The Language of Lotus Sutra’s Parable of Medicinal Herbs

Faridah Noor Mohd Noor
Abstract
The Lotus Sutra as a text has been translated into different
languages. In the English language several versions of the Lotus
Sutra exist today. As a Buddhist text, its English translations have awider outreach reaching the Occidental beyond its Oriental origin.
Based on Kumarajiva’s translation of the Lotus Sutra, the English
translations are reputed to have kept to its appeal and richness of its
language. This paper looks at the discourse of the Parable of theMedicinal Herbs from the 2009 translation by Burton Watson. The
corpus consists of the 216 lines of the verse format of the parable. A
discourse analysis of the text revealed the extensive use of literary
devices and binomials to deliver its teachings and the message ofimpartiality. It is through these language features that makes it
linguistically appealing to its readers. I wish to caveat that thisattempt to examine this rich and classical text is with the humble
understanding that it will not lend itself to any single interpretation.

Introduction
The Lotus Sutra is one of the most important and influential of all thesutras or sacred scriptures of Mahayana Buddhism, revered by almost
all branches of the Mahayana teachings, and over many centuries theobject of intense veneration among Buddhist believers throughout
China, Korea, Japan, and other regions of eastern Asia.
Burton Watson (1993, p. ix)

T

HE Kumarajiva translation of the Lotus Sutra is highly reputed andremains the version sorted out in both China and Japan. Based on
this translation, the Lotus Sutra was translated many times over into theEnglish language and each attempt is a work to produce the finest
interpretation of its message and meaning. Two versions of Watson’stranslation were published in 1993 and 2009. This paper has chosen the45

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the language of lotus sutra’s parable

2009 publication as it is the latest. Watson’s translation is also theworking version selected by The Institute of Oriental Philosophy (IOP)
of Japan and the Soka Gakkai Malaysia (SGM). The selected chapter,
The Parable of the Medicinal Herbs, is one of the seven parables in thecollection of the Lotus Sutra.
The Lotus Sutra consists of 28 chapters and it is unique that eachchapter is presented in two formats—prose and verse. Each chapter
begins with a prose that introduces the main thrust of the chapter and thecontent is then presented in a verse form. This unique dual format ofpresentation places the Lotus Sutra in a genre of its own.
Methodology
The source of this exploratory paper is the translation by Burton Watson(2009) entitled The Lotus Sutra and Its Opening and Closing Sutras.
The focus of analysis will be the verses from Chapter Five (pp. 137 to
143). The stanzas have in total 216 lines. Each of the verses arenumbered for ease of reference.
Analysis of the language features will look at the use of language
features, namely, literary devices and binomials. The findings will bepresented as the language used in:
A. The Didactic Overtones of the Parable of Medicinal Herbs
B. The Language of Impartiality in the Parable of Medicinal Herbs

Examples will be taken from the corpus to facilitate the illustration anddiscussion of the language features found.

Language Features—A Brief Introduction
This section provides an introduction to the main features found in thistext. To begin with, the Parable is didactic in nature as it can be
categorised as texts that offer instructional information with guidance inmoral, religious, and ethical matters. The language features in the
Parable can be divided into two groups: Literary devices and binomials.
A. Literary Devices
Imagery refers to the use of literary devices such as anaphora, epithets,
hyperboles, similes, metaphors and descriptive words to give a dramaticeffect so that readers can visualize through the mental picture created intheir minds.

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47

I. Anaphora refers to the repetition of a word or phrase in succession at the beginning of several verses, clauses or paragraphs.
II. Epithets are figures of speech used as descriptive devices.
Adjectives are added to names of people and places to denote
some special quality of these people and places with the aim to
add color and vividness to the narrative.
III. Hyperboles refer to specific words and phrases used to
exaggerate a statement to produce a grander effect. Realistically,
it may not be practical but is able to convey the emotion it tries toemphasize.
IV. Metaphors are used to give new and different meanings to twothings that are totally unrelated. The use helps to add stylisticcolour and variety to the topic.
V. Similes are a form of figurative with the use of the words ‘as’,‘such as’ or ‘like’.
Where the above devices are found in the text a mention of the device
will be indicated to the right side of line concerned.
B. Binomials
Binomials refer to pairs of words, at times, even a string of words, that
may be synonyms, complements or antonyms in terms of their semantic
relations. They are referred by different labels such as doublets andconjoined lexical pairs. They are pervasive in many languages and havea preferred word order which may be ‘read faster’ in the order they tend
to appear more frequently (Benor, S. & Levy, 2006). The order may be a
result of semantic, phonological, and lexical factors of the languages inwhich they are found. Binomials are useful in the study of stylistics,
phraseology, semantics in particular legal language and literarylanguage.
Structurally, binomials are often connected by conjunctions such as“and”, “or” and so forth (Sauer, 2015). However, at times they may
appear without conjunctions and are marked with the use of apunctuation such as a comma. These are referred to as reduced
binomials. In the Malay language, for instance, they do not haveconjunctions at all such as ‘suami isteri’ [husband wife] and may bereferred to ‘opposites’ rather than antonyms (Asmah Hj. Omar Personal Communications).
The following are examples taken from Chapter 5 to illustrate thedifferent categories. The following coding is provided in square [ ]brackets next to the verse to indicate the category of binomials
identified:48

the language of lotus sutra’s parable

Antonym = [A]Complementary = [C]Synonym = [S](Note: Binomials are underlined to facilitate discussion. L refer to line
they appear.)

1. Examples of synonyms are:I bring fullness and satisfaction to the world, [S](L.111)The synonyms are joined with the conjunction and in the above
example.
2. Examples of antonyms are:of keen capacity, of dull capacity [A](L.118)The above are antonyms (keen, dull) and referred to as ‘reduced
binomials’ as they are written without any conjunction and separated bya punctuation.
3. Examples of binomials with complementary semantic relationsare:that have gained growth and maturity [C](L.198)The pair of words above is complementary in semantic relation in which‘growth’ will lead to ‘maturity’ and they belong to a related sub group.

The Language Features of the Parable of Medicinal Herbs
This paper will present the language features that illustrate the didactic
tone of the parable followed by the language of impartiality. The
discussion that follows will focus on the language aspect and will
refrain from making any in-depth theological interpretations.
Examples from the corpus will be included to facilitate the discussionof the language features found. Findings show that literary devices andbinomials are found to be in combination to deliver the message of thisparable.
The literary devices and binomials will be highlighted (in bold andunderlined, respectively) to facilitate the discussion. The language
feature found will be noted on the right side of each sentence in eachstanza.

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49

A. The Didactic Overtones of the Parable of Medicinal Herbs
As a Buddhist text, the Lotus Sutra contains messages from theteachings of Shakymuni (the Buddha Gautama) on wisdom andcompassion. This is explained below:
The Lotus Sutra reveals Shakyamuni’s vow, formulated in the distantpast, to elevate the life state of all human beings to make them equal tohimself, and shows that this vow was fulfilled when he preached thissutra.
(http://www.sgi-bel.org/en/history/the-lotus-sutra)

Texts that offer instructional information with guidance in moral,
religious, and ethical matters are considered to be didactic texts. The
analysis shows this didactic feature is exhibited in The Parable of theMedicinal Herbs.
1. Buddha’s Emergence

The appearance of the Buddha is reiterated in several parts of the
Parable to give prominence to his emergence. The verse section of the
Parable commences with the opening verse with the epithet ‘The
Dharma King’ whose purpose is to preach the Law (Line 4). The
Dharma King is synonymous with another name ‘The Thus Come One’(Line 5).
Example 1
The Dharma King, destroyer of being,
when he appears in the world
accords with the desires of living beings,
preaching the Law in a variety of ways.
The Thus Come One, worthy of honour and reverence,is profound and far-reaching in wisdom.

[S]
[S]
L.1–6

In Example 1 binomials in Line 5 which are synonyms (honour andreverence) and Line 6 (profound and far-reaching) call attention to thetribute and wisdom of The Thus Come One.
The metaphor ‘cloud’ is used to illustrate the appearance it is akin to(L.59). The metaphor is used to describe the coverage of the ‘cloud’above the land he appeared on.
Example 2
The Buddha is like this50

the language of lotus sutra’s parable

when he appears in the world,comparable to a great cloudthat covers all things everywhere,

Metaphor‘Cloud’Hyperbole
L. 57–60

The Parable compares the Buddha to a ‘cloud’ in many instances. In
Example 3 the ‘great cloud’ is a protective layer that covers everywhere
and the entirety of the ground below it (Line 60).
In the following example, the King of Sutras is akin to a beneficent
cloud (L. 19) that cools the earth with its the rain. Binomials give avivid description of what accompanies the cloud and what follows withthe arrival of the cloud.
Example 3This beneficent cloud is laden with moisture,
the lightening gleams and flashes,
and the sound of thunder reverberates afar,
causing the multitude to rejoice.
The sun’s rays are veiled and hidden,a clear coolness comes over the land;masses of darkness descend and spreadyou can almost touch them.

[S]

[S]
[C]
L. 19–26

Accompanied by bright lightening that gleams and flashes (L. 20) andthe resonating sound of the rolling thunders (L. 20–21) that reaches far,the cloud cools the earth below it. The hot sun’s rays are ‘veiled andhidden’ (L. 23) and masses of dark clouds ‘descend and spread’ (L. 25)
in the sky above and provide shade. The use of binomials gives a vivid
description of this cloud and the coming of the King of Sutras. Thus, theParable implies the significance of the coming and the effect of thepresence by painting a picture of the cloud that covers, cools and protect
the earth.
The following verse elaborates the wide coverage for the rain, a
metaphor for the teaching or Dharma, is vast and comes ‘down on all
four sides’ (Line 28) of the earth. The use of binomials emphasizes thevastness of the area it covers and the rain is not hindered by different
terrains nor ‘remote and secluded places’ (Lines 31–32). Such is thecoverage that makes it possible for different kinds of plants to flourish(Lines 33–36).

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51

Example 4
The rain falls everywhere,
Metaphorcoming down on all four sides,
its flow and saturation are measureless,[C]
reaching to every area of the earth,
to the ravines and valleys of the mountains and streams, [S]to the remote and secluded places where grow[S]
plants, bushes, medicinal herbs,
trees large and small,[A]
a hundred grains, rice seedlings,
sugar cane, grape vines.
L. 27–36

2. Buddha’s Proclamation

As part of its didactic nature, the voice of authority is in the selfproclamation in Line 69 of Example 5 below.
Example 5
I am the Thus Come One,
most honoured of two-legged beings.
I bring fullness and satisfaction to the world,

EpithetL. 69–70[S]
L. 111

The first excerpt is a confirmation that the epithet ‘Thus Come One’refers to the Buddha. In other parts of the parable, other epithets used
are Dharma King (Line 1) and the World Honoured-One (Line 66). The
proclamation of his status as the ‘most honoured’ among humans
referred to as ‘two-legged beings’ in Line 70. Line 111 is anotherproclamation of the role intended for the Thus Come One.
In Lines 72 and 73 in the next example explains the purpose of
Buddha’s emergence. This is elaborated in the example below:
Example 6
I appear in the world
like a great cloudthat showers moisture upon
all the dry and withered living beings,
so that all are able to escape suffering,
gain the joy of peace and security,
the joys of this world
and the joy of nirvana.

Simile[S][S]
Anaphora
L. 72–79

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the language of lotus sutra’s parable

In Example 6 above, the appearance is referred to by using a simile ‘likea great cloud’ (Line 73). Hence, the purpose of the cloud is to bring rain
to invigorate beings that are ‘dry and withered’ and provide theopportunity to escape suffering (Line 76). The use of anaphora in Lines
78–79 emphasizes the benefits, namely, ‘peace and security’ in the formof the both types of happiness, namely, ‘joy of this world’ and ‘the joyof nirvana’ (Lines 78–79).
3. Declaration of the Oneness of the Dharma

The parable makes repeated declaration of the oneness of the Dharma.
The metaphor ‘rain’ is repeatedly described as being ‘single’ in flavour
to lend emphasis to the message. The declaration is found in theexcerpts in the following example:
Example 7
What falls from the cloudis water of a single flavour,

Descriptive
L. 41–		42

the Law preached by the Buddha
is comparable to a great cloud which,with a single-flavoured rain,moistens human flowers
so that each is able to bear fruit.
L. 198–202

In Lines 89–91, the declaration is made in the first voice that confirms
the oneness that may lead towards to emancipation referred to as theNirvana:
Example 8
I preach the sweet dew of the pure Law.
This Law is of a single flavour,that of emancipation, nirvana.

MetaphorL. 89–91

Therefore, the repetition of the word ‘single’ in the above examples isintended to emphasize oneness as a feature of the teaching.
4. Declaration to Believers and Non-believers

The examples below illustrate the didactical message provided forbelievers and non-believers. The following lines describe the twothe language of lotus sutra’s parable

53

different groups of people:
Example 9
If those who are wise hear of it
they can believe and understand it,
but those without wisdom will have doubts and regrets
and for all time will remain in error.

[S][S]
L. 9–12

The use of binomials describe believers are described as wise who‘believe and understand’ the message (Line 10) as compared to the nonbelievers who will have ‘doubts and regrets’ (Line 11) and forever livein error.
5. Means to the Dharma and Buddhahood

This Parable provides instructional ways and means to gain the Dharma
and achieve Buddhahood.
In Examples 10 and 11, all beings, both heavenly and human beings(Line 80), are addressed. They are reminded to observe and pay attention to the message being delivered. They are to practise in gradualstages (Lines 177–178).
Example 10
All you heavenly and human beings of this assembly,
listen carefully and with one mind!
All of you should gather aroundand observe the one of unexcelled honour.

[A]
[C]
[C]
L. 80–83

Example 11
by practicing gradually and stage by stage,
all beings can gain the fruits of the way.

[S]
L. 177–178

In Example 12 below, it is through ‘practice and learning’ (Line 215)
that the state of Buddhahood can be certainly attained. The complementary binomials used shows that as one practices, one also learns in
the process.
Example 12
What you are practicing

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the language of lotus sutra’s parableis the bodhisattva way,
and as you gradually advance in practice and learning
you are all certain to attain Buddhahood.

[C]
L. 213–		216

Different levels of Buddhahood that can be attained are explained in theverses that follow throughout the parable. In the following example,
three groups of medicinal herbs are defined. This group is further
divided into inferior (L. 126–127), middling (L. 128–135) and superior(L. 136–139).
Example 13
Shakra, Brahma and the other kingsthese are the inferior medicinal herbs.
Some understand the Law of no outflows,
are able to attain nirvana,
to acquire the six transcendental powers
and gain in particular the three understandings,
or live alone in mountain forests,
constantly practicing meditationand gaining the enlightenment of pratyekabuddhasthese are the middling medicinal herbs.
Still others seek the place of the World-Honoured One,convinced that they can become Buddhas,
putting forth diligent effort and practicing meditationthese are the superior medicinal herbs.

[C]
L. 126		–139

Another group referred to are the small and big trees in terms of their
devotion and referred to as sons of Buddha [Line 141]:
Example 14
Again there are sons of the Buddha
who devote their minds solely to the Buddha way,
constantly practicing mercy and compassion,
knowing that they themselves will attain Buddhahood,certain of it and never doubting these I call small trees.

[S][S]
L. 141–146

Those who abide in peace in their transcendental powers, Analogy

the language of lotus sutra’s parable

turning the wheel of non-regression,saving innumerable millionsof hundreds of thousands of living beings bodhisattvas such as theseI call large trees.

55

Hyperbole
Hyperbole
MetaphorL. 147–153

The use of hyperbole accentuates the many who are saved by ‘turning
the wheel of non-regression’ (Line 148).
B. Language of Impartiality in the Parable of the Medicinal Herbs
The Parable highlights the message of the impartiality that is meant forall. Hence, no one is above the other and all are treated equally. Thismessage is delivered in the language filled with imagery and the use of
binomials. This is expressed throughout this parable in several parts as
illustrated in this section.
1. To show impartiality of the Dharma for all

The Parable sends the message that the teaching is for all. This message
appears in several parts of the Parable. In the following example, theword ‘equality’ describes the intended message is meant for all.
Example 15
The equality of the Buddha’s preachingis like a rain of a single flavour,
L. 152–153

Example 15 contains the simile “like a rain of a single flavour” (L. 153)
that refers to preaching of the Buddha.
The use of binomials made up of antonyms clearly illustrates thisimpartiality. Antonyms in Example 16 establish a wide range of peopleof different status, for instance, from the eminent and superior to those
lowly and inferior as well as observers and violators of the law. The
Dharma is neutral and open for all. Thus, all are given equal treatment.
Example 16
Eminent and lowly, superior and inferior,observers of precepts, violators of precepts,
those fully endowed with proper demeanour,those not fully endowed,
those of correct views, of erroneous views,

[A]
[A]
[A]
[A]

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the language of lotus sutra’s parableof keen capacity, of dull capacity
L. 112–117

2. A Declaration of Being Equal and Impartial

A testimony in Example 17 declares that the Law is preached equallyfor all, be it to a single person or groups while Example 18 contains thedeclaration of being impartial to all and without any favouritism or
personal intentions.
Example 17
I preach the Law equally;
as I would for a single person,that same way I do for numerous persons,L. 103–105
Example 18
I have no mind to favour this or thatto love one or hate another.
I am without greed or attachment
and without limitation or hindrance.

[A]
[A]
[S]
L. 99–102

Discussion
In examining the translation by Watson (2009), it was found that literary
devices and binomials have been extensively used this corpus. The
Parable of Medicinal Herbs was examined for the language used as a
didactic text with the aim to deliver the teachings of the Buddha. Fivemain thrusts of the parable have been identified, namely, to announce
the coming of the Buddha and proclaim the purpose of his emergence,
to declare the oneness of the teaching, to make a declaration on who
believers and the benefits they can gain as opposed to non-believers andto explain the means towards the Dharma and to attain Buddhahood.
As a didactic text, the presence of ‘cloud’ and ‘rain’ as metaphors givea vivid picture on the extend of the teaching. The choice of these
metaphors is easy for followers to imagine the intended message interms of how the cloud protects the earth below it from the hot sun’s
rays and how the rain provides moisture and cools the earth. The
imagery used is akin to the protection promised to the followers and thebenefits they will receive.
The language of impartiality highlighted by the choice of literalthe language of lotus sutra’s parable

57

devices and binomials is intended to clarify that everyone is treated alikeby the Buddha and that none is above the other. He is unbiased histeaching is open to all and the knowledge will be imparted equally
without any show of favouritism.
In summary, findings show that binomials made up synonyms,
antonyms and complementary semantic ones are found. The choice ofbinomials found in this parable helped to deliver the meaning andmessage on the coming of the Buddha and the way to Buddhahood. A
pattern found in this set of corpus is that binomials made up ofsynonyms (refer to Example 4) tend to elaborate the specific characteristics of the metaphors used, that is, the cloud and rain. Synonyms giveemphasis to the characteristic or quality that is being elaborated.
Antonyms, on the other hand, describes the range of elements underdiscussion. For instance, in Example 16, those given equal treatment
does not include only those who are superior nor does it exclude those
who are inferior.
Acknowledgements
This paper was partly presented at the recent 2015 the 30th Annual Conference. My
appreciation to the Institute of Oriental Philosophy for opportunity to meet the
researchers and make this publication possible. I thank Professor Sauer for his input on
the binomials. My appreciation goes to Professor Dato’ Christopher Boey in theselection of the parable for the corpus of this exploratory study. Last but not the least, I
wish to acknowledge all for the opportunity to explore the language of the English
translation Lotus Sutra. For my part, it has been an insightful experience for me.
Source of Text
Watson, B. 2009. The Lotus Sutra and Its Opening and Closing Sutras. Tokyo: Soka
Gakkai.
References
Benor, S. & Levy, R. (2006). The Chicken or the Egg? A Probabilistic Analysis ofEnglish Binomials. Language 82 (2), 233–278.
Gee, J.P. (2005). An Introduction to Discourse Analysis: Theory and Method. London:
Routledge.
Lotus Sutra Project. Retrieved from http://lotus.obdurodon.org/about.html
The Lotus Sutra. Retrieved from http://www.sgi-bel.org/en/history/the-lotus-sutra
Watson B. 1993. The Lotus Sutra. New York: Columbia University Press.
Watson, B. 2009. The Lotus Sutra and Its Opening and Closing Sutras. Retrieved fromhttp://www.nichirenlibrary.org/en/lsoc/toc/
Sauer, Hans. 2015. Binomials in the History of English. Public Lecture presented on 25
March 2015 at the University of Malaya (Centre for Civilisational Dialogue—
Faculty of Languages and Linguistics Collaboration).
Asmah Hj. Omar. Personal Communications on 25 March 2015.

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Author Biography
Faridah Noor Mohd Noor is Associate Professor at Faculty of Languages & Linguistics, University of Malaya (UM). She is Director of Centre for Civilisational Dialogue,
UM. She was the Chief Editor of Social Sciences at Unit Lonjakan Pencapaian
Akademik (Social Science), UM (2011–14). Her research areas include sociolinguistics
and ethnolinguistics apart from intercultural communication. Her recent publications
include a trilogy of indigenous stories from the Mah Meri study—Sebuah Adaptasi
Cerita Orang Asli Mah Meri: Kisah Lumba & Ungka (An Adaptation of A Mah MeriTale: Tale of The Dolphin & The Gibbon, 2014). Forthcoming is Malay Muslims in the
Holy Land: An Ethnolinguistic Study (2015, co-authored with Asmah Haji Omar, et. al.).
She was the editor of Dimensions Of Shadow Play in Malay Civilisation (2006) and aco-editor of Occidentalism and Orientalism: Reflections of the East and the Perceptionsof the West (2008), Kamus BIM-English-Malay: A Handshape Dictionary (2014).