Indonesia / Kazakhstan / Malaysia

Bangladesh / Bhutan / Cambodia / India

15

2015

The Fifteenth Regular Report

Philippines / Sri Lanka / Uzbekistan

Maldives / Mongolia / Nepal / New ZealandACCU Nara International Correspondent
The ACCU correspondents periodically send reports on cultural heritage protection activities in which they have been
recently involved. This is a collection of fourteen reports submitted by international correspondents in the Asia-Pacificregion.

The Fifteenth Regular Report
Contents
Bangladesh

1Mst. Naheed Sultana
The Archaeological Site ‘Mather Chala’ Excavation and Its Remains

Bhutan6

Karma Tenzin
Visual Reconstruction of Chubjakha Dzong Ruin

Cambodia

11

Vitharong Chan
Return of Mahabharata’s Sculptures, Prasat Chen in Koh Ker

India

13

Kunkuma Devi Kishore
Historic Temple Towns of Tamilnadu – an Insight into Srirangam, Tiruchirapally (2nd)Indonesia

18

Dewi Puspito Rini
The Mapping of Anyer Lighthouse Tower, Banten Province, Indonesia

Kazakhstan

20

Gulnaz Kulmaganbetova
Some Results of the Work Carried out in 2014 in Kazakhstan

Malaysia
A Ghafar Bin Ahmad
Installation of Stone Slate Roof Tiles at the City Hall Building, George Town, Penang, Malaysia

27

Maldives

33

Shiura Jaufar
Excavation of a Bathing Tank at Kandhuvalu Mosque in Ha. Utheemu

Mongolia

35

Munkhtulga Rinchinkhorol
An Ancient Turkic Memorial Complex in North Central Mongolia

Nepal

40

Suresh Suras Shrestha
Conservation of Sundari Chowk: A Major Component of the Medieval Royal Palace at Patan

New Zealand

43

Matthew Schmidt
New Heritage Legislation for New Zealand: The Heritage New Zealand Pouhere Taonga Act 2014

Philippines

47

Louella Solmerano Revilla
The Augustinians in the Philippines: Sharing 450 Years of Love, Faith, Fraternity, History,
Heritage, Culture and Art (1565-2015)

Sri Lanka

50

D.A. Rasika Dissanayaka
Architecture in Ancient Sri Lanka (2nd Part)

Uzbekistan
Akmal Ulmasov
Recent Finds of Hellenistic Architectural Elements from Old Termez (South Uzbekistan)

57

Bangladesh
Bangladesh
1

The Archaeological Site ‘Mather Chala’ Excavation and Its Remains
Mst. Naheed Sultana, Regional Director
Department of Archaeology, Ministry of Cultural Affairs, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh
The Gazipur district is situated in the middle of the Dhaka
division of Bangladesh. It is known for its history, and thereddish earth and dense forest of Vawal Pargana. Gazipur
has had a heroic role in several movements andantagonisms in the Mughal (15th to 18th century), British(18th to 20th century) and Pakistan (middle of the 20th
century) periods.

Location of the site: The archaeological site Dhol Shamudra,
Mather Chala is situated 14 km to the northeast towards
Upazilla (Thana) Kaliakair. A long time ago the historic
Turagh River flowed in the vicinity of this archaeologicalsite. Nowadays, the Turagh River has moved away andmarshlands have been created. The marshlands are
surrounded on four sides known as Makash, Gajaria andAlua etc.

The Gazipur district

Excavated site: marked in red

Before clearing

After clearing

The eastern door is 94 cm wide but only 90 cm has been
revealed. It faces east, and the measurement of the blackstone is 90 cm long and 20 cm wide. The middle of thestone is broken with a small hole there for the purpose ofclosing the door. The main characteristic of these walls isthat up to 1 m they are slightly projected and decorated.
After that 60 to 68 cm is simply constructed but with two
full bloom lotuses engraved on this portion. These featuresare visible all around the exposed structure.

The selected mound for excavation is 1.5 m from allaround the highland. It has a gradual slope and issurrounded by plains to the east, west, north and south.
This mound was covered with jungle and a very large silk
cotton tree. Consequently, the excavation was conductedvery carefully and therefore took more time.

Southern wall and door: The southern wall (8.5 m) has
been exposed very carefully. This wall is also 1.4 m thickand the gateway has been installed in the middle. Twosides of the door are highly decorated and covered byornamental bricks. This wall lasts only 40 cm to 80 cm
from floor level. An octagonal turret in the southwest
corner was found mostly damaged and destroyed.

Bangladesh

Some characteristics are slightly found in the formation of
the soil of this region. The soil of this area is formed byhills and moats. At some places the soil is situated 0.8 m
above the plains. And just below the soil, there lies somemoats like lowlands. The highlands of this region are
called ‘Challah’ or ‘Chala’ and the moat-like lands arecalled ‘Baith’. The archaeological site of ‘Dhol Shamudra
Mather Chala’ is situated above these ‘Challah’ or ‘Chala’
and this is why the place is called ‘Mather Chala’.

On the inner side of this wall two decorated pilasters arevisible 36 cm from the door. A water outlet (10 cm long x
5 cm wide) has also been exposed.

Ground plan of the exposed structure

A short description of the excavation: The excavation was
conducted in 12 trenches and the remains of a squareancient building was discovered. The measurement of theexterior side of the ancient structural remains is 8.5 m x 8.5
m and interior side is 5.5 m x 5.3 m, which means that theshape of the architectural remains is square. Every wall is
1.4 m thick. The surviving walls are 35 cm up to 1.3 m.
Mostly square-shaped bricks were used in the walls andmostly complete bricks were used in the core filling in the
thick walls. Mud mortar was used as a cementing material.
The structural remains had four octagonal turrets in thefour corners, but these have almost disappeared, and only
a little evidence has survived. Two gateways were foundin the middle of the eastern and southern walls. The
exterior walls of the building were highly decorated withvarious shapes and sized ornamental bricks, and theinterior walls were decorated with ornamented pilasters.
Two stones were found in the floor of the exposed
structure.
Eastern wall and gateway: The eastern wall has been exposed
horizontally for 5.5 m because of a very big tree standing
in the northeast corner of the mound. For this reason thenortheast corner has not been excavated. Indeed, agateway, that is to say the main entrance, has been foundin the middle of the eastern wall. The door jamb was madeof a black stone which still survives in situ today. Verybeautiful ornamentation was on the exterior wall of theeastern wall and turret. But this wall and turret areextensively deteriorated. The corner turret of the southeast
corner is octagonal-shaped and its diameter is 1 m.

Eastern wall

Close up view

Southern wall: general view

2

Bangladesh

Western wall: The unveiled western wall of the structure isdecorated with the same techniques and characteristics asthat of the southern wall. The wall is also mostly damaged.
Only 24 cm to 42 cm of the wall has survived from floor
level. Horizontally, 8 m of the wall has been revealed,running north to south. Two water outlets have been
exposed. One is in the southwest corner and another is in
the northwest corner. On the inner face of this wall there
are two pilasters installed at the same distance from thedoor as per the southern wall and both are highly decorated
with ornamental bricks. An octagonal corner turret has
been exposed in the northwest corner.
Northern wall: The northern wall has been exposed to alength of 7 m, running from the northwest corner turret tothe east. A very large silk cotton tree stands in the northeast
corner of the mound. Consequently, this corner has not
yet been excavated. The condition of the northern wall

was found to be comparatively better than the others. Thiswall has been exposed 68 cm to 1.2 m from the floor levelof the platform and it is also highly decorated withornamental bricks.
Platform: Beyond the exposed structure, a 1 m wide
platform has been built all around the structure. Again, abrick paved floor has been excavated 30 cm below theplatform, which stretches an equal distance all around theexposed structure.
Pilasters: It is known that there are two pilasters installedon the inner portion of every wall of the square structure.
Every pilaster is situated an equal distance from one
another. All pilasters have been created from the floor of
the structure, and the foundations of these pilasters are 44
cm wide and 19 cm projected outwards. They probably
used to go up to the top of wall, and every pilaster isbeautifully decorated with floral and geometrical designs.
Preparation of the floor of the exposed structure: The floor of
the exposed structure is made of concrete, and the middleof this floor slopes slightly from the four sides of the walls.
There are two stones that have been installed more or lessin the middle of this square floor. Another concrete floor
has been found 68 cm away from the middle of the westernwall at an equal distance from north and south (1.77 m)
The measurement of this platform is N-S 1.46 m and E-W
1.04 m with a height of 13 m. This platform is made oflarge-sized bricks and it has been covered with concrete
lime plaster.

Southern wall: close up view

3

There is a black stone on the small platform, which isengraved with a leaf design on three sides, with a hole inWestern wall

Northern wall: close up view

Northern wall: general view

General view of the exposed floor

Bangladesh

Pilasters

Two stones installed in the floor

Stratification

the middle. The hole is 10 cm deep and another two
shallow holes are found in the two sides of the large hole.
The stone is 61 cm long, 61 cm wide and 21 cm high.
Another round shaped stone has been exposed 24 cm
away, to the east of the floor. The stone is reddish incolour and most probably is made of granite. There are
two small and shallow holes and a square hole on the top.
The diameter of this stone is 78 cm. The outside edge ofthe stone is deeply engraved. Accordingly, the stone
actually looks like two stones. The top of the stone is verysmooth and is infixed 20 cm deep in the floor of thestructure. Most probably the stone was used as the base ofa pillar of a gigantic ancient building. Initially it seems tobe the same kind of stone as was later used in the exposed
structure for another purpose.
Stratification: In the excavated mound only one layer has
been found which was full of complete bricks, pieces ofbricks, concrete and lime mortar mixed with brick dust. It

was basically the materials of the roof of this ruined building.
The exposed mound was a heap of abandoned materials
from this ruined ancient building. The mound has been
depreciated by the local people and they have collected alarge number of bricks and artefacts from this mound.
Objects: From the beginning of the excavation of the Dhol
Shamudra, Mather Chala archaeological site, a large
number of complete and broken ornamental bricks havebeen collected in a short time. Beyond these, a number of
potsherds and Muslim glassed pottery have also been
discovered. The excavation is in its initial stage, and bricks
are of different shapes and sizes with designs consisting offloral motifs, various kinds of fruits, leafs, geometricaldesigns and petal motifs. No human or animal figures havebeen found at this excavated site.
Conclusion: The Dhol Shamudra Mather Chalaarchaeological site is situated on 20 acres of land. An
ancient ruined structure has been exposed in a very limited

4

Bangladesh

time and range. The construction style of the excavatedstructure includes the use of thick and necked walls, mudmortar, and square shaped bricks, and is reminiscent of
the architectural style of the Sultanat period (13th to 16th

centuries AD). The structure has no Mihrab, so it is not a
mosque. It is very difficult to identify the purpose forwhich this structure was used.

Potsherds

Muslim glazed pottery

Ornamental bricks

5

Bhutan
BhutanVisual Reconstruction of Chubjakha Dzong Ruin
Karma Tenzin, Architect,
Division for Conservation of Heritage Sites, Department of Culture, Ministry of Home and Cultural Affairs, Bhutan
1. Background
The Chubjakha Dzong ruin is located on a ridge
overlooking the Paro valley, and the site covers
approximately 10 acres. According to Dargey (2013),
Chubjakha was originally the religious seat of Kuenkhen
Longchen Rab Jampa in the 15th century. Later, Drung
Drung Gyalchogs Rinpoche, a descendent of Phajo
Drugom Zhipo (1222-1250), took over from the disciplesof Kuenkhen Rab Jampa. However, it is said that the
temple was rased to the ground by fire and later expanded
and converted to a dzong by Drung Drung Rinpoche as
the country was going under several wars.
The layout of the dzong, which was built in a strategic
location, clearly indicates that the dzong was built solely
for defensive purposes, as protection from invasion byenemies. The overall fortress complex is surrounded by
two defensive ditches—outer and inner ditches. The
fortress complex consists of a five-story main central tower(Utse) surrounded by structures attached to the main
central tower in the north, east and south. There are six
watchtowers surrounding the Utse—the northeast andsoutheast watchtowers were expanded with the additionof one tower each, thus making it six. The watchtowers
probably must have served the purpose of keeping an eye
on enemies in all four directions. However, huge trees andvegetation have now grown on top of the watchtowers,
which are all covered with debris from the collapsed walland vegetation.
The fortress complex is connected by a well-protected,
fortified passage sloping gently downward in a westerly
direction to a sequence of three watchtower structures.
The passage has defensive stone walls on either side witharrow slits. The three structures between the fortresscomplex and lowermost tower, or Chudzong, are also
probably watchtowers overlooking the Paro valley.
However, as already mentioned, only the main fortresscomplex is being considered for visual reconstruction inthis article. The whole fortress complex is mostly of stone
masonry construction, with some inner parts built of
rammed earth. The quality of both the stone masonry andrammed earth construction are exceptional.
The article is a summarized version of the Certificate ofContinuing Education Program report submitted by theauthor to the Bhutan-Swiss Archaeology Project. The paper
attempts to analyze and visually reconstruct the Chubjakha
Dzong ruin to its former grandeur based on the findings ofthe survey and documentation of the present condition of
the ruin, as well as through drawing comparisons withother old fortresses in the country. The detailed survey anddocumentation of the Chubjakha Dzong ruin was carriedout as an educational training program under the BhutanSwiss Archaeology Project organized by the Division forConservation of Heritages under the Department of6

BhutanFig. 2 Front facade of Utse: eastern viewFig. 4 Drukgyel Dzong. (Photo: Kasumi)

Fig. 3 Rear facade of Utse: western view

Culture, Ministry of Home and Cultural Affairs, Royal
Government of Bhutan in cooperation with HELVETAS
Swiss Intercooperation, Bhutan, and the Swiss
Liechetenstein Foundation of Archaeological Research
Abroad (SLSA), Switzerland, during which a detailed planof the existing structure, photographic documentation anddescription of all the positions and special features of theruins were recorded and well documented. It is based on
this information that the visual reconstruction of the ruin toits former state is studied by analyzing the findings of thepresent state of the ruin and also through drawing
comparisons. This paper covers visual reconstruction of
only the main dzong complex due to lack of detailed
survey and documentation of the periphery structures.
2. Visual Reconstruction of the main fortress complex
2.1 Layout of the ruin of the main fortress complex
The main central tower (Utse, sector 1) in the middle issurrounded by structures (sector 2) attached to the main
central tower in the north, east and south. There are six
watchtowers (sectors 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8) surrounding the Utse,in the northeast and the southeast. The watchtowers
probably must have served the purpose of keeping an eye
on enemies in all four directions. Huge trees and vegetation
have grown on top of the watchtowers, which are all
covered with debris from the collapsed wall and vegetation.
Fig. 1 shows the overall layout of the main fortress complex
with the respective sector numbers.
2.2 Utse (Sector 1)
Utse (Sector 1) - The main central tower in the middle ofthe complex measuring 23 m x 14.6 m is built of stone
masonry with mud mortar. The middle portion of the wallof the front facade (eastern facade) (see Fig. 2) of the Utse
has collapsed to ground level. The wall of the rear facade

7

Fig. 5 Drukgyel Dzong. (Photo: Kasumi)(southern facade) of the Utse is still standing until the
lower ‘kemar’ band. The wooden lintels of the openings
are still intact. Most of the openings such as doors andwindows are in the eastern facade, while there are many
triangular slit openings (arrow slits) in the other facades,
mainly for defensive purposes.
3.2 a) Visual Reconstruction of Utse
In the Utse’s present state, the internal layout of the rooms
for every floor is impossible to determine since it isinaccessible due to collapsed walls and debris from theupper structure. A scientific excavation is necessary to findout the layout of the rooms at every floor. However, aphysical view of the Utse with openings can be judged
from its present state. Therefore, based on the measurement,
observation and analysis of its current state, the following
analysis was considered for the virtual reconstruction of
the Utse.
i) Building height/number of floors
One can clearly determine that the Utse is a five-story
building from its present state. This can be calculated fromthe window openings at each floor level and a kemar band
level (see Fig. 3) at the top of the structure. Normally, thekemar band is traditionally at the top of the structure just

BhutanFig. 6 Remains of flooring joists inside the Utse

Fig. 7 Sector 2: southern defense room

below the roof (see Drukgyel Dzong in Fig. 4). The roomheight can be calculated from the remains of the flooring
joist (see Fig. 6), and is approximately 3.1 m.

shooting as well as for ventilation. After studying thelayout of the structure of sector 2 and construction
techniques, we understand that the northern and southernrooms were built/expanded later after the construction of
the Utse, and at the same time watchtowers sectors 3 and
4 were built for defensive purposes by adding outerdefense walls sectors 9 and 11. Later, the eastern rooms ofsector 2 were expanded when watchtowers sectors 7 and
8 were added next to watchtowers sectors 3 and 4 byadding defense wall sector 10. The chronology of theconstruction of these structures can be clearly understoodfrom the construction techniques.

ii) Entrance door
Although at present, the main entrance door to the Utse is
not seen or known, it is certain that the entrance to the
Utse is from the west, as there is no possibility of theentrance being from the east, south or north. Moreover,the middle portion of the wall of the eastern facade hadcollapsed (see Fig. 2), which further supports theassumption that there were openings, causing most of thewall to collapse.
iii) Window openings
Most of the window openings and the triangular slit
openings can still be seen from the outside, although they
are inaccessible in most of the rooms. However, nowooden components of the openings are intact except for
the wooden lintel. Therefore, a simple gekar window
design has been considered for the visual reconstruction,
since this kind of gekar window is the most common one
found in old historic monuments and fortresses (see thegekar window in Drukgyel Dzong in Fig. 5).
Simple rabsey window openings are proposed in the
middle of the front facade (entrance side) on the fifth andfourth floors, mainly in consideration of the fact that thisportion of the wall has totally collapsed due to the presenceof several large openings, which could have been rabsey
openings. Moreover, in most old structures the entranceside elevation is usually more grand with rabsey openings.
(See Fig. 5 for an example of a rabsey window)iv) Roof design
The gable and lean-to shinglep roofing style is the traditional
form of roofing in Bhutan. Therefore a double-tiered gableshinglep roofing design has been adopted here for thereconstruction of the Utse. Double-tiered gable roofing is
considered in this case because it is the practice in Bhutanesearchitecture to highlight the most important and significant
structures or buildings with a double-tiered roofing design.
2.3) Defense rooms around the Utse - Sector 2
Sector 2 includes all the rooms around the central tower(Utse, sector 1) to the north, east and south, which served
mainly as defense rooms, since the outer walls haveseveral small triangular slit openings (arrow slits) for

2.3 a) Visual reconstruction of defense rooms around the Utse
At present, the northern and eastern defense rooms (sector2) are at various levels above the ground floor filled withdebris from collapsed walls and vegetation; however, one
can access the ground floor of the southern defense room.
i) Height/number of floors of defense rooms
One can clearly determine that the defense roomsaroundthe Utse are three-story buildings from the triangular slit
openings in the defense wall (sector 10) of the eastern
defense rooms. Since a small portion of the lower band of
the kemar is still intact towards the top of the defense wall
(sector 10), it indicates that there was no additional floor
on top; therefore, one can assume from the openings that
it is a three-story building. This can be further confirmed
from the southern defense room (see Fig. 7), since eventoday one can access the ground floor of the room andclearly see the remains of the flooring joists and openingsof the upper floors.
ii) Openings
There are numerous triangular slit openings at various floor
levels that are clearly visible in the walls from the outside.
iii) Roof design
Since these structures are attached to the Utse, the only
possible roofing is the lean-to style; however, between thenortheast and southeast watchtowers and the Utse, gableroofing is considered due to the nature of the layout of thestructure.
2.4) Watchtowers (Sectors 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8)
Sector 3 is the northeast watchtower adjoined by anotherwatchtower (sector 7) to the east. The watchtower measures
7.3 x 9.7 m. Sector 4 is the southeast watchtower built at the8Bhutansame time as watchtower sector 3. Sector 5 is the southwest
watchtower of the dzong complex near the tunnel (sector
21). Sector 6 is the northwest watchtower facing the Parovalley. Sector 7 is the northeast watchtower that was later
added to sector 3. Sector 8 is the southeast watchtower later
added to sector 4.
2.4 a) Visual reconstruction of watchtowers 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8
Analyzing the layout of the complex and construction
techniques, one can conclude that watchtowers 3, 4, 5 and6 were all built together at the same time for defensive
purposes later, after the Utse was built, whereas
watchtowers 7 and 8 were later expanded and added towatchtowers 3 and 4, respectively. An additional floor wasadded to watchtowers 3 and 4 when watchtowers 7 and 8
were built. At present, the internal layouts of every floor
level are impossible to understand as the towers are filled
up with fallen debris from collapsed walls and vegetation.
Furthermore, scientific excavation is necessary in order tounderstand the internal layouts of the watchtowers. The
following are the conclusions drawn for the reconstructionof watchtowers 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8.
i) Height/number of floors of the watchtowers
Studying the number of triangular slit openings (arrowslits) in the watchtowers and the remains of the kemar
band, one can conclude that watchtowers 3, 4, 5 and 6
were all three-story buildings, whereas watchtowers 7 and
8 were four-story buildings. However, analyzing the kemar
level of watchtowers 3 and 4 and the remains of the wallabove the kemar level on top of watchtower 4, it isunderstood that an additional floor was later added towatchtower 3 and 4 when watchtowers 7 and 8 were later
constructed, thus making it a four-story structure.
ii) Window openings and arrow slits
Openings still remain at the top of watchtowers 4 and 5 on
the western facade at kemar level. In this regard, a gekar
window design has been considered like the one in the
Utse for sectors 4 and 5, and for watchtowers 5 and 6,
taking into account the symmetry of the design for mosttraditional constructions.
iii) Roof design
The roofing style being considered for the watchtowers isa gable design, since gable and lean-to are the mostcommon traditional styles of roofing in Bhutan.
2.5) Main entrance building to the fortress complex (Gorago)- Sectors 13, 14 and 15
In order to confirm whether sectors 13, 14 and 15 made up
the main entrance building to the fortress complex, a small
excavation was carried out during survey anddocumentation field training. The results of the excavation
later proved that the main entrance to the fortress complex
is from sector 14 (see Fig. 8). The main entrance building,or sectors 13, 14 and 15 in the west and the shakhor(resident building surrounding the main central tower), or
sectors 12, 16, 17 and 18, were built with rammed earth.
2.5 a) Visual reconstruction of the gorago (main entrance
building to the fortress complex), sectors 13, 14 and 15
The internal layout of the gorago, or the main entrance

9

Fig. 8 Excavated areabuilding, is hard to determine since the whole structure isfilled up with debris from collapsed walls and vegetation.
As with most of the cases, scientific excavation is necessary
in order to study the internal layout. However, thefollowing conclusions were drawn for the reconstructionof the gorago.
i) Height of the building
The main entrance building, or gorago, (sectors 13, 14 and15) are considered to be two-story from the triangular slit
openings, since there are arrow slit openings at two levels.
Although there is no kemar band seen in this case toconsider the topmost level of the building, it is considered
to be two-story since traditionally, gorago are two-story or
one-story buildings.
ii) Entrance door of the gorago
The findings of the excavation prove that the entrance
door is from the west, as there is a clear edge for an
opening and flat stones for the steps (see Fig. 8). Further,
the nature of the layout of the building (sectors 13, 14 and15), which is in the middle of two watchtowers (sectors 5
and 6) leading to the main court of the fortress complex
and to the Utse, proves that sectors 13, 14 and 15 make up
the main entrance buildingiii) Openings (arrow slits)
The triangular slit openings are still intact and can be seenfrom the outer walls at various levels.
iv) Roof design
Similar to the watchtowers and Utse, gable roofing is being
considered as the roofing style for the gorago, however, an
additional gable roof tier is hypothetically being consideredsince gorago in olden days had double tier roofing tohighlight the main entrance.
2.6) Shakhor building - sectors 12, 16, 17, 18, 19 and 20
The shakhor building (sectors 12, 16, 17, 18, 19 and 20)
was built with rammed earth. The internal layouts of therooms are impossible to determine at present due to debris
and vegetation. The following conditions were considered
for the reconstruction.
i) Height of the Shakhor building
The shakhor building is considered to be two-story, as
evidenced by the arrow slit openings, as well as considering
the fact that the shakhor structure has to be lower in height
than the watchtowers.

2.7) Three dimensional views - visual reconstruction of
Chubjakha Dzong
Based on the above analysis of the findings and study of
the Chubjakha Dzong complex, the following are three
dimensional views from different angles of the main
fortress complex.
Glossary
Chubjakha – Site nameDzong - Fortress
Hungrel – Block name
Gewog – Block (consisting of several villages)
Dzongkhag - District

Zhabdrung - Buddhist saint and historical figure who
unified Bhutan in the 17th century
Paro – Place name
Utse - Main central tower
Shakhor - Surrounding buildings, usually used as residential
quarters
Gorago - Main entrance building to a fortress complex
Kemar - An architectural feature consisting of a bandcommonly painted in red on top of a monastic structure
below the roof
Cham - Wooden joist
Gekar - Narrow timber window
Rabsey - Large timber window

Bhutanii) Roof design
A gable roof design for the shakhor is being considered asin the case of the other structures.

Bibliography
Chubjakha Dzong - Forgotten Edifice (provisional draft)by Yonten Dargye, National Library Archives, Thimphu

Fig. 9 View from the southwest: Entrance side viewFig. 10 View from the northwest

Fig. 11 View from the southeast

Fig. 12 View from the northeast

10

Cambodia
Cambodia

Return of Mahabharata’s Sculptures, Prasat Chen in Koh Ker
Vitharong Chan, Vice-Chief of Antiquities Management Office
Department of Antiquities, General Department of Cultural Heritage, Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts
Introduction
Since 2011, heritage readers would know about the lengthy
legal action in the U.S. courts for the return of a looted
10th century Khmer sculpture from Sotheby’s auction
house. As a result, the sculpture was taken off the market
and returned home. Along with the return of that sculpture,
it was voluntarily agreed that another four sculptures fromthe same group would also be returned, two from theMetropolitan Museum of Art in New York, and one fromChristie’s, with another one returned from Norton Simon
Museum in California.
This case demonstrates the commitment of the Royal
Government of Cambodia to fight the illicit trafficking of
cultural heritage. It reflects the usefulness of international
conventions that the government has ratified so far, suchas the 1970 UNESCO Convention (ratified in 1972) and the1995 UNIDROIT Convention (ratified in 1972). Furthermore,
the government also signed a bilateral agreement with theUnited States in 1998 and Thailand in 2000. However, thelegislative tools subsequently passed by Cambodia’snational parliament are also very advantageous for the
return of cultural heritage.
Origin of the Sculptures
In situ evidence of the two pedestals shows that the
sculptures appeared in a pile of accumulated bricks andsoil within the West Gopura of Prasat Chen in Koh Ker(Fig. 1)—capital of the Khmer Empire from 921 to 944,
known as Chok Gargyar in the reign of Kings Jayavaraman
IV and Harshavarman II, located about 80 kilometres
northeast from Angkor (Fig. 2). After an archaeologicalsurvey, the original positions of the sculptures wereconfirmed as two standing fighters accompanied byanother seven figures in a sitting posture. The sculptures
form part of the narrative iconography of the great Hindu
epic of Mahabharata, displayed as dramatic models orthespians in the narrow space of the building.

public sale. After the United States District Court sought
evidence to determine its origin from Cambodian experts
with the cooperation of experts from Ecole Française
d’Extrêm-Orient (Figs. 4 & 5), on 13 December 2013,
Sotheby’s, its client, and federal officials signed a deal toreturn the Duryodhana to Cambodia.
From the interior excavation at the West Gopura of Prasat
Chen, several pedestals have coarse traces left by thelooters’ chisels, and would fit the two sculptures (twinPandava brothers) from the Metropolitan Museum of Art
and a sculpture (Balarama) from Christie’s. These three
sculptures were voluntarily returned by the Metropolitan
Museum of Art in June 2013 and Christie’s in May 2014.
Additionally, the Norton Simon Museum also agreed toreturn the Bhima sculpture (Fig. 6).
After their return, Cambodian conservators carried out
basic conservation treatment and attached each sculpture
to their original pedestals (Fig. 7).
To welcome them home, since 1 October 2014, thesepieces have been put on display at the National Museumof Cambodia, Phnom Penh. This special exhibition will last
until the end of December 2014 (Fig. 8). The statues willthen be moved to the stone workshop for intensive
restoration and conservation before being put on display
as part of the permanent exhibition of the museum.
Acknowledgements
For this report, I wish to acknowledge the cooperation of
the staff of the Department of Museums, Ministry of Culture
and Fine Arts: Mrs. Khun Sathal, Chief of the Office of
Education and Exhibition and Mr. Chea Socheat, ViceChief of the Office of Conservation, and all experts in the
Stone Conservation Workshop.

Pillage and Return of the Sculptures
The sculptures are believed to have been stolen from thesite during Cambodia’s years of unrest, from 1970 to 1990;
this pillage appears to have been systematic.
Early confirmations were made by a member of the GACP
team, Simon Warrack, as he matched the feet of anabandoned pedestal in situ (at Prasat Chen) (Fig. 3) with awork in a published catalogue (Bunker and Latchford
2004). That sculpture, which was purported to be of
Bhima, had been on display at Norton Simon Museum.
In March 2011, a statue purported to be of Duryodhana
was listed in the Asia Week catalogue of Sotheby’s auction
house. The Royal Government of Cambodia sent a letter toSotheby’s asking for its return, and the auction was thenpostponed, with the item being withdrawn from the list for

11

Fig. 1: Prasat Chen

Cambodia

Fig. 6: Group of returned sculptures (Photo: NMC)

Fig. 2: Map of Koh Ker

Fig. 3: Sculptures’ feet on pedestals in situ

Fig. 7: Museum experts joining the Balarama’s torso to its pedestal(Photo: NMC)

Fig. 4: Another four pedestals found after excavation

Fig. 8: Sculptures on display at the National Museum of Cambodia

Fig. 5: Reconstruction image of the sculptures (Photo: EFEO)

12

IndiaIndia

Historic Temple Towns of Tamilnadu – an insight into Srirangam, Tiruchirapally(This article is the second in a series where I intend to present excerpts from my research and study of the temple town of Srirangam in the State of Tamilnadu)
Kunkuma Devi Kishore, Architect and Conservation Consultant,
Good Earth Office, Hyderabad, India
The temple town of Srirangam is a unique example of two
settlements shaped entirely by the many facets of theBrahmanised Universal Religion of Hinduism, and two
important temples: one dedicated to Lord Vishnu – Sri
Ranganathaswamy (Tiruvarangam/Srirangam), and theother dedicated to Lord Shiva – Tiruvairanikkaaval(Jambukeshwaram), with continuing importance as acentre of pilgrimage for more than 1000 years, located on
the banks of one of the most holy rivers of India – theKaveri. Srirangam Island, with its picturesque landscape, isthe only sacred island formed by the River Kaveri along its
entire course of 500 km in Tamilnadu, and stands at themouth of the delta, where the Kaveri divides into theSouthern Kaveri, Kollidam and other tributaries. Boththese settlements evolved as two different and independent
urban centres over the centuries, until Srirangam was
declared a municipality by the British in 1887 AD, andfrom then on, the town of Srirangam has comprised two
Historic Urban Centres and six villages.

MAP SHOWING THE TWIN SETTLEMENTS OF
SRIRANGAM AND JAMBUKESHWARAM ON
SRIRANGAM ISLAND – THE SRIRANGAMMUNICPAL CORPORATION LIMITS TODAY

The town shaped by Sri Ranganathaswamy temple is themost sacred shrine for the Vaishnavaites of Tamilnadu andis more popular than the smaller settlement shaped by the
temple of Jambukeshvara. It is the largest historic temple
complex (encompassing an area of sixty hectares) and theonly temple town in India with seven enclosure walls. The
presence of two important temple-centric settlements
widens the scope of the study to the Shaivite andVaishnavite temple centres and the heritage values
associated with them, the parallel evolution and growth ofthese towns, the influences on one another, etc. These
communities have a wide range of varying intangible
cultural heritage components associated with them.
Srirangam is located 337 km from the administrative capitalof Tamilnadu, Chennai; 60 km from the cultural capital,
Tanjore; and 140 km from the commercial capital, Madurai.
The Walled Town encompasses an area of 63 hectares (0.66
km2), the outermost enclosure measuring 878 m by 754 m.
As per 2000 census:
TOTAL POPULATION – 36,140
TOTAL NO. OF HOUSES – 4260
TOTAL NO. OF HOUSEHOLDS – 6863
AREA OF TEMPLE COMPLEX – 9.5 HECT (.097 SQ KM)

13

DENSITY OF HOUSES – 32 HOUSES/ ACRE (7500
HOUSES/SQ KM)
The first four enclosures constitute the temple complex,
and the outer three enclosures are occupied by the housing
sector, and together, they constitute the historic temple
town of Srirangam. This article covers the study of only thehistoric walled temple town of Srirangam. A ‘Value BasedApproach’ was adopted to establish its immensely highhistoric and heritage importance and further guide therelevant planning and development authorities to takedecisions that are both sensitive and appropriate to its
heritage values and significance. To accomplish thisobjective Srirangam was first placed in the context of thehistoric temple towns of Tamilnadu by understanding thehistoric developments that have shaped the temple towns ofTamilnadu in general, understanding the importance ofSrirangam Island in the context of the Kaveri Delta, thegeographic and physiographic context of Srirangam andtheir relationship with the Kaveri River and Kollidam River.
Rivers have played one of the most defining roles in the
inception and development of civilizations and settlementsfrom time immemorial.
The existing walled temple town of Srirangam wasIndiaA building use plan of the temple town of Srirangam with the Sriranganathaswamy temple complex in the coreunderstood in depth by tracing its evolution andmorphological growth, studying its existing and past land use
and building use patterns, built and open space relationships,
infrastructure facilities and services and the socio-economic
characteristics of the people. In order to understand thedesign principles and layout of the historic housing stockand the other built heritage components, a sample study
was undertaken for a carefully delineated area. It was and is
the most historic and sacred site among the three enclosures
within the walled town. It had a good representation oflisted heritage components. The structures in the delineatedsite were in a state of transition and hence retained their
original character to a great extent.
The physical structure, urban morphology and architecturalcharacter, and the customs, rituals and festivals of the town
were also analyzed in order to help identify the heritage
values. Finally, these heritage values were assessed and a
Statement of Significance was prepared.
The History of the Temple Town
The history of the shrine can be traced back to the Sangamage (300 BC - 300 AD) when it was patronized by the Chola
Kings of Uraiyur across the river Kaveri. When the Cholas
became feudatories to the Pallavas until 850 AD, theimportance of the shrine kept growing and attracted theattention of the much acclaimed Alvars—who were
impressed by the beauty of the Island and the reclining
image of Vishnu. The shrine attracted ascetics and devotes
from Kanchipuram, Madurai and other older sacred centres.
Uraiyur continued to be an important political centre for the
feudal Cholas. They continued to patronise the shrine andthe Alvars worked towards its expansion. Enclosure walls
and gateways of brick and stone were built with somepavilions as the importance of the temple grew and it
attracted more devotees. The Cholas returned to power in

850 AD. The kings began integrating the Brahmin settlementswith the non-Brahmin peasants, which was the base for the
institutionalization of the temple and symbol of its
legitimacy. Over the next 600 years endowments for festivals
and rituals, and education and tax-free lands for the
Brahmins, musicians, dancers and disciples continued toenrich the temple and the temple town. The temple had
emerged as an important social centre, employer, community
bank and educational centre, and to a large extent, dictatedthe kind of structures that evolved around it.
In 1225 Cholas became feudatories to the Pandyas; however,
the temple continued to flourish, both under the Cholarulers and by 1251, under the Pandyas. The Pandyas alliedwith Hoysalas made immense contributions to the expansionof the temple. Jatavarman Sundara Pandya was the biggest
Pandya patron of Sriranganatha Temple. In 1311 Malik
Kafur invaded Srirangam under Allaudin Khilji, and the
Statue of Sriranganatha carried off, but temple activities
were not disturbed. In 1323 the sack of Srirangam by Ulugh
Khan led to the theft of many statues and treasure of thetemple, and the temple itself was converted into a fortified
camp. The Pandyas were completely wiped out and thetemple had lost its wealth. On the eve of the Muslim
invasions in 1311, the temple was one of the richest in thedelta in endowments, a centre for peaceful and progressive
religious activity, and an important centre of pilgrimage
with a huge concentration of Vaishnava Brahmins. Srirangam
came under the control of Vijayanagara rulers in 1371, andin 1539 it came under the control of the Nayaks 0f Madurai.
Tiruchirapalli remained their capital for most of the next 200
years and massive restoration works were undertaken in SriRanganathaswamy Temple after the Muslim invasions. The
Nayaks were Vaishnavites and grandly patronised the SriRanganathaswamy Temple, and expanded the temple andthe temple town to a great extent. By 1736, the Nayaks had

14

Indialost their capital at Tiruchirapalli to the Nawabs of Arcot.
From then on, with the wish to capture Tiruchirapalli, there
were constant wars between the Marhattas, British, French,
Tipu Sultan, etc., and the outer enclosures of Srirangam
acted as a fortified camp on many occasions.
After the British took over and created the Madras
Presidency, the temple was beginning to fall under thecontrol of the East India Company, resisting any
interference from the metropolitan government. Some of
the temple lands were taken over by the company, and therevenue from the temple lands was now no longer adependable income for the temple. In 1871 Srirangam,
along with many other adjacent villages, became a second
grade municipality and began to be governed under the
Madras Municipality Act 1889. In 1861, the first Religious
Endowments Act came into force with the establishment of
a Management Commission. In 1927, the administration
was handed over to the Hindu Religious and Charitable
Endowment Board. The number of people involved intemple services decreased as the temple began to be
governed by the company and the Crown. The Brahmins
now started learning English and were employed in
education and government services in Tiruchirapalli
Municipality. It was a phase of rapid urbanisation that led
to the formation of Srirangam Municipality by 1871.
Post independence Srirangam continued to be a second
grade municipality under the newly-formed Government ofTamil Nadu and was upgraded to a first grade municipality
in 1959 with 33 wards. In 1994, the Tiruchirapalli Municipal
Council was upgraded to Municipal Corporation, andA construed map of the walled town of
Srirangam around the 16th to 17th century
showing how the Brahmins were settled
around the first two enclosures and thosebelonging to the other castes in the third
enclosure

15

Srirangam Municipality was absorbed into it, governed by
the Urban Local Bodies Act, 1998. For administrative
convenience, the corporation is divided into four zones, ofwhich Srirangam is one. The Act of 1959 empowers the
temple to take complete charge of its own administration;
however, Sri Ranganathaswamy Devasthanam constitutes a
staff of 200 employees, most of whom are appointed by thegovernment, barring a few hereditary positions.
The Historic Temple Town - a brief description
The principal organising elements of the town are- The Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple- The concentric streets enclosed by enclosure walls- The main axes with gopurams (the elaborately adorned
lofty stone entrance gateways)
The southern entrance is the grandest and most important,followed by the eastern entrance. The houses, chariotprocessional path, sub-shrines and pillared pavilions arealigned along the concentric streets while the axial streets
connecting them house the shops, bazaars, gopurams andsome residences. There is a big temple tank to the west
outside the walled town, which is used during the float
festival, and for community and irrigation purposes. There
are orchards in the temple town that constitute animportant open space that once belonged to the temple,
and produce from here was either directly used in temple
rituals or sold to enrich the temple treasury. The chariots
and their storehouses are located at certain vantage points.
The entire town has been laid out according to Hindu
sacred texts like the Agamas, Manasara and Mayamatam.

IndiaThe fifth street in the entire plan and the first in thesettlement—Uthirai Street—was traditionally occupied byBrahmins involved in special temple services such as
performing rituals, offerings to the Lord, kitchen activities
and prasada (sacred food after the rituals are performed)
distribution, and as musicians and dancers. The sixth street
in the entire plan and the second in the settlement—
Chithirai Street—was also traditionally occupied byBrahmins involved in other temple services and performing
rituals during social ceremonies. It was so renamed after
the Chithirai chariot procession was introduced during thetime of the Nayak rulers. The last street in the entire planand settlement this street was traditionally occupied by
non-Brahmins involved in all other services, in the temple,
and those that the people are dependent on in any town.
The tutelary shrines of the non-Brahmins are also locatedhere, namely the Kali Subshrines, along the sixth enclosure
wall, and the Protector God for Sri Ranganathaswamy,
Munneshwaran Shrine, along the seventh enclosure wall.
All houses have a well in the backyard. Some had wells at
the front also, although most of these have now been closed
off due to safety and expansion reasons. The water from thewells is used for all sacred and domestic purposes andhence is guarded well from impurities. 70% of the households
have toilets, all of them attached to the service lane at therear, which is accessed by a gate in the backyard wall.

A detailed study of the festivals and rituals of the Srirangam
walled town was undertaken and their influe nce on
settlement and spatial planning was analyzed in great
detail. The same has already been covered in one of theearlier reports.
The lists of Built and Natural Heritage Components of
Srirangam were identified under the following categories:
1. Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple Complex
2. Enclosure walls
3. Gopurams/Entrance archways
4. Water bodies
5. Mandapams/Pillared pavilions
6. Sub-shrines
7. Tirumaligais/houses that once belonged to the religious
teachers and spiritual leaders
8. Mutts
9. Choultries
10. Traditional Brahmin houses
11. Traditional Houses of other communities
12. Other important buildings
13. Shops in the south-axial street that were traditionallypillared pavilions and still largely retain their original
character
14. Coconut groves within the walled town in the
Adavalanjan enclosure

The plots are narrow with a very linear shape, leading to theaccommodation of as many built structures as possible. In
this way the maximum number of Brahmins could beaccommodated in the immediate vicinity of the temple, thus
offering them a view of their Lord’s entrance gateways andother holy sights. The built structures were also linear. The
bath was attached to the main building but the toilet wasalways on the outside connected to a conservancy lane, andthere was ample space in the backyard for ventilation,
washing and drying clothes. About 36% of the town is open
to the sky and 62% is totally built-up, and this includes the
temple complex as well.
The construction materials were predominantly brick andlime mortar, mud and lime, terracotta tiles, and timber for
the wooden columns, doors, windows and the Madras
terrace, as well as sloped roofs.

16

IndiaA typical house plan and section in the walled town of Srirangam

15. Processional routes
16. The Kaveri and Kollidam Rivers and their dry river beds
The Values of the Cultural Heritage Components werecategorized as:
1. Ecological
2. Historical - associational (age of the aspect, personality,
clan or community, event, deity, myth), educational/
archival, most important/uniqueness/one of its kind
3. Social – ethnic, political, arts and crafts work,
strengthening group identity, spiritual/religious, place
attachment
4. Architectural
5. Aesthetic
6. Artistic
7. Economic
8. Use Value/Market Value
9. Non Market Values – existence, bequest
The values are assessed to categorise graded properties
according to the priority and nature of conservationinterventions, preparing estimates for them as well as

deciding on stakeholder participation and nature ofincentives. It is also done to help grade them based on theirassessed values, age of the component, structural stability
and deterioration condition, threats of encroachment, etc. It
is beyond the scope of this article to show the grading andsignificance listed against each of the heritage components.
Srirangam is but one of the 38 Historic Towns designatedas “Heritage Towns” in 1998. The process of designation
was neither preceded by identification of what had to bepreserved nor followed by a management andimplementation strategy. Srirangam’s growing popularity
as a centre of pilgrimage, the abundant land available for
new housing developments, and the modern trend of
urbanisation, post independence, has emerged as major
threats to its cultural values and rich heritage. The town islosing its most significant and ancient planning principles
and all the heritage components are becoming transformed
at a rapid pace. Urbanisation has always been a continuous
process—a way of life even in the past, as every town has
after all scaled the ladder of urbanisation from its origin asa small settlement—however, today it has to be a lot moresensitive towards the existing layers of the past.

A conceptual perspective of the walled temple town of Srirangam

17Indonesia
Indonesia

The Mapping of Anyer Lighthouse Tower, Banten Province, Indonesia
Dewi Puspito Rini, Archaeologist
Heritage Conservation Office of Serang, Ministry of Education and Culture
Location and Historical Background
Anyer Lighthouse is located in Cikoneng village, Anyer
district, Banten province, Indonesia. This lighthouse isabout 40 km from the city of Serang, the capital of Banten
province. Why is the lighthouse so important and why
should it be mapped? Let’s take a look at this question.

Anyer Lighthouse Environmental Map (Documentation: BPCB Serang)

The aim of constructing the Daendels Highway from Anyer(Banten province) to Panarukan (East Java province) for as
far as 1000 miles from 1809 to 1810 was to accelerate thearrival of mail sent between Anyer and Panarukan. So it
was not surprising that this path was referred to as the post
highway. But the post highway has also been greatly
influenced by the life of the communities that surround it,
and now it has been transformed into an economic or
public road.
There are several historic versions of the establishment of
this highway. One source says that Daendels created theAnyer-Panarukan highway to defend Java from British
attack. Thus, a road needed to be built in Java to connect
one region to another in order to speed up the arrival ofnews and the transportation flow. Herman Willem
Daendels came to Banten, Indonesia in 1808 from theNetherlands. Daendels had been appointed by the French
Government as Governor General of the Dutch East Indies,for at that time the Dutch were under French rule, andNapoleon Bonaparte’s brother, Louis, was the King of
Holland.
In the first phase of the road construction work from
Batavia (Jakarta) to Banten in the years 1808 to 1809,
people still had the strength to carry out Daendels’scommands. However, after the outbreak of malaria thatkilled many people, the administration cut funding for the
Daendels’s project. The number of casualties from theroad construction from Batavia to Banten is still unclear.
According to some Indonesian historians, about 15,000
people died in the construction of the road, and without
proper burial. However, Daendels confronted the people
with an even harder commands. He did not hesitate to
instruct his troops to shoot the people who neglected or
refused to work on the road construction project, forwhatever reason.
The starting point of the Anyer-Panarukan highway is now
believed to be near a lighthouse that is located in Anyer
Kidul, Cikoneng village,
Anyar district, Banten
province. The lighthousebuilding was constructedin 1885, as a replacement
for the old lighthouse(built in 1806) that had
been destroyed by thetsunami from the Krakatoa
eruption in 1883. Krakatoa
volcano lies in the Sunda
Strait, located between
Java island and Sumatra
island. In the past, theSunda Strait was a
strategic area of military
and trade routes.
Anyer Lighthouse(Documentation: BPCB Serang)

18

Indonesia

To secure the vital economic and military shipping lanes in
Sunda Strait, the Dutch East Indies colonial government
built a lighthouse at Cape Cikoneng. The eruption of
Mount Krakatoa destroyed most of the life around theAnyer coast, which was then abandoned by its inhabitants.
The Dutch colonial government tried to restore life in thearea by undertaking development of Anyer Beach,
especially redevelopment of the lighthouse, whose
presence was essential for the security of shipping lanes of
the Sunda Strait.
Implementation of the mapping
The Anyer-Panarukan highway and the lighthouse are partof the dynamic development of infrastructure andtransportation in Indonesia—the highway relating to landtransportation, with the lighthouse associated with marinetransportation. Both were very important in the past, and
the Anyer Lighthouse has finally been designated as acultural heritage that is protected by law. In the interests ofconservation of the building and data completeness, it isnecessary to conduct data recording of Anyer lighthouse,
including environmental mapping. This mapping activity
was conducted to record data of the cultural heritage ofthe colonial era in Indonesia.
The aim of mapping is to record physical data in the field,
which is visualized in the form of images with certain
measurements. Through this activity, the layout andspacious of sites can be known accurately. In accordancewith the intent of this mapping activity, it results in a mapthat describes the lighthouse building layout andenvironmental situation. Plotting for other objects in the
map are also performed, especially for other buildings,
roads and others that could help to clarify the position ofAnyer Lighthouse on the map.

Anyer Lighthouse is shaped
like a cone that narrows
upward, with a tilt angle of88°. From the bottom to the
top of the lighthouse there
are 16 floors, each with aheight of 3 m. Anyer
Lighthouse tower was built
using steel construction
without a frame. The tower
wall was built with a cast
steel
plate
mounting
system. The steel plates arelinked to each other byusing bolts and screws. The
connection between plates
Stairs that connect the floors(Documentation: BPCB Serang)
substitutes for a wall frame
structure.
Each
plate
connection was designed with a certain thickness andmeasurement, so the plates were able to bind strongly.
Besides the bond between the plates, the building
construction was strengthened by the foundation andspire, which is connected in the center of the building
inside the tower. Each floor in the Anyer Lighthouse tower
has similar pattern: each floor is made of 12 mm thick steel
plate with a pattern of horizontal stripes on the surface.
There are stairs on each floor in order to climb to the next
floor. On each floor there are windows in the four compass
directions. The top floor of the tower is equipped with abalcony. In the center of the top floor there is a steel
structure. The upper end of steel structure is open like aflower. This section is base of the lighthouse lamp holderthat is surrounded by glass walls.

Anyer Lighthouse is located on the edge of the AnyerLabuan highway, which juts into the Sunda Strait. If
measured from the shoreline, Anyer Lighthouse is about
75 m to the south. The lighthouse building is at latitude 06°
04'14.4" South and longitude 105° 53' 06.8" East. The
height of Anyer Lighthouse tower is 52.30 m, which stands
on a foundation, with the diameter of the base tower is 9.6
m. The distance of the base tower wall to the basefoundation is 2.3 m. The base tower which coincides withthe foundation, has a profile that surrounds the base tower,with a thickness of the profile is 35 cm.

Anyer Lighthouse lamp
(Documentation: BPCB Serang)

Measuring activity (Documentation: BPCB Serang)

19

Mapping and measuring are always done simultaneously.
Before taking measurements, we have to make a sketch of
the location based on the results of observations. The firststep is to determine the starting point or datum point. This
datum point must be interconnected with othermeasurement points, then back again to the starting point.
The aim of this mapping is to plot the Anyer Lighthousebuildings and other old buildings on a digital map. Such a
map is very useful for many activities, for example forarchaeological surveys, research, excavation, or restoration
planning. The map can also be used as a reference in theutilization and development of the site.

Kazakhstan
Gulnaz Kulmaganbetova, Research associateKazarchaeology LLP
During 2014 scientific research was conducted on threemonuments of history and culture. All these monuments
date from different chronological periods and are locatedin different regions of Kazakhstan.
1 - Mausoleum of the Bronze Age Aksu-Ayuly II.
(15th to 13th centuries BC)
The mausoleum is known for its architectural features,
unparalleled among the monuments of the Eurasiancontinent. Unfortunately, many unique monuments ofhistory and culture today have been completely lost or are
in ruins. In order to prevent such a situation, as well as
ensuring the protection and preservation of the monument,
it was decided to restore the mausoleum.
Work on unique, ancient monuments today limited tocarrying out conservation measures. For specific type ofconservation—i.e., conservation of ruins—there areremnants of structures that are already in a ruined state,
and as such are perceived as monuments. Of the restoration
techniques approved by all schools of restoration, withanastilos—installation on a former site—authentic
fragments change their position as a result of destructionof the monument.
Analysis of the current state of the monument
Study designs for the restoration work. Visual inspection
revealed that the mausoleum is in satisfactory conditionand has suffered the following losses:• The area around the mausoleum is littered with waste,grass, fragments of stones piled plates, rubbish from thearchaeological site;• The foundation - these components are absent, fence
No. 3 boards No. 1 by an edge dug into the earth, fence
No. 2 is built of stone blocks ranging in size from 40 x 5x 8 cm to 50 x 8 x 10; fence No. 3 is also composed ofprocessed stone blocks of various sizes, and is adjacentto the box from the eastern side.
• Roof - is absent, however, the existing roof structuresindicate the description given in the monograph "The
Ancient Culture of Central Kazakhstan."• Fence No. 1 - granite plates used in the construction of
the fence of No. 3 mausoleum have collapsed, arecovered with moss, and have moved, dropped, or beentransferred to other places;• Fence No. 2 - masonry walls of fence No. 3 and No. 2
have been lost
• Double fence No. 3 - 60% of the stones in the upper
ranks of wall fence No. 3 have been destroyed, displaced
and lost in some places, the joints in the masonry ofwestern wall fence No. 3 of weathered fence No. 3 andslept;• Burial box - one plate is used to cover the stone box,
moved beyond the box, the second plate-overlap is
inside the box; overlap stone box, located in the central
part of the mound collapsed inward; on the overlap is

KazakhstanSome Results of the Work Carried out in 2014 in Kazakhstan

cracked and chipped, which progressed strongly
compared to 1952;• Ditch - excavated ditch fence between 1 and 2, thedepth of 1.2 m.
• The entire construction of the mausoleum is becoming
soaked;• Progressive delamination of stone plates.
Materials• The foundation structures are absent;• Stone plates are made of local stone and limestone,
obviously far from the construction site;• The size of the plates used in the construction of theouter fence varies, from 40 x 35 x 5 cm to 120 x 80 x 7
cm;• The size of the stones used in the laying of rails varies,
from 40 x 5 x 8 cm to 50 x 8 x 10;• Average thickness of horizontal joints is 1 cm, and varies
from 0.8 to 3.5 cm;• The solution stacks are made of clay, and dry stacks are
sometimes present;• Local clay is used;• Gravel, and sand and gravel have been used.
• The pavement of gravel, crushed stone and clay has
been filled, as has the floor of the burial chamber.
Mountain gravel was used as backfill. The surface
consists of rough gravel grains as a result of natural
weathering, which provided satisfactory adhesion with abinder solution.
• Crushed stone was used when floor consisted of a solid
granite rock granular structure, with a particle size ofmore than 5 mm. The good properties of granite rubble
made it a popular building material as far back as theBronze Age.
Details of the decision
As already noted, the work is focused mainly on
conservation, and aimed at strengthening the security
structures of the monument as well as genuine parts andelements with partial recovery of land that cannot bequestioned, and to play a role in the preservation of theoriginal.
The mausoleum is one of the earliest buildings, so its
appearance must be saved as an archaeological monument.
The main objective is to preserve the appearance of themausoleum. To do this, the surviving parts of structures
must be preserved, and the destroyed portions must be
restored.
During the preparatory phase we collected and analyzed
data on the Bronze Age. We then consulted with experts,
restorers and architects, and shared details of restoration
work on similar monuments in the past.
We investigated materials on the project in the archives of20

Kazakhstan

Saryarka Archaeological Institute at Karaganda State
University, named after E.A. Buketov (Karagandy); theInstitute of Archaeology, named after the academician
A.H. Margulan (Almaty); "Kazarchaeology" LLP (Almaty);
and the National Academic Library of the Republic of
Kazakhstan (Astana). The study of historical data has
provided the most comprehensive data on the monument.
We createed a complete database of the complex AksuAyuly II, and topographical and processed image datafrom previous research. We conducted a thorough analysisof the scientific reports of Central Kazakhstan Archaeological
Expedition (CKAE), the expedition reports of Saryarka
Archaeological Institute at Saryarka Archaeological Instituteat Karaganda State University, named after E.A. Buketov,and reports of "Kazarchaeology" LLP. During the works wedesigned and analyzed a large amount of archaeologicalliterature on this subject.
The monument had been studied repeatedly over theyears:- 1952 - the Central Kazakhstan Archaeological Expedition
led by the academician A.H. Margulan. The expedition
included A.H. Margulan, MK Kadyrbaev, KA Akishev,
and GI Patsevich.
- 2002 – a detachment from Saryarka Archaeological
Institute at Saryarka Archaeological Institute at Karaganda
State University, named after E.A. Buketov. The
expedition included Zh.E. Smailov, V.G. Lohman, and
I.A. Kukushkin.
- 2009 - The LLP "Kazarchaeology" under the direction ofZh.E. Smailov. The expedition included E.Kazizov, A.
Abildin, and G.Kulmaganbetova.
Removing measurements and measurement of objects.
These works included:- Architectural survey of the monument with visualinspection and measurement of stylistic characteristics;- Schematic measurements;- Determination of loss of the original image;- Circular surveying, allowing identification of corners
fathom corners and details of facades;- Execution of preparatory drafts and sketches;- Removal of natural size by drawing them in a sketch;- Implementation of a desk measuring drawings andfinalization of the work performed.
- Photographing details before the start of work.
We carried out major restoration, resurfacing andremediation of the mausoleum Aksu Ayuly II.
Work was done on the preparation of similar boards. As aresult of these investigations, eight plates of different sizes
were obtained. These plates were made of similar rockand stone, i.e., limestone, which corresponds to therequirements of the Venice Charter.
Ditch fence between 1 and 2
For the convenience of further work, reclamation ditch
work started immediately after clearing debris from themonument. In order to improve the strength of the soil,
remediation work was carried out with the use ofcompactors, which was used after each layer was filled up
to 30 cm.

21

The burial box.
The box at the center of fence No. 3 is built of six processedstone slabs. It was in a 2.5 x 1.45 m dirt pit at a depth of
1.6 m. The box is located at a certain distance from theinner walls of fence No. 3: 1-1.2 m from the first wall, and3.5-4 m from the second wall. Inside the box there is astone plate with dimensions of 1.46 x 1.36 x 0.2 m recordedat the north wall of the box. Northeast of the box wasanother plate used to cover the camera with dimensions of
1.85 x 1.2 x 0.14 m, which apparently covered the eastern
half of the box. During the restoration work the bottom of
the burial chamber was filled with a mixture of clay andgravel, leveled and compacted. Stone slabs had been laidaround the box.
Double fence No. 3.
Fence 3 is a room surrounded by stone walls and a doubleinterior space which is backfilled with stones and clay.
Masonry fence No. 3 is in satisfactory condition. The
roundabout corridor (space) between the two walls is 1.8
m wide. The main activities undertaken were analysis ofrocks and cleaning the base of the wall. The rise of thewalls of the surviving stones on a new solution No. 1. The
wall was raised to a level of 0.9 m. The eastern, northnorthwestern and western parts of the outer wall of thecharge of three stone fence No. 3 panels of small size. In
total there are 23 plates. After the removal of these panels,
it became clear that the wall under the slabs had survived
much better than in the open areas. The solution in the
joints had weathered in the open areas pour in. After
grouting the joints with a solution the stone plates wereagain set in their original place. It should also be notedthat two stone plates with a subrectangular shape anddimensions of 175 x 65 x 13 cm and 157 x 44 x 9 cm were
set on the eastern and western sides of the inside of thewalls. The space between fences 2 and 3 was also
rehabilitated. The work was done with the use ofcompactors, at an angle of 300 to the inner side of thefence.
Fence No. 2.
Fence No. 2 had lost part of the masonry walls. The better
preserved portions of the fence were reinforced withhorizontally placed flat plates. Work started with theclearing of vegetation, debris, later accretions, anddestroyed fragments of stones. After this, the authentic
stone blocks of the masonry wall were cleaned with asolution. The laid-wall height was 0.7 m, with a width of
0.2 m. The inner part of the wall was covered with soil,
then rammed. The southern part of the fence had become
unstable: broken stones had fallen out of the masonry, andsome had been lost. We finished clearing the site andrestored the masonry, with replacement of the lost gems
from the fence. Restoration was also carried out in thenorthern corner, where similar damage was seen.
Fence No. 1.
After clearing stones from the dirt and dust, work began torestore fence No. 1. The diameter of the fence No. 1 was
24 m. Work was carried out to mark the plate panels
installed on the edge. Marking was done with photo fixing
these works.

Work on the mausoleum Aksu Ayuly II was conducted incompliance with all standards of the Venice Charter
adopted at the Second International Congress of Architects
and Technicians of Historical Monuments in Venice in
1964, especially Article 15.
2 - The objects of research on the remains of the necropolis
and settlement-horde on the spot rate Shiban.
The aim of the research was the study of archaeologicalsites in the southern Kostanai region (Amankeld areas),
including identification of monuments of the Middle Agesaround the Zhylanshyk River (Dulygaly, Shygyrly) andSarytorgay River (Tamdy, Sarysay, Hanshabylgan). A list ofidentified sites was drawn up, and archaeological researchon the monument Ekidyn was carried out. The studies
were conducted at the complex; the resulting material was
systematized and processed.
For more complete information about the monument
ethnographic research was conducted. The goal of
ethnographic research was to collect information on thehistory of the region directly at the investigated monument.

Kazakhstan

The height of the big board is 1.75 cm, and the smallest
plate is 47 cm. It was also decided to install a plate withthe appropriate parameters. During the works, seven fallenstone plates panels were installed in-situ. Similarly,
undisturbed flagstones data plate planted 2-3 stone props,
only then was compacted sand with a mixture of crushedstone used. Before the start of restoration work on themausoleum, this outer fence consisted of 28 plates.
Subsequently, eight were treated as set stone plates withdifferent sizes. These plates are mainly installed on theeastern side of the mausoleum and also have supportingstone-bars. As a result of this work there were 43 stoneslabs panels.

In preparation for the field work on the monument,
medieval Persian sources and archival materials werestudied, and scientific works on the archaeological studyof the Kostanai region were analyzed. The success of thearchaeological research was assisted by examining satellite
images of the region.
In the course of archaeological research, remains ofmedieval mausoleums were unearthed, and the materials
collected was characteristic of the culture of the Ulus
Shiban population.
Materials obtained during archaeological excavations areof great importance for the study of unexplored andvirtually unexplored regions of our country, which is theterritory of the Kostanay region.

Mausoleum of the Bronze Age Aksu Ayuly II

General view of the top of the excavated mound: excavations 2009

Top view: excavations 2011

View from the northwestern side before opening ditches: excavations 2011

Masonry double fence No 3

22

Kazakhstan
23

Eastern wall of the burial box

Eastern wall of the burial box

Burial box

Working time

Masonry double fence No 3

Fence No 2

Fence No 2

Appearance after reconstruction of the moat, masonry fences No 2 and No 3

Marking on stone slabs, fence No 1

Installation of in-situ slabs of fallen fence No 1

Kazakhstan

Installing panels for fence No 1

View after installation of boards for fence No 1

Fixing stone props

Installation of in-situ slabs of fallen fence No 1

View after finish of work

View after finish of work

View after finish of work

View after finish of work

View after finish of work24

Kazakhstan
View after finish of work

Political center Shaybanids Akkol

25

Monument Ekidyn: Melon I

Monument Dyn I: view from the backMonument Dyn I: view from the south

Monument Dyn I: façade

Monument Dyn II

Monument Kosuytas

Malaysia

Monument Kosuytas І

Monument Kosuytas: view from the southeast

Necropolis Kosuytas

26

Malaysia
Malaysia

Installation of Stone Slate Roof Tiles at the City Hall Building, George Town, Penang, Malaysia
Professor Dr. A Ghafar Bin Ahmad, Professor
School of Housing, Building and Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia
Introduction
The City Hall Building of the Penang Municipal Council, or
Bangunan Dewan Bandaraya Majlis Perbandaran Pulau
Pinang, is one of the magnificent British colonial buildingsof the UNESCO World Heritage Site of George Town.
Situated along Jalan Padang Kota Lama at The Esplanade
or Padang, the City Hall Building currently houses theCouncil Chamber, councillors’ offices; and council support
offices, namely the Licensing and Urban Services
Departments. This two-storey building has undergone twophases of restoration work: Phase 1 in 2004-2005; andPhase 2 in 2013-2014. Both phases were financed by theState Government of Penang through the Penang Municipal
Council. The restoration works of Phase 1 involved half ofthe ground floor area including the refurbishment of theCouncil Chamber, main lobby, councillors’ offices,mezzanine floor, dining hall and toilets; as well as salt
desalination and termite treatment, at a cost of RM 3.58
million (USD 1.02 million). Whilst Phase 2 works involved
the restoration of the entire building including demolitionof temporary partitions, doors and windows, and staircases;
re-plastering, façade treatment, re-painting, mechanicaland electrical works; salt desalination, termite treatment;
and installation of stone slate roof tiles, amounting to a
cost of RM 6.67 million (USD 1.91 million). The Phase 2
works took place over a period of twenty two (22) months
from 1st March 2013 until 31st December 2014. This reporthighlights the restoration of the City Hall Building, mainly
the installation of stone slate tiles on its pitched roofs.
Historical Background
Built in 1903 at a cost of $100,000, the City Hall Building
was originally part of the Municipal Office of Penang
Island. It was built adjacent to the Town Hall Building(which was built in 1879) in response to increased demandfor office space. The building was renamed the City Hall
when George Town was given city status on 1st January,1957 by a royal charter granted by Her Majesty Queen
Elizabeth II. George Town was the first town in theFederation of Malaya (later Malaysia) to become a city, andwas the only city in the country until Kuala Lumpur was
granted city status in 1972. However, when the local
government was revamped in 1976, which provided for
non-elected local councils; the local council areas in
Penang were permanently divided into two municipal
councils, which are Penang Island, known as the Municipal
Council of Penang Island or Majlis Perbandaran Pulau
Pinang (MPPP); and Province Wellesley, known as theMunicipal Council of Seberang Perai or Majlis PerbandaranSeberang Perai (MPSP). Despite the changes in city status
and administration, the City Hall Building in George Town
has continued to be known as the City Hall among locals.
Today, the building is a venue for the Council Chamber’smonthly meetings, state government functions and otherofficial gatherings.

27

Architectural Background
The two-storey City Hall Building in George Town was
built in the Edwardian Baroque architectural style. Thisarchitectural style is commonly found in many publicbuildings built throughout the British Empire including inIndia, Sri Lanka and Australia during the Edwardian era
from 1901 to 1910. Some of the typical details of the
Edwardian Baroque architectural style found at the City
Hall Building are symmetrical floor plans, pitched roofs,
high ceilings with high windows and doors, a central
domed tower above the rooftop, colonnades of columns(some in pairs) in Ionic and Corinthian orders on building
facades, keystones above arched windows, ornate parapets
on roofs, Dutch gables at both ends and in the centre; aswell as exaggerated balustrades. Timber was widely used
for the ceilings, upper floorboards, windows, doors andstaircases. Steel I-beams were used to support the firstfloor. Some walls were clad with panels using brickwork,
gypsum board, and composite materials to create newwalls. Some of the arches were enclosed by brickwork or
plywood, in order to create additional rooms. The original
roof tiles were stone slate tiles but were replaced byasbestos sheets. In the restoration of Phase 2, stone slate
roof tiles were reinstated to retain the authenticity andintegrity of the building. The design of the City Hall
Building is similar to the nearby Town Hall Building,which features a front balcony above the porch as a major
element overlooking The Esplanade. Due to its immense
historical, social and architectural significance, on the 29thof July, 1982 the City Hall Building was listed as a National
Monument or Monumen Kebangsaan under the now
defunct Antiquities Act 1976 (gazette no. PU(A)221). The
building is now recognised as a Heritage Building or
Bangunan Warisan under the current National Heritage
Act 2005 (Act 645).
Building Defects
Based on measured drawings prepared in 2002 and Phase
1 conservation reports, a thorough survey of the building
was conducted by a consultant architect in 2012 to identify
the extent of the building defects and the scope ofconservation works required. Located very close to thesea, the City Hall Building is exposed to gusty winds andheavy rainfall all year round. Accordingly, findings fromthe dilapidation survey revealed that most parts of thebuilding, but mainly the upper floor, roof, ceiling and halfof the ground floor, were in poor condition including signsof roof leakage, termite infestation, rising damp, salt
contamination, harmful growth and water seepage.
Peeling-off paint and fungus stains were commonly seen
on building facades. Small light bulbs previously drilled
and fixed onto external building facades, mainly onparapets, window frames, arches, the balcony and cornices
had caused damage to the building fabric and lime plaster.
The light bulbs were carefully removed. The aging
corrugated asbestos sheets on the roofs were replaced

Stone Slate Roof Tile
Stone slate tile is made of natural stone manufactured into
thin tiles of uniform thickness. It has been a common
roofing material found in many heritage buildings in
Europe, particularly in Britain, since Roman times. Stoneslate tile has extremely low water absorption capacity,
making it water-resistant and suitable as a roofing material.
It is exceptionally heavy-duty and can last for several
decades with low maintenance. In Malaysia, stone slate
roof tiles are rarely seen in heritage buildings including the
British colonial buildings. This is due to the non-availabilityof the materials manufactured locally and its high cost of
installation. Many heritage buildings in Malaysia use
various types of roofing materials such as thatch, roof clay
tile (Indian V-shaped or Chinese U-shaped), Singgora clay
slate, Marseilles tile, timber slate; and corrugated zinc orasbestos sheet. Corrugated asbestos sheet is notrecommended for roofing material as it is hazardous to
one’s health. The original roofing material of the City Hall
Building was stone slate tile. However, it was replaced bycorrugated asbestos sheet which was a common roofing
material during the 1960s and 1970s. Such replacement
was partly due to roof leakage that had caused problems
to the building interior and materials, leading to falling
damp and termite infestation. During Phase 2 of therestoration of the City Hall Building, the corrugatedasbestos sheets were carefully removed and replaced withstone slate roof tiles. Reinstatement of the stone slate roof
tiles was decided based on material availability, method of
installation, future maintenance and cost. Stone slate roof
tiles were reinstated at the City Hall Building based on
several advantages as shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Advantages of Stone Slate Roof Tiles
Water permeability
Sunlight
Heat
Chemical resistance
Biological resistanceCompatibility
Fire resistance
Durability

Impermeable. Less than 0.3%.
Unfaded and unaffected by U.V. light.
Unaffected by normal heating.
Unaffected by normal atmospheric pollution,
sea air and salt spray.
Unaffected by vegetable growth, rot or insect
attack.
Compatible with all building materials.
Stone slate is non-combustible and does notsupport combustion.
Stone slate has a lifespan of 80-100 years.

Temporary Roofing
Throughout the restoration of the City Hall Building,temporary roofing using steel frames and corrugated metal
decking was constructed above the existing pitched roofs.
This was to ensure that the roof structures were well
protected from heavy rainfall, particularly when thecorrugated asbestos sheets were removed and brought
down to the ground; and during the installation of stoneslate tiles. For purposes of security and stability, the designand construction of the temporary roofing were endorsed
and certified by a qualified structural engineer.
Inspection of Roof Structures
After temporary roofing was constructed above the existing
pitched roof, the corrugated asbestos sheets were carefully
dismantled and removed. Existing timber roof structures
including timber planks, battens and plywood boards

were inspected and recorded for any defects, particularly
termite infestation. Once the corrugated asbestos sheets
were removed, broken pieces of the original stone slatetiles were found scattered on the timber planks between
timber battens underneath the corrugated asbestos sheets.
These broken pieces of stone slate tiles were collected forreference, laboratory tests and analysis.

Malaysiawith new stone slate tiles, which are the original roofing
materials.

Compressive Strength Tests
Since no stone slate tiles are manufactured in Malaysia,
new stone slate tiles had to be imported from Xian, China.
A total of four samples of the original and new stone slatetiles were sent to a structure laboratory at the School of
Housing Building and Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia,
Penang for compressive strength tests. Both original andnew stone slate tiles shared the same width (600 mm) andlength (250 mm). However, the thickness of the tiles
varied: 50 mm for the originals; and 70 mm for the new
ones. For the compressive strength tests, the sample tiles
were cut into small pieces of 250 mm (length) x 60 mm(width) x 50 mm (thickness). The results of the compressive
strength tests have shown that the new stone slate tiles are
more durable compared to the original tiles, as shown in
Table 2.
Table 2: Compressive Strength Tests of Original and New
Stone Slate Roof Tiles
Stone
Slate Tile Sample
No.
(Thickness)
Original(50 mm)New(70 mm)1
2
3
4

Area (mm2)(Length x Width)
15,000 mm2(250x60)
15,000 mm2(250x60)
15,000 mm2(250x60)
15,000 mm2(250x60)

Average Strength
Breaking Breaking(Breaking
Load
Load Load/Area)
(N)
(N)
N/mm2
405.2
374.450.0250N/mm2612.000.0408
N/mm2

343.7
600.4
623.6

Preparation of Mock-up Roofing
In heritage building restoration, a full-size mock-up isimportant to demonstrate, highlight and evaluate aparticular section of a building system or design. As such,a mock-up of a roofing system using timber structures andstone slate tiles was set up at the City Hall Building prior
to any installation. This was important in order to acquire
feedback from the consultant architect, building
conservators, contractors and the client. The roof mock-up
was also used as a reference and guide for the roof slaters,
roof tilers and other workers on site. The mock-up
demonstrated various layers of insulation system including
wire mesh, double-sided aluminium sheet and rockwool,
which were placed underneath the plywood boards,
roofing felt (bitumen), battens and slate stone tiles.
Installation of Stone Slate Roof Tiles
One of the most important aspects to consider before
installing the stone slate roof tiles is to have excellent
roofing underlay. This is to prevent any roof leakage
during heavy rainfalls. The installation of stone slate roof
tiles at the City Hall Building was carried out carefully infour stages: insulation system, roofing felt, new battens
and new stone slate tiles.
Insulation system
The restoration of the roofs began with an inspection of28

Malaysia

existing timber planks, rafters, battens and plywood boards
once the existing corrugated asbestos sheets weredismantled and removed. Any defects or termite infestations
found in the timber structures were recorded and removed,with the old timber replaced with new timber of the same
species or group strength. The insulation system beganwith the laying of wire mesh on rafters followed by doublesided aluminium foil and rockwool or mineral fibre. This
creates a good thermal insulation that allows energy saving
where restricted heat is transferred from outside to theinside of the building. The application of rockwool also
acts as filtration from any water seepage; and as asoundproofing medium.
Roofing Felt
Once the insulation system was installed, plywood boards
measuring 122 cm x 244 cm were laid on the rockwool.
This was to ensure that the installed rockwool was secured
and any uneveness cushioned before the roofing felt waslaid over the plywood boards. Roofing felt, formerly
known as tar paper, is a sheet material impregnated with
bitumen or asphalt that acts as a base material underneathroofing materials. The installation of roofing felt separates
the plywood boards from battens and stone slate tiles,
creating secondary weather protection, and thus preventing
any roof leakage from wind-driven rain.
New Battens
Based on the stone slate tile manufacturer, new timber
battens of 2.5 cm x 5.0 cm were fixed over the roofing felt.
The new timber battens were tantalised prior to roof fixing
for a longer-lasting protective result against fungal decay
and insect attack. Stainless steel nails were used to fix thebattens to the roofing felt and plywood boards underneath.
The battens were positioned at 17.5 cm intervals, startingfrom the lowest end of the roof. A string was used to makea straight line to ensure that the distance between thebattens was consistent and accurate. The position of thelowest batten is important so that the stone slate tiles will
overhang the fascia board.
New Stone Slate Roof Tiles
Through its two small nail holes located at the top, eachstone slate tile is firmly fixed at the centreline of the roof
batten. The nail heads were left to protrude slightly above
the surface of the slate roof tiles. Nails were not driven too
deeply into the timber battens, because exerting too muchpressure on the roof tile could cause it to break if someone
steps on the roof. The installation of stone slate tiles beganat the lowest end of the roof (first course) and continued
upwards in an interlocking manner with 28 cm of overlap.
Powder-coated galvanised iron, in a grey colour similar tothe colour of the stone slate tiles, is used for the roof ridge
cap and valley gutter. Each stone slate tile occupies threerows of roof battens when lying on the roof. One square
metre of roof requires 18 stone slate tiles. As each stoneslate tile weighs 1.8 kilograms, the total weight for one
square metre of roof is 32.4 kilograms. A total of 46,853
stone slate roof tiles were installed by experienced roofslaters and roof tilers at the City Hall Building. Some extra
stone slate roof tiles were stored and left within the roof
structures for future maintenance and rescue work. Oncethe installation of stone slate roof tiles was complete, the29

temporary roof was carefully dismantled and removed
using a telescopic hydraulic crane.
Conclusions
The installation of stone slate roof tiles at the City Hall
Building, George Town, Penang has posed great challenges
to those involved in this project including the consultant
architect, conservator, building contractor and quantity
surveyor. One of the challenges was to outsource theprocurement of new stone slate roof tiles to replace theexisting corrugated asbestos sheets since there were nostone slate tiles available on the local market. The newstone slate roof tiles had to be imported from Xian, China,
and that required a longer time to be delivered on site.
Since 46,853 stone slate roof tiles were needed for theroofs, the tiles were delivered in four shipments. This had
caused a slight delay in the progress of the project, mainlyin the restoration of the upper floor ceilings, installation of
rainwater gutters and painting work, both internal andexternal. Hiring skilled and experienced roof slaters androof tilers was another challenge in the project because
stone slate roof tiles are rarely used in heritage buildingsin Malaysia; and it was difficult to obtain the right skilledworkers. Roof slating and tiling are skilled jobs that require
specific training, as working at heights can be dangerous.
The installation of the stone slate roof tiles at the City Hall
Building at George Town World Heritage Site required indepth knowledge and experience in roof slating and tilingincluding constructing temporary roofing, removing existingcorrugated asbestos sheets, inspecting roof structures,
timber work, roofing felt and battening and interlocking oftiles. A work method statement on the installation of thestone slate roof tiles had to be prepared by the contractor’sbuilding conservator and approved by the consultant
architect and consultant building conservator prior to any
roofing work. Despite these challenges, the installation ofstone slate roof tiles was considered successful in reinstating
the original roofing material of the building, hence
maintaining the building’s authenticity and integrity.
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to thank the Penang State Government,
particularly the Penang Municipal Council, School of
Housing Building and Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia,
Arkitek Urbanisma Sdn. Bhd., Nas Engineering Sdn. Bhd.,
Shahruddin Shabri of Built Heritage Sdn. Bhd.; and USM
LRGS Local Knowledge Project 3 Team (LRGS/TD/2012/
USM-UKM/KT/03) for making this project and article
possible.
References
A Ghafar Ahmad, “Restoration and Refurbishment of Old
City Hall, Georgetown, Penang, Malaysia”, Proceedings of2005 International Conference on Construction and Real
Estate Management, Wang Yaowa et. al., Harbin: China
Architecture and Building Press, 2005, p. 1356-1361.
“City Hall, Penang”, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_
Hall,_Penang, retrieved on 15th December 2014.
English Heritage, (2005), Stone Slate Roofing: Technical
Advice Note, London: English Heritage.

Lama, Seksyen 19, George Town, Daerah Timur Laut,
Pulau Pinang (Fasa 2), Reference No.: DB/NAS/TK13/
Slate TiIe Rev. 1, 21st September 2014.

The City Hall Building portrays the Edwardian Baroque architectural style withsymmetrical floor plans, pitched roofs, high ceiling with high windows anddoors, central domed tower, colonnades of columns, keystones, ornate
parapet on roofs, Dutch gables at both ends and in the centre, as well as
exaggerated balustrades.

Corrugated asbestos sheets, commonly seen as roofing materials in manybuildings in the 1960s and 1970s, were used to replace the original stoneslate tiles of the City Hall Building.

Throughout the restoration of the City Hall Building, temporary roofing using
steel frames and corrugated metal decking was constructed above the existing
pitched roofs.

Front elevation of the City Hall Building.

Back elevation of the City Hall Building.

Side elevation of the City Hall Building.

Malaysia

Shahruddin Shabri, “Kaedah Pemasangan Slate Tile”,
Tatacara Kerja: Cadangan Membaikpulih Bangunan
Dewan Bandaraya, Di Atas Lot 69, Jalan Padang Kota

Roof plan of the City Hall Building showing its pitched roofs, central domed tower and front balcony.

30

Malaysia
Once the corrugated asbestos sheets were removed, broken pieces of theoriginal stone slate tiles were found scattered on the timber planks.

A full-size mock-up of a roofing system using timber structures and stone slatetiles was set up at the City Hall Building prior to any installation.

The restoration of the roofs began with an inspection of existing timber planks,
rafters, battens and plywood boards once the existing corrugated asbestos
sheets were dismantled and removed.

New 2.5 cm x 5.0 cm battens were fixed at 17.5 cm intervals, starting from thelowest end of the roof, over the new roofing felt (bitumen).

Powder-coated galvanised iron, in a grey colour similar to the colour of thestone slate tiles, was used for the roof ridge cap.

View of the City Hall Building showing its temporary roofing during restoration.

The various layers of the insulation system including wire mesh, double-sided aluminium sheet and rockwool,
which were placed underneath the plywood boards, roofing felt (bitumen), battens and slate stone tiles.

31Malaysia

View of the pitched roof of the City Hall Building after the installation of thestone slate tiles.

Interior view of the City Hall Building after restoration.

Once the installation of the stone slate roof tiles was completed, the temporary
roofing was carefully dismantled and removed using a telescopic hydrauliccrane.

Close-up view of the newly installed stone slate roof tiles at the City Hall
Building.

Aerial view of the City Hall Building showing the newly installed stone slate roof
tiles and back elevation after restoration.

Front view of the City Hall Building after restoration.

Aerial view of the City Hall Building after installation of the stone slate roof tiles.

32Maldives
Maldives

Excavation of a Bathing Tank at Kandhuvalu Mosque in Ha. Utheemu
Shiura Jaufar, Archaeologist
Department of Heritage, Republic of Maldives
Utheemu, an inhabited island of Haa Alif atoll in the northof the Maldives, is one of the most important islands in the
country, and renowned as the birthplace of Sultan
Mohamed Thakurufaanu, who with his brothers andcompanions, fought an eight-year-long battle to drive out
the Portuguese invaders who occupied Maldives from1558 to 1573. The island and the whole of the atoll consistsof several historical features relating to the Sultan including
Utheemu Ganduvaru, the wooden palace in which Sultan
Mohamed Thakurufaanu resided, and Kandhuvalu Mosquein Utheemu, which is believed to be where the Sultan
prayed for victory before setting out for war.
From ancient times, it has been said that a bathing tankused to be located in the northeastern part of the mosque,which was buried during the reign of the first president ofMaldives, Mohammed Ameen, to prevent the spread ofmalaria around the islands. On the occasion of the National
Day of Maldives, Maldives National Defence Force (MNDF)
excavated this tank to some extent upon the request of theisland council of Utheemu. Since this was done without
the permission of the Department of Heritage (DOH) andalso since the council wanted it to be dug further to let thewater beneath flow from the tank, the department sent ateam to complete this task.
The team from the department included an archaeologist
and two research officers—one to document the site andthe other to prepare a conservation plan for the tank andto clean the tank. The team spent a week working on thesite. The work of MNDF had left the tank in a rather harshcondition due to the excavators used to remove the spoil
heap, hence the team was unable to reconstruct the tankduring this visit. Many of the stones of the tank were badly
damaged—some were broken and others had serious
cracks in them.

measurements, recording the damage and so on. After
documentation, plans were drawn up on how to remove
the soil. At first the team decided to use a water pump toremove the water and then use spades and shovels to
remove the soil. However, since this would require a large
amount of labor and a considerable amount of time, which
the team did not have, it was decided that this method
would be unsuccessful. A second method was to manually
use the water pump, to remove the soil instead of water.
However, the pipe used for the machine was too long, anddespite a number of tries after the pipe was shortened, thismethod did not work. On the third day at the site, the team
decided to try the first method, and thus work started in
the early morning and by the afternoon, when the pump
was able to remove considerable amount of water fromthe tank, a team of two people started digging the soil out
from inside the tank using spades. This soil was then takenout from the tank and sieved for any small finds. When theteam reached the soil layer near the tree trunks it was evenharder to remove the soil since water was gushing at a
rapid pressure from below the ground and the pump was
unable to remove it at this speed. Thus, when it got dark
more people went inside the tank to work and after about
eight hours of digging, the team decided to stop since it
was unable to drain the water anymore. At this time, theteam was able to remove the soil for about a meter, andthe tree trunks below the water were now visible. While
the team was digging soil, some members worked oncleaning the sandstone since there were many tree roots
and a lot of fungus on and between the stones. Thus, aKarcher pressure washer was used to remove the fungus
and the tree roots were cut as well. Over the following
days, the water inside the tank was cleaned and small fish
were placed in the water to make it cleaner still. At the endof the excavation and cleaning, a condition report was
created along with a conservation plan, which was given
to the department for further funding.

The bathing tank
When the MNDF left the site, the tank was exposed forabout a quarter of a meter below the water level (See Fig.
1). The tank was square with two entrance stairways—one
at the eastern side of the tank and the other at the southernside. The tank measures two-and-a-half meters in height.
Inside the tank is a series of elongated steps, some of themgoing below the water line. The stonework of the tankconsists of sandstone and below the stonework is a seriesof tree trunks which lay completely under the water. The
sandstone is lime washed and also lime plastered on thesurface.
Excavation and cleaning of the tank
The team’s main task was to remove the spoil heap below
the water. It was an arduous task that took a few tries tosuccessfully complete, which resulted in the team working
until late at night. Before excavation, the tank was fully
documented, drawn and photographed, by taking

33

Figure 1: Condition of the bathing tank after MNDF’s excavation

Maldives

Figure 2: Condition of the bathing tank after DOH’s excavation and cleaning

Figure 3: Preparation and placing of water pump to drain the water out

Figure 4: Removal of the spoil heap with spades after water has been
drained out

Figure 5: Increased labor force who worked at night

Figure 6: Section of the stones showing the cleaned and unclean stones

Figure 7: Cleaning the stones with a Karcher pressure washer

Figure 8: Spoil heap at the center of the tank ready to be taken out of thesite for sieving

Figure 9: Stones and water after cleaning.

34

Mongolia
Mongolia

An Ancient Turkic Memorial Complex in North Central Mongolia
Munkhtulga Rinchinkhorol, Researcher
Mongolian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Archaeology
Boroo River, which is about 100 km long, flows out of the
Jargalant Mountains into the river Kharaa, to the north,traversing a plain between the mountains of the westernend of the Khentei Range, in the territory of Bornuur soum,
Tuv aimag. /Mongolyn 2000: 169/ The Boroo River valley
is about 900 m above sea level, and this relatively low landin the Mongolian plateau has dark brown, meadow brown
and alluvial meadow soils. /Gusjenkov et al. 1962/ It
receives 265 mm2 rainfall annually. The mean annual air
temperature ranges from -20°C to +20°C. /Mongolyn 2000:
168/ Such suitable climate conditions and higher soil
fertility caused agriculture to thrive in the Boroo Rivervalley. /Simukov 2007: 474/ There are roe deer (Capreolus
capreolus Linnaeus), wolves, foxes (Vulpes corsac
Linnaeus), hares (Lepus tolai Linnaeus), etc. in this area. /Mongolyn 2000: 168/ “The river Boro abounds in fish,particularly the salmo lenoc. In the meadows there are
great numbers of quails”. /Timkowski 1827, II: 432-433/
There is also gold ore on the banks of the Boroo River andin the mountains near the river valley.
In 1892, V. A. Obruchev, who was a Russian mining
engineer, saw an ancient tomb when he gave ageomorphological description of the Boroo River valley. /Obruchev 1900: 15/

On 16 May 2009, we went to the above place and worked
at the site. /Munkhtulga 2009/
An aristocratic offering complex at Tamkhiny Döröv
There are two holes in a N-S-oriented oval earthen moundmeasuring approximately 10 m long, 6.8 m wide and 0.3 m
high. (Fig. 1) The holes are located along the long axis of
the mound.
The symmetrical placement of the holes indicates that twoparallel enclosures were originally on the mound. There
are small stones at the center of the north hole, which issmaller than the other one. There are also big and smallstones around the mound.
It is possible that five stones in a line oriented 75-80° to theeast from the bigger hole, the location of the southern
enclosure, may be defined as a row of the balbals, an
important element of typical Ancient Turkic memorial
complexes.

In 1966, an ancient site on the west bank of the Boroo
River was discovered and correctly defined as a Xiongnu
settlement by Mongolian archaeologist Ts. Dorjsuren. /Dorjsuren 1966/

However, it seems difficult to believe that a 1200-year-old
balbal row has been preserved in the field, even in such
local soil, as it would have been eroded by modern
technical-based cultivation over several decades in thelatter half of the 20th century. /Orlomjav 1987: 25-27;
Altansukh et al. 2008: 13-14/

In 1987, a team led by Mongolian archaeologist Tseveendorj
cleaned two damaged structures at the settlement anddiscovered some finds through a survey. /Tseveendorj
1991/

We also found a field canal located to the southeast, eastand northeast from the monument when we surveyedaround the site. A large number of stones were used forcovering the inner walls of the canal.

D. Tseveendorj and Hungarian archaeologist I. Erdely
carried out the first small-scale excavation at the site in1990. /Tseveendorj 1991a; Erdely 1994; Turbat et al. 2008:
334/

When we took rubbings from a slab, a local person cameand told us: “The hole was deeper when it was dug two
years ago by some people. I think that these patternedstones are the remains of a building of a Chinese company
that had worked here a long time ago.” We revealed sometraces of this Chinese company after surveying around thecomplex site. (Figs. 12-15)

In 2002, archaeologist Ts. Turbat surveyed the site andfound some artifacts including pieces of ceramic pottery
and a tool made of a shoulder blade of small cattle forshaping pottery rims. /Turbat et al. 2005: 6/

35

practice in the territory of Bornuur soum. /Urtnasan 2009:10/

Between 2005 and 2007, the Mongolian-Swiss Joint
Expedition carried out large-scale excavations at the Boroo
settlement. /Turbat et al. 2005: 6; Turbat 2011: 86/ 56 fivemeter square areas, for a total of over 1175 square meters,
were excavated. /Turbat 2011: 86-87/

There was a variety of rubbish (sheep’s wool, iron wire,
pieces of torn clothes, etc.) in the southern part of thehole. (Fig. 10) During the last 20 or more years many
people and companies had both legally and illegallyengaged in gold mining along the Boroo Valley and in the
Noyon Uul mountain, the most beautiful place in this area
and aristocratic cemetery of the Xiongnu Empire.

In early March 2009, E. Urtnasan, a student of Ulaanbaatar
University, informed us that he had found remains of anAncient Turkic stone enclosure at a place called Tamkhiny
Döröv when he was undertaking archaeological survey

Stone slabs
There are stones for enclosing the outside bottoms of theslabs in the left and right walls of the southern quadrangularhole where the enclosure was erected. (Fig. 11) LootersSlab 1. Slab 1 has been laid in front of the southern holewith its top facing the south. (Fig. 2) The upper edge of its
exterior surface has been engraved with a 20 cm wide
pattern. (Fig. 3) A most interesting image, a very realistic
representation of a galloping antlered deer measuring 30 x
16.5 cm, looking to the right-hand side of the surface, hasbeen depicted in the middle of the pattern line. (Figs. 4
and 6) The space below the upper edge pattern isdecorated with a rhombic pattern. (Fig. 5) The dimensionsof the slab are 166 x 106 x 26 cm.
Slab 2. This has also been removed from the southernhole, its original placement. Now it is located between thesouthern hole and the slab 1, and at the southern edge ofthe hole, looking same direction as of the slab 1. (Fig. 7)
The upper edge of the slab 2 is also patterned like slab 1.
(Fig. 9) It is 23.5 cm wide. (Fig. 8) The pattern which was
below the upper edge pattern has unfortunately beeneroded so much that it has become invisible over time
because the slab is made of softer rock. The slab measures
174 x 112 x 15 cm.
The iconic representation of this offering complex may
belong to the following legend on white deer with goldenhorns, a totemic ancestor of the ruling clan of the Turkic
Empire:
The ancestor of the Türks was called Shê-mo-shê-li, a lake
spirit who lived to the west of the A-shih-tê cavern. A
miraculous thing happened to Shê-mo. Every evening thedaughter of the lake spirit sent a white deer to fetch him
and take him into the lake. At dawn she sent him back.
After several decades the tribe [of Shê-mo] set out for agreat hunt. In the middle of the night the [daughter of the]lake spirit said to Shê-mo: ‘Tomorrow during the hunt awhite deer with golden horns will come out from thecavern where your ancestors were born. If your arrow hits
the deer we will keep in touch as long as you live, but if
you miss it our relationship will end.’
When day came [Shê-mo] joined the battue and, indeed, awhite deer with golden horns came out from the birthcavern. Shê-mo ordered his followers to tighten the battue.
As the deer was about to escape, it was killed. Shê-mo,
angry, with his own hand decapitated the leader A-erh andswore saying: ‘Following this killing [of the deer], forever,there will have to be a human sacrifice offered to Heaven.
A man of A-erh’s tribe will be selected and beheaded insacrifice.’ To this day as a sacrifice to the flag the Türks
take a man from A-erh’s tribe. When Shê-mo had
decapitated A-erh and in the evening had returned to thedaughter of the lake spirit, she told him ‘Your handdecapitated a man, the air stinks with the smell of blood.
Because of this everything is over between us.’ /Sinor
1982: 230-231/

The depiction of deer, a totemic ancestor of the Ancient
Turkic ruling clan, shows that the enclosure belongs to anobleman of the Latter Ancient Turkic Empire (690s-745
AD). (Figs. 16-18) It should be mentioned that a wolf
depiction on a slab of an Ancient Turkic offering complex
was found in the Khangai region. Like other Inner Asianimperial houses, Ancient Turkic noblemen often tried to
expand an ideology that they had been originated from acommon totemic ancestor—the wolf, and particularly
deer. The location of the monument shows that the Boroo
River valley was still very important politically for Ancient
Turkic noblemen even after the decline of the Xiongnu
Empire of Ancient Inner Asia. The later Inner Asian“empire-builders” inherited the ideology on the origin ofimperial house.

Mongolia

had dug inside the enclosure and removed the slabs fromtheir original placement. (Figs. 10 and 11) Another two
slabs are missing. They might have been removed for thebuilding of the above-mentioned canal. The western wallof the hole contains a number of layers, including ash.

References
Altansukh et al. 2008 – Н.Алтансүх, С.Ганбаатар, Ж.
Мижиддорж. Газар тариалангийн ухаан. In: Монгол Улсын
шинжлэх ухаан. 95-р боть. УБ.
Bayar 2004 (2014) –Д.Баяр. Новые археологические
раскопки на памятнике Бильгэ-кагана. // Археология,этнография и антропология Евразии. No 4 (20).
Новосибирск: 73-84 In: Д.Баяр. Монголын Дундад Зууны
археологийн судалгаа. III боть. УБ.: 177-195
Bayar 2006 (2014) – Д.Баяр. Уникальный памятник
древнетюркского искусства в Западной Монголии. In: Д.
Баяр. Монголын Дундад Зууны археологийн судалгаа. III
боть. УБ.: 257-266
Bazylkhan 2005 – Н.Базылхан. Көне түрiк бiтiктастары менескерткiштерi (Орхон, Енисей, Талас). In: Қазақстан
тарихы туралы түркi деректемелери. II том. Алматы
Dorjsuren 1966 – Ц.Доржсүрэн. Хүннүгийн шинэ суурин. //Шинжлэх Ухааны Академийн мэдээ. No 4. УБ.: 76-78
Gusjenkov et al. 1962 – Е.П.Гусенков, Е.И.Панкова. Почвы
речных долин Северной Монголии (на примере долины р.
Боро-гол). // Почвоведение. 1962 No 8. 64-72
Mongolyn 2000 – Монголын нэвтэрхий толь. I. УБ.
Munkhtulga 2009 – Р.Мөнхтулга. Төв аймгийн Борнуур
сумын нутаг Тамхины Дөрөвийн дурсгалыг судалсан
ажлын тайлан. УБ.
Obruchev 1900 – В.А.Обручев. Центральная Азiя, Северный
Китай и Нань-шань. Томъ I. СПб.
Orlomzhav 1987 – Б.Орломжав. БНМАУ-ын тариаланч,механикжуулагчдын төлөвшсөн асуудалд. // Studia
Historica. Tom. XXI, fasc. 4. УБ.: 22-29
Simukov 2007 – А.Д.Симуков. Труды о Монголии и дляМонголии. Том 1. Ed. Yuki Konagaya, Sanjaasuren Bayaraa& Ichinkhorloo Lkhagvasuren. // Senri Ethnological Reports.
Ser. 66. Осака
Sinor 1982 – D.Sinor. The Legendary Origin of the Turks. //Indiana University Uralic and Altaic Series. Vol. 141.
Folklorica: Festschrift for Felix J.Oinas. Bloomington, 1982:
223-257
Timkowski 1827, II – G.Timkowski. Travels of the RussianMission through Mongolia to China, and Residence in Peking,in the years 1820-1821. Vol. I. London
Tseveendorj 1991 – Д.Цэвээндорж. 1987 оны МонголУнгарын археологийн хамтарсан экспедицийн тайлан. УБ.
Tseveendorj 1991a – Д.Цэвээндорж. 1990 оны МонголУнгар-Зөвлөлтийн хамтарсан Хүннүгийн дурсгал судлах
ангийн тайлан. УБ.

36

Mongolia
37

Turbat 2011 – Ts.Turbat. The Boroo Settlement. In: Treasuresof the Xiongnu. Ulaanbaatar, 86-93
Turbat et al. 2005 – Ц.Төрбат, Т.Батбаяр, Н.Пуса. Хүннүгийн
үеийн Бороогийн суурингийн серамологийн судалгаа
(урьдчилсан үр дүн). // Acta Historica. Tom. VI, fasc. 1. УБ.:5-23

Turbat et al. 2008 – Ц.Төрбат, Д.Батсүх, Н.Пуса, Д.Рамзайер.
Хүннүгийн үеийн Бороогийн сууринд хийсэн судалгаа. In:Талын Их Эзэнт гүрэн – Хүннү. 334-354
Urtnasan 2009 – Э.Уртнасан. Төв аймгийн Борнуур суманд
явуулсан үйлдвэрлэлийн дадлагын тайлан. УБ.

Fig. 1. Offering complex at Tamkhiny Döröv. From the south

Fig. 2. Stone slabs of the complex

Fig. 3. Slab 1

Fig. 4. Deer image of slab 1

Fig. 5. Rubbing of slab 1

Fig. 6. Rubbing of the deer image

Mongolia

Fig. 7. Slab 2

Fig. 8. Upper edge pattern of slab 2

Fig. 9. Rubbing of the upper edge pattern of slab 2

Fig. 10. Looters’ holeFig. 11. Enclosure stones in situ in the eastern wall of the holeFig. 12. Early 20th century millstone near the complex site

Fig. 13. The millstoneFig. 14. Ruins of a building of a Chinese company from the early 20th century

38

Mongolia
Fig. 15. Column base of the building

Fig. 16. Engraved deer image from an Ancient Turkic aristocratic complex at
Khöl Asgat (Bazylkhan 2005)

Fig. 17. Images of two deers engraved on an Ancient Turkic stele at Möngöt
Khyasaa (Bayar 2006 (2014): 67 (266))

Fig. 18. Gilded silver deer from Bilge Khagan’s memorial complex (Bayar
2004 (2014): 80 (194))

39

NepalNepal

Conservation of Sundari Chowk: A Major Component of the Medieval Royal Palace at Patan
Suresh Suras Shrestha, Chief Archaeological Officer, HeadWorld Heritage Conservation Section, Department of Archaeology, Nepal
Introduction
In medieval Nepal, there were three separate kingdoms
within Kathmandu Valley: Kantipur (Kathmandu), Lalitpur(Patan) and Bhaktapur. All three kingdoms were ruled byMalla kings; however, the rulers who made their capital
city built their own separate palaces and surrounding
ornamentations too, which is the most significant featureof the three cities these days.
The medieval royal palace of Patan is located at the centerof Lalitpur city, facing a large temple-filled square. However,while the other palaces at Kathmandu and Bhaktapur
introduced foreign design elements and plastered surfaces,
the Patan durbar maintains a completely traditional
appearance with brick walls, carved doors, windows, struts
and cornices, and tiled tiered roofs that have best preserved
the character of the Malla period (www.nec.edu.np).
Sundari Chowk is the earliest surviving royal quadrangle of
the Patan Royal Palace Complex and is regarded by manyscholars as the most important example of Malla-period
palace architecture for the richness of its largely intact
façade carvings and for its pleasing proportions (KVPT,2014). Patan was annexed in 1597 AD by the Kathmandu
king Sivasimhamalla and came to be ruled by the Mallakings (www.nec.edu.np). The chronicles confirm that
Sivasimha built a temple to Degutale (www.spinybabbler.
org). He also adopted the buildings of the Mahapatras andconstructed other buildings. The Caukot or the fourcornered fort was already in existence at the northern endof the current complex near the Manidhara. However,
although the whole palace was constructed in different
periods by different kings and other royal family members,
the palace was already built before Patan came under thecontrol of Sivasimha Malla of Kathmandu (DoA, 1998;
DoA/GoN, 2007). The current palace structures are credited
mainly to the father-son pair of Siddhinarsimha andSrinivasa, who together reigned during the period 1619–
1684 (www.nec.edu.np). Recent research suggests that the
Patan king Siddhinarasimha Malla constructed Sundari
Chowk during the year of the birth of his son and successor
Srinivasa Malla in 1627, and that the masterfully carved step
well Tusha Hiti was installed in its court in 1647 during
renovations (KVPT, 2014).
There were several chowks (courtyards) within this palace;there are still four chowks: Keshav Narayan Chowk, Bhitri(Inner) Chowk, Mul Chowk and Sundari Chowk. Sundari
Chowk was closed for several years and it has just opened
to the public after the renovation and extension of Patan
Museum to Mul Chowk.
This exceptional three-storey courtyard marks the southernedge of the Darbar at the main crossroads of Patan. The
courtyard building was originally constructed as a twostorey structure in 1628 (www.patanmuseum.gov.np), andcontains special cornice wood carvings, beautiful temple-

miniatures of the gods and goddesses of the Kathmandu
valley, the Tusha Hiti and the meditation—Stone Bed, etc.
The Sundari Chowk was the main living quarters of theking. Entrance to the courtyard is gained through a gate on
the central axis of the building. The gate is guarded bystatues of Ganesh and Narasimha. A one metre-wide
walkway runs around the courtyard, which is at a lower
level than the street. The floor of the courtyard is pavedwith square stone slabs. The courtyard has a bathing tap(hiti) at the centre, Tusa Hiti. The water fountain is gilded
and the walls are adorned with exquisite stone carvings ofdeities. Most of the doors and windows face the courtyard
for privacy. The 550 engraved wooden Shiva Lingas aroundthe cornices of the surrounding building of the palace isanother significant feature of Sundari Chowk (KVPT, 2014).
The second floor was probably added later. The plan of
the building appears to resemble the design of viharas andcould very well have been influenced by them.
The Conservation WorkThe renovation work was initiated by Kathmandu Valley
Preservation Trust (KVPT), a non-governmental organization
based in the USA. However, the Government of Nepal(GoN) was planning to renovate and reopen this part of thepalace, and KVPT applied for permission from the
Department of Archaeology (DoA) to undertake conservation
work. The government granted permission for the project(DoA, 2008) and formulated a Steering Committee in which
the Director General of DoA is the Coordinator, with asecretary from KVPT and other related representatives of
stakeholders and government organizations.
The conservation project started in 2008 and is stillongoing; however, almost all of the conservation of
Sundari Chowk has been completed and project work has
extended to the Mul Chowk and other parts of the palace.
Within the Sundari Chowk, the project worked on finding
the source of water and the original system of Tusha Hiti.
It was successfully restored that the beautiful water spout
similar to what must have originally been there as well as
its water chanelling system.
All the temple-miniatures were also cleaned and repaired
as required. Similarly, necessary repairs were made to thecourtyard and the three storey building. The beautiful
wood carvings (of the cornices, struts and other parts ofthe building) were conserved in their original condition as
much as possible.
The DoA has deployed its staff; however, the Director
General himself is the coordinator of the project, to assist
and monitor the conservation work at a micro-level. So,
during the project, representatives of the DoA (Monument40

NepalPreservation and Durbar Maintenance Office, Lalitpur)
have been monitoring the conservation work, for which an
Archaeological Officer and an Architect/Engineer havebeen deployed. The project office has been documenting
all project activities, and reporting these to the Steering
Committee and the DoA. The project office prepareddocumentation on the entire palace before conservation,
including photographs, sketches, maps, designs, as well asarchaeological notes in text form and other required
documentation. Similarly, the project office has preparedfull documentation during and after the conservation workas per the Venice Charter and other national andinternational conservation norms, procedures, conventions
and systems as well.

References:
1. DoA (1998). Patan Durbar Samrakshit Smarak Kshetra
Ek Parichaya, Kathmandu: DoA/GoN.
2. DoA (2008). Permission Granted Letter (issued by DoA),
Kathmandu: DoA/GoN.
3. DoA/GoN (2007). Patan Durbar Square. Kathmandu:DoA.
4. KVPT (2014). Project Report prepared by Kathmandu
Valley Preservation Trust. Kathmandu: KVPT.
5. www.doa.gov.np, Extracted on 27th October 2014.
6. www.nec.edu.np, Extracted on 5th November 2014.
7. www.patanmuseum.gov.np, Extracted on 3rd November
2014.

In special cases, beyond the Steering Committee, national
and international experts (as and when necessary) werealso invited to discuss the application of correct techniques
at the different levels of archaeological conservation.
Conclusion
In most less developed countries like Nepal, thegovernment always gives priority to development works
other than those related to culture or heritage conservation.
This is always conceptualised as an unproductive field inwhich no one is interested in investing. In this situation, a
non-governmental agency like KVPT is a significant
institution that can do a lot for heritage conservation andmanagement with close collaboration. The Sundari Chowk
Conservation Project is an example of an NGO-initiatedheritage conservation project in Nepal, for which KVPT isa single donor completely responsible for providing
financial support to the project. It is a very positive signthat the Government of Nepal granted permission andsupport for the execution of the project, and being part of
the Steering Committee and monitoring mission. So, it is
the most successful example of NGO initiation and fundingfor cultural heritage conservation in Nepal.
The Sundari Chowk had been closed for several decades
for security reasons (www.patanmueum.com), but after
completion of the project work, it has now been revived
and reopened to the public as one of the significant
historical cultural heritages of Nepal. The conservation of
Sundari Chowk (Patan Durbar) is a significant project
supported by an NGO in the conservation of cultural
heritage in Nepal that invites heritage lovers to support thepreservation of the precious cultural heritage of Nepal.

Scaffolding Buring Conservation

Ceiling of the Building

Carved 550 Shivlingas

41New Zealand

Tusha Hiti

Northwesten Elevation

West Elevation

42

New Zealand
New Zealand

New Heritage Legislation for New Zealand: The Heritage New Zealand Pouhere Taonga Act 2014
Dr Matthew Schmidt, Regional Archaeologist Otago/Southland
Heritage New Zealand Pouhere Taonga
Introduction
Archaeological sites in New Zealand were first protected bylaw 40 years ago under the Historic Places Trust Amendment
Act 1975. In 2010, the Government of the day announced
that the Historic Places Act 1993, under which New
Zealand’s cultural heritage was recently managed, would
be reviewed and in May 2014 a new Act to replace theHistoric Places Act 1993 called the Heritage New ZealandPouhere Taonga Act 2014 came into being. This report
looks briefly at this new Act focusing on changes to thearchaeological provisions and how this will affect theprotection of archaeological sites in New Zealand and myrole as a Regional Archaeologist for Heritage New Zealand.
Brief History of the Legal Protection of Archaeological Sites in
New Zealand
Recognition of New Zealand’s cultural heritage in law
began when the Historic Places Act (“HPA”) 1954 which
established the National Historic Places Trust. This
organisation was initially run by a nine appointed members
and one elected member whose committee first met in
1955. Although this early legislation did not protect‘archaeological sites’ directly, the function of theorganisation was to preserve, mark, and record “suchplaces and objects and things as are of national or local
historic interest or of archaeological, scientific, educational,
architectural, literary, or other special national or local
interest” (see www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/historic-places/page3). The name of National Historic Places Trust changed to
the New Zealand Historic Places Trust (“NZHPT”) in 1963.
In 1975 archaeological sites were directly protected for the
first time under the Historic Places Trust Amendment Act
1975. This Amendment defined an archaeological site as:" 'Archaeological site' means any place in New Zealandor within the territorial waters of New Zealand""(a) Which was associated with human activity
more than 100 years ago; or"(b) Which is the site of a wreck of any ship, boat,
or aircraft where that wreck occurred morethan 100 years ago,and which is or may be able, through investigationby archaeological techniques, to provide evidence
as to the exploration, occupation, settlement, ordevelopment of New Zealand, being evidence
which could not otherwise be made available forscientific, cultural, or historical studies”
It was illegal to modify or destroy such as a site (Section
9F:1), permission to do so had to be granted by the New
Zealand Historic Places Trust (Section 9F:2), and the costsof any archaeological investigation required was, in mostcases, the responsibility of the person wanting to damage,modify or destroy the site (Section 9F:3). Given thisprotection and these requirements, in 1975 the NZHPT had

43

only 13 staff and only one contact with regard to archaeology.
By 1993, the definition of an archaeological site hadchanged (see below) and the NZHPT Archaeological
Authority Application process to allow a person to modify
damage or destroy an archaeological site became moreformalised with this Act noting specifically the required
information for an Application (An Authority from the
NZHPT was also necessary under the Historic Places Act
1980 but the process was not so specific). By 2006, six
Regional Archaeologists and a Senior Archaeologist were
responsible for the archaeological provisions of the 1993
Act and the management of the Archaeological Authority
process for New Zealand. Until 2006 most of the South
Island was managed by one Regional Archaeologist until
my position covering the Otago/Southland regions (ca. thelower half of the South Island to the Sub-Antarctic) was
created increasing the number of Regional Archaeologists
for New Zealand to seven (with three archaeologists inassistance), the level at which it is today.
The Heritage New Zealand Pouhere Taonga Act 2014(“HNZPT”) was introduced to Parliament as Bill 327-1 on 4
October 2011 and received its Royal assent on 19 May 2014.
Definition of an “Archaeological Site” in New Zealand Law:
1993 & 2014
The legal definition of an archaeological site in New
Zealand law governs whether Heritage New Zealand willplay any statutory role in the management of a heritagesite. Prior to May 2014, the Historic Places Act 1993 Section
2 defined an archaeological site as:“Any place in New Zealand that(a) either –– (i) was associated with human activity that
occurred before 1900; or(ii) is the site of the wreck of any vessel wherethat wreck occurred before 1900; and(b) is or may be able through investigation byarchaeological methods to provide evidence
relating to the history of New Zealand.”This was quite different from the Act in 1975 and 1980
where, as noted above, an archaeological site was considered
any place over 100 years ago. One of the prime reasons it
was changed to a specified date of pre-1900AD in 1993 wasthat landowners wanted certainly on whether they could
modify or destroy a heritage site from one year to the next.
In the new HNZPT Act 2014 Section 6, an archaeologicalsite is now defined as:
In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires,archaeological site means, subject to section 42(3),—(b) includes a site for which a declaration is madeunder section 43(1)Structures and buildings of pre-1900 age were always
considered archaeological sites under the HPA 1993, but
the new Act now makes that clear in the definition to avoid
any confusion or ambiguity. Section 6(b) regarding
declaration refers to a heritage site which post-dates 1900
being able to be declared an archaeological site by the
Board of Heritage New Zealand. This is unchanged fromthe HPA 1993 Act where Section 9(2) gave this ability tolegally protect post-1900 heritage sites.
Protection of Archaeological Sites and Buildings Archaeology
The HNZPT Act 2014 gives legal protection to allarchaeological sites on land or in the water within New
Zealand’s statutory borders under Section 42(1) & (2). This
makes it unlawful to modify or destroy a site without an
Archaeological Authority from Heritage New Zealand. The
Act states:(1) Unless an authority is granted under section 48,
56(1)(b), or 62 in respect of an archaeological site,
no person may modify or destroy, or cause to bemodified or destroyed, the whole or any part of thatsite if that person knows, or ought reasonably tohave suspected, that the site is an archaeological site.
(2) Subsection (1) applies whether or not an
archaeological site is a recorded archaeological siteor is entered on—(a) the New Zealand Heritage List/Rārangi Kōrerounder subpart 1 of Part 4; or(b) the Landmarks list made under subpart 2 of Part 4.
This protection is essentially the same as under the HPA
1993 Section 10, and has been a very effective in preserving
this aspect of New Zealand’s cultural heritage. However,
one additional subsection to this section was added to the
HNZPT Act 2014 which states:(3) Despite subsection (1), an authority is not required
to permit work on a building that is an archaeologicalsite unless the work will result in the demolition of
the whole of the building.
Under the HPA 1993, an Authority was required in someinstances where comprehensive changes were being madeto a historically significant pre-1900 heritage building suchas demolition of half the structure or the gutting ofsignificant portions of the interior. The Authority process
would ensure these changes were recorded according tobest practice buildings archaeology and often such projects

were also guided by a Heritage Conservation Plan.
However, due to concerns by some submitters during
public consultation on the new Act that an Archaeological
Authority would be required to make simple changes toany pre-1900 building such as replacing a chimney,
removing an internal wall or undertaking renovation or
maintenance works, this subsection was added.

New Zealand(a) any place in New Zealand, including any
building or structure (or part of a building or
structure), that—(i) was associated with human activity that
occurred before 1900 or is the site of thewreck of any vessel where the wreck
occurred before 1900; and(ii) provides or may provide, through investigationby archaeological methods, evidence relating
to the history of New Zealand; andIn addition, an Archaeological Authority is now also not
required to move a pre-1900 building, though one isneeded if the ground on which it lies is disturbed.
Considering New Zealand’s early built heritage only dates
as far back as the 19th century, Section 42(3) of the HNZPTAct 2014 presents challenges for Heritage New Zealandwhen it comes to historically significant pre-1900 buildings.
There is the potential for important archaeologicalinformation about these buildings to be lost due to their
being no legal requirement to archaeologically record them
before they are partially demolished or relocated.
The Archaeological Authority Process
The Archaeological Authority Application process underthe HPA 1993 required a person(s) wanting to affect either
one site or a number of sites to apply under separate
sections of the Act. To affect one site, a person would
apply under Section 11. To affect more than one site, an
Application under Section 12 was required. For the scientificinvestigation of a site by a University, for example, or foran exploratory investigation of a site, typically used toconfirm the nature and extent of a site, a person would
apply under Section 18 (with sometimes a scientificinvestigation falling under Section 11 or 12).
All Applications under the HPA 1993 required an
independent Archaeological Assessment, landownerconsent and, if a site was of Māori origin, Iwi (Tribal)
consultation, as some of the key pieces of information
which had to be provided. Once an Application wasreceived, there was no time restriction under which theHistoric Places Trust had to respond to the Applicant
noting whether the Application had all the required
information or not for lodgement (acceptance). Onceaccepted, a decision had to be made within three months
but this could be extended up to six months if additional
information was deemed necessary. For each of these
Applications, the NZHPT would set conditions on how thesite(s) would be managed and these conditions had to be
met by law. A process was available if the holder of the
Authority wanted to Appeal a decision or to change theconditions of an Authority.
The aim of the Government in reviewing the HPA 1993 wasto streamline the Archaeological Authority Application
process to give applicants more certainty over when an
Application would be accepted and when a decision would
be made. This would bring the timeline for theArchaeological Authority process more in line with otherlegislation particularly the Resource Management Act (1991)
which Regional, District and City Councils use to manage
natural and historic resources for developments etc.
The HNZPT Act 2014 now has one section under which all

44

New Zealandactivities which will modify or destroy a site can are made,this being Section 44. This has simplified the process inapplying for what is termed a General Archaeological
Authority where no matter whether one site or multiple sites
are being affected by an activity then one section of the Act
applies. An Exploratory Authority is still dealt with separately
under Section 56. Perhaps the most significant change with
Application process is that they must be reviewed within
five working days of receipt by the Heritage New Zealand
Regional Archaeologist and either accepted or returned to
the Applicant. A ‘determination’ (decision) must also bemade within twenty working days of accepting an Authority
Application, with thirty days allowed if the Applicationneeds a Māori values assessment and to a maximum of forty
days if it is a complicated Application. This has greatly
reduced the timeframe for decision making.
Section 46 of the HNZPT Act 2014 clearly states what isrequired to be provided with an Authority Application, as it
did previously under the HPA 1993, but landowner consent
does not now have to be provided to apply or to have a‘determination’ (decision) made on an Application. But, if
an Authority is granted without landowner consent, noactivity that affects a site can commence until consent isreceived by Heritage New Zealand. This provides flexibility
for Applicants as sometimes development projects were
only being held up by landowner agreements which, underthe HPA 1993, an Authority could not be applied for at allwithout this in place. Now, the Authority can be in hand
while negotiations are completed. In addition, if the effects
on a site are going to be no more than minor, HNZPT canwave the need for an Applicant to provide a fullArchaeological Assessment for the activity when applying
for an Authority (Sections 44(b) & 47(5)).
The HPA 1993 required that an Authority was particular to
the Applicant only when granted. Now the Authority lies
with the land and not specifically the Applicant (Section
55). This means, for example, that a new landowner who
wants to undertake a similar project as a previous landowner
which was going to affect an archaeological site in thesame or similar way, does not have to reapply for an
Authority but can use the one in place. If the activity wasdifferent and the effects on a site were different, a new
Authority may have to be applied for. The advantage of thisfor the management of the archaeological site is that theeffects on the site for a specific activity can be controlled
no matter who owns the land. For a new landowner, itmeans an Authority is already in place for a particular
activity providing certainly for a project or development.
Emergency Archaeological Authorities
A new type of Archaeological Authority was introduced in
the HNZPT Act 2014 (see Sections 60 to 64) specifically todeal with national or local emergencies declared for an areaor district under the Civil Defence Emergency Management
Act 2002. The introduction of an Emergency Archaeological
Authority was a result of the 2010-2011 Canterbury
earthquakes, which devastated Christchurch City andsurroundings towns. The Canterbury earthquake of 22
February 2011 was calculated by international insurer Swiss
RE in 2012 as the third most expensive insured natural
catastrophe in history. The first most expensive was Japan’s

45

2011 Tsunami and second the Thailand floods also in 2011.
The Canterbury earthquakes highlighted that there was nolegislation to deal with managing archaeological sites intimes of emergency. Because of this, the Order in Council
Canterbury Earthquake (Historic Places Act) Order 2010 was
introduced on 23 September 2010 after the first major quakeon 4 September 2010 to manage the archaeological process
quickly. This Order had specific geographical boundaries
and the processing timeframes saw decisions on
Archaeological Authority Applications having to be madewithin three working days for sites of Pakeha/European orChinese origin and five days for Māori sites, as consultation
with local Iwi was required. This Order in Council was
updated on 27 June 2011 and is still in force today.
With the HNZPT Act 2014, a person may apply under
Section 61 for an emergency authority after a national or
local emergency has been declared if it appears it may benecessary to undertake an activity that will or may modify
or destroy a site or sites. In an earthquake situation, forexample, this may be for the demolition of a 19th century
building that is quake damaged or to disturb a site
underneath a modern quake damaged building. This was
the most common situation experienced after the
Canterbury earthquakes. An Applicant must provide thesame information as required for a General Authority
Application, but flexibility is given to Heritage New Zealandto accept and process Applications which do not have all
the required information as the circumstances of theemergency situation may limit what can be provided.
Factors relevant to making an Authority determination(“decision”):
When making a decision on whether an Authority
Application should be granted, declined, part granted/
declined or what conditions the Authority should contain,
what factors had to be considered by the NZHPT were notas specific under the HPA 1993 as they are under the
HNZPT Act 2014. The HNZPT Act 2014 specifies that
Heritage New Zealand must have regard to the following
factors when making a determination (“decision”) (seeSections 49 & 59(1)(a)):
the historical and cultural heritage value of thearchaeological site and any other factors justifying
the protection of the site:(ii) the purpose and principles of this Act:(iii) the extent to which protection of the archaeologicalsite prevents or restricts the existing or reasonable
future use of the site for any lawful purpose:(iv) the interests of any person directly affected by thedecision of Heritage New Zealand Pouhere Taonga:(v) a statutory acknowledgement that relates to thearchaeological site or sites concerned:(vi) the relationship of Māori and their culture andtraditions with their ancestral lands, water, sites,wāhi tāpuna, wāhi tapu, and other taonga;(i)With these factors specially noted in the new Act, all parties
involved in the Authority Application process, from theApplicant, persons affected, to Heritage New Zealand staff,
now understand more clearly what is being considered by

Approval of an Archaeologist to undertake archaeologicalwork
Applicants or holders of an Archaeological Authority must
apply to Heritage New Zealand to approve a person toundertake the archaeological work required by an Authority(Section 45). There was also a similar process under the
HPA 1993 (Section 17). When approving a person, the
HNZPT Act 2014 additionally must now also be satisfied
that, in regards to sites of interest to Māori, the person “hasthe requisite competencies for recognising and respectingMāori values” and “has access to appropriate cultural
support” (Section 45(2)(b)). In addition, all applications to
Heritage New Zealand to approve a person to undertakethe archaeological work must be processed within 10
working days, the HPA 1993 had no set time to make thisdecision.
The competencies and cultural support a person must haveto be approved to work on Māori sites recognises that many
Māori archaeological sites have sensitive cultural values
associated with them and as such respect must be shown by
the archaeologist to these values during any archaeologicalwork. This is an important change to the Heritage New
Zealand approval process as it increases the role Māori havein this process and emphasises that these sites have bothtangible and intangible values which can be affected.
Time to Take Action Against an Alleged Offender and Penalties
for Modifying or Destroying Sites
The HPA 1993 gave the ability for the NZHPT to take court
action against a person(s) either modifying, damaging or
destroying an archaeological site without an Authority(Section 99), where an Authority holder breached theconditions of their Authority (Section 100), where an
investigation was undertaken of a site without approval
from the NZHPT under Section 18 or where conditions for
the Section 18 investigation were breached. The penalties
on conviction included fines of up to $40,000 for modifying
or damaging a site or breaching a condition of an Authority,and up to $100,000 for destroying a site.
However, one difficulty with these powers to prosecuteand fine was that the NZHPT could only lay papers at aDistrict Court to initiate Court proceedings “within 12
months from the time offence was committed” (Section 108).
Hence, damage to a site could have occurred, for example,
eleven months before it was reported to the Regional
Archaeologist leaving only one month for the NZHPT toinvestigate a report of damage, determine if there was acase to answer for and lay Court papers. Alternatively, using
this example, this also meant little time was left to establish
discussions with the alleged offender to resolve the incident
perhaps through mitigation so as to avoid Court.

The HNZPT Act 2014 has given Heritage New Zealandmore flexibility to investigate offences and the penalties
associated with offences have been increased. On
conviction of an offence, a distinction is made between a‘natural person’ being fined and ‘a person other than anatural person’, eg. a company. A natural person modifying
a site or breaching conditions of an Authority can be fined
up to $60,000 with a person other than a natural person
fined up to $120,000. For destruction of a site, the fines
were increased to $150,000 and $300,000 respectively.

New Zealand

Heritage New Zealand, and as such the Regional
Archaeologist, when an Application is being assessed.
Possibly the most important factor is 59(a)(iii) as not all
persons have the finances or controls to be able to beflexible in changing an activity that affects a site or tocompletely avoid a site. For example, an individual wanting
to build a home on his/her property may not have thesame resources to manage the archaeology as a large
company undertaking a development.

The most important change is in the time at which papers canbe laid at Court. Under Section 96(2), HNZPT can lay papers
to the court for an alleged offence up to five years from thedate when the offence was committed, essentially giving
Heritage New Zealand an additional four years to investigate
and make decisions about an alleged offence. This now
provides HNZPT with more time to determine whether there
is a case to be answered for or to undertake discussions withan alleged offender to hopefully resolve an incident.
Conclusions
The archaeological provisions of the Heritage New ZealandPouhere Taonga Act 2014 are in my opinion a positive
outcome for the protection of New Zealand’s archaeologicalsites and are an improvement to those in the Historic Places
Act 1993. Alongside this new Act, Heritage New Zealandhas already developed Guidelines for persons wanting toapply for an Archaeological Authority and currently Policy
documents on the Archaeological Authority process arebeing developed which will go to public consultation thisyear. Together the new Act, Guidelines and Policies will
mean better public awareness about the protection of sites
and a more efficient Archaeological Authority process. The
new offence and penalty provisions in the Heritage New
Zealand Pouhere Taonga Act 2014 provide a better
deterrent to people who may be considering modifying or
destroying sites without an Authority and it also provides
more time to investigate offences and discuss with alleged
offenders how to resolve site damage incidents rather thangoing to Court.
The biggest challenge facing Heritage New Zealand
Regional Archaeologists is how to encourage owners ofhistorically significant pre-1900 buildings to undertakebuildings archaeology before partial demolitions or building
relocation occurs in an environment where there is no legal
obligation to do so. This will most likely come throughopen discussions and education of pre-1900 building
owners on the significance and uniqueness of New
Zealand’s cultural heritage.
References
Historic Places Amendment Act 1975. New Zealand
Government. Wellington, New Zealand.
Historic Places Act 1980. New Zealand Government.
Wellington, New Zealand.
Historic Places Act 1993. New Zealand Government.
Wellington, New Zealand.
Heritage New Zealand Pouhere Taonga Act 2014. New
Zealand Government. Wellington, New Zealand.
www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/historic-places

46

Philippines
Philippines

The Augustinians in the Philippines: Sharing 450 Years of Love, Faith, Fraternity, History,
Heritage, Culture and Art (1565-2015)
Louella Solemerano Revilla, Conservator and Head/Supervisor-San Agustin Museum Conservation Laboratory
San Agustin Museum, San Agustin Church, Intramuros, Manila
The first five pioneers of the Christian faith in thePhilippines arrived in Cebu together with Adelantado
Miguel Lopez de Legazpi on April 27, 1565, a mission
given to them by Philip II of Spain. The religious were Fray
Andrés de Urdaneta, Fray Martin de Rada, Fray Andrés deAguirre, Fray Diego de Herrera, and Fray Pedro Gamboa.
On June 24, 1571, Legazpi founded Manila. The Augustinian
convent was built in the same year. The first three church
buildings were made of nipa palm leaves, bamboo, andwooden posts, which were easily destroyed. In 1587, astructure made entirely of stone was built to withstand thenatural elements and minister to the needs of the growing
community. The church was placed under the titularpatronage of St. Paul. It was popularly known as San
Agustin after Augustine, Bishop of Hippo and spiritual
father of the Augustinian Order. The Augustinians wrote
books, grammars, and built churches from Luzon to
Visayas.
The present church and convent, made of stone, wasdesigned by Juan Macias and built from 1587 to 1604. The
strength of this construction made it possible to survive thevarious wars, typhoons, and earthquakes of the years
1645, 1754, 1852, 1863, 1880, 1911, 1937, and 1990. Saints,
poets, missionaries, scientists and social writers who
contributed to the greatness of the country and monastery
lived here. More than 3,000 Augustinians lived, prayed,and studied here, and spread the Good News of theGospel to the various islands of the Philippines, and to
China, Japan, India, America, and Africa. The place waslooted during the British invasion in 1762. Terms ofsurrender for Manila between Spain and the United States(America) were discussed in the vestry in 1898. The San
Agustin Church was the lone survivor during the Second
World War.

In 1973, the San Agustin Church was declared as a National
Cultural Treasure. The San Agustin Monastery, which
served as living quarters, infirmary, refectory, andclassrooms of the Augustinians, was eventually converted
into a museum that now houses a rich ecclesiasticalcollection. The church was given distinctive recognition
for its Outstanding Universal Value when it was includedin the World Heritage List by UNESCO in 1993 together
with the other three Baroque Churches in the Philippines,
by serial inscription.
Four hundred and fifty years after the founding of thechurch, April 27, 2015, the Augustinian Legacy continues.
This is shown and explained as you walk along the halls
and cloisters of San Agustin Monastery (Museum). In my
paper as International Correspondent included in the
Twelfth Regular Report (Vol. 12, 2013), I indicated theplans of the Augustinian Order in Intramuros, Manila torefurbish and restore the whole of the San Agustin Church
Complex, including the Monastery or the San Agustin
Museum. The strong dedication of the Augustinians totheir profession, love for the mission, culture and art isevident in the San Agustin Church and Museum today.
Their focus in the museum is to impart to visitors thecontribution of the Order to the history of the Catholic
faith, the significant value of the church and the arts, andmore so, the values of the Augustinian Order—how theAugustinians lived their monastic life in the past and up to
this day.
Below is a glimpse of the refurbishment, restoration, andconservation works at the San Agustin Complex. Universal
standards in terms of conservation principles have been
observed during the process. Authenticity and integrity ofthe structure and the collection are valued. Any
improvement is based primarily on historical records.

Ground Floor (Lower Cloister)
The cloisters represent the Augustinians’ “Love for Pilgrimage”: The cloister of processions remind the Augustinian Friars that life is a journey; sometimes short,sometimes long. They are invited not to look back, but to always look ahead to the final destiny: happiness, the fullness of love.

Before47

AfterBeforePhilippines

Antigua Sacristia
The word “sacristy,” from the Latin “sacristia,” indicates the place where the priests prepared themselves for the Mass. Here also were kept the liturgicalvestments, liturgical vessels, liturgical books, candles, incense, and all the items necessary to enhance the splendour of the Catholic liturgy for the glory of God.

After

Second Floor (Upper Cloister)
The cloisters represent the Augustinians’ “Love for the Mission.” From 1565 until the 20th century more than 3.000 Augustinians Friars arrived in the Philippines
with the main purpose of preaching the Kingdom of God among the people of the Philippine Islands and other countries of the Far East, to spread the Good Newsthat “God is love.”

BeforeAfter
San Agustin HallThis hall represents the Augustinians’ “Love for Art: The Filipino Santos.” In the early days of their arrival in the Philippines, the Augustinian Friars carried withthem from Mexico and Spain, carved or painted religious images. The Christian faith that they preached promoted the creation of art in architecture, carving andpainting. The paintings and sculptures exhibited were conserved and restored under the supervision of the author.

BeforeAfter

48

Philippines

Biblioteca
This old library represents the Augustinians’ “Love for Wisdom.” In the book “The Confessions of Saint Augustine,” it mentions that during his whole life hesearched for truth, for wisdom, and for God. In the Augustinian convents, the Library or “Biblioteca” was always a prominent place where the friars could grow in
wisdom.

BeforeAfter

Reference materials:
Conquistas de las Islas Filipinas (1565-1615 by Gaspar de
San Agustin. First Bilingual edition 1998.
San Agustin Art and History by Pedro G. Galende, OSA
and Regalado Trota Jose.
Museum text captions by Fr. Blas Sierra de la Calle, OSA

49

Acknowledgements:
The Augustinian Community at San Agustin Church,
Convent, and Museum in Intramuros, Manila; Fr. Blas
Sierra de la Calle, OSA (Director of Museo Oriental in
Valladolid, Spain/Curator of the present San Agustin
Museum refurbishment plan), Fr. Ricky B. Villar, OSA(Director of San Agustin Museum); and Arch OJ Builders,
Incorporated

Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka

Architecture in Ancient Sri Lanka (2nd Part)
D.A. Rasika Dissanayaka, Assistant Director (Promotions)
Department of Archaeology, Sri Lanka(The 1st part of this article was published in the 14th regular
report)(This paper depicts a pictorial overview of the ancientarchitectural edifices remaining in the present and detailsof some of their characteristics.)
The skill displayed by the architects of ancient Sri Lanka is
due mainly to the discipline invoked by Buddhism. Thisarchitecture exemplified the changes that took place in thereligious environment as well.

Hospitals
Hospitals used by large monasteries are still extant. Oftenthese buildings have a central courtyard from which wards
extend in four directions. The presence of medicinal
troughs on the premises of ancient hospitals is a distinctive
sight. Surgical instruments and medicine containers werediscovered at the Aalahana Pirivena of Polonnaruwa.
(Fig 74) (Fig 75) (Fig 76) (Fig 77)
A hospital constructed during the Dutch period is present
at the Colombo Fort. This building expresses various
architectural features. (Fig 78)

Classification of Architectural Edifices
i. Religious - shrines/residences/service buildings/
templesii. Royal- palaces/forts/royal gardensiii. Habitats - rock caves/dwellings/mansions
iv. Public - wayside resting places/bridges/granaries
This includes buildings and other appurtenances withforeign architectural features, which appeared in theaftermath of foreign invasions.
Toilets/Urinals
Toilets and urinals of the shroud (Panshukulika) monks(bhikkus) were richly decorated but hygienic. This reflects
the rejection of mundane gratification. The waste fromthese buildings was refined and made safe before being
released into the soil. (Fig 63)
The waste discharged from the urinals are directed to a pit
consisting of clay pots arranged one on top of the other.
The waste is retained in the pots while the water containing
the pollutants is refined by charcoal, sand and lime
deposited in the pots, and the water effluent is thenreleased into the environment. (Fig 64) (Fig 65) (Fig 66)(Fig 67)
Ponds and Wells
In Buddha’s time it is said that the monks (bhikkus)
fulfilled their water needs from rivers. Folklore mentions
that Kuweni was picking flowers from a pond. Ponds
existed on the island when Arahat Mihindu set foot on Sri
Lanka. Ponds were constructed for bathing and forbeautification of the environment. Wells were built for the
extraction of potable water. At times, when the waterlevels were at lower depths, steps were constructed toreach the water. (Fig 68) (Fig 69)
The ponds for bathing in Polonnaruwa do not include thesame aesthetic and attractive features found in ponds inAnuradhapura. (Fig 70) (Fig 71)
The ponds are filled with water supplied from undergroundcanals and pipes. Catch pits are provided to trap mud.
(Fig 72) (Fig 73)(Fig 63) Plan of toilet

50

Sri Lanka(Fig 65) Toilet, western Monastery, Anuradhapura,
Anuradhapura period(Fig 66) Kaludiya Pokuna, Mihintale, Anuradhapura
period(Fig 68) Twin Ponds, Anuradhapura, Anuradhapura
period(Fig 69) Cross shaped pond, Galabeddha(Fig 64) Tholuwila urinals, Anuradhapura period(Fig 67) Medirigiriya(Fig 71) Lotus pond, Polonnaruwa(Fig 72) Well near the Maha Pali Alms Hall,
Anuradhapura(Fig 73) Well, Polonnaruwa(Fig 74) Hospital, Mihintale, 8th century AD(Fig 75) Hospital, Mihintale, 8th century AD(Fig 76) Hospital, Medirigiriya, Anuradhapura period(Fig 77) Medicinal bath, Medirigiriya, Anuradhapura
period(Fig 70) Stepped pyramidal pond near Alahana
Pirivena

51(Fig 78) Dutch Hospital, Colombo, 17th century AD

A temple (devala) for the goddess Kali, seven temples forthe god Shiva and five temples for the god Vishnu areamongst the Hindu temples of Polonnaruwa. Often, thetemples were made completely with rock, including thedome. The walls and dome of the temple “Nai PenaVihara” are made of brick. (Fig 80)
The Shiva linga (genital organ of Śiva) is a representationof the Hindu deity Shiva used for worship in their temples.
In traditional society, the linga is seen as a symbol of theenergy and potential of God. (Fig 81)
Churches
During the Portuguese occupation of the 16th century AD,
churches were built for their religion. The Dutch and theEnglish who followed suit also built churches to spreadtheir religion. (Fig 82) (Fig 83)
The ground plan of a Christian chapel often takes theshape of a cross. The roofs of these churches are rather
steep. The churches of different denominations of theChristian faith had minor differences in terms of thearchitectural features symbolizing the denomination.
Architectural features signifying Protestantism, including
Baptistism and other denominations, are apparent inchurches that were established during the British period
and the period thereafter. (Fig 84)

Sri Lanka

Hindu Religious Buildings
Temples for the Hindu gods emerged in Polonnaruwa
during the Chola occupation of Sri Lanka. (Fig 79)

MosqueThe Arabs who came to Sri Lanka in the past to trade
began building mosques. These mosques reveal Arabianarchitecture, with the semicircular painted dome taking aprominent place. A pond was usually in front of the placeof prayer. (Fig 85) (Fig 86)
DevalaThe devala has been a place for worshipping gods sinceancient times. Although the worship of gods is a Hindu
tradition, the spread of devala throughout the island
reveals the significant interact of the Sinhala people hadover god worship. While the gods Skanda, Saman,
Vibushana and Upulvan had been venerated by the
Buddhists in a manner peculiar to them, the concept of
god worship in Hinduism was later gradually infused into
Buddhist culture to the extent that they, too, began tofollow the Hindu tradition of worshipping their own gods.
(Fig 87)(Fig 79) Shiva Devala No. 1, Polonnaruwa, 13th
century AD(Fig 80) Shiva Devala No. 2, Polonnaruwa, 13th
century AD(Fig 82) Wolfendhal Church, Colombo, 17th-18th
centuries AD(Fig 83) Church in the Galle Fort, 17th-18th
centuries AD(Fig 85) Mosque, Hambantota(Fig 81)(Fig 84) Baptist church, Pahathgama(Fig 87) Embekke Devala, Kandy, 14th century AD(Fig 86) Red Mosque, Colombo

52

Sri Lanka

Often, a devala consists of a sacred chamber known as the“Pe Vena Maduwa” with the statue of the god. Directly infront of this is the “hanudun kudama”, and finally, in frontof it, is an open pavilion called a “dig ge”. A Buddha shrine
and a kitchen are placed away from the devala, and aparapet wall with a vestibule demarcates the devalapremises. (Fig 88) (Fig 89) (Fig 90)
Royal Palaces
A royal palace was the living quarters of the King, his
consorts, and other members of the royal family. Royalpalaces belonging to the Anuradhapura period are seen
near the Maha Pali Alms Hall at Anuradhapura and on topof Sigiriya rock fortress. The palaces of the Polonnaru
period were similar in design, and the palace of King
Parakramabahu, the palace of Vijayaba of Anuradhapura,and the palace of Panduvasnuwara are existing examples.
(Fig 91) (Fig 92) (Fig 93)
Palaces of the medieval period are seen in Dambadeniya,
Yapahuwa, and palaces belonging to the Kandyan period
can be found at Kandy, Hanuranketha, and Madha
Mahanuwara. Palaces are situated in the inner city. A
palace complex often comprises the Palace, the King’s
council chamber, royal garden and other ancillarybuildings, all as separate blocks.
Defence Fortresses
Ancient fortresses are seen in Anuradhapura, Polonnaruwa,
Yapahuwa, and Dambadeniya. Of these, the forts of
Yapahuwa, Sigiriya, Dambadeniya and Kurunegala arerock fortresses. (Fig 94) (Fig 95)
Among the forts of the Colonial period, the Dutch forts
stand out as they are attractive. A fort has a wide perimetermound supported by thick stone masonry and consists ofa residential building, service buildings and religious
structures. At the corners of the fort are shaped guard
posts known as Bastians. (Fig 96) (Fig 97)
A drawbridge which is operated by levers with a door canpresently be seen in the Star Fort in Matara. (Fig 98)
Library buildings (Fig 99)
The library of the Padeniya temple is a building ofarchitectural importance. It exemplifies genuine Kandyanarchitectural characteristics. The Padeniya library(pothgula) was built on a rock with the intention ofprotecting the library from the threat of termites and pests.
This building, which is constructed on an elevatedfoundation, has a “veli pilla” incorporated with the castplinth. (Fig 100)
A veli pilla is a sand tray on which one learns to write
letters with a finger in sand. (Fig 101)
Houses
The abodes of prehistoric man were rock caves, which
was where they preferred to live. From the historic period,
ordinary village houses were built of impermanentmaterials such as wattle and daub, mud walls and clay,
with roofs thatched with grasses and reeds. (Fig 102)

53

"There houses are small, low, thatched cottages, built withsticks, daubed with clay, the walls made very smooth. For
they are not permitted to build their houses above one
story high, neither may they cover with tiles, nor whiten
their walls with lime, but there is a Clay which is as white,and that they use sometimes. They employ no Carpenters,
or house-builders, unless some few noble-men, but eachone buildeth his own dwelling."—Robert Knox (Fig 103) (Fig 104) (Fig 105) (Fig 106) (Fig107)
According to the design, it was just one rectangular unit
with one chamber. Nails were not used in these houses.
The wood in the roof was secured by using cane or otherwild creepers. Houses of noblemen differed from those of
the villagers, and had more rooms and an inner courtyard.
Sometimes their roofs were tiled.
Manor Houses
Officers bearing higher governmental posts in the Kandyan
period built larger and much more luxurious and facilitatedhouses as their residences. These were always
representative of their status and showed much grandeur.
These manor houses had a number of inner courtyards,
with verandahs built on tall pillars to add dignity.
(Fig 108) (Fig 109) (Fig 110) (Fig 111)
Many manor houses in the city of Kandy are presently
used for other activities.
Ehalepola Manor house - Former prison
Dunuwila Manor house - Municipal council
Dullaawa Manor house - Queens Hotel
Granary/Atuwa
The granary or “atuwa” or “wee bissa” was constructed onwooden logs fixed on short pillars to protect the stored
grains from storm water and pests. (Fig 112) (Fig 113)
The granary was a wattle and daub structure and plasteredwith lime. The roof was thatched with straw. When thehouse belonged to a nobleman, temple or king, thegranary was a separate building. (Fig 114)
Wayside Resting Place - Ambalama
A wayside resting place—an ambalama—is a smallbuilding used for resting. These buildings were constructedbeside the roads used by people who travelled on foot orby cart. Initially the ambalama was simply the shade of atree without a shelter. Subsequently a tree trunk wasplaced on two stones under the tree for people to sit on.
Later, four timber beams were placed on four similarstones to which four timber columns were attached and aroof constructed. The ambalama is a basic product ofindigenous architecture. Some were constructed on stones
surfaces with tall pillars to ward off threats from pests. (Fig115) (Fig 116)
Panavitiya Ambalama is the most attractive ambalama
found in Sri Lanka. Large timber sections are used in the
structure to give stability to the roof. (Fig 117)

Sri Lanka(Fig 88) Natha Devala, Kandy(Fig 91) Vijayaba Palace, Anuradhapura, 11th-12th
century AD(Fig 89) Saman Devalaya, Ratnapura, Kandyan
period(Fig 90) Vishnu Devalaya, Kandy(Fig 92) Palace, Yapahuva, 13th century AD(Fig 93) Palace, Panduwasnuwara, 11th century AD(Fig 95) Sigiriya Fortress, 5th century AD(Fig 96) Galle Fort, 18th century AD(Fig 98) Timber Draw Bridge, Matara Star Fort, 18th
century AD(Fig 99) Pothgul Vihara (library), Polonnaruwa, 12th
century AD(Fig 101) Veli pilla, Matale Alu Vihara, 18th century
AD(Fig 102) Pahiyan Cave

(Fig 94) Dambadeniya Fort, 13th century AD(Fig 97) Jaffna Fort, 17th century AD(Fig 100) Library building, Padeniya, Kandyan
period54

Sri Lanka(Fig 103) Galathara Veda Nivasa(Fig 104) A house, Meemure, 19th century AD(Fig 106)(Fig 105) Interior of a house, Meemure, 19th
century AD(Fig 108) Maduwanwala Manor House, 19th
century AD.

(Fig 107)(Fig 111) Ratwatte Manor House, 19th-20th
centuries AD(Fig 109) Ambagahalanda Manor House,
Divulapitiya(Fig 112) Granary, Lankathilaka Vihara, Kandy(Fig 115) Wayide resting place, Karagagedara,
Kandyan period

55(Fig 110) Dunuwila Manor House, 19th-20th
century AD(Fig 113) Granary, Pusulpitiya, Kandyan period(Fig 116) Wayside resting place, Panavitiya,
Kandyan period(Fig 114) Granary, Thotupale Manor House, Kegalle(Fig 117) Wayside resting place, Pandivita,
Kandyan periodOther buildings
There are many structures built for particular purposes thatcannot be commonly categorized as main buildings. Mostof these were built in the colonial era and incorporatearchitectural characteristics of that period. (Fig 118) (Fig119) (Fig 120)
Bridges
The plank bridge is the basic type of bridge for crossing
rivers. A tree trunk or plank put across a waterway
connecting its banks is called an “edanda” or plank bridge.
If it is not possible to cross with one trunk, a pillar is fixedin the middle of the waterway, and by connecting a trunk
from each bank to the centre pillar, the plank bridge isconstructed to connect the two banks.
Plank bridges were replaced by more robustly built bridges
for safety and ease of use. There are many examples ofbridges built with various materials applicable to various
periods.

References
1. Silva, Roland. 1990, Brick - A Unit of Construction in
Ancient Sri Lanka, ICTAD Journal, Vol.2 No.1, A
Publication of the Institute for Construction Training
and Development
2. Wilhelm Geiger & Mabel Haynes Bode, Mahawamsa
Colombo: Information Department, 1950.
3. Coomaraswamy, Ananda K. 1979, Mediaeval SinhaleseArt, Pantheon Books INC, New York.
4. Geiger, Wilhelm; Bode, Mabel Haynes (transl.); Frowde,
H. (ed.): The Mahavamsa or, The great chronicle of
Ceylon / translated into English by Wilhelm Geiger ...
assisted by Mabel Haynes Bode ... under the patronage ofthe government of Ceylon. London: Pali Text Society
1912 (Pali Text Society, London. Translation series ; no. 3)
5. Bandaranayake S., Mogren, Mats. 1994, Further Studies
in the Settlement Archaeology of the Sigiriya-Dambulla
Region, A publication of the Postgraduate Institute ofArchaeology (PGIAR), University of Kelaniya
6. Knox, Robert. 1681, An Historical Relation of the Island
Ceylon, in the East-Indies Printed by Richard Chiswell,Printer to the ROYAL SOCIETY, at the Rose and Crown
in St. Paul’s Church-yard, 1681.

Sri Lanka

Some had sleeping facilities. Ambalama built on highplinths could be seen too.

The British rulers used brick arches and steel frames inbuilding bridges. (Fig 121) (Fig 122) (Fig 123) (Fig 124)
(Fig 125)(Fig 118) Old railway station, Peradeniya, 1867 AD(Fig 119) Gunpowder store, Palathota, 18th-19th
centuries AD(Fig 120) Lighthouse, Devundara, 18th-19th
centuries AD(Fig 121) Stone bridge, Malwathu Oya,
Anuradhapura period(Fig 122) Timber bridge, Bogoda, Kandyan period(Fig 123) Brick arched Bridge, Mawanella, 19th
century AD(Fig 124) Steel bridge, Yatiyantota, 19th-20th
centuries AD(Fig 125) Suspension bridge, Deraniyagala,19th-20th centuries AD

56

Uzbekistan
Uzbekistan

Recent Finds of Hellenistic Architectural Elements from Old Termez (South Uzbekistan)
Akmal Ulmasov, Leader specialist
Fine Arts Institute, Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan
Introduction
The influence of Hellenistic traditions was manifested not
only in art and culture, but also in the architecture ofAncient Bactria. This has been confirmed by numerous
treasures found during archaeological excavations. In
particular, many architectural treasures have been found inrecent years in different parts of the settlement of Old
Termez1. They can be divided into several groups according
to type and function.
Pillar fragments
This group includes stone trunks, which were found on
the Chingiz-tepa, one of the hills of the settlement, in 2012.
They consist of five drums that are fully intact, but ofdifferent sizes: length from 78.5 to 112.5 cm, bottom
diameter 43 to 48 cm, and the top 40 to 43 cm (fig. 1 a, b).
The drums were carved out of monolithic cylinder-shaped
stone. Their surfaces are carefully polished. There are
deep square- and round-shaped recesses on the top andround surfaces of the drums. All the barrels, except for one
provided with rectangular auxiliary recesses, featureshallows. These probably served to connect the drums to
one another, by fastening the stems with the bases on thebottom and capitals on the top. Some drum grooves arefilled with lime mortar. They were apparently used tomaintain the stability of the drums while being connected.
It’s possible that the pillars were based on large and solid
foundations and supported by stone capitals. The large
blocks sizes indicate that the columns, which were builtwith help of blocks, were probably were decorations of amonumental building. It should be recalled that in ancient
times such ceremonial buildings were palaces or temples.
Similar blocks that are closer in size to the diameter of thetrunk have previously been recorded at this site. At one of
the archaeological complexes in Karatepa settlement, next
to the Main Stupa, part of a huge circular column with alength of about 100 cm and a diameter of 50-60 cm wasfound. Here the trunk strongly narrowed upwards (Pidaev& Kato, 2007). At another Buddhist monument, Ayrtam,
the trunks are two times smaller (diameter: 26-28 cm,
length: 83 cm) than those on the Termez columns. But
researchers of that settlement should be able to reconstruct
the whole column owing to the strong foundation formedby the base and capital. (Turgunov, 1987, 1989).
Fragments of pillars were also found at Takhti-Sangin, AyKhanum, Sacksonokhur, Dilberjin and at other Bactrianmonuments. At different times several trunks were also
found in different parts of Takhti-Sangin stone settlement.
Among them were columns (diameter: 62 cm) of thecentral hall and quinces-pranaos2. Generally, the TakhtiSangin columns are similar to Ay-Khanum columns, witheach column consisting of 8-9 units (diameter: 68-84 cm)
and with grooves at the both extremities. The use of blocks
gave us an opportunity to safely recreate their actual size,

57

a height of 7.8 to 8 m. the overall proportions of thecolumns (the ratio of the diameter to the height of thecolumn – 1:11) is very slim (Bernard, 1973). In the large
architectural complex of Sacksonokhur four pillars wereidentified with a drum diameter from 40.5 to 44 m and alength of 58-80 cm (Litvinskiy & Mukhitdinov, 1969). There
are deep grooves on both extremities of the trunks, on
which appear traces of potting with alabaster. The alabasterapparently strengthened the bonding of shafts to eachother. Subsequently, the Dilberjin samples served as thebasis for wooden columns. But researchers assume, thatthese small columns (diameter: 31 cm) from the diameterof the barrel reached about 3 meters (Pugachenkova,
1976).
Regarding the Termez blocks, the question is whether they
belonged to the same column or a different one. One of
the researchers, K. Abdullaev, referring to one of theauthors’ (Leriche, 2011) data findings, supposed that they
could belong to the stambha3 column, which was standingat the corner of the Main Stupa, or somewhere in aprominent place of the city. But he notes that thishypothesis requires a thorough examination and a lot ofevidence (Абдуллаев, 2010). Given their size (of almost
the same height, i.e., about 1 meter and diameter of reelswith a maximum of about 0.5 m and a minimum of 0.40m), they were probably part of the same column. If so,with various calculations we can reconstruct the barrel,
which was about 5 m high, and the columns with the baseand capital likely reaching a height of about 6 m (fig. 2).
Until this time the paucity of stone columns was a factor
indicating their rare use in the architectural order system ofarchitecture in Bactria. This is due to different reasons: onthe one hand was the complexity of the transportation ofheavy stone blocks from faraway places and timeconsuming processing. On the other hand, seismic
conditions of the territory did not allow the use of columns
in the local architecture. Another reason was that they may
have been reused in subsequent constructions or used forother purposes.
Of course, wood was the dominant material in column
construction, because of its affordability and easy
processing. But almost all architectural elements made ofwood eventually decayed or burned during enemy attacks
and accidental fires, and sometimes in the excavations wefind only charred fragments of these elements partiallyretaining their shape, such as a piece of the carved beamsof the house of the noble citizen Dalvarzintepa (Dalverzintepa…, 1978) and a great ionic capital of a temple from the
2nd century BC, Ay-Khanum (Schlumberger, Bernard,1965).
In 2012, during agricultural works at the citadel settlement
Old Termez, among the detected fragments of stone2. Capitals of columns
These capitals were fixed in the scientific literature as
Corinthian, however, their shape is not exactly the same as
the Greco-Roman classic designs. These two capitals were
found at the above settlement of Old Termez. Theirdimensions are: (1) total height: 35 cm, abacus: 47 x 43 x
3 cm, diameter echinus: 32-34 cm; (2) total height: 27.5
cm, abacus: 40.5 x 41.5 x 2.5 cm, diameter echinus: 28.5
cm. The center of the upper bed has a square slot, 8 x 7
cm, with a depth of 5 cm (but in the second it’s round:
diameter: 6 cm, depth: 4 cm). Such grooves are on thesurfaces of the echinus. They were used for mounting
capitals by the beams at the top, and the barrel of thecolumn at the bottom (fig. 3 a, b).
Capitals consist of the following from the bottom upwards:
from the round echinus concentrically are eight acanthus
leaves, and between them rises a second line of eightacanthus leaves. The third line features four large leaves,and the four corners have four large volutes. All corners of
the abacus, limbs and volutes were almost repulsed, andsome parts are heavily worn.
There is an insignificant number of such capitals in thesouthern territory of Uzbekistan. For instance, one of the
known capitals is on exhibition at the State Museum ofHistory of Uzbekistan another one is in a private collection.
Both of the capitals were discovered some time ago, butthere is no related information in the scientific literature.
The capital (height: 25 cm, D.E.: 25 cm) from that museum
is also decorated with three rows of acanthus leaves: thefirst two rows of small acanthus leaves are the same size,
and the top (and third) row of four large acanthus leaves
alternates with four corner volutes. Based on the trail,
there is a dark red brownish slip (paint) which means thelarge capital was painted or gilded. It is known that such
red paints served as a tack for coating with gold leaf (fig.
4).
The other capital in the private collection is slightly
different from the others in terms of design (fig. 5). There
are also sixteen leaves in the front row that abuts theechinus, and on the second row there are eight leaves. But
they are larger than those in the first row and all theacanthus leaves abut the small leaves that are below them.
They are also short and horizontally extend outward. The
third row of acanthus leaves is two times larger than the
middle row and extends upward, curving slightly outward.
The abacuses of both capitals are under the square shape,and very huge. On the first capital, it forms a protrusion
which is less than half of the total thickness. On the second
capital, the abacus is equipped with a half scotia. The
volutes of both capitals are huge as in the previous capitalsof Old Termez.
The proportions and large sizes of the Termez capitals andtheir similarities with Sacksonokhur and Ay-Khanum

samples enables us to date them supposedly to the GrecoBactrian period, i.e., 3rd to 2nd centuries BC. Apparently,
the size of the capitals decreased over time, and we canassume that the smaller capitals (e.g., the capital fromSMHU Museum) can be attributed to between the GrecoBactrian and early Kushan intermediate period, that is 2nd
to 1st centuries BC.

Uzbekistanarchitectural details, was also found one fragment of atrunk (height: 29.5 cm, diameter: 39 cm). A square socket
was inserted at one extremity of the drum (9.5 x 10 cm,
depth: 10 cm). There are two remarkable major capitals ofround columns that belong to the following groups4.

For manufacturing these architectural details, like theprevious findings, it is quite possible that limestone which
was brought from Khuja-Gulsuar was used (Logophet,
1909; Masson, 1938). This archaeological site is located on
the bank of the Amudarya (Oxus) River, 30 km upstream
from Termez. According to research, it was confirmed thatthe limestone was quarried and processed there. It also
provided stone for the whole of Termez and its surroundingarea for the manufacture of architectural details andsculptures (Staviski, 2001). Petrography analysis andresearch of the mineralogical components of the limestone
from this and other monuments of Termez (Karatepa,
Fayaztepa) have shown that this type of mineralcomposition is homogeneous and belongs to theorganogenesis group (Ageeva, Belozerova, 1982).
Conclusion
From the above, it can be concluded that the recent
findings once again confirm the high impact of Hellenistic
traditions in ancient Bactrian architecture. At the sametime, however, local features have been preserved, which
are visible in the planning structure, construction
techniques and individual architectural decorations. Thesearchitectural details were used in the reconstruction ofsome individual architectural buildings and the urban
culture of ancient Bactria.
Bibliography
1. Abdullaev K. The Buddhist culture of Ancient Termezin old and recent finds. Parthica, 15. 2013. – pp. 157187.
2. Ageeva E., Belozerova G. Izvestnyaki v pamyatnikax
Termeza i ego okrugi Kashanskogo perioda (Karatepa,
V). Moskva, 1982. – pp. 94-96.
3. Bernard P. Fouilles d’Ai Khanoum. T. 1, 2. – MDAFA,
1973. – pp. 41-42.
4. Dalvarzintepa – kushanskiy gorod ya yuge Uzbekistana.
Tashkent, 1978. – pp. 196-197.
5. Leriche P. Le chapiteau tetrasephale de l’Ancienne
Termez, in C. Lippolis, S. De Martino (eds.), Un
impaziente desiderio di scorrere il mondo. Studi inomore di Antonio Invernizzi per il suo settantesimo
compleanno (“Monografie di Mesopotamia”, XIV),
Firenze.
6. Litvinski B., Mukhitdinov X. Antichnoe gorodishe
Sacsonojhur (Yujniy Tadjikistan). SA. Moskva, 1969. No
2. – pp. 169-170.
7. Logophet D. Na granitsax Sredney Azii. BukharskoAfganskaya granitsa. Kniga 3. St-Peterburg, 1909.
8. Masson M. К izucheniyu arxeologicheskix pamyatnikov
pravoberejnego Tokharistana. SONAT, 1938. p. 103.
9. Pidaev Sh., K. Kato. The Excavation on the North andWest (Central) hills of Kara-tepa (1998-2007). –Kanagawa.: Ai-Khanum, 2007. p. 40.
10. Pugachenkova G. K poznaniyu antichnoy i

58Uzbekistanrannesrednevekovoyarchitecturi
Severnogo
Afganistana. Drevnyya Bactria. Moskva, 1976. – p. 134.
11. Schlumberger D., Bernard P. Ai-Khanoum // Bulletende correspondence hellenique (BCH), LXXXIX, 1965II. – pp. 641-644.
12. Staviski B. Gora Orlinaya – Kodja Gulsuar. Tashkent,
2001. – pp. 52-54.
13. Turgunov B. Noviye naxodki iz Ayrtama. Gorodskayakultura Bactrii-Tokharistana i Sogda (antichnost,
rannesrednevekovye). Tashkent, 1987. – pp. 144-147.

14. Turgunov B. Ayrtamskaya colonna. Vexi vremen.
Almanax. Tashkent, 1989. – pp. 85-87.
1.
2.
3.
4.

Information about this settlement has been cited in previous reports (see The
Tenth Regular Reports of ACCU, Nara, 2012).
Pronaos (from Greek) – half open part of an ancient temple between theentrance and naos.
Stambha (from Sanskrit) – memorial pillar with figure capital and many layer
towers, covered with sculptures and ornamental caves.
Present time these fragments exhibiting in the Museum of “Meros” (Heritage) inthe “At-Termeziy Complex Site” in Termez.

1 a-b. Fragments of Column from Chingiz-tepa.

2. Reconstruction of Columns of Ancient Bactria.

3 a-b. Capitals of pillars from Old Termez.

59

4. Capital from State Museum of History of Uzbekistan.

5. Capital from private collection.

Published by
Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia-Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU)
757 Horen-cho, Nara 630-8113 Japan
Tel : +81-742-20-5001
Fax: +81-742-20-5701
E-mail: nara@accu.or.jp
URL: http://www.nara.accu.or.jp© Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia-Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU) 2015

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