Lectures
The Tradition of Mentoring
Part I: Mentoring the Researcher
Wayman Wendell Cheatham, MD, FACE
Special Assistant for Medical Research
Office of the Navy Surgeon General
Director, Medical Research & Development Center
Navy Medicine Institute
USN Bureau of Medicine and Surgery
Washington, DC
Tel: (202) 762-3176
Email: Wayman.Cheatham@med.navy.mil

Editorial Note
This lecture was presented on Tuesday, December 8, 2009. A panel and general delegate
discussion followed.

Author’s Note
The opinions in this text are those of the author and do not reflect the official policy orpositions of the United States Government, the Department of Defense, the Department ofthe Navy, or Navy Medicine. The author is indebted to the mentorship and contributionsof thought and substance to many of the concepts provided to this lecture by CAPT David
Harlan, MC, US Public Health Service.

Abstract
This text is a summary of reflection points and notes from Part I of a two-part lecture on theTradition of Mentoring. In this lecture, basic historical concepts on the origins of mentoring
were reviewed. Of particular importance were several reflections concerning how effective
mentoring differs from other forms of leadership and training in the professions.

Lecture Summary and Reflections
Origins
Although the term mentor is used widely in a variety of implied connotations,few understand its history and the context of its classical definition. It is this definition
that provides the basis for creative freedom to spawn the purest of scientific research, well
supported by ideas already tested.
Mentor comes to us from the reservoir of Greek mythology, where the story is toldof Odysseus as he prepares to leave for the Trojan War. He entrusts Mentor, his closest friend,
Journal of Research Administration

Volume XLI, Number 2, 201055

Lectureswith the primary responsibility of guiding and developing masteries in his son, Telemachus.
During the course of the story, Athena, the goddess of wisdom and a particular patron ofOdysseus, comes to Telemachus to pass on the gift of wisdom. At that time Odysseus had
been at war for over 10 years, so suitors were pursuing his wife, Penelope, in an attempt toconvince her that her husband was dead. As a result, Athena, finding herself the target ofcollateral attentions, needed to protect herself from these suitors, who were always nearby.
She therefore took on the form of Mentor, who the citizens knew to be training Telemachus.
In becoming Telemachus’ mentor, Athena provided him with wisdom, the inspiration tolearn of his father and to emulate him in providing protection for his mother. Interestingly,
what arises from the story is that Mentor (Athena) seeks to instill in Telemachus a senseof protecting that which is good and learning that which is best. It is a story of teachingsomeone to prevent harm and advance the good.
Where this classical definition is retained in modern use, the term mentor implies
a trusted friend, counselor, or teacher—one who is more experienced and who may have atraditional opinion, but tests the application of divergent opinions through elaboration, as
they develop, in the mind of her or his protégé.
Examples from Philosophy
The three greatest philosophers, writers, and scientists of all time—Socrates, Platoand Aristotle—were in direct lineage of a mentoring thread. Socrates mentored Plato, whomentored Aristotle. We do see differences in the philosophical treatises of these three greatfigures, however, so it goes without saying that mentoring does not equate with copying ordeveloping sameness. Instead, mentoring is a determinant of discipline and the ability toapply knowledge to skill.
For example, Socrates, Plato’s mentor, held in highest priority ethics, the ironic
method of teaching and adherence to truth, in its most uncloaked clarity. He employed
the teaching method of illustrating, which is akin to parable telling, but used actual fact indemonstrating a poignant twist of motive, cause and effect.
Plato subsequently led the development of what we know as Western Philosophy.
Although he was like a conjoined twin to Socrates, he did not copy his mentor. Instead, heexpanded and developed the concept of applied ethics and the application of logic whilesuggesting that the basis of what was true in this world, from which logical explanations were
to be based, was a portion of gifting from the higher beings or gods.
Aristotle, in turn, could never be accused of copying Plato as he stirred the originsof the scientific method by promoting the value of the empirical rather than accepting whatis as a gift from on high. While he applied the ethics and morality of Socrates and the logicof Plato, his use of science and empirics was his own. He went on to develop the applicationof these concepts into politics and metaphysics. He did not believe that one waited for thepassive expression of science and empirics, but vigorously espoused scholarship.
A fourth great figure in the ancient world of Greek and Macedonian civilization was
Alexander the Great. This astounding military leader was mentored by Aristotle who, after 10 years,

56

Volume XLI, Number 2, 2010

Journal of Research Administration

Lectures
realized that had had completely “filled” Alexander with his formulas, and so passed him on toLeonidas for further mentoring. This transference exemplifies wisdom, as it suggests that mentors
must recognize when they have contributed all they can to their protégé’s experience, then passthem on to individuals who can nurture the progression of new skills.
Other Historical Examples
Among other ancient and contemporary examples that are valuable to recall:
1. According to biblical record, Elijah mentored Elisha. In the traditional mentoringprocess, the protégé typically selects her or his mentor, but in this case Elijah chose
Elisha. This relationship endured multiple tests following its inception; Elijah
tries to send Elisha away, but he does not wish to go. This example, the reverse ofwhat we customarily experience today, suggests a healthy maturing of the mentorprotégé relationship.
2. Near the end of the Middle Ages, both the nature of education and theapproach to mentoring changed. The Renaissance, Reformation, and CounterReformation were volatile periods. As the development of scholars was nolonger bound to one or another religious denomination, we find examples ofmentoring that resulted in extremely fruitful intellectual development. We
see the introduction of the concept of universal opportunity for developmentof intellectual capability of the masses. This change developed in part thanks
to the mentoring of Jan Amos Komensky by the advocate and Irish Jesuit
William Bathe, Johann Piscator, Heinrich Gutberleth, and Heinrich Alsted. So
effectively did Komensky apply this method of mentoring students who camefrom the masses, that he was later persecuted under the Counter Reformation.
3. Johann Sebastian Bach mentored his son, Johann Christian Bach. He in turnmentored Mozart, 21 years his junior, by offering to this recognized genius thesame “head start” his father had provided him.
4. Freddie Laker, the founder of discount air fares (unheard of at the time hepromoted them) mentored Richard Branson, the multi-billionaire who not only
has championed more realistic airfares but combined them with superior andinnovative service and accoutrements.
5. The Tour-de-France champion, Eddy Merckx, mentored the record-shattering
Lance Armstrong.
6. Dr. Steve Brodie, an internationally lauded scientific genius inneuropsychochemistry, mentored Drs Erminio Costa, Julius Axelrod, Candace
Pert, and Sol Snyder in his laboratory. While Dr. Brodie was never so recognized,
all four of his protégés were nominated for the Nobel Prize in Science and one,
Julius Axelrod, won this honor. This example suggests that mentorship can bebroadcast rather than dependent on some magical chemistry or a unique fit between
mentor and protégé.

Journal of Research Administration

Volume XLI, Number 2, 201057

Lectures
The Relationship of Mentors and Mentees: Convergence and Divergence
Are mentors both friends and friendly? Not necessarily, but they do care about thementee. For example, Sir William Osler mentored Drs. Ochsner and Cushing, and Gertrude
Stein; Robert E. Lee mentored Generals Jackson, Stewart, and Longstreet.
Vince Lombardi, coach of the Green Bay Packers, mentored football stars,including Bart Starr, Paul Hornung, Bill Curry, and Jerry Kramer, who was quoted as saying,“Lombardi treated us all the same, like dogs.” Willie Davis, another of Lombardi’s protégés,said after both his father and Lombardi had passed away: “I loved my dad and think of him
often. I think of Coach Lombardi every day.”
It is important to understand how role models, teachers, and mentors differ.
Table 1. The Differences Between Role Models, Teachers, and Mentors
Role Model

Teacher

MentorFunction

An ideal to which one canaspireTransmits knowledge

Guides a protégé to learn
attitudes and difficult skills

Characteristic

Moral/ethical rectitude,
courage, vision, energy

Empathy, the ability to“engage,” subject matter
expert, selflessness

Moral/ethical rectitude,
empathy, experience, honesty,
selflessness

Visibility

Often famous, well-known
within the community

Often anonymous

Variable recognition within
and outside the community

The role model does not rely on a direct interaction with a student. Others may
spontaneously wish to emulate the role model without the latter being aware of them at all.
Mohandas Gandhi and Theodore Roosevelt are leaders who have been recognized as rolemodels but not mentors.
The teacher, on the other hand, is in contact with, and directly influences, thestudent over a defined period, during which the mentoring relationship achieves variable
clarity, dependent to some degree on the success of the didactic process. Almost immediately
following this educational period, there is very little if any continuation of the mentoringprocess. Both mentor and mentee diverge, though not without a lasting impact.
Some Points for Reflection
Cartoonist Charles Schulz produced the following two tests to reflect theeffectiveness and durability of various people who have influence over others:
Test #1
1. Name the world’s five wealthiest people.
2. Name the last five Heisman trophy winners.
58

Volume XLI, Number 2, 2010

Journal of Research Administration

Lectures
3.
4.
5.
6.

Name the last five Miss America contest winners.
Name ten people who have won the Nobel or Pulitzer prize.
Name the last half dozen Academy Award winners for Best Actor and Actress.
Name the last decade’s worth of World Series winners.

Test #2
1. List a few teachers who aided your journey through school.
2. Name three friends who have helped you through a difficult time.
3. Name five people who have taught you something worthwhile.
4. Think of a few people who have made you feel appreciated.
5. Think of five people you enjoy spending time with.
6. Name half a dozen heroes whose stories have inspired you.
The lesson inherent in Schulz’s tests is that the people who made a difference inyour life are the ones you knew cared about you.
There are also lessons to be learned wherein role models, leaders, and mentors
share equal effectiveness. Consider, for example, the concept of humility noted by Mohandas
Gandhi, who said, “It is unwise to be too sure of one’s own wisdom. It is healthy to bereminded that the strongest might weaken and the wisest might err.”
Likewise, Alexander Hamilton, a well respected leader, said,“In common life, to retract an error, even in the beginning, is no easy task. Perseverance
confirms us in it and rivets the difficulty… To this, we may add that disappointment andopposition inflame the minds of men and attach them still more to their mistake.”
Sir William Osler identified “That greatest of ignorance – the ignorance which isthe conceit that a man knows what he does not know.”
In 1907, Osler addressed the Congress of American Physicians and Surgeons, saying:
The limits of justifiable experimentation upon our fellow creatures are well andclearly defined… For man absolute safety and full consent are the conditions whichmake such tests allowable. We have no right to use patients entrusted to our carefor the purpose of experimentation unless direct benefit to the individual is likely
to follow. Once this limit is transgressed, the sacred cord which binds physician andpatient snaps instantly. Risk to the individual may be taken only with his consent
and full knowledge of the circumstances… Enthusiasm for science has, in a few
instances, led to regrettable transgressions of this rule.
A hallmark of mentoring in medicine and clinical research is the philosophy, “primumnon nocere,” or “first, do no harm.” In many cases, the ends do not justify the means.
Sir Thomas Huxley, also a revered mentor, wrote, “Sit down before fact as a little
child; be prepared to give up every pre-conceived notion; follow humbly wherever and towhatever abyss nature leads, or you shall learn nothing.”

Journal of Research Administration

Volume XLI, Number 2, 201059

Lectures
Character and courage are common threads shared by leaders, role models, great teachers,and mentors. George Washington said, “Labor to keep alive in your breast that little spark of celestial
fire called conscience,” and Abraham Lincoln declared, “To sin by silence when we should protest
makes cowards of men.” The Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr. noted that, “In the end, we willremember not the words of our enemies, but the silence of our friends.”
The appropriate selection of the mentor, the responsibilities of the parties and theprocess of assessment, communication and bilateral benefit, are inherent if the following
sequence is applied:
••
•
•••
•
•••
•
•

Recruitment
Selection
Training the mentor
Matching
Contact
Building the relationship
Outlining of roles and tasks
Communication
Assessing and addressing discovered needs
Strategy formation and adjustment
Mentoring of the mentor
Recognizing that there may or may not be an end

The value of mentoring lies in its potential to avert the situation described in this poem:
I DON’T KNOW
There is something I don’t know,
That I am supposed to know.
I don’t know what it is I don’t know,
And yet I am supposed to know it.
And I feel I look stupid if I seem both not to know it—
And not to know what it is I don’t know
Therefore, I pretend to know it.
This is nerve-wracking since I don’t know
What I pretend to know,
Therefore I pretend to know everything.

Anonymous

The less of this lament that occurs in our world, so much the better.

60

Volume XLI, Number 2, 2010

Journal of Research Administration