The Role of Skill versus Luck in Poker:
Evidence from the World Series of Poker1

Steven D. Levitt and Thomas J. Miles

April 20111

We would like to thank Carter Mundell for truly outstanding research assistance. Author addresses: Levitt,
Department of Economics, University of Chicago, 1126 East 59th Street, Chicago, IL 60637, slevitt@uchicago.edu.
Miles: University of Chicago Law School, 1111 East 60th Street, Chicago, IL 60637, tmiles@uchicago.edu.

Abstract
In determining the legality of online poker – a multibillion dollar industry -- courts have reliedheavily on the issue of whether or not poker is a game of skill. Using newly available data, weanalyze that question by examining the performance in the 2010 World Series of Poker of agroup of poker players identified as being highly skilled prior to the start of the events. Those
players identified a priori as being highly skilled achieved an average return on investment ofover 30 percent, compared to a -15 percent for all other players. This large gap in returns isstrong evidence in support of the idea that poker is a game of skill.

Until recently, millions of American consumers played poker online, spending an
estimated $6 billion a year on the activity, despite the obstacles to playing posed by the 2006
passage of the Unlawful Internet Gambling Enforcement Act (UIGEA). While the UIGEA does
not make it illegal for individuals to play online poker for real money, it is illegal for banks andother financial institutions in the U.S. to process transactions with online gambling sites. Federal
authorities recently indicted executives of the three leading online poker sites that allow
Americans to play.2 In response, these poker sites stopped accepting American players, but
vowed to demonstrate the legality of online poker.
While many arguments can be made for and against UIGEA, the single most importantfactor in determining the legality of poker is whether poker is a game of skill or a game of luck.
The UIGEA defines unlawful internet gambling as transmitting through the internet a wager thatis illegal under state or federal law. Under state law, courts have evaluated the legality of a gameby asking whether it is dominated by skill or luck. The federal statute’s own definition ofgambling or wagers (risking something of value upon a game of chance with an agreement thatcertain values will be given for particular outcomes of the game) is itself borrowed from state
definitions of gambling. This definition makes the legality of poker under federal law also
depend on a skill-versus-luck inquiry. Whether the UIGEA governs online poker therefore
hinges on whether poker is a game of skill or chance.
The UIGEA remains controversial. Immediately upon its passage, calls began for the
repeal of the UIGEA. In fact, a bill to legalize and regulate online poker, H.R. 2267, was passedby the House Financial Services Committee in July of 2010. With the arrival of a new Congressin 2011, the legislation was reintroduced in the committee, H.R. 1174, and it is currently
awaiting action.
2

Matt Richtel, “U.S. Cracks down on Online Gambling,” New York Times, April 15, 2011, at B1.

Despite the central role that the skill versus luck dichotomy has played in legal rulings
with respect to poker, there is little academic research on the subject. State courts that have ruled
on whether poker is a game of skill-versus-luck generally have done so in the absence of any
statistical evidence, and often they have treated all types of poker games alike.3 A highly
popular poker game online is Texas Hold ‘Em, and the few cases that consider its permissibility
have generated sharp dissents on whether skill dominates luck in the game.4
A small literature has emerged that attempts to test the importance of skill in poker.
Cabot and Hannum (2005) conduct computer simulations of repeated rounds of Texas Hold ‘Em
and seven-card stud with players following “skilled” or “unskilled” strategies. In theirsimulations, skilled players earned as much as 10 times that of the unskilled. Dedonno andDetterman (2008) conducted experiments in which participants played hundreds of hands ofTexas Hold ‘Em poker, and some participants received instruction on poker strategy while others
did not. They found that participants receiving instruction outperformed the contol group. Thesestudies reinforce a point which should be clear from introspection: there are ways to play quite
poorly in poker which ensure that the individual loses money (e.g., folding every hand). Less
obvious based purely on introspection is whether, among the set of individuals actually engaged
in playing poker for high stakes, there is a large role for skill. Especially relevant to this questionis the recent work of Croson et al. (2008) which analyzes finish positions of individual players
across 81 high-stakes poker tournaments, conditional on a player “making the money” in thattournament, i.e. finishing roughly in the top ten percent of all entrants. The idea underlying the3

Early state court decisions contained strong pronouncements about poker and have proven highly influential on
subsequent courts. City of Shreveport v. Bowen, 40 So. 859 (La. 1906) (“[I]t is a matter of common knowledge
concerning which there can be no doubt or dispute that draw poker is a gambling game, pure and simple”); Ginsberg
v. Centennial Turf Club, 251 P.2d 926 (Colo. 1952) (“No one would contend that a game of poker, in which money
is bet on the relative value of cards dealt by participants, constitutes a lottery, but it is most certainly gambling”).
4People v. Mitchell, 444 N.E.2d 1153 (Ill.App. 1983); Garrett v. State, 963 So.2d 700 (Ala.Crim.App. 2007).

paper is that positive serial correlation in outcomes across tournaments is an indicator of skill. In
those cases where a player makes the money, both having finished in the top 18 of a previous
tournament and the number of top-18 finishes in previous tournaments are found to besignificantly and negatively correlated with a player’s rank among the top-18 finishers in thecurrent tournament. Also, a player’s average previous rank in the top 18 is significantly andpositively correlated with their rank in the current tournament.
The greatest shortcoming of the Croson et al. (2008) analysis – unavoidable because of
the data available -- is that all the analysis conditions on a player making the money in aparticular tournament because information on the full set of players who enter a tournament is
not available. Also absent are any data regarding the number of chips that a player has amassed
at intermediate points along the way in a tournament. These data limitations introduce threepotential weaknesses. First, because these tournaments generally have many entrants, any given
player only rarely is one of the top eighteen finishers, leading the useable information set to bequite sparse. More than two thirds of the players they observe appear in their data exactly once,
and thus provide no useful identifying variation. 5 Among the players who do appear on multiple
occasions, roughly half appear exactly twice.
A second potential problem in the Croson et al. (2008) analysis is that the inference
hinges on the assumption that, absent skill, the finish positions conditional on making the money
would be randomly distributed across players. This assumption is likely to be violated if players
follow different tournament strategies. The psychic benefits that players derive from just“making the money” are likely to differ substantially. For instance, amateur players who enter
only a few tournaments are likely to value the bragging rights of lasting long enough to make the5

Because their measure of skill is the correlation in outcomes across tournaments, at least two observations per
player are required.

money more than top professionals, who recognize that the highly convex distribution of payouts
mean that winning an occasional tournament is far more important to long term profits than asteady diet of finishes in the lower half of the top eighteen. Players who are focused on winningare likely to pursue a riskier strategy that, all else equal, leads them to be eliminated earlier in thetournament in return for having a greater number of chips down the stretch on those occasions
when they survive to the end. Because the Croson et al. (2008) analysis is done conditional on
finishing in the top eighteen, holding skill constant, players following riskier strategies willappear to perform better even if their strategy has the same unconditional expected value, leading
to a spurious upward bias in their estimate of skill.
Finally, since the Croson et al. (2008) data do not include information on who enters
tournaments, they are unable to estimate the return on investment (ROI) across players.6 ROIs
provide a more direct and intuitive metric for quantifying skill than correlations.
In this paper, we take advantage of newly available information from the 2010 World
Series of Poker (WSOP) to improve on the methodology of Croson et al. (2008).7

For the firsttime, complete lists of all players who entered each of the 57 tournaments that comprise the
WSOP were made available in 2010. As a consequence, we are able to compute ROIs forindividual players, allowing us to measure poker skill more directly than in previous research.
We identify sets of players who, based on information available prior to the start of the 2010
WSOP, could reasonably be classified as being especially skilled (e.g. players who were topmoney winners in the 2009 WSOP, or those who appear in one of the published lists of the mosthighly ranked poker players). We then compare the ROIs achieved by these selected players
6

Players pay an entrance fee to participate in these tournaments. The venue that runs the event keeps a small
portion of the entrance fees; with the remainder returned as prize money. Typically, no outside money is added tothe prize pool, meaning that on average players earn a negative ROI due to the venue keeping some of the entry fee.
7
Neither these specific data nor anything comparable were available at the time that Croson et al. (2008) was
published.

relative to other players. The greater the difference in ROI’s across the two groups, the greater
the implied skill differential. To the extent that our classification of poker players into “skilled”
versus “unskilled” is inevitably quite noisy, our estimates represent a lower bound on the trueamount of skill that is present.
Our empirical findings suggest a substantial role for skill in poker over the time horizon
examined. The 720 players identified a priori as being high-skilled generate an average ROI of
30.5 percent in the 2010 WSOP, reaping an average profit of over $1,200 per player per event.8
In contrast, all other players obtain an average ROI of -15.6 percent, implying a per event loss ofover $400. The observed differences in ROIs are highly statistically significant and far larger inmagnitude than those observed in financial markets where fees charged by the money managers
viewed as being most talented can run as high as three percent of assets under management andthirty percent of annual returns.
The remainder of the paper is structured as follows. Section II provides background on
the World Series of Poker and the data set used in the analysis. Section III presents the empiricalfindings. Section IV concludes.
Section II: Background and Data
Each summer, a series of poker tournaments known as the World Series of Poker are heldin Las Vegas. In 2010, the WSOP included nearly 57 separate tournaments, more than 32,000
participants, and more than $185 million in prize money. The WSOP culminates with a final
tournament known as the “Main Event;” the winner of this event earns nearly $9 million.
The poker tournaments that make up the WSOP share a basic structure. Players wishingto participate in a tournament pay an entry fee ranging between $1,000 and $50,000. Almost all

8

Events last an average of three days, but the majority of players are eliminated within the first day, so the typicalentrant spends slightly less than one day playing poker per event.

WSOP events are open to any player who pays the entry fee. In return for the entry fee, eachplayer is given a pre-determined number of chips and randomly assigned to a poker table. A
player remains in the tournament until all of his chips are lost, at which time the player iseliminated. Play proceeds until one player collects all of the chips, with all other competitors
having been eliminated. That player is the winner. The other players’ ranks are based on thelength of time that a player survives before losing all chips. The last player to lose all his/herchips finishes second; the first player to run out of chips is the last-place finisher. Most of the
WSOP events take two or three days (with pre-specified breaks) to complete, although the Main
Event, which allots more chips to each player and attracts larger numbers of players, takes two
weeks.
Entry fees paid by competitors fund the prize pool, with some proportion of the fees (onaverage 7.5 percent) going to the venue in which the WSOP is held. The payoff structure in
WSOP events is highly convex, as demonstrated in Figure 1 which presents the distribution of
earnings for a typical tournament. The vertical axis shows a player’s net payoff (winnings minus
entry fee). The horizontal axis represents the player’s order of finish, with the winning player on
the far right of the graph. Figure 1A presents the distribution for all players in the typical
tournament, and Figure 1B presents the distribution for just players between the top 75 and 500
finishers. Roughly 90 percent of the players in any given tournament receive no prize money,
and thus suffer a net loss equal to their entry fee. Those who are paid are said to be “in themoney.” There is a discontinuity in payoffs between those who just make the money and those
who are eliminated “on the bubble.” Those who just make the money receive roughly 2 times
their initial entry fee in prize money, while those knocked out earlier receive nothing. The valueof prizes then increases relatively slowly until the very top spots are reached, after which prizes

accelerate sharply. For instance, in the event pictured, which is typical of other events, theplayer who finished in 200th place received roughly $2,700, the 100th place finisher received$3,000, and the winner took home $571,000. The combination of a discontinuity in payoffs
upon “making the money” and convexity in payoffs thereafter has an important influence on
strategy. As the number of players remaining approaches the number of players who will receive
prize money, those competitors with relatively few chips may find it optimal to play very
cautiously, sacrificing expected value in order to survive long enough to make the money.9 This
provides the players with deep stacks of chips an opportunity to play especially aggressively,
leading to a very wide spread of chips at the time when the field shrinks to the point where
positive payoffs begin.
The WSOP attracts a large number of participants. Figure 2 presents the distribution of
the number of events played by individuals. In total, over 32,000 people competed in at least one
WSOP event in 2010. Approximately two-thirds of these players entered exactly one event. The
10 percent of players who play the most events comprise 45 percent of all entries into the WSOP.
Playing in a large number of events entails a substantial financial investment: one individual
spent more than $260,000 on entry fees in the 2010 WSOP.10
We make use of six data sources to serve as a proxy for which poker players are mostskilled. Three of these rankings are drawn from published lists of top players in 2009, one
compiled by BLUFF magazine, a second by the website PokerPages.com, and the last by Card
Player Magazine. Of the 250 highest ranked players on each of these lists, more than 200
9This tendency is exacerbated by the fact that the number of times a player makes the money is tracked as a statistic
and is readily available online. Making the money may also have other psychic benefits – poker players loath being
the player knocked out “on the bubble,” which involves playing 20 or more hours of poker over two days withnothing to show for it. The data presented below suggest this tendency is much more pronounced among the lessskilled poker players.
10
That player earned $437,000 in prize money. The biggest loser in the 2010 WSOP paid in $252,000 in entry fees,
but earned only $24,000 in prize money.

competed in at least one 2010 WSOP event and thus were included in our sample. Our fourthproxy drew names from the Player of the Year rankings in the eighth season of the World Poker
Tour, a series of televised international poker tournaments. Only 110 players from this ranking
system had “Player of the Year Points” greater than 0, and of these 86 competed in at least one
2010 WSOP event. Our final two proxies for poker skill are based on performance in previous
years’ WSOPs. As one measure of past performance, we included as “high skill” anyone who
had won a WSOP event prior to 2010. Such players are known as “bracelet winners” because
the victor in each event receives a bracelet as well as a cash prize. There were a total of 556 pastwinners, 311 of whom participated in at least one WSOP in 2010 and thus are included in ourdata. The last measure of skill is being among the top 250 money winners in the 2009 WSOP.11
Table 1 presents the correlation matrix across our six proxies for poker skill. There is positive
correlation across all of the proxies, as would be expected, with the greatest overlap (ρ>.50)
observed for the three published measures of the current top 250 players.
Section III: Results
Table 2 presents the basic findings for the data used in the analysis. The first column
shows data for all competitors. Columns 2 and 3 divide the sample into two mutually exclusive
groups: those who do not qualify as “high skill” by any of our proxies, and those who do qualify.
The remaining six columns report summary statistics for the six individual high skill proxies.
These last six columns are not mutually exclusive because there is overlap across the proxies. A
total of 32,496 players appear in the data, 720 of whom are classified as “high skill” according toat least one of our proxies. Although only about two percent of the entrants are in the high skill

11

The 250th money winner in 2009 won $118,000 in prize money. Average prize money across this group in 2009
was $426,000.

category, because these players enter six times as many tournaments on average as other players,
the high skill players represent 12.1 percent of all the tournament entries.
The results with respect to poker skill are presented in the bottom seven rows of Table 2.
Rows 4 and 5 present measures of the frequency with which these players make the money andmake the final table respectively, compared to what would be predicted if there was no skill inpoker. The results are normalized so that a value of 1.00 represents the average in the data.
Consequently, by definition, in column 1 for the sample as a whole the value shown is 1.00. 12
Players classified as high skill are 12 percent more likely to make the money than the average
player, and 19 percent more likely to make the final table.
The next four rows show dollars spent on buy-ins and dollars received in prize money.
High skill players invest nearly ten times as much on average in buy-ins (both because they enter
more events and because on average the events they enter have higher buy-ins), but they arepaid out fourteen times as much as other players. Totaled across all players in a category, thelow skill players lose almost $26 million dollars (for a return on investment of -15.6 percent). In
contrast, the high skill players net a profit of nearly $11 million (for a return on investment of
30.5 percent). This difference in return on investments is evidence of skill in poker, since a setof pre-determined proxies for skill prove to be correlated with future returns. Five of the six
proxies for skill are associated with a positive ROI, with the Bluff Top 250 list yielding thehighest return on investment – more than 36 percent. 13
The results in Table 2 are heavily influenced by one of the 57 tournaments that make up
the WSOP; that tournament is known as the “Main Event.” The Main Event has a high buy-in

12

We report this normalization, rather than the raw likelihoods of making the money or the final table because highskill and low-skill players play in tournaments with different average field sizes. Because the number of players at
the final table is fixed, a lower share of entrants make the final table in larger tournaments.

and a large number of competitors, so that fully 36 percent of the money invested by players
across all the tournaments goes towards that one event. Results excluding the Main Event are
shown in Table 3. High skill players continue to outperform other players when the Main Eventis excluded, but the gaps are smaller: 9.8 percent ROIs for high skill players versus –13.8 percent
ROIs for other players.
The returns on investment reported above can be translated into dollar returns per
tournament. The high skill players earn an average return of over $1,200 per tournament in
profit ($350 excluding the Main Event) versus a loss of over $400 per tournament ($235 without
the main event) for other players. The amount of time it takes to play an event is a function of
how long the player survives before being eliminated. On average, an entrant would expect tosurvive about one day’s worth of play, implying substantial wages for the skilled players.

Section IV: Conclusion
This paper attempts to shed light on the extent to which pre-existing metrics of poker
skill are useful in predicting tournament outcomes. Our results suggest that players who are apriori identified as “high skill” do indeed substantially outperform other competitors. Thispredictability in returns is evidence for a substantial role of skill in poker.
It is not immediately obvious how one measures the importance of skill versus luck in
poker relative to other activities. One approach that problem is to estimate the probability that arandomly drawn high skill poker player will outperform a randomly drawn low-skilled poker
player over the course of a tournament. An important limitation of our data in this regard is that
we do not observe the complete order of finish, but rather, only the order of finish for those who
make the money. Because of this limitation, we can make pairwise comparisons between two

players in a tournament only when at least one makes the money. Subject to that constraint, an
exhaustive pairwise comparison of high skilled and low skilled players entered in eachtournament in the WSOP finds that the high skilled player wins 54.9 percent of the match ups.
For purposes of comparison, we calculated the regular season win rates for professional sports
teams that made the playoffs in the previous season – making the playoffs last year is akin tobeing a highly skilled player entering the WSOP. Since the year 2007, teams that made theplayoffs the previous season win 55.7 percent of their games in Major League Baseball against
teams that failed to make the playoffs in the previous year. Thus, in some crude sense, thepredictability of outcomes for pairs of players in a poker tournament is similar to that between
teams in Major League Baseball. To the extent that baseball would unquestionably be judged agame of skill, the same conclusion might reasonably be applied to poker in light of the data.
Asset management is another domain where skill is generally believed to be important, as
evidenced by consumers paying billions of dollars annually in fees to money managers.
Academic analysis, however, has generally found little evidence for skill in this domain as
demonstrated by low rates of persistence in mutual fund returns (Carhart 1997, Bollen and Busse
2004) and evidence of inferior or superior performance only in the extreme tails of the mutualfund distribution (Fama and French 2010).

References

Bollen, Nicolas P.B. and Jeffrey A. Buse, 2004, “Short-term Persistence in Mutual Fund
Performance,” Review of Financial Studies 18(2):569-597.
Cabot, Anthony and Robert Hannum, 2005, “Poker: Public Policy, Law, Mathematics, and the
Future of an American Tradition,” Thomas M. Cooley Law Review 22(3):443-513.
Carhart, Mark M., 1997, “On Persistence in Mutual Fund Performance,” The Journal of Finance52(1):57-82
Croson, Rachel, Peter Fishman, and Devin G. Pope, 2008), “Poker Superstars: Skill or Luck?”
Chance 21(4):25-8.
Dedonno, Michael and Douglas K. Detterman, 2008, “Poker Is a Skill,” Gaming Law Review
12(1):31-36.
Fama, Eugene F., and Kenneth R. French, 2010. “Luck versus Skill in the Cross-section of
Mutual Fund Returns,” The Journal of Finance 65(5):1915-1947.

Cases
City of Shreveport v. Bowen, 40 So. 859 (La. 1906).
Garrett v. State, 963 So.2d 700 (Ala.Crim.App. 2007).
Ginsberg v. Centennial Turf Club, 251 P.2d 926 (Colo. 1952).
People v. Mitchell, 444 N.E.2d 1153 (Ill.App. 1983).

Figure 1A: Typical Cash Structure

Figure 1B: Typical Cash Structure (Discontinuity)

Notes: Figure 1 presents the distribution of earnings for a typical poker tournament. The vertical axis shows aplayer’s net payoff (winnings minus entry fee), and the horizontal axis shows the player’s order of finish, with thewinning player on the far right of the graph. Figure 1A presents the distribution for all players in the typical
tournament, and Figure 1B presents the distribution for just players between the top 75 and 500 finishers.

Figure 2: Number of Events Entered Per Player

Notes: Figure 2 presents the distribution of events played by the 32,496 individual participants in the tournaments ofthe 2010 World Series of Poker.

Table 1: Correlation Matrix for "High Skill" Proxies
BLUFF Top250
BLUFF Top 250
Pro Rank
Card Player Top 250
World Poker TourWSOP 2009 Top Money Winners
Past Winners

1
0.643
0.646
0 221
0.221
0.380
0.267

Pro Rank

1
0.566
0 178
0.178
0.327
0.223

Card Player
Top 250

World Poker
Tour

1
00.228
228
0.405
0.221

1
0.081
0.118

WSOP 2009
Top Money
Winners1
0.255

Past Winners

1

Notes: Table 1 presents the correlation matrix across six proxies for poker skill for players who participated in the 2010 World Series ofPoker. The first three proxies were drawn from published lists of top players in 2009: a ranking was compiled by BLUFF magazine,
another by the website PokerPages.com, and a third by Card Player Magazine. The fourth proxy is a Player of the Year ranking in theeighth season of the World Poker Tour, a series of televised international poker tournaments. The fifth proxy is the top 250 money winners
in the 2009 World Series of Poker, and the last is so
so-calledcalled “bracelet
bracelet winners
winners” who are players who have won the World Series of Poker
before 2010.

Table 2: Summary Statistics and Results
Not "High
Skill" Players"High Skill"
Players(1)(2)

Number of Players

32496

Tournament Entries

All Players"High Skill" ProxyBLUFF

Pro Rank

Card Player

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

World Poker
Tour
(7)

(8)

Past Bracelet
Winners
(9)

31776

720

236

220

209

86

232

311

72951
100%

64101
87.87%

8850
12.13%

4,096
5.61%

3,571
4.90%

3,239
4.44%

1,188
1.63%

3,224
4.42%

3,621
4.96%

Average Number of Tournaments Entered
Per Player

2.24(3.27)

2.02(2.59)

12.29(9.18)

17.36(9.44)

16.23(9.74)

15.50(9.87)

13.81(9.26)

13.90(9.62)

11.64(9.68)

Make The Money Ratio

1.00

0.98

1.12

1.11

1.14

1.09

1.09

1.12

1.07

Final Table Ratio

1.00

0.94

1.19

1.19

1.24

1.07

1.04

1.28

1.03

WSOP 2009

Average Dollars Spent on Buy-Ins Per
Player$$6,220 $
(13,310) $5,239 $
(9,043) $49,481(49,754)$$

73,892 $(57,008) $71,330 $(57,045) $63,600 $(54,971) $61,419 $(54,736) $60,817 $(56,000) $53,370(57,324)

Average Dollars Received in Prizes Per
Player

$$5,755 $
(78,645) $4,422 $
(66,153) $64,563(287,388)$$

100,798 $(397,301) $91,983 $(311,055) $69,168 $(172,189) $72,953 $(167,514) $65,710 $(146,278) $45,750(118,520)

Total Amount Spent on Buy-ins$ 202,111,504$ 166,484,992$ 35,626,500$ 17,454,000$ 15,692,500$ 13,292,500$

5,282,000$ 14,109,500$ 16,598,000

Total Amount Received in Prize Money$ 187,004,480$ 140,519,152$ 46,485,332$ 23,788,336$ 20,236,158$ 14,456,120$

6,273,967$ 15,244,620$ 14,228,302-7.5%-15.6%

30.5%

36.3%

29.0%

8.8%

8.0%

-14.3%

Return On Investment

18.8%

Notes : Table 2 presents measures of the performance of “skilled” and “unskilled” players in all tournaments of the 2010 World Series of Poker. The first column shows data for all competitors. Columns 2
and 3 divide the sample into two mutually exclusive groups: those who do not qualify as “high skill” by any of our proxies, and those who do qualify. The remaining six columns report summary statistics forthe six individual high skill proxies. These last six columns are not mutually exclusive because there is overlap across the proxies. For average dollars spent on buy-ins per player and average dollars received
in prizes per player, standard deviations are given in parentheses.

Table 3: Summary Statistics and Results Excluding the Main Event
Not "High
Skill" Players"High Skill"
Players(1)(2)

Number of Players

29198

Tournament Entries

All Players"High Skill" ProxyBLUFF

Pro Rank

Card Player

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

World Poker
Tour
(7)

28507

691

231

216

203

65636
100%

57351
87.38%

8285
12.62%

3,876
5.91%

3,377
5.15%

2.25
(3.23)

2.01(2.54)

11.99(8.87)

16.78(9.15)

Make The Money Ratio

1.00

0.99

1.10

Final Table Ratio

1.00

0.94

1.18

g
Per Player(8)

Past Bracelet
Winners
(9)

82

223

298

3,053
4.65%

1,112
1.69%

3,028
4.61%

3,395
5.17%

15.63
(9.47)

15.04(9.57)

13.56(8.90)

13.58(9.29)

11.39(9.36)

1.08

1.10

1.05

1.08

1.11

1.05

1.18

1.22

1.08

1.04

1.29

1.04

WSOP 2009

Average Dollars Spent on Buy-Ins Per
Player$$4,416 $
(12,148) $3,472 $
(7,528) $43,367(48,439)$$

65,968 $(56,160) $63,669 $(56,014) $56,318 $(53,966) $55,024 $(53,728) $54,482 $(54,918) $48,114(55,556)

Average Dollars Received in Prizes Per
Player

$$4,049 $
(34,190) $2,994 $
(25,566) $47,598(143,235)$$

68,095 $(163,642) $72,686 $(192,395) $62,038 $(169,242) $61,871 $(161,498) $57,999 $(135,097) $40,294(112,480)

Total Amount Spent on Buy-ins$ 128,941,504$ 98,975,000$ 29,966,500$ 15,238,500$ 13,752,500$ 11,432,500$

4,512,000$ 12,149,500$ 14,338,000

Total Amount Received in Prize Money$ 118,237,080$ 85,347,128$ 32,889,956$ 15,729,882$ 15,700,250$ 12,593,755$

5,073,435$ 12,933,687$ 12,007,497-8.3%-13.8%

9.8%

3.2%

14.2%

10.2%

6.5%

-16.3%

Return On Investment

12.4%

Notes : Table 3 is identical to Table 2, except it excludes the Main Event of the 2010 World Series of Poker. The first column shows data for all competitors. Columns 2 and 3 divide the sample into two
mutually exclusive groups: those who do not qualify as “high skill” by any of our proxies, and those who do qualify. The remaining six columns report summary statistics for the six individual high skill
proxies. These last six columns are not mutually exclusive because there is overlap across the proxies. For average dollars spent on buy-ins per player and average dollars received in prizes per player,
standard deviations are given in parentheses.