43-andthe librational wagging and twisting vibrations of Li3+―PO43-―Fe3+
molecular networks in the crystalline environments of Li3+ and Fe3+. From the UV-VIS-NIR
transmission spectrum, the sample has a low cut off wavelength about 393 nm and a largetransmission window in the entire visible region. The optical energy band gap was obtained as
2.38 eV. The sample exhibited as a superionic conductor in the temperature range from 473 K to873 K. The activation energy was obtained as 0.11 eV. According to the experimental results ofsuperionic conductor with low activation energy, the sample can be used as the solid oxide fuelcell for rechargeable battery devices.

-1

1000/T (K )5.00E-03
4.50E-03

0.00

1.50

2.00

2.50

3.00

3.50

4.00

-4.50

3.50E-03-5.00

TSIC = 473 K

3.00E-03-1

 (S m )

1.00

-4.00

4.00E-03-5.50

2.00E-03

-6.00

-1

ln (S m )2.50E-03

1.50E-03
1.00E-03

y = -1.2601x - 4.0765

-6.50
-7.00
-7.50

5.00E-04-8.00

0.00E+00
200

0.50

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

-8.50

T (K)

-9.00

(a)

(b)
4.50E+03
4.00E+03

395 K

535 K

3.50E+03

 ( m)

3.00E+03
2.50E+03

TMST

2.00E+03
1.50E+03
1.00E+03
5.00E+02
0.00E+00
200

300

400

500

(c)
600

700

800

900

T (K)

Figure 9(a). Plot of the variation of electrical conductivity with temperature and (b) Arrhenius plot of the electrical conductivity
with reciprocal temperature and (c) Plot of the variation of electrical resistivity with temperature of LiFePO4

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme IV)

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge Professor Dr Ye Chan, Head of Universities’ Research Centre(URC), University of Yangon, Yangon, Myanmar, for his kind permission to use laboratory facilities in URC.

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[2] G. Arnold, J. Garche, R. Hemmer, S. Strobele, C. Vogler, M. Wohlfahrt-Mehrens,“Fine-particle lithium iron
phosphate LiFePO4 synthesized by a new low-cost aqueous precipitation technique”, Journal ofPower Sources, 2003, vol. 119-121, pp. 247-251.
[3] Hong-Chang Wong, James R. Carey, Jenn-Shing Chen, “Physical and Electrochemical Properties of LiFePO4/C
Composite Cathode Prepared From Aromatic Diketone-Containing Precursors”, International
Journal of Electrochemical Science, 2010, vol. 5, pp. 1090-1102.
[4] Hyeokjo Gwon, Dong-HwaSeo, Sung-Wook Kim, Jongsoon Kim, Kisuk Kang, “Combined First-Principle
Calculations and Experimental Study on Multi-Component Olivine Cathode for Lithium
Rechargeable Batteries”, Advanced Functional Materials, 2009, vol. 19, pp. 3285-3292.
[5] M. Stanley Whittingham, “Lithium Batteries and Cathode Materials”, Chemical Review, 2004, vol. 104, pp.
4271-2301.
[6] B. Jin, Q. Jiang, “LiFePO4 Cathode Materials for Lithium-Ion Batteries”, Nova Science Publishers, Inc. 2009.
[7] P. Zhang, D. Zhang, L. Houng, Q. Wei, M. Lin, X. Ren, “First-principles study on the electronic structure of a
LiFePO4 (010) surface adsorbed with carbon”, Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2012, vol.
540, pp. 121-126.