Meishinsha

The opening ceremony at the Kasugano-so Hotel with guests and ACCU staff

Observing unearthed artefacts at the Preservation Office of Yoshinogari Site

Visiting the Conservation Laboratory at Kyushu National Museum

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10

1. Opening Ceremony
The opening ceremony of the 2008 training course was heldon 9 September 2008 at the Kasugano-so reception hall in
Nara City, with sixteen course participants and honourable
g uests f rom the Agency for Cult u ral Affairs, Japan(Bunkacho), Nara National Research Institute for Cultural
Properties, Nara Prefectural Government and Nara Municipal Mr. Suzuki, Director of Programme Dep.
of ACCU
Government.
The opening add resses were given by M r. SUZU K I
Yoshimori, Director, Programme Department of ACCU; Mr.
NISHIMURA Yasushi, Director, ACCU Nara Office; Mr.
YAGI Kazuhiro, Head, Office for International Cooperation
on Cultural Properties, Cultural Properties Department,
Bunkacho (Agency for Cult ural Affairs, Japan); Mr.
KOBAYASHI Ken-ichi, Head, Planning & Coordination
Section Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Mr. Nishimura, Director of ACCU Nara
Properties; Ms INAMURA Kazuko, Chief, Culture Division,

OfficeDepartment of Culture and Tourism, Nara Prefectural
Government; and Mr. KIRIKI Takayoshi, Associate Director,
Cultural Assets Division, Board of Education, Nara City.
In the above mentioned speeches, organisers and guests
extended warm greetings to all participants and stressed
the importance of mutual understanding and international
network in the field of cultural heritage protection and wishedthe success of the training course. At the end of the ceremony,

Mr. Yagi, from Bunkacho, Agency forthe participants introduced themselves and a group photo was Cultural Affairs, Japantaken with staff and guests.
After the ceremony, the participants proceeded to the Nara
Prefectural Office, where they were welcomed by the Deputy
Governor of Nara Prefecture, Mr. HASHIMOTO Hirotaka.
He greeted them and gave brief overview of Nara Prefecture,and the participants also asked him about the prefecture.
Then, they were ushered to the roof floor of the governmentbuilding, where many historical monuments designated Mr. Kobayashi, from Nara National
World Heritage can be observed with fine views. In the Research Institute for Cultural Properties

11

afternoon, the participants visited Todai-ji Temple (one ofWorld Heritage sites in Nara) and observed the South Great
Gate and the Great Buddha with keen interest.
After that, an introduction to the training course was given
regarding the course theme, objectives, logistics, andrequirements. Following this, presentation about daily life in
Ms Inamura from Nara Prefectural
Government

Japan for visitors was made, followed by an open question
period.

Mr Kiriki from Nara Municipal Government

Meeting with the Deputy Governor of Nara Prefecture, Mr Hashimoto

12

2. Summary of Training Course
Various experts delivered a series of lectures during this Training Course. The following is a complete
list of the lectures with a brief description of their contents.

■

Global Trends in Conservation of Archaeological Sites (10 Sept.)
Clair SMITH (Flinders University)

Participants were named arbitrarily to present a brief
account of problems in their countries relating to theconservation of cultural heritage. Accordingly, Prof.
Smith pointed out that each country had different
requirements for conservation of cultural heritage.
Extensive and lively discussions among the lecturer andparticipants took place on the wide range of issues:-

Conservation of movable heritage in museums-

International and interethnic differences in thesignificance of authenticity-

The role of folk museums- Cultural heritage which has been moved and repaired-

The problem of looting of cultural properties: thesituation of looting and its preventive measures in
Iraq; the situation of looting and producing forgeriesin Africa cited as examples-

The significance of understanding the symbolism
and significance of the cultural heritage when
undertaking the conservation of it.

The lecturer emphasized the significance of accurately
grasping the complex social structure, the world viewand landscapes, and the customs and tradition generated
in the region and remaining in the area. She also asked
participants about challenges facing their countries
in regard to archaeological survey and protection ofcultural properties. As the session progressed, eachparticipant lively exchanged opinions because everyonein the class was given a chance to speak their views.

13Prof. Smith facilitated the discussion in the class■Country Reports by Participants / Discussions (11-12 Sept.)
Clair SMITH (Flinders University, Australia) / INABA Nobuko (Tsukuba University, Japan)-

Each participant gave a presentation of a country
report: An introduction of basic information andcultural heritage in their countries, and mainly on the
problems relating to cultural heritage sites they wereinvolved in as well as present and future issues.

-

The key issues on cultural heritage protection arealmost the same in spite of the difference of thedomestic situation.

-

Prof. Smith and Prof. Inaba

The participants deepened their understanding on thepresent situation of cultural protection in one another’scountry and the Asia/Pacific region.

■

The Cultural Property Protection System in Japan / Conservation and Utilisationof Cultural Heritage Resources (Cases in Japan) (16 Sept.)
ICHIHARA Fujio (Agency for Cultural Affairs, Japan)
Each participant is requested to read out the passage in the handout text and deepened their knowledge on the cultural property
protection system in Japan.
-

The overview of Japanese cultural properties and theirconservation strategies was lectured.

Mr Ichihara from the Agency for
Cultural Affairs, Japan­A detailed explanation was given on the Japanese legal
system in the cultural property protection: Specific methods
for conservation such as establishing organisations for the14

protection of cultural heritage.
-

Introduction of concrete examples of utilisation of thearchaeological sites in Japan.

-

Mr Ichihara suggested several plans while mentioning thedifference between the city planning by the government
and the revitalization plan by local communities.

-

Most of the participants were interested in the practicalprocedures for the protection of sites, and asked manyquestions on specific methods for on-site display of the sites.

■

On-site Lecture: Nara Heijo Palace Site (17 Sep.)
SHIMADA Toshio (NNRICP)-A lect ure on the over view of the master plan forthe conservation of Heijo Palace sites; issues on themaintenance and utilisation of the sites in practice; andfuture challenges for further restoration and utilisation.

-

Observation tour of the Heijo Palace site under theguidance of Mr Shimada▶ The First Imperial Audience Hall (Daigokuden)

under re-construction▶The reconstructed earthen platform of the Eastern

Imperial Audience Hall▶ The site of governmental offices which wasrestored first in the Palace sites▶ Sites which were restored or reconstructed withdifferent methods in the Palace sites

At the Daigokuden reconstruction site: Observationof the seismic isolation system in the basement(right)▶ Archaeological Features Exhibition Hall; display of excavated remains as it was▶ Eastern Palace Garden, reconstructed in 1998.

■

On-site Lecture: Imperial Palace Sites at Asuka and Fujiwara (18 Sep.)
KUROSAKA Takahiro (NNRICP)An observation tour guided by Mr Kurosaka:-

A lecture was given on an introduction of Fujiwara Palace
Sites

-

Participants visited:▶ the excavation site, work on progress, at the Fujiwara

Palace Sites▶ Moto-Yakushiji Temple: Viewing some of the un-restored

15

Mr Kurosawa explained the outline of
Fujiwara Palce Sites

temple sites and their surrounding landscapes▶ Department of Imperial Palace Sites Investigations (Asuka/

Fujiwara)▶ Ancient burial mounds representing Asuka area such as Ishibutai

and Takamatsuzuka Burial Mound in Asuka-mura Village▶ Kawara-dera Temple: Restored archaeological sites basedon unearthed architectural features after the excavation
Participants observed the ancient conduit
at Fujiwara Palace Sites.

investigation▶ Asuka-dera Temple▶ Asuka Historical Museum: Exhibition of cultural properties in the Asuka region■

Introduction to Scientific Dating Methods (19 Sep.)
NAGATOMO Tsuneto (Nara University of Education)- Explanation of principles of scientific dating in archaeology
and introduction of various methods- An Over view of Isotopes, radiocarbon dating (C-14),
a rch a e om ag net ism , a nd lu m i ne sce nce d at i ng: t hei r
mechanisms, required equipment and most appropriate
sampling procedures- Careful considerations are needed to the samples of the

Lecture by Mr Nagatomoarchaeological artefacts and the range of age covered by eachdating method-

Prof. Nagatomo introduced the research examples of these methods and recommended to do a crosscheck by using at least more than two methods to determine the age of archaeological remains.

■

Introduction to Environmental Archaeology (19 Sep.)
KANEHARA Masa-aki (Nara University of Education)- Explanation of pollen analysis at excavation sites and diatom
analysis- While referring to the investigation report, Prof. Kanehara
lectured on the environmental changes (such as a climate andthe sea level) in one region influenced the distant locations at
the same period.
- The pollen analysis of the safflower can reveal that it was used for

Lecture by Mr Kanehara-dyes, medicine for parasite removal, and also used for festivals.

An introduction of Toilet Archaeology: Identification of parasite eggs and fruit seeds, excavatedfrom toilet sites, can illuminate the lifestyles of people of the time: their dietary habit and theusage of ancient toilet.

16■Workshop: Conservation Science of Archaeological Sites and Remains (22 Sep.)
KOHDZUMA Yohsei (NNRICP)-

An overview of the principle of conservation science and a lecture of conservation treatment
suitable for each archaeological artefact (both organic and inorganic materials) in detail-

Hands-on sessions on archaeological artefacts preservation by utilizing urethane foam-

A lecture on how to diagnosis the deterioration degree of stones-

Facility tours of Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties guided by Mr Kohdzuma

Showing how to handle urethane foam, used toprotect artefacts

Participants observed wooden artefacts kept in water

Mr Phin showed a bag, made of special film withextremely low permeability for storage of artefacts

Mr Kohzduma explained how to detect thedeterioration of stones■

On-site Lecture: Visiting the World Heritage Sites in Kyoto (23 Sep.)
SUGIMOTO Hiroshi (Uji Museum of Historical Materials)-

An Observation tour of World Heritage sites in Uji, Kyoto Prefecture: Manpuku-ji Temple,
Byodoin Temple, and Ujigami-jinja Shrine-

Mr Sugimoto lectured in detail on restoration work of gardens of Byodoin Temple based on the
excavation and investigation of the site which he was involved in.

17

On-site lecture at Obakusan Manpukuji Temple, which was established in 1666 by the Chinese Zen priest, INGEN■

Workshop: Documentation of Archaeological Artefacts (24 Sep.)
NAMBA Yozo (NNRICP)-

Observation of the sorting process of archaeological artefacts at the
research laboratory for wooden and iron objects

A lecture by Mr Namba-

A lecture on the pottery of Yayoi Period (ca.350 BC - AD 300)-

Practical training on documentation: measured drawing ofarchaeological artefacts

A hands-on session of measured drawing of various earthenware using set squares, rulers, callipers etc.

■

Workshop: Documentation of Archaeological Artefacts (25 Sep.)
BABA Hajime / IMAI Koki (NNRICP)-

Methods for conservation of Mokkan, a wooden writing tablet, and how to decipher written
sources on Mokkan-

Participants observed how Mokkan were classified by types and stored at the reference rooms andMokkan storage rooms in NNRICP.

-

A lecture was given on Japanese roof tiles:18▶ How roof tiles were manufactured back in those days.
▶ Chronological changes of imprinted patterns on roof tiles▶ How to determine where in the building the excavated tiles in question had been used.

-

Practical training on ink rubbings by using Marugawara (round tiles) and Hiragawara (flat tiles)

A hands-on session of taking ink rubbings of Japanese roof tiles■

Workshop: Photographic Documentation of
Remains (26 Oct.) NAKAMURA Ichiro (NNRICP)-

Each participant was asked to present the current status of“photography of cultural properties” and its management
methods in their countries.

-

After the discussion on photography in each country, Mr
Nakamura lectured on Japanese situation of photographsof cultural properties used as an archaeological record andpointed the importance of phtographs for conservation ofcultural properties.

-

Basic mechanisms of cameras and storage environment ofphotographs and data were also lectured.

-

A hands-on session of taking a portrait of each by using thelarge-sized camera

19

An ink rubbing of Marugawara.

■Introduction to Archaeological Prospection ofSites (29 Sep.)
NISHIMURA Yasushi (ACCU Nara)

Mr Nishimura introduced main reference books, from past topresent, on archaeological prospection for further study.
-

A lecture on methods and techniques of archaeologicalprospection: Photo-interpretation of aerial photography;
Mag nemetor y; G rou nd Penet rat i ng Rad a r (GPR);

A lecture by Mr Nishimura at NNRICP

Electomagnetic Method (EM), Observing Seismic Wave,etc.
-

While referring to a number of case studies, the lecturer
illustrated the principles of each method, necessary
equipment, and the suitable matching of the method andthe site to be prospected.

-

Before formulating the archaeological prospection plan of
the site, researchers should gather full information about
the site to be prospected: the area, the nature, the allowed
period of prospection, and the historical materials relating
to the region.

Demonstration of GPR equipment

The need for cross-checking by using more than two
methods was emphasized.

■

Introduction to Dendrochronology (29 Sep.)
OKOCHI Takayuki (NNRICP)-

An over view of Dendrochronology, one of thescientific dating methods based on the analysis oftree-ring patterns, and the history of its development,from its foundation as a discipline to the present, werelectured.

Mr Okochi lectured based on the case study ofdendrochronological investigation

Dendrochronology is applicable not only to thefield of history and archaeology but also to otherdisciplines, and requires broad knowledge in the fieldof various learning.

-

An explanation was given on how to identify the date of logging of the wooden materials and whatwood species were suitable for the analysis.

-

Identification of the logging year of the wooden materials is useful for better understanding of thearchaeological sites and wooden structures in question.

20

■

A Study Tour (1): Himeji-jo Castle (30 Sep.)
OTANI Teruhiko (Himeji Municipal Board of
Education)
Himeji-jo Castle was inscribed on the UNESCOWorld Heritage List in 1993. Under Mr Otani’s
guidance, participants toured and observed the
major buildings of Himeji Castle: Otemon, the maingate, Nishinomaru, western parts of the castle, On-site lecture by Mr Otani
and Tenshykaku, the main castle keep. Participants
experienced the confusing maze of paths anddefensive devices leading to the main keep bywalking around the castle buildings.

■

A Study Tour (2): Kyushu National Museum;
Maintenance and Utilisation of Sites inPractice (1 Oct.)
AKASHI Yoshihiko / IMAZU Setsuo (Kyushu

Mr Akashi lectured at the laboratory

National Museum)-A presentation on an outline of Kyushu National
Museum: its role and exhibition principles-

A facility tour of the museum: the repository of acollection and laboratories for conservation treatmentof cultural properties-

A lecture on the conservation treatment of culturalproperties and how to use various equipment forconservation-

Observing the Mizuki site

At the site of Dazaif u Gover n ment al Off ice,participants were given lectures on the brief historyof Dazaifu and architectural remains unearthed at the
site.

-

At the Mizuki site, they were also given lectures onhistorical background of the site and archaeologicalremains: Mizuki consisted of moats and earthworks
as a fortification in 7th century to defend the county
from the invasion of China and Korea.
Observing the artefacts stored at the Office21

■A Study Tour (3): Yoshinogari Sites (2 Oct.)
SHICHIDA Tada-aki / MATSUMOTO Katsumi /NAGASAKI Hiroshi (Saga Prefectural Board of
Education)-

Mr Sachida and Mr Matsumoto gave an overview of
the Yoshinogari Historical Park: the discovery andsubsequent excavation of the site since 1980s, andthe process of conservation as a national historicalpark.

At the entrance of Yoshinogari Historical Park-

Under Mr Matsumoto’s guidance, participants
visited the Preservation Office of Yoshinogari Site
and inspected how excavated artefacts of Yayoi
period were organised at the workshop.

-

Afterwards, they visited restored Yoshinogari
Historical Park and looked around to learn thepractical techniques for restoring structural remains.

■

A Study Tour (4): Korokan Site (3 Oct.)YOSHITAKE Manabu (Fukuoka Municipal Boardof Education)

Participants visited and observed Korokan site, theNational Historic Site.
-

A lecture on the conservation history of Korokansite from its discovery to the process of excavation,conservation and restoration; the difficulties inmanagement of the archaeological site and exhibition
facilities; and further restoration planning.

-

Observation of Otemon (Main gate) of Fukuoka
Castle in the process of restoration while listing to

Mr Yoshitake explained the conservation of
Korokan site

the explanation of restoration work and design.
■

Future Issues on the Preservation of Sites
and Remains I (Risk Management) (6 Oct.)
Gamini WIJESURIYA (ICCROM)

M r Wijesu r iya gave an over view of ICCOM, itsorganisation and the role in the cultural heritage
protection and lectured on the concept of heritage
protection and the role of archaeologist while referring

22

various case studies.
-

Cultural heritage is not the product of the past but
to be safeguarded along with living tradition andreligion for future generations.

-

Participants were invited to share urgent issues ineach country of the cultural heritage protection andtheir countermeasures.

-

A rchaeolog ist s shou ld be f u lly awa re of t hecontradictions in the idea of excavation, protection
and management of sites; the work of excavation andinvestigation sometimes deteriorates the sites.

-

The work of archaeologist also includes managementof the sites and having good communication withstakeholders and people in other disciplines.

-

The management system of the archaeological sites
in Sri Lanka was illustrated by examples, from its
establishment and following development process A lecture by Mr Wijesuriya from ICCROM anddiscussion in the classto the present as well as its characteristics andproblematic points.

■

Future Issues on the Preservation of Sites
and Remains II (Utilisation for the Public) (7Oct.) Gamini WIJESURIYA (ICCROM)

Discussions continued and views were lively exchanged
on many issues in the class:-

How to protect the living cultural heritage?

-

The need to raise public awareness of the importanceof preserving cultural heritage; the need for heritage
education in local communities-

The work environment of archaeologists for protecting
cultural heritage in reality-

Diff iculties in fund raising for protection andinvestigation of cultural heritage■

Writing Final Reports (8 Oct.)

Participants wrote final reports of the training course.

23

Engaging in a frank and active exchange ofviews among all participants■Submission of Final Report / Closing Ceremony (9 Oct.)The closing ceremony was held at Kasugano-so Hotel in
the afternoon. Mr Nishimura, Director of ACCU Nara
Office, made the closing address and wished this newfoundinternational friendship among participants in the training
programme 2008 would develop to the steady one. Mr
Kobayashi, Head of Planning & Coordination Section,
Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties,

The closing address by Mr Nishimura

congratulated the completion of the training programme andwished the best of luck for all the participants in the futureback into their own countries. Then, Mr Nishimura awarded a certificate of completion to eachparticipant with words of appreciation of their efforts. Ms Babakhani and Mr Ilyasov made speeches
and expressed their acknowledgements and gratitude for the organisers and lectures on behalf of allparticipants.

Ms Aileen Babakhani from IranMr Djangar Ilyasov from Uzbekistan

24

Bangladesh
Mst. Naheed SULTANA
Custodian
Department of Archaeology
Ministry of Cultural Affairs

Problems and Needs for Cultural Heritage Protection and
Restoration Activities in Bangladesh(Mainly on archaeological sites and remains)’’
Bangladesh is the largest delta in the world, stretching between the subcontinent regions of the mighty
Himalalayas on the north and the Bay of Bengal on the south. It is, so to say, the gift of the mightiest
rivers like the Brahmaputra, Padma, Meghna, and their numerous tributaries. The natural fertilityof the soil of this region, its kind and generous climate, and fabled riches have attracted people fromall over the world, especially from the west. On the one hand, the region is bestowed with alluvial
plains stretching for miles and miles with bountiful crops of different kinds, and on the other, hills
and woods have made the land extraordinary in the history of the world. The factors of climate andgeography have profoundly influenced the extraordinary personality, art and culture, architecture,
dress, tradition, and way of life of this region.
Bangladesh is heir to a rich cultural legacy despite the various destructive tendencies of nature andman. If we look back two thousand years ago in the flow of history, we find many splendid cities,
magnificent palaces and buildings, temples, stupas, mosques, and mausoleua erected by various rulers
and settlers of this country. But most of these have now perished with the passage of time and tide.
These are now the most precious hidden treasures of poor but culturally rich Bangladesh that are yet
to be explored.
Whatever small number of monuments still survive proudly speak for their glory and splendour.
In connection with this lost heritage, we can mention the two distinguished archaeological sites ofPaharpur and the mosque city of Bagerhat. The former is the grandest and the largest ancient Buddishtmonastery, and the later consists of mediaeval Muslim monuments of Khalifatabad. The causesthat played a main role in their destruction are serious waterlogging, salinity, earthquakes, and longcenturies of age. The limited resources of the government of Bangladesh at different times could notcope with the attacks of time, tide, and other calamities.
Bangladesh is remarkably rich in its cultural heritage. She is truly fortunate for her proud cultural
heritage in comparison to many other countries of the world. The history of its cultural heritage is27

about two thousand five hundred years long. There
are thousands and thousands of archaeologicalobjects, archaeological sites and antiquities, here
and there throughout the country of 147,570 sq.
km. These archaeological remains of Bangladesh
may be divided broadly into two categories: (1) theremains that were constructed during the BuddhistththHindu regimes (from 4 century BC – 12 centuryAD), and (2) those constructed during the Muslimthth

and British regimes (13 century AD – 19 centuryAD). The former category of Buddhist-Hindu
regimes may be divided into three more categories,
i.e. Mauryan, Gupta and Pala periods and the later
Map of Bangladesh

may be divided into Muslim and British periods.

The archaeological sites and remains found so far for the Buddhist-Hindu regimes are mainly varietiesof antiquities and remains of buildings. The antiquities worth noting that have so far been discovered
are punch mark coins, N.B.P ware, inscriptions, stone beads, terra cotta plaques of Sunga age, various
artifacts of Gupta age such as terracotta plaques, terracotta images, terracotta balls, stone beads, goldcoins, copper plates, stone images, varieties of ordinary earthenware pieces, and many other articlesof daily use. Through excavation, ruins of buildings of Mauryan and Gupta regimes have been
discovered. The principal items obtained from the ruins of the Pala dynasty are terracotta plaques,various terracotta objects, ordinary potshards, black stone images, etc. Besides these, ruins of many
big buildings have also been discovered.

Mauryan seal28

Gupta image

Ruins of buildings constructed during the Gupta and Pala periods include Buddhist monasteries,
Buddhist temples, Hindu temples, stupas, castles, etc. Most of the remains from the Gupta and Pala
dynasties have become dilapidated and buried, or turned into cultural mounds due to the wear andtear of centuries. Thousands of such archaeological sites are lying scattered all over Bangladesh. The
real statistics for these remains and sites have not yet been ascertained.
Among the building structures of the Muslim and post-Muslim periods are Hindu temples, mosques,madrasas, forts, roads, bridges, Jamindar houses and Kacharies, etc. Many, though not all, of thestructures are nearly ruined or about to fall into ruin, although some are yet standing as evidence offormer times. The responsibility for preserving and reforming the above-stated archaeological sites
and objects rests with the Department of Archaeology under the control of the Ministry of Cultural
Affairs of the government of Bangladesh. Among these countless archaeological sites and remains,only 395 have been selected as protected sites and monuments in consideration of their importance.
These sites and remains have been protected since 1968, under the care of the Department ofArchaeology. Next, to ascertain the problems and needs for cultural heritage protection and restoration
activities in my country, Bangladesh, I would like to describe some problematic sites of Bangladesh
one by one, along with their specific problems and possible solutions, as follows.
Mahasthan Garh
The extensive ruins of Mahasthan Garh, situated on the western bank of River Karotoa in the districtof Bogra, have been identified as the earliest urban site in Bengal. Spreading beyond a fortified area,other ancient ruins covering an extensive area of 8-km radius are deemed to be the suburbs of theancient city of Pundranagar, familiar in Mauryan, Gupta, Pala and Sen literary and other epigraphic
records. In and around this city, many other important establishments have been discovered by

29

Bangladesh and foreign archaeologists through numerous excavations from 1928 untill the presentday. These sites include: Khodarpathar Vita, Mankalir Kunda, Jiyat Kunda, Bairagir Vita, Parshu
Ram’s palace, Gobinda Vita, Yogineer Dhap, Sur Dighir Dhap, Vasu Bihar, Bihar Dhap, Khulnar
Dhap, Godaibari Dhap, and several other mounds under private occupation.
The specific problems involved for this site are as follows.
1. Lack of public awareness of the importance of the site. For want of awareness of theimportance of archaeological sites and artifacts therefrom, it sometimes becomes difficult tolaunch excavations in the face of opposition.
2. Most of the archaeological sites of Mahasthan Garh and its adjoining area belong to private
landowners.
3. There are no specific laws and regulations for the protection and preservation ofarchaeological sites.
4. Land development projects are needed for combating waterlogging, erosion, and floods.
5. Insufficient provision of funding and manpower.
6. Popular pathways are a great problem in this area. People use shortcut pathways instead of themain road.

Mahasthan Garh

Paharpur (Somapura Maha Vihara) World Cultural Heritage Site

30

This is the second biggest Buddhist vihara among the old monasteries known so far for the entire landmass lying south of the Himalayas. According to epigraphic evidence recovered from excavationsof the extensive remains in the Paharpur vihara, the monastery was named Somapura Vihara. The
thsecond emperor of the Pala dynasty, Dharmapala, erected this vihara during the 8 century AD,
located in the Naogaon district in the northeastern part of Bangladesh. The importance of this ancient
Buddhist site was recognized in 1985, when it was placed on the World Cultural Heritage list. This
spectacular Buddhist monument has been revealed through excavation to be centered on a gigantic
cruciform temple, arranged in four wings around the large shrine, within an approximately 280-m
square monastery containing 177 cells.
Since the main fabric of the temple and monastery was exposed by excavation in 1934, it has
progressively deteriorated for nearly 75 years. The problems of this World Cultural Heritage site arepresented below.
1. Waterlogging remains very much an issue of concern for proper conservation of thisarchaeological site. Waterlogging in the vast courtyard, from June to November each year,
causes enormous damage to the foundations of the buildings and to their decorative elements.
2. One of the major problems of visible degradation of the brick work of the central shrine is the
rapid deterioration caused by sulphate attack.
3. Due to heavy rainfall lasting almost six months, the large monastery and central temple andother structures have become covered by moss, algae, fungi, insects, etc.
4. Another important problem concerning the site itself is drainage. It is very delicate anddifficult to solve, because the vihara area lies below the surrounding area.
5. As many as 63 stone images and about 2500 terracotta plaques are badly damaged. The
problem’s causes include environmental factors such as dampness, rainwater penetration, salt
evaporation, and biological growth, etc., as well as vandalism by visitors and local people.
6. The tendency of smugglers to take valuable antiquities with the help of local people.
7. Loss of authenticity and integrity of the brick structures of monuments.
Mainamati (Comilla District):31

The greatest assemblage of ancient Buddhist remains lies in Lalmai-Mainamati, a 16-km-long hill
range near the town of Comilla. The northern part of the range is locally known as Mainamati, whichsimply echoes the memory of King Govinda Chandra’s mother, Mainamati. Exploration of this rangeth

has revealed over 50 ancient sites containing various types of Buddhist remains of the 6 to 13th

centuries AD Excavations have been conducted at a number of sites, locally named as Salban Vihara,
Kutila Mura, Ananda Rajar Bari, Charpatra Mura, Mainamati Ranir Bari, and Vozz Rajar Bari, from1955 to the present day.

A large collection of gold and silver coins, stone and bronze sculptures of various gods and goddesses,
royal copper plate grants, terracotta plaques, jewelery, pots and miscellaneous objects of daily use
have been recovered from these excavations. Problems attending these sites are as follows.
1. Skyscrapers are a new problem in this area. Landowners are building these as there are nostrong regulations regarding them.
2. There is a shortage of specialists in archaeology and conservation.
3. Regarding environmental damage and vandalism, the architectural remains are sustaining aloss of their original variation, leading to anomalies in their unique features and a loss of partof their historical meaning.
4. Insufficient manpower in the Department of Archaeology.

Sixty-Domed Mosque32

Shait Gumbad Mosque, Bagerhatth

In the mid-15 century a Muslim colony was founded in the hospitable mangrove forest of the
Sundarbans near the seacoast in the Bagerhat district by an obscure saint and general named Ulugh
Khan Jahan. He was a contemporary of the independent Bengal Sultan Nasiruddin Muhammad Shah
(1442-59). Ulugh Khan Jahan ruled over an extensive jungle territory in and around Khalifatabad(present Bagerhat). Khan Jahan adorned his capital city with numerous mosques, traditionally 360 in
number, plus bridges, water reservoirs, roads, palaces, mausolea, and the largest multi-domed mosque
in Bangladesh, known as the Shait Gumbad Mosjid. Other monuments of Khan Jahan precariously
surviving the ravages of time, within the area ruled from the city for miles around, include themassively built Ronvijoypur Mosque, Bibi Begums Mosque, Chunakhola Mosque, Singar Mosque,Nine-Domed Mosque, Sonatola Mosque, Reza Khoda Mosque, and Zinda pir Mosque. Among themany surviving monuments of the Khan Jahan style, the largest and most magnificent Shait Gumbad
Mosque is among the heritage of Bagerhat listed as World Cultural Heritage in 1985.
Problems involved with these monuments are as follows:
1. These monuments are situated close to the seacoast and are subject to regular seawater
inundation at high tide, and therefore suffer badly from dampness, salinity, and waterlogging
of the area.
2. Some monuments are situated beside a highway which is one of the busiest motor ways in
Bangladesh. The vibration from the vehicles harms the foundations all day and night.
3. Major problems identified by the UNESCO experts are:a) The presence of deleterious salts in the ground has caused considerable damage to thebrick wall and fabric of all the monuments.
b) As a result of excessive salt action, external brick facades have become totally disfigured.
c) The wall faces are covered by lichen and moss.
4. Vandalism by the visitors and local people of the monuments.
5. Lack of skilled manpower.
Lalbagh Fort
Dhaka city is about a thousand years old and has a very glorious past. It is heir to a very old andrich heritage of human civilization and culture. The Lalbagh fort and its ancillary structures suchas fortification walls, gateways, Diwan-i-Am (public audience hall), hammam (steam bath), thetomb of Pari Bibi, mosque, masonry reservoir, and well-planned garden are situated in the heart of
Dhaka. This fort, built in 1678, is the most dominant architectural creation of the Mughal period in
Bangladesh. The fort was declared protected in 1910.

33

Problems involved with these monuments are as follows:
1. The Lalbagh fort is confronted with various problems everyday stemming from its situationin the busiest and most commercially crowded area.
2. In the areas surrounding the Lalbagh fort there has been a massive growth of industry thatcauses immense harm to the original colour and beauty of the fort on a daily basis.
3. The monuments being situated within a very thickly populated area, the internal and external
environments of the monuments are becoming polluted in various ways. Sometimes illiterate
mobs try to harm the magnificence of the monuments due to ignorance. Criminal elements
sometimes enter into the protected areas in groups.
4. Above all, the monuments being surrounded by busy roads used by so many heavy vehicles,
vibrations harm the foundations all through the day and night, threatening the longevity of
the whole structure.
Gaur
The main precinct of the medieval Muslim capital of Bengal called Gaur or Likuta lies in West
Bengal, a state of India. Bangladesh has only suburbs of the city, with some important monumentsof the sultanate and Mughal periods, namely Darasbari Mosque, Choto Sona Mosque (Small
Golden Mosque), Kania Dighi Mosque, Dhani Chak Mosque, Shah Nimatullah Wali’s mosque andmausoleum, and the attached summer resort with a hammam.

34

The architectural features were studied carefully on the basis of these monument’s surviving elements,
and restoration works have been carried out. At present, the monuments are restored.

Small Gold Mosque

The problems at Gaur are the same as those stated for the various monuments above, and areaccordingly not discussed separately here.
Some recommendations for cultural heritage protection and restoration
As Bangladesh is a small country, the main problems for archaeological sites and remains are
everywhere the same, such as weather, waterlogging, etc. Some sites have unique problems, though
they are few. Here I have tried to figure out some recommendation for solving the common problems.
1. In a considerable number of districts in Bangladesh, archaeological surveys have been
conducted by the government of Bangladesh. Many of the country’s 64 districts are still notincluded in the archaeological survey, and it is highly necessary for them to be surveyed soon.
2. With a view to enhancing archaeological activities, it is essential to develop the necessary
skilled manpower, create training facilities, collect necessary equipment including vehicles,
and sufficient funds should be arranged.
3. The archaeological laws enacted in 1968 (reformed in 1976) are not adequately effective
for the protection and preservation of archaeological assets. New laws incoprorating new
perspectives of the world today should be enacted for this purpose.
4. Effective steps should be taken by the government to check the criminals involved in35

handing over valuable antiquities to others or other countries unlawfully, with bricks fromarchaeological sites often reported as being stolen by groups of people who collect bricks andsell them, causing damage to the ancient architectural mounds. It is highly necessary to put
an end to this harmful practice.
5. Religious sentiments are playing a harmful role in the field of protection and preservationof the temples, mosques and mazars. People guided by religious sentiments want to use themonuments according to their own will by colouring, overlapping, enlarging, reforming,and decorating, thereby destroying the real value, meaning, and nature of the architecturalevidence. It is very essential to put and end to this intolerable practice.
6. Alleviate the insufficiency of manpower in the Department of Archaeology.
7. Alleviate the lack of trained and skilled manpower.
8. Promote closer coordination between different organizations of the government and theDepartment of Archaeology.
9. Create links between the Department of Archaeology and the universities to boost the workof research, reform, and conservation through close communication.
10. Make higher training from foreign countries available for Bangladeshi archaeologists andconservators.
11. Insufficient allocation of funds from the national budget is an obstacle to implementing
development projects. It is necessary to enhance budgetary allocations sufficiently to copewith the Herculean task of reforming, restoring, and developing the archaeological sites.
12. Due to heavy rainfall lasting almost six months of the year in Bangladesh, the monuments
face problems from the biological growth covering them, so effective and timely measures
are necessary to eradicate these.
13. The Buddhist monastery at Paharpur and the Muslim monuments at Bagerhat, the spectacularancient remains of the country have faced serious conservation problems. These should be
rethought before the next steps of conservation. In addition, the problems of drainage of thecentral monument and the courtyard should be solved in the near future.
14. A good number of monuments need more than the usual routine care. Moreover, because of
the vastness of some of the monuments, and the advanced stage of their deterioration, there isneed for specialized and scientific conservation work.
15. Maintain conservation records and proper monitoring after conservation.
16. Proper documentation work should include photography and drawing, and collecting
materials on the history and architectural characteristics before restoration work.
Conclusion
Despite many problems and shortcomings relating to archaeology in Bangladesh, the government
and the Department of Archaeology are doing a lot in developing, restoring, and preserving
the archaeological sites of Bangladesh including the Buddhist monastery of Paharpur, the Shat

36

Gumbad Mosque in Bagerhat, and many other viharas, temples, mosques, forts, ancient cities, andarchaeological sites are being preserved successfully, thereby gaining world-wide attention andreputation.
Reference works
1. Discover the monuments of Bangladesh
Dr. Nazimuddin Ahmed-UNESCO, 1984
2. Safeguarding of the monuments of Paharpur and Bagherhat
An appeal by the Government of the people’s Republic of Bangladesh, 1986
3. Paharpur and Bagherhat—two world cultural heritage sites of Bangladesh
Department of Archaeology, Ministry of Cultural Affairs and UNESCO-Dhaka, 2004
4. Proceedings of the international seminar on elaboration of an archaeological research strategy
for Paharpur world heritage site and its environment (Bangladesh)
Department of Archaeology, Ministry of Cultural Affairs and UNESCO-Dhaka, 2004
5. Project review on drainage and maintenance programme of Paharpur and Bagerhat
James Hoodman—Consultant Engineer, Jon Sanday—Conservation Architect, UNESCO,
2008
6. Nomination of Mohastan and its environments for inclusion on the UNESCO world heritagelist.
7. Fourth Seminar on the conservation of Asian cultural heritage held in NARA. 1993
8. Architectural conservation Bangladesh
Asiatic Society of Bangladesh 199337

Cambodia
LUN Votey
Archaeological Expert
Japan-Apsara Safeguarding Angkor (JASA)

Conservation and Restoration Works in the Bayon Complex
1. Introduction
Angkor, the great medieval settlement of the ancient Khmer Empire, comprised many temples andhydraulic works. In 802 AD, the Angkor Dynasty was established by the great King Jayavarman II.
He built his first capital city at Mahedraparvata (Kulen Mountain), and later moved to Hariharalaya(Rolous). In the reign of King Yasovarman I, the capital city was transferred from Hariharalaya
to Yasodharapura I (Angkor area). Other great kings such as Suryavarman I, Udayadityavarman
I, Suryavarman II, and Jayavarman VII continued to use the Angkor area as the capital city, andcontinued the temple-building tradition.
The Bayon complex (Fig. 1) was constructed under the reign of Jayavarman VII (r. 1181-1220
thAD), in the later half of the 12 century, and dedicated to Mahayana Buddhism. It is located in thecenter of the royal capital of Angkor Thom and was called Yasodharapura III. Angkor Thom wasencircled with a high wall having five gates. The Bayon consisted of a central tower 40 meters highsurround by towers of various heights. Due to time and changes of the capital city from Angkor toother places in the latter period, the Bayon and other temples in this area deteriorated and were inserious danger of collapse.
thFrom the early part of 19 century until the outbreak of internal conflict in Cambodia, the École
Française d’Extrême-Orient (EFEO) conducted conservation and restoration activities at the Bayoncomplex. These activities are recorded in their journal, Rapports d’Angkor.
Following Cambodia’s civil war, conservation and restoration efforts at the Bayon resumed
immediately with the Ateliers for Conservation of Cultural Property (PKZ). From 1989 to 1990, afive-year plan was formulated for archaeological survey and restoration of the Bayon complex. Thearchaeological survey was conducted in 1990and the restoration plan submitted the same year for theSouthern and Northern Libraries, and the East Tower of the Outer Gallery. Unfortunately, this project
did not lead to any actual restoration work.
In 1992, the Angkor area was registered as a Cultural World Heritage Site by UNESCO. Manyinternational researchers from various countries have started research in this area under APSARA
authority control. Countries such as France, Germany, Italy, India, and Japan have been very active.
Among these countries, Japan has selected the Bayon complex to survey for the possibilities ofconservation and restoration works. A project was created called the Japanese Government Team for

PKZ, ed., The Bayon Temple, the Report of the Polish-Cambodian Archaeological and Preservation Mission 1990, Vol. I. Warsaw, 1991.

38

Safeguarding Angkor (JSA). This project was conducted from 1994 to 2005. After the JSA project was
finished, the Bayon Master Plan was prepared for conservation and restoration works in the Bayoncomplex. After the Bayon Master Plan document was drawn up, a new project of cooperative effort
between Japan (JSA) and the APSARA Authority was initiated. The financing came from UNESCO/
Japanese Funds-in-Trust for the Preservation of the World Cultural Heritage. The new joint effort
was called JAPAN-APSARA Safeguarding Angkor (JASA), created to continue the conservation andrestoration works in the Bayon complex for 5 years (2005-2010). The following are the conservation
and restoration works that have been conducted in the Bayon complex under the JASA structure.
2. The Present Condition and Deterioration of Bayon
Structurally, Khmer architecture can generally be divided into two categories: the sub-base, and theupper structure. The Bayon complex, built nearly 800 years ago, has suffered from the passage of thetime, changes in weather, changes in the city, and wars, to name a few. The condition of the Bayoncomplex has become deteriorated and it is in danger of collapse.
2.1. The Sub-Base
The sub-base consists of the ground, the base foundation, and the platform. It is designed to stabilize
the upper structure. Nowadays, the deterioration of the sub-base is the most important problem. It
is because of the deterioration of foundation that parts of the upper structure have collapsed. The
deterioration of the sub-base is caused by decay of the stone elements inside the foundation, andthe movement and disturbance of the foundation soil. Deformations of these elements are caused byground water, rainwater, plant roots, and insect infestation.
2.2. The Upper Structure
The upper structure consists of many components such as roofs, walls, pillars, and internal spaces.
The upper structure is for creating internal space. The upper structure can be said to be the significant
part of the building, stabilized by the sub-base. Nowadays, the condition of the upper structure isseriously damaged as evidenced by collapse, cracking, breakage, decay of the sandstone elements,
fallen stone elements, and plant organisms.
Below are examples of deterioration of components of the upper structure.
Four-faced Towers
The Bayon consists of fifty towers, with four faces in each tower, except the central tower. There arethree different types of faces: the Devata type (goddess), the Deva type (male god), and the Asura type(fierce god). Only forty towers remain in Bayon complex, and some towers are in a state of collapse(Pl. 2). We can recognize them as four-faced towers from the fallen stones with tower face fragments
scattered around Bayon complex. In addition, most of the stone elements are decayed and weathered.

39Outer/Inner Galleries and Bas-reliefs
There were two galleries constructed in the Bayon complex, called the Outer and Inner Galleries. On
the walls of both galleries are bas-reliefs that have been carved as historical stories, depictions of daily
life, iconographical stories, and religious stories.
The structure of the Outer Gallery has been seriously damaged (Pl. 3). Crumbling and collapseof the roof and some parts of the walls, weathering of sandstone elements, and plants, lichens andalgae are all contributing factors. At the Inner Gallery (Pl. 4) the structure of the building is stronger,
but the surface of the sandstone elements is more seriously damaged than at the Outer Gallery. There
are plants on the roofs, and lichens and algae on the surfaces of the structural body, especially the basreliefs due to wet conditions caused by rainwater absorption.
The Northern and Southern Libraries
There are two libraries at the Bayon, called Northern and Southern Libraries. These libraries stand on
the terrace of the Outer Gallery, located at the northeast and southeast corners. The Northern Library
was restored by the JSA project in its second phase (Pl. 5), and the Southern Library is in the processof restoration by the JASA project (Pl. 6).
Before restoration, both libraries were seriously ruined. The pavement became uneven due tosubsidence and the walls have inclined inward and are somewhat twisted. Major gaps are also foundbetween blocks that constitute the wall. There is no roof remaining over the nave.
Scattered Stones in the Bayon Complex
Many sandstone blocks have fallen from different parts of the Bayon (Pl. 7). Most of the stones were
piled inside the wall of Outer Gallery or assembled around the Outer Gallery by EFEO in the earlythpart of the 20 century. There is no record to confirm their original locations. Recently, these scatteredstones are being studied by JASA.
3. Risks of Deterioration
Regarding the problems that have been mention above, risks of deterioration can be divided into two
main classes of factors: natural and human.
3.1. Natural Factors
Deterioration caused by nature is the most important set of factors affecting these monuments. These
factors have caused the Bayon monument to fall into a seriously damaged state. Natural factors
include rainwater , temperature, strong wind, plants, lichens and algae.
Rainwater
The foundation soil is very well compacted. When rain falls, however, water penetrates into thecompacted soil by way of the gaps between stone blocks. The compacted soil weakens from its wet

40

condition and some of it gets washed away. Additionally, the foundation soil is disturbed by ants andother insects, weakening the soil and making it more easily washed away. This can cause the sub-baseor upper structure and stone elements to collapse, break, and crack.
Temperature
Cambodia is located in the tropical area; the weather is dry and wet. Changes in temperature are acause of decay of the stone components.
Strong Winds
Wind is a cause of deterioration. Strong winds have caused the sandstone to fall, and have contributed
to the cracking. Moreover, winds can knock down big trees nearby, which strike the temple.
Plants (Pl. 8), Lichens and Algae (Pl. 9)
Due to favorable weather, plants, lichens and algae grow easily. Plants are visible on the roofs and on
top of towers; their root invade joints between stones, widening them until the stones fail as supports.
Lichens and algae grow on the surfaces of stones, especially on the bas-relief of gallery walls, andthey have an adverse effect on sandstone.
3.2. Human Factors
Deterioration caused by human factors is also important. Human factures include war, theft and illegal
carving out of statues or bas-relief, activities of tourists, and religious ceremonies inside the complex.
Since the ancient period, war has always been started by the outbreak of internal conflict inCambodia, or by the aggression of neighboring countries. Because of warfare, the temple has been
destroyed and abandoned by the people who move to settle in other places. Some sculptures weretaken out by foreign forces during their control or by organized theft.
An example, after the reign of the King Jayavarman VII, there was a great change of religion
from Mahayana Buddhism to Hinduism. All of the sculptures and bas-reliefs which were related to
Buddhism were destroyed or carved out, or changed to Hindu subjects (Pl. 10). This activity was doneat all of King Jayavarman VII’s temples.
Nowadays, in the Bayon complex and also at other temples in the Angkor area, many local andinternational visitors visit everyday (Pl. 11). The number of tourists is more than one million people
in 2007, according to data from the Ministry of Tourism. The increase of tourists has had adverse
effects on the temple. For example, stones are being worn out from shoes, the noisy sounds of tourists
have caused the sub-base and upper structure to tremble, and there have also been an increase inweight from the tourists on the sub-base, and destruction of the environment surrounding the temple.
Religious activities (Pl. 12) inside the temple are also a problem. Smoke from burning candles andincense sticks has left residue on the sandstone elements. With time this will have adverse effects on
the sandstone elements.

41

4. Conservation Measures
In the Angkor area, APSARA is the only authority responsible for conservation in cooperation withinternational agencies. This authority has created many departments for conservation within the
Angkor area. Inside APSARA, the guardian and cleaning teams were created for maintenance ofthe temple, including cleaning, removing plants from the roofs and around the temple, as well as forassisting visiting tourists. Explanation teams were created with the aim of educating the local people
about the cultural heritage value.
In the Bayon complex, the JASA project is responsible for conservation and restoration.
Nowadays, this project is conducting the conservation and restoration of the Southern Library,
studying conservation methods for bas-reliefs of the inner gallery (caused by lichens and algae) and forthe central tower, surveying the condition of Bayon, and conducting other research. These activities
will continue until 2010.
Reinforcing dangerous components is very important in the Bayon complex. In the previous
conservation work of EFEO, concrete cement (Pl. 13) and crampons were used. In the JSA project,
dangerous parts were reinforced with wooden support, wire wrapping (Pl. 14 and 15), and steel pipes
inserted to prevent further crumbling and collapse. This work is being continued by the JASA project.
APSARA Authority has also used the wooden shoring to support some dangerous places (Fig. 2).
5. Archaeological Survey and Restoration of the Southern Library
Before starting the current archeological survey and restoration work at the Southern Library, similar
work was conducted for the Northern Library by the JSA project in its second phase.
In this section, I would like to report only on the current archaeological survey and restoration
work at the Southern Library of the Bayon complex.
5.1. Archaeological Survey
From 2007 up to the present, we have conducted archaeological excavation and investigation at theSouthern Library of the Bayon complex and its surroundings. JASA excavated the following threeareas (Fig. 3): the dismantled areas at southwest and northwest corners of the Southern Library, thecentral part of the Southern Library, and Passage C and its lower structures. This report summarizes
the first and third of these areas. The aim of the survey was to gather data on construction techniques
and processes, and on the present condition of the Southern Library, and to compare these with datafrom the previous survey of the Northern Library.



Details of the archaeological and restoration works for the Southern Library are given in section 5.1.1, below.



See the following reports on the conservation of the Northern Library: JSA, Annual report on the Technical survey of Angkor Monument, 1996, 1997, 1998;

Report on the Conservation and Restoration Work of the Northern Library of Bayon, Angkor Thom, 2002; The Bayon Master Plan: The Master Plan for the Conservation and Restoration of the Bayon Complex, 2005.

42

5.1.1. Dismantled Area at the Southwest and Northwest Corners of the Southern Library
5.1.1.1. Excavation Procedure
The excavation at the southwest corner was carried out from June to September 2007. This survey
examined the entire platform, from the upper to lower parts, and ultimately down to the lower laterite
pavement under the platform. The excavation at the northwest corner started May 2008 and continues
to the present. It was excavated from the upper to the lower platform.
Prior to the excavation, the main structure of the library was dismantled. The excavation work
was started after the architectural unit had dismantled three tiers of the upper platform and reached
the artificially laid soil (inner compacted soil) inside the platform. The southwest corner trench isapproximately 1.7 m (E-W) x 1.6 m (N-S), and the northwest corner trench is approximately 2.4 m(E-W) x 2.2 m (N-S). Its shape was found to be irregular due to the intricate assembly of the stone
blocks. For this reason, the dismantling work and excavation work were conducted simultaneously.
The foundation soil was excavated in layers of 30 cm in depth. In every 30 cm thickness, thearchitectural unit normally made soil tests including a penetration test, permeability test, and the
Yamanaka test for hardness of the foundation’s compacted soil.
5.1.1.2. Platform
As is common to most Khmer architecture, the whole structure is constructed of sandstone blocks,
laterite blocks, and artificially laid soil. Sandstone blocks were used for the floor (platform surface)
and the exterior elements, while laterite blocks were used as material for the interior behind thesandstone facing. The main platform of the Southern Library is composed of three layers: upper
platform, middle platform, and lower platform.
Upper Platform. The upper platform is includes the surface of the platform, and is built with threetiers of masonry. The first or uppermost tier, comprising the platform surface, and pillar bases are
made from sandstone blocks, while the second tier is made of both sandstone and laterite blocks,
and the third is made of laterite blocks. The use of adjustment soil for filling the gaps between innerstone blocks was confirmed. Adjustment soil is a type of sticky soil mixed with sandstone and laterite
particles, and is different from the artificially laid soil of the middle and lower platforms.
Middle and Lower Platforms. The middle and lower platforms are similarly composed of sandstone
blocks on the exterior surface, backed with interior laterite blocks, and a core of artificially laid soil.
There is basically a row of sandstone blocks on the outer surface and a row of inner laterite blocks pertier, although some tiers are composed of two or three rows. The use of adjustment soil, of the kind
mentioned for the upper platform, was not confirmed between the gaps of exterior sandstone blocks.
The vertical joint between the sandstone and laterite blocks, and the bed and vertical joints between
laterite blocks on the inside were filled with adjustment soil.
The artificially laid soil inside the laterite blocks can be divided basically into three types ofsoil. One is soil that has been compacted on the inner side of the laterite blocks as backfilling soil

43

(cohesive soil). Another is artificially laid soil that has been laid farther inside the backfilling soil,
and contains rubble of natural stone block. The last is soil compacted into thin layers (sandy clay withsandstone and laterite particles), which has been laid between the artificially laid soil layers. Inside
the artificially laid soil, there is a row of laterite wall structure (Fig. 4) that appeared in the east wallof each trench, and runs in a north-south direction of both trenches. In the east wall in the northwest
corner this laterite structure is composed of seven tiers (Pl. 17), and in the southwest corner, it iscomposed of six tiers. Both examples are almost the same level, approximately 1.6 m high and 3.5 m
length. This detected laterite structure is still under study.
The backfilling soil had been made according to two methods. In one method, the soil was piled
up as artificially laid soil, and cohesive soil was then laid and compacted as backfilling soil. In theother method, cohesive soil was first filled up as a backfilling soil, and the sandy soil was then laidand compacted as artificially laid soil. The former type is mainly found in the upper platform, and thelatter is mainly found in the lower platform. Other parts contained no backfilling.
5.1.1.3. State of Deterioration
Deterioration is particularly noticeable in the upper platform and the upper part of the middle platform.
Significant uneven subsidence has occurred in places where rainwater penetrated in to the foundation
mass of the building and washed away the inner artificially laid soil and adjustment soil through open
gaps in the stones. This caused the upper layers of artificially laid soil and adjustment soil to become
discolored. Moreover, there were traces of ant holes appearing near these elements. In this way, theupper platform is especially susceptible to influences of rainwater from the upper surface. The innersoil has begun to flow out and the stone blocks have subsided unevenly, especially at the southwest
corner, because there are big opening gaps and ant holes.
5.1.1.4. Comparison between the Southern and Northern Libraries
The sectional construction of the Southern Library is roughly the same as that of the Northern Library,which we investigated previously. In other words, the platform is composed of sandstone blocks on
the exterior surface, laterite blocks inside, and artificially laid soil behind these. The composition of
inner artificially laid soil is basically similar to that of the Northern Library, and can be divided into
three types. However, there appears to be a slight difference in the process of arranging the backfillingsoil. In the case of Southern Library, the two above-mentioned methods were used, but in the case of
Northern Library, only one method was used. Backfilling soil was laid first, and then a sand layer wascompacted on top of it. This difference, however, is simply a difference in process, and we assume it
has no influence on the construction plan as a whole.
Compared to the compacted soil layer under the Upper Pavement, which will be described later,
the compacted layers inside the platform of Southern Library are clearly the product of crude work.
This difference is interesting in that it is one of the factors that showing the difference in construction
date between the Southern Library and the lower part of the Upper Pavement. The detected laterite

44structure wall inside the artificially laid soil of the Southern Library did not appear during the

excavation survey at the Northern Library.
5.1.2. The Survey at Passage C and Its Lower Platform
This survey was carried out from April to September 2007 at the eastern half of Passage C, also
examining the structures below it such as the Upper and Lower Pavements of the eastern half ofPassage C.
5.1.2.1. Passage C
Currently, the inside of Passage C is paved with laterite blocks. We found that only one tier of laterite
blocks was paved on artificially laid soil layer (not compacted) approximately 20-30 cm thick. The
north side of Passage C is paved with two tiers each of interior laterite blocks and exterior sandstone
blocks. The artificially laid soil layer becomes thicker toward the north side. The laterite surface on thenorth side is also about 10 cm higher. The artificially laid soil can be divided into two layers, neitherof which has been compacted.
The edging stone around Passage C is sandstone blocks. The row of edging stone on the easternside has some moldings on the surface, but there are no moldings on the western side. Moreover, twotiers of laterite blocks are piled immediately inside the row of sandstone blocks (edging stone) on
the eastern side for reinforcement. This indicates that both Passage C and the Upper Pavement wereplanned to be built at the same time. This probably indicates why the lower inside portion of Passage
C does not have a sandstone Upper Pavement, but instead is paved with laterite.
5.1.2.2. Upper Pavement
The Upper Pavement is the present pavement floor, and it shows sandstone (upper) and laterite (lower)
layers at the surface between the Inner and Outer Galleries.
5.1.2.3. Lower Pavement, SF015 and SF020 (Fig. 5)
Structure SF015. The laterite Lower Pavement was found approximately 1.4 m below the uppersurface of the sandstone Upper Pavement, and approximately 1.2 m below the upper surface of thelaterite Upper Pavement. SF015 is the higher tier that extends in an east-west direction at the south endof the Lower Pavement. The southern extremity has a deep vertical drop, consisting of eight tiers oflaterite blocks arranged in vertical orientation approximately 1.9 m in depth. At the north end, a tiercomposed of three stone rows is set on the laterite pavement. Excluding the northern extremity, whichis composed of sandstone, the row of stone blocks is made of laterite. The sandstone is the remainderof the sandstone Lower Pavement. As the surface of the sandstone becomes lower to the south andthere is a tier that had been cut out, it appears that sandstone was piled on the part that was cut out.
The trench for each corner of Northern Library was small, and may have missed the location of a laterite structure wall.

45

The platform from the south end of the laterite wall to the cut out portion is approximately 3.2 m wide,and had been built preceding the present Outer Gallery. The main platform is about 5 m narrower than
the width of Outer Gallery, and may have been a simple structure, such as a stone wall. However, it isdifficult to be certain because the upper part has been modified by SF020, as will be described below.
SF015 and the Lower Pavement were made by leveling soil to a thickness of approximately 1.1
m on the natural soil occurring about 0.25 m below them, and further soil compacted to a thickness
about 1.4 m was piled on it. SF015 is the same structure as the two rows of laterite walls that EFEO
and JSA surveys have found on the inside of the north face of the Outer Gallery. The previous surveys
had not considered the two rows as a single platform.
Structure SF020. The area on the outside of SF015 south wall (about 1.9 m high) is filled with sandy
soil, and paved with SF020 laterite. SF020 laterite connects with the foundation of the Outer Gallery.
It is believed that there had been sandstone paving on the SF020 laterite pavement, because we
confirmed traces of scraping that have been made when the stone blocks were piled on the laterite
surface.
5.1.3. Other Structures
Traces of nine postholes aligned in a N-S direction have been found on the Upper Pavement. These
postholes were numbered SB009a to SB009i (Fig. 3). SB009a was found under the southwest cornerof the platform of the Southern Library, and therefore is considerably older than the Southern Library.
We also found a relatively large posthole under the lower platform in the southwest corner of Southern
Library (numbered SB011). It was made after construction of Upper Pavement. It is apparent that there
had been wooden structures around this area before the Southern Library was constructed.
At the northwest corner, traces of surface cutting into the carvings of the southeast platform of
Inner Gallery were found (Pl. 19). This was cut to join the platform of the Inner Gallery and the lower
platform of the Southern Library.
These traces show that the southeast platform of Inner Gallery is older than the Southern
Library.
5.1.4. Recovered Artifacts
Artifacts such as Chinese and Khmer ceramics, and iron objects, were found in excavations of
the southwest corner trench, Passage C, and its underlying structures. All the ceramics are smallpotsherds. At the northwest corner trench we also found Chinese ceramics and Khmer potsherds, but
the amount is less than that found in the southwest corner.
In total, there were 712 pieces of ceramics found. These ceramics included rims, bodies, bases,covers, and unknown pieces.In this report, I do not show the potsherds that were found at the northwest corner because they have not been processed.



Please see the Table with the list of ceramics counts, below.

46

Khmer Ceramics (Pl. 20). The Khmer ceramics found in these trenches are stoneware andearthenware. It is difficult to recognize the types or vessel shapes because the shards are small.
thth

However, we can give a date to stoneware that was produced in the Angkor period, between 9 to 12
centuries, because of the decoration, the ash glaze, and the brown glaze that covers them.
Chinese Ceramics. There were few Chinese ceramic shards found.

Iron Objects. There were two iron chisels found. One iron chisel was found in the south side of theSouthern Library. Another chisel was found at the southwest corner of the lower platform (Pl. 21).
Both chisels are similar to the iron chisel that had been found at the northeast corner of Northern

Library.
At present, all of these artifacts are being cleaned and stored at the JASA office. After thearchaeological excavation is finished, we will start to process them.
5.1.5. Results of the Archaeological Investigation
The archaeological survey through excavation shows that the upper platform and upper part of
middle platform have deteriorated, because rainwater has washed away the inner artificially laid soil
and adjustment soil through the open gaps between stones, and that the upper platform is especiallysusceptible to influences of rainwater from the floor. As a result, the inner soil has flowed out and thestone blocks have subsided unevenly.
For the construction process of the Southern Library and its related structures, we can conclude
that the Bayon complex was constructed in the following stages:
Stage I: Leveling of the Natural Soil and Construction of the Lower Pavement and SF015. Sandy
soil was compacted to a thickness of about 1.4 m to build SF015 and the Lower Pavement on thenatural soil. SF015 is slightly higher, so the compacted soil is 0.5 m thicker. The Lower Pavement was
originally paved with sandstone, but the sandstone was later removed.
Stage II: Modification of SF015 and Construction of SF020 and the Outer Gallery. The preparation of
the Outer Gallery and SF020 foundations elsewhere preceded all other structures; it would be natural
to consider that the upper part of the gallery was completed after SF020. It appears that only the south
side of the Lower Pavement was modified before constructing the outer side of the gallery.
Stage III: Construction of the Upper Pavement and Passage C. The inner courtyard side of the Outer
Gallery was raised and leveled with a 1-m-thick compacted soil layer on the laterite Lower Pavement,
and was paved with sandstone and laterite. Passage C was planned at the same time as the Upper


JSA, “4.1.2 Platform”, “Appendix 3 Artifacts- Mental tools”, Report on the Conservation and Restoration Work of the Northern Library of Bayon, AngkorThom, Kingdom of Cambodia, p.110 and 363, 2000.

47

Pavement, which may have been made using sandstone that was used in the Lower Pavement. Further
studies are needed to determine the degree to which the Outer Gallery has been modified after Stage
II.
Stage IV: Construction of the southwest platform of the Inner Gallery. After the construction of Upper
Pavement and Passage C, the platform of the Inner Gallery was constructed. It might have been
built before or after SB009 and SB011, but recent study confirms that it was constructed before theSouthern Library building.
Stage V: Construction of wooden structures SB009 and SB011. In this stage, wooden structures SB009
and BS011 were built. They were constructed after the Upper Pavement and before the construction of
the Southern Library. Recent research shows that a wooden building had existed before the Southern
Library.
Stage VI: Construction of the Southern Library on the Upper Pavement. Among the above-mentioned
stages, the difference in the construction dates between Passage C and the Southern Library havealready been pointed out, but further studies are needed to elucidate the dismantlement period of
Passage C, changes in its function accompanying the dismantlement, as well as the roles of otherstructures surrounding the Southern Library.
5.2. Restoration work at the Southern Library
In this project, restoration work is still underway at the Southern Library, following the restoration
work that was done at the Northern Library in the second phase of JSA project.
The following is a brief description of the activities of the restoration work.
5.2.1. Dismantling
Dismantling at the Southern Library began in January 2007 with the dismantling of the upper
structure and its four corners, but at present only two corners have been completed (the southwest andnorthwest corners).
Below are the process and methods of the dismantling work.
Dismantling Process (Pl. 22). Following the structural order, dismantling work began from the upper
toward the lower platform. First, sandstone blocks were slid slightly aside using steel rods, temporarily
hanging each with a stone grip, tying the stone into a nylon sling and moving it to the temporarystorage area. Second, for the laterite blocks, which vary individually in terms of size and condition, awire net was used to unload stones to the storing area.
Recording and Numbering System. Data records are very important for documenting work, such as the48

drawing of plans for each layer, drawings in elevation, leveling, measurement, and photo recording.
A numbering system is necessary to identify stone elements in their original condition andlocation before starting dismantling work. These numbers help keep track of dismantled sandstone andlaterite blocks as they are moved from place to place during the restoration works. The basic methodof using the numbers is the same as that applied at the Northern Library.
Dismantling Tools, Heavy Operating Machinery and Storage. Various equipment has been used toremove the stone blocks from their original positions, such as a 3-ton – 5-ton nylon sling procured inJapan, steel rods, pivoted stone grips, and chain blocks. A 25-ton rough-terrain crane has been used
for lifting the stone elements.
After dismantling the stones at their original location at the Southern Library, a 4-ton cargo
track with a crane was used for transporting them from the temporary storage places at the both sidesof the ramp to the storing yard for the repair process.
5.2.2. Repairing the Stones (Pl. 23)
The work of repairing the stones is aimed at reusing the original stone elements as much as possible,
and to strengthen their structure. The repair method follows the form of the previous operations
conducted by the JSA. New stone elements composed of the same quality, material, and texture of theoriginal stone were used to replace the missing parts for structural reasons.
5.2.3. Documentation of Restoration of Stone Elements
A database on the restoration of the stone elements has been created to convey an accurate account of
the conservation and restoration work, and to provide data that may be useful for future restoration
work. This database includes details of measures employed for the restoration of elements, pre- andpost-restoration drawings, photographic records, and information on their positions.
5.2.4. Trial Assembly (Pl. 24)
After finishing repair work of the laterite and sandstone blocks, the repaired stone elements weretransported to the trial assembly place for conducting trial assembly with the aim of determining theexact location of each element in the entire structure, before actual restoration work at the original
location of the Southern Library.
6. Conclusion
According to the results of the research stated above, the recent condition of the Bayon complex isvery seriously damaged. The deterioration of the building is caused by deformation of the sub-baseand the upper structure, such as movement and disturbance of the foundation soil, decay of the stoneelements, collapse, breakage, cracking, fallen stones, and damage by plants, lichens and algae. All of49

the threats presented by this deterioration are caused by two sets of factors, natural and human. The
natural factors are rainwater, temperature, strong winds, plants, lichens, algae, and insects. The humanfactors are war, theft and illegal destruction of temple elements, the activities of tourists, and religious
activities.
JASA project is studying conservation methods for the bas-reliefs and central tower, andrestoring the Southern Library. Dangerous parts of the structure are being reinforced with wooden
shoring, and steel pipes inserted to prevent crumbling and collapse. Some of this reinforcing andmaintenance work was done by APSARA authority; however, all of this work is not enough for theneeds of conservation because finances are still inadequate.
Moreover, the participation of local people is very important for conservation work.
References
J. Dumarçay. Le Bayon, Histoire architecturale du temple, Mémoire archéologiques III-2, PEFEO,
Paris, 1973.
JSA. Annual report on the Technical survey of Angkor Monument, JICE-TOKYO, 1996-1998.
Report on the Conservation and Restoration Work of the Northern Library of Bayon, Angkor Thom,
Kingdom of Cambodia, JICE-TOYKO, 2000.
The Bayon Master Plan: Master Plan for the Conservation and Restoration of the Bayon Complex,
JICE-TOKYO, 2005.
PKZ, ed. The Bayon Temple, The Report of the Polish-Cambodian Archaeological and Preservation
Mission, 1990, Vol. I. Warsaw, 1991.

50

51
Fig.1 General Plan of Bayon Complex

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52

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Fig. 3 Location of excavated trenches and dismantled area at the Southern LibraryFig.4 Eastern section of the northwest and southwest corner trenches, and the detected laterite structure53

Fig. 5 Eastern section of Passage C and its underlying features54Pl. 1 General view of the Bayon complex

Pl. 2 Deformation of the four-faced towers

Pl. 3 Recent condition of the Outer Gallery

Pl. 4 Recent condition of the Inner Gallery

Pl. 5 Northern Library after restoration

Pl. 6 Sothern Library before restoration

Pl. 7 Scattered stones inside the Outer Gallery wall

Pl. 8 Plants on the four-faced towers

55Pl.9 Lichens and algae on the bas-relief of Inner Gallery

Pl. 10 Alteration of Buddhist into Hindu carving

Pl. 11 Activities of visitors at the Bayon complex

Pl. 12 Buddhist statue inside the central tower

Pl. 13 EFEO’s reinforcement (concrete cement)

Pl. 14 JSA’s reinforcement (wire wrap)

Pl. 15 JSA’s reinforcement (wooden truss)

Pl. 16 Overview of the southwest and northwest
coners (after excavation)

56

Pl.17 Detected laterite structure at northwest cornerPl. 18 Excavation area of Passage C

Pl. 19 Cutting traces of Inner Gallery Platform,

Pl. 20 Khmer ceramic fragments fromsouthwest corner and Passage C

Pl. 21 Iron chisel found from the lower platform		
cornerPl. 22 Dismantling activities of southwest

Pl. 23 Repairing sandstone components

Pl. 24 Trial assembly57Cambodia
PHIN Phakdey
Archaeologist
Sophia Asia Centre for Research and Human Development

Relationships: Temples, Ancient Mounds and Local People(A case study centred on Baset temple, Battambang province)I.

Introduction

First, I would like to thank Prof. Yoshiaki Ishizawa, President of Sophia University in Japan, and Prof.
Masako Marui, who gave me a chance to show the results of my research in Battambang province to
the ACCU program.
On 23 December 2005, our research team commenced a study funded by the Toyota Foundationfor one year. There were 16 volunteer students from the Royal University of Fine Arts (RUFA) who
participated in this project, and they were organized by Mr. Keo Kinal, a professor at RUFA, Miss
Yoko Kojima, an expert in Japanese architecture, and Mr. Chhean Ratha, an expert on Cambodianarchitecture who has studied in Japan. For two or three days over weekends or national holidays ineach month, we met to prepare data or go to the sites in Battambang province.
The main purpose of this research is as follows:-

To make a database of religious architecture in Battambang province.

-

To conduct research on the characteristics of the region’s architecture through technicalstudies, in addition to art history.

-

To make a presentation of the results of our research to interested scholars and others, andespecially, to form an association for the purpose of education for local people to understandthe value of cultural properties and the need for their protection.
Battambang province has many important cultural properties and ancient sites, such as

prehistoric and historic sites suited for research, but which have suffered through lack of interest;
consequently, these sites have not been involved in conservation work and the local Cambodian people
who live nearby are not well-educated and lack knowledge of conservation, so the sites have beendamaged by their desire to find cultural properties to sell to help improve their daily lives.
Nearly all sites in Battambang province have been damaged, but in this presentation, I would
like to describe Baset temple and the ancient mounds which stand around this temple, as this site ismore damaged than other sites in the province.

58

II.

Research history of Battambang province

Zhou Daguan, a Chinese envoy who visited Cambodia in 1296-97, described the Khmer people andsome of their provinces, including Battambang, which at that time was referred to as Mo Leang in the
Chinese language.
In 1790, Mr. Henri Langenois was the first researcher who came to conduct research inBattambang province and at other sites.
In 1858, Mr. Henri Mouhot visited and described Baset temple, Banon temple and Vat Ek
temple.
In addition, Mr. Bouillevaux, Mr. A. Bastian, Mr. Jean Moura, and Mr. E. Aymonier have also
visited Battambang province.
1.

Location of Battambang province

Battambang province is located in the northwest part of Cambodia. Portions of the western side ofthis province are on the Thai border, the southern and eastern sides border Pursat province and theTonle Sap lake, and to the northeast is Siem Reap province. In this province there are 10 districts, 101
communes and 1,384 villages.
Battambang province has many prehistoric and historic sites similar to the Angkor complex,
according to Mourer, who discovered the northwestern prehistoric site of Laang Spean in 1965 (Mourer,
Cécile, and Roland Mourer. The Prehistoric Industry of Laang Spean, Province of Battambang,
Cambodia. Sydney: Australasian Medical Pub, 1970, pp. 128-46). There are also many temples andancient mounds in Battambang province, such as Baset temple, Banan temple, Sneng temple andothers. These temples were constructed by famous kings during the Angkor period.
There are three rivers that have water sources on Kravan mountain and one of these, theSangker, crosses Battambang province. As these three rivers provide water necessary for agriculture
from June to November every year, and the condition of land is extremely good for agricultural
produce, especially rice, this province is known as the first province for agriculture.
2. Location of Baset temple
Baset temple is located 14 km east of Battambang town, in Baset village, Tapun commune, in the
Sangker district near the Steng Chas river. There are also many ancient mounds around this temple.
Two ancient roads were found indicating a relationship between the temple and the ancient mounds.
3.

Daily life of local people who live around the temple

Local people, who have been living around this temple for a long period of time, come from a varietyof national groups: there are Khmer, Islamic, and Javanese peoples. Ninety percent of local people arefarmers, who produce rice in the rainy season from July to October. The local economy is not stable orstrong but the people still protect their ancient traditions and culture, and also participate in traditional
ceremonies, weddings, and the beliefs of Neak Ta (local spirits), etc.

59Ordinarily, they celebrate ceremonies at temples or on the ancient mounds to pray for happiness,good luck, and success in their work to produce rice crops every year.
III.

Collecting data at the sites (Baset temple and ancient mounds)

First, we checked the sites on aerial photos of the area in Battambang province chosen for researchand data collection, obtaining the names of temples or ancient mounds from the Ministry of Culture
and Fine Arts (MCFA).
Research was then conducted directly at the temples and ancient mounds, interviewing the local
people who have been living in the area surrounding these sites about their history, asking for namesof temples or ancient mounds to compare with the data we collected from the MCFA.
New photos of the area were taken, along with GPS data.
Using archaeological methods, the sites or artifacts which remain at the temples or on theancient mounds were measured and recorded, and ceramics collected from the surface for study at alaboratory in RUFA.
Photographs and general observations were made of places that have been damaged or
destroyed.
1.

Baset temple

Baset temple was constructed by King Jayavarman VII (who reigned from the late 12th to early 13th
centuries). According to previous researchers and an inscription which was found there, this temple
was constructed on an old site of the pre-Angkor period, consisting of a temple which was built by
Suriyavarman I (11th century), located in the northern part of the area surrounding the temple. After
collecting some data at the site, we found a lintel of an old temple (from around the pre-Angkor period,in the late 8th to early 9th centuries). This older temple was badly damaged by natural and humanforces. The condition of Baset temple is very poor. It has collapsed because of its weak foundations,and has been damaged by rain and insects. Because of warfare in Cambodia during the past, damage
has occurred to many temples including Baset temple. It has been partially destroyed due to bombing.
We found many artifacts in people’s houses. They have been using the artifacts for tools because they
do not understand their value and the need for conservation. Some local people have constructedhouses and live in the area surrounding the temple, throwing out garbage near the temple and spoilingthe environment.

60

Area surrounding Baset temple

2. The ancient mounds
Toul Sangker
The condition of this mound has been damaged on a daily basis by local people who live nearby
and farm on it. On the surface of this mound we found many pieces of brick. According to one local
person aged seventy, when he was young the shape of this temple was visible; it was tall but lacked
its top. Another person said that later on, the temple was destroyed by robbers who dug down to thefoundations in search of valuable items such as gold or ancient artifacts.

61

62

Toul KaborThis mound is located about 1 km to the northwest of Baset temple, but the appearance of this moundhas been altered by a later Javanese tomb. Artifacts remain such as pieces of columns, sandstone, andlaterite. We could not gather much information concerning this mound from local people as to whether
in the past there was a temple or not, but we did get some new information from one person. He said
that perhaps three years ago, a statue was found after digging, and that it had been sold. We believe
this is the mound of a temple, as evidenced by artifacts, moat, and a baray (reservoir).

63

Toul Thmor
Toul Thmor is located around 4 km to the north of Baset temple along an ancient road. The conditionof this mound suggests it has not been used. Many bricks and ceramics remain. We do not know
its history, but we could see a moat and a baray to the east of the mound. We believe this moundis the remains of a former temple, but it has been damaged. Between the mound and the baray weinvestigated an ancient road that connected this site with Baset temple via another ancient road.
Behind this mound there are several more mounds.

64

Toul Lay
This mound is located around 1 km to the east of Toul Thmor and around 2 km north of Baset temple.
It has a moat and a baray on the eastern side. This mound has not been used and laterite blocks andmany bricks remain.

65

Toul Kandal
This is located around 2,500 m to the north of Baset temple. It has a moat and a baray on the easternside. On the surface remain many pieces of brick and ceramics. Due to the shape of this mound andthe plentiful ceramics, we believe this is the mound of a temple in the past. It has been damaged byhuman intervention; the foundations of this temple have been dug to search for the valuable objects.
As illustrated below, a large hole has been dug, and according to local people, sand was taken fromthis hole to use for building. This mound has been used for habitation or farming.

66

Toul Boeung Thmor
This mound is located to the northwest of Toul Kandal and has a moat. It is very difficult to enter as
it is in thick forest, and has been used for habitation and farming. On the surface we could find many
bricks and a few ceramics. This is also the ancient mound of a temple.

67

Toul Ta Uy
Regarding the condition of this mound, we did not find any materials from structures but most of theceramics we found were Chinese and Khmer ceramics. This mound was not used by local people forfarming or habitation.

68

IV. Conclusions
About 2 km to 4 km to the north of Baset, many ancient mounds were found surrounding this temple.
According to the evidence of artifacts which remain on the ancient mounds, we can understand therelationships between the temple and the mounds. Two ancient roads were found in the photographed
area (with remote sensing) by our cooperative effort, suggesting we propose a relationship between
them. A few of the ancient mounds could be ancient kilns, as many pieces of ceramics were found on
the surface of these when they were dug by local people to make a new road. According to the eldest
local people interviewed, the ancient mounds were said to have been temples in the past because they
could remember the presence of structures, and that later these temples were damaged during periodsof civil strife. According to our surface data collection, those ancient mounds retained construction
materials such as sandstone, laterite and brick. Some ceramic pieces were found on the surfaces of theancient mounds. Based on the analysis and study of shapes and glazing methods of the ceramics foundon these mounds, they appear similar to ceramics in the Angkor area.
After collecting data relating to the temples or ancient mounds, we found two types of damage.
-

Damage from natural causes. The condition of Baset temple is very weak. It has collapsed
because of problems with its foundations and damage by rain and insects. The ancientmounds were not damaged, however, by natural forces, but rather most were damaged fromhabitation by local people, as described below.

-

Damage from human causes. Past fighting has brought damage to many temples in
Cambodia, including Baset. It has partially collapsed due to bombing. But we also foundmany artifacts in people’s houses. They have been using these artifacts as tools, because they
do not understand their value and the need for conservation. Some local people constructedhouses for living in the areas surrounding the temple, and throw out garbage and spoil theenvironment. The ancient mounds have thus been badly damaged by people living nearby.
They always farm every year during the raining season. Many artifacts on the ancientmounds were destroyed and the shapes of the mounds themselves will disappear in the future.
This temple and the ancient mounds are yet to be conserved. We are accordingly concerned
about future damage and the danger of their total disappearance.

V. Presentation of our research to local people
After collecting and analyzing the data, and recorded them in documentary form, we conducted
workshops in two areas with local people, who are farmers, as students. We showed them the history
of Baset temple and the ancient mounds, and how we can conserve and protect the artifacts from thetemple and those found on the ancient mounds. We also explained about the value of artifacts, and theneed to protect them for future generations. After these workshops, we interviewed them again about
any new information they may remember from the past to complete our data, and invited them to69

display their feelings or interest in our research. These workshops were judged a success as they wereattended by more than 300 local people. Some people asked us “how can we preserve artifacts on theancient mounds if we still need to farm them every year?”
After this project was completed, all data and finds were sent to the local Office of Culture andFine Arts in Battambang province for safe storage, and the ceramic shards were collected with theirdata to be kept at RUFA for further study.

70

ChinaWANG Renyu
Research Associate
Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences

Archaeological Site Management as a Way to Understand the Past:
Archaeological Site Management in China, beyond Policy Making
This paper shall not be presented purely as a statement of individual Chinese cultural heritage items,
or a prolonged inventory of Chinese heritage conservation procedures undertaken either in situ or in
the lab, nor will consolidants like Paraloid-B72 or other first-aid lifting methods be included; rather,what this paper will highlight are the several trends that we hope to achieve in the future in the field of
heritage preservation and conservation in association with the reorientation of landscape archaeology.
The discussion here will start with an introduction to several problematic issues we now confront. On
the one hand, while conservation scientists to my mind will be more likely to focus on preservation
conditions, consolidation and coating, and many other physical treatments, site managers on the othermay be highly interested in the ways they can make the right decisions about balancing the interests ofdifferent stakeholders and seeking values for making a site more economically important. Yet, none ofthese are the concerns of this paper.
Value-led or values-based management usually starts with examination of values attributed
to a site achieved through consultation with different stakeholders, including the public, politicians
and policymakers, and professionals. Values, public benefit, understanding, respect and integrity areviewed as the five elements of such management. Values equate with significance, whether aesthetic(beauty, harmony), historic (connection with the past), social (connection with others, sense ofidentity), economic (revenue generation), spiritual (understanding, insight, enlightenment), symbolic(objects or sites as repositories or conveyors of meaning), or in matters of authenticity (integrity,
uniqueness). Therefore, site management is the conservation of values/significance by means of policy
and action. According to the Burra Charter, site management should include the following: identifying
the stakeholders (all groups with an interest in the site), understanding the site, assessing its values,
examining issues of vulnerability to its condition, identifying policies and strategy, and assessing
impact. All these rules are important for decision or policy making, but when facing specific problems
in archaeological site management, we still find that many of those problems directly or indirectly
derive from failure to identify the site’s values due to shortcomings of the field archaeology weconducted. It is therefore essential to reexamine the role of archaeology from the perspective of sitemanagement.
How can we evaluate the roles that archaeology can play in cultural heritage preservation?
This question is very challenging. There has been a trend since the beginning of the twenty-first71

century for heritage sites to be given relatively explicit site restoration under an architectural or urban
designing institute’s guidance. Similarly, the management of many archaeological and historical sites
has indeed been subjected to urban planning-related institutions. In short, this unfortunately reflects
a compaction and confusion of two completely separate yet interrelated domains, i.e., archaeologicalsite management, and ancient buildings conservation. This also puts forward a stimulating question to
Chinese archaeologists: How can we evaluate the roles that archaeology can play in cultural heritage
preservation? As heritage frequently encompasses a broader array of questions than those essential
to archaeology alone, it is usually considered an effective way to bridge the gap between the heritage
sites/artifacts and the public. In fact, Chinese archaeologists are now confronted with many problems,
but most of these are concerned with the effects of local development and/or urbanization.

Fig. 1 The features in the Erlitou site.

Fig. 2 Distribution map of the Erlitou site.

1. Rescue archaeology and rural heritage maintenance
Since “Planning Policy Guidance 16” came out, it seems that archaeology in relation to development
has started to split into two halves, either leaving the remains in situ for future generations, or
conducting rescue excavations, when inevitable, of sites for recording whatever we can obtain via
the methodologies and field implements that are available. Since the 1980s archaeological fielddocumentation systems began to be used as an effective and recognized means for heritage protection:
to preserve the data at least on paper. The factor of expanded land use for urban construction can not
be overestimated. According to our experience, based on investigation, some of the most significant
multi-period city sites in northern China, such as the Han dynasty Chang’an city site, the Han and Wei
dynasty Luoyang city site, the early Bronze Age Erlitou city site at Yanshi, and so forth, have been
seriously affected by the sand-quarrying and brick-firing activities of the local people. Other major
damaging factors involved are: construction of underground electricity networks, urban development,
agricultural land expansion, and so on.
Erlitou is located in the Luoyang Basin, a large area with sufficient water resources from theYi and Luo rivers to have always been ideal for human living (see the map below for settlement
distribution analysis). Stratigraphy shows that the local social life can be traced back to the Peiligang
culture (4 localities, Early Neolithic), Yangshao culture (105 localities, Middle Neolithic), Longshan
culture (95 localities, Late Neolithic)

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Fig. 3 Settlement distribution in the Luoyang
Basin.
Fig. 4 (right) Palace management plan of the
Shang dynasty city site at Yanshi.

through the Erlitou culture (125 localities, early Bronze Age, with the capital city located at Erlitou),
and later, the early Shang culture (the well-known Yanshi Shang city site is located just 6 km eastof the Erlitou city site). Sites from the Bronze Age are the focus of site management in this large
area, which is now densely populated. Identified pressures on the site are from many sources, which
are commonly seen in Chinese rural areas: land development for civilian or industrial use, deep
plowing, soil exploitation, construction of networks of underground tunnels and lines, expansion ofmodern cemeteries, pollutants from local industries, and so on. Amongst all the sites we have so far
investigated, the land-use factor plays the most decisive role in directly affecting the preservation ofarchaeological sites. According to the Erlitou site report and the Overview 2008, the known city sitearea is approximately three million square meters, and one million square meters of the site are nearlyoverlapped by large tracts of agricultural land belonging to the four nearby villages (see Institute ofArchaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, An Overview of China’s Major City Sites, 2008
series, unpublished), therefore it has been estimated that in the recent two decades or so at least one
third of the Erlitou site area has been under high pressure due to local construction of high frequency
and density, or many other land resource-related human activities, all of which have caused severe
soil disturbance. This increased trend has revealed two facts: (a) for Chinese archaeologists the mostintensive work still lies in rescue work for maintaining the underground remains, and (b) site damage
or poor conditions primarily come from economic activities.
The Overview’s statistics show quite explicitly that attacks from the major sources of pressure
have occurred cumulatively and concentrate in just the past two decades, which corresponds to thetime of high social development in China. Due to the lack of effective management and experience in
heritage protection, most of these heritage sites are located especially in rural areas or the intersectionsof urban and rural areas where heritage protection was still a new concept, and thus physicalprotection of the sites was more often than not viewed as a barricade to economic development.
The Erlitou site is undoubtedly one of the most significant centers of central plains archaeology, and73

for this reason the China Cultural Heritage Administration and the local government have asked
the Chinese Academy of Cultural Heritage and the Institute of Archaeology (CASS) to make a sitemanagement plan, including conservation, consolidation, landscape management, and exhibition. The
management plan was approved in 2007.

Fig. 5 Restoration plan of the palace area in
the Shang city site at Yanshi.

Fig. 6 The pond refilled with water.

However, when introducing such a huge social organism, there are primarily six aspects we need to
examine further, and we think these considerations will at least generally enrich our understanding of
the problems of archaeological site management in rural areas in China:(a)Renewability: Authenticity and the interaction between excavation and site management

In the management of sites like Erlitou and Yanshi, managers have been used to reconstructing
ancient buildings in situ or using irreversible materials to restore or mark the building foundations.
Such in situ reconstruction is risky in that the restoration more often than not leaves less room forother alternatives, and therefore for early archaeological sites, it may not be a good idea to conduct
any in situ reconstruction. A better way to do it is to leave the exposed part in its entirety and keep itin the original form under a shelter. The above pictures well illustrate the attempt of the site manager
to ‘reconstruct’ the Shang dynasty city site at Yanshi, and though such a partial reconstruction may
add more beauty to the whole landscape, it is still problematic for undermining the authenticity of thesite. The reconstruction can be very controversial if more parts of the site are allowed to be rebuilt in
situ; the treatment and refilling of the pond remains at the back of the Yanshi Shang city site is widely
debated.
Although a compromise between landscape beauty for appreciation and authenticity inpreservation is much preferred, it may be argued that if such additional construction can be moved
outside the site, especially into the buffer zone of the landscape, this will divide a landscape into
primarily three sections, i.e., the major site area, the buffer zone area, and the information centerarea between the two. Ideally, the information area can provide more chances for displaying the fieldresearch results, incorporating these into new exhibitions. This requirement has partially answered thequestion of the role that archaeology can play in the management of heritage sites, and the effect that
we would like to achieve is an integration of ongoing field work, site management and display, and74

archaeological research.
The interaction between site exhibition/interpretation and field archeology should be viewed asof key importance in the evaluation of site management. On the other hand, site management should
also provide significant assistance to in situ preservation and conservation while exhibition andexcavation might indeed be conducted simultaneously. That is to say that the site can also be viewed asa center for providing first-aid conservation for the finds and features, and coordinating the exhibitions
and excavations. In short, its functions may change all the time. The renewability issue really deserves
lengthy further discussion, as it is closely related to site interpretation and issues of authenticity whichfunction as the basis for archaeological conservation and lie at the core of site management.

Fig. 7 Restoration of sacrificial pits at the Yin
Ruins.

(b)

Fig. 8 A reconstruction of the Fuhao burial.

Reliability: Site management in line with archaeological data

Archaeology plays a leading role in site interpretation as well as management, but the site’s explanation
may vary over time, and new data should be added to exhibits in timely fashion. This has caused
problems in the management of the late Shang dynasty capital site at Anyang, historically known as
the Yinxu site, or the Yin Ruins. Eighty years ago, the first fifteen excavations were conducted by
the History and Language Institute of the Chinese Academy (which moved to Taiwan in 1949), anddue to many limitations, the excavations indeed disturbed the soil features, and consequently thedata reflecting the late Shang dynasty building foundations, exposed within the ceremonial-cumreligious temple area, cannot provide definitive evidence for guiding the restoration, conservation, andreconstruction. For many archaeological sites, identifying the functions of the features still remains adifficult problem.
Encompassing an area of nearly thirty square kilometers, the central area of the city site has
been surrounded by a buffer band. Sites as large as the Yin Ruins are always difficult to read due tothe vastness in area and the problems of identifying structurally complex features. This means that the
problems we might be confronted with in the post-excavation process may basically originate from thecomplexities of underground assemblages and the order in which the excavations were undertaken. Itshould be said that up to the present, the most reliable way to assure site management is to conduct avery representative excavation, otherwise the vagueness of the relationships between archaeological75

Fig. 9 In situ horse chariot pit preservation.
Fig. 10 (right) Management plan of the temple area of
the Yin Ruins.

features will prevent any attempt at restoration from moving even a step forward. Site interpretation
varies when ideas about the functions of the archaeological features change, and this may demand amore context-based overview of the whole landscape. The site of the Yin Ruins has been excavatedfor eighty years, but the layout of this late Shang dynasty capital within the larger basin landscape isstill not that clear. It should be emphasized that complete interpretation of settlement patterns lies atthe core of successful site management. For ancient city sites as large as this, some information might
be lost forever due to deficiencies of past archaeological work, but new clues may be acquired for evena simple reorientation of the target of the fieldwork. Thus come the questions of how to integrate new
findings into an old management plan, and how can new field data be used to further improve the sitemanagement? For city sites in particular, the management of the site is likely to be directly influenced
by under­standings of the processes of urbanization, and the formation processes of the site remains.

Fig. 11 Soil foundation plan.
Fig. 12 (right) Reconstruction of a Shang dynasty building.

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(c)

Adaptability: Involvement with the local
economyThis is a biological term coined for describing
the state of a living organism when it enters into
a new environment. Maintenance of a new sitearea may be financially problematic in the same
sense. Although the government has decided tosupport financially the whole site management
Fig. 13 Foundations under excavation.

process, there still remains a question: to what
extent should the local people be involved with thiseconomic enterprise, and can this site support itself? This issue of self-support has become a focusof the forthcoming Ford Grant financed heritage investigations, conducted in Henan and Shaanxi
provinces. Our expectation is to be successful in reaching equilibrium between the interests of various
stakeholders in diverse rural settings. This investigation will also be deeply concerned with feedback
from the local people, for evaluating the relationships between the site and the local society, and its
possible contribution to the local economy.
More uncertainties come from the way in which a site as such can be further retained.
According to the 2008 investigations to the several sites along the Silk Road, we have learned
that as a site is opened to an increasing number of visitors, the de facto exposed areas increase inproportion with the visitors’ numbers, finally resulting in much physical damage and complicateddeterioration. As the Annual Report on the Development of China’s Cultural Heritage Management
System 2008 has commented, there will always be a tension between the mysteriously enjoyable andeconomically pleasing outside, in visitors’ eyes, and the problematic and risk-running inside, with
its assortment of values in conservators’ minds. In sum, although a site can be well managed withfinancial support from the Chinese government, it is not easy to solve the consequent occurrence of“foreign body reaction.” Similarly, many Chinese intangible cultural heritage colleagues have argued
that the maintenance of a past has to bring about a self-supporting economic system, so as not tomake the preservation of a site become a burden on the local community. As mentioned above, selffinancing has to be a continuing trend, since the increasing numberof heritage sites will be very costly. The best example in dealing
with this tension is the management of the Yin Ruins at Anyang.
According to its website, before the site was inscribed into theWorld Heritage List, the site administration could make a profit atcirca two million RMB per year, while during the first post-WHL
year, the entrance fee alone made a clear-cut margin exceeding ten
million RMB. The increase in income has become a stimulus to
the local tourism economy, and more people have turned to work
Fig. 14 Site management plan of
the protected area.

for the site. Still, in general, what we are much concerned about is77

how this income will be spent in relation to the conservation andsurvival of this newly introduced social organism.
As the director of the Anyang archaeological station hasargued, the site management of Anyang is not easily transplanted toother places. The reason is quite obvious, as the Yin Ruins are thestarting point of Chinese field archaeology, and have thus enjoyedan eighty-year-long research history. Located at the intersectionof Hebei and Henan provinces, the site enjoys very convenienttransportation. All these elements have contributed to the successful
management of the site. Yet, aside from all these factors, as far as
I am concerned, the decisive cause lies in that the local economy
has long relied, at least partially, upon the Shang dynasty site and Fig. 15 Management plan of themausoleum area.
museum toursim, therefore the newly built Museum of the Yin Ruins
has not completely changed the scenario, rather, it just added another spot for site-seeing. The site hasan eighty-year reputation for its clearly defined chronology, typology, stratigraphic order, showing
a relatively reasonable and acceptable interpretation of the evolution of the entire site in the Anyang
Basin setting, an interpretation which has been repeatedly supported by the historical framework andcorroborating archaeological evidence. Thus, to some extent, the site itself has become a type of oral
tradition, coexisting with the site remains. This is important as it greatly shortens the time for a person
to feel involved with the archaeological locale, and therefore provides a psychological mechanism tofamiliarize visitors with the landscape. Statistics have not yet shown how many archaeological sites
have failed to survive since the completion of their management. But this is of key importance interms of post-management-plan monitoring of the sites. Another type of negative preservation is likely
to be that although a site has been acceptably managed and maintained over a relatively long period,
it exhibits a much poorer state of preservation and low frequency of conservation due to financial
difficulties. This suggests that some sites are liable to receive poor maintenance, which may only leadto their exposure to more unstable human or natural influences.
(d)

Monitorability: Evaluation of preservation conditions and management

From 2008 to 2013, an investigation will be coordinated by the Institute of Archaeology CASS andconducted in the province of Henan. This investigation will be focused upon the preservation andmanagement of the potentially exposed sites along the major watercourse of the SWD water resource
control project. Archeological survey by drilling and test excavation show that there might be overthree hundred sites exposed during the course of the project. For many conventionally known reasons,although rescue archaeological work will briefly go through the finds and document whatever the
excavators can do on site, there will still be a great number of multi-period sites that can only berecorded selectively due to the time limitations. We strongly suggest establishing a computer-based
database system for conducting the documentation work in a consistent manner, and before thesearchaeological sites are treated by any means, a set of criteria should first be standardized in order to78evaluate the significance of a site and provide categories of physical conditions. After the computerbased system has been established, it will be used to provide data for the signifying indicators in
the evaluation system. Besides the examination of physical conditions, it is also very essential toevaluate the effect that site management can bring about to the local society. So we now have twomonitoring systems, one for physical conditions and the other for evaluating the influences on thelocal community.
The two systems will be carefully designed in order to integrate the pre-management,
management and post-management elements into a consistent data analysis regime. Whateverprocesses the database may include, it has to provide corroboratory evidence regarding the following
aspects: physically, past landscape information (stratigraphy, distribution, landform, geomorphology,
alluvial conditions, watercourses, etc., from any available sources, like gazetteers, historical records,
previous geological investigations, and so on and so forth), and sources of pressure relating to thepreservation of the landscapes (excavation, survey or any other human factors that may have affected
the landscape); socially, how many members of the local community have been involved, what
major social influences have emerged during the course of site management, how can we evaluate
the influence on the local people’s ideas about their own past or the past of the State, to what extent
has the site management helped or undermined the local economy, and so on. These inquires areeither preservation- and protection-oriented or concentrated on the sociological survey of the local
people. We hope to quantify this information and transform these data into a series of indicators.
To date, there has not been any single acceptable and universally usable archaeological landscapedocumentation- cum-monitoring system in China. Therefore, the Institute of Archaeology of Chinese
Academy of Social Sciences, as the top research unit in China, will put great emphasis on establishingsuch a system, and try to put it into use in the Ford Grant supported field surveys and other sitemanagement practices from late 2008 onwards.
(e)

Restorability: Our ways of doing it
For sites as large as Erlitou and many other rural localities, pressures
for site preservation also come from the site management itself. For
many reasons, in these rural and economically disadvantaged areas,archaeological practices can rarely reach beyond field excavations.
Problems primarily come from the treatment of the finds while more
often than not there seems to be insufficient time for the excavators
to decide if the features are important enough to be restored insitu for use in site exhibition. It should be noted that Chinesearchaeologists have tried in many ways to give a clear representationof the original settlements, burials of nobility, and even the wholeFig. 16 In situ exhibition in the
Bampo Site Museum

landscapes since the 1950s. The first attempt at representing anarchaeological site was made during the restoration of the Banpo

79

site. The whole settlement was excavated in the early 1950s and during the late 1950s a reconstructionof the site in line with the principles of Soviet settlement archaeology was conducted by some of the staffof the Institute of Archaeology of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences and their coworkers from local
institutions. Interestingly, though many people today still doubt the matrilineal nature of the representation
made by archaeologists for this site at the middle period of the Neolithic Age, it is still a very important andchallenging question as to how to reorient site management under different sets of archaeological theories.
Many osteoarcheologists have tried to make strong links
between population studies of human bones and the basic rulesof social structure and organization, and especially of interest are
the non-metric trait clustering analyses which focus strongly on
the presence or absence of genetically transmitted bone features
for each sex, and can therefore provide evidence for supporting
either a patrilineal or matrilineal theory. The question remains as
to whether such interpretations are important for site management,or rather, to what extent should these considerations be interrelatedwith managing an archaeological site? There is no doubt that
Fig. 17 Burial exhibition in the
Banpo Site Museum.

all archaeological questions are by their nature of sociologicalsignificance, and from an archaeological perspective, althoughsome of these are not matters of pure speculation, it is still difficult to represent them in a material
way. It is in this sense that there can always be a big gap between the authenticity of the landscape andthe management made by archaeologists under the influence of a social interpretation which can besometimes be imposed upon the original site. Similarly, archaeology may sometimes stand at a point
between the historical record and archaeological corroboration, and this is by no means a matter ofblack-or-white choice; an example of such problems also comes from the management of the Shangdynasty ruins at Anyang. To be more accurate, archaeology is by no means the sole way to understandthe past. From this point of view, archaeological investigation of the landscape should only provide us
with a more detailed material understanding of past society, in parallel with other interpretations of
the site. For many reasons, an accurate identification can be problematic and therefore for early burials
archaeologists may not like to make any attribution of the site remains to any clear identities in thehistoric record, and it can be said that for most early burials, archaeology comprises the major possible
method to understand them. It is in this sense that archeological reconstruction of the past is very
meaningful in its own right.
The abovementioned idea in terms of how to manage an archaeological site in line with its
own characteristics is very essential to the management of archaeological heritage in China. Asidefrom the tendency to avoid imposing strong subjective theory upon the physical existence of thepast, there is also another very important phenomenon, as Professor Du Jinpeng has argued, thatmany archaeological sites have been deliberately deprived of meanings. This is primarily due to theselectivity of site management, as the manager has to point out the remains from the period belonging

80

to the target of site management. It is in this sense that we hope to find a possible way to make tradeoffs the other way round. This consideration is of importance in that most of the sites in the Central
Plains area are multi-period and successively densely inhabited in antiquity. The immensity andchronological heterogeneity of the landscapes have brought about many problems in terms of sitemanagement and archaeological resource administration. Some scholars have suggested that a valuepackage is probably useful when dealing with such situations. This is believed by some Chinesearchaeologists to be very effective in terms of categorizing the landscapes and sites into manageableclasses according to their age and use.
(f)Manageability: Interactions between humans and the environment as a permanent theme forarchaeological sites

There have been some criticisms of the country’s archaeological resource management during recent
years. Many people believe that problems occurring recently result primarily from the discreteadministrative system and evenly allocated budget for site conservation and preservation. While thiscriticism appears to bring into relief the low efficiency of the administrative system, even if we know
how many sites or landscapes there are, it may take ages to fulfill the task of managing these sites.
There are two points that I would like to make in regard to this, as follows.
First, though archaeology is not the only way to evaluate a site or a landscape, the archaeologicalapproach chosen frequently affects the way we preserve it, conserve it, and sometimes, display it.
We believe the human-landscape interactions lie at the core of site management, and therefore, apartfrom considerations of the preservation and conservation of the site, we still need to present such
relationships in their own right. The theory is quite clear, the house was not intended to be a houseitself, rather, in a relatively broader context, and we may understand that the house is possibly built for
guarding purposes. From environmental and bioarchaeological perspectives human culture plays therole of a buffer functioning against stressors from the outside. It is therefore very worthwhile to try
to identify what these stressors are and correlate these factors with the site remains and archeologicalfeatures. Although such interconnectedness varies from case to case, the aim of site management intheory is at least in part to reconstruct such an interaction. It is never easy to do such a reconstruction
since it may be very controversial, which is usually the case throughout the world.
For prehistoric or early historic sites, it is never easy to restore the sites or landscapes back totheir original social contexts or scenarios, or to interpret the whole processes of the site formation in
the light of a clear social-political regime or structure. As some of the site managers from the Chinese
Academy of Architecture have complained, they always have a dilemma in their planning practices,in terms of having to choose an appropriate archaeological interpretation of the landscapes from many
usually opposing options provided by archaeologists. I suppose that this equivocality is also one of thereasons why site interpretation has to include a detailed introduction to the history of the excavations,which can to some degree give people an impression or an idea how archaeologists understand the site
and the way they know it. The various interpretative perspectives are quite different in nature, and81many people have found a dilemma as to what extent we should rely on the textual record for clues forsite management, or to what extent we should be more archaeological and materially based. Therefore,
the management of archaeological resources as a discipline is still by no means limited by the contoursof the site and the appropriate interpretations which archaeology can provide thus far.
Second, another barrier for site management may come from field archaeology itself. As wealready know, an understanding of the past may never be that clear, and this can be due to manyreasons. One of them is that the site remains might have been impossible to interpret due to lossof physical structure. This unfortunate result has primarily three causes: (a) historical processes,
meaning the use and reuse of the landscapes, (b) looting and illicit trade, (c) damage caused by modern
development or even careless excavation. All these factors can directly affect the physical preservationof a landscape and its interpretation. In its own right, archaeology sheds more light upon the living
conditions of commoners in the past society, which are rarely known from the historic record. For thatmatter, in general, site management should be based on knowledge of a general past.
To be accurate, site management should be viewed as a method of conservation of the preserved
past with many clues detectable only through an archaeological approach. It is for this reason thatsuccessful landscape management is an exhibition of the archaeological work itself. For many reasons,people may like to have a much clearer chronological timetable, but archaeology more often thannot can only give a description of a trend. This gap may lie not only in terminology but in the ways
people understand the past. Therefore, to manage an archaeological site is by no means a compromise
between diverse views of the past, rather, it includes a very strict table of known and unknown social
facts and a list of questions as well, and the site managers should directly or indirectly exhibit thesequestions to the site visitors. It is in this sense that good site management can be viewed as a sort of
informative communication with different site visiting groups. And what is of particular significanceis that such an exchange of information is by no means fixed, rather it changes all the time. What I
believe is that a site under careful scientific and archaeological examination should be able to play arole as an information center, and provide information on the following matters: (a) burial conditions,(b) soil and sediment erosion and desiccation, (c) sources of pressures, (d) the expansion of excavatedareas, (e) basic site information and updated information, (f) changes in people’s ideas about the site
and the living conditions of the people in the past, (g) values and status amongst contemporary relatedsites, and (h) indicators for the post-management site monitoring.
It should be mentioned here at least in passing that there are two big issues in the last several
years in Chinese heritage management development, the site management of the Grand Cannel andthe historic sites along the Silk Road. Like the value-package proposed by Chinese archaeologists, sitemanagers are determined to incorporate different values of the diverse sites along the two large linear
heritage landscapes and integrate these into manageable heritage site categories. Although many
principles and rules have been established in terms of planning and managing heritage sites of diverse
categories, it is quite clear that even archaeological sites can be further divided into different subtypes,
and consequently, archaeological site management itself can be viewed as a very special management

82

category, and should therefore be carefully examined from an archaeological perspective.
2. First aid for finds, data protection and physical treatment
To keep materials in situ untouched is sometimes a double-edged proposition. The problem is that
there is a relatively wide range of possibilities for the preservation of each type of material. As wehave seen in some pioneering studies carried out by north European scholars, preservation conditions
can be modeled and tested. Comparison of the preservation state between the newly excavated bronze
finds and the finds unearthed from the same site decades ago can give a persuasive argument for
determining the exact status quo of underground burials, and help further foretell which environmentis better for bronze artifacts, burial or museum, even without special treatment. Therefore, soil
conditions are of great significance for the preservation of finds. In recent years, as heritage protectionin China has become a very sensitive subject in relation to the preservation of archaeological finds
in the field, the Cultural Heritage Administration determined to inhibit any excavation inside theheritage site areas under state-level protection, either prehistoric or historic. As a matter of fact, there
are still many co-varying elements which may further influence the decision making, such as theassessment of the aforementioned deterioration process of the soil conditions. For the above reasons,site management should include not only the planning and managing processes of the site, but indeed
a first aid system for rescuing the finds and information.
For many people, professional or not, artifacts are given a much higher status than the ecofacts.
This perhaps derives from a more artifact-orientated tendency in terms of diffusionism or a Childestyle definition of archaeological cultures. However, it seems such a tendency has collided with thedesire for more details in archaeology at the turn of the 21st century. Responding to such a trend, theInstitute of Archaeology is now making an effort to improve first aid and lifting techniques in order topreserve more detailed information at the time of excavation.
3. Conclusions
This country report is by no means intended to provide a kaleidoscopic statement of all the trivial
problems in site management and preservation we are now confronted with; rather, it is aimed atgiving clear clues to the emphases and focuses to which high importance is attached, contemporaneouswith the trend which has occurred in China, as evidenced in the practice of landscape andenvironmental archaeologies in recent years. This trend in archaeology has a very clear intention
in terms of information processing. Since the restoration and exhibition of the Banpo Neolithic
settlement in the 1950s, Chinese archaeological site management has been under rapid development
over the past fifty-plus years. But due to many reasons, most of the sites managed by archaeologists
belong to the category of either large mausoleums (the Yangling Mausoleum of the Han dynasty
Emperor Jing, terra-cotta warrior burials, and the Han prince burial at Laoshan) or palaces (the Tangdynasty Daming palace). On the one hand, more scientific approaches are employed to provide moredetailed information about the landscape, while on the other, people begin to pay more attention to83

the integration of different sites both temporally and spatially. This trend will most likely enable us toredirect our attention to the general facts of archaeology, and sort out more information about the pastsociety of commoners. Archaeological site management is now under pressure from environmental
protection concerns, which are also very commonplace around the world, and another commonly seen
trend is the ignoring of sites of small scale or those believed to be of only archaeological or academic
value. As Professor Du has argued, what Chinese archaeologists usually do to these sites is rebury thearchaeological features and use sands or other materials to make demarcations.
To some extent, there has not yet been any suitable way for archaeological site management
as a special discipline to be clearly defined, and for sites to be further categorized and documented.
People like to talk about the values of the sites and identify potential pressures the sites may havebeen suffering from for a long time, which are obviously relevant and indispensable componentsof successful site management. Yet when we are managing an archaeological site, we should firstbear in mind that acceptable archaeological site management should at least try to answer someanthropologically or sociologically meaningful questions. We hereby suggest that archaeological sitemanagement should be clearly defined as an independent sub-discipline of archaeology and therefore
differentially and separately studied from sites with the so-called common values. A series of detailed
information for structuring this subject can be exactly identical with the indicators essential for fieldarchaeology, but from the methodological point of view site management should involve as much as
possible information that reflects the ways of living, subsistence strategies, environmental pressures,and the whole scenario of local human culture and social organizing as a buffer. Therefore, sitemanagement can be viewed to some extent as a continuously evolving interdisciplinary conclusion ofwork on the site.
It is correct that one site is quite different from another due to the nature it possesses and its
functions in the past, and it is just in this sense that certain common basic rules must be identified for
managing archeological sites in order to make the practical work more efficient and manageable. What
Chinese archaeological site management is now confronted with is the lack of a manageable system
to guide and give a rationale for the entire managing process. As some archaeologists have argued,
by now archaeological site management is full of trade-off-making and interest-balancing practices.
But archaeological site management is surely an archaeologically-oriented work in the first place.
Therefore, the following essential processes are needed.
At the very beginning, for financial and temporal resource reasons, we should determine
whether or not a certain site deserves management. According to our knowledge, such principles
which are important for conducting archaeological site management should at least include one orseveral of the following items so that we can make a decision to complete a management plan for thesite; it should be emphasized here that though this consideration is not dissimilar to the evaluation of asite’s significance, it sheds more light upon the connectedness of different parts within the landscape(which means it is essentially an archaeological work on the site), for as an archaeological work,
functions of different cultural remains comprise the essentials of a site.

84

(a)

If the site under discussion can provide us with abundant geoscientific or stratigraphic data to
determine the distribution and evolution of a landscape;(b) If the site under question can be of great value in revealing the primary functions of alandscape and can possibly give a clear indication of the interactions between humans andlocal environment;(c)

If the site is composite in nature and the proposed manager can give relatively unequivocal
evidence to corroborate the functions of different features;(d) If the site can play an unsurpassed role politically, culturally or economically amongst thecontemporaneous sites, and its special leading position can provide guiding information tounderstand other sites.
Besides evaluating the signif icance of an archaeological site compared with othercontemporaneous sites, another very important issue is to record essential field data for site
conservation, physical maintenance and exhibition. And this process lies at the core of the wholetechnical treatment, incorporating a wide range of co-related data resources as mentioned above. Thisnot only systematically documents the physical conditions but provides important data for further
planning and monitoring.
In sum, archaeological site management in China will be systematically studied in the near
future, and as a sub-discipline of archaeology, it will also gradually bridge the gap between thespecialists and site visitors. This shall bring about another relevant issue of site management in termsof archaeological publication, which though not the topic of this paper, should be carefully examinedin the future. The tension between heritage preservation and public use has always been a focus ofheritage studies.
Bibliography and Illustration Sources
1. Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences. 2008. An Overview of China’s Major
City Sites, unpublished.
2. Blue book of Chinese Culture Heritage 2008, Social Sciences Academic Press, 2008.
3. World Heritage List ( formal document for Yinxu nomination). Cultural Relics Publishing House.
2005.
4. 1981 Burra Charter – ICOMOS.
5. Clark, Kate. 2001. Preserving What Matters: Value-Led Planning for Cultural Heritage Sites.
The Getty Conservation Institute Newsletter.
6. De la Torre, Marta. 2001. Values and Site Management: New Case Studies. The Getty Conservation
Institute Newsletter.
7. Site management and planning of the Shang dynasty city site at Yanshi, unpublished.
8. Site management and planning of the Erlitou site at Yanshi, unpublished.
9. Scott, David. 2001. Copper and bronze in art. Getty Conservation Institute.

85

Indonesia
Sri Patmiarsi Retnaningtyas
Head of Rescue Archaeological Sub-Division
Directorate of Archaeological Heritage
Ministry of Culture and Tourism

Preservation of Archaeological Remains and Sites in Indonesia:-A Case Study in Laweyan Traditional Settlement-

I. Introduction
Indonesia is very rich in archaeological remains, and sites that vary in shape, style, size, anddistribution are spread across the landscape, such as caves, megalith remains, temples, mosques,palaces, tombs, churches, forts, traditional settlements, etc.
Archaeological remains and sites are preserved by the National Law Number 5 of 1992, concerning
Cultural Property. Cultural property, as mentioned in the National Law Number 5 of 1992, is:a. Artifacts made by man, movable or immovable, individually or in groups, or parts thereof or
remains thereof, which are at least fifty years of age, or represent a specific stylistic periodof at least fifty years of age, and are considered to possess value of importance to history,
science, and culture.
b. Natural objects which are considered to possess important value for history, science, andculture.
In addition, the National Law also defines a site as meaning a location which contains or
is presumed to contain items of cultural property, together with the surroundings which requiresafeguarding.
The Directorate of Archaeology, organizationally under the authority of Ministry of Culture
and Tourism, is the institution which carries out preservation of archaeological or cultural property
and sites. Under the authority of the Directorate of Archaeology, there are 10 units of the Office for
Preservation of Archaeological Heritage which oversee the preservation of archaeological properties
and sites throughout the country.
The main tasks of the Directorate of Archaeology are the registration, preservation,conservation, and restoration of archaeological or cultural properties and sites. This institution protects
more than five thousand monuments/sites throughout the country, including three world heritage sites:
Borobudur Temple, Prambanan Temple Complex, and Sangiran Early Man Site.
One of the preservation problems is how to designate a settlement area as a cultural preservation86

area. It requires complex consideration to establish a settlement area as a cultural preservation area
because of the various traditions that exist inside the settlement area.
The problem is usually related to changes in the ownership of buildings, in the functionof buildings, or to the reconstruction of buildings that are architecturally different from thecharacteristics of settlement architecture in general.
Laweyan is a traditional settlement in Indonesia. Most people in Laweyan are known as batik
entrepreneurs. Based on that fact, in 2004, the Mayor of Surakarta has proclaimed Laweyan as
Kampoeng Batik or batik village.
Today, Laweyan needs to be protected, because there are a few families still actively engage
in batik making. Their houses have not been in maxim utilization, so that the buildings have become
damaged or have changed from their original functions. At the Laweyan settlement, there are new
structures which function only for economic purposes. These newly built structures are different incharacter from their surroundings, and represent structures with no aesthetic value and which lookstrange compared with the older structures.
Nowadays, people in Laweyan have a desire to designate their settlement as a cultural preserve.
For that purpose, it is necessary to set up limitations prevailing at the site which would be protectedby legal status. Limitations will be established on the basis of a zoning study conducted in the area.
In carrying out the study, investigation was required that needed to be done carefully, because theLaweyan settlement is a living monument.
II. Historical Background of Laweyan
Laweyan has a long historical background. The name of Laweyan has been popular since thesixteenth century, when the Pajang Kingdom held power on the island of Java in Indonesia. Laweyan
is a perdikan area that was empowered by the Moslem kingdom of Pajang. Since long ago, a perdikancountry was an imperium in imperio, a state within a state under the ancient Javanese administration,
whereby the small nations were fully empowered with heads who considered themselves as absolutekings and could run up their own debt over the years. Relationships between heads of perdikan with
their perdikan areas was basically dependant upon hereditary principles (Schrieke, 1975: 38).
The traditional settlement of Laweyan is situated in Surakarta City, Province of Central
Java. Laweyan is a settlement which has characteristic architecture. Several historical objects comefrom the Pajang Kingdom, such as Laweyan Mosque complete with a complex of graves of theking’s family, the site of the Laweyan old market, the grave of Kyai Ageng Henies (founder of the
Laweyan settlement), the old river port of Kabanaran which was the big trade port in the Pajang
Kingdom period. There is an old prayer house named Merdiko that nowadays is referred to as the
Merdeka prayer house, on whose tower is found the inscription “didirikan tanggal 7 bulan Juli l877,”
meaning “built on the seventh of July 1877”. To the south of Laweyan Mosque is the house of Kyai
Haji Samanhudi, founder of Sarikat Dagang Islam, a league of Moslem traders in Indonesia. Thesebuildings are legally protected by a governmental decree of Surakarta City.

87

Pl. 1. Laweyan MosquePl. 2. Grave of Ki Ageng HenisPl. 3. Mardiko Mosque

On the other hand, Laweyan has played an important part in political matters, especially during
the growth of nationalist movements, and is known as the place where the Sarikat Dagang Islam (SDI)
formed around 1911.
The community of Laweyan is known as a producer of batik. Batik is a kind of Indonesian
traditional textile which has become a social emblem or trademark for Indonesian people. Batik
has been made in Indonesia since a long time ago. Many areas in Indonesia produce batik, such as
Cirebon, Pekalongan, Yogyakarta, Surakarta, and Jambi. The process in making batik is not simple
and usually it requires up to one month’s time for one piece of batik.
Laweyan is very popular as center of batik entrepreneurship. Historically, through its status
as a batik entrepreneurial center, Laweyan became famous. Even the name of Laweyan is presumed toderive from something related to the community’s enterprise, as mentioned by Mlayadipura (l981) in
his article entitled “History of Laweyan”:…Asal nama Kampung Laweyan dikatakan berasal dari kata“ Lawe” atau
kapas yang dipintal kemudian diantih (ditenun) menjadi mori gedog (moriyang rupanya masih seperti lawe/belum diberi pemutih) dan kain baju
lurik…. (Mlayadipura 1981:10).
[The name of Laweyan comes from word of “lawe” or cotton which was spun andwoven to become mori gedog (unbleached plain cloth without whitening) and lurik cloth.]88

From the description above, it can be seen that lawe was sold in the market that is now known as
Laweyan Market.
The batik industry grew rapidly in Laweyan after the development of the printed batik making
technique. Because of this technique, canting – using a small dipper to apply wax in the process ofbatik making – would not be used again, as people instead used stamps made from copper plates withspecific motifs. Thereafter, Laweyan became known as a producer of printed batik.
Printed batik technology is presumed have come from Semarang, a city in Central Java, andwas adopted meticulously by the merchants in Laweyan in becoming a highly valuable industry. The
business of printed batik making in Laweyan was started around the middle of the nineteenth century
and expanded in the year 1870. In that period, batik entrepreneurs in Laweyan built their places ofbusiness on a large scale, grew stronger and became autonomous both socially and economically.
Laweyan has been used as a place for textile commerce since the period of the Pajang Kingdom,around the sixteenth century. Before the batik industry started and expanded, Laweyan was a centerof commerce for traditional material (lawe) that was mostly supplied from Wedi and Tembayat in
Klaten (Bahari, 2000: 2). Before the highway network and railway tracks were extended, to the southof Laweyan there was a river port in Kabanaran village that was used for loading and unloading
cotton and yarn merchandise. Laweyan also became a center of traditional weaving before the batik
industry grew. After Panembahan Senopati and his followers moved to Kota Gede, economic activities
in Laweyan did not stop. Laweyan started to grow again when the printed batik industry shut out theimportation of batik motif textiles that were cheaper.
In actuality, the merchants of Laweyan did not enjoy a respectable position culturally within
feudal Javanese society. They had the same status as ordinary people, the difference being onlythat batik merchants had greater economic power and wealth than even nobles and officials. In theeconomic sector, Laweyan batik merchants were also known as pioneers for a cooperative movement
named “Persatoean Peroesahaan Batik Boemipoetra Soerakarta” (PPBBS) or Association of
Soerakarta Boemipoetra Batik Enterprises in 1935 (Bahari, 2000: 3).
The Laweyan community recognized special terms used to refer to different groups of people.
Sarsono and Suyatno wrote that:. . . Masyarakat Laweyan mengenal kelompok-kelompok sosial yang disebut
wong saudagar (orang saudagar atau pedagang), wong cilik (orang kecil
atau kebanyakan), wong mutihan (orang putih atau Islam atau alim ulama)dan wong priyayi (orang priyayi atau bangsawan atau pejabat). Dikenal
pula golongan saudagar sebagai juragan dengan wanita sebagai
pemegang peran dalam perdagangan batik. Untuk itu, istilah mbok maseatau nyah nganten adalah menandai wanita sebagai pemeran utama dalamperdagangan batik, sedang untuk suami disebut Mas Nganten yangbertindak sebagai pelengkap utuhnya sebuah keluarga. . .

89

[. . . Laweyan community recognized social groups called wong saudagar (merchants), wongcilik (ordinary people), wong mutihan (Moslem people or Moslem leaders or teachers) andwong priyayi (people belonging to the upper class, nobles, or officials). In merchant groups,
recognition was also given to managerial families in which the women mainly took up roles
in batik commerce. The term mbok mase or nyah nganten indicates a woman who had a mainrole in batik commerce, while her husband, called Mas Nganten, complemented the family. . . ](Sarsono and Suyatno,1985:12).
		They also sold batik and earned high profits. In the past, roles for men and women were clear
and distinct. Women worked to make and sell textiles, while men only took the role of head of thefamily.
III. Environmental conditions of Laweyan
Laweyan is located in Surakarta City, Central Java Province, at the coordinates of 110° 47” 36.60’ east
longitude and 67° 34” 07.75’ south latitude.

Pl. 4. Location Map of Surakarta City

The borders of the Laweyan area are as follows:
1. On the north it is bordered by Kelurahan Sondakan, along Dr. Radjiman Street which
previously was a big street linking Kartasura palace with Kasunanan palace in Surakarta.
2. On the South it is bordered by the Jenes river. People in Surakarta previously called this the
Kabanaran river. The river was the main access between Bengawan Solo river and the Pajang
Kingdom. This river also borders Surakarta city with the Sukoharjo Regency.
3. On the west it is bordered by the district of Pajang. Pajang was the site of the Pajang
Kingdom, but at present there are no remains to be found within the site.
4. On the east it is bordered by the district of Bumi.
		
Generally, the Laweyan area is dry land which is relatively flat, located on an alluvial plain.
The main material of the alluvial plain comes from the Bengawan Solo river and other small rivers in
Surakarta and its surroundings.

90

Pl. 5. Location of archaeological and historical structures

The area of Laweyan is 24.83 hectares, consisting of 20.56 hectares of yards and buildings, and4.27 hectares of rivers, roads, graves, etc.
Generally, the climatic condition of Laweyan is the same as other areas in Central Java, with arainy monsoon season from October to April and a dry season from May to September. The rainfall
average is 24.25 cm per month and the air temperature average is 27.29 C. Hydrological conditions aregood both in quality and quantity. In this area, water needs are easily met by ground water.
IV. Laweyan Settlement
In the settlement, there are many old houses and buildings which have high value from historical andarchaeological perspectives. These houses have specific characteristics and architecture.
As a social group with a position at the same level as ordinary people, Batik merchants in
Laweyan were not limited by custom. They had freedom to determine their own choice, including
decisions in building houses. To build a house, they could diverge from traditional Javanese room
settings, but the building process nevertheless observed existing customs (such as the standard custom
of holding a slametan, or communal feast, and activities to express gratitude to God that are followedfrom the beginning of house building to its completion).
As a social group on the same status with ordinary people, batik merchants in this area looked
up to other groups that had authority within the community. Initially, the batik merchants wished
to compete with the nobles in terms of housing, and for that reason houses of batik merchants in
Laweyan built before the twentieth century generally resembled aristocrats’ houses with all theirproperties.
Merchants entering Laweyan in the twentieth century started to build artificial loji (small forts)

91

like European houses, but they also used some Javanese elements among the building components.
Besides these, there are also houses such as landhuis with attributes unmatched to the area. Batik
merchants in Laweyan built their houses not only to show their wealth, but also to mark theiropposition in attitude to the owners of cultural authority, and also to those holding political and real
economic power (Bahari, 2000: 4-5).
In addition, field data indicate that room settings and the numbers of rooms inside buildingsin Laweyan varied. Laweyan has multifarious building designs, and most of them give a sturdy
impression because the roof support structure is made not with a pillar frame but from the outer wallof the building. There are some buildings which have ornaments and decorative objects. The regol (gate)
always faces toward the road while the house building faces north or south.

Pl. 6. A house in Laweyan

Based on field data, there are two ambiguities noted for Laweyan. The first is observed in thefollowing aspects of the architecture:a) The status of Laweyan, as an area that was exempted from tax, was not accompanied byother changes in the context of the community in general. Thereby, the status and positionof Laweyan community members was still assumed to be the same as ordinary people ingeneral.
The logical consequence of this situation is that entrepreneurs realized they were notnoble. Their awareness of this fact generated unwritten agreements among them, such as an
avoidance of a joglo roof for their house (a joglo roof is a symbol of a prince or noble’s house),and not having the verandah directed to the east (as in palace buildings).
If such agreements may be seen as signs of weakness in their social status, at the sametime, they tried to show off their excesses, such as: building houses with a bearing-wallstructure, thereby adopting architectural elements from the outside like those used in solid
European architecture, while mixing them with Javanese style architecture; using ornaments,
such as making luxuriant and beautiful petanen with various decorative objects like statuesof Roro Blonyo, glass, betel vine bowls, bokor and other decorations, and tiling and porcelainbrought from other areas.

92

An exclusive attitude had not actually been expressed through building styles andelements, because on one side they still realized that they were a part of Javanese culture, as
expressed by a room in the house called dalem, and building two pillars to represent a main
pillar. This pillar did not function structurally but only as a symbol of the Javanese house.
Javanese cultural symbols were still maintained in their houses.
Their self-supporting position permitted them to easily interact with many foreign
elements since former times. This was also promoted by the condition that entrepreneurs
were always in contact with many nations, reflected in their not closely following traditionalarrangements of the Javanese house, and the existence of variation in room settings. The
opportunity to interact and build relationships with foreign cultures did not induce them toleave Javanese culture fully, which can be seen by their incorporation of the fundamentalroom setting of the Javanese system, such as the existence of a wide yard and a dalem, eventhough some of the other traditional rooms were not utilized. Thereby spatial arrangements
still followed the Javanese pattern in part, while other areas were utilized according to new
requirements (appropriated to function).
b) Entrepreneurs or managers could pretend to be noble in the perdikan area of Laweyan, in that
ordinary people worked as laborers who served faithfully and hereditarily to entrepreneursin the manner of servants in the dalem area. There was a difference in function, however, as
in noble residences they did housework and served their employers, but in Laweyan they didbatik making.
c) The existence of a feeling as a noble was expressed on their house walls. The house wall
represented the boundary of their area of power and their ability to keep peace within thatarea. The regol was the main entrance which was placed facing the road or street in front of
their house. The direction of house building was to the north or to the south, as according to
the Javanese pattern.
d) Living as batik entrepreneurs generated the consequence that the house was at the same time a
residence and a factory or workplace. To support the business, then, there was a room added
known as the pavilion or lojen (from the word loji, meaning big building). The lojen alsofunctioned to separate the left or right side of the building from the gandhok. The gandhok
in the Javanese house pattern is a space provided for any activities in the batik production
process.
e) The entrepreneurs, as holders of the highest status in the community structure of Laweyan,considered themselves as nobles in this area. As nobles, their houses have wide yards
symbolizing their power and wealth, in addition to their function as a space for producing
batik, in this case as place for spreading out batik to dry in the sun. The yard was bordered bya high wall (more or less 6 meters), symbolizing as their area of power where they protected
their property from any kind of riot or robbery.

93

The fundamental spaces of houses in Laweyan were a wide yard, dalem, and factory, while theother areas functioned as supporting space. The hierarchy of permanent Javanese space was fully
involved, being the existence of a difference in floor height starting from the yard and going to thesentong, a small inner room used for family ceremonies or as a storage. Accordingly, the dalem (mainroom) was positioned on the highest floor. This was not based on an assumption by the Laweyan
community (especially entrepreneurs) that the dalem was still the most holy place.
The second ambiguity concerns the economic situation. The position of entrepreneurs in
Javanese society was highly regarded in terms of social status and their wealth resulted in their feelinglike nobles in Laweyan. With their wealth they could have everything they wanted. This fact strongly
influenced their habits of marriage, through which couples came from within the same social group,
but supported by their batik products, which could support the needs of royalty in the past and were
subsequently developed to sell on the free market, the Laweyan community was connected withthe outside society. They thus experienced an ambiguous or dualistic situation, in being very closed
internally while in commerce they were a very extroverted community.
Good internal relationships and togetherness in matters of business within the Laweyan
community strongly supported batik production. Batik entrepreneurs in Laweyan built their settlement
not only for showing off their wealth but also through their separateness to avoid conflict, both withthe owners of cultural authority, and also those holding political and real economic power.
Plots of land in Laweyan area are divided by size into: 1) plots of batik entrepreneurs, with adistinction between big entrepreneur having 1000–3000 m 2 and medium entrepreneurs with 300–1000
m2, and 2) plots of laborers, on the order of 25–100 m2.
Roads in Laweyan
divide into three classes: 1) main roads, about 15 m wide, passing through����������������������������������������������������������������������������
the area andconnecting with other cities, 2) internal roads about 6 m wide, connecting sub-areas, and���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
3) pathways�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
located between houses, around 2–3 m wide, and generally positioned along the 6 m-high��������������������������������������������������������
boundary walls.
��

Pl. 7. Situation of roads in Laweyan��������������������������������������
���� ������� ��� ��������� ����� ���������� ��������� ���� ����� ��������� ��� ������� ���������������� ���� ��������� ����� ������� ���� ���� �������� ������������ ���� ���� ��������

94���������� ����� ��� ��� ���������������� ���� ������������
���� ����� ���� ����� ��� �� ������� �����
������������ ��� ���������������� ��������� ��� ���������� ��� ���� ������������ ����� ��� ���������
�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
��������� ������ ��� ����������� ������ ��� ���� ���������� �������� ��� ������� ������� ��������

The status as perdikan area obviously involves not only problems of rights and obligations
for Laweyan. This status has the logical consequence for the Laweyan community that it is selfsupporting and independent and does not rely on a ruler. This independent or self-supporting attitude
is reflected in the community’s ways to maintain the local area and in daily activities related to its
means of livelihood. All of the profits of business could be absolutely owned by the community
because of rights earned through their business management.
V. Concept of Zoning
A “site” as an archaeological concept that means a location which contains or is presumed to containarchaeological remains, together with the surroundings which require safeguarding. A number ofarchaeological remains indicate activities of the community necessary to fulfill its living needs.
In archaeology, there is a problem related to deciding the limitations of a site. In making adetermination, we could adopt geographical borders, site ownership borders, borders of eyewitness
feasibility for normal views of the object, or borders of archaeological significance. A zoning system
is implemented to give boundaries for an area’s protection. One objective of zoning is to protect
archaeological sites and remains from damage. Based on significance and protection management,
zoning is divided into three zones, being the main, buffer, and facilities zones.
The main zone is for protection, based on the original borders, the significance of thearchaeological remains, the contextual environment and eyewitness feasibility for the archaeologicalremains.
The buffer zone functions as protective land for the main zone. The buffer zone can serveas land for facility structures in limited amounts. The buffer zone is determined by the need forprotection and degree of threat to archaeological remains and sites. The buffer zone is also known as
an area for greenery and atmospheric balance, protection, and environmental beauty for tourists, andto protect the cultural heritage from natural factors such as rainfall, wind, or sunlight. As a greenery
area, it is principally used as land for trees to provide shade. If necessary, a roof could be built forprotection, along with simple facility structures.
The facilities zone provides for common tourism facilities. Determination of the facilities zone
is based on accessibility, floor area ratio, and the facilities which are to be provided. The function of
the facilities zone is for tourism service. In the facilities zone, there could be approved souvenir shops,
parking areas, hotels or restaurants, toilets, an information office, or a ticket office.
Zoning methods can be divided into three systems, as follows.
1. Cell System. By this system, the site is divided into several spaces with archaeologicalremains protected in every space. This system is based on factors such as distance between
one zone and another, the density of archaeological remains, the significance of archaeologicalremains, the benefits to the area for its safeguarding.
2. Block System. The block system is applied to safeguard thoroughly the archaeological95remains, which become an entire protected location or area. Limitation of fulfillment for
the area is based on the density of archaeological remains, their distribution and otherarchaeological indications that have significant value for the protection of archaeologicalremains as a unit.
3. Cell and Block System. This is a system that joins features of the cell and block systems forthe purpose of running a double system based on protection needs. This system is applied
for sites which have large numbers of archaeological remains, which are protected over large
areas, or have large distances among the remains.
VI. Method of Zoning
Study for zoning consisted of collecting data from references and maps, plus a field survey andinterviews. A topographic map with scale of 1:50 was used as a base map. During the study, we
carried out surveys of old structures for mapping purposes. All data gained from the survey wereused to analyze and to summarize the results of the study, and then decide the limits of zoning. In
addition, for data quality and quantity, interviews were required with persons considered to have goodknowledge about Laweyan, such as public figures or experts.
VII. Zoning of Laweyan
Based on studies of historical and archaeological data, the scope of the Laweyan area are: Laweyan
itself, plus Sondakan, Bumi, and Pajang.
For protection and safeguarding, the zoning of Laweyan adopted the cell and block system forthe reason that Laweyan has a large number of archaeological remains. The block system had been
applied in Kelurahan Laweyan, while the cell system had been applied in Kelurahan Sondakan, Bumi,
and Pajang.
Determination of the main zone was based on the locations of batik houses and historicalstructures. The main zone is divided into three sub-zones, with the first being Kelurahan Laweyan.
Kelurahan is local term to designate the smallest administrative area. The natural borders of
Kelurahan Laweyan are the Jenes, Batangan, and Kabanaran rivers. The Premulung river lies south of
the area, Kelurahan Bumi to the east, and Rajiman Street to the north. In this sub-zone, there are manybatik houses which are still in their original condition as well those which are new in appearance. The
batik house has these characteristics: it is surrounded by a high wall and a gate facing the street; it has
a main house, a building for batik processing, and a wide yard. The area of the first sub-zone is 9.11
hectares.
The second sub-zone is an area with historical structures related to Laweyan but located outsideof Kelurahan Laweyan. The structures are the grave of Kyai Ageng Henis – founder of Laweyan – andLaweyan Mosque.
The third sub-zone is the area with many houses of batik owners in Kelurahan Sondakan and
Kelurahan Bumi. These areas are on the north and east of Kelurahan Laweyan. The architecture of96

these houses is the same as the Laweyan houses, but this sub-zone has a smaller number of batik
houses.
The scope of the buffer zone is the Sondakan, Bumi, and Pajang areas. The function of this area
is for supporting the main zone. The area of this zone is suggested to be approximately 16.5 hectares.
The facilities zone or development zone surrounds the Sondakan, Bumi, and Pajang areas. This
zone is suggested as 5.8 hectares.
There are some facilities already found in Laweyan, such as street lamps, information boards,
streets, etc.

Pl. 8. Zoning of Laweyan

Recommendation
Based on field survey and data analysis, these are the recommendations for implementing theprotection of the Laweyan area:
1. It is necessary to minimize changes of architecture to Laweyan houses for preservation
purposes.
2. It is necessary to disseminate information to the Laweyan community, its stakeholders, andthe government regarding protection, development, and utilization of the Laweyan area, toincrease the awareness of the need for preservation.

Bibliography
Andri Satrio Pratomo, Antariksa dan Septiana Hariyani, “Pelestarian Kawasan Kampung Batik
Laweyan Kota Surakarta”. Naskah Penelitian, tidak diterbitkan, Malang: Universitas Brawijaya,

97

2006.
Badan Perencanaan Daerah Pemerintah Kota Surakarta, Grand Design Kawasan Kampoeng Batik
Laweyan Surakarta (Laporan akhir). Surakarta: Badan Perencanaan Daerah, 2006.
Heddy Lugito, dkk, “Monumen Kejayaan Juragan Batik”, Gatra, edisi khusus, Oktober 2006, hal.
43-35.
Nanik Widayati, “Pemukiman Pengusaha Batik di Laweyan Surakarta”. Disertasi. Jakarta: Program
Pasca Sarjana Fakultas Sastra Universitas Indonesia 2002.
------------------ “Membuka Wacana Art Deco Pada Rumah Saudagar Batik di Laweyan”, makalahpada Seminar Art Deco di Indonesia: A Live Style. Jakarta: Universitas Tarumanegara dan
Pusat Dokumentasi Arsitektur, 2005.
Soedarmono, Pengusaha Batik di Laweyan Solo Awal Abad 20. Jakarta: Yayasan Warna Warni
Indonesia, 2006.

98

Iran
Aileen BABAKHANI
Senior Supervisor
Cultural Heritage
Handicrafts & Tourism Organization

A Case Study in Iranian Archeological Conservation Activities
on Architectural Remains: The Takhteh-Soleiman Complex(World Heritage Site)
Abstract
This report discusses the general methods of archeological conservation activities on architectural
finds (exposed monuments) and the difficulties faced in Iran. The variety of conservation methods at
the Takhteh-Soleiman complex (World Heritage Site) from 1959 will be discussed as a case of study.
Introduction
The plateau of Iran is one of the oldest civilization centers of ancient eras in Asia and has a significant
value in archeological science.
The beginning of excavation in Iran was in 1849, by W. K. Luftus (a British archeologist) at
Susa, the capital of ancient Elam civilization (1000 B.C.) in the south of Iran. After that time many
ancient sites were excavated by foreign and Iranian archeologists, and in addition to the results interms of the findings and the history of civilization regarding these sites, the preservation of theheritage found at these sites is an important theme in the current report.
A lack of cooperation between archeologists and conservation architects on excavation teams
causes problems in conservation programs. However, legislation can solve the larger part of these
difficulties.
The Takhteh-Soleiman complex, a unique set of monuments and remains in northwestern Iran,is located in an extremely beautiful mountainous area which is spotted with outstanding naturalhistorical attractions. The site includes the principal Zoroastrian sanctuary from the Sassanid era (6ththcentury) and the remains of the only castle dating back to the Ilkhanid period (13 century).
Materials used in the buildings of this complex include cut stones and carved stones, large size
bricks (from the Sassanid era), quarried stones, and bricks decorated with plaster-molding and tile
work (from the Ilkhanid era).
It was inscribed on the World Heritage List in July 2003. Also, different types of conservation
methods and studies, carried out on this site, can illustrate all the architectural conservation methods
being taken all over Iran, which can be classified into five main methods.
Conservation and management of the historic complex of Takhteh-Soleiman dates back to99

1958-59, when research and excavations started, but methodical conservation and fundamental
restoration began in 1977-78.
The History of Archeological Activities in Iran
Iran is an ancient land with nearly 10,000 years of history documented in the archaeological remains,which are scattered across this vast and high plateau. Thousands of archaeological sites date backto prehistoric and historic eras, there are in addition 500 living and active cities, most of whichfeature valuable urban centers and a historic fabric, plus thousands of valuable historic monuments,
including houses, mosques, palaces, bazaars, and four million moveable cultural artifacts which aredisplayed and deposited in museums and storehouses. This entire physical heritage represents precious
memories of the great and rich cultures and civilizations that have flourished in Iran.
Iran had been introduced as an ancient country with rich cultural heritage all over the worldthfrom the 15 century by foreign travelers, through narratives of their itineraries.
The arrival of foreign expeditions in Iran coincided with an increased desire to identify andlocate the places mentioned in the Bible as well as in Greek and Roman sources. These expeditions
pursued the early works and attempted primarily to explore the ancient architectural structures andcities. They were primarily French, but later on, British and Russian teams also arrived in Iran andfollowed their activities. Final reports of most of these activities are already available.
thDuring the 17th and 18 centuries, European travelers took cuneiform tablets back to Europe,
but since there was no proper key available to decipher their inscriptions, the tablets remained
mysterious. The first real progress toward reading was made of the writing at Behistun by Carsten
Niebuhr, a German member of a Danish scientific expedition to the Middle East from 1761 to 1767. Hecorrectly thought the threefold Behistun inscription to be transcripts of the same text in three different
kinds of unknown writing. In 1777, through an outstanding effort he published the first accurate copyof the Behistun inscriptions. This helped enable the subsequent deciphering of the Old Persian text,
which paved the way for decoding the Elamite and Akkadian (Babylonian) inscriptions.
In 1810, James Mourier directed the first excavations of Persepolis to get at the carved reliefs,
but the local governor prevented him from going through with this plundering. In 1851, Loftus
carried out the first archaeological excavations in Iran of the Susa ruins. Publishing his investigations
at Chaldeans and Susa, Loftus called the attention of French researchers towards this ancient city.
Later on, in 1883 the French government entered into a contract with Naser al-din Shah, king of the
Qajar dynasty. Accordingly, Marcel Diolafoa (1844-1920) arrived in Susa to carry out archaeologicalexcavations. He excavated Apadana Tepe in Susa and sent most of the finds to Louvre Museum. This
incurred the wrath of Naser al-din Shah and other Iranian officials, and hence the excavations stopped
in 1886.
On the third trip of Naser al-din Shah to France, French officials induced him to sign anothercontract with the French government. The signed contract, however, was suspended soon after the
Qajar king was assassinated. Eventually, Jacques de Morgan came to Iran to implement the contract.

100But he was not welcome, and even the governor of Khuzestan snubbed him. Some years later, in
his 1897 trip to France, Mozaffar al-din Shah agreed to collaborate with French expeditions. Thisagreement resulted in the well-known, notorious 1900 treaty between the two countries, known as the“de Morgan Treaty.” Through this treaty, the French gained a monopoly on carrying out any sort ofarchaeological investigations and excavations in Iran. In addition, it maintained all the finds from Susa
would be the property of the French government, and the Iranian government would simply receive
gold and silver equal to the weight of unearthed gold and silver materials. De Morgan’s excavations
yielded precious materials from Elamite contexts in Susa, including the Code of Hammurabi andNaram-Sin, now in Louvre Museum.
In 1927, the abovementioned treaty was canceled conditionally, yet the French government
gained the concession of establishing a museum and library in Iran, providing that a French national
would take their presidency for three recurrent five-year terms. Accordingly, in 1929 André Godard
arrived in Iran to design and establish the agreed to museum and library (now called Iran Bastan
Museum and National Library). The year 1937 marked the official opening of these institutions.
The organization in charge of archaeology, that already existed as the “Office of Antiquities”
affiliated to the Ministry of Maaref, was rendered a subsidiary to the “Central Office of Oqaff” under
the title of “Department of Antiquities,” then for a short period in 1936 took the name of “Archaeology
Office,” and was finally turned into the “Central Archaeology Office.” The “Office of Antiquities”
was simply responsible for the antiquities dealings and their export, with no authority regarding
excavations and archaeological field activities. At first, Iraj Mirza was the president of the Office, but
Gadar replaced Iraj Mirza as he began his official activities in Iran.
Annulment of the treaty with the French government marked a new stage in Iranianarchaeology: scholars from different countries, long waiting for such a great opportunity, flooded
the country in 1940 and carried out widespread excavations. In spite of the persistent activities offoreign expeditions, archaeology was still new in Iran and there were few Iranian experts in the field.
Hence, Iranians carried out little activities in this period. It is worthwhile to note that the first group ofarchaeology students in Iran graduated in 1941 from Tehran University. Independent investigations by
Iranian scholars prior to 1941 were limited to 1934 excavations carried out by A. Hakemi in Hasanlu
Tepe in Sulduz valley, West Azerbaijan, and the restoration of Persepolis excavations in 1939 by I.
Behnam and A. Sammi. The years intervening between 1951 and 1964 marked the third stage ofarchaeology in Iran.
With the establishment of the Ministry of Culture and Art in 1964 and the affiliation of IranianArchaeological Service to that ministry, the forth stage of archaeology commenced in Iran andcontinued up to the instigation of the Islamic Revolution. Following the incorporation of the Public
Culture Office and Archaeological Center, the “Archaeological and Public Culture Center” came into
existence; however, in 1971 the Center was divided into two separate offices called the Archaeological
Service and the Anthropological Service. In the wake of the creation of the Iranian Archaeological
Service, substantial steps were made towards restricting the outflow of archaeological materials

101from the country. Equally, the Archaeological Service held annual symposiums on archaeology, anddirectors of expeditions were required to give scientific reports about their findings.
In 1978, with the accomplishment of the Islamic Revolution, a revolution could similarly be seen
in archaeological activities. The Archaeological Center, which had been a subsidiary of the Ministryof Culture and Art, became affiliated to the Ministry of Culture and Higher Education. This, despite
certain impairments, ensured the continuance of archaeological activities.
During these years, Iranian archaeologists and scholars carried out some limited field
activities. Organizational deficiency as well as decentralized archaeological administration led
to the introduction of a proposal in the Islamic Consultative Assembly and cabinet, concerning
the integration of different offices and organizations responsible for archaeology. Accordingly, acentralized organization called the Iranian Cultural Heritage Organization, affiliated to the Ministryof Higher Education, emerged in 1987. The organization later became a subsidiary to the Ministry of
Culture and Islamic Guidance in 1992. Archaeological activities declined following the establishmentof the Cultural Heritage Organization due to various reasons, then experienced a new situation
during the 1990s, especially due to increased funds and advanced equipment, as well as a quantitative
growth in its human force. While planning and implementing new and promising projects, theprevious activities, which had been temporarily halted because of political developments in the
country, were resumed, thereby demonstrating the competence of national experts in project planning,
implementation, and management.
Finally the Center for Archeological Research is working under Iranian Cultural Heritage,
Handicrafts & Tourism Organization.
During the 1980s and 1990s, Iranian archaeologists have experienced outstanding achievements.
The field activities of Iranian archaeologists in these two decades are as follows.
1. Restoring some unfinished excavations and reinvestigating a number of important sites firstexcavated prior to World War II.
2. Implementing special excavations to reveal uncertainties regarding the archaeology of Iran.
3. Implementing emergency and salvage excavations at sites endangered due to various
reasons, including urban development activities, and illegal excavations.
4. Carrying out extensive reconnaissance and survey projects to gain a real grasp of the actual
realities, opportunities and challenges, thereby creating the archaeological map of country.
5. Exploiting students’ competence and widening cooperation with scientific and academic
centers of the country in archaeology and related scientific fields.
6. Making expanded use of scientific capacities of other disciplines, and employing the basic
and experimental sciences to implement archaeological investigations in Iran.
History of Conservation at Archeological Sites in Iran
Heritage is defined as anything of value from the past that provides identity to the present and inspires

102the future generation. Traditionally, it is classified as intangible or tangible, movable or immovable,
natural or cultural, personal or communal. Usually, heritage is perceived as something without use orpractical value and has no return of investment.
The conservation of cultural property requires a knowledge of materials and structures and how
these are affected by various environmental factors that individually, or in consort, tend to bring about
their destruction (p. 124, The conservation of cultural property).
Conservation activities at archeological sites started with the first archeological excavation in1849.
The destruction of Iranian cultural heritage is due to several factors. The most common
deteriorating agents, including climatic factors like air pollution (mainly in major urban areas)
and biological mechanisms, are constantly damaging cultural remains. However, there are otheragents which have more critical and detrimental effects, including natural disasters and especially
earthquakes and floods that are major elements of destruction. Even though climatically a large part ofthe country is arid, there are still instances of flooding. In fact, in our history and also quite recently, anumber of towns have been partially or completely destroyed due to this natural factor.
Other factors causing deterioration include:• Illicit excavations• Smuggling of valuable objects• The previous unlawful transfer abroad of archaeological finds unearthed by foreignarchaeological teams who were active before the Islamic Revolution• Rapid urbanization due to population growth• Lack of proper planning and standards• Non-implementation of existing norms and regulations
Conservation of this huge cultural wealth requires enormous effort and resources.
Unlike other developing countries in the world, and despite numerous positive initiatives and good
will, it is fair to say that due to the limited resources available for the conservation of cultural heritage,
the present situation is far from being considered ideal.
The harsh situation imposed by war and other factors has resulted in national reorganization andplanning for various short- and long-term programs in order to mitigate the potential risks of futuredisasters.
These initiatives can be summarized as follows.
• Construction of proper shelters for museum collections in various parts of the country• Comprehensive surveys for the documentation of movable and immoveable heritage in orderto plan a long-term strategy for protection against future intrusions• Active implementation of the 1954 Hague Convention through a national committee, training103

of armed forces, and the removal of several military barracks from the vicinities of historicsites and monuments• Establishment and activation of national committees of ICOMOS and ICOM• Strengthening scientific relations with overseas institutions, particularly ICCROM, andorganizing joint training and field programs• Organization of regular national conferences on the conservation and restoration of cultural
heritage, as well as on the history of architecture and urbanization• Promotion and development of academic education in the conservation of cultural heritage
Lack of Cooperation between Archeologists and Conservation Experts on Excavation Teams
Conservation is a multi-disciplinary process that depends on teamwork. Each member of the team willbring to the team their own disciplinary knowledge as well as their specialist conservation expertise.
Why do archaeologists have to manage for conservation on the sites they excavate? This is aquestion that may be asked by any archeologist who is not responsible enough to take any action suchas the prevention of his own digging!
Of course there have been past efforts to define the conservation of archeological sites. Oneof the first coordinated attempts to codify international principles and procedures of archaeologicalsite conservation was formulated in the Athens Charter of 1931 where measures such as accurate
documentation, protective backfilling, and international interdisciplinary collaboration were clearly
articulated. In 1956 further advances were made at the General Conference on International Principles
Applicable to Archaeological Excavations adopted by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, andCultural Organization (UNESCO) in New Delhi, where the role of a centralized state administrationin administering, coordinating, and protecting excavated and unexcavated archaeological sites was
advocated.
Other charters such as the ICOMOS (Venice) Charter of 1964 extended these earlier
recommendations through explicit recommendations that included the avoidance of reconstructionsof archaeological features except for cases in which the original components were available but
dismembered and the use of distinguishable modern techniques for the conservation of historicmonuments. The Australia ICOMOS (Burra) Charter of 1979 expanded the definition of “archaeologicalsite” to include the notion of place, challenging Eurocentric definitions of value, significance,
authenticity, and integrity to include context and traditional use, an idea important for culturally
affiliated indigenous groups.
Finally, in 1990 the ICOMOS (ICAHM) Charter for the Protection and Management of theArchaeological Heritage was adopted in Lausanne, Switzerland, formalizing the internationalrecognition of many archaeological sites as living cultural landscapes and the responsibility of thearchaeologist in the conservation process. In addition to these various international attempts toaddress the issues of archaeological site conservation through the creation of charters and otherdoctrine guidelines, a conference to discuss the realities of such standards was held in Cyprus in 1983

104

under the auspices of ICCROM and UNESCO.
In the context of the conference subject, that is, archaeological sites and finds, conservation was
defined as traditionally concerned with the preservation of the physical fabric in a way that allows
maximum information to be retrieved by further study and analysis, whereas restoration involves
the representation of objects, structures, or sites so that they can be more visually “accessible” andtherefore readily understood by both scholars and the public.
Therefore archaeologists have to be responsible for conservation on the sites they excavate, notonly for collecting the removable objects, but also for leaving the physical fabric of the site (includingarchitectural parts) in good condition. Iran is one of the countries that has accepted these charters.
But what has happened at archeological sites to conserve remains before and after excavation in Iran,once this country joined UNESCO on September 1948 and accepted those goals mentioned above, anddefined conservation as a UNESCO member?
There are four different approaches to conservation by archeologists for protecting architectural
remains.
1. Archeologists can manage their excavation teams without the help of conservation architects,
and try to carry out efforts to show how much they identify with conservation techniques.
(The archeological sites are places for them to experience challenges.)
2. Archeologists can manage their excavation teamwork with the help of conservationarchitects, but the latter are not professional and just take part in the excavation as students
to experience methods of conservation that archeologists introduce. So what methods thehead of the team (an archeologist) offers for conservation activities will be followed.
3. When archeologists decide to work on historical sites, the Iranian Center for ArcheologicalResearch informs the Conservation and Restoration Office to cooperate with archeologists
on project management before and after excavation. The architectural conservation experts(employees of this office) start to study the site and prepare accurate documents and designs
for conservation.
This sort of cooperation usually continues for years. Therefore it may be inconvenient
for archeologists to always have some researchers from another office interfering with theiractivities on the site.
4. There are no conservation architects involved in archeological teamwork before or after
excavation. In this case when the digging activities are done and there is no more budget
for ordinary conservation by archeologists, the Iranian Center for Archeological Research
informs the Conservation and Restoration Office to perform any necessary conservation
techniques on architectural remains. This means there is no responsibility for achieving
any conservation results by the archeologists, who simply inform the Conservation and
Restoration Office as to: where is the report of excavations, what was the necessity of
excavation on the site, and where are the archeologists who excavated the site and took the105

properties and removable remains for further studies.
Archeologists want to be the project manager and guide the teamwork, even that doneby conservation architects and conservators, but they should have sufficient understanding ofconservation principles and techniques and must assist them to manage the conservation of built
heritage finds in sites to achieve successful cooperation.
So the main question is still remains unanswered: who is responsible for conservation of thebuilt heritage found in archeological excavations?
You can easily find a lack of agreement on principles or norms between two the offices involved,
and a lack of comprehension among archeologists about the need for protection of finds throughsharing their studies with conservation experts, which destroys the built heritage and causes theprincipal damage especially in recent years.
Workshops, organized meetings, new norms, etc., can decrease these difficulties and we must
keep it in mind that the cultural heritage does not belong to a particular group of people. In addition,
the main concern of every conservation activity has to be working with integrity.
Current Methods of Conservation of Archeological Sites and Remains
Heritage conservation is an action taken to sustain the value, meaning and significance of cultural
resources from the past, for the use of present and inspiration of future generations. Heritage
conservation performs protection and promotion of heritage significance or makes heritage meaningful
to the community. (Australia ICOMOS, 1999)
It is as well to remember that the exposed monuments have the most urgent need for protection,
especially from the infiltration of water.
Besides different sorts of cooperation for conservation between archeologists and conservationarchitects, there are five categorizations for conservation techniques on built heritage finds at
excavated sites that have been developed in the last 100 years in Iran, as follows.
1. Reconstruction (anastylosis). Reconstruction is distinguished from restoration by the
introduction of additional materials where loss has occurred. Reconstruction should notnormally constitute the majority of a place. Generalized representations of typical features
or structures should be avoided.
In this technique, most of the time archeologists remake the site using ancientmaterials scattered over the sites to build the built heritage and protect it.
The contribution of reconstruction to the conservation of monuments is fundamental,
and it involves very important consideration while it is still possible by measurement anddetailed study to recover the original form. New parts must be distinguishable, using othertextures or materials from the original. (figures 2, 3)
When we do reconstruction, we must be sure about the correct shape and form of the106structure.
2. Reburial. Reburial is another technique, which archeologists rarely carry out forconservation of architectural remains in sites.
3. Protective shelters (artificial shelter or space frame). This is the only technique in whicharcheologists cooperate with conservation architects and also with other field experts. This
technique may ignore the artistic/architectural values of the original remains when the
shelter roofs cover large expanses without any formal spatial relationship to the protected
remains.
4. Structural Protection (structural stabilization). Supporting with scaffolds is a familiar typeof structural protection, with support provided by jacks and timbers. (figure 8)
5. Covering the top of architectural remains with material (plaster). In this technique thesurface of architectural remains, especially the top, is covered with gypsum, plastic netting,
mud-plaster, or mud brick.
Most of the time, mud will be washed down the wall by rain, and damp is the second
essential danger which may occur due to this method. Also blocks of stone are used asprotective elements to cover the top of stone walls. (figure14)
The Takhteh-Soleiman Complex
DESCRIPTIONThe Takhteh-Soleiman complex is unique both in its artistic structure and in its role not only inthe formation of pre-Islamic architecture in ancient Iran, but also as an image of the main religion(Zoroastrianism) in central and southwestern Asia. It is the only extant temple of the three principal
fire temples of Zoroastrianism which dominated the religion in the pre-Islamic period in central andsouthwestern Asia.
THE SITE
The site of Takhteh-Soleiman, 47º 14’ 06” east and 36º 36’ 14” north, is formed of a plain, surrounded
by a mountain range, at an altitude of about 2,500 m above sea level, in the northwest of Iran about 45
km north/northeast of a town called Takab, and 750 km from Tehran. The nearest village to the site is
Nosratabad which is located at about 1.5 km to the west of the main site of Takhteh-Soleiman.
It contains a volcano and an artesian lake as essential elements of the site. The fortified oval siteof Takhteh-Soleiman covers an area of about 10 hectares. It is protected by its uniquely oval-shaped
castle.
The complex of Takhteh-Soleiman, together with its landscape with over 2,000 years of history
and its magnificent archaeological treasures, signify the cultural heritage of the ancient Iraniancivilization, and was the first Persian heritage inscribed in UNESCO’s list of World Heritage Sites
after the Islamic revolution of 1979. (figure 5)

107

HISTORICAL BACKGROUNDThis heritage has remained from the Sassanid era (226-650 AD). Takhteh-Soleiman (Solomon’sThrone) belongs to one of the three famous Sassanid fire temples. It is also where the kings of the
Sassanid dynasty were crowned. This monument was probably built during the reign of King Pirooz(457- 484 AD), King Anoushirvan’s grandfather.
Archeological excavations in the historic site of Takhteh-Soleiman have also revealed someremains of the Achaemenid and Median eras.
Takhteh-Soleiman and its archaeological artifacts, as one of the most notable and celebrated
centers of Iranian civilization, has left behind its glorious days of prosperity, and is now lying inpeace.
Historians believe the Mongol ruler, Abaqa Khan, great-grandson of Genghis Khan and Börte
Ujin, converted to Islam after invading Iran and built a mosque on top of the castle, which was ruinedin later times.
ARCHITECTURAL REMAINSAll of the structural remains had been built within an oval-shaped rampart. The exterior rampart
was 5 m thick, 14 m in height and had an outer circumference of 1,200 m, complete with 38 conicaldefense towers.
Takhteh-Soleiman has two entrance gates, from the south and the north. The outer wall is aremnant from the Sassanian period. During the Ilkhanid reign, a new gateway had been constructedadjoined with the former southern gateway. Within the oval rampart there are two square plots, placedalong a single axis but with different centers.
In the center of the southern square there is a lake, and in northern square an ancient firetemple, respectively. A vaulted hall, Eivaneh-Khosrow, is placed to the northwest of the lake, andanother, Eivaneh-Garabaqeh-Khosrow, on the southern side. (figure 4)
This ancient site is best known for its Sassanid monuments, such as:• Azargoshnasb Fire Temple• Anahita Temple• Hadaya (Gifts) Museum• Zendan (Jail) Mountain• Belgheis Castle
The main fire temple had four columns and one dome with crescent ceilings and plaster work.
People used to pray in the temple for solving their problems. The Anahita Fire Temple, which has now
only eight columns left, was unearthed by a group of archaeologists from Iran and Germany. Remainsof the only castle dating back to the Ilkhanid period (1256-1353 AD) can also be seen in this historicsite. (figure 6)

108

The castle has been constructed around a lake surrounded by stone hedges, in an oval shapestretching about 400 meters to the south and 200 meters to the west. The castle used to be the state
capital of Azarbaijan in the Sassanid era.
Soleiman Prison, 5 km from the castle, has architectural works in stone and clay that date backto the first millennium B.C. This place used to be a prison for locking up demons on a mountain top
during the days of Prophet Soleiman. There used to be an inactive volcano on its top as well. This
prison was about 100 meters high and used to discharge an unpleasant smell of gas.
STUDY OF DAMAGE
Takhteh-Soleiman was destroyed during the Roman conquest in 624 AD. In archeological surveys
around the area of the fire temple a variety of coins, tiles, and a huge copper cooking vessel (a remnantof the Islamic period) were discovered. Arab and Mongol attacks were causes of damage to the walls
and towers.
Studies have identified four main sources of damage to this site:
1. Geographical conditions and long winters in the region, causing extreme temperaturechanges for many centuries, have provoked gradual erosion of the stones used on the facadeand destruction of their edges.
2. Since the place was deserted and received no attention, due to the lack of roofs, water frommelted snow and from rain has penetrated into the walls. This has caused the collapse of aconsiderable part of the upper parts of the wall as well as other significant damage.
3. Occasional flooding of the lake in the center of the compound has caused damage too.
According to existing evidence, there have been many violent f loods during the past
14 centuries. They have washed the mortar, seriously damaging the foundations of theconstruction.
4. Earthquakes have been another major cause of destruction, considering the height of thetowers and the ramparts which reached 18 m, and the heavy weight of the covering layer,
which was not properly connected to the main retaining wall. Earthquakes have been themain cause of the fall of stones from the façade of the wall, or of its collapse.
CONSERVATION AND PROTECTION MEASURESThe complex of Takhteh-Soleiman has been the object of excavations and restorations from 1959 to
1978. Due to its great importance, the complex was recognized in 1993 by I.C.H.O (Iranian Cultural
Heritage Organization) as one of the ten grand national projects for conservation of the historicalmonuments of Iran.
In 2003, after its inscription in the World Heritage List, in order to achieve the aims ofrestoration and protection defined for world heritage activities, three items were identified as shortterm and mid-term activities in the site as followed:

109• Management• Project activities• Various activities
Management included improving the sanitary services, improving road conditions, constructing
a hotel, keeping up contacts with local organizations, etc.
Project activities were defined as protection of the ecosystem, fauna, etc., and various otheractivities include general cleaning of the site, covering the historical structures, surveying, continuing
archaeological research, etc.
Conservation of archaeological remains was studied as part of the various activities, and a
description of the conservation methods used in historical structures from 1959 up to 2008 lists thefollowing.
• In order to prevent further destruction of the towers and the rampart, in the first stage
measures must be taken to stabilize them, so the exposed parts should covered by clay andstraw as appropriate. (figures 7, 11)• In order to prevent the penetration of moisture, and also to examine the hidden parts of theenclosing wall, piles of earth at the foot of the rampart must be removed.
• Consolidation of damaged walls and rampart (stone and brick walls). (figures 7, 11, 12)• Reconstruction of ruined parts of rampart according to technical and documented evidence.
(figure 9)• Systematic collect of the fallen stones in the site.
• Setting up a metal scaffold and roof (shelter) for preservation at three spaces in the site. (figure
13)• Covering the exposed parts of the walls with 5-10 cm of clay and straw plaster. (figure 14)
THE PROBLEMS OF CONSERVATION ACTIVITIES
Today, the Takhteh-Soleiman complex is almost in a good condition and state of conservation, theonly main problem which causes other problems being the hurried activities for attracting tourism
under the pressure of Iranian Cultural Heritage, Handicrafts & Tourism Organization (ICHHTO).
This is going to be a major reason for difficulties at this site, and moreover, archeologists must carryout the majority of conservation and restoration activities according to their own plans, the same as formost archeological sites in country. Providing a future management plan will be a major step toward
solving the problems.
The following list defines some of the problems in detail.
• Managing for tourism but not for conservation causes problems such as setting the paths forvisitors near the site, probably over cultural remains, without study and rescue measures.

110• Using fallen stone around the site for reconstruction of some parts of the enclosure, while
there is available material in the site, because it would take more time to carry stone from aquarry.
• Leveling part of the southern path leading access to the site in order to facilitatetransportation for staff and tourists.
• Continuing archeological excavations in every part of the site.
Conclusion
We need to make increased efforts to identify techniques for monument conservation in archeologicalsites, and as this has nothing to do with the archeologists’ studies, this should be carried out byconservation architects, working in cooperation with archeologists, and as the conservation ofbuildings, places, sites, or structures will also be different in accordance to the building type,particular situation, and use, etc., it is a creative process.
There is no international law governing conservation, and local centers of protection are
responsible for architectural remains in architectural sites under cultural heritage management in Iran.
References
Australia ICOMOS. 1999. The Burra Charter: The Australian ICOMOS Charter for Places ofSignificance. Canberra, Australia.
ICOMOS. www.international.icomos.org
International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property. 1979. The
conservation of cultural property. Rome: Unesco.
Frank G. Matero. 2002. “Heritage, conservation, and Archaeology: An introduction.” Archaeological
Institute of America.
Aylin Orbasli. 2007. Architectural Conservation: Principles and Practice. Blackwell publishing.
Definitions• adaptation: modifying a place to suit it to a compatible use, involving the least possible lossof cultural heritage value• conservation: the processes of caring for a place so as to safeguard its cultural heritage value• cultural heritage value: possessing historical, archaeological, architectural, technological,
aesthetic, scientific, spiritual, social, traditional or other special cultural significance,
associated with human activity• maintenance: the protective care of a place• material: physical matter which is the product of human activity or has been modified byhuman activity• place: any land, including land covered by water, and the airspace forming the spatial context
to such land, including any landscape, traditional site or sacred place, and anything fixed to111the land including any archaeological site, garden, building or structure, and any body ofwater, whether fresh or seawater, that forms part of the historical and cultural heritage• preservation: maintaining a place with as little change as possible• reassembly (anastylosis): putting existing but dismembered parts back together• reconstruction: to build again in the original form using old or new material• reinstatement: putting components of earlier material back in position• repair: making good decayed or damaged material• restoration returning a place as nearly as possible to a known earlier state by reassembly,
reinstatement and/or the removal of extraneous additions• structure any building, equipment, device or other facility made by people and which isfixed to the land
• stabilization the arrest of the processes of decay

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Myanmar
Daw Nyo Nyo Than
Assistant Director
Department of Archaeology
National Museum and Library
Ministry of Culture

Problems and Needs for Cultural Heritage Protection and
Restoration Activities in my Country
1. Introduction
Myanmar, one of the countries of Southeast Asia, is situated in the western part of the Indochina
peninsula, between the latitudes of 9º 32’ and 28º 31’ north and longitudes of 92 º 10’ and 101 º 11’22east. The total area within its boundaries is 261,228 mi (approximately 677, 000 km ). There are fourmain categories of regional topography in the country: mountains and valleys, plains, plateaus, andcostal regions. Owing to their geographic and climatic conditions, the cultural heritage of each region
has some differences, but the national identity is quite distinct.

120

2. The Ministry of Culture
The Ministry of Union Cultures was established in March 1952. On 15 March 1972, the Ministry was
given its new name as the Ministry of Culture, comprising of the following departments:(1) The Office of the Minister for Culture(2) Department of Fine Arts
(3) Department of Archaeology(4) Department of Historical Research
The Department of Historical Research was transferred to the Ministry Education on 17
December 1987, and the Department of Archaeology was transferred to the Ministry of Planning and
Finance on 16 March 1987. The Department of Archaeology was then transferred back to the Ministryof Culture on 16 March 1992 and, at present, the Department of Historical Research has also beentransferred back to the Ministry of Culture since 2007.
2.1. The policy of the Ministry of Culture
Since the formation of the Ministry of Culture in 1952, a variety of cultural activities have beenpromoted. The policy of the Ministry of Culture is “to love and cherish the country and the people bytaking pride in its own good traditions as well as by preserving, exposing and propagating Myanmar
Cultural Heritage.”
2.2. Work programs
To implement the abovementioned policy, the following work programs have been laid down and arebeing carried out:
(1) To preserve the cultural heritage of Myanmar with a view to the emergence and prevalence ofMyanmar style and culture.
(2) To produce works of fine arts which support the progress of the state and the public.
(3) To enable the artists and artistes so that works of fine Arts are not for entertainment only,
but to promote knowledge; to eliminate the idea that “a work of art is for the sake of both theartists and the public.”(4) To educate the public to be fully imbued with the prevailing ideas.
(5) To help develop unity, nationalistic spirit, and partriotism among the people.
(6) To help the elimination of decadent culture.
(7) To support the promotion of the morale and morality of the public(8) To help develop a united spirit in displaying culture.
(9) To make endeavors in promoting the development and standard of culture.

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3. Background history of the Department of Archaeology, National Museum and Library, andits organization
The Epigraphy Office of Myanmar was founded in 1902 under the supervision of the Archaeological
Survey of India. After independence the Epigraphy Office was reformed as the Directorate ofArchaeology in November 1954. In 1972, under the new administration system the Directorate ofArchaeology became the Department of Archaeology. In 2007, the Department of Archaeology
combined with the National Museum and Library. After that, the name became the Department ofArchaeology, National Museum and Library.
The Department of Archaeology was set up with the following three divisions.
(1) Research and Training division•

Excavation Section•

Epigraphy Section•

Library and Archives•

Antiquities and Museum Section(2) Administration and Finance Division• Administration Section• Finance Section(3) Conservation of Myanmar Cultural Heritage Division•

Conservation Section•

Cultural Heritage Region Section

The Ministry of Culture has laid down the following objectives:(1) To protect and preserve Myanmar Cultural Heritage.
(2) To reveal and present Myanmar Cultural Heritage in order to arouse the spirit of loving
Myanmar Cultural Heritage so that national patriotism can be promoted among Myanmar
people.
The main objectives of the Department of Archaeology are as follows:(1) To reveal the lifeways of ancient people, such as religious life, social life, economic life, etc.
(2) To protect, preserve, restore and conserve cultural monuments, antiquities of historicalevidence, and ancient sites, as they are not only the national cultural heritage but also world
heritage which the people of the world should protect, preserve, restore, and conserve.
(3) To restore ancient monuments and create a cultural landscape which can attract local andforeign tourists. Also, to enable local and foreign researchers to view and enjoy the ancient
cultural monuments and antiquities of historical evidence already preserved, and to raise the122value of Myanmar ancient historic culture.
(4) To uplift the morale of every citizen, to foster and develop the awareness of preservation of
Myanmr ancient cultural heritage as a national responsibility, and thus arouse in every citizen
the spirit of loving his own country, nationality, and culture.
The department is implementing the following functions in order to fulfill the abovementioned
objectives.
(1) To undertake field research and excavate in order to learn about prehistoric cultural assets.
(2) To undertake field research to find out historic ancient sites.
(3) To excavate in those historic sites in order to reveal the ancient culture.
(4) To collect, preserve, and systematically study the antiquities.
(5) To supervise the registration of cultural properties and antiquities in order to control illicit
trafficking, transfer, export, and import.
(6) To record and keep an inventory of cultural heritage monuments and sites.
(7) To preserve Myanmar cultural heritage monuments.
(8) To preserve mural paintings and stucco carvings by scientific methods.
(9) To collect, decipher, and carry out research on ancient stone inscriptions, ink inscriptions,and inscription on bells.
(10) To write and publish research papers, books, and periodicals to educate the public.
(11) To display Myanmar cultural properties in archaeological museums.
(12) To create pleasant Myanmar ancient cultural heritage sites.
(13) To educate the public to cherish the value of ancient cultural heritage.
4. Cultural heritage in Myanmar
As to archaeological evidence, the heritage of Myanmar
goes back to the Stone Age culture. These are known as
Anyathian and Pyandalin Cave cultures. The former isassigned entirely to the Old Stone Age; the other shows
Palaeolithic sequences and also a somewhat neolithic
stage in Myanmar. These cultural remains are known
widely over the entire area of the country, from rivervalleys, plateaus and part of the coastal trip.
In recent discoveries, artifacts made of copperand bronze which may indicate the trans­formation fromthe Stone to the Bronze Age have been found in central
Myanmar. Apart from the prehistoric period, ancient
Stone tools of upper Myanmar

Myanmar also had a flourishing development of city states123

into civilization. These firmly reveal the cultural continuation from the protohistoric to the historicalperiods.
4.1. Stone Age sites and burial sites
4.1.1. Pyadalin excavation and research (1996)
Pyadalin cave culture developed in South Shan state. According to a radiocarbon test, the bones
unearthed from these caves were found to be 11,000 years old. Accumulated ash in the hearths insideeach cave is about 4 feet deep. There are two caves; Cave 1 has animal figures, human hands and ablazing sun drawn with red ochre on the wall. The themes also conform to the ritualistic art in the socalled Late Paleolithic time. We studied these and excavated a test pit in 1998. The findings revealed
stone implements, potsherds and ash.

With the evidence of archaeological finds, mural paintings can be traced back to Neolithic
period in Myanmar. The Pyadalin cave rock painting is the earliest archaeological evidence of culturaldevelopment in Myanmar.
4.1.2. Nyaunggan site
In 1998 a burial site at Nyaunggan village, Butalin township, Monywa district, Sagaing division,
Upper Myanmar was discoverd. After that the Archaeology Department, Mandalay branch excavatedin January 1998. The author was a member of excavation team. The excavation revealed 43 skeletons
together with stone bracelets, gastropod beads,
animal bones, bronze tools, and earthenware
pottery. A group of international scholors wasinvited to study the site, and after a workshop
where they gave their opinions, it was dated
to 1000 B.C, contemporane­ous with thelast phase of the Bronze Age in Thai­land,
Cambodia and Viet­nam.

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4.1.3. Monhtoo Site
The Archaeology Department of Myanmar (Mandalay branch) subsequently excavated at the Monhtoo
site. This site is located 3.2 km northwest of Monhtoo village, Butalin township, Monywa district,
Sagaing division. The Archaeology Department’s excavations have revealed incomplete skeletons,
broken pots and iron objects (spears), bronze objects (bracelets), and semi-precious stone beads. Thereis no radiocarbon date. Although the burial practices were like Nyaunggan site, and the type andforms of pottery were similar, it is hard to say that it was a Bronze Age site. It was probably from theearly Iron Age.
4.1.4. Myinoohle Site
The Archaeology Department excavated the Myinoohe site in 1999, which is located about 1.6
km north of Myinoohle village, Mahlaing township, Meikthila district, Mandalay division, Upper
Myanmar. The excavation revealed 41 skeletons, some of which were laid east-west, and some northsouth. Their heads were oriented to the east and the north. Excavated finds are the skeletals remains
and associated bronze and iron objects, earthenware, and shells. There is no radiocarbon date, but
based on the earthenware and iron spear heads, this site was of the Iron Age.
4.1.5. Koke-ko-khar-hla Site
Koke-ko-khar-hla is a Bronze Age site located 1.6 km east of Koke-ko-khar-hla village, Wundwin
township, Meikhtila district, Mandalay division. The excavated finds included 48 skeletons, plus
associated earthenware, iron objects, stones and bone projectile points, and other types of grave
potteries. Study of the excavated finds suggest that the Koke-ko-khar-hla site flourished during thetransitional period from the Bronze to the Iron Age.
4.1.6. Hnawkan Site
In 2001, the author contracted an excavation at the Bronze Age culture site of Hnawkan, and was
also a member of excavation team. The site is situated at MaHlaing township, Mandalay division.
The excavation brought to light 76 skeltons, iron spear heads, earthenware, stone beads, bronze
objects, and shell including cowry. After the excavation was finished we continued with conservation,
preservation, and publication of the excavated finds. According to the findings, the site was estimatedas probably ranging to the Iron Age within protohistoric times.
4.1.7. Ywathin Site
The Ywathin Bronze Age site at Ywathin village, Pyawbwe township, Yamethin dsistrict, Mandalay
division, was excavated in 2002. The excavation revealed 48 skeletons associated with animal bones,
earthenware, iron and bronze objects and stone objects. According to scientific dating the site wasutilized between 400 and 300 B.C.

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4.1.8. Myo Hla Site
Excavation of the Myo Hla Bronze Age site at Myo Hla village, Yamethin township, Mandalay
division, revealed 33 skeletons associated with iron spear heads, a bronze pot, earthenware, stone
projectile points, and bracelets which were made of animal long bones.
4.2. Ancient Pyu cities
4.2.1 Halin
Halin is the site of an ancient Pyu city-state. It lies in the dry zone where the annual rain fall is lessthan 30 inches. Halin was one of the garrison towns guarding the north. The author had the experienceof excavating structural remains of a burial center built by the Pyu people between the 2

nd

to 8

th

centuries A.D. Excavated features are a town wall, town gates, town moat, funeral home, monastery,palace platform, and the embankment of the Naga Yon Tank still in use. Excavated artifacts include
the following:(1) Varieties of pottery(2) Stone objects and stone seal
(3) Coins(4) Beads (ornamental)(5) Iron objects(6) Skeletal remains(7) Burial urns
Halin was supposedly destroyed by fire.
4.2.2. Beikthano (Myo Haung)This is an old site to the north of Kokkogwa, 16.09 km northwest of Taungdwingyi, Magwe district.
Masonry structures with massive walls constructed with large-sized bricks, uninscribed silver coins
bearing symbols of prosperity and good-luck, burial urns of plain and exquisite designs, beads ofclay and semi-precious stone, decorated domestic pottery, and iron nails have been recovered at the
Beikthano site. The radiocarbon date of Beikthano Phase I is 1950 ± 50, and the date for Phase II isst1650 ± 50 B.P. From these results, it has been surmised that Beikthano was at its apex between 1 and4thcenturies.

4.2.3. Tagaung
The ancient city of Tagaung was located on the eastern bank of the Ayeyarwady river in Thabeik-kyin
township, Pyin-U-Lwin district, Mandalay.
Systematic excavations were conducted at Tagaung in 1967-68, and the items found during the126excavations included dolomite Buddha images of the Bagan period, Bagan-type pottery and terracotta
beads. There were also stone images of the Buddha, spouted jars, earplugs and iron arrow heads,
all placed in the Bagan period. Excavations were undertaken again at Tagaung from 2003 to 2005,
yielding more artifacts dating from the first millennium A.D., during the Pyu era of Upper Myanmar.
4.2.4. Sriksetra
Sriksetra (18º 75’ north latitude and 95º 25’ east longitude) is 8.05 km southeast of Pyi. Of all theancient cities in Myanmar, it is the biggest. It was a Pyu town built probably around the later half of
nd

the 2

century B.C.

Baw Baw Gyi Stupa

Excavations at Sriksetra have unearthed stone sculptured Buddha images, stone sculptures ofBrahmanical gods, large stone funerary urns, gold-leaf manuscripts, clay and stone beads, a silver
casket having four Buddha figures on the four sides, embossed Buddha images, many terracotta
votive-tablets, and stone slabs bearing Pyu inscriptions.
Excavated structures consist of religious buildings, residential buildings, ritual buildings,
workshops and gateways. The earliest inscriptions in Myanmar are found at Sriksetra.
4.3. Bagan Period
Bagan is one of the most amazing and richest archaeo­logical sites in Asia. The ancient temples ofBagan stand today as they have been standing for a thousand years. The age of Bagan was from A.D.
107 to 1369. It is situated on the eastern bank of the Ayeyarwaddy River in the dry zone of central
Myanmar.

127

The site of the palace mound, as
identified from a stone inscription, wasexcavated for research. Excavation of King
Kyansittha’s palace site started from 1989.
Large pits for pillars were found on theeastern part and on the southern side of
the road. Moreover, circular stone slabs forthe bases of pillars, an old well, and somepieces of wood were also found. According
to the conditions found at King Kyansittha’s palace site, buildings had been built threetimes during three historic eras of thehistory of Myanmar.
Bagan is well known for the existence of great, magnificent, and wonderful temples and stupas.
Most of the stupas and temples in Bagan are embellished with mural paintings and stucco carvings. In
Bagan, there are 442 temples with mural paintings.
We can learn the following about the Bagan era and its people from the Bagan mural paintings:(1) Socio-economic life•

Exchange system• Way of life
• Utensils• Subsistence• Military life(2) Religion and beliefs• Varieties of Buddhist monuments• Sects of Buddhism(3) Fine Arts
• Art
• Costume• Musical Instrument• Design, form, and function
In undertaking the restoration of damaged Bagan ancient monuments, these mural paintings arevery useful for the conservators. The conseravators can study the designs of Bagan period temples or
stupas from the paintings as reliable references.

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In Myanmar, palaces were built throughout the historic periods. The Bagan palace site has been
excavated since 1990. No substantial archaeological evidence was found which would enable us toconjecture about the superstructure of the palace. The earliest record which mentions the constructionof a palace during the Bagan period is the “Inscriptions of King Kyansittha’s Palace construction.”
These stone inscriptions recorded the traditional rites and ceremonies practiced in constructing King
Kyansittha’s palace at the Bagan Kingdom. In the inscriptions, mention is made in fine detail about
how the selected timbers were carried to the palace site, how the wooden posts were erected on certain
auspicious times and dates, how the Brahmins who presided ever the ceremonies performed therituals, and so on.
Apart from these records, there are also parabeik or folded manuscripts about the palaces ofMyanmar kings. In the time of Myanmar kings, before founding a new city or building a new palace,the king ordered a learned minister to prepare drawings and plans of the city and palace on theparabeik and the minister had to present these drawings and plans to the king. Only when the kingapproved these plans and drawings was the royal city founded with religious ceremony. Similarly, thepalace buildings were built after performing ritual and religious ceremony. These parabeik are called
the Myodaw, and Nandaw Pon Parabeik, the drawings of the city plan and palaces designs presented
to His Majesty, King Amarapura.
Out of many ancient palaces which were built throughout the Myanmar historical periods, thepalaces of four ancient cities have been selected and reconstructed, namely Kanbawzathadi palaceof Bago (Hanthawaddy dynasty), Shwe-bon-yatanar palace of Shwebo (Ratanatheinga), Mya-nansan-kyaw golden palace of Mandalay (Ratanar-pon) and King Anawyatha’s palace of Bagan. The
selection is made on the basis of substantiality of the records supported by archaeological evidence.
The reconstruction of palaces is not conjectural. Reconstruction is made on the original design withreference to ancient literary records and parabeik of palace drawings with measurements.
There are a large number of historical sites, monuments, pagodas, temples, stupas, and129

monasteries scattered throughout the country. These monuments are mostly made of stone, brick,
and wood depending on the ease of availability of the material. For the time being many of thesemonuments have been destroyed due to many causes such as time, climate, vandalism and neglect.
Conservation is the means by which the true nature of an object is preserved. The aim of conservation
is to control the environment to minimize the decay of objects. In treatment, decay is arrested andwhere possible, the objects are stabilized against further deterioration. Nowadays, various items ofcultural heritage are facing the greatest challenge for prevention of decay and protection. Most of thesecultural properties are seriously endangered from the following:(1) Long duration of time(2) Natural disaster (or) accident(3) Human vandalism(4) Rapid change due to urban growth
All these phenomena are threatening various cultural properties, such as the material culture
and cultural landscape.

Flaking (of pigment andrender) of a mural painting

4.4. Rakhine culture
Most of the ancient monuments in the Rakhine Cultural Heritage Region are built especially ofstone blocks, and the architectural design is different from Bagan architecture. The Department ofArchaeology has already conserved most of the monuments according to the original style.
4.5. Hanthawaddy Period (Bago)th

Bago was an ancient capital of the Mon Kingdom in the 15 century. In Bago, excavation of the
Kanbawzathadi Palace site of the Sinphyumyashin King Bayintnaung, the founder of the second
soverign state of Myanmar, was started by the Archaeology Department in 1990. The author
conducted conservation work on excavated teak posts at the palace with steel bolts and chemicaltreatment in May 2008.

1305. Inventory of ancient monuments
The author also has experience in inventory work on ancient monuments, conducted in Mandalay
division, Upper Myanmar and Yangon (Than Lyin) division, Lower Myanmar.
Mandalay is historically known as the last royal capital of the Myanmar kingdom. Mandalay
was founded by king Mindon in 1857. The city is now almost 150 years old and it is the country’s
second largest city.
The author has also done inventory work at Than Lyin, Yangon division. Inventory is basic workfor the research, analysis and preservation of archaeological sites and remains.

The unfinished Mingun Pagoda

The Bagaya Monastery building, situated in Mandalay division, was built by the Queen Ma Nu,
Chief Queen of king Mindaon, the second to last king of the Konbaung dynasty. The building is builtof teak and is rich in carvings and reliefs. This is now a grand museum, rebuilt in its original style,housing hundreds of Buddha images and other antiquities. The lower floor is a pitakataik or libraryfor old palm leaf and paper parabeik manuscripts. The author served as the official responsible for theexhibition, preservation, and conservation of Bagaya Monastery in 1997-1998.

131

6. Legal process of protection of cultural heritage
in Myanmar
Myanmar was annexed by the British in stages,
in 1824, 1852, and 1885. After an nexation wascompleted in 1885, the entire country was put under
the administration of the Viceroy of India and treatedas a province of India. The Epigraphy Office, now the
Department of Archaeology, was established shortly
thereafter.
Myanmar gained her independence in 1948.

Bagaya Monastery

During the transitional period, Myanmar kept the name as the Epigraphy Office, and continued
to follow the Indian legal processes of conservation and protection of cultural heritage. In 1954
the government changed the name from the Epigraphy Office of Burma to a new Department ofArchaeology.
As a result, the aims and functions of Department of Archaeology became broader. The
management of protection for the cultural heritage is carried out on a national level, as well as at theregional and local community levels. After independence, the management of protection for cultural
heritage has been promoted mainly the government, which directs policy for the regional level andlocal communities. As result, the government has enacted the following laws and acts.
(1) The Ancient Monument and Antiquities Preservation Act of 1957. This was the first act forthe protection and preservation of Myanmar’s ancient monument and antiquities. It wassignificant task after independence.
(2) The 1962 Amendement to the Act for the Preservation of Ancient Monument and Antiquities.
This was proclaimed by the law No. 28 of the Revolutionary Council.
Together these two legal actions designate the following.
(1) If the Director General of the Department of Archaeology considers any ancient monument
should be protected by the government, he can propose to the government to declare thatancient monument as a “Protected Monument.”(2) With the recommendation of Director General, the government will declare the list ofprotected monuments by notification.
(3) With the permission of the government those monuments will be marked as protectedmonument.
(4) If there is no owner, the Director General will claim to be protector for the monument.
(5) No new buildings are to be constructed in the environs of ancient monuments.
(6) No private person or organization is allowed to alter or destroy the cultural heritage.

132

(7) Protection is to extend to the antiquities or objects of cultural heritage which are ofsignificance to Myanmar.
(8) More serious penalties are established for those who break the laws protecting antiquities andancient monuments.
At present, the State Peace and Development Council has also approved the Protection and
Preservation of Cultural Heritage Region Law (10, September 1998).
7. Conclusion
In Myanmar, conservation procedures have been implemented in accordance with the nature andcircumstances, depending on the archaeological value, historical value, architectural value, andaesthetic value of the monument in danger. Our department always consults with local and foreign
experts. Moreover we seek information from the local public. We systematically employ chemical
methods, engineering techniques, and video and photo recording as well.
As far as the causes of damage are concerned, it has been found that the climatic andenvironmental factors, bio-deterioration, human factors, and other natural phenomenon are the maincauses of damage to the cultural heritage.
With the passing of time, ancient monuments and antiquities have been destroyed by light, heat,humidity, air pollution, oxidation and salt, sound and vibration, insects, fungus and plant growth.
Furthermore, mishandling by people, such as offering votive flames, whitewashing with limestone,
and pressing their hands on the wall paintings, can also destroy the cultural heritage. In the sameway, negligence on the part of people, and vandalism and smuggling of the antiques can cause theirdestruction or loss.
The Ministry of Culture endeavors to conserve the cultural heritage not only by implementing
suitable techniques and technology, and by legislating against the vandals and smugglers, but byeducating people through notifications and other mass media. In addition, the Ministry collects avariety of national heritage by rewarding those who willingly give up the heritage to the state.
In the year 1975, the Bagan earthquake destroyed not only the structure but also the mural
paintings in the Bagan monuments. Under those circumstances, with the advice of an architect restorer
provided by unesco, a conservation project was drawn up in May 1981 which was officially approvedby the Myanmar government in cooperation with UNDP. The preliminary mission for conservationof mural paintings and stucco carvings as part of the project started with field work by Italian experts
from ICCROM. As for the cooperative task, the Bagan Project UNDP/UNESCO, No. Bur-78/023,
was beneficial for Myanmar conservators because they could learn conservation techniques for mural
paintings.
Owing to the Nargis cyclone striking Myanmar in May 2008, many ancient pagodas andbuildings were damaged. Now, we are in the process of reconstruction and preservation for them in a133

prioritized sequence. And we wish to thank the government of Japan for helping those who sufferedfrom the storm, and thanks also to those who donated everything for the storm victims.
The scope of preservation work is wide. So conservators should be sent abroad to attend courses ofconservation, to receive theoretical and practical experience. Organizations such as ACCU, NARA,
deserve our full gratitude for allowing us to send people to be trained for the purpose of conservation.

134

New Zealand
Matthew Derek SCHMIDTRegional Archaeologist, Otago/Southland
New Zealand Historic Places Trust
Otago/Southland Area OfficeProblems and Needs for Cultural Heritage Protection and Restoration
Activities in New Zealand:
Archaeological Sites & Remains

1. Introduction
The archaeology of New Zealand/Aotearoa is unique in the world as New Zealand was the last
major land mass to be colonised by people and, relative to the history of countries world wide,
this colonisation was late. These two aspects of New Zealand’s heritage has meant the way inwhich the significance of New Zealand’s archaeological sites and remains are perceived byresearchers, archaeological consultants, developers, Government, Councils and the generalpublic is widely varied. This has generated a number of problems for cultural heritage
protection and restoration activities in New Zealand. This report presents some of these
problems and then identifies what New Zealand needs to be able to provide for more effective
protection and restoration of its archaeological sites and remains.
Understanding New Zealand’s archaeological cultural heritage and how it is advocated andmanaged is important in identifying problems and needs. This report therefore first describes
the geography of New Zealand and the age of the different archaeological sites located aroundthe country. What roles the two main heritage organisations, the New Zealand Historic Places
Trust and New Zealand Archaeological Association, play in advocating for site protection isthen described, and thirdly, the legislation which affects the management New Zealand’sarchaeological cultural heritage is explained. Finally, the problems and needs in cultural
heritage protection and restoration activities in New Zealand are identified and discussed.

2. New Zealand – Place & Setting
New Zealand is located in the south west Pacific Ocean and lies 1500km east of Australia(Figures 1 & 2). The three main islands are the North Island, South Island and Stewart Island.
Numerous smaller islands make up the extensive nature of New Zealand such as the Kermadecs
1000km to the northeast of mainland New Zealand, the Chatham Islands 850 km to the east of135

New Zealand and the Campbell Islands 600 km south-east of Stewart Island. The larger area of
New Zeala nd ter r itor y t herefore extend s f rom t he sub -t ropics to t he sub -A nt a rct ic.
Archaeological evidence of pre-European Polynesian occupation stretches from the Kermadecs
to the Auckland Islands (320 km south of Stewart island) and where Polynesians settled, so did
the later Europeans.
Mainland New Zealand, where the majority of New Zealand archaeological sites and therefore
management occurs, is 1600 km long from Cape Reinga at the northern tip to the bottom of
Stewart Island. The land area is 270,534 sq km and New Zealand has over 15,000km ofcoastline along which lie most of New Zealand’s archaeological sites and remains. The lengthof New Zealand means it experiences a sub-tropical environment in the far north to a temperateenvironment in the south.
The North Island in general has long sandy beaches and rolling hills with the low mountain
ranges down the centre of the island, which make up a fifth of the land area. The North Islandis more noticeably volcanically active than the South Island and in areas such as the Bay ofPlenty or the desert plateau this activity can be readily seen. Native forest cover in the North
Island lies on the low mountain areas but native forest does not cover land to the extent in theSouth Island. The North Island is overall war mer than the South Island but has a large
temperature variation from sub-tropical in Northland to temperate in Wellington.

Figure 1. Location of New Zealand in the south west Pacific.

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Figure 2. Map of New Zealand showing main cities and various locations.
The South Island is dominated by the Southern Alps mountain range which provides the
backbone of the island and constitutes two thirds of the land area. Here large glacial lakes,
great rivers and wide open plains can be seen. The west coast is wet and thick with Beech
forest, whereas the east coast is in a rain shadow and so is drier and more open with less forest
cover. As with the North Island, long sandy beaches line the coasts. The South Island isnoticeably colder than the North Island but rain fall is significantly less on the South Islandeast coast than in the North Island overall. In addition, Otago and Canterbury experience hot
dry summers and freezing dry winters, whereas in the North Island the summers and winters
are warmer and damper.
The population of New Zealand is 4 Million people and the main centres are Auckland (with apopulation of ca. 1 million people), Hamilton, Wellington (the capital), Christchurch andDunedin.

3. A New Zealand Archaeology Timeline
For effective cultural heritage management, it is important to understand what periods of acountry’s history or prehistory are physically represented by the archaeological sites or remains
known or recorded. The short pre-historic sequence for New Zealand means that understanding137

how the different archaeological site types fit within this sequence is vital. For example, Maoriarchaeological sites lying side by side my appear similar in constituents and form, but may
represent both early and late periods of occupation in that area. As will be seen below,
prehistoric events which lie side by side may represent thousands of years of activity in many
countries, but in New Zealand these events may represent only 100 years, and these 100 years
may constitute 1/7 of the New Zealand prehistoric sequence.
When New Zealand was first colonised has been debated since the 19 th century. It was not until
scientific methodologies were applied to archaeology in the late 1950s, however, that the timeof colonisation was able to be determined directly from charcoal, wood, marine shell or bone
samples recovered f rom archaeological contexts. This was due to the opening of New
Zealand’s first radiocarbon dating facility at the Institute of Government National Scientific(IGNS) laboratories in Wellington in 1956. This was one of the f irst radiocarbon dating
laboratories in the world and archaeological samples were quickly submitted by New Zealandarchaeologists to answer the question of first colonisation. Schmidt (2000) provides a detailed
history of the use of radiocarbon dating in New Zealand archaeology and how this affected theinterpretation of the New Zealand archaeological sequence (pp. 13-28). In summary, the first
results appeared to show that New Zealand was colonised around 800AD by Polynesians from
East Polynesia. These results were based on charcoal radiocarbon dates, but it became apparent
in the 1960s that dates on this material could vary widely between samples derived from thesame stratigraphic layer. Archaeologists were soon aware that the samples had an inbuilt age ie.
the sample dated did not date the archaeological event as the wood had been dead for sometime before use in prehistory. Marine shell dates were also used but as the reliability of thissample type had never been tested, the accuracy of this sample type was unknown (see Schmidt
2000:4). However, given the problems of this dating method, collectively the radiocarbon dates
from New Zealand sequences implied to archaeologists up until the 1980s that Polynesians
arrived in New Zealand around 1000AD.
In the 1990s, dedicated research into resolving the radiocarbon dating of New Zealandarchaeological sites began. Anderson (1991) considered all of the charcoal radiocarbon ages
from New Zealand archaeological sites, applied a ‘chronometric hygiene’, to these dates,
discarding charcoal affected by inbuilt age, old wood etc., and proposed New Zealand wascolonised in the 12 t h cent u r y. Higham (1994) considered the use of moa egg shell forradiocarbon dating and found this sample type was effective at dating when early Maoriarchaeological sites were occupied. This research and later research using this sample type by
Higham, Anderson and Jacomb (1999) indicated New Zealand was colonised in the late 13th
century. Schmidt (1996, 2000) concentrated on marine shell as a reliable sample type forradiocarbon dating in New Zealand and concluded this sample type was reliable. He proposed138

colonisation of New Zealand possibly by the 13th century and certainly by the 14 th century.
Schmidt’s (1996) research on the dating of Maori pa (fortifications) saw the commencement of
this event believed to have occurred ca. 1500 AD. Recent research by Wilmshurst et al. (2008)
has further proposed a colonisation date for New Zealand based on an analysis of reliablearchaeological samples of ca. 1280AD.
Current research therefore indicates that New Zealand was colonised by the Polynesians from
East Polynesia around 1280AD and Maori fortifications began to be built by 1500AD. Abel
Tasman, a Dutch explorer, is believed to have been the first European to visit New Zealand in
1642 but he did not make land fall and mapped only a fraction of the country (Figure 3).
The English explorer Capt. James Cook was the first European to make contact with Maoriand mapped New Zealand shores in 1769 (Figure 4). From the 14 C dating and historic data
presented, a possible timeline for New Zealand archaeology may therefore be suggested(Figure 5), within which the various Maori, European and Chinese archaeological site types
described below lie.

Figure 3. Tasman’s encounter with Maori at the top of the South Island in 1642 which ended inbloodshed for both Europeans and Maori.

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Figure 4. Cook’s map of New Zealand from his 1769-70 surveys.

1840 AD
Treaty of
Waitangi

ca. 1350 AD
Pearl Shell Lureca. 1500 AD
from East Polynesia End of Moa-hunting ?

Classic period
Archaic period
ca. 1280 AD
Colonisation of
New Zealand beginning of
Moa-huntingca. 1500 AD
Commencementof Pa
Construction

1642 AD
Abel Tasman

Figure 5. Timeline of major events in New Zealand archaeology.

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1769 ADJames Cook

4. Archaeological Sites Types found in New Zealand
The New Zealand environment had a major impact on the lives of the first colonisers anddirectly inf luenced where the archaeological record is found today and what t y pes ofarchaeological sites and remains are present. The first peoples to arrive from East Polynesia
came f rom a t ropical environ ment and brought with them t ropical plants as the main
subsistence food. Rats (kiore) and dogs (kuri) were the only animals brought by these people
and New Zealand’s only terrestrial land mammal was the bat. The only other mammal which
would occasionally inhabit the land was seals which had colonies along the New Zealandcoastline. New Zealand was a land of birds and the landscape was dominated by a wide varietyof ground-based birdlife, the biggest being Moa which could reach a weight of up to 240kg(Figure 6).

Figure 6. The dominant terrestrial fauna of pre-human New Zealand compared to the size ofhumans and the New Zealand giant eagle harpagornis (from Anderson 1989).
When Europeans arrived, they encountered the Maori whose society was based on a technology
of stone, bone and wood and relied heavily on horticulture and resources from the sea.
Europeans introduced 18th /19 th century materials, buildings, industry, commerce, farming andflora and faunal species which immediately impacted on the New Zealand landscape and Maori.
Presented below are brief descriptions of the variety of Maori, European/Pakeha and Chinesearchaeological sites and remains that make up New Zealand’s archaeological cultural heritage.
Not all of the archaeological remains encountered in these sites are described, but an idea will
be gained on what remains may be seen. An archaeological site is defined in New Zealand law
as any place where human activity occur red before 1900AD and is or may be th rougharchaeological methods to provide infor mation about the histor y of New Zealand (seediscussion on the Historic Places Act 1993 below).

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○
■

Maori archaeological sites
Moa hunting sites

Moa hunting sites represent the earliest archaeological sites in New Zealand and are indicativeof the Archaic Period (Figure 5 & 10). These sites date from ca.1300 AD to ca. 1500AD and
depict a new people arriving and quickly exploiting the largest food source available, thesebeing Moa (Figures 6 and 7). Moa were large ratites, they were f lightless and ranged in size
from 20kg and 0.8m tall at the back to 240kg and 1.8m at the back, and 11 species have been
identified. Moa occupied land from sea level to the bush line in the mountains. Moa hunting
sites are predominantly coastal sites, although inland sites occur in the South Island, and they
were occupied seasonally to take advantage of the changing availability of various food sources.
Thousands of Moa were killed and processed by Maori and it is believed this species and manyother ground based bird species became quickly extinct after first colonisation. Archaeologicalremains consist of middens and ovens/hangi full of shell, bone (moa, seal, dog), sometimes
moa egg shell and oven/hangi stones in a dark usually sandy matrix, hut sites indicated by threestanding stones showing the outline of a hearth and sometimes post-holes (Figure 8). Artefacts
can consist of silcrete and porcellanite f lakes and choppers, obsidian f lakes, moa bone fish
hooks and chisels, adzes, stone fishing lures and tattooing chisels of stone or pounamu (Figure
10, Archaic).

Figure 7. Depictions of moa hunters on the hunt for Dinornis (left), the biggest moa, andEuryapteryx (right), a commonly hunted species in the South Island.

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Figure 8. Clockwise: health indicating hut site; eroding moa hunting site on the South Is. coast
showing midden spilling from a dune (photo: M Schmidt); reconstruction of seasonalinland moa hunting camp at the Dart River, South Island; moa bones at the Waitaki
River Mouth, Otago 1930s (from Buick 1937); charcoal stained sand on a coastal moa
hunting site in Dunedin city showing ovens (photo: Southern Pacific ArchaeologicalResearch).
■

Midden sites

The most common Maori archaeological site in New Zealand which is found throughout thearchaeological sequence, are middens. Thousands of these sites lie on the New Zealandcoastline and hundreds have been recorded. These sites consist of debris from cooking and143

living activities and are typically made up of marine shell (eg. from clams, pipi, tuatua, paua),
fish bone, hangi stones and artefacts such as f lake tools, fish hooks and lure shanks andsometimes adzes, patu (club), fern root beaters and obsidian (sometimes from distant sources).
(Figures 9 & 10).

Figure 9. Typical Maori midden site found on the New Zealand coastline (photo: Southern
Pacific Archaeological Research).

ARCHAIC

CLASSIC

Figure 10. Artefacts found in Maori archaeological sites from the Archaic Period (such as moa
hunting sites) and Classic Period (such as pa sites and later middens) (fromDavidson 1987).

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Pa sites and Horticultural sites

Horticultural sites and pa sites are discussed together as these sites are often directly associated.
In the lower South Island where horticulture was not possible, pa are present but insignificantly fewer numbers.
Pa are Maori fortifications indicative of the Classic period of New Zealand archaeology andare believed to have been built to protect the local population from attack by invading or
threatening tribes (Iwi). About 6000 pa have so far been recorded in New Zealand. Schmidt(1996) has proposed that pa began to be built around 1500AD based on reliable radiocarbon
dates from these sites. These sometimes elaborate and complex fortifications are often
associated with storage pits where food was stored and protected within the walls of the pa. It
is unclear whether pa were occupied all year or whether only in times of strife, certainly somepa imply occupation during all times of the year by the local Chief and his whanau (family). Pa
form was dependent on geography, purpose and need and all pre-European pa were built byhand using tools made of stone, bone and wood. Pa are often described as occurring as one offour types (see Groube 1970, Fox 1976). Type I pa are those where a high area has been
terraced for occupation and food storage (Figure 11); Type II have transverse ditches and banks
added for defence; Type III have transverse and lateral ditches and banks or a ditch and bankaround the whole pa (Figure 12); Type IV are swamp pa. Swamp pa are sites where occupation
occurred on raised ground surrounded by a natural or human made swamp or lake.

Figure 11. Kauri Point pa. A terraced Type I pa (photo: Kevin Jones).

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Figure 12. A Type III pa in Papamoa, Tauranga showing many terraces and then transverse andlateral ditches and banks at the tihi (top) of the pa (centre left of the picture) (photo:
Kevin Jones).
Associated with the earthworks defensive features of pa were wooden palisades which createdthe main wall of defence for the fortification. Archaeological remains found with pa may
consist of an extensive amount of marine shell midden, bone, flake tools, and only occasionallyadzes, stone chisels (possibly of pounamu), weapons, such as stone patu, or fern root beaters(Figure 10). Archaeological excavations have found few artefacts within pa in comparison toother Maori sites as pa were kept relatively clean by the occupants. Often prehistoric debris,
middens and artefacts are found down the sides of the structures (though swamp pa can be richin artefacts in the interior) with the interiors having structural evidence of living and storage
structures seen by postholes, hearths and pits.
Horticulture would have begun when the first East Polynesian set foot in New Zealand. It is
unknown how many cultigens the first colonisers brought to New Zealand (in tropical
Polynesia eight root cultigens and 11 tree cultigens were grown), but only six were being
grown when Europeans arrived (Furey 2006:10). Of these six, kumara was the dominantcultigen due to its tolerance of colder climes, but it would not grow south of Banks Peninsulain the South Island. South of this line Maori continued to hunt and gather. As the Moa andother ground based birds became extinct and seal colonies were over exploited, horticulture
became the most important resource for pre-contact Maori. This is why horticultural sites areoften associated with pa sites. Archaeological evidence of horticultural soil is often indicatedby mixed and disturbed soils flecked with charcoal. Maori also manufactured soils to enhance
kumara crop growth. This would sometimes entail digging into river flats to source gritty
pebbly material to add to soil to which charcoal was also added. This activity has leftarchaeological features called ‘borrow pits’ which can be seen lying near fields where soil
additives have been identified. Stone rows defining field boundaries (Figure 13) can also146

sometimes be seen with kumara storage pits being the most common archaeological evidence ofhorticulture.

Figure 13. Stone rows in a Maori horticultural field (photo: Kevin Jones).
The size of kumara storage pits found on pa or horticultural sites can vary markedly from massive
structures measuring many meters long, which were roofed and accessed through a small doorway to step
down into the pits, to bell-shaped pits which were sealed by a simple lid on the top (Figures 14 to 15). The
archaeological remains appear as either obvious pit features on the surface in pa sites or in fields or as
distinctive areas of fill when excavated. Post holes are usually found in the bottom of storage pits. Housesites on pa can look similar to pit sites although the arrangement of post holes may be different andevidence of a hearth may be present.

Figure 14. Clockwise: storage pit on pa, pit excavated showing postholes, pit reconstruction(photos: Rachel Darmody).

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Figure 15. Rua or underground storage pit in profile during excavation (photos: RachelDarmody).
■

Kainga and house sites

Kainga are occupation or village areas which did not have the elaborate defences that pa did
but may still have had lines of palisades and fences (Figure 16). Kainga are also associatedwith horticultural soils but may not be, such in the lower South Island where there is no
horticulture, and are essentially sites where a village, be it temporary, seasonal or permanent,
occurred. These sites may be of the Archaic or Classic Periods, be coastal or inland like pa andthe house sites may be complex where are distinctive series of post holes may be foundarchaeologically, or simple where small light huts are only shown by very small post holes anda hearth. Archaeological remains may consists of flake tools, fish hooks and lures, adzes andchisels (possibly of pounamu), weapons such as stone patu, or fern root beaters (Figure 10). If
a kainga is associated with a swampy or damp area, an extensive amount of woodenarchaeological material may be revealed such as at the Kohika archaeological site near
Whangarei where extensive wooden artefacts and remains were excavated by the University of
Auckland between 1975 & 1981 and during recent fieldwork in 2004 & 2005.

Figure 16. A reconstruction of a kainga (left) and archaeological evidence of postholes for ahouse (right) (photo: Southern Pacific Archaeological Research).

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Gun fighter pa/redoubts

During British confrontations with Maori from the 1840s to the 1860s, Maori developed
elaborate and complex “gunfighter” pa or redoubts which were adapted to the use of themusket. Whereas traditional pa were built to keep invaders physically out of pa and weaponsconsisted of wooden, stone and bone hand weapons, spears, clubs and darts or rocks, muskets
introduced the powerful projectile weapon into the more traditional hand to hand combat worldof the Maori. This led Maori to design pa sites where muskets could not be fired down theditch line of a traditional pa site. Instead, zigzagged trench systems and underground accesstunnelling between areas of the pa were developed. Added to these defences were lines oftightly packed wooden palisades which were sometimes made of ‘shock absorbing’ tree species
that could adsorb the energy of a musket ball or to some degree a canon ball. As can be seen in
figure 17, the structure of these redoubts is a striking example of adaptive defensive
construction. Archaeological artefacts associated with these sites can include musket balls,
ammunition cases and canon balls.

Photo: Kevin Jones

Figure 17. Maori gunfighter pa/redoubt Ruapekapeka built in 1845. As it is today (top) andan artist’s reconstruction of the pa in 1845 (bottom) (source: Department ofConservation).

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○

European/Pakeha and Chinese archaeological sites

European/Pakeha archaeological sites are widely varied and comprise of mining sites (gold, tin& coal), village/town/city occupations, harbour reclamation including wharves and jetties,building ruins, transport systems such as roads, causeways, tracks, railways and tramways,
industrial sites such as gas works and whaling and sealing bases, shipwrecks including inland
dredges, pastoral sites for example fence lines, yards and farm buildings, surveyor points,
contact period sites with Maori, and land wars redoubts. The Chinese began to arrive in New
Zealand in notable numbers in the 1870s due to the discovery of gold in Otago in 1861.
Chinese sites mainly consist of gold mining remains and the related towns and occupation areas
particular to the Chinese, who were often excluded from living in European dominatedgoldfield's towns.
European and Chinese sites comprise of metal, brick, stone, earth and wood remains and areoften well preser ved, other than wooden sites where preser vation is dependent on theenvironment. The dry conditions of Central Otago in the South island preserves wooden items
from European/Chinese gold mining sites particularly well. European/Pakeha and Chinesearchaeological sites occupy all environments in New Zealand. Examples of European/Chinesearchaeological sites and remains which can be seen in my area as Regional Archaeologist
Otago/Southland for the New Zealand Historic Places Trust, are shown in Figures 18 to 36.
European/Pakeha and Chinese sites make up the time period of New Zealand prehistory/history
from 1769, when Capt. James Cook first arrived in New Zealand to 1900AD. These sites areassociated with artefacts which may be of local origin, and/or from Europe, the Americas and,less so, Asia. The most common ar tefacts found are 19 t h centur y bottles, ceramics andstoneware as these tough items often survive the activities of later occupations, and also manyof the town or city occupations in the 19 th century use to dump their household refuse inrubbish pits at the back of the houses and businesses, hence preserving these items well. Boneis also often present in these sites and metals, though these items are often quite degraded
unless the conditions are dry. In damp locations which were occupied by early European
arrivals or where reclamation of the harbour has occurred which saw the dumping of domestic
rubbish for fill, such as in Dunedin and Wellington from the 1850s to 1890s, wooden andleather items survive such as shoes, hats and purses, construction timbers, wharf piles, and very
rarely boat remains and wooden causeways (Figures 35 to 36).
The types of Maori, European/Pakeha and Chinese archaeological sites and remains found in
New Zealand and described above and in figures 8 to 36 illustrate the variety of cultural
heritage sites which are protected by New Zealand law. Numerous sites require protection or
restoration to ensure that they are preserved for future generations. For the Otago/Southland

150

Regions, which are the focus of my work as Regional Archaeologist for the New Zealand
Historic Places Trust (see below) (Figure 37), the majority of archaeological sites under threat
from human and natural intervention are European/Pakeha and Chinese gold mining sites
located in the interior of these regions, which are particularly under pressure fromdevelopments, and Maori moa-hunting and middens sites on the coast which are threatened byboth developments and rapid coastal erosion.

Figure 18. 19 th century gold mining water race hand dug using spades and a plumb line.
These races can run for many kilometres and are the most common gold miningarchaeological site in Otago. (photo: Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 19. Gold mining water reservoir fed by water races. Gold mining in the 19 th century
depended on water and so water races and reservoirs were essential. (photo: Matthew
Schmidt).

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Figure 20. Gold mining tailings in herring bone form, Otago. Thousands of stones were handstacked during the sluicing of ground for gold. (photo: Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 21. Aerial view of a 19th century gold mining system in Otago. Water races, a reservoir,
sluice faces and tailings can be seen. (photo: Shar Briden).

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Figure 22. Scheelite and gold mine at Glenorchy, Otago. Original support timbers, mining carsand rail lines can be seen (photo: Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 23. Typical 19th century gold miners hut ruins in Otago. Huts are often located right next
to the miners claim. (photo: Shar Briden).

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Figure 24. Sunken gold mining dredge on the Clutha River, Central Otago. New Zealand led theworld in gold dredging technology in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Dozens ofdredges worked the Clutha River. (photo: Jonathan Howard).

Figure 25. Before the gold rush to Otago in 1861, the main industry for the region was sheep
farming. 19th century fencelines express this heritage and many are located at highaltitude. (photo: Department of Conservation, Central Otago).

154

Figure 26. 19th century wooden and stone posted sheep yards on the Rock and Pillar Range,
Otago. (photo: Matthew Schmidt)

Figure 27. Mud brick stables and store built ca. 1871, Lauder Pastoral Lease, Central Otago.
(photo: Matthew Schmidt).

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Figure 28. Shipwreck, Southland. (photo: Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 29. 19th century stone bridge piers, Roaring Meg, Kawarau Gorge, Central Otago.
(photo: Matthew Schmidt).

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Figure 30. Stone cobbled coach road along a Catlins beach, Southland. (photo: Southern PacificArchaeological Research).

Figure 31. Stone riveting on the 1860s Old Dunstan Road, Central Otago. (photo: Matthew
Schmidt).

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Figure 32. 19th century railway lines preserved beneath a late 20th century building. (photo:
Emma Brooks).

Figure 33. Timber mill amongst regenerated beech, Paradise, Lake Wakatipu. (photo. Jonathan
Howard).

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Figure 34. 19 th century surveyor’s cairn used to divide up land in Otago for the colonial
Government. (photo: Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 35. 1870s glass, stoneware, leather and wooden artefacts preserved in harbour
reclamation, Dunedin. Leather goods were particularly well preserved in this damp
environment with shoes, hats and other daily goods found. (photo: Matthew Schmidt).

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Figure 36. Corduroy (wooden) causeway from the 1850s when Europeans first settled Dunedin.
The causeway was buried in wet pug/clay conditions 1.8m below the current roadsurface. (photo: Owen Graham).

Figure 37. Map showing the area covered by my role as Regional Archaeologist Otago/Southland
for the New Zealand Historic Places Trust.

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5. A Brief History of the New Zealand Historic Places Trust (the “Trust”) and the
New Zealand Archaeological Association (“NZAA”)
The lead heritage advisor and advocator for cultural heritage protection and restoration in New
Zealand is the New Zealand Historic Places Trust (the “Trust”) which was founded in 1954.
McClean (2000:25-44) provides a history of heritage protection in New Zealand from the 19 th
century to 2000, and he shows that up until one body was formed under Government legislation
to advocate for New Zealand’s heritage in 1954, cultural heritage protection tended to be
sporadic.
In the 19 th century, protection and preservation of colonial and Maori heritage was limited to
local heritage groups advocating for the safeguarding of local history, such as the Otago Early
Settlers Museum founded in 1898, laws passed to protect only certain locations or sites
considered important to New Zealand European history, for example Ship Cove in Queen
Charlotte Sound where Cook landed in 1770, or by the gifting of heritage areas to the Crown
most often by Maori as happened for the Tongariro National Park in 1887 which was New
Zealand’s first national park. In the 19th to early 20 th centuries Maori were often considered a‘dying race’ by social scientists and so laws or Government groups, for example the Scenery
Preservation Act and associated Board from 1903 to ca. 1919, during this time tended to focus
on protecting Maori heritage rather than European/Pakeha and Chinese history.
In 1954 the Historic Places Act was passed which aimed at protecting and preserving New
Zealand’s Maori and Pakeha cultural heritage. The National Historic Places Trust, whichbecame the New Zealand Historic Places Trust in 1963, originally had 12 members but only
one paid staff member in 1955. By 1975 the Trust still only had 13 staff to advocate forheritage (McClean 2000:35). Today the Tr ust has 100 staff made up of archaeologists,
registrations advisors, built heritage advisors, planners, policy advisors, legal counsel, andadministrative and management staff. The Regional Archaeologists of the Trust administer the
statutory sections of the HPA in the protection of archaeological sites and remains (see below).
The Trust therefore is the body independent of Government charged with ensuring New
Zealand’s heritage is preserved for future generations.
In 1955 the New Zealand Archaeological Association (NZAA) was formed with the purpose ofbringing together professional and amateur archaeologists under one organisation so research,
theories and ideas about New Zealand archaeology could be shared. Since 1958 the NZAA has
produced a quarterly newsletter and it holds an annual conference where papers are presented
by any persons with an interest in archaeology. Through the NZAA, archaeologists also
advocate for archaeological site protection, management and research.

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In May 1958 the NZAA began the NZAA Site Recording Scheme (SRS) where archaeologicalsites recorded by archaeologists could be filed under one national scheme. This scheme had astandard Site Recording Form (SRF) so as to provide consistency in the recording ofarchaeological sites anywhere in New Zealand. Each site had its own Site Record Number andthe form provided information such as a grid reference for the site, who recorded the site, site
description and notes on the site location, and archaeologists also added photographs,
sketches, and maps of the sites. The NZAA SRS is still running today and currently ca. 60,000
archaeological sites have been recorded nationwide (Figure 38) (see www.nzarchaeology.org/recording.htm for more information). The SRS is the largest and most comprehensive nongovernmental archaeological site recording system in the world.
The SRS was established as a special interest database, and its primary use for many years was
as a research tool for members of NZAA. Since the advent of the Resource Management Act
1991 (the “RMA”) and the Historic Places Act 1993 (the “HPA”) (see below) there has been
greater use of the Scheme in planning and legal issues for site identification, protection andmanagement. Territorial local authorities (Councils) are one of the principle users of the SRS
in their ongoing land and heritage

Figure 38. Topographical map of the Bay of Plenty, North Is. showing dozens of archaeologicalsites (red dots) recorded in the NZAA Site Recording Scheme.
Management and protection roles: The Site Recording Scheme is endorsed by the New
Zealand Historic Places Trust and the Department of Conservation and has been described in areview (1996) by the Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment as “a database of major
national significance”.

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From the brief history of the Trust and NZAA presented above, it can be seen that both theseorganisations have been active for over 50 years in the protection and preser vation ofarchaeological sites and remains. Each organisation protects cultural heritage in entirely
different ways but have always worked closely together towards the same goals for heritage.

6. Legislation that Protects New Zealand’s Archaeological Sites and Remains
Legislation regarding the protection and management of archaeological sites and remains isvital to the preservation of cultural heritage resources. In New Zealand, two pieces oflegislation directly affect the protection of archaeological sites remains, these are the Historic
Places Act (1993) (the “HPA”) and the Resource Management Act (1991) (the “RMA”). Eachpiece of legislation approaches the management of archaeological sites in different ways, as
will be seen below. The role of the Protected Objects Act (1975) (the “POA”) is to ensure no
person shall illegally possess taonga or export artefacts from archaeological sites.
○

Historic Places Act 1993 (“HPA”)

In the HPA an archaeological site “means any place in New Zealand that(a) Either –(i) Was associated with human activity that occurred before 1900; or(ii) Is the site of the wreck of any vessel where that wreck occurred before
1900; and(b) Is or may be able through investigation by archaeological methods to provide
evidence relating to the history of New Zealand.”All archaeological sites are protected under Section 10 of the HPA. This section of the Act saysthat it “shall not be lawful” to damage, modify or destroy an archaeological site “knowing or
having reasonable cause to suspect that it is an archaeological site”. This law is one of strict
liability and if prosecuted under Section 99 or Section 100 of the HPA (see below), the penalty
is a cr i m i nal convict ion a nd a f i ne up to $40,00 0 for d a mage or mod if icat ion of a narchaeological site, or a fine not exceeding $100,000 for destruction of an archaeological site.
This protection of archaeological sites applies to all sites whether they are on private or Crown
land or whether they are recorded (such as in the NZAA SRS) or not.
If a person wants to damage, modify or destroy an archaeological site they may apply to theTrust for an Archaeological Authority to do so under Section 11 (for one site) or 12 (for allsites within a legal specified area of land) of the Act. This Authority may be granted or
declined by the Trust with a granted Authority always listing conditions under which anarchaeological site may be damaged, modified or destroyed. A prosecution under Section 99 of163

the HPA is when an archaeological site is damaged, modif ied or destroyed without an
Archaeological Authority, a prosecution under Section 100 of the HPA is when conditions of a
granted Authority have been breached. It is important to note that the demolition of 19 th
century buildings also requires an Archaeological Authority from the Trust.
The HPA is therefore a powerful legal tool for the protection of archaeological sites andremains. It is the role of the Tr ust Regional Archaeologist, such as myself, to process
Archaeological

Authorities

forhis/hergeographic

regions,

undertakesite

damageinvestigations where an Archaeological Authority has not been granted, and ensure persons
comply with the conditions of granted Archaeological Authorities.
○

Resource Management Act 1991 (“RMA”)

The role of the RMA is to ensure any activities by any person which may affect natural and/or
physical (including historic) resources on land, in the sky and in any waterway, and the visualand audible environment, are considered before that activity may commence. For example, adeveloper wanting to build a 20 lot subdivision near a coastline would have to consider the
impact of that activity on the waterways, birdlife, marine life, vegetation, landscape andhistoric resources etc. as part of the process of obtaining a Resource Consent under the RMA
from a Council to be able to begin the development. Councils in New Zealand work under the
RMA and are charged with granting or declining a Resource Consent which is a document thatgives a person the right to undertake a development and affect resources.
Under Sections 5, 6 (e), 6 (f ) and 8 of the Resource Management Act (1991), Councils are
required to sustainably manage cultural heritage resources. Section 6(f) in particular considers
protection of historic heritage from inappropriate subdivision and development as a matter ofnational importance. Councils shall recognise and provide for, and have particular regard toarchaeological sites as these sites form part of this historic heritage, are a finite resource, andare physical resources that may possess scientific, historical and cultural values. Therefore
when a person applies for a Resource Consent which may affect cultural heritage resources,
then Councils must consider archaeological sites and remains and the impact of the activity on
this resource.
Given the protection of archaeological sites under the HPA and their consideration under the
RMA, it is important to recognise the differences between these two different pieces oflegislation in regard to how archaeological sites are dealt with.
The role of the HPA is not to manage archaeological sites. Its primary role is the protection ofarchaeological sites from unlawful damage. Applying for an Archaeological Authority under164

Section 11 or 12 of the HPA is a tool whereby a person(s) may legally damage, modify or
destroy a site(s) under certain conditions. Although this may directly influence the managementof natural and heritage resources on a person(s) property, the role of the Authority process is
not to manage a national resource in isolation.
The RMA requires that archaeological sites are considered alongside other resources when it
comes to the impact of a development or project on a property’s natural and heritage resources.
It is therefore at this stage that correct management of archaeological sites is to be scrutinised
to ensure their long term preservation. How archaeological sites and remains are managed at
the Resource Consent stage can thus have a major bearing on the survival of this cultural
resource.
○

Protected Objects Act 1975 (“POA”)

The POA protects Maori taonga (treasures) from illegal possession and trafficking and ensuresthat these items, when found in archaeological contexts for example, are deposited with therightful Iwi (Maori tribe) or Runanga (Maori council). This rightful possession is determinedby the Crown through the Ministry of Culture & Heritage. If a wooden artefact/taonga is foundwhich needs conservation, then the Ministry of Culture and Heritage will take possession of theitem and pay for the conservation work required.
European/Pakeha and Chinese artefacts are treated differently under the POA. Ownership ofthese items lies with the land owner and if found in an archaeological context, such artefacts
are only protected from export. In addition, wooden items of European or Chinese origin,no matter of what historic significance, requiring conservation for their preservation are notrequired to be conserved by the Ministry of Culture & Heritage with the choice of conservation
being left to the land owner.

7. Problems with Culture Heritage Protection and Restoration Activities
In the previous sections I have provided a background on what the archaeological record
comprises in New Zealand, a brief history on the two main heritage organisations, and thelegislation which protects archaeological sites and remains. The Regional Archaeologists fort he New Zeala nd Histor ic Places Tr u st work w it h i n t he env i ron ment of t hese sites,
organisations and laws to have a direct role in the protection of archaeological cultural heritage.
However, key problems or issues make the protection of sites and works on site restorationdifficult to achieve for not only the Regional Archaeologist but for those with the same goals
and aims for the preservation of cultural heritage. From a recognition of these problems, whatneeds are required for culture heritage protection and restoration activities in New Zealand may

165then be identified. In this section those problems that affect archaeological sites in New
Zealand on a daily basis are presented.
○

Age and significance: “if it ain’t old, why keep it”

A fundamental problem which inhibits the preservation of archaeological sites and restoration
activities in New Zealand is the public perception that New Zealand has not had people here
long enough for its heritage to be important. This issue affects attitudes to heritage in all
sectors of New Zealand society and is particularly noticeable at the legislative level (seebelow). As New Zealand was the last major land mass to be colonised, first by the East
Polynesians in ca. 1300 AD who then became the Maori, and then by Europeans in the late 18th
century, New Zealander’s tend to compare this time line with that of other countries withthousands of years of history. This has brought about complacency with the archaeological
heritage where the significance of this heritage is directly associated with age. This general
attitude reaches not only to archaeological sites but also to 19 th century buildings, even though
New Zealand has colonial architecture found no-where else in the world (Figure 39).
New Zealand’s archaeology is unique and, as illustrated above, resulted from the first peoples
encountering a unique landscape devoid of land mammals and dominated by giant bird life.
The first Europeans then encountered a people with a distinctive culture and a vastly different
environment from which they were use to, which then inf luenced the type of activities
practiced and therefore the type of archaeology found today. The importance of this cultural
heritage and its place in World history, however, is not taught in detail at New Zealand schools
and so the general public is only aware of this heritage mostly through random media sources.
These sources of information often portray heritage in a negative manner with newspaper andtelevision repor ts more interested in how heritage is holding up developments or often
reporting on more trivial heritage matters such as unusual artefact finds, mostly from othercountries. The Trust, and consultant and university archaeologists are often put in the positionof educating developers or Councils, on Maori, European and Chinese cultural heritage andhow this is expressed through the archaeological record. Proactive site protection or restoration
then depends greatly on how conducive that developer or Council is in recognising theimportance of this heritage.

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Figure 39. Waikouiti Public Hall near Dunedin, built in 1872. An example of ‘demolition throughneglect’. Early social buildings such as this are often left to degrade in New Zealandand are eventually demolished, even though they represent a significant part of thelocal heritage and their architecture and setting is found no-where else in the world.

Varying attitudes towards the significance of Maori, European and Chinese archaeological sites
is not restricted to any one cultural sector of the community. Europeans/Pakeha may be as
indifferent to European archaeological sites as to Iwi (Maori tribe) sites, and some Maori do
not consider European sites as significant at all. Some Maori also do not consider Maoriarchaeological sites in their Rohe (territory) as important and have no concern whether thesesites are destroyed or not. It is unclear what views ancestral New Zealand Chinese or more
recent Chinese may have towards Chinese archaeological sites and remains, but there has beena significant increase in interest by the New Zealand Chinese community in this aspect of their
history in the last four years.
○■

Cultural Heritage Legislation: Good Intensions, Difficult  Implementation
The HPAAs illustrated previously, the HPA is a powerful tool in the protection of archaeological sites
and few countries have such strict legislation. Implementation of this legislation by the Trust,though, is restrictive mainly due to the size of the organisation and its limited budget. The
Tr ust has only 12 archaeologists, seven being f ull time Regional A rchaeologists, who
administer the statutory requirements of the HPA with a budget to do so of only $1.8 (NZHPTStatement of Intent 2008/2011). These Regional Archaeologists administer large regions
containing thousands of archaeological sites (Figures 37 & 38). The NZAA SRS currently has
60,000 sites on record, this being only a fraction of the actual number of sites in New Zealand,167

and it is the role of the Regional Archaeologist to ensure any person who may want to modify,
damage or destroy these sites does so under an Archaeological Authority.
Added to this, the Regional Archaeologist has to monitor compliance of conditions on
Archaeological Authorities (which often entails visits to sites hundreds of kilometres from theiroffice), undertake site damage investigations reported to the Trust, compile evidence forprosecutions under Section 99 or 100 of the HPA, comment on Resource Consents which may
impact on archaeological sites, undertake advocacy on heritage protection and management,
and provide advice on the presence of archaeological sites on land to be disposed by the Crown.
In addition, the Regional Archaeologist has to provide general feedback and advice to membersof the public, archaeological consultants, Councils or developers on a daily basis. It is
important to note that the tasks of the Regional Archaeologist are directed to all archaeologicalsites, but these tasks can only be applied to sites the Trust knows may be impacted on, such as
through the Resource Consent process. Many archaeological sites damaged, modified or
destroyed are never brought to the attention of the Trust.
Another obstacle to the effective implementation of the HPA to New Zealand’s archaeologicalcult ural heritage is the shor tage of skilled archaeological consultants. A rchaeologicalconsultants are the critical link between a developer and the Trust. The consultant will provide
independent advice to his/her client in regard to the impact of the clients activities on any
archaeological remains and the report provided to the client will be used for an Archaeological
Authority Application to the Trust. The report or Archaeological Assessment may also be used
for a Resource Consent application.
Archaeology was not generally considered a career in New Zealand until the ca. 1990s. Most
archaeologists studying archaeology before this time did solely out of interest and gained theirskills through voluntary archaeological excavations and surveying. These archaeologists thenworked either in the University, Department of Conservation or in the small Trust team with
only a few providing independent services. This changed with the Historic Places Act (1993)
and the added protection of archaeological sites meaning many students from the early 1990s
became consult ants. T hese st udents of ten g radu ated with a Masters level u n iversit yqualification and had a high level of archaeological fieldwork experience, much gained throughvoluntary work.
However, in the last 10 years few Masters graduates in archaeology have moved into the fieldof consultant archaeology and those that have sometimes lack the extent of field experience of
their predecessors. This may be due to the alar ming increase in st udent fees to attend
University in the last 15 years and the number of students ineligible to claim a student
allowance for living expenses from the Government while being a student. This has meant

168

students have had to concentrate on paid employment to make ends meet and so archaeologicalexperience is only gained by working on archaeological projects which pay for their services,hence reducing voluntary work and thus effecting field experience.
It is also important to note that New Zealand does not have any accreditation for archaeologists
or a professional organisation which may only be joined with adequate qualifications andexperience. Anyone can claim they are an archaeologist in New Zealand and undertake“archaeological assessments”. It is only at the Archaeological Authority Application stage that
the Trust may decline that an “archaeologist” is qualified enough to undertake the worked
required for an Authority under Section 17 of the HPA.
■The RMA

The intent of the R MA is the sustainable management of New Zealand’s resources. As
discussed above, archaeological sites under the RMA are part of these resources, but in reality
people and developers applying for Resource Consents and Councils processing Resource
Consents under the RMA often do not have consideration for archaeological sites even though
this is part of the legislation.
Applications for a Resource Consent can be notified or un-notified ie. made known to thegeneral public through a public notif ication process, which enables the public to lodge
submissions, or processed through the Council without any public notice. Councils may also
notify an application on a limited basis where specific persons and/or organisations who are
considered to be “affected parties” are only advised. The Trust most often will only see
notified Resource Consents and those it is specifically advised of as an affected party by theCouncil whose role it is to approve or decline the Resource Consent. This therefore means that
the Trust may not necessarily be made aware of Resource Consents which may affect heritage
directly. Hence the RMA puts too much of a reliance on Councils to consider whether heritageis an important matter or not for their District. Most Councils also have no in-house heritage
staff that may highlight the possible affects of a Resource Consent on archaeological sites, andso it is up to the Trust Heritage Advisors, such as the Planner or Archaeologist, to actively seek
information from Councils on Resource Consent applications in areas where heritage may be
impacted.
A fundamental f law in the RMA is the view that archaeological sites are a “sustainable
resource”. Archaeological sites and remains are f inite resources which require caref ulconsideration and management. Unlike natural resources where impacts may be mitigated ordamage may be restored more readily, once an archaeological site is destroyed, then this loss isirreversible and restoration is no substitute for lost heritage. Under the RMA certain Resource

169Consents do not have to be publicly notified (as noted above), and therefore any cultural
heritage which may be impacted on can not be “sustainably managed” as it can not be
evaluated by an independent qualified heritage advisor. Non-notified Resource Consents appear
to be responsible for numerous losses of archaeological sites around the country.
■

The POAThe goal of the POA is the protection of taonga from illegal possession, trade and export. It
also protects artefacts from Maori, European and Chinese archaeological sites from being
exported. This legislation, however, falls well short of protecting all artefacts from New
Zealand archaeological sites. As noted above, all Maori artefacts fall under the stewardship of
the Crown until the rightful Iwi or Runanga is identified as being the owner. This offers a clear
path to protection, but for European or Chinese artefacts protection is dependent solely on thelandowner from where the artefact derived. Although an Archaeological Authority may requiredetailed analysis and recording of a European or Chinese artefact from an archaeological site,
after analysis the owner can do what he/she wishes with that item regardless of the nationalsignificance of that item (see “Wall St.” corduroy causeway below). This places this physicalaspect of New Zealand’s European/Chinese history in the hands of the individual whereby
significance and appropriate deposition of an artefact is judged by a private citizen.
○

Restoration by restricted choice rather than need

Cult ural heritage restoration activities are not a common practice in New Zealand forarchaeological sites and remains. This only occurs where there is a will by individuals, groups,
developers, Councils or Gover nment bodies, such as the Depar t ment of Conser vation.
Restoration of archaeological sites and remains are therefore not undertaken in terms of there
being a need, but when a choice is made whether restoration is to be undertaken or not. Twocase st udies in the Otago area illust rate this: the Come-In-Time Gold Mining Bat ter y
Restoration Project and the Macetown Huts & Battery Restoration Project.
The Come-In-Time Gold Mining Battery is a 19 th century hard rock gold mining battery locatedin the Bendigo Historic Reserve near Cromwell in Central Otago (see Figure 37). This reserve
is managed by the Department of Conservation (“DoC”), the Government agency required to
manage Crown Conservation Land for the public.

170

Figure 40. Come-in-Time gold mining battery, Bendigo, Central Otago. Before restoration works.
(photo: Matthew Sole).
This gold mining battery is a significant structure as it is one of the few remaining in Otago in
relatively good condition on its original location of last use (Figures 40 & 41). This battery
required its main structural timbers to be replaced as they had rotted to a stage where collapseof the structure was imminent. Recognising this need, a local group called the Otago Goldfields
Heritage Trust raised the money required to have the rotten timbers replaced and the stoneworkaround the battery stabilised. This positive project saw this battery restored and today it can bevisited safely by the public. This restoration, however, was not funded by the Department ofConservation, on whose land the battery sits, but a public group whose purpose is to protect,promote and restore goldfields heritage. This project should have been solely funded by the
Crown through DoC as part of the role of this government agency is the management of
heritage on its lands.

Figure 41. The Come-in-Time gold mining battery after restoration works ca. 11 months later. The
replaced macrocarpa timbers will eventually weather and appear as the aged originals.

171

The restoration works of the Macetown Huts & Battery at the DoC managed Macetown
Historic Reserve was funded by the Crown. Macetown was a 19 th century town located in an
isolated river valley near Arrowtown in Central Otago (Figures 37, 42 to 44). This town and its
associated gold mining sites and remains is regionally significant as it tells the story of changes
in 19 th century mining techniques, from early low level sluicing for gold to later high altitude
hard rock mining, and how the successes and failures of these changes affected the prosperity
and population of an Otago Goldfields town. Remains of sluicing such as tailings and sluice
faces are everywhere, as well as hard rock mining tunnels, huts, mining batteries, skylines,
water races, tracks and town buildings etc. The town is visited by large numbers of tourists
who access the isolated location by four wheel drive through rough terrain and via many rivercrossings.
Two historic stone buildings in the town and a nearby metal gold mining battery required
restoration to ensure these structures did not collapse in the near future (Figures 42 and 50).
The DoC Area Office which managed this reserve therefore required funding for the restoration
works, but obtaining this funding was on a competitive basis within DoC itself as otherheritage projects on other DoC reserves also required money. Although the bid for money was
successful by the Area/Conservancy, and the restoration completed, this project illustrated thealarming lack of investment by the Crown in the restoration of cultural heritage archaeologicalsites and remains on its own property. Because of this lack of money for such works, DoC Area
Offices and Conservancies have to compete for national funding and therefore have to choose
on a Regional level what heritage items can be left to degrade at the expense of another.
Restoration activities by DoC are therefore not based on need but on restricted choice.
This management of heritage is contrary to the role of DoC whose primary function under theConservation Act (1987: Section 6) is“ To manage for conservation purposes, all land, and allother natural and historic resources”. As the biggest land manager in New Zealand whose
property contains hundreds of archaeological sites and remains which are freely accessible by
the public, DoC only allocates 2% of its national funding to manage these resources (source:
Department of Conservation Annual Report 2007). This level of funding is clearly not enough,and where one of the primary industries for New Zealand is tourism where visitors view
cultural heritage sites on DoC land everyday, the degradation of sites from lack of management
is not beneficial to the future of this industry.

172

Figure 42. Macetown in the ca. 1870s (Alexander Turnbull library).

Figure 43. View of historic mining surrounding Macetown. The town main street and ruins lie
below the terrace in the centre of the photo. (photo: Matthew Schmidt).

173

Figure 44. Ruins of town buildings in Macetown. (photo: Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 45. Needham’s Cottage before restoration. (photo: Matthew Schmidt).

174

Figure 46. Needham’s Cottage after restoration.(photo: Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 47. Bakery before restoration. (photo: Matthew Schmidt).

175

Figure 48. Bakery after restoration works. (photo: Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 49. Metal gold mining battery before restoration works. (photo: Matthew Schmidt).

176

Figure 50. Metal gold mining battery after restoration works. (photo. Shar Briden)○

Preservation and Restoration: the problems of funding, restoration skills &facilities

The protection, preservation, restoration and on-going management of archaeological sites andremains is often expensive. In New Zealand there is a lack of funding to undertake suchintervention on nationally important archaeological sites. To illustrate this, I have considered
the recent archaeological find of the Dunedin 1850s Corduroy Causeway as a case study.
During the Dunedin City Council (“ DCC”)“Wall St.” shopping mall development in Dunedin,
Otago, a preserved timber causeway was uncovered in the wet clayey/pub substrate by thearchaeologist working at the project under an Archaeological Authority issued by the Trust(Figures 36 & 51). This 14m x 3m causeway was buried 1.8m below the current ground level
and was determined to have been built in the 1850s during the initial European settlement
period of Dunedin, which eventually became one of New Zealand’s first main cities. This madethe artefact a nationally significant cultural heritage item. The Trust worked closely with the
DCC to determine whether this site could be preserved in-situ under glass in a controlledenvironment for public viewing. The cost of such preservation was determined to be very
expensive but after an analysis of the timbers was undertaken by a wood preservation specialist,
it was found preservation in-situ was not possible. It was therefore decided that a sample of thebest preserved timbers would be retrieved from the site for conservation treatment, with thesetimbers put back on display near its original location and the remaining section of thecauseway reburied.

177

This project revealed the inadequacies in New Zealand in the protection, preservation, andmanagement of nationally significant archaeological sites, it particular those sites where wooden
structures or items have been preserved in a wet environment. Considering first protection,
because the timber causeway was an artefact of European origin and not of Maori make, thenunder the POA the landowner owned the structure. This meant it was the choice of the DCC
whether any of this site would be preserved. The Trust or the Crown had no say on the future ofthis structure and it was only the good will of the DCC that steps were taken to preserve the site.
If the timber causeway had evidence of Maori manufacture then the Ministry of Culture andHeritage would have been involved in the protection and management of the causeway.
Preservation of wooden structures or artefacts in-situ in wet-sites is expensive as such sites
require on-going care and management. For this archaeological site, the Trust could only offer its
advice on the steps required to achieve conservation of the causeway as the Trust has no funding
available for the preservation, management or restoration of archaeological sites and remains.
Although the Trust has a $464,000 Incentive Fund, which is a fund that person may apply to forfinancial aid in the restoration of a Category 1 heritage building , no such fund exists for
significant archaeological sites. This means that for any archaeological sites or remains, be they
made of wood, stone, bone or earth, that require direct intervention for preservation, the Trust

Figure 51. Corduroy causeway from the 1850s found during shopping mall development inGeorge St., Dunedin. This causeway was built across muddy ground by the firstsettlers in Dunedin. (photos: Owen Graham).



The Trust registers significant buildings as either Category 1 or 2, Category 1 being places of special oroutstanding historical or cultural heritage significance or value.

178can not support these projects financially and the onus is on the land owner. Direct
Government funding was also not an option for this site as this only extends to Maori taonga
where these items become the responsibility of the Crown to ensure these ar tefacts areconserved under the POA. This funding issue therefore creates difficulties not only for the
Trust in advocating cultural heritage preservation, but also for landowners where they are
expected to fund site preservation or restoration themselves on their own property or, when
considering artefacts under the POA, preservation of heritage items of European or Chineseorigin.
The “Wall St.” timber causeway project also illustrated the lack of skilled conservators
available in New Zealand. The Trust has one conservation specialist and there are a number ofother conser vation advisors distributed around the countr y. However, there is only one
specialist conservator in wood identification and preservation who is based in a laboratory
dedicated to conservation work in New Zealand. For a country where Maori pre-contact
artefacts and structures constitute items made of bone and wood, and where many European
colonial structures were made of wood, one national specialist who can advise and undertakethe laboratory conservation work required severely restricts the ability for New Zealand to
manage any cultural items made of these materials. When the “Wall St.” timber causeway was
first revealed, advice on timber preservation had to wait until the specialist wood conservator
was back in the country. As the causeway was located in a deep hole, it could be f looded tokeep the timbers water logged to reduce the rate of deterioration while specialist advice wassought. But the lack of timely advice caused delays for the development as no works in the areaof the site could proceed which in turn caused problems for the Trust who was also trying tomanage the site under the Archaeological Authority granted for the project.

8. Needs for Culture Heritage Protection and Restoration Activities forarchaeological sites and remains in New Zealand
From the problems identified in culture heritage protection and restoration activities ofarchaeological sites and remains in New Zealand presented, the needs for better ensuring thisprotection and to support restoration activities are clear. These needs are summarised below:•

New Zealand schools require a curriculum which focuses specifically on thearchaeological and built heritage of New Zealand prior to 1900 AD. This curriculum
should include detailed teachings on the life of Maori before and after the arrival of
European/Pakeha as seen in the archaeological record. The contact period between
these two cultures and the changes brought about by Europeans/Pakeha and the Chinese
as revealed through the latest archaeological research should also be taught. This early179

education may change the views many New Zealanders have regarding the significanceof New Zealand’s cultural heritage.
•

The archaeological provisions of the HPA are a positive tool for cultural heritage
preservation. However, for the New Zealand Historic Places Trust to more effectively
administer these provisions, a significant increase in archaeological staffing and theadministrative budget are required. Trust led archaeological research should also be
funded so as the Trust may be seen as an active participant in cultural heritage studies
and as a national promoter of ‘best practice’ archaeology.

•

The RMA needs a tightening of its provisions regarding heritage sites. This should
include making consideration of any effects on such sites during any notified or unnotified Resource Consent application compulsory. In addition, Councils should be
required to list all known recorded archaeological sites in their District Plans, such as
found in the NZAA SRS, and have specific rules regarding how Resource Consents aremanaged in areas where sites are known or believed to be present. All Councils should
also have a full time heritage advisor to identify heritage at risk in Resource Consent
applications to Council and to liaise with the Trust on heritage matters.

•

The Ministry of Culture and Heritage needs to change the Protected Objects Act (1975)
so as European/Pakeha & Chinese archaeological remains which are believed to benationally significant are protected and eligible for conservation funding in the sameway Maori taonga are.

•

New Zealand archaeology needs a professional archaeological organisation whichaccredits archaeologists based on their qualifications and their skills and experience.
This may help to resolve the issue of poor archaeological work being undertaken andlack of experience of new archaeologists.

•

The Department of Conservation requires a significant increase in its heritage budget(up from the current 2% it attributes to historic heritage) to be able to manage andpreserve cultural heritage items on its land. This budget would be specifically focusedon heritage items and not recreation management in areas where heritage is present.

•

A conservation laboratory is required in the South Island and more wood conservation
specialists need to be trained to ensure historically significant wood or bone remains
can be preserved for future generations.

180

•

The Trust provides an Incentive Fund so as a private person who owns a Category 1
building may apply for money to aid in the conservation of that building. The Trust also
needs an Incentive Fund specifically for Category 1 archaeological sites and for sites
revealed during archaeological work where the finds are considered nationallysignificant, for example the DCC “Wall St.” corduroy causeway.

•

The New Zealand Government should manage its own Incentive Fund for heritage
where discoveries of national importance either on Crown or private land may receive
funding for preservation and restoration.

•

The New Zealand Government should directly fund the management of the NZAA SRS
and the, yet to be launched, NZAA online Digital Site Recording Scheme (NZAADSRS) in the long term . This funding should include financing archaeologicalfieldwork directed to updating old archaeological site records nationwide and surveying
areas where sites are known but are yet to be recorded.
Most of the needs identif ied above stem from problems with the implementation of thelegislation on the protection and management of archaeological sites in New Zealand andinadequate money nationally to preserve significant sites. To resolve these needs, the New
Zealand Government and Councils need to understand and recognise the importance of New
Zealand’s cultural heritage particularly with regard to archaeological sites and remains.

9. Conclusions
This report has attempted to identify the main problems and needs for culture heritage
protection and restoration activities for archaeological sites and remains in New Zealand. Other
problems and needs remain, for example the management of cultural heritage from the loss by
nat u ral processes, such as coastal erosion which is rapidly causing the loss of Maor iarchaeological sites, and the loss of heritage knowledge through the generation of ‘grey’literature (unpublished reports) on archaeological investigations, for example reports produced
by independent archaeological consultants for clients where the report may never be written up
for publication.
It is through the identification and recognition of problems and needs that solutions may befound. For cultural heritage in New Zealand, these solutions are not surmountable, they just

The NZAA DSRS will be an internet based Site Recording Scheme where data from archaeological sites can beviewed and searched for via a map and search facility online. New data can also be added and downloaded.

181

need a will by Government and Councils to recognise that heritage is a finite resource and once
lost, a piece of New Zealand’s identity is gone forever.

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Furey, L. 2006. Maori gardening: An archaeological perspective. Science & TechnicalPublishing, Department of Conservation.
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183

Pakistan
Muhammad Asim DOGAR
Assistant Curator
Archaeological Museum of Harappa

Problems and Needs of the World Famous Prehistoric
Site of Harappa, District Sahiwal, Pakistan
INTRODUCTION
Pakistan gained independence from the British and came onto the globe on 14 August 1947. It is
located in South Asia, having common borders with India to the east, China to the north, Afghanistan
to the northwest, Iran to the southwest, and the Arabian Sea on the south. Nature has gifted Pakistanwith all types of geographical features. The northern areas of Pakistan are occupied by snow-coveredhigh peaks such as K-2, Naga Parbat, Rakaposhi, and icy glaciers, whereas the northwestern highmountains separate the country from Afghanistan. Central parts of Pakistan consist of fertile plains
irrigated by the rivers Sindh, Jehlum, Chanab, Ravi and Satluj. The Cholistan, the Thar, and the Thal
are the major deserts of Pakistan. Karachi, Bin Qasim and Gawader are three seaports on the ArabianSea. It is an ever-fascinating country. It is also one of the countries having the most ancient culturesin the world. It has an amazing ancient past, and a splendid history exists in the form of monuments
and ancient sites. The Department of Archaeology and Museums is the only organ responsible forpreserving, protecting and controling moveable and immovable cultural heritage in Pakistan.
LEGISLATION REGARDING THE CULTURAL HERITAGE
Legislation for the protection and preservation of archaeological sites and monuments started during
the British period, and after making various amendments from time to time on old acts, a new act

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under the name of the Antiquities Act 1975 has been enacted, which is now part of the constitution of
Pakistan. This act provides all necessary powers to the Department of Archaeology and Museums forthe protection of cultural heritage. Through this act, the Department of Archaeology and Museums,
Government of Pakistan, can declare as protected any moveable or immoveable property that may
be considered worth protecting. Under this act no one, except the Department of Archaeology
and Museums or persons acting with its permission, can carry out archaeological explorations,
excavations, and conservation activities throughout the country. The Department of Archaeology andMuseums is also responsible for controlling illegal trade in antiquities. In short, the Antiquities Act
1975 is a very important document regarding the preservation and protection of the culture heritage ofPakistan.
ARCHAEOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES IN PAKISTAN
Archaeological activities in Pakistan started in nineteenth century when British archaeologists
Alexander Cunningham, Sir John Marshall, and Aural Stein carried out an archaeological survey on alarge scale. As a result of such archaeological surveys many sites and monuments from the Stone Age
to historic periods were discovered. Among them the prehistoric sites of the Indus Valley Civilizationand early historic Buddhist sites in the Gandhara region are the most distinguished. On the other
hand, the historic period tombs, graveyards, and shrines of the Hindu Shahi, and monuments of early
Islamic and Mughal periods represented by forts, gardens, mosques, and tombs are most significant
in Pakistan. In the wake of the archaeological surveys, scientific excavations, conservation, andrestoration of all important sites and monuments started in the beginning of nineteenth century andare still going on.
Pakistan is one of those countries with a complete chronology of human history from the Stone
Age to present times. Luckily, we have archaeological sites and monument of many different periods.
The sites of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, the two major urban centers of Indus Civilization and manyother Buddhist sites like Taxila, Takhat Bai, and their monuments represent the different types ofarchitecture, masonry, and various types of materials which have been used in the construction ofdifferent monuments all over the country. The archaeological remains and monuments are scatteredover a variety of climatic and geographical environments. All these sites and monuments are facedwith various conservation and restoration problems that are all different from each other. In this report
it is too difficult to discuss all the problems facing these sites and monuments, accordingly the focus
will be limited to only the prehistoric archaeological site at Harappa.
HARAPPA, METROPOLIS OF HARAPPAN CIVILIZATIONLOCATION, DISCOVERY, EXCAVATIONSThe site of Harappa is located about 27 kilometers southwest of Sahiwal city. It is the second largest
city of the Indus Valley Civilization, which flourished from about 2,600 to 1,900 B.C. over an areathat includes much of Pakistan. Some sites of the Indus Valley Civilization are also situated in western

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India and southern Afghanistan. Mr. Masson, a British military deserter, first visited the site ofHarappa in 1826. After that Mr. Alexander Cunningham visited the site twice in 1853 and 1856, andreported it to the Government. After a long period, Harappa was declared a protected site in 1920,
but unfortunately before the area was declared protected the mounds of Harappa had long been thesource of brick ballast for the approximately 160-kilometer line of the Lahore-Multan Railway, as
well as a ready source of bricks for the local people of modern town of Harappa. Most of the brickstructures were thus destroyed by the construction of the railway line and stealing by locals. About
this destruction, M. S. Vats (excavator of the site) says “I made several excavations at Harappa, but
the whole surface had been so cleared out by the railway contractors that I found very little worth
preserving.” After the protection, archaeological excavations were started and different archaeologists
excavated the site and exposed a large number of antiquities and structures. The first excavation wasmade by Daya Ram Sahni in 1921, and continued up to 1925. Then Mr. Vats excavated the site from1926 to 1934. K. N. Shastri excavated the site in 1937, and Sir M. Wheeler excavated from 1944 to1946.

After the independence of Pakistan on 14 August 1947, Dr. Muhammad Rafique Mughal carriedout excavations at Harappa in 1969, and provided a large amount of information for scholars andtourists.
An American archaeological mission under the guidance of G. F. Dales, Richard Meadow, andJ. M. Kenoyer started archaeological research at Harappa in 1986, and it is still going on with thecoordination of the Department of Archaeology and Museums, Government of Pakistan. As a result of
these excavations a large area of the Harappa site has been unearthed, and the chronology of the site
established as follows.

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1. Ravi aspect Hakra

3500–2800 B.C.

2. Kot Diji Phase2800–2600 B.C.

3. Harappan Phase

2600–1900 B.C.

4. Harappan\late Harappan transition 1900–1800 B.C.
5. Late Harappan (Cemetery H) phase 1800–1500 B.C.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE ANCIENT SITE OF HARAPPAThe entire extent of ruins at Harappa is roughly 12,500 feet or nearly 4 kilometers in circumference,with a height of 60 feet above the surrounding cultivated fields, and lies on the left bank of river Ravi.
It may again be mentioned that the brick diggers, before excavation, made the whole site so disturbedthat in 95 percent of cases it is impossible to understand the plan of the actual houses, not to speakof the layout of the streets, drainage system, etc. But from the available features of the remains, theold city of Harappa may be divided into two parts, the lower and the upper. The lower part consistsof the remains at Mound E towards the east and southeast where the southern gateway has also been
recovered. To the south lie Cemetery R 37, Cemetery H, and Area G away to the southeast, andMound F to the north. The workmen’s platforms and quarters and the granary, which appear to havefunctioned under the administrative control of the Citadel, stand to the north and west. The upper
part includes the whole of Mound AB and the Citadel area, where the defence wall and the westerngateway are situated. A hypothetical tour through the site for visitors may be described as follows.
(a) Cemetery R-37. After studying the objects on display in the Museum, while proceeding on theapproach path to the Harappa site, visitors on a study walk may first see Cemetery R-37 on the left187

side. This cemetery was discovered in 1937, and further excavations were later conducted in 1944 and1946. Here about 57 graves of the true Harappan period were uncovered. This is the only systematic
cemetery of mature Harappan culture known at present.
(b) Cemetery H. Going a few steps further, the visitors come to Cemetery H. This cemetery has signs
of utilization later than the last period of the Harappa mounds. The pottery recovered here is also
distinct from that found elsewhere on the site in its fabric, shape, and decoration. The painted designs
are stars, fish, peacock, oxen, and goat.
Some of the burials recovered have collections of bones regarded as “fractional,” i.e. incomplete
collections of bones gathered after the exposure of the body. However, it is not clear whether they were
truely “fractional” burials, or merely fragmentary because they had been disturbed later on. According
to general opinion, Cemetery H belonged to people who occupied the site after the end of the Harappa
culture. It is worth noting Area G in passing, situated to the southeast of the Museum, just opposite theHarappa approach road. Here an assortment of pottery has been discovered in association with humanremains. Among this pottery there are in particular dishes which are more closely similar in shape,etc., to the offering dishes found in the Harrapan mounds than to those discovered at Cemetery H. So
it seems very likely that whatever may be the interval between the mounds and Cemetery H, Area G
stands between the two, but nothing may be concluded pending further research on the subject.
(c) Mound AB, Citadel area. Entering into this area, there may be noted the remains of 54 jars locatedin a row. This row extends for 109 feet from east to west and cuts across the entire width of the trench.
These urns were placed against the wall of several houses which stood originally in a line immediately
to their south. A large number of such urns have also been found at Dabar-Kot, Pariano-Cundai
Mughal Gundai, Mehi and Sutka-gendor in Balochistan Province.

(d) A double-ringed well.

Adjacent to the row of urns, there exists a well with a double ring ofmasonry. The outer ring is 7 feet 3 inches in diameter and the inner one 3 feet 9 inches; the gap of 1
foot between them it filled with pure clay. It is twice as deep as any of the other well so far unearthed
at Harappa. This is probably the reason why the outer ring, which must have been very costly to build,
was considered indispensable for additional strength.

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(e) Western section of Mound AB. Walking ahead just a few steps, remains of the western section ofthis area may be seen; these buildings are divided across the middle by an open space. At the west endof this space, and running north to south at a right angle to it, there is a broad passage near the western
limit of the excavations between Houses 1 and 2. Two small earthen jars, lying close to each other,have been recovered from this spot.
Other important features of this area are the remains of an east-west wall on the northern side.
Here may be noticed the opening of two small drains which appear one above the other. There is alsoa water chute sloping back near the side of the drains. Here exist the remains of an incomplete room
where there is a broken drain to its south and also another which used to empty itself down into thedrain of earlier periods alongside the water chute. At the back of this confused continuation of thestructural remains, there may be noticed a large room. However, the west and south wall of this room
are missing. The long wall, the water chute, and the drain openings described above, are so managed
as to drain away towards the east through a gable-roofed drain which may be noticed for a length ofabout 130 feet.
(f) The defense wall. From here it is more convenient for the visitors to return to the western side of
the Citadel where they may study the defense wall exposed in section. Four periods of construction
may be observed in the section of the defense wall. Period I shows the time when the Harappans, after
their first arrival at the site, constructed the fortification wall, and when the original revetment wasreconstructed with first-class bricks and elaborately thickened. This phase represents the climax ofHarappa Culture. In Period III, the northwest corner was consolidated by an additional bastion andthe entrances of the western gateway system were blocked. Period IV probably represents the roughly
built houses on the site of the western terraces which stand above a layer of debris, and are associatedwith the newer ceramics of Cemetery H.
(g) The Western Gateway. Continuing their sight-seeing, the visitors go northwards and see thegateway. It is curved inwardly, and situated on the line of the western defense wall of the citadel. The
width of the gateway appears to narrow down from 8 to 5 feet as it approaches the fortification wall.
Such a narrow passage could have served no other purpose than as a small gate in time of danger. It
may be noted here that the probable site of the main entrance, on the western flank of the citadel, isa few steps further towards the northwestern corner of the defense wall. To describe the same, it isbetter to quote M. Wheeler, who says: “relatively modern depredation had reduced the whole area to ashambles such as I have never before encountered on any ancient site—the ground had been ransacked
for bricks almost from end to end top to bottom.” Nevertheless, patient and extensive excavation
revealed the probable site of the main entrance at a point where the mud brick structure of the
defensive system was interrupted by a rising passage between lateral walls of mixed mud brick. If, asappears likely, this was in fact the site of the main western gate, only the sub-structure of it remains.

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(h) Northeastern side of the Citadel. After visiting the site of the western gateway, the visitors may
turn to the right and proceed to the northeastern side of the citadel area. There is a tomb of a Muslim
saint, Nor Shah. By the side of this tomb and associated with it is the building of a mosque. Not far
from this, but at higher level to the west, had been found the remains of flights of steps on both theeastern and western faces of the citadel, and also the foundation of a large square building. However,no signs of this reported building now exist as it seems to have been removed by the brick diggers
before excavation. In these disturbed remains there may, however, be noticed the structure of an
oblong room measuring 14 by 12 feet internally, but its walls are not bonded with one another. In
contact with and parallel to its northern wall, is a slightly earlier wall which is seen projecting frombelow the east wall of this room.
From this part of the citadel, a heap of large undulating stone rings, polished architecturalstone pieces with tube-drill holes and heavy socketed stone pedestals, have also been unearthed. The
foundation of the square-shaped building as mentioned above, and these material evidences together,
may indicate the probable site of the Harappan Temple.
Again at the top of these structural remains of the supposed temple, there are found several
large-sized brick tiles, terracotta panels with human figures, a few cast human heads, and potterythspouts showing a clear workmanship of the Gupta period dating to the 4 century A.D. A similar
situation is confronted in the citadel area at Mohenjodaro, where the highest part was crowned witha Buddhist stupa and monastery. Beneath this construction, the supposed temple at Mohenjodaro
is likely to have been buried. So it is possible that like the Stupa Mound at Mohenjodaro, the top
northern extremity of the citadel at Harappa was also occupied by a Buddhist settlement in early
Gupta period.
(i) A well-to-do house on Mound F. From the remains described in the citadel area, the visitors may
step slowly further north and see the rest of the remains belonging to the lower part of the city. To theright at a low level on the eastern slope of Mound F may be seen the remains of a well-to-do house.
It is a large house and the eastern part of its plan is quite clear, while its western part is broken andpartly buried, and hence not clearly understood.
(j) Trench I. As a continuation of these monumental remains, but on a higher plain and just on theright side of the approach path, there is a large trench, measuring 224 feet north-south by 68 feet wide.
In this trench, eight strata of occupation, each in fragmentary condition, have been unearthed. This
area has been disturbed by brick diggers to an extent that no precise description of its remains can be
reproduced. Among the most important and interesting finds, from the southern portion of this trench,
is an extremely delicate miniature of a two-wheeled copper chariot which has been pieced together
from numerous fragments. The chariot is open both front and back and has a gabled roof. The driveris shown in front on a raised seat, but the animal supposed to be yoked to the chariot, the poles, thewheels and the axle are all missing. The chariot is very small at only two inches in height. As an

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instance of a covered chariot, it is the first example from the sites of Harappa culture, antedating theearliest use of a wheeled vehicle in Egypt by several centuries.
(k) The workmen’s platforms and quarters. At a small
distance from Trench I are the workmen’s platforms andquarters to the southwest, and the granary to the northwest.
To begin visiting these buildings, the workmen’s platforms
and quarters are best viewed first. These platforms are 20
in number and circular in shape. Each platform is 11 feet indiameter and consists of a single course of four continuous
concentric rings of brick-on-edge masonry with a hollow
space at the center, equal to the length of three bricks. The
mortar used in them is mud, but the pointing is of gypsum.
In the central hollow of one of these platforms there
was found a quantity of burnt wheat and husked barely,
while another one offered evidence of some fragments ofstraw or huts in centre. It is therefore presumed that theplatforms surrounded a wooden mortar, where grain was
pounded with long pestles.
Here also mention may be made of a small well which is situated slightly to the north, between
Platforms 4 and 5. Its diameter is 2 feet 4 inches. The discovery of four large pottery jars, lying one
above the other near the well, indicate that the jars were used for the storage of drinking water for
wayfarers. It is of interest to mention also that 15 feet northwest of this well, the small torso of a nude
figure, carved in the round in red sandstone, was discovered.
Adjacent to the platforms there may be seen an array of small residential quarters for theworkmen, which are 14 in number. Originally, these houses were all carefully planned, and withthe partial exception of Houses 5 and 9, closely resembled one another. But most of the remains ofthese houses have perished, about which M. S. Vats says: “In many cases the original walls are now
represented by nothing but a few brickbats belonging to their cores, and in some cases by mud brick or
only a rammed bed of earth for laying the foundation.” However, from the surviving remains of someof the houses, it appears that each house is rectangular, consisting of three rooms, or of a courtyard
and two rooms. The entrances of these houses are peculiarly shaped with oblique passages which aremeant probably for preventing any one looking into the inside of the house from the outside lanes. It is
important to mention here that a large collection of jewelry, including gold and silver articles, has been
recovered from the courtyard of House 2.
(l) Furnaces. To the west of these quarters, there may be noticed a furnace surviving from among
16 found on and about the site of these small houses, but at a higher level. From the discovery of a
crucible in the vicinity, it is thought that the furnaces may have been used for melting metals.

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(m) The Granary. At a little distance toward the north, there may be observed the blocks of the
granary. The granary is the best and most imposing monument at Harappa. This extraordinarymonument, which measures 168 feet from north to south by 135 feet from east to west, was obviously
a public building of great importance for the whole city. It is situated on the northwest flank of Mound
F. It consists of two similar blocks (eastern and western) opposite each other, with an open passage 23
feet wide between them. Each block comprises six halls alternating regularly with five corridors which
open only on the outside. Each of these halls is partitioned into four narrow divisions by full-length
walls which terminate in broader piers at both ends. Excepting the piers, which are made entirely of
fired bricks, the remaining portion of these dividing walls is made sometimes of fired bricks, but moreusually of fired and sun-dried bricks.
Some time later, the passage between the blocks of halls had to be provided with series of
air holes at the end of each block at a higher level, in order to maintain the free circulation of fresh
air through the original passage. This device was introduced to keep the grain in a better state ofpreservation. There is also a common foundation wall, 3 feet 6 inches wide running underneath theentire length of the two blocks, without any corresponding walls at the opposite ends.
The halls, each measuring about 52 by 17 feet, had been timbered over with a cover which restedon the brick walls. Access to them could be had directly from the corridors, which were probably
sloped up to the entrance of the hall or from the passage, where remains of steps are discovered bothon the eastern and western sides of the blocks.
The granary was used for storing either the surplus, or the state’s share of crop produce,
paid as taxes. There is relevant evidence found in other countries, such as the long, narrow store
houses provided at the Minoan palaces at Knossos and Phaestus in Crete. In connection with thissimilarity, John Marshall, as quoted by M. S. Vats, observes: “In some of the roman forts in Englandand Germany, there are structures remarkably like the Great Granary at Harappa with the same
long narrow galleries and the small apertures at the bottom of the end walls—intended to allow thecirculation of air under the floors, to prevent the grains becoming mildewed. The resemblance of one

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of these granaries, which I visited on the Roman Wall this summer, to the Harappa Granary was very
striking.”
The most interesting find of this area is the torso of a dancer, made of dark-grey stone anddiscovered in the Intermediate I level of the south of Hall VI in the eastern block.
(n) Houses, streets and the southeastern gateway. From the granary area the visitors may return toMound E on the southeastern side to see more remains of the ancient city. These include the structuresof houses, streets, and evidence of a copper workshop and the site of the manufacturing of shell andagate beads. It is here on the southern side that a lofty mud brick wall has survived which seems tohave encompassed the entire mound. The width of the wall varied from 19 feet 8 inches to 29 feet 7
inches, and may have been configured several feet high. At this place, there also exists an imposing
fired-brick gateway which checked the movements of the inhabitants of the southern flank of the city.
Both the wall and the gateway belong to the mature Harappan phase of the city. In connection with thegateway system, mention has already been made of the western gateway supposed to be buried on thewestern side of the Citadel area.
(o) Architecture and masonry. The foundation of Harappa city was laid out in accordance with a preengineered scheme. But the brick diggers, as pointed out earlier, had disturbed the entire site to suchan extent that the complete layout of the houses could not possibly be reproduced by the excavators.
In this context, M. S. Vats says “The aspect of the ruins, so far brought to light, is in general sohopelessly mutilated that in 95 per cent of cases it is impossible to draw even a tentative plan of what
the houses once looked like, much less to reconstruct their facades, or the layout of their streets,
drainage systems, and the like.” However, from the study of the few better preserved remains it isapparent that from the earliest time onwards, most of the Harappans lived in houses made of fired
bricks. The usual size of the brick is 11 by 5.5–3 inches in the better class houses; sometimes bricks
with relief works were also used for decoration. Both fired and mud bricks were used in the middle
class houses in the intermediate period of the city’s life. In some cases broken bricks were used for
raising solid terraces to ward off the danger of floods. Mud was used as a common mortar in themasonry work but in some cases gypsum was also used for pointing, to add solidity to the structure.
The house floor was usually made either of mud or bricks, laid flat but also partly executedwith the bricks stood on edge. The bathrooms were paved with well-rubbed bricks, having very finejoints. Bricks laid on edge, either on their longer of shorter sides, were used to border the pavements.
The remains of houses are of very small height, and as such no signs of windows etc. have been
traced. It is for this reason that not much corbelling work has been founded in the city of Harappa. It
is interesting to mention that only three instances of stairways have been observed in the excavatedbuildings. Their risers are high and the steps narrow.
Drains made of fired bricks have been discovered. They are covered either with flat roofs, gabled
roofs, or round arches. In some cases, the drains have been kept completely open. These open drains193were probably meant for the drainage of a particular area. There were dustbins alongside the drains
sunk below the ground level. These were always paved and built at suitable places in the street. There
were also refuse water pits lined with jars which were used for storing the used up water from thebaths or kitchens, and were to be cleaned by the sweepers employed by the civic authorities especiallyfor this purpose.
In Harappa only six wells have been found, and as compared to Mohenjodaro the wells are very
few. They are all public wells, and their diameters range from 1 foot 10 inches to 7 feet. It is to be
noted that the wells found in Mound F are so small that two people cannot draw water from them atthe same time. But the diameters of the wells situated away from the ancient bed of the Ravi are muchbigger. The reason is that the people living close to the river used well water only for cooking anddrinking purposes, while people occupying the area of the city away from the river utilized well water
for all purposes, and hence the construction of large size wells was a reasonable necessity.
CONSERVATION PROBLEMSThe Department of Archaeology is responsible for the preservation and presentation of the cultural
heritage of our ancient past. So far as the conservation aspect of the archaeological discipline isconcerned, it is a continuous and slow process and no let up can be allowed without risking the
breakdown of the site and the monument. This vital function is performed by the two Circle Offices,
the Northern Circle of Archaeology, Lahore and the Southern Circle of Archaeology, Karachi, withvarious sub-regional offices; their trained staff, appointed to look after these monuments, is also
responsible for the conservation, preservation, and restoration of the monuments, and maintenanceof archaeological sites and museums under the jurisdiction/control of the Circles and sub-regional
offices. The visual manifestations of the past demand from the experts that their originality not
be impaired or damaged while strengthening their fabric, conserving architectural features, andpreserving any embellishment and decoration. The job is, therefore, of a very sensitive and delicate
nature. A thorough study of the structure is made and the material closely examined before planning
any such project. The financial limitations notwithstanding, the results of all the undertakings in thisfield have been rather satisfactory. Harappa is one of those sites which have faced many conservation
problems. Harappa is a huge site and the remains at Harappa having great archaeological importanceare scattered over an area about 84 hectares. The archaeological mound of Harappa is visible froma long distance, having a considerable height of about 60 feet above the adjacent ground level. The
entire area lies buried except where archaeological excavations have been carried out from 1920 tothe present date. Both the areas of site that have been excavated or are lying intact are facing manyhazards under the effects of weathering, and above all due to their aging. These problems may besummarized as follows.
EFFLORESCENCE
Efflorescence is a very common problem here being faced by the entire site. When a structure or194any object is unearthed, it begins to turn brittle under the effect of efflorescence interacting withthe open atmosphere, and the entire surface of the structure or unearthed object is covered with anaccumulation of salts, thereby disintegrating into ash. As the entire site is badly under colossal attackfrom this menace, the removal of the salts from the entire site is almost impossible. However, theunearthed structure/object may be secured by treating it chemically after the process of desalination.
It is worth mentioning that the desalination of moveable objects both small and big is possible easily
in the laboratory, whereas the immoveable, intact, large and massive structures at the site are difficult
to desalinate completely. However, the laborious desalination work is executed by the conservationlaboratory.

DEFACING OF SECTIONS OF EXCAVATED REMAINS
The archaeological excavations were carried out over numerous areas of the site in 1920 and it is stillgoing on. After the lapse of a considerable period, deep sections of the excavated areas gradually
start to become defaced due to having no binding force between the loose, salt-affected and swollen
particles of mud in the presence of the weathering effects of sun, rain, and wind, and the many
visitors who have come to the site since the time of excavation. In this situation, one has no idea about
the exact extent of an excavated trench, and the trench is found in a completely ruined condition.
To keep the badly defaced sections of the excavated trenches in a presentable condition, theerection of retaining walls against the defaced sections has been practiced in the past, especially atMounds AB and F. Before erecting the retaining walls against the defaced sections, the basic ethic ofconservation was kept in mind that the measures being adopted should be reversible. For the purposeof erecting the retaining wall both fired and sun-dried bricks were used for masonry materials, while
using mud as mortar.
On the faces of the wall, burnt bricks were used for strengthening, while on other parts of thewall the sun dried bricks were used. Before laying the retaining wall in the required position, loose

195earth from the defaced section lying on a slope extending down inside the excavated trench was
carefully removed, given the possible presence of antiquities in the loose soil, and a foundation trench
was also dug very carefully keeping in view the exact extant of excavated trench. The foundation bed
was not laid in a uniform level rather it was kept low or high for various stretches depending upon
the availability of comparatively hard soil to bear the dead load of the wall being erected. The second
purpose of keeping uneven levels at various stretches was to avoid the maximum cutting of the earth
at the site, and thirdly, adding the minimum retaining wall structure, and fourthly, to minimize thethrust pressure of the back-filled mud behind the retaining wall. Moreover, abutment walls along thelength of the retaining wall, behind it in the shape of the letters T or U, were provided to avoid theoverturning of the wall under the thrust pressure of back-filled earth.

The retaining wall was also kept slightly tapering towards the top to bear the maximum thrustof the back-filled earth. First the lower most portions of both the retaining and abutment walls arecompleted and after maintaining the uniform level of the uneven retaining and abutment walls, theentire wall was completed up to the top level of the section. The gaps behind the retiring wall wererefilled and compacted with a filling of earth removed from the trench, after screening to sort out
possible antiquities in the soil. The face and the top of the back-filled areas were then plastered overwith mud mortar, to avoid the penetration of rain water in the newly built retaining wall.
CONSERVATION OF EXISTING STRUCTURES AT THE SITE
As a result of scientific excavations at the site both moveable and immoveable antiquities havebeen made available from the site. The moveable antiques are brought to the laboratory for theirchemical treatments. While the immovable antiques remain intact at site, which may be in the formof archaeological remains, statues, etc., at Harappa the lower level remains were unearthed as a resultof theft of bricks before declaration of the remains as protected by the Department and the carrying196out of archaeological excavations. These structures now face many hazards to their existence being
exposed to the open atmosphere. Efflorescence is the worst enemy of the existing structures. The
removal of saltpeter from the core of the thick and massive structures is not only laborious work but
also impossible to conduct completely, but which is carried out at site by the archaeological laboratory
established for that purpose.
With the passage of time the bricks originally laid with mud mortar are subjected to various
weathering effects, losing the bondage between the mud mortar and the bricks and as a result, thestructures become loose and disintegrate. To keep the structures intact, re-erection of the loose
portions of the structures is done either by means of underpinning by inserting the original bricks inthe core, applying fresh mud mortar to the effected portion, or by inserting new bricks of the original
size with fresh mud mortar if the original bricks removed were too brittle to enable their reuse.
However, every effort is made during the process of conservation so that the original pattern of laying
the bricks is followed.
STRENGTHENING OF EXISTING ARCHAEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES AT THE SITE
During the process of archaeological excavations in the past, various structures besides other moveable
objects were discovered from different levels. Among the existing structures, having their foundations
intact in the bed of the excavated trench, some are found from the lowermost level relating to theearly period, while others are found from the medium and upper levels, relating to comparatively later
periods. Structures from the medium and upper levels are standing on the pedestal of earth filling
originally under their respective foundations. As the original earth filling is loose, it becomes swollen
and is badly affected by efflorescence. Hence, it is very necessary to keep the original earth under the
structure intact. For this purpose a technique called erecting “mud pushta” (retaining wall) is applied197

at site. During the process of conservation a protective thick layer of mud mortar mixed with bhusa(wheat straw) is applied around the earth filled pedestal of the structure keeping the mud mortar
tapering towards the top. After this process, the original earth filling under the structure is saved fromthe pressure of the dead load of brick structure over it.
EROSION OF HISTORICAL MOUNDS UNDER THE EFFECTS OF WEATHER
The archaeological mounds Harappa are of various levels at various locations, with sloping slides.
These mounds are constantly subjected to various weathering effects. Among them wind is one
natural factor in their erosion. At Harappa from May to the middle of October the days become very
hot. Towards the end of August and around the middle of September, a change in the temperature may
be noticed especially in the morning times and after sunset. A breeze, often changing into a strong
wind, usually blows at night during the hot weather. Dust storms are common features in this area.
So the loose, swollen and salt-affected mud of the mounds keeps escaping under the blowing wind, anatural phenomenon that is imposable to overcome in general, but the intensity of the blowing windcan be lowered by planting vegetation in abundance at site.
The second weathering factor is the rain falling over the site area, which starts generally in themonth of July, but the fall is on the average greatest in August. In November, there is no rain but up
to December the fall may generally be observed twice. As a result of the heavy lashings of rain, water
begins to flow very rapidly downstream, sliding over the slopes of the mounds to find its natural way.
The rapidly descending rainwater from the slopes causes a lot of destruction to the prehistoric mound.
The rainwater erodes the slopes, making fissures, gaps, and gullies, taking away with it the unearthedmoveable antiques and leaving behind the existing naked structures to face the hazards at the handsof weather and other agents responsible for the destruction of the site. The rainwater, after descending198

from the mounds, collects at various points and starts flowing very rapidly towards the low-lying
adjacent areas around the mounds, causing the cutting and erosion of those areas under its rapid flow.
The natural solution to this problem is to plant sufficient vegetation all over the historicalmounds to cut down the speed of the descending flow of water and minimize the erosion at the site
during the hours of heavy rains.
The second possible man-made solution to this problem is giving safe passage to the rainwater
to minimize the erosion process during the hours of rain. For this purpose measures can be takensuch as refilling the fissures, gaps, and gullies with mud and compacting fill, and moreover, dressing
the surface in a way to give a wider and safe passage to the rain water instead of a narrow one whichcauses rapid erosion.
Many other reversible practical measures can also be adopted for minimizing the erosion of thesite. Among them one is to lay a thick layer of mud mortar mixed with bhusa (wheat straw) over thetreated area mentioned above, and then laying a jute mat or polythene sheet, or simply putting a layerof loose dry straw over the mud, and then applying another mud mortar layer over it to provide a safe
and wider passage for the rain water, to check erosion. This measure can be repeated when previously
laid layers are eroded due to rain water.
Another reversible measure which may also be adopted at the site is the rough dressing of thedescending passages of rain water and provision of a layer of mud mortar mixed with bhusa (wheat
straws), and then laying simply a dry layer of sun-dried bricks stood on edge with a thin bond of
masonry. The top of the sun-dried bricks may be kept free of a layer of mud mortar or it can beprovided with such a layer, keeping in view the position of the site. This measure will also provide
a safe passage for the descending flow of water without affecting the site. This very simple process
may be repeated if the sun-dried bricks in the path of the water are washed away due to erosion.

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PalauARTS&

B U REAU

LTURE
CU

OF

Calvin Taurengel EMESIOCHEL
Historic Preservation Specialist

PA

Bureau of Arts and Culture

1978

L AU

HP

O

Ministry of Community and Cultural Affairs

Country Report of the Republic of Palau: Bureau of Arts and Culture
INTRODUCTION
The Republic of Palau is one of the smallest nations in the world, located in the westernmost islandgroup in Micronesia, approximately 7 degrees north of the equator. It is about 700 kilometers eastof the Philippines and about the same distance north of Papua New Guinea. Palau is an archipelagoof approximately 500 high and low islands. The main archipelago consists of a chain of islands thatcovers an area 160 kilometers long in a northwest to southeast direction, and 25 kilometers at its
widest width. Palau is divided into sixteen states that govern by their state constitutions in line with
the national constitution. The inhabited islands of Palau include from north to south: Kayangel,
Babeldaob, Koror, Peleliu, Angaur, and the Southwest Islands group. Most of the islands areencompassed by a barrier reef that stretches for approximately 105 kilometers, except for the Kayangelatoll to the north and Angaur and the Southwest Islands to the south.
Palau has a population of nearly twenty thousand who are Palauan, and approximately seven thousand
foreigners. The foreigners are mostly from the Philippines, plus smaller groups of people from
Bangladesh, India, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Korea, Fiji, and a few from Japan, Europe, and the U. S.
as well as other people from Micronesia. We have our own language called Palauan, but English is
widely spoken.
COLONIZATION
Based on scientific studies, Palau was first colonized around four thousand years ago by people
who came from Southeast Asia. People started to manipulate the environment by clearing land,
perhaps for slash-and-burn agriculture. This is shown in the increase of sediment and charcoal in theenvironmental core studies for the Compact Road. Around 400 BC-800 AD people were creatingsmall terraces. Toward the end of this era, terraces became more complex in design and much larger
in scale. Around 1200 AD some of the people began to inhabit the rock islands. This movement isdue to an increase in population and warfare. This is shown by several sites on the rock islands thathave stone walls behind beaches that served as fortresses, where people have to go through narrow
openings in order to reach the settlement areas on top of the ridge. Between 1200 and 1400 AD
people began to construct their villages with stones, such as stone platforms and stone paths. During200

this time, around 1300 AD, taro patches were utilized. After 1400 AD, rock island settlements wereabandoned and people just lived on high islands and Kayangel Island, which is the only atoll in Palau.
HISTORIC PERIOD
The first comprehensive documentation of Palau was during the era of stonework villages or what
is also referred to as traditional villages. This was first recorded in the account of Palau by CaptainWilson, an Englishman on his way back to England from China, who was blown off-course andwrecked his ship at Ulong rock island of Koror in 1783.
At this period of contact, Palau had a well developed political and social structure. There were many
villages independent from each other with their own hamlets. The villages had their own chiefs,
warriors, and clubs who formed alliances with other villages while fighting still other villages formoney, lands, and other valuables. The account by Captain Wilson in Palau was published exposing
Palau to the western world, opening the door to many traders and entrepreneurs who came to Palau
searching for wealth and fame, and to save the souls of indigenous people. The foreign people camefrom several countries, including Britain, America, Germany, and Spain.
In 1885, Palau and the rest of the Micronesia came under Spanish administration. The Spanish did not
do very much in term of economic development. Their presence was felt mostly in the eradication of
traditional rituals and warfare, and the introduction of Christianity. Other countries were given free
reign to trade. Then in 1899, Palau along with the rest of Micronesia was purchased from Spain byGermany. Germany began to exploit Palau’s natural resources such as phosphate mined on Angaur,
and promoted the planting of coconuts around Palau for copra production. Many local people,
including people from other islands of Micronesia as well as foreigners, came to Angaur where they
lived and worked. As a result of WWI, Japan gained control of Palau from 1914. Japan expanded theeconomic development of the islands, including the continuation of phosphate mining on Angaur,pineapple plantations and canning, fisheries and bauxite mining in Ngardmau. Koror became a centerof Japanese administration in Micronesia where administration buildings, shrines and other facilities
were built. During WWII, in 1944, Palau hosted one of the bloodiest battles in the Pacific, where
there were many wounded and dead on both the Japanese and American sides. After the war, Palau
was administered by the American military from 1945 until 1951, followed by Trust Territory status.
In 1979 Palau ratified its Constitution, and two years later the first Constitutional Government wasestablished in 1981. It was not until 1994 that Palau became recognized as a fully independent nation
by signing the Compact of Free Association with the United States.
BUREAU OF ARTS AND CULTURE
The Bureau of Arts and Culture (BAC), also known as the Historic Preservation Office (HPO), is a
Palau government office that was first established in 1978 as the Division of Cultural Affairs (DCA)201

with the passage of the Palau Historic Preservation Act. The Division continued its operations under
the auspices of the Bureau of Arts and Culture in the Ministry of Community and Cultural Affairs
until November 28, 2001, when President Tommy E. Remengesau Jr. signed Executive Order No. 203
to reorganize the Executive Branch of the Palau National Government. Through this Executive Order,
the Division of Cultural Affairs became one of the Bureaus within the Ministry of Community andCultural Affairs.
The mandate of the Palau Bureau of Arts and Culture arises out of the Historical and Cultural
Preservation Act of the Republic of Palau, Title 19, Chapter 1, of the Palau National Code. Thisact provides a regulatory framework in an attempt to insure that archaeological sites and cultural
resources are adequately protected. The mandate comprises the following goals.
1. To preserve and foster historic properties for the benefit of all Palauan people.
2. To preserve, and educate about, Palauan traditions that are threatened with extinction.
3. To protect historic properties from destruction.
4. To preserve cultures and traditions in the face of inevitable increasing foreign contact andinteraction.
MissionBased on the Title 19, Chapter 1, the Bureau of Arts and Culture’s overarching mission is to protect
and preserve the historical and cultural resources of the Republic of Palau for present and future
generations. This involves conducting archaeological surveys and inventories, promoting theregistration, restoration, and interpretation of sites, and documenting oral history and collecting
ethnographic materials to ensure that opportunities for education and enjoyment of Palau’s cultural
heritage are available for everyone.
The Bureau is divided into five sections: Administration; Survey and Inventory, and Project Review
and Compliance (Archaeology); Oral History and Ethnography; Public Education; and the Palau
National Register of Historic Places and Research Library (Registrar).
The Bureau of Arts and Culture receives funds from the local government of Palau, and HistoricPreservation Fund Grants from the U.S. National Park Service. The Bureau has been operatingwith the support of twelve staff members, including six full-time staff who are funded by HistoricPreservation Fund Grant and six full-time staff who are funded by Palau’s National Government.
The Bureau is advised by the sixteen members of Palau Historical and Cultural Advisory Board, who
represent each of the sixteen states of Palau and are appointed by the president of the Republic of
Palau. The members of the Board include governors, educators, traditional chiefs, clergy and other202

community leaders. The Board reviews and approves site registration nominations, guidelines andregulations, and research activities. The Board members also serve as liaisons between the BAC
and the people of the states that they represent. They assist the BAC by explaining its activities andwinning grassroots cooperation.
The Bureau also works closely with sixteen members of the Society of Historians, a group of
knowledgeable elders from each of the sixteen states in Palau. They meet three times a year with the
BAC staff to produce publications on Palau culture. They also meet with community members andresearchers to consult on cultural matters. The members of the Society of Historians assist the BAC
with community outreach and research projects. This may involve meeting with high school students
to discuss traditional values or helping to assess a historical site that is slated for development.
Objectives
Specific objectives of the Bureau may be listed as follows.
1. Identify, evaluate, and nominate archaeological and historical sites in Palau for the Palau
National Register of Historic Places.
2. Restore and develop important historical and cultural sites.
3. Survey all lands and waters under the jurisdiction of the Republic of Palau for archaeologicaland historical sites that have not yet been surveyed, in conjunction with a survey of relatedoral histories.
4. Record and document Palauan oral histories and traditional culture while knowledgeable
informants are still available, in both Palauan and English languages, for publication anddistribution to a wide audience.
5. Upgrade the levels of formal education and professional training of the staff.
6. Continually seek ways to ensure that funding is maintained and increased for operations.
7. Increase cooperation with all the states, and various agencies and organizations, in order toachieve Bureau objectives.
8. Undertake public education programs and projects designed to promote awareness of historic
resources and Palauan culture.
9. Develop relationships with universities or other institutions for educational opportunities, andto enhance the effectiveness of the historic preservation program.
10. Promote international relations regarding the protection and preservation of cultural
resources.
Activities
The Bureau of Arts and Culture’s activities involve a number of areas. These include public education
to raise awareness about the importance of preserving historic sites through different media such

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as newspapers, radio, and television. It also conducts school and public presentations as well as
distributing brochures, calendars, and leaflets. Also, it conducts a cultural symposium once a year incollaboration with other agencies to ensure that mutual understanding and working relationships areadequate for the preservation and protection of our heritage.
The Registrar solicits nominations for sites to be registered in the Palau National Register of Historic
Places. As of today, there are 166 sites listed in the Palau Register of Historic Places.
It also organizes activities for the restoration of one registered site once a year. It also supervises the
BAC Research Library and makes sure that all information about our heritage has copies in the library
for researchers, educators, and the general public.
Research is conducted by both the Survey and Inventory section (Archaeology) and the Oral History/
Ethnography section. The most prominent research project is the comprehensive state-by-state
inventory of all archaeological sites in Palau. The survey team will survey the cultural resources on
the ground, and provide opportunity for the ethnographers to collect oral histories.
The Survey and Inventory/Archaeology section, in which I work, is responsible for conducting astate-by-state survey and inventory of the historical and cultural sites throughout Palau. This is being
done in three phases. First is to conduct background research of previous archaeological records.
The second is to do an actual field investigation with detailed mapping and documenting, as well
as photographing all of the archaeological properties found in each state. Finally, the informationcollected from the field will then be input into the Bureau’s database, and hard copy produced to be
used by researchers, educators, as well as the general public.
Based on the state-by-state inventory of cultural resources, we have identified more than 800
archaeological sites through out Palau. These sites includes traditional villages, terraces, taro patches,monoliths, stone faces, megaliths, caves, underwater sites, burials, landmarks, historic remains, aswell as WWII remains.
We also perform a project review of every proposed project in the Republic, to ensure that any
historic property inside the project area is protected or mitigated. This consideration is extended topark proposals, disposition of human remains, development agendas, and enforcement measures, inconjunction with other agencies. We assist the public education section in disseminating informationand educating the public through presentations and site visits, in order to foster awareness andimportance of protecting, preserving, and conserving our cultural heritage that is our national identity
for our future generations.
Even though it seems that the Bureau of Arts and Culture is well structured and does its best to

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provide all necessary means to protect and preserve the Palauan cultural resources, in reality ourcultural resources continue to diminish somewhat in face of rapid development.
Problems and Challenges
The very root of the challenge we are facing is the strong force of world economic trends. As a young
and developing nation, Palau is striving to catch up with the rest of the world. This force is affecting
the spirit of the Palauan people, and so we are trying our best to ensure that our heritage is secured.
Another major challenge is the lack of sufficient funding. This has contributed to the following factors
affecting the performance of the BAC.
1. Not enough personnel to carry out essential measures.
2. Limited training to elevate the skills and abilities of personnel.
3. Limited equipment and tools.
4. Lack of adequate office space for storage, labs, etc.
All in all, these challenges and problems exhibit the weaknesses of our laws and policy. We haveproposed new changes to our lawmakers to revise our existing law to improve the protection andpreservation of our culture.
Because of these challenges, the Bureau of Arts and Culture is only able to protect and preserve thecultural resources from human destruction to a certain extent, with our limited staff and resources,
and insufficient ability to restore and/or prevent those resources from natural deterioration such as
corrosion, and the erosion of metal, concrete, and stone features.
Therefore, it was my great honor to be selected to attend this Training Course on Cultural Heritage
Protection in the Asia/Pacific Region, which I believe will expand my knowledge and ability to makethe right decisions based on proper investigation and analysis, in the preservation and development ofhistorical and cultural sites. It is hoped that the training and information I get from this program willallow me to share valuable information with my colleagues at the office, and to assist states and otheragencies with whom our office is working, to promote protection, preservation, and awareness of ourcultural and historical heritage. Furthermore, it is hoped that this training will provide me enoughexperience and knowledge to allow me to assist my office in elevating and improving the capabilitiesof the Bureau of Arts and Culture, to reach its goal based on its mission statement, to preserve andprotect our precious heritage which is our true identity for everlasting generations.
THANK YOU

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Philippines
Edwin Winston Agito VALIENTES
Instructor
Department of Anthropology
University of the Philippines

The Batanes Archaeological Landscape: Issues and Concerns
The Philippines, like every other country in the Asia/Pacific region, is rich in archaeological resources
which are greatly in need of further research and conservation intervention. While the Philippine
government is seriously taking steps in protecting archaeological sites all over the country, wanton
destruction either due to natural forces or human activities, such as massive land-use conversion
for development and industrial projects, and looting of the sites, is still prevalent. This situation iscompounded by the still insufficient number of archaeologists working in the country to conduct
rescue excavations whenever reports of chance discoveries, or notices of large-scale earth-moving
activities that can potentially affect known archaeological sites, are brought to government authorities.
The National Museum of the Philippines, the only government institution mandated by law tooversee research and management of the country’s archaeological heritage, is understaffed and poorly
funded. Therefore, most of the large-scale archaeological excavations conducted in the country havebeen made by foreign researchers. While I see no wrong in this situation in terms of the potential tobroaden our understanding of Philippine prehistory, it does little for the professional growth of local
archaeologists who often do not have much control over the direction of such research. In addition,legal measures such as the law concerning the ban on ‘treasure hunting’ and the possession of artifacts
deemed of national importance are yet to be fully implemented. In its twenty or so years of existence,
there has not been a single person apprehended by authorities or convicted in court for breaking
the law, despite numerous reports of rampant and organized looting in many parts of the country.
Heritage conservation, if you may call it that, is still largely an ‘elite’ pastime confined to collecting
old religious statues and Chinese ceramics, and organizing fund-raising activities to repair roofs of old
Spanish churches and ancestral houses. Archaeology is very low on the agenda.
That is the large picture – the national situation.
But in this particular paper, I would like to focus my discussion on the Philippines by sharing certain
issues and concerns which confront cultural heritage conservation in the area where I am currently
working, both as a ‘native’ researcher and a heritage conservation advocate. I will draw mainly
from my observations and experiences in Batanes, the smallest and northernmost province of thePhilippine archipelago, and also one of the richest and most interesting places in the country in terms

207

of archaeology. Batanes consists of eleven small islands located within the vast and dangerous sea
channel separating Taiwan and Luzon. I was born and lived in one of these islands – the Batan island– until I went to college and, eventually, work in Manila. I started to be actively involved in heritage
conservation in Batanes when I went home after my graduation from college and had an opportunity
to join an archaeological excavation conducted there by the National Museum, together with somearchaeologists from the Australian National University. I worked as a provincial heritage assistant at
an opportune time, when Batanes was preparing its bid for the UNESCO World Heritage List. There,
I got the chance to meet and interact with several local cultural heritage advocates and people fromacademia who acted as consultants in the preparation of the nomination dossier. All of us were hopingthat in a year or so, Batanes would be inscribed on the World Heritage List, which unfortunately did
not happen.
That short stint as a local government employee turned out to be the beginning of my exposure to
heritage work and, fortunately or unfortunately, the politics of it all. While I did not have any direct
participation in the making of the final version of the nomination dossier and the heritage management
plan, as the drafting relied solely upon consultants, I did try my best to get a grip on what was saidin the documents, and what policies and conservation measures were prescribed in the plan, if ever
it would be implemented. Maybe it was the anthropologist in me which brought me to express someunfavorable reaction to the final form of the nomination dossier, taking issue with ‘misrepresentation’and ‘misinterpretation’ of the archaeological data at hand, and asking if the local people were everconsulted in the preparation of the management plan. While I was assured that they indeed consulted
the people, it was also at this time that I started to explore work at the grassroots level, not so muchto confirm if the local communities were consulted or aware of their responsibility, should theprovince be inscribed on the World Heritage List, but more so to try to get their view about what
cultural heritage was to them in the first place, what kind of heritage they deemed important, andwhat they thought they could do to protect such heritage. I was actually aiming at eliciting local views
about heritage and heritage work, and to explore the possibility of creating a locally-based heritage
conservation program – one within the means and capacity of small communities like Batanes.
This of course is not to say that the heritage management plan the government prepared for the World
Heritage nomination of Batanes is ineffective or superfluous. Actually, I found it to be very ideal(straight from the book, so to speak), and that if implemented properly would be an excellent modelfor other countries. The problem, however, lies in its implementation and whether the provincial
government would be able to enforce such rigid conservation measures and regulations without
running the risk of breaching the rights of any person to decide what he wants to do with his property.
Heritage conservation requires a strong political will on the side of local leaders, but this should also
go hand-in-hand with proper consultation or dialogue with the people, particularly those who will bedirectly affected by such regulations and policies. To risk sounding too idealistic or perhaps irrelevant,208

heritage management for me is something that should not be imposed, whether by the state or bycertain interest groups; it must come from the stakeholders themselves (in close collaboration with‘specialists’, e.g. archaeologists, architects, cultural workers etc. in the field of conservation), out ofself-realization of the value of their cultural heritage in their lives. And this is where the importance of
public awareness comes in. It should be the responsibility of all researchers to bring back the results of
their research to the stakeholders for their information and evaluation.
The Batanes archaeological landscapeBatanes has been the subject of several archaeological research projects conducted in the country
over the past two decades. In fact, one can safely assume that Batanes is one of the few areas in thePhilippines which now has an archaeological record extensive enough to reconstruct its own cultural
history. From the numerous C14 dates taken from various excavations conducted at different sites, we
now have a good sense of the chronological sequence of material culture in Batanes. The earliest majorarchaeological survey and excavation conducted in the province was done by Japanese anthropologists
in the 1980s. Their work was focused in Batan island, the main island of Batanes where the capital
town of Basco is located. This was followed by the National Museum of the Philippines from 1994
to 1997 with a series of surveys and excavations that covered three of the four largest islands in
Batanes, namely: Batan, Sabtang, and Vuhus. More recently, from 2002 to 2007, Peter Bellwood of
the Australian National University, in collaboration with the National Museum and the ArchaeologicalStudies Program of the University of the Philippines, conducted extensive surveys and excavations
in almost all the islands of Batanes in hope of finding early cultural deposits. The Batanes islands,
because of their geographical location, are seen as crucial witnesses to early movements of people into
Southeast Asia and the Pacific during the Neolithic period. This year, an attempt to explore Spanish
colonial structures was initiated and a proposal for further research is currently in process. While far
from being exhaustive (as there is still so much to be discovered and learned), the research to date has
already given us a good glimpse of the potential of archaeology in Batanes to shed further information
on, and provide understanding of, the prehistory of not only the islands, but also of the Philippines asa whole, and the regions of Southeast Asia and the Pacific in general.
From what is known so far in the archaeology of Batanes, four types of sites have been identified
as significant and thus meriting further research exploration. These include settlement sites, hill
fortresses or what we refer to in Batanes as ijangs, burial grounds, and Spanish colonial structures.
Settlement sites include early habitation areas dated to the Neolithic period along with several
protohistoric settlement areas, all characterized by thick deposits of earthenware vessels, shell
middens, megalithic stone structures, and stone walls. The initial settlement of Batanes has been dated
to around 4000 BP. Following Peter Bellwood’s model, Batanes was populated by agricultural andAustronesian-speaking people, who moved out of Taiwan in the Neolithic period as they began to spreadout into island Southeast Asia and the Pacific region in search of new territories and food resources.

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This early population movement and interaction is recorded clearly by numerous materials such asstone adzes, slate points and knives, plus jade ornaments found in Batanes but whose source has been
traced to Taiwan. The strong similarities of forms and designs observed in pottey of the same age
found in the Batanes islands to that excavated in Taiwan further attest to the occurrence of extensive
interaction between the two in the past. Other artifacts associated with this time period include shellornaments, spindle whorls, stone bark cloth beaters, and stone net sinkers. In sites dated to much later
periods, particularly protohistoric settlement sites, stone house posts, domestic materials such as stone
grinders and pottery, pieces of Chinese ceramics, and foreign trade beads have been found abundantly.
Another archaeological feature that is worthy of attention is the ijang or the hill fortresses found in
the different islands of Batanes. These ijang are terraced habitation sites located at highly elevatedareas that were used as places of refuge by prehistoric people during times of inter-village hostility
or warfare. Stone walls and house posts in the form of columnar stones were found in some hill
fortresses surveyed by archaeologists. Earthenware sherds and stone implements were littered all overthe surface of the Savidug ijang, one of the largest and most prominent ijang in Batanes. According to
Dr. Eusebio Dizon of the National Museum who headed the initial archaeological survey in the site,
the Batanes ijang closely resemble the guzuku of Okinawa in Japan both in form and function. Nearthese hill fortresses are prehistoric burial grounds characterized by boat-shaped stone grave mounds
and jar burials. No similar burial mound has yet been found in other parts of the Philippines, but boat
symbolism associated with death ritual and practices, as expressed in these mounds, is shared all
throughout Southeast Asia. It is a common belief among Austronesian societies that the soul of thedead travels to the afterlife by boat.
Recent archaeological surveys in Batanes have added Spanish colonial structures to the islands’archaeological heritage. These include old and abandoned bridges, chapels, convents, schools, andleper houses made of stone and lime mortar. While these structures have been mentioned in early
Spanish accounts about Batanes, this written information is yet to be corroborated by material
evidence and actual structural surveys. Besides, given the colonial context within which many ofthese written accounts were made, archaeological research can potentially provide new information on
their construction, use, and abandonment. Spanish colonial structures in Batanes are classic examples
of a fusion of two cultures in terms of architectural designs, artisanship, and technology. Historicalarchaeology in the Philippines is relatively new, and this attempt to study colonial structures in
Batanes is a pioneering effort towards understanding the Spanish colonial legacy through archaeology.
Issues and concerns
Most of the archaeological sites so far studied in Batanes have been found intact and in good statesof preservation. While signs of damage and disturbance have been observed in some sites, they areminimal and do not affect their overall integrity. This good preservation may be attributed to their210

relative isolation and difficulty of access over a long period of time. The local belief that ancient
settlements and burial grounds are enchanted and the abode of malevolent spirits has also contributed
in restricting people’s activities at these sites. However, this does not mean that other threats are notpresent. In fact, natural forces such as heavy rain, earthquakes, and soil erosion continue to be themajor causes of destruction at some sites. Thick vegetation is also posing a serious threat to fragile
parts of certain archaeological features and the fabric of historical structures. In addition, if part ofconserving heritage sites is to heighten the public’s appreciation of their value through appropriate
interpretative and enhancement procedures, most archaeological sites in Batanes are indeed in needof management. The following are some issues and concerns that currently affect the preservation andconservation of archaeological resources in Batanes.
Development pressures
Like many other places in the Philippines, Batanes is undergoing a process of rapid modernization
due in part to a sudden increase in contact with major urban centers of Luzon in the recent years.
Communication and transportation have greatly improved and boats bringing products from key
commercial centers such as Manila are frequent and almost regular nowadays. While this development
brings a lot of technological convenience to many people in Batanes, this process is also bringing
unavoidable and irreversible changes to their social and natural environment, including the destructionof archaeological sites. Development projects conducted by the provincial government such as road
construction, the construction of government facilities, and other pieces of public infrastructure havebrought serious damage to several archaeological sites, particularly those located within or near town
centers. This destruction might have been mitigated if the government cared to contract archaeologists
to survey these areas first and conduct rescue excavation if needed before construction started.
Road widening along coastal areas, where ancient burial grounds are mostly located, has destroyed
numerous burial mounds and burial jars. In another case, the stone walls of ancient houses in one
settlement site have been quarried to supply the growing demand for stone in various government
infrastructure projects. This situation is compounded by the still unregulated conversion anddevelopment of land by private individuals, who own parts of some important archaeological sites in
Batanes.
Environmental pressures
Batanes is located in a region where the occurrence of natural calamities such as typhoons,
earthquakes, and heavy rains is frequent. Yearly, an average of ten typhoons visit Batanes, bringing
flash floods and strong winds that cause the degradation of archaeological sites. Earthquakes are alsofrequent, and some have been strong enough to pose serious dangers to houses and Spanish colonial
structures. While there is no way to prevent such natural calamities from occurring, their potential
effect on the sites can be mitigated through proper conservation measures.

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Conflicting laws and policies
Several national laws and local regulations have been enacted for the protection and conservation of
the cultural heritage of Batanes. Presidential Decree 4846 or the National Integrated Protected Area
Systems Act (NIPAS) includes the province of Batanes in the top ten priority areas of government,
to receive support for the protection of its natural and cultural resources, including archaeologicalsites. The responsibility for its implementation is currently under the Department of Environment andNatural Resources (DENR). Another national law, the Indigenous People’s Rights Act (IPRA) includes,
rather surprisingly, the people of Batanes as one of the ‘cultural minorities’ in the Philippines whoshould be given legal rights, through the issuance of a Certificate of Ancestral Domain Title, to manage
their own resources without much state intervention, including the protection and conservation of
their own cultural heritage. Presidential Decree 374 or the Amendments to the Cultural Properties
Preservation and Conservation Act 4846, on the other hand, regulates the extraction and collection ofcultural properties all over the country. This law also gives the National Museum the sole authority toissue permits for conducting archaeological research in any part of the country, including Batanes.
While these laws can provide enough legal support to ensure the protection and conservation ofarchaeological sites in Batanes, the often conflicting policies provided and the differing prioritiesof their implementing agencies at the local level prove them totally ineffective in many aspects. For
instance, in the issuance of permits to carry out research, each implementing agency would have its
own regulation and requirements with which both local and foreign researchers need to comply. In
most cases, the requirements are impractical to achieve and the permit fees too large to be met forthe meager budgets that researchers usually get nowadays. Complicating further this process are theequally differing regulations set up by the different municipalities (towns) for researchers who wish to
conduct a study in their area. I think what is now happening is that these local regulations have been
put up not so much in view of protecting archaeological sites but more as a resource to gain additional
revenues for the implementing agencies.
Inadequate land use plans
Each municipality in Batanes has its own comprehensive land use plan for the management of land
resources located within its jurisdiction. These plans are revised every two years upon the approval of
the local councils to meet the changing demands of land utilization in their respective municipalities.
The plans designate areas for agricultural use, government infrastructure use, zones for economic
activities, quarry zones for stones, sand, and gravels, and forest reserve zones. Unfortunately, inall the existing land use plans for various municipalities, archaeological areas are not recognized
and specifically delineated for protection and conservation. Some sites are in areas classified for
agricultural cultivation and for the extraction of quarry materials. In one municipality, a hugeprehistoric settlement site is currently in an area designated for livestock grazing. This neglect might
be due either to local planners’ lack of consideration for cultural heritage places such as archaeological212

sites, or they simply do not know that such sites exist in the area. There is a need to consider
archaeological sites in all local planning by recognizing and providing zones for archaeologicalresearch and conservation.
Lack of resident archaeologists to oversee the management of sites
As mentioned earlier in this paper, there are very few archaeologists working in the Philippines
on a full-time basis. Most of the archaeologists who conducted research in Batanes are working inuniversities and museums in Manila and abroad. They only come to Batanes to conduct excavations
and collect data for their research. While this situation is understandable, it would be, for me, muchbetter if there were one resident archaeologist to work full-time in the conduct of research andmanagement of archaeological sites in Batanes. Monitoring the sites on a regular basis by someone
who is knowledgeable in archaeology and heritage management would be helpful to ensure their goodpreservation on a long-term basis.
Lack of archaeological facilities
There is also a need for facilities to store properly all the archaeological materials excavated in
Batanes. While some artifacts, particularly those that need further analysis, have been taken to the
National Museum, most of the materials excavated over the past several years are now temporarily
stored in private houses or government buildings near the excavation areas, without any assurance
that these materials are well taken care of. What is needed is a large storage facility to house all thesearchaeological materials in one place, with proper recording and storing procedures. This would
allow the viewing of these materials (Batanes has no museum yet) by the local people, and also otherresearchers who want to examine the collection, without difficulty.
Tourism
The tourism industry is now growing as one of the major sources of income in Batanes. Every year,
there is an increasing number of visitors coming just to see some of the well publicized scenic spots
in Batanes, some of which are archaeological sites. While this may be a welcome development forthe province, there is no mechanism yet to manage the potential negative impact of tourism on the
different communities, the natural environment, and heritage places. Measures to assist and monitor
the activities of tourists visiting archaeological sites are absent. There are no interpretative facilities
yet in most of the sites frequented by visitors. Some locals who act as guides are not even aware of thesignificance of the sites, so visitors do not gain an appreciation of the place.
Survey and recording of archaeological sites
There is also a need to conduct more survey and recording of the sites to facilitate better planning andmonitoring. Site mapping through Geographical Information System (GIS) would provide a better
understanding of the geographical distribution of the sites with high accuracy, their boundaries, and213

their levels of conservation needs.
Capacity-building for communities
Given the lack of resident archaeologist in Batanes, locals can be trained to manage the sites such as
the conduct of rescue excavation, monitoring, recording, and conservation. Seminars and workshops
can be a good way of training the locals, but if we could also begin to involve them in actual surveys
and excavation, we could help them better appreciate archaeological methods of research, recording,and conservation. The idea here is not so much to turn all the people into archaeologists (whichis quite impossible) as to familiarize them and increase their appreciation on the way professionalarchaeologists work in the field, and how ‘context’ is given a good deal of importance in understanding
materials in the archaeological record. This would also help dispel common notions about archaeology
as merely collecting antiques for museums.
Lack of institutional support from the local government
The protection and conservation of archaeological sites is still far from the priorities of the provincial
government. While the deluge of archaeological research conducted in Batanes in the recent times, andthe application of Batanes for the World Heritage List have somehow brought an increased awarenessof their value to the people, there is yet to be a serious program instituted by the government to
respond to their protection and conservation needs. In terms of funds allocation, there are none.
This maybe one reason why there is no local office yet established particularly to oversee these sites’
management.
Awareness
Ignorance is one of the major reasons why archaeological sites have been destroyed. It is also thereason why local government units fail to give them much attention. Their value as heritage and in
relation to cultural history are simply unknown. To put it bluntly, how can you manage something you
do not know? Or how can you manage something whose value you do not know?
These shortcomings might be blamed partly on archaeologists who have yet to provide the resultsof their research to the local people in a manner that they can easily understand. I might be the only
person in Batanes who has regular access to all the published archaeological research conducted there.
Although I conduct information dissemination campaign in schools whenever I have an opportunity,
during my short vacations and fieldwork sessions in Batanes, I hardly think it sufficient. There is aneed to develop more materials (films, leaflets, and books) to disseminate the results of these research
efforts to the wider public. It is also timely to start incorporating this new information in the current
educational curriculum. A properly informed public is the best strategy for conserving archaeologicalsites.

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Conclusion
What I have tried to do in this paper is outline some of the issues and concerns which I think need
to be considered in the management of archaeological sites in Batanes. It is not as exhaustive as
originally intended, and I am certain there is a lot more that can be added, but the above discussion
can provide a general picture of the conditions and problems that currently confront the conservationof archaeological sites in Batanes. Most of these issues are not unique in Batanes however. The sameproblems also beset other archaeological sites in the Philippines, some even more seriously than in
Batanes.
Be that as it may, I do not think this means the future of research and heritage conservation in thePhilippines is bleak. Academic institutions such as the University of the Philippines, where I am
currently teaching, are opening degree programs that aim to train more people in studying andmanaging our nation’s archaeological resources. Institutional linkages here and abroad are also
underway to strengthen the program. It is hoped that through these initiatives we can somehow
provide solutions to some of the problems that confront archaeological resource conservation in the
country, such as the lack of specialists in the fields of archaeology and heritage management.
Batanes is still working on its nomination for the UNESCO World Heritage List, after it was deferredin the last World Heritage Committee meeting in New Zealand. But with or without UNESCO’s
recognition, these archaeological sites are still worthy of utmost protection and conservation.

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Republic of Korea
HAN Min Su
Researcher
National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage

Status of Scientific Research and Conservation
for Korean Archeological Sites and Remains
I. Introduction
Historic sites in Korea are distributed through various time periods due to its extensive history of
5,000 years and these are continuously excavated today. From March 2007, 120 units were approvedby the Cultural Administration for excavation, spending 2,150 hundred million won to work on 1,300
separate excavations per year. However, for a large amount of excavation there is a lack of structured
conservation, and also serious questions have been raised regarding the conservation and restoration
methods for organic/inorganic archeological finds. Thus researchers in the National Research Instituteof Cultural Heritage are not only focusing on scientific and structural conservation at archeologicalexcavation sites, but also on developing effective and stable treatment methods for the archeologicalfinds; furthermore, diverse information gained from the various excavations is being thoroughly
studied, then simultaneously processed to find unique features of the origin of the Korean race, after
which we are will conserve important information of the ancient period through this process.

Fig. 1. O-Ryang Dong, Na-Joo earthenware site   Fig. 2. Condition of excavated earthenware

II. Scientific Research on Archaeological Sites
For scientific conservation and restoration of historical sites and artifacts, analysis with a firm base inscience must be carried out first.

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Research on archaeological sites includes mid- and long-term academic examinations, site
surveys of cultural relics, research on important cultural remains, and geophysical exploration.
At our institution, more scientific geophysical investigation is being conducted prior toconventional archeological excavation.
Ground-penetrating radar, electric resistivity and magnetic surveys, and aerial photography areused for geophysical investigations of archeological sites, and this process is represented in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3. Investigation procedures for archeological sites

In ground-penetrating radar (GPR), images can be displayed of ground and undergroundstructures from their diffraction of electromagnetic waves, which is caused by changes in the type ofthe medium. This survey is applied to understand the distribution of ancient burial grounds, kilns, andbuildings.
Resistivity can be used in almost all archaeological sites to measure the specific resistance bysending an electric current through the ground by using changed electric probes. This type of survey
is also applied to understand the distribution of ancient burial grounds, kilns, and buildings.
Magnetic surveys focus on the magnetic properties of iron, which generally makes up about
4~5% of the soil, a rate that may increase from human activities. Ashes contain magnetic substances,and these are accumulated in the soil to generate more magnetic field than uninhibited areas. So,
magnetic methods are applied to find magnetic anomalies by measuring the magnetic field createdby human inhabitants. In using magnetic methods at an archaeological site, the places that used to behouses, wells, and buildings have a monopole with both positive and negative electromagnetic fields.
nd more diverse and accurate methods must be applied. It is not an easy task to apply one
For aerial photography, an unmanned aircraft using engine power or the buoyancy of helium gas isremotely controlled from the ground, and it contains a video camera and other investigation devices totake photographs of an archeological site.
In conclusion, the benefits of geophysical investigation of archeological sites are as follows.

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A. Ensuring systematic excavation by measuring the area, conditions, and depth of thearchaeological site.
B. Reducing manpower and budget by minimizing the scale of excavation.
C. Minimizing the damage to historical artifacts through nondestructive testing.
D. Checking the ground stability of the historic site.
At present, however, not enough investigation is done before excavation in spite of the need, amethod to an entire site, due to different construction periods and conditions. This problem must be
solved with further research and study.
III. Conservation of archeological sites
1. The direction of excavation and conservation at archeological sites
The right to excavation for a historical site is granted (for study, for construction, or when artifacts
are unearthed during construction) through cultural administration by Presidential decree, with the
exception of tomb sites, shell mounds providing data on extinct organisms, and naturally occurring
caves that are known to contain artifacts, according to the artifact protection law.
A lot of data and artifacts can be obtained through excavation, and with this information the
direction of conservation is determined. For example, if a site is deemed to be historically significant
based on the excavated artifacts, it may be assigned the status of historically significant site, orits entire region named as a historical area and then protected accordingly. Sometimes, it can berecognized as a World Heritage Site (e.g., Gyeongju Historic Areas, B.C. 57 – A.D. 935, inscribed
October 2000), and continuous conservation efforts are carried out.
Sometimes restoration of excavated materials to their original form is carried out with theassignment of historical site status, or else a detailed report is made of the site’s condition andsignificant artifacts are stored under appropriate conditions. However, these procedures are not wellorganized; rather, the direction of conservation is determined through a number of legal considerations
that vary with the conditions and ages of sites. Also, any development within a 300-m area of a site is
restricted once it is determined as a historical site, and thus there are possible conflicts with the landowner and/or residents of the area.  
The biggest obstacle in protecting a historical site is finding a way for conservation anddevelopment to coexist.
2. Research for conservation of archeological sites
For systemic and organized conservation efforts, a variety of materials and methods are being studied
not only theoretically but also for practical application. In particular, scientific research and design at
the National Research Institution of Cultural Heritage aims to develop scientific methods for effective
site transfer for historical sites, as will be presented here.

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Fig. 4. Pit tomb as excavated at a historic site

Fig. 5. RelocatedFig. 6. Excavated kiln site of white porcelain

Fig. 7. RelocatedRelocating excavated historic sites leads to loss of their original forms due to repeatedalterations of dry and wet conditions, and outflows and inflows of soil, by natural phenomena suchas rain and wind. Thus pre-conservation treatment is necessary for important historic sites thatare excavated, and at present there is active research on conservation and restoration treatment forhistorical sites using synthetic resin. The issues that must be resolved for the conservation of excavatedhistoric sites are the use of reinforcing agents that do not impair original forms, and selection of theappropriate agent according to the historic site’s soil condition (for example, mud, sedimentary layer,
or marsh). These agents should withstand the effects of outdoor environments like marshes, andwinter weather conditions or temperature fluctuations. In spite of an awareness of these problems,
there has been damage to excavated historic sites because of different standards or the reliance on
unquantifiable criteria for choosing reinforcing agents by different institutions.
We intend to develop Korea’s own reinforcing agents for excavated historic sites, which can be219

applied not only for indoor but also outdoor conservation, by gaining a thorough grip of the agents’specific characteristics, basing the reinforcing agents on historic sites’ soil conditions, investigating
methods which can deter soil degradation, as well as achieving quantification and standardization so
the agent could also be used internationally.
The purposes of the research are as follows:
A. Insuring stability of excavated historic sites by developing treatment technologies for thesites, as well as continually developing easier methods.
B. Developing standards for other studies aimed at the development of reinforcing agents,
through quantification and standardization of them based on specific and systematizedstudies.
C. Utilization of the developed reinforcing agents in place of imported reinforcing agents, andpromoting their export.
D. Establishing Korea’s own system for the conservation of historic sites.
One of the first issues in developing consolidants for relocating historic sites is the use of alcohol
based additives, which lower viscosity for easy application, but are also responsible for deformation,
surface problems, and cracks due to a decrease in structural strength. Also, urethane has similar
problems with permeability and structural strength, thus accurate techniques for compounding, andunderstanding and efficient control of the materials is needed.
To address these issues, physical chemical characteristics of conventionally used consolidants
were analyzed and improved to develop new epoxy or urethane materials. These new materials were
tested through site application to gain quantified data on their effectiveness.
This new material development was conducted simultaneously with the production ofa standard manual for using epoxy/urethane for more effective treatment. The manual contains
standardized detailed information on resin/hardener ratios, material amounts for different permeation
thicknesses and application methods.
We synthesized an epoxy resin and epoxy hardener, and a urethane resin for the restorationof historical sites. These products have very good tension strength, adhesion strength and various
physical properties that users want. Particularly, these products, in both the epoxy and urethane forms,
are characterized by good surface separation. Also, a standard treatment manual was developed fromthis research for effective treatment.

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Fig. 8. Research method and structure

Fig. 9. Bending resistance test for a conventional epoxy

Fig. 10. Newly developed epoxy

IV. Conservation of remains
1. The direction of collection and conservation of remains
Artifacts from an excavated site are vital evidence of the life style and conditions of a period longpast. Thus the excavation and transport of these artifacts are essential processes in transmitting thisinformation to the next generation.
Most excavated artifacts, with the few exceptions that have innate resistance to the environment,
suffer from serious rusting, or are caked with dirt or residue, or sometimes are structurally weakened
as to make excavation almost impossible. Also there could be extensive physical damage to theartifacts, and thus excavation must be done with extreme care, and many different methods andmaterials are employed.
Any excavated artifact may be reconstructed or conserved after legal considerations andsometimes virtually full restoration is done if needed. However, full restoration must be approached221with serious consideration to matters of ethics.
Another important aspect of conservation and restoration is the environment of conservation.
This essentially should provide for continuous preservation of a certain artifact by satisfying
requirements for conditions surrounding the artifact. It is considered very important since the effect is
continuous.
In conclusion, important issues in conservation are determining the extent of conservation andmaking improvements in methods.
2. Research on conservation of remains
For systemic and organized conservation of artifacts, a variety of materials and methods are being
studied not only theoretically but also for practical application. In particular, scientific research anddesign at the National Research Institution of Cultural Heritage aims to develop scientific methods for
effective conservation of artifacts, as will be presented here.
(1) Scientific conservation research for various materials. Scientific research for conservation ofdifferent materials was conducted in categories of metal and non-metal objects (gold, silver, bronze,
organic, etc.). The safety of conservation materials was determined and the data obtained used to find
new methods and materials for conservation.
Iron artifacts easily corrode and deteriorate due to various environmental causes. Accordingly, avariety of methods and techniques are applied for restoration techniques of these items. The purposesof the present study were to establish methods for estimation, and techniques and guidelines for the
restoration of iron relics scientifically.
This project was composed of the following three subjects, studied separately:
A. Developing criteria for the evaluation of stability of chemicals and techniques for removing
salts in iron artifacts.
B. Developing criteria for estimating the stability of surface consolidation materials andtechniques.
C. Developing criteria for estimating the stability of restoration materials and methods.

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Fig. 11. Brilliance of film coating: (a) Paraloid NAD-10 (b) Paraloid B72

Fig. 12. Photographs of adhesives and restoration materials.

Secondly, bronze, gold, silver and non-metal material treatment methods were studied, andthis study was approached in a different manner than for other metals due to the differences incharacteristics.
The focus of this study also divided into separate areas, as below:
A. Standardization of cleaning alien substances from the surface of non-ferrous artifacts.
B. Evaluation of the stability of techniques for desalination, and of rust-inhibitors for theconservation of bronze artifacts.
C. Evaluation of surface-reinforcing treatment agents for the conservation of bronze artifacts.
D. Evaluation of adhesives and restoration agents for the conservation of bronze artifacts.

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Fig. 13. Non-contact surface Illuminometer

Through these studies, the safety and effectiveness of materials for desalination, consolidation,
and adhesion of metal and non-metal artifacts were ranked. This will not only serve to check current
conservation materials and methods, but also help in developing new materials and methods.
(2) Scientific conservation environment for various materials. Various materials found at historicalsites are stored in different institutions, including museums, and will be damaged by temperature,humidity, light, air, microorganisms, etc. Accordingly, it is vital to find a way to prevent these kinds ofdamage, and study on conservation environments for the protection of movable cultural properties has
been conducted.
The objective of the study was to develop standardization in the environmental control systems
of preserving facilities, through the establishment and application of guidelines for the qualityof cultural heritage preservation, and the development of IPM (integrated pest management) forpreserving organic matter among movable cultural properties.
For this purpose we researched indoor air pollutants based on field surveys at preserving
facilities of movable cultural heritage, and collected many kinds of the fungi using adsorption tests forthe air, and filtering tests for the surfaces of ancient paper materials stored at these facilities.
We observed damage mechanisms of paper materials and textile remains, and selected index
pest species through the analysis and capture of pests in museums having paper materials and textile
remains.
We conducted similar research for metal remains.

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Fig. 14. Investigation of indoor and outdoor conservation environments for cultural heritage.

As a result of this research, we recommended a three-step environmental preservation guide
be given priority by management, to prevent damage of movable cultural properties and reduce
concentrations of pollutants. Also, we aimed for the efficiency of environmental preservation
management, making a control system to be accomplished through a three-step environmental
preservation guide.
In the long term, policy on maintaining the conservation environment should include
considerations of the causes of pollutants, the damage mechanisms between environmental factors andartifacts, evaluations of modern pollutant materials, and thus provide a basis for principles or a manual
for artifact conservation.  
V. Studies on scientific analysis of information for archaeological sites and remains
The last section of this paper will present a study on site and artifact data which may be neglected
when protection of sites and artifacts are considered first.
The study of data obtained from sites and artifacts is continuously conducted in scientificmanner, but it is not structured and there is need to organize it, thus the current study is being
conducted. This study is expected to provide important keys to the origin and originality of Korean
culture.
Research to identify scientifically the archaeological sites and remains of Korean culture iscurrently progressing under the title of “Studies on scientific analysis of ancient material remains andspecimens to obtain information on Korean culture.”
The current, and restricted, archaeological methods to recover, analyze, and interpret pastsocieties through their material remains and written records have given limited information. In
this study, therefore, we have been analyzing various scientific characteristics and manufacturing
parameters of ancient cultural objects and specimens, trying to understand ancient Korean culture, its
transfer, and cultural exchange. By interpreting these results with archaeologists and historians, thestudy aims to obtain an integrated understanding of Korean cultural heritage.
Understanding of the complete history of humankind from its material remains needs an225

extraordinarily broad resource of expertise. In particular, a variety of scientists specializing in
dating have played an important role in the field of archaeology. These related project teams havereconstructed Korean ancient culture by using different scientific technologies and ancient material
remains, to improve our theories and methodologies for studying ancient society.

Fig. 15. Environment research and sampling of soil and wood on archaeological sites

The research is split into three different sections for smooth and integrated research ofarcheological sites that contain various information and artifacts.
A. Re-interpretation of information of Korean chromatic culture through analysis of naturaldyes, based on organic dyes of ancient cloth excavated from archeological sites.
B. The development, adaptation, and exchange of ancient Korean culture has been investigatedby compositional and micro-structural studies of human remains such as metals, glasses,
ceramic wares, and wood products.
C. Investigations are being conducted through analyses of stable isotope composition of organic
specimens using Combustion Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry (C-IR-MS). Also, novel
methods of analyses for trace amounts of various mixtures of organic materials and elementsfrom remains, using Time-of-Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (ToF-SIMS), has beendeveloped.

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Fig. 16. Research method and structure

Since scientific studies of archaeology require diverse technologies to deal with delicatearchaeological samples, this project can result in improvement or development of important tools inarchaeology and related scientific research fields. Accurate interpretations of ancient evidence andknowledge from this project may also offer, with certainty, understandings of the origin and identityof Korean culture.
This will serve to close the gaps in understandings of unique cultures of different races, of
historical cultural exchange, of historical dispute, and can be utilized in passing down and developing
traditional culture. In addition, by cooperating and at times competing with the research institutes
worldwide, specialized and accomplished researchers are expected to be cultivated in the fields of thehumanities and in active scientific approaches to cultural heritage.
VI. Conclusion
These conclusions can be derived through scientific research on conserving and utilizing archeologicalsites.
First of all, better scientific investigation and interpretation methods for archeological sites canbe developed, and Korean archeological investigation methods can also be established.
Second, developing excavation site consolidation treatments, which have been neglected here
in comparison with other advanced countries, would serve as initial improvement for our somewhat
backward consolidation treatment discipline, and help secure fundamental technology for conservation
treatment, including the restoration of materials, in the future.
Third, studies of conservation materials and methods are expected to develop techniques forcontrolling and improving conservation environments that will have continual effects on artifacts.
Fourth, there are possibilities for processing new information and creating fundamental

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technology by going beyond simple analysis of artifacts and anthropological interpretations ofarcheological sites. Additionally, scientific studies utilizing the conservation of archeological sites andtheir data will have an important role in correcting views of our ancestors’ traditions, in passing themdown to future generations, in developing national identity and scientific understandings of cultural
exchange relations.
In conclusion, these studies for the protection of historical sites and artifacts will provide
important keys for safeguarding links between the past, present, and future.
References
1. National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage (2006), “Research and Development of Restoration
Material”
2. National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage (2006), “Studies on scientific analysis of ancientmaterial remains and specimens to obtain the informations of Korean culture”
3. National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage (2006), “Study on the stability estimation ofmaterials & techniques of restoration for iron objects”
4. National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage (2006), “Development of conservation system forprotection of movable cultural properties”
5. National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage (2007), “Studies on scientific analysis of ancientmaterial remains and specimens to obtain the informations of Korean culture”
6. National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage (2007), “Study on the stability estimation ofmaterials & techniques of restoration for iron objects”
7. National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage (2007), “Development of conservation system forprotection of movable cultural properties”
8. National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage (2008), http://www.nricp.go.kr/eng/

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SamoaTautala Silaulelei ASAUA
Lecturer
The National University of Samoa

A Brief Report on Achievements in Archaeological Heritage Conservationin Samoa

INTRODUCTION
Currently we have no solid policies or legislation recognized by the government protecting
archaeological sites in Samoa. As the only archaeologist in Samoa, there is significant fundamental
work which needs to be accomplished in order for Samoa to have effective legislation and policies
that are recognized and understood by all in the country, concerning the protection of archaeologicalsites. However, this requires much public education and consultation at the government level, thecommunity level, and the individual level. It also requires careful planning and consultation with
communities in order for policies concerning protection of archaeological and cultural heritage sites
to be widely accepted by the country. Furthermore, funding is a major issue which contributes to thelack of policies for truly protecting archaeological sites in Samoa. This will be discussed further in thefollowing brief report.
HISTORY OF ARCHAEOLOGY IN SAMOA: THE 1950S TO THE 1970S
Samoa comprises several islands now divided into independent Samoa (formerly known as Western
Samoa) and American Samoa. The latter group of islands, located to the east, became a US territory in1900 (Figure 1). Archaeological evidence shows that the first arrival of people into the Fiji, Tonga, andSamoa region dates back 3000 years ago (e.g. Burley and Clark 2006). The original settlers are known
as the Lapita people, who originated from the Bismarck Archipelago and expanded eastward throughthe Solomon chains, including Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Uvea, Futuna, Fiji, Tonga, and ending in
Samoa. Currently, there is only one Lapita site in Samoa, located at the Mulifanua Ferry Berth site
on Upolu island, making this the oldest archaeological site in Samoa (refer to Figure 1, Mulifanua is
indicated by the arrow).

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Figure 1: Map of Samoa (Islands include Savai’i, Manono, Apolima and Upolu) and American Samoa(Islands include Tutuila, Ofu, Olosega and Ta’u). Source: http://www.sitesatlas.com/Maps/
Maps/wsm-pol.gif
Archaeological investigations began in Samoa in the 1950s (Golson 1957), followed by larger projects
in the 1960s (Green and Davidson 1969, 1974) and 1970s (Jennings and Holmer 1976, 1982). Since thattime, little archaeology has been done in Samoa. Over thirty years have passed, and only recently has
there been a resurgence of archaeological research, but not on the same scale as these earlier projects(Martinsson-Wallin et al. 2003, 2006; Ishimura and Inoue 2006). This means that at least three
decades of unmonitored destruction of archaeological sites has occurred due to ongoing developmentin Samoa.
THE CURRENT SITUATION OF ARCHAEOLOGY IN SAMOA: THE NEW MILLENNIUM
Over the last seven years, archaeology in Samoa has mostly been in the form of archaeologicalresearch conducted by researchers from Sweden and Australia (Martinsson-Wallin et al. 2003; 2006)
and Japan (Ishimura and Inoue 2006). These have been studies focusing on specific areas of Samoan
prehistory. In 2006, Gotland University in Sweden formed an exchange programme with the National
University of Samoa (NUS) providing an opportunity for Samoan and Swedish students to experienceeach others’ cultures through the discipline of archaeology. Visiting archaeologists also come overfrom Sweden conducting projects with our University on the theme of Cultural heritage. These are
the same archaeologists who have revived research in Samoa from the year 2002 (Martinsson-Wallin
et al. 2003, 2006). An attempt was also made by Martinsson-Wallin to have the Pulemelei Moundin Savai’i nominated for World Heritage, but with no success. There is currently a legal battle over
the ownership of this mound between the village in which the mound is located, and the people who
legally purchased the land (Martinsson-Wallin 2006). This became an issue when archaeological230

research began on this mound, and is not the fault of the archaeologists, but related to customary andcultural beliefs about land ownership. Land is a very sensitive issue in Samoa, which is why carefulplanning must be undertaken for legislation and protection of archaeological sites in Samoa, incomplete consultation with communities.
The other attempt made for nominating archaeological and cultural heritage sites in Samoa has
been through the Heritage Committee under the Ministry of Education, Sports and Culture (MESC).
This tentative list is still in the process of being prepared and submitted for nomination.
Archaeology in the new millennium has been mostly research based on projects by outside
researchers, who are trying to help maintain the cultural heritage of archaeological sites throughour University. Also, attempts have been made by MESC in nominating sites in Samoa as World
Heritage. To this day, I firmly believe that before any nomination for World Heritage can take place,there is a lot of groundwork that needs to be done first. This groundwork is essential for ensuring thesustainability of any archaeological and cultural heritage programmes that may take place. This is in
specific reference to the need for having a national inventory of sites of archaeological and culturalvalue. Below is a brief summary of what I believe are the greatest needs for archaeology and cultural
heritage efforts to be successful in Samoa. It also includes the processes I am trying to achieve inorder to establish the foundation for the goal of preserving our cultural heritage. The following section
is included as a requirement for writing this report for this training.
THE NEEDS IN SAMOA CONCERNING THE PROTECTION OF ARCHAEOLOGICALAND CULTURAL HERITAGE SITESDEVELOPMENT OF THE ARCHAEOLOGY PROGRAMME AT THE NATIONAL UNIVERSITY
OF SAMOA THROUGH THE CENTRE FOR SAMOAN STUDIES
A new archaeology programme has been developed at the National University of Samoa. Part of myjob requirement was to develop the eight archaeology courses which are to be offered as a Major
under the Bachelor of Samoan Studies degree. This achievement is a step forward for Samoa because
the courses developed are centered on the theme of cultural heritage and the preservation of sites in
Samoa. This archaeology programme also fits in with the objectives of the Centre for Samoan Studies
which is responsible for the preservation and dissemination of information on all things relating toSamoan culture, language, and history.
I currently teach two introductory-level courses in archaeology and the courses are very new,but student interest is slowing growing. With this new development at the University, and as the only
archaeologist in Samoa, all matters relating to archaeological and cultural heritage will be led by theCentre for Samoan Studies. This will be done in collaboration with other relevant government agencies
such as the Planning and Urban and Management Agency (PUMA) and the Museum of Samoa. In
2007 I was also a co-editor of a special issue on archaeology in Samoa, which was published in the
Journal of Samoan Studies. It was an issue on recent archaeological research done in Independent and231

American Samoa, with researchers contributing from New Caledonia, Japan, Hawaii, Texas, France,
Sweden, Australia, and Samoa.
DEVELOPMENT OF POLICIES AND LEGISLATION SPECIFICALLY FOR THE PROTECTION
AND PRESERVATION OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL HERITAGE SITES IN
SAMOAThere are no policies or acts that specifically deal with the protection of archaeological sites in Samoa.
Where such provisions do exist in other acts (for example, the Planning and Urban Management
Act 2004), these provisions are not strong enough to enforce full protection of archaeological sites.
To provide an example, two known incidents (which happened before I was based in Samoa) haveoccurred in Samoa. One was the demolition of the Customs Building, a building which is one offour that the Government of Samoa had made a commitment to protecting, but resulted in being
demolished. The second example is the construction of a five-star resort in close proximity to theoldest archaeological site in Samoa. No monitoring took place during construction of this resort,
nor was there any clear code of practice. The provisions in the acts which are supposed to protect
cultural heritage sites were not fully enforced. This is a reflection of how easily such provisions canbe bypassed, which is why stronger policies which specifically deal with archaeological and cultural
heritage sites need to be developed. It also indicates the lack of awareness and understanding ofarchaeology and cultural heritage.
DEVELOPMENT OF A NATIONAL INVENTORY OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES IN SAMOA
There is no formal inventory of archaeological sites in Samoa. Funding is required to undertake andcomplete this task. Funding is always the biggest issue here in Samoa, which is why archaeology isnever considered a priority. This has been the main barrier that is always expressed when I meet withthe relevant government agencies. However, a basic database on known archaeological sites in Samoa
can be started, which I hope to have my students undertake as part of their course work. This needs tobe designed in a way that is relevant and meaningful to Samoa.
SUMMARY
The needs identified above are on both a national and a community level. In order for any future
programmes relating to archaeology to be successful in Samoa, public education and consultation with
communities is essential. The archaeology programme at the NUS is hoping to move toward resolving
some of these fundamental problems, which will lead to creating relevant policies and legislation
for the protection of sites of archaeological and cultural value. Due to difficulties in soliciting funds,
research-based activities with external institutions (from Sweden and New Zealand, for example) will
help resolve this issue for the meantime. The long-term vision is to ensure that all Samoans becomeaware of this discipline, gain an appreciation and understanding of their cultural heritage, and take232

ownership of it. Encouraging such changes in attitude will enable Samoans to take ownership of theirheritage and be equipped with the right knowledge of how to manage and maintain such sites, andpresent their heritage in a way that is meaningful to them from a Samoan perspective.
REFERENCES CITED
Burley, D. V. and J. T. Clark. 2003. The Archaeology of Fiji/Western Polynesia in the Post-Lapita
era. In Pacific Archaeology: Assessments and Prospects: Proceedings of the International
Conference for the 50th Anniversary of the First Lapita Excavation, Kone, Noumea 2002, edited
by C. Sand, pp. 235-254. Nouvelle-Caledonie.
Golson, J. 1957. Preliminary Research: Archaeology in Western Samoa, 1957. In Archaeology inWestern Samoa, edited by R. C. Green and J. M. Davidson, pp. 14-20. Auckland: Auckland
Institute and Museum,Green, R. C. and J. Davidson. 1969. Archaeology in Western Samoa, Volume 1. Auckland: Auckland
Institute and Museum.
Green, R. C. and J. Davidson. 1974. Archaeology in Western Samoa, Volume 2. Auckland: Auckland
Institute and Museum.
Ishimura, T. and T. Inoue. 2006. Archaeological Excavations at Si’utu Midden Site, Savai’i Island.
Journal of Samoan Studies 2:43-56.
Jennings, J. D. 1974. University of Utah Samoan Archeological Project [progress report]: Samoan
Prehistory. Dept. of Anthropology University of Utah.
Martinsson-Wallin, H., G. Clark and P. Wallin. 2003. Archaeological Investigations at the Pulemelei
Mound, Savai’i, Samoa. Rapa Nui Journal 17(2):81-84.
Martinsson-Wallin, H., G. Clark and P. Wallin. 2006. Monuments and people: A report of the state of
the Pulemelei Site, Savai’i, Samoa. Journal of Samoan Studies 2:57-64.
Planning and Urban Management Act, 2004, Samoa.
MAPS
Figure 1 Map: Source: http://www.sitesatlas.com/Maps/Maps/wsm-pol.gif

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APPENDIX
Photographs of archaeological and cultural heritage investigations conducted by the National
University of Samoa and Gotland University, Sweden (photographs courtesy of Assoc. Prof.
Helene Martinsson-Wallin).

Figure 2. Investigations of Pulemelei Mound, Palauli, Savai’i.

Figure 3. Pulemelei Mound, Palauli, Savai’i.

Figure 4. Malaefono Starmound at Saleimoa, Upolu. Students From Gotland
University, Sweden conducting Minor Field Studies as part of

Exchange programme with NUS

234

Figure 5. Excavation at Fale o le Fee site in Apia, Upolu. Students in thearchaeology programme at NUS learning excavation techniques (2007).

Figure 6. NUS archaeology student learning mapping techniques at Fale o le Fee
site, 2007.

Figure 7. Students from the 2008 archaeology programme at NUS learning how
to use a total station with GIS Specialist Gustaf Svedjemo from Gotland
University, Sweden as part of Linnaeus-Palme exchange.

235

Thailand
Sermsuk PRAKITTIPOOM
Archaeologist (Researcher)
The 3rd Regional Office of Fine Arts
Fine Arts Department, Ministry of Culture

Archaeological Studies in the Lower Chao Phraya Basin of Thailand
The lower Chao Phraya Basin in the central region of Thailand consists of five provinces located justnorth of the Bangkok area.
Problems and Needs for Cultural Heritage Protection and Restorationrd

The work of the 3 Regional Office of Fine Arts, Ayutthaya, concentrates on the archaeologicalmaterials of the region, which includes five provinces of the upper central part of Thailand having
a wide range of difference in geology, from flood plains suitable for rice growing to the limestone
mountain ranges on the margin of the Chao Phraya Basin, where important industrial operations suchas cement production are set.
This diverse landscape contains a multitude of archaeological and historical materials, including
the World Heritage Site of Ayutthaya. Archaeological work in the area will require archaeologists toemploy expertise from a range of disciplines in the arts and sciences.
For the purpose of supporting the preservation and development project of Ayutthaya Historical
City, there is urgent work to be done to rescue sites in the construction areas, as well as data collection
and taking advantage of the new town growth which is resulting from tourism.
The main procedure of the archaeological sector is making a complete circuit of thearchaeological study in the area, including surveying and excavation, report writing for
documentation, collecting archaeological data to study the monuments’ style for planning restoration
projects with proper techniques for their success.
rd

In the 2008 fiscal year, the 3 Regional Office of Fine Arts, Ayutthaya, received a budget for
execution of this work in three provinces: Ayutthaya, Nakhon Nayok, and Ang Thong. The work donein each province will be discussed in turn.
Ayutthaya Province: Wat Sam Vihara Excavation
In Ayutthaya, the archaeological plan for this year is an excavation project at Wat Sam Vihara, oneof the important monasteries in the northern part of the city outside the isle of Ayutthaya, which wasconstructed in early the Ayutthaya period.
This monastery is composed of a huge bell-shaped pagoda which reveals the architectural
style of early Ayutthaya period, and three buildings lined up in front of the main structure. There are236

currently two buildings whose nature is very clear, a Vihara with a reclining Buddha and an Ubosot(ordination hall). But the name “Sam Vihara” means three vihara, so it is necessary to investigate by
the archaeological process of excavation.
This excavation was to look for monuments which possibly still remain in the form offoundations lying underground, although the upper structures may have worn down a long time ago,or have been changed in form through renovations to some of the parts.
The conditions of these monuments are as follows.
1. The Ubosot (ordination hall) of the present day was built overlaying an older one, but theboundary markers of the temple are the original ones which were made of fine grey slate inhuge shapes. The decorative designs are only a convex spine carved vertically in the middle,
with a separate rhombic shaped design, which indicates they were built in the early Ayutthaya
period.
2. A Vihara (temple) is immediately north of the Ubosot. This open hall houses many large
Buddha images that might be ancient items which have been renovated and appear muchnewer. This Vihara was based upon the previous one that had become ruined, and it ispossible that they pulled down a former partition wall to create an open hall.
3. The Vihara with the reclining Buddha is immediately north of the open hall. The large
reclining Buddha inside this building, as well as the structure itself, have been renovated. The
renovation may have been done several times since the Ayutthaya period, so that there are noclues left to indicate the original age.
Many rectangular shaft holes were noticed in the pillars of the building, set at a levelas high as the platform of the reclining Buddha. Because of the regularity of floods in thisarea, the shaft holes were probably made for setting beams supporting a wooden floor, toescape the flood level.
THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATION PROCESS
A grid was established for the entire area, covering all structures: the main pagoda, the Viharaof the reclining Buddha, the open Vihara, the ordination hall (Ubosot), the decorated pagoda, etc. The
grid was comprised of 4 x 4 meter squares. Data from documentary research, on chronicles, ancient
records, and previous excavations, were taken into consideration for placement of the excavation pits.
After clearing up the area around the Vihara (the open hall), by moving the trees, ornamental
plants, and grass, test pits were set up at the corners of the building, first at the northwestern followedby the northeastern corner, then detailed profiles were taken of the excavated remains.
EXCAVATION RESULTS
The northern zone of the Vihara. In TP 1, the remains lay from west to east so the excavation was
extended to follow them. The buried structural remains were composed of a lotus-shaped pedestal237

23.3 m wide, and some sections had traces of stucco. Under the lotus-shaped pedestal, there is a brickfloor spread with stucco, but this disappeared at the western side. At the northeastern corner, there
were traces of a collapsed pillar with a dimension of about 52 cm.
In addition to the buried structural remains, there is a part of a brick construction rectangular inshape and about 1 x 2.3 m, which was placed 45 cm away from the building.
The eastern zone of the Vihara. There are some traces of the gallery. This side of the building is 13.6
m in length.
After finishing the excavation in both the northern and eastern areas, it was necessary to breakthe cement passage between the Vihara and Ubosot in the western zone to verify that the buried
structural remains still lie toward the ordination hall.
Artifacts from the excavation include: fragments of roofing tiles, potsherds (earthenware, stoneware,and porcelain), fragments of the buildings’ decorative stucco, animal bones, cowry shell, and metal
nails.
The results of this excavation will be used for interpreting the architectural structures inplanning the complete renovation project.
Nakhon Nayok Province: Dong La Khorn Excavation
Nakhon Nayok contains outstanding geographic contrasts such as mountains and plains, with thearea of the mountains taking up one of the three sections of the province. The mountain ranges in thenorthern area of this province lie mostly in Khao Yai National Park, with Khao Khiew as the highest
peak at 1,351 m. These mountain ranges are the watershed between Nakhon Nayok, Prachin Buri,
Nakhon Ratchasima, and Saraburi. There is a series of narrow valleys lying parallel to the mountain
ranges, which consist of water ways and cliffs.
Hill slopes form a small area in the northwestern to southeastern zones of the province, lying
in front of the mountain ranges; this area is about 5 – 10 degrees in slope. An important area of thisprovince is comprised of the plains that extend throughout the southern and western zones, which
form one part of the lower central plain known as the Chao Phraya basin.
The ancient site of Dong La Khorn is the most famous archaeological site in Nakhon Nayok andin this fiscal year the 3rd Regional office of Fine Arts, Ayutthaya, has conducted an excavation projectwith two pits located in the area outside the town wall, on private property.
A grid for the area was set up on a north to south axis, and the excavation pits were 2 x 2
meters in dimension. A datum point was set to the northeastern direction from the excavation, and theoperation proceeded by taking 10 cm levels.
The excavation pits were divided into four quadrants named by direction (NEQ, NWQ, SEQ
and SWQ) for recording finds until the excavation reached the sterile layer.
Ancient Dong La Khorn was near the sea coast of the late Pleistocene to early Holocene,
and was contemporary with other ancient towns in Bang Pakong Basin. According to some artifacts,
such beads from India, these ancient towns are presumed to have had sea connections with other238

communities. These connections had formed in the Dhavaravati period or much earlier.
Dong La Khorn at present has high potential as a community for conservation and fordevelopment as a site of historical and archaeological studies.
The finds from the excavation in layer II represent a deposit from various activities of ancient
settlements.
Ang Thong Province
Ang Thong is one of the central provinces of Thailand. The neighboring provinces are (clockwisefrom the north) Sing Buri, Lopburi, Ayutthaya, and Suphanburi.
The province has luxurious native handicrafts such as molded court dolls, firebrick, andwickerwork. In Ang Thong, there are more than 200 magnificent and interesting temples, appropriate
for the chronological study of Thai history.
Ang Thong is located 108 kilometers north of Bangkok. It occupies an area of 968 square
kilometers and is administratively divided into seven districts: Mueang Ang Thong, Chaiyo, Pa Mok,
Pho Thong, Sawaeng Ha, Wiset Chai Chan and Samko.
GEOGRAPHY
Ang Thong is a low alluvial plain, crossed by the Chao Phraya and the Noi Rivers. It has neither
mountains nor forests, but consists of mostly agricultural land. The two rivers together with many
canals provide enough water for rice farming.
HISTORY
Ang Thong was historically known as Wiset Chai Chan, located on the Noi River. It formed an
important border town of the Ayutthaya kingdom during the wars with Burma, as the Noi River
served as a natural obstacle for advancing troops.
During the reign of King Taksin the Great, after the fall of Ayutthaya the main city of theprovince was moved to the Chao Phraya River, and named Ang Thong, as the Noi River had become
too shallow for transportation.
The name Ang Thong means ‘gold basin’, presumed to come from the basin-like geography of
the area, and the golden color of the rice grown in the region.
CULTURAL HERITAGE
As a result of its good location, this area has a long history of over 1,000 years, as shown by ancientremains and artifacts which reveal the Dvaravati style.
Due to the greatness of the Ayutthaya kingdom, Wiset Chai Chan was advantaged as animportant inner frontier of the capital city; there are 386 ancient temples spread around Ang Thong
province, which relate to its special situation during the Ayutthaya period. Of this number, 180 temples
have been abandoned but the rest are still functioning as monasteries.

239

The outstanding ancient monuments in Ang Thong province include the following.
Wat Phinitthammasan. Main attractions are the old vihara constructed in the late Ayutthaya period
and the large seated Buddha image made of plaster in the posture of subduing Mara, with the lap
width of approximately 12 m, enshrined in the open.
Wat Ratchapaksi. This temple has a large reclining Buddha similar to the one enshrined in Wat Pa
Mok, but of a slightly smaller size. The image was assumed to have been constructed during the
Ayutthaya period.
Wat Mathurotsatiyaram. This temple was assumed to have been constructed in the late Ayutthaya
period. The only evidence that remains are a low wall surrounding the pagoda, Chedi (pagoda),
Ubosot (ordination hall) and vihara standing on the appropriate positions with magnificent figures.
Wat Tonson. This is an ancient temple housing Somdet Phra Si Mueangthong, a very beautiful seated
Buddha image in the posture of subduing Mara. This is regarded as one of the largest metal molded
Buddha images, with a beautiful posture.
Wat Tha Sutthawat. This ancient temple was constructed in the early Ayutthaya period. At present,
this temple is under the royal patronage of Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn. The temple compound isshaded with large trees exhibiting a magnificent scene over the bank of the Chao Phraya River.
Wat Pa Mok Worawihan. In the temple compound, there is a beautiful gilded reclining Buddha madeof brick and plaster. Besides the reclining Buddha, this temple is famous for vihara Khian, where thewall fronting onto the river has a tall stand formerly used by the King.
Wat Saket. This is an ancient temple built in the Ayutthaya period. In the Royal Chronicle, it ismentioned that in 1585 when Phrachao Chiangmai led his army to encamp at Ban Saket, King
Naresuan the Great and Somdet Phra Ekathotsarot attacked and finally defeated Phrachao Chiangmai’s army.
Wat Khun Inthapramun. This is an ancient temple constructed in the Sukhothai period. The largest
and longest reclining Buddha in Thailand, 50 m from the topknot to the feet, is enshrined here.
Moreover, within the Wat Khun Inthapramun compound, there are historical remains of a basement,
some parts of walls, and a Buddha image in the vihara.
Wat Pho Thong. In the Royal Chronicle, Wat Pho Thong was the place where Krommakhun
Phornphinit (Prince Uthumphorn or Khunluang Hawat) entered his monkhood. King Rama VI

240

spent his summer vacation in this temple during his boat trip visiting the Noi River and Yai River in
Krungkao precinct in 1916.
Phra Tamnak Khamyat. This 10 x 20 m royal residence, made of brick and plaster, stands eminently
in a paddy field. The artistic beauty still remains, as seen in motifs around the window, and the front
and back balconies were painted in red soil and covered with wooden floors.
Wat Yang. The historical remains to be found now are the Ubosot with an upwardly curved basesimilar to a junk, sandstone Buddha images, damaged stucco Buddha images and boundary stones.
Wat Khian. Inside the Ubosot are exquisite mural paintings featuring stories of ten former
incarnations of the Lord Buddha, which were presumably the workmanship of a painter’s school in
Mueang Wiset Chai Chan in the late Ayutthaya period.
EXCAVATION AT WAT KHOK LANGKA
Wat Khok Langka is one of the deserted monasteries in Ang Thong province which is located near
the Chao Phraya River in Ban Pho Tul, Tambon Jampa Loh, Muang Ang Thong district. There isno background record about this monument but some old local people tell a story of Buddha image
fragments and an ancient well which were found here.
rd

In this fiscal year, the 3 Regional Office of the Fine Arts Department has taken on the
project of excavating at this site. The project’s aims were to conduct an archaeological investigation tocompile data for interpreting the history of the communities lying between Ayutthaya and Ang Thong,and for the reconstruction plan of this ruined site.
This site is located about 1 km from the west bank of the Chao Phraya River, and 6 km distantfrom the town of Ang Thong. The site is approximately 4,500 square meters in area and has no ancientremains appearing on surface, excluding an old well. The western area next to the ancient well has
public structures, one joss-house and two small halls. Tree farming has disturbed the site.
Procedures. Surveying and planning were conducted to locate features of the environment and thegeneral conditions before excavation, collecting all data such as surface finds, measuring the levels,
taking photographs, etc.
The excavation process began by setting the guide line trenches throughout the area to obtainsome clues about the deposit layers. This was to be followed by data collecting and interpreting,surveying and planning after excavation, and publication of a primary report.
Obstacles. The work schedule was set in the rainy season, which caused some difficulties. Thicklayers of disturbed deposits were encountered, and due to the thin nature of the other strata, they
were badly damaged. Also, the excavation could not complete the entire plan because of the restricted241period and some troubles related to nearby private land.
The monument after excavation. After excavation there are many remains of architectural structures
spread all around the area, lying in a eastern to western direction. The remains consist only of thebases of monument structures such pagodas, some rectangular buildings assumed to be sermon andordination halls, and some parts of a low wall surrounding a temple.

242

Uzbekistan
Djangar ILYASOV
Senior Researcher
Fine Arts Scientific Research InstituteProtecting Archaeological Sites in Uzbekistan:
Problems and Perspectives
Uzbekistan is a country with a very ancient and rich cultural heritage. Scientific investigationsof archaeological sites began in the 19th

century, mostly by Russian scientists and amateurs.

Archaeological excavations on a large scale were carried out in the Soviet period, a time when most of
the territory of the country was investigated. It was an enormous task, which helped us to understandhow diverse Uzbekistan’s archaeological sites are. From Stone Age caves and Bronze Age settlements
to grandiose ancient cities and medieval commercial towns – all kinds of ancient remains can be foundhere. Excavations and investigations have shown that we have various artifacts made from metals,
clay, stones, bones, etc., and they range from simple working tools and weapons to real masterpieces
of ancient art: wall paintings, Buddhist sculpture, glazed pottery, etc.
During the phase of intensive excavation the most important trends for protecting heritage werethe conservation and restoration of artifacts. A number of more or less effective methods for suchprotection were developed. But almost nothing was done for the conservation and protection of thesites. Filling up excavation areas with soil after the archaeological season was the main way to protect
sites. But in most cases archaeological teams did not have additional money and time for such work.
As a result, after a few years the remains of ancient architecture were destroyed or damaged by rain,snow, and wind.
The Scientific Research Institute for Restoration Projects (UzNIPIR) was located in Tashkent.
There were some projects for the conservation and restoration of archeological sites drawn up (forinstance, for the Buddhist monastery Fayaztepa in Termez, for the early medieval castle Aktepa in
Tashkent, etc.), but these projects have never been realized in full. For example, in connection withththe 2000 anniversary of Tashkent – the capital city of Uzbekistan – an attempt at the conservationof Aktepa was begun at the beginning of the 1980s. The walls, which were made from beaten mud(so called pakhsa) and mud bricks, were covered with extra mud-straw plaster and a special chemicalcompound was poured on, and they should have been protected with a light roof. But this lastoperation was never done, and after a few years the architectural remains of Aktepa were damaged byrain and wind.
Generally speaking, during the Soviet time all activity on conservation and restoration wasconcentrated on the well-known medieval architectural monuments of Samarqand, Bukhara, Khiva,
and Tashkent.

243

Another big problem during the Soviet time was the intensive development of new fields forcotton cultivation. In the course of this activity hundreds of large and small archaeological sites weredestroyed or damaged. Today we still have the problem of destruction, and the further weakening ofstate control is one of the reasons for this very bad situation.
On the other hand, after the independence of Uzbekistan (1991) some activity in conservation
and reconstruction has begun. For instance, in connection with the celebration of the famous Islamicscientist Ahmad al-Farghoni, who was born in the medieval town of Kubo (modern Quva in theFarghona province), excavations at this site were organized in 1998. After excavating part of the site,
this area was covered with a roof. In this manner the first attempts at the protection of archaeologicalsites in independent Uzbekistan began.
Another project, and perhaps the most famous and most expensive one, is the conservation of
the well-known Buddhist monastery Fayaztepa, near Termez on the southern border of Uzbekistan.
After being discovered in 1968 by prominent Uzbekistanian archaeologist Lazar’ Il’ich Al’baum, thissite had been excavated in the 1970s by his team, which belonged to Museum of History of Peoples of
Uzbekistan (now the National History Museum, Tashkent). They excavated a monumental monasterycomplex which consisted of three main units:A–

The southern unit containing accommodations for pilgrims including dining rooms andkitchens;

B–

The main monastery building situated in the centre;

C–

The northern unit which was used for ceremonies and lectures.

The central unit (B) was built around a courtyard (30x20 m), which was surrounded by acolonnade and a series of special rooms. One of these rooms, which is in the centre of western side
opposite to the entrance, is a shrine, where the famous “Triad” (a Buddha flanked by two monks) was
found.
To the east of the main entrance, which is in the centre of unit B, the main stupa is situated. At
the beginning it was small (3 m in diameter and 2.5 m high), decorated with one painting, but later it
was enlarged to a big structure 7 m in diameter and 5 m in height.
The Japanese Government’s mission visited Uzbekistan with the aim to support the Uzbekistan
Government’s efforts to preserve the country’s cultural and historical heritage in September 1999.
As a result it was proposed to undertake a field project at Fayaztepa, within the framework of the
UNESCO/Japanese-Trust-Fund for the preservation of World Heritage. The purpose included not only

undertaking conservation work, but also the development of tourism.
The project was started in 2002. Under the aegis of the UNESCO Tashkent office, experts fromthe Board of Monuments of Uzbekistan, as well as from Japan and the Centre de Recherche sur l’1

Information about the Fayaztepa restoration project is taken from the booklet of Thierry Joffroy/Mahmoud Bendakir, “Fayaz Tepa”,
CRATerre-Ensag, 2006.

244

Architecture de Terre, France, took part in these works.
Besides the conservation, restoration, and presentation of the archaeological site, the project comprised
the construction of a visitors centre and the preparation of a master plan for both the conservation ofheritage and tourism development in the Termez region.
In addition to the conservation and restoration practices, much attention was paid to finding
methodologies of intervention with well-adapted and efficient techniques of treatment. Therefore,
the project started with quite a long period of documentation, observation and experimentation withpossible solutions. The setting-up of a good scientific and technical database would make it possible
to define and select appropriate methods and well-adapted solutions for the proposed restoration–
preservation project. There was also a need to adapt to the existing know-how available in the area.
In addition to a monitoring program (climatic, hydrological, geological) that aimed at verifying the
hypotheses, various conservation techniques and methods were tested. It was decided to experimenton a small scale first, without touching the original fabric of the site. Test walls and stupa were built
near the site, to experiment with local materials and conservation techniques – surface protection,
plasters, capping, protection for stupa, drainage systems, etc.
Some problems which arose during the project are:•

The difficulty of getting archaeologists and restorers to work together, and at times
simultaneously;•

The desire to keep the ruins looking like ruins, meaning that some of the protective assetsthat the original building probably had could not be reproduced;•

The need to maintain intact the visual relationship of the ruins to their landscapesurroundings, which excluded the idea of covering the ruins with a roof;•

The choice to use only natural building materials, like the ones that were available at the timeof the construction of the site.
In accordance with international conservation principles, it was decided that the methods to

be used would as much as possible be non-intrusive and reversible, and would make use of original
materials. Another major choice, which was agreed upon right from the beginning of the project, isthat the site should keep its ruined aspect.
Earth is a quite a fragile material and soft interventions are required to avoid serious
disturbances. In return, this weakness of the material allows the evaluation of the efficiency ofconservation techniques within a short time frame – just a few years. It was decided that repairs
should be minimal, and focused on the reduction of the speed of decay in a passive way. The concept
to be followed was to undertake works that would ensure that degradation risks and degradation speed
would be minimized, without affecting the original structures. This was concretely achieved mainly
through the addition of a rounded protective “hat” (they called it “shapka”) on the top of the walls, andthe implementation of proper drainage systems surrounding the wall bases. Aside from that, the mud

245bricks used for the restoration works were slightly stabilized with lime. This improvement will avoid
risks of degradation even if maintenance cannot be done on a very regular basis.
To improve the visitors’ experience, a walkway was proposed with in situ copies of importantarchaeological installations, and the original findings and layers were properly backfilled. The columnbases marking the positions of the colonnades surrounding the central courtyard are replicas based onlimestone fragments uncovered on the site during archaeological cleaning.
Conservation options for the stupa were subject to numerous discussions. The main issue was
the fact that the stupa originally had been protected by a larger stupa, built at the later stage around
it and removed during the excavations of Al’baum’s team. Thanks to the later stupa the smaller one
had kept its original decorative fabric and patterns. After the excavations it was decided to protect itwith a metallic roof; however, the metallic roof provided insufficient protection from driving rains andwind-borne sand which caused significant damage. Another big problem was graffiti left by visitors to
the site. It was decided that the best solution would be to cover the remains of the ancient stupa witha protective structure in the form of the original outer stupa as found and removed by Al’baum. Built
as a protective dome with an accessible window, this solution enables one not only to see the original
stupa, but also to go around it and monitor the state of conservation of this very valuable asset of thesite. It was agreed that a consistent project for the stupa should include both the restoration of theplatform and the construction of a cupola above the stupa. The stupa base as well as the protective
cupola have been designed according to the findings of the excavations, keeping the dimensions of thelarger stupa, as discovered during the archaeological excavations carried out by Al’baum.
To make the visit to the site more enjoyable, and to improve the understanding of the site, avisitors centre was built close to the archaeological site. It features a small museum, a documentation
centre, and a permanent guard/guide.
Another example of protection of archaeological sites is Kapyrtepa, which is also situated in
the southernmost region of Uzbekistan, in the Muzrabad district of Surkhandarya province, about
30 km to the west of Termez. Kampyrtepa is a very important fortress on the river-crossing pointthrdof Oxus (Amudarya), which was founded in the Seleucids period (end of 4 – 3 centuries BC) and
was abandoned between 127 and 150 A.D. There is an opinion that Alexander the Great, during his
campaign against the Central Asian part of the Achaemenid Empire, crossed the river at precisely thislocation.
The site was discovered in 1971 by prominent Uzbekistanian archaeologist Edward Rtveladze,
who started excavations at Kampyrepa in 1979.
Kampyrtepa is situated on the second terrace of the Oxus and consists of an ancient kernel(citadel), with a fortified lower part which surrounded the citadel (shahristan). The shahristan
is surrounded by a 3-m thick wall with rectangular (and one semicircular) towers. This part ofst

Kampyrtepa was built in the 1 century A.D. when the Kushan Kingdom was ruled by the king ofkings Vema Takto (“Soter Megas”). In the time of great Kushan king Kanishka I (127–150), as the246result of the some natural disaster (flood or earthquake), the fortress was abandoned and has neverbeen settled again. The people of Kampyrtepa, the ancient name of which was probably Pandaheion,
had gone away to live in other places, and archaeologists thus had the very rare opportunity toinvestigate pure Kushan layers. This situation makes Kampyrtepa extremely important for Kushanarchaeology. As the site is not big – only 4 hectares – our aim is to excavate the site completely.
Since 1999 I have been working on the Kampyrtepa site as a deputy chief of the Tokharistan
Archaeological Expedition, which was founded in the Art History Department of the Fine Arts
Scientific Research Institute (Tashkent) in that year. Under the scientific leadership of academician
Edward Rtveladze, we are working in cooperation with archaeological teams from Russia (State Orient
Museum and Institute of Archaeology, Moscow) and Japan (Kyoto University of Art and Design).
In 2000–02 our expedition worked with the financial support of JICA. And the first attempt toprotect one of the important buildings in the eastern part of the fortress – a temple – was undertaken
during the 2000–02 archaeological seasons. Restoration work was conducted by archaeologist
Konstantin Sheyko. Mud bricks of the standard Kushan size (30-32 x 30-32 x 10-12 cm) were made,and the remains of the temple walls were completed with the new brickwork. Dry cane was laid over
the walls, and covered with mud.
Since 2006 we have been trying to restore a part of the Kampyrtepa site with the aim to protect
it from destruction while turning it into a spot for tourists to visit. In the northeastern corner, twotowers and part of the fortress wall were restored, as well as the living area. At an location outside
the site mud bricks were made, and some twenty local men and youths worked under the guidance ofKonstantin Sheyko. These works were made possible with a grant from The Ambassador’s Fund for
Cultural Preservation (USA), which Edward Rtveladze has received twice. Part of the sum received
was also used for excavation, documentation, and preparation work.
If compared with restoration of Fayaztepa, it can be said that our restoration work wasorganized in much simpler way. It was also much cheaper. Because of the natural relief of the site thenortheastern corner is the most damaged and destroyed by corrosion. Of the fortification only two to
three tiers of mud bricks remained, and after a few years they would have disappeared completely.
With the restoration of this part of the site we want to protect the remains from being destroyed, and at
the same time make Kampyrtepa attractive for foreign tourists.
In my presentation I would like to show some visual materials on the topic and speak aboutsome problems and perspectives on restoration and protection of archaeological sites in my country.
For me, as the member of the excavations and restoration team of Kampyrtepa, it would be very
important to make an acquaintance with the rich Japanese experience in this field.

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Fig. 1. Fayaztepa. Restored stupa.

Fig. 2. Fayaztepa. View onto the courtyard of unit B.

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Fig. 3. Kampyrtepa. View of the northern part of shahristan.

Fig. 4. Kampyrtepa. View of the eastern part of shahristan.

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Fig. 5. Kampyrtepa. Part of the restored fortress wall with the northeastern tower.

Fig. 6. Kampyrtepa. View of the restored part of the northeastern living area.

250

VietnamNGUYEN Khanh Trung Kien
Officer
Sothern Institute of Social Sciences
Center for Archaeological Studies

The Cat Tien Archaeological Site in Southern Vietnam:
Problems in Restoration and Conservation
1. Introduction
The Cat Tien archaeological site is located in the transition area between the Tay Nguyen Highland
and the Dong Nam Bo Plain in southern Vietnam. A large-scale architectural complex extends over 15km along the northern bank of the Dong Nai River, from Quang Ngai commune to Duc Pho commune
in Cat Tien district, Lam Dong province.
In 1984 the site was discoveredby local inhabitants, and the Lam Dong
Province Museum was informed. Ini­tial
archaeological sur­veys con­firmed thatthe complex consisted of architectural
structures having high cultural value.
During the period from 1994 to
1998, the archaeologists at the Institute of
CAT TIEN Site

Archaeology (Ha Noi, Vietnam) conductedexcavations at four locations numbered
as the No. 1A, No. 2A, No. 2B, and No. 5

architectural structures. Findings were made public in 2001 at a conference held in Cat Tien district.
According to the results of the archaeological research, the site was officially designated as a
National Heritage Relic in 1998.
From 2001 to 2003, a nd then agai nin 2006, archaeologists of the Cent re for
A rchaeological St udies (SISS – Souther nInstitute of Social Sciences – Ho Chi Minh
Cit y), including myself, conducted manyarchaeological surveys and excavations at Cat
Tien. These investigations have brought tolight a panorama at the complex having brickconstructed items of architecture, a brick kiln,

251and so on, yielding over 1,140 artifacts of a diverse range: stone, bronze, gold, high-fired ceramic, andterra-cotta. These artifacts may reveal both the daily and the spiritual life of the ancient inhabitants of
Cat Tien.
2. Cultural and historical value of the Cat Tien complex
Hinduism-influenced architectural ruins found in Vietnam are very numerous. Most of them are
distributed along the coastal area of Central Vietnam. The most famous, the My Son Sanctuary(Quang Nam province), has nearly seventy architectural ruins which form several groups. The My Son
Complex was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1999.
Excavations at Cat Tien revealed some architectural structures standing alone and some in the
combinations forming a complex plan. These findings have proved that it was probably a religious
center of considerable scale, although most buildings had lost their superstructures and the excavatedruins are fewer in number in comparison to the My Son complex. However, Cat Tien occupies aneven larger area than My Son. There are fourteen architectural structures in the central area (Quang
Ngai commune), and two more structures located over a distance of 15 km along the northern bank of
the Dong Nai river. It might well have been a large stretch of holy land and a great religious center inancient times. No doubt it is a valuable item of the cultural heritage of Vietnam and the entire world.
The diversity of archaeological ruins at Cat Tien includes: foundations of towers and temples,
tombs, a water conduit, and a brick kiln built on a perfect plan.
These archaeological findings have provided useful information on the chronology, ancient
lifestyle, and ancient religion of the inhabitants, as well as at other excavated sites in Vietnam.
However, we still do not really understand who left the huge complex in such a deeply inlandand forested area as Cat Tien. Did the entire complex belonging to Champa? To Funan? To Chenla? Oreven some other polity ?
3. Types of architecture of the Cat Tien
complexAccording to the archaeological data collected
over twenty years, we can group the architectureof the Cat Tien complex into different types.
These architectural types include: tower, temple,
temple-tower, pedestal, tomb, long house, watersupply system, brick kiln, and so forth.
3.1. Tower architecture . Examples are thestructures designated No. 1, No. 2A, No. 2B,
and No. 3. All of these were built on top of small
mounds of different heights. There are some252

special variations of the plans of the tower type:polygonal, eastern gate with a four-stepped perron,
door frame and perron made with large stoneslabs, etc. In front of the gate there may be a small
antechamber with decoration on the wall.
The area inside is square with stone paving.
At the center of this area are placed the Linga andYoni, and a holy brick column underground. At
the bottom of the brick column were placed many
artifacts: a golden plate with a Brahmanist god,
holy animals, Sanskrit characters, and so forth.
3.2. Tower-temple architecture. Examples are
the No. 4, No. 8 and Duc Pho structures. They
are built on top of separate small mounds. The
main tower is built on a higher level than the otherstructures. There is a gateway to the east with afour-stepped perron (made with stone slabs). The area inside is square and brick paving. At the centerof this area are placed the Linga and Yoni, and a holy brick column underground with holy artifacts: agolden plate with a Brahman god, holy animals, and Sanskrit characters like the artifacts of the towerarchitectures. The difference between this architecture and the tower architecture is the large area
covered with brick in front of the gateway.

3.3. Temple architecture. There are two examples, No. 6A and No. 6B. These two structures were
small-scaled and open-aired (with no roof). They were built on the natural surface of high mounds by
the riverside, like structure No. 1A. They lie parallel to each other, with the same structure, especiallyin the brick perron with a crescent shape in front of the door. They could have been open-air temples

Structure No. 6A

Structure No. 7A

253

when first built. After that, they were reconstructed with wooden roofs; we found the column holes
around the walls. At the center of the temples is a square brick column built on the surface of themound (in the first brick layer). At the bottom of the brick column were placed many holy artifacts:
terra cotta linga, bronze and iron linga, gold plate with characters, Brahmanist gods, and so forth.
3.4. Monument architecture. Examples include structures No. 5, No.7, and H3. They are constructedof brick with a square block structure. The centers of these sites are the same, with a temple-tower inthe center. At site No. 7, we found a Somasutra (a holy-water gutter) over 6 m long.

Structure No. 7

3.5. Long house architecture. Examples include structures No. 2C, No. 2D, No. 8B, No. 8C. They aresimply constructed with brick on a rectangular plan, having two or three sections, an eastern gate, andtile roof. This type of structure was built in groups, in front of a tower.

Structure No. 8B

Structure No. 2D

3.6. Tomb architecture. The only example is structure No. H2. It
is built with brick and has a square shape about 6 m on a side. In
the center is a smaller square of about 1 m. Under the center square
was a large burial jar with human bone, charcoal, and golden grave
goods inside.

254

3.7. Water conduit. This very long structure was built
in an east to west direction. Its parallel walls of brickformed a pipe about 1.0–1.2 m wide, 0.6 m high, andthe inner channel about 0.4–0.6 m wide. It has been
excavated over a length of about 45 m.

The water conduit

3.8. A road/dike. This feature runs about 2 km in length along the Dong Nai river, and is about 7
m wide. It was constructed with stone and broken brick (the same type of brick in other structures),covering up an earthen ridge. It may have functioned as a road for traffic road and as a dike to prevent
flooding from the Dong Nai river in the past.
3.9. Brick kiln. This was the new discovery of 2006; we found and excavated four brick kilns far awayfrom other groups of structures, about 1 km distant, in a large rice field. They have the same structure
but are different in scale, lie on an east-west axis, and the direction of brick and fire channel is northsouth. The entrance opens to the south for supply with air from the southeasterly wind. We foundcharcoal and waste brick in these kilns. The waste bricks are the same size as those used in the brickstructures (towers, temples, etc.).

255

An ancient brick kiln

3.10. Settlement site. In the lower strata of the structures’ foundations, we found settlement site
evidence: potsherds, charcoal, vases, jars, and so forth. In the summer of 2006, we found many
settlement sites in the fields near by the road/dike. The artifacts include potsherds of jars and vases,
and some iron tools. These are the same materials, and the same types, as those collected from thelower strata of the architectural foundations.
We classified many kinds of structures as described above based on their basic differences.
All of them were constructed on complex plans, over many different periods and with separate
functions. Many archaeologists have defined Cat Tien as a holy land for the ancient inhabitants.
4. Detecting the functional areas of the Cat Tien complex
4.1. Residential area. The questions of “Who built the Cat Tien site? Where did they live? What was
their livelihood?” were difficult ones for archaeologists until the year 2006. We had previously foundmany archaeological artifacts under the architectural foundations, which enabled us to determine theresidence of ancient inhabitants in a period preceding that of the architectural structures, but we could
not delineate the residential area.
During the excavations of 2006, we collected much evidence for a large residential area along
the road/dike nearby the Dong Nai river. This is a large area of flat fields created by the Dong Nai
river’s alluvium, with an area of
about 100 hectares.
4.2. Brick producing area. Thisis located on the r ice f ields ofthe modern Cat Tien inhabitants.
This is a large area and perhaps
contains many brick kilns buried

256underground. The location is good for brick producing, as fine clay can be taken from depths ofabout 30–40cm, and there are wide areas for drying. A small stream flowing into Dong Nai river isconvenient for con­veying the bricks to sites of construction. The area was ideally chosen by the an­
cient inhabitants.
4.3. Religious areas. The main religious area is located on the Quang Ngai commune, with overfourteen structures in many groups. Moreover, there are other structures located further in. After
working for over twenty years at this location, archaeologists can determine the area of distribution of
the Cat Tien complex as centered in the Quang Ngai commune.
We do not know exactly which ethnic group built the Cat Tien complex in the past, but we caninfer the existence of a small polity in this area for hundreds of years.
5. Dating the Cat Tien complex
There are a number of opinions regarding the problem of dating the Cat Tien complex, as follows.
th

th

•

From the 8 to 10 centuries, based on a comparison of golden artifacts.

•

From the 6th to 8 centuries, based on pottery, and on comparison of the decorations onththe stone lintel and two stone columns of structure No. 2A with the Sambor Prei Kuk site
(Cambodia).
•

th

th

From the 4 to 8 centuries, based on radiocarbon dating and comparisons of pottery. Thisdating framework is the most recent, and has been updated with new data from the latest
excavation.
We have analyzed over ten charcoal samples, dating from 1,730±55 BP to 1,330±70 BP. These

charcoal samples were collected from some of the structures, from the settlement site, and the brickkilns. The dating of the brick kilns is the same as the structures.
The artifacts (especially the golden plates with religion symbols, Sanskrit characters,
Brahmanist gods, etc.) and the presence of a central structure built with brick are similar to the Oc Eo
culture (southern Vietnam).
The later dating is based on statues of Ganesa and Uma deva excavated at structure No. 8A.
The use of the radiocarbon method for dating this site is meaningful and important, but not
sufficient. It can only give us a framework for dating the entire site. The relative order of the buildingof the different structures has not been established yet.
6. Problems in conservation and preservation
What is necessary for the Cat Tien complex is conservation work, in order to preserve the remaining
structures from natural and man-made threats. We have carried out some restoration of thearchitectural complex soon after our excavations, aiming to fortify the damaged structures according257

to their original conditions. But this is not enough. The contributions of and collaboration with morearchaeologists, professional architects, conservators, and other technical specialists are indispensable.
Moreover, the support and expert advice of specialists, archaeological organizations, andcommunities all over the world will be appreciated.
6.1. Threats. At present, we have some protective roofs giving open-air cover at Cat Tien, but thiswill not really protect the structures for a long time in the rain forest environment. The uncovered
structures confront the threats of severe tropical weather, an environment high in moisture which
definitely causes serious damage against.
Moreover, as the ancient ruins are situatedon the bank of the Dong Nai River, they have ahigh risk of being subjected to floods especiallyin the rainy season, which continues for fiveor six months of the year. The area where thearchitectural structures are most concentrated isalso influenced by seasonal floods. The naturalstones which form small falls in the river provide
a wonderful panorama, but are harmful to the ruins. In the rainy season, because of heavy rainfall in
the region upstream on the Dong Nai river, flash floods engulf the entire Cat Tien complex. In the last
several years the complex has suffered intensive flooding many times, which partially submerged thearchitectural structures and immersed them in mud, increasing the risk of their falling down.
How to protect the Cat Tien complex during the rainy season is the most important and urgent
issue in the area of preservation and conservation of the site.
6.2. Heritage management needs. The Cat Tien complex can be visited by travelers from the twocities of Ho Chi Minh and Dalat. In the future, it may become a hot spot for archaeological tours. A
plan for how to keep the ruins stabilized when they become open to the public, and how to enable
visitors to enjoy it while at the same time preventing the site from unintentional damage on the part ofvisitors, is necessary for proper heritage management.
The excavated structures are only the main frame of the complex. A system of auxiliary
facilities linked to these primary structures, especially isolated structures, still remain to beunearthed. Further archaeological excavations are necessary in order to bring to light the entire
complex of ancient structures. Well-organized research and planning for conservation and restoration
is another important issue. Modern archaeological research should be done in close collaboration withmany technical specialists in various scientific disciplines. For example, advanced technology such as
GPR (ground penetrating radar) mapping may not only provide initial exploration data, but also help
us plan the preservation of the remaining cultural property.

258

7. Public accessibility
The archaeological site will be stabilized and opened for the public to understand, appreciate, andenjoy. New facilities such as exhibition halls, conference halls, parking, restrooms, etc., will be
constructed. All of these must be considered as a part of a harmonious complex, planned under
the concept of the promotion of heritage. There should be many solutions for open-air exhibitions
for visitors which do not harm the remains, but we have too little experience in this area. Vietnam
needs to learn from other countries and international organizations which have developed advanced
technologies and methodologies for promoting cultural tourism of the historical heritage.
8. What does the Cat Tien complex need?
The conservation process for the archaeological remains at Cat Tien needs the cooperation of many
researchers, scientists, and engineers in new fields of technology. These new technologies, newmaterials, and new methodologies are needed to protect the site from serious influences of the hardtropical weather.
The thousands of artifacts collected in the excavations, made of different materials (bronze,
gold, silver, clay, stone, etc.), need proper treatment against deterioration according to the materials.
Further scientific research is also necessary. The most important problem is the historicalsignificance of Cat Tien. Was it related to Champa, Funan, Chenla, or some other ancient polity ofwhich we are not yet aware? Comparative study of Cat Tien and other famous complexes such as My
Son of Champa, Oc Eo of Funan, Sambor Prei Kuk of Chenla in Cambodia, Wat Phu of Chenla inLaos, etc., has not yet been made properly. For this comparative study, further radiocarbon analysis fordating Cat Tien is indispensable.
Solutions for the restoration and conservation Cat Tien site must include the following steps.
Step 1: Preparation• The complex should be mapped in high detail, locating all known structures to help predictthe locations of unrevealed structures.
• That map should be combined with aerial photos and GPR technology in surveying for theunrevealed buried structures.
Step 2: Continued research• Based on data collected in Step 1, we can determine where excavation may continue forresearch and where to avoid excavating (to prevent unwanted damage).
• In case more tombs are found, we should excavate in order to research the race of the ancientinhabitants. Human bones in those tombs are useful for DNA analysis in answering thequestion “Who built and inhabited the Cat Tien comples?”Step 3: Restoration and conservation• The foundations of structures need to be restored, and the walls and corners stabilized withadhesive.

259

• Structures need to be protected with a thin clear liquid coating to prevent damage fromhumidity, rain, and moss.
• A protective wall is needed along the river to prevent flooding in the rainy season.
• A system of protective roofs is needed for stabilization, being high and well-aired while
protecting the structures from rain and direct sunlight.
• Small sized-models, photos, and 3D pictures are need to aid public accessibility.
9. Conclusion
With thousands of excavated artifacts and many architectural structures, the Cat Tien complex has
its own unique cultural and historical value. It could bring new perspectives on the ancient history of
mainland Southeast Asia, which has been generally described in terms of Champa, Funan, Chenla,and so on.
Conservation and restoration work is urgently needed at Cat Tien. The support and cooperationof experienced archaeologists, architects and engineers of other countries will be most appreciated.
Advanced methods and technology will help the maintenance of the ruins and promote further
research on diverse aspects of them. We also do not have enough experience in the field of cultural
heritage management. The experiences of other developed countries such as Japan in these areas areinvaluable for us to learn.
In the end, we want to emphasize the value of the Cat Tien complex for the people andorganizations of not only Vietnam but also other countries.

Cat Tien site (Google Earth)260

Excavated“ long houses,” No. 2C and No.2D

The“ long houses,” No. 2C and No. 2D (top view)261

Temple No. 6B (top view)Tower No. 3 (top view)

The ancient brick kiln (top view)

262

The center bricked column		
of temple No. 6A 			Holy artifacts at the bottomof the bricked column

Golden artifacts of the Cat Tien complex

263

Bronze artifacts of the Cat Tien complex

Uma (stone)				

Ganesa God (stone statue)

264

Silver box with lion decoration

Ceramic artifacts

265

267

268

Bangladesh
Mst. Naheed SULTANA
Introduction
I am very proud to be in Japan for one month to participate in this august gathering of scholars fromJapan and many other countries, to obtain knowledge in the training course on cultural heritage
protection in the Asia/Pacific Region, 2008, “Research, Analysis and Preservation of ArchaeologicalSites and Remains” (9 September- 9 October 2008, Nara, Japan), provided by the Asia/Pacific Cultural
Centre for UNESCO (ACCU Nara office), the International Centre for the Study of the Preservation
and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICROM), and the National Research Institute for Cultural
Properties, Japan. This course was attended by representatives of 15 different countries within
the Asia/Pacific region. The opening ceremony was conducted at the Nara Prefecture Office on 9
September 2008.
On the first day Ms. Claire Smith, professor of archaeology at the University of Newcastle, gave a very
important lecture on “Global Trends in Conservation of Archaeological Sites.”
On 11-12 September, country report presentations were made by the course participants. It wasvery interesting and enjoyable for me to learn about the conservation methods applied for stonearchitecture, wooden artifacts and architecture, and brick structures in different countries.
I also presented my country report, in which I told participants about the location of my country,
Bangladesh, and about its important sites and monuments. I also discussed problems that we are facingin the protection and preservation of cultural heritage in Bangladesh. The participants and Professor
Smith give me many useful suggestions for how to improve the situation.
Mr. Ichihara Fujio, cultural properties specialist in the Monuments and Sites Division, Agency for
Cultural Affairs, gave an introduction to the cultural property protection system in Japan and theconservation and utilization of cultural heritage resources. He gave detailed information on thesystem for protecting cultural properties, including tangible cultural properties, architecture and otherstructural monuments, folk cultural properties, cultural landscapes, and so on. He lectured on thechronology of laws on historical, cultural, and archaeological properties in Japan, from the beginningof the Meiji period in 1869 up to 2004.
The national government, local governments, land owners, and the public are all included in theframework for considering how to protect cultural properties, and in other laws and regulations. The
government of Japan spends large amounts of money on culture heritage preservation, conservation,269

and research.
Mr. Shimada Toshio, of the architectural section of the Department of Heijo Palace Site Investigations,
Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, introduced the maintenance, management,
and preservation of structural remains, focusing on the actual conditions and challenges of cultural
heritage management.
Mr. Kurosaka Takahiro, researcher with the Department of Asuka/Fujiwara Palace Site Investigations,
Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, gave precious details about the practical sideof improvements and conservation at the Asuka and Fujiwara palace sites. He also gave us an idea of
the architecture and the excavation at the site of the Fujiwara Daigokuden (great audience hall), which
was very important and informative for me.
Professor Nagatomo Tsuneto, Nara University of Education, gave a lecture introducing us to various
scientific dating methods for age determination in archaeology, including radiometry methods such asradiocarbon dating (C14).
Professor Kanehara Masaaki, Nara University of Education, gave an introduction to environmentalarchaeology. I was impressed by the information on pollen analysis, the identification of seeds
and fruits, the identification of tree species, and diatom analysis. This was a very important andinformative subject for me (especially for excavation, research and analysis), as I did not have in-depth
knowledge about environmental archaeology and toilet archaeology.
Mr. Kohdzuma Yohsei gave an overall view of conservation technologies for archaeological sites andartifacts, a very technical subject. Japanese organic artifacts include those made of wood, fiber, andpaper; wooden articles are unearthed in the greatest quantities. But in Bangladesh, in conservation andduring the building process, different kinds of bricks and mud mortar are used in traditional buildings
and monuments.
I moreover obtained a vast amount of knowledge about the documentation of archaeologicalartifacts such as various types of roof tiles, and about tiling methods and roof architecture from thepresentations by Baba Hajime and Imai Koki, researchers with the Nara National Research Institutefor Cultural Properties.
Another interesting lecture and workshop was on the photographing and documentation of sites andremains, from Nakamura Ichiro, an expert on the staff of the Nara National Research Institute forCultural Properties.

270I was really impressed by the lecture given by Nishimura Yasushi, Director, Asia/Pacific Cultural
Centre for UNESCO. He gave a lecture introducing the archaeological prospection of sites. This
lecture was difficult and scientific but very interesting. He talked about the classification of targets
in archaeological prospection, methods and techniques of photo interpretation, geophysical methods,
ground penetrating radar, electromagnetic, seismic, and other methods.
On the same day Okochi Takayuki, a researcher at the Nara National Research Institute for Cultural
Properties, gave a very difficult and scientific introduction to dendrochronology. This method provides
absolute dating, which is necessary in archaeological research and conservation.
From 30 September to 3 October we participated in a study tour. We went to Himeji castle (World
Heritage Site), and were given a lecture at the Kyushu National Museum on the subject of “Maintenanceand Utilization of Sites in Practice.” We also visited the Yoshinogari Site in Saga prefecture, one of
the largest sites of an ancient moat-enclosed settlement. I was really impressed with the Japanesetraditional house conservation system.
On the last two days Mr. Gamini Wijesuriya, project manager with ICCROM, presented lecturesand led discussions on “Future Issues on the Preservation of Sites and Remains,” focusing on risk
management and utilization for the public. The lectures were instructive and the discussions fruitful.
He introduced us to the ICCROM organization, to modern conservation and utilization of culture
heritage resources and challenges, and to conservation awareness in archaeological training.

Comments
Japan is the richest country in the Asia/Pacific region, and rich in cultural properties and historicmonuments. There are 14 World Heritage Sites, many old settlements with traditional culture, andreligious historical sites, palaces, and ancient tombs here and there throughout Japan. In this training
course I had the opportunity learn a lot about modern scientific conservation, management systems,
research methods, material analysis, antiquity display systems, exhibitions, and I am very muchastonished by the efforts made on the part of the Japanese national government, various prefectural
governments and municipalities, to conserve and manage the heritage in the form of a large numberof monuments, and to speak proudly of their glory and splendor. The traditional technology andworkmanship, conservation materials, risk preparedness, documentation techniques, survey methods,
reconstruction to retain authenticity, conservation contexts, modern techniques of measuring anddrawing for publication, all these methods and techniques really enchanted me.
Bangladesh has a long legacy of cultural heritage rooted in two thousand years of history. We findmany splendid cities, magnificent palaces and buildings, temples, stupas, mosques, and mausoleums—271

thousands of such archaeological sites lying all over Bangladesh. She is an underdeveloped country,
so it is very difficult to conserve this heritage with the limited budget allocated by the government of
Bangladesh.
If the Department of Archaeology wants to conduct complete conservation, it cannot do so because ofa lack of money. The most important problem is that archaeological laws enacted in 1968 (reformed in1976) are not completely effective for the protection and preservation of archaeological assets. There isa lack of skilled manpower, training facilities, equipment and vehicles. Another problem is insufficient
allocation of funds from the national budget, an obstacle to implementing development projects.
Many problems are seen for the conservation and preservation of brick structures, terracotta plaques,terracotta images, bronze images, wooden artifacts, coins, etc. They are a lack of conservation
experts, of traditional and modern technologies, of proper management, of public awareness andeducation. Religious sentiments are playing a harmful role in the protection and preservation of theancient temples, mosques, and mazars. Religious practitioners want to alter the monuments’ coloring,or to enlarge, reform, and decorate in manners that destroy the real value, meaning, and nature of
the architectural evidence. Other risks are from environmental deterioration (such as heavy rainfall,
dampness, biological growth), and from vandalism by visitors and local people.
The training course was very beneficial, fruitful, and a good opportunity for me to learn all aspectsof conservation from Japanese and international experts, and to share various ideas with otherparticipants, which will be very helpful for my department in dealing with future challenges.

Acknowledgments
In conclusion, I believe that in this one-month training course, all participants obtained a lot ofknowledge about scientific preservation and conservation methods, excavation, photography, scientificresearch and analysis, from Japanese experts.
I would like to express my gratitude to the Agency for Cultural Affairs of Japan, the Cultural
Heritage Protection Cooperation Office of the Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO in Nara,
the International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Properties(ICCROM), and to the Nara prefectural and municipal governments. I am very thankful to Mr.
Nishimura Yasushi, Director of ACCU, for giving me the chance to come Japan and participate inthis training course. I would like to thank especially the director of ACCU Mr. Nakai Isao, associate
director Mr. Kinoshita Wataru, and staff member Ms. Otani Yasuko, and all other staff of the ACCU
office for their excellent cooperation with the course from its inception to completion. I would
like to thank Ms. Hata Chiyako for her very good translations of the lectures and other necessary
information.

272

I am thankful to all staff members of ACCU who helped me greatly throughout the training course.
I am also thankful to my Director General Dr. Shafiqul Alam, who nominated me for this training
course. My thanks are due to all my colleagues in Bangladesh who helped me in my preparations forcoming to Japan.

273

Cambodia
LUN Votey

Final Report on the Training Course on Research, Analysis and Preservationof Archaeological Sites and Remains
I. Introduction
Cambodia is a country rich in culture and has a very long history, with the remains of more than athousand sites from the very earliest times to date; one can say that Cambodia is the Rome of the East.
But due to repeated war, and especially the most recent war, with the rise of the Khmer Rouge (the socalled Pol Pot regime), and the on-going suffering after the collapse of the Khmer Rouge, the tangible
cultural heritage in Cambodia has been ignored or destroyed, and much intangible cultural heritage
has been lost. To prevent further loss and protect the cultural heritage in this dangerous situation,
the Royal Government of Cambodia has created laws for the protection and conservation of culturalproperty, and in particular it has established the Authority for the Protection and Management of
Angkor and the Region of Siam Reap (APSARA Authority, short for “Autorité pour la Protection duSite et l’Aménagement de la Région d’Angkor/Siem Reap”), which mainly focuses on the Angkor area.
In order to protect all the national cultural heritage and world cultural heritage in Cambodia,
many countries have offered their support for conservation and restoration work in Siem Reap.
Besides directly conducting such work, most institutions involved in archaeological and conservation
work in Cambodia usually offer training to local people, in hopes of enabling Cambodian people to dotheir own work on conserving and restoring their cultural heritage.
I am very glad to have the opportunity to participate in this training course on “Research,
Analysis and Preservation of Archaeological Sites and Remains” as one of 16 participants from 15
countries, jointly organized by Bunkacho (Agency for Cultural Affairs in Japan), the Asia/Pacific
Cultural Centre of UNESCO (ACCU), the International Centre for the Study of the Preservation
and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM), and the Independent Administrative Institution,
Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, in cooperation with Japan Consortium forInternational Cooperation in Cultural Heritage, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, the Japanese
National Commission for UNESCO, and the Nara prefectural and municipal governments. This reportmainly focuses on the knowledge gained from the training which can be applied when considering the
problems and needs for the conservation and restoration work in the Bayon complex, and at other sitesof cultural heritage in Cambodia.

II. Protection of Cultural Properties and Archaeological Work in Cambodia
thFrom the early part of the 19 century until the outbreak of internal conflict in Cambodia (Pol Pot
regime, from 1975 to 1978), the École Française d’Extrême-Orient conducted archaeological surveys,

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conservation, and restoration work in the entire country, especially in the Angkor area of Khmer
ancient capitals which contains numerous ancient monuments, archaeological sites, and traditional
ceremonies, etc. All of these works were recorded and published in their Bulletin and other journals.
After the Pol Pot regime was overthrown in 1978, conservation work was started on some monuments
by the Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts. Due to the war that had just finished, and the lack of humanresources and financial support, cultural properties were still in poor condition due to destruction fromthe war, looting, urban development, abandonment by people who moved to settle in other places,
natural disasters, illegal export, and so on.
In 1992, the Angkor area was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List. Manyinternational researchers from various countries have started research in this area under thesupervision of APSARA, and France, China, Germany, Italy, India, and Japan have been especially
active in the conservation, restoration, and archaeological survey work. In 1994, Angkor was inscribedon the list of World Heritage in Danger. In order to protect the cultural properties, laws for protection
the cultural properties were legislated and five protection zones of the Angkor ArchaeologicalPark were created (Zone 1: Monumental Sites, Zone 2: Protected Archaeological Reserves, Zone 3:
Protected Cultural Landscape, Zone 4: Sites of Archaeological, Anthropological or Historic Interest,
and Zone 5: The Socio-economic and Cultural Development Zone of the Siam Reap Region). In
addition, an International Committee of Coordination (ICC) was created to enable the international
community to cooperate with the national authorities and to check the processing and technicalwork of each international organization, and especially to promote discussion for dealing with the
problems by holding conferences twice every year. Because of the more strenuous efforts of thenational authorities and international institutes, the situation in Angkor has improved, and the World
Heritage Committee has taken Angkor off the danger list, considering Angkor to be stable as of 2004.
At the same time, the Royal Ballet of Cambodia was registered as Intangible World Heritage. On 8
July 2008, the Temple of Preah Vihear, which is located atop a cliff in the Dângrêk mountains, Preah
Vihear province, was registered as World Heritage and a new authority was established to manage andconserve this monument, called the Preah Vihear Authority.
One type of archaeological work, excavation, has been conducted at pre-historical sites,
historical sites, settlement sites, kiln sites, etc. Lately, in the Angkor area, excavations have been
conducted for the purpose of research, rescue (prior to construction), and restoration (to study thefoundations, for conservation and restoration work on monuments). After excavation, all of theartifacts are washed, marked, joined with glue (to the extent possible), classified, and held in eachorganization’s storage, but we are unable to conduct conservation work on artifacts, or performscientific analysis such as the radiocarbon dating of charcoal and wood, soil analysis, etc. Thus,
some of the artifacts have been sent to laboratories in other countries like Japan, Singapore, and theUnited States for analysis. However, most of these analyses are only possible for the internationalorganizations, because of the expensive cost. Finally, reports of the results have been written, but few
of them have been published.

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Recently, the joint framework JAPAN-APSARA Safeguarding Angkor (JASA), which is
responsible for the conservation and restoration work at the Southern Library of the Bayon complex,
has planned to exhibit photos of the procedures and the results of current work, as well as the artifacts
from excavations. This exhibition will be held at the office of JASA, and be open to the local people
and international visitors.
Despite the efforts of the Cambodian government and many institutions, both local andinternational, to protect the cultural heritage, achievements are generally limited strictly to the Angkor
area, which is listed as World Heritage. As mentioned above, there are more than a thousand sites
spread throughout the country, some with value challenging even Preah Vihear and Angkor Wat, thathave been ignored or poorly managed. In Cambodia, to the majority of Cambodian people, tangible
cultural heritage was misunderstood as only being temples that remained from the ancient past, while
many historical buildings, especially those from the colonial period, have been ignored or destroyed.

III. Protection of Cultural Properties and Archaeological Work in Japan
Beginning in 1871 and continuing up through 2004, Japan has been establishing a system for culturalproperty protection step by step, through laws for the preservation of ancient artifacts, ancient temples
and shrines, historic sties, places of scenic beauty and natural monuments, national treasures, etc.
Under these laws for the protection of cultural properties, the Japanese government has selected
and designated the most important cultural properties, and imposes restrictions on such activities asalteration of their existing state, repairs, and export. Moreover, diverse measures necessary for thepreservation and utilization of cultural properties have also been implemented. Cultural propertiesare divided into tangible cultural properties (important cultural properties and national treasures),intangible cultural properties, folk cultural properties, monuments, cultural landscapes, groups ofhistorical buildings, and buried cultural properties. In 1992, the Buddhist Monuments in the Horyu-ji
Area and Himeji-jo were registered as World Heritage by the UNESCO World Heritage Committee. At
present, Japan has a total of 11 cultural heritage sites inscribed on the World Heritage List, including:
Historic Monuments of Ancient Kyoto, Historic Villages of Shirakawa-go and Gokayama, Hiroshima
Peace Memorial, Itsukushima Shinto Shrine, Historic Monuments of Ancient Nara, Shrines andTemples of Nikko, Gusuku Sites and Related Properties of the Kingdom of Ryukyu, Sacred Sites
and Pilgrimage Routes in the Kii Mountain Range, and Iwami Ginzan Silver Mine and its CulturalLandscape.
In field of archaeology, Japan has reached high standards of analysis, conservation andinterpretation of archaeological data by using good methodologies, and modern equipment andtechnology. Up to the present, there have been many historic and archaeological sites excavated for
rescue or research, and many have been reconstructed, preserved, and maintained. Before excavation,plans are made based on the results from surveys. All the data and objects are recorded and collectedduring excavation, and analyzed later. In the end, the results of the excavation are interpreted andpublished. Reconstruction work divides into three types; the first is to reconstruct an entire ancient276

building and its structure using traditional methods, referring to the archaeological data, ancient
documentation, and remaining buildings of the same period. The second is to indicate the former
location of the building with surface representations of postholes made using plants, or by using
foundation stone replicas, and so on. The third type is reconstruction of the ancient environment,
through techniques such as pollen analysis. Before the reconstruction work, the original sites arecovered with soil (0.5 to 1 m thick) for the purpose of preservation, but some sites are left in their
original condition and protected with a shelter. After the reconstruction work is finished, sites are usedas site museums and opened to the public. For Japanese’s wooden temples, the restoration work has
been very extensive. A temple needs to be restored once every 300 years using the original materials
or the same kind of materials with traditional methods.

IV. The Training Course and My Impressions
Let me first remark that there were many techniques and methods, especially related to equipment, ofwhich I was not aware. During the training course, I received much knowledge about methods for thepreservation, maintenance, management, and development of historical sites.
First Week: Lectures focused on general themes, and on various archaeological and conservation
work around the world, including the following topics.
• Archaeological Congress and Cultural Heritage Protection• Interpreting the Heritages of Others: Indigenous Voice and the Post-Colonial Process• International Trends: Implication of the Axum Obelisk Repatriation• Looted Cultural Heritage: Iraq
• West Africa and the USA• Cultural Heritage and Symbolic Wars
• Doing Archaeology in Aboriginal Australia• Dilemmas in the Management of Cultural Heritage in Indigenous Australia• Vestiges of Colonialism: The Culture/Nature Division in Heritage Management• Indigenous Australians in World History
In addition to gaining knowledge from the lectures, the participants had the opportunity toshare our experiences on how to protect and restore archaeological sites and remains in various ways,
depending on the climate and other circumstances of the participant’s own country, through thecountry reports.
Second Week: Lectures and site visits were the following.
• Cultural Property Protection System, Conservation, and Utilization of Cultural Heritage277

Resources in Japan• Site visits on Maintenance and Management of Archaeological Sites at the Nara Heijo Palacesite and the Imperial Palace sites at Asuka and Fujiwara• Introduction to Scientific Dating Methods• Environmental Archaeology
Third week: In this week the course provided lectures and workshops, beginning with one onconservation science of archeological sites and remains. This showed what kinds of conservation
treatments and materials should be applied for different materials such as metal, wood, and stone;
processing techniques for conservation such as how to reinforce, remove, wrap, store temporarily,
and analyze for conservation and restoration; types of weathering and deterioration; the relation
between conservation and the utilization of archaeological sites; and how to conduct the transcriptionof stratigraphy. The lecture on the documentation of artifacts provided me with extensive information
on how to clean, classify, record information about, and store artifacts from excavation such aswood, metal, pottery, and roof tiles; I especially appreciated the practice in the method of drawing
archaeological objects (pottery and other ceramics) and in taking rubbings of decorations on roundand flat eave tiles. Also, the lecture on photographic documentation of archaeological sites andremains gave me very important knowledge about taking photographs of sites and artifacts, andalthough some kinds of the modern cameras involved are not used in my country, I could obtain abasic understanding about getting high quality photographs. Moreover, I also learned the basics about
how to preserve film and digital data for use in the distant future.
Fourth week: We had a day of lectures, beginning with the “Introduction to Archaeological
Prospection,” which gave information on scientific methods and techniques of observation ofarchaeological sites with non-destructive means, such as photo interpretation, and geophysicalmethods such as seismic survey, etc. By using these methods, we can understand site’s condition, size,
what kinds of remains it has, and so on without excavation. The other lecture was the “Introduction to
Dendrochronology,” in which I learned briefly about the scientific technique of dating by examining
tree rings.
In addition to the lectures, a four-day study tour was conducted to observe historical sites
and museums in western Japan. We visited Himeji castle (a World Heritage Site), Kyushu National
Museum, Dazaifu historic site, Yoshinogari site, Korokan site, and Fukuoka castle. During this study
tour, I ascertained that all of the sites are well conserved, reconstructed, and maintained. Moreover,they are open as site museums to visitors, allowing especially local people and the younger generation
to understand their value and participate in the activity of preserving historical sites and culturalproperties. Moreover, the excellent national museum was created with the same aims. All of this hashelped me to extend and improve my knowledge on methods of archaeological survey, conservation(traditional and scientific methods), maintenance, site management, and utilization.

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Throughout the training course, I felt that all of the programs are very valuable for issuesof conservation, restoration, and archaeological work in my job and also in my country. Despite
differences in the sites and materials, especially for monuments built of brick, laterite, and sandstone,
all of the methods that I learned from this course can be applied or used as models. Moreover, there
are many scientific methods and technologies used for conservation, analysis, and interpretation in thearchaeological work in Japan, that have not been generally introduced to Cambodia, even though someinternational organizations in Cambodia use these methods.

V. Conclusion
After the month-long training course, I have been provided with information, experience, andknowledge on the conservation, protection, maintenance, management, reconstruction andrestoration of the cultural heritage, and various archaeological techniques through lectures, on-site
demonstrations and practical training, all sharing different approaches and solutions. It will be very
important and useful for me to apply this knowledge in my own developing country. In addition, inthe mutual discussions among the participants, there were additional benefits that will be relevant
to activities that I will be working on, in terms of protecting, preserving, and maintaining World
Heritage Sites. I strongly hope to apply and utilize the valuable knowledge I learned from this training
course in my country.

VI. Acknowledgments
I would like to express my gratitude to the ACCU Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Bunkacho (the Agency for Cultural Affairs in Japan), ICCROM, Nara National Research Institute forCultural Properties, Japan Consortium for International Cooperation in Cultural Heritage, Ministryof Foreign Affairs of Japan, Japanese National Commission for UNESCO, and the Nara prefecturalmunicipal governments for organizing this training course. I would like express my heartfelt thanks to
Dr. NISHIMURA Yasushi (Director of ACCU Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office), Mr.
NAKAI Isao (Director, International Cooperation Division Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation
Office), Mr. KINOSHITA Wataru, Mr. YAMASHITA Tsutomu, Ms. OTANI Yasuko, the local
government, the lecturers, translators, and all the staff of the ACCU Nara office, and the providers of
the training sessions for the excellent and wonderfully organized training course.

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Cambodia
PHIN Phakdey
I. Introduction
In 1992, Angkor was inscribed on the World Heritage List of UNESCO. Since then, in 1995, the Royal
Government of Cambodia created a national authority called APSARA (Authority for the Protection
and Management of Angkor and the Region of Siem Reap) by royal decree. With this act, all temples
in Angkor park were declared protected and managed by this national authority, with cooperationfrom various international institutions such as Sophia University Tokyo (Japan), JSA=JASA (Japan),
ASI (India), EFEO (France), CSA (China), ITASA (Indonesia), WMF (United States), I. Ge. S (Italy),
GASP (Germany), etc.
In addition to the sites of the Angkor region, now protected as World Heritage, Cambodia is acountry rich in cultural properties, both tangible and intangible. More than a thousand sites, including
ancient temples, mounds, roads, and many other archaeological sites (pre-historical and historic) still
remain in danger, without sufficient protection, maintenance, or conservation, along with intangible
cultural heritage located all over Cambodia. In Battambang, one of the provinces of Cambodia, there
are more than 170 archaeological sites known to remain. For more than thirty years, these culturalproperties have faced extremely dangerous conditions threatening them with destruction. Accordingly,
the Royal Government of Cambodia decided to create laws for the protection of cultural properties andheritage sites, not only for Angkor but for other areas as well. However, a lack of understanding of thevalue of cultural heritage has resulted in damage to many archaeological sites, as day by day they havebeen destroyed by the local people.
Cambodia currently needs human resources to carry out the provisions of cultural laws for theprotection of cultural heritage, and even though we have many involved in this work we can only
say “better than nothing but still not enough.” Accordingly, Cambodia should increase the humanresources concerned, to provide more professional researchers, more specialists and experts, and moreconservation and heritage management personnel.
Accordingly this is a very useful training program, on the preservation and restoration ofcultural heritage in the Asia/Pacific region for a period of one month (9 September – 9 October 2008),
which is organized every year by the Culture Heritage Protection Cooperation Office, Asia/Pacific
Culture Centre for UNESCO (ACCU). Through the country report presentations (by 16 participantsfrom 15 countries), we could learn about issues and successes in cultural properties work in eachcountry. Afterwards, this program helped us to develop our knowledge of techniques and methods forinvestigating archaeological sites, and for preserving, restoring them through conservation science,
to apply in our countries in the future. This year the course was based on the archaeological sites andcultural properties protection system in Japan.

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II. The Training Program
In the first week we had an introduction to World Heritage in the Nara area, where we visited Todaiji
temple to understand restoration work at a historic site. The next day, in Ms. Claire Smith’s lecture, welearned more about global trends in the conservation of archaeological sites. It was excellent and very
useful information for me to apply in my research in the future. In this first week, all participants gave
their country reports, and discussed approaches to the issues that were raised.
In the second week, the training course was mainly concerned with the establishment of thecultural properties protection system in Japan, the maintenance and management of archaeologicalsites, and scientific dating methods. The lectures were very instructive regarding the protection ofcultural properties and field research. But in my country the cultural properties protection system isrelatively new, so we still have many issues about protecting historic sites, and as for scientific dating
methods, we have not yet started to apply these in archaeological research because of the lack ofequipment and laboratories. Without doubt, all historical sites or cultural properties must have a proper
system for their protection. So from what I understood from Mr. Ichihara’s introduction to the culturalproperties protection system in Japan, I thought that we need to apply these measures in my country.
We also visited other sites, such as those in Asuka and Fujiwara.
In the third week, I was very surprised by the work conducted at the Nara Heijo Palace site
in the field of conservation science for archaeological sites and remains, and their utilization for
education as presented by Mr. Kohdzuma. He demonstrated scientific technical conservation work,
such as investigating the surface or insides of artifacts with infrared equipment, conservation methods
for archaeological waterlogged wood to protect wooden artifacts after excavation, and methods forremoving artifacts from the excavation site safely. In this week too, we took a site visit to Kyoto. We
learned about site management and restoration work as done at Byodoin temple and Ujigami-jinja
shrine (World Heritage Sites), and Manpuku-ji temple. Over the next three days there were lectures
about the Documentation of Archaeological Artifacts, and Photographic Documentation of Sites andRemains.
In the fourth week, Mr. Nishimura gave a very interesting lecture about archaeologicalprospection, in which sites are investigated with non-destructive methods. In my country, sometimes
we do not want to excavate a site because we would be unable to manage it or protect it from thelocal people after excavation. After we excavate a site, local people sometimes also dig there tolook for valuable artifacts to sell. For example, Snay village (a pre-historic site) and other sites havebeen destroyed in this manner by local people. Prospection is also very useful for investigating sites
to understand about conditions under the ground prior to excavation. In this week we also went toHimeiji castle and Fukuoka to learn more about historical sites and site management. We spent fourdays on the trip, visiting the sites of Dazaifu, Yoshinogari, and Korokan. This week we gained a better
understanding about site management and the protection system for cultural properties in Japan.
In the last week, Dr. Gamini Wijesuriya (Project Manager, ICCROM) lectured on “Future Issues
on the Preservation of Sites and Remains” (Risk Management and Utilization for the Public). On his

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first day, he explained about the actions of ICCROM for conserving culture and promoting diversity
around the world, focusing on the methods of archaeological conservation work. On the second day,he lectured on cultural hazards, disasters, and risk management. After the lectures, we had group
discussions about finding solutions for protecting cultural properties.

III. The System for Protecting Cultural Properties in Cambodia
From 1975 to 1979, there was no enforcement of laws for the protection of cultural properties in
Cambodia. Many cultural properties and heritage sites were destroyed or damaged by the war during
the dark period of the Khmer Rouge, even though we had adopted the Hague Convention of May 1954,
and created the National Committee of Cambodia for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Eventof Armed Conflict in 1970. After our liberation, we still continued to protect cultural property based onlaws that had been created before. From 1995, the APSARA Authority was established and the Law on
the Protection of Cultural Heritage (specific for Angkor Park to allow urgent intervention) adopted by
the National Assembly during the first session of its fifth mandate, and subsequently revised in 2004
for extension over all of Cambodia under the supervision of the Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts.
Recently, under the supervision of the APSARA national authority, which has responsibility
for the research, conservation, and restoration work at the Angkor World Heritage Site with thecooperation and collaboration of other international institutions, work has been done to conserve andrestore the historical monuments in the archaeological park, including the following.
• The Sophia Asia Centre for Research and Human Development (formerly, the Sophia
University Angkor International Mission from Tokyo, Japan), located in Siem Reap province,
conducts a research program at Banteay Kdei temple as a training site to develop humanresources (students from the Royal University of Fine Arts) every year, and has finishedrestoration work at the western causeway of Angkor Wat.
• The Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties has done archaeological researchand restoration work at Western Top temple and at ancient kiln sites.
•

JASA (formerly JSA) from Japan has done research at Sour Proat and restoration of thelibraries of Bayon temple, and the north library of the second causeway of Angkor Wat.

• ASI, the Archaeological Survey of India, conducts research on Ta Prohm temple.
• EFEO, l’École Française d’Extrême-Orient of France, conducts research on archaeologicalsites and the restoration of Baphuon temple.
• The CSA team from China conducts research and restoration at Chau Say Tevota temple.
• The WMF team from the United States of America conducts research in archaeology andrestoration at the temple of Preah Khan in Angkor, as well as clearing and managing the site of
Neak Poan, and restoring the temple of Ta Som.
• ITASA, an Indonesian team, conducts restoration work on the entrance pavilion of the Royal
Palace at Angkor Thom.

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• I. Ge. S, an Italian team, is in charge of the restoration work at Pre Rup temple.
• GACP, a German team, works on the conservation of stone carvings of Apsaras.
We also have a new authority, named the Preah Vihear Authority, which has responsibility for research,
conservation, and restoration work at Preah Vihear Temple (World Heritage Site, registered July 2008).

IV. System for Protecting Cultural Properties in Japan
During this training in the ACCU program, I was surprised to learn about the system for protecting
culture properties in Japan, especially the management of each site. The timeline for the legal
framework in Japan is as follows.
1868 - Meiji Restoration
1871 - Law for the Preservation of Ancient Artifacts
1897 - Ancient Temples and Shrines Preservation Law
1919 - Historical Sites, Places of Scenic Beauty, and Natural Monuments Preservation Law
1929 - National Treasures Preservation Law
1950 - Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties, providing for:• establishment of the Committee for the Protection of Cultural Properties• amendment of the designation system for cultural properties• establishment of a system for the protection of intangible cultural properties and buried
cultural properties
1954 - Amendments to the Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties, providing for:• expansion of the system for intangible cultural properties• expansion of the system for buried cultural properties• expansion of the system for folk materials
1968 - Amendments to the Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties, providing for:• establishment of the Agency for Cultural Affairs• establishment of the Council for the Protection of Cultural Properties
1975 - Amendments to the Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties, providing for:• development of the system for buried cultural properties• expansion of the system for folk cultural properties• establishment of a system of Preservation Districts for Groups of Traditional Buildings• establishment of a system for the protection of Conservation Techniques for Cultural
Properties
1996 - Amendment to the Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties, providing for theestablishment of a system of Registered Cultural Properties
1999 - Amendments to the Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties, providing for:• transfer of authority to prefectures and designated cities283

• reform of the Council for Cultural Affairs
2004 - Amendments to the Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties, providing for:• establishment of a system for the protection of Cultural Landscapes• the addition of Folk Techniques as objects of protection• expansion of the system of Registered Cultural Properties
Currently the legal responsibilities for the protection of cultural properties in Japan are divided
under the legal framework among four main agents, as follows.
1. National government• Legislation for the protection of cultural properties• Designation, selection, and preservation of important cultural properties and theregistration of cultural properties that particularly require utilization (structures)• Instructions, imperatives, and recommendations regarding administration, restoration,and public display to owners and administrative organizations of designated culturalproperties• Regulations concerning alteration of the shape of designated cultural properties andsimilar actions, export restrictions, and injunctions to restore their original form
• Assistance to owners and administrative organizations regarding the administration,
restoration, public display, etc. of designated cultural properties• Assistance to local public entities regarding the transfer of cultural properties to public
ownership• Establishment of special tax measures regarding designated cultural properties andrelated matters• Establishment and operation of facilities open to the public (such as museums andtheaters) and of research institutes for cultural properties
2. Local governments• Ordinances for the protection of cultural properties• Designation, selection, and preservation of important cultural properties (excluding
those designated the national government)• Instructions and recommendations regarding the administration, restoration, and public
display to owners and administrative organizations of designated cultural properties• Assistance to owners and administrative organizations regarding the administration,
restoration, public display, etc. of designated cultural properties• Establishment and operation of facilities for the conservation and public display ofcultural properties• Promotion of local activities to promote the protection of cultural properties, such asactivities for the study, protection, or transmission of cultural properties284

• Serving as the administrative organization for the administration, restoration, etc. of
cultural properties designated by the national government
3. Owners and administrative organizations• Notification of transfer of ownership, loss or destruction, damage, change in location,and so forth concerning cultural properties designated by the national or local
government• Administration and restoration of cultural properties• Public display of cultural properties• Notification to the national government in the event of any transfer of ownership ofImportant Cultural properties or cultural properties
4. General Public• Cooperation with activities conducted the national and local governments for theprotection of cultural properties• Notification regarding the discovery of historic ruins• Notification prior to conducting excavation in any area commonly known to hold buried
cultural properties• Notification prior to conducting excavation for the purpose of archaeological researchon buried cultural properties
In my opinion, Cambodia could use a similar system to provide protection for its cultural
heritage, as there are currently a number of problems in this area. I was intrigued by the site museums
and the national museum system in Japan. A museum is an educational place for all people to visit
in ways similar to a library. After our visits we understood the value of cultural heritage throughexhibitions at the museums. Previously, I had little understanding of the history of Japan, but thiswas well explained at the site museums. I think that in Japanese museums the exhibitions are easy tounderstand, which means the management systems for education in Japanese museums function verywell.

V. Conclusions
In the first place, I wish to thank the Director of the ACCU program and all of the staff who allowed
me to participate in this program to further my knowledge. Also special thanks to Prof. Ishizawa
Yoshiaki and Prof. Marui Masako who recommended I join this program. Lastly, thanks to allparticipants who shared their knowledge and became good friends.
This ACCU program is very useful for participants to discuss their ideas concerning cultural
heritage issues in their countries, and the training course introduced conservation methods forarchaeological sites in different places in Japan, which provided a great opportunity for enhancing myknowledge.
Japan has a great variety of ancient historical monuments, and after the loss of many valuable285

structures during World War II, and others due to natural disasters, Japan has been very active in thepreservation, protection, and management of its cultural heritage and sites. In fact, Japan is one of
the richest developed countries in terms of technology and construction, but there still remain many
ancient monuments, protected by site management and conservation.
This training course provided me and the participants with a clear overview of cultural heritage
issues, and a better understanding of its preservation and reconstruction. After I return to my country,
I intend to share this knowledge with colleagues to further their understanding of archaeologicalresearch in Japan, and to use these methods for the further development of archaeological research in
my country.

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ChinaWANG Renyu
Acknowledgements
Here I would like to take the opportunity to express my sincere gratitude to the ACCU office Narafor their considerate programme arrangement over the past four weeks, and especially for theircontribution to promoting cultural heritage research and protection in the Asia/Pacific region.

Programme Evaluation
I would like to give this brief report as follows, to present several preliminary thoughts inspired by thisprogramme.
During this programme, every participant discovered useful information which can provide manythoughtful ideas for site management in his/her own country. I would like to briefly classify some ofthese issues, dealing mainly with reconstruction and restoration problems, into several subcategories.
Historic sites in Japan are similar to Chinese historic sites in structure and building materials, primarily
wood and soil. In Japanese archaeological site management practices, there are mainly four ways of
restoration undertaken, which are also currently used in Chinese archaeological site presentation, andother post-excavation archaeological practices.
(1) Restoration with partial replica. The archaeological features are reburied with soil and the surface
elevated with additional layers of soil, clay, or even harder mixtures of clay and plaster; finally only thefoundation or the base part of the original buildings is restored in replica atop the ‘original’ location.
Use of such restoration methodology in Japan is seen at the Nara Palace site, the Fujiwara site, andalso many other sites and temples. The counterpart in China can be found in the late Shang dynasty
capital site at Anyang. The advantage of such a method is that without leaving the excavated features
exposed, it can preserve the location of the original site features while protecting them underneathwithout requiring too much imagination for the superstructures. This enables people to observe thefeatures at the original site locations. The disadvantage in doing this lies in that as the site features arecovered by solid and hard materials, it is very difficult to conduct any post-management monitoringprocesses. I personally fully agree that artificial disturbances should be limited to a very low level,and site managers should keep the original layout as much as possible, without introducing too much
physical damage or reconstruction. It is logically obvious that the site has experienced a very important
phase, i.e., the abandonment of the place and its transformation to an archaeological site known as
ruins. It is in this sense that what we can observe today is only the result of a long-term multi-period287

site evolution (construction, use, abandonment, burial, discovery, and excavation). In line with thisfact, incompleteness in itself represents a key perspective in the history of an archaeological site.
Therefore, when the site in question is determined by any means to be partially restored or even fullyreconstructed, we need to make trade-offs; a new surface reuse may inhibit any attempt to present theauthenticity of a real site. Right now, the question of ‘to reconstruct or not to reconstruct’ still lies atthe core of archaeological site management in China. Specifically, why should we fully reconstruct asite feature, even if we have detailed and accurate historic records for directing such restoration? It isespecially impossible to find common agreement on how to solve this problem worldwide, consideringthat different peoples or nations have diverse thoughts about what authenticity is.
In China, there has been a very embarrassing period in which reconstruction was at a peak, butconditions and strategies have changed dramatically in recent years. During the course of thisprogramme, several participants discussed intentely about how restoration should be conducted. At
least there is a consensus that if a site manager does not know, or hesitates to determine, how it should
be restored, then the simplest way is to rebury and perhaps make a sort of coating with clay or sandto give a clear demarcation between the original soil structures and the overlying materials used for
reburial, and finally just turn the site green. This idea has not been widely accepted yet in China, as
more scholars believe that there should be at least something visible on the surface, otherwise nothingcan mark the existence of the past and subsequently let the public know its existence or enjoy visiting
the site. In the event that there should be something on the ground, we think the less reconstruction the
better for the maintenance of the site.
(2) Restoration with surface markings. The archaeological features are reburied and covered with clays
and soils, and the postholes etc. are marked, for example with vegetation. Compared with methods
using partial or full replicas, this is more convenient and has the following advantageous aspects: it canlimit damage to the original site features to the lowest level, and vegetation can always provide morealternatives for structuring the ground surface. As we have seen in the practices in the Fujiwara andNara palace areas, plants are widely used in zoning and marking postholes imaginatively, and this canalso give a very broad garden-like scenic view for the site goers. At the Yoshinogari site, Japanese sitemanagers decided to transform the entire site area into a vast historic park; such creative inventions
may be largely due to the fact that it is always not easy to exhibit the sites of early human cultures, in
effect, archaeological sites prior to the times when stones and bricks were actually used.
It is most likely that if reburial of such large areas had happened then nothing would be left in sight.
But I still wonder whether this fully reconstructed space can create obstacles for understanding thepast, as people when standing in this area can see nothing other than the reconstructed houses andshelters. Such issues are also widely debated in China, especially as to what extent a site should be288

reconstructed, and whether the newly invented space on the ground should have any relationshipwith the site remains beneath. No standard answer can be given yet, as the conditions of sites mayvary across a wide range. As both the Yoshinogari and Dazaifu sites are concerned here, we can makea comparison of the site conditions upon which different ideas of restoration have been applied. In
contrast to Yoshinogari, Dazaifu is rather small in size and its buildings were complex in the past; it
was heavily used and the environs have been densely populated since the Nara period. A large areaof green plants has been used to make the site consistent with the local surroundings and in fact nolarge reconstruction has ever been done, which I believe has contributed a lot to the maintenanceof the entire site. This seemingly simple treatment has not only given a green look to the site, italso generates a calm ambiance for the local society. In fact, such a method may be more plausible
compared with large-scale reconstruction and invention of new space. I was informed when visiting the
Dazaifu archaeological site that there has recently been an increasing trend to keep the ruins as ruins
in Japan. Some scholars may still dislike the invisibility of the site or be more enthusiastic about thereconstruction of space, but I would say that reconstructed buildings are not the only possible way toshow the public the past. And of particular interest and also significance is the fact that we should limit
the exhibition to certain appropriate methods, amongst which information centres or in situ exhibitions
are both recommended. Again, the influence on original site remains should be limited to the lowest
level.
Having said all of this, it should be recognized that for prehistoric sites as large as Yoshinogari, how
to establish a commonly-agreed plan still stands as a core issue for site management. As mentioned
above, in the 1990s through the early 21st century, Chinese archaeological practices have seen manysuch complete reconstructions, the creation of new spaces, and theme park-like establishments. These
are usually considered a kind of threat that may destroy the site remains. I agree with the Japaneseprinciples for restoration, that if the abandonment of a site is believed to be a key historic perspective
then the ruined state should be well preserved and presented. However, if we consider the process ofruin as a very important and inevitable phase of an archaeological site, then we should at least givesome thought to the present restoration methods widely used in the Asia/Pacific region. If restoration
or reconstruction is equally inevitable, then a proportion should be determined, such as how large anarea of the total area, or how many building structures out of the total number of the ancient building
remains, are allowed to be restored or reconstructed, and for what purposes they can be given a
restoration or reconstruction. Also relevant is the proportion that should be reburied and covered
with green vegetation at a specific site. Some rationale is always needed. Over the next ten years,
promotion and development of archaeological sites will reach a peak in China, and these problems willundoubtedly continue.
(3) Restoration with full replica. After reburial as in the previous methods, a new imitation of the past
is constructed based on the features lying underneath the present ground surface. This is something289

that frequently happens in the world of cultural heritage. People reconstruct for admiring their own
past, or for economical reasons, at the expense of losing a tangible sense of the former ruined physicalexistence. On the other hand, as prehistoric studies have included and been influenced by experimentalarchaeology, especially since the commencement of Soviet settlement archaeology in the 1960s andthe New Archaeology in the West, such restoration or even complete reconstruction is more often thannot conducted in line with a corresponding archaeological theory or interpretation. This, as I havefurther explained in my country report, has been very important for prehistoric site management, as
the Banpo site museum has shown us. However, prehistoric archaeological exploration relies heavily
on interdisciplinary research on both living conditions and societal conditions, such as social structure
and principles of social origination. It is in this sense that we cannot simplify the restoration orreconstruction of prehistoric sites into pure imitations, as the prototypes might have been lost for quite
a long time. For this reason, to relive a prehistoric or early historic site such as the Yoshinogari site is
at total risk of losing authenticity. I personally disagree with such an idea in terms of directly applying
the outcomes of experimental archaeology to the site managing processes. Again, I should say that tosome extent, restoration and reconstruction should be viewed only as a method which helps promote
understanding the structure and evolutionary history of the past, and it cannot be overused or relied
on too heavily as the major way of presenting the past. As compulsory elements of successful sitemanagement, restoration and reconstruction are both necessary and should be undertaken in accordancewith archaeological findings, ethnographic sources, and historical records as well. But this is just a
supplementary way of interpreting the site. What I would like to suggest further is the possibility ofusing natural vegetation or materials such as clay or soils to create a large area of the past, as has beensuccessfully done at the Dazifu site, the Nara Palace site, and in the Fujiwara landscape.
(4) In situ exhibition. This is a commonly used method to reveal an uncovered corner of an otherwise
reburied site. Although the micro-environment inside the shelter is usually believed to be undercontrol, we have seen many problems caused by physical, chemical and biological factors. In China,
large site museums such as the terracotta warrior museum in Shaanxi and many other tomb museumsof the Han dynasty are also confronted with the same problems. During the study tour in Fukuoka,
we have seen the use of an in situ exhibition in the Korokan site; the structure of the exhibition room
is very well designed, for it involves a semi-restoration of the building frame, which has successfully
fulfilled the task of illustrating the ancient building structure. This is a better way to show the structure
than making a one-to-one scale building reconstruction.
The archaeological resource managing process is the most impressive aspect of this programme. A
site-based heritage management pattern is a very convenient way to control the processes regarding theprotection and conservation of an archaeological site, as it usually incorporates studies, conservation,
public service, site management, and many other relevant functions. One such representative
examples is the Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties. This seems to me not only290

a combination of many functions of diverse units but a very convenient way to unite all proceduresin relation to a site. It is in this way that a site can be well managed via a well-organized series ofprocesses, including the initial surface survey, test excavation, excavation, management, presentation,conservation in the field and the lab, interpretation, site condition monitoring, and many other relevant
procedures. As a very effective way of cultural heritage/resource administration, it provides a good
example of combining archaeological resources, managers, researchers, and the public.

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Indonesia
Sri Patmiarsi Retnaningtyas
I. Introduction
First of all, I would like to thank the Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office, Asia/Pacific
Cultural Center for UNESCO, for the opportunity to participate in the training course on cultural
heritage protection in the Asia/Pacific region 2008, on the theme of “Research, Analysis andPreservation of Archaeological Sites and Remains.” It has provided me with valuable information andexperience about the latest methodologies and technologies for the investigation, conservation, andmanagement for utilization of archaeological remains and sites in Japan.
Indonesia has more 5,000 cultural properties in various forms of cultural heritage, such as earlyman sites, megalitihs, temples, mosques, traditional settlements, palaces, and churches and buildings
influenced by Europe. Nevertheless, only three of them are inscribed as World Heritage. Currently, theCultural Landscape of Bali Province is being processed for World Heritage nomination. Additional
cultural properties worthy of nominatation have not yet been included on the tentative list. One ofproblems is they are not well preserved.
Cultural properties are important resources of the nation for the understanding and promotion ofhistory, science, and culture. Therefore, the government is obligated, based on current legislation, toprotect cultural property as the heritage of Indonesian national culture. To preserve cultural property,
it is necessary to draw up regulations by means of legislation. Since 1992, Indonesia had enacted
national laws concerning cultural property.
Nevertheless, preservation of cultural property in Indonesia has been conducted since the earlyth

20 century. One point that requires attention in the preservation of cultural property is authenticity.
In the National Law Number 5 of 1992, it is stipulated that authenticity covers form, materials,
workmanship, setting, and the historical value of cultural property.
In fact, the principle of authenticity cannot always be applied to the restoration of culturalproperty, especially with regard to materials and workmanship. Nowadays, materials similar to theoriginal are unavailable for preservation. It is necessary to have appropriate principles, methodologies,
and techniques of preservation for current conditions. In addition, restoration or conservation ofculture property is not at present designed for utilization. Restoration or conservation is aimed only at‘preservation’ in the narrow sense.
I hope the results of this training course in Japan will promote cultural property preservation in amanner appropriate with conditions in Indonesia.

II. Training Course on Research, Analysis and Preservation of Archaeological Sites andRemains
This program included lectures, workshops, and study tours. The subjects of the lectures covered292

introductions to scientific dating in archaeology, environmental archaeology, dendrochronology,archaeological prospection, and explanations about conservation technologies for archaologicalremains and sites, and photography. Introductions about other sciences indicate that there are many
sciences that can give data or information relevant to the preservation of cultural property. How todraw ceramics accurately, how to take roof tile rubbings carefully, how to perform conservation
treatment of artifacts were part of the workshops. Study tours on preservation, development, andutilization of archaeological sites were conducted at the Fujiwara Palace site and in Asuka, at sites anda museum in the Kyoto area, and sites and at museums in Kyushu.

III. Discussion
Generally speaking, there are main subjects for discussion in relation to the program: research,preservation, and the utilization of cultural properties.
1. RESEARCH
Archaeological research is conducted to understand social life through its physical remains. In Japan,
archaeological research has also played an important role in the preservation of cultural properties.
Excavation is an archaeological method for gathering data from a site, after an archaeological survey.
Actually, excavation damages archaeological remains, so accurate and complete documentation is very
important.
In Japan, excavation of archaeological materials can be divided between academic excavations
and rescue excavations. Academic excavation usually takes a longer time than rescue excavation.
Academic excavation may be conducted for many months in a single area, and it may cover wide
areas. It needs a high level of finance, but it results in more complete and accurate data.
In Indonesia, academic excavation and rescue excavation are completely separate. Each typeof excavation is conducted by different institutions, so the objectives are also diferent. The objectiveof academic excavation is the collection of data to understand social life in ancient times. The resultsof academic excavation usually only consists of academic or research reports. Sometimes there isrecommendation for preservation of an archaeological site in the report, but in fact there is usually nofurther action. Academic institutions rarely work with other institutions.
We usually conduct rescue excavations for every development project that is planned which canpossibly cause the defilement, removal, damage, alteration, disappearance, or destruction of a culturalproperty or its historical value, or the defilement or alteration of its physical setting and environment.
Based on the results of archaeological investigation, the government can:a. maintain the cultural property and site in their present state;b.

suggest changes in the development plan;c. remove the items of cultural property from the site;d.

agree to continue the planned development activity, or;

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e.

delete the items of cultural property and the site from the register.

In addition to instances of development planned for an area, rescue excavation is conducted
for the preservation of cultural property. The objective of excavation is to collect data on the existing
conditions found. This information has very important value for efforts to preserve cultural property,
especially for establishing targets and steps for preservation.
Further discussion in this section may be divided among the three topics of documentation,
analysis, and storage.
a. Documentation. Documentation has the important role of recording and conveying accurate anddetailed information for the preservation of cultural property. Based on form, documentation can bedivided between verbal description, as writing, and pictorial recording, as drawing, photographing,or mapping. In the training course, some of these techniques were included such as methods ofdrawing ceramics and pottery, documentation of roof tiles, wooden artifacts, and metal artifacts, andphotographic techniques.
In Indonesia as well, documentation has played an important role for the preservationof archaeological remains and sites. The techniques that are applied in drawing and copyingarchaeological remains are very similar. The difference is that Indonesia lacks the array of modern
instruments for documentation used in Japan, as seen at the Nara institute. In addition, many
documents have not yet been stored under appropriate conditions, and especially documents madein the early 20th century were not well compiled. Nevertheless, nowadays we are compiling andorganizing databases of documents such as photographs (negatives, including glass, and positives) andcopies of inscriptions.
b. Analysis. Analysis is the next step after documentation. There are various means of analysis for
cultural properties. Cultural properties in the form of artifacts can be brought to the lab or analysis
room. Those artifacts are classified based on material, such as wood, metal, earthenware or stoneware
pottery, roof tiles, etc. The artifacts are cleaned and also classified based on form or style.
To help in the analysis of cultural properties, other sciences are involved in such areas asscientific dating, environmental archaeology, and dendro­chronology. Scientific dating can be applied
for more accurate dating of archaeological remains and sites. Radiocarbon (C14) dating is an important
method. C14 is radioactive and decays into stable nitrogen (14N) with a half-life of 5730 years. The
chemical characteristics of radioactive CO2 and stable CO2 are the same, so the ratio of them in thebiosphere (plants and animals) and the ocean is close to that of the atmosphere. If we know how muchthe ratio of carbon isotopes in excavated organic materials has decreased, the time since the death ofthe materials can be estimated.
Besides radiocarbon dating, there are thermoluminescence dating, archaeomagnetism andpaleomagnetism; nevertheless, in principle it is desireable to use more than two scientific methods for294

getting a more accurate age, and to draw one’s conclusions after comparing all data and considering
the archaeological aspects.
In principle, there is similarity in the data processing of artifacts between Japan and Indonesia.
Artifacts are found by excavation, and after they have been documentated at the site, they are classified
based on materials. Each item is also classified by form, type or subtype, if possible. If some artifacts
are of actual importance for national culture, they may be analized by carbon dating or other methods
requiring a high level of finance to conduct.
c. Storage. In Japan, storage is an important part of preservation. After artifacts are conserved andanalyzed, they are placed in proper storage. Various types of storage are used to store artifacts. Basedon their physical condition, some artifacts, especially wooden ones, may be conserved with chemicals.
After that, those artifacts are placed in storage.
Most wooden artifacts are placed in boxes filled with water, because they were found in wet
areas. Plastic boxes are used to store roof tiles, earthenware, or other ceramic artifacts. Then all areplaced in separate storage rooms in accordance with the material.
Due attention is paid to the storage environment. Storage rooms have humidifiers to preserve
artifacts in a stable condition. Each storage room has diferent humidity and temperature settings
according to material. For example the ideal environment for long-term storage for photographs is aroom with low temperature, low humidity, and shielded from sunlight.
2. PRESERVATION
Cultural properties in Japan are essential for accurately understanding the history and culture of Japan.
They also form the foundation for its future cultural growth and development. It is extremely importantto preserve and appropriately utilize such cultural properties, which are the heritage of the Japanesepeople.
The system for protecting cultural properties covers designation, selection, imposition of
restrictions, and registration. The most important cultural properties are designated and selected.
Restrictions are imposed on such activities as alteration of their existing state, repair, and export. The
registration system provides more moderate protective measures than the designation system. Underthe registration system, cultural properties that are in special need of preservation and utilization are
registered by the national government.
Cultural property can be divided into eight categories: tangible cultural properties, intangible
cultural properties, folk cultural properties, monuments, cultural landscapes, groups of historicbuildings, techniques for the preservation of cultural properties, and buried cultural properties.
There is a difference between Japan and Indonesia in the classification of cultural properties.
Natural monuments are not covered as cultural property in Indonesia. Cultural property or items ofcultural property as mentioned in the National Law Number 5 of 1992 consist of artifacts made byman, movable or immovable and individually or in groups, or parts thereof or remains thereof, which295

are at least 50 years of age, or represent a specific stylistic period of at least 50 years of age, and areconsidered to possess value of importance to history, science, and culture; also natural objects which
are considered to possess important value for history, science, and culture. Besides items of culturalproperty, the National Law mentions locations which contain or are presumed to contain items ofcultural property, together with the surroundings which require safeguarding. Of course, naturalobjects related to human life are categorized among cultural property. In Japan, natural monumentscharacteristic of Japan had no law for their protection, so natural monuments have been included
among cultural property.
In principle, preservation of cultural property in Japan is based on the results of research. The
results of excavation can result in designation as important cultural property. A committee on the site
will then establish matters such as whether or not the site should only be reconstructed up to 15 cm
above ground level, or give permission for change to a historic site. In some examples, at sites suchas the Heijo palace complex, the Fujiwara palace site and other sites, excavated areas were reburied
for preservation of the cultural properties that were found. The excavation area could be reburied withsoil if it was well and accurately documentated and the cultural properties were in good condition
underground. Then, on the ground surface a new structure can be built in accordance with the data
found in terms of form, materials, setting, and workmanship. Nevertheless, not all of the features arereconstructed at a particular site. In some parts of the Heijo palace site where postholes were found,shrubs have been planted on the ground directly above these features in the form of pillars.
There were many methods and techniques of preservation of cultural property that were newideas for us. The Yoshinagari site provides one example. This site comes from the Yayoi period,
beginning around the 3rd century BC. At the site, many artifacts and features were found such as burial
jars, postholes, metal artifacts, wooden farming tools, and ditches. Nowadays, this site is designed asa historical park. For preservation, the original features were reburied in the ground after excavationand complete documentation. Then reconstructions of parts of the settlement were built on the groundsurface, like wooden houses together with a ditch and wooden fence, and a burial complex. The
park, complete with a museum, is divided into four zones: entrance area, burial mound area, area ofreconstruction of ancient life, and area of ancient views.
3. UTILIZATION
Once cultural properties are found, the institution having responsibility for their preservation
arranges research and investigation for their designation as cultural property. There are three types ofmonuments included as cultural property, namely historic sites, places of scenic beauty, and naturalmonuments. Subsequently the institution supervises restrictions on making changes to the existing
historic monuments. The last process is designing and implementing appropriate preservation andmanagement.
Utilization and promotion are important aspects of providing information about culturalproperties to the public, for example the value of cultural property, what traditional techniques were296

used in ancient buildings or what was the condition that survived when the site was excavated, or how
the cultural property originally appeared as seen through a replica of a building or a map of a site. At
the Ishibutai tomb, we can see how an ancient burial chamber from the 6thcentury was built using

huge stones. At a site in Asuka, we can see some pillar base stones of pagodas on two mounds, in amodern environment of paddy fields, hence a wet area. Some types of plants that grow in wet areas
were in bloom. So visitors to this area could appreciate the base stones as well as the flowers.
One point that receives attention in the utilization of cultural property in Japan is the necessity ofproviding access to all people. For example, at all sites, museums, or other facilities, ways or facilities
are provided for people using wheel chairs. This is indicated with signs at these places. This is aninteresting point for site management in Indonesia.
In my country, most of cultural properties have not yet been provided with a management
plan. For protection, the supervising institution should arrange a master plan for the site, include azoning system. The purpose of the master plan is to restrain development and control utilization insite.The boundary of the site and its environment is regulated in accordance with necessity. A zoning
system is planned for the site and its environment consisting of a central or main zone, a supportingzone or buffer zone, and a development zone or facilities zone. The main zone gives a border ofprotection based on the original borders, the prominence of the archaeological remains, the contextual
environment and eyewitness feasibility for the archaeological remains. The buffer zone functions asprotection for the main zone, and is also a place for facility structures in limited amounts. The bufferzone area is determined by the need for protection and the degree of threat to the archaeologicalremains. The facilities zone is provided for common tourism facilities. Determination of the facilities
zone area is based on accessibility, floor area ratio, and the facilities that will be provided. In thefacilities zone, there could be approved souvenir shops, parking areas, restaurants, toilets, information
or ticket offices.
Actually, the management of cultural property is the responsibility of governments. The
management of cultural properties which are owned by the state is conducted by the national
government. The management covers the care, protection, permission, utilization, supervision andother matters related to the preservation of cultural property. The public, in groups or individually, isinvolved in the management of cultural property. Some regional or local governments nowadays havearranged management plans for their cultural properties based on master plans that have been madebefore.
Utilization and promotion are ways to give information to the public about the site. Besides thepresentation of buildings that are restored, means to achieve this include government built exhibitionsof artifacts that were found at the site, and presentation of part of the excavated features. In theutilization of cultural property, regional or local governments give more attention to tourism. That is
because tourism can bring income for regional or local governments. Accordingly, the utilization thatthey make is sometimes not in keeping with the value of the cultural heritage.

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IV. Conclusion
The points to be learned from the preservation of cultural properties in Japan include the constantefforts to increase knowledge of principles, methodologies, and techniques about preservation, andto include research and analysis of cultural properties themselves. We can see this from the results ofJapanese preservation of cultural properties.
For me, there were some methodologies and techniques that were new ideas for the preservationand presentation of sites. For example, what we saw at the Yoshinogari site. They manage a site fromrdthe 3 century BC as a historical park with much information that is easily understood by the public.
Probably, we have to start thinking about changing our views about preservation, not only aboutauthenticity, but how preservation can be utilized for the public, or more generally for the advancementof the national culture of Indonesia as well. We should think about changing principles, methodologies,
and techniques for the preservation of cultural property as well, in accordance with the needs andpurpose. For example, to reduce risk from earthquakes, we can retrofit for seismic resistance ancientbuildings located in unsafe areas, or apply traditional techniques in the reconstruction of buildings.
Nevertheless, such changes require careful consideration so that cultural properties are preserved instable fashion.
I hope that by revising the legislation in Indonesia, there will be significant changes regarding
the preservation of cultural properties. For example, does authenticity have to be strictly adhered toin preservation? How far do we apply it for preservation? Or can preservation be conducted by local
governments or communities? This would require revising current conditions, such as changing froma centralized to a decentralized administrative system. Through new legislation, it is hoped that thecentral government, local governments, and communities can conduct the preservation of culturalproperties in accordance with their respective responsibilities.

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Iran
Aileen BABAKHANI
Methods of Cultural Heritage Site Presentation in Japan
Introduction
While research about cultural heritage with archaeological science through excavations is very
extensive in Iran, cultural heritage experts have been challenged in the maintenance of ancient remains
for more than a hundred years, and although they have gained much experience at maintaining andpresenting cultural properties or in architectural remains, at present this is not enough to provide thebest results in this field.
No doubt maintenance and conservation methods can be developed more with the sharingof experience between different countries by professional experts, as through the training course
on cultural heritage protection in the Asia/Pacific region – “Research, Analysis and Preservation ofArchaeological Sites and Remains” (9 Sep. - 9 Oct. 2008, Nara, Japan). During this course, in addition
to having theoretical presentations and lectures by the instructors, the techniques of interpretation at
the archaeological sites we visited had very high impact on my thinking, because we need to use thesemethods to present our archaeological activities in Iran.
Interpretation (presentation) of archaeological remains in Iran
Recently, management with regard to tourism of archaeological sites after excavation has become themost significant challenge in Iran. If we can not control the process of tourist visits to historical sites,
it can cause serious damage to the cultural heritage remains at those sites. The following list mentions
some of the main activities for presenting the cultural heritage to visitors in Iran.
1. Presentation of cultural relics in major museums, which are mostly not site museums. (National
Museum of Iran, Islamic Period Museum, Natural History Museum, Iranian Glassware andCeramics Museum, Carpet Museum, etc.)
2. Presentation of cultural relics at a few archeological sites as site museums.
3. Establishment of some buildings and shelters to present architectural remains at archeologicalsites. In most cases it will take a long time to plan for providing facilities for visitors, such as
roads, parking lots, etc., at these sites. (Site of Pasargad, Takhte jamshid Site, Hegmatane Site,etc.)
4. Establishment of the Research Centre for Conservation of Cultural Relics in 1990 with threemain research departments: Material Sciences and Technology, Dating and Environs, General
Policies and Supervision.

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The main issue for the second and third items is to decrease the damage of tourist visits tohistorical sites, because usually we never try to rebury the original remains as preservation so thearchaeological features remain completely exposed.
We still have problems with site management on the one hand for visitors, such as how toprovide roads, parking lots, resting places, etc., and on the other for conservation activities, such as
how to conduct the restoration, reconstruction, development of the site, and so forth. These problems
can easily be solved if we think about the effects of visitors entering archaeological or historical sites
before inviting them to visit, without providing necessary facilities and conservation measures.

Techniques for the presentation of archaeological remains in JapanAs a short description, in accordance with the provisions of the law for the protection of culturalproperties and architectural remains in Japan, the permission of the Commissioner for Cultural Affairs
is required for any alteration to the existing state of structures designated as Important Cultural
Properties. Major or minor repair work is periodically required to keep them in good condition. As of
1 Apr. 2007, the national government of Japan has designated 2,286 sites, 4,043 architectural and otherstructures.
During this course, apart from the lectures, theoretical and practical experiences, andcommunication with other participants through their country reports which were so useful, I was very
intrigued by the visits to various historical sites because I have found new methods for presentation of
the cultural heritage, especially architectural remains, while maintaining a high level of protection as
well.
There are three ways for presenting the remains of archaeological sites in Japan:• Flat presentation in sites• Utilization of 3D images or animated views• Reconstruction of monuments
For more detail on the three ways mentioned above, I would like to present some observations madewhen we visited museums and open sites.
In museums, various methods for presentation of cultural remains fall into four main types:• Presentation of historical buildings or areas with scale models (Fig. 5).
• Aerial photos (flat presentation) showing the locations of excavated sites or historicalbuildings (Fig. 8).
• Exhibition of the excavation process through posters.
• Introduction of historical sites and the excavation process through videos.
At historical sites which we visited, some of the main methods for presentation of cultural

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remains are:•Reconstruction of historical buildings based on direct archaeological evidence as wellas indirect evidence, as seen at the Heijo Palace site in Nara (Fig. 1), and the Byodoin
Teien garden. For reconstruction, the exterior sides of buildings are constructed with thesame traditional materials as the original, while inner parts may be built with steel frames
or modern materials to protect the monument against unexpected risk. Also, remains ofmonuments found during excavation, such as roof tiles, may be used in reconstructedbuildings.

•

Presentation of excavated features in situ, by designing stairs and ramps to allow a close
look while providing structural shelter (site museum), as at the Heijo Palace site in Nara
(Fig. 2), the Korokan site (Fig. 4), the multi-burial mounded tomb at the Yoshinogari Site
(Fig. 6).

•

Preventing visitors from entering reconstructed buildings to decrease damage that may becaused by tourism.

•

Reburial of finds, especially architectural remains, to protect them.

•

Covering reburied architectural and archaeological remains with new surface materials
designed to indicate the ancient and original remains to visitors, while keeping the original
finds under about 30-100 cm of soil (Fig. 9, 10).

•Presentation of historical architectural remains areas by rows of flowers or mounds.
Presentation of ancient pillars found through excavation with trees or lines of trees, toindicate ancient wall locations or building areas (Fig. 11).

Public education
Public education regarding cultural heritage issues is very significant in Japan, since without sharing
issues about cultural heritage protection with the people it is not easy to achieve safe protection forhistorical remains. Local governments in Japan try to convey the importance of protecting indigenous
cultural heritage for the benefit of local residents, and provide facilities at historical sites to allow
people including children to visit and enjoy these places.
What I saw about these activities includes the following items:•

Holding public exhibits to introduce excavation activities (Fig. 14).

•Publicizing excavation results through brochures and in local newspaper articles, or bydisplaying them in public places such as malls (Fig. 13).

•

Taking children to visit the sites, especially as school groups.

•

Providing facilities for tourism such as benches, toilets, restaurants, bicycles, parking lots,
etc. (Fig. 7).

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Conclusion
Conservation is often the main point in excavation, museums, and sites in Japan.
I hope all other countries facing the challenges of tourism and excavation try to plan forconservation before and after excavation as an essential item, and to achieve this aim provide
professional groups for every excavation team. Such groups can be a committee as in Japan, to planand decide the activities at archaeologicalsites; moreover this method will help avoid
more difficulties and problems at ancientsites.
I would like to thank Mr. Nakai Isao
and all the other staff of ACCU for theirkind assistance, and also express mygratitude for giving me this opportunity
to participate in this training course, andto make many nice friends from different
countries.
I know that we all are going to implement Fig. 1
the bene­fits of the new experiences weReconstruction at the Heijo Palace site in Nara

obtained during this course.
Thank you.

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Fig. 2
Heijo Palace site museum

Fig. 3
Museum at the Yoshinogari site

Fig. 4Site museum, Korokan remains site

Fig. 5
Heijo Palace site museum

Fig. 6
Multi-burial mounded tomb, Yoshinogari

Fig. 7
Asuka

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Fig. 8
Part of an aerial photograph of Asuka in a museum in that region

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Fig. 9Preservation by covering the remains
with new material.
Kofukuji temple site

Fig. 10
New look after covering the remains.
Kofukuji temple site

Fig.11
Trees at the Heijo Palace site showing the position of ancient pillars

305

Fig. 12
A family holiday at a historical site.
Hejio palace site.

Fig.13Public information in a shopping mallFig. 14
Arrangements for a public exhibition of excavation results at the Hejio palace site306

Fig. 15
Lecture class

Fig. 16
Study tour

307

Myanmar
Daw Nyo Nyo Than
Introduction
First of all, let me take this opportunity to give my thanks for the chance to participate in the Training
Course on Cultural Protection in the Asia/Pacific Region 2008: ‘Research, Analysis and Preservationof Archaeological Sites and Remains’. The training was held from 9 September to 9 October 2008, inNara, Japan. In this training, there were total of sixteen participants from fifteen countries (Bangladesh,
Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Iran, Myanmar, New Zealand, Pakistan, Palau, Philippines, Republicof Korea, Samoa, Thailand, Uzbekistan and Vietnam). The course enabled participants to learn fromJapanese heritage professionals and to share their own experience. The training course consisted oftheoretical and practical work and on-site lectures at different places in Japan, enlightening me andproviding greater chance for enhancing my knowledge. I strongly felt that the most important topics
in the training course were the conservation of archaeological sites, reconstruction of historicalmonuments, and management of the sites. This is because the conservation, reconstruction, andmanagement of historical monuments have been well conducted in Japan.

Training Course Summary
In the first week, the training course had an introduction to ‘Global Trends in Conservation of theArchaeological Sites’ by Ms. Claire Smith, which had interesting and useful information for me. I
also became acquainted with the different international charters, recommendations, and conventions
regarding guidelines for heritage conservation in various parts of the world.
The country paper presentations were given by the sixteen participants, mainly on the needs andproblems of cultural heritage protection in their countries. The training course in this way provided agood opportunity for the sixteen participants from the Asia-Pacific region to exchange views and ideas
with colleagues from different countries.
In the second week, the lecture delivered by Mr. Ichihara Fujio on ‘The Cultural Property
Protection System in Japan’ covered how Japan has enacted and revised a number of different laws.
The following lecture on ‘Conservation and Utilization of Cultural Heritage Resources’ (cases inJapan) was very useful for understanding the legal framework for the protection of cultural heritagein Japan. This lecture provided an outline of guidelines that govern the funding, management,
conservation, and protection of cultural properties from both international and national perspectives.
Much valuable knowledge was obtained particularly on the preservation and restoration ofcultural heritage at the Heijo Palace site and the imperial palace sites at Asuka and Fujiwara. In Japan,
the concept of a site museum is very interesting, which should be studied further. The concept of
joining preservation, restoration, gardening, development and utilization was vividly felt after visitingsome sites in the on-site lectures. At the former Imperial Audience Hall restoration at Heijo, there are308

additional components having a non-rigid character among the lower structure and building pillars,
representing a real example of risk preparedness. That building restoration requires great expense isclearly visible when we have time to observe the process of restoration activity.
Out of many ancient palaces which were built throughout Myanmar’s historical period, thepalaces of four ancient cities have been selected and reconstructed. The selection is made on the basisof substantiality of historic records supported by archaeological evidence. Our aims in reconstructing
old palaces are as follows. By reconstructing the palaces, the spirit of patriotism and the spirit ofprotecting national independence can be aroused among the Myanmar people. By seeing these palaces,
the people become aware that they had once lived under their own sovereignty independently and how
important it is to protect their independence. By seeing the reconstructed palaces, people will admire
the art and architecture of their past. From the spirit of admiration, the spirit of loving one’s own culture
may lead to love of one’s own country. In this way patriotic spirit can be instilled and promoted.
Revival of traditional arts and crafts is also important for a nation. So by reconstructing the palaces,
master craftsmen and master wood-carvers can show their skills and have the chance to give practicaltraining to new blood at the palace sites. So the government’s aim in reconstructing the palaces
includes the revival of traditional arts and crafts.
Professor Nagatomo Tsuneto, of Nara University of Education, explained in his ‘Introduction
to Scientific Dating Methods’ how traditional methods sometimes may present problems in age
determination. For example, similar typological forms may occur in totally different ages throughout
history. Accordingly, the use of scientific methods is vital for dating. Both relative dating (stratigraphy
and typology) and absolute dating are used in Myanmar for the purpose of chronology.
It was interesting to learn, as Professor Mr. Kanehara Masaaki of Nara University of Education
explained in ‘Introduction to Environmental Archaeology’, how the living environment, the eating
habits of ancient people, and the environment of ancient Japan are reconstructed through environmentalarchaeological research, because in tropical environments microorganic remains do not survive longenough to conduct this type of study. A few studies have been initiated to understand the flora andfauna, the environment and food habits of ancient man, to identify the classes of animals eaten, and to
make age and sex determinations of human skeletons found during the excavations, but more detailed
study is required. During this lecture basic information regarding comparative morphology andecology of mammalian bones was provided, which enhanced my knowledge about the identification ofdifferent bones discovered from archaeological excavations.
From the study tour, I had the opportunity together with all the participants to observe thepractical side of improvements and conservation in Asuka and at the Fujiwara palace site. This
program exposed me to famous historical sites in Japan such as Fujiwara, in Kashihara city, where we
saw the Fujiwara Daigokuden (great audience hall) site and excavation sites (court of state), west wall
surrounding the Fujiwara Palace (reconstruction case), as well as Moto-Yakushiji temple (environmental
improvement), the exhibit hall at the Department of Asuka/Fujiwara Palace Site Investigations (Nara,
National Research Institute for Cultural Properties), Takamatsuzuka tomb, Kawaharadera temple309

(remains representation), Asukadera temple (the first Buddhist temple in Japan), and Asuka HistoricalMuseum. All the participants obtained a lot of information about the significance of the cultural
heritage that we should be preserving. The Fujiwara Daigokuden site and excavation sites were
especially interesting.
Among sites excavated to date in Myanmar, research on the ancient Pyu city of Halin (2

nd

–8

th

centuries AD) shows that civilization of the bronze age, the iron age and the Pyu era flourished in thisancient city. We also found out that people have lived there since much earlier times. These facts arevery important for research in Myanmar as they are the cultural links to the prehistory of our country.
Moreover it has also been discovered that Pyu architects could build magnificent temples, as a resultof the research on brick structures of site No. 39, in the ancient city of Sriksetra (2ndcentury BC). The

ancient Pyu architects had the architectural technique of building round-shaped buildings on square
foundations, using corners and terraces, especially in building stupas. As a result of the research on
the bricks found in site No. 41, the building can be dated back to the late Pyu period, and it was later
used as a residence. The building at site No. 40 was found to be a magnificent religious building. Thisshows that although they built their houses of timber and bamboo, they built religious structures out ofbrick.
In the third week, in the subject of ‘Conservation Science of Archaeological Sites andRemains’, the main emphasis of the training was on archaeological materials and artefacts. This
lecture provided me an excellent opportunity to learn and develop my understanding about the needfor archaeological sites and artefacts. The lecture and workshop on documentation of archaeologicalartefacts was arranged under the guidance of Mr. Namba Yozo, Nara National Research Institute forCultural Properties. All the participants of the training course carried out practical work of drawing
pottery, taking rubbings of roof tiles, and taking photographs. Information on Japanese roof tiles wasprovided by Mr Baba Hajime, Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties. In this week,
a lecture and workshop on ‘Photographic Documentation of Sites and Remains’ was arranged under
the guidance of Mr. Nakamura Ichiro of the Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties.
Photography is an important and necessary method for recording archaeological artefacts and sites.
He explained basic knowledge of the camera, the storage of photographs, and general photographic
knowledge. We also visited the important cultural sites of Byodoin temple, Ujigami shrine, andManpuku-ji temple in Kyoto.
In the fourth week, Mr, Nishimura Yasushi, Director of ACCU, gave a class on the ‘Introduction
to Archaeological Prospection of Sites’. This lecture was useful and interesting, but Japanesearchaeologists use machines that are expensive. Mr. Okochi Takayuki gave a class on the ‘Introduction
to Dendrochronology’ in Japan, covering aspects of tree species and annual rings. It provided a lot ofknowledge about an absolute dating method, necessary in archaeology and conservation.
The most important and comprehensive part of our training course was the itinerary of the study
tour to the Kyushu area (from 30 September 2008 to 3 October 2008), in which we visited cultural
heritage sites and museums such as Himeji-jo castle, Kyushu National Museum, Dazaifu Historic

310

Site, and the Yoshinogari and Korokan sites. I observed that all the sites are well taken care of andalso there are excellent exhibitions at the museums to help improve and expand my understandingof archaeological methods by observing archaeological research, preservation, reconstruction, andsite management. The Kyushu museum showed the high level of presentation and display techniques
adopted by Japanese professionals. At this museum I studied many ancient artefacts of Japan and othercountries, and I wanted to repeat the experience, passing through that adorable atmosphere which
made me walk slowly and admire it, but we did not have enough time. At the Yoshinogari site andother sites, I studied the preservation of precious monuments or castles, the principles of conservation
and utilization of historical sites, how to arrange and manage a historical site, how to develop an
archaeological site, and how to attract the people to come and visit these beautiful places, and I thereby
gained useful information about historical sites for the future generations in my country. All of thesethings will be very important for us in taking care of the cultural heritage in our countries soon.
I was impressed with the lectures and discussions on ‘Future Issues on the Preservation ofSite and Remains’ (Risk Management, and Utilization for the Public) by Dr. Gamini Wijesuriya of
ICCROM. The risk management lecture provided me an excellent opportunity to learn and develop
my understanding about the need for risk management of cultural assets. The major causes ofdamage to cultural assets can be classified as: typhoons and earthquakes, fire and lighting, war andcrime. Preventing unintentional destruction of cultural assets involves creating a plan that includes
preventive measures and emergency actions. This lecture enhanced my knowledge about risk
preparedness for cultural heritage in the event of natural disasters. I also became acquainted with thedifferent international charters, recommendations, and conventions regarding guidelines for heritage
conservation in the various parts of the world, and how ICCROM and other international organizations
are playing a significant role in cultural heritage preservation and protection. On the last day of the
training course, discussion by all the participants, of the problems and needs for cultural heritage
protection and restoration activities, was coordinated by Dr. Gamini Wijesuriya.

Conclusion
The Training Course on Cultural Heritage Protection in the Asia/Pacific Region 2008 has provided an
excellent opportunity to gain in-depth knowledge about Japanese cultural heritage and its conservation,
preservation, and excavation, using both traditional and modern methods. This training course has
provided me with a wealth of technical information which I look forward to utilizing in my future
research work. During the visit to different museums in Japan, I learned the latest methods andtechniques applied by Japanese experts for the proper display of artefacts and their preservation in themuseums. By visiting these museums, I could study about the development of museology in Japan andthese techniques will be applied in my country. Most countries in the Asia/Pacific region suffer froman insufficiency of funds and experts for preserving their cultural heritage. We have different kindsof problems, with different backgrounds. Therefore it is essential to cooperate with one another andshare our information and experience. The experience that I have gained during this training program311

is applicable, in most cases, in my country. In conclusion, I can say that this training program will bebeneficial for both my professional work and the further conservation procedures of our department in
Myanmar.

Acknowledgements
First of all, I want to express my sincere gratitude to the government of Japan for giving me the chance
to attend the ACCU Training Course on Cultural Heritage Protection in the Asia/Pacific Region 2008,‘Research, Analysis and Preservation of Archaeological Sites and Remains’ organized by the Agency
for Cultural Affairs of Japan, the Asia/Pacific Centre for UNESCO (ACCU), the International Centre
for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM), and Independent
Administrative Institution, Nara National Institute for Cultural Properties, with cooperation from theJapan Consortium for International Cooperation in Cultural Heritage, the Ministry of Foreign Affairsof Japan, the Japanese national government and the Nara prefectural and municipal governments.
I am very grateful to Mr. Nishimura Yashusi, Director of ACCU, Nara, Mr. Tarouda Akinori, Mr.
Nakai Isao, Mr. Kinoshita Wataru, Mr. Yamashita Tsutomu, Ms. Hata Chiyako, Ms. Otani Yasuko, Ms.
Tanda Kaoru, Ms. Nishida Michiko, Mr. Nishikawa Gisuke, Ms, Itaya Tomomi, Ms. Tanaka Rie, Ms.
Kanda Hiroko, and all the ACCU staff for the excellent and wonderful organization during the entire
period of the training course. And I extend a special word of thanks to all the lecturers.

Arigato gozaimasu

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New Zealand
Matthew Derek SCHMIDT
1.

Introduction

The training course on the Preservation of Cultural Heritage in the Asia-Pacific Region 2008 (9September 2008 - 9 October 2008) was attended by 16 representatives in cultural heritage from 15
countries. During the course, lectures on a range of topics, such as the cultural property protection
system in Japan, documentation of archaeological artefacts and remains, archaeological site
maintenance and management and the dating and prospection of archaeological sites, were presented.
Visits to museums archaeological sites and historic buildings around Nara, Kyoto, Asuka, Fujiwara,
and as far afield as Kyushu were also included. The course enabled the participants and the Japanesecultural heritage experts to share and discuss the positive and negative aspects of cultural heritage
management in their own countries.
This report first briefly describes my role as Regional Archaeologist for the New Zealand Historic
Places Trust (the “Trust”) and then discusses specific aspects of how this training may be applied to
my work to improve the management and protection of New Zealand’s archaeological sites. I finallyevaluate the relevance of the training programme to cultural heritage conservation work in New
Zealand.

2.

Role of New Zealand Historic Places Trust and the Regional Archaeologist

The New Zealand Historic Places Trust (the “Trust”) is responsible for the advocacy and protectionof New Zealand’s cultural heritage as set out under the Historic Places Act 1993 (“HPA”). As the leadagency on heritage advice in New Zealand, the Trust comments directly to local and regional Councils
and Government on how heritage, be it historic buildings or archaeological sites, should be protected
and managed. In addition, the Trust manages 42 heritage properties on behalf of the nation andmaintains of Register of nationally (Category 1) and regionally (Category 2) important heritage sites
which includes buildings, wahi tapu (places important to Maori) and archaeological sites. The Trust
also provides some funding to private owners of Category 1 buildings.
My role as one of the seven Regional Archaeologists for the New Zealand Historic Places Trustmeans that every week I make decisions on how archaeological sites and remains are protected andmanaged. The Historic Places Act 1993 (“HPA”) is the legislation in New Zealand which protects allarchaeological sites from being damaged, modified or destroyed by any person and it is this legislation
which I am required to consider in determining the future of archaeological remains. An archaeologicalsite “means any place in New Zealand that313

(a) Either –(i) Was associated with human activity that occurred before 1900; or(ii) Is the site of the wreck of any vessel where that wreck occurred before 1900; and(b) Is or may be able through investigation by archaeological methods to provide evidence
relating to the history of New Zealand.”
Only with the granting of an Archaeological Authority by the Trust can archaeological sites be affectedby any person in New Zealand. It is the Regional Archaeologists role to process Archaeological
Authority applications and advise the Senior Archaeologist on whether the application should
be granted or not. The Regional Archaeologist also has to monitor compliance of conditions on
Archaeological Authorities, undertake site damage investigations reported to the Trust, compile
evidence for prosecutions for illegal damage of archaeological sites under Section 99 or 100 of the
HPA, and occasionally defend decisions on Archaeological Authorities in the Environment Court.
Regional Archaeologists also provide evidence to Councils for or against applications for Resource
Consents by persons under the Resource Management Act 1991 for developments (eg. building
projects, large earthworks on private property) which may affect archaeological sites.
A large part of my role as a Regional Archaeologist for the Trust is advocacy. This aspect of myrole is vital as through education of the public comes a better understanding of the significance ofarchaeological sites in my region. By being informed of what archaeology in present, people, Councils
and Government are able to make better decisions on heritage protection and management and this isachieved through public presentations, workshops and through media.
The Regional Archaeologists therefore have a significant responsibility in ensuring that New Zealand’sarchaeological heritage is preserved for future generations of New Zealanders and for visitors to New
Zealand who want to experience one aspect of New Zealand’s rich Maori, Pakeha and Chinese culture.

3.

Applying the Training Course on the Preservation of Cultural Heritage to New
Zealand Archaeological Site Protection and Management in My Work

3.1 Japanese Legislation on Cultural Properties: Cultural Landscapes & Archaeological Artefact Protection
The New Zealand legislation on heritage protection is similar to that of the Japanese legislation in
its aim to protect and manage archaeological sites and remains, and the registration of historicallyimportant buildings, structures and areas. All New Zealand archaeological sites are protected under
Section 10 of the Historic Places Act 1993 (“HPA”) and in Japan the Law for the Protection ofCultural Properties 1950 (with the most recent amendment in 2005) (“LPCP”) protects these heritage314

resources. Although the New Zealand HPA clearly defines what an archaeological site is, the LPCP not
only protects these sites but has recently included the protection of Cultural Landscapes. This aspect ofheritage protection is a valuable component in the LPCP which is missing from New Zealand’s HPA.
Inclusion of Cultural Landscapes in the LPCP means that this legislation recognises that the way inwhich humans interact with the landscape determines the archaeological record, and so archaeologicalsites can not be separated from this interaction. Archaeological sites are not isolated depictions ofhuman behaviour on a landscape where the known extent of a site is the only representation of the
behaviour of people in the past. Archaeological sites describe what resources people brought back fromthe landscape and how they made their living from the surrounding environment. These actions may
have not left obvious physical evidence on the landscape but this relationship with the land can not
be separated from a site. The LPCP 2005 amendment seeks to protect such a Cultural Landscape for
future generations to understand and enjoy.
In New Zealand the most immediate risk to Cultural Landscapes are wind farms which, although agreen form of energy, have a significant effect on the landscape. The Otago/Southland Regions, whichfall under my area of concern for the Trust, contain large open hill and mountain ranges where few
people permanently live and which are prime locations for wind farms. However, although these areas
are isolated, they are also areas of past and present cultural activities which are valued by locals and byvisitors to the regions.
The largest wind farm proposed for New Zealand at present is the Project Hayes Wind Farm in theLammermoor Range in Otago. The area of land to be developed has an extensive history dating fromthth

when Maori occupied rock shelters here between the 14 and 19 centuries, to the early Europeanthfarmers from the mid-19 century until the present and when the gold miners traversed the famous
Old Dunstan Road through the range in the 1860s. This long human interaction with this land can beseen as sites scattered in a landscape of snow tussocks on rolling hills. The proposed wind farm may
see 176 wind turbines and their access roads be placed on this landscape significantly impacting on thecultural heritage.
When a Resource Consent was applied for to the local Council by the wind farm developer, the Trust
presented evidence opposed to the wind farm at the Resource Consent hearing. The Trust won its
argument in terms of the negative impact of the wind farm on the archaeological cultural landscape.
However, there is no legal protection of Cultural Landscapes in the HPA or any other legislation, and so
although the Trust’s argument was recognised, no legal backing could be used to support the Trust’s position.
At present, only Councils in New Zealand can recognise and define a Significant Natural Landscape ina District Plan but historic resources may or may not be considered part of the “natural landscape”.
The recognition of Cultural Landscapes in the LCPC is therefore a powerful tool for the protection of315

Japans archaeological heritage and it is this aspect of Japanese law which is directly applicable to New
Zealand. This type of legislation should be incorporated into the HPA and I will be using this aspectof the LCPC in my future submissions to Councils and Government in supporting the protection ofsignificant Cultural Landscapes in New Zealand.
One additional aspect of the LCPC which would be of advantage to the protection and managementof New Zealand archaeological artefacts is the way in which all artefacts are protected, not matter
what their origin. This is particularly important in regard to the conservation of the artefacts. In New
Zealand, only Maori artefacts are the responsibility of the Crown where if a wooden item in uncovered,
the Ministry of Culture and Heritage is informed and conservation discussed. Pakeha (European origin)or Chinese artefacts are the property of the landowner who may do with the artefact as he/she wishes.
These artefacts are only protected from export. This presents problems in New Zealand as only one
cultural group therefore has its portable heritage directly protected for the nation. In Japan, all artefacts
from an archaeological site are protected from the outset and then the system determines protection andownership. This system at least gives any artefact a chance of becoming conserved for the benefit of
the people. This aspect of the Japanese LPCP should also be introduced into New Zealand legislation
under the Protected Objects Act 1975 and I will be advocating through the Trust for this change to be
adopted.
3.2

Archaeological Sites and Remains: Government & Council (Prefecture) Funding andInternational Co-operation

The differences in how the conservation of archaeological sites and remains are funded in Japan and in
New Zealand are considerable. From the course presentations and site visits it is clear that the Japanese
Government and the Prefectures directly fund conservation work on sites and artefacts and thereconstruction of past built heritage. In Nara, the NNRICP facility has an impressive array of analyticalequipment, laboratory space and range of skilled people with this activity being Government funded.
At the Kyushu National Museum, equipment, facilities, storage areas and staff are also supported byGovernment funding. Although most of the countries on the course have problems with Government
funding, such as not enough finances being available for the ongoing management of sites (forexample the gardens site at Nara Heijo Palace requires ongoing management funds as degradation ofthis site since its construction is apparent), in New Zealand there is no direct Government funding forarchaeological conservation, restoration or research or a dedicated national centre for this work.
Although the Trust is New Zealand’s lead heritage advisor, no conservation or restoration fundingof archaeological sites and remains is available to the Trust so as the Trust may be directly involvedin preservation projects. There is no direct funding of archaeological site investigations nor is thenationally important New Zealand Archaeological Association Site Recording Scheme, this database
being the only one of its kind in the world, funded by Government or Council.

316

From discussions with other countries in the course, New Zealand appears to be the only country
without direct funding by Government for the conservation and preservation of archaeological sites
and remains. This issue needs to be addressed in New Zealand using the Japanese system as a guide forwhat funding and facilities are required.
New Zealand also needs to look overseas to other countries to share in projects in the preservationof it archaeological sites and remains. Various countries at the course are working with the Japanese
Government and heritage specialists in joint projects to conserve particularly significant heritage
sites. As New Zealand is a country with a small population and limited funding resources, it needs toseriously consider working with countries that have additional expertise and also where many visitorsfrom that country come to New Zealand to experience its natural and historic heritage. The Japanese
represent a large proportion of tourists to New Zealand but few actually experience its historic sites
due to a lack of knowledge about them and the limited facilities provided for the visiting of the sites.
Co-operation with Japan where a heritage project is chosen which will benefit both the archaeologicalsite and also visitors to the site would be advantageous to both countries. Such a project with Japan
may be a first for New Zealand and sites near locations where many Japanese already visit, forexample Queenstown which is surrounded by the internationally important Otago Goldfields, should
be considered.
Government funding and international co-operation are two issues from the training which I will be
advocating for through my work at the Trust. These issues have a significant role to play in heritage
protection in New Zealand and directly affect all other aspects presented in this training.

4.

Relevance of the Training Programme to Cultural Heritage Conservation Work in
New Zealand

4.1

Conservation Science of Archaeological Sites and Remains

This aspect of the training course had a direct relevance to New Zealand archaeology as, like Japan,
archaeological evidence from sites is often only shown by postholes, in ground brick or stonearrangements and artefacts. Whereas many other countries have extensive above ground stone orearth works associated with its archaeological sites, such as in Cambodia, Iran, Indonesia, Uzbekistan
to name only a few, Japanese and New Zealand archaeologists often must look for the subtleties inchanges in soil colour during excavation to determine the structural evidence from many of its sites.
In New Zealand, this is particularly true for Maori sites. Historic or ethnographic sources are also
required to determine the nature of Maori structures depicted by post holes as is also essential in Japanfor interpreting its archaeological evidence.

317

The conservation of this evidence after excavation is vital and, as with New Zealand, where possible
Japan buries its archaeological remains so as developments can occur above. This method is the mostpractical and effective to conserve such sites, and if the archaeological evidence is required to beinvestigated at a later date, then the evidence is still present. The more complex surface archaeologicalsites in New Zealand such as Maori pa (fortifications) and Pakeha and Chinese goldfields sites, forexample, are left exposed and undisturbed in New Zealand and good reason is required for their
excavation. This is the same for Japanese sites such as for the numerous tombs which can be seen in
the cities visited during the training course.
Considering the conservation of archaeological remains, the most relevant aspect of the conservation
training was the conservation of wooden items. Wooden artefacts are the most common items fromNew Zealand archaeological sites which require conservation and knowing how to deal with theseremains on site immediately after excavation and how to store the artefact in preparation for treatment
is vital. Determining the best method of conservation is next most critical as aspect. Although woodconservation has been utilised in New Zealand for some years, only one facility and practical specialist
is available, and so the additional conservation expert advice and shared experience presented during
this laboratory was very helpful.
4.2

Maintenance, Management and Utilisation of Archaeological Sites

After conservation of the archaeological remains by re-burial, how the story of the people who
occupied the site in the past is presented to the public has always been a question of debate in countries
where no highly visual archaeological structures are evident, as is the case in Japan and New Zealand.
In Japan, three methods for the on-site presentation of evidence from archaeological sites are used for
public interpretation: 1) the indication of archaeological features through above ground structures eg.
the locations of buried post holes using posts or plantings; 2) the permanent exposure of the site undera covered roof; 3) reconstruction of the past structure determined by the archaeological evidence andhistoric resources. Many examples of these types of presentations were shown during the fieldtrips
during the course. None of these methods are used for New Zealand archaeological sites except for
two sites where wooden structures are preserved under glass for the public to see with a third site also
currently being planned for such presentation. It is difficult to determine whether methods (1) and (2)described above would be viewed as an acceptable way of presenting an archaeological site to theththpublic in New Zealand. Certainly in the late 19 and early 20 century, various exhibitions in New
Zealand did reconstruct Maori pa for the public to experience what these structures originally looked
like, and these reconstructions were popular. I believe there is a place for this type of reconstruction in
New Zealand possibly at a Maori pa site so as to inform the public what these sites were like during
the sites occupation. Good on site interpretation of what is being presented is critical to the success ofsuch a project, but this aspect of explanation of the past life ways of Maori should be considered.

318

4.3

Archaeological Prospection and Dedrochronology

The training on Archaeological Prospection highlighted the need for more of this non-intrusive
investigation method to be used in New Zealand. Prospection is not commonly undertaken in New
Zealand even though the archaeological evidence being sought is similar to that in Japan. In addition,
only one method is commonly used in New Zealand, that being the Magnetometer. This training
illustrated the need for a least two methodologies of prospection to be used on archaeological sites in
New Zealand prior to excavations, these quite probably being GPR and Magnetometry.
Dedrochronology has been little used in New Zealand for the dating of historic sites. Only recently has
research into applicable tree species for the dating of historic buildings been applied in New Zealand,
the first paper on this method being presented to the archaeological community this year at the New
Zealand Archaeological Association Conference. From the data presented at the training, this dating
method appears to have been under utilised in New Zealand and may be able to be used more widely.

5.

Conclusions

This training course has been of great value to me in my professional development as an archaeologist
in New Zealand. The presentations, workshops, site visits and discussions have all provided me withnew information on how archaeological sites and remains are managed in Japan. In addition, theinformation I have gained from the other participants on how heritage is managed in their countries
has been invaluable. The final two days with Gamini Wijesuriya from ICCROM were particularlyinteresting with the discussions amongst the countries on World Heritage and what sites mean topeople being very interesting and enjoyable. It is only through training courses such as this wherecountries can come together and contribute information and ideas freely about heritage, that solutions
on the preservation of archaeological sites and remains can be more readily found.

Acknowledgements
I wish to thank all the staff from ACCU, ICCROM and Nara & Tokyo NRICP who were involved inthis training course. In particular I would like to thank Mr Nakai Isao for keeping us all on time andmaking sure we were all comfortable during our stay in Nara. Thank you also to Ms Hata Chiyako forher superb interpretation and all the tutors.

319

Recommendation
One recommendation I would like to make is for a presentation in the first week of the training course
which covers the archaeology of Japan from the Palaeolithic period, to the Jomon, Yayoi etc. throughto the restoration in 1868. This would provide a better understanding of where the sites visited during
the course lie in the history of Japan.

320

Pakistan
Muhammad Asim DOGAR
Introduction
This is the ninth training course on cultural heritage protection in the Asia/Pacific region that has beenorganized by the Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO, held from 9 September to 9 October
2008, in Nara Japan. A total of sixteen participants from fifteen countries participated in this course.
This year’s title was “Research, Analysis and Preservation of Archaeological Sites and Remains.” The
opening ceremony for the course was held at the ACCU office and a welcome party for the participants
was arranged in a hotel nearby. The course was held mainly in the city of Nara, which has a very
important place in the history of Japan as an ancient capital of the nation, and some very importantsites and monuments are located there. These sites are well maintained and are well managed by theauthorities concerned. With the presence of so many historical sites it would not be wrong if we saythat Nara is still the cultural capital of Japan.

Presentation of country reports by the participants
The session for presentations of country reports was held on the 11th and 12th of September, with
Ms. Claire Smith and Ms. Inaba participating. Before the presentation session, Ms. Smith, Presidentof the World Archaeological Congress, gave a lecture about the “Global Trends in Conservation ofArchaeological Sites,” and her work on the indigenous community in Australia. Her lecture was very
informative and gave us knowledge about worldwide trends regarding conservation, and her work on
indigenous people was the first time I have heard about heritage leveling relations between peoples.
During the discussion Ms Inaba also shared her knowledge about intangible culture heritage.
This session provided opportunity for the participants to get information about the sites andmonuments of different countries, and the problems they are facing in preservation and conservation.
During the discussion of the country reports, different solutions to these problems were also suggested.
Some problems were common to almost every country, such as a lack of awareness among the publicregarding cultural heritage, insufficient budget for conservation, need for proper legislation for theprotection of sites and monuments, and uncontrolled growth. Saltpeter in the soil and high water tables
that are destroying archaeological sites and monuments in some countries was also discussed during
the course of the presentations. In this session participants had the chance to give presentations in frontof many experts, enhancing their confidence, and it was the first time that I had the opportunity to
discuss problems of the Harappa site at this level.

The cultural properties protection system in JapanThe lecture by Mr. Ichihara was very informative for me, as he explained about the evolution oflegislation and amendments made over time. The system in Japan is different from the system that321

we have in Pakistan. This system is good in a country like Japan where people have a good degree ofawareness about their cultural heritage, but in underdeveloped counties, in addition to bad economic
conditions, low rates of education and lack of awareness about culture heritage are major hurdles forthe development of such a system in which people voluntarily help the government in the protection
and preservation of culture heritage. However, the lecture by Mr. Ichihara gave me the opportunity tounderstand the cultural property protection system in Japan.

Scientific dating methods and environmental archaeology
In my country the determination of the date of an archaeological site is usually made by comparisonof its archaeological materials with other sites for which the dates are already known, but foreignarchaeological missions working in Pakistan have used C14 and other modern methods. Although
I was familiar with the C14 method, in this course I had the chance to learn about other scientificmethods that are very useful. The C14 method can only be applied when we have materials likecharcoal from good contexts, but if do not find charcoal etc. then we can use other methods, though it
is always good to cross-check the date of a site by using other methods. Environmental archaeology isa very good way to obtain knowledge regarding the eating habits of the inhabitants of a site, and also
to learn the botanical environment of the era when site was in use.
During course I got the chance to learn about dendrochronology and when we can apply it inarchaeology to get more data. At this time it is not possible for us to use all modern scientific methods
in our country, but gradually we can improve our research by using more of these methods.

Study tours of archeological sites, monuments, and museums
During the training course we had the chance to visit many archaeological sites and monuments
not located in Nara prefecture but in Kyoto, Kyushu, and elsewhere. In my country traditional
conservators do not like reconstruction, and I myself was not in favor of this. I think we should firstpreserve what we have, and if it is necessary then we should conserve with the same material only theaffected portion of a structure. But here in Japan the situation of archaeological sites is different thanin Pakistan. Wooden structures are not found preserved in excavations, but only the postholes. The
Japanese archaeologists and conservators reconstruct wooden buildings after a complete study of thearchitecture at contemporary sites and gain some information from written sources if available, butthey do reconstruction only when it is necessary. Another aspect I would like to mention here is theutilization of a historic site as a historic park. This use of a site inspired me a lot. I would definitely
like to apply this for some suitable sites in my country. In museums the displays of objects, showcases,
lighting systems, diagrams, and presentations of different archaeological features was really amazing.

Practical workshops and lectures
During the training course participants had the chance to participate in practical workshops, on topics
such as the conservation science of archaeological sites and remains, documentation of archaeological322

artifacts, and photographic documentation of sites and remains. These workshops gave us first-handknowledge in these fields. I learned much about the photography of archaeological sites, monuments,and objects. For the recording and documentation of an archaeological site photography is very
important. After taking photographs, who keeps the record is more important. The way the Japanese
keep these records that has been shown to us was very good and informative. Besides photography we
gained knowledge about the drawing of objects and pottery, conservation on site, and we also had thechance to visit laboratories with modern equipment.

Introduction to the archaeological prospection of sites
The introduction to archaeological prospection by Mr. Nishimura was an interesting and informative
lecture. He began with a quotation that excavation is a kind of destruction of a site. Yes, it is true but
debatable, and I would like to say something in this regard.
Excavation of an archaeological site is the first step of exposing ancient remains. Without
excavation we cannot present any structure to the people who come to the site to appreciate antiquity.
Conservation of archaeological remains comes after excavation. Science has made much progress andmodern equipment can help archeologists to determine the orientation of buried remains. We can also
map many minor details by using such equipment, but there are many other objects buried with structural
remains which help archaeologists in interpretations of a site. A minor object found from the kitchen ofa house can give us information that we cannot understand by observing the complete layout of the siteon paper. Besides architecture, nowadays the expertise of many fields of research is also applied during
excavation. For example pottery found from a site gives information about the skills and esthetic senseof the inhabitants; bones, botanical and many other materials that we cannot get without excavation
are very useful for reconstructing the environment of the ancient world. It is moreover true that many
important sites that attract millions of people are the result of archaeological excavation. But it isalso true that the maintenance and conservation of archaeological sites is a big issue in every country.
A structure buried in the ground is preserved, and when exposed by excavation to elements such as
sunlight, air, etc., its deterioration begins. Chemical treatment and conservation must be started rightafter excavation to minimize the process of deterioration. The problems do not end here but continue,
so maintenance and conservation are necessary to keep the site in presentable condition. All thesethings require huge budgets not every country can afford, so many sites are in danger.
In my view the methods described in this lecture are useful and should be applied at every site
before excavation; after doing this one can understand the nature of similar sites without excavation.
Excavation should only be conducted in areas where it is very necessary, by using these survey
techniques and excavation of some parts of the site, so we can manage the site better and gain
maximum information to interpret the site in the right manner. The equipment required for this typeof survey is very expensive and many countries cannot afford it. Here I would like to suggest thatcountries like Japan, which has all the necessary equipment and expertise, should help other countries
which cannot afford such equipment. Although Japan is doing some of this, the need is greater.

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Future issues on the preservation of sites and remains: Lectures and discussion
Mr. Gamini Wijesuriya gave lectures about “Future Issues on the Preservation of Sites and Remains,”
and we had useful discussion about this subject and on world heritage. During the discussion wecovered different challenges that we have in our countries, such as low awareness among the public
about the need to protect culture heritage. We all agree that we should educate people, especiallythe younger generation, about the impotence of culture heritage. We also discussed conservation
problems, legislation for the protection of cultural heritage, and the utility of having dialogue between
different groups in society in order to develop awareness regarding the protection of culture heritage.
Participants were also briefed about different organizations of the world working for the protection ofculture heritage, such as ICROM, UNESCO, and the World Archaeological Congress, etc.

Discussions and exchange of information
During the lectures, workshops, study tours, and discussions, I gained much knowledge aboutarchaeology and conservation, but this course also gave me a chance to meet experts in my field who
are working in different countries of the Asia/Pacific region. We often discussed problems that wehave in our countries and tried to find solutions. These discussions were held during the short breaks
between lectures, and also at our hotel where we stayed together. Living and traveling together for
about one month gave me a chance to develop friendship with my colleagues who work in different
countries of the Asia/Pacific region. Before coming to Nara I had knowledge only about my country,
but now have some knowledge about different countries of the region concerning problems common
among us, and how they are working to improve the situation. I discussed conservation problems of
the site of Harappa, where I am working, with my fellow participants, and they give me many practicaland valuable suggestions that I would like to try in my country after going back.

Conclusion
In the end I would like to say that this training course was first one that I attended abroad, and it
was my first experience to travel outside my country. It was also first time that I got the chance toparticipate in a training course in which experts in the cultural heritage field of different countries
participated. This was a unique experience for me. At the end of this training course I feel myself that
I obtained much knowledge about archaeology, conservation, preservation, and international trends incultural heritage, but I need to learn more. However, when I will go back to my country this knowledge
help me to perform my duties in a better way. I was very inspired by the way in which the ACCU
people organized this course – all the people worked very hard for the success of this course and thehospitality and kindness they extended to us was a valuable experience that I am taking with me.

Acknowledgments
I would like to say thank you to Mr. Nishimura, Director of ACCU, for providing me the chance to324participate in this training course. I am thankful to Mr. Dr. Fazel Dad Khan Kaker, Director General,
Department of Archaeology and Museums, Government of Pakistan, for nominating me for thistraining course. I am thankful to Mr. Muhammad Hassan, Curator, Mr. Habib Ahmad, Conservation
Assistant, Archaeological Museum of Harappa, who helped me a lot in the preparation of my country
report, and in the end I would like to say thank you to all the staff members of the ACCU office for
their cooperation and help whenever I requested it. Thank you very much.

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PalauCalvin Taurengel EMESIOCHELThis final report is a mere glimpse onto a once-in-a-lifetime experience of the enrichment of knowledge
that expands the flexibility of planning for, and of technical measures that can lead to the usefulutilization and protection of, the fragile, priceless and valuable cultural heritage sites of one’s country.
The goal of the Training Course on Cultural Heritage Protection in the Asia/Pacific Region 2008, basedon the theme of “Research, Analysis and Preservation of Archaeological Sites and Remains,” is not aneasy issue to deal with, but needs a lot of attention, critical planning and proper approaches that willvary in different countries.
Therefore, before I talk more about the technical or scientific methodology covered in the course, theleadership and kindness of the individuals who made this program possible should be mentioned.
First of all, I would like to take this opportunity to represent the people
and the Republic of Palau in expressing my deepest appreciation andgratitude to the organizers of the training course, who gave me this great
opportunity to be one of the selected participants.

Organizers and trainees

Secondly, many thanks are due to the Director
and all the kind staff of the ACCU Office forpreparing the materials and scheduling, as well as for comforting us during
our stay in Nara, Japan. Finally, I would like to extend my appreciation to
all of the lecturers and instructors, as well as the government officials ofJapan, Nara prefecture, and the municipalities, for sharing their precious
knowledge and methodologies that will provide important measures for
improving the conservation and preservation of Palau’s cultural heritage sites.

Some lecturers of the training course

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ACCU staff

As participants in this training, we were all exposed to our different countries’ situations in preservationand conservation, as well as the challenges and problems that each of us are facing. Some are quite
similar while others are very unique and isolated cases. Perhaps there are many different factors that
contribute to the cause of such problems. The most common factor mentioned in all presentations is
the lack of enough funding and inefficient policy. Of course, these are the main factors that determine
the effectiveness of the whole system of operation.
Despite the weakness in policy and lack of enough funding, the Palau Bureau of Arts and Culture
continues to foster its mission based on all its existing capabilities combined with other methods andtechniques that I have been introduced to during this training. Of course, not all the methods andtechniques that I have learned during this training are possible or effective in my country, but there arethose that are quite different in terms of cultural perspectives. I believe that these vary from country
to country because they have strong implications based on ethnicity and community values. There arealso things that can be utilized in my country perhaps in the future, if we can overcome the lack ofresources, training and funding.
Therefore, I will begin by giving a brief overview of the training course, and then refer to aspects thatcan be useful to the current situation in my country. I will also talk about those approaches that arequite different in terms of values, then continue on to explain those methods and techniques that are ofcourse very effective and useful in my country but cannot be applied soon due to the funding shortage
as well as the lack of training and resources. Finally I want to make a few comments regarding thetraining course that may help provide an insight for future improvement of the training.
The training course was conducted to provide participants with knowledge of the principles andmethodologies of protection, conservation, preservation, utilization as well as recording and analyzingsites and artifacts, including networking and sharing information internationally. The topics covered
during the training course include:• Global Trends in Conservation of Archaeological Sites• Cultural Property Protection System in Japan• Conservation and Utilization of Cultural Heritage Resources• Maintenance and Management of Archaeological Sites in Practice• Introduction to Scientific Dating Methods• Introduction to Environmental Archaeology• Conservation Science of Archaeological Sites and Remains• Documentation of Archaeological Artifacts• Photographic Documentation of Sites and Remains• Introduction to Archaeological Prospection of Sites

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• Introduction to Dendrochronology• Future Issues on the Preservation of Sites and Remains
The course began by presenting us with an overview of world archaeological trends in the conservationof sites. It went on to portray the effectiveness of Japan’s cultural protection system and how it works
based on different techniques and methods, using specialized modern technologies of research,
analysis, conservation, and the protection of Japanese heritage sites for the benefit of preservationand education. Experiencing the effectiveness of modern technologies and how they work proves thatJapan has elevated its cultural protection system to a high degree. I am truly amazed and at the sametime very happy to bring back home and apply what I had learned in this training.
The specific aspects of the training that Palau can implement based on its present situation are themethods and techniques of archaeological documentation and the conservation of artifacts and storage.
What we have been practicing is recording artifacts on site and leaving them as they are because we
do not have the capability of conserving artifacts, and there is a lack of appropriate storage space inour office. But the problem we are facing is that the artifacts continue to deteriorate or sometimes
disappear. Since the most important thing in conservation is trying to keep an item in its originalstate or condition when it was found, then we will consider getting those artifacts specific attention
according to their condition.
Of course, this will involve detailed documentation, including close
observation, drawing and describing all necessary information about each
artifact. The techniques I have been exposed
to in the drawing of artifacts are essential toolsthat I will apply to my work. This will be very
valuable for the conservation process and foranalysis of changes in the artifacts over time. This
Documenting artifacts by drawing

information can be shown to the public instead of
the original artifact. This way the original will be
kept in protected storage for preservation.

The other method of record keeping that is essential, and which amazedme in the techniques employed, is the photographing of artifacts. This isvisual documentation that provides good representation of the form andshape of an object in a two dimensional medium. As I mentioned earlier,
we left artifacts in situ, meaning that photographing also took place insitu. We usually used sunlight as the light source. Now, I will set up asmall area for photographing those items that we bring from the sites to

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Photographing an artifact

the office.
All these types of documentation of artifacts are necessary to the situation in Palau for both oursurvey and inventory projects, as well as for integration into our requirements for project review andcompliance for development that is affecting cultural sites. The more reliable and precise techniquesand methods of documenting archaeological artifacts will improve our archaeological database, which
will help lead to good planning for future conservation and protection as well as development.
On the other hand, there are other methods introduced during the training that employed a muchdifferent approach as compared to my country’s situation. One that is quite interesting was theutilization of cultural properties in Japan. There seems to be a strong force in society dictating theutilization of sites. Perhaps this is an effective way to get community support for cultural properties,
and why during all the on-site lectures and observations, there were many different approaches basedon what is appropriate for the community. This is quite different as compared to the situation in
Palau because we believe that to introduce anything that was not actually part of the original culturalproperty will alter the authenticity of the site. So what we do is try very hard to educate the community
on how essential it is to keep the original condition of such property. I think the utilization of sites
can be a compromise in a good way to some extent, but should have
limitations. A good example is the Yoshinogari site. It is a remarkablepark with community volunteer opportunities, and shows a strong ethic
for educational purposes at the site. I personally think that the planningfor the site was excellent, because it serves those purposes while being animportant cultural property that needs to be conserved and protected for

Yoshinogari activities

future generations.
However, if utilization goes beyond those limits, then the site is considered altered. One such example,
at least based on my personal opinion, is the train track dissecting the heart of the important culturalproperty of the Heijo Palace site. It somehow seems an eyesore and I feel that it lowers the value ofthe site. Perhaps it was made prior to the designation of the site, so I hope the committee for the Heijo
Palace site will look for alternatives and decide on a good option in the near future about the train
track.
Again, there were other techniques and methods introduced to us during the training, including
different types of advanced technological devices as well as treatments and other applications that are
all essential for the Palau Bureau of Arts and Culture in order to elevate its performance in protecting
and preserving cultural properties, but due to lack of funding and training, can only be part of our
future planning to improve our capabilities. Of course, not all this equipment may be possible for us
to utilize. I am positively sure that I myself will not be able to see some or most of this equipment in329

actual operation during my years at the Bureau of Arts and Culture.
The equipment includes:

Feature detector
Feature detector

Feature detector

Infrared equipment
Infrared scanner
Environmental conditions
measurement

X-ray
X-ray

Wooden treatment machine

PEG application
Storage area

The techniques and methods that this super high-technology equipment does provide to
the conservationist
preservationist
includemore advance equipment
ways of obtaining
preciseThe
techniques and andmethods
that this superhigh-technology
does provide
to theinformation
about
importantculturalassets,andhelpingtofosterdisseminationoftheconservationist and preservationist include more advance ways of obtaining precise information aboutdata to the general public through educational media, as well as provide incentives forimportantculturalof
assets,and helping
to foster dissemination of the data to the general public throughfuture planning
protection
and utilization.
educational media, as well as provide incentives for future planning of protection and utilization.

Even though I had mentioned that it will take our office some time to be able to invest insome of this useful equipment, seeing the power of these devices working during thetraining made me think about how to utilize330some of the methods through an indirectprocess, by either incorporating them as part of our requirements process or maybe
creating good international cooperation with another country like Japan for assistance.
This of course will not stop us from planning to purchase some of the equipment, butEven though I had mentioned that it will take our office some time to be able to invest in some of thisuseful equipment, seeing the power of these devices working during the training made me think about
how to utilize some of the methods through an indirect process, by either incorporating them as part ofour requirements process or maybe creating good international cooperation with another country like
Japan for assistance. This of course will not stop us from planning to purchase some of the equipment,
but instead provide us with the same accuracy of information without having the actual equipment.
Finally, there were a few things worth mentioning with the intent to provide an insight for future
training courses. One is the lecture on radiocarbon dating. The materials and lectures were complicatedand technical and I was not able to follow or understand most of the terminology. I felt that it should
be simplified more to make it understandable for non-specialists. Again, it would also be helpful if
further explanation were provided on the process of how to get and prepare the right samples to be sent
for radiocarbon dating analysis. Lastly, PowerPoint presentations are an excellent part of information
dissemination through visual means, so I think it would be wise if the presentations were all in English.
All in all, the entire training program was successful and unforgettable. Of course, each and every oneof us is very proud to be part of this training because were all have learned a lot and will be able tohelp our countries regarding the conservation, preservation and protection of our cultural heritage sites
for our people and future generations. I for one think that this was a one-time opportunity for me toexperience the high level of techniques and methods that Japan has employed on its important culturalproperties, let alone gain exposure to Japanese culture and food. This special knowledge that I obtained
during this one-month training course will be shared with my colleagues, including recommendationand priority planning for implementation of such skills that I have acquired.
In conclusion, I would like to once again express my great gratitude to all the people who contributedin various ways to the success of such an important training course that provides assistance todeveloping countries in the Asia/Pacific region. I hope that this will be the beginning of international
relationship and cooperation between our countries and a means for us to assist each other to improve
the protection, preservation and conservation of our important cultural heritage sites.

Thank you.

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Philippines
Edwin Winston Agito VALIENTES

Learning the ‘Japanese way’:
Training course on heritage management in Japan
Introduction
I am greatly honored to be part of this year’s ACCU training course on cultural heritage. Coming froma country whose history of archaeological research and heritage management is relatively recent, thisprogram has given me a good opportunity to expand my knowledge (theoretical and technical) in
the analysis and preservation of archaeological materials and sites. Japan, as everyone knows, has along and rich tradition of managing heritage places and maybe at present, one can safely assume they
are one of the world’s leading countries in the science of conserving cultural properties. To have thisopportunity to learn from their experiences and current practice is therefore helpful for improving theway I can approach heritage management in my own country.
In this short report, I would like to share some of the things that I have learned from the training course,
some points in the lectures that struck me most and my personal takes on them, some impressions on
the practice of heritage management here in Japan, and a short discussion of ways in which I can apply
the things that I have learned in this training course in light of the issues and concerns that currently
confront the protection and conservation of archaeological heritage in the Philippines.

The role of archaeology among indigenous peoples
As a student of anthropology and archaeology, and as a member of an indigenous community in
the Philippines, I was particularly interested in the talk given by Prof. Claire Smith on indigenousarchaeology and the role of heritage to protect and promote native culture. As we probably all know,archaeology per se is a ‘western discourse’ and a ‘western approach’ to the study of the past. Most
indigenous people, I presume, do not actually have a tradition of going out with trowels and digging
up objects from the distant past to know something about their ancestors. They know and inscribe
their history through the stories and songs and dance and visual art that they have learned from theirancestors. For them, the past is not permanently inscribed on material things that can decay in thecourse of time; the past is in the stories and traditions that they relate in their everyday lives. The pastis also not a static and passive knowledge that you can dissect and classify into different parts andperiods as practiced in archaeology; the past for them is a knowledge that is alive, that you constantly
engage with, and keep recreating and renegotiating over the course of time. The past is in the present.
But given its ‘foreignness’ in the context of indigenous experiences and traditions, archaeology as one

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approach to the study of the past can still hold great potential for enriching their culture. This is thereason why I was most attracted to the idea of indigenous archaeology discussed by Prof. Smith. As
she mentioned, we can no longer talk about a single kind of archaeology but multiple archaeologies,
and here, we can look at indigenous archaeology as just one of the many archaeologies that we practice
today. But what makes indigenous archaeology indigenous is still unclear to me. Is it in the methods,
in the area of research, or in the approach to interpretation? Is it necessarily an archaeology that must
be conducted by indigenous people? If yes, then if an indigenous archaeologist is trained in westernarchaeology and employs western concepts in research, can you still call it indigenous? What about
foreign archaeologists conducting research for the ‘benefit’ of indigenous people, can you also consider
them indigenous archaeologists?
For me, I would like to think of indigenous archaeology as a research strategy driven by indigenous
people to achieve their own research goals. But I would also like to view it as an archaeology that
explores and incorporates indigenous concepts of the past in interpreting archaeological materials nomatter who is doing it, outsider or insider. This might entail a veering away from the orthodox methodsof western archaeology taught to us in schools towards a more contextual kind of archaeology, onethat is based on indigenous ways of looking at and interpreting material culture. I do not know how
this would fare in light of conventional theories and methods employed by those who tend to viewarchaeology as science or as an objective way of studying cultures in the past. But I am optimistic that,given the kind of plurality that exists in our societies at present, indigenous archeology would gain arespectable place in the general field of archaeology if pursued seriously.

To be a World Heritage Site
I was also interested in the discussions led by Dr. Germini Wijesurya of ICCROM. He talked about thechallenges confronting heritage management in different parts of the world and how these challenges
are actually rooted in our differing views about heritage (what constitutes it and for whom) andheritage management (conservation, preservation, and utilization). He said that there is no single
recipe in managing heritage sites; each heritage place has its own problems and needs that can only
be approached in the context of the place and situation in which those problems and needs arise. Thisentails understanding the internal nature of the site, its historical development, its significance, and its
function in the lives of the people who live at or use the site.
In the discussion, I mentioned the need to shift from a top-down to bottom-up approach in managing
heritage sites. In the Philippines, heritage management is mostly done by the state through theirdesignated experts in conservation, using a single approach to address the conservation needs ofall designated heritage sites in the country. Because some of the strategies do not always fit local
situations and problems, they often bring little impact for the conservation of heritage places andthe communities in which those heritage places are located. I like the idea of decentralizing the333management of heritage sites, although this does not mean there will be no support from the national
government. I would like to think that heritage management should be conceptualized at the local level,taking into consideration the points of view of all interest groups such as the stakeholders themselves,archaeologists, historians, architects, and other specialists dealing with heritage conservation. The
role of the national government should be more in giving financial assistance when needed during theimplementation of the management plan.
Dr. Wijesurya also opened up an equally interesting discussion on the concept of world heritage andthe possible advantages and disadvantages of being inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List.
Since its inception, many countries around the world have wanted to inscribe their heritage sites on
this prestigious list. One main attraction is the potential financial support coming from internationalorganizations such as UNESCO for conservation (which, according to one participant, is actually
hard to get). Another attraction is tourism; when a place is inscribed in the world heritage list, tourism
increases in the area and the local economy grows. The downside of it, as experienced by othercountries, is that it may lead to overcrowding by tourists which causes damage. In some countries, tobe a World Heritage Site is a source of pride in their culture. To be recognized on a worldwide scale
is a great honor especially for small communities which long to be part of ‘world history’. But on theother hand, this new symbolic value, when added to nationally important heritage sites, can also turnthem into potential targets of terrorist attacks, as happened in Sri Lanka.
But what does it mean to be world heritage? Or is there really such a thing as ‘world heritage’? A lotof people contest the idea of world heritage, dismissing it as a modern way of displaying the cultural
superiority of western societies over the rest of the world. World heritage sites tend to concentrate
more among countries in Europe than in Asia, and particularly more than in third world countries.
While UNESCO is seriously taking steps to resolve this issue, such as taking into consideration
the values of living heritage by introducing the idea of ‘cultural landscapes’ as one category fornominating sites, there are still some major inadequacies in the process that hinder some countries ininscribing their heritage sites on the list. According to Dr. Wijesurya, the World Heritage List has now
become a major international institution to legitimize the values of heritage sites around the globe, andwhether we like it or not, it is here to stay. The challenge now for young heritage advocates is not toturn their backs on it but to continue engaging and debating and refining the basic principles guiding
the operation of the World Heritage List in order to make it somehow more sensitive to the diversity ofcultures and heritage places around the world, and make it more meaningful to the people.
But given all its shortcomings and Eurocentric tendencies, I would also like to think of it in a positive
way, especially in the case of the Philippines. Coming from a country that puts heritage conservation
as one of its lowest priorities, such distinction can actually spawn government support. I would liketo cite the Ifugao Rice Terraces, one of the World Heritage Sites in the Philippines as a case in point. It

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was not until UNESCO placed it on the List of World Heritage in Danger that the government began
to intervene seriously and implement emergency measures to save the area. International pressure,through world heritage inscription, can in some instances induce national governments to take actionin protecting important heritage places in their respective countries.

Site management and archaeological conservation
This training course has also introduced me to the various ways in which heritage management can bepracticed based on the experiences of Japan. Archaeological and historic sites in Japan are managed by
the national and local governments through their various cultural agencies and research institutes. In
Nara alone, two research institutes are in place to oversee the management of archaeological sites in
the area. These research institutes are the ones responsible for undertaking conservation and restorationof historic places such as ancient palaces and temples. They are staffed by specialists and well funded
to undertake the kinds of research they need to do. If heritage places are on private properties, thegovernment may purchase them for protection. This kind of system I can only admire at the moment.
My country does not have enough money to run research institutes and purchase lands and undertake
conservation and restoration programs for archaeological sites on such a wide scale. But there arecertain aspects of Japan’s system from which I think we can draw inspiration in the Philippines, suchas the process by which they designate and register heritage places. We still lack a systematic way
for identifying potential, and registering known, archaeological and historical sites for the national orprovincial governments to manage. By thinking carefully about the current situation of heritage placesin the Philippines, we can apply some of the principles that underlie the Japanese system to make themanagement of our heritage sites more effective.
This training course also introduced me to many new technologies in conservation science that I
learned of and saw for the very first time. I admire the Japanese government for giving so muchpriority to heritage conservation by giving their research institutions enough funding to develop or
acquire these new technologies to address the conservation needs of their archaeological sites. I do notknow if my country can ever afford to buy such technologies in my lifetime. But I would not like to
see the lack of these technologies be a hindrance to research and proper management of heritage sites
in the Philippines. I agree with what one of the Japanese lecturers said to us at the Kyushu National
Museum, one does not need to be rich and have the capacity to purchase all these hi-tech facilities
to conduct high levels of archaeological research and conservation, one only needs to cooperate anddevelop partnerships with other countries such as Japan who have these technologies.
I also admire the passion of Japanese archaeologists who shared their knowledge and expertisewith us regarding archaeological analysis and conservation. We do not have such highly specialized
persons in the Philippines to attend the conservation needs of our archaeological sites. According to
my professors in the university where I study, Japanese archaeologists are the most meticulous when335

it comes to mapping and documenting archaeological materials. As someone interested in ceramic
research, I found the seminar on pottery analysis most interesting and helpful to me. In the area where
I am planning to conduct archaeological research in the future, the majority of the materials foundby previous research are pottery remains. It most likely will be that when I do my own research there
I will encounter the same kind of situation. While it would very hard for me find complete pots likethose found here in Japan, the system of documentation of pottery that I have learned here in Japan isstill going to be useful to me when conducting pottery analysis.

Japanese heritage
Aside from the new research methodologies and conservation techniques that I learned from thistraining course, I also gained a good glimpse of Japanese history and culture through the site andmuseum visits that we made. I found it interesting to see Chinese and Southeast Asian elements
in some of their architectural traditions. Previously, my idea of Japanese culture was one that ishomogenous, distinct from other cultures of the world. But through these excursions, I realized that
it is a composite of different influences from different cultures and what we know today as a unique
Japanese culture is the result of the fusion of those different elements.
The Buddhist temples and palaces are really among the most amazing places that I visited here in
Japan. They truly deserve their world heritage distinction. The visit to the Yayoi settlement site (300BC – 300 AD) in Kyushu was most interesting to me, not only because the reconstruction at the site
was truly impressive but also because Yayoi is the period where I see many similarities in terms ofmaterial culture between Japan and the Philippines. I am tempted to think of the people who lived
in this area as part of a cultural sphere where the Austronesian-speaking societies of Southeast Asiaand the Pacific belong. The double-jar burial is very similar to those I have found in the Philippines.
The reconstructed wooden houses at the site are very Southeast Asian or ‘Austronesian’ in theircharacteristics. Pre-colonial historical accounts in the Philippines mention similar fortified settlementsites, raised wooden houses, and special areas for burials and elite residence. A deeper comparative
study between the Yayoi period in Japan and the Neolithic and the protohistoric period in Southeast
Asia might reveal a direct cultural link between them in the past.

Concluding noteLet me conclude this short report by thanking ACCU Nara for inviting me to participate in this year’s
training course, especially Dr. Yasushi Nishimura, ACCU Director, who also gave a wonderful lecture
for us on archaeological prospection, and the staff of ACCU – Mr. Isao Nakai, Ms. Yasuko Otani,
Mr. Wataru Kinoshita, Ms. Kaoru Tanda, and Mr. Tsutomu Yamashita. I would also like to thankour interpreter for the entire duration of the training course, Ms. Chiyako Hata, and the following
assistants/tutors who have been always kind, patient and attentive to our queries and needs: Mr. Eisuke
Nishikawa, Ms. Tomomi Itaya, Ms. Rie Tanaka, and Ms. Kanda Hiroko.
Maraming salamat sa inyong lahat! (Thank you very much to all of you)336

Republic of Korea
HAN Min Su
I. Introduction
Cultural heritage is essential for accurate understanding of the history, culture and spirit of eachcountry; it is also a cultural foundation for the past, present and future.
Therefore proper research, analysis and preservation of archaeological sites and remains are
required for us to keep important cultural heritage safe for the next generation, and accordingly ACCU
Nara, in partnership with ICCROM and the Agency for Cultural Affairs, has organized this training
course titled the “Training Course on Cultural Heritage Protection in the Asia/Pacific Region.”
In 2008, its subject was “Research, Analysis and Preservation of Archaeological Sites andRemains,” and the program consisted of presentations, discussions, lectures, workshops, and study
tours of cultural heritage.
Through this training course I learned how Japanese heritage is protected, and equally important,exchanged experiences with participants from other countries. With the new knowledge gained throughthis training, I am hoping for a marked improvement in conserving Korea’s archaeological sites andremains.

II. The Training Course
1. Global Trends in Conservation of Archaeological Sites. The meaning of cultural heritage is physicalstructures and products that transfer memory; reminders of people, events and associations; and shapesof national and cultural identity. Accordingly, every valuable historic object can become part of thecultural heritage. In recent years, many efforts are observed for protecting cultural heritage, such as
those of the World Archaeological Congress and other advocates of cultural heritage protection.
One such effort is the repatriation of heritage. It is a worldwide trend and its reasons are as
follows. First, the return of heritage of other countries means international legality in the present.
Second, these heritage remains must be in their countries of origin because they are very important
historic items representing the spirit of those countries. Another effort is to improve the meansof heritage exhibition. A common mistake is to dissolve the divide between art and science, thus
confusing the viewers. For example, the “Discourse of Colonialism,” which used “open storage,” thus
dissolving the divide between art and science, plus indigenous systems of classification, minimal useof labels, and no meta-narrative, creating confusion.
2. The Cultural Property Protection System in Japan. Cultural properties are divided into three
categories as follows. Designation is done by the Agency of Cultural Affairs and is mostly for sitesthat are over 50 years old. This offers the strictest protection and most financial support and depends
on the owner’s permission. Registration can protect sites less than 50 years old, and people can apply337

to register sites of cultural property for protection. This also depends on the owner’s permission, andis not as strict as designation and there is less financial support. Selection is used for important groupsof historic buildings and important cultural landscapes. These kinds of properties are vast in area, andwould require getting permission from many land owners. Accordingly, if it is of worthy importancefrom the view of Japan as a country, it will be selected by the government. In Japan, the designation,
registration, and selection of cultural properties are carried out by the Minister of Education, Culture,
Sports, Science and Technology on the basis of reports submitted by the Council for Cultural Affairs in
response to ministerial inquiry. Also, cultural properties are divided into eight categories in all.
3. Conservation and Utilization of Cultural Heritage Resources (Cases in Japan). First, the Law for
the Protection of Cultural Properties has been continuously revised by the government and concerned
parties. It has become a foundation for the conservation and utilization of cultural heritage resources.
Second, interpretation with concern about preservation and utilization is a good tool for making
connections between historical sites and citizens. This process has two parts, one involving systems
and the other involving shapes. Concretely, systems are workshops, idea competitions, building by
citizens, and maintenance by citizens. Shapes are mixtures of contemporary art, applications of hightechnology, and the integrity of landscapes. For example, the preservation and utilization of important
historical site in machizukuri projects integrate these techniques: analysis of future population andtraffic, design of buildings and streets, analysis of structural techniques, and realization.
4. Maintenance and Management of Archaeological Sites in Practice. Research, restoration,
maintenance, and management of the Nara Heijo Palace site has three basic principles. One is topresent the Nara capital to the public through excavation of the site. Another is to preserve the site.
The third is to restore, preserve, and conserve the archaeological site and remains using state-ofthe-art techniques. A significant aspect of this site is not only preservation but also the developmentof new techniques. Furthermore, the basic concept is changing according to the reconstruction planand nationalization of the site. Preservation of structural remains is divided into un-excavated andexcavated areas. Preservation of the former is by leaving them untouched, and of the latter is to rebury
the archaeological remains under soil. Also, there are many maintenance principles. First, maintenanceas sustainable conservation is to maintain, preserve, and provide facilities for this site. Second,
maintenance as an expression of the site is through two-dimensional displays, partial three-dimensional
displays, and reconstructions. Third, maintenance of service facilities as a public space is throughpublic facilities for display, restaurants and coffee shops, souvenir shops, restrooms, and parking areas.
But the realities of management involve problems including vegetation, structures and buildings,
opening of displays to the public, utilization, providing guides and events.
The Asuka and Fujiwara regions have many historic sites. The master plan for restoration ofthese sites was established by the government, and many specific plans are being made. While somesites are being restored by the Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, nobody knows338

when these projects will end because restoration at some sites has many problems, such as purchasing
land from owners, funding, etc. Funding is especially a very big problem. Presently, one basic conceptof restoration is to use flowers. Its advantage is being very cheap and easy to manage. In using flowers,
mixing varieties which bloom in the spring, summer, autumn, and winter is emphasized. This activity
is being applied at the Fujiwara palace site after the restoration method of reburial, as done at the Narapalace.
5. Introduction to Scientific Dating Methods, Environmental Archaeology, Archaeological Prospectionof Sites, and Dendrochronology. Scientific dating methods, which can be divided into numerical andrelative methods, are one set of age determination methods in archeology. First, numerical methods canbe sub-classified as radiometric and non-radiometric. Radiometric methods use radioactive isotopes
and radiation damage. The former are radiocarbon, potassium-argon, argon-argon, and uranium series,
the latter are fission track, luminescence, and electron spin resonance. Non-radiometric methods
which use chemical change are amino acid and obsidian hydration. Secondly, relative methods include
archeomagnetic dating based on paleomagnetism, dendrochronology, and fluoride dating. Several
scientific methods are based on a particular principle and careful evaluations are required.
Environmental archaeology asks “what do plant and organic remains tell us?” Pollen analysis
is a widely utilized method for identifying plant remains in archeology. Other methods include
the identification of seeds and fruits, identification of tree species, analysis of plant opals orsilicates, analysis of diatoms, and the analysis of parasite eggs. These methods are used to study theenvironment, vegetation, and ancient eating habits at archaeological sites and remains.
Archaeological prospection promises a change for archaeology itself, to more non-destructive
methods of investigation, such as the identification of archaeological features by detecting anomalous
physical and chemical properties in the soil. The objective of prospection is an improvement in the
direction of acquiring historical data without excavation using non-destructive methodology, andpreserving archaeological sites. Archaeology as a whole will also apply more scientific methods
for dating, for the study of palaeoenvironments and palaeobiology, for biomolecular analysis, andbiological resource exploration.
Dendrochronology was originally developed during the first half of the 20th century by the
astronomer A. E. Douglass. Recently, this analysis of ancient wooden cultural properties is applied to awide range of materials, including archaeological artefacts, building components, wooden sculptures,works of art, and handicrafts.
6. Study Tour. Himeji castle is a World Heritage Site with well preserved buildings and other remains.
The World Heritage Committee of UNESCO has placed especially high value on traditional woodenarchitecture in Japan, and many tourists visit this castle, in addition to Horyuji temple and otherwooden structures.
Kyushu National Museum was opened in October 2005 as the fourth national museum of Japan.

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This museum is particularly well equipped with facilities such as advanced storage, scientific study andresearch divisions, and conservation and restoration sections for the cultural properties in this museum.
The Yoshinogari site, located the Saga prefecture, is one of Japan’s largest Yayoi periodmoat-enclosed settlements, and is of extremely high educational value because it affords a superb
opportunity to discern the formative process of a primitive state after the start of rice cultivation. Afterseveral excavations, this site has been extensively restored along the lines of its initial status.
The Korokan was a diplomatic place of strategic importance for early Japan going back at least
to the eighth century. A part of this archaeological site has been excavated and restored.
7. Workshops and Discussions. (1) “Conservation Science of Archaeological Sites and Remains.”
Conservation treatment reduces the speed of deterioration of cultural property as much as possible. The
treatment is in four parts, which are rescue, examination, treatment, and check up. In these processes,
the objects have to be stored under appropriate conditions before conservation treatment, but the mostimportant point is that when an excavation is carried out with the intent to preserve and organize thesite post-excavation, conservation technology becomes involved in a variety of forms. From the same
viewpoint, environmental research is needed to learn the geographical conditions of archaeologicalsites as well as the status of preservation of remains. Additionally, we need analysis of remains forgood conservation and restoration, but what we want to know is the important point.
(2) “Documentation of Archaeological Artefacts.” There are a variety of kinds of archaeologicalartefacts: ceramics including pottery and roof tiles, wooden items, etc. Especially, one important partof the documentation of archaeological artefacts is drawing. Basically, there are two kinds of drawing
needed in order to express an archaeological object of three dimensions through drawings in two
dimensions, and these kinds of drawing are combined. These artefacts provide a wealth of information
on archaeological sites, and we have a system for use in the documentation of this information. First,
observe the condition of the material, its characteristics and other information. Second, conserve theartefacts for preservation over a long time. Third, present to the public all data on the artefacts.
(3) “Photographic Documentation of Sites and Remains.” There are a variety of photographic
techniques for the documentation of archaeological materials. But we must understand why
photographs are necessary for recording archaeological sites and remains. Generally, professional
photographers say that photographs can record and communicate more detailed information to a third
party than verbal descriptions and drawings can provide in archaeology: the texture of the artefacts,
configurations and positions of features, the atmosphere and sense of reality of the site. Additionally,
we should recognize some important points for the role of photographs as archaeological records, thegeneral principles for archaeological photography, the requirements for the ideal photograph, and forthe storage of photographs.
(4) “Future Isssues on the Preservation of Sites and Remains” (Risk Management, and Utilization
for Public). Risk management is a very important topic, because when cultural heritage is exposed
it may face dangerous situations or damage. We must plan carefully how to manage and conserve340

for such situations. However, viewed from a different standpoint, such risk is shared with otherpeoples blessed with cultural heritage. Of course, there are many international organizations, such as
UNESCO, ICCROM, and ICOMOS, but these groups just present worldwide basic regulations, and
it is very difficult to devise special techniques of risk management because each country has its own
remains, conservation environment, and popular sentiment.
Utilization for the public is also an important topic. When local residents and people of the entire
nation are blessed with the benefit of utilization of cultural heritage, all citizens should be enabled toreceive equal benefits, and most of all communication with local residents is very important for theconservation and restoration of cultural heritage. That is why it is most important to communicate withthe local citizens concerned to preserve and restore cultural heritage ruined by time and other factors.
Additionally, in the case of the restoration of heritage, relevant information should be prepared to makevisitors understand the situation, and most of all, through these activities a sympathy for preserving
and sharing heritage must be nurtured.

III. Status (or Problems) and Applications (or Solutions) for the Conservation ofArchaeological Sites and Remains in Korea
I gained important information through this course, and have thought about the present situation andproblems of Korea. I have developed some ideas to apply to improve the system for conservation andpreservation of our cultural heritage. These are as follows.
Generally, our country has low recognition of recent cultural heritage because of the great
number of cultural properties and our long history. But we must try to preserve everything that hasmeaning, either ancient or more recent, and this progressive thinking is the worldwide trend in theconservation of cultural heritage.
Recently, many countries have been returning the cultural heritage of other countries, and wehave taken advantage of this worldwide trend of repatriation of heritage to get back some of our own.
But first of all we must ask ourselves, “Why do we need international organizations to protect cultural
heritage?”
If we find important archaeological sites or remains through excavation, we often build a special
exhibition building, but these cases have some problems or issues, such as the shape and positionof the exhibition building, or the space and amount of remains that can be exhibited. Moreover, thisexhibition is held to present specific cultural property to visitors, but sometimes that needs to be
managed by several curators. So we often see inadequate utilization for aspects of the exhibition.
If we want to utilize our cultural properties well, the persons concerned with the exhibition should
supplement with relevant information about the cultural remains of that region, and should indicate
the characteristics which allow for the classification of the heritage in question. This also includes
providing labels, which is important because unfamiliar data can be explained and put in order withthem. Of course, we have particular ways of dealing with our cultural heritage that are unlike thesituation in Japan, but some parts of the Japanese example should be accepted, such as the utilization341

of exhibition.
The conservation policies for archaeological sites and remains in Korea are very similar to
Japan but some parts are different. First, the utilization of archaeological sites and remains should be
implemented to make more information available for various persons interested in culture, including
visitors and local residents. This part relates to the purchase of historical sites from landowners.
Second, for continuous conservation of archaeological sites and remains, the central government
should be more closely connected with regional cities through feedback systems after the masterplan has been established, and facilitate both visitors and citizens. Third, the process of examination,verification, and application for conservation and restoration of archeological sites should be done
more slowly. It is not only problem of money but also the importance of cultural heritage. After we
examine the results of conservation and restoration for one of historic site, we can apply them to othersites. Additionally, we should think more about convenience facilities for visitors and local residents
such as vending machines, smoking areas, and restrooms.
Although scientific dating has been used in age determinations in archaeology, stratigraphy
and typology are relied on in many countries. The important point, as stated by M. J. Aitken, is when
we use any type of scientific dating technique, whether the measured sample represents the age ofthe archaeological event or the materials of interest. Scientific age dating has advantages, and if we
carefully use the method, there are no problems. But we additionally need to perform cross-checksof data with another country’s laboratory. Accordingly, careful consideration is needed when using
scientific dating results to determine the age of archaeological remains. So if we use it to check thetypologies in our country, this scientific method can be a powerful tool.
Pollen analysis, together with the identification of seeds, fruits, tree species, etc., has been usedin Japan to obtain very important information in many archaeological studies. Although these methods
are useful for research in environmental archeology, they have some problems such as the availabilityof fundamental data on ancient plants and the environment. Accordingly the application of some ofthese scientific methods will be restricted within narrow limits. That is to say, we must recognize theweak points, and establish many standards for widespread use in order to extract valuable informationfrom archaeological sites through methods such as pollen analysis. If such standards are established,
we can use them for environment archeology. In particular, the analysis of seeds, and of parasite eggs
for identifying ancient toilet sites, can be applied more widely than just our country. Of course, wehave always been using some of these methods, but standardized data and a wider array of methods
must be applied more deeply to research in the archaeology of our country.
Additionally, our country requires training courses for non-professional photographers suchas cultural properties specialists working at archaeological sites, and conservators at laboratories for
cultural properties.

IV. Conclusion
This training course has been very useful for many participants, and provided opportunities for the342

study of conservation and restoration methods of cultural heritage in other counties. Above all, it
helped me reach the following conclusions.
In the conservation of cultural heritage, we should first of all always inquire of ourselves what
is important about the matter at hand. For example, what kind of visitors to target, what are goingto show to visitors along routes of exhibitions, and how to utilize buildings. And in the conservationand preservation of archaeological sites and remains, the significant problems for conservation andpreservation of these materials in the present should have priority over all other things.
Additionally, we must take part in world committees and international organizations for theconservation and protection of cultural heritage. This has real meaning for the conservation of valuable
cultural heritage.
In conclusion, it is extremely important to preserve, restore and utilize archaeological sites andremains appropriately, because they are possessions of great value to the people in every individual
country, so we must conserve important information and artefacts of the ancient past through more
processes and techniques which can be derived by scientific methods.

V. Acknowledgments
First of all, I want to thank the organizers for their time and efforts in providing this training course,
beginning with Mr. NISHIMURA Yasushi, Mr. TAROUDA Akinori, Mr. NAKAI Isao, MS. TANDA
Kaoru, Mr. KINOSHITA Wataru, Ms. OTANI Yasuko, Mr. YAMASHITA Tsutomu, Ms. NISHIDA
Michiko, Ms. HATA Chiyako, and all other staff members of ACCU, Nara.
I also would like to thank ICCROM, ACCU Tokyo, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, theNara prefectural and municipal governments, and the Nara National Research Institute for Cultural
Properties.
I am also thankful to my government, my director, and to all the other participants in thistraining.
Again, I am really grateful to all parties concerned, and I look forward to sharing this knowledge
with my institute and associates upon my return to Korea, and to continue communication and joint
steps with all of the participants.

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SamoaTautala Silaulelei ASAUAIntroduction
Being a part of the 2008 training course on “Research, Analysis and Preservation of ArchaeologicalSites and Remains,” in Nara, Japan has provided me with a wealth of knowledge. The entire
curriculum offered during this one-month course was extremely relevant to the current needs for theconservation and preservation of cultural properties in Samoa. An additional bonus of this training wasmeeting other participants from the fields of archaeology and conservation architecture. This provided
for me an opportunity to be able to really engage and discuss with participants on how cultural heritageis working and being managed in their countries. Unlike the already established systems in eachparticipant’s country where conservation and preservation of archaeological sites are a significant
issue, Samoa is very different. This is mostly due to having no well-established system in place forlegislation on, the administration and research of, and storage facilities for cultural properties. In
spite of small provisions existing in a few legislative acts of some ministries in Samoa, these are not
implemented, nor strong enough to ensure full protection, documentation, or conservation of culturalproperty.
The way in which preservation and conservation of cultural properties in Japan works seems
to be successful because it is modelled around what is appropriate and suitable for Japanese culture.
Another advantage is the amount of historical information they have to assist in their reconstruction
projects, as well as the technical equipment and skills available to conduct such work. This entire
training has been a wonderful learning experience which has broadened my view and given me more
information to make much better decisions for any type of development that will occur in my workin Samoa. The remainder of this report will provide overviews on specific aspects from this training
which I feel are applicable to the needs of my work in Samoa.

The cultural properties system in JapanThe administration and management of cultural properties in Japan, such as the designation,
registration, and selection of cultural property, is an interesting system. Each municipal and prefectural
government manages its own heritage, which is a realistic approach as it gives responsibility tolocal government for managing cultural property. The presentation of it becomes meaningful to thatparticular community. It also ensures proper management. The only issue I was not really comfortablewith concerned the matters on cultural properties of national value recovered from privately owned
land and the processes involved in securing the land for the sake of protecting cultural property. It was
not clear to me how private landowners are compensated, and if such compensation is sufficient if theland they have is their only means for subsistence, and whether owners are willing to let go of property
which may have been in their family for generations. The only reason why this particular point stood344

out for me is due to it not being able to work in Samoa if such a process was in place, because a large
percentage of land in Samoa is privately owned, and ownership is based on the traditional genealogicaland chief system in Samoa.
However, this type of model does have potential for Samoa though it would need to be modified
to suit the current resources available and utilise existent traditional cultural systems. However, before
reaching this level, our main priority is to set up a nationwide survey for archaeological sites, which
can be achieved through research-based projects from the programme at the National University of
Samoa. The information gained from the system in Japan (and other countries) will assist greatly in thenear future in planning for cultural property protection in Samoa.

Overview of site visits
The sites we visited offered opportunities to see the implementation of the cultural property system inJapan. The archaeological excavations at the Nara Palace site were impressive, and even the system
Japan has for training and hiring local people to assist in the excavation work is a really good model inproviding employment opportunities for and getting support from the local community. Such a system
would also be useful in Samoa.
The practise of reconstructing sites above the original archaeological remains is also anotherinteresting way for preserving a site. This raises many questions such as how decisions are made inchoosing to reconstruct a site, and whether this decision outweighs costs for the future maintenance ofthe reconstructions, or the decision of just reburying sites. For countries like Samoa where we lack thefacilities and resources to conduct such work, the option of reburying is the best way for preservation.
Concerning reconstruction, this too may pose a challenge if authenticity is to be a deciding factor
because of the lack of reliable written documents and illustrative examples depicting past structures.
The advantage for Japan is its rich evidence in the written and historical records to assist in suchreconstruction and design of buildings. What was amazing to see on most of the site visits was
the numbers of local visitors to sites, which confirms that the method Japan has for presenting thearchaeological record to the public is very successful. When compared to the educational value andpromotion of public awareness among communities it is evident that such physical presentations areimportant in encouraging community support and interest.

Importance of conservation
The lectures and site visits dealing with conservation issues provided me with valuable knowledge
about the conservation of cultural properties. It also has made me aware of the need to incorporate
conservation planning in any archaeological research. Samoa’s prehistory extends at least to about3000 years ago, and the types of cultural properties we have range from pottery, stone artefacts, stonemonuments and earthen mounds (the development of these last two structures may have occurred atleast a thousand years ago). No reports of wooden materials have been recovered from archaeologicalcontexts due to the acidity of soils. However, Samoa does have wooden buildings of historical value345

constructed in the early 1900s which are part of Samoa’s heritage. The lack of facilities we havewould make conservation a challenge. However, the basics of conservation can still be implemented
until such facilities can be developed. What was encouraging during these lectures was the alternativeand cost-effective methods the lecturers provided for people who would not have the facilities to
conduct such specialised work, and the opportunity to have collaboration with institutions in Japan.
The knowledge given on the essential basics of conservation can be applied and adapted with existent
traditional cultural practises of conservation in Samoa.

Concept of historical parks
The visit to the Yoshinogari site in Kyushu was my first experience to see an archaeological siteutilised as a historical park with full-scale reconstructions and exhibitions. There are many benefits ofthis kind of concept, because it enables a reconstruction of the natural surroundings with a time periodof Japan’s history such as the Yayoi period. The educational value of this type of presentation seems
to be a success in Japan in terms of the amount of visitors each year to this site. Such a concept would
be successful in Samoa with careful planning which incorporates and utilises the strengths of Samoan
culture. The advantage of this type of presentation is in the visual and educational impact it would haveon communities and young children.

The Kyushu National Museum
This visit was surprisingly a huge highlight for me because it raised much awareness in me about theconcept of a museum – and has somewhat opened my mind to the possibilities of designing a museumthat is suitable to a cultural context. I was mostly interested with the design of the museum and thecareful planning and considerations of storing, preserving, conserving and restoration facilities ofcultural property (including the roof designed to maximise the natural resources in producing energy).
The physical design of the Kyushu museum is an excellent model (in my opinion) to use and adapt
accordingly to the natural and cultural strengths of countries. For the work that needs to be done in
Samoa, a storage-type facility is more suitable for the current purposes of the work required. The
advice and example of the storage area at the Kyushu National Museum was very valuable. Even themethod of displaying cultural property for the public has a more interactive approach, making learninga memorable experience.
Concerning the presentation of cultural property for Samoa in a facility such as a museum, I
believe this will require a reconsideration of what the concept of ‘museum’ means within the context of
Samoa and for Samoans. This is mostly because living cultural heritage and historic cultural heritage
are closely intertwined. However, the educational value of museums is popular amongst Samoan
high school students, and the challenge will be in deciding how to maintain and continue increasing
local interest in the present and future. The example of the Kyushu museum is worth utilising andconsidering for Samoa’s case, so long as it is modelled within the interests of the Samoan community.

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Country presentations, discussions and final week of discussions
For myself personally, I found the country presentations to be excellent. To be able to learn from theother participants about their work and to see the problems and needs in their countries has provided
me with very important things to consider in the development of archaeology and conservation ofcultural properties in Samoa. The experiences shared by everyone have really helped me to be mindfulof the potential problems that can occur and the need to have careful plans that will work for mycountry.
Concerning the lectures given by Professor Claire Smith and Dr Gamini Wijesuriya on the
global trends and future issues in the preservation of sites, the themes raised in their lectures are very
important. Their lectures encouraged a lot of dialogues and discussions amongst the participants (evenafter the lectures finished we would still discuss the topics). I believe that having such discussions
in the beginning and at the end of the training is beneficial because it allows us to really apply therest of the content from other lectures given by Japanese experts within the context of the global
issues and within our own countries. It was very helpful to contextualise the situation in Samoa on a
global level because it emphasises the need to ensure that the communities which archaeologists andconservationists serve really consider and communicate their needs – especially on the global level,
because it allows room for learning and modifying global policies brought into developing countries totake place.

How I intend to use the knowledge gained from this training in my work in Samoa
I am currently teaching archaeology at the National University of Samoa, which is a new programme.
I will be able to share the knowledge and experiences from Japan with my students, particularly fromall the lectures that were given, as these have enhanced my understanding immensely. In addition I
hope to share with the government agencies I need to work with the applicable information we can use
to begin moving toward creating foundations for protecting cultural property in Samoa. These are thefollowing things I hope to do in Samoa based on the current needs in my country:• Ensure that conservation plans are included in any archaeological research that takes place in
Samoa.
• Emphasise the conservation and heritage aspect of cultural properties in the current archaeology
courses I teach.
• Encourage and establish dialogues with existent agencies in Samoa who can help thedevelopment of heritage protection of cultural properties and eventually lead to legislation.
• Find ways that are cost-effective to implement the existent provisions to help move toward
national recognition for the protection and conservation of archaeological sites and culturalproperties.
• Really find out what heritage means from the Samoan point of view and use this to informfuture developments for cultural property protection.

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• To use parts of the cultural properties system in Japan as well as the models learned from othercountries in this training, as examples for Samoa to consider and adopt and develop for what issuitable in Samoa, for Samoan people.
It should be emphasised that the development of cultural properties protection in Samoa is still in its
infancy stage and has so much potential to become something that can be recognised and understoodby all Samoans. The problems and issues shared by other countries and Japan will be used as learning
experiences for Samoa to consider. This training has been of great value to me, as it has provided mewith a special opportunity to learn from other countries and to be aware of the potential issues that
could be encountered in the present and future. I am very excited to begin addressing these challenges
with other agencies in Samoa, and especially with the new relationships I have made from this training.

Conclusion
This training has broadened my view on many important issues. I am very grateful for the opportunity
to be a part of this training and to have met such wonderful people during this month. I would like tothank all the organisers of this training for providing this forum for people working with heritage in
the Asia/Pacific region. Coming from a developing country in the Pacific, I found this training to be ofgreat use. It has expanded my knowledge on heritage and it has allowed me to adopt methods and ideas
from other countries and modify them within a Samoan cultural framework. Even though it is true that
Samoa is still in the early stages of protecting its heritage of cultural property, this training has given
me so many things to really reflect on and try.
I would also like to thank all the lecturers and the experts, from Japan and other countries,
and from the various agencies involved in the training, for sharing their time, their knowledge andexperiences with us, and for enhancing my understanding on many topics and issues.
Also a special thank you to all the staff at ACCU Nara for all of your time, energy and happy
attitudes in making all of us feel welcome. To all the new friends I have made through this training
from the fifteen participating countries, I extend my sincerest gratitude to each of you for your kindness
and friendship, and for sharing your knowledge, experiences and cultures with me. Your experiences
and suggestions will have a valuable input in the work that needs to be done in Samoa. Fa’afetai telelava !

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Thailand
Sermsuk PRAKITTIPOOMIntroduction
This final report was produced as part of the participation in the Training Course in Cultural Heritage
Protection in the Asia/Pacific Region 2008, on the theme of “Research, Analysis and Preservation ofArchaeological Sites and Remains,” organized by the Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia/Pacific Cultural Center for UNESCO (ACCU), in coordination with ICCROM and the Nara
National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, and held in Nara, Japan from 9 September to 9
October 2008.
The aim of this report is to comment on how the knowledge gained of the subjects covered in thistraining course will be applied by the participants to our work as archaeologists in our countries oforigin, or even on how it has refreshed the knowledge from college days of participants who havebeen working in the field for too long. This training course was mainly conducted through lectures,practical workshops, and field visits arranged to heritage sites such as the Heijo Palace excavation siteand exhibition hall in Nara, the older capital sites at Asuka and Fujiwara, and sites on visits to Kyoto,
Himeji, and Kyushu.

Course content
All topics presented during the training course, by specialists in a variety of fields, were well organizedand highly relevant, focusing on Japanese archaeological research methodology and analysis of ancientremains. The lectures can be divided into broad categories in several issues, including the following.
• Legal protections for culture property• Site management• Conservation science• Scientific methods in archaeology• Environmental archaeology• Archaeological recording and documentation• Archaeological site presentation and utilization
To begin with, there was an introduction to the management of cultural properties in Japan, covering
guidelines of management and funding in protection and conservation. There was an explanation of
the system of Japanese legislation, and also of the international charters that have been declared for theprotection and preservation of cultural heritage, and of the international organizations that are carrying349

out these guidelines, and providing training, in the field of cultural heritage protection.
The management of cultural heritage sites begins with their excavation and research, both scientificand theoretical, in order to provide as much detailed information for future planning for promoting
the site as a monument, and for academic frameworks. Then bringing scientific in preservation isnecessary, especially for wooden remains and all other artifacts from archaeological excavation.
During the lecture emphasis was given to alternative management strategies, such as site preservationin situ in which unearthed features are provided with a shelter to protect the site and provide for its
utilization as well.
All the lecturers in the course are experts in their fields, especially the scientists in conservation. The
training course provided new techniques involving specialized scientific equipment, for a variety of
purposes in the study and analysis of remains. These included beginning the archaeological processwith geophysical prospection by using radar, electromagnetic surveys, along with GIS and GPS
to explore the potential of the site before excavation, so the work can be done more accurately.
In the stage of conducting the digging in the field, scientific methods are still involved as in thecase of environmental archaeology, which was covered in the course. This is one type of scientificinterpretation of the evidence obtained from archaeological excavations. Other scientific methods
include the age determination of artifacts, such as numeric methods including radiometric andchemical analysis, and relative methods such as dendrochronology and archaeomagnetic dating, whichwere some of the subjects of lectures.
Site and artifact conservation technology, the methods and techniques applied for the preservation ofdifferent materials such as wooden artifacts, metals and organic material remains, were covered. The
different preservation techniques for wood, including the use of different chemicals, sugar alcoholacid ester method, vacuum freeze drying and alcohol methods, and epoxy resin methods, were taught
during the lecture at the Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties.
The lectures and practical workshops on archaeological documentation and records gave theparticipants the opportunity to do drawing by measuring pottery, and to take rubbings of roof tiles.
These methods are very useful for records during the archaeological research and investigationsof a site, to get exact data from the archaeological remains. After collecting the data, as part as thearchaeological process, they are published in documents about the field work as the legal and moral
obligations of proper archaeological work.

Benefits acquired from the training course
Altogether the subjects in the course were very interesting. But for a Thai archaeologist as me, themost attractive aspect of the course was the way Japanese put full resources into archaeological work350

for both remains and sites, which has been neglected in the archaeological work in my country. But
the main issue is to educate local people in Thailand to engage in understanding their past, and be partof the protective system in Thai society. The aim is to build knowledge of basic archaeology. The way
to concentrate on that is to do presentations that explain the facts to the ordinary local resident who
has interest in the field of archaeology, and the benefit of public education. Archaeology is the studyof human activity in the ancient past. Therefore archaeological research has a more significant role
than just the material study of ancient people; more than just work in that area it must also educatesociety. The conservation and utilization of cultural heritage impresses people much more than one canimagine.
One of the outstanding aspects of the Japanese is their emphasis on accurately understanding the natureof their own history and culture. They make it an important point to preserve and utilize appropriately
most of their cultural properties, which are the heritage of all the people. The system aims for theprocesses of utilization to be ways to promote the understanding of the sites, to make people know
and care about the richness and the value of their own heritage. Among the topics covered for helping
people understand archaeological excavation was the technique of making transcriptions of soil
profiles, showing different layers of soil in cross-section in the excavation trench, which can be used
as a scientific record as well as for exhibitions in site museums so the visitors can understand theimportant of the deposits in different layers. The importance of soil stratigraphy, applied to the proper
preservation of the cultural heritage, can be very significant in conveying an image of the work.
The development and utilization of archaeological sites is a key focus of heritage management
undertaken by various organizations. There are currently several archaeological site development
projects underway. The major point of approaches to site utilization would be the reconstruction of thestructures and archaeological remains, of particular interest as an example of similar projects at thecompletion stage. The various examples of site reconstruction also highlighted and reinforced the needfor thorough historical and archaeological research in order to create the most accurate reconstructions
possible.
Utilization requires a lot of creativity and wise choice. Especially relevant was an observation about
the tension that can occur when trying to balance visitor needs with site preservation and integrityin the management of a site which may also fulfil a recreational role. The issue was particularly wellhighlighted by the utilization of field work. One way in which public education needs can met be while
preserving a site’s integrity and the visitor experience to the site, is where a museum and education
centre have been created and given an appropriately creative exhibition site for an important cultural
heritage. It is obvious that in the case of presentation of the site, by interpreting the remains to makepeople know and care about them, that the main concern is to give knowledge to all. The site managers
will meet their goal if there is awareness by the people of the site as a part of their own history, and an351

understanding of its value for preserving traditional wisdom.
Although not all of the ideas and techniques can be applied in all fields, all participants could learn andapply only what was suitable to their work. But the opportunities to learn and be part of this course
were a good experience for all participants.

Acknowledgments
Last but not least I would like express my thanks to the ACCU, the Japanese government, and
ICCROM for offering this useful training course, and to the experts in all subject who gave the lectures
and workshops. Also my grateful thanks to all the ACCU staff who organized this training course, andtook responsibility to provide all participants with very good care. And to all of the participants wholearned together in unity.

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Uzbekistan
Djangar ILYASOVIntroduction
As I already mentioned in my country report, Uzbekistan is a country with very ancient and richcultural heritage. Archaeological sites, ranging from Stone Age caves and Bronze Age settlements tothmedieval cities, have been objects of investigation since the last third of the 19 century.
The main building material for most archaeological sites is mud brick (khom ghisht in Uzbek)
and/or beaten mud (pakhsa). After excavation these comparatively fragile materials are easily erodedby rain and wind, and the problem of protection arises.
Another problem is the methods and materials for cleaning, conservation, and restoration ofarchaeological artifacts, which are found during excavations.
As independent Uzbekistan is a very young state, many problems and questions concerning
preservation of our rich cultural heritage are just now emerging.
The training course on “Research, Analysis and Preservation of Archaeological Sites andRemains,” jointly organized in Nara by Japan’s Agency for Cultural Affairs, the Asia/Pacific
Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU), the International Centre for the Study of the Preservation
and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM), and the Independent Administrative Institution,
Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties (Nabunken), gave the participants a very
good chance to make an acquaintance with the rich Japanese experience in this field, i.e. with thelatest methodology and technology on investigation, conservation, and management for utilizationof archaeological sites. And I want to express my deep gratitude for the invitation to this training to
Mr. Nishimura Yasushi (Director of ACCU), Mr. Nakai Isao (Director of International Cooperation
Division, ACCU), Mr. Kinoshita Wataru (Associate Director of ICD, ACCU), and Mr. Gamini
Wijesuriya (Project Manager, ICCROM).

Training Course
Our training course, which was perfectly organized by the ACCU members and assistants, startedth

on the 10 of September with a lecture by Ms. Claire Smith (Australia), President of the World
Archaeological Congress. It immediately demonstrated to participants how seriously this training has
been organized and how high the level of the specialists invited here as lecturers. In spite of someproblems with Australian English at the beginning, from the lecture “Global Trends in Conservation ofArchaeological Sites” we learned a lot about theoretical and even philosophical aspects of protecting
Cultural Heritage, about the World Archaeological Congress and its activities, about new trends in thecreation of the National Museum of the American Indian in Washington (“decolonising”), and about
the study of heritage (namely, living heritage) of Australian aborigines and the looting of cultural
heritage.

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The second and third days of training were dedicated to country reports by participants. Sixteen
members from fifteen countries, in alphabetical order, presented their countries’ situations andprinciples of protecting cultural heritage in general, or through examples of particular archaeologicalsites. Without doubt, this part of training courses was the most stirring and interesting for allparticipants. For me personally it was a very informative two days, because it was the first time I met
some people from places very far from my own country’s part of the world. And I have a feeling thatsome of participants may have heard for the first time about Uzbekistan and its cultural heritage.
Subsequent lectures provided us excellent opportunity to learn about the topics of the “Cultural
Property Protection System in Japan” and “Conservation and Utilization of Cultural Heritage
Resources (Cases in Japan)” (Mr. Ichihara Fujio), “Maintenance and Management of ArchaeologicalSites in Practice,” using the examples of the Nara Heijo Palace site (Mr. Shimada Toshio) and the
Fujiwara and Asuka regions (Mr. Kurosaka Takahiro), “Scientific Dating Methods” (Mr. Nagatomo),“Environmental Archaeology” (Mr. Kanehara Masaaki), “Conservation Science of ArchaeologicalSites and Remains” (lecture and workshop, Mr. Kohdzuma Yohsei), “Documentation of Archaeological
Artifacts” (lectures and workshops, Mr. Namba Yozo, Mr. Baba Hajime and Mr. Imai Koki), as well as“Photographic Documentation of Sites and Remains” (lecture and workshop, Mr. Nakamura Ichiro and
Mr. Sugitomo Kazuki).
Important information about methods of archaeological prospection of sites was given to us
in the lecture by Mr. Nishimura Yasushi. For me personally it was my first acquaintance with theseadvanced methods which are useful for the investigation of archaeological sites.
Very interesting and informative was the “Introduction to Dendrochronology,” given to us by
Mr. Okochi Takayuki. In Uzbekistan wooden structures and artifacts are usually not preserved at all(or they are in very bad condition), which means that using dendrochronological methods is very
problematic. But in rare cases, for instance in mountainous areas, sometime we can find wooden
artifacts or architectural remains. It means that this method can be used for dating our findings, as wellas methods of conservation of wooden materials, which were demonstrated to us in the Nabunken
laboratories, that could in some cases help preserve late medieval wooden structures, such as roof partsand columns of mosques, etc.
Very interesting and informative were our visits to the city of Uji and the study tour to Himeji
castle and Kyushu. If Byodoin temple, Manpuku-ji temple, Ujigami Shrine and Himeji castle
demonstrate the protection and utilization of remaining architectural monuments, the Yayoi site
Yoshinogari is a very good example of the principle of reconstruction (in fact, of rebuilding), widely
accepted in Japan, as one case of the successful utilization of an archaeological monument. I personally
was very impressed by the successive realization of planned measures in Japan. When I visited the
Yoshinogari site for the first time in October 1990, it was just opened to the public and only a smallpart of the remains had been excavated end reconstructed. Now we have a fully developed Historical
Park with all the necessary access and infrastructure.
Very impressive also was our visit to the newest Kyushu National Museum. From the fantastic

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building, so well harmonized with its environment, to the modern laboratories with fantastic equipment– all demonstrate again how the Japanese people and governmental agencies are guarding their cultural
heritage.
At the end of the training course we enjoyed lectures by Mr. Gamini Wijesuriya on “Future
Issues on the Preservation of Sites and Remains.” I think his own experience in protecting
archaeological sites and architectural monuments in Sri Lanka, and different examples of achievements
and problems in protecting cultural property elsewhere, which he also presented to us, as well as thediscussions, in which we were all involved, made these last two days very interesting and fruitful.
Besides the lectures and workshops which were organized and assisted by ACCU members, I
have used the weekends for visiting museums such as the Miho Museum (Shigaraki), Ancient Orient
Museum (Tokyo), Sumitomo Collection (Kyoto) and the Kyoto University Museum, and for these
possibilities I am also very grateful to the ACCU.

Conclusion
In conclusion I want to note that the lectures and workshops which we experienced here in one month
are only an introduction to the very rich Japanese experience in using advanced methods in the fieldof protection of cultural property. Certainly it is a big question which among these methods can theparticipants use in their own countries. It will be decided partly by our lack of practice and technicalfacilities (laboratories, equipment, etc.). But I am sure that the knowledge which all participantsreceived in this training course will show us the direction in which we should try to be moving, andwill help us in our work of protecting cultural heritage in different parts of the world.

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VietnamNGUYEN Khanh Trung Kien
1. Introduction
I would like to thank Director Nishimura Yasushi and the ACCU officers, the lecturers (from ACCU,ICCROM, NNRICP), Japanese Professors, Director of my Institute and my Office who introduced,
accepted, and gave me the good opportunity to join this training course.
I come from Vietnam – a country with a long history of many periods, from prehistory, toprotohistory, to history. I am an archaeologist, working at the Center for Archaeological Studies(Southern Institute of Social Science – Ho Chi Minh City), and my research field is the prehistoricalperiod of Southern Vietnam.
We have had some cooperative excavation programs with Japanese archaeologists at manysites in Vietnam for a long time. We have also gained useful knowledge and experience from those
excavations, but it is only fieldwork and post-excavation skills. All archaeologists want to excavatearchaeological sites in order to collect data for their research, but so many archaeologists lackknowledge of conservation and restoration. If they are trained in this knowledge, they would do theirwork better and more usefully.
I joined this training course in order to learn new methods, new research in other sciences, andnew technology for archaeology from Japan. I found much important useful knowledge in this training
course that will be useful in Vietnam.

2. ACCU 2008 – The chance for studying, sharing and connecting
We spent 32 days, mostly in Nara, in this training course. In that time, we had 12 days in class withmany lectures, 5 days on study tours, 4 days of presentations and discussion, and 9 days off forholidays. This was a very good time for us; we gained some new knowledge and awareness from thelectures in many fields of research: prospection methods, scientific analyses, documentation skills, andconservation and restoration science.
We shared the problems of our countries in presentations and discussions, which was helpful
for us to compare the situation of each country and select the optimum solutions for our countries’
problems.
The study tour was time we felt very important. It gave us vivid lessons to complement thelectures in class. We saw the works of Japanese conservators and their restoration in actuality.
Moreover, there were many things we learned about management and utilization from the sites.
The holidays were a time to discover Japanese culture in Nara or some cities nearby, andexperience the daily life of the people. We visited museums, temples, and other interesting places. At
those sites, we saw that the Japanese people have a respectful attitude for the cultural properties of
their ancestors.

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It was also a time for sharing information about our countries with the other participants. Oneof the important things beside the knowledge in this training course is the network of connections
between sixteen participants from fifteen countries of Asia, and the Nara ACCU association. In the
future, this network will be useful and open for every researcher who has joined the ACCU program.
We can share the information, the problems we will have in the future, and find out together better
solutions than if we worked separately.
That is why I have called ACCU 2008 the chance for studying, sharing and connecting.

3. New methods learned from this training course
There were so many lectures in this training course in different fields of research. Each participant also
had a different field of research or work, but everybody found out something useful for their country
from those lectures.
There were three types of lectures of particularinterest to me: archaeological prospection, laboratory
analysis methods, conservation and restoration
methods.
I was very interested in archaeologicalprospection methods, because I am an archaeologist.
In that lecture, I found solutions for the Cat Tien site
and I could imagine clearly the capability of thosemethods and survey equipment (GPR, magnetometry,electromagnetic). In the future, my country could be equipped for our working with those machines.
So we have to prepare by knowing about them now.
I was intrigued by the GPR (Ground Penetrating Radar) equipment in the lecture of Professor
Nishimura, who said that archaeological prospection is very important before excavation. We could
determine where we can get more information from a site for research. Moreover, we could prepare
and plan for excavation better. Sometimes in my country we have excavated in the wrong place,outside of the archaeological site area. In that case, the excavation will affect the natural landscape.
The magnetometry and electromagnetic methods are applicable for archaeological prospection in
Vietnam, but in the stone age (the period that I research) they may not be very useful.
The laboratory analysis methods were also interesting to me, especially the dating methods andpollen analysis. In Vietnam, we usually date by the 14C method, stratigraphic method, and typologicalmethod, and other methods are rarely used. We know there are so many methods that can be applied
for dating an artifact or a site. I was intrigued by the luminescence dating method, because of in mycountry we rarely find charcoal (one material for the 14C dating method). With the luminescencemethod, we can use pottery, brick from architectural structures, or burnt stone, and as a dating analysis,
it may be more accurate than the stratigraphic and typological methods we now use.
We also gained some skills in the documentation technique lectures (drawing, photography).

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We learned how to make a good artifact drawing, how to take a high quality photo usable in scientificreports or publications.
The important point in the photography lecture that got more of my attention is storage
conditions for film documents. Vietnam is a tropical country; the weather is always hot and thehumidity high. With those conditions, film documents will be damaged after five to ten years.
Therefore, we have to set up a small room with suitable conditions for storing our films as soon as
possible.
The equipment for analysis andthe laboratories of Japan are ideal for the
analysis of many kinds of materials. I think
it would be very difficult to set up a newlaboratory system with such hi-tech analytic
equipment in our country, and we also lackthe technicians for those machines.
The risk prevention system (for fires,
earthquakes) in most sites of Japan is a very
important lesson for us when designing amaster plan for our heritage sites.
The stratigraphy transcription method
is a good way for making exhibits forthe museum. In this training course, welearned how to make a replica of strata inan archaeological site. In my country, we
usually cut a wall of strata for exhibit in the museum, but it is very heavy and hard to preserve overa long time. Therefore, the stratigraphy transcription method is a better way for obtaining museum
exhibitions from future excavations.

4. Solutions for restoration and conservation of Cat Tien site
After so many archaeological excavations conducted there, the Cat Tien site has become part of the
National Heritage of Vietnam. In addition to the architectural features we have excavated, there aremany auxiliary features unrevealed underground. That means we do not yet understood all about
the Cat Tien site complex. There are many different opinions among the cultural property managers,
conservators, and archaeologists. The archaeologists want to excavate for a more complete awarenessof the Cat Tien site. The conservators are afraid of damage from the environment, and the culturalproperties managers want to protect it and make public exhibitions. How to understand the site, public
exhibition, and safety management for the Cat Tien site are difficult problems for us right now. I think
the solutions below may be applied for the Cat Tien site case.

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Step one - for archaeologists (fieldwork)• Collect high-resolution aerial photos from government offices and analyze the ground surface
and terrain in those photos. This is necessary because at human eye level when standing on the
ground it is very difficult to recognize differences in the terrain.
• Mapping with high detail the Cat Tien site area, and locating all known architecture on thismap for predictions about features still unrevealed. We know the distribution of architecture
standing alone or in groups after they were excavated in years past. This step will help topredict the connections between architectures (perhaps internal roads, annexed architecture,surrounding walls, etc.).
• Combine the data we collect from aerial photos, maps and GPR (Ground Penetrating Radar)technology (if available) for surveying the unrevealed underground structures. After that, we
will have all the data of the Cat Tien site area (layers of soil, structures underground, originalterrain).
• From those data, we will decide which area to excavate continuously and which area we haveto protect by not excavating.
Step two - for archaeologists (analysis work)• With the luminescence method, we can use the brick of architectural structures for dating
analysis. We could understand the dating and the order of building architectural structures, inisolated groups or at a highly complex site.
• We should use the pollen analysis method for awareness about the ancient environment. These
data will be useful when we recreate the environment for a master plan for public exhibition in
the future.
• In case we can find tombs, we should excavate in order to research the race of the ancientinhabitants. Human bones in those tombs are useful with DNA technology to answer thequestion “Who lived at and built the Cat Tien site in ancient times?”
Step three - for conservators and restoration workers
All of the architecture at the Cat Tien site had fallen down, and archaeologists have found only thefoundations and fragmentary evidence of the upper structures. We do not understand about the shapeand decoration of those structures. We can not compare them with other temples or towers because ofvery different designs for each. Therefore, restoration work in this site will face great difficulty.
Here are some opinions abut conservation and restoration work for Cat Tien:• Restoration of only the brick foundations of structures, fixing and stabilizing the extant walls
and some corners with adhesive. In some corners that have been lost, we can restore by359

comparison with other examples (the original plans of architecture in ancient times relied onsymmetric designs).
• Build a protective wall surrounding individual structures or whole groups to prevent thefloodwaters from the Dong Nai river from flowing up in the rainy season.
• Build a protective roof system that is large, stabilized, high, and well-aired in order to protect
the structures from heavy rain and direct sunlight. The pillars of the roofs can be based on theprotective walls – these walls will also indicate the observation routes for visitors.
Step four - for public exhibition• The Cat Tien site needs a master plan with the cooperation of government, scientists,archaeologists, architects, and conservators. In this master plan, we need a reasonable project,including the parking and exhibition areas, a museum, and annex buildings that are not only
harmonious with the landscape but also useful for the visitors.
• Risk prevention systems and emergency plans for rescue at the site when disaster occurs must
be an important part of the master plan. (Make in reference to some site in Japan)• Build underground tanks in order to store water from the floods and reuse it in the dry season
for watering plants or in some annex buildings. (Make in reference to the design of the Kyushu
National Museum)• Fit the solar panel system on the protecting roof of the structures for electric power purposes of
the Cat Tien site. (Make in reference to the design of the Kyushu National Museum)• Reconstruct models of the reburied structures
underground (the original site) for exhibition purposes(tomb H2, architecture No. 7, Duc Pho, etc.). (Make inreference to some site in Japan)• Make small sized models, photos and 3D pictures for
public exhibition.
• Design observation routes for visitors to prevent
damage to the site.
• Publish bilingual (Vietnamese and English) brochures for foreigner visitors in order to givethem more information about the site.
• Explain the importance and cultural value of the Cat Tien site to the local people throughmeetings, and provide training for the management staff, tour guides, for local collaboration
with the protection and introduction of the site.

5. Conclusion
The ACCU has provided a useful program for conservators, archaeologists, and cultural heritage
managers. In this training course, we gained more knowledge not only in our own but also in many360

different fields of work. Besides archaeological knowledge, I also learned about conservation,
preservation, and restoration work. This will be useful for Vietnamese archaeologists. When we
excavate an archaeological site in the future, I have to prepare plans for conservators for how to protect
the site or artifacts.
I have to ask myself these questions beside the task of an archaeologist: “Is it necessary to
excavate here?”, “How should architecture be restored from the evidence at the site?”, “Is in situ
exhibition of the discoveries necessary?”, “How should we protect artifacts from the risk of damage?”.
If I can answer those questions, it will be for the better in order to cooperate with conservators or
restorers.
I am an archaeologist, and conservation and restoration are not my fields of research, but I think
how to get data from the site and also protect the site is the most important thing because archaeology
is special work. Only the archaeologists can read the data from their excavation - only just once - readand “destroy” (physical meaning) the data at the same time.

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A. List of Participants
Bangladesh
Mst. Naheed SULTANA

Custodian
Department of Archaeology

F4/A, Agargaon Administrative Area,
Aher-e-Bangla Dhaka 1207 Bangladesh
Tel: (+88) 2812 6817 Fax: (+88) 2911 4689
nahid.slt@gmail.com

Cambodia
LUN Votey
Archaeological Expert
Japan-Apsara Safeguarding Angkor (JASA)
No.56, Group 6, Tropeang Ses Village, Kok Chork Commune,
Siem Reap District, Siem Reap Province, Cambodia
Tel: (+855) 63 760 224 Fax: (+855) 63 760 226
lvotey@yahoo.com
PHIN Phakdey
Archaeologist
Sophia Asia Centre for Research and Human Development
Phum Treang, Khum Slokram, Srok Siem Reap
Siem Reap Province, Cambodia
Tel: (+855) 63 964 267 Fax: (+855) 63 964 267
phakdey_555@hotmail.com

China
WANG Renyu
Research Associate
Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences
Wangfujing St. 27, Beijing 100710 China
Tel: (+86) 10 6523 1653
renyuw@yahoo.com.cn

Indonesia
Sri Patmiarsi Retnaningtyas
Head of Rescue Archaeological Sub-Division
Directorate of Archaeological Heritage
Ministry of Culture and Tourism
Kompleks Depdiknas, Gedung E Lt. XI, Jalan Jenderal
Sudirmam, Senayan Jakarta 10270 Indonesia
Tel: (+62) 21-5725512 Fax: (+62) 21-5725512
sripatmiarsi@yahoo.co.id.

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Iran
Aileen BABAKHANI
Senior Supervisor
Cultural Heritage, Handicrafts & Tourism Organization
Masudie Palace, Ekbatan St. Baharestan sq.
Teheran 1141654813 Iran
Tel: (+98) 21 3311 1137 Fax: (+98) 21 3311 1139
aileen_farda@yahoo.com

Myanmar
Daw Nyo Nyo Than
Assistant Director
Department of Archaeology
National Museum and Library, Ministry of Culture
No. 35 Nay Pyi Taw, Mandalay Division, Myanmar
Tel: (+95) 67 408 038 Fax: (+95) 67 408 033
dawnyonyothan@gmail.com

New Zealand
Matthew Derek SCHMIDTRegional Archaeologist, Otago/Southland
New Zealand Historic Places Trust, Otago/Southland Area Office
109 Princes Street, PO Box 5467 Dunedin, New ZealandTel: (+64) 3 477 9850 Fax: (+64) 3 477 3893
mschmidt@historic.org.nz

Pakistan
Muhammad Asim DOGAR
Assistant Curator
Archaeological Museum of Harappa
District Sahiwal, Panjab, Pakistan
Tel: (+92) 404 431 099
aasimdogar@hotmail. com

Palau
Calvin Taurengel EMESIOCHEL
Historic Preservation Specialist
Bureau of Arts and Culture
Ministry of Community and Cultural Affairs
Government of Palau, PO Box 100 Koror 96940 Palau
Tel: (+680) 488 2489 Fax: (+680) 488 2657
bac_arch@palaunet.com

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Philippines
Edwin Winston Agito VALIENTES
Instructor
Department of Anthropology
University of the Philippines
Diliman, Quezon City 1101 Philippines
Tel & Fax: (+63) 2 426 1454
eavalientes@up.edu.ph

Republic of Korea
HAN Min Su
Researcher
National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage
472 Munji-dong, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 305-380 Korea
Tel: (+82) 42 860 9267 Fax: (+82) 42 861 4928
dormer@nate.com

Samoa
Tautala Silaulelei ASAUA
LecturerCenter for Samoan Studies
The National University of Samoa
PO Box 1622 Apia, Samoa
Tel: (+685) 20072 ext.134 Fax: (+685) 20938
tautala@gmail.com

Thailand
Sermsuk PRAKITTIPOOM
Archaeologist (Researcher)
The 3rd Regional Office of Fine Arts
Fine Arts Department, Ministry of Culture
U-Thong Rd., Pratuchai Ayutthaya 13000 Thailand
Tel: (+82) 42 860 9267 Fax: (+82) 42 861 4928
sermsuknp@hotmail.com

Uzbekistan
Djangar ILYASOV
Senior Researcher
Fine Arts Scientific Research Institute
Mustaqillik Square 2, Tashkent 100029 Uzbekistan
Tel: (+998) 71 239 4159
jangaril@hotmail.com

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VietnamNGUYEN Khanh Trung Kien
Officer
Center for Archaeological Studies
Sothern Institute of Social Sciences
270 Nguyen Trong Tuyen, Quan Phu Nhuan
Thanh pho, Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam
Tel: (+84) 8 997 5377
keennguyen13@yahoo.com

B. List of Lecturers
Lecturers from Abroad:
Claire SMITH
Associate Professor
Department of Archaeology,
Flinders University
GPO Box 2100, Adelaide, SA 5001 Australia
E-mail: claire.smith@flinders.edu.au

Gamini WIJESURIYA
Project Manager
International Centre for the Study of the
Preservation and Restoration of Cultural
Property (ICCROM㧕Via di San Michele 13, I-00153 Rome, Italy
Phone: (+39) 06585 53388 Fax: (+39) 06585 53349
E-mail: gw@iccrom.org

Lecturers from Japan:
INABA Nobuko
Professor

KUROSAKA Takahiro
Researcher, Architectural Feature Section
Dep. of Imperial Palace Site Investigations
Nara National Research Institute for Cultural
Properties,
94-1, Kinomoto-cho, Kashihara 634-0025
Phone: (+81) 744-24-1122 Fax: (+81) 744-24-6390

World Heritage Studies, Graduate School ofComprehensive Human Science,
University of Tsukuba
1-1-1 Ten-noh-dai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8574
Phone & Fax: (+81) 29-853-2810
E-mail: inaba@heritage.tsukuba.ac.jp

ICHIHARA Fujio

NAGATOMO Tsuneto
Professor, Archaeological Science,
Department of Science Education
Nara University of Education
Takabatake-cho, Nara 630-8528
Phone & Fax: (+81) 742-27-8528
E-mail: nagatomo@nara-edu.ac.jp

Specialist for Cultural Properties

Agency for Cultural Affairs, Japan (Bunkacho)
2-5-1 Marunouchi, Chiyoda, Tokyo 100-8959
Phone: (+81) 3-5253-4111

SHIMADA Toshio
Section Head
Architectural Feature Section
Dep. of Imperial Palace Site Investigations,
Nara National Research Institute for Cultural
Properties, 2-9-1 Nijo-cho, Nara 630-8577
Phone:(+81)742-30-6836 Fax: (+81) 742-30-6830
E-mail: shimada@nabunken.go.jp

KANEHARA Masa-aki
Professor, Archaeological Science,
Division of Comprehensive Education
Nara University of Education
Takabatake-cho, Nara 630-8528
Phone & Fax: (+81)742-27-9190
E-mail: kanehara@nara-edu.ac.jp368

KOHDZUMA Yohsei
Head
Conservation Science Laboratory
Center for Archaeological Operations
Nara National Research Institute for Cultural
Properties, 2-9-1 Nijo-cho, Nara 630-8577
Phone: (+81) 742-30-6847 Fax: (+81) 742-30-6846
E-mail: kouzumay@nabunken.go.jp

IMAI Koki
Researcher
Archaeology Section 3
Dep. of Imperial Palace Sites Investigations
Nara National Research Institute for Cultural
Properties, 2-9-1 Nijo-cho, Nara 630-8577
Phone: (+81) 742-30-6835 Fax: (+81) 742-30-6830
E-mail: caocaomengde@hotmail.com

NAMBA Yozo
Section Head
Dep. of Imperial Palace Site Investigations
Nara National Research Institute for Cultural
Properties, 2-9-1 Nijo-cho, Nara 630-8577
Phone: (+81) 742-30- 6832 Fax: (+81) 742-30-6830

NAKAMURA Ichiro
Expert Staff
Photography Section,
Department of Planning & Coordination
Nara National Research Institute for Cultural
Properties, 2-9-1 Nijo-cho, Nara 630-8577
Phone: (+81) 742-30-6852 Fax: (+81) 742-30-6841

BABA Hajime
Researcher
History Section
Dep. of Imperial Palace Site Investigations
Nara National Research Institute for Cultural
Properties, 2-9-1 Nijo-cho, Nara 630-8577
Phone: (+81) 742-30-6837 Fax: (+81) 742-30-6830

OKOCHI Takayuki
Researcher
Dating Section
Center for Archaeological Operations
Nara National Research Institute for Cultural
Properties, 2-9-1 Nijo-cho, Nara 630-8577
Phone: (+81) 742-30-6845 Fax: (+81) 742-30-6856
E-mail: okochi@nabunken.go.jp

On-site Lecturers:
SHICHIDA Tada-aki, Deputy Section HeadNAGASAKI Hiroshi, Researcher
Dep. of Social Education and Cultural Property
Saga Prefectural Board of Education
1-1-59 Jonai, Saga City, Saga 840-8570
Phone: (+81) 952-25-7223 Fax: (+81) 952-25-7281
E-mail: shichida-tadaaki@pref.saga.1g.jp

SUGIMOTO Hiroshi
HeadPreservation of Cultural Properties Section
Uji City Historical Museum
1-1 Oriidai Uji City, Kyoto 611-0023
Phone: (+81) 774-39-9260 Fax: (+81) 774-39-9261
OTANI Teruhiko
Researcher
Himeji Municipal Board of Education
4-1 Yasuda, Himeji City, Hyogo 670-8501
Phone: (+81) 79-221-2786 Fax: (+81) 79-221-2779

MATSUMOTO Katsumi
Head
Research and Preservation Section
Office of Yoshinogari National Historical Park
1869 Tade Yoshinogari-cho Kanzaki-gun, Saga
842-0035
Phone: (+81) 952-53-3902 Fax: (+81) 952-53-3910
E mail: matsumoto-k8910@qsr.mlit.go.jp

AKASHI Yoshihiko, Head of Display Section
IMAZU Setsuo, Head of Environmental
Preservation Section
Kyushu National Museum
4-7-2 Ishizaka, Dazaifu City, Fukuoka 818-0118
Phone: (+81) 92-918-2807 Fax: (+81) 92-918-2810
URL: ttp://www.kyuhaku.jp369

YOSHITAKE Manabu
Assistant Section Manager
Fukuoka Municipal Board of Education
1-8-1 Tenjin, Chuo-ku, Fukuoka City
Fukuoka 810-8621
Phone: (+81) 92-711-4783

C. List of Interpreter and Tutors
HATA Chiyako (Interpreter)

Training Coordinator
NISHIKAWA Eisuke (Tutor)
Graduate Student
Architecture and Building Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology
ITAYA Tomomi (Tutor)
Graduate Student
Master’s Program in World Heritage Studies, Tsukuba University
TANAKA Rie (Tutor)
Graduate Student
Master’s Program in World Heritage Studies, Tsukuba University
KANDA Hiroko (Tutor)
Graduate Student
Master’s Program in World Heritage Studies, Tsukuba University

D. Staff Members, ACCU NaraNISHIMURA Yasushi, Director
TARODA Akinori, Deputy Director
TANDA Kaoru, Director, Planning & Coordination Division
NAKAI Isao, Director, International Cooperation Division
KINOSHITA Wataru, Deputy Director, International Cooperation Division
YAMASHITA Tsutomu, Chief, International Cooperation Section
NISHIDA Michiko, Assistant, Planning & Coordination Division
OTANI Yasuko, Assistant, International Cooperation Section
Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU)
757 Horen-cho, Nara 630-8113 Japan
Phone: (+81) 742-20-5001 Fax: (+81) 742-20-5701
E-mail: nara@acc.or.jp URL: http://www.nara.accu.or.jp/370