The Middle-way of Buddhism and Environmental Problems
This article is a revision of a public lecture
hosted by this Institute on 30 November 2007.

Shuichi Yamamoto andVictor S. Kuwahara

Introduction

T

HE 4th Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)1 report
was disclosed in the spring of 2007. The Japanese Ministry of Environment has also announced an officially translated version in Japanese.
In this paper, we first summarize the 4th report from the IPCC, and second describe past environmental conditions and/or climatic change ofour planet Earth. In other words, what phenomena and events have happened on the planet Earth until now? Third, we disseminate informationsuggesting that the present time may be a major turning point for dramatic environmental changes. Although we can only speculate andhypothesize at this stage, it is realistic to conceive that considerable andsevere environmental transformations may arise unless current conditions are addressed. Finally, we would like to describe how Buddhism
would approach environmental problems from the perspective of the
Buddhist principle of the “middle way,” particularly from the stand pointof “the wisdom of the doctrine of origination in dependence” and “thewisdom of the middle way.”

Current condition of global warming: From the 4th IPCC
report on increasing greenhouse gases
The concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere has without question increased sharply in recent years when compared to theatmospheric conditions of the recent past (last ~250 years). Whenevercurrent CO2 concentrations are evaluated, scientists tend to use the CO2
concentrations from the year 1750 as the boundary line between the preand post-Industrial Revolution. The CO2 concentration before the Industrial Revolution was 280 ppm. The unit ppm (parts per million) equates
to 1/1 million of atmospheric volume. Therefore, although the carbon
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dioxide concentration appears to be relatively low in the atmosphere,
its concentration significantly influences the insulation and surface
temperature of Earth. Carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere
has increased to 381 ppm from 280 ppm in 1750, an increment of ~100
ppm during the course of 250 years. Although the average rate ofincrease is ~0.4 ppm per year, the most recent rate of increase has
exploded to about 2 ppm in one year. The fast rate of increase in CO2
has not been observed before in the past. Carbon dioxide is a typicalgreenhouse gas. Other greenhouse gases include methane, nitrous oxide,
sulfate, etc. in addition to carbon dioxide. Although the concentration ofother gases in the atmosphere is relatively low in comparison to carbon
dioxide, all gases including carbon dioxide are rapidly increasing inrecent years.
How large is the greenhouse effect by carbon dioxide? As a matter offact, the greenhouse effect is relatively large. If Earth is warmed only bydirect solar energy in conditions without an atmosphere, the surface
temperature of Earth would be only -19°C. However, in actuality theaverage temperature of planet Earth is about 14°C. Therefore, the difference is about 33°C. The 33°C difference is what we refer to as thegreenhouse effect by the atmosphere of the earth. Although carbon dioxide, methane and other gas concentrations in the atmosphere are a mere
380 ppm, the effect is relatively large. Thus, it is natural to feel uneasy
about the idea that the greenhouse effect will increase due to small
increases in carbon dioxide or methane gases.

Annual input/output of carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide contains the chemical element carbon. Let us next
examine the fate of the carbon on Earth currently emitted by anthropogenic (human) activities. This perspective is important particularly
when we examine the extent to which human activity has influenced climate on Earth. Carbon is most abundant in sea water. Carbon in sea
water accounts for 38,000 Gt (Giga ton = 109 tons) and is mainly comprised of dissolved carbonic acid, dissolved and particulate organic carbon and plankton. In addition to this oceanic volume, there is about 730
Gt of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, 500 Gt organic carbon in theform of land plants and 1500 Gt of organic carbon in soil. These are themajor stocks of carbon influencing the Earth’s surface, or biosphere.
Carbon is utilized by various living organisms on Earth and is continuously being recycled. There are two major carbon cycles on Earth: one
is a fast cycle and the other a slow cycle. The fast cycle consists of thoseTHE MIDDLE-WAY OF BUDDHISM AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

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processes occurring on land and in the sea. The land cycle includes
processes associated with photosynthesis by terrestrial plants that utilize
atmospheric carbon dioxide, the processes associated with animals feeding on plants, and the processes by microbes that decompose decaying
living matter and return carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. Similarly, thesame cycle occurs in the sea, which includes photosynthesis processesby phytoplankton using carbonic acid dissolved in sea water, the feeding
processes of phytoplankton by zooplankton, and the decomposing
process by microbes. As a result, carbon quickly returns to the atmosphere from the sea. Carbon cycles have been estimated to be ~90 Gt/year on land and ~120 Gt/year in the sea.
On the other hand, there is some carbon which leaks from the fastcycle and circulates through a slower cycle. The first process mainly
occurs in the ocean where carbon escapes the decomposition processes
by microbes and is transferred to marine sediments. The second process
occurs when the sediments settle into the mantle from the crust by plate
tectonic activity or become sedimentary rock through geological time.
Carbon that finds its way into the mantle returns to the atmosphere ascarbon dioxide by volcanic and other crustal related activity. The cycle
is a particularly slow process which takes about 100 to 200 million
years. Oil and natural gas belong to this slow cycle. On land, suchcycles are associated with the generation of coal.
While there are both fast and slow carbon cycles on Earth as mentioned above, what effect does human culture and society have? Human
culture is burning fossil fuel and discharging carbon dioxide into theatmosphere at an alarming rate. The question is what impact does thisdischarge have on the naturally occurring carbon cycle? The answer tothis question begins with the fact that carbon originally designated forthe slow cycle such as fossil fuels is suddenly circulated into the fastcycle. The extra amount of carbon dioxide released into the atmosphereis ~7.1 Gt/year exhausted from the combustion of fossil fuels, in addition to the discharges associated with changes of land use such as deforestation. Currently, the amount of carbon in the atmosphere is ~730 Gt
where the ratio of human induced carbon is approximately 1/100. However, not all human generated carbon is released and accumulated in theatmosphere. At least 1.9 Gt dissolves into the ocean and another 1.9 Gt
is utilized for photosynthesis by land plants. Therefore, roughly 3.8 Gtof the total 7.1 Gt of anthropogenic carbon is processed by the ocean
and land. However, an extra 3.3 Gt of carbon is being emitted into toatmosphere annually by human activity. This is the source of the current
dilemma relating to the global warming phenomena induced by carbon

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dioxide.

Influence of warming
Recently, the average surface temperature of the world has risen likely
due to increases of anthropogenic greenhouse gases such as carbon
dioxide. For example, the average surface temperature of the world fromthe past 12 years (1995–2006 year) are the warmest 12 year period everrecorded since 1850 when recorded observations began. Moreover, theaverage surface temperature of Earth has increased by 1°C in the past
150 years. The increase in temperature not only affects the atmosphereand ground temperatures but also causes ice in Antarctica and Greenland to melt. If ice on these continents melts, the volume of sea water
increases and sea levels rise. The rise in sea level is caused not only bymelting ice but also by the thermal expansion of water. In the past 130
year, we have observed a 20 cm rise in sea levels. While the increasing
incremental rate was 1.8 mm/year from 1961 to 2003, it has risen to 3.1
mm/year from 1993 to 2003 in response to the rise of overall surface
temperatures.
The impact of warming temperatures is larger as latitudes increase
towards the poles. When the average temperature rises 1°C, the impact
is several times higher in the higher latitude regions. Thus, temperaturechanges have a larger impact on regions such as the South Pole, Greenland and the North Pole. Incidentally, the area of annual summer Arctic
sea ice thaw was the largest ever recorded during the summer of 2007.
Further, it is apparent that glaciers in the Everest and Alps regions arealso retreating. The glacial retreat is not only caused by the melting ofice, but also by decreases in rainfall (or snow) precipitation itself. All
are considered to be influences of global warming.

Change of the paleo-climate
Next, we would like to describe changes in the paleo-climate of theearth from the viewpoint of longer time-scales. It turns out that pastenvironmental changes on Earth were bigger than imaginable. In order
to ascertain current and future changes to Earth’s climate it is critical toaccurately account for broad historical conditions. For example, whentemperatures rise or fall, what kind of planetary changes actually occur?
The means and methods to answer this question require robust understanding of the past. In other words, it is critical to understand the pastin order to predict the future.

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When we review fluctuations in surface temperature from the past
2000 years, we find that temperatures from 1500 to 1700 A.D. as a cold
period in time commonly referred to as “the small glacial epoch of themedieval time” which corresponds to the Edo period in Japan. On thecontrary, the period from 900 to 1100 A.D. is considered a relatively
warmer period often referred to as “the warm period of the medievaltime,” which corresponds to the Heian period of Japan. The dramaticdifferences in climate conditions during these two periods are known tohave been acutely influential to human culture. For example, agricultural
production was limited due to low surface temperatures during the small
glacial epoch of the medieval period. During this cold, drier period it
was common for peasants to rise against the government and act repulsively towards all aspects of society. On the other hand, during the relatively warm period of the medieval time during the Heian period inJapan, artistic creativity and prosperity was abundant.
When surface temperature changes are assessed on time-scales of ten
thousand years, we observe even larger instability in temperatures that
had tremendous impact on Earth’s environments. For example, theJomon era over 6000 years ago was known to have been relatively
warmer than the present day. During this warm period ice on land melted and sea levels were higher. As a result, sea water invaded deeper
parts of the coastline, and the period is referred to as “the time of marinetransgression.” In Japan, the sea reached inland to neighborhoods ofSaitama and Gunma Prefecture of the Kanto region. The period from10,000 to 20,000 years ago is considered the glacial epoch. Relative topresent conditions the average surface temperature was 7–8°C lower
where glaciers carved large portions of land. Therefore, sea surface levels were lower, and the period is often referred to as “the time of marine
regression.” Contrary to “the time of marine transgression,” sea surface
levels fell by >10 m, and it is well known that the land-area of the Kanto
region was expansive.
The relatively warm period of the modern day is considered to be anintermittent period referred to as the interglacial epoch. The oscillations
between glacial and interglacial epochs have alternated for the past one
million years with cycles of 100,000 to 130,000 years. The main causeof the alternating cycle is explained by the relation between the Sun andEarth, i.e. eccentricity, inclination of the earth’s axis, and precession
movement. This cycle is called the Milankovich cycle, the name of the
discoverer. However, since there is no evidence of these cycles prior to
one million years ago, many questions remain vaguely unanswered.
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lions of years, we find even more dramatic changes have occurred on theplanet. Obviously, there are some perceivable uncertainties due to thedifficulty in accurately determining the temperature and climate of theremote past. The Cretaceous period during the time of the dinosaurs~100 million years ago, the Devonian period when the first fish evolved~400 million years ago, and the Cambrian period when the first animals
evolved ~500 to 600 million years ago were all periods that were relatively warmer than the present with almost no glaciers on land. Moreover, it has been hypothesized that the planet Earth was like a giantsnowball (the entire planet is frozen) ~600 to 800 million years ago andalso during the period of 2,200 to 2,400 million years ago.
In short, the present day which has glacial ice on land to some extent
is hypothesized to being an intermittent period between extensive freezing (snowball features) and warmer (absence of ice) periods. We canalso conclude with some certainty that there is a fundamental relationship between the concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere and surface temperature fluctuations. In otherwords, regardless of the controversial impact increases in anthropogenic
carbon may have on the climate, modulations of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere correlate with temperature fluctuations.

Future prediction
According to the IPCC report, six potential scenarios are currently predicted for the future. The six scenarios predict surface temperatures forthe year 2100 based on six potential directions human activities could
lead. The best scenario predicts that clean and resources saving technologies are introduced in accordance with a decrease in the humanpopulation after a peak in the middle of the 21st century. In this scenario,
economical gaps between regions and reliance on natural resources
decrease. The prediction in this scenario is that surface temperatures
will rise 1.1–2.9°C (probably 1.8°C). On the other hand, the worst-casescenario is the predication that high economic growth continues with acontinued reliance on fossil fuels in spite of introductions of new efficient technologies and similar human population decrease as above. The
prediction in this scenario is that surface temperatures will rise2.4–6.8°C (probably 4.0°C).
If we assume the worst-case scenario with an average surface temperature increase of ~4°C, the higher latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere
will likely see relative surface temperature increases of up to ~10°C.
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path with unimaginable alterations to the climate and physical featuresof the entire plant. When we consider the influence of warming of thismagnitude in every region of the world, what will the planet Earth look
like? The influence of the warming will certainly change the planet
Earth beyond imagination.

Have we reached a critical turning point?
As mentioned above, there was a cold period in time when the planet
was like a giant snowball and a period of relative warmth without extensive ice. Climatologist Mikhail I. Budyko of Russia solved an equation
which explains the state of stabilization between the balance of solar
energy which the earth surface receives and the energy of infrared emission which escapes the Earth’s surface2. According to this equation,
there are two stable solutions to the balance where the warm solution
constitutes no ice on Earth and the cold solution constitutes a snowballlike Earth. The two solutions are very stable due to the feedback mechanism that works even when there is a shift to warmer or cooler conditions from no ice Earth or from the snowball Earth. Interestingly, thepresent day condition is located in the middle of the two solutions and isin an inherent unstable condition with incoming and outgoing energy
sensitively balanced. In other words, the present state is unstable andcan tip towards two potential outcomes of either a warm or cold solution. The Budyko equation suggests that once Earth leans towards either
stable condition, it cannot easily escape from that climate state. However, Earth has alternated between the two solutions of a warm and cold
period before suggesting that some mechanism exists to shift from one
spectrum solution to the other. The cause and mechanisms are hardly
understood. However, we must consider the possibility that our planet
may shift from the unstable solution to either stable solutions. From thisperspective, recent human activities may have pulled the trigger so to
speak toward the warm solution.

The Buddhist perspective: wisdom of the middle-way and thedependent origination
Next, we would like to discuss how Buddhist philosophy relates to andcould potentially contribute to solving environmental problems3. First,
let us clarify the concept of how Buddhist philosophy should contributeto solving environmental problems. In Buddhism, the concept of “living
things” includes not only people, but all life forms on the planet. From a

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Buddhist perspective, environmental problems such as degradation andpollution are not just human-related issues, but a serious complication
for all living organisms. Naturally, environmental problems will cause
physical and mental suffering for all living organisms. One of the fundamental principles of Buddhism is to reduce and remove the suffering for
all living entities. From this precept, it is natural for Buddhist philosophy to actively function for the sake of resolving ongoing environmental
problems.
Buddhism has two philosophical concepts: the “dependent originationor arising from causation (engi)” and the “middle-way (chudo).” Bothconcepts, serve important viewpoints that contribute to solving environmental problems. The concept of “dependent origination” teaches thatevery entity generates and exists in relation to one another. In otherwords, nothing in life is conceived independently rather all phenomena
are conceived in relation to everything else (conception and existence
are one). The causal connection between all things encompasses spatial
and time relations.
Spatial relations are ecological relationships between living organisms (biotic relations), or relationships between living organisms andtheir environment (abiotic) including inorganic material on Earth. In thecase of human beings, the relationship not only includes fellowman, butalso includes all other living organisms including plants, animals,
microbes, and environmental factors such as the physical environment,
the atmosphere, temperature, etc. The time relation not only includes theconnection between one generation to the next (parents and children),but also encompasses historical time-scale relationships such as theprocess of evolution. In the case of the human species, naturally, we
have journeyed from a long evolutionary process in accordance with thelong history of the planet. Humans did not evolve from humans; rather
we evolved from various living organisms. This is the meaning of thetime relation in the Buddhist concept of “dependent origination or arising from causation (engi).”
As mentioned above the doctrine of “dependent origination” denotes
spatial and time relations. Diversions that harm these dependent origination relationships are contradictory to Buddhist wisdom. The concept issuitably expressed in the simile of Indra’s Net describing the aspect of“dependent origination” in the Huayan or Flower Garland Sutra (kegonkyo) in Buddhist literature. The simile describes a great net that hangs in
the palace of Indra, the God of Thunder. The countless joints or knots
adorned with jewels are in a beautifully complex mesh. Each of thesejewels clearly reflects all the other jewels in the net, so that every part of

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the net reflects all other parts. The jewels or knots and the net express
each living entity and the ecosystem, respectively. The net is stabilized
so that the relation is complex. The reason each link or knot is expressed
as a jewel implies that each living entity has value beyond imagination
and by projecting the reflection of other jewels signifies the mutual
respect and deep relationship each living thing has towards one another.
Each jewel glitters differently expressing that each living entity lives
with its own unique independence. Therefore, even if there is a humanbeing in the relationship (ecosystem), the human being is not the only
jewel expressed in the net. Moreover, this net (ecosystem) is stable only
after all of the various living entities are in a balanced relation. Naturally, the entire net is only as strong as the small intricate lines that connect
all other mesh lines. If any part of the net is cut or jewels removed, thestability of the entire net is at risk of collapsing. This parable correctly
describes the sensitivity of the natural ecosystem on Earth and the susceptibility to environmental degradation. Thus, maintaining a balanced
ecosystem with biodiversity is very important from the viewpoint ofconcept of “dependent origination” in Buddhism.
The second Buddhist concept is the wisdom of the “middle-way(chudo).” Although the concept has various interpretations, here we discuss the concept of the middle-way from the true definition which
explains the important incorporation of both pleasure and pain. In otherwords, the true meaning of “chudo” is not the “middle” in the context of
economic or political matters; rather the true meaning of the middle-way
includes the relationship of both extremes. The middle-way of pleasureand-pain is founded from the practice methods of Shakyamuni.
Although Shakyamuni carried out austerities (one extreme) for six years
together with five monks, he was unable to attain spiritual enlightenment. After this long attempt, he realized the futility of trying to attainenlightenment through punishing himself. Indeed, after he received ricegruel with milk from a woman named Sujata he recovered from his
physical ordeals, and did in fact attain enlightenment. The “pain” of thepenance principle indicates that although perhaps useful for developing
strength of mind it does not lead to attaining absolute wisdom, or spiritual enlightenment. Instead, the “pleasure” of hedonism shows thatabsolute wisdom or enlightenment can be acquired without taking
recourse to punishing oneself. Therefore, the concept of the “middleway of pleasure-and-pain” refuses a deterministic stand towards either
hedonism or austerity. That is, while accepting the value of either principles or extremes the “middle-way” demands harmony between the twoand does not accept an inclination to either side. It is important for the

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middle-way to include both sides in balance.
Environmental problems are always accompanied with both benefit
and disadvantage. For example, human society will reap benefits from
exploiting natural resources such as catching fish, but nature will be at a
disadvantage from the loss of fish stock. Moreover, advanced economies
have removed many natural resources from the land of emerging
economies. In this case, the advanced economies will receive benefit
while contrarily the emerging economies will have the disadvantage ofloosing resources. Whenever human societies obtain natural resources,
the destruction of nature always follows. Therefore, when considering
environmental problems, the wisdom of the “middle-way” in Buddhism
demands the equal distribution and harmony of benefit and disadvantage
to all sides.
In the first half of this paper we only discuss global warming amongst
various environmental problems. Actually, many other environmental
problems exist. The question is how Buddhism can contribute to resolving these issues. It is necessary to explain and expand further. Let us
next examine environmental problems using the three categories ofadvanced economies, emerging economies and natural ecosystem which
include animals, plants and microbes. It is necessary to examine thethree categories in relation to various environmental problems, i.e. global warming, deforestation, decrease in biodiversity, etc. that exist today.
It is also important to discuss how the three categories must be in harmony with each other in order to solve environmental problems towards
the future. This is the essence of the concept of Earth ethics in Buddhism.
For instance, today there is a clear inclined advantage towards
advanced economies when compared to emerging economies. When we
consider the relationship between advanced economies and the natural
ecosystem, the advanced economies have received a tremendous amountof one-sided benefit. Further, people living in emerging economies also
sell their natural resources such as trees and obtain benefit from the natural ecosystem as well. However, it is important to point out that the sizeof the benefit is considerably smaller when compared with people livingin advanced economies. All in all, it is the advanced economies that arereceiving the biggest benefit from exploitation of natural resources. On
the other hand, the natural ecosystem is receiving the most disadvantages of the three categories. In short, human culture and society have
hardly returned any benefit to the natural environment. The people inadvanced economies are one-sidedly receiving natural resources and living comfortable lives. Thus, in the future it is critical to find and return aTHE MIDDLE-WAY OF BUDDHISM AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

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harmonic relation where all categories balance the beneficial aspects,
particularly towards nature.
Proper Earth ethics must employ an efficient and balanced view ofconsumption of natural resources rather than a shallow attitude of how
to utilize resources, or “whether to take this or that”. The way of thinking based on the wisdom of the “middle-way” in Buddhism approaches
natural resources by efficiently balancing both the pleasure-and-pain, or
benefits and disadvantages of consumption. From this viewpoint, thequestion is not “whether to take this or that” from emerging economies
or the natural environment rather, how can all categories benefit accordingly. For example, Buddhism would not dwell on how to utilize emerging economies or natural resources but rather try to resolve a means inwhich all life experiences the enlightenment of the middle-way of pleasure-and-pain. This is the concept of Earth ethics. Since the entire planet
is one vehicle comprised of humans and other organisms, it is critical tomaintain harmony amongst all aspects. Therefore, it is not important tocontemplate what has and doesn’t have value rather, it is necessary totreat all categories and components as part of a whole system.
Another important unbalance is how advanced economies are monopolizing all of the benefits. It has become increasingly necessary to
search for an ideal method to accommodate desires without sacrificing
others. When the relationship between carbon dioxide emissions perperson (Index 1) and the emissions per person to gross domestic product(GDP) in US$ (Index 2) for every country in the world is examined, we
see four country groups or categories emerge4. The indices comparisonssuggest that the higher the amount of carbon dioxide per person is themore people in the country are living a luxurious life and the higher thevalue per gross national product the more people are using energy inefficiently. The four groups are as follows,
Group 1: United States, Australia and Canada:
Index 1: 16–21 CO2-t/person
Index 2: 0.65–0.70 CO2-kg/GDP
Group 2: Russia and Poland:Index 1: 8–10 CO2-t/person
Index 2: 0.9–1.48 CO2-kg/GDP
Group 3: China, India, Brazil, Malaysia and Mexico:
Index 1: 1–4.5 CO2-t/person
Index 2: 0.25–0.72 CO2-kg/GDP
Group 4: Deutschland, Japan, United Kingdom, New Zealand, Italia
and France

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Index 1: 4.7–10.2 CO2-t/person
Index 2: 0.25–0.45 CO2-kg/GDP
Group 1 is comprised of countries that live the most luxurious life inaddition to exhausting a large amount of carbon dioxide. Group 2 is themost inefficient likely due to technological hurdles. Group 3 which
include the most populous countries of China and India as well as many
emerging economies are the most inefficient and the degree of luxury is
also low. Groups 4 include some of the most advanced economies where
efficiency is good to some degree and the living standards are also high.
However, the group is not considered to be an ideal example of CO2
emissions. The ideal value for CO2 emissions are Index 1 values fewer
than 4 and under 0.25 for Index 2. Ideal values are found under themean of Groups 3 and 4. From these results it can be said that Group 1
should make efforts to greatly reduce their living standards in addition
to raising efficiency, while Group 3 has room for raising their living
standards. Moreover, Group 2 should make more efforts to increase efficiency, and Group 3 should also raise efficiency accordingly. Therefore,
to keep harmony in the world it is vital that people in advanced
economies endure.

The Bodhisattva code of conduct and ethics norm
Finally, we would like to describe the ideal code of conduct and ethics
norm in Buddhism as it relates to environmental problems. SchraderFrechette, K.S. (1981)5 describes that human beings are miserablyincompetent in decision-making and ethical thinking although they have
many analytical strengths in the area of science and technology. In otherwords, the behaviors of people are not inherently ideal. Do humanbeings have the capability and methods for ideal behavior? We thinkthat maybe some contrivance is necessary. Human society generally
requires a good reason (profit or incentives) for conducting good intentions. Thus, it is important for a system to be designed that offers somepositive incentives or profit for good intentions towards environmental
problems. This is only possible if an efficient profitable system isdesigned in society. For instance, some good examples are the tax reduction incentives and subsidy allocation when contributions are made toconserving and protecting the environment, such as buying energy
conserving products. In short, it is necessary to design a system that has
visible and concrete results for those who help solve environmental
problems.

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From a Buddhist perspective, solving and contributing to the eradication of environmental problems is itself part of the practice of Buddhism. In other words, solving environmental problems is a natural
aspect of the Buddhist philosophy of the middle way. One important
example is the practice of the way of the Bodhisattva using the six
paramitas. The six paramitas are composed of Dåna paramita (generosity), Í¥la paramita (morality), Kshanti paramita (patience), V¥rya
paramita (effort), Dhyåna paramita (unwavering) and Prajñå paramita(wisdom); Dåna paramita means doing something good without regret
for a person and nature, Í¥la paramita means upholding precepts such as
not hurting or killing living entities and not stealing, Kshanti paramita
means enduring sadness and pain, V¥rya paramita means doing yourbest and always making effort to do better, Dhyåna paramita means
being unwavering or steadfast in all endeavors, and Prajñå paramita
means obtaining true cognition of wisdom from the concepts of “dependent origination” and the “middle-way.” Actions and perseverance forsolutions towards environmental problems corresponds to the Bodhisattva way very well. It is even more important to establish the true meaning of the six paramitas as a intuitive part of Buddhist practice, which is
not something separate from protecting and conserving the environment.
In other words, a Bodhisattva who practices the six paramitas is someone who is acting in accordance with protecting the environment andreducing environmental problems. Buddhists will be able to contributeto solving environmental problems more positively if these codes ofconduct and ethic norms are maintained in Buddhist practice.
References
1

2

3

4
5

IPCC, IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, Synthesis Report http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/
assessment-report/ar4/syr/ar4_syr.pdf
Budyko, M.I., G.S. Golitsyn, and Y.A. Izrael. Global Climatic Catastrophes. New
York: Springer-Verlag, 1988.
Yamamoto, S. (2002) Environmental Ethics in Mahayana Buddhism: The Significance of Keeping Precepts and Wisdom, The Journal of Oriental Studies, 12,
137–155.
Yamamoto, S. and Kuwahara, V.S. (2005) Deforestation and Civilization: A Buddhist Perspective. The Journal of Oriental Studies, 15, 78–93.
http://kabuto.phys.sci.osaka-u.ac.jp/~higashij/lecture/coe_04/ondanka.pdf
Shrader-Frechette, K.S. (1981) Environmental Ethics, Boxwood Press. This sentence is translated from the Japanese book (1993) to English.