The Modern Significance of the Lotus SËtraHiroshi Kanno
THE PROBLEM STATEDI

F we ask the modern significance of the Lotus SËtra—or any otherreligious classics—we should remember that the meaning of a scripture cannot be limited to a specific age, but should possess a vitality thattranscends historical time. For example, both the Bible and the LotusSËtra have histories of about 2000 years. Obviously, both texts haveplayed major historical roles in their respective regions over the ages.
The question is, why were these religious scriptures able to have suchlasting vitality? In the life of any human being, there is both a part thatdiffers according to the age, such as material living standards and culturally shared knowledge, and a part that does not differ, such as the problems of suffering (birth, aging, sickness, and death), sin, and evil. In ourquest for the best way to live as human beings, it is important to know
how we consider this unchanging aspect of our identities. I think the primary contribution of religious scriptures is that they illuminate thisunchanging part of human beings. However, at the same time it is clearthat religious scriptures do not automatically give answers to all the
problems and demands of any particular age. Without human beings to
explore and draw meaning from the Bible or the Lotus SËtra, for example, neither could not play a role in any specific age, let alone any continuous role throughout history.
Our present age is one in which there are serious problems, such as
bioethical controversies, food supply issues, and global environmental
destruction. These problems have been brought about by the development of science and technology, plus the attendant rapid increase inworld population and the globalization of economic activity. The humanrace is experiencing problems such as have never occurred before in
human society. Moreover, after the end of the cold war, the peace we all
expected has not been achieved. Local military conflicts are smoldering
everywhere, so that slaughter and retaliation are occurring all over theworld.
95

96

THE MODERN SIGNIFICANCE OF THE LS

We must recognize that the Lotus SËtra will not provide direct
answers to these modern problems, even when we seek its religious significance. Religious scriptures do not offer concrete recipes to solve specific problems, for the simple reason that the problems were unknown
when the scriptures were written. However, we can expect religious
scriptures to provide fundamental messages that will lead to the discovery of solutions to our problems. However, in any age there must be
human beings to struggle to solve those problems—by themselves, religious scriptures are silent. Effectively, what is important is whether people who seriously work on the Lotus SËtra can capture its spirit andapply it to the situations they confront. In the following pages, I want toconsider what messages we can draw from the Lotus SËtra to address
the present world situation.
TRANSFORMATION OF THE MEANING OF EXISTENCEBY IMAGINING THE SCALE OF THE UNIVERSE
When we first read the Lotus SËtra, it is common to be surprised at how
many magnificent stories it develops on such a grand spatial scale. Let
me introduce some of them here.
(1) In the Introduction Chapter of the Lotus SËtra, there appears ascene where Íåkyamuni Buddha expounds the Mahåyåna sËtra entitled
Immeasurable Meanings, immediately after which he enters into the“samådhi of the place of immeasurable meanings.” In quick succession,by the power of that samådhi the Buddha then rains down flowers fromthe heaven, causes the earth to quake and tremble, and emits a ray oflight from the tuft of white hair between his eyebrows that lights up
eighteen thousand worlds in the eastern direction. This light makes it
possible for the audience hearing the Buddha preach the Lotus SËtra to
see the various religious practices of Buddhism being implemented inthose eighteen thousand worlds.
(2) In the Emergence of the Treasure Tower Chapter, an enormous
treasure tower rises up out of the earth and stands suspended in the air.
A loud voice declaring the truth of the Lotus SËtra issues from the treasure tower, and the members of the audience declare to Íåkyamuni Buddha that they want to see the body of Many Treasure Buddha.
(3) In the Emerging from the Earth Chapter, a host of bodhisattvas
equal in number to the grains of sand of sixty thousand Ganges Rivers
emerges from beneath the earth.
(4) In the Life Span of the Thus Come One Chapter, Íåkyamuni Buddha explains the incredibly long time that has passed since he originallyTHE MODERN SIGNIFICANCE OF THE LS

97

attained enlightenment by the parable of “numberless major world-system dust-particle kalpas.” Also, in the Parable of the Phantom City
Chapter, an immensely remote past when the Buddha Great Universal
Wisdom Excellence lived is described by the parable of “major worldsystem dust-particle kalpas.” The parable is as follows. If a person
should take all the earth in the thousand-millionfold world and grind it
to dust, there would be innumerable particles of dust. Then, moving
eastward, each time he passes a thousand worlds he drops a particle ofdust. He continues eastward in this way until he has finished dropping
all the particles. And if he then takes all the worlds he passed through,both those into which he dropped a particle and those he did not, andonce more grinds them all to dust, there will be such an innumerable
quantity of dust that it would be far beyond comparison to the first set ofparticles. Then, let each particle represent one kalpa (approximately sixteen million years). The time that has passed since the Buddha Great
Universal Wisdom Excellence entered nirvåˆa surpasses this number ofkalpas by a truly inconceivable amount of time––said to be immeasurable, boundless, hundreds, thousands, ten thousands, millions ofasaµkhyeya (“incalculable”) kalpas. Though it might seem to modern
people that such an explanation is tedious, the length of time involved is
described in such a way that it stimulates our imagination to the limit,
exceeds that limit and stimulates our imaginations once again to theupper limit again. It is this process of challenging and then repeatedly
exploding beyond the limits of our ordinary understanding that makes
the strongest impression, far more than the length of time indicated by
the stupendous number of years involved alone. Also, the “numberlessmajor world-system dust-particle kalpas” in the Life Span Chapter is a
far more stupendous figure than the “major world-system dust-particle
kalpas” in the Parable of the Phantom City Chapter. For it is not thethousand-millionfold world but five hundred, a thousand, ten thousand,a million nayuta asaµhyeya thousand-millionfold worlds that the “numberless major world-system dust-particle kalpas” takes as of its basis of
calculation. Therefore, the concept of “numberless major world-system
dust-particle kalpas” indicates a length of time that is incomparably
longer than the “major world-system dust-particle kalpas.”(5) Finally, in the Bodhisattva Wonderful Sound Chapter, the Bodhisattva Wonderful Sound comes to this sahå world all the way fromanother world called Adorned with Pure Light and participates in theassembly of the Lotus SËtra hosted by Íåkyamuni Buddha.
Thus the Lotus SËtra presents grand stories referring to a vast scale ofspace and time using stupendous figures that stretch our powers of

98

THE MODERN SIGNIFICANCE OF THE LS

imagination to the limit. Although some of us might regard these stories
as absurd and tending only to generate illusions about the world, I thinkthey provide insight into how the vastness of our cosmos so far exceedsthat of this small earth on which we live so fearfully, and where we sodisastrously devote our time and energy to fights between individuals,
wars between races, and confrontations between nations. One phenomenon of the modern age is of course that some people become crazy
about space aliens and flying saucers, but in the background of this fascination is the hope we would recognize our own shared identity as residents of one and the same cosmos. Is there not the same expectation
among the many people who generate romantic feelings while watchinga swarm of shooting stars? We know that some astronauts, who have theopportunity to look at the earth from space, experience such dramaticchanges in their personal philosophies that they may be said to haveexperienced religious conversion. I think such experiences are possible
because something like the consciousness of space beings arose in them.
Hence, the grandiose scale of the world of the Lotus SËtra raises ourconsciousnesses so that we become residents, not just of the earth but of
the entire cosmos, thus transforming the very meanings of self andworld, and enabling us to acquire an entirely new perspective on ourselves and on our existence as humans. If we comprehend the fundamental intention of the Lotus SËtra, we thus become living beings bornwith both a deep religious attachment to this earth (known as the sahåworld in Buddhist terminology) and consequently a mission to accomplish that which is important during our times here.
THE CONCEPT OF HELL AND THE MEANING OF
SELECTIVE SALVATION IN BUDDHISM
Not only Japan, which presently suffers from economic depression, butalso many other countries in the world seem to be bothered with a darkcooped-up feeling that is characteristic of our age. In such an age wenaturally want to apply light from the optimistic soteriology of the Buddhism and the Lotus SËtra, and to find the courage and hope that will
enable us live strongly in this world. First, we must explain that there isno concept of everlasting hell in Buddhism, as there is in many
monotheistic religions. This trait of Buddhism is an important component of the profoundly optimistic soteriology of Buddhism that will beconsidered in the next section. Moreover, in relation to the concept ofhell we must consider that one of the purposes of explanations of theexistence of hell in various religions is the function of motivating theirTHE MODERN SIGNIFICANCE OF THE LS

99

followers to be strong believers in those religions. Since Buddhism has
teachings not only of the existence of hell but also of selective salvation,
we need to explore the meaning of these closely related concepts.
The Hell of Buddhism
There is no concept of everlasting hell in Buddhism. Buddhism holds
that all deluded living beings are reborn repeatedly in one after anotherof six different realms: hell; the realms of hungry spirits, animals, asuras, and men; and heaven. The existence of hell is implied in the idea of
rebirth itself. Various kinds of hell are posited, even the hell of incessantsuffering (av¥ci hell) that is the lowest and most tortuous hell among
them. However, according to Buddhism people do not stay in hellthrough all eternity. Because undergoing the suffering of hell is comparable to the repayment of a loan, when the repayment is completed theindividual will be reborn in one of the upper worlds, such as that of hungry spirits, animals, asuras, men, and even heaven. One good indicationof how this is thought to work is that, in the Devadatta Chapter of the
Lotus SËtra, even Devadatta, who attempted to murder the Buddha, isprophesied to become a Buddha named Heavenly King. This absence ofthe concept of eternal hell is one of the ways in which Buddhism differs
so greatly from monotheisms such as Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
However, it might not be necessary to regard the everlasting hell of
the monotheism as something that exists in such a literal fashion. Perhaps it is only a type of discourse intended to motivate evil people togenerate strong belief in God. Many people, including me, haveindulged themselves in the pleasures of daily life and turned their eyesaway from the truly important problems of life and death. Many religions and philosophies point this out. The Lotus SËtra, for its part, uses
simple parables to turn our attentions to the crises of the human condition. The most characteristic of these parables is that of the three carts
and the burning house.
The Three Carts and the Burning House
Suppose that in a certain place there was an old millionaire. His house
was very big, but it had only one small, narrow gate. The house was also
very old and dilapidated, so that it could easily fall victim to fire.
Indeed, on one particular occasion a fire suddenly broke out in thishouse. The old millionaire knew that he could escape to safety by himself, but he knew that a lot of his sons were absorbed in playing, andthey were not thinking of trying to escape from the blazing house at all.
At first, he thought to himself that he would carry them out of the house,

100

THE MODERN SIGNIFICANCE OF THE LS

using his great physical strength, but he found it impossible to do so
because it had only one small, narrow gate. He was distraught, realizingthat they would be burnt to death if the situation continued. So he called
to his sons, saying that they should all leave the house at once. However,the sons could understand neither the meaning of death nor the imminent danger of the fire—they were too absorbed in their games and did
not accept his words. Finally, he invented an appropriate means to savethem. He said, “Your favorite goat-carts, deer-carts, and ox-carts are outside the gate. Come out of this burning house at once and play withthem.” Hearing this, they vied with each other to run the fastest and get
the toys, thus escaping from the burning house. The old millionaire wasvery pleased to see them escape safely. When they asked him to givethem the promised carts, he gave all of them, without discrimination,richly decorated carts drawn by big white oxen.
The Lotus SËtra goes on to provide an explanation of the meaning of
this parable. According to it, the “millionaire” indicates the Buddha,
who is rich with wisdom. The antiquated house represents the threefold
world through which beings are reborn, which consists of the realms ofdesire, form, and formlessness. The fire in this house stands for the suffering and earthly desires of living beings. Needless to say, the “millionaire’s sons” represent all living beings. And, even though living beings
suffer from the various problems of birth, old age, sickness, and death,they avoid thinking about them, indulge themselves in the ephemeralthings of this world, and fail to escape from rebirth throughout the threefold world. This fact is represented by the sons being thoroughly
engrossed in their playing in the burning house and failing to escapefrom it. The Buddha sees the pitiful situation of living beings and wants
to save them from it, because he is their father. Finding it impossible tosave them with only his supernormal powers and the power of his wisdom, using appropriate means he expounds three different teachings forthree different types of practitioners. His teachings for voice-hearers,
cause-awakened ones (pratyekabuddha), and bodhisattvas are respectively compared to goat-carts, deer-carts, and ox-carts, which allow thepractitioners to escape from the threefold world. However, instead ofthese three types of carts, the Buddha actually gives all of his sons who
escaped from the burning house carts drawn by large white oxen. These
carts represent the one vehicle teaching of the Lotus SËtra, which issuperior to all other teachings.
The world where we humans live is the burning house. This is themost important point of the parable of the three carts and the burning
house. Because religions force us to be aware of our situation of crisis

THE MODERN SIGNIFICANCE OF THE LS

101

and promise salvation from that crisis, their first task is to describe thesituation in which we exist. The description of the world where we live
as a flaming inferno makes a huge impression on us because of ourinnate fear of fire.
Next, the fact which makes our crisis more dangerous is that we arecompletely unaware of it. The manner in which the millionaire’s sonsare immersed in their play perfectly describes how we forget our own
crisis situation and become attached to the amusements of our surroundings, property, position, and status, etc.
The Meaning of the Withdrawalof the Five Thousand Arrogant Persons
The warning of monotheistic religions that people lacking in faith will
fall into everlasting hell has the function of motivating ignorant people,
who avert their eyes from the truth, to develop strong belief. Is it notpossible to argue that religions posit the existence of hell, not because
God wants to cast human beings into hell, but precisely because hewants not to send them there? Such a religious discourse is clearly
expounded in the Lotus SËtra, in the famous episode of the withdrawalof the five thousand persons.
In the Expedient Means Chapter of the Lotus SËtra, Íåriputra asks the
Buddha three times to preach the teaching. Recognizing Íåriputra’s serious desire for the truth, the Buddha begins to preach in response. However, five thousand arrogant monks, nuns, laymen, and laywomen leave
the assembly, refusing to listen any longer because they think they
understand the Buddha’s teaching. In fact, they have roots of guilt thatare deep and manifold deriving from their past lives, and overbearing
arrogance even though they are not actually enlightened. At the time theBuddha does not stop them from withdrawing, and he states that it waswell that these persons of overbearing arrogance had withdrawn, so that
his assembly was now made up solely of the steadfast and truthful.
What does this withdrawal of the five thousand arrogant persons
mean? It seems to suggest that, in order to listen to the Lotus SËtra, weshould remove all traces of our own overbearing arrogance. Arhats likeÍåriputra are the highest practitioners of Nikåya Buddhism, who havealready obtained emancipation or nirvåˆa. However, the Lotus SËtra
explains that their enlightenment and their nirvåˆa are only temporary
and provisional, and this realization threatens to damage their pride
severely. Therefore, this incident shows that, in order to endure damage
to one’s pride, it is necessary to listen to the Buddha’s preaching withmodesty and faith.

102

THE MODERN SIGNIFICANCE OF THE LS

When people hear the Lotus SËtra for the first time and learn of this
episode, they cannot help reflecting on their own attitudes of belief.
Searching solemnly within themselves, they ask themselves whether
after all they belong to the group of the five thousand arrogant persons
or the group that remains in the assembly of the Lotus SËtra.
Buddhism has an optimistic soteriology in which, ultimately, anyone
can achieve salvation. Thus eventually even these five thousand arrogant
persons will be saved, and there is no idea of excluding them from salvation. However, if in the present context salvation is available initiallyto those within the assembly of the Lotus SËtra, it is very importantwhether we are among those who leave or those who stay.
A similar idea to the withdrawal of the five thousand arrogant persons
also occurs in the Mahåyåna Nirvåˆa SËtra. Even the Nirvåˆa SËtra,which generally teaches that all living beings possess the Buddha
nature, in some sections holds that there are people of incorrigible disbelief (icchantika) who do not possess the Buddha nature and cannot
become enlightened. This means that the Nirvåˆa SËtra excludes icchantika from salvation. Even though the latter part of the Nirvåˆa SËtra, alater accretion, admits the possibility of icchantika achieving enlightenment, when we read the teaching that icchantika cannot become enlightened we are forced to ask ourselves to which group we belong.
This exclusive or selective soteriology has the function of motivating
people to develop faith. The benefits from faith and the retribution forbad behavior emphasized in the Lotus SËtra are based on the karma theory of Buddhism. However, the SËtra’s strong emphasis on benefits andretribution can be explained as a device to motivate its readers to faith.
OPTIMISTIC SOTERIOLOGY IN BUDDHISM AND THE LOTUS SŪTRA
Above, I mentioned that the everlasting hell of monotheistic religions
has the function of motivating their followers to have faith. Buddhism
lacks this particular device, and it is certainly more thorough than themonotheistic religions in the optimism of its soteriology. Of course,
even Buddhism is not uniformly optimistic. For example, according to
the theory of five different natures which the Consciousness Only school
established around the fourth century in India, all living beings do notnecessarily get enlightened. This particular school of Buddhism is notparticularly optimistic, it must be recognized. However, some of thepeople who cannot achieve complete enlightenment as Buddhas can still
become arhats and cause-awakened ones (pratyekabuddha), the highest
achievements in Nikåya Buddhism. In addition, people possessing theTHE MODERN SIGNIFICANCE OF THE LS

103

very lowest nature, who cannot become such saints, can remain ordinary
people who are reborn throughout the six realms without ever falling
into an everlasting hell. Hence, even the theory of five different natures
can be said to be considerably optimistic compared with monotheistic
beliefs.
There are aspects of the optimistic soteriology of Buddhism otherthan the nonexistence of everlasting hell, which we have just been discussing. Let us consider some of them now.
The Eternal Buddha as the Savior
The first aspect of Buddhism’s optimistic soteriology that I would like toconsider is that the Buddha never enters nirvåˆa until he finishes saving
all the living beings with whom he has religious connections. The historical Buddha, Íåkyamuni, entered nirvåˆa at the age of eighty, butMahåyåna Buddhism, which developed afterwards, generated manyother Buddhas to assist living beings after his death. Also, the LotusSËtra devised its own concept of the eternal Íåkyamuni Buddha, a new
figure of the Buddha that developed out of the historical figure.
In the Life Span of the Thus Come One Chapter, in response to aquestion by Maitreya Bodhisattva about the Bodhisattvas emerging fromthe earth, Íåkyamuni Buddha explains that an incredibly long period oftime (shown by the parable of numberless major world-system dust-particle kalpas, already discussed above) had passed since he originallyattained enlightenment, and also that his future lifespan would be virtually unending. In other words, he clarifies his own identity as the eternal
Buddha Íåkyamuni, which is one of the core ideas of the Lotus SËtra.
The main points of the Life-span of the Thus Come One Chapter arethat (1) Íåkyamuni Buddha possesses an eternal lifespan; (2) his entry
into nirvåˆa is merely intended as an “expedient display”; and (3) the
eternal Buddha will appear to persons of deep faith.
It is common knowledge that the monotheistic religions posit an eternal God. And it can be said that Buddhism acquired its deepest religious
meaning only after the Lotus SËtra established the idea of the eternal
Buddha Íåkyamuni.
The Attainment of Buddhahood by All People
The Buddha saves all living beings. If we consider this from the perspective of living beings themselves, we may paraphrase this to say thateveryone has equal access to Buddhahood. This idea is expounded in the
Lotus SËtra in the concept of the “one Buddha vehicle.” The attainmentof Buddhahood by all people is the most important message of the Lotus

104

THE MODERN SIGNIFICANCE OF THE LSSËtra, and it is still a valuable idea in the present world. This idea wasalso manifested in the concept of the universal Buddha nature inherent
in living beings, a teaching which is found in the Mahåyåna NirvåˆaSËtra.
The idea of the “one Buddha vehicle” of the Lotus SËtra holds thatthe three vehicles expounded for voice-hearers, cause-awakened ones,
and bodhisattvas are only expedient and provisional teachings, intended
to suit the respective capacities of these different categories of sages.
The real truth, the SËtra declares, is that everyone is equally able toattain Buddhahood. To explain this a bit more, following the story of the
Lotus SËtra, the concept of the “one Buddha vehicle” occurs in the context of the explanation that the Buddha appeared in the sahå world for
one great purpose. Íåkyamuni Buddha clarified his one great purpose
immediately after the episode of the five thousand arrogant persons.
What was it? It was to open the door of Buddha wisdom to all living
beings, to show Buddha wisdom to all living beings, to cause living
beings to awaken to Buddha wisdom, and to induce living beings toenter the path of Buddha wisdom. Namely, the Buddha appeared in thisworld to make it so that living beings would attain Buddhahood.
According to this doctrine, even the voice-hearers and cause-awakened
ones—who gave up seeking the extraordinarily lofty goal of Buddhahood and settled on becoming arhats and pratyekabuddhas—can attain
Buddhahood.
The passage explaining the Buddha’s one great purpose is a direct
expression of the “one Buddha vehicle” of the Lotus SËtra, and as suchis the most important religious message of the entire scripture. In the
Simile and Parable Chapter, gods in the assembly said about this message, “In the past at Våråˆas¥ the Buddha first turned the wheel of theLaw. Now he turns the wheel again, the wheel of the unsurpassed, thegreatest Law of all.” (T9.12a; translation by Burton Watson, the LotusSËtra [New York: Columbia University Press, 1993], p. 54) This statement equates the Lotus SËtra with the first turning of the wheel of the
Law at M®ga-dåva of Våråˆas¥. On that earlier occasion, the Buddha
accepted Brahmå’s request and went to M®ga-dåva to teach the fivepractitioners who had been his friends in religious training. The Buddha
expounded the middle way transcending self-indulgence and self-mortification, the four noble truths, and the eightfold right path. This occasion
is widely known as the first turning of the wheel of the Law; in contrast
the “one Buddha vehicle” of the Expedient Means Chapter of the LotusSËtra is regarded as the second turning of the wheel of the unsurpassed
Law.

THE MODERN SIGNIFICANCE OF THE LS

105

The greatest religious message in the Lotus SËtra, I think, is the ideaof the “one Buddha vehicle” as expressed in such vividly dramatic formin the practice of Bodhisattva Never Disparaging. The Bodhisattva
Never Disparaging Chapter includes the following narrative. During theperiod of the Counterfeit Dharma of the very first Buddha in the seriesof twenty thousand million Buddhas, who bore the name King of Awesome Sound, monks of overbearing arrogance exercised great authorityand power. At that time there was a bodhisattva monk by the name of
Never Disparaging. Whatever people he happened to encounter, whether
monks, nuns, laymen or laywomen, he would bow in obeisance to all ofthem and speak words of praise, saying a certain set of words. According to the Kumåraj¥va translation of the Lotus SËtra, he would say, “I
have profound reverence for you. I would never dare treat you with disparaging and arrogance. Why? Because you are all practicing the bodhisattva way and are certain to attain Buddhahood.” (T 9.50c; Watson,
p. 266)
There is no phrase in the Sanskrit text corresponding to the “bow inobeisance” in the Kumåraj¥va translation. In the Sanskrit, Bodhisattva
Never Disparaging merely utters the preceding words, with no mentionof bowing to beings in obeisance. Despite this difference between theKumåraj¥va translation and the Sanskrit text, the actions of Bodhisattva
Never Disparaging express an attitude that attributes the utmost dignity
to all humankind, bespeaking the possibility that all human beings will,
without fail, become Buddhas if they practice the bodhisattva way. In
other words, the scripture counsels us to respect all human beings equally as future Buddhas.
However, certain persons became exceedingly exercised overBodhisattva Never Disparaging’s bestowals of prophecy of future Buddhahood, since he was not yet a Buddha himself and thus had no recognizable power or authority to make such momentous statements.
However, even though he was severely persecuted, he kept up this practice for his entire life. His dedication also represents a great revelation
for us in the present age. His behavior indicates that we should believe
firmly in our own abilities to attain Buddhahood, and it conveys the ideathat all other people are none other than potential Buddhas, all ofwhom have the ability to attain Buddhahood. What is important here is nota practice of offering something concrete to the other people, but rather
the undertaking to teach us all to awaken to our own fundamental dignity.
When I bow in obeisance to another person as Buddha, in response his
Buddha nature bows in obeisance to me as Buddha—even though it has
not yet manifested sufficiently in either of us. In other words, here the106

THE MODERN SIGNIFICANCE OF THE LS

scripture establishes the idea that respecting other people is directly
connected with the manifestation of own Buddha natures. The conceptof peaceful coexistence is required by the age in which we live. In the
Lotus SËtra the idea of coexistence is based on the interdependent relationship between people, in which we mutually respect each other as
beings of integrity, all of us with the prospect of attaining Buddhahood.
The author of A Friend to One who Dwells in Solitude (Kankyo notomo), Keisei (1189–1268), was a monk in the Jimon line of the Japanese Tendai school and the elder brother of the powerful aristocrat KujØMichi’ie (1193–1252). The ninth tale in the first fascicle of A Friend to
One who Dwells in Solitude bears the title, “The Story of an Old Monk
from the East who emulated the bowing practice of Bodhisattva Never
Disparaging.” Keisei says of the meaning of Bodhisattva Never Disparaging’s practice, “Generally speaking, the heart that embraces thisbehavior of refusing to belittle others perhaps bows to the fact that the
Buddha nature exists deep within the chest of every living being. Deluded beings such as ourselves may not be directly aware of this principle,
but even before we become enlightened we are fully endowed with Buddha nature, and there is no creature, even as seemingly lowly as an ant
or a cricket, that deserves to be looked down upon. Even among thehells and the realms of hungry ghosts there is not a single being that
does not possess the Buddha nature. Hence, if you are truly cognizant of
this principle, you will not fail to respect even the lowly birds andbeasts.” So saying, Keisei infers that a slightly earlier historical example
of a Japanese priest named GenjØ shØnin, who bowed to birds andbeasts, might have its foundation in the notion that even animals havethe Buddha nature.
Moreover, having put his finger on the fact that spite and ridicule
towards others will naturally disappear if we know that all beings have
Buddha nature, Keisei cites the words of Fu Xi 傅翕 (also known as thegreat being Shanhui 善慧, 497–569), “Night after night, I sleep in theembrace of the Buddha; morning after morning, I arise with the Buddha.” Keisei found great inspiration in these words. The statement by Fu
Xi shows that we who possess the Buddha nature are engaged with the
Buddha in all our actions. If each and every person had the awareness ofacting as a Buddha, how would the world change? I think cruel bullying
at schools and office, as well as sexual and other types of harassment,
cannot be fundamentally solved unless we awaken to the fundamental
dignity of self and others.
In addition, the Lotus SËtra says that everybody attains Buddhahood.
What kind of existence is Buddhahood? The creator god of monotheistic

THE MODERN SIGNIFICANCE OF THE LS

107

religions tends to be described as some kind of superman. But here I
would like to consider the “eighteen unshared properties,” that is, qualities that only Buddhas possess. These eighteen include ten powers, fourfearlessnesses, three kinds of tranquility, and great pity. The ten powers
are the powers of wisdom that Buddhas possess: (1) the power of distinguishing between what is true and what is not; (2) the power of knowing
karmic cause and result; (3) the power of knowing all the stages of thevarious kinds of meditation practice; (4) the power of discerning thesuperiority or inferiority of all people’s religious capacities; (5) the
power of knowing people’s various wishes; (6) the power of knowing
the various realms in which beings exist; (7) the power of knowing inwhat realm people will be reborn; (8) the power of remembering thepast lifetimes of himself and other people; (9) the power of knowing thedeath and birth of all people in the future; and (10) the power of knowing that all his earthly desires have been eradicated. The four fearlessnesses are four types of confidence: (1) fearlessness in declaring oneself
to have obtained the highest and correct enlightenment; (2) fearlessness
in declaring oneself to have extinguished all desires; (3) fearlessness in
explaining about earthly desires to disciples; and (4) fearlessness in
explaining about the way of extinguishing earthly desires to disciples.
The three kinds of tranquility are three aspects of a Buddha’s quality ofserenity, that a Buddha’s mind remains tranquil and undisturbed regardless of the approval, disapproval, or mixed reactions of his disciples
listening to his preaching. Great pity is the unlimited compassion forpeople that a Buddha possesses.
The two main qualities of a Buddha are basically wisdom and compassion, as described in these eighteen unshared properties. Unshakeable confidence and imperturbability may be added to the basic qualities
of wisdom and compassion. Since the importance of compassion might
give an impression of gentleness, perhaps we should add courage to thislist of basic qualities. “Exerting oneself bravely and vigorously,” asgiven in the Expedient Means Chapter, represents in effect the practiceof showing courage. Needless to say, many of the properties that a Buddha possesses are based on his realization of the truth. Here the word
“truth” corresponds to “dharma” in Sanskrit. In short, understanding thetruth, and the possession of wisdom, compassion, courage, confidence,
imperturbability and so on, have been regarded as Buddha’s properties
throughout the history of Buddhism.

108

THE MODERN SIGNIFICANCE OF THE LS

The New Interpretation of Rebirth:
Valuing of the Real World
Next I would like to take up the new interpretation of Mahåyåna Buddhism concerning rebirth and emancipation. In the Nikåya Buddhism,
practitioners aim to emancipate themselves from the world of rebirthand to enter nirvåˆa by severing all earthly desires. In other wordsNikåya Buddhism, according to this interpretation, regards rebirth andnirvåˆa as two entirely different principles, with the former to be abandoned in favor of the latter. Buddhism is often criticized as a pessimistic
religion, and this negative appraisal might capture this aspect of theNikåya Buddhist worldview.
However, Mahåyåna Buddhism developed an affirmative evaluationof this world of rebirth as a place where people practice the way of thebodhisattva. According to the Teacher of the Law Chapter, those who
embrace faith in the Lotus SËtra after the passing of the Buddha are
believed to have already attained true enlightenment in their past lives,and yet out of deep compassion they relinquish the fruits of their goodkarma and voluntarily choose to be born in this evil world to propagate
the Lotus SËtra for the sake of all sentient beings. This is the concept
underlying the characteristics of the Bodhisattvas who emerge from theearth.
Moreover, this idea is clearly manifested in the core idea of the LotusSËtra that the eternal Buddha Íåkyamuni does not enter nirvåˆa, but
remains in the sahå world, preaching on Eagle Peak so as to save living
beings. According to the Life-span of the Thus Come One Chapter, theeternal Buddha Íåkyamuni’s location on Eagle Peak is a place where
living beings are happy and at ease. This description led to the conceptof the “pure land of Eagle Peak.” At the same time there arose the ideathat the sahå world is in itself the Land of Eternally Tranquil Light, thatis, that this seemingly impure land is in itself a pure land. It would bepointless were this idea to only philosophical speculation by aristocrats
isolated from the hardships of real life. On the contrary, the teaching thatthe real world is a place where human beings can be happy and at easeshould encourage us to reconstruct our own society as such a world.
THE FUNDAMENTAL IMAGE OF THE ONE BUDDHA VEHICLE:INTEGRATION AND DIVERSITY
As soon as we think of the Lotus SËtra, its “one Buddha vehicle” doctrine comes immediately to mind. In my understanding, the fundamental

THE MODERN SIGNIFICANCE OF THE LS

109

image of the “one Buddha vehicle” is a simultaneous combination of
integration and diversity. At the most basic level, the concept of the “oneBuddha vehicle” implies not only that we should abandon all the teachings which the Buddha expounded before the Lotus SËtra—since they
are only provisional expedients—but also that those very same teachings
become revitalized once again if we recognize their validity as expedientteachings. As proof of how this works, the Lotus SËtra also explains theachievement of perfect enlightenment by voice-hearers. Destined toremain arhats in Nikåya Buddhism, when they understand the ultimate
import of the Lotus SËtra they become reborn as “true voice-hearers”
destined for Buddhahood. Also, all religious merit, even the most trivialof good actions, does not lead to worldly benefits but contributes directly to the attainment of Buddhahood. This feature of the Lotus SËtra isreferred to in Chinese Buddhism by the technical term “elaborating the
expedient teachings and revealing the ultimate truth,” which highlights
the fact that the Lotus SËtra revives all teachings, even those supersededin the Lotus SËtra itself.
In terms of time and space, the Lotus SËtra integrates various Buddhas into the one Buddha Íåkyamuni, and it also consolidates the various teachings of Íåkyamuni Buddha into the “one Buddha vehicle.”
These considerations might seem to imply that only the aspect of integration is emphasized, but diversity actually receives similar attention as
well. This is shown in the technical term “elaborating the expedientteachings and revealing the ultimate truth.” The problem is how to capture the true sense of the concept of integration. If we locate it in strong
sectarian dogmatism, then the esteem of diversity will be like pie in thesky. If we regard the idea of the one Buddha vehicle as the teaching of
the complete manifestation of the dignity of human beings, then diversity should be esteemed as long as we do not deviate from the dignity ofhuman beings.
This idea is closely related to the recognition that human beings do
not exist for the sake of religions, whereas religions do exist for the sakeof human beings. This recognition might imply a danger of falling preyto the arrogance of human beings and losing contact with religion
entirely, but I think it is important to emphasize the dignity of humanbeings. If human beings are sacrificed and become enmeshed in conflict
between religions, this would be to mistake the means for the end. The
Lotus SËtra, which advocates a balance of “integration” and “diversity,”
seems to propose the possibility of a dialogue between religions, which
is one of the desiderata of the present age. This is an important questionthat I would like to consider on another occasion.

110

THE MODERN SIGNIFICANCE OF THE LS

LIVING IN THE ETERNAL LAW AS FOUNDATION
The historical Buddha Íåkyamuni said at the very end of his life, “allconditioned things are decaying. Strive with diligence.” (This citation
is from the Mahåparinibbåna suttanta). To tell the truth, Buddhism isneither optimistic nor pessimistic. As the present age continues to beviolated by pessimism, sometimes to the point of losing all hope, it isnecessary for humans living in the modern world to emphasize optimism.
“All conditioned things are decaying” can be interpreted as thefamous Buddhist teaching that all things are impermanent. This idea isreal and true in the phenomenal world. However, we have to keep inmind that it is different from sentimental feelings of transience, like the“emptiness” as has been traditionally understood by many Japanese people. The real meaning of the impermanence of all things is its implication of the inevitability of change in the phenomenonal world. The problem is that good things change for the bad, and bad things change for the
good. In short, there are always two possibilities—things will always
improve or worsen. The Buddha said to the disciples, “Strive with diligence” after saying “all things are decaying.” Because we are thus
always open to infinite possibilities, the Buddha gave us this last message so that we would aim at attaining Buddhahood and make effort as
ordinary human beings. This standpoint is based on the principles ofdevotion and effort of Buddhism.
As mentioned above, the Buddha attained Buddhahood by awakening
to the truth (dharma). The Lotus SËtra adopted the dharma which the
Buddha awakened to as a part of its title, Saddarmapuˆ∂ar¥ka SËtra. In
Buddhism the dharma is said to exist eternally, regardless of whether
Buddhas appear in the world or not. According to the Lotus SËtra, theultimate teaching of Buddhism is that not only Íåkyamuni Buddha andbut also the past Buddhas, such as Sun Moon Bright Buddha and Great
Universal Wisdom Excellence Buddha, preach continuously. The LotusSËtra is understood as an eternal, universal teaching, as the sËtra which
expounds the dharma that all Buddhas should realize. The spirit of Buddhism means to aim to achieve and realize this dharma in one’s own
body through the application of Buddhist practices, and to realize wisdom and compassion. People are uncertain on what they should basetheir lives, in an age when greed prevails and people’s morals are in
decline. Does this way of living based on the eternal law not give
immovable confidence to all of us living in such a stormy age?

THE MODERN SIGNIFICANCE OF THE LS

111

CONCLUSION
In this brief paper I have been unable to give a sufficient explanation of“the modern significance of the Lotus SËtra”; instead, I have only beenable to explain some of the scripture’s most basic tenets. I myself wantto learn from the Lotus SËtra a way of abiding in the eternal law andmaking it one’s foundation of living, as well as a way of living which
achieves the symbiosis of mutual respect by awakening to the dignity ofself and others. Such an ideal way of living changes the world from aplace where much suffering exists to one where living beings are happy
and at ease.
As mentioned at the beginning, even though there exist wonderfulreligious scriptures, it is only when there are human beings who struggle
to solve the various problems of the particular time that we can discuss
the relationship between a historical age and religious scriptures. I
would like people who seriously work on the Lotus SËtra to explore themodern meaning of the Lotus SËtra themselves, each from his or her
own standpoint.