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The Buddhist Concept of the Human Being:
From the Viewpoint of the Philosophy of the Soka Gakkai

Mikio Matsuoka
Introduction

D

AISAKU Ikeda, president of the Soka Gakkai International, in a
dialogue with world-renowned sociologist of religion Bryan Wilson, points out that modern social thought originating in the West retains
vestiges of a Christian worldview. Ikeda asserts that even today, when
belief in a Christian God has waned, national and ideological causes
have taken the place of God, with mass slaughter often being justified
and glorified in the names of those causes. Insisting that no cause takes
precedence over the principle of the sanctity of human life, he underscores the important role Buddhism can play in creating a new civilizational framework.1 The tendency in modern Western thought to placeabsolute value on such things as reason, freedom, equality, humanrights, and the environment can lead to the value of human life being
depreciated. In events ranging from violent revolutionary movements
such as the French and Russian revolutions to the curious recent phenomena of human rights fascism, eco-fascism, and peace fascism, we
can discern thinking that gives priority over human beings to tenets similar to those used to justify attacks on heretics during the ChristianInquisition in the Middle Ages. President Ikeda calls for a reversal of thetrend where people serve the ends of religion, and instead have religion
serve people. The significance of this appeal extends beyond simple religious debate, and challenges the monotheistic paradigm regarding thehuman being that prevails, albeit largely unconsciously, in our modern
world.
That said, however, a fundamental theoretical question remains. Does
the Buddhist view of the human being contain a philosophy that can
sublate this civilizational paradigm? In particular, can the Buddhist philosophy of the Soka Gakkai—Soka philosophy—fulfill this mission?
This is the purpose of this paper. It is my wish to propose some
stepping-stones from which a foundation for further research concerning Soka philosophy can be established. Specifically, I will focus on theview of the human being in Buddhism from a social thought per50

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spective, re-examining the words of the Buddha found in early Buddhist
scriptures. I will also explore the relationship between early Buddhism
and Soka philosophy and the significance of the Soka view of the humanbeing in the context of contemporary thought.
Further, it should be noted that the term “subjectivity,” which forms a
keyword in this paper, is employed by the author in a different sensefrom the concept of subjectivity in modern philosophy and existentialist
doctrine. It is employed in the Buddhist sense of human subjectivity,
where the individual actively embodies the fundamental power of the
Law that gives rise to the world in a web of mutually interconnected andinterdependent relationships.
1. Buddhism as a human-centered religion
1.1 The path to human-centered social reform
Shakyamuni left home to set out on a journey to solve the questions ofhuman existence. First he studied under Brahman teachers who had
achieved a high level of awareness, and then he underwent a long periodof austere practices, before abandoning that course as well. Finally,
through intense meditation, he was able to grasp the ultimate truth andattain enlightenment. The truth that he discovered could be defined as
the Law of non-self and dependent origination. He traveled throughout
India preaching the Law, telling people that by becoming aware of thisLaw within their own lives, they could free themselves from the shackles of suffering. In other words, he taught that the fundamental cause of
suffering in the world must not be sought in the external environment,
but within the human heart. Opposite of being escapist, this approach
naturally leads to tangible social reform. In such early Buddhist texts as
the Sutta-nipata (The Group of Discourses), the Buddha repeatedly
instructs both monks and laity to take rational, self-restrained, yet compassionate action. Based on such teaching, he endorses a moderateamount of economic gain for members of society, and recommends thatrulers govern with compassion based on the Law. He also endeavors toorganize his disciples in a way that promotes equality and eliminates
discrimination among practitioners, exerting a positive influence on
Indian society, which was strictly bound by the caste system.
The above is an explanation of how Shakyamuni Buddha’s religious
movement attempted to realize a moralistic revolution of society byreforming the hearts and minds of the individuals in that society. After
Shakyamuni’s passing, however, trends toward doctrinal scholarship anddeification of the Buddha in Nikaya and Mahayana Buddhism served tominimize the role of the Buddha as a moral leader. In contrast, Nichiren,

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the thirteenth-century Japanese Buddhist priest, viewed Shakyamuni in
one respect as a moral teacher based the teachings the Lotus Sutra, saying: “The heart of the Buddha’s lifetime of teachings is the Lotus Sutra,
and the heart of the practice of the Lotus Sutra is found in the ‘Never
Disparaging’ chapter. What does Bodhisattva Never Disparaging’s profound respect for people signify? The purpose of the appearance in thisworld of Shakyamuni Buddha, the lord of teachings, lies in his behavior
as a human being.”2 Today, members of the Soka Gakkai International,
embracing the teachings of Nichiren Buddhism, believe that humanrevolution—a profound inner transformation in the life of eachindividual—will lead to world peace, echoing the Buddha’s original
teachings and his desire to change society spiritually through reforming
the individuals that comprise it.
If we look at the approach of modern Western social thinkers, we seethat they have continued to make efforts to realize human happiness andfulfillment through establishing ideal social systems. As a result, social
systems that guarantee much greater freedom and equality compared tofeudal times have been achieved. However, although this pursuit of idealsocial systems does place importance on human subjectivity, it does nottranscend environmental determinism, owing to the belief that humanhappiness is dependent on environmental factors, namely the social system itself. Therefore, if we seek to realize social reform that is initiatedby human beings who possess true subjectivity, it must be reform inwhich human beings are not controlled by environmental factors. In thisrespect, Shakyamuni placed highest priority on people’s inner transformation and sought to change the social environment through moral
reform, aspiring to achieve an ideal human-centered society. Shakyamuni’s social reform only extended to the realm of morality, and did
not result in actual reform in the social system. Moral reform, however,may in time lead to reform in the social system as well. Indeed, this canbe seen in King Ashoka’s rule in accord with the Law and in Nagarjuna’s
treatise concerning social policy, Ratnavali. From spiritual transformation to reconstructing human morality, and then from moral reconstruction to social system reform—this gradual path of progressive change, I
submit, is the only way to bring about genuine, lasting human-centeredsocial reform.
1.2 The Law and compassion
So the next question is then, What is the relationship between humansubjectivity and the Law expounded in Buddhism? First of all, the Law
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in terms of three basic concepts: non-self, dependent origination, andnon-substantiality. These concepts deny the existence of the individual,
and view the phenomenal world in terms of relationships and relativity.
Therefore, the truth of existence lies in a realm of negation, and the true
nature of all things is grounded in nothingness. Accordingly, if attainment of a higher state of life that is not governed or influenced by ceaselessly changing phenomena is desired, then there is no choice but forhuman beings to rid themselves of all substantialistic attachments. Thisis the reasoning that lies at the heart of early Buddhism, which concerns
itself mostly with emancipation from the various sources of desire thatgive rise to illusion. Furthermore, in early Buddhism the Buddha taught
the rejection of a life of illusion, but at the same time he also taught
compassion for all living things—protecting and helping them grow—and regarded respect for life a fundamental rule of behavior. Consequently, the Law, while a principle of negation, also possesses a lifeaffirming aspect.
The Soka Gakkai’s second president, Josei Toda, was persecuted by
the military government of Japan during World War II and imprisoned.
During his time in confinement, he read the “Virtuous Practices” chapterof the Immeasurable Meanings Sutra, which is considered a prelude to
the Lotus Sutra. In the course of his study, he came upon the section thatis sometimes called “the thirty-four negations,” which describes what
the life of the Buddha is by listing what it is not. For days, Toda pondered the meaning of this section in prayer and intellectual contemplation, until he suddenly came to the realization that the one thing that canremain in a world of absolute non-existence is nothing other than life
itself and that this is the reality of the Buddha. He concluded that life isa reality of negation itself. Toda takes a huge leap in logic reaching thisconclusion, but it is not illogical; it is merely intuitive logic. In early
Buddhism, the Law expounded by Shakyamuni for human salvation isboth a principle of negation and a law of respect for life. Toda expressed
the Buddha (who is one with the Law in Soka philosophy) as “life.” Thisview does not contradict early Buddhist thinking regarding the Law.
This is because, though life is substantively negated, it is an undeniable
reality, which itself says yes to life.
Thus, the Soka Gakkai today also refers to the Law as the life of theuniverse, or cosmic life. It has been promoting a new Buddhist movement based on humanism and the dignity of life. The belief that the Law
instinctively works to nurture life is its underlying religious tenet, which
Ikeda expresses in a dialogue with historian Arnold Toynbee as: “ThisLaw [that is inherent in the universe] is the cause of all phenomena andJ ̲Orient̲05 06.2.1 4:54 PM

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is the reality that becomes the basic principle maintaining strict harmony
among all phenomena. I believe that the movement of the universe,
which is based on the Law, is compassion (jihi in Japanese Buddhist
terminology)—or to use your word, love—which strives to build andpreserve harmony among all things.”3 According to this, the universal
Law has two aspects: one of cold, mechanical precision as the law thatgoverns the workings of the cosmos, and the other of compassion as it
strives to maintain a balance and harmony between all living and nonliving things in the cosmos. This compassion originates not from the willof the Absolute, but is a function of the Law, which is an impersonal
reality. This being so, from the viewpoint of Soka philosophy, thehuman being as an individual in Buddhism is not negated by the
Absolute, but instead is connected with the Law that governs the cosmos. Through this connection, the individual can attain fundamental
subjectivity. In addition, since one aspect of the Law is compassion,
Buddhist practitioners are led to take compassionate action on their own
initiative. Although the Soka Gakkai’s view of the Law does not lend
itself to proof by logical reasoning, it can no doubt be regarded as avalid modern interpretation of early Buddhist thinking.
1.3 The individual’s own power (jiriki) and external power (tariki)
Here, I would like to explore the Buddhist approach to salvation in orderto clarify some of the characteristics of Buddhism as a human-centeredreligion. Whereas Christianity and Islam preach salvation through thegrace of an absolute deity, in Buddhism we find two approaches to salvation. One is salvation through emancipation from worldly desires bymeans of the individual’s own power (jiriki), and the other is salvation
by means of the external power of a transcendent Buddha (tariki). If weconsider Buddhism a human-centered religion, the basic component of
the religion should include aiming for emancipation exclusively throughthe individual’s own power, but as the Law itself is compassionate, it
becomes necessary to bring in a component of external power. In otherwords, as a human-centered religion, Buddhism teaches practitioners tosave themselves, but as they progress in their practice, their own individual power and external power fuse.
In his book, The Living Buddha, Ikeda narrates the Buddha’s momentof enlightenment under the bodhi tree in the following way: “In Shakyamuni’s case, as the darkness of night began to give way to the first lightof dawn, the state of Buddhahood existing in the universe and the stateof Buddhahood inherent in Shakyamuni’s own life merged in harmonious communion and blossomed forth.”4

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The term “communion” used in the above quote refers to the relationship between people’s capacity to comprehend the teachings and thefunction of the Buddha to lead people to understand the teaching. It is
explained as the “mystic principle of responsive communion” in T’ient’ai’s Hokke gengi (Profound Meaning of the Lotus Sutra). Therefore,
Ikeda’s narrative of Shakyamuni’s enlightenment can also be understoodin terms of a fusion between the human being, representing the individual’s own power, and the cosmic life, representing external power. This
concept of a fusing of inner and external power originates from
Nichiren’s writings concerning his views of Buddhist practice. He
writes, “One’s own power is actually not one’s own power. . . . External
power is actually not external power,”5 indicating that the individual’s
own power and external power are essentially one. Nichiren views external power as a function that aids the individual’s own power. Also,
Nichiren was extremely committed to the heart of both the Lotus Sutra
and its teacher Shakyamuni,6 often making statements such as: “I amcertain that this is all because the [written] characters of the Lotus Sutra
have entered into your bodies in order to give us aid,”7 and “I wonder if
Shakyamuni Buddha has entered your body to help me.”8 In all cases, heregards the power of the Lotus Sutra and Shakyamuni Buddha as support for the individual’s efforts for self-salvation. So external powerfunctions to bring out the individual’s own power to the fullest. Thisview of practice is characteristic of a human-centered religion. In a Harvard speech on Mahayana Buddhism, Ikeda refers to this fusion of internal and external powers as the ideal needed for “the restoration and rejuvenation of humanity.”9
1.4 Mentor and disciple
Buddhist practice is usually carried out based on a relationship of mentor and disciple. Is it possible for this hierarchical relationship to interfere with the goal of realizing a humanistic approach to religion? Inorder to answer this question, it is essential to investigate why a mentor
is needed and whether there is any disparity in religious dignity between
mentor and disciple. These two points are of vital importance.
I would like to focus on the fact that Shakyamuni instructed his disciples just before his demise to make the Law their teacher. Generally,faith in an impersonal Law, due to its very impersonality, makes it difficult for people feel a sense of reverence toward the Law and often
results in diminished religious zeal. To overcome this difficultly torevere the Law as the teacher, the need arises for a human teacher who
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allows individuals to sense the compassionate workings of the Law as
an indivisible part of the teacher’s life. In this way, respect for the Law
as the fundamental teacher begins to blossom in people’s hearts. Bergson asserted that Buddhism lacks zeal, but I believe that Buddhists who
persevere on the path of mentor and disciple, living a life of compassion
based on the Law, can also obtain a level of apostolic passion evidenced
by believers of monotheistic religions. In addition, because their lives
are actively engaged with the ultimate Law of the cosmos, they do not
lose sight of their fundamental subjectivity. By maintaining steadfast
faith in the Law, Buddhist mentors and disciples keep their passion aspractitioners fresh and strive to pursue a human-centered practice.
Unlike Christian love, which derives from an external higher power,
Buddhist compassion is equally endowed in the lives of all humanbeings. Therefore, mentors and disciples who base themselves on the
Law share the same fundamental capacity for compassion and live theirlives based on a shared vow for the salvation of all humankind. There istotal equality in terms of religious dignity between mentor and disciple
in Buddhism.
Christianity has fostered individual independence of a kind that transcends secular authority through devotion to God, forming the philosophical basis for the modern ideal of individualism espoused in theWest. In this model, however, human subjectivity and dignity are notnecessarily guaranteed because of the limiting factor of God’s rule. On
the other hand, it is said that pantheistic teachings such as Mahayana
Buddhism recognize the inherent subjectivity of the human being, but as
the ethics of this type of thinking are difficult to put into active practice,
believers tend to passively follow along with prevailing secular values.
Pantheistic teachings try to find the transcendental within, but to do so
without knowing the transcendental without is ultimately a futile
endeavor. What is needed is a humanistic religion that expounds transcendence that returns toward immanence. The Soka Gakkai espouses afaith in the Law based on a mentor-disciple relationship. This faith
reveres the Law that is the cosmic source of human life—namely, thelife of the universe. From this approach of religious philosophy, theabsolute dignity of the human being can be attained, thereby providing
modern civilization with a possible model for the solution of ethicalissues.
2. A Buddhist view of humanity
2.1 Cosmic subjectivity—the rationale for human dignity
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like to begin discussion on the main topic of this paper, which is the
Buddhist view of humanity. First, I will explore the rationale for humandignity.
When discussing the Buddhist view of human dignity, the Mahayana
Buddhist concept that all living beings alike possess the Buddha nature
is often cited. However, when Buddha nature is viewed as something
substantive, all phenomena are absolutely affirmed as positive, and thesignificance of the Law as a principle of negation is diminished. Therefore, some regard the concept of Buddha nature as a non-Buddhist
teaching. However, if we go beyond the Law as a principle of negation
and recognize its life-affirming aspect, we can see this positive aspect
itself as the source that gives rise to all life. Carrying the logic one stepfurther, the altruistic behavior of human beings as well as symbiosis innature—for example, the relationship between the nourishing earth anda plant—are an expression of the life-affirming Law, resulting in an
implication that all life possesses supreme dignity.
With that established, the next question to pose would be whether or
not human beings possess a kind of dignity that sets them apart fromother living things. Although a question of degrees remains, bothhumans and other living beings express the life-affirming Law; consequently, there is no essential difference in their dignity. However, unlike
other living things, which only manifest the Law instinctively in nature,human beings are endowed with the unique ability to manifest the Law
actively through their own subjectivity. It is this unique ability thatserves as a basis for establishing the dignity of human beings. Buddhism
defines the human body as a “vessel of the Law,” an insight that no
doubt recognizes the unique dignity of human beings based on theirpotential to give active expression to the Law.
Also, if, as in Soka philosophy, the life-affirming Law is regarded as
the life of the cosmos itself, then by definition the Law also possesses
subjectivity. Using this principle, the subjectivity of human beings, who
give expression to the Law, may be defined as a manifestation of themore fundamental subjectivity of the life of the cosmos. All life is anexpression of the cosmic life, but only human beings have the potential
to become its subjective agents. Ikeda proposes an ideal for the humanbeing, in which each individual manifests the subjectivity of the life of
the cosmos in their own life and cares for and protects all other life,
thereby establishing the subjectivity of the cosmic life. He calls this the“cosmic human being” and the “greater self.” The true dignity of humanbeings derives not from the fact that each individual’s life is a naturalexpression of the cosmic life, but from the fact that human life can pos-J ̲Orient̲05 06.2.1 4:54 PM

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sess cosmic subjectivity. Ikeda states: “Compassionate action—nurturing and leading all forms of life toward happiness and creative evolution—is the mission with which we have been entrusted by the cosmos.
It is by becoming aware of and working to fulfill this mission that we
can enjoy the experience of genuine meaning.”10 In this way, Ikeda
explains Soka philosophy in simple terms, stating that the rationale forthe dignity of human beings lies in their practice of compassion as an
expression of cosmic subjectivity. Based on this view of human dignity,
he posits the concept of “cosmic humanism,” the philosophical foundation of which is the Buddhist doctrine of ichinen sanzen (three thousand
realms in a single moment of life) set forth by T’ien-t’ai.
As is generally known, modern Western humanism views reason as
the basis for human dignity. For example, Kant distinguishes between
persons and things, the latter including plants and animals. In Kantian
thought, a person is a rational being and has absolute value as an end in
itself. A thing, on the other hand, is a non-rational being, so it only has
relative value as a means to an end. Kantian humanism does not recognize the rights and intrinsic value of plants and animals, which are today
central issues in the field of environmental ethics. In contrast, Mahayana
Buddhism, which teaches that even plants and animals possess the Buddha nature, regards both human beings and non-human beings as having
equal religious dignity. However, recognizing the absolute equality ofthe dignity of all life based on the concept of the equality of Buddha
nature could possibly lead to a rejection of anthropocentric ethics and anundermining of human dignity. The biocentricism found in such modern
environmental thought as deep ecology faces the same problem; it treatsas an exception the social reality that human beings take precedence
over other living beings in terms of the right to survive. This position
seems to contain an unresolvable antinomy. Another stream of environmental thought known as process theology, meanwhile, espouses a hierarchy of intrinsic value with human beings at the top, and attempts todevelop a theory of anthropocentricism that respects nature. However,process theology is also problematic, because it justifies things of low
intrinsic value being sacrificed for the survival of those higher on the
intrinsic value scale. This cold, pragmatic approach threatens to undermine the spirit to protect nature.
The concept of the equality of Buddha nature and the realm ofmodern environmental ethics and thought are riddled with ethical contradictions, but the cosmic humanism of Soka philosophy may offer asolution. According to this concept, all life shares a basic equality interms of dignity, but in light of humanity’s unique capacity to manifest

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cosmic subjectivity, their right to exist should be given priority. In
return, human beings have an obligation to demonstrate cosmic subjectivity, have compassion for all living things, and act as creative managers of the ecosystem and builders of symbiosis. That is to say, humans
should base themselves on a spirit of respect for all life deriving from
active compassion. For example, one expression of this way of thinking
may be that, as Ikeda notes with regard to the slaughter of animals forfood to sustain our lives: “We human beings must always be aware of
the dignity and value of life and be deeply grateful for the lives we takefor the sake of our own sustenance.”11 He also adds that since our lives
are sustained by such sacrifice, we should endeavor to lead them in themost valuable way. Cosmic humanism does not blindly discredit theories of modern civilization such as the anthropocentric approach; it
attempts to infuse those theories with a characteristic of benevolence
and with a respect for all things on this planet.
In this connection, the original Buddhist approach of seeking the Law
has much in common with the modern way of rational thinking. The
teachings expounded in early Buddhism contain truths that are key tohuman salvation. Attempts like those of Ikeda to actively incorporate
modern rationalism into a spiritual framework of human salvation do soin the best spirit of Buddhism. In The Wisdom of the Lotus Sutra, Ikeda
comments on the convergence of Mahayana Buddhist insights and theworldview of modern physics painted by the interrelationship between
different kinds of matter, and stresses the need to “direct this tendency
toward a recognition of the infinite worth and nobility of theindividual.”12
To summarize, Buddhism of the kind that posits cosmic subjectivity
as the rationale for human dignity is seeking to build on from modern
Western humanism with a Buddhist perspective by combining modern
reason with Buddhist compassion.
2.2 The self-discipline of compassion and active morality—the ethicsof the subjective human being
Next, I would like to turn to the question of whether the basic nature of
the human being is essentially good or evil. From the position of a belief
in the life-affirming Law, compassionate action that nurtures or fosters
life is naturally deemed as good, and the opposite as evil. Also, since all
phenomena are an expression of this compassionate Law, human beings
are regarded as being fundamentally good. However, when surveying
human dignity from the perspective of cosmic subjectivity, it becomesapparent that a sphere in which good and evil struggle for dominance isJ ̲Orient̲05 06.2.1 4:54 PM

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a necessary backdrop for human beings to take subjective action to put
into practice the benevolent Law of compassion.
The Buddhist principle of dependent origination is a concept of interconnectivity that negates all dichotomies. Therefore, the Law’s definition as good indicates absolute good, not good as opposed to evil. But if
the Law of absolute good only passively enveloped all life, human existence would be enfolded in absolute good, and there would consequently be no need for human beings to actively manifest the Law. The factthat human beings have the potential to actively manifest this Law,
therefore, means that human existence is a realm where good and evil dobattle, and it is only through taking on this struggle that they can give
active expression to the Law.
In addition, Soka philosophy, based on its concept of the identity of
the Law and the life of the cosmos, holds that the Law itself possesses
an active dynamism functioning continuously to destroy evil and manifest good. Ikeda describes the Mahayana idea of non-substantiality as aceaselessly pulsating dynamism, which he terms “creative life.”13 By
viewing the Law as the dynamic rhythm of the subjectivity of cosmic
life, the directly affirmative view that all phenomena are agents of the
Law is negated. This is because the Law as “creative life” represents
dynamic—not static—absolute good that functions ceaselessly todestroy evil and manifest good. All phenomena that act as the agents ofthis Law must accordingly be the battleground for good and evil. One of
the reasons that the Tendai concept of original enlightenment (hongaku)
has come to directly affirm actual evil may be its tendency to view the
Law contemplatively as a static absolute good, ignoring the active
dynamism that the Law possesses.
In any case, it is because human beings have both the capacity forgood and evil that we are able to become active agents of the Law, and if
asked whether our nature is basically good or basically evil, Buddhism,
which places importance on subjectivity, would no doubt reply that weare indeed both. Here, the ethics of subjective human beings neither
employs strict external rules as would be deemed necessary in the theory of inherent human evil, nor does it succumb to a permissive optimismthat would tend to arise in the theory of inherent good. It features a selfdisciplined approach of suppressing evil and realizing good within ourown lives. Impressing upon his followers the importance of selfrestraint, Shakyamuni stated, “Only within himself would he be atpeace. A bhikkhu would not seek peace from another,” and “Dispel
greed for sensual pleasures.”14 He suggests that the master of the self
should be the self, and that the entity which restricts one’s desires

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should be none other than one’s self. The self mentioned here transcends
the Enlightenment ideal of rational self to comprise a self that has realized cosmic subjectivity within itself and is filled with benevolence.
Ikeda calls this the “greater self.” The concept of rational self-discipline
dating back to Plato may be said to include a component of humanity’s
ability to connect with the cosmic subjectivity, but history has shown usthat an overreliance on reason leads to such phenomena as elitism, Eurocentrism, and environmentally destructive anthropocentrism. To cure theills caused by the rational self, we need a concept of the self that is not
restricted by distinctions between self and other and that takes a more
holistic approach. Here, the benevolent self-discipline of Buddhism
comes into play. This form of self-discipline will not be disengaged
from ordinary people, and will be accessible at the most grassroots level,
unlike rational self-discipline. Chinese scholar Cai Delin concludes that
Ikeda’s Buddhist humanism “makes humankind the protagonist.”15
In this way, self-discipline is one cornerstone of the ethics of subjective human beings in Buddhism, but another ethical cornerstone fromthe perspective of human beings establishing cosmic subjectivity is theconcept of “active morality.” Human beings, embodying the subjectivityof the living Law that combats evil and manifests good, must cease to bepassive spectators of evil and become active practitioners of good. Both
Soka Gakkai founding president Tsunesaburo Makiguchi’s statement,“To not do good is the same as doing evil,” and the teaching of the bodhisattva spirit in Mahayana Buddhism offer a model of an active morality that human beings rooted in cosmic subjectivity ought to strive for. In
The Wisdom of the Lotus Sutra, Ikeda defines a good person as “someone who struggles against evil.”16 A thoroughgoing ethics of subjective
human beings does not objectify good but views the dynamic process offighting evil itself as good.
2.3 Interdependence and the oneness of good and evil—the formationof human beings who live in symbiosis
In this final section, I would like to discuss the Buddhist view of thehuman being as it relates to dependent origination. At present, there are
two opposing camps with regard to the assessment of this concept. One
is a positive evaluation recognizing that dependent origination, a teaching of the interdependence of all phenomena, provides a basis for symbiotic relationships between human beings and with nature, which is notfound in modern Western individualism. The other is a negative evaluation pointing out specifically that in modern Japanese history this concept has been employed as a theoretical underpinning for totalitarianism

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and to suppress the rights of the individual. This divergence of opinion
makes us question whether or not Buddhism in fact places importanceon human subjectivity. That is, the view that subjective individuals comeinto existence through interdependent relationships gives rise to the ideaof symbiosis between disparate beings and things. In contrast, if dependent origination is viewed as a relationship of interdependence thatnegates individual subjectivity, it becomes a concept that gives rise tototalitarianism.
From the perspective that subjective compassionate action is the goalof a Buddhist, the concept of dependent origination could offer a philosophical foundation for the creation of a truly symbiotic society inwhich the respective subjectivity of individuals interpermeates. Generally speaking, Christian love, which originates from God, is first received
by the individual believer, then directed vertically toward others in a
top-down fashion. In this framework, the individual receives part ofGod’s subjectivity, but those who are the object of the individual’s salvation efforts tend to be extremely passive and may even feel resentful ofthe charity being directed toward them. In contrast, in Buddhism, which
is based on an impersonal Law, the individual’s own subjective compassion is conveyed to others horizontally in a spirit of equality. In the
Sutta-nipata, Shakyamuni says, “‘As I (am), so (are) these; as (are)these, so (am) I.’ Comparing himself (with others), he should not kill or
cause to kill.”17 This can be interpreted to mean that the concept of
dependent origination, stressing the empathy arising from compassionthat is horizontal and subjective, fosters symbiotic individuals who
respect one another’s subjectivity.
Again, from the perspective of forming symbiotic human beings, I
would like to touch on how Buddhism that emphasizes human subjectivity both actively opposes those who commit evil, while at the same time
striving for their ultimate salvation. As discussed earlier, the Law ofcompassion constitutes dynamic absolute good that continually functions to destroy evil and realize good. The good that appears after
defeating evil is an absolute good engendered in a realm of relativity.
The triumph of good in Buddhism is the emergence of absolute good,which is the oneness of good and evil. Thus, when those who commit
evil are defeated, they can be enveloped by the realm of absolute goodand led to salvation. In The Wisdom of the Lotus Sutra, Ikeda explains,“Only when evil is thoroughly challenged and conquered does it become
an entity of the oneness of good and evil.”18
Monotheistic religions such as Judaism, Christianity, and Islam
sharply divide good and evil into two distinct entities. While these reli-

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gions are uncompromising in their ideals, they cling to a dualistic viewof good and evil, which can encourage attitudes of violence and intolerance toward those they regard as enemies. Christian and Islamic fundamentalism are cases in point. Dualistic concepts of good and evil inmonotheistic religions have been known to be obstacles to the peacefulcoexistence of communities whose inhabitants hold a variety of religious beliefs. Does this mean that pantheistic religions such as Buddhism, Shinto, and Hinduism fare better in fostering symbiosis between
people of differing religions? Unfortunately, history tell us the answer is
no. The armed priests of feudal Japan or, more recently, the Sinhala
Urumaya of Sri Lanka are but two examples of numerous militaristic
and extremist Buddhist movements in history. Also in the modern era,
Shinto, through its practice of ancestor worship, helped strengthen thecause of imperial nationalism in Japan. In addition, Hindu nationalism,
which has steadily gained in momentum in India from the 1980s, seeks
to oust Christianity and Islam from Indian society. While pantheistic
religions are essentially incompatible with a dualistic view of good andevil, they are easily influenced by the values of secular society. Pantheistic religions sometimes copy the tenets of monotheistic religions andcreate their own intolerant dogma. In the end, both the intolerance ofmonotheism and the compromising tolerance of pantheism prevent thecreation of a society for peaceful coexistence, pointing to the need for a
new religious framework that overcomes these limitations. Soka philosophy seeks to realize a philosophical principle of absolute tolerance
based on the view of oneness of good and evil, and further seeks to do
so with the non-compromising spirit of the dualistic view of good andevil. As exemplified by Bodhisattva Never Disparaging in the Lotus
Sutra and Nichiren in Japan, Buddhism, which places importance onhuman subjectivity, can foster symbiotic human beings of unwaveringcommitment to their beliefs, and the Soka Gakkai is in the process ofproving the great potential that human-centered Buddhism has to contribute to humankind.
CONCLUSION
The Law in early Buddhism encompasses the dual aspects of a principleof negation and a principle of affirmation and respect for life. This gives
rise to two positions or standpoints in Buddhist practice—that of seeking the Law as a principle of negation and that of emphasizing the
pursuit of altruistic action based compassion. Since the former tends topromote renunciation of the world, the Buddhist view of the humanJ ̲Orient̲05 06.2.1 4:54 PM

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being from a social thought perspective can only be explained from thelatter stance. When we view Shakyamuni’s Buddhism centering primarilyon his teachings of compassion, his attempts to reform society by meansof a human-centered religion becomes apparent. Furthermore, Shakyamuni placed utmost trust in his fellow human beings, with their potential
for actively putting the Law of compassion into practice, and devoted his
entire life to encouraging people throughout India to engage themselvesin a similar fashion through self-discipline and respect for life. The idealof the human being as an active agent of compassion can be found in theearly Buddhist view of humanity seen from a social thought perspective.
According to Soka philosophy, the Buddhist Law is the life of thecosmos that, with its dynamic subjectivity, enfolds all living and nonliving things in compassion. It maintains that human dignity derives
from human beings’ unique ability to become an active subjective partof the compassionate life of the cosmos. This Buddhist philosophy,
which espouses a cosmic humanism, is a natural extension of the respect
for life and the ethics of subjective human beings found in early Buddhism.
Why is it that the Soka Gakkai is able to succeed early Buddhism? In
the Lotus Sutra, the Law is transmitted and entrusted from mentor to
disciple for the salvation of living beings after the Buddha’s passing.
Cherishing this Buddhist tradition of mentor and disciple, Nichiren
made a vow to save all humankind as an emissary of Shakyamuni Buddha and the Lotus Sutra. As outlined earlier, the Law, which is transmitted and embraced through the mentor-disciple relationship, is revered as
the fundamental teacher. Within the framework of this relationship,
believers can recognize the compassionate power of the Law and devote
themselves with passion as emissaries of the Law, thereby attaining
practical subjectivity. Soka philosophy is grounded in the Buddhism of
Nichiren, who championed the teaching of the Lotus Sutra and discovered therein the significance of the mentor-disciple relationship. Inheriting the tradition and spirit of Nichiren, the Soka Gakkai has come toembrace faith that is based on revering the Law as the teacher through acommitment to the mentor-disciple relationship, like that found in early
Buddhism.
Notes
1
Bryan Wilson and Daisaku Ikeda, Human Values in a Changing World: A Dialogue
on the Social Role of Religion (Secaucus, NJ: Lyle Stuart Inc., 1987), p. 71.
2
Nichiren, “The Three Kinds of Treasure,” The Writings of Nichiren Daishonin,trans. and ed. by Gosho Translation Committee (Tokyo: Soka Gakkai, 1999), pp.
851–52.

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3Arnold Toynbee and Daisaku Ikeda, Choose Life: A Dialogue, ed. Richard Gage
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), p. 346.
4
Daisaku Ikeda, The Living Buddha: An Interpretive Biography, trans. Burton Watson (New York: Weatherhill, 1976), p. 62.
5
Nichiren, “Ichidai shokyo taii” (The Substance of the Buddha’s Lifetime Teachings), Nichiren Daishonin gosho zenshu (The Collected Writings of Nichiren Daishonin), ed. Nichiko Hori (Tokyo: Soka Gakkai, 1952), p. 403. (Translated from theJapanese)
6
In “Letter to the Brothers,” Nichiren states, “The Lotus Sutra is the eye of all the
Buddhas. It is the original teacher of Shakyamuni Buddha himself, the lord of teachings” (The Writings of Nichiren Daishonin, p. 494), indicating that although it was
Shakyamuni who preached the Lotus Sutra, the sutra was also the source of enlightenment from the distant past, even before the appearance of Shakyamuni. This view was
not held solely by Nichiren, as evidenced in the “Introduction” chapter of the Lotus
Sutra, where it states: “At this time the Buddha Sun Moon Bright arose from his samadhi and, because of the bodhisattva Wonderfully Bright, preached the Great Vehicle sutra
called the Lotus of the Wonderful Law [the Lotus Sutra], a Law to instruct the bodhisattvas, one that is guarded and kept in mind by the Buddhas” (The Lotus Sutra, trans.
Burton Watson, p. 16). This implies that the Lotus Sutra is timeless and transcendent,
propagated throughout the universe across past, present, and future.
7
Nichiren, “On Rebuking the Slander of the Law and Eradicating Sin,” The Writingsof Nichiren Daishonin, p. 444.
8
Nichiren, “The Two Kinds of Illness,” The Writings of Nichiren Daishonin, p. 920.
9
Daisaku Ikeda, “Mahayana Buddhism and Twenty-first-Century Civilization”(Address at Harvard University, Cambridge, Sept. 24, 1993), A New Humanism: The
University Addresses of Daisaku Ikeda (Tokyo: Weatherhill, 1996), pp. 157–59.
10
Daisaku Ikeda, “Homage to the Sagarmatha of Humanism: The Living Lessons of
Gautama Buddha” (Address at Tribhuvan University, Nepal, on Nov. 2, 1995), Monthly
SGI Newsletter (No. 152, November 1995 Issue), pp. 16–17.
11
Wilson and Ikeda, Human Values in a Changing World, p. 74
12
Daisaku Ikeda, et al., The Wisdom of the Lotus Sutra: A Discussion (Santa Monica,
CA: World Tribune Press, 2000), vol. 1, p. 208.
13
Daisaku Ikeda, “Creative Life” (Address at Institut de France, Paris, June 14, 1989),
A New Humanism, p. 8.
14
K. R. Norman, tr., The Group of Discourses (Sutta-nipata) (Oxford: The Pali Text
Society, 1995), vol. 2, pp. 105, 124.
15
Cai Delin, Toyo no chie no hikari: Ikeda Daisaku kenkyu (The Light of Eastern
Wisdom: Collection of Research on Daisaku Ikeda) (Tokyo: Otorisyoin, 2003), p. 182.
(Translated from the Japanese)
16
Ikeda, et al., The Wisdom of the Lotus Sutra, vol. 3, p. 76.
17
Norman, tr., The Group of Discourses (Sutta-nipata), vol. 2, p. 80.
18
Ikeda, et al., The Wisdom of the Lotus Sutra, vol. 3, p. 83.