69

Bulletin of Glaciological Research ,- (,**0) 03ῌ1/
ῌJapanese Society of Snow and Ice

Distribution of permafrost on the west slope of Mt. Ichinsky, Kamchatka, Russia
Toshio SONE+, Kotaro YAMAGATA,, Yoshinori OTSUKI-, Yuki SAWADA+
and Marina VYATKINA.
+ Institute of Low Temperature Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, *0*ῌ*2+3, Japan, Joetsu University of Education, Joetsu 3.-ῌ3/+,, Japan- Institute of Geography, Graduate School of Science, Tohoku University, Sendai 32*ῌ2/12, Japan. Kamchatka Branch of Paciﬁc Institute of Geography, Parizunskaya 0, Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, Russia(Received October /, ,**/; Revised manuscript accepted November 1, ,**/)

Abstract
In this study we investigate the distribution and development of permafrost on the west slope of
Mt. Ichinsky Volcano, Kamchatka, Russia. Ground temperature measurements during autumn ,***
reveal the altitudinal development of frozen ground and the active layer. Active layer thickness insandy deposits varied from -.+ m at 3** m a.s.l. to *.2/ m at +1** m a.s.l. The lower limit of discontinuous
permafrost was estimated to be at least 3** m a.s.l., close to the treeline. We conducted automatedmeteorological observations of air temperature and wind direction and speed at +*** m a.s.l. from
September ,*** until August ,**+. Mean air temperature during this period was ῌ...῎. The prevailing SSE winter wind is a controlling factor in the distribution of permafrost, periglacial landforms andvegetation above the treeline.

+.

Introduction

Previous studies of permafrost distribution in
Kamchatka, Russia (e.g. Zamolotchikova and Smirnova, +313), demonstrate that the southern limit ofpermafrost lies in Kamchatka itself; this is also shownon the permafrost map of Russia (e.g. Lisitsyna andRomanovskii, +332; Williams and Warren, +333). In
central Kamchatka, discontinuous permafrost appears to mainly occur in mountainous regions, however, detailed information on permafrost distribution
is limited (Gorbunov, +322; Sone et al., ,**-; Abramov
et al., ,**/).
Recent studies have reported warming of permafrost temperatures in many regions of the world (e.g.
Harris et al., ,**+; Ostercamp, ,**-; Gruber et al., ,**.).
In Kljuci, central Kamchatka, mean annual air temperature has tended to increase since the +31*s (Soneet al., ,**-). As areas of discontinuous permafrost are agood indicator of climatic change, it is important todocument present-day permafrost conditions as a benchmark for future climatic warming. Given the current global warming, we expect that the permafrost
environment in Kamchatka is currently undergoingchange.
For the current study we investigated frozen ground upon Ichinsky Volcano, Kamchatka, during ,***.

We measured near-surface ground temperature atseven locations at di#erent altitudes and identiﬁed
associated periglacial landforms. We also measured
air temperature and wind speed and direction at +***
m a.s.l. from September ,*** until August ,**+. The
objectives of this study are to estimate the lower limitof discontinuous permafrost and to discuss the permafrost environment on the west slope of Mt. Ichinsky,
Kamchatka. We also discuss the distribution of permafrost and vegetation in relation to the winter prevailing wind, which has not previously been considered in studies of permafrost in Kamchatka.

,.

Study area and methods

Study area
Ichinsky Volcano (//῍.0῍N, +/1῍//῍E, -0*1 m a.s.l.)lies within the Sredinny Mountain Range andBystrinsky National Park, on the western side of central Kamchatka Peninsula (Fig. +). The volcano is currently active, and ﬁrst formed during the Middle Pleistocene. There is minor fumarolic activity in the summit area, although no eruptions have been recorded inhistoric time (Volynets et al., +33+). The summit of Mt.
Ichinsky is covered with an ice cap that is drained byseveral glaciers. The West Ichinsky Glacier ﬂows fromthe summit downslope to a terminus at +,** m a.s.l.
This glacier is covered by debris at the terminus and
,.+.

70

Bulletin of Glaciological Researchappears to be stagnant.
The study area ranges from 3** to +2.* m a.s.l. on
the west slope of Mt. Ichinsky (Fig. +). The upper limitof birch trees (Betula ermanii) occurs at about 3** m a.
s.l., while Alder shrub (Alnus fruticosa) occurs above
the treeline at 3** to +*** m a.s.l.
Ground temperature observations
In the ﬁeld we used shovels to dig pits for directly
detecting frozen ground, or to indirectly estimate thepresence of frozen ground via temperature proﬁles.
Ground temperatures were measured with thermistor
sensors (D0+1, TECNOL SEVEN Co. Ltd.) over theperiod from August ,0 until September +, ,***. Site +(3** m a.s.l.) lies at the upper limit of birch trees, while
Site , (3-* m a.s.l.) is a grassland in a shallow nivation
hollow surrounded by dwarf pine (Pinus pumila)shrub. Soil at Site , consists of loamy volcanic ash soil.
Sites - (+*** m a.s.l.), . (++2* m a.s.l.), / (+.** m a.s.l.), 0(+1,- m a.s.l.) and 1 (+2.* m a.s.l.) are located above thetreeline within the alpine zone. Sites +, -, and . aresituated on outwash terraces that consist mainly of
ﬂuvio-glacial sand, while Sites / and 0 are situated on
the peaks of moraine hills. Site 1 is located on a debris
slope, while sites +, -, ., / and 0 are situated on windward bare ground with scarce vegetation cover. The
characteristics of the di#erent study sites are summarized in Table +.

,.,.

Fig. +.

Meteorological observations
Meteorological data are important for discussing
permafrost, glaciological and biological environments, however, such data are limited for the mountain regions of Kamchatka (Matsumoto et al., +331).
We therefore measured air temperature and windspeed and direction at Site - (+*** m a.s.l.) from September ,*** until August ,**+. Temperature and wind
sensors were installed at heights of +./ and ,.* m,respectively, above the ground surface. We used thermistor data loggers (Ondotori Jr. TR-/,, T and D
Corp.) for temperature measurements and Kadec-US,
Kadec-UN (KONA System Co. Ltd.) and Young-type,.-.

Locations of study sites (+ῌ1) upon the west slope of Mt. Ichinsky. s: soliﬂuction lobes.

Table +.

Characteristics of survey sites on the west slope of Mt. Ichinsky.

Altitude (m a.s.l.)
Site +
Site ,
Site Site .
Site /
Site 0Site 1

3**
3-*
+***
++2*
+.**
+1,+2.*

Topography

Soil material

Surface condition

outwash terrace
nivation hollow
outwash terrace
outwash terrace
moraine hill
moraine hilldebris slope

ﬂuvio-glacial sandloamy volcanic ash
ﬂuvio-glacial sandﬂuvio-glacial sandsandy till
sandy till
debriswindward bare groundgrass land
windward bare groundwindward bare groundwindward bare groundwindward bare groundῌSone et al.

The depth of the freezing point at Site + is estimatedto be about -.+ m, as determined from temperature
gradients at Sites -ῌ/, which are located on windward
bare-ground and underlain by sand. The ground temperature gradient at depth appeared to be constantduring the observation period.

wind sensors for wind measurements. Air temperature and wind direction data were measured and recorded at +-hour intervals, and wind speed data were
measured as hourly mean values.

Results-.

71

Meteorological observations
Results of meteorological observations are shownin Table ,. Mean annual air temperature from September +, ,*** until August -+, ,**+ was ῌ...῍. Maximum
and minimum air temperatures were ,+., and ῌ-..2῍,
respectively, while maximum and minimum mean
monthly air temperatures were ++.1῍ (July) and ῌ,+..῍ (February), respectively. The annual range ofmean monthly air temperature is --.+῍, indicating acontinental climate. The direction of the prevailingwinter wind is SSE (Table ,); mean annual wind speed
is ..* msῌ+. Mean monthly wind speeds during January, February, and March were /./, -.1, and 0., msῌ+,
respectively. Freezing and thawing indices were ,1-+and ++*.῍ · days respectively, while the warmth index
was +,.3.

Ground temperature observations
Figure , shows ground temperature proﬁles for
Sites + to 1. We directly detected frozen ground at allsites except Site +. Sites at higher altitude recorded
lower ground temperatures, except for Sites , and 1.

-.,.

-.+.

Development of periglacial landforms
Periglacial landforms such as earth hummocks,
turf-banked steps, soliﬂuction lobes, frost-crack polygons, and small-scale sorted patterned ground are observed above the treeline. Turf-banked steps are welldeveloped on windward bare ground between 3** and+1** m a.s.l. (Fig. -). While tread surfaces are gently
sloping with little vegetation, risers are steeper and-.-.

Fig. ,. Ground temperature proﬁles for sites on Mt.
Ichinsky, as measured from August ,0 until September +, ,***. Site elevations (m a.s.l.) are also
provided.

Table ,. Monthly air temperature and wind speed data at +*** m a.s.l. upon Mt. Ichinsky,
as measured from September ,*** until August ,**+.
Month

Sep.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May
Jun.
Jul.
Aug.

,***
,***
,***
,***
,**+
,**+
,**+
,**+
,**+
,**+
,**+
,**+

Entire period

Air temperature (῍)

Wind speed (msῌ+)Wind direction

Mean

Max.

Min.

Mean

Max.

Mfwd

Fpw (ῌ).4ῌ,4+
ῌ+-4.
ῌ+.4*
ῌ+24+
ῌ,+4.
ῌ+,43
ῌ04*
+4/
042
++41
34.

+340
041
ῌ-42
ῌ/4/
ῌ04.
ῌ-42
-4/
/40
+04+
+14.
,+4,
+343

ῌ042
ῌ+,4*
ῌ,,41
ῌ,-4/
ῌ,343
ῌ-.42
ῌ-,4*
ῌ+24ῌ141
*40
/4.
ῌ+4+

-42
/4-4/
-4/
/4/
-41
04,
/4,
-4*
-41
,43
,40

+241
-*4*
+04.
+041
,/4.
+04.
-140
,+40
+-4*
+14,
+/41
+/4-

SSE
SSE
SSE
SSE
SSE
SSE
SSE
SSE
SSE
SSE
SSE
SSE

,,4/
--42
+24,
,+40
,24+04*
.+43
-04,
,*4*
--4.
,/4*
+14+

ῌ.4.

,+4,

ῌ-.42

.4*

-140

SSE

,04,

Temperature and wind direction data are from hourly measurements. Mean temperature:
the mean monthly air temperature calculated from hourly data. Max. and Min. temperatures: the maximum and minimum temperatures from hourly data. Mean wind speed:
the monthly mean speed calculated from mean hourly (0* minutes) data. Max. windspeed: the maximum mean hourly (0* minutes) wind speed. Mfwd: most frequent winddirection. Fpw: frequency (ῌ) of occurrence of the SSE wind stronger than ..* msῌ+.

72

Bulletin of Glaciological Researchcovered with vegetation. Risers are typically + m inheight. Frost-crack polygons of +* to ,* m diameterare distributed on windward ﬂat surfaces (Fig. .),while earth hummocks of 0* to 2* cm in height occur
on the leeside of ridges (Fig. /). Small-scale patterned
ground such as sorted circles, polygons, and stripes
are developed on bare ground, typically on the treadsof turf-banked steps. A SSW-facing slope about -** mnorth of Site - contains many turf-banked soliﬂuction
lobes (Figs. + and 0); the dip of this slope is about +/ῌ,while the largest lobe has a riser height of - m.

Discussion..

Development of the active layer
The active layer is the layer of ground above thepermafrost that thaws during summer and freezes
during winter. For the research period, the thaw depth
appears to be close to the depth of the active layer. We..+.

Fig. -. Photograph of turf-banked steps. Treads arenormally +* m in length. Risers are typically + m inheight. Site . is located on the tread of the turfbanked steps in the center of the photograph. View
is to the south.

Fig. .. Frost-crack polygons on a ﬂuvio-glacial terrace
near Site -.

therefore assume that the maximum thaw depth during this period was the active layer. The depth of theactive layer in sandy ground tends to be deeper atlower altitudes (Fig. 1). The relationship between active layer depth and altitude is almost linear. The
depth of the active layer at Site + estimated fromaltitude corresponds to the depth estimated from ground temperature gradient (-.+ m). Active layers areshallower in loamy volcanic ash soil (Site ,) and deeper in debris material (Site 1) in comparison withadjacent sites in sandy ground. These observations
are consistent with the thermal conductivities of thedi#erent ground materials: coarser material tends tohave higher thermal conductivity (Williams andSmith, +323). The depth of the active layer varies from*.0/ to +., m in the alpine zone of Mt. Ushkovsky (Fig.
+), located about +/* km east of Mt. Ichinsky (Sone etal., ,**-). The depth of the active layer determined in
the present study area is deeper than that at Mt.

Fig. /. Earth hummocks of 0* to 2* cm in height near
Site -.

Fig. 0.

Soliﬂuction lobes located -** m north of Site -.

Sone et al.

73

Fig. 1. Depth of the active layer with varying altitudeat Mt. Ichinsky, as measured from August ,2 until
September ,, ,***. Symbols indicate ground type.

Ushkovsky, where the soils are volcanic ash soils.
Lower limit of permafrost
Permafrost is deﬁned as ground that is perennially frozen over a period of two years or more. Thereis a good possibility of the existence of permafrost if
the ground remains frozen at depth during autumn.
Figure , shows that the minimum elevation of discontinuous permafrost is at least 3** m a.s.l. on the study
slope. Mean annual air temperature is estimated to beabout ῌ-.2῍ at 3** m a.s.l., assuming a lapse late in air
temperature of 0῍ kmῌ+. In terms of air temperature,permafrost can exist a few hundred meters below thetreeline, as mean annual air temperatures are reported
to be ῌ- to ῌ,῍ at the lower limit of permafrost(Ødegård et al., +33,; Sone,+33,).
In the middle of the Sredinny Mountain Range,
Kamchatka Peninsula, discontinuous permafrost waspredicted above +*** m a.s.l. (Zamolotchikova andSmirnova, +313). The present study indicates that thelower limit of discontinuous permafrost is lower than
this estimate by at least +** m. There are few shrubs
above the treeline (Fig. 2); as there is no clear subalpine zone of shrubs, the lower limit of the alpine
zone is located immediately above the treeline (Fig. 3).
At Mt. Ushkovsky, the lower limit of discontinuous permafrost is approximately +*** m a.s.l., andmean annual air temperature is estimated to be ῌ- toῌ.῍ (Sone et al., ,**-). There is a moderately dense
shrub zone between the treeline (0** to 1** m a.s.l.) andthe alpine zone (above +*** m a.s.l.) on the north slopeof Mt. Ushkovsky, but there is no permafrost in thezone of alder shrubs (Fig. 3).
Development of periglacial landforms such as frost-crack polygons, soliﬂuction lobes, turf-banked
steps, and patterned ground indicates the existence of
permafrost in the alpine zone. It is likely that discontinuous, if not some continuous permafrost occurs in
the alpine zone of central Kamchatka. The altitude of
the treeline on Mt. Ichinsky is probably controlled bytemperature conditions, as the warmth index at 3** ma.s.l. is estimated to be +/. It appears that the lower

Fig. 2. Landscape elements of the study area, viewed
to the west. A: North-facing leeward slope. B:
Windward bare ground.

..,.

Fig. 3 Schematic environmental zonations upon Mt.
Ichinsky and Mt. Ushkovsky.

Fig. +* Wind direction and speed data at +*** m a.s.l.
upon Mt. Ichinsky from October ,*** until April,**+. Dots represent mean hourly wind speeds andhourly measured wind directions.

limit of the alpine zone is situated within the original
sub-alpine zone and that permafrost occurs at lower
altitude on the west slope of Mt. Ichinsky.

74

Bulletin of Glaciological ResearchPrevailing winter wind
Matsumoto et al. (+331) measured wind directions
upon three mountains in central Kamchatka. Theirdata indicated that the wind direction during winterwas variable, with no obvious prevailing wind. Okitsu(+331) noted an absence of wind-shaped trees along theuppermost timberline ecotone on the western slopesof Mt. Ushkovsky. Prevailing winter winds have therefore not previously been reported in the mountainregion of Kamchatka.
In contrast to the above studies, we detected a
distinctive prevailing wind at Mt. Ichinsky (Fig. +*).
The prevailing wind is one of the important factors incontrolling the distribution of snow accumulation,
permafrost, periglacial landforms, and vegetation. In
our study, the most frequent wind direction during
winter was SSE (Table ,). The critical wind speed that
results in the movement of surface snow is about . to
1 msῌ+ (Ohmura et al., +301; Yamada, +31.). The frequency of occurrence of a prevailing wind stronger
than . msῌ+ was more than ,2.,ῌ during the snow
season (October-April). Snow rarely accumulates onwindward bare ground, but accumulates on leesideslopes or depressions. The pattern of snow accumulation during winter is therefore probably invariable.
The inﬂuence of snow on soil temperature appears to
be only minor upon windward bare ground where thethin snow condition is favorable for permafrost development. Shrub trees such as alder and dwarf pine
occur on leeward slopes where snow accumulates(Fig. 2). The distribution of permafrost, periglacial landforms, and vegetation is therefore inﬂuenced by theprevailing SSE winter wind. Development of the subalpine zone is hampered by the fact that shrubs areunable to grow under conditions of severe strong
winter winds; this explains why permafrost develops
at lower altitudes on Mt. Ichinsky, despite the lower
elevation of the treeline on Mt. Ushkovsky (Fig. 3).
..-.

/.

Conclusions

In this study we investigated frozen ground on
the west slope of Mt. Ichinsky, central Kamchatka,
during August and September ,***. Our main conclusions are as follows:+. The active layer thickness in sandy ground varies
from -.+ m at 3** m a.s.l. to *.2/ m at +1** m. The lower
limit of discontinuous permafrost is located near thetreeline at an altitude of 3** m a.s.l.
,. The distribution of permafrost, periglacial landforms, and vegetation is inﬂuenced by the prevailing
SSE winter wind. This wind limits the development of
the sub-alpine zone in the study region.
-. Periglacial landforms such as frost-crack polygons, soliﬂuction lobes, turf-banked steps, and smallscale patterned ground are developed above the treeline.

.. Mean annual air temperature from September,*** until August ,**+ was ῌ...῍ at +*** m a.s.l.

Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Dr. P. V. Valentina
and Ms. Y. Savenkova, Kamchatka Branch of Paciﬁc
Institute of Geography, Dr. A. A. Ovsyannikov, Institute of Volcanology, Russian Academy of Science, Dr.
T. Hara, Hokkaido University, for their assistance inﬁeldwork and the anonymous reviewer for his valuable comments.
This study was supported partly by a Grant-inAid for the International Scientiﬁc Research (No.
++03++00: Principal investigator, Dr. T. Hara) of the
Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture ofJapan.

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