Report

Training Course on the Preservation and Restoration ofCultural Heritage in the Asia-Pacific Region

Preservation and Restoration of Wooden Structures
25 September – 24 October, 2003

Nara, Japan

Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia / Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU)
National Research Institute for Cultural Properties
International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and
Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM)

ReportTraining Course on the Preservation and Restoration ofCultural Heritage in the Asia-Pacific Region

Preservation and Restoration of Wooden Structures
25 September – 24 October, 2003

Nara, Japan

Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia / Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU)
National Research Institute for Cultural Properties
International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and
Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM)

Edited and Published by
Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia / Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU)
Nara Prefectural Government “Horen” Office Ground Floor
757 Horen-cho, Nara 630-8113 Japan
Phone: +81-742-20-5001
F A X: +81-742-20-5701
E-mail: nara@accu.or.jp
U R L: http://www.nara.accu.or.jp
Printed by Meishin Printing IncⒸ Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia / Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU) 2004

Preface
In contribution to cultural heritage protection activities in the Asia-Pacific region, the Cultural
Heritage Protection Cooperation Office, Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU) wasestablished in Nara in 1999, supported by the Agency for Cultural Affairs, the Nara Prefecture and the
Nara City.
Since its establishment, the ACCU Nara Office has carried out numerous projects in relation to
cultural heritage protection, such as providing training for experts, holding international conferences
and public lectures, collecting information relating to cultural heritage and building a database.
These activities aimed to develop human resources and to provide technical support in the Asia-Pacificregion.
The fourth Training Course on the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Heritage in the
Asia-Pacific Region was held from 25th September to 24th October, 2003. It was held incooperation with ICCROM (International Centre for Study of Preservation and Restoration of Cultural
Property) and the National Research Institute for Cultural Properties. Fourteen participants fromcountries in the region were invited to Japan to attend this year’s training course. Professionals whoare engaged in the conservation and restoration of various kinds of wooden structures in the
Asia/Pacific region were invited with the aim of developing human resources in this field.
The training course on ‘the conservation and restoration of wooden structures’ was also
conducted last year. This year’s program was repeated under the same theme in order to provide an
opportunity to those who missed out on last year’s course.
In Nara, the Horyu-ji Temple area and the Nara city area had been inscribed as world heritage
sites, therefore the restoration, conservation, and reuse of ancient structures can be observed during thetraining course. Apart from providing training on conservation, the course enabled the participants to
exchange ideas with professionals in the same field and to establish a professional network in theregion.
On behalf of the ACCU Nara Office, I wish to express my deepest gratitude to the manyorganizations and institutions that provided their support and expertise during this programme. These
include the Nara Prefectural Government, the Nara City Government, the Japanese Association for theConservation of Architectural Monuments, and the Nara Women’s University.

Yoshiyuki USHIKAWA
Director
Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia-Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU), NaraContents
PrefaceI

IIIntroduction
1.

General Information3

2.

Programme Schedule

7

Proceedings
1.

Opening Ceremony

112.

Summary of Lectures

13

3.

Workshops at Toshodaiji Temple

19

4.

On-site Lectures

21

III

Participants’ Country Reports

IV

Lecturers’ Papers
1.

The Tradition of Wooden Architecture in Japan

27

141

Mr. Satoshi YAMATO
2.

Cultural Heritage Preservation and Restoration

156

Dr. Shin’ichi SHIMIZU
3.

Preservation of Waterlogged Wooden Relics

163

Mr. Yohsei KOHDZUMA

V

Participants’ Final Reports

VI

Appendix

183

1.

List of Participants

231

2.

List of Lecturers

234

3.

List of Staff Members, ACCU Nara

237

4.

List of Tutors and Interpreters

237

I

Introduction
1. General Information
2. Programme Schedule

1.

General Information

Training Course On

The Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Heritage
in the Asia-Pacific Region:- Preservation and Restoration of Wooden Structures (25 September – 24 October, 2003, Nara, Japan)
1. Organizers
Jointly organized by: The Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU); theInternational Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural
Property (ICCROM); and the National Research Institute for Cultural Properties
In cooperation with: The Japanese Association for Conservation of Architectural
Monuments (JACAM); Japan’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs; the Japanese National
Commission for UNESCO; Nara Prefectural Government and Nara Municipal
Government
Sponsored by: Japan’s Agency for Cultural Affairs
2. Background
In Japan, numerous wooden structures remain from as early as the 8th century, themajority of which have been well conserved thanks to regular restoration projects.
Such constant efforts since early times to preserve the nation’s cultural heritage havealso brought about the development of preservation/restoration philosophies and theaccumulation of knowledge and techniques. Having this background, Japan has been
widely expected to contribute to the development of human resources necessary topreserve and restore ancient wooden buildings in foreign countries by providing training
in the areas of wooden structure survey techniques and conservation/restoration
philosophy and technologies.
The idea of holding training courses in Nara, Japan’s ancient capital was proposed in a
meeting of experts held to discuss the preservation of cultural heritage in the AsiaPacific region, which took place in early March 2000 under the joint auspices of ACCU’s
Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office and the Agency for Cultural Affairs. In
response to this request, ACCU and ICCROM decided to hold training courses for thepreservation and restoration of cultural heritage in the Asia/Pacific region, in a broad
framework of UNESCO’s activities.

33. Date and Venues
Date: September 25 (Thu.) to October 24 (Fri.), 2003
Venues: ACCU’s Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office (Nara Prefectural
Government Horen Office, 757 Horen-cho, Nara City);
cooperating organizations’ facilities; sites undergoing preservation and restoration, etc.
4. Objective of the Training Course
With many of the world’s oldest existing wooden buildings, Nara Prefecture enjoys thewealth of knowledge and techniques accumulated over time concerning the preservation
and restoration of historic structures. It is also rich in experience with advanced
technological skills and has established philosophies based on such expertise andexperience.
The aim of the training course is to further improve participants’ theoretical knowledge
as well as practical skills through lectures and practical training in the areas of wooden
structure survey techniques and conservation/restoration philosophies and technologies.
In addition, the participants will be provided an opportunity to share information andexchange their views and ideas with other people working in the same field within the
Asia-Pacific region.
5. Training Curriculum
Lectures- Introduction to Architecture- Introduction to Asian Architecture- Treaties and Charters relating to Cultural Heritage- Survey Methods on Conservation of Vernacular Houses and Historic Towns- Theories of Preservation and Maintenance- Design and Supervision, Construction- Management and Utilization of Structures- Others
Practical Training and On-site Lectures- Practical Training on Old Wooden Structure Conservation Project Sites- On-site Lectures at the Facilities for Wood Conservation- Field Study on Conservation, Restoration and Utilization (4-day study tour)- Other works relating to preservation and restoration of architectural structures
Presentations and Discussion- Presentations on the present status of preservation in each country and discussion- Summary of the training course

46. Participants in the Training Course(1) The training course is offered to the following 36 signatory countries to the UNESCOWorld Heritage Convention. For application, UNESCO National Commissions or
UNESCO liaison offices need to submit documents required for those nominated no later
than 20 / July 2003: letters of recommendation written by the head of the organization towhich a nominee belongs, profile of the nominee, and report on his/her majorachievements. From among the nominees, 15 people will be selected as participants inthe training course.

Afghanistan, Australia, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, Fiji, India, Indonesia,
Iran, Kazakhstan, Kiribati, Kyrgyz, Lao P.D.R., Malaysia, Maldives, Mongolia,
Myanmar, Nepal, New Zealand, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Rep. of Korea,
Samoa, Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Tajikistan, Thailand, Turkmenistan,
Uzbekistan, Vietnam, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Palau, and Vanuatu(2) Qualification Requirements
Applicants should be:
A. experts, aged 45 years or younger, who are engaged in the preservation, restoration or
management of wooden buildings and can capitalize on what they learn from thetraining programmes in their home countries;
B. those who have a good enough command of English to understand lectures, deliverpresentations and write reports;
C. those who can attend all the training programmes;
D. those who can submit documents required (recommendation by NATCOM andreports) on time;E. those who were not participants in the training course in 2002.
7. Notification of Screening Results
After due considerations with the other organizers, ACCU will select 15 people (only one
per nation) from among applicants in around mid-August, and inform UNESCO
National Commissions in each country and successful applicants of the screening results.
8. Certificate
Each trainee will be awarded a certificate upon completion of the course.
9. Language
English will be used throughout the course.

510. Expenses
Expenses for participation in the training course shall be borne by the ACCU, only living
expenses during their stay in Japan shall be borne for participants from Australia, South
Korea and New Zealand.
(1) Traveling expenses:
Each of the participants (excepting those from Australia, South Korea and New Zealand)
shall be provided an economy-class air return ticket from the international airport
nearest to his/her residence to Kansai International Airport, and transportation fees
between Kansai International Airport and Nara.
(2) Living expenses:
Participants shall be provided the basic living expenses incurred during the training
course from September 25 (Thu.) to October 24 (Fri.), 2003. Arrangements foraccommodations will be made by the Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO.
11. Correspondence
Mr. USHIKAWA Yoshiyuki
Director
Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU)
Nara Prefectural Government Horen Office,757 Horen-cho, Nara City 630-8113
Tel: +81-742-20-5001
Fax: +81-742-20-5701
E-mail: nara@accu.or.jp

6

2.

Programme Schedule
AM 9:30-12:30
M

D
24

PM 13:40-16:40

VENUE

ArrivalInauguration and Introduction to the course

25

ACCU
Introduction to the Cultural Heritage Protection System in Japan (Dr. SAITO)
Introduction to Architecture (Dr. SAITO)

26

ACCU

Introductory Lectures

SeptemberConservation of Timber Buildings (Mr. YAMATO)
27
28
Conservation of Wooden Architectural Heritage in the Asia-Pacific region(Dr. WIJESURIYA)
29

Design for the Reconstruction of Ancient Buildings in Nara Palace Site (Mr. SHIMIZU
Shigeatsu)

NRICPN

Theory and Practice of Conservation (Mr. MYKLEBUST)30

ACCU
Discussion

1
2
3

On-site Lecture: Horyu-ji Temple, Yakushi-ji Temple and Nara Prefectural Folklore Museum(Prof. UENO)
Participants' Presentation and Discussions: Case Studies on Practical Wooden Architectural
Heritage Conservation in Asia and the Pacific (Dr. INABA)

ACCU
ACCU

4
5
System and Project Planning for Restoration of Important Cultural Properties (Mr. KIMURA)
6

ACCU
Overall Process of Conservation in Japan (Mr. KIMURA)
On-site Lecture (preparation for practical training)

7

OctoberWorkshopWorkshop8

Toshodai-ji
TempleWorkshop9
Workshop
10
Discussion on Practical Training
11
12
13

National Holiday
An Introduction to the Conservation Science of Archaeological Relics (Mr. KOHDZUMA)

14

Lectures1516
17

Architectural Development of the Japanese House and Wood Species Used for Construction(Prof. ITOH)
On-site Lecture: Hida-Takayama, Gifu Pref. (Mr. SHIMIZU Shigeatsu)
On-site Lecture: Shirakawa-go(World Heritage), Gifu Pref. Kanazawa, Ishikawa Pref. (Mr.
SHIMIZU Shigeatsu)
On-site Lecture: Ichijodani Site, Fukui Pref. (Mr. SHIMIZU Shigeatsu)

7

NRICPN18
19
Dendrochronology in Japan and its Application (Dr. MITSUTANI)NRICPN
Cultural Heritage Preservation and Restoration (Mr. SHIMIZU Shin’ichi)
Policy and Problems regarding the Conservation of Historic Districts in Japan (Prof. UENO)
21
On-site Lecture: Imai-cho Town, Kashihara (Prof. UENO)

October

Further lectures

20

22

Protection of Traditional Techniques and Materials for Sustainable Conservation (Mr.
MURATA)

ACCU

On-site Lecture: Roof-tile Factory23

Day for writing the Final Report

ACCU

Conclusion and Evaluation of the Course
24

ACCU
Closing25

Departure

NRICPN : National Research Institute of Cultural Property, Nara

8

II
Proceedings
1. Opening Ceremony
2. Summary of Lectures
3. Workshops at Toshodaiji Temple
4. On-site Lectures

1.

Opening Ceremony

The Opening Ceremony of the Training Course was held on
25th September 2003 at the Kasugano-so, Nara city, Japan
with the attendance of fourteen participants and honorable
guests from Japan’s Agency for Cultural Affairs, theNational Research Institute for Cultural Properties, theJapanese Association for Conservation of Architectural
Monuments (JACAM), Nara Prefectural Government andMr. USHIKAWA, ACCU Nara

Nara Municipal Government.
Mr. USHIKAWA Yoshiyuki, Director of the ACCU Nara
Office gave a heartfelt welcome address to the participants,
introducing the roll of the office, as well as the history andbackground of the Training Course. Mr. USHIKAWA
concluded his speech wishing all participants a fruitful stayin Japan.
Mr. TANABE Ikuo, Head of the Centre for Archaeological
Operations,

National

Research

Institutefor

Mr. TANABE, National ResearchInstitute for Cultural Properties,
Nara

Cultural

Properties, Nara welcomed all participants and wished thatthey will bring back many good experiences from thisprogramme.
Ms. OHNUKI Misako, Director of Culture Division of
ACCU, introduced the history of ACCU. She wished that all
participants would take advantage of this training course in
Nara and learn effective ideas and strategies not only from

Ms. OHNUKI, ACCU

the lectures but from the people living in Nara.
Mr. SUZUKI Norio, Councilor on Cultural Protection of theJapan’s Agency for Cultural Affairs insisted the importanceof cultural heritage and how international cooperation on theprotection of cultural heritage will contribute towards thecultural development. He anticipated that the participants
would spend a memorable month in Nara being surroundedby many historical sites and buildings.

11

Mr. SUZUKI, Japan’s Agency for
Cultural Affairs

Mr. MINAMIDA Akinori, Deputy Mayor of Nara Municipal
Government and Mr. KATSUYAMA Kiyoshi, also gave awelcome addresses.
Following the speeches, honorable guest, Mr. MURAKAMI
Jin’ichi, Executive Director of JACAM and Ms. SANO
Takiko, from the Japan’s Agency for Cultural Affairs wereintroduced to the participants.
Mr. Minamida giving a welcome
address.

Eachparticipantwasindividually

introduced

andacommemorative photo was taken. The group then visited Nara
Prefectural Government Hall and made a courtesy call on Mr.
MASUI Isao, Deputy Governor of Nara Prefecture. Mr.
MASUI welcomed them with a heartfelt greeting.
From the top level of the building, the participants gained apanoramic view of the city of Nara, where they would stay inthe following four weeks.
Mr. Katsuyama

Mr. Masui welcoming the participants122. SUMMARY OF LECTURES
A series of lectures were delivered by various experts during this Training Course. The following
is a complete listing of the lectures with a brief description of their contents.
Introduction to the Cultural Heritage Protection System in Japan (25 Sept. 2003)
Dr. Hidetoshi SAITO, National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Tokyo.
“History of the Protection and the Concept of Cultural Properties in Japan”- Historic overview of the development of conservation laws in Japan in relation changes in its
political and economic context.
- An introduction to aspects of the law, including the various classifications of culturalproperties and the concept of ‘tangible’ and ‘intangible’ cultural properties.
Introduction to Architecture (26 Sept. 2003)
Dr. Hidetoshi SAITO“Preservation of Historic Districts in Japan”- Definition of ‘Groups of Historic Buildings’ –one of the categories of cultural properties.
- Explanation of the designation process,including the roles of the local and national
governments.
- An overview of the regulatory controls that
apply to designated districts, illustrated byexamples.
“Katsura Rikyu – its Buildings and Gardens”- Description of the history and design of the
Katsura Rikyu, Kyoto. This villa was regarded
as the ‘finest example’ of Japanese imperial
architecture and garden design.

Dr. SAITO giving the first lecture of the training
courseConservation of Timber Buildings (26 Sept.
2003)
Mr. Satoshi YAMATO, Agency for Cultural
Affairs.
“The Tradition of Wooden Architecture in Japan:
Mr. Yamato introducing the Japanese system
Outline”of protecting architectural cultural properties- The historic development of traditionalarchitectural forms in Japan.
- Description of the characteristics and typology of Japanese wooden architecture, including
traditional carpentry techniques.

13-An overview of the regulatory bodies and experts involved in the conservation ofarchitectural monuments, including the specialized role of conservation architects in Japan.
A theoretical outline of common restoration procedures.

“Protection of Cultural Property Buildings”- An overview of the trends in the types of buildings that were designated during different
stages in the development of conservation laws in Japan.
- The distinction between ‘designated’ and ‘registered’ cultural properties, and the different
levels of regulatory control and government subsidies that apply.
- Financial support from the government: subsidy and tax exemption schemes.
- Training for Conservation Architects.
Theory and Practice of Conservation (29 Sept. 2003)
Dr. Dag MYKLEBUST, Directorate for Cultural Heritage, Norway.
“Concepts and Philosophy of Conservation”* This presentation had been based on discussions on the following topics:- Personal and political agenda underlaying conservation activities.
- Definition of the concept of ‘history’ and ‘monument’.
- The concept of conservation activities as ‘story-telling’, which sometimes conflicts with thevalue of ‘authenticity’.
- The concept of ‘sustainable development’.
- The ‘Value Analysis Chart’ – elucidating the purposes and methods of conservation. Casestudy: Nara palace site.
- Pragmatic and ethical issues related toconservation, illustrated in European
examples and the restoration of the Stave
Church in Norway.

-

Design for the Reconstruction of Ancient
Buildings at the Nara Palace Site (29 Sept.
2003)
Mr. Shigeatsu SHIMIZU, National ResearchInstitute for Cultural Properties, Nara.
- Controversies concerning the merits of
Mr. Myklebustreconstruction work.
- The processes involved in a reconstruction
project: investigation, research, design, construction.
Difficulties in extrapolating missing information from existing physical remains on site.
Various types of resources used in researching for reconstruction designs and their limitations.

14-This lecture was followed by a site visit to the reconstruction site of the Daigokuden (mainhall of the Heijo palace), where earthquake-proof techniques were observed.

After Mr. SHIMIZU’s lecture, participants toured the reconstruction site of the Daigokuden, Heijo Palace
Site (World Heritage), and observed the new technologies applied on the reconstruction.

Conservation of Wooden Architectural Heritage in the Asia-Pacific Region (30 Sept. 2003)
Dr. Gamini WIJESURIYA, ICOMOS –Department of Conservation, New Zealand.
- Methodology of conservation: examples ofconservation projects in Sri Lanka.
- Issues and values pertaining to conservation
practice: local vs. global principles, politicalmotives vs. conservation values. Shifts invalues throughout history.
- Consideration of the intangible values that aretransmitted by and preserved with monuments.
Dr. WijesuriyaCountry Report Presentations (2 – 3 Oct. 2003)
Facilitator:
Dr. Nobuko INABA, National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Tokyo.
Guests:Mr. Dag MYKLEBUST, Directorate for Cultural Heritage, Norway.
Dr. Gamini WIJESURIYA, ICOMOS – Department of Conservation, New Zealand.

15

-Country Report Presentation

Participants explaining about the legal
structure for conservation work in theircountries

Each participant delivered a 45 minutes
presentation
about the cultural heritage
in their country, and aspects of conservation
work in their country. The presentations
generated discussions on the merits ofconservation activities in different countries, aswell as comparisons of the different approaches.

System and Project Planning for the Restorationof Important Cultural Properties (6 Oct. 2003)
Mr. Tsutomu KIMURA, The Japanese Association
for Conservation of Architectural Monuments,
Tokyo.
- Description of the various classifications for
culturalproperties in Japan.
- Distinction between the registration anddesignation system, and between locally andnationally designated cultural properties.
Flowcharts illustrated the extent of regulatory
controls that apply to cultural properties withindifferent classifications.
- Case Study: Assembly Hall of the Yamagata
Prefecture.
This elucidated the typical
procedures of a restoration project in Japan, as
well as an exemplifying the adaptive reuse of ahistoric building.
Terrestrial Laser Scanning Equipments (6 Oct.
2003)
- An introduction to some of the most advanced
surveyingtechnologies
used
in
the
investigative stage of the restoration project at
Toshodaiji Temple.

An Introduction to the Conservation Science ofArchaeological Relics (14 Oct. 2003)
Mr. Yohsei KOHDZUMA, National Research
Mr. Kohdzuma guiding a tour of theconservation science laboratory.
Institute for Cultural Properties, Nara.
- An introduction to the various scientificmethods and instruments used in the analysis
and preservation of historic relics, with particular focus on the treatment of timber artifacts

16and possible applications of such technologies in thepreservation of timber architectural components.
This lecture was followed by a tour of theconservation science laboratory at the Nara National
Research Institute for Cultural Properties.
Architectural Development of the Japanese House
and Wood Species used for Construction (14 Oct.
2003)
Prof. Takao ITOH, Wood Research Institute, Kyoto
University.
- A historical overview of the evolution of timber
structures in Japan.
- An introduction to the species of timber that werecommonly used during different periods in Japan’s
history.
- Determining the age and origins of cultural artifacts
by identifying the species of timber they were madeof.
Dendrochronology in Japan and its application (20Oct. 2003)
Dr. Takumi MITSUTANI, Nara Research Institute forCultural Properties.
- An
introduction
tothetechniqueofDendrochronology, i.e. ‘Tree ring dating’.
- An overview of the procedures involved: datacollection and calibration, sample analysis anddating process.
- Applications of dendrochronology in determining
the age of archaeological and architectural relics.

Prof. ItohDr. Mitsutani, giving a lecture on new
dating methods.

Cultural Heritage Preservation and Restoration (20Oct. 2003)
Mr. Shin’ichi SHIMIZU, Nara Research Institute forCultural Properties.
Mr. Shimizu

17

-

-

Highlighted various areas to address in carrying out the conservation of historic buildings,
including the installation of fire prevention systems, precautions against natural disasters,
ongoing repair and maintenance.
Emphasized the importance of public awareness and the delegation of responsibility toproperty owners.
Protection of Traditional Techniques andMaterials for Sustainable Conservation(22 Oct. 2003)
Mr. Ken’ichi MURATA, Agency for Cultural
Affairs, Tokyo.
- Recapitulation of the legal framework andpractice of conservation activities in Japan,
with examples illustrating the range andcurrent conditions of designated buildings.
Mr. Murata

Excerpts from the presentation of Mr. Murata

18

3. Workshops at Toshodaiji Temple
7th – 10th October, 2003
A series of practical workshops were held at the Toshodaiji Temple restoration site. Chiefconservation architect Mr. Tetsuji UEDA delivered an on-site lecture outlining the history andprogress of the restoration project. This project exemplifies the unique Japanese method of ‘kaitai
shuri’ – restoration with complete dismantlement, which is generally carried out every 300 to 400
years in the repair of traditional wooden structures.
Due to the presence of significant structural deformation at the Toshodaiji Temple, major
restoration work was initiated in 1998. This project is scheduled to be completed in 2009. Mr. Ueda
described the meticulous process of the project, which includes the following main stages:
1. historical research
2. site investigation and structural analysis
3. restoration design and planning
4. site preparation (construction of a sheltering shed over the temple)
5. dismantlement of the temple
6. data collection and recording
7. examination and repair of structural components
8. reassembly of the temple
9. cleaning of the site (removal of sheltering shed)
At the restoration site, the participants were able to gain hands-on experience of the various
techniques used during a restoration project. The workshops focused on two areas: site analysis andthe recording of data; they are described below:

Workshop 1 – Restoration Plan Proposal
Purpose:To critically examine the present conditions of a dilapidated historic structure, and to
determine an appropriate restoration plan.

Activity:

Participants visually examined and recorded the conditions of a small shrine building(the Benten-sha), which is located on the temple grounds. In particular, they wereasked to observe evidence of previous restoration work, the age of the different partsof the structure, as well as the location, causes and extent of damages in the present
structure. After a consideration of these data, each participant proposed an outline
restoration plan.
It was interesting for the participants to compare their restoration plans and note thedifferences in opinion and approach. Many participants thought that this was avaluable exercise for them to experience the process and apply the principles ofconservation, which they have learnt during the lectures in this training course.

Comparing the restoration plans

Inspecting the Bentensha Shrine

19Sketching a model of the Main Hall

Taking site measurements

Workshop 2 – Site Drawings
Purpose:To gain an understanding of the structural principles of traditional Japanese woodenbuildings, and to produce various types of drawings as records.

Activity:

Part 1 – Since the Toshodaiji main hall has now been almost completely dismantled,
the participants studied a scaled model of the temple in order to visualize thecomplete structure. Participants prepared a sectional sketch of the model, in order tounderstand the logic of the structural assembly.
Part 2 – Participants prepared a scaled drawing of a bracket set based on
measurements and sketches of the actual temple taken at the restoration site.
Most participants have found that through careful observation and sketching, they
were able to derive a clearer understanding of the structure of traditional woodenbuildings, as well as the original design intentions.

Workshop 3 – Techniques of Recording data (The takuhon method)
Purpose:To practice the techniques of dry-rubbing and wet-rubbing, which are applied in
making records of building components.

Activity:

Part 1, Dry-rubbing – Participants covered the surface of a timber structural member
with a sheet of special tracing paper. An imprint of the timber grains on the face ofthe member was then made by rubbing it with carbon paper. This enables surface
defects to be clearly identified. The participants learned how to prepare an accurate,
scaled drawing of the irregular-shaped member from the outline of the trace.
Part 2, Wet-rubbing – An imprint of the patterns on the face of terracotta roof tiles
were made by overlaying the tile with a piece of wet tracing paper. The paper was
gently pressed and molded into the contours of the tile. It was then stamped with an
ink-soaked pad in order to obtain an imprint of the patterns on the tile.
These techniques were new to most participants, who had found them economical anduseful ways of recording information about historic building components. Many
participants commented that they intend to introduce these methods in their workback in their own countries.

Practising the wet-rubbing method

Practising the dry-rubbing method20

4. On-site Lectures
Historic Buildings in the Nara Area: A way to understand Japanese woodenarchitectural heritage (1 Oct.)
Prof. Kunikazu UENO
Open air Museum of Traditional Houses: Nara
Prefectural Museum of Folklore
Prof. UENO gave an overview of theconservation concepts and methods for
traditional houses. He guided the grouparound the museum, explaining about each of
the exhibited houses. After his site lecture,
there was time for the participants to examine
the houses by themselves and ask Prof. Ueno
questions.

On-site lecture at the Open-air Museum

Horyu-ji temple
Participants toured an exhibition of traditional carpenter tools at the information center of thetemple before touring the site.
Horyu-ji temple is the oldest wooden building in Japan and is registered as a World Heritage site.
This temple has been repaired many times throughout its history, based on the principle ofretaining as much of the original as possible and repairing only the damaged parts of thestructures. Here the participants were able to observe the outcome of such conservation
practice.
Yakushi-ji temple
A brief history of the temple was given by Prof. UENO. The participants observed thereconstructed temple buildings at this site and were able to compare them to the original, old
buildings seen at Horyu-ji Temple.

World Heritage -Preservation, Restorationand Utilization of Historic Street(Machinami) (15-17 Oct.)
Mr. Shigeatsu SHIMIZU
15 Oct. - Takayama City, Guided by Mr. Akira
TANAKA and Mr. Keisuke OZAKI
Takayama Museum of Local History
The museum itself is an example of thereutilization of an old brewery. Mr. TANAKA
gave us a short lecture on the building’s
history.

21

Mr. Tanaka explaining about the fire-fighting
system in Takayama historic town.

San-machi
San-machi was designated as a preservation district in 1979. Participants observed thelandscape, buildings and conservation activities here:
1. Nearly 25 years have passed since its selection as a preservation district. Examples of therepair, restoration and utilization of historic buildings in this area was observed andevaluated.
2. Fire prevention measures employed here was studied. The most advanced and thoroughfire prevention measures have been undertaken in this district as the streets are lined withwooden historic buildings that can catch fire easily.
Shimonino-machi and Daishin-machi Area
The National Research Institute for Cultural
Properties in Nara conducted an investigation ofthis street from 2001 to 2002, since it has been
nominated as a ‘Preservation District of Groupsof Historic Buildings’. Municipal authorities took
initiatives to get the consensus of local residents
and to develop the preservation plan.
1.

2.

Studying the design of a traditionalsake brewery in Takayama.

Learn about the process of achieving theconsensus and cooperation of local residents
in the preservation of “Machinami”
Discuss the methods of preserving“Machinami” and conducting restoration
work on site, focusing on the restoration ofareas where some buildings have beenreconstructed based on modern designs or set
back from the street to make space forplanned road construction projects.

16 Oct. - Shirakawa-mura Village
Shirakawa-mura, Ogimachi, Guided by Mr. Keita
MATSUMOTO (from the Shirakawa-Go
Gassho-style Conservation Foundation)

Observing a reconstructed gassho style housein Shirakawa-go.

Shirakawa-mura (a World Heritage site) is a
Preservation District of Groups of Historic
Buildings.
Participants visited a traditional‘gassho style’ house which is now undergoing
repair work, and another house that has beenreutilized as an inn. Participants observed theconservation status of this mountain village
settlement in various aspects:

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1.
2.

Landscape conservation
Restoration work of structures

3.

Disaster prevention facilities

4.

Vernacular house museum

5.

Examples of utilization

6.

Merits and demerits of World
Heritage inscription

16 Oct. - Kanazawa City
Higashiyama, Higashi and Oyama-Jinja(shrine) gate, Guided by Mr. SHIMIZU

Oyama-Jinja Shrine, Kanazawa city

Higashiyama is a designated Preservation District of Groups of Historic Buildings.
Participants evaluated and discussed the conservation status of “Chayamachi” – a traditional
entertainment area, and “Oyama-Jinja (shrine) gate”– an Important Cultural Property thatexemplifies a recently restored quasi-Western style structure built at the end of the 19th
century, which displays a strange merging of Japanese pre-modern carpentry techniques andwestern architectural styles.
17 Oct. - Ichijo-dani, Fukui City, Guided by Mr. Yasuhide YOSHIOKA(from the Wakasa History and Folklore Museum of Fukui Prefecture)
Ichijo-dani, the Asakura Clan historic site – Special Historic Site
Fukui Prefectural Museum of Ichijo-dani, the Asakura Clan Site
In the Ichijo-dani castle town, medieval
wooden buildings were reconstructed basedon paintings of those days and archaeologicalevidence. Mr. YOSHIOKA has been involved
with the planning of this site from the
beginning.
After his explanations on site, participants
observed the reconstructions at Ichijo-dani
and discussed the concepts and methods used
there.

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At the Museum of Ichijo-dani, watching thediorama of Ichijo-dani Valley

Policy and Problems on the Conservation of Historic Districts in Japan (21 Oct.)
Prof. Kunikazu UENO
Imai-cho Town – Preservation District
Prof. UENO gave a lecture on historic districts.
This was followed by a site tour during which theparticipants examined the actual application ofconservation theories. The sites visited include
the Imanishi-ke residence and the former
Kometani-ke residence, both of which areregistered as important cultural properties, as wellas other restored residences.
The Imanishi-ke residence

The Protection of Traditional Techniquesand Materials for Sustainable
Conservation (22 Oct.)
Mr. Akio KOBAYASHI(from the Kawara-u Roof tile Factory)

On-site lecture at the roof tile factory

Kawara-u − Roof tile factory
Kawara-u is a roof tile factory that produces
traditional roof tiles for the reconstruction andrepair of traditional buildings all over Japan.
Participants observed how terracotta roof tiles are
made, and saw the huge collection of roof tile
molds and tools, which are also registered ascultural properties by the Nara municipal
government.

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III
Participants’
Country Reports(In alphabetical order by country)

Bangladesh
Zakir Hossain CHOWDHURY
Sub-Assistant Engineer
Department of Archaeology
Government of Bangladesh
Historical Monuments of Bangladesh & the Problems of their Preservation
Introduction
Bangladesh, which was established as an independent country in 1971, is bounded on thenorth, west and east by India, in the extreme southeast by Myanmar, and on the south by the Bay of
Bengal. Except for a few low hill ranges on its northeast and eastern fringes, the entire country isalmost flat and level and is essentially deltaic in nature. In fact it is the largest delta in the world andtruly the gift of three mighty rivers such as the Brahmaputra, the Padma (Ganges) and the Meghna.
These three rivers, together with their innumerable tributaries, sweep across the vast basin in abewildering network of channels and streams. These rivers made and unmade the history of thecountry and are largely responsible for shaping the destiny of the land and its people.

Historical backgroundThe early history of Bangladesh is mostly legendary. From the 3rd century BC to the 12th
century AD, the northern and western part of the country (then known as Pundrovardhana) was ruled
successively by the great Mauryas (3rd Century BC), the Guptas (4th – 6th Century AD), the Palas (8th12th Century AD) and the Sena rulers (11th – 12th Century AD) until the latter’s rule was overtaken by
the Muslim in 1204 AD. The central part known as Vanga (BangaÆBangalaÆBangladesh) was ruledby some semi independent and less known dynasties. Lastly, from the 7th century to 11th century thesouthern and eastern part of Bangladesh was ruled independently successively by Buddhist Khadga,
Deva and Chandra rulers of the Samatata Kingdom situated on the trans-Mugha region.
Since the conquest of the north and western part of Bengal by Bakhtiar Khilji in 1204 AD a
new era was ushered in the history of Bengal. In the next two centuries, the whole of old Bengal was
gradually brought under Muslim rule. It broke away from Delhi in 1338. For more than two hundredyears from 1342 Bengal remained independent until it was subjugated by the Mughals in 1576 AD.
Since then it remained a rich province of the Mughal empire until the death of the last great Mughal
emperor Aurangajeb in 1707 AD. In 1757 Bengal was occupied by the British East India Company
and the colonial rule continued for nearly two hundred years.
During more than two thousand years of its history a large number of prosperous cities,
fortified palaces, huge Buddhist monasteries and stupas, magnificent temples, monumental gateways,
victory towers, mosques and mausoleums as well as other public buildings were built by various rulersof the country. Most of these noble monuments have perished with the passage of time and at thehands of various destructive forces of nature and man. But, those that still survive are not insignificant.

Materials used in ancient architecture
The causes of the obliteration of ancient architecture and the present problems of theirconservation can best be understood by knowing the materials used for their construction andthe climatic condition of the land. These are briefly discussed below.

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Most of the pre-Muslim buildings were built with highly perishable materials such as mud,bamboos, reed and wood. Only the more pretentious buildings were made of kiln-burnt bricks laid in
mud-mortar. However, in most of these huge buildings the doors, windows, doorjambs, doorsills,
door leafs and also the roofs were made of wood. Clay has been the main building material of the
traditional architecture of Bangladesh throughout all periods. As a result of the copious monsoon rains,which falls between June and September and vary between 70 to 100 inches in a year, buildings madeof clay or clay mortar soon crumble to the ground. The same fate befalls on architecture made of wood.
Although no wooden structure of the pre-Muslim period has survived, the discovery of a number ofwooden pillars and architectural members belonging to the Sena period amply testify that wood wereused in constructing palaces, temples and other buildings by kings, courtiers and other rich people.
With the advent of the Muslims in Bengal in 13th century AD, the use of clay as mortar was replacedby lime-surki (a mixture of lime and powdered bricks) as bonding materials. However, buildings
constructed during the Muslim period also met with the same fate due to heavy rain and the resultant
dampness.
Stone is not readily available in Bangladesh, therefore it was rarely used in old construction
works. However, it had been used very economically in some pre-Muslim monuments as doorjambs
and pillars. During the Muslim period, stone was also used sparingly since they had to be broughtfrom long distances away. As a result bricks made from easily available clay has been the mainmaterial for architecture in Bangladesh since time immemorial.
The devastating effect of the complicated hydrographic system is also largely responsible forthe obliteration of many noble monuments of the country. The rivers which created the delta havefrequently and extensively shifted their beds and in this process many prosperous settlement andhistorical monuments have been engulfed along their yielding banks.
In the past, the deliberate destruction of architectural edifices caused by man has also been
extensive. The age old activity of vandalism to ancient monuments for the illegal extraction of bricks
is a common practice. To these is added the problem of over population. In order to meet the needs ofan ever expanding population, old and dilapidated buildings and mounds containing the ancientmonuments are reclaimed daily by the plough for food production.
Despite such destructive activities of nature and man, quite a large number of ancient andhistorical architectures have survived. Only a few of the most important monuments are discussed
below in brief to give an idea of the enormity of the task we are facing now to preserve those.

Historical monuments
There are a lot of historical monuments in Bangladesh but their exact number is not known
since a thorough survey of them have not yet been completed. However, three hundred and thirty ofthe most important monuments and sites have so far been protected by the government. Only a few
representative ancient monuments are discussed below under the following sub-titles:
1. Mahasthangar - the earliest known city site,
2. Buddhist Monuments,
3. Muslim Monuments,
4. Late Hindu-Buddhist monuments, and
5. British period architecture.

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Mahasthan
The extensive ruins of Mahasthangar, sprawling on the western bank of the Karatoya River inthe Bogra district, represents the earliest city-site in Bengal. It has been identified as the ancient
Pundranagara of the Mauryas (3rd Century BC). The city continued to flourish as the provincial capitalof the imperial Guptas (4th-6th Century AD), and the Buddhist Pala rulers (8th to 12th Century AD) of
Varendra. The ruins of this ancient city cover a heavily fortified irregular oblong site, measuring 5000
by 4500 feet with an average elevation of about 15 feet from the surrounding countryside. Limited
excavations here have revealed densely packed dwellings, temples and massive fortification walls at
various points of the citadel. The city plan followed the general irregular pattern of all ancient greatcities of northern India. Excavation on a number of ancient mounds, dotted about the city’s suburbthat fan out in a semi-circle of five miles radius, has exposed many temples and remains of various
secular buildings. Archaeological evidences have proved that the citadel site was in use up to 16th
century AD.

Buddhist Monuments
It is not precisely known when Buddhism was introduced into Bangladesh. However, it is acommon belief that the religion was firmly established in North Bengal during the reign of Emperor
Asoka (273-232 BC). The famous Chinese pilgrim Yuan Chuang who visited Pundravardhana in 63839 AD, claimed to have seen a gigantic stupa built by Emperor Asoka on the outskirts of Pundranagara.
One can visualize from the accounts of Yuan Chuang that in the 7th century, there were many Buddhist
establishments in Bangladesh and the fame of some of these spread far beyond the frontiers of the land.
It is known that when Buddhism was almost wiped out by the end of 7th Century elsewhere, itflourished in Bengal. Pala rulers of Varendra in the north were devouted Buddhists, as well as thecontemporary Deva and Chandra rulers of Samatata in the south. Under their generous patronage,
countless Buddhist religious and educational institutions flourished in the country. The remains of anumber of ancient monasteries, stupas and other edifices have been unearthed in the recent past. For
the purpose of this paper only a few monasteries are mentioned in brief.

Paharpur
The most spectacular Buddhist monument discovered during a regular excavation is thegigantic monastery at Paharpur in the Naogaon district. It has been identified from an inscription as
the famous Somapuri Mahavihara built by the great Pala emperor, Dharmapala (770-810 AD). It is
one of the biggest single Vihara in Asia. This immense quadrangular monastery (922x919 feet) with
177 living cells for monks arranged in regular rows on its four arms, its elaborate gateway complex on
the north, numerous votive stupas, minor chapels and a multitude of other ancillary buildings within
its vast perimeter, is dominated by a lofty pyramidal temple in the centre of the enclosure. The groundplan of this colossal temple resembles a square cross with angles of projections between the arms. It
gradually rises in several terraced pile round a deep central shaft with an ambulatory passage aroundthe monument in each of the two upper terraces. The basement wall of this imposing edifice isembellished, curiously, with 63 Brahmanical stone sculptures, above which runs, in two lower terraces,rows of terracotta plaques depicting the folk-art of the period.
Architecturally and historically, the Paharpur Vihara is a treasured heritage of the world which,in ancient Asia, established for the first time a striking new style of temple building on a grand scale
It has influenced temple designs in the Far East, noticeably at the Pagan temples in Burma and the
Chandi Loro Jongrang and Chandi Sewu temples in central Java.
The Paharpur vihara has been listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage.

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Mainamati
An isolated, 11 mile long spur of dimpled hill-range, known as the Mainamati-Lalmai range,
stretches through the middle of the Comilla district. Exploration of this range has revealed over 50
ancient sites dotted throughout the hills, mostly containing Buddhist remains of the 8th to 12th centuries.
Excavation at a number of sites, locally known as Salban Vihara, Kotila Mura, Ananda Rajar Badi,
Bhoja Rajar Badi, Rupban Kannya Mura, Itakhola Mura, Charpatra Mura and Mainamati Ranir Badi
has, besides, exposing many Buddhist monasteries, temples and stupas, also yielded a rich collectionof antiquities. By studying dozens of royal copperplates and coins, it has been possible to reconstruct
the complete genealogy and military exploits of the hitherto unknown independent Deva and Chandra
rulers of Samatata who made these monuments.
At the Kotila Mura site, three stupas have been found in a row, representing the Buddhist‘Trinity’ or the Three jewels, i.e., the Buddha, Dharma and the Sangha. They were built with thetraditional square plan and circular drums and hemispherical domes, and are a rare architectural
example in the subcontinent.
At Salban Vihara, a well-planned 550 feet square monastery of the Paharpur type, consistingof 115 living cells for monks, built around a spacious courtyard with a cruciform temple in the centre
facing its only gateway complex on north, was discovered in the 1960’s. It was built by Bhava Deva,
the 4th ruler of the Deva dynasty. But the remains of the second largest monastery of the country werediscovered at the Ananda Rajar Badi mound after the country’s independence. It was built by Ananda
Deva, the third and the greatest ruler of the dynasty. This and other similar monasteries discovered at
Mainamati, Paharpur, Vasu Bihar(Mahasthan), Jagaddal(Naogaon) and Sitakot (Dinajpur) represented
a relatively late development of this typology, and were erected under royal patronage. Thesesystematically planned, self-contained and massively built monasteries resembled defensive fortresses
more than pure religious establishments, since the concern for security was an important factor inarchitecture.

Muslim Period
The building art of the Muslim period spanning more than five centuries may broadly beclassified into two phases: the pre-Mughal (1205-1575 AD) and the Mughal (1575-1757 AD). The
period of its isolation and independence for well over two hundred years is distinguished by strong
regional elements on the monuments. This is reflected in a luxurious richness of surface decoration
with this region’s terracotta traditional art. Among other indigenous elements, characterizing the preMughal phase are a striking curvilinear roof-form, drawn from the common thatched huts of rural
areas, and the adoption of covered court in place of an open court. The more ambitious monuments
built during the period of the independent Sultans such as the stupendous Adina Masjid (1364) at
Pandua, the imposing triumphal gateway known as the Dakhil Darwaza (1465) at Gaud, the Eklakhi
tomb (1425) etc., are all now in West Bengal. However Bangladesh is also rich in some of the finest
monuments erected during this period.

Pre-Mughal Phase
Among the surviving monuments of the Sultanate period, the Tomb of Ghiyasuddin Azam
Shah (1409) at Sonargaon, the Mosque of Baba Adam near Dhaka, Sura Mosque (1493-1519) inDinajpur, Chhota Sona Masjid (1493-1519) at Gaud in Chapai Nawabganj, Bagha (1523) andKusumba (1558) Mosques in Rajshahi, Qutb Mosque in Mymensingh and the Kherua Mosque (1582)
at Sherpur in Bogra are excellent specimens. These splendid specimens of the Sultanate period are all
profusely adorned with either terracotta floral motifs or delicate stone carvings.

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A group of homogeneous buildings bordering Sundarbans in the mid-15th century werediscovered. They were erected by an obscure saint-General named Ulugh Khan Jahan in the far south,
and are distinct from the other buildings in this phase. The architecture is characterized by its severe
simplicity, cyclopean tapering walls and turrets bearing affinity to the more famous Tughlaq
architecture of Delhi. In this group, the most magnificent brick mosque - the biggest in
Bangladesh(160 x 108 feet) – has been commonly known by its misleading name of Shait-Ghumbad
Masjid (meaning 60 domed mosque). In actual fact, it is roofed over with 77 squat domes including 7
chauchala or four-sided pitched Bengali domes in the middle row.
The Shait-Ghumbad Masjid has been listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage.

Mughal Phase
With the advent of the Mughals and the enforcement of political centralization in this province,a uniform Mughal style in architecture was promoted, and the indigenous styles were largely discarded.
New elements introduced by them included a dominant central dome and tall central entrance, set inprojected bay for emphasis which itself was inset in a taller half-dome. But the fundamental change inadorning a building was brought about by discarding the terracotta art of the region and replacing itwith repetitious plaster panels. The typical curvature of the roof of the pre-Mughal edifices were
likewise abandoned in favour of a straight horizontal skyline. Henceforth the pillared kiosks of theDelhi monuments were emulated by the Bangladesh architects with remarkable success. However,during the early Mughal period, some monuments erected in outlying areas displayed a happy
blending of the new imperial Mughal and pre-Mughal regional features. In this group the finest
specimen is the Atia Jami Mosque (1609) at Tangail.
Important architectural legacies of the Mughal period, mainly concentrated in Dhaka, are the
Bara and Chhota Katras, the unfinished Lalbagh Fort, tomb of Bibi Pari, Sat Gumbad Masjid, theMosques of Haji Khwaja Shahbaz (1679), Khan Muhammad Mridha and Kartalab Khan (1704), theHusaini Dalan and a series of river forts at Idrakpur in Munshiganj, Hajiganj and Sonakanda in
Narayanganj. The magnificent Katra buildings were erected in the middle of 17th century on the
traditional Central Asian plain of caravansaries with a grand river front and monumental gateways.
The Lalbagh Fort or the Aurangabad Fort, as it was originally named, is the unfulfilled dream of a
Mughal prince. Emperor Aurangazeb’s third son, Prince Azam began its construction on a grand scalein 1678 while he was Viceroy of the province, but could not complete it during his very short tenure of
office. Shaista Khan the next governor continued the work but abandoned it unfinished.
The Lalbagh Fort is one of the noblest Mughal monuments in this region. It conforms to thegeneral characteristics of the imperial Mughal architecture and accommodates a number of striking
buildings inside, such as the Audience Hall and Hammam of the governor and the mausoleum of Bibi
Pari. The unique tomb of Bibi Pari, the traditionally attributed daughter of governor Shaista Khan, isthe only monument in Bangladesh where marble stones from Rajputana, black basalt from Rajmahal
and glazed tiles have been used to embellish the interior of its nine chambers. The corbelled roofs of
the chambers were spanned by massive overlapping courses of black basalt. The central tombchamber is covered outside by a false copper dome in order to bring balance to the otherwise flat,
unimposing composition.

Late Hindu-Buddhist Monuments
When the Mughals introduced sweeping changes in the building art of Bangladesh, especiallyin the surface decoration where the old traditional terracotta art was totally replaced by plaster panels,a large number of specialized local artists and craftsmen lost their patronage of the rulers but readilyfound their traditional skill transferred to the innumerable Hindu temples, raised all over the country
by the affluent Hindu Zamindars from the 16th century onwards. Among these the Mathurapur Deul at
Faridpur, the Kodla Math near Bagerhat, Sarkar’s Math at Mahilara in Bakerganj and the Sonarang

31

temples at Tongibari, Dhaka, belong to the sikhara or tapering single spired type. The more ornate
Hindu temples had more than one decorative spires or ratnas variegating the temple-top. Numerous
beautiful specimens were found all over the country, such as the pancha-ratna Govinda temple atPuthia in Rajshahi, nava-ratna Kantaji temple at Dinajpur and the Satara-ratna temple near Comilla,
the Jor-Bangla temple at Pabna town and the double-storeyed chau-chala Siva temples at Chandina in
Comilla. These late medieval temples were usually embellished with fabulous terracotta plaques incontinuous friezes, depicting the contemporary social scenes, scenes from the Hindu Epics andextremely delicate floral motifs.
Almost all the late Buddhist architectures of the country were situated in the district of Cox,
Bazar and the Chittagong Hill Tracts. Those were built by the Chakma and Magh Buddhist tribes of
the region. These devout Buddhists have erected a number of monasteries known as Khyangs, as well
as beautiful pagodas and temples in Rangamati, Bandarban and Kaptai. But the most attractive andfascinating monasteries and temples were erected by the emigrant Rakhaine settlers of Cox’s Bazar
after 1800 AD.
A series of very colorful Pagodas or temples and Khyangs or Buddhist monasteries on the hilltops or foothills of Cox’s Bazar and Ramu were built in the true Arakanese architectural style. The
pagodas, looking like stupas, usually had a square vault above the cellar. The structure tapered upward
to a height of about 20 feet and was crowned by an ornamental brass pinnacle. The corners of thesquare base were chamfered with faceted vertical moldings. The sanctum was a low vaulted chamber,and originally housed the image of the Buddha on a recessed brick pedestal, which was approachedthrough a vaulted barrel entrance. The structures at Cox’s Bazaar are almost entirely built in brick andplastered over with lime-surki. The Khyangs of Cox’s Bazar, Ramu, Chitmorong near Kaptai andseveral others in the area are also representative of the typical Arakanese style of architecture.
In Cox’s Bazaar there are eight wooden Khyangs or monasteries and a number of pagodas. A
group of about half a dozen dilapidated pagodas picturesquely located on the hill-top near the Circuit
House is particularly noteworthy. In Ramu there are six Khyangs and several pagodas, as well as
more in its areas. All these Khyangs and pagodas are held holy by the Buddhists from Teknaf to
Cox’s Bazar. The monasteries and temples are all built of teak wood in the style found in Rakhaine
state and they slightly differ in plan, function and decoration from the contemporary woodenmonasteries in upper Burma. All monasteries are raised well above the ground on heavy roundwooden columns. The temples, although built with teak wood superstructure, rest on brick platforms.
Of the 8 Khyangs in Cox’s Bazar the largest and most picturesque is the Aggameda Khyang,located near the entrance to the Cox’s Bazar town. It consists of two parts and an old ordination hallwhich is supported by wooden columns, and some temples of relatively recent date for the use of the
Buddhist community. According to the presiding priest of the monastery, the history of the structuregoes back to 500 years when a temporary shelter was erected by some merchant for an ascetic named
Egameda. Later, about 200 years ago Rakhaine refugees built this monastery on this holy site. It wasruined about 100 years ago and was rebuilt in 1899.
At Ramu, about 9 miles east of Cox’s Bazar, the Rakhaine settlers erected at different times anumber of Khyangs and pagodas. Of these the most important monastery, known in Burmese as
Autapha Khyang is comprised of two wooden temples and one monastery, built as usual, on heavy
teak columns. From an old inscription over the entrance to the temple it appears that the larger of theshrine was built in 1901 A.D.
There are five more surviving monasteries in Ramu, of which one is well looked after by alocal Barua community while the others are in poor condition. The well-known Samo Mtroi temple
complex includes within its vast precincts many temples and Buddhist monasteries erected at different
times during last two hundred years. The oldest is a wooden monastery claimed to have been erected
about two hundred years ago by a resident of Ramu. The temple is beautifully decorated with delicate
wooden carvings similar to the wooden temples of upper Burma. The porch and the railings are also32

covered with exquisite wood carvings which appear to have been originally plated with gold leaves
that are still traceable at places.
Not far from the Samo Motri temple is a very big monastery, known as Ywagyi Pha Khaung.
From a distance it appears like a myriad of tiered towers and roofs soaring high towards the heaven.
The carved teak planks supporting the load of the multi-storied superstructure and roofs are very thickand solid.
At Nhila on the way to Teknaf there is a large cruciform monastery known as Tan Phya
Khyang. It was built in 1899. Another important architectural monument, an old wooden monasteryat Teknaf, is in very poor condition and is now being pulled down to clear the site for new
development.
Only some of the prominent monasteries and temples of the area have been mentioned in brief
to give an idea about these late Buddhist religious architecture. There are many more existing in the
hilly areas and other places. Although these monuments are not native to Bangladesh and are not the
typical architecture of this country, these late Buddhist monuments represent a milestone in our history,
ie. when foreign art and architecture of adjacent territory was introduced under particular historicalcircumstances. Some of them need immediate attention for proper conservation; otherwise they will
perish with the passage of time or would be destroyed as in the case of the Teknaf monastery
mentioned above.

British period
The architectural trend under the British rule found a new dimension. European Renaissancestyle first appeared at Dhaka in churches, but was later applied to secular buildings, which were often
provided with semi-octagonal or round towers at corners. Few of these surviving buildings are locatedin the Wiseghat area of the old city. The former State Bank building near Sadar Ghat is a fineexample of its kind with its tall Doric columns. New architectural elements introduced in almost all
palorcious houses of the 19th century include the semicircular arch, triangular gable supported on semiCorinthian capitals and attractive foliated patterns in plaster. The Ahsan Manzil of the Dhaka Nawabs,
the old High Court Building and the Greek Memorial inside the University Teacher-Student Centre are
noteworthy examples.
Towards the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century a new hybrid Mughal andEuropean style emerged. In their appearance obvious inspiration from Mughal architecture was drawn,
while all amenities of the European buildings were provided inside. This hybrid style can be seen in a
number of palaces build by rich land lords known as Zamiders. Among them Baliati Prashad, Ruplal
House, Ahsan Manzil, Bardoman House of Dhaka, Shashi Lodge and Muktaghacha Zamiderbari of
Mymensingh; Dhighapatia Raj Bari and the Palace of Rani Bhavani, Natore, Putia Raj Bari of
Rajshahi, Tajhat Zamider Bari of Rangpur, and Dinajpur Rajbari are noteworthy. All these palaces aredouble storied and sprawling over a vast area. They are also gigantic. The present state of theirconservation is not at all satisfactory. They are built of brick, which are laid in brick-surki mortar.
The flat roof is rested on lighter wooden rafters and iron joists. Most of them are now abandoned
while only a few have been declared protected by the government. Others may be left to ruin if
speedy conservation is not done.

Present Conservation Policy
In Bangladesh the governmental Department of Archaeology is solely responsible for thepreservation of cultural heritage including historical architecture. At present, there are 330 protectedsites and monuments and the Department carries out regular maintenance work, chemical treatment
and architectural conservation of these monuments with its limited resources and manpower.

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However, special conservation of some very important monuments is being carried out under as
development projects with fund provided by the government or donors.
The execution of structural conservation is conducted by an Archaeological Conservator with
his Assistant Engineers. Each Assistant Engineer has his own jurisdiction. There are sub-AssistantEngineers in field level. Normally conservation work is requested by archaeologists, that is, theRegional Directors of the 4 Archaeological regions of the country. After receiving the requests forconservation, a Sub-Assistant Engineer prepares a proposal and submits it to the Assistant Engineer
for modification. The proposal is then sent to the Director through the Regional Director of his region.
It is then reviewed by an Archaeological Conservator before being finally returned to the Regional
Director for execution. The project is assigned to engineers, who execute it based on the estimate,photograph and drawings supplied by the Regional Director.
Conservation projects are usually taken in two phrases – small scale repair of the damaged
part to prevent further loss, and restoration of missing parts on the basis of archaeological researchwork. For the execution of both kinds of work the following steps are followed:
1. Procure site details;
2. Clear debris and weeds;
3. Collect materials;
4. Prepare materials (matching the original materials of the buildings);
5. Assemble a trained project team;
6. Choose an appropriate starting point based on the condition of the building underconservation;
7. Collect new found information
8. Report writing.
For the compilation of the report an engineer usually starts his writing with an introduction,
which includes site particulars such as name, location, topography, environmental condition of thebuilding and justification for the work. In the next phase of writing he describes the length, process(both structural and chemical) and everyday challenges. In the 3rd phase he concludes with hisremarks including suggestion for the future. He adds a comparative statement also on the basis of prework and post-work photographs as well as drawings.

Major conservation work done so far since Independence
Conservation work has been done in a number of sites and historical monuments after
liberation in 1971. A few of these are mentioned below.

Mahasthangar Fortification wall
Since independence structural conservation has been regularly carried out at different parts ofthis fort. Moreover, regular excavation is being continued in Mahasthangar under joint collaboration
with French Govt. since 1991. Emergency conservation work of the architectural remains exposed
during excavation is being done every ever.

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Paharpur
Since its exposure during excavations from 1919 to 1933, limited but steady conservation
measures have been adopted for the maintenance of this huge monastic complex. These include therepair and restoration of damaged and decayed walls of the central shrine, monastic cells, votive stupas
and other subsidiary structures. Major repairs and restoration works have been being carried out here
since the 1980’s. These are outlined in the following.
The big refectory of the monastery was in a very bad state. The walls and pillars with mud as
their binding ingredient were in an advanced stage of decay. Rain has caused the growth of vegetation
on site, which in turn has caused great damage to the remains. While the interior of the damaged
structures was restored with infillings of undressed bricks in lime surki mortar, the face of thesebuildings was repaired to match their original appearance with dressed old bricks. Thus the lime-surki
mortar is kept invisible under the covering of mud mortar.
The southeast corner of the central shrine collapsed in 1975 and was restored in the following
year. The fallen debris was removed and the missing wall rebuilt in the original style. Care was taken
to reproduce the original ornamentation in the face work.
Some complex problems were encountered during the conservation of this monument. Due tothe lack of suitable drainage, its vast courtyard remained flooded during the monsoon. The basementof the central shrine, votive stupas, refectory and other exposed remains of the courtyard suffered very
badly from the accumulation of stagnant rainwater. The vast array of terracotta plaques with which
the central shrine is decorated are fast corroding due to saltpeter action and water logging.
In order to tackle those problems effectively, international assistance was solicited in 1973. In
response to this, UNESCO had sent three consultancy missions in December 1973, March 1975 andJanuary 1979, headed respectively by Mr. P. Pichard, Mr. Roland Silva and Mr. John Sanday, who
submitted their reports on the basis of their on-site observation of the problems.
Measures recommended by the UNESCO consultants for stopping rainwater percolation andfor drainage from the pyramidal central temple have been executed. An earthen embankment with a
gradual outward slope was provided around the central shrine, and a drain was laid out at the edge ofthe sloping ground so that water is not accumulated against the structure. The running off of waterover the walls has been considered less harmful than the accumulation of water over them. The
seepage of rainwater into the depressed open areas of the temple was prevented by inserting slab
coverings over them (open cells, procession path, etc), which are graded for drainage. These slabs areconcealed under 10 inches thick brick-chips and earth. A series of concealed drainage pipes at various
levels carry rain-water quickly down to the ground level.
However, on the basis of the final report of the UNESCO consultants for the effective controlof water logging and salinity, a Master Plan has been prepared. The first phase of conservation work
as described in this Master Plan was finished in 2002. Now the preservation of the monument isalmost complete. But there still remain several problems. These are listed below:
1. Humidity effect/dampness,
2. Stagnant rain water,
3. Salinity/acidity,
4. Effect of tourism,
5. Fragility of terracotta plaques, and6. The lack of facilities for the local treatment of surviving antiques.

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Sitakot Vihara
The structural remains of Sitakot Vihara were excavated just before the Liberation of thecountry. The excavated ruins were in a state of decay. The brick courses on the top and at the brokenedges of the walls were dislodged. The walls in many places were deformed or dislodged out of theface lines. Conservation works executed during 1973-75 mainly consisted of resetting the loose
masonry, and rebuilding the deformed walls to their original state. However, the repair work was
executed with lime-surki mortar instead of the original mud. This was carefully concealed under the
top layer of mud in order to ensure stability while maintaining the original appearance of the remains.

Salban Vihara, Mainamati
Extensive excavations undertaken during the 1950’s and 1960’s exposed imposing structural
remains at Salban Vihara. These building remains were in an advanced state of decay. Activities of
unsympathetic visitors and heavy monsoon cause further damages. However, continuous conservation
measures in the last few years have maintained the monuments in a good state. For example, thedamaged walls of its monumental gateway including entrance halls and staircases had been restoredwith old dressed bricks in lime-surki mortar. Further conservation work is now continuing.

Ananda Vihara
The Vihara of Ananda Deva was included in the conservation works program for the first timein the 1980’s. At the time, it was in a very deplorable state with highly damaged walls and fallen
terracotta plaques. It was also covered under dense vegetation. At the beginning, debris along withthe wild plants were cleared. In the second stage, damaged portions of the walls were drawn andphotographed. From the collected information, the damaged bricks were removed and the wall wasreconstructed with a view to provent further decay. Loose plaques and bricks were restored to their
original condition, and some face works were applied. The preservation of this building is now almost
complete.

Conservation of Muslim Monuments
Major conservation work has been applied to a number of Muslim period monuments
including the Chhota Sona Mosque, Khania Dhigi Mosque and Darashbari Mosque of Gaud, Chapai
Nawabganj. Special attention was given to the conservation of Mughal monuments in Dhaka. The
Lalbagh Fort deserves particular mention. The Mosque inside the Fort, the Audience Hall, the Tombof Bibi Pari, fortification wall and two gateway complexes of the fort were thoroughly repaired and a
Mughal style garden with fountains was laid out. Now the fort has been restored to its formal pristine
beauty.
We have also done some special conservation work at the Pathrail Mosque at Faridpur inrecent time (Fig. 1). In fact we have to do a lot of restoration work here as the mosque was in a highly
dilapidated condition. The first phase of the conservation was limited to urgent repair works. The
second phase of conservation was undertaken in 1988 and it continued until 1996. In this phase ofwork, some old stone pillars were replaced with new concrete pillars that conformed to their original
shape and size. For the reconstruction of the dome a model was prepared based on the design ofcontemporary mosques, featuring lateral arch, sequenches with over sailing courses of bricks, etc. For
the construction of the model, mud, wooden plunks and bamboo were used. The half circular dome
was placed over a reconstructed brick structure. For surface decoration, professional potters were
engaged to prepare cut bricks and terracotta plaques based on the designs of the old specimen
discovered at the mosque site. The potters made several replicas on site and they were set on the wallsof the mosque. Finally, the whole site was made presentable by clearing the surrounding. Now themosque is a living monument and closely resembles the original.

36

Before restoration.

After restoration.
Fig. 1 The Pathrail Mosque, Faridpur.

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Conclusion
The techniques of conservation may vary from time to time and region to region depending on
the environmental condition, availability of materials, traditional processes and laws of a particularland. Moreover, there are international charters and recommendations. Provisions of all these are
made in Bangladesh. However, we still carry out most of our conservation work on the basis of theArchaeological Work Code of 1938. This code is too old to cope with the challenges of conserving
ancient architecture affected by salinity, water and other destructive forces of nature and man. The
Department of Archaeology is the only agency responsible for conservation, and yet it has neither
sufficiently trained human resources nor enough fund to tackle the enormous tasks of maintaining
quite a large number of ancient monuments. In fact the country has extreme financial and expertise
constraints. As such, conducting conservation work successfully is a challenging job for us. We hopeaffluent countries and organizations like the ACCU will extend further assistance both financially andby imparting appropriate training to our staff, so that we may succeed in saving our precious
architectural heritage.

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BhutanNagtsho DORJI
Architect
Division for Conservation of Architectural Heritage
Ministry of Home and Cultural Affairs
Problems and the needs of cultural heritage protection activities in Bhutan
Bhutan is a small Himalayan kingdom unknown to many. But to the ones that have known
Bhutan, it has always been its rich and unique culture that has left the deepest impression of thecountry. Be it the age old traditions and customs that are vibrantly alive or the religion that isdedicatedly followed or the rich architecture that is thoroughly practiced, Bhutan to date has been able
to withstand the test of time and remain as a unique example of an original Himalayan culture.
From the magnificent architectural monuments to the unique farmhouses in the villages, fromthe rich colourful hand woven textiles still used daily to the pure white prayer flags fluttering high up
near the clouds on the mountains, from the monks deep in prayer in ancient monasteries to the small
Buddhist altars enshrined in modern apartments in the cities, from the colourful and vibrant mask
dances performed in annual community festivals to the folk dances enjoyed in small family gatherings,
the rich cultural heritage of Bhutan is proudly evident.
The rich cultural traditions and the diverse architecture, to a large extent, has been kept alive
due to the religion that the country has followed since the 7th century. Bhutan is the only country in theworld where the Vajrayana (tantric) form of Mahayana Buddhism is the official / state religion. The
respect for and importance of this religion in the day-to-day life of a Bhutanese has kept alive the ageold traditions, customs, culture and architecture in a harmonious way.
The cultural heritage of Bhutan is of such importance to the country that it is considered as thefoundation upon which the identity of Bhutanese people and the kingdom of the Bhutan as a sovereign,
independent nation is built.
In the document Bhutan 2020 – A vision for peace, prosperity and happiness, it is stated that:“For a small country like Bhutan, maintaining and strengthening a distinct
national identity will always be an important factor in its continued well-being
and security. It must be remembered that through the centuries, Bhutan had
remained a sovereign, independent country because our past generations greatly
cherished the unique national identity, which had been forged by the high valuesof the Bhutanese system and the rich cultural and religious heritage of the nation.
Therefore, not only must this unique identity be preserved and safeguarded
against the negative attitudes and influences that emerged with the process ofdevelopment, but constant efforts must be made to foster an unfailing faith in, anda love and respect for, the nation’s traditional values and institutions. Concrete
steps must also be taken to promote all aspects of the nation’s traditions, culture
and customs that are relevant and practical for strengthening the country’s unique
national identity. At the same time, it must be realized that such measures are notbeing taken because of sentimental values or orthodox views to uphold pastpractices, but that they are crucial steps that must be taken to consolidate andsafeguard the sovereignty and security of the nation.”
The cultural heritage of Bhutan is so intricately interwoven into practically every aspect of the lives of
the Bhutanese, that an overall sustainable development of the country is virtually impossible without
the simultaneous conservation, promotion and development of the country’s cultural heritage.

39

To quote Robert Dompnier from his book BHUTAN - The Kingdom of Dragon,“In terms of quality and originality, Bhutanese architecture is without doubt
one of the best expressions of the country’s cultural identity.”
The topography, climatic conditions, availability of resources, indigenous construction methods,
religious beliefs and cultural tradition in Bhutan has brought about a diverse architecture that reflects
her history. Most of these architectural forms are treasure houses of the nation. They contain some of
the best examples of Bhutanese craftsmanship with their magnificent carvings, murals, sculptures,ancient hand printed scripts, rare artifacts and textiles.
To a certain extent, the continual practice of building traditional architecture has helped inConsolidating and strengthening the unique cultural identity and spiritual traditions of
Bhutan,

Safeguarding the thirteen crafts (zorig chusum) of Bhutan andPromoting the economic development of the country (mainly the tourism sector).

The diverse architectural forms of Bhutan consist of the following:
1. Dzongs (fortresses)
2. Lhakhangs (temples)
3. Goempas (monasteries)
4. Chortens (stupas)
5. Palaces
6. Houses
7. Bridges

Dzongs:
These strategically located massive
fortresses are the most important
symbols of Bhutan’s history. Primarily
built for defense purposes, the dzongs
house the monastic communities andfunctions as the administrative centersof the country. The dzongs werenormally constructed to form oblongs
or squares (that consisted of monk’s
cells and administrative offices)
enclosing a courtyard with a central
temple known as utse. These structures
were usually made of massive
buttresses type stonewalls, richly
detailed wood works and pitchedshingled roofs, which are now being
replaced by corrugated iron sheets.
Even to this day, the dzongs function
as the dual centers of administrativeand monastic activity of the country.

Fig. 1. Dzong: Paro40

Palaces:
The few palaces that are found in country
are mainly constructed during the reign ofthe first and second king. Though thebasic layouts of these palaces are very
similar to dzongs, the architecture of thesepalaces is considerably less massive andmore open. These royal residences arealso more decorative and colourful interms of woodwork.
Lhakhangs:
These temples are said to be the firstform of religious architecture and many ofthem are older than the dzongs, with somedating as far back as the 7th century. They arefound in almost every village and on every
hill / mountain of the country.
The lhakhangs are quite simple in terms of
their layout and size compared with thedzongs, and few of them have as richly
detailed woodworks as the dzongs. Besides
being the religious centers of a particularvillage, lhakhangs play an important role inthe social and cultural functions of the local
community. A few lhakhangs are located in
secluded and precarious locations; they serveas meditation centers. The lhakhangs usuallyhouse fewer monks compared to goenpas.

Fig. 2. Lhakhangs: Takshang

Goenpas:
These monasteries are primarily placesof study for the monks.
The goenpas usually consist of one ormore temples with various dwelling andservice structures grouped around it. The
dwelling units for the monks are either
haphazardly located around the main temple orit encloses a courtyard with a central temple,
similar to the dzong layout. The size of thecomplex mainly depends on the number ofmonks studying in it.
Fig. 3. Goenpas: Gantey

Thoughthegoenpabuilding
techniques are very similar to the dzongs, there
are few goenpas that have more elaboratearchitectural detailing than the dzongs.

41

Chortens:
The chortens (stupas) are the mostcommon religious structures found in Bhutan.
There are over ten thousands chortens locatedmainly on high mountain passes, on bridges,
along the river and roads and on approaches toimportant locations such as dzongs,
monasteries, lhakhangs and palaces.
Thare various types and sizes of chortens, themost common being the square shaped
chortens.
These square chortens are
sometimes linked together by walls that havereligious inscriptions on them (mani walls).
Most of the chortens are built from stone in
mud mortar with stone slabs, slates or wooden
shingles as the roofing material.

Fig. 4. Chorten: Chendebji

Houses:
The traditional houses that form small villages
not only function as residential units but also
as a social, economical and religious unit. The
family lives on the upper level of a common
two-story traditional house while the groundfloor is for domestic livestock. In certain
villages, besides using the attic for drying
agricultural produce and storage, the walled
courtyards in front of the building is also used
for the storage of large agricultural implements
and for pounding cereals. These houses areusually constructed with thick-rammed earthor stone masonry walls, with narrow timberwindows on the lower floors and larger ekra
(wooden frame work with bamboo lathing
plastered with mud mortar) timber windows
on the top floor. The gable shingle roofing isplaced over open timber trusses, thus forming
the “flying roof” style.

Fig. 5. Traditional houses in Bhutan

Bridges:
The bridges in Bhutan have played avital role in spreading rich spiritual andcultural values throughout the kingdom. The
eight traditional means of conveyance acrossrivers that have developed in Bhutan are by araft, tree trunk overlay bridge, stone slab
cross-over bridge, cane ropeway, canesuspension bridge, iron chain bridge, single
span bazam (bridge built out of timber trusses,with the trusses resembling layers of elephanttusks supporting the deck of the bridge) anddouble span bazam with a pier in the middle.

Fig. 6. Yangtse wooden Bridge

42

Bhutan’s architectural heritage, prior to the country’s emergence in the international scene(1960s), has remained rich and pristine from the time it has existed. The significance of thesearchitectural structures to the daily lives of the Bhutanese people have made it possible for ourancestors to retain every feature in its original form. Even to this day, the existence of our heritage
structures in their unblemished form tells us about the history, religious beliefs and the construction
techniques of the people and the country.
Now, with exposure to the international community and modern development, and with all the
positive consequences and mechanized technologies, a degeneration of the country’s architectural
heritage has inevitably resulted.
Bhutanese architectural designs that are unique, environmentally friendly, and built from local
materials by local craftsmen are gradually being replaced by concrete structures constructed clumsily
due to inexperience and lack of skills.
Entire villages with beautiful traditional houses are slowly disappearing with the introductionof new materials and imported construction methods. This is an evident of economic and materialistic
values overshadowing cultural values towards the preservation and respect of cultural heritage thathave been handed down through generations. In the past, the practice of preservation of traditional
Bhutanese architecture was based on the religious belief that both the commissioner and the creator
would earn merit in their next life. Now, the preservation of architectural heritage is practiced foraesthetic values and financial reward.
Chortens and temples are being desecrated and robbed; valuable cultural properties are being
smuggled out of the country, and a general loss of respect for traditional and spiritual values is slowly
creeping in the community.
With no tested models or tools, the process to effectively integrate modern development withthe promotion of architectural and cultural heritage is largely unpredictable and thus poses numerous
challenges.
To meet the challenge of developing the country without sacrificing its heritage, the National
Commission for Cultural Affairs was established in 1985. Recently, this Commission has been mergedwith the Home Ministry and is now called the Ministry of Home and Cultural Affairs (2003). The
main objective of this organization is to protect, preserve and promote the cultural heritages of thecountry. Under the Royal Government’s policy of decentralization, it has also promoted sharing the
responsibility of preserving the country’s cultural heritage between all bodies, institutions, districts,
local communities and individuals.
The Division for the Conservation of Architectural Heritage under the Ministry of Home andCultural Affairs is responsible for the protection, promotion and development of the entire spectrum ofarchitectural heritage in the country.
The Division for the Conservation of Architectural Heritage has the following main functions:

Formulation of policies and regulations for the protection of architectural heritage in the
country.

Compiling the national inventory of all historical and cultural monuments and sites.

Appraisal, approval and monitoring of projects concerning cultural and historical monuments
and sites.

Provision of technical and administrative assistance to the Dzongkhags (districts) and the
public with regards to historical and cultural monuments and sites.



Co-operate with other organization in plans and projects concerning conservation of Bhutan’sarchitectural heritage.

43



Co-operate with foreign donors with projects concerning Bhutan’s architectural heritage.



Organization of workshops and small training sessions for the protection and promotion ofarchitectural heritage in the country.



Besides conservation work, the Division is also responsible for the establishment of new
structures or sites for cultural and religious activities that are supported by the Ministry ofHome and Cultural Affairs and the Zhung Dratshang Lhentshog.

The Division also provides technical assistance for the maintenance, repair and developmentof all existing buildings of the Ministry of Home and Cultural Affairs. This includes the Paro
National Museum, the National Library, the Textile Museum, the Folk Heritage Museum andthe Royal Academy of Performing Arts complex.

Beside these functions, the Division also works towards educating the Bhutanese people sothat they will realize the values of architectural heritage and the need to conserve them in their originalstate. An example of one such educational programme is the annual essay competition held among
students on the topic of ‘the importance of architectural heritage conservation’. This essay competition
is mainly targeted towards students because we believe that they play a vital role in keeping thearchitectural heritage alive as well as in passing it down to the future generation.
Although all efforts are being made by the Government and the Bhutanese people towards theconservation and promotion of architectural heritage in the country, many direct and indirect
constraints have hampered the progress and impact. The main ones include the following:
1. Lack of Awareness:
The Royal Government with an objective to consolidate and strengthen the uniquearchitectural style of Bhutan has laid out a set of guidelines and rules that state the necessity ofincorporating certain traditional architectural elements into new buildings. This process of adapting
traditional architectural elements with the needs, construction material and technology of current times
has given birth to a new style of Bhutanese architecture. However, the emergence of such a style has,
to a large extent, contributed to the eradication of the spiritual sentiments in protection of architectural
heritage. In earlier times, Bhutanese people took great care in protecting the originality of structuresdue to the spiritual belief that one would attain nirvana by doing such deeds in preserving one’s
architectural heritage. Today, due to issues like commercialism and a lack of awareness on the valuesof architectural heritage, structures of historical and cultural importance are either being remodeled or
dismantled to achieve grandeur using modern materials and construction style.
Such lack of awareness on the values of our architectural heritage has contributed towards animmense loss of ancient and rare architecture, art and crafts like traditional woodcarvings, mural
paintings and other evidences of the country’s rich cultural heritage and history.
2. Lack of appropriate legislations and guidelines:
The lack of proper legislation in regards to the protection, conservation and promotion ofarchitectural heritage in the country has made it very difficult for the organization or individual
concerned to work towards the conservation of architectural heritage. Without relevant legal support
and guidance, confusion and disorganization is sometimes created and many efforts are wasted or
become ineffective.

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3. Lack of appropriate study and researches in the field of Conservation:
The lack of appropriate study and researches to demonstrate the authenticity, age, evidence ofhistorical events and figures related to the site and the strengths of traditional structural designs havealways been one of the constraints of conservation. A lack of proof to illustrate the authentic values ofarchitectural heritage sites has contributed towards numerous cases of the dismantlement orreconstruction of important structures of great heritage value.
Most heritage structures have been reconstructed or remodeled in the belief that the newbuilding would be better aesthetically and stronger structurally. But people fail to see that every part ofa so-called old structure is an evidence of the existence of our ancestors embody the cultural,architectural and historical values that we have inherited. Therefore, due to lack of vital information
about historic architecture, a mere crack on a rammed earth wall or stone masonry wall, signs of insect
attack on the timber or a wet patch on the timber or wall is a good enough excuse for most Bhutanese
to either reconstruct or renovate the entire building. The proven strength of new construction materials
and techniques entices a Bhutanese more than the traditional style of construction. Such notion
contributes to the loss of the traditional art of construction as well as the loss of architectural heritage.
4. Shortage of trained work force with necessary skills:
The shortage of skilled manpower who are not only trained in traditional skills but also haveappropriate modern technical, management and innovative skills and training, has also created major
obstacles in the conservation of cultural heritage. Sometimes, many ancient and rare structures are left
to fall into disrepair or repaired or reconstructed without proper plans or preservation techniques.
There have been cases where cracks on a traditional mud wall with exquisite mural paintings havebeen sealed using cement mortar. Though such practices have been carried out with good intentions,they have often caused more damage to the overall structure.
With regards to traditional skills, the majority of the experts are of the older generation.
Younger people need to be guided to acquire these traditional skills, so that these skills can besustained. The development of trained human resources must draw upon modern information anddocumentation technologies that will widen access to our heritage.
5. Access and communication problems:
Most of the architectural heritage sites in Bhutan are located in remote and sometimes almost
inaccessible places, causing many constraints in their maintenance and restoration.
To a large extent, these hurdles faced during the process of conservation and promotion ofarchitectural heritage in Bhutan are mainly due to the fact that the concept of conservation is still very
new to the people. This is mainly due to the country’s emergence onto the global scene being very
recent. Preferences are for modern methods of construction as they are convenient, strong and fulfill
current needs. On the other hand, the traditional methods of organic construction are consideredcumbersome. Because of such preferences and thoughts, most fail to see that the unique cultural
identity of the country is partly due to the existence of the rich architectural heritage, which to date hasa high relevance to every individual in the country.

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Cambodia
Sophorn KIM
Chief, Cultural Heritage Office
Battambang Provincial Culture and Fine Arts Department
Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts
Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Problems and Needs of Cultural Heritage Protection Activities in Cambodia
Introduction
Today I am very glad to have the opportunity to attend this training course. It is my greathonor and pleasure to be here with you. This training program gives me an opportunity to exchange
views with all of you present at this training course.
The Kingdom of Cambodia is the one of the oldest Southeast Asian countries and is one of therichest countries in terms of cultural heritage.
The Ancient capital of Angkor, in which the Khmer Kings built many monuments, is in Siem
Reap province, where Angkor Wat is located. Besides that, there are many other ancient monuments
and archaeological sites distributed throughout the country, for instance, in the provinces ofBattambang and Banteay Meanchey in the north-west of the country, etc.
In this report I would like to inform participants of the "Problems and Needs of Cultural
Heritage Protection Activities in Battambang Province of Cambodia".
Battambang is located in the North-West of Cambodia. About eight hundred thousand
habitants live in Battambang Province. It was the second city of Cambodia during Sangkun Reastr
Niyum which was ruled by the King Norodom Sihanuk, who today is the King of Cambodia.
Battambang covers an area of 12,000 km2, with a population density of 68 persons/ km2.
Battambang Province has more than one hundred ancient temples, but today there only remain
four ancient temples; the others have fallen into ruin. Also there are many traditional houses in thevillages around Battambong City, and many houses of the colonial style in the city. Of the temples of
pagodas, ancient buildings in the pagodas, traditional houses, colonial style houses, some are morethan one hundred years old and the others are nearly one hundred years old.
Some of those old buildings are used as government offices and others are protected bylandlords. The public buildings, like the buildings in pagodas, are protected by the commission of eachpagoda and they are supported by the inhabitants who live around them.

I. Present Situation
1. Traditional houses
Almost all traditional houses were deformed, but some have changed their original forms, orchanged a little in accordance with the landlords. Many traditional houses in the Battambong area
were destroyed under the Khmer-rouge regime. The Khmer-rouge demolished the traditional houses tobuild new ones for villagers to gather in when they ruled Cambodia.

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2. Colonial Style Houses
The colonial style houses are used for government offices and for citizens. Many of people areliving in the colonial style houses, especially in the city. Apartments are standing along both sides ofthe streets in Battambang town. All the houses were closed during the Khmer-rouge time, and thepeople were not permitted to live in the chief town.
3. Pagodas
The temples and buildings of pagodas are nearly one hundred years old. Normally, eachpagoda was controlled by pagoda commissions. Some temples and pagoda buildings were demolishedor destroyed under the Khmer-rouge regime.
4. Ancient Monuments
As mentioned above, there are four standing temples in Battambang area at present, and they
are in a bad condition. These temples were erected in the eleventh century. During the Khmer-rougetime, they took some stones of these temples to construct roads. That was a stupid idea.
5. Movable Arts Objects
Statues have been stolen from ancient temples or from pagodas. Sometimes the looters havelooted the sculptures from bas-relief of temples or they excavated in prehistoric sites, archaeologicalsites and on the terraces of old temples. The inhabitants who live near to archaeological sites madecollections to keep at their houses. Wooden Buddha statues in the temples of pagodas were stolen andruined. Wooden sculptures are easy to be damaged by insect destruction.
There are many art objects in the provincial museum of Battambang, but no places to exhibit
those objects because Battambang museum is a small one. Some objects were placed in the museum
many years ago, and others were collected from areas surrounding Battambang. The Provincial
Museum of Battambang is located in Battambang town on 1St street on Sangke western bank. The
museum was built of concrete during the Sangkum Restr Niyum and was named the Museum of
Sangkum Reastr Niyum.
It was officially inaugurated on October 29, 1968 by King Norodom Sihanouk himself who
was then Head of State. During the time of Sangkum Reastr Niyum, there
were many valuable artifacts. All of these were inventoried, catalogued, dated and identified.
However, during the genocidal era of Pol Pot, most pieces were seriously destroyed, and some others
were lost. The Museum itself was used as a detention centre where innocent people were tortured andkilled.
In 1997 the museum was supported by the NGO Seila Programme. The museum has beenstrengthened and improved. With the Seila donation, a small storeroom was built and there are moreplaces in the museum for visitor displays. The museum was reopened for regular public visits.

II.

History of Ancient Buildings

The traditional houses were constructed during the French Colonial era. Cambodia had been
ruled by the French from 1863 to 1954. During that time, many colonial style houses were built.
The Preah Vihear (temples) of pagodas and the ancient buildings of pagodas were constructedby public donation, or sometimes rich persons supported those buildings. But the temples of pagodas
must rely on the support of public foundations.

47

The four ancient standing temples were constructed in the eleventh century under the reign ofKing Suryavarman I. One of the four temples is located on Mount Banan. It was repaired two times,
first in the twelfth century, and secondly in the thirteenth century. So, the Bậnan temple mixes threestyles of Khmer art.

III.

Cultural Heritage Protection Activities

There are six persons who work for the Cultural Heritage Office of Battambang province. This
office is under the Department of Culture and Fine Arts of Battambang Province. We are responsiblefor Battambang Provincial Cultural Heritage Protection and Conservation.
We have prepared documents, laws and circular letters concerning the cultural heritage
protection activities in order to disseminate information to the inhabitants. We present all documents
to the chiefs of communes and villages for their understanding of what we do and what we plan to doin the future. In towns and the countryside, we have been informing chiefs of the role of landlords.
The landlords are responsible for their traditional houses in the villages; when they have someproblems, they must inform the village or commune chief and the chief or representatives or theowners of the traditional houses directly come to inform us.
When the owners have informed us about problems with rotting buildings, we must answer tothem and observe what happened.
Most colonial style houses are situated in the chief town of Battambang Province. The houses
were decorated in the European style. They were built along the streets in the town. The people whoare living in the town enjoy a better life than people in the countryside. Some houses are made ofstucco and covered by tiles. But at the present day, some tile roofs have been replaced by sheet ironroofs. We asked the owners to discuss with the representatives of communes before repairing themand the owners must make a request to the authorities concerned.
The old buildings and the temples of pagodas are deformed to varying degrees. Old people
were selected to conduct work on each pagoda. They repainted the temples with their goals, such as
the temple's walls, etc. Before they repaired some buildings in pagodas, they always joined in
discussions with the pagoda commission. The members of commission had a meeting to decide before
doing something. They wrote a letter to request permission from the authorities and concerned
services. They had obtained public support. The official religion is Buddhism and almost 90% of the
population is of this faith.
In regard to the temples of Battambang Province, they are in a bad condition. There are a few
guardians at each temple and they are responsible for cleaning, protection and conservation, as well as
giving us their monthly reports. We have met the chief of communes to talk about the protection ofmonuments because they are also responsible for cultural heritage in that area. This responsibility
covers the population of the commune, for easy dissemination of the laws and circular letters to thevillagers who live around the monuments.
We have prepared workshops on the protection and the conservation of cultural properties.
The participants include village chiefs, commune chiefs, district chiefs, commission members of
pagodas, owners of VCD and DVD shop, and Acha of Pagodas (heads of traditional wedding
ceremonies). These people are invited to participle in the workshop, which is conducted by the
Department of Culture and Fine Arts of Battambang. The workshop has been held in each district ofBattambang Province. Cultural conservation and protection are the main matters discussed. All chiefs
of offices of the Department of Culture and Fine Arts gave lectures concerning their work toparticipants.
The Department of Culture and Fine Arts has five offices, namely: Cultural Heritage Office,Film office, Cultural Development office, Plastic Arts office, and Dancing Arts office. The

48

participants asked some questions after the lectures. We answered to them what we can do. At thesame time, many documents were distributed so that they may deepen their knowledge.
In the museum, there are many valuable artifacts. Among more than eight hundreds pieces,approximately one hundred pieces are orderly arranged and displayed. We made an inventory of these
artifacts. The space in the museum is too small for displaying all of them.
A storehouse was built with the support of the Seila program. The Seila Program is a programof CARERE, a NGO which works as a partner with the provincial government. We have received
some funds from the Seila Program. Through this fund, we might improve the museum. We made aninventory, repairs and exhibits. At present, the Battambang museum welcomes the public after rearrangement.
We called for students to come to visit the museum, and guided them in the museum,
explaining all the meanings of the displays of valuable artifacts. We showed them by video andpictures what we can do for cultural heritage protection activities. We tried hard to explain to themthat it is not only the Department of Culture and Fine Arts' responsibility, but also that of theCambodian people to protect their cultural heritage. The important result is that they have a vision andwill participate in the long-term and sustainable development of their society and country after morethan two decades of war.
We have repaired the steps of the Banan monument. Banan temple is located 22 km southwestof Battambang town. At present, the steps are still under repair, but the work is nearly completed.
There are more than three hundred steps from foot to top. We collected the laterite pieces surrounding
the mountain, which collapsed a long time ago. We have a pagoda commission to discuss the repair
works. The members of the commission are the district chiefs, the director of the Department ofTourism, the director of the Department of Culture and Fine Arts, the chief of the Education office inthe district, the chief of the Pagoda, and the Advisor of the governor of Battambang province. All ofthem have the task to find a budget for supporting this work according to their possibilities. For
example, the Department of Culture and Fine Arts helps them in techniques and the others find thebudget. In regard to this work, we know the monks have the ability to find the funds for supporting
repair activities. The monks can tell visitors what we want to do and to develop the tourist area.
Almost 90% of the population is Buddhist. Therefore, the monks can easily explain to all the people
what we need.

IV. Problem and Needs of Cultural Heritage activities
With our difficult mission, we have always met many problems. Sometimes we can solvethese but other problems were complicated, i.e. they are still obstacles in our work. I graduated inarchaeology in 1995 and from 1998 until now I have been working for the Department of Culture andFine Arts. I am thus now responsible for developments prior to my presence in Battambang province.

1.

Traditional houses

The traditional houses are gradually rotting from the effects of nature and people. Someowners do not understand about the Cultural Heritage value. The traditional houses are made of woodand easily rot in the hot and wet tropical climate. When their houses were broken down, some owners
did not tell us and they repaired the buildings themselves. As a result, the appearance of some houses
has changed over time. Changes were made to the house structures, such as roofs, columns, leaking
roofs, windows, and so forth. Little by little the houses were deformed. On the other hand, when theowners informed us of problems they have worsened and we could not solve them because our
Department of Culture and Find Arts has only an archaeologist and an architect sent from the Ministryof Culture and Fine Arts. Their skill and experience is limited. Sometimes, we can solve the technicalproblems but our department and the government has not the budget to support these projects.

49

2. Colonial style houses
Many French colonial buildings were made of stucco and wood covered by tiles. The stucco
walls have been broken by people making repairs using cement. This activity is not requested by ourdepartment. Many rich people in this town do not want to live in the old houses: they prefer new andmodern ones so they destroyed the old houses and rebuilt new ones. When the owners asked us tosolve their problems, we often cannot do anything, because those works require large budgets andexpert human resources.
3. Pagoda Buildings
We have had similar problems after discussions with the members of the pagoda commissions.
They demolished and reconstructed new, modern buildings. Sometimes they think that the old templesof pagodas in Battambang province are too old and that they need new buildings, and look for richdonors. That is a big problem for our Department.
4. The Ancient Monuments
The Monuments are in a bad condition because of nature and war. Pieces of the stones of thetemples have broken and fallen to the ground owing to the small trees and plants growing on thetowers. In addition, many visitors wrote their names on the walls of the towers. The villagers released
cows to eat the plants in the temple complexes. Some inhabitants came to stay in the temple
complexes while their villages were flooded and their stay in the temple caused a bad environment.
Looters still take artifacts and art objects from the monuments, the temples of pagodas andarchaeological sites. There is a lack of irrigation systems such as canals and dams to prevent flood
problems affecting these heritage sites. Floods have made temples collapse. We do not have enoughmaterial to do our job because we do not have a budget to spend for difficult works like this.
5. The Museum
Battambang Museum is too small. We have been making an inventory of all artifacts and art
objects in the museum. There are more than 800 artifacts and sculptures in the museum. The current
limited budget from our government and the Department of Culture and Fine Arts is not enough to
support the cultural heritage protection activities.
Recently, a technical team of the National Museum in Phnom Penh came to Battambang
museum to repair some statues. This cooperation helped us to obtain good experience in this field.

IV. Conclusion
What we described above concerns our working problems. When we clearly understand the
problems we face, it will help us to understand what human resources we will need for future work.
We tried to work hard and to solve problems, but many problems still remain so thegovernment must help us more. However, there are many big problems that we have been trying towork on to develop our poor country.
Therefore, we hope we will receive new knowledge and experience from this training course
at the ACCU, Nara, Japan. At the same time, I would like to express my profound thanks to ACCU
Nara for allowing me to participate in this training program. Thank you very much for your attention.

50

ChinaZHU Yu-Hua 朱宇華华
Assistant Researcher
Institute of Architectural History and Historic Preservation
Tsinghua University, Beijing
The Relocation of Zhang Fei Temple

Abstract: The relocation of Zhang Fei Temple has been one of the most important events in therealm of conservation in China; it is known as the second largest project for the relocation of anancient building complex after the foundation of New China1. Zhang Fei Temple is a group ofmagnificent buildings of the Qing Dynasty constructed in memory of General Zhang Fei. It was built
using traditional techniques and with decorations that only existed in ancient south-western China.
Here I will introduce the multi-ply values of the temple and the whole process of its relocation. I will
also attempt to develop an understanding of the temple’s authenticity as well as discuss thepreservation of its historical setting, which is a priority in the relocation of Zhang Fei Temple. In theend, the author reviews the whole event and shares some thoughts about the problems reflected in thisrelocation project.
Key Concepts:

Zhang Fei Temple, Authenticity, Value, the process of relocation.

Currently in China, the Three Gorges Project of Yangtze River has attracted attention all over
the world because the new dam is scheduled to be closed to store water this year. A lot of relics
along the river would be inundated soon. Zhang Fei temple in Yun-yang town is one of them; it is agroup of magnificent buildings of the Qing Dynasty displaying prolific traditional decorations. As a
National Protected Monument, the preservation of Zhang Fei Temple has become one of the mostimportant issues in the realm of conservation in China. From October 8, 2002 ~ July 17, 2003, theconservation project of Zhang Fei Temple has been conducted involving many sectors of the society.
Here I would like to review this important event and discuss the method of conservation applied
during the relocation of this historic building.

1. Background
Located on the southern bank of the Yangtze
River in Yun-yang County, 359km from Chong-qing City,
the Zhang Fei Temple was built in memory of Zhang Fei, afamous general who lived during the Three Kingdoms
Period. It is one of the well-known scenic spots of theThree Gorges. As an architectural complex, it has been
1

建国后第一次大規模文物建筑搬迁是 1954 年因修建黄河三門峡水庫而進行的山西永楽宮搬迁。

51

recognized as a renowned cultural and historical relic of the Qing Dynasty on the Yangtze River. In
2001, Zhang Fei Temple was listed as a National Protected Monument by the Chinese State Council.
There are many famous poems, calligraphy, stone and wooden carvings and paintings inside thetemple, such as the wooden carvings of ‘zheng zuo wei tie (争座位貼)’ done by Yan Zhen-qi（顔真卿）of Tang Dynasty, ‘lan ting xu (蘭亭序)’ done by Wang Xi-zhi (王羲之) of Jin Dynasty and the famous
General Yue-Fei’s (岳飛) calligraphic work ‘chu shi biao (出师表)’, which was based on an article by
Zhu Ge-liang (諸葛亮).
These are regarded very precious artworks in China. The temple isreputed as an ‘attraction of the Ba Shu (巴蜀) area’ for its possession of many gems of artistic work.
A British visitor once described the scene of Zhang Fei Temple as one of the most beautiful he hasever seen.2
Located opposite Yun-yang town, the magnificent Zhang Fei Temple with its polychrome roof
and delicate windows perches on the Flying Phoenix Hill on the southern bank of the Yangtze River.
The present Zhang Fei Temple, which had mostly been rebuilt during the Tong-Zhi period of the Qing
Dynasty due to extensive damages caused by a flood, consists of many individual buildings including
the Main Monumental Hall, Jie Yi Building (Building of Pledges), the Cuckoo Pavilion and so on.
The construction techniques employed in the buildings are quite unique in the history of Chinesearchitecture as they differ from the traditional crafts commonly seen.3 It is essential for us to carefully
research and study the evolution of Chinese wooden structures in order to fully appreciate the temple’sarchitectural expressions. Zhang Fei Temple features an abundance of regional decorations fromground to roof; such designs are unique to the area of ancient Ba Shu along the Yangtze River.
There is an impressive legend well-known to the locals about the origin of the Zhang Fei
Temple. It was based on the classic “The Romance of the Three Kingdoms” written by Guan Zhong
Luo.
This is a historical fiction set in China during the Three Kingdoms Era 1700 years ago; it isvery popular in the country and throughout Asia. The Romance of Three Kingdoms has been regarded
as a “rolling panorama of human passions and ambitions”4; it is read by people of all ages in China.
From children to politicians to scholars, this book is enjoyed by everyone.
Among the many heroes in Three Kingdoms, General Zhang Fei is one of the most famous
heroes for his bravery and loyalty to friends. He was known as the ‘Tiger General’. In 221 A.D.,
Guan Yu, Zhang Fei's sworn brother, died in a battle with the State of Wu. The Tiger General swore
revenge and prepared to attack Wu with his massive army. He ordered Zhang Da and Fan Jiang, twoof his lieutenants, to prepare the attack or suffer the pain of death. The two cowardly officers
murdered Zhang Fei, cut off his head and surrendered to Wu. However, on the way they heard of apeace agreement made between the States of Wu and Shu, and threw Zhang Fei's head into a nearby
river hastily. Legend has it that Zhang Fei appeared in a fisherman's dream that night and made arequest to salvage his head and bury it on the soil of Shu state. On the next day, the fisherman
retrieved Zhang Fei’s head and then buried it on Flying Phoenix Hill as was requested in the dream.
When he dug the ground to bury the general’s head, he accidentally found a jar of gold, which he
2

Little, Archibald John, Through the Yang-tse gorges, London: Sampson Low, Marston, Searle &Rivington, 1888. p163~p164.
“…the whole forming a scene, which would make as pretty a pictureof Eastern scenery as I have ever seen.”3
4

朱宇華，重慶三峡地区祠庙建筑的建造特色，紀念宋’営造法式’刊行 900 周年宁波国際学術研討会論文集.
（明）羅貫中，三国演义，天津：天津古籍出版社, 199452

thought was bestowed upon him by General Zhang Fei. As a token of appreciation, he raised atemple to commemorate the brave General with the gold he found and initiated the tradition of a local
memorial ceremony that was held annually and which has continued to today.
On 3rd April 1992, the world’s largest hydraulic power project, the Three Gorges Project(TGP), was commenced. It was estimated that it would take seventeen years to complete. With the
beginning of the construction of the Three Gorges Dam, the world’s largest rescue project of cultural
relics also commenced simultaneously. According to research data, 39 of the 108 historic sites along
the Yantze will be submerged when the TGP is completed. In order to save these valuable sites along
the Three Gorges, the Chinese government has made every effort to come up with plans and measures
to protect them. However, by 2003, eleven sites will disappear forever. Among them, Zhang Fei
Temple is the only historical building complex to be relocated. It was to be moved to a new site
32km upriver near the Pan-Shi village on the south bank of the Yangtze River, and would be locatedopposite the new Yun-yang town to reflect its former relationship with the town.
Zhang Fei Temple will be the second largest project concerning the relocation of an ancientbuilding complex since New China was established. It is also the most important conservation
activity in the Cultural Relics Rescue Project of the Three Gorges. From October 2002 to June 2003,
the dam is going to gradually accumulate water up to a level of 135 meters. Without being relocated,
Zhang Fei Temple would be mostly submerged as well as the opposite Yun-yang town. According to
the plan for relocation, the temple will be moved upriver along with the Yun-yang town and will be
kept intact without any changes.

2.

Analysis on the values and emphasis of this relocation

All conservation and restoration projects of historical buildings are based on a thoroughassessment of their values. After an assessment of Zhang Fei Temple’s values, appropriate plans andmeasures for its relocation were devised.
From the perspective of historical values, Zhang Fei Temple is the only large-scale building
complex in the region of the Three Gorges at present that still retains the unity of its original structureand style. Although historians are still uncertain of its founding date, a stone inscription of theXuan-He period (Song Dynasty) recorded that an officer named Chen-Si visited the temple. The
events described in this “Chen-si Bei” tablet, which is stored in the temple, indicates that the temple’s
history dates at least back to the Song Dynasty. Most of the temple’s current buildings were rebuilt at
the end of the Qing Dynasty after a major flood in the 9th year of the Tong-zhi period during the Qing
Dynasty (A.D.1870)5. Among them, the Main Monumental Hall was rebuilt in the first year of
Dao-Guang period (A.D.1821); this is also the earliest building in the Zhang Fei Temple complex.
The Jie-Yi building (Building of Pledges) was reconstructed in the 12th year of Tong-Zhi period(A.D.1873). The Cuckoo Pavilion was rebuilt in the first year of Guan-Xu period (A.D.1875).
Other buildings were also restored between the Tong-Zhi period and Xuan-Tong period. Throughout
its history, the temple had been destroyed and rebuilt repeatedly following the times of flood in the
Yangtze River. Several peculiar flood level marks were found around the temple; these had been5

云阳縣志，云阳縣志編委会，四川人民出版社，1999

53

useful for the purpose of historical research on the hydrology of the Yangtze River. For example, amark stating “大清同治庚午洪水至此”, which indicated the flood level during the 9th year in the
Tong-zhi period of the Qing Dynasty, was engraved on the cliff at the back of The Cuckoo Pavilion(Fig. 1). The flood levels in the 1980’s were chiseled on a stone near the main portal. In addition,
the cliff on the back of the Cuckoo Pavilion features a special carving of four characters: “澤惠流离”,
which means “giving relief to refugees as the rain does to grass”. In its context, it narrates a historyof how refugee immigrants from Jiang-Shu Province were accommodated by the kind folks of
Yun-yang town during the floods of Yangtze River in the 9th year of Tong-Zhi period. All thesevaluable vestiges have been integrated into the temple as a whole and became an inseparable part of its
history.
In terms of scientific values, Zhang Fei Temple is representative of the ancient vernaculararchitecture in the area of Ba-shu in south-western China6. It features many important regional andtraditional characteristics. Ba-shu is noted as one of the districts where the Chinese civilization
originated and developed in ancient times. Many historical relics are still undiscovered in the district.
In the architecture of the region, various kinds of unique traditional building techniques are still used;
these are not found in other regions. The Zhang Fei Temple complex was built according to thetimber system of ‘Chuan-Fang’ (穿枋式), a type of Chinese timber-frame construction in which
purlins were directly supported on top of columns, which are tied by many lintels. The timber
structural skeleton of Zhang Fei Temple was efficient in load-transfer, and features no additional
ornaments. This simplicity and structural integrity is thought to reflect the type of structural frames
originally adopted in ancient Chinese architecture. It is important for us to study the origin, evolution,and development of Chinese architecture to gain a deeper understanding of the framework of thetemple. For instance, the method of raising the eave at the corner of the roof is remarkable; it is very
different from all the other means we have known so far (Fig. 2).
This unique technique is stillwidely utilized in the construction of ancestral temples and shrines in the district of the Three Gorges
today.

Fig. 1 Engravings on the cliffshowing the flood level during the
9th year in the Tong-Zhi period of
the Qing Dynasty.

Fig. 2 Structure of the raised eave at the corners of the roof.

6

呂舟，从云阳張桓候庙的价値判断談傳統郷土建筑的保護， 建筑师, 第 79 期.

54From the point of view of aesthetic
values, the temple exhibits many elegant featuresof folk-custom, analogous to a garden containing
all kinds of flowers. Moreover, there is anabundance of precious wooden and stone
sculptures as well as historical wall-paintings
exemplifying fantastic imagination. On the roof,
the tiles are colorful with different sizes andshades which reflect their different ages. The useof ceramic cups produced locally as nail-cappingson the roof (Fig. 3), and expressive statues which
ornament the roof are just some of the uniquefeatures that make the temple look magnificent.
Every detail reflects the aesthetic values of thelocal people, their lives and customs, which havea tremendous value in art and history.
From the perspective of cultural value,
Zhang Fei Temple is one of the most famous
cultural sites along the river of the Three Gorges.
Known as a classic historical novel, the story of
Romance of the Three Kingdoms had a wide
influence on Chinese culture and the rest of Asia.
The story of the loyalty between Liu-bei, Guan-yu
Fig 3. Locally produced ceramic cups used as
and Zhang-fei who became sworn brothers at thenail-cappings on the roof.
Peach Garden and had vowed to live and die
together is famous throughout the country. The region along the Yangtze River between
Chong-qing City and Hu-bei Province was the ancient battlefield of the states of Wu and Shu. The
Zhang Fei Temple in Yun-yang town which commemorates the Tiger General of the state of Shu,
together with many other relics on both banks of the Yangtze River, constitute a group of integrated
cultural properties relating to the history of the Three Kingdoms Period in the region from Nan-Jing
City of Jiang-Su Province downriver to Cheng-Du City of Si-Chuang Province. Yun-yang town was
a key location for transportation routes and battles during the Three Kingdoms Period and it has awealth of relics which are remnants from that time. General Zhang Fei was famous for his
boisterous character and his loyalty to his brothers and the nation. Such related stories about him
have reinforced the temple’s values in the aspect of culture. Professor Lu Zhou of Tsinghua
University had commented that “The Zhang Fei Temple combined with Bai-di town in Feng-jie City,and historic sites such as the Ba-zhen Tu of Strategic Setup, the Gorge of the Sword and the Tactics
Book and so on, set up a brilliant cultural chain illustrating the legends and relics of the Three
Kingdoms along the Three Gorges of Yangtze River. Zhang Fei Temple is undeniably an importantand indivisible part of the chain.”77呂舟，从云阳張桓候庙的价値判断談傳統郷土建筑的保護， 建筑师, 第 79 期.

55

Fig 4. Local festival at Zhang Fei Temple.

The Legend of the Tiger General has been wellintegrated into the local customs. Offering sacrifices inthe temple has become an annual tradition. The local
people regard General Zhang Fei as their common ancestor
and prayed to him for safety and happiness. The temple
has also become a place of leisure and recreation for thetownsfolk. On August 28 of every year in the Lunar
calendar, the birthday of General Zhang Fei is celebrated.
People from all over the county come together and hold agrand memorial ceremony in his memory (Fig. 4).
People light firecracker and incense near the temple, prayfor good harvest and safety, and exchange small
commodities. Even on regular days, boatmen in the riverwould regularly bow towards the temple in respect as they
pass by. Today, the temple has been identified as a
National Protected Monument and its spiritual function
still exist for the local people because it is an integral partof the regional culture.

According to an interpretation of international documents:“A monument is inseparable from the history to which it bears witness and from thesetting in which it occurs. The moving of all or part of a monument cannot beallowed except where the safeguarding of that monument demands it or where it isjustified by national or international interest of paramount importance”8.
Due to the Three Gorges Project, both the town and the temple need to be relocated or otherwise they
will be submerged. At present, the new Yun-yang city located 32 kilometer upriver has already been
set up and most of the residents have moved into the new town. But the relocation of the Zhang Fei
Temple involved more complicated issues – What should be the emphasis of its relocation? Studying
the associated values, the most remarkable feature of Zhang Fei temple is that the delicate building
complex has stood by the Great River and integrated into the rocky mountainside for over 1000 years.
Moreover, the relocation will mainly result in the loss of its magnificent surrounding environment.
The historic setting is the prioritized value of the temple. As the Venice Charter said:“The sites of monuments must be the object of special care in order to safeguard
their integrity and ensure that they are cleared and presented in a seemly manner.”9Naturally, the main problem of the Zhang Fei Temple’s relocation involved how to preserve theintegrity of the historical environment in which the temple have existed for so long. There wereoriginally three plans on how to move the temple (Fig. 5). The first one suggests the integration of
the temple into the relocation plans for the new Yun-yang city; this plan would cost the least. Almost
all experts involved disagreed with this plan as it lacks considerations for the temple’s relationship8
9

Article 7, The Venice Charter, 1964 , ICOMOS
Article 14, The Venice Charter, 1964 , ICOMOS

56

with its former historical environment. The second plan is to move the temple to a higher altitude at
the former site on the Flying Phoenix Mountain, which would prevent it from submersion. This plan
was good in conserving the temple in its old setting, but it ignored the relative historical relationshipbetween the temple and the town opposite the river, and the local customs resulting from it.
The third plan proposes that the temple should be moved relative to the relocation of
Yun-yang town. That is, the temple would be moved to somewhere 32 kilometer upriver with thetown and would be restored on another mountain near the river. This plan safeguards the intimate
relationship between the temple and the town, keeps the important folk-customs intact, and enables thepreservation of all related cultural activities. Which plan was implemented? Evidently, the thirdplan was favored.
Relocation Plan

Objective

Cost

1.

Move into the new town

Convenience for visitors

Least

2.

Move it to higher level at
the same site.
Move it opposite the newtown

Keep the historic
surrounding
Keep the relationshipbetween the town and thetempleModerate

3.

Most

Fig. 5. Relocation options for the Jian Fei Temple.

At this point, we should discuss what it means to be authentic to a historic setting. The
concept of authenticity comprises several facets. It applies not only to the physical surroundings but
also to the associated culture and spirit of the place. The Flying Phoenix Mountain where the temple
has been built is very steep with dense forests, trickling springs. With the passing of time for over amillenium, the Zhang Fei temple has become an integrated part of the mountain. Keeping the temple
on the old site as per the second relocation option would be best for protecting the authenticity of thehistorical setting. However, the interdependent relationship between Zhang Fei Temple and the town
would cease to exist if the town was independently relocated upriver. Actually, the values of Zhang
Fei Temple comprise not only the magnificent ancient buildings but also the rich cultures andfolk-customs related to them. For example, the people who live in the town opposite the temple
crossed the river by boat to worship in the temple. Such cultural activities are of high importance,
and are part of the essential values of the Zhang Fei Temple. As the Nara Documents said:“Authenticity judgements may be linked to the worth of a great variety ofsources of information. Aspects of the sources may include form and design,materials and substance, use and function, traditions and techniques, locationand setting, and spirit and feeling, and other internal and external factors”10
The temple could be viewed metaphorically as an old man with a long history and good health rather
than a dead historic relic. Therefore it can be easily understood that moving the temple in relation to
the town is good for the conservation of precious culture values, safeguarding the authenticity of thefolk spirit and the authenticity of its cultural and historical environment.
10

The item 13, The Nara Document on Authenticity, 1994 .

UNESCO.

57

In conclusion, the emphasis on the relocation of Zhang Fei Temple has been on effectively
retaining the historic setting. It was also essential that the temple maintained its connection with thetown and the people in order for the local traditional customs and culture to be maintained after its
relocation. However, we should pay attention to making a careful choice of the new site and do ourbest to restore the former appearance of Zhang Fei Temple’s surroundings.

3.

The Process of Relocation

Being the largest relocation project of an ancient building complex in China, the moving of
Zhang Fei Temple has been the focus of the state’s attention since the scheme began in October 2002.
The project was led by the Cultural Relic Bureau of Chong-qing City. Academics of Tsinghua
University (from the Institute of Design and Research and the Institute of Architectural History andHistoric Preservation) cooperated in the project and provided the drawings and instructions for thereconstruction. The construction team was chosen within China through public bidding, but theentire construction process was supervised by academics of Tsinghua University - one of the most
reputable institutes of research on historical building in China. They were appointed by the Culture
Relic Bureau of Chong-qing City. The relocation and reconstruction was completed by July 2003,prior to the water storage stage of the Three Gorges Dam. It took ten months in total.
On October 8, 2002 the Zhang Fei Temple was closed for disassembly and relocation after
hosting its last wave of visitors. The process of the project was divided into several stages asfollows.
1) Disassembly (October 8 to October 23, 2002)
This stage involved the division of workers into
groups for each of the individual buildings. Eachgroup was responsible for documenting thedisassembly of each building with records andphotos. A cameraman was appointed in each groupto capture the whole course of disassembly. Every
part of the structure, from timber to stone, wasmarked with numbers and descriptions for sorting
purposes. Wrapping the paintings and carvings
with soft materials for conservation was also
required.
2) Alteration and solidification of the new site
(October 8 to December 25, 2002)

Fig. 6 Disassembling the roof.

This stage was carried out at the new site near the
Pan-Stone village as the first stage wassimultaneously proceeding.
Because there aremany sites along the river where the earth is loose
and prone to slide, and the new site faced similar58

risks. According to the geological report, the alteration and solidification of land has been
carried out since October 2002. Afterwards, the foundation of the building was prepared andreinforced with concrete footings.
3) Relocation of materials and preparation for restoration.
(October 23 to December 30, 2002)
It was necessary that all the elements of the structure were marked and categorized after thebuilding was disassembled. Before transportation, detailed arrangements were made to ensurethat the road for transporting was good and safe for the transporting of the relics. In fact, thegovernment allocated a special road for this purpose. The new site was divided into an area
for storing the materials and an area for the field workshop that housed equipments such asmachines and fire hydrants. When all the elements of the structure had arrived at the new
shelter safely, the workers checked the written records in detail to make decisions on thetreatment of the stone and timber parts under the guidance of specialists. Then the damaged orrotten windows and doors were repaired, or patched with new timber etc. New materials suchas replacement tiles and stones were also purchased at this stage.
4) The reconstruction process.

(February 10 to June 30, 2003)

On February 10, the workers began to lay the construction groundwork for the Cuckoo Pavilion,
which was the first building to be restored. This restoration process had lasted for a long time.
Through this individual building’s restoration, the experts in the field were able to evaluate theconstruction workers’ abilities in cooperation, technical skills, and efficiency. Meanwhile, theycarefully reviewed the feasibility of the chosen conservational methods. The representatives
cooperated with each other and revised plans for future restorations. After the completion of
the Cuckoo Pavilion, all workers gained valuable experiences, and the process of construction
accelerated. Near the end of April, the main wooden frameworks for Zhang Fei Temple’s
buildings were basically completed. During the last two months of May and June, therestoration work mainly involved repairing windows, fixing doors and tiling roofs. The
whitewash and painting work were completed as the last step. Before the oil painting began,
all the delicate timber sculptures that were fixed in the structure were shielded carefully. It
was decided that the old paintings on all carvings and sculptures would be kept in their originalstate without any treatment in this reconstruction. On June 30, the restoration of the ancientbuildings of Zhang Fei Temple was completed successfully. The experts from the Tsinghua
University institutions, who reviewed all the procedures during the reconstruction, played an
important role in determining the methods and principles of preservation adopted. They madethe final decision on deciding the general principle of conservation and choosing the technology
for preservation throughout the reconstruction.
Experts from the Ancient Building
Preservation Research Institute of Henan Province supervised the operation on-site to ensure
work quality; they even taught the workers the practice of some traditional skills. The
exchange of information between the experts from both institutions promoted the efficiency ofwork and the accuracy of problem solution. The cooperation of experts ensured that theauthentic values of the historic buildings and sites were preserved to the utmost extent in thisproject of restoration.

59

From the administrative perspective, the Culture Relic Bureau of Chong-qing City
provided support for construction management and finance. It is worth mentioning that in theprocess of disassembly, many historical evidence and documents regarding the Zhang Fei
Temple, which have never been discovered before, were revealed from various sources. The
design drawings for conservation were often modified according to new discoveries throughout
the project, however, the leader of the construction team sometimes complained about themodifications as they increased the amount of work. The budget was continually increased asa result of changes of the design. Hence a slogan was adopted among the workers in theprocess of construction — “all for General Zhang”. In summary, the project proceededsmoothly with few difficulties, except for the occasional rainy days. With the cooperation andunited efforts of all sides of the project team, the project for preserving the Zhang Fei Temple
was successfully completed.
5) Inspection and evaluation by groups of experts
On July 17, 2003, the National Cultural Relics Bureau in China organized a specialgroup of experts composed of eleven members to inspect the completed site. After carefully
inspecting the buildings inside and out, the experts has drawn final evaluations as follows:

The new site matches the qualities of the environment at the old site: the temple still stands
on a cliffy mountain and faces the Yangtze River, opposite the New Yun-yang town acrossthe river just as before. The layout of the former surroundings had been respected andthoroughly considered, embodying the international principle that the conservation of amonument implies preserving the traditional setting in which it occurs.



The former style and layout of the buildings of the Zhang Fei Temple was preserved very
well. A good respect for the visual scenery around the temple was maintained. The
principle of “no change to the former appearance” that is stated in the Chinese laws on
cultural relics preservation was strictly followed.



The methods used to preserve the materials of the buildings during the period ofdisassembly and transferring were effective. The reuse of old components of thebuildings in the restoration process was carried out to a great extent, especially in regards
to the conservation of historical carvings and sculptures of timber or stone.



There was a good combination of restoration and reparation in this construction project.
Although traditional construction techniques were adhered to as a general rule, modern
scientific techniques and materials were also implemented in a careful manner so as to help
preserve the temple for a longer period.

In the period of construction, many effective measures were taken to increase work
efficiency. A reasonable schedule was created, and detailed data on the construction wererecorded, all of which helped to execute good organization and management.

Introduced a system of for supervising conservation projects for the first time. Experts
from professional institute were invited as supervisors to monitor the whole procedure ofconstruction. Set new management standards in conservation projects in China.

60

From the evaluations above11, theexperts reached a common
agreement that the relocation
project of Zhang Fei Temple was a
successful case of conserving anancient building complex.
Itadhered to the Laws for preserving
Cultural Relics in China strictly
and embodied the basic principles
of international charters onconservation. The experts agreed
that the construction was goodenough to pass the examination.

Fig. 7

The relocated Zhang Fei temple.

4. Some thoughts on the conservation and relocation of the Zhang Fei Temple:
Today, China has entered the flourishing age of the Market Economy, and is developing
rapidly at an amazing speed, which has already been recognised all over the world. The launch of theThree Gorges Project directly resulted in the relocation project of the Zhang Fei Temple. Such is thesocial background for this project. It is believed that the emphasis of this project had been on
preserving the historic setting of the Zhang Fei Temple and its associated cultural values andtraditional folk customs. The methods adopted for the conservation project reflect the construction
standards of a modern China, these included inviting public bidding, introducing supervisory systems
and so on. Moreover, being a vital part of both the Three Gorges Project and the largest relocation
project for the conservation of an ancient building complex in China, the Zhang Fei Temple project
became a social focus from the start. All levels of governments and the media throughout China
drew great attention to this project. People were informed of each phase and every detail of its
construction from TV, newspaper and Internet at all times. The whole process was a testament to thecapabilities of contemporary China in all aspects. I will review the process in summary.
Research on the present buildings and a thorough study of the original materials as well as
historical documents formed the foundations of the project, on which judgments on the values of thecultural relics were based. The following factors have contributed to the success of the Zhang Fei
Temple relocation project:

11

A great deal of studies on the historical documents about the temple was carried out.



There was a large amount of records and practical surveys made for the present buildingsof the temple.

There was sound judgment on the complex values of the Zhang Fei Temple including its
historical, aesthetic and cultural values.

Quoted from ‘ the report of evaluation of the Zhang Fei Temple’s relocation’, 2003
(引自‘張飛庙工程評審報告’2003，)

61

Good construction plans and drawings for conservation were made based on the
judgments of values.
Cultural heritage diversity exists in time and space, and demands respect forother cultures and all aspects for their belief systems. In cases where culturalvalues appear to be in conflict, respect for cultural diversity demands
acknowledgement of the legitimacy of the cultural values of all parties.12

Professor Lu Zhou of Tsinghua University led his research group in the study of the temple’s
history and was responsible for designing the final plan and specifications for the conservation of theZhang Fei Temple. He undertook this task for almost six years. He has studied a great deal of
historical documents in relation to the Zhang Fei Temple and summarized the various values of thetemple. Finally, through discussions with the experts of the National Cultural Relic Bureau,
Professor Lu Zhou has come up with a set of conclusions about the values of the Zhang Fei Temple.
In summary, the emphasis of the conservation and relocation of the Zhang Fei Temple is on how todeal with the preservation of its historical setting. The authenticity of a historical setting involved
not only the natural environment but also the intangible culture and the believes associated with it. A
respect for the culture related to the Zhang Fei Temple was more important than the other values inthis case. Based on this, the Institute of Design and Research of cooperated with the Institute ofArchitectural History and Historic Preservation of Tsinghua University, and prepared the drawings andinstructions for the construction. These became the design instructions for the relocation project.
Secondly, it is highly necessary to have a professional designer guiding the construction
process. For example, the designer may discover many hidden traces in the temple during thedisassembly and make alterations in the conservation design accordingly in time while collecting morematerials for further study. Morever, the designer has professional skills to supervise the site and canhave direct control over the result of the construction at any moment. This guarantees the quality of
the construction.
Thirdly, introducing a system of supervision throughout the construction and conservation
process has proven to be important and effective. Many construction groups in China lack the
traditional skills and knowledge of historic Chinese timber structural system and often the designer
cannot check every detail of the work at all times. It is suggested that delegating professional
institutes as the quality control supervisor whose role is to monitor the whole process of construction
will set a new standard for such relocation projects in China. The Ancient Buildings Preservation
Research Institute, He-Nan Province, was the first to receive the certification as supervisor forconservational work from the National Cultural Relic Bureau of China. The successful relocation of
Zhang Fei Temple has proven that having professional institutes monitor the whole procedure ofconstruction is helpful for the preservation of historic buildings. The supervisor played a key role inapplying the principles and guiding the operation to ensure a satisfying result.

12

The item 6, The Nara Document on Authenticity, 1994.

UNESCO.

62

In spite of the overall success of the project, there are many questions to think over. For
example, is the bidding system for modern constructions that was introduced in the conservational
project of historic building applicable? In the moving of Zhang Fei Temple, the ancient building
construction team from Hu-Bei Province had won the bids for moving and restoring the temple, but
the wooden structures of Zhang Fei Temple feature the traditional methods and regional styles of folkbuildings that only exist in the area of Si-Chuan Province and Chong-Qing City. The workers from
Hu-Bei Province have very little understanding of these local construction methods so that they had to
ask for help from the local craftsmen. There were other problems such as the unclear role of thegovernment in the conservation project, and the role of the media in the process of construction should
also be reviewed. In conclusion, the relocation of the Zhang Fei Temple has left many unansweredquestions about the nature of conservation in China.

Wooden sculpture ofGeneral Zhang Fei.

References:
1． The Venice Charter, 1964 , ICOMOS
2． The Nara Document on Authenticity, 1994.

UNESCO

3． Little, Archibald John, Through the Yang-tse gorges, London: Sampson Low, Marston, Searle &Rivington, 1888.
4． 云阳縣志，云阳縣志編委会，四川人民出版社，1999
5． 呂舟，从云阳張桓候庙的价値判断談傳統郷土建筑的保護， 建筑师, 第 79 期
6． 朱宇華，重慶三峡地区祠庙建筑的建造特色，紀念宋’営造法式’刊行 900 周年宁波国際学術
研討会論文集,63

Indonesia
Fitra ARDA
Documentation and Publication Division
Office of Protection on Heritage of Banten, West Java,DKI Jakarta and Lampung Provinces
The Restoration of Pesagi Traditional House in West Lampung District

1. Introduction
Indonesia consists of many kinds of tribes.
Each tribe has a unique life-style and culture which isdifferent from others. One of those differences can beseen in how they build their dwellings. Each tribe has
its own housing style which is different in shape, size,
and interior designs.

The Pasagi house

As an architectural creation, a house is not only
a physical structure, but is also related to its
philosophical background. Ths in many kinds of
traditional tribal houses, supernatural superstitions are
expressed through labels or signs (Syarief 1994: 1).
Besides that, traditional houses that were built by acommunity in the past also symbolize traditional
wisdom that refers to their environmental conditions.
As one example we can find the Lampung traditional
house called the Pesagi Traditional House, which wewill discuss further in the next section.

2. Location

The Pasagi house, from the north side

The
Pesagi
TraditionalHouse
isadministratively situated in Sukadana, Kenali village,
Belalau area, West Lampung district, Lampung
province. This dwelling lies on 704 m² ground and isabout 700 m above sea level. To the north of Kenali
village is Luas village, to the south is Bedudu village,
to the west is Bumi Agung, and to the east is Bakhu.To
the north side of this traditional building are theSemangka River and also a mountain called Pesagi(2,127 m)
This traditional house can be reached easily by
public transportation from Rajabasa bus terminal withthe route to Liwa through Bandar Jaya, Kota Bumi,
Bukit Kemuning, Sumberjaya, Sikincau until Kenali,
about 270 km from Bandar Lampung.

The Pasagi house, from the east side64

3. History
In the past, Pekon Kinali or Kinali village was
located on the slopes of Pesagi mountain, in the land
which was called Bernasi. This village cannot be traced
anymore since it was assumed that it had been destroyedwhen Islam entered that region for the first time. From
Bernasi, the Pekon Kinali people moved to Pekon Kinali
Tuha, regonized as Pekon Undok, which was located at theupper area and to the east of a village that we know now
as Kinali village. The migration of Pekon Undok to
Kenali happened after the Dutch administration era, whenthe main road in Belalau area was officially opened by the
Dutch. With that main road in existence, Pekon Undok
people started moving down town to the west side area,
which is known as Pekon Kinali (Syarief, 1994: 108-109).
The people believe that Pekon Kinali is one of thevillages that was first occupied and was also the center ofthe distribution of the Lampung population (Hadikusuma
1989: 157). The legend which is still expanding in thecommunity says that Kinali village was the Lampung
people’s ancestral place of origin, especially the ancestor
from “Kabuayan Umpu Blunguh”. Kabuayan is people ofa genealogical unity who live in a certain area.

Special attributes for the aristocracy(Punyimbang)

4. Pesagi Traditional House
Generally, traditional houses in Lampung arehouses on stilts 1 – 2 m above the earth’s surface. The
traditional house in Kinali is called Lamban, the dwellingof a nuclear family. People believe living together inside ahouse is like sailing within a boat. Because of that, in thepast, a family who slept inside a Lamban had to follow a
regulation. They had to stretch out facing the prow
direction. They called this “tidur jura”. The exception was
only for dead people, whose bodies faced the back side.
Because of Islam’s influence, today dead bodies are lain ina different way: they are stretched out to the north sidewith the face facing the direction of Mecca (Syarief 1994:
118).

Special attributes for ordinary people

There are two types of traditional houses in Kinali: the dwelling for aristocratic families or
punyimbang and the dwelling for ordinary people. In general, those buildings have almost a similar
shape or character. The main differences are only in the additional floor plan for the room at the backside and the additional decoration in the form of symbols with their special attributes for thearistocracy and the penyimbang family house.
In general, Lampung Barat traditional house floor-plans are in the shape of a square or arectangle. The people of Kenali call the square house ‘Pesagi’, and the rectangular one ‘Mahanyuk’an’.
They believe that the rectangular is the oldest house.

65

The size of Pesagi traditional house in Kenali is
8.79 x 7.43 m and the height is 9.58 m. Its orientation isnorth- south with the entrance facing to the east side. The
shape of the roof is tajug or pyramidal. It is usually calledbubung kukus. This traditional house uses light organic
materials, such as lumber for the lower section (foundation)and the combination of wood and bamboo for the upper
section of the house. This building also uses palm fiber(ijuk) for the rooftop. The house consists of twelve poles(stilts). The walls are made of bamboo, called pelupuh.
The supporting poles of this building, called tihang duduk ,are made of logs resting on pedestals.
The roomarrangement for this house is very simple, since there is no
special room inside, and the front stairs lead directly to theliving room. This house consists of four rooms (kebik),which are at the front, at the middle and at the back side of
the house.

Roof, made of palm fiber

Roof framework
bubung kukus

contruction,

calledWhen people built the Pesagi traditional house,
they did not use nails. The building is constructed by usinga binding system using palm fiber cord and combined witha bolt system. This system makes Pesagi traditional houses
resistant to earthquakes. This could be proven by the 1933
and 1992 earthquakes. At those times, this house survived
the earthquakes.

In the past, people left the under section of the stilts of this house open, but today they cover itwith plaited bamboo (pelupuh). People left that section open in the past. Today, they use this part of
the house as a place for storing lumber and firewood.

5. The condition of the building and its care
The building condition of the Pesagi traditional house and its care will be observed in three
aspects: structural damage, architectural damage, and the care of the building.
5.1 Structural Damage
Field observation describes structural damage of the building which was caused by the
weakening of the supporting power of the soil where the building is built, damage to the foundations,and the degradation of the building materials. These occur due to several factors, such as:

Supporting poles of a building, called tihang duduk

66

One model of wrapping system with cord

Natural factors: the building is located in an area where earthquakes are prevalent.
Aging factor: the building materials are already old.
Disease factor: the damage caused by termite attacks.

A structural damage that can be observed at the Kenali traditional house is the sliding of thefoundation at the western part of the building, that has made the building slant to the west. Thisdamage was caused by the frequent earthquakes that led to the shifting of the building foundation due
to soil instability. To avoid the collapse of the building, the owner made several repairs to part of thebuilding. The repairs of the foundations and the house pillars, made by the owner, were merely
temporary using bad quality material. That is why the slope of the house can still be seen. Thiscondition has caused the building construction to split apart, something that could accelerate thecollapse of the building as well.
In addition, the corrosion process due to the aging of wood, together with the termite attacks,
has also caused the instability of the building. Since it was difficult to find roof material made of palm
fiber (and if it exists, it is expensive), the owner made the roof thin. As a result there were leaks insome parts of the roof that weakened the supporting roof poles. The owner then replaced again those
weakened parts, but he did not consider the condition of the materials and the construction pattern.
5.2 Architectural Damage
Architectural damage can be observed from the incomplete building components as we could
see them in the original building. This damage was caused by replacement of some building elements
conducted by the owner. The replacements were made without considering the originality of the oldarchitecture. The replacement of some parts of the house was supposed to strengthen its position. The
efforts conducted by the owner caused architectural damage and the strength of the building is not likethe original one.
Architectural damage also can be seen from some missing decorations, which wereintentionally taken from every part of the building to be sold to collectors. The missing decorations
have certainly caused the loss of the typical beauty of the house. The sale of some parts of the building
had something to do with the society’s efforts to fulfill daily needs and with the business of collectors
who came to villages to find antiques which they bought at low prices.

Floor supporting construction,
made of wood

Floor supporting construction,
made of bamboo
67

Dowel construction made ofwood, called pasakFurthermore, there were some additional parts on theroof at the east and south sides of the house. The new parts
are made of roof-tiles. Another change is the covering of thespace underneath the house with plaited bamboo.
5.3 The care level of the building
The purpose of observations on the care level of the Pesagi
traditional house is to be aware of the declining quality of thebuilding material.
As we know, the Pesagi traditional house is still occupied
by its owner. All life activities take place there all the time, likesleeping, eating, cooking, keeping fire wood, etc. Those activities
are uncontrollable, so that the care level of the building is not good
Entrance stairs
enough. The placing of firewood in the space underneath the housecauses insufficient of air circulation and high air humidity. Such a condition will accelerate corrosionof the building materials. Oily smoke from a charcoal stove causes the building materials to becovered with oil all over. This can be seen on the wooden walls, poles, plafond, and blandar. The
smoke from the kitchen also causes the color of the building materials to become black and dirty.
Because of humidity, green moss grows in some parts of the building. The roof of the buildingis also covered with this green moss and a kind of edible fern.
From field observations, it can be concluded that Pesagi traditional house is not wellmaintained. That condition accelerates damage to the whole building.

6. Restoration Issues
6.1 Common issues on restoration in Indonesia
Generally common issues in Indonesia on
archeological building restoration are:Peeping window model

Charcoal stove in the kitchen

1. There has been a territorial autonomy policy since
the year 2000. The province territory is fully
authorized to manage itself. Its impact also
influences the way of handling archeological objects.
Restorations to archeological buildings (and objects)
are eagerly conducted by territorial governments
while there are no archeologists in the area. Such
restorations are done inappropriately, without
following appropriate regulations. Many archeologicalbuildings have deteriorated as a result.
2. Lack of coordination between central and territorial
government in the archeological field.
3. The archeological restoration expenses are so highthat they are conducted in accordance with a priority
scale. Thus there are still many archeological objects
that have not yet been cared for.
4. The corrosion of wooden building materials becauseof Indonesia’s tropical climate.
5. Lack of knowledge of the person who is in chargeof restoration and conservation of archeologicalbuildings, especially those that are made of wood.

686.2 Problems in restorations of the Pesagi traditional building.
The problems faced in restoring the Pesagi traditional building are:
1. The difficulties in finding wood material that is the same as the original, especially of the same
type and size. That kind of material is not sold in lumber stores in West Lampung. Moreover trees
are felled at random in the forests for the sake of a certain community’s business and trade.
2. The scarcity of palm fiber for the roof. This is hard to find because it is not sold in West
Lampung anymore. Moreover the plants that produce palm fiber do not grow in the forests there.
3. Lack of awareness in the society on how important archeological remains are. That is why there
are many of them that are not cared for or maintained. There are even some buildings that weredestroyed on purpose to be replaced by new ones.
4. Poverty and the economic crisis factor, so that many people sold their houses to collectors.
5. The scarcity of traditional carpenters who have the ability to make and restore traditional building.
This problem is caused by the fact that no-one builds their house from wood anymore because it
costs a lot of money. Besides this, the traditional house is considered to be old fashioned.
6. The limited funds from the government available for archeological buildings restoration, resulting
in minimum restoration and care.
7. There are so many termites and beetles attacking the building materials. The prevention of suchdamage needs a lot of money.
8. Lack of experts in conservation and restoration

7. Preservation Efforts
Considering that the Pesagi house is a building that has rare architecture and is the only one
that still exists in Lampung, according to the Regulation No. 5 (1992) on Cultural Preservation Objects,
the Pesagi traditional house must be preserved and it must be done immediately. The preservation
effort conducted is to restore the building. According to a technical study that has been done, the stepsof preservation are:
1. The parts of the house with structural damage such as cracks do not need to be demolished totallybut only partly. They will then be strengthened and stabilized.
2. Architecturally the building preservation efforts stick to the original shape, materials, working
techniques and lay-out.
3. In case there is original material that is damaged and it is technically impossible to reuse it, then asubstitute material will be used. This new material must be of the same size, shape, color, quality,
and use the same working technique as the original.
4. Maintenance to the building is conducted with conservation activities which include traditional
cleaning and, if necessary, chemical cleaning using chemical solutions.
5. In the effort to preserve this site, it is necessary to arrange the environment according to its needs
considering the width of the ground.

69

8. Restoration Implementation
8.1 Structure demolition and reinstalling
As we know, structure demolition is a part of the structural repair process. It is conductedsystematically and in a strict order. The structure demolition in the Pesagi traditional house was notconducted on all parts of the building, but only on certain parts which were considered in need ofrepair. The demolition is conducted after documentation in the form of a floor-plan with marks theparts of the building which are going to be demolished so that the reinstalling will be conducted
appropriately and will not change the original form of the building. The building structure demolition
is conducted carefully in order not to damage the parts of thebuilding which are not being demolished.
The reinstalling of the building is conducted after
conservation of the building material. That reinstallation follows
the registration made before the demolition.

Replacement of roof frame

There was a total demolition of the roof of the building.
Every beam and plait made of bamboo was replaced with new
ones. Before the palm fiber roof is laid, it is first covered withiron sheeting so that it does not easily leak. The palm fiber roofis also totally replaced with new material and laid to 7 cm
thickness.
8.2 Structural strengthening

Covering with iron sheeting

The structural strengthening of the Pesagi traditional
house was conducted to the parts which have damage in thefoundations. We set a rectangular 60 x 60 cm concrete base witha 40 cm thickness under the original foundation. Before setting
this concrete, there was building stabilization by jacking up thepart which declined, orientating it to the still stable structure.
The strengthening with concrete is expected to stabilize thecondition of the building. In this restoration, all of foundation(umpak) was replaced by a concrete foundation.

8.3 Material care
The purpose of this material care is to maintain the life duration of the material and to preventthe process of corrosion, so that it can prolong the life of the building. This activity consists of::
Cleaning

Cleaning Process

The cleaning process is conducted in two ways,
which are the dry and wet cleaning. The purpose of the drycleaning is to clean the dust sediment sticking to thebuilding material by using brushes. Meanwhile the wet
cleaning is conducted using water or chemical alcohol or
petroleum ether to clean the grease sticking to the wood.
The next step is to clean the poles and the walls which areporous and eaten by termites. They are lubricated with 2 %Len trek substance mixed with kerosene. The lubricatingprocess is not conducted to all parts of building but only tothe selected parts which have been badly damaged.

70Repairs
Repairs were conducted to the parts of broken
wood material, by connecting them with the new ones,
so the original material can still be maintained orreinstalled. For the material which is impossible to be
repaired, there is replacement with new materials whichhave the same quality as the original ones, not only inthe form, size, and color but also in their working
technology. These repairs were conducted in the same
way as the roof and floor supports.

9. Environmental Arrangement

Lubrication with Lentrek 2 %Besides conducting restoration to the building,the arrangement of the site and the environment is alsoplanned. This activity is an important part of thepreservation effort for archeological buildings after
restoration. The planned environment arrangement
includes:9.1 The arrangement of the site area
The arrangement of the site area is the activity ofcleaning the site area from any kinds of materials whichhave accumulated, such as piles of wood, stones, etc.
Strengthening of the site area is also planned by making
a dike in the garden. The purpose is to prevent theerosion of the land by rain.
9.2 The procurement of supporting facilities
The example of this activity is rearranging thetoilets/ restrooms by moving them to a more appropriate
place. It is also planned to install a fence around the site. Making a dike and iron fence
To make it harmonious with the environment, the fence
should be made from plant materials (hedge), then we will put an iron fence (BRC) outside that hedge.
Besides that, there will be information boards, direction boards and prohibition boards to help visitors
who come to the site.
Because there are not enough funds available, this environmental arrangement of the Pesagi
traditional house is partly planned to be conducted in the next fiscal year.

10. Conclusion
The Pesagi traditional house is a traditional house which belongs to West Lampung
community. It still exists today. The house is full of solid architectural principles and has been reliable
for a long time.
The buildings have positive potential either technically or culturally. The architectural type of
the Pesagi house can be used as a model for architectural development that can be used by present
communities, especially by those who live in areas where earthquakes frequently occur. It is proventhat the architectural type of the Kinali traditional house can survive earthquakes. This means that ourancestors had considered and calculated their environmental conditions when they built their houses or
shelters, so that they could avoid the threatening dangers in their lives.

71

Mortar and rice pestle

Construction of the Pesagi house

References:
Hadikusuma, Hilman.

1989

Hamzuri.

Masyarakat dan Adat Budaya Lampung. Bandung: CV Bandar
Maju
Rumah Tradisional Jawa. Depdikbud

Ismijono

1998

Langkah-langkah Kegiatan Pemugaran Benda Cagar Budaya.
Ditlinbinjarah

Syarief, Rislan.

1994

Ekpresi Budaya Perahu dalam Arsitektur Tradisional Lampung
di Desa Kinali. Tesis. Pascasarjana Institut Teknologi Bandung

Syafwandi

1993

Arsitektur Tradisional Sumatera Barat. Depdikbud

Suryaningsih, Elly

2002

Studi Teknis Arkeologis Rumah Adat Pesagi Lampung Barat.
PPPSP Banten

Plafond ceiling, made of plaited bamboo

Structural reinforcement

72

Kazakhstan
Yelena YATSENKO
State Institute for Scientific Research and Planningon Monuments of Material Culture (NIPI PMK)
Almaty, Republic of Kazakhstan
Problems and Needs of Cultural Heritage Protection Activities in Kazakhstan
In Kazakhstan the problems of cultural heritage conservation are in the following areas:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Legislation and institutions providing implementation of the laws
Funding
Conservation of monuments
Modern utilization of monuments and management
In drawing the attention of the public to the problems of cultural heritage protection, topopularize heritage, educational programs etc.

1. Legislative Basis
Nowadays the major law regulating the activities on the protection of cultural heritage is the‘Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan on the Protection and Utilization of Historical and Cultural
Heritage’. This Law was adopted in 1992. Until 1992, the country followed the Law on Protection of
Monuments, which was passed in Soviet times.
The major difference of the recent Law is in the stipulation of the ownership of objects withheritage value, including immovable ones. Actually all historical buildings and architecturalmonuments were properties of the state until 1992, but the Law of 1992 allows them to be private
property as well.
In our country, historical and cultural monuments can be in the following categories: significant at thenational level and significant at the local level. Lack of stipulations about the monuments included on
the World Heritage List is a serious drawback of the 1992 Law. However, Kazakhstan did not haveheritage on the list at that time. The Khoja Ahmed Yasawi Mausoleum was the first monument
included in the World Heritage List in 2003. This Mausoleum is in Turkestan, a city in the southernpart of Kazakhstan. The petroglyphs on the Tagamly archeological site (South-East Kazakhstan) arein the nomination process for the World Heritage List. A few more objects are already on the World
Heritage Tentative List. The Law on the Protection and Utilization of Historical and Cultural Heritage
will soon be amended to reflect these events.
1.1 Institutions ensuring observance of adopted laws
The major state body monitoring the protection and utilization of monuments of historical andcultural heritage is the Department of Cultural Heritage, Libraries and Museums of the Committee ofCulture. The Committee of Culture is part of the Ministry of Education, Sport, Culture and National
Consent. Personnel of the Committee of Culture comprises 4 people only, which is not nearly enoughin a country that has, according to formal computation, more than 5 thousand architectural monuments
and historical buildings.
Provincial administrations are assigned to implement the national policy for monument
protection at the local level. In Soviet times all provincial administrations had departments onmonument protection but nowadays many of them are closed. Therefore many ill-considereddecisions are being taken towards monuments, often caused by short term interests. The most typicalmistakes are:73

Changing the exterior of facades to meet the taste of its owner or tenant;Applying synthetic finishing materials without high enough vapor permeability properties,
thus destroying wall structures;

Changing the inner layout of buildings, so weakening the load-bearing ability of the structure;Unqualified refurbishing, for example, bricks in cement mix fill in gars and “unneeded”
openings of wooden buildings;

Erecting multi-stored houses in the protected zone of the monument.

The monuments of local category are most vulnerable to such problems as they are fully
controlled by the local administration.

2. Funding
Monument preservation activities (registration, restoration, protection, researches, etc.) aresupported by the following sources:1.

national budget

2.

budget of local administration

3.

budget of private owner of monument

4.

non-governmental organizations sponsors

The economies of former Soviet Union countries degraded after the collapse of the USSR.
The past decade (1992-2002) was very tough for Kazakhstan. In a background of economic crises andhyperinflation in 1992 – 1996, the state budget was actually suspended for cultural funding, inparticular, for monument protection. A few most valuable monuments were left in state care; others
were left for local administrations that had no funds for their protection.
Since 2001 the funds allocated for monument protection have been increasing. In 2003 thestate budget provided 300 million tenge (i.e. $2 million US dollars) for the conservation andrestoration of objects of cultural heritage.
The major share of funding for monument protection belongs to the state; however, it cannot
resolve all problems. More active allocation of local budgets is needed as well as establishingrelevant non-governmental organizations and support of sponsors.
As for the monuments passed to private ownership or long-term rental – they fully depend on
the decisions and law-abidance of the owner or holders. Historical buildings and architecturalmonuments located in cities and held by respectable protectors (embassies, large companies) have areliable future, although the lack of professional supervision by the state causes ignorant adaptation ofmany monuments to current needs and a subsequent loss of historical authenticity.
Monuments of religious architecture leased by a religious community face a special problem.
Considering the growth in the piety of the population, leasing communities use their funds to house alarger number of believers and “improve” the exterior of a monument while ignoring its historical andarchitectural value.
Nowadays, mainly foreign sponsors support monument protection, because such kind ofinvestment is not yet popular among Kazakh businessmen.
The restoration of the famous Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi in Turkestan, financed by
the Turkish government, was completed in 2000. Other examples of international assistance in theconservation of cultural heritage in Kazakhstan are the current UNESCO/Japanese Trust Fund Project
for the Preservation and Restoration of Otrar Tobe, a medieval Silk Road site (started in 2001), and74

also the UNESCO/Norwegian Trust Fund project on the Management and Preservation of theTamgaly Petroglyph site (started in 2003).
It might be well to point out the use of monuments as tourism objects and for advertising
purposes. In compliance with the Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan on Protection and Utilization ofHistorical and Cultural Heritage, 1992, money earned from them should be accumulated by the State
Fund for the Historical and Cultural Heritage of the Republic of Kazakhstan. However, the Fund has
not been established yet and the money is being “dissolved” in local budgets, missing the purpose.
Nor is money obtained from using monuments for advertising allocated to the Fund because ofimperfections in the legislation.

3. Monument conservation
Now the State Institute for Scientific Research and Planning on Monuments of Material
Culture (“NIPI PMK” is its Russian abbreviation) is the head institution responsible for conservation
issues relating to architectural monuments and historical buildings in Kazakhstan. It was establishedin 1975. Until 1994 there was a network of regional workshops for restoration. The workshops
restored monuments under the supervision of NIPI. In general the quality of restoration was not up to
the mark, and the construction materials used did not meet requirements and often were incompatible
with the original materials of the monuments. Many workshops have been shut down since 1997 andrestoration work as it is fell into decay.
Nowadays many monuments in Kazakhstan need restoration and conservation. The crisis
period of 1992-1997 when virtually all monuments were disregarded, significantly affected theirconditions. In addition some of them need correction of earlier ignorant restorations that had beendone.
The few organizations maintaining restoration activities from former times as well as a few
private companies licensed for restoration work are unable to cope with the huge amount of required
work. The major cause is not even poor funding but a lack of qualified personnel. Low salaries andlack of specialized training have led to restoration being done either by highly enthusiastic people orby incidental people who failed to find occupation in other areas. Luckily, the latter do not stay forlong in such companies, again due to low salaries.
A special problem is that of developing technology for different kinds of conservation. The
above mention NIPI leads this type of activities, however, poor logistics and lack of qualified experts
hamper the development of such techniques.

4. Modern Utilization of monuments and management
Modern utilization of architectural monuments and historical buildings is regulated by the Law on theProtection and Utilization of Historical and Cultural Heritage. However quite often the Law isviolated during the selection of new functions for a monument, or during its utilization, maintenance,
repair or restoration.
The fact that a building is a monument is vexatious for many owners or users of it. They dotheir best to avoid such status for the building. An insufficient number of monitoring bodies allows
them to succeed easily. Meanwhile in Kazakhstan there has not been a single law suit on theviolation of the law of protection and improper utilization of historical and cultural heritage andmaintenance of immovable monuments.
As for the management of monuments, this notion is in the process of being introduced into
the practice of preservation activities. Not a single object of cultural heritage has yet obtained an
approved management plan.

75

5. Educational Projects and Public Participation
There is no national program for this area yet. “Monument Protection Society” was a rather
influential institution in Soviet times but currently it does not function. Other societies and nongovernmental organizations, for the most part, simply declare their concern about monument
protection without follow-up action.
For some enthusiasts and professional groups of teachers, historians, archeologists, architects,
and reporters, the popularization of historical and cultural heritage is done in parallel with their major
occupation. Thanks to their efforts, the population reads articles, sees documentaries, and watches
TV broadcasts. Upon the initiative of a private restoration company “Kumbez” (the director is Mr.
Timur Turekulov), a journal on the research and conservation of historical and cultural monuments
has been published since 1997. However, such efforts are not enough. The state should develop andfinancially support educational programs on the research and protection of monuments.

76

Kyrgyzstan
Mr. Arabidin KALANDAROV
Senior Scientist
Kyrgyz State University of Construction,
Transportation and Architecture (KSUCTA)
Cultural Properties of the Kyrgyz Republic
Introduction
The Kyrgyz Republic is located in Central Asia; its neighbouring countries are Kazakhstan,
Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and China. The total area of the Kyrgyz Republic is 198,500 square kilometers.
Over 90 percent of the area is 1000 meters above sea level. Huge mountain ranges and valleys define
the general image of the country, with its climatic peculiarities producing marked differences in its
landscape and its economic utilization.
Kyrgyzstan has a rich history dating back to ancient times. On its territory there are more than
5000 archeological and architectural monuments of historic value. Of these, approximately 1,300 are
registered and 800 are under the protection of the state. Cultural heritage is one of the main
components of national identity and a key factor for the economic development and social integrationof a nation. The main purpose of the national government is not only to preserve cultural properties
and pass them on to the next generation but also to ensure that they are being actively exhibited andutilized.

Administration System
The present administrative system for the protection of cultural properties in the Kyrgyz
Republic was developed after obtaining its independence on 31st August, 1991. The process ofrestoration, investigation, protection, and use of historical and cultural heritage are regulated by thenational Law on the Protection of Historic and Cultural Heritage (26th July, 1999). The protection ofcultural properties is administrated by the Ministry of Education and Culture. The Commission for
Cultural Affairs under the Ministry conducts activities relating to the selection and designation orregistration of cultural properties. Also there are a number of independent institutions such as:
Scientific-research project bureau “Kyrgyzrestoration”,
Specialized office of Osh city
“Kyrgyzrestoration”, National Commission of the Kyrgyz Republic for UNESCO and the Kyrgyz
State University of Construction, Transportation and Architecture (KSUCTA).

Current Problems related to Cultural Property Protection Activities
The Republic of Kyrgyzstan became a state member of the World Heritage Convention in
1995. So far, as of September 2003, six cultural sites in Kyrgyzstan are on a waiting list to beregistered on the World Heritage List. Unfortunately the present economical situation in the country
does not allow us to solve the problems in the field of cultural property protection on the national andlocal levels.
Presently, due to recent urbanization and changes of life styles, a great number of historic
structures and architecture, especially modern-period buildings of different types and styles, are facedwith the danger of being demolished without any identification and evaluation of their cultural values.

77Problems related to restoration and conservation of cultural property activities:
1. Lack of reform in the administration system for the protection of cultural properties One of the major requirements for the promotion of cultural heritage protection is a wellorganized administrative structure that will have a great influence in the further development ofthese activities. The present administrative structure of the Kyrgyz Republic does not correspondto the demands of the current transition from a centrally planned economy into a market economy.
2. Lack of a strong system for designating and protecting cultural properties in local areas Because cultural properties are located throughout the country, a close cooperation between thenational and local governments as well as the owners is indispensable in the protection of culturalproperties. Since cultural properties are intimately connected with the local culture of thearea inwhich they are found, their preservation and utilization are extremely important for thedevelopment and advancement of local culture. Unfortunately the present situation shows that
there is no strong cooperation between the national and local governments and owners. So far,some work has been done over the past few years towards achieving closer cooperation but
significant progress has not yet been achieved. This effort should now be reinforced andsystematized.
3. Lack of the preservation and succession of traditional techniques Conservation techniques for cultural properties refer to the techniques and skills required for the
maintenance, preservation and restoration of cultural properties. It is very important to preserveand pass on to future generation such traditional techniques and skills. A selection of thosetraditional techniques and skills which are essential for the preservation of cultural properties andfor which protection is required, is not conducted. There are no special programs by the nationalor local government to handle the situation.
4. Lack of human resources development Human resources development is necessary for the preservation and restoration of culturalproperties. We need to provide various types of training courses on modern methods ofrestoration and conservation.
5. Lack of promotion of international exchange and cooperation Cultural and historical heritage is the property of everyone in the world. Neither national nor
ethnic boundaries should hinder the work of their protection and conservation, which must be
accomplished through international cooperation. Conducting international research and exchange
is essential to promote the preservation and utilization of cultural properties.
6. Lack of financing at the national and local levels As with many developing countries of the world, in the Kyrgyz Republic one of the main
problems is the lack of funding for conservation and maintenance of cultural heritage.

78

Some Examples of the Cultural Properties of Kyrgyzstan

Dungan Mosque (19th century) –Wooden structure,, Issyk-Kul region.

Christian Church (1871)–
Wooden structure, Issyk-Kul region.

The City of Karakol
The architectural monuments of Karakol include a Dungan mosque (19th century) in the formof a Buddha pagoda, and a Christian church erected in 1871. There are also many archeological andarchitectural monuments including the ruins of a fortress dating back to the 16th century.
The National Kyrgyz House “Yurt”
In the second half of the 19th century, the Kyrgyz people used to live in two types of dwelling:
portable and permanent. During the nomadic and semi-nomadic periods, the portable yurt was thebasic dwelling of a nomad, whose entire life was spent in it. During following centuries, the nomads
improved the wooden construction and added a felt cover to the yurts; this construction can be easilyand quickly taken into separate components, so they were very convenient for transportation fromplace to place and could be easily assembled again. To move from one pasture to another, a yurt withall its contents were routinely loaded on a camel or horse.

External decoration of Yurts

Tunduk (timber set on the top of a Yurt)

Internal decoration of Yurts

The structure of a Yurt.
79

The Burana Tower
This minaret belongs to 10th – 11th centuries. The tower is located 12 kilometers southwest of the cityof Tokmok. This tower belongs to the period of domination of the Karakhanid tribes, which owned thebiggest part of Central Asia 900 years ago. The tower was made from baked brick and juniper bars.
The height of the tower is 21 meters, thediameter is 9 meters; its original height waspresumably l44 - 148 meters. Remnants ofthree mausoleums and half-destroyed living
premises dating back to the 11th - 12th
centuries were excavated around the tower.
Apparently, the Burana tower used to serve
as a vertical landmark dominating the ancient
city of Balasagyn, a northern capital city of
the Karakhanids’ states. In 1976, the ancient
Burana settlement was designated as animportant cultural property and restored in
1977.
th
th
The Burana Tower (10 – 11 centuries)
Located six kilometers northwest from the Burana Tower is the Ak-Bashim ancient
settlement. This area was one of the cultural and economic centers of Chu valley (6th- 7th centuries).
The total area of the city is 35 hectares. The city area enclosed with a powerful wall created a
symbiotic unit of the urban and rural population. During archeological excavations remains of two
Buddhist temples, a Christian church, a palace, massifs of residential blocks, irrigation network, andother attributes of medieval architecture were discovered.
The Krasnorech'e ancient settlement - remains of an ancient city, which was situated 38
kilometers east of the city of Bishkek. It is representative of a settled culture (5th – 10th centuries).
During excavations, fragments of Buddhist painting and sculptures were found, as well as a huge
statue of Buddha (12 meters tall) made from cast clay with subtly finished colorful drapery.
Tash-Rabat – caravan-saray, 15th century, is located 80 kilometers southeast from At-Bashy(the Naryn oblast) and 18 kilometers from the Bishkek – Torygart Road. The Tash-Rabat was erectedby the local governor Mukhamed Khan between 1409 - 1415 on an ancient caravan route, which led
from Semirech’e to Kashgar.
The ancient settlement Koshoi-Korgon, 20 kilometers west of the city of At-Bashy, there
are remains of an ancient fortress (250-250 meters) dated between the 10th – 13th centuries.
The Manas Ghumbez, (mausoleum) is 20 kilometers from the city of Talas at the bottom of
the mountain Karool-Choku. The monument belongs to the memorial-spiritual architecture of 14th
century. It represents a portal –domical brick mausoleum with an internal lancet dome and an external
ribbed tent on a ribbed drum crowning an almost cubic space. After the reconstruction in 1970, thememorial complex “Manas Ordosu” was opened. The complex includes the Manas Kumbez, thereserve-museum "Manas", and a mosque. According to some data, in 1334, an emir’s daughter andother persons were buried in this Kumbez.
The Ken-Kol Burial Ground (the Talas oblast) consists of more than 60 kurgans (burial
mound), dating as back to the 3rd – 2nd centuries B.C.
The City of Osh is one of the most ancient Asian cities. 3000 years ago, at the bottom of the
four-headed mountain Bara – Kukh (160 meters high), the first settlements were established. In the
14th century, Suleiman-Sheikh was buried in the depths of the mountain and the mountain received thename Takht-i-Suleiman (Suleiman’ s throne). Since then people began to regard the Suleiman-Too asa holy mountain. The mosque of Ravat Abdullah-Khan (16th – 17th centuries), the mausoleum of Asaf-

80

ibn-Bukhria (17th – 18th centuries), the mosqueof Alymbek-Datka (19th century) and about 30
historical monuments are still preserved in thecity. The ancient Osh (4th century B.C. – 5th
century A.D.) was an important settlement on
the Great Silk Road.
Uzgen is also an ancient city of
Kyrgyzstan. It was located on the caravanroute from Samarkand to Kashgar in the 8th –9th centuries A.D., and had the appearance of amighty fortress. In the 11th – 12th centuries, Mausoleum of Asaf-ibn-Burhia (17th – 18th centuries)
Uzgen strengthened its position by becoming
the capital city of Ferghana. The central part of the city represented a picturesque settlement withnarrow, intricate streets and market square and caravans–saray along the streets. At present, only aminaret and 3 mausoleums located 100 meters away from it, which are among the best examples of
11th – 12th century Central Asian architecture, remind us of the city’s former grandeur. The design of a
portal-domical memorial building with a square hall and carefully designed decor on the main facade
can be observed in the Uzgen architectural complex.
Between Uzgen and the village of Kara–Kulja is located the Kara–Darya ancient settlement(3rd – 4th centuries B.C.). This is an example of the Kushan culture.
Between Uzgen and Jalal-Abad, one can see the ruins of a large ancient settlement
Shorobashat, which is an administrative, military and religious center dating back to 4th - 5th
centuries B.C.
The Shah–Fazil Mausoleum in the village of Safid-Bulend (the Jalal-Abad oblast)presumably dates back to 11th – 12th centuries. It is made from square bricks on an octahedral drum,
and has a domical ceiling. The mausoleum is notable for its absence of exterior decoration while there
is an abundance of interior decorations.
Saimaly Tash (“Embroidered stone”) is one of the world’s largest petroglyph galleries. On thenortheast slope of the Ferghana valley, 91900 petroglyphs were found. Presently there are about
107525 petroglyphs dating back to the 3rd – 2nd centuries B.C.

Uzgen historic andarchitectural complex(11th – 12th centuries)

81Mongolia
Luvsanjalbuu MUNKHZULCulture and world heritage site program officer
Mongolian National Commission for UNESCO
Nomadic life and wooden architectural heritage in the territory of Mongolia
1. Introduction:
The nomadic cultures of Central Asia have made immense contributions to the world. For
many thousands of years they have been the main culture over a very large part of Asia. Through trade,conquest and the transmission of ideas, they have also greatly influenced the major sedentary cultures
which they adjoin. In Central Asia, vast highlands of semiarid steppe extend over thousands ofkilometers and are surrounded by the dense forests of the south Siberian taiga, Lake Baikal andnorthern China. The nomadic tribes from which the Mongols descended inhabit these huge Eurasian
steppes. Their lands are not suited for agriculture so they raise horses, sheep, cows and camels.
Nomads spend their lives moving their herds from one area of pasture to another, sometimes covering
vast distances within a year. Over time this nomadic style created a very unique culture, which is now
recognized as “Nomadic culture”. One of the most mobile and powerful forces in history, the Central
Asian nomads, including the Mongols, played an important role in the history of Eurasia and in ethnic,
economic, political and cultural links, including architecture. Mongolia is the homeland of nomadicarchitecture. The Mongol dwelling (ger) is an ancient wooden and felt structure which is ideally suited
to the country’s extremes of climate and the people’s nomadic way of life. Mongolia has a richexperience of developing nomadic architecture, but also has permanent wooden architecture such as
monasteries. Permanent national dwelling (ger) districts have long co-existed with the nomadic gers in
the Mongolian territory. The major sedentarisation of the general Mongolian population and the shift
to permanent residences occurred primarily in the latter half of the twentieth century, following the1921 People’s Revolution. This trend has been increasing in recent years. With urbanization
proceeding at an increasing rate, further shifts away from the traditional home environment are quite
likely. As a result of continuing economic and cultural exchanges between nomadic and sedentary
peoples, the gers and urban settlement have exercised important influences on one another’sdevelopment, reflected both in their physical structures and in their associated customs.
The present paper aims to identify present day management issues for conservation andpreservation, specifically techniques related to traditional wooden architecture.

Fig. 1 ‘Ger’82

2. The emergence of wooden nomadic and permanent buildings in the territory ofMongolia
Although nomadic and sedentary dwellings visibly represent separate cultural traditions, they
can be presumed to share common prehistoric origins. The emergence of the first shelters of a definite“ger” type likely corresponded to the domestication of animals; such dwellings were constructed of
piled-up branches covered with animal skins and bits of wool, and eventually felt.
The nomadic “ger” has, for the past several centuries, been constructed and furnished largely
using wooden materials produced in urban centers; meanwhile urban settlements have developed in
intimate association with their function as centers of trade, religion and politics servicing the nomads.
Moreover the influence of traditional architectural principles associated with the “ger” can be detected
in many of Mongolia’s historical buildings and settlements.
The “ger” is a multi-purpose dwelling that can be easily collapsed, transported to anotherplace and put up again fully preserving its original shape. Historically, being constantly on the movewith herds of animals or being on military campaigns compelled the Mongols to build “gers” on carts.
The “ger” has 2 key components:
1. The wooden framework
2. Felt cover
The wooden parts are the walls (Khana), the long poles (uni), the round smoke escape (toono)
and its supports (bagana). One wall consists of 10-15 wooden poles, each about 1.5 meters long,bound together in a way making it possible to fold it for transportation and unfold it like an accordion.
The unfolded walls are connected to form a circle. The long poles are fastened to the upper part of thewalls with the other end passed through the round support at the top of the ger, the only window andsmoke escape in the ger. Two posts prop up the round support. All parts which form the wooden
framework of the ger resemble an open umbrella.
In parallel to the nomadic wooden ger, permanent settlements of wooden buildings haveexisted in Mongolia since at least the time of the Xiongnu (3rd century BC –1st century AD). Xiongnu
building remains are concentrated in the central part of the territory of Mongolia. Whereas wooden
structures associated with the development of the Mongolian traditional dwelling and its furniture dateback to ancient times, large-scale permanent wooden structures did not become established in
Mongolia until the 7-8th centuries. The biggest town including wooden structures in the territory ofKhar Khorum, Mongolia was completed in 1235 and was declared the capital of the Mongolian
Empire A number of local and foreign scholars have investigated the site of Kharakhorum since theend of the 19th century. Since the 13th
century, wooden religious permanentbuildings were built at an increasingrate. One good example is the
Buddhist monastery Erdenezuu which
was founded in the territory of the
Empire’s capital city in 1586 by Avtai
Sain Khan with the aim of spreading
Buddhism throughout Mongolia. In
this sense the Monastery is afascinating complex of Buddhistarchitecture, which preserves theculture, customs, canons, beliefs andrelics of one of the largest cultural
traditions of human civilization.
Fig. 2 Traditional wooden structures

833. Wooden structures in the cultural and natural heritage of Mongolia: tentative list
for inscription on the World Heritage List
In 1996, cultural and natural sites were listed in the cultural and natural heritage tentative listof Mongolia for inscription on the World Heritage list. Three examples of wooden architectural
heritage were included, namely the Erdenezuu, Tuvkhen and Amarbayasgalant Monasteries. From thattime, conservation issues have been more focused on the list involving the preparation of world
heritage nomination dossiers, legal protection, various types of intervention, and regular monitoringand maintenance.
The first Mongolian Buddhist monastery,
Erdenezuu (fig. 3), was established on the ruins of
Takhai near the ancient Kharkhorum city ruins in 1586.
The monastery is surrounded by stone walls linking
together 108 stupas, and has a large gate in eachdirection. At the peak of its development in 1792, there
were 62 temples and buildings inside the fortified walls,
housing over 1000 lamas. The monastery was twice
severely damaged, first in the 1680s during the Inter
Mongolian wars, and again in the 1930s and 1940s with
the Stalinist religious purges. The monastery was taken
under State protection in 1944, and in 1965 was opened
as a Monastery Museum. In 1973, following an
Fig. 3 Erdenzuu Monasteryinvestigation into the condition of the monastery, theLaviran, Eregsumgombo, Nomun Khan, Tsamba, Ayush, Gaagai, Narkhajid and Gurvan Zuu temples
were restored. Additionally, between 1996 and 1998, restorative work was performed on two tombs,
Gurvan Zuu Turtle fortress, the stupa in front of the golden stupa, East Zuu and other main temples.
Currently there are 18 buildings standing, two tombs, plus 108 stupas and a few stelae that are on
public display. Besides this, these temples contain over ten thousand valuable exhibits.
Due to the natural and climate impacts and lack of restoration work in recent years, thecondition of several temples has been deteriorating. In particular, roof water leakage has caused somedamage to painted timbers and paintings in the Middle Zuu, Janraisag and Dalai Lama’s temples. The
greatest damage has occurred to these three buildings, five stupas and the triple tower gate. The
appearance of the temples and buildings has suffered as a result of worn-off layers of paint, wall
cracks, and so forth.
The surrounding walls of the monastery have not been repaired, and indeed several temples
and some parts of the wall have sunk into the earth to a depth of 50-80 cm. Inside the wall, there is nointerpretation or presentation board to guide visitors to the exact locations of historical, cultural andarchaeological sites and ruins. During the peak summer
tourist period, untrimmed vegetation growth obscuresmany elements of the buildings.

Fig. 4 Tuvkhen Monastery

Since the 1990s, following a resolution of the
President of Mongolia, religious activities at Erdene
Zuu Monastery have been restarted – a significant step
towards the restoration and development of the
traditional religious customs in the Orkhon Valley
Cultural Landscape. Although the temples of worship
at ErdeneZuu were destroyed in the 1930s, the Laviran
temple is now used as a residence for lamas. But thistemple is not adequate for worship and moreover,sometimes the strict religious customs and rules cannot
be executed. There is consequently a need to restore the84Tsogchin temple of Erdene Zuu, the former site of religious worship.
Tuvkhen Monastery was established in the seventeenth century and restored in 1760 and 1786.
One undamaged temple (temple studio) and the foundations of the buildings, wooden floors and ruinsof some temples have been under the protection of local authorities since 1971 and of the State since
1994. Investigative works were carried out in 1967 and 1971. A restoration design for the undamaged
temple-studio was made in 1992. The hermit monastery was largely restored between 1997 and 2001
on the basis of historical illustrations and photographs. The number of visitors and pilgrims has beensteadily increasing in recent years.
The complex of AmarbayasgalantMonastery was built during 1727 -1736, in honorof Under Gegeen Zanabazar, the religious leaderof Mongolia. Originally, AmarbayasgalantMonastery consisted of over 40 temples built on a
special terrace, surrounded by a wall, measuring
207 x175 m. Only 28 temples now remain andthey have been under State protection since 1944.
The monastery has a symmetrical construction.
The size of its main temple is 32 x 32 m. Itsconstruction expresses the planning features of
traditional Mongolian architecture and theengineering solutions are very original. One of the Fig. 5 Amarbayasgalant Monasteryinteresting solutions is the routing of roof water
through the inside of four columns, under the floor, through stone grooves and away from the main
temple. There needs to be some discussion of the case for restoration: presumably restoration isnecessary in order to maintain the original religious use of the site and therefore supports part of its
significance. Nonetheless, there is also a need to be clear on policies as to how restoration is to be
carried out without unduly affecting the surviving fabric and without introducing a disruptive element.
For the above-mentioned wooden monasteries, there is a need to point out how the buildings
are to be serviced and whether any of the arrangements, e.g. electricity supply or the use of candles,
pose a danger which needs to be covered in the Management Plan. Establishing a continuing
maintenance regime is also an issue which needs to be covered.

4. Management issues for wooden structures in the Orkhon Valley proposed sites forWorld Heritage inscription
The wooden structures of Orkhon Valley have different conservation problems from the ruinsof Kharkhorum, the ancient capital of Mongolia and Erdenezuu Monastery, whose many temples weredestroyed under the ideological reprisals. The key to their conservation is to prevent water penetrating
into the core of the wall, where it can wash out mortar and cause damage wooden parts during the frost
and snow melt seasons. To maintain their authenticity, ruins should also be repaired in a manner which
preserves their existing appearance, although there may be occasions in which the insertion of hidden
strengthening elements is essential to prevent their collapse. In addition, for the ruins of Kharkhorum,
the ancient capital of Mongolia, photogrammetry is ideally suited.
Except for the massive destruction of the historical sites of Mongolia, wooden structures were
preserved relatively well until the beginning of the 20th century. Several factors have accounted forthis preservation:85

1. Human impact on the landscape has been minimal due to extremely low population density,lack of industrial or agricultural development, and absence of permanent settlements.
2. Traditional nomadic cattle-breeding, the primary means of livelihood in the region, has had
little effect on ancient historical and cultural remains.
3. According to the teachings of Shamanism and Buddhism, it is prohibited to disturb mountains,rivers and the earth or ancient memorials.
Nevertheless the heritage sites have experienced some damage, particularly in recent years,
due to the following conditions:

Natural weathering: Through weathering and loss of their original shapes under the influenceof natural factors such as sun, wind, water and temperature changes, historic buildings, stelae
and statues are deteriorating gradually. Soil minerals, microbes and rodents have also caused
some damage.

State policy and activities: Under the ideological banner of building a socialist society,through a policy denying national history and culture, several hundred Buddhist temples withunique architectural characteristics were completely destroyed. The few surviving buildingssuch as Erdenezuu, Tuvkhun and Baruun Khuree have had to undergo restorative works.

Urbanization and increasing population density are affecting the sites negatively through the
installation of high-voltage poles, roads, garbage dumps, etc.

Vandalism and theft: In some cases local people are destroying ancient graves, burial markers
and temples by using the stones and timbers as construction material for buildings, roads andbridges, livestock fences and houses. In addition, some sites have been damaged by looters.

Challenging issues for Conservation and Protection of the Heritage Sites

Establish adequate legislative and regulatory conditions meeting the criteria of World Heritage
for the protection and use of the cultural sites.



Integrate nomadic culture with modern technology, and a coordinated system of tourism,
culture, education, science and health services will be maintained in close conjunction withnomadic culture and lifestyle.



Develop a long term sustainable conservation policy to redress the problem and enhance
management capacity.



Develop a long-term sustainable tourism industry that supports the future conservation of thesites, placing priority on improving access to and within the sites.



Implement systematic measures to ensure the protection of forest, soil and biodiversity,
discontinuation of pollution, soil erosion and local desertification; reforestation, rational
management of pastures, fire prevention and general wilderness conservation.

Establish an exchange program with other world heritage sites which share similarconservation challenges.

Improve capacity building of professional conservators.

86NepalRamesh THAPALIYA
Architect
Department of Archaeology
Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Civil Aviation
Problems and Needs On Cultural Heritage Protection Activities in Nepal
Nepal extends for 800 kilometers along the Himalayas whose culminating heights dominate
the landscape. The parallel ranges of varying heights and extent traverse the country east to west. The
topographic extremes of the country have resulted in a vertical distribution with the tropical, temperate
and tundra zones the major climatic types. The extreme variation of topographical setting andclimatically ruled environment influenced the settlement pattern of the people and the culturalprocesses of the country from the very beginning of human occupation in this land. Right from the
beginning, the population of Nepal appears to be the outcome of successive migrations of Caucasoid
peoples from the southwest and groups of Mongoloid stock from the northeast.
Being the birthplace of Lord Buddha, Nepal is regarded as one of the holiest places by the
Buddhists of the world. Hindus all over the world also pay their spiritual respect to Nepal as the only
Hindu Kingdom. The materialization and practice of both Hindu and Buddhist philosophy is the main
outcome of the Nepalese Cultural Heritage. Beside this, the people of Nepal consist of about 50 ethnic
groups; almost the same numbers of dialects are spoken and all the ethnic groups have their own
cultural traditions. Thus the practices, beliefs and other physical creations of all the ethnic groups andsubgroups of the country are considered as the Cultural Heritage of Nepal. This diversity has
influenced religious practices and their manifestation in art and architecture, creating variation inminor form among the different ethnic groups within the same religion.
The history of Nepal really begins with the evolution of the Neolithic cultures of the rivervalleys of Bagmati, Narayani and the Rapati. Polished stone tools such as hand axes, cleavers andscrapers are the silent testimony of this bygone age. Then, with the close of the Christian era we get alist of thirty Kirat kings who ruled over the Valley of Kathmandu for a period of a little more than athousand years. Two rulers of the Kirat period have been associated with Lord Buddha (sixth century
B.C.) and Emperor Ashoka (third century B.C.) They are Stunko and Jitadasti. With this one enters
into the ancient Nepal stretching from the first century A.D. to about the ninth century A.D. This iscalled the classical period in Nepalese history; and the Lichhavis, Thakuris, and the Guptas helped tomould the tapestry of this civilization. The plasticity in the stone medium reached a point that wasnever surpassed in any other period. Other mediums like bronze and terracotta were executed with
precision, beauty and grace.
In the early medieval period, the Malla rulers were able to maintain a unified political culture
over the valley of Kathmandu. But in the later period Kathmandu valley disintegrated into three city
kingdoms of Kathmandu, Patan and Bhaktapur. Though politically in ruins, Kathmandu Valley did
exhibit a strong economic base that was nourished by the profits of the Trans-Himalayan trade. This
material posterity was materialized in the form of palace complexes, Buddhist viharas, stupas andHindu temples of Vishnu, Shiva and the Shakti piths. The Malla bronzes and wall paintings are thepresent living witnesses of a period when religion provided the fountain of expression of all forms ofart whether literary or material.

87Architecture
A study of any culture or civilization would be incomplete without studying its architecture
for architecture reflects the matrix of any civilization. So is the case of Nepal. The buildings of Nepal
with their innumerable original features played an important role in shaping building art in Asia as awhole.
Nepalese architecture has its unique art and techniques of design and building, asdistinguished from the skills associated with construction. The practice of architecture is employed tofulfill both the practical and expressive requirements of people. It embraces both utilitarian andaesthetic aspects that cannot be separated, and the relative weight given to each can vary widely intemples, stupas, viharas, palaces, patis and residential houses.
The main Nepalese architectural style, which varied according to its function as private
dwelling, palace, Buddhist monastery, or Buddhist or Hindu temple is basically a brick and woodconstruction with a tiered, sloping roof.
The cultural heritage of Nepal, particularly the contributions made by the Newar of the
Kathmandu Valley to sculpture, painting, and architecture, is a source of great pride. Hindu andBuddhist religious values have provided the basic source of inspiration to Newar artisans. The themesof most artistic works have been primarily religious; the lives of the gods, saints, and heroes and therelationship of man to society and to the universe are expounded in sculpture, architecture, and drama.
In the Kathmandu Valley, some 2,500 temples and shrines display the skill and highly-developed
aesthetic sense of Newar artisans.
The capital city of Kathmandu is famous for its wooden temples. As the legend goes the name
Kathmandu derived from Kasthamandapa temple, which is said to have been built by the wood of asingle tree. Kasthamandap means "House of Wood" and the name Kathmandu owes its origin to thishouse. However, the earliest wood carvings in Nepal come from Panauti, which is about thirty miles
south-east of Kathmandu. Among others, the Indreshvara Mahadeva temple of this township is rich inwood carvings. The wooden roof struts of the temple are among the finest wood carvings in Nepal.
These carvings date to the period of its renovation in A.D 1401. The close-up roof struts in this temple
show Shiva in the form of Kali as a partial skeleton. Wood carving in Nepal perhaps finds its best
expression in the countless number of windows of every shape and type. The windows are of thelatticed type with circular, square and rectangular frames and having a peacock or the sun at the centerand other animal motifs at the base or the sides.
While talking about architecture of Nepal one has to mention the seven storied Kailaskut
Palace of Amsuvurma of the seventh century A.D. This building today has not survived; but it has
been very well described in the Tang annals and in the Nepali chronicles. It was apparently roofedwith metal, decorated with sculptures and perhaps precious inlay and equipped with an elaborate andsophisticated water system. The Malla rulers of Nepal without exception took a leading role inpatronizing Nepali architecture.
The major Nepalese architectural types along with a brief description of the world heritage
sites are mentioned here.
Temple Architecture
Nepal abounds in temples of the traditional Nepali multi -roofed and Sikhara styles. The twostyles are found side by side.

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Pagoda Style
Temples are usually two-storied and only seldom rise to a height of five stories as in
Kumbhesvar Mandir in Patan or the Nyatapola in Bhaktapur. The roofs are of copper and often gilded
or covered with tiles. A number of small bells are affixed to the edges and tinkle when moved by thevery gentlest of breezes.
Nepalese pagodas are the most important and significant features of Nepalese architecture.
The pagoda style of construction is most probably a creation of Nepalese architecture. Chinese
travelers who visited Nepal in the seventh century have left us their impressions in the ancient
documents. They speak of magnificent palaces and temples of several stories and many roofs built one
above the other. Therefore it could be easily concluded that buildings in the pagoda style were alreadyin existence at that time.
Their descriptions and the praise of the architecture indicate that the Chinese were totally
unacquainted with this style of building and lend weight to the belief that the pagoda originated in
Nepal and later spread to the other parts of Asia.
It is believed that the ancient builders were motivated more by a desire for beauty andsplendor than by utilitarian consideration. The style was developed in the first centuries of theChristian calendar and reached its full flowering in the Middle Ages.
Most of the temples of Nepal are built in the pagoda style. The pagoda style of architecturerefers to multi-roofed structures given further height by tiered brick bases. Pagodas look like a stack ofpyramids piled one above the other. On each storey of the tower-like structure, wooden beams andstruts (a structural piece designed to resist pressure in the direction of its length) support a widely
projected slanting roof, the struts ascending diagonally from the central structure to the edge of thetiled roof. The majestically tapered, ascending profile of the structure, with its strong contrast of lightplaying on the roof and masses of shade looming below, is peculiar to Nepal. Rich in textures andcolours, the temples are embellished with carved and painted struts, carved doorframes and window
frames, and embossed gilded copper sheets.
The struts of the roof form in many cases the symbolic images of the deities of the main
shrines and sometimes the heroes of the Mahabharat and other female or mythical beings. The
Nepalese art of wood carving achieved its finest expression in these countless roof struts of such
pagoda style temples. Most often the temples are decorated with images of both the Hindu andBuddhist pantheon with added dragons, mythical figures and erotic cameos. The ground floor of thepagoda is considered the abode of the god for whom the temple was built. Only a few instances areavailable where the Sanctum - Sanctorum of the deity is found on the upper floors of a temple.
Pagodas were usually constructed in Kathmandu in response to the need for higher structures.
Although they do not seem like high towers in today’s skyline, they were tower-like structures inancient times. Hindus believed that the gods lived up in heaven and in order to provide easy passage
between the heavens and the temples tall temples were needed.
The oldest Pagoda temple built in Nepal was the Pashupatinath Temple, which was built
around first century AD. Other records also have proved that many pagodas-like structures were
present in Nepal by the seventh century. They were primarily developed and flourished during the
Malla dynasty. We can find very few pagodas in Nepal from before the Malla period. Nepal is the only
country having so many temples made in the pagoda style. Among the most representative examplesof the multi-roofed architecture are the Pasupatinath and the Taleju temples of Kathmandu and the
Nyatpola temple of Bhaktapur.

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The temple of Pasupatinatha (Pashupatinath) situated in the Kathmandu Valley on the
Baghmati River, just east of Kathmandu, is regarded as the holiest place in Nepal. It is the site of anancient Saivite (i.e., devoted to the Hindu god Siva). The temple is built in pagoda style with a gilt
roof, and the banks of the Baghmati are paved for several hundred yards. There are numerous othershrines in the vicinity. The Sivaratri festival in February or early March attracts Hindu pilgrims from
India and other foreign countries. Pious Hindus also go there to die, believing that they will findsalvation if they expire with their feet in the sacred waters of the river at Pashupati.

Pashupatinath

Nyatapola temple is a typical example of Nepali temple architecture built in A.D. 1702 (822
N.S.) by the contemporary king of Bhaktapur King Bhupatindra Malla. This early eighteenth century
tiered temple is situated at the Taumadi Square, southeast of Bhaktapur Durbar Square. The temple isdedicated to Goddess Siddhilaxmi who represents prosperity and good fortune and also represents theGoddess of War. It is the tallest tiered temple built in the pagoda style, standing on five huge plinths
with a five-storied roof and a polished gold brass pinnacle at the top. The base of the Nyatapola temple
is a rectangular terraced platform of stones and has
five stages or folds with a steep stone-paved
stairway. Nyatapola Temple has to be assessed withregard to its role in the architectural history of
Nepal. It modified the age-old canons and found
new ways of expression. It shows significant
innovations such as increase of roof storeys andplinth steps on the one hand and the introduction ofan open gallery surrounding the shrine cell on theother. Bhupatindra Malla integrated various stylesof near-contemporary monuments to make aconvincing political and religious statement while
erecting this temple to his personal deity. The result
is a building of the utmost harmony, defining
mature rules and canons of temple design to beobserved until the end of the Malla rule.
Nyatapola

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Shikhara

Shikhara
This is primarily a stone and brick construction. The world Shikhara means a mountain peak
and thus it indicates to a certain extent the shape of the temple. It has either five or nine sections. The
final section consists of a bell-shaped top. This architectural style is actually Indian in origin.
The most representative, finest and best-known construction in this style in Nepal is the
Krishna Mandir in Patan. This stone built temple stands on a three-tiered platform and has three open
verandas, each smaller than the one below and is supported by pillars. The stone reliefs on all sides ofthe building depict motifs from the two epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata.
StupasExcept for the relics of Tilaurakot and Piprawa the stupas are the oldest monuments ofarchitectural importance. The stupas are in the shape of a hemisphere constructed out of bricks on aplinth of bricks or stone and devoid of architectural decoration. At the top there is a small chapel andon the four sides of the garbha there are similar chapels. The top chapel is dedicated to Vairochana. At
each lateral chapel attached to the hemisphere are the four meditating Buddhas: Amitabha,
Ratnasambhava, Aksobya and Amoghasiddhi. The Swyambhunath and Baudhanath stupa have beenthoroughly restored but conservation is of a convincing nature and the old form has been retained. Itschief character lies in the substructure, which comprises a number of concentric terraces with turrets at

Swayambhunath Stupa

Bouddhanath Stupa

91the angles, the whole approached by a simple and dignified flight of steps. Above the harmika is a
stepped pyramid in thirteen storeys typifying the thirteen heavens of the devas (gods). This issurmounted by the finial. It then supports the Kalasa finial.
The popular stupas Swoyambhunath in the west and the Bouddhanath in the east ofKathmandu were built during the Licchavi period. Characteristic of the large stupa like the one at
Boudhanath is the low base from which it rises and its crowning dome-shape. The small stupa was
generally set in the courtyard of a Buddhist monastery.
Originally, the stupa of Swayambhunath must have been a simple earth tumulus erected on ahillock. This rough mound is now crowned with an immense finial previously described and stands
amidst a complex of temples, shrines and alcoves of which it forms the central feature. On both thestupas one sees a pair of painted eyes looking in four directions. They are today interpreted as the allseeing eyes of Buddha. This is a very distinctive feature of the Nepali stupa architecture not found in
the other stupas of the world.
Palace Architecture
The royal palace in each of the three cities of Kathmandu Valley served not only as theresidence of the monarch but also as the seat of government. It seems that the three palaces were built
in the mid - seventeenth century. The three palaces have a similar plan of construction. The palaces are
four storied and consist of many courtyards. It is said that the palace of Bhaktapur had as many as ahundred courtyards; but all of them have not survived. Each palace has the Mul chowk (principal
courtyard) on the side of which is raised the temple of Taleju Bhavani. Next to it is the Sundari chowk
which served as the private apartment of the monarch himself. There were also many other courtyards
named after deities like Bhairab and Narsinha. The struts of the roof and the doorway of the palace arecarved with deties of tantric origin, the eight mother goddesses, and the Mahavidyas, Ganesh andBhairava.
Nuwakot durbar of Nuwakot district and Lumjung durbar of Lumjung district are also
constructed in similar designs as the durbara in Kathmandu valley. When we come to the modern
period many Hindu temples in Nepal were built in a dome-shaped structure like the Vishwarupa
temple, Jang Hem Heranya temple at Thapathali, etc. Again the Janaki temple of Janakpur shows astrong impact of the Mughal architecture. When we come to the end of the nineteenth century Nepal
was invaded by a wave of western architecture; this is seen in innumerable Rana palaces like
SinghaDurbar, Lal Durbar, Phora Durbar and Seto Durbar.

Basantapur Bhawan

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Rani Durbar, Palpa

Fifty-five Window Palace

Patan Durbar

Seven Storied Palace, Nuwakot

The Vihara architecture
The architecture of the Vihar constituted a part of the monastic system. It consists of the main
shrine and the chambers around the courtyard. The temple site was just opposite the entrance. The
temple might be of one or multiple stories with all the carvings in wood and paintings on the walls
inside. The courtyard often has at the center a tumulus or a Chaitya. The temple doorways were
profusely decorated as the frame, lintels, the sides and the cornices as well as the tympanums (toranas)
were carved with floral designs and minor or acolyte deities. The entrance was the open hall withpillars supporting the storey above it. One could reach the temple through the courtyard or through theplatform. The buildings of the Vihara were generally double storied. The stores of the structure on thethree sides of the courtyard are meant to provide rectangular chambers where images and manuscripts
belonging to the vihara were deposited. A part of the upper storey often was used by the priest toaccommodate his family. It should be remembered that the main deity of the Vihar is always the
Sakyamuni Buddha or the Bodhisattava of the age.
The entrance to the court was through a door which was either wood or hammered brass. The
hall adjoining the door has one of the niche deties like Mahakala, Hariti, Ganesh and Hanuman, who
are there to protect the Vihar. The Vihar architecture today can be dated to fourteenth century A.D.
Some vihars are 30 ft. x 30ft while the large ones cover several acres. Some of the important vihars
include Na-haha, Wu-baha, and Baga -baha, Bhinche -baha and Tavabaha in Patan and Itum -Baha,
Tara - baha, Tava - baha and Yatka - baha in Kathmandu. There are also some important vihars in
Kathmandu and also in Bhaktapur, but small vihars are scattered throughout the cities of the Valley.

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Lumbini
Lumbini, which is located about 28kms west of Bhairahwa in Eastern Terai of Nepal, is thebirthplace of Lord Buddha who was born in 623 BC. Because of this Lumbini has been inscribed in
the World Heritage List in 1997 as the second World Heritage Site of Nepal. The birth of Lord
Buddha has made this place a world famous pilgrimage site for Buddhists living around the world.
This place has also been a place of veneration for all the peace seekers of the world. Emperor Ashoka
of India came here in 249 BC to pay homage to the place and he erected an inscribed stone pillar near
the spot where Lord Buddha was born. This has been stated in the inscription and is the first historicalevidence of its kind ever found in our country. During the third century, the temple of Mayadevi wasconstructed on the place where the Lord was born. An image of Mayadevi also stands here, which is
known as the “Nativity Sculpture”. A conglomerate stone located deep in the sanctum Sanatorium
indicates the exact spot of the birthplace of Lord Buddha. It is said that Mayadevi took a bath in the“Sakya Pushkakini” pool just before giving birth to Lord Buddha, which makes it more holy andprecious. This holy site is surrounded by a row of stupas and other archaeological ruins from the third
to fourth centuries BC onwards.

LumbiniWith ever-speedier communications and faster means of transportation, the world has grownsmaller. It is becoming a global village. It has grown richer in many ways, and poorer in many others.
Throughout the continuum of change in human civilisation over the ages, cultural treasures have beencreated and destroyed. Wherever these treasures may be located, they constitute a heritage. Our
heritage is what we have accumulated from the past, what we live with in the present, and what wepass on to future generations to enjoy. Our national heritage embodies our touchstones, our cultural
points of reference, and our identity. Some of the most representative expressions of these heritages
having outstanding universal value are listed in world heritage lists. So such treasures needs to beembraced and defended, cherished and protected.
The physical cultural heritage is, basically, a non-renewable, irreplaceable resource. More andmore, our sites are at risk of degradation as a direct or indirect result of urbanisation, natural resource
exploitation, population growth, pollution and other phenomena of modern industrial civilisation.
Theft of art and archaeological material, and petty theft and vandalism are also common threats tocultural sites. Fires are a direct threat; one of our monuments in the Svayambhunath protectedmonument zone was badly damaged by fire recently. Sites are menaced by water, chemicals, insects,
plants and micro-organisms, any numbers of which cause damage or deterioration. Our cultural
heritage's physical and cultural integrity also faces an array of indirect threats: atmospheric pollution,
traffic vibration, encroachment and intrusive commercial development. To these threats are added

94

natural disasters, some of which are caused by unsustainable and environmentally harmful humanpractices, and armed conflict.
For these reasons, site management must take into account local and national plans, forecastsof demographic growth or decline, economic factors, traffic projections and industrial zoning andpreventive measures to mitigate various types of manmade and natural disasters. Successful protection
and maintenance require continuous assessment, inventory, information management, research andadministration. It is this process that guarantees a World Heritage Site's survival as a sustainable
resource. A key element of the process is planning for sustainable tourism, starting with soundlegislation and regulatory measures that ensure the integrity of protected areas.
The scope of the subject certainly requires a detailed discussion on and about the problem andneeds to be identified in the conservation of all types of cultural heritage existed in Nepal, which isquite impossible in this small paper. Therefore, allow me to confine this paper within the scope of
Nepalese cultural heritage that is inscribed in the ‘World Cultural Heritage’ list and their adjacentareas declared as Protected Monument Zones.
In 1978, Nepal accepted the UNESCO's Convention concerning the Protection of World
Cultural and Natural Heritage 1972. Immediately after the acceptance of the convention, Nepal
proposed to inscribe the Katmandu Valley with its seven different unique cultural monumental sites in
the list of World Cultural Heritage of UNESCO and the proposal was accepted and inscribed in 1979.
Likewise in 1998, Lumbini, the birthplace of Lord Buddha, was also included in the World Heritage
list. The act of listing Nepalese monuments in the World Cultural Heritage list generated moreenthusiasm to the Nepalese authorities in conserving and safeguarding the heritage. All themonuments included in the list and their particular adjacent areas have been declared as ‘Protected
Monument Zones’. Special legal and technical measures have been undertaken for safeguarding andpreserving the authenticity and environment of the Protected Monument Zones, Technical andfinancial resources have been mobilized through national as well as international sources. All these
activities have resulted in considerable improvement in the physical condition of the monuments. But
the historic environments of privately owned houses in the Protected Monument Zone are not properly
maintained. At the same time, during the end of 1993, a Joint UNESCO/ ICOMOS Review Mission
came to Katmandu and reviewed all legal and scientific measures adopted for the conservation of theProtected Monument Zones, and made sixteen recommendations. Nepal sincerely considered thesixteen points, and most of them were executed. In 1997 the World Heritage Committee again
commissioned a Joint Mission comprising experts of the UNESCO/ ICOMOS/HMG- Nepal, and theMission reviewed all activities, procedures and management systems regarding the protection andconservation of the World Heritage sites in 1998. This mission studied the situation of all the sevensites and legal and technical measures adopted for the conservation of world heritage sites of Nepal
and made 55 recommendations incorporating the 16 suggestions of the previous mission. Considerable
progress is being achieved in the 55 recommendations. Nepal is trying its best to protect themonuments and their authenticity as well as the environment of the World Heritage Sites inaccordance with national and international conservation principles and norms.
Despite all the efforts, the WHC meeting held in Paris in 2002 put the Kathmandu Valley
World Heritage Site on the List of World Heritage Sites in Danger. The reason given for taking thisstep was the serious deterioration of the historical setting of the monuments and their surrounding
fabric by new building activities that are permanently altering the historical character of this site.
Consideration of an urban cultural heritage conservation strategy cannot be made based onconservation needs alone. Developmental issues have also be taken into the picture in terms of thestrategy required to overcome both conservational and developmental problems. The problems ofurban heritage conservation must also be considered as developmental problems. The strategy for theconservation should be based in the context of urban development.
The number of inhabitants in the heritage area is actually growing, and the historical core stillis the city's centre for economic activities and growth catering for the city and its upland. The inner95

cities are "generative" rather than "parasitic". The city centers are "growth centers" as they aredeveloping fast, with economic potential and a positive generative role. The middle and higher income
population has invaded the well-located and attractive low-income areas. The result is that
economically weaker sections are marginalized. The small-scale economy represents a local economic
potential, but is also a threat to conservation and housing needs.
Nepal is a market-oriented economy and the administration is like a "soft state". The role ofthe centre as well the local government is marginal. In the process of conservation and developmental
efforts, it becomes essential to work "with the people".
During the course of implementation of the plans and programs concerning the conservationof World Heritage sites as per the nationally and internationally accepted principles and norms ofhistoric monument and site conservation, many challenges have been encountered and all possible
efforts have been made to meet them. The buildings located in the Nepalese World Heritage sites canbe categorized mainly into two groups in terms of ownership; they are (a) Public monuments and (b)Private houses. The challenges identified in conserving the private houses are more complicated incomparison to public monuments. In this paper, efforts to discuss some major challenges are made.

Problems in conservation of public monuments –The Nepalese World Heritage sites consist of a main monument surrounded by othermonuments or groups of monuments. This group of monuments including the main monument falls in
the category of public monuments. The major challenges identified in the conservation of these publicmonuments can be thus discussed under the following sub headings.
Lack of sufficient funds:
It is a well-known fact that the conservation of cultural heritage is highly expensive. The funds
made available by the government always prove to be insufficient in comparison to the number ofmonuments and expensive conservation materials and craftsmanship. The constant appropriation ofsome amount of the government's annual budget and a few donations from different donor agencies
have enabled us to keep the public monuments of the World Heritage sites normally in good condition.
But a big amount is needed to conserve them properly and improve the condition of such sites.
Therefore, the managers are bound to work with insufficient money and thus, unsatisfactory results.
Thus the insufficient investment in conserving the cultural heritage has always remained a major
challenge.
Lack of proper documentation:
Advanced architectural conservation is based on experience of architectural heritage recording
and information management. The first conservation levels are associated with knowledge.
Knowledge entails documentation as a fundamental aspect for preserving cultural heritage.
Architectural records, and information generated from them, play vital roles in the conservation
process. In that context, and prior to any conservation measures, architecture must be documented,
analyzed and viewed as the result of its evolution and history. The conservation of architectural
heritage entails a consideration of the material as well as the immaterial aspects of the heritage. The
physical aspects of architectural heritage and its symbolic meanings in historic, cultural and social
contexts make up the cultural memory and legacy left to future generations. Such important aspects
got little attention in the past. Conservation became even more complicated with the absence of suchrecording. Thus the development of recording and documentation skills by conservationists is needed
at present as it helps them to manage the information scientifically so that they can be re-accessed anddiffused in the future.
A detailed inventory of the monuments of the World Heritage Sites, including private houses,
is yet to be completed. Though the DOA has started this job and an inventory of two sites has been96

already completed, six more sites are yet to be inventoried and it will certainly take time to complete
all the sites. Until and unless the documentation is completed properly it is impossible to categorize
the monuments and treat them in accordance with their category value and importance, which is very
necessary to formulate plans and programs in conserving the World Heritage of any place. Thus thelack of an inventory of the monuments of the protected monument zone is also a challenge for theconservation of the Cultural Heritage of Nepal.
Lack of public awareness:
Another challenge in implementing the plans and programs for conservation of the Cultural
Heritage of Protected Monument Zones of Nepal is lack of public awareness about their heritage.
Unless an effort is made to make the people living in and around the protected monument zones orWorld Heritage Sites aware of the importance, value and direct and indirect benefits of their cultural
heritage, they neither appreciate the efforts made by somebody else in conserving the Cultural
Heritage nor do they participate themselves in such conservation. If the support and appreciation of thelocal public is not gained, the conservation of cultural property remains incomplete. Therefore one
among the challenges faced by Nepal in conserving the cultural properties of the country is lack ofpublic awareness. Several measures have been taken to create awareness among the people.
Information on and about the cultural heritage of protected monument zones has been broadcast on
radio, television and in newspapers. Likewise, several posters, pamphlets and brochures have been
distributed. Cultural heritage and its importance have been included in the high school level
curriculum. It is hoped that a positive result of these activities will be realized slowly in coming days
and that this challenge will be changed into positive support from the people.
Living Cultural Traditions:
The Katmandu Valley, being inhabited by people since the beginning of the Christian era oreven earlier, has produced different types of architecture and construction techniques. The combined
nature of the settlement pattern and the execution of secular and religious buildings within a cluster
shows the closeness among the palace, temple, stupa, public rest houses and private houses. Thus, theentire monuments of Katmandu Valley included in the World Cultural Heritage list are not isolated but
surrounded by a series of private houses and other public monuments. Conservation of any cultural
site does not mean just maintaining and keeping intact any architectural monument or tangible heritage
but also to preserve or make regular the functioning of traditional activities or intangible cultural
practices at the site. All the Nepalese cultural monuments in the World Heritage List are living
heritages. It is accepted everywhere in the world that conservation and management of living culturalsites is a great challenge. Local people living in the cultural heritage zone are one among the mostimportant elements in conserving such intangible cultural heritage. Without people a cultural World
Heritage Site will remain like a dead monumental zone and the traditional living cultural heritage will
disappear from the scene. Therefore, the job of the Nepalese World Heritage Site managers is also to
retain people's living pattern and their livelihood within the protected monument zones. This
compulsion is the outcome of the long history of occupation and tradition, which has created many
challenges in conserving the sites. Thus, the living cultural traditions of the World Heritage sites of
Nepal are also a burning challenge in the conservation of cultural heritage.
Lack of co-ordination between different agencies:
Traditionally, as well as legally, different governmental and semi-governmental organizations
are responsible for maintaining and conserving Nepalese cultural heritage. Nowadays someinternational, national and local nongovernmental organizations are also coming forward to share such
responsibility. The Department of Archaeology is the only government authority responsible in thismatter. The Guthi Corporation, several municipalities, Pasupati Area Development Trust and Lumbini
Development Trust are the semi-governmental organizations who are involved in the conservations ofcultural properties. Also the Nepal Heritage Society, Federation of Swayambhu Management andConservation, Boudhanath Development Committee and some other NGOs are ready to participate in97

this field in their respective capacities. The conservation activities of all such organizations should becoordinated and harmonized to achieve better results. But the semi-governmental organizations havetheir own by-laws and policies that have sometimes created confusions in formulating plans andprograms of site and monument conservation. To face this challenge the Department of Archaeology
is playing a coordinating role as well. It is intended to prepare a master plan for the conservation of all
the World Heritage Sites. Such plans for Soyambhunath area, Pasupatinath area, Patan Durbar area,
Changunarayan area, and Limbini area are already in execution and the master plans for Boudhnathand Bhaktapur palace area are being prepared. This sort of master plans will be helpful to formulate
programs on a priority basis and the proper utilization of resources in such World Heritage sites andthey may serve as the guidelines and basic documents to coordinate the governmental and semigovernmental organizations as well as the NGOs and Ingos.
Another burning challenge caused by the lack of proper coordination is in the field ofcontrolling modern construction and the encroachment of urbanization. To control such activities, theactive support of chief district officer (District Administrative Head), local police force, andMunicipality authorities is necessary but this sort of activity does not count as one of their priorities.
This tendency has created a very difficult challenge. To meet this challenge, the Department ofArchaeology is to constitute a high level committee that may coordinate with all these authorities.
Technical and Logistic Support:
Providing technical and logistic support to local people is necessary to preserve the vernaculararchitecture. Training of the people in the heritage areas in income generating activities such as
making handicrafts, guiding tourists, managing motels and lodges in a local set-up to give an ancientflavor for the tourists, making souvenirs relating to the monument, etc, is necessary to educate thepeople on the conservation objectives so that they will be able to deliver the services, and manage andprotect the environment.

Problems Related to Private Houses –It has already been mentioned that a number of private residences exist within the World
Heritage sites of Nepal. The local inhabitants are maintaining their age old cultural tradition which isalso an important aspect to be conserved at the site. The people who are living inside the protectedmonument zones are another important element in conserving the cultural properties of the sites.
Therefore, it is necessary to retain people's accommodations and their livelihood within the World
Heritage sites. This limiting situation has created several challenges and most of these are related tothe construction and reconstruction of their private houses. The major activities of inhabitants thatcause serious threats are outlined below.



The traditional fabric and setting of the monuments and their surrounding environment are
being seriously affected by new building activities which are permanently altering the historiccharacter of the World Heritage Sites.

Open public spaces are encroached for public as well as private purposes.



The demolition of historic houses in and around the World Heritage Sites and theirreplacement by unsuitable new buildings and additions of floors to historic buildings isanother serious problem.

Lack of maintenance to old buildings and a failure to understand their cultural value haveincreased the damage.



Traffic pressure has increased tremendously with the increase in population and vehicle
numbers.

Overhead electrical wiring, and the placement of poles and transformers in the immediate
vicinity of monument as well as in the streets are intrusive.

98The installation of satellite dishes and telephone cables on historic facades are detracting fromtheir character.

Monuments are being increasingly encroached upon by commercial vendors and advertisers
are seriously defacing the historic character of the monument zones.
Some selected problems are discussed in brief as follows.

Nature of construction materials and the tradition of reconstruction:
The main construction materials of Nepalese traditional architecture are bricks, timber,terracotta tiles and stones. The binding medium in almost all the traditional buildings is mud and very
often lime surkhi is found. They are constructed in a load bearing system. When old buildings aredamaged, deteriorated or dilapidated due to the nature of construction materials and the load bearing
system, there was a traditional practice of reconstruction after complete demolition of the building
instead of in-situ conservation. The construction materials used in traditional buildings, as mentioned
above, are reversible and replaceable. The age-old timber components of traditional buildings arealmost always found in a rotten condition and need urgent replacement. It was traditional practice todemolish such houses and reconstruct them again. If people are permitted to demolish their dilapidated
houses they do not follow the conservation norms while reconstructing them but if permission for
demolition is not granted they will develop negative attitudes against the conservation policy.
Therefore, the tradition of reconstructing old houses and the scarcity of old construction material isalso a source of challenge in conserving the World Heritage Sites of Nepal.
Problems adjusting between owner demand and governmental codes and regulations:
As the perceived need for the structure has changed considerably, the design professionals areunable to find solutions within the framework of current governmental codes and regulations.
The design of a building begins with its future user or owner, who has in mind a perceived
need for the structure, as well as a specific site and a general idea of its projected cost. It is thechallenge for the design professionals to develop from them a set of construction documents thatdefine the proposed building exactly and from which it can be constructed within the framework ofcurrent governmental codes and regulations. If design professionals are able to incorporate standard
criteria for human comfort such as thermal environment, lighting levels, damp proofing etc., the job to
implement the approved design becomes that much simpler.
Changes in house use system:
Another challenge in conserving private houses in the World Heritage Sites is generated fromchanges in the traditional house use system. The ground floors of almost all old private houses were
not in use until the recent past. Therefore, only a few small windows were provided on the groundfloor and it remained always damp and dark. The ceiling height is also around six feet. Nowadays, thedampness can be checked by providing damp proof courses and the ground floor of a house can beused in a more comfortable way. Almost all the areas of the World Heritage Sites are developing as
tourist centers and the ground floors of the private houses can be changed into profitable shops. They
need bigger size windows for more light; they also want to increase the floor height of their houses
and they try to add different modern commodities in their houses, most of which cannot be used due tothe size and shape of their traditional houses. Thus the intention of prescribed conservation norms andpeople's needs could not go together and it creates confrontations between the house owners andmanagers of the World Heritage Sites. In this situation public support to implement plans andprograms of conservation in heritage sites is impossible and to meet such challenges is a very difficult
task.

99

Scarce and expensive materials and craftsmanship:
The bricks and terracotta tiles used in old houses are of special type and quality. Anotherconstruction material used in the traditional buildings of heritage sites is stone. The stone itself and thecarvings on it are of high quality. Though the timbers used in the old houses are of large quantity andlow quality, the carvings and designs on them are very beautiful. The production of such qualitativeand beautiful construction materials is two to three times more expensive than the modern construction
materials. To get these materials and craftsmen in the market is very expensive. Therefore, this has
become a burning challenge to convince the people for maintaining the historical environment inWorld Heritage Sites. To meet such challenges different measures are being executed. Under suchmeasures the following facilities will be provided to those who follow the DOA's norms in conserving
and constructing their houses.
1. Necessary timber and traditional bricks will be provided at subsidized rates.
2. The government will provide 10% of total costs to the house owner.
3. If someone conserves or constructs his/her house following the prescribed rules andregulations and the conservation norms, they are encouraged and honored by certain prizes.
But such provisions could not attract the people and they remain unsuccessful. Therefore weare thinking about meeting this challenge in another way.
Socio-economic changes:
The rapid changes in the socio-economic life of the people living within the World Heritage
Sites has also generated several challenges in conserving the cultural heritage. The agriculture-based
economy of the local inhabitants has changed into an industrial and commerce-based economy.
Almost all areas of the World Heritage Sites are developing as tourist centers. Therefore, thecommercial value of the private houses of the World Heritage Sites is increasing day by day andpeople want to change the unused ground floors of their houses into shops or other commercial
facilities. Thus the changes of social life style of the people have pressured families living in theWorld Heritage Sites to acquire modern commodities like refrigerators, modern furniture and so on
which cannot go inside their houses through the small traditional doors. This sort of economic ability
and social pressure for modern commodities have encouraged the local people to change the size anddesign of their original houses. To meet such challenges it is necessary to create public awareness andeducate people about the value and importance of traditional houses and the historic environment in
the World Heritage Sites. Such information has been publicized through radio and television andposters and pamphlets have been distributed. These activities are showing some positive results.

Conclusions
As a whole, the art and architecture of Nepal, whether the buildings of the royal palace, thehumble house of a merchant, or the numerous patis (rest houses) for travelers are all indicative of
supreme quality. The beauty and grace found in these works of art makes Nepal a spokesman of the
traditional art of the Orient. Both the tangible and intangible cultural heritages of Nepal are mainly theoutcome of the practices of Hinduism and Buddhism. Among the rich wealth of various culturalproperties, some monuments and monumental sites are inscribed in the World Cultural Heritage list.
The Government of Nepal is paying special attention to their conservation. The monuments on theWorld Heritage List and their adjacent areas are declared as protected monument zones. Not only
plans and programs but also special rules and regulations were introduced and are being executed forthe conservation of such cultural heritage. During the execution several challenges have been faced by
the conservation managers, and some such challenges were discussed above in this paper. Among thechallenges some are administrative and managerial in nature and others are related to certain technicalproblems. Both the administrative and technical problems are again categorized on the basis of type ofownership of the monumental buildings as challenges related to public and private monuments.

100Meeting the challenges related to the conservation of private houses in World Heritage Sites ismore painstaking because of their deep relation with the changing life patterns of the people. As the
problems in conserving the cultural heritage of the protected monument zones are challenging, so are
the Nepalese authorities actively trying to meet them with several measures. The challenges and needof conservation efforts have increased with the decision of the WHC to include the Kathmandu Valley
World Heritage Site in the list of monuments in danger. Though it cannot be claimed that theconservation of our world heritage sites will be free from challenges in the future, I believe that almost
all the challenges will be solved and the condition of the monuments and world heritage sites will beconsiderably improved.

101

Philippines
Candido H. CASTRO
Sr. Restoration Engineer
National Historical InstituteConservation of Wooden Structures in the Philippines
Introduction: The National Historical Institute
The National Historical Institute is a Government Cultural Agency created in 1972 by
Presidential Decree No 1. The Institute has the general responsibility of preserving and promoting thePhilippine Cultural heritage by undertaking studies on the promotion of Philippine History andnational heroes, and the preservation, maintenance, management and protection of historic objects,
sites and structures, including those that are declared national shrines, landmarks and monuments. The
institute undertakes the promotion of Philippine History and other historical activities through research,translation, publication and commemoration of historical events and personages.

Different Divisions of the National Historical Institute:Administrative DivisionResearch and Publication Division (RPD)

Monuments and Heraldry Division (MHD)Historical Education Division (HED)Historic Preservation Division (HPD)The Historic Preservation Division is composed of 3 sections:

Survey and Documentation SectionArchitectural and Engineering SectionMaterial and Conservation Section

The main functions of the Historic Preservation Division:Survey and documentation of historic sites and structures;

Declaration of historical sites and structures as historic sites, monuments, shrines andlandmarks.



Preservation, restoration and protection of historic monuments, shrines and landmarks(Immovable objects)

Restoration, preservation and conservation of relics and memorabilia of national heroes andother illustrious Filipinos. (Movable objects)

Maintenance of National Registry of Historic Structures in the Philippines.

Provision of technical assistance on historic preservation.

Conduct scientific experiments and research works relating to the conservation of both
movable and immovable objects.

102

The objectives of the Institute are:

To serve as a leading government agency dealing with Philippine History with regulatory andconsultative functions.

To research and write about the lives and works of Filipino heroes and illustrious men andwomen.

To research and compile histories of provinces and municipalities, structures and institutions
for Publication or for use in scholarly papers.



To compile historical materials and information for future use by historical researchers and the
public, and to acquire books, manuscripts and oral histories from all available sources about
historical events and personages for research purposes.



To initiate the translation and editing of works on history for purposes of publication.

To publish books, brochures, and manuscripts on the history of the Philippines, historicalevents, the lives of Filipino heroes and other illustrious personalities with the aim ofpromoting historical consciousness and national pride.



To identify, designate and appropriately mark historical sites in the Philippines and to publish
them in the national registry; to initiate their conservation and preservation and to maintainnational monuments, shrines and historic markers in coordination with the Local Government
Units concerned.

To undertake the scientific restoration and preservation of historical sites and structures, aswell as relics and memorabilia of heroes and other illustrious Filipinos.

To maintain historical sites, landmarks and monuments as history museums in honor of ourcountry's heroes and great men and women.



To put up exhibits, both permanent and temporary, as a way of disseminating the ideas of thegreat Filipinos and other historical eventTo undertake fitting activities to honor our heroes.

To stimulate historical awareness among the general public and to enhance public appreciationof the Filipino Heritage.



To acquire relics, memorabilia and other mementos of heroes and heroines in order to preserve
them for patrimony.



To undertake heraldry works of the government including its political subdivisions andinstrumentality.

Case Study: The Restoration of Syquia Mansion
Vigan, Ilocos Sur
Project's Goals and Objectives:
It was the objective of the National historical Institute to restore the Syquia Mansion and saveit from further deterioration, while at the same time carefully retaining the original architecture and thecharacter of the house. The Syquia Mansion was envisioned by the NHI to be a model of restorationfor other colonial houses in Vigan. The Mestizo quarter is a source of historical and cultural pride
among Vigan's citizenry and a tribute to the builders, owners, artist, and craftsmen who first conceived
and developed this house to become one of Vigan's pride.

103Syquia Mansion: Before Restoration

Syquia Mansion: After Restoration

Location of the Project:
Syquia Mansion is located in Northern Philippines. The provincial capital city of Vigan Cityis known for its rich culture and history, beautiful centuries old churches, watchtower, houses, andother historic edifice and sites of Spanish colonial vintage. Vigan has a mestizo quarter where history
is kept alive in its century-old buildings in brick and timber. It is notable that Vigan has been declared
among other historical and cultural sites in the Philippines as a World Heritage Site for its uniquecultural and historical attributes.

Region I: Ilocos Region

Map of the Philippines

Vigan Ilocos Sur: Syquia Mansion site104

Historical Background of the Structure:
The Syquia Mansion stands out as a typical example of residential houses in Vigan. The
architectural type is characterized by walls of brick or of combined brick and wood, with high relief,cornices and pilasters that divide continuous streams of windows into several bays. It is the ‘Bahay na
Tisa’ or ‘house of brick’ with its well defined architecture, which developed and flourished in Vigan,
ultimately giving the city its explicit character and charm. For its distinct architecture of the Spanish
period, the Mansion also become the historic setting for several film productions, among which was
the 1950 film version of Noli Me Tangere, a novel about 19th century colonial Philippines by theforemost Filipino hero, Dr. Jose Rizal.
The original house, which stood on the lot now occupied by the mansion, was a simple bahay
kubo or thatched house built in 1774 by the family forebears. In 1930, the house became a two storey
structure made of brick and wood. The mansion underwent improvement from the late 19th to theearly 20th centuries. The adjacent spaces which include a larger dining room, more bedrooms, a larger
kitchen, servant quarters, tower and expanded azotea were added to the original 1930 structure. Thus,
over the years, the house grew to accommodate the needs of its occupants.

Development Plan

Syquia Mansion: First Floor
Original part ofstructure bujlt by Don
Justo Angco in 1830
Part of the structure
added by Tomas
Syquia in 1910
Part of the structure
added by Elpidio
Quirino in 1948
Part of the structure
added in the late 1970’s

Syquia Mansion: Ground Floor

105

Beneficiaries of the Project:
The direct beneficiaries of this restoration project
would be the heirs of Gregorio Syquia who own the building,
the City of Vigan and the Filipino people. The Mansion's
preservation will also aim to give support to the City of Vigan,
which has been inscribed on the World Heritage List as one of
the significant heritage sites in the Philippines.
Conservation Program:
View along Quirino Blvd.

In 1997, the national Historical Institute’s technicalstaff conducted a survey and documentation of the Syquia
Mansion. These included:






Rear ViewPreliminary researches;
Photographic documentation;
Visual inspection;
Assessment (basic consideration)
Existing local ordinances and guidelines on thepreservation and conservation of Vigan
Ancestral Houses. Local and national Building Coderequirements.
Preparation of restoration plans ( in coordination with
the Vigan Conservation Council under the Office ofthe Mayor, Vigan city and the Syquia-Quirinofamilies)

Physical Condition of the Structure:







External Tower







Chipped painted walls exposing the masonryunderneath
Misaligned windows, doors and vents (ventilation
opening below the window sill)
Termite and dry rot infested wooden parts in major andminor structural members
Soot-blackened walls near the kitchen (pollution)
Exposure to harsh climatic condition (intense heat, rain
and moisture)
Leaky roof
Cracks in masonry walls
Deteriorated and damaged tile works
Sagging and rotten floors
Dilapidated plumbing and hazardous electrical systems

Causes of Deterioration:
1. Direct exposure to the elements and extreme weather – Discoloration;
 Decay of the painted walls;
 Weakening of the plaster and mortar of the brickwalls.
View along Salcedo St.

106

2. Structural defects – Sagging and weakening of girts and floors; Weakened structural shear walls.
3. Natural calamities such as earthquakes andtyphoons – Earthquake in the past caused cracks in the
brick walls;
 Typhoons seriously weathered the houseand its structures.
4. Man-made causes – Absence of the owners;
 Leaving the house in the hands ofcaretakers.

Roof condition

5. Termite and dry rot infestation – Termite and dry rot infestation was wide
spread up to the second story level.

Restoration Program:
1. Doors, windows and flooring; Re-alignment of windows and ventanilla; Removal and cleaning of loose paint; Removal and patching of loose paints;
 Repair of louvered windows;
 Repair and re-alignment of doors.

Details

2. Restoration of walls;
 Removal and cleaning of loose paint; Patching of cracks;
 Consolidation of walls.
3. Replacement of deteriorated roofs;
4. Repair and replacement of deteriorated
ceilings;
5. Rehabilitation of columns;

Courtyard

6. Architectural treatment; waxing, repainting
and application of preservatives to timbercomponents;
7. Connection to utilities;
8. Conservation of house furnishing andmemorabilia of the Syquia and Quirino;
9. Provision of furnishings.
10. Mechanical cleaning;
11. Thermal insulation to prevent material
deformation due to extreme heat, and to
reduce heat radiating inside the house ( toimprove comfort level inside the house)

107

Dining (additional structure)

Technical Problems encountered during restoration:
1. The building structure is quite large and the degree of deterioration of wooden components
varies;
2. Termite infestation (common problem in Vigan Houses)
3. Buildings that were added later were quite different. These conditions, particularly the
4. wooden floor frames and plank deteriorated faster than the older counterparts;
5. Sourcing of repair/replacement materials was difficult. Resulted in some substitution
6. and restructuring works;
7. Scheduling of pest control treatment was delayed because of local accreditation requirements;
8. Some wooden structural parts had to be replaced, spliced or restructured, particularly theroof frames that are rotted due to aging and extreme climatic exposure;
9. Window panels and sills had to be reworked and adjusted to restore them to good working
order.
Present needs of the house after restoration:Conservation Management / Maintenance Program;Comprehensive periodic treatment.

Present Thrust:
The Syquia-Quirino families plan to convert the house into a lifestyle and presidential
museum, which will showcase the memorabilia of the families, especially those of the late President
Elpidio Quirino. It is planned that a minimal fee will be charged to the museum visitors to generate
funds, which will help in the maintenance of the house. Preventive maintenance work shall be
included in the management plan for the Syquia Mansion Museum.
Photographs showing the restoration work: (top images – during restoration , bottom images – after restoration)

Exterior

Floor framing

108

Stair balustradeRepublic of Korea
Young Hun JUNG
Deputy Director of Division
Modern Cultural Properties Division
Cultural Properties Administration
Problems and countermeasures of cultural heritage protection activities in Korea in
relation to architectural properties
Architectural properties in Korea can be divided into wood architectural properties and stonearchitectural properties.

These are classified as either national cultural properties, which have been

managed by the central government, or local cultural properties, which have been managed by the
local governments.
A. Wooden architectural properties
1.

Uses: Palace, temple, government office,shrine, house, etc.

2.

Number: National Treasure (21), Treasure(110), others.

Total (140)

These include: Temples (77), Palaces (19),castles (5), the rest including government
offices (39)
B. Stone architectural properties

Kim-Je Kumsan temple

1.

Uses: Pagoda, bridge, castle and wall, etc

2.

Number: National Treasure (64), Treasure (446), others.

Total (510)

These include: Stone pagoda (184), Stone lanterns (25), Stone Buddha (76), Tombstone (67),
Stone bridge, others (89).
The number of cultural properties includes the asset assigned only by the central government,
not those of local governments (2002/Cultural Properties Administration).
The number of architectural properties maintained by the local governments is 619 woodenarchitectural properties and 658 stone architectural properties.

There are some problems inpreserving and maintaining the architectural properties because they are scattered all over Korea andproperties are privately owned, especially religious organizations of Buddhism, which own over 50
percent of architectural properties in Korea.

Moreover, the interval of repair has been shorter than

before because the worsen circumstance of preservation has been accelerated by global warming,
erosion, weathering, and air pollution.

109

For the above reasons, this report will discuss the problems and countermeasures for cultural
heritage preservation and reconstruction.

Preservation of architectural properties, mainly about wood building
The best policy to protect woodenarchitectural properties is to conserve theoriginal forms,

but the durability of cultural

heritage has a limit because of damages anddestruction.

In this case, we try to keep theoriginal

form

repair/reinforcement.

withminimized

The following are themain reasons for the damage of wood and stonearchitectural properties.
Bong-Jeung temple Kuk-Rock Jeon(National Treasure)

Reasons for the Damage of architectural properties –1.

2.

Wood architectural properties

Damage by insects: White ant, hornet, etc

Erosion



Fire



Earthquake, Impact load of traffic

Stone built architectural properties –Biological damages: Moss, weeds, ivy, acacia, etcChemical damage: Acid rain, sea wind, etcPhysical weakness caused by long term weathering

We have to measure the present condition of the building, the reasons for the damage, the current
state of cracks, and exfoliation to protect the architectural heritages efficiently from further damages.
Also, we should make more efforts in conducting regular diagnoses of structural stability and thedegree of deterioration to identify problems in a structure.

Damages to wooden structures caused by insects.
110

A.

Aspects of hardware –1.

Aspect of material
The characteristics of old wood don’t differ from those of normal wood, but it’s different

depending on different circumstances. This is due to the biological degradation of the wood due toexternal influence.

Biological degradation of wood is accelerated when it is exposed to hot andhumid conditions. But, the result is opposite when it is in a cool and dry condition.

For example, thewooden statue of Buddha in northern India has lasted 1,200 years because of the cold and arid
condition in that region (Maylyon 1986).

But the conservation of wood is more complicated due tothe following reasons:






Decay: rotting by microbes such as bacterium
Harm by insects (white ant, Lasioderma serricorne, etc)
Weathering: deterioration caused when the surface of wood is heated by ultraviolet rays
Combustion

In this way, we call the state of wood losing its original quality “deterioration”.

The most

ancient architectural property in Korea is the Kuk-Rock-Jeon (Heavenly paradise building) in BongJeung temple which is assumed to be built in the 12th century, so its age might be over 900 years.

But

this kind of case is very rare in Korea and most of the ancient architectural properties have not beenpreserved because of artificial or natural disasters such as fire, erosion, damage by insects and so on
throughout the long history of Korea.

So, we have encountered the needs of using chemicals topreserve architectural properties, such as the anti-flame chemicals and insecticide.

Use of chemical processes to lengthen material life of woodFumigation : this method is usually used to eliminate insects such as white ants

Anti-flame treatment: a wooden structure processed by an anti-flame agent is hard to be
ignited besides surface carbonization when it catches a little flame. A good example is
Kum-San temple in Kim-Je.

An arsonist had set Kum-San temple on fire several times,

but the Kum-San temple had little damage apart from surface carbonization from the
incendiary fire. It was due to the reaction of a boron compound which changed theprocess of cellulose pyrolysis and promoted carbonization instead of producing a
flammable gas. If the surface of wood is covered with carbon layer, the inner part of wood
will be protected from heat and oxygen.
Korea have taken the measures of using chemicals when they have been needed, but we haveto be prudent in using those chemicals because they can cause severe damage to the colors painted onwooden architectural properties that decorate them and make them grandiose.

111

2.

Structural problems and measures
We can usually observe structural changes due to the self weight of the structure, unevensinking etc.

The followings are some of the factors for deformation.



Uneven dead load of roofUse of new materials such as compressed roof tile
- Compressed roof tiles increases the self weight of the structure- Uneven load which might be caused by a mixture of new and old roof tile, originallyinstalled to prevent overall renewal and to preserve the original parts of buildings.



Uneven sinking of the bases of the buildings.

Impact load caused by traffic, train, subway, and earthquake.

Deformation of joints and connections caused by the decay or combustion of the main
members, and damage from insects

We have looked at the problems of wooden architectural buildings.

We have to ensure thatthe main structural members such as beams, girders and eaves structures, which mainly affect the life
span of the building, should be in a sound condition. The main, rotten structural members should only
be replaced by new members that is of the same species of tree, size, and carving style.
replacement should be limited due to the concept of preserving original parts.

But thisOf the damaged parts,

we have to decide how much of the main structural members should be replaced.

To determine theextent of repair, we are trying to use more scientific methods and non-destructive methods to diagnose
wooden structures before repair.

3. Analysis method for wooden structures in Korea


Non-destructive

methods:

Ultra

sonic

method,Computerized Tomograhy method (Visual inspection of
the inside of the wood with Ultra sonic)Destructive method: Drill resistance method
These analytical methods are more efficient when we

simulate the structure of wooden building with structure
simulation programs such as SAP2000.

This process will

guarantee a more scientific method of repair.

Furthermore, we

are making more efforts to invent new devices and softwares
which can be properly used and enhance repair work.

CT(Computerized Tomography)
with Ultra Sonic
112

B.

Aspects of software in maintaining architectural properties –In Korea, owners have the primary responsibility for the cultural heritage, and the government has asecondary role.

The following parties are involved:

Owner
Religious organization as a nonprofit organization
Local and Central governments

In addition to the above, there are other problems of preservation:

Requirements for renovation and illegal changes
Disagreement in repairing architectural properties that are in use
Maintenance and utilization

Firstly, it is not appropriate to allow the owners to imprudently alter buildings that have beenclassified as treasures. We have to take administrative measures to prohibit illegal changes toarchitectural properties.

However, it is also difficult to totally ignore the owners’ needs to enhancetheir living circumstance.

For these reasons, we have to find a compromise between the needs ofconservation and the protection of private right of possession.
Secondly, in some cases the owners oppose the government’s decision to repair theirarchitectural properties, because their business, commercial or religious activities might be limited
during the repair works.
Thirdly, government owned architectural properties are hard to be maintained properly
because nobody reside in the building, unlike the private buildings.

For this reason, Korea has toseek some policies to utilize the architectural properties as tourist attractions as well as small pavilions,that could be used to teach about cultural manners and so on.

However, we have to try to search formore efficient policies to utilize the architectural properties.

C.

Aspects of restoration in architectural properties –Here are the principals of restoration we have to consider in Korea:

1.

Scale of Restoration

Scenery restoration will become an important matter in Korea, even though mainstream restoration
work only involves units of architectural properties till now.
2.

Maintaining the original forms in architectural propertiesi)

The importance of the original arrangement of building groups.
In the reconstruction of groups of buildings, we should know the arrangement and scale of the113original form.

These can be applied to the style and scale of a group of buildings.

So we haveto research and excavate building sites using historical documents, drawings, etc.
ii)

The importance of keeping the original form of wooden structures.
We have to select proper architectural structure style after an analysis of the building arrangement.

iii)

The importance of original materials.
It is recommended to use the same species of trees which were used in former times.

Repair case in Korea: Hye-Jeon Mun in Cheung-Pyung temple

Here are Korea’s official policies to protect architectural properties:3.

New direction of repair work in Korea
A. Conducting repair and restoration with the principal of keeping the original form through theresearch and verification of experts.
B. Restrict new constructions on historical sites if possible. It would be possible if there is aneed to keep the historical scenery surrounding a group of buildings.
C. To make careful preservation of stone properties and to revive their ancient antique style.
D. A yearly detail programs for the repair of individual architectural properties should beplanned by local governments, with consideration of a unit’s character and the status ofpreservation after field investigations.
E. The establishment of a scientific management system is needed to enable inspections that
ensures the long term safety of architectural properties.

114

Sri Lanka
Jeewana Deepal WIJETHILAKE
Assistant Director
Architectural Conservation Division
Department of Archaeology
Problems and Needs of Cultural Heritage Protection Activities in Sri Lanka(Mainly about Architecture and Buildings)
Introduction
Sri Lanka is an island of about 25,332 square kilometers situated between 50 55’ and 90 51’
north and 790 43’ and 810 53’east. The climate is tropical with monsoonal rains, and occasional
cyclones and floods. The maximum rainfall in certain areas is approximately 5000 mm, while inother parts it remains at about 600mm

Historical Background
The history of Sri Lanka can be divided into prehistoric, protohistoric and historic periods.
According to the chronicle records, the king Pandukabhaya built a planned city which later became
Anuradhapura, in the north-central part of Sri Lanka. Buddhism was introduced officially during thereign of king Dewanampiyathissa and a totally new civilization evolved after that.
Within two centuries of its introduction, Buddhism was following a new direction towards
scholarly life in the monastic communities nurtured by royal patronage. This resulted in the creation ofmassive monastic establishments on the one hand, and the stimulation of high-level literary activities
on the other. Anuradhapura was the capital of the country from the 5th century B.C. to the 11th
century A.D. Seegiriya is another kingdom made by king Kashyapa in this period which has now been
included on the world heritage list. The entire city of Anuradhapaura and its great wealth of monastic
ruins have also been inscribed in the world heritage list.
The transfer of the capital from Polonnaruwa was the beginning of political instability in the
country. This is well reflected in the location of the capital city in 6 different places within 5 centuries.
The Dambadeniya Kingdom was made by converting a natural mountain into a fortress city tohouse the palace in 1236 A.D. But this city did not last for more than 36 years and was shifted toanother safe, but similar site at Yapahuwa (1272- 84AD). Then the capital was again shifted to
Kurunegala (1293- 1314 AD), and from there to the hill country, Gampola (1341-1408 AD).
Kotte, a coastal city, was the capital from AD 1415-1597. During this period Sri Lanka
experienced foreign invasions from the West, the first, by the Portuguese, in 1505. Numerous peaceagreements as well as hostile activities with the invaders did not allow the king to hold a coastal
capital any more, and it was finally shifted to a strategically safer place, Kandy.
The country experienced the second western invasion by the Dutch in 1656. The Dutch
controlled the maritime provinces of the country from 1656. They made qualitative changes in thearchitecture of the country and left a number of fortifications, some of which were built on top of
Portuguese remains. One of them, Galle, is now in the World Heritage list.
The third invaders were the British who invaded the maritime provinces governed by the
Dutch in 1796 and finally captured Kandy in 1815, thus ending the Sinhalese rule. Since that time,
Colombo became the capital of the country.

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Sri Lanka gained her independence from the British Empire 1948, and in 1972 became arepublic totally independent from the crown, yet had a parliamentary tradition similar to that of GreatBritain.

Cultural Heritage of Sri Lanka
The cultural heritage of Sri Lanka can be defined as all the material evidence related to its
history. These materials can be divided into two eras, prehistoric and historic. These materials should
be protected as archaeological evidence and as the cultural heritage of the country. The historic period
proper starts in the 3rd century B.C. with the official introduction of Buddhism. Thereafter many
religious and non-religious buildings were constructed in Sri Lanka which have now become ancientmonuments. The religious monuments of Sri Lanka constitute the major proportion of herarchaeological heritage, One distinctive characteristic of most of these archaeological sites is that they
are the result of a living religious tradition. These comprise four out of the seven world heritage sitesof Sri Lanka, namely Anuradhapura, Polonnaruwa, Dambulla and Kandy.
The ancient monuments of Sri Lanka consist of massive domed shrines (stupas), extensive
monastic complexes, vast cave temples with exquisite mural paintings, opulent places, pleasuregardens, bathing ponds, fortified cities, and so forth. Among them are six unique sites which havebeen declared as sites of world cultural heritage. The number of movable antiquities which include
priceless and unique objects such as metal images, coins, ethnological materials, ornaments, utensils,
furniture, etc. scattered all over the island, either in private possession or state owned, can be counted
in millions.

Protection of Cultural Heritage
Protection of the Monuments in early periods
Conservation of monuments is an essential element of Sri Lankan historical archaeology
which follows a historical chronology based on kingdoms (capital cities) and the monuments found in
relation to such periods, most of which are remnants of Buddhist monasteries.
New works as well as repairs to monasteries had been conducted by rulers who thought it was
their responsibility and by the public, for whom it was a meritorious act. It is an interesting
phenomenon to note that existing villages were granted to a newly-built monastery to provide for its
regular maintenance. There were grants of properties made exclusively for the purpose of repairs tomonastic buildings. Taxes from some of the properties were set apart for the maintenance ofmonasteries.
The actual meaning of some of the terms cannot be interpreted in relation to the present day
context, but what is significant is that the ultimate objective had been the protection of the monuments
and the prolonging of their life against deterioration caused by human acts and weather. Also for the
purpose of preservation there had been permanent groups of skilled carpenters, masons andsuperintendents; special villages were established for these workers.
Colonial rule had a devastating effect on monuments and sites as the occupying powers’
attitudes toward them were different. After independence in 1948, the state began to influence therestoration of religious monuments. Money for restoration work was given through the Department ofArchaeology.
The Protection of Cultural Heritage Today
Archaeological activities in Sri Lanka commenced in the early 1860s, but systematic work
began with the establishment of the Archaeological Survey Department in 1890 with a permanent staff

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and financial support. Since then the Department has acquired a great wealth of materials andknowledge on various aspects of conservation.
Today the Department of Archaeology is the statutory custodian of all cultural property of Sri
Lanka. The Central Cultural Fund Act of 1981 (under which the Sri Lanka UNESCO Cultural Triangle
project operates) provided the opportunity to collect money for the protection of cultural heritage.
Currently, cultural heritage protection activities are conducted by both the Department of Archaeology
and the Central Cultural Fund. Funds from the government, from the Central Cultural Fund, and fromother countries, organizations and individuals are used for these activities. Some world standard
heritage protection techniques as well as traditional Sri Lankan techniques are being used for thesetasks.

Problems of Cultural Heritage Protection
The cultural heritage of Sri Lanka is endangered at the moment due to different reasons andproblems. This cultural heritage is threatened in Sri Lanka as it is throughout the world by numerous
factors such as population pressure, irregular planning, haphazard development and expansion, illmanaged tourism, changes of attitudes, values and lifestyles of dwellers/ owners, functional changes,
and many other reasons. The problems encountered by the custodians of cultural property in Sri Lanka
can be summarized as follows.
1. Religious Influences
Attempts to restore religious sites and monuments endangered the historic aspects of theseruins due to their “sacred” nature which made them important to the majority of the public. Most of
our monuments are inseparably tied up with the religion of the majority of the citizens and this often
makes it difficult to maintain a balance between the conflicting interests of science and religion.
2. Influence of Tropical Climatic Conditions
The condition of many monuments is alarming due to their age and the tropical climaticconditions. Regular maintenance on a permanent basis is necessary in a tropical climate with a lot ofrain.
3. Problems due to Private Ownership of Monuments
Some of the most important historical monuments in the Island are not owned by thegovernment. These still remain in the hands of private individuals who may not extend the appropriate
respect that is due to such buildings.
4. Lack of Financial Resources
Many cultural heritage properties are threatened with degradation or destruction because oflack of financial resources for their preservation and restoration.
Lack of finance is one of the major threats to the upgrading of conservation activities. The Departmentof Archaeology, the main state body responsible for conservation programmes in the country finds it
difficult to start more conservation programmes due to lack of finance. Also there are no suitable
funds available to lend to private owners to repair scheduled buildings.
5. Lack of Required Staff
The Department of Archaeology has a very limited number of staff. Lack of qualitative andquantitative capacities is therefore another problem. The handling of protection activities of cultural
heritage has become a very difficult task with this low number of staff.

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6. Lack of Training Programmes
The officers and junior staff engaged in protection activities of cultural heritage do not getenough opportunities to be trained in their work. Therefore their technical and theoretical knowledge
is not sufficient. This directly affects the protection of our cultural heritage.
7. Lack of Public AwarenessA decrease in respectful attitudes to public property, lack of public awareness about theircultural properties, and immunities enjoyed by the diplomatic community also seriously affect theprotection of cultural properties. Lack of sufficient public awareness programmes in this regard may
be the main cause of this situation.
8. Deforestation
Colonization of forest areas is progressing very rapidly due to rapid population growth, andthis destroys ancient sites and monuments.
9. Agricultural Activities
The burning of large tracts of land for cultivation also destroys ancient sites and monuments.
10. Negative Effects of Cultural Tourism
Hasty tourism-oriented preservation policies have also badly affected cultural heritage.
Tourism has been called the world’s second largest form of economic activity, second only to oil. The
conservation of historic landscapes, sites and monuments has therefore become an important aspect of
the economy of the country.
Cultural tourism can be an instrument for bringing about change, due to its economic
importance, although when the motives are too heavily biased towards economic gain, this may signal
a threat to the cultural heritage itself. At the same time, the increase of tourist traffic has increased thenumber of souvenir hunters, thereby encouraging the local suppliers to sponsor the sale of genuine
objects of cultural heritage.
11. Uncontrolled Human and Animal Intervention
12. Spreading of Population
13. Civil conflicts
The ethnic problem which has been experienced by the country for the last few decades has
minimized conservation and other cultural heritage protection activities within areas affected by civilwar.
14. Popularity of Archaeological Trade
At first, treasure hunters destroyed these places to find valuable things but today this ishappening because of the demand in the local and international markets. Another reason for this is the
reduced penalties for treasure hunters. Over the past two decades, there has been an alarming increasein organized and conscious theft and vandalism and in the illicit trade and traffic of cultural property.
This has now become a great threat to our precious heritage and demands the immediate attention of
all authorities and professionals involved.
15. Weaknesses in the Conservation Procedures
Weaknesses in the conservation procedures are also affecting the protection of cultural
heritage. Due to lack of training, funds, skilled personnel, modern appropriate techniques andmachinery, etc. the conservation procedures have many weaknesses. These affect the protection ofcultural heritage.

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16. The inadequacies of Existing Legislation
Various kinds of acts have been prepared by the institutes which have the legal power to
conduct archaeological works in Sri Lanka. But the inadequacy of penalties and some weaknesses inrules and regulations are still creating problems.
17. Influence of Large-Scale Development Processes
As Sri Lanka is a developing country, the archaeological landscapes we have inherited are
critically threatened by large-scale development projects.
The archaeological environment is a totally non–renewable resource. A cultural landscape,created by human activity in the past, can never be replicated once modified or destroyed. Once lost,
neither archaeological data nor their ‘contextual’ information can ever be replaced. Some instances ofhaphazard development are a critical problem in Sri Lanka.
Modernization and vulgar
industrialization and development, urbanization and so forth have affected cultural heritage.
18. Conflict between Residents and Heritage
The cultural heritage sites of Sri Lanka fall in a broad sense into two categories, namely‘living’ sites and ‘dead’ sites. The ‘living’ sites constitute monuments with which the local population
associates itself in a participatory manner, either in a residential or a ritualistic sense. In certain cases
this may result in a change of use from the original purpose of the monument. The ‘dead’ sites
constitute monuments where the original or changed usage is no longer functional or valid; the site isvisited purely for its archaeological, artistic or historic value.
The sectors of historic monuments and sites of the living cities still have public properties andthus it is a difficult task to enhance cultural heritage and conserve and renew the historic physicalfabric of the cities, while facilitating the needs of the people of the area. Minimizing this conflict andmanaging visitors at cultural sites where such a conflict prevails is a major problem in terms ofprotecting cultural heritage.
The problems of living cultural heritage sites can be categorized as follows.



Unauthorized renovation and new construction damage to the heritage value of the area.



Lack of restoration and maintenance of privately owned old buildings.

Lack of awareness of the public in the restoration and maintenance of buildings which they own.



Limited finance available for protecting cultural heritage. (These historic buildings entail needhigh maintenance costs).



Lack of skilled labour, machinery and equipment.



No incentives for restoration of privately owned buildings of historical interest.



Inadequate technical staff for relevant authorities.



Insufficient land area for further extension of existing buildings to handle population growth.

Lack of public participation in protecting cultural heritage.

19. Expansion of Commercial Activities to the Heritage Zones
The archaeological value of monuments and sites is being destroyed by these activities today.
Some commercial activities damage valuable ancient monuments.

11920. Private Restorations:
Some privately owned ancient buildings are being restored and improved by ardent but nonartistic and unscientific people, without informing the relevant authorities and getting their instructions.
21. Cultural Property Theft
Theft of cultural property and the difficulty in apprehending and convicting the offenders aremajor problems.

Needs
More facilities should be provided in following areas:Intergraded protection policies

Legislation and economy

Survey

Investigation

Maintenance and conservation



Preservation and reconstructionProfessional qualification and international cooperation

2. There should be more programmes to educate the general public and to create an awareness among
them about our cultural heritage and the importance of protecting it. In this regard, programmes suchas public awareness campaigns can be organized on the value and advantages of cultural heritage
protection with examples from other countries. These programmes are particularly essential in living
heritage sites to maintain the characters of those sites. The participation and commitment of local
populations are essential to achieve this. More modern information and communication technologies
should be used for these public awareness programmes.
3. Expedite work on registering cultural heritage properties and expedite the declaring of all ancientmonuments and sites of our cultural heritage as archaeological reserves.
4. Conduct training programmes for officers and other staff members involved in conservation work.
They should be trained in efficient and systematic local and international strategies and techniques forthe conservation, presentation and management of cultural heritage. Developing scientific andtechnical studies and research will help those specialists to counteract the dangers that threaten thecultural heritage.
5. Making more plans to conserve historic buildings and structures and use them for the present day
needs of society such as for housing, commercial activities and even for cultural tourism. Since Sri
Lanka has a series of coastal cities with “Mutual Heritage”, the professionals have a challenging task
to retain their historic character and the only way to justify their safeguarding is the meaningful use of
these buildings and structures for the economic and social development of the people.
6. Since we have only a small number of experts, we should accept the help of outside experts in
identifying the instruments that would help prevent the items of heritage deteriorating further.
Encouragement of the exchange of experience and expertise in the field of archaeological heritage
management is needed in this task.
7. Incentives to individual historic building owners should be given for their upkeep.

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8. Provide facilities to domestic and foreign tourists while safeguarding the interests of the residential
population without harming the cultural heritage properties. In this regard, the following needs can bepointed out.

A friendly welcome and help with any problems or accidents

A clean, litter-free and well-maintained site

Presentation of the story of the monument / site and its treasures in a way visitors canunderstandGuidance on local taboos and religious or cultural attitudes

Security and protection for themselves and their possessions.

9. More protection should be given to our cultural heritage properties to protect them from treasure
hunters. Also programmes should be implemented to increase public awareness of the importance ofprotecting them. For this task appropriate trained staff should be recruited.
10. With improvements in cultural tourism, a significant proportion of revenue from tourism can beapplied for the benefit of cultural heritage protection.
11. Development plans should be improved as far as possible to minimize potential damage, badvisual effects, and pollution of cultural heritage properties.
12. More opportunities must be given to the conservators to find skilled craftsmanship, traditional
materials, appropriate traditional or modern techniques and tools. In this regard the administrative
procedures and regulations must be flexible enough to cater for the needs of protecting cultural
heritage.
13. The legal framework should be enhanced to regulate the respective rights, responsibilities andconflicts between the concerned parties who are involved in cultural heritage properties and to protect
those properties from treasure hunters.
14. More funds should be allocated to protect cultural heritage. The governmental allocation is notenough for this. International and local institutions and the general public should be involved infunding for this task.

Architectural Conservation
Architectural conservation within Sri Lanka can be divided into two areas:
1. Exposure of Ancient monuments and sites
2. Conservation of Ancient monuments and sites
The conservation of ancient monuments can be divided in to several categories, primarily:
1. Conservation of stone monuments
2. Conservation of brick monuments
3. Conservation of timber monuments
This report will discuss only the conservation of timber monuments because this training
course is on the conservation of wooden structures.
Ancient Timber Monuments in Sri Lanka:
Timber is an important material which is used for building construction. It is one of the oldest
building materials. In Sri Lanka, recorded timber construction, date back to a few centuries before
Christ.

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The Sri Lankan wooden structures can be categorized into several types:
1. Timber used as the base of a building
2. Timber used for superstructure
3. Timber used for the roof where the superstructures can be any material
4. Others
1. Timber used as the base of a building
The base of this type of building is made by placing two logs of timber transversely on four ormore stone pillars or rock boulders. The height of these stone pillars varies from building to building.
The purpose of lifting the base from the earth is to protect the timber from dampness and termites.
Examples: a) Temple on pillars (“Tampita vihara”)b) Wayside rest places (“Ambalama”)(a.) Temple on pillars (“Tampita Vihara”)
Tampita Viharage is a shrine room on stone pillars or boulders of varying heights. This is abuilding which has usually four cross beams and a wooden floor placed over the stone pillars. Wattle
and daub walls are constructed on this timber floor. Sometimes a verandah runs all around the building
with a wooden railing or half wall. Then a roof is erected on wooden pillars fixed to horizontal
timber beams. Clay tiles were used to cover the roof. About 1000 examples of this type of Tampita
Vihara are known in Sri Lanka, most of which are conserved by the Department of Archaeology.
(b) Wayside Rest Places (“Ambalama”)
These are public buildings used as simple resting halls. The construction method is basicallysimilar to the Tampita Vihara. The simplest method employed is resting four cross beams on large
round stone boulders or pillars. Timber pillars were set in these base timber beams and supported thebeams and rafters of the roof. Raising of the foundation beams provides seating facilities andventilation while protecting the timber parts from damp and termites.
2. Timber used for superstructureThis case comprises two or more rows of timber columns that are fixed on a raised platform
to hold the roof.
Example: Dancing / Drummer’s Halls (Dig-ge)
Dig-ge or “Magul Maduwa” are long halls. The “Dig-ge” is usually a feature of a “Devala”
used for drumming and other rituals. The “Dig-ge” can be open, walled or half-walled. The woodworkof such a building is of very careful and detailed construction and is ornamentally carved.
3. Timber used for the roof where the superstructure can be of any material
Most of the roof structures of ancient buildings were made of timber and roofed by using clay
tiles.
4. Others
There are other building elements made of timber which are not included in the previous
categories: doors, windows, railings, ceilings, etc. Most of these timber parts are ornamentally carved.
The only evidence of an ancient timber bridge is situated in the hill country in the village of Bogoda.

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Problems and needs of the conservation of wooden structures
There are number of problems connected with the preservation of timber buildings:

Timber is a material which can be subjected to many decaying procedures

Timber components are often used over large spans and these are continuously subject tovarious stresses and strainsThe scarcity of identical varieties of timber as those used in ancient monuments

The special unusual sizes of timber elements which are needed for conservation are currently
not available on the market: they have to be specially ordered and prepared

Inefficiency of current procedures of purchasing required timber



Financial problems arising because timber is an expensive building material

Scarcity of skilled craftsman for the conservation of ancient timber structures. Lack of training
in required traditional and modern techniques of conservation of wooden structures

Common types of damage found in woodwork and their remedies
Damage to old timber can be categorized as follows:
1. Fungus growth – This is encouraged by the presence of moisture, a moderate temperature andpoor ventilation. This type of decay can be prevented by providing healthy ventilation and a
dry atmosphere. To avoid fungus, an appropriate type of chemical treatment must be used.
2. Insect attack- Mostly roof timbers are damaged by insects such as beetles that create bore
holes in timber.
3. Termites – Most ancient timber monuments attract termites which cause decay.
Appropriate types of chemicals should be used to prevent this problem
4. Damage due to burning – Avoid fire sources in the structures. Replace the parts which areburnt.
5. Decay due to water- Appropriate types of chemical should be applied.

Conclusion
A large number of ancient monuments and sites in Sri Lanka which are part of our cultural
heritage are endangered at the moment due to different kinds of problems. Insufficient financial
resources, lack of qualified staff, lack of awareness in relevant traditional and modern techniques, andso forth, directly affect this situation. At the same time, population growth, haphazard development,poor management, changes of life styles, etc. have also influenced this problem.
Therefore archaeology should be oriented towards the protection of threatened cultural
heritage. Making appropriate legal, scientific, technical, administrative and financial measures arenecessary for solving these problems.
In this regard, it is important to take action to find more local and international financial
resources, to train personnel engaged in the protection of cultural heritage, and to arrange programmes
to increase the awareness of relevant authorities and the general public about the importance ofprotecting cultural heritage.
As most Sri Lankan ancient wooden structures have faced problems in their protection, it has
become a very important task to take immediate action to protect them. Therefore this kind of training
programme for professionals engaged in the conservation of wooden structures is greatly appreciatedbecause the knowledge obtained thereby can be used for protecting ancient wooden structures.

123Thailand
Sudchai PHANSUWAN
Civil Engineer
Engineering and Construction Group
Office of Architecture and Traditional Arts
Fine Arts Department Ministry of Culture Thailand
The Problems in the Conservation of Historic Buildings in ThailandA.

Introduction

The idea of conservation in Thailand can be traced back to the reign of King RAMA VI
when he declared the area of Ayutthaya City. The Fine Arts Department was established in this reign
with the purpose to preserve and take care of all historical monuments in Thailand. Nevertheless,conservation has developed rather slowly until recently; actual conservation has been increasingly
realized as more and more valuable heritage has been damaged, neglected or left to deteriorate due tolack of awareness. King RAMA IX has given the Act on Ancient Monuments, to protect historicbuildings and monuments in 1961 and given the definition of ancient monuments, which means
immovable property that, by its age or architectural characteristics or historical evidence, is useful inthe field of art, history or archeology.

B.

Nature and Condition of Historic Buildings in Thailand

Most historic buildings and ancient monuments were built of brick. Wood was also used forroof structures especially in the Sukhothai and Ayutthaya periods. Almost all pre-Rattanakosin
Monuments are dead monuments, which have deteriorated due to the passage of time, adverse
environmental conditions and human destruction. Some are relatively stable and can be maintained intheir present condition.
Historic buildings and the monuments which are still in use today are architecture,engineering works and building complexes constructed in the late Ayutthaya and Rattanakosin periods.
Due to the influence of modernization, many living monuments have been repaired and have added
modern functions. Almost all historic buildings are owned by governmental offices, which have been
managed to keep their architectural and artistic values.

C.

Organization for Conservation of Historic Buildings

The Fine Arts Department of the Ministry of Culture is directly responsible for theconservation of monuments. The Office of Architecture and Traditional Arts and the Office ofArchaeology, which are divided according to region, are active in this field and work jointly on thesame projects to provide specialized skills where necessary.

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D.

Conservation Procedures

Due to the number of monuments and the shortage of conservation budgets, a priority system
is necessary in the conservation programs. Three rationales influence the priority consideration atpolicy level:
1. The archeological, historical, architectural, artistic and social values of the monument.
2. The role of the monument in present Thai society
3. The physical state of the monument in anticipation of further deterioration and destruction.
The third rationale has given rise to serious controversy between the Fine Arts Department
and conservationists in both academic and private sectors. The latter are of the opinion that the
Department over-emphasizes the need to structurally strengthen monuments, especially ruined
monuments, and further that the restoration techniques used by the Department interfere directly withnature and the content of the monument. The Fine Arts Department realizes this argument and set up
a committee for controlling monuments. The committee is responsible for approving conservationplans, controlling the use of monument areas, and following up the conservation works. In terms ofrestoration techniques, the Department follows practicable, accepted guidelines and principles such as
the ICOMOS Charter and recommendations made in various workshops. In monument conservation,
the process can be categorized as follows:
1. Categorization and Registration
For the convenience of conservation and site management, monuments and sites in Thailand
are categorized according to their characteristics namely Single Structure, Group of Buildings, Area,
Community and Historic Town, Archeological Site, and Historic Landscape. In each category, existing
functions are considered to define each monument and site as “dead or living”.
2. Collection and Analysis of Information
Survey, collecting data, and analysis of the problems in each site come as the next steps inorder to find means for conservation of each particular monument or site. This step includes
archeological work, historical study, physical survey and drawing of the existing condition ofmonuments, with the aim to find out as much evidence as possible and to collect information data
before the conservation and restoration process which will, more or less, change the monumentʼs
original condition.
3. Conservation Design and Specifications
There are different kinds of site management and maintenance according to the owner of eachmonument. For instance, a temple is under the ownership of the temple office and thus, after
restoration, the maintenance and management are their responsibility. However, there are some sites
under the responsibility of the Fine Arts Department such as historical parks, historic cities, etc. Those
sites are often managed and maintained not for academic purposes, but also to present the monuments
to visitors for tourism purposes as well. Thus, it is necessary to provide some special facility apartfrom the basics such as an information center, which exhibits comprehensible information on the siteand provides highlights to make the visit more beneficial and meaningful.

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The categories mentioned are general conservation processes and from these procedures,conservation can be done by various means. For example, in some cases, usually archeological sites orruins where no appropriate means of protection or restoration can be determined to be more suitable
than preservation in their original condition, some kind of shelter is designed to protect the site,making it serve as a site museum for academic and tourism purposes. On the other hand,reconstruction can also be done for living monuments where there is enough evidence remaining.
As for sites which cover areas with important historical background, archeological evidence,and monuments, the Fine Arts Department has established the historic park projects to administer the
management and carried out works as part of a master plan prepared by experts in every field
concerned.

E.

Deterioration of Building Materials

There are a number of factors causing deterioration that continuously act upon building
materials. Various types of building materials all undergo physical and chemical changes and finallydecay. The goal of the conservation of monuments is to describe and understand all causes of damage,to simulate such damage in field tests and laboratory studies, and to evaluate conservation,
consolidation and cleaning procedures used on them.
The investigation of the deterioration processes of monuments revealed that the most serious
technical problems are weathering of the building materials, moisture movement, salt efflorescence,and bio-deterioration. The major causes of deterioration of building material are as follows:
1. Weathering of the building materials
It was observed that the influence of outdoor conditions, such as temperature, rain, wind,sunlight, atmospheric gases, and microorganisms have caused considerable damage to all kinds ofbuilding materials in Thailand. The deterioration of exposed building materials was due to the actionof water, changes in temperature, chemical dissolution, ultra-violet radiation exposure, and mechanicalerosion by driving rain.
The heating and cooling of building materials by daily and seasonal changes of temperature
set up strains in materials, with resulting gradual breakdowns. In the presence of water, repeatedheating and cooling of building materials lead to exfoliation. The water apparently enters the cracks,
causing chemical activities at the inner portion, resulting in preliminary weakening.
Wooden buildings and wooden structures are materials which suffer severe weatheringdamage. Wood is highly sensitive to changes in humidity and extremes of temperature; when it isunprotected by coatings and exposed to atmospheric agents and sunlight, a slow chemical and physicaldisintegration occurs near the surface. The areas that are frequently wet by rain develop a damaged
surface as a result of the varying expansion and contraction of the wood. Long periods of exposure
result in finely broken surfaces that are easily eroded by wind. These situations are complicated by theaction of solar radiation, and by the presence of microorganisms. East and west facing areas aredestroyed faster than those facing north and south.

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The major events associated with weathering are photochemical damage to wood cell wallcomponents, oxidation of breakdown products, leaching of soluble decomposition products, andrelated mechanical damage of surface elements from the swelling and shrinkage of wood associatedwith surface wetting and drying.
These problems are really serious. The application of appropriate waterproofing materials andwood preservatives is the most efficient method for the conservation of wooden buildings. Coating offilms that absorb or reflect the damaging ultraviolet portion of light and reduce surface moisturechanges and application of water-repellents are the most effective methods of preventing weathering in
outdoor wood exposures.
2. Moisture Movement
The presence of moisture on monuments is indicated by clearly visible signs such as damp
patches on walls, peeling and blistering of wall decorations, patches of efflorescence and algal growth.
It is well known that water, either in the solid, liquid or gaseous state plays a prominent rolein the behavior of porous building materials. It can function in many different ways, both chemical andphysical, those are all interrelated and have a strong influence on the effectiveness of other chemical,
physical and biological deteriorative agents. Water is extremely active in promoting reactions between
other substances, in entering into chemical reactions itself, and in serving as the medium for theinteraction on many materials. It is also noted for its ability to dissolve more different substances thanany other liquid. Water also has a very great influence upon deterioration by biological agents because
the nutrition and metabolism of all plant and animal life rest upon the properties of water as a solvent.
It is evident that water seems to be always involved in all deterioration processes.
The presence of water in any of its various forms causes or accelerates the deterioration ofbuilding materials. The access of water may be caused by rain, floods, capillary action, condensation,and deposition of aerosols such as mist, fog, or salt spray. The porous building materials absorb morewater due to excessive permeability. This permeability has developed slowly with time to chemical
reactions.
Rising damp is the main problem to solve when preserving mural paintings and historicbuildings. Certain parts of mural paintings were found to be in a very fragile condition, caused byrising damp, previous percolation of rain water though the roof, windows or cracks which had caused
large losses of paint layers. The damage was most prevalent in areas of contact with moist soil or inlocations where moisture collects and is readily evaporated. The lower part of walls and mural
paintings are usually susceptible to humidity attacks because of capillary action.
The water table in Thailand is very high. The capillary action because of the high water table
is therefore very strong. The water usually rises to a height of 2 - 3 meters or more.
Moisture-containing mineral salts, organic substances and by-products of human activities fills thepores of the paint layers, plaster and stucco and brick walls. It obvious that rising damp in masonry isfrequently accompanied by efflorescence of salts and damaged brick walls.
Water penetration in building materials through cracks and leaks is another main cause of
their deterioration. When building materials become wet they expand and conversely when they dry

127out they shrink. This moisture movement causes destruction of weakened materials.
High porosity and high pore connectivity facilitate the water absorption, increasing thecapillary pressures in the inner part of the materials, and finally giving rise to expansion.
3. Salt Efflorescence
The decay of stone, mortar, bricks, stucco, plaster mural painting and other porous materials
on most monuments is clearly attributed to the action of soluble salts present in the materials. Moisture
picks up soluble salts and carries them to the surface through the capillary tubes. Evaporation orhydrostatic pressure causes the solution to move. When accumulated in porous building materials,
soluble salts can cause physical and chemical reactions. The crystals form and grow from the poresand cracks, filling the void areas, and expanding outwards. The dissolved salts may hydrolyze or reactwith other compounds in the material and give rise to altered products with a greater volume than theoriginal. The repeated crystallization and dissolving can cause the material to disintegrate and thesoluble salts to effloresce. The damage can be observed both on the surface and within the porous
structure of the building materials.
Accumulation of soluble salts in porous building materials can, therefore, cause loss ofcohesion or loss of cementing, dissolution, decomposition, precipitation and deposition of mineralcomponents. Physical factors such as migration, hydration and crystallization of salts generatemechanical stresses, which result in cracking and cleavage of porous structures.
It was observed that salt efflorescence was prominent in the summer months. Salt crystals
mainly appeared as white powder on the surface of brick, mortar, plaster and stucco. Crystal
morphologies and conditions of crystallization in efflorescence were also studied. Salt crystals wereformed as large crystals, granular crust in isometric crystals, fibrous crust of columnar crystals, andwhiskers. Salts may have been originally present in the building materials, or they may have been
produced by the reactions of weathering. In many cases, efflorescence was due to Portland cement
mortar.
Other sources of soluble salts are animal and human activities, industrial and agriculture
processes. The result of investigations revealed that sodium nitrate was found in brick. It is highly
possible that birds and bats living in buildings are responsible for the production of this salt.
Several complex salts were identified from specimens taken from monuments situated nearrivers or canals. These complex salts might be related to polluted water and human activities.
Several monuments in northeastern Thailand have long been damaged by salt efflorescence.
Sodium chloride from rock salt is the agent of the stone and brick disintegration. Microscopic
investigation showed that small cavities in bricks, mortar, plaster and stucco were filled by a powdery
mass of sodium chloride.

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4. Bio-deteriorations
4.1 Insects
Insects are one of the key causes of the deterioration of wooden buildings. They often cause
extensive and irreparable damage. It was observed that subterranean termites and powder post beetles
mainly contributed to the destruction of wood. Subterranean termites attack wood that is in directcontact with the ground or adjacent to crevices, in masonry or concrete, through which they travel toreach their food. As they chew and tunnel through the wood, termite workers deposit small amounts ofsoil and fecal matter into the wood, giving the damaged wood a characteristic dirty appearance.
Dry wood termites, so called because of their ability to attack dry wood, produce distinctive
barrel shaped fecal pellets that are pushed out of the gallery through small holes, which are
immediately resealed. The deposition of the fecal pellets outside the wood is an excellent indication oftermite attack.
Powder post beetles and woodborers, and other beetles infest wood under a wide range ofconditions. The larvae or grubs of these insects bore through wood for food and shelter, leaving theundigested parts of the materials in the form of a fine powder. Since the larvae work in the inner
portion of the wood, considerable damage has already occurred before they are discovered.
Adult powder post beetles attack hardwood sapwood to obtain the free sugar in the ray cells.
They usually infest wood at moisture contents ranging from eight to thirty-two percent. Wooddamaged by powder post beetles is filled with small tunnels loosely packed. Woodborers also attack
hardwood sapwood, utilizing the starches present in the ray cells. Wood damaged by these beetles has
numerous small tunnels filled with tightly packed xxx???.
4.2 Algae
The most obvious appearance of micro bio-deterioration on monuments is the formation of
black-green layers on the surface. Their presence is more apparent on the horizontal surfaces ofmonuments which have been damp for most of the time. Their presence not only darkens anddisfigures the exterior surface but also weakens the materials on which they grow. The activity ofalgae on building materials is vigorous and obvious. They form stains, which vary in color from lightgreen to black. Sometimes they entirely mask building surfaces. Algae have been found to produce
and secrete a variety of metabolic products, among which predominate organic acids i.e. lactic acid,
oxalic acid, etc. These acids either directly dissolve building materials or increase their solubility.
4.3 Lichens
Lichens are very common on sandstone and laterite. They have caused deterioration indifferent ways. Heavy growth of lichens hastens the decay of stones by excreting organic acids, mostcommonly oxalic acid. It is obvious that the stone surfaces beneath their colonies are softer and morefriable. Chemical reactions between the stones and the organic acids are the casual agents ofdisintegration. They also slow down the drying out processes after rain. Their presence is an indicatorof wet conditions in the building materials.

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The majority of lichens on sandstones and laterite are classified as crustose lichens. They
appear as green, gray, white, and yellow velvety patches on the exposed surface. Crustose lichens are
crust type and strongly attached to surface so that they cannot be readily removed. In some cases, they
are established within porous stone.
4.4 Moss and other plants
Algae and lichens grow on building materials and build up humus in which larger and moredamaging plants can grow. It was observed that mosses, liverworts, ferns, grasses and various
dicotyledonous plants also contributed to deterioration of building materials. Their growth not only
obscures carvings and details of the structure but also affects the stability and durability of themonuments. Their roots and rootlets enhanced the mechanical action in the pores of the porous
building materials and between structural elements of the monuments.
4.5 Fungi
Fungal attack is the principal form of bio-deterioration of wooden buildings. Fungal sporesare present in the atmosphere all the time, but generally remain dormant. They become active and startdeveloping as soon as conditions of humidity and temperature favorable to their growth occur.
Various groups of fungi attack the wood cell wall constituents in different ways andsequences that result in several types of decay. Decay fungi disintegrate the cell walls and thereby
change the physical and chemical characteristics of the wood. The normal color of the wood is more orless modified. Fungi activities often darken and disfigure the exterior surface of wood. The
decomposition of the wood by fungi usually causes shrinkage, wrapping and cracking. The strengthand density of the wood is reduced. The wood is friable, light and falls to powder under pressure.
5. Man- made causes of decay
Man - made causes of decay are complicated and have widespread implications in theconservation of historic buildings. As well as vibrations by vehicle wheels acting on the road surface,damage may occur in normal building construction. Vibration damage of pile driving may be the mostcommon cause and source of danger to historic buildings, particularly if the buildings have poor
foundations, cracked walls and spreading roofs.

F. Structural Problems
It was observed that structural failures of monuments in Thailand have been principallycaused by the following factors:
1. Foundation Problems
The foundations of most monuments in Thailand have been constructed by a widening of thewall into a shallow foundation which is supported on compacted soil. It was observed that mostfoundations were composed of either sandy soil or lateritic soil. These materials were carefullycompacted before construction. The load-bearing wall is the commonest type of building construction
element.

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If the soil surrounding foundations undergoes change, e.g. through excavations for drainage,
or laying of pipes, that will cause settlement. Lime mortar is extremely moisture absorbent andtransmits moisture from the ground with its content of dissolved salts upward into the masonry above.
This is a process which is very difficult to combat.
The thick walls with shallow foundations have an inherent tendency to lean outwards. This isbecause the weight bearing qualities of the soil that is repeatedly saturated by rain. The effect of thisdestructive action leads to roof structure failures.
2. Problems of Masonry
Old masonry often contains large amounts of moisture due to the highly absorptive nature ofold mortar. The moisture content movement in masonry is the cause of a vast range of serious types ofdamage. It was observed that deterioration of most monuments is associated with moisture.
Deterioration may take the form of progressive erosion so bondings between masonry are weak andthe wall may collapse.
3. Problems of Timber Structures
The failure of timber structures in Thailand mainly resulted from deterioration of materials
and was due to outside factors such as the settlement of foundations or changed functions of building
without reinforcement.
Old beams often have a sag or deflection. However, this alone does not entail a risk of
causing the whole structure to collapse. A timber beam sags most in the first few years it is subjected
to load. After this, further deflection takes place infinitely slowly. This may cause damage to the otherparts of the structure.
Properly ventilated structures of old timber seldom prove to have suffered damage. In older
times mortar was often used to fix the ends of beams and sills into walls. Since old walls are often
damp, it was found that timber parts set in them have rotted away.

G.

Conclusion

There are several major causes of deterioration of building materials in Thailand. These
problems are really serious and require urgent intervention. At this point, the importance of intensive
cooperation among engineers, architects, restorers, and scientists, has to be emphasized so that in
depth investigation can lead to more effective results.

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VietnamAnh Dung NGUYEN
Architect
Department of National Culture Heritage of Vietnam
Ministry of Culture and Information
Pilot investigation, research, preservation and conservation of traditional folk houses ofVietnam
A. Introduction to the house of Mr. Nguyen Thac Sung:
1. Geographical location:
The house is situated in Dinh Bang Commune,
Tu Son District, Bac Ninh Province, and 20km to theSouth of Hanoi, 20km to the North of Bac Ninh Town
(cultural and political center of Bac Ninh Province).
2. General plan of the house:
The house is located on a rectangular plot ofland, it includes: the main house, gate, kitchen, a yard
and a water tank. The architectural plain of the mainhouse is arranged following the (―) character (Chinesecharacter meaning one); the main facade faces south.
Map of the location of the Dinh Bang
Commune

3. Historical and cultural values:
The first owner of this house was Mr. Nguyen
Thac Luong, who was a governor of the Thanh Hoa
Province under the Le Dynasty (18th century). He had
his house built as a model for the construction of theDinh Bang community house (a famous community
house of Vietnam dating back 1736). Therefore, wehave defined that the house was dated back nearly 300
years since its construction.
4. The architectural value of the house:

General Plan of the House
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

The main house
Kitchen and animal husbandry
Alter in the open
Water tank
Well

The house has 7 parts (3 main spaces, 4
subsidiary spaces). The dimension of the main andsubsidiary part is 2.5 x 5.6m. The “vi keo” (system ofwooden frames) consists of five rows of pillars,
designed following the traditional style of “chong
ruong, ke bay” (beam over beam with lever beam). On
the architectural members of the house such as beams,
lever beam, lever beam of the veranda, there are many
patches of traceries and sculptures that have typicalartistic values with the following themes: stylized cloudbunch, flower and leaves, dragon. These are still rather
intact, contributing to highlight the architecturalcharacteristics of a traditional folk house of the 18th
century.

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Conclusion: This is one of the few traditional
folk houses of Vietnam that have still
maintained rather intact architectural andartistic features of the 18th century andsurvived up to now under severe naturalenvironmental impacts for nearly 300 past
years. Through this house, we have gained
more knowledge on the lifestyles of ancientpeople; moreover we can study and know
more about the building of ancient wooden
houses. That is why the discovery andconservation of this house is very important.
In 2001, the People’s Committee of Bac Ninh
Province decided to issue a certificate of“Historical - Cultural Relic” (architectural andartistic genre) at the province and city level for
protection of this house as a cultural property
with the aim to keep it for future generations.

B.

Section of the house

Investigation and survey of thecurrent situation of the house:

1. Current architecture:
Since it was built, the house hasremained in its original position. The
investigation shows that at present the housestill maintains rather intact form, size andarchitectural features, and it has not been
through major repair, since only the roof has
its tiles periodically changed. Therefore, thehouse has maintained intact structure,materials and typical artistic decorations that
represent the architectural characteristics of
traditional folk houses of the 18th century.
2. Current quality of the house:
The house is based on the structure of“vi keo chong ruong” (wooden frame systems
with beam over beam), ie. a system of loadbearing prolong beams and crosscut beams
made of ironwood (this is a precious wood ofVietnam: it has high density and long life, andis very difficult for termite and moth to attack.
However, it has the disadvantage of being
easily hollowed in the core, and is susceptible
to water damage).
Through a general survey of the house,by drilling to measure the wood quality and byusing traditional manual methods (byexperience and using the hammer to knock) tocheck the wood quality, we found that:

Plan of the house

133



FacadeWith the ironwood pillar system beingnearly 300 years old, there are damages
such as: some force-resistant pillars now
have more or less hollow cores due to age.
Some pillars are damaged due to rainwaterfrom leakages through the tiled roof, which
infiltrated into the capitals, and gradually
the capitals became rotten or degraded, andcreate a favorable condition for termites
attack. This makes the hinge systems hereloose their connection capability and force
resistance, causing the sagging anddisplacement of structural members.

Some pillars sink due to weak ground or
high humidity which causes the pillar base to rot. Moreover, some pillars are fully damaged
and has been replaced by the house owner with brick pillars that are not appropriate to thecharacteristics of the house.



Other architectural members include: The system of wooden frames and system of prolong
beams, crosscut beams is in a similar condition to that of the pillar system, moreover theyoften have garbage cover that results in part damages. There are many valuable decorative
artistic sculptures on the wood that are also in degraded conditions, and need to be conserved.
For example, the wood has started to rot, some design patterns on the sculptures have beenbroken and lost, the artistic value of these members has thus decreased.

The system of “hoanh” (beams connecting system of wooden frames) and “rui” (beams overhoanh) are partly rotten due to the infiltration of rainwater at places where the pillars has sunk.

3. Assessment of structure quality:
The structure quality is noted and presented on drawings from investigations and surveys ofthe house structure, and identified by unified signs and colors on all drawings of the house structure
members. For example, red: fully damaged (need to be replaced), yellow: partly damaged (need bereinforced, restored); green: still good (preserved and reused). Moreover, we also make statistic tables
for each kind of structural members of the house (this table has the specific positions, ordinal numbers,
and type of structure member, dimension, damage conditions) as the basis for formulating projectedbudget as well as methods of preservation, conservation and plan of execution.

Carved decoration on beams

Interior

134

C. The process of preservation and conservation:
1. The principles of preservation, conservation and some conservation and reinforcement
measures:1.1. Principles:Our ultimate objective is to maintain and ensure the longevity of the house; therefore it isnecessary to keep as much as possible the original members and elements of the house.

To minimize interference with the original members of the house. Interference, whennecessary, should not decrease or change the basic features and the intrinsic values of thehouse, priority should be given to conservation and reinforcement, after that, conservation andrestoration.



The replaced and added members should be differentiated from the original ones, avoiding
future confusions.



Every decision on conservation and restoration should rely on authentic fact, not on
suppositions.

This process has been realized on the basis of researches, surveys, analysis and acomprehensive assessment of historical, architectural, artistic and technical aspects. There
should be complete documentation before the interference, during the process and afterward(final document).



Priority should be given to the use of traditional materials, traditional technical and executing
procedures.

1.2. Some conservation and reinforcement measures:

Connection method for broken / rotten beam hinge

Connection methods for rotten pillar base135

2. Conservation:
1. Build shelter to protect the structure fromrain, sunshine and adverse environment
impacts during the process of executing
preservation and conservation.
2. Build storage for preservation: the store isbuilt near the construction site for keeping
and protecting wooden members of thehouse after disassembling to avoid loseand damage due to humidity, termite, mothand adverse environmental impacts.

Wooden hinges used to reinforce beams

3. Preserve the intact structural members:
Clean the surface of structure members thathave not been attacked by worm, moth andfungus.

The replacement of lever core with traceries outside

4. For structural members that have been
attacked by worm, moth and fungus:
process the wood surface with anti-fungus
chemicals and preservation chemical
substances such as: PBB, LN2, LN5 or
SOLTOX from Poland, TERMIDOC
produced by RHONE POULENC, France.
These chemical substances are applied
many times on the surface of wooden
members with brushes by the workers, andthen these members are put into thepreserving store.
5. Put the structure members that have beenprocessed into the preserving store during
the conservation of the structure.

Reinforcement of rotten core with traceries

1.

5.

2.

3.
4.
1. Storage shed 2 / 3. Structural members stored for preservation storage
4 /5. Workers cleaning the structural components before storage136

3. Conservation of wooden members:
3.1. For partly damaged architectural wooden members thatcan be reused:
3.1.1

For architectural wooden members where thedamaged part is at a force bearing position:a) Pillars: Use the traditional method (crab pincer
joint) to attach new wooden parts to repair pillars
where the foot is damaged no more than 1.5m. The
replacement part should be the same kind, shape andsize to the original. For pillar foot with hollow core,scrape away the damaged part and use a new foot withthe same size to fill in the hollowed part (method ofdriving in the core). In the case where the pillar has afully dissipated core, but its cover is still good (thicker
than 2.5cm), use the method of replacing the core by
splitting the pillar into two parts, scraping the damaged
parts inside and replace it with a new core, then use
adhesive and hinge hidden inside to join them.
b) Wooden members of connecting beams, beams,
slanting beams, levers: Use the method of replacing thecore, i.e. cut away the force bearing core of thestructural member and replace it with a new core of thesame wood to ensure good force resistance capability;
retain the surface as a cover with artistic decorations.
The new force resistance core and the old covers of thestructural member are joined by the traditional methodof using hinge and bolt. They can also be reinforcedby traditional paint (traditional paint of Vietnam) andadhesive Epoxy Risen which is popular in the world.
This method has the advantage of preserving
cultural values by retaining the outside decorative parts,
while the new core ensures good force resistancecapability for stabilizing the structure. This method canbe used to conserve almost all wooden architecturalmembers of the house.

Replacing the core with new timber

Joining new pillar foot to the pillar

3.1.2 For architectural members with damages at non forcebearing positions:
Often we use the method of patching the face: Chisel
away damaged wooden parts without artistic decorations andreplace them with new wooden parts with the shape, size andmaterials that are similar to the original (adhesive or hidden
hinge can be used for joining). If the wooden part on thedamaged architectural member has artistic decorations thatcannot be conserved because the aged wood can no longer bereused, we still use the above method but it is we must
reproduce the carving following the original patterns, thenuse adhesive to join them.
Using Epoxy Resin as an adhesive1373.2. For architectural members thatcannot be reused: replace them with new
structure member reproduced as a copyof the original damaged one, based on
the principle of ensuring the authentic
features are preserved. Those damaged
structural members that can not be reused
will be classified and preserved for
exhibition when possible.
Note: All the new joining, patching andreplacement materials should be marked
with the date of restoration (e.g.
‘Restored in 2003’).

Hinge hole on the restored structural member – made as a
copy of the original

D. Conclusion:
Until 2003, Vietnam has had more than 2780 national relics, 5 world heritages, and traditional
folk houses registered as important parts of the cultural heritage of Vietnam. Wooden architectural
heritage has a rather big number. However, Vietnam is a country situated in the monsoon tropical area,
and it is humid and warm all year round. This creates a favorable condition for fungus, moth, termites
and insects, therefore those factors harmful for wooden structures are easily developed, and are themain causes of the damages and degradation of the Vietnamese wooden architectural heritage.
In order to preserve and conserve its cultural heritage, including wooden architectural heritage,
Vietnam has made legal documents such as the Law on Cultural Heritages, and Regulations andStandards of Preservation and Conservation of Cultural Heritages, and at the same time has supported
researches into history, culture, and archaeology.
It is possible to say that up to now, Vietnam has had many achievements in the protection ofnational cultural heritage. Many tangible cultural heritage have been protected against degradation;
they have been preserved and their values have been promoted. National cultural heritage treasures
have prospered.

138

IV
Lecturers’ Papers
1. The Tradition of Wooden Architecture in JapanMr. Satoshi YAMATO
2. Cultural Heritage Preservation and Restoration
Dr. Shin’ichi SHIMIZU
3. Preservation of Waterlogged Wooden Relics
Mr. Yohsei KOHDZUMA

1. The Tradition of Wooden Architecture in Japan

YAMATO Satoshi
Senior Specialist for Cultural Properties,
Agency for Cultural Affairs, JapanThe Tradition of Wooden Architecture in Japan: Outline
Outline of the history
With a large number of evidence obtained through scientific excavation and research, it has
been proved that the history of Japanese architecture began with the pit-dwelling, which is known tohave existed as early as 10,000 years ago. In around the third century B.C. irrigated rice cultivationand iron artifacts were introduced from the southern part of the Korean Peninsula. The use ofraised-floor structures also began about this time. These structures became established as the main
form of dwellings and were later adopted for Shinto shrines; they still represent an elemental part of
the Japanese culture today.
In the middle of the 6th century, when Buddhism was introduced through the Korean
kingdom of Paekche, the general style of architecture then prevailing on the continent (in China andKorea) was introduced to Japan as the Buddhist temple architectural style together with theassociated religious institutions. Because many Buddhist temples were constructed under thepatronage of the Central Imperial Court, the local architectural styles then in existence were
influenced strongly by the imported Buddhist culture, which was rapidly absorbed in the process of
producing a unique form of Japanese architectural development.
In the latter half of the l2th century, the next period of major change began when a new waveof Buddhist culture was introduced mainly from the Chinese Kingdom during the Southern Song
Dynasty. At this time the two new Buddhist temple styles known as Daibutsu-yo and Zenshu-yo werealso introduced. Thus Japanese architecture, in which temples were the dominant architectural type,
Fig.1

Fig.2

Fig.3

141

was again influenced by the imported styles from the continent.
After this period there were no further significant outside influences for the next sevencenturies, until Japan opened up to foreigners in the latter half of the 19th century and began to
introduce aspects of European culture. During that 700-year period of isolation the architecture ofJapan evolved into unique and highly-developed forms, including such very specialized types as
temples, shrines, vernacular houses, tea-houses and castle architecture.

Wooden Architecture
Wood is the elementally material of Japanese architecture, a product of the rich forest
environment of this country. Japanese wooden buildings range from the smallest architectural spaces,
tea-rooms (such as Tai-an) with a floor area of only two tatami mats (about 3.3 square meters), to oneof the largest wooden existing buildings in the world (the Todaj-ji Daibutsu-den), a great Buddhist
temple 57 meters in width and 46.8 meters in height, with a floor area of 2880 square meters. The
largest wooden structural members reach one meter in diameter with a weight of approximately six
tons.
Among Japanese wooden architectural monuments, the oldest existing example is thewestern temple precinct of Horyu-ji, built at the end of the 7th century. The buildings in this precinct
are also the oldest remaining wooden buildings in the world.
As of the end of 2003, there are 3844 individual historic buildings designated as Important
Cultural Properties by the Japanese government. Among them, approximately 80 were constructed
between the 7th and the 12th centuries, about 1500 from the end of the 12th century to the end of the
16th century, 1900 from the end of the 16th century to the end of the 19th century, and about 400 fromthe late 19th century to the present. Nearly all of Japan's remaining wooden buildings which date back
Fig.4

Fig.7

Fig.6

Fig.5

Fig.9

Fig.8

142

to at least the end of the 16th century and have been preserved in good conditions have been
designated by the national government as Important Cultural Properties. The categories ofdesignation include religious architecture such as Shinto shrines or Buddhist temples, castles,
upper-class residences, vernacular farmhouses and townhouses, and western-style buildings including
structures for industries or civil engineering.
Among these, wooden buildings represent approximately 90% of the total. These numbers
refer only to individual monuments. Besides these, 62 historical towns and villages have been
selected as national preservation districts, which comprise of approximately 10 thousands houses andother structures that have been recognized as having historic importance. Moreover, many single
buildings and historic towns or villages have been designated by local governments at the prefecturallevel or at the municipal level in accordance with their own legal regulations.

The Tradition of Wooden Architecture in Japan: Characteristics
Post-and-Beam Structure
The fundamental characteristic of Japanese architecture is the wooden post-and-beam
structure. This type of structure uses a system of joinery in which the structural members meet atright angles and are joined by means of mortise-and-tenon connections using wooden wedges andpegs to secure the joints. Where long members are
Fig.11required, spliced connections with wedges and pegs
are used to join shorter lengths of wood together.
Metal fasteners such as nails and cramps are
sometimes used, but only for relatively small
members which have no primary structural role.
One of the main characteristics of thisstructure is that it is a structure which is “reversible”,
Fig.10
Fig.10143

in that it can be disassembled and reassembled without damage to the members. Because of thisstructural characteristic, it is possible to adopt the technique of “repair with dismantlement” which iscommon in the conservation of buildings in Japan.
The basic system of the frame structure composed of posts and beams is known as a“rigid-frame structure”, constructed to resist bending moment at each joint; but in effect the overallsystem acts as a flexible structure which allows a certain degree of flexure and sway in response tolateral external forces. This is a very practical type of system in an earthquake-prone country such as
Japan.
In Japan, with very few exceptions, buildings have been traditionally constructed with thistype of structural system. Among those exceptions were storehouse structures which used a type of“log-house” construction. Also, in rare cases, truss structures with diagonal bracing similar toEuropean structural systems have been used.
Another fundamental characteristic of Japanese architecture is that the structure itself is themain element of the architectural design, where the structure is not hidden within the walls but
exposed to express the form and pattern of the traditional design aesthetic -- an aesthetic based on theunique character of geometric composition and spatial openness which gives Japanese architecture its
special sense of beauty.

Roof Structure and Materials
Like the post-and-beam frame system, the roof is another important element whichcharacterizes the design of Japanese architecture. The large triangular volume of the roof with its
deep overhangs makes the roof form the dominant element of the exterior composition. The deep
eaves that evolved in response to the rainy climate provide a sheltered "indoor-outdoor space" which
Fig.12

Fig13

Fig.14

Fig.15144

gives traditional houses a sense of unbroken continuity with nature, and the subtly curved profiles of
the roof forms in general reflect the sensitivity of the Japanese cultural aesthetic.
Traditional roofing materials originally included organic materials such as miscunthus thatch,cypress-bark shingles and wooden shingles, but together with the introduction of Buddhism thetechniques of clay-tile roofing construction were brought from China via Korea. Whereas tile roofs
were customarily used mainly for Buddhist temples, with Shinto shrines and aristocrats’ residences
continuing to use organic roofing materials, it later became common to use clay tile for generalroofing applications in urban areas for reasons of economy and fire prevention. For important shrinesand for important residential buildings such as palace structures, however, traditional organic
materials are still used. For ordinary farmhouses, where roofing work was done by local labor using
locally-obtained materials, thatching was still in common use until very recently.

Craftsmanship
Before the introduction of architectural techniques from the continent, even in the
pre-historic periods, certain construction techniques had already developed independently in Japan.
Notwithstanding the strong continental influences on architectural style, the basic techniques forwood construction -- including joinery techniques, usage of tools, etc. -- continued to evolve in auniquely Japanese manner. Because of the critical tolerances required to produce the carefully
expressed exposed post-and-beam composition, it was necessary for the Japanese carpenters todevelop their craftsmanship to a high degree of perfection. Not only the techniques but also the tools
for wood carpentry were highly developed, together with an intimate knowledge of wood as amaterial and an appropriate sensitivity to design and proportion.

The Development of Kiku and Kiwari
The roof in Japanese architecture is composed of complex curves -- the curved profile of thesloped roof plane itself combined with the up-turned curves of the eave lines at the corners of theroof--requiring a sophisticated geometrical system to determine how to cut precisely the surface
angles where the framing members meet. Carpenters need a highly developed knowledge of thisgeometry in order to connect these members exactly, by working out calculations of the depth of theeave, the degree of the curve, and the shape of the cut surface of each member. This system is calledkiku, one of the most important subjects in the training of traditional carpenters.
The kiku system was fully developed as a system of mathematical and geometricalcalculation by the latter half of the 18th century, but prior to this development, actual construction
had long been carried out using a practical method of measurement and line drafting using a standard
carpenter's square to draw the cut lines on the surface of the lumber.
Also important for designing building especially in a post and beam structure was the kiwari
system, a system of modular proportioning of the overall structure, the spacing of the columns, andthe proportions of each member.
As a result of the adoption of this proportioning system, architectural construction became acomprehensive, unified, rationally organized industry, in which everything down to the sizes ofwooden members available in the lumber market was controlled.

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Legal Protection Systems for Architectural Monuments in JapanThe Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties
The systems of legal protection for architectural monuments in modern Japan began with theenactment of a law, namely the Ancient Shrines and Temples Preservation Act in 1897, which
covered buildings and artworks possessed by shrines and temples.
The current law, the Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties was enacted in 1950 for thesystematic protection of properties in each official classification, as well as to combine and unify theindividual protection systems which were already in existence prior to the enactment of this law;
those included the National Treasures Preservation Law (enacted in 1929), the Law for the
Preservation of Historic Sites, Places of Scenic Beauty and Natural Monuments (enacted in 1919).
The new law was established immediately following the fire which damaged the Horyu-ji Main Hall,
built around the latter half of 7th century.
This law covers a broad range of properties, from fine arts to natural monuments and fromtangible to intangible cultural properties including traditional dances and musical performances aswell as practical skills such as traditional conservation techniques.
The designation of buildings was at first limited to shrines, temples and castles, but afterWorld War II the law was broadened to cover ordinary vernacular houses and theearly-modern-period architecture which had been influenced by European architecture. In 1975, asystem for the protection of preservation districts for groups of historic buildings was introduced forthe protection of historic towns and villages. Also recently, a wider variety of buildings and otherstructures have been designated and protected under this system including industrial facilities, civilengineering structures, such as factories, steel bridges, dams or tunnels so on.

Regulations for the Protection and Support system
The national government has designated 2,250 sites, including 3,844 buildings and otherstructures as of December 2003, including either National Treasures or Important Cultural Properties.
In accordance with the provisions of the law, the permission of the Commissioner of the
Agency for Cultural Affairs is required for any alteration to the existing state of these designatedbuildings or action that would affect the value of the designated building. Major or minor repair workis carried out by the owners of the designated Important Cultural Property or their custodial bodies,and as financial support to cover large expenses for the repair work, subsidies are granted by thenational government for the project.
About 90 % of nationally designated buildings are made of wood and approximately half ofthem have roofs made of plant materials such as thatch, wooden shingle, cypress bark so on, which
are extremely vulnerable to fire. For this reason, the national government provides necessary
subsidies for owners or custodial bodies to install or maintain fire-prevention facilities and otherdisaster-prevention system that are required.

146

Besides providing such subsidies to owners and custodial bodies, the national and local
governments have a tax incentive system that features a reduction in inheritance tax and an
exemption of fixed assets tax, city planning tax or special land holding tax to encourage the continual
ownership of cultural properties and to promote owners’ positive commitment to the preservation andutilization of their cultural properties.

The Advisory Council for the Protection of Cultural Properties
Decisions on new designations and the approval of alterations to the existing state ofdesignated properties are made through investigations and deliberations by the Council for Cultural
Affairs. Only the Minister or the Commissioner could give permissions after he/she presents theissues to the Council. The Council’s membership is composed of "those who have wide and eminent
views on, and knowledge of, culture". The Counci1's approvals of alterations to the existing stateinclude any alterations required for restoration or reconstruction work which is necessary for theproper conservation of the designated buildings.

Authorized Conservation Architects
In the case of conservation projects which are subsidized by the national government, it is arequirement to retain an authorized conservation architect to design and manage the whole project.
The responsibility of the conservation architect includes undertaking investigations (such as analysis
of deterioration, measurements of members, studies of historic techniques and traces, reference tohistoric resources, etc.), design, documentation, supervision of the restoration work and publishing of
documentations. In Japan, from the long and rich history of experience in scientific investigation andthe repair of architectural cultural properties, a very detailed and systematic program of architecturalconservation has been developed.
The national government directly provides a training course for these top-level conservationarchitects. The conservation architects who have completed this course are assigned by the national
government as site managers of conservation projects. Of the conservation architects who take thisnational course, most belong to a nation-wide non-profit organization of conservation management
specialists, the Japan Association for the Conservation of Architectural Monuments (JACAM).
Others are members of local organizations, including the conservation divisions of three prefectural
governments (Kyoto, Nara and Shiga Prefectures) and one local non-profit organization (Wakayama
Prefecture). These four prefectures have a particularly high concentration of architectural monuments.
The total number of people in these organizations and government agencies now stands atapproximately 150, including trainees at the entry level.

Traditional Conservation Techniques
For the repair of architectural monuments the fundamental principle is to use traditional
techniques and materials. In Japan, where there has been rapid economic progress and significant
changes in the industrial structure, there has long been an awareness of the problem of a growing
shortage of traditional materials and craftsmen.

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In 1975 the legal system for the protection of conservation techniques was implemented aspart of the revision to the Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties.
This is a system under which the national government may designate the traditional
techniques or crafts which are indispensable for repair work on and the maintenance of culturalproperties (Selected Conservation Techniques), and may officially select the possessors orpractitioners of those techniques, whether they are individuals or preservation organizations (holder
or holders of the traditional conservation techniques). The national government grants subsidies tothose selected individuals or organizations to be used for conservation-related projects such as
refining skills and for the training of successors to carry on the tradition.
The designated traditional techniques related to historic buildings include those in thefollowing fields: wood carpentry, architectural painting or coloration, geometric proportioning,cypress-bark and wood roof shingling, miscanthus thatching, plaster work, metal ornamental
manufacturing, fitting maker, metal molding, blacksmith, bamboo nail making and the production ofclay roof tiles.
Kyoto and Nara Prefectures have established teams of skilled craftsmen who are hired as
full-time government employees to protect their status and to improve the efficiency of thesuccession of techniques.

Fig.16

Fig.17148

Buddhist Buildings in the Horyu-ji Area:
Monuments on the World Heritage List
History
Buddhism was introduced to Japan in the mid-sixth century from China by way of the
Korean Peninsula. In the seventh century in the area around Horyu-ji, the Emperor's son and regent
Prince Shotoku founded Horyu-ji and Chugu-ji temple. The Imperial Family later founded Horin-ji,
dedicated to the recovery of the Prince from illness. After his death, Hokki-ji was founded on the sitewhere the Prince's palace had formerly been located.
Horyu-ji, which Prince Shotoku founded at the beginning of the seventh century, is presumed
to have been destroyed by fire in 670. The temple was rebuilt in the new location from the latter halfof the seventh century to the beginning of the eighth century. The rebuilt temple is known today as
the Horyu-ji Sai-in, the west temple.
The other major sub-temple at Horyu-ji is the Toh-in the east temple, which was built in thefirst half of the eighth century at the site of Prince Shotoku's Ikaruga Palace in dedication to the
Prince. Besides Sai-in and Toh-in, there are several monasteries at Horyu-ji.
In ancient times, Horyu-ji received the protection of the Imperial Family because it was
revered as the temple which guarded the empire. Moreover, from about the twelfth century people's
respect for and belief in Prince Shotoku became very strong, drawing believers to the temple in great
numbers, and Horyu-ji began to prosper due to its fame as the temple which had been established by
the Prince.
Imperial authorities and successive governments have always offered generous patronage forthe maintenance and repair of the temple.
During the Meiji Restoration, which marked the birth of Japan as a modern nation, Shintoism
began to rise in influence as a state religion. On the other hand, movements rejecting Buddhism
became prevalent as it was regarded as the dominant religion of the old political order, and Horyu-ji
began to decline as a result of this trend. But the new government, acknowledging the need to protect
cultural properties, enacted the Law for the Preservation of Ancient Shrines and Temples in 1897.
With this law, the way was opened for the support of scientific investigations and the protection ofcultural properties.

Buddhist Buildings in the Horyu-ji Area
For the Buddhist buildings of the Horyu-ji area, the arrangement or composition of buildings
in itself has significant historical meaning, and each of the individual buildings displays outstandingarchitectural style.
In Japan there are twenty-eight historic wooden buildings which were constructed before or
during the eighth century. Eleven of these are found in the Horyu-ji area. Of these eleven, the Kondo(main hall), Gojunoto (five-story pagoda), Chumon (inner gate) and Kairo (roofed, semi-enclosed
corridor) of the Horyu-ji Sai-in and the Sanjunoto (three-story pagoda) of Hokki-ji, which were built

149

from the seventh to the beginning of the eighth centuries, are the world's oldest wooden structures
remaining today in their original form.
Sai-in (West Temple):
The Kondo was completed by 680, followed by the Gojunoto, Chumon and the Kairo. The
entire temple was completed by around 710. The pillars of these buildings are characterized byentasis and the bracketing systems are in the shape of a cloud; these details indicate that thesebuildings belong to a period older than and different from many of the buildings built after the eighth
century in terms of both structure and design. The structure and design found in these buildings weredeveloped under the influence of the Chinese culture of the Bai-Wei period (sixth century). Amongthe principal buildings in this precinct, the Kohdo (lecture hall) was destroyed by fire in 925 but was
rebuilt in 990.
Toh-in (East Temple):
The Toh-in was built in the first half of the eighth century. Its main hall, the Yumedono, isan octagonal building surrounded by a corridor. Behind the Yumedono is the Denpodo, a lecture hall,and the priests' living quarters. Buildings other than the Yumedono and the Denpodo were rebuilt inthe thirteenth century during a time when belief in Prince Shotoku was at its height.
At this time the Raido (worship hall) was built where the original inner gate stood, and abuilding to hold the Buddha’s ashes (originally in the possession of Prince Shotoku) was built behind
the Yumedono. This revised arrangement remains today.
The Buddhist buildings in the Horyu-ji area were witness to the close cultural interchange
between China and Japan and in East Asia at the time. Moreover, there is no other example in which
outstanding wooden structures of different ages dating from the seventh century and extending to thenineteenth century are concentrated in one area and preserved. It may be said that cultural properties
that express the long and rich history of the wooden Buddhist temples of East Asia, as well as thehistory of the Buddhist religion itself, are gathered here.

Fig.18150

Prince Regent Shotoku, who founded the original Horyu-ji, was highly instrumental in the
introduction and spread of Buddhism in Japan at that time. Horyu-ji, with its collection of temple
buildings which date back to the age when Buddhism was just beginning to flourish in Japan, holds avery important position in the history of Buddhism in Japan.
As examples of the oldest Buddhist structures in Japan, the groups of Buddhist structures inthe Horyu-ji area have influenced the development of temples at different ages throughout 1300 yearsof tradition. They are very important cultural properties in promoting the understanding of the cultureof Japan.

The Protection of the Environment
Not only the buildings but also the temple site has been designated by the national
government; a total of 48 buildings have been designated as National Treasures or Important Cultural
Properties, and the temple site has been designated as a Special Historic Site (14.6 ha) by the national
government in accordance with the Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties. Any action which
may alter the existing state of the designated place is to be controlled and the permission of thegovernment must be obtained.
The buffer zone surrounding the temple site was designated as a "Conservation District ofHistoric Natural Features of Ikaruga town" in accordance with the Law Concerning Special
Measures for the Preservation of Historic Natural Features in Ancient Cities. It was also designatedas an "Ikaruga Scenic Landscape District” by Nara Prefecture in the same year, in accordance with
the Ordinance of Nara Prefecture Scenic Landscape Preservation, thereby providing for theconservation of the historic natural features and the natural environment of the entire district.

History and Results of Conservation Work on Architectural
Monuments in Japan: the Horyu-ji Kondo
The Process of Repair Work on the Kondo
The conservation work on the buildings in the Horyu-ji temple precinct, which begun in
1934, was an epoch-making experience in the field of architectural conservation in Japan. The initial
focus of the work was the conservation of the mural paintings in the interior of the first story. As aresult of this project, in part due to the types of repairs involved, especially repair with dismantling, amajor undertaking which could have significant effects on the conservation of the buildings, acomprehensive program of systems and methods of conservation work was established for Japan.
However, in 1945, during World War II, with the work on the first story still under way, theupper storey and the ceiling of the first storey were dismantled as a precaution against possible air
attacks on conspicuously tall buildings in this vicinity. After the war, in 1949, the interior, including
the mural paintings, suffered damage in an accidental fire; it was decided then to carry out a programof repair which included complete dismantlement, and this repair was completed in 1954. Thus therepair work on the Kondo, which had started out as interior work on the mural paintings, in the end

151turned out to be a major project including repair with complete dismantlement due to the special
circumstances of the war and the accidental fire.

Kaitai Shuri : Repair with Dismantlement
Repair with dismantlement is one of the common methods for repairing architecturalmonuments in Japan. This method has been used since the beginning of modern scientificconservation work in Japan, which started near the end of the 19th century after the enactment of thefirst national law. Other types of repair include partial repair in situ, re-roofing, re-painting, etc.
Repair with dismantlement may be undertaken in cases in which there is serious deterioration or
distortion of the main structural frame, where the consolidation of joints or replacement of main
structural members is required on a large scale.
Because of the principal
structural characteristics of Japanesearchitecture,
namely(1)
thepost-and-beam
structure
without
structural walls or bracing, (2) the joint
system of mortise and tenon
connections without metal fasteners,and (3) the exposed structural frame
which is expressed on both the exterior
and the interior as the main element ofthefinishedwallcomposition,
dismantlement is made possible by thenature of the structure itself and is apractical and logical solution to the
problemofrepair,allowing
disassembly and reassembly without
any damage to the members. Where thestructural frame is seriously distorted,
this method is required in order torelease the internal torsion forces in the
joints and to re-align the structure.
The process of repair withdismantlement is as follows; (1)number plates are attached to identify
the location and orientation of eachindividual member, and detailed record
drawings are made; (2) the sequence of
Fig.19dismantlement is determined and thestructural frame is disassembled; (3) the damaged or deteriorated parts are repaired or replaced as
required; and (4) the structure is reassembled in reverse sequence. This approach to a historicbuilding could be regarded as one application of the method of anastylosis.

152

Partial Restoration
The Horyu-ji Kondo was originally constructed at the end of the 7th century and underwent
repairs in the 10th, 12th, 13th, 14th and 17th centuries. This was proven through detailed research on
traces left on members and archives kept during the conservation work. There were no majoralterations done during these periods of repair, but a number of minor changes had been made. Aspart of the conservation work it was decided to restore those altered portions to their original
condition, i.e. those alterations which had damaged the historic value of the building as a 7th century
building. These alterations to the then-existing state were made with the approval of the Council.
The restored portions of the Kondo include the following; (1) the styles of the roof tiles andridge tiles; (2) the roof framing sub-structure; (3) the perimeter of the eave framing; (4) the gable
ornament; (5) the eave bracketing system at the corners; (6) the removal of eave-reinforcement
supports (with the exception of the decorated corner struts); (7) the design of the balustrade on theupper story; (8) the design of the ornamental metal covers on the rafter ends; (9) the removal of thereinforcement tie beams and braces and the installation of new steel reinforcement members
concealed in the roof structure; and (10) the design of the roofing material on the projected shedroofs surrounding the lower portion of the building.
In general, the portions of the building that were restored to their original state were thosethat had been altered during the 17th century repairs. The restoration design was done after carefulresearch which was dependent on the results of investigations of the remaining traces on all of thewooden members. In the case of the Horyu-ji Kondo, the policy of the restoration, to return it to its
original state, was decided under the following conditions; (1) the later alterations were limited tominor ornamental design features and had not changed the basic fabric of the building; (2) overall,
the original design and materials were in a good state of preservation; (3) there was adequate
evidence of most features of the original design to enable accurate restoration without conjecture; and(4) Horyu-ji has outstanding value as a unique example of Asuka Period architecture.
On the other hand, there are portions which were not restored because of a lack of sufficientevidence of the original condition. For example, it is known that the buildings of the Asuka Period in
general had bird-tail-shaped ornaments on top of the gable ridge ends, and through archaeologicalexcavations parts of such an ornament were found under the ground. However there was no clear
proof that particular ornament had come from the roof of the Kondo, and not enough fragments
remained to reconstruct the entire design of the ornament. The restoration of those parts wastherefore not carried out, pending future investigations.

Preservation of Material
The original materials were preserved as much as possible, but materials which were thecause of structural problems because of serious deterioration or other damages were replaced. Also,
any materials which had been added in previous repairs or alterations were not re-used in the portionsof the building which were restored to the original condition.
In the case of the Horyu-ji Kondo, the percentage of original members remaining after theconservation work was 50 to 55% on the first storey, with approximately 70% on the upper storey.
Counting the fire-damaged members which were replaced and then put into storage, the percentage

153

of first-story members remaining is approximately 70%. Most of the replaced parts were portions of
the eave structure system, particularly bracketing members or rafters which had been damaged by theoverload stresses resulting from an inadequate structural capacity to support the deep roof overhang a structural deficiency inherent in the original building design which had to be corrected later by theaddition of corner reinforcement struts. In Horyu-ji, almost all of the members which were not
re-used are preserved in a permanent storage facility on site, including the fire-damaged mural
paintings and wooden-framing members which are on display.
In general, in conservation work on Japanese architectural monuments involving the
replacement of the original members, most of the replaced parts are those around the exposed
perimeter of the roof or near the ground surface where moisture damage is most common. It is notcommon to replace the structural framework members or other fundamental parts of the building,with the result that most of the important building parts remain as original materials.

Fig.20

The Preservation of Traditional Tools and Techniques
Through the conservation work on the Horyu-ji buildings, historic investigations were done
not only on the traces remaining on the materials but also on construction and carpentry techniques.
For example, one of the principal tools used by the traditional carpenters, the yari-ganna (a kind ofplaner-knife shaped in the form of a spear), which produces a finish that cannot be matched bycontemporary tools, was reproduced based on investigations of the surface of the original material
and archives. For newly-introduced materials for the replacement of deteriorated or fire-damaged
members, the greatest effort has made to maintain the authenticity of production techniques by
employing such tools.

154

Fig.21

Fig.22

Captions
Fig.1 Pit-dwelling and Raised floor structure (Reconstructed, Saga pref.)Fig.2 Main Gate (Nandai-mon) of Todai-ji(Nara pref., 12c)Fig.3 Shari-den of Engaku-ji (Kanagawa pref., 15-16c)
Fig.4 ‘Jo-an’ tea ceremony room (Aichi pref., 17c)
Fig.5 Main Hall (Kon-do) of Todai-ji(Nara pref., 18c)
Fig.6 Himeji-jo Castle (Hyogo pref., 17c)
Fig.7 Farm house (the Tokitas’ house, Chiba pref., 18c)
Fig.8 Town house of the Inoues’ (Okayama pref., 18c)
Fig.9 Traditional style residence in modern age (Yuho-en, Kyoto pref., 20c)
Fig.10 Examples of joints
Fig.11 Cross sections of post and beam structures
Fig.12 Thatched roofing in cooperation with villagers
Fig.13 Single board roofing
Fig.14 Cypress bark roofing
Fig.15 Preparation of cypress barking
Fig.16 Traditional carpentry work with traditional tools
Fig.17 Demonstration of cypress bark roofing at an exhibition
Fig.18 Buildings in the Horyu-ji Sai-in
Fig.19 Section and plan of the Horyu-ji Kondo (Main Hall)
Fig.20 Afforestation (Japanese cedar)
Fig.21 Traditional carpentry tools
Fig.22 Carpenters at work drawn in a medieval picture scroll155

2. Cultural Heritage Preservation and Restoration
Shin'ichi SHIMIZU
National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Nara
1. Routine Conservation
The importance of architectural cultural properties lies not only in their beauty; theymust be preserved for future generations with their structures intact. Each structural member
represents the building technology of its time as well as the spirit of the builder. The proper
preservation of cultural properties requires that consideration be given to even the smallest
details. It is important to conduct regular inspections to prevent damages from occurring, andto keep up with routine repair work that prevents damages from spreading.
Common sense should be practiced in order to preserve the condition of an ordinary
house. For example, highly flammable objects and objects susceptible to rotting should not be
stored beneath the floor. The interior and exterior should be kept clean, and windows should be
opened regularly to ventilate the house. In reality, however, the work of maintaining andconserving cultural properties is much more complex and varies in scale.
Various circumstances might arise which affect the success of conservation work.
Change of ownership may diminish the sense of attachment to and responsibility for theproperty; a change of function may result in misuse, or the ageing of the residents could meanthat maintenance and repairs become neglected. In consideration of such possibilities, routine
maintenance work should be conscientiously enforced.
In our modern lifestyles, there is less time available and less motivation to performroutine household maintenance work. In Japan, for example, there used to be an annual custom
to thoroughly clean the house. This involves airing the tatami floor mats outdoors, andreplacing the paper on the latticed sliding doors. Unfortunately, nowadays few people continue
this custom. The traditional skills required for such routine maintenance and repairs is nolonger passed on, so that even those who are keen to upkeep their houses are likely to hiresomeone else to do the work, thus this task is becoming impersonalized.
Under the Cultural Properties Law of Japan, while the repair and maintenance of aclassified cultural property is the responsibility of the owner just as it is for an ordinary
property, the government must supervise and in some cases provide financial or technicalassistance. Thus the officials concerned with the preservation of cultural properties must
provide the owner with the knowledge for routine maintenance and repairs, and to instill in theowner a readiness to undertake that work.
The staff of local government offices that are in charge of cultural assets regularly
inspect the properties under their jurisdiction. Independent craftsmen are also commission to
make inspections so that each property is checked several times each year. Furthermore,government agencies hold regular training programs for the craftsmen to develop their skills as156

well as their knowledge of history and culture.
The skills required for ongoing maintenance or for the operation of specialized
equipments, such as disaster prevention devices, should be passed onto the owners of theproperty when work is completed by the technicians. In this way, the responsibility forbuilding management is returned to the owners. However, such transmission of knowledge
has often been neglected, especially when often, there is the assumption that the owner alreadyknows how to maintain their own house. This is an area where improvement is needed.
To further the education of cultural property owners, there are private organizations
that they may voluntarily join. These organizations conduct training programs and site visits
relating to the preservation of cultural properties, and contribute in other ways to improve thecapabilities of the owners. The merits of improving the awareness of a property owner isdemonstrated in the following anecdote: the tenant operating a coffee shop in Building 15 of
the historic foreign settlement district in Kobe was asked by the owner to accept detailed
contract conditions, which prescribed even the cleaning methods that would facilitate themaintenance of this historic building.

2. Prompt Damage Control through Maintenance and Repair
When damage to a cultural property occurs, the most important thing is to take prompt
measures to prevent the damage from worsening or spreading. For this purpose, in Japan theowner of a building that has been designated as a cultural asset by the national government is
obligated to file a damage report, within ten days of the occurrence of damage, to the Agency
for Cultural Affairs via the responsible local government agency. For small-scale damages,
local officials would make an inspection and offer any necessary advice. It is then theowner's responsibility to perform the restoration work. Prompt damage control is a means of
not only preserving the value of the cultural property, but also of conserving the building in an
economical manner. If large-scale repairs are necessitated, a construction plan is prepared inconsultation with the national or local authorities, and the repair work is usually performed as agovernment-subsidized project.
A building is constructed from a variety of materials; the lifespan of the materials
define the needs for maintenance and repair. In the case of a roof that is thatched or shingledwith organic materials, if a decayed section is ignored it will quickly lead to rain leakage thatcan cause corrosion of other parts of the structure. Normally a thatched roof must be replaced
every 20 years and a roof of cypress bark shingles every 30 years. However, depending on
environmental circumstances such as exposure to sunlight, accumulation of fallen leaves, or
the growth of grass or moss, the regular replacement of certain sections and cleaning of theroof can make a large difference to its service life. Roofs of organic materials were conceived
to be replaced at regular intervals, hence it is difficult to preserve the original material, but it isessential to retain the traditional procedures and style when replacing it. In special cases, athatched or bark-shingled roof may be completely covered or replaced with metal sheeting.
This may be applicable in a densely built-up neighborhood with a high risk of fire, or where157there is not an inheritor who is capable of handling maintenance and repair work (morecommon in today's aging society). Such drastic alteration requires a permit based on an
investigation by an officer of the Agency for Cultural Affairs.
In Japan, larger temples and shrines that contain many old buildings were traditionally
maintained by generations of contracted carpenters who constantly inspected the grounds andmade repairs as necessary. For example, at the huge temple complex of Horyuji (NaraPrefecture), groups of carpenters resided in the western and eastern precincts adjoining thetemple. At the huge mountain temple of Enkyoji (Hyogo) carpenters lived in a village at thefoot of the mountain. Today's commercial society has so weakened the tradition of handing
down skills within a family or the local community that such hereditarily establishedcarpenters are no longer common. Thus everyday maintenance of buildings by the owners
themselves takes on greater importance in our time.
Traditional wooden structures in Japan are often partly or entirely finished withcolorings, lacquer or other materials, while modern buildings are usually finished with paint.
The finishing is an important design element while it also has a protective function, hence
periodic reapplication is required. Where several coats have been applied, the undercoat may
be quite old, and careful inspection is necessary. The finishing has a major effect on theappearance of a building; for example, in the historic foreign settlement district in Kobe, theKobayashi residence, formerly called the White House, has been known as Moegi (light green)
House since its restoration.
The decorative coatings of traditional wooden buildings are often extensively peeled,so analysis of pigment samples is necessary and special care must be taken to preserve any
sections where valuable ancient pigment remains. This may require expert advice on theapplication of finishes and on further maintenance and repair work. However, the exteriors of
the oldest wooden buildings in Japan (from about the 13th century or earlier) tend to have been
peeled clean, making it impossible to determine the nature of the original finishing.
Moreover, the wood is so rough from weathering that it would be difficult to reapply finishes.
The austere appearance of such timber buildings has become an accepted image of historicbuildings, hence coatings are not applied during recent restoration work.
Recently a growing number of bridges and other steel structures have been designatedas cultural assets. To preserve these structures and minimize the need for drastic repair, it isvital that they are repainted at regular intervals.
The basic principle of maintenance and repair work is that it should be carried out
regularly in accordance to a building management program in order to prevent the spread ofdamages. However, even simple and straightforward repairs should be done with expert advice.
This would ensure that the integrity and value of the cultural asset would not be undermined in
the process. In Japan, the owner of a nationally designated structure is obligated to file a repair
report with the Agency for Cultural Affairs at least 30 days prior to the performance of any
repair. This requirement allows the government to issue any necessary instructions regarding
the repair work, and ensures that the protected cultural property is not altered without
permission.

158

3. Precautions for Natural Disasters
Fortunately, due to their protected locations, many cultural properties have been sparedfrom damages due to calamity and natural disasters over the years. However, due to a
traditional reverence for the mountains or for scenic considerations, important buildings haveoften been sited on difficult terrain or on mountainsides where the forest had been deliberately
cleared. Consequently they are especially vulnerable to rotting induced by humidity, and todamages caused by flooding, landslide or fallen trees that resulted from typhoons or
downpours. Thus the need arose for the installation of retaining walls, guardrails and drainage
works, and the reinforcement or removal of precarious trees. In many cases the risks to theproperty can be identified and the most urgent disaster prevention measures are taken first.
There are a number of inherent difficulties; in addition to the need to harmonize with thecultural property and the surrounding natural environment, the construction work often posed
difficult engineering problems, for example when a retaining wall has to be constructed along a
cliff behind the structure.
When a small-scale building such as a shrine sanctuary was being built, a temporary
sheltering structure may be erected at the start of the construction work to protect it from theelements. This temporary sheltering structure has often been re-used during the restoration ofother old buildings in the precinct. In this tradition, concrete sheltering structures haverecently been erected to protect cultural properties in areas with heavy snowfall.
Providing adequate measures to safeguard cultural properties during an earthquake is amajor problem. In Japan where earthquakes are so common, the very fact that a historicalstructure has survived up to now implies that it has strong earthquake resistance. Earthquake
damages to large historical structures are therefore not anticipated except in special
circumstances. However, the fact that many architectural cultural assets were damaged
during the Kobe Earthquake of 1995 served as a stimulus for scientific investigation of theanti-seismic capacities of cultural properties. In contrast to buildings of concrete or
steel-reinforced concrete, there were no established methods for assessing the earthquake
resistance of wooden structures, and studies using actual buildings as specimens were carriedout to gather scientific data. From this study, a simple, checklist-type manual was produced.
This has allowed owners to easily diagnose the earthquake resistance of their structures
without having to bear the high cost of a formal earthquake resistance analysis. As a result,the awareness of disaster prevention has been increased.
Buildings that have been designated at the national level as cultural assets are exempt
from certain provisions of the Building Standards Law, including those concerning structuralrequirements for earthquakes, strong winds and heavy snowfall. In some cases, providing
additional structural reinforcements is the only means of ensuring that safety standards arecomparable to those of contemporary buildings. Yet this idea has met strong resistance frommany persons involved with cultural conservation, as they tend to value the authenticity ofstructures above all. Rather than enforcing a uniform requirement for the reinforcement of allbuildings, efforts are under way to establish standards which correspond to the cultural value
and current use of a structure, and to initiate methods for compliance that will not degrade the159cultural value of the structures. At the same time, for buildings where the addition of structural
reinforcements has been deemed inappropriate, steps are being taken to post danger warnings,
limit access, and improve escape routes.
Preventive measures are continuously being developed to deter the various foreseeable
risks and disasters that may occur. While complete prevention is impossible, it is vital toidentify all the potential threat to a cultural property, taking into account their context andsurroundings. Preventive measures must be provided to cater for all risks identified despite
their relative likelihood of occurrence.

4. Fire Prevention and Initial Firefighting
Since about 90 percent of the architectural cultural assets in Japan were built of wood,fire preparedness is essential. Measures are taken for each stage of preparatory actions,
including prevention (fire control), early detection, initial firefighting and full-scale
firefighting. Controlling the use of fire is the most important. In Japan, fires caused by
fireworks igniting roofs made of natural materials have become a problem in recent years.
To cater for early detection, the Japan Fire Service Law requires automatic fire
detectors to be installed within structures classified as cultural assets. The devices are
selected and placed in ways that would not damage the interior space. To provide for initial
firefighting, the Agency for Cultural Affairs promotes the installation of firefighting
equipments. Aboveground sprinkler devices for water discharge are frequently used, as it isessential that the equipment can be easily operated by elderly owners and neighbors. For
full-scale firefighting, automatic alarms that promptly alert fire departments are installed, androutes for firefighting access are being cleared on large areas of land in cases where culturalproperties are set far back from the road.
In addition, lightning arrestors are installed in areas where lightning strikes arecommon and in districts without high buildings, and fire breaks are created around culturalproperties in densely populated areas. For example, the Daizenji temple (in Yamanashi) would
be at high risk in the case of a forest fire. Firefighting equipments have thus been installed anda fire prevention zone has been established on the hillside behind the building. Carefulconsideration of the type of equipment and fire prevention measures appropriate to thecircumstances is required for each cultural property.
January 26 has been designated as the Cultural Asset Fire Prevention Day incommemoration of the fire in the main hall at Horyuji in 1950. On this day, annual
firefighting drills are held throughout the country at designated cultural sites with thecooperation of local fire departments and residents.

5. Responses to Natural Disaster
When a disaster strikes, naturally lifesaving takes on first priority. It is also vital toprepare and maintain communication systems to enable prompt assessment of damage to160cultural properties. During the confusion at the time of a disaster, cultural properties are at highrisk since for example, even an important building could be recklessly destroyed in order toclear a blocked road. Hence authorities and the local residents must be informed about thevalue of cultural properties in the area, and emergency measures should be in place for theirpreservation if they are damaged due to natural disasters. Such measures include the erectionof temporary structural props for support and the use of sheets to keep out the rain.
It is also important to organize a relief system of personnel to help save culturalproperties in case there are insufficient resources on hand. The implementation of such asystem was demonstrated in Kobe after the disastrous earthquake of 1995. About one week
after the earthquake, inspection teams from the Agency for Cultural Affairs were able to enter
the affected areas to assess the extent of damage to cultural properties, prepare preliminary
restoration plans, and estimate restoration costs. Local branches of Architectural Associations
assessed significant buildings that were not designated as cultural assets. Specialists attached to
local government agencies were dispatched to set up long-term procedures for coordinating therestoration of each designated cultural property. As a response to this disaster, measures forearthquake proofing were also reviewed.
Typhoons are another common cause of damage to cultural assets in Japan. In areasthat regularly experience typhoons, existing buildings have proved their resilience, andcommunities are prepared to cope with the storms. But in areas that are not accustomed totyphoons, a major storm may cause heavy damage. Typhoon no. 7 in 1998 is remembered forthe extensive damage that resulted by trees that were felled by the strong wind. At the Muroji
temple (in Nara Prefecture), along with repairs to the five-storied pagoda, preventive measures
such as the wiring of potentially dangerous trees were carried out. Nationwide, measures toreinforce trees that present potential risks were added to the program of cultural asset
protection; subsequently, the trees around all cultural asset structures were surveyed to identify
risks. This is an example of learning from a disaster.

6. Opening to the Public and Regulating Use
Besides implementing programs to preserve cultural properties, it is desirable that they
become accessible to the public, who could benefit from and learn to appreciate our common
heritage. Buildings that have fallen into disuse and become public property are frequently
converted into museums. Some of them are managed simply as spaces for exhibits thathighlight the value and attraction of the building as a cultural asset. In some cases, the exhibits
may be irrelevant to the history of the cultural property, and may obstruct views of thebuildingʼs interior. Consideration is needed to develop a complementary relationship between
the structure and the exhibits. Attention should be drawn to the relevance of the exhibits; atleast one section of the exhibits should be related to the structure.
Public buildings are subjected to societal demands for comfort and convenience,
including such aspects as barrier-free access. This may result in numerous requests for all sortsof renovation or equipment to be installed into a cultural property, and these need to be161carefully evaluated in terms of requirements and the methods of achieving them. For example,
at the Yokohama Port Opening Memorial Hall, a permit had to be obtained for the installationof an outdoor elevator facing the courtyard.
In the case of a private home, continued utilization as a residence is best for
preservation and management, although flexibility is required to improve amenities. Culturally
significant dwellings often come under public ownership due to the lack of an heir. There is awide variation in the ways that these dwellings are subsequently used, and in the merits andextent of their opening to the public. This is usually determined according to the site
conditions and the policies of the responsible authorities.
The principle for preserving residential cultural properties in Japan is to promote theirutilization as homes, and to take public ownership only as a last resort. With public monuments
the opposite is true, as public ownership is the norm and site utilization is regulated by the
local authorities.
Continual use of a cultural property tends to help maintain the inherent significance ofthe structure and reinforce the owner's will to preserve it. Through use, the attractiveness of thebuilding is brought forward and good management is promoted. While an exclusive focus onfunctional requirements may raise problems due to the conflicting demands of use andpreservation, in general the two goals are complementary.
Compared to brick or stone buildings, which retain some physical value even when
they have been allowed to fall into ruin, wooden buildings are far more difficult to preserve. It
is thus essential to manage them in the context of continued use.

7. Conclusion
The management of cultural properties entails a broad range of issues, from heritage
preservation and the conservation of the surrounding historical and natural environments, totopics not mentioned in this paper such as crime prevention and the regulation of institutional
and individual users. Accordingly, the ideal manager of a cultural property will have a broad
perspective and comprehensive judgment. In Japan, training to develop managers with thesequalities has been initiated by some local governments, such as the initiation of a training
course for heritage managers in Hyogo Prefecture. However, such training and awareness isstill lacking at the national level. This is a key issue for the future.

162

3. Preservation of Waterlogged Wooden Relics

Yohsei KOHDZUMANational Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Nara
1.

Emergency Measures at the Excavation Site

1.1 Temporary Storage at the Site
A relic of organic material with high moisture content that decayed very slowly in the ground
can in many cases become so fragile soon after excavation that it could crumble at the touch of afinger. Because shrinkage and deformation will result if such a relic is allowed to dry out, it must
constantly be kept wet during the archaeological survey work. The relic should be regularly wateredwith a sprinkler, vaporizer or watering can, and it is effective to keep it covered with a black vinyl
sheet. A solution of water containing PEG-600 or PEG-1500 (polyethylene glycol with low molecularweight, which is highly water absorptive) may also be applied, either directly or by wrapping the relic
with a soaked cloth. But since either of these methods of PEG application will work for only a shorttime, wooden relics must be constantly monitored to confirm that they stay wet at all times. Wooden
relics must also be protected from prolonged exposure to direct sunlight, as the surfaces of a relic left
exposed to the sun at the site have been known to deteriorate visibly in comparison to the unexposed
surfaces.
A relic discovered in the course of excavation is ordinarily cleaned for the preparation ofphotographs and measured drawings, and this cleaning must be done carefully. Buried wood may havedecayed to the point that even the touch of a finger will cause surface damage, so it is best to performthe cleaning work with gently running water and, if available, a soft brush. Special care must be takenwith wood containing India-ink writing (such as the narrow wooden tablets with official records fromancient Japan), because scrubbing off dirt may also scrape away the remaining traces of written
characters. Furthermore, dirt adhering to the surface of a relic may contain traces of material that waspreviously part of the relic itself, so careless or unnecessary cleaning is to be avoided, and the relicshould be carried indoors together with any adhering soil for thorough examination.
Relics consisting of both wood and metal, and wooden relics coated with lacquer must also be
prevented from drying out if they are wet. Likewise, if a dry organic relic is mistakenly rinsed withwater, it must then be kept wet. In addition to items containing organic material, fragile earthenware
which contains moisture may crack if rapidly dried, and so must be treated with care.

1.2 Methods for Removing Fragile Organic Relics
It may be difficult or impossible to simply pick up a fragile organic relic and keep it intact.
The method that will best preserve the shape and positioning of the relic should be used, taking into
account the condition of the relic and the nature of the surrounding environment. Special techniques

163

for removing fragile relics include temporary
reinforcement, wrapping with hard urethane foam,
fixing with urethane foam tape, and freezing withliquid nitrogen.

1.2.1

Temporary Reinforcement

A relic in a relatively good state ofpreservation can be reinforced to facilitate its removal.
For example, when a lacquered object is buried, themain object may decay completely leaving only thelacquer membrane to be discovered and unearthed(Figure 1). As consolidation alone is usually not
sufficient to facilitate the removal of a lacquer
membrane, it may be necessary to reinforce one sideor the other of the membrane with handmade paper or
nonwoven fabric. The reinforcing material should be
attached
using
eitheracrylic
resin
orultra-macromolecular polyethylene oxide (Polyox).
These can be easily removed afterward, using hot
steam to dissolve Polyox, or an organic solvent such asacetone to dissolve the resin. In all cases, selection of
the reinforcing material and method should be
preceded by careful consideration of the type ofpreservative treatment to be used after the object has
been removed. As it is usually difficult to consolidate a
wet relic, especially if it is wood or cloth, as a rule it isbest not to do the work at the excavation site. Instead,to facilitate the subsequent preservative treatment, it isprobably better either to wrap it with hard urethane
foam or freeze it with liquid nitrogen, as described
below.

1.2.2

a. Consolidation and reinforcement

b. Removalc. After removal
Figure 1 Removal of a Lacquer Membrane

Wrapping with Hard Urethane Foam

As with human bones, reinforcement may not be sufficient to allow the removal of a relic. To
fully preserve the positioning and composition of the relics, which may be critically important forlarge remains and for three-dimensional structures like kilns, the entire set of remains can be wrappedin hard urethane foam (Figure 2). Note that remains which are heavily deteriorated or contain fragile
material such as sandy soil must be reinforced prior to being wrapped with foam.

164

a. Dig away surrounding soilb. Apply paper or other surface protectant

c. Dig out around based. Enclose area with cardboard

e. Pour foam

f. Cut away and invert

h. Strengthen base with FRP or other materiali. Pour foam beneath baseg. Remove excess soil

Figure 2

Using Hard Urethane Foam to Remove a Fragile Relic

After determining the scope of the material to be removed, dig away and remove thesurrounding soil so the relic is protruding into space. Then, to prevent the foam from adhering to thesurface of the relic, spread moistened handmade paper over the entire surface as if preparing to take arubbing. It is recommended that three layers of paper in pieces about 5 cm square be applied without
gaps. For a relic with a very uneven surface, clay may be applied over the paper to fill in the gaps andproduce an overall smooth surface. An overhang or other vulnerable section may be partiallyreinforced with clumps of epoxy resin. Then dig away a little around the base of the relic, to make iteasier to remove it from the soil. For a large relic, it may be convenient to build a reinforcing structurefrom square timbers. Finally, enclose the area around the relic with a material such as cardboard, so
the foam will not overflow.
When the above preparations are complete, the foam will be poured around the entire relic.
Before working with the foam, it is essential to assemble all necessary utensils and gear including abowl and stick for stirring, a scale for weighing out the urethane components, vinyl bags, garbage bags,
protective gloves and masks, and emergency remedies (to rinse the hands or eyes if the foam splashes).
Hard urethane foam is usually sold as separate packets of its two components, isocyanate and polyol.
These materials must be handled with care, because any amount of moisture will initiate a chemical
reaction in either component. Alternatively, but at higher cost, the foam is available in canisters forspray application, which is more efficient because it eliminates the stirring and weighing work andfacilitates uniform application. Just before applying the mixed foam, mix the two components in theprescribed proportions and stir quickly. As soon as a substantial quantity of the chemicals are mixed
together, they will become dangerously hot. When the mixture changes from yellow to black it will
start to foam, at which point it is poured around the relic from the bottom up. It is best to pour the165

foam in several stages, because the foaming proceeds very rapidly and a single comprehensive
application might damage the relic or lead to a dangerous buildup of heat. When the remains are fully
wrapped with foam, let them stand for some time to ensure that the secondary foaming has stopped.
After the relic is fully encased in foam and the secondary foaming has stopped, disengage thebottom of the relic from the soil and turn it over. Remove excess soil from the bottom, and if necessary
strengthen the base with FRP or another stabilizing material. Steel reinforcing rods or other structural
reinforcements may be needed in some cases.
The relic should now be transportable. If further stabilization is deemed necessary, or if therelic will need to stay wrapped for a long time, an additional layer of foam may be added over the FRP
reinforcement to ensure an airtight seal.

1.2.3

Fixing with Urethane Foam TapeA relatively small relic can be removed by pressing moistened paper along its surfaces andthen fixing it with urethane-impregnated tape, of the sort sold for repairing water pipes or making
medical casts. The urethane in this tape reacts with water and hardens, providing a neat andcomparatively easy method for removing a small relic.
First, protect the surfaces of the relic by applying moistened paper. It may be necessary to dig
out some of the surrounding soil. Then apply moistened tape so it adheres as closely as possible to thesurface of the relic. If surrounding soil has been dug away, the paper and tape can be extended aroundthe exposed sides. If the soil has not been dug away, use wooden skewers to carefully separate thebottom of the relic from the soil. Thin metal plates or other utensils may be used to neatly remove each
bit of soil.。

a. Freezing with liquid nitrogenb. Removal

Figure 3 Using Liquid Nitrogen to Remove a Fragile Relic

1.2.4

Freezing with Liquid Nitrogen

Some waterlogged organic relics are so deteriorated that they cannot be simply removed fromthe ground as they are. The urethane foam technique described above is one way to remove them.
Another is to freeze them with liquid nitrogen (Figure 3). Nitrogen in liquid form is colder than its
boiling point of 195.82°C, cold enough to instantly freeze a small relic. Since no resin is used, the166stabilizing process requires only a short time, and there is no need to remove a temporary
reinforcement later when the preservative treatment is performed. Caution is required however,
because depending on the condition of the relic, there is a risk that sudden freezing may cause
cracking or other damage. If left at normal temperature after it is taken from the ground, the relic will
thaw and may lose its shape, so protective measures should immediately be taken, such as placing it insand inside a plastic container.

2.

Temporary Storage

Until the preservative treatment can be performed, a relic that has been brought back from the
excavation site must be stored temporarily in a fashion that will maintain its condition as stably as
possible. Fundamentally, as was done at the site, every effort must be made to prevent it from drying
out. Further, since the buried environment included very little oxygen, the generous presence ofoxygen aboveground is likely to trigger a dramatic process of decay. In other words, it is necessary
simultaneously to avoid drying and prevent decay. The techniques currently in use include placement
in a tank of water or in a plastic container, and sealing the relic in impermeable film.
Immersion in water is never more than a temporary storage measure. Evaporation will occur
in the tank or plastic container, bringing the risks of drying the relic and elevating the concentration of
the anti-mold agent. Nor can storage in sealed film ever be considered a long-term solution. Coldstorage is also problematic: in some cases only parts of the relic will actually be below the freezing
point, and when a fragile relic is slowly frozen the swelling of ice in its interior may break it. Leaving
the relic immersed in water, adding an anti-mold agent, and storing it at low temperature may all bewise steps, but they may also lead to irreversible changes. The most important thing during temporarystorage is to periodically check the condition of the relic. Furthermore, there must always be a plan tocarry out permanent preservative treatment as soon as possible so the relic will be converted from awaterlogged state to a stable state.
The easiest way to temporarily prevent both drying and decay is to immerse the relic in waterwith an anti-mold agent added. A water tank or plastic container can be used as long as the relic is nota. Water removal

b. Air removalc. Simple seal

Figure 4
Temporary
Storage
Impermeable Film

d. Fused seale. Storage

167

using

too large. For the anti-mold agent, a liquid mixture of boric acid and borax (aqueous solution of 5% orless) is often used. If another agent is used, consideration should be given to its environmental impact.
A large wooden relic such as a building member can be temporarily stored in a water tank. But
if it is outdoors, it may be exposed to rain and sun, and leaves or other debris may fall in the tank. In
that situation no amount of anti-mold agent will guarantee against decay. When storage in an outdoor
water tank is inevitable, the minimum condition is that it be shaded from sunlight and protected fromrain and debris. The tank must therefore be fitted with a cover.
Indoors, a good temporary storage environment can be created by installing a water tank, solong as an anti-mold agent is added and the water is regularly changed. Periodically causing the waterto overflow will keep the water quality at an acceptable level for preventing damage to the relic.
A storage technique that has recently come into use is sealing the relic in a bag made oflaminated layers, which provides extremely low oxygen permeability (Figure 4). This method has theadvantage not only of using less water, but also of controlling the oxygen supply. Cold storage of thebagged relic enhances the rot-proofing effect.
Sometimes when the soil adhering to a relic is removed, its shape is altered. Since storage inwater will inevitably wash away adhering soil, there is a possibility that the relic will disintegrate. The
relic should be sealed in a vinyl bag, placed in cold storage, and periodically sprayed or otherwise
supplied with water to prevent drying.

3.

Preliminary Examination

3.1 Observational Techniques
Many excavated wooden relics are made solely from wood, while many others are
combinations of wood and other material such as metal or stone, or are excavated with adhesions. The
consideration of preservative treatment methods starts with gathering data to determine what materials
the relic contains, what condition it is in, and what sort of structure it has. Formal details must be
observed, and the fine structure must be examined with a microscope.
The first step toward understanding the state of decay of a wooden cultural property isidentification of the wood species. The identification will also provide important scholarly data.
Trees are categorized as coniferous or broadleaved. While there are various differences
between these two broad types, the most important is that broadleaved trees have vessels while
conifers do not. The distinction can usually be made by viewing an end section with a magnifying
glass or stereomicroscope to determine whether or not there are vessels. Yet in fact there are somebroadleaved species that do not have vessels (an example from Japan is the yamaguruma [botanicalname: Trochodendron aralioides]), so other simple observations of tissue characteristics may beneeded to confirm a conifer identification.
It is difficult to make a species identification through nondestructive methods. There aresome professionals who can make visual identifications, but they are fairly rare, and more reliably
accurate data is desirable. The normal method of identification is to observe thin slices of the three168

types of sections under a light microscope to determine the anatomical characteristics. Making theidentification from slides with a microscope requires a collection of standard samples as well as proper
training, but the first thing required is the preparation and storage of slides from each relic.
Assuming that minor sampling of the cultural asset is permissible, the thin slices areprepared as follows. A cube measuring 1 cm on each side is removed to provide the threecross-sections. The sample is placed in a 100 ml aqueous solution of glycerine inside a triangular flask,
and if softening is needed, a reflux condenser is attached to boil the sample. Boiling is rarely necessaryfor excavated wood. A razor is used to slice three cross sections, 10 to 30 microns thick, from thesoftened sample. Each section is mounted on a slide with gum chloral. It takes about a week for thegum chloral to harden, but observation is also possible before it has hardened. Because gum chloral isstrongly hygroscopic, the slides should be stored in a dry place.
An effective technique for determining internal structure and form that is imperceptible fromthe exterior is radioparent photography (Figure 5). If there is India-ink writing on the wood,observation through an infrared camera may allow the deciphering of indistinct or blurred characters(Figure 6).

3.2 Investigation of Physical Properties
3.2.1

Determining the Maximum Moisture Absorption

There are two ways to determine the maximum moisture content of excavated wood. One isby measuring the amount of moisture in a dried sample taken from the relic with an increment borer.
The other, employed when sampling is not permitted, uses buoyancy to estimate the average maximum
moisture content of the entire relic. Following are explanations of these two techniques.

a. Radioparent photography

b. Wooden object

c. Radioparency

Figure 5 Preliminary Examination by Radioparent Photography1691) Calculating with a Sample
The sample is placed in a beaker standing in water, and put in a vacuum dessicator. The air
is removed from the dessicator with a water-jet pump. The dessicator is left de-aerated for a specified
interval, and then returned to normal pressure. The process is repeated until no air bubbles form during
the interval of decompression. The time at which air bubbles cease to form is the end of the saturation
process.
The saturated specimen is removed from the water, and the surrounding excess water iswiped away with wet gauze. The saturated weight mw is measured with an electronic force balance.
The sample is allowed to dry naturally, and then is further dried in a dessicator for fourhours at 105°C. Next the sample is placed in a dessicator containing silica gel and cooled to room
temperature by a nitrogen current. (If cooling with a nitrogen current is not possible, a sealeddessicator may be used, although it cannot handle more than one sample at a time.) The sample isremoved and weighed. Then it is put back in the dessicator for a further one hour of drying, cooled in
the same way, and again weighed. If the weight has changed, the drying and cooling process isrepeated until a constant weight is achieved, and this value is taken as the dry mass.
The maximum moisture content uMAX is derived from the saturated weight mw and dry mass
mo through this formula:⎛ m − m0 ⎞⎟⎟ × 100u MAX (%) = ⎜⎜ w
⎝ m0 ⎠

2) Estimating from Buoyancy
The same saturation process as above is performed. The beaker of water is placed on anelectronic force balance, a fishing line and hook are mounted as shown in Figure 7a, and the balancereading is reset. The water temperature is measured. Excess water is wiped off the sample and it isstuck on the hook and suspended at the same depth as in Figure 7a (Figure 7b). While it is in the water
the hook is removed, the sample is allowed to fall to the bottom of the beaker, and the saturated weight
mw is measured (Figure 7c). When the sample is placed in the water, it is monitored to confirm that no
air bubbles form around it.
The maximum moisture content uMAX is derived from the buoyancy B and saturated weightmw through this formula:⎛ R −δ
⎞mw
u MAX (%) = ⎜⎜×
− 1⎟⎟ × 100
mw − B ⎠⎝ R

where R is the wood fiber density (ranging from 1.3 to 1.6 g/cm3 for waterlogged wood relics),
and δ is water density.

170Figure 7

Measurement of Buoyancy and Saturated Weight

Waterlogged organic relicReplacement withorganic solvent

Impregnation with watersoluble treatment agent

Impregnation with nonwater-soluble treatment

Cooling and hardening
Crystallization

DryingChemical reaction

Natural drying
Freeze drying
Solvent drying to supercritical point
Figure 8

4.

Sequence of Treatment Processes for Waterlogged Wooden Relics

Preservative Treatment

4.1 Principles of Preservative Treatment
The essential point of preservative treatment for a waterlogged wooden relic is to dry it
sufficiently for display and storage, without shrinkage or deformation. Out of the many techniques forpreservative treatment that have been devised, all of those that have been in actual use include the171same two basic processes – impregnation with a treatment agent, and the drying and hardening of theagent. These processes are outlined in Figure 8.

4.2 Impregnation
Impregnation with a water-soluble treatment agent can be done in two different ways. In one
process the waterlogged wood is directly impregnated with the treatment agent, while in the otherprocess the moisture in the wood is temporarily replaced with an organic solvent before impregnation
with the treatment agent. Impregnation with a non-water-soluble agent requires a pretreatment toreplace the moisture in the wood with an organic solvent. Preservative treatment by impregnation witha non-water-soluble agent is sometimes called a solvent-resin method.
Table 1

Chemicals Used for Impregnation

Water Soluble:

Polyethylene glycol, Sucrose, Mannitol, Lactitol, Trehalose

Non-Water Soluble:

Dammar, Acrylic resin, Higher alcohol, Resin acid ester

The main goals of impregnation
are to strengthen fragile wood and provide
dimensional stability. When all the
moisture in the wood is replaced by theimpregnated agent, the impregnation
process itself constitutes the dehydration
process. The key to this process is thepenetration and diffusion of the agent
through the wood. As a rule, when a highly
concentrated solution is added to a
low-concentration solution, the solute andFigure 9 Impregnation with a Treatment Agentthe solvent will be both displaced until
there is the overall concentration is equalized. Using the PEG impregnation method as an example,
PEG is the solute and water is the solvent. In order to equalize the concentration of the solution insideand outside the relic, the water inside the relic gradually flows out, while the PEG or otherimpregnating agent penetrates into and diffuses through the relic, and chemical substitution proceeds(Figure 9). The difficulty with the impregnation process is that the penetration and diffusion of thetreatment agent depends not only on its chemical characteristics, but is also strongly influenced by theattributes of the relic, including the types of material, the wood species, and the level of decay. Among
excavated wooden relics, wood from camphor, chestnut and red oak trees present the strongest
difficulties in the impregnation process. And ironically, the healthier the condition of the core of thewood, the lower the penetrability of the treatment agent.
Table 1 shows the treatment agents that have been used to date for impregnation of organic
relics.

172

4.3

Drying and Hardening

After impregnation, the relic undergoes the process of drying and hardening. If all moisture in
the relic is replaced with a water-soluble agent, the final step is application of heat to melt the agent toliquid form. A non-water-soluble agent, after it is liquefied through heat, will eventually replace all theorganic solvent in the wood. With the impregnated agent replacing all the water or organic solvents,
the relic is lifted out of the treatment tank and cooled to solidify the agent, leaving the wood dry andstrengthened. In some cases the impregnation is stopped short of 100% concentration, and the relic islifted out of the tank at 70 to 80% concentration. Then, with 20 or 30% of the liquid composition
remaining, the remaining water and organic solvent is naturally dried, using chemical crystallization toconvert some of the water to water of crystallization by means of humidity control, and evaporating
the rest. The remainder is removed, either by cooling to solidify the treatment agent, or by drying
away the residual water or organic solvent.
Another method of drying is freeze drying, for which the impregnation process is stopped
while there is still a substantial amount of water or organic solvent in the wood.
The strong surface tension of water is a key factor in the severe shrinkage and deformationthat occurs when an organic relic is dried. When liquid water is heated, it boils at 100°C. Yet we knowthat water left in a cup will gradually diminish until there
is only air, which shows that even without heating it toGas
100°, liquid water always has water molecules escaping
from it even as it maintains uniform vapor pressure. As theliquid water turns to gaseous water vapor, a strong tensile
force is generated.
If a chopped onion is placed in a freezer, it will
Solid
Liquidsoon dry out entirely. Since it is a freezer, the moisturecannot have become liquid water before it became water
vapor. In fact water molecules also escape from the surface
Figure 10 Material Changes of Stateof solid ice. The phenomenon of molecules of solid ice
turning directly to water vapor without passing through theTable 2 Vapor Pressure of Ice
liquid state is called sublimation (Figure 10). Surface
Temperature (°C)
Vapor Pressure (Pa)tension can be considered to be inoperative during0
610.6
sublimation. It is this phenomenon of sublimation that is-5
401.3
utilized in freeze drying. There are two method to
-10
259.5
accelerate the sublimation of water from a frozen relic: one
-20
103.0
is to send dried air onto the surfaces of the relic to-30
37.9
constantly remove the water molecules escaping through-40
12.8
sublimation, and the other method is to remove the watermolecules escaping from the relic by reducing the pressure
to below the vapor pressure of ice (Table 2). The first method is freeze drying at ordinary pressure,and the second method is vacuum freeze drying.
In the final step of polymerization, which is a chemical reaction, a catalyst or heat is used topolymerize the impregnated treatment agent, in order to solidify the relic. When silicon resin is used as the173treatment agent, an extremely fragile relic such as rope can be preserved while maintaining its soft texture.
It must be remembered that once polymerization occurs, the treatment is irreversible.

4.4 Detailed Explanations of Preservative Treatment Methods
This section outlines the preservative treatment methods that are in current use, in keepingwith the principles of preservative treatment of organic materials presented in section 4.1.

4.4.1

Polyethylene Glycol Impregnation

The highly reliable PEG method is one of the best treatment methods using water-soluble
impregnation agents. The PEG method was pioneered in the late 1960s and early 1970s by
Broson-Christensen1) of the National Museum of Denmark with the Skuldelev Viking ships, and by
Barkman7) with the Wasa warship in Sweden. For small objects an impregnation tank is used toperform the treatment, while for the huge ships which could not feasibly be placed in tanks, a PEG
solution was sprayed onto the wood. In Japan PEG was first used to treat tablets discovered at theGokuraku quarters of the Gangoji temple in Nara, and the first treatment with the currently usedheatable stainless-steel impregnation tanks, in 1972, was for dam parts excavated from the Kodera sitein Matsuyama.
PEG is a high-molecular compound with the following formula:
HO(CH2CH2O)nH
where n is the number of repetitions inside the parentheses, i.e. the degree ofpolymerization
The properties vary with the molecular weight. PEG 4000S, with a molecular weight of 3300,
is used for preservative treatment of organic materials. A solid at ordinary temperature, PEG 4000S is
easily soluble in water and an aqueous solution of about 50% can be produced at room temperature. It
melts when heated to 60°C and becomes entirely liquid.
The PEG impregnation treatment begins by immersing the artifact in a low-concentration
20% solution. Then the concentration is gradually stepped up along a predetermined gradient. During
the treatment, the PEG concentration and the condition of the artifact must be monitored. With some
objects and some kinds of wood, dramatic shrinkage and warping may begin as soon as a certain
concentration is reached. This results from too high a concentration gradient inside and outside thewood, and is actually due not to PEG diffusion into the wood, but rather to dehydration of the wood
occurring on a priority basis, similar to the phenomenon of natural drying. To preserve the shape when
this happens, the PEG concentration must be temporarily lowered and then raised very slowly, and insome cases it is better to switch to the freeze-drying method described below. Care must also be takenwith respect to acidity, as PEG will break down in acidic conditions even though it is a stablehigh-molecular compound. Organic objects are penetrated by a variety of elements while they are
buried underground, and many of them are acidic when excavated. As heating accelerates PEG
decomposition, the pH level of the solution must be monitored during the treatment.

174broadleaved wood that is in a good state of preservation, it is sometimes advisable to remove theobject from the tank when 80% concentration is reached and allow it to dry naturally.
The ease of performance and the safety and stability of the chemical make PEG
impregnation a highly reliable treatment method. Yet there are some problematic aspects: the treatedobject takes on a darker "wet" coloring, and penetration or diffusion may be difficult due to the highaverage molecular weight (3300) and large molecular size of PEG. Cleaning away PEG adhering to thesurface, using alcohol that has been warmed in a hot-water bath, can substantially brighten thedarkened surface. Objects for which penetration is difficult have been successfully treated with a
two-stage impregnation method using PEG with different molecular weights, and by adding asurfactant to the aqueous PEG solution. The two-stage treatment consists of impregnation first with asolution of PEG 400, which has a low molecular weight and will penetrate spaces the heavier chemicalcannot enter, and then with a solution of PEG 4000S.
There is a risk of PEG elution from the treated artifact if it is placed in an environment where
the relative humidity exceeds 85%, because PEG itself has high affinity with water. Hence it is best to
store treated artifacts in a stable, low-humidity environment.

4.4.2

Sucrose Impregnation

The PEG method, although it has been used since the late 1960s and is in wide use today, has
the disadvantage of requiring a long period of time for diffusion and penetration. In the 1970s thesearch for a faster-acting impregnation agent, focusing naturally on materials with low molecularweight, led to experiments with saccharides.
Most of the studies of saccharide impregnation have used sucrose. As its molecular weight of
342 is less than one-tenth that of PEG 4000, it penetrates and diffuses in the wood rapidly.
Furthermore, it dissolves easily in water (with one part water to three parts sucrose at 15°C), whichmeans the impregnation can be done at room temperature. The procedure for sucrose impregnation isbasically the same as that for PEG impregnation.
Sucrose impregnation alone is not sufficient for the strengthening of fragile, highly
deteriorated relics, because its very high boiling point of 185°C makes it impractical to achieve aliquid concentration of 100%. There has also been concern over possible damage from the occurrenceof microorganisms in sucrose, or from insects that may be attracted after treatment. Progress is being
made toward resolving these issues. With regard to fragile relics, good results have been obtained withsmaller pieces by performing vacuum freeze drying after sucrose impregnation. With regard toorganisms, isothiazoline preservatives have been shown to effectively inhibit microorganisms in
low-concentration sucrose solutions, and experiments show that termites cause less damage tosucrose-impregnated wood than to untreated wood.
Sucrose impregnation is regarded as an effective treatment for large wooden relics withlimited deterioration, and as an unsuitable treatment for wood that is fragile and severely deteriorated.
Efforts to overcome this limitation are what led to the development and utilization of sugar alcohol,
discussed next, as a treatment agent.

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4.4.3

Sugar Alcohol Impregnation

To overcome problems in the preservative treatment of wooden artifacts using PEG andsucrose, and to identify an alternative material for treatment, Morgos of the Hungarian National
Museum and Imazu of the Kashihara Archaeological Institute have conducted experiments with sugar
alcohol impregnation since the late 1980s. Imazu’s team found that lactitol was an outstanding
candidate due to its effectiveness in preserving organic artifacts and its low molecular weight,
resistance to rotting, stability under heat, high solubility, low hygroscopicity, limited discoloring effectand reasonable cost. After experimental treatments, lactitol was put into use for preservation.
The impregnation process for lactitol is almost the same as that for PEG. The difference isthat whereas PEG melts at 60°C and thus can be added to a solution that is kept at that temperature,powdered lactitol can be added to a vessel heated to 60~80° only up to a concentration of about 70%,
after which the concentration can be increased to a maximum of about 90% by means of gradualevaporation of water from the solution.
It is in the drying and hardening phases that lactitol treatment differs significantly from
PEG treatment. After removing a PEG-treated artifact from the treatment solution and washing thesurface with water, it is cooled in order to harden the PEG inside it, but cooling alone is not sufficientto harden the lactitol solution inside an artifact. To promote crystallization of lactitol, the surface of theobject must be sprayed with lactitol powder which will serve as crystal nuclei. Also, because there are
four kinds of lactitol crystals which have different coordinate numbers for water of hydration,
monohydrates must be produced in sufficient quantity to ensure good crystal formation. For thispurpose, after spraying the surface with lactitol monohydrate, the object is dried by keeping it at atemperature of at least 50°C.
The lactitol impregnation method has many advantages as noted above, and the treatment
has been applied in a growing number of cases. Yet problems remain: sometimes the impregnation
density is low, and cracking may be caused by the formation of trihydrates due to non-uniform
crystallization during the drying process. Further development work is needed.

4.4.4

Alcohol-Xylene-Resin Treatment

The surface tension of water is what causes the severe shrinkage that occurs as excavatedwood dries. When a solvent with lower surface tension is substituted for the water in the wood, somedegree of shrinkage control is possible during drying. But wood that has undergone that substitution
naturally loses strength if it is dried, and this is why the further step of resin impregnation is required.
The combined process of solvent substitution and resin impregnation is known as a solvent-resin
treatment.
One type of solvent-resin treatment is the alcohol-ethyl-resin method, in which the moisture is
replaced with ethyl alcohol, then the ethyl alcohol is replaced with ether, followed by impregnation
with a resin such as dammar. Dammar is a natural resin that is insoluble in water, but soluble inorganic solvents including alcohol and ether. This treatment is rather difficult to perform because of
the high flammability of ether. To overcome that limitation, a modified method was developed inwhich the less-volatile xylene is used instead of ether. This is the alcohol-xylene-resin treatment.

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Resins used in this treatment, besides dammar, include acrylic resin.
4.4.5

Higher Alcohol Treatment

The greatest concern in the preservative treatment of excavated wood is the long time periodrequired for chemical impregnation. One way to shorten the time required for penetration of thechemical into the excavated wood is to lower the molecular weight, i.e. the molecular size, of thechemical. Among water-soluble impregnation agents, as noted above, sucrose and sugar alcohol are
the leading treatment agents. On the other hand, non-water-soluble solvents and resins may also beused, and a treatment method using higher alcohol, which has a low molecular weight, is underdevelopment.
Higher alcohol is the term used for any alcohol with more than six carbon atoms. Higher
alcohols that are used for preservative treatment of excavated wooden artifacts include stearyl alcohol(molecular weight of about 242) and cetyl alcohol (molecular weight of about 270). In contrast to
methyl alcohol and ethyl alcohol which mix well with water, stearyl alcohol and cetyl alcohol are
insoluble in water. They will melt to liquid form when heated to about 60°C.
The procedure for treatment with higher alcohol is to first substitute methyl alcohol for thewater in the wooden artifact, then immerse it in a methyl alcohol solution containing 20% higher
alcohol, and gradually raise the concentration of higher alcohol.
One advantage of this method is the short amount of time required for dehydration andsubstitution with methyl alcohol followed by impregnation with higher alcohol. Another is that since
the higher alcohol itself is not hygroscopic, there is no need to worry about elution of the chemical
after treatment even if the object is placed in a humid environment.
Fatty acid ester is another non-water-soluble agent with which treatments are being performedon an experimental basis.

4.4.6

Freeze Drying

Freeze drying methods are another means of drying and stabilizing the treatment chemical. In
the freeze drying treatment, after the sublimated vapor is removed, further sublimation is brought
about by one of two techniques, high-vacuum freeze drying (freeze-dry lyophilization) or freeze
drying at normal pressure
To enhance the efficiency of the freeze-drying treatment, a pretreatment is performed which
temporarily replaces the water contained in the wooden object with tert-butyl alcohol. When the
pretreatment is added, there is a definite brightening in the color of the freeze-dried wooden object.
For that reason this technique is often used for preservative treatment of the narrow wooden tablets
used for official records in ancient Japan.
For conifer wood in a relatively good state of preservation, PEG impregnation is not continued
to the normal 100% concentration but is halted at a level between 60 and 80%, after which freeze
drying is performed.
Experiments are under way in the application of high-vacuum freeze drying to very large

177wooden artifacts. There are three kinds of wood that are especially difficult to treat: camphor, chestnut,
and red oak. Large artifacts made from these kinds of wood tend to twist and crack in the course of anormal PEG treatment. As it is impractical to prepare a heatable treatment tank that can accommodatea very large wooden artifact, the impregnation treatment for such an object must be performed at room
temperature. It has been found that such large artifacts hold their shapes remarkably well whenpretreated at room temperature with a mixture of tert-butyl alcohol, water and PEG, and then dried in alarge facility using the high-vacuum freeze-drying method.

4.4.7

Silicon Resin

Besides wood, organic relics found at archaeological sites may be made of suchhard-to-handle, extremely fragile materials as rope or woven cloth. For some of these relics, none of
the treatment methods described so far is feasible, and for others nothing can be done other thanstoring them in water. The above methods involve hardening of the treatment agent, which leaves therelics brittle after treatment. Therefore a method was sought that would substantially shorten thetreatment time and impart a degree of softness suitable for organic relics that originally had soft
textures. The result was the silicon resin treatment.
In the silicon resin treatment, first the moisture in the relic is replaced with methyl alcohol(as in the higher alcohol treatment), then the methyl alcohol is replaced with methylene chloride, andfinally the relic is impregnated with a methylene chloride solution containing silicon resin, which isallowed to harden. In order to harden the silicon resin within a few days and shorten the impregnation
time, this treatment is performed at low temperature with repeated compression and decompression.
Due to the properties of silicon resin, this treatment leaves the relic pliable, with low
hygroscopicity. However, it must be remembered that this treatment makes any further treatment
impossible, because the silicon resin goes through the chemical reaction of polymerization as it
hardens.
Among the various preservative treatments that have been developed for the drying andhardening of relics, the silicon resin treatment is virtually the only one involving a chemical reaction.
Finding a way to make this treatment reversible is a goal for future development.

5.

Joining, Filling and Coloring

For relics that cracked or lost parts during burial or removal, joining and filling work may be
performed after preservative treatment. But joining and filling should not be regarded as necessary inevery case. Rather, it should be done only if a review of the need for extra work has determined that itis really necessary. While a relic is stored or displayed, its own weight may place too much stress on a
new joint and cause damage to original sections as well. It must be determined beforehand that there is
no chance that joining could cause damage. Consideration must also be given to the potential need forspecial means of storage or display, such as devising a stand to better distribute the weight. Nor is it
appropriate to automatically cover up every defect, as this can sometimes lead to cracking of thesurrounding sections brought on by hygroscopically induced dimensional changes.

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The many kinds of bonding agents used for joining and filling can be broadly divided into
thermoplastic resins, which dissolve with solvents, and thermosetting resins, which do not dissolvewith solvents. Always remember that once a thermosetting resin is applied directly onto wood, it cannever be removed. That situation can be avoided either by using a thermoplastic resin as the bonding
agent, or by protecting the wood surface with a thin thermoplastic layer before applying thethermosetting agent. The impregnated treatment agent is also a factor, as some types will accept
bonding and others will not. Advance testing should always be done. For surfaces that cannot be
strongly joined, the insertion of stainless steel tenons or bamboo pins may be considered. For filling, amixture of resin and phenol microballoons is often effective.
Coloring cannot be directly applied to a relic that has undergone preservative treatment, but it
can be added to a filling material. Normally when coloring is added it is not exactly the same shade as
the relic itself, but is slightly different (not enough to be jarring) to make it clear that the area has been
filled in.

6.

Conservation after Preservative Treatment

An organic relic that has received preservative treatment is by no means preserved forever.
Over the long term, on the order of 50 or 100 years, there is likely to be some deterioration. When arelic that would survive only a few years in a waterlogged state is transferred to a dry and stable state,
this will ultimately serve only to slow the pace of decay.
To suppress the decay of a relic for as long as possible, the storage and display environments
must be carefully designed. The three critical factors are temperature, humidity, and light. Organic
relics absorb and release moisture in response to the ambient humidity, and this is accompanied bydimensional change. In an environment where the humidity varies significantly causing repeated,frequent dimensional change, deterioration is likely to progress more easily. With relics preserved byimpregnation with a highly hygroscopic treatment agent such as PEG, there is a risk of elution of thetreatment agent if the relative humidity exceeds 85%. For museum materials, it is recommended that
relative humidity be kept in the range of 40 to 60%. Humidity is closely connected with temperature,and even though the temperature is usually controlled by an air conditioning system, it is extremely
difficult to maintain a constant temperature year round. When there is a large variation in outside
temperature of about 25°C, the environment of the repository and display rooms should be designed torespond with gentle adjustments of temperature.
Ultraviolet rays cause deterioration of organic materials, and display areas in particular should
be designed to eliminate them. Infrared rays, which are a factor in deterioration due to their heat,should also be eliminated. Even when ultraviolet and infrared rays are eliminated and there is exposure
only to light in the visible spectrum, continual long-term exposure should be avoided. For highly
sensitive objects, the Illumination Engineering Institute of Japan suggests an intensity of no more than
50 lux for eight hours per day, 300 days per year, or an annual exposure of 120,000 lux-hours.
To further stabilize organic relics that have received preservative treatment, it is necessary toprovide storage and display environments with controlled humidity and temperature and minimal light
impact.

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Reference Materials
1)

B. B. Christensen; “The Conservation of Waterlogged Wood in the National Museum of Denmark”, The National
Museum of Denmark, Copenhagen, 1970

2)

Takahide Haraguchi et al; “Mokuzai no Kagagu” [Wood Science], Buneido Publishing Co., Ltd., 1985

3)

“Mokuzai Kogaku Jiten” [Wood Engineering Dictionary], Edited by JSMS Committee on Wood and Wood-BasedMaterials, 1982

4)

Yohsei Kohdzuma et al.; Mokuzai Gakkaishi, vol.42(7), p.681-687, 1996

5)

Yohsei Kohdzuma, Masaaki Sawada; The Collected Summaries of the 13th Meeting for Reading Research Papers, Japan
Society for Scientific Studies on Cultural Properties, p.24-25, 1996

6)

Atusko Sakai; Studies on Gangoji Temple’s Cultural Properties, No.37, p.2-8, 1991

7)

“Archaeological Wood –Properties, Chemistry, and Preservation”, R. M. Rowell and R. J. Barbour ed., The American
Chemical Society, 1990

8)

Takayoshi Goto, Toshiko Kuroda; “Construction Report on Gokuraku quarters of the Gangoji temple, General
Repository (The First Repository)”, p.41, 1965

9)

Masaaki Sawada, Nao Kurosaki; “Report on Matsuyama Municipal Cultural Properties Survey IV, the Kodera Ruins”,
p.89-91, 1974

10) P. Hoffmann; Studies in Conservation, Vol.31, p.103-113,198611) Masaaki Sawada; Academic Report Journal Vol. 21 of National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, p.16, 1972
12) Naomi Ueda et al.; The Collected Summaries of the 6th Meeting for Reading Research Papers, Japan Society for
Scientific Studies on Cultural Properties, p.29-30, 1989
13) Setsuo Imazu; “Study Results of Kashihara Archaeological Institute Vol. 1.
Conservative Science”, 1999

Study on Wooden Artifacts by14) Masaaki Sawada; Arbeitesblatter, Heft 1, Gruppe 11, Lackarbeiten Seite 31, 1981
15) Fumio Okada et al.; Science concerning Ancient Cultural Propreties, No.37, p.12-20, 1992th16) Michiko Inoue et al.; 日The Collected Summaries of the 13 Meeting for Reading Research Papers, Japan Society for

Scientific Studies on Cultural Properties, p.26-27, 1996

180

V
Participants’
Final Reports(In alphabetical order by country)

Bangladesh
Zakir Hossain CHOWDHURY

The Necessity of Conservation Training
The preservation, Conservation, and Restoration of Cultural Heritage is a highly sensitive, scientific,
technical, time-consuming, and special job. It is a vast subject, based on investigations and a technicalapproach. Proper conservation involves proper documentation, historical records, the assessment ofstructural stability and the environment, and detail laboratory analysis. It is a multi-disciplinary subject thatneeds comprehensive study and research in relevant fields as well as internationally recognized
conservation principles.
Apart from the above the world is also realizing the importance of the scientific training ofArchitects, technicians, related staff and others entrusted with the job of conserving and restoring culturalproperties. The shortage of such scientifically trained personnel throughout the world had long been a greatchallenge, which has not fully been met.
Bangladesh is very rich in culture and cultural heritage. So far 355 monuments and sites including
three World Heritage sites have been protected. The Department of Archaeology, Government of
Bangladesh is doing its best to preserve/conserve relics of the past within limited financial and manpower
resources. There is, however, a serious lack of trained conservational personals.
I am working as a conservator in the Department of Archaeology, and have been involved in theArchitectural conservation and restoration of various monuments and sites of national and international
repute. I am responsible for the:1.

Planning, Execution and Supervision of conservation Works.

2.

Preparation of bill of quantities and Estimates of Works.

3.

Preparation of contract documents, specification sheets.

4.

Preparing and coordinating Architectural and Engineering Drawings, Field Survey andDocumentation etc.

5.

Preparation of Bills of Contractors for the Execution of Works

6.

Writing of conservation notes and report of work completed.

As already stated there is an acute shortage of trained conservation personals in my country. I am
involved with a lot of conservation development projects, but I feel that there was an urgent need to improve
my knowledge and experience in the field of Conservation and Restoration.
It is important to note that during the conservation of monuments some complicated problems arise.
It is necessary to develop the common sense and skills of the conservation staff so that they can meet suchchallenges.

183

Bangladesh is a country which has been facing serious problems during the conservation of its
glorious monuments, although the Bangladesh Government is trying its best to save them from further
destruction and deterioration. But like other third world countries, Bangladesh has also been suffering due tofinancial constraints and especially the lack of technical staff with sufficient knowledge and training about
conservation methods that is necessary for the preservation of historical buildings.
I am lucky enough to have a very good chance to attend this one month Training Course on theConservation of Wooden Structures from September 24 to October 24, 2003, at Nara Japan, offered andorganized by The Cultural Heritage Protection Office - Asia Pacific Cultural Center for UNESCO (ACCU).
It was a great training program comprising of lectures delivered by renowned professions from Japan andother parts of the world, on-site demonstrations, site-visits to observe historical monuments and areas.
Therefore this practical training course on conservation was very helpful in enhancing my knowledge about
the scientific and technical on-site conservation of monuments with special reference to wooden cultural
heritage. This training program also gave me a chance share and exchange expertise and technicalknowledge with conservation specialist of fifteen different countries in the Asia pacific. I also presented alecture on the Cultural Heritage and conservation policies of Bangladesh.
Japan is among those countries which are very well equipped with the most modern techniques andknowledge regarding the restoration and conservation of cultural Assets. Japan has the latest modern,computerized techniques and tools, and is utilizing huge budgets and is also implementing strong legislative
measures to regulate and control the conservation of cultural properties. By using the latest techniques, tools,
and good conservation policies/strategies, Japan has enhanced the life of its innumerable Architecturalmonuments, but is still thriving to preserve the remaining ones. To date in my country, only traditional
methods and materials are used for the conservation of monuments, but in some cases these traditional
methods are insufficient, and we need modern methods to conserve the monuments well, but no such
equipments or techniques are available.
This training program was really a totally different and absolutely interesting experience for me.
It had been a source of inspiration. It has not only improved my knowledge but also broadened my mind in
the field of Architectural conservation.
All the lectures and on-site practical training work were very fruitful and were a new experience forme. Japan has a long history with its cultural traditions and many architectural monuments. We wereintroduced to the cultural heritage protection system of Japan and the different responsible authorities fromthe Federal to Municipal levels. The system is very detailed and effective for the protection of Japanesecultural heritage. On the other hand, in my country the designation and legislation of cultural heritage isvery simple, unsystematic, and ineffective compared to Japan. We also have various types of culturalproperties i.e., “Tangible cultural properties” “intangible cultural properties”, “Folk-cultural properties”,“Monuments (Kinen Butsu)”, and groups of Historical Buildings, but we could not protect them due toeconomic and manpower constraints. The only cultural heritage being protected are ArchaeologicalMonument with highest value with historical and architectural interests.
Some folk-cultural properties are exhibited in various Museums in Bangladesh. They are controlled
by the Department of Archaeology, but are not protected as well as those in Japan. There is a great need tocreate an organizational system like that in Japan for the effective preservation of monuments and others
cultural properties of mankind.

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During the training program, I had a great opportunity to learn about conservation procedures andthe ethics of preservation from Japanese specialists like Mr. Yamato, Mr. Shimizu, Mr. Kimura, Mr.
Kohdzuma, Prof. Itoh, and guest specialists Dr. G. Wijesuriya and Mr. Myklebust. This great source ofknowledge will be helpful for my future career in the practice of conservation in my country. Dr. G.
Wijesuriya’s lecture about wooden structural heritage for the Asia pacific region was very clear and enabled
me to understand about the wooden structure and variety of wooden members used in different buildings, aswell as the challenges of conservation.
In Bangladesh, timber buildings are limited but wooden parts are present in almost every
monument. Different varieties of timber have been used in different buildings for different purposes, such as
in beams, rafters, in the roof and ceiling, ornamental doors / windows, partitions and screen walls etc. Someof colorful wooden pagodas, temples and Khyanges (Buddhist monasteries) erected in the eastern part(hill-rang) of Bangladesh which are damaged, being destroyed or partly modernized in bad repairs byowners. It is necessary to take immediate actions for their protection and proper conservation. But ourlimitation in manpower, expertise on wooden conservation and also lack financial ability means we could
not take action. I think this training will be helpful towards an initiative to prepare a project plan for theprotection and architectural conservation of those wooden buildings.

During the lectures by conservation experts, I learned about:The system of project planning for the restoration of important cultural properties; themethodology of investigation for rough budget estimate and planning for execution; how toapply latest technology; careful documentation; efficient execution.

How to start and execute the project.

The system of dismantling and partial replacement of wooden structure.

Design of details for the reconstruction of ancient buildings.

Three-dimensional scanning method for structural analysis to determine the strength of awooden building.



Dendro-chronological method for determining the age of a wooden building.



Opportunities from this training program:

During the participant’s presentations and discussion with others experts we could exchange ourknowledge and learn about different concept, and about the cultural heritage of other countries, what they
are doing in the conservation field. Here I found some common problems;(i) Insufficient funding, ii) Natural
disasters (iii) Salinity/acidity (iv) Humidity /dampness, (v) Pressure of tourism. Problems especiallycommon in Bangladesh include: (i) Fragility of terracotta plaques, and (ii) Absence of local treatment
facilities for surviving antiquities.

185

The most impressive points:


The wooden architecture in Japan has rich ancient values, I was very happy to see the best
specimen of wooden Architecture. Besides participating in the site visits and class lecturesduring the course, I personally visited many monuments of national and internationalsignificance in Nara, Kyoto and Osaka Prefectures. This gave me a good knowledge about themonuments, their problems and conservation.



The Toshodai-ji was a unique example of conservation work and started with detailed survey
and recording etc. The construction of scaffolding and a shelter for the whole monument(Main hall) was unbelievable for me. Moreover, during the Bentensha shrine workshop, I
expanded my knowledge on how to define the degree of damages and previous restorations,and how to prepare a project plan and estimates from such practical exercises on sites.
Rubbing methods are used in Bangladesh to copy inscriptions, but not to record details onother ornamental elements. In our world heritage site Paharpur vihara, a huge number ofhighly ornamental terracotta reflects the history of Buddhism. They are partly damaged due todampness, water logging and other natural disasters. They should therefore be recorded forpreservation for the future generation.

I observed in details the complicated system of the bracket structure, which is the mostimpressive feature of Japanese wooden buildings.

My limitations:

Lack of documentation and other records related to conservation.



Shortage of Finance, technical Staff and skilled craftsmen

Lack of a monitoring system during the execution of work.



Working with only traditional conservation methods and a lack of necessary modern
equipments and techniques.

Ineffective implementation of legislation.

I had been looking for such a training program for a long time, in order to improve and enhance myknowledge about conservation ethics, procedures, and up-to-date conservation practices in developed
countries like Japan. The training I received included theory, on-site practice, site visits and study tours. It
was no doubt a reflection of systematic and efficient coordination. It was also a great chance for exchange
between experts of the 15 countries dealing with cultural heritage protection. Due to such a well-organizedcourse, I am now in better position to execute the conservation of cultural heritage, especially the neglectedwooden heritage of my country. I congratulate the staff of ACCU Nara office for organizing such a valuabletraining program.

186

BhutanNagtsho DORJI

Bhutan has a very rich architectural heritage with over two thousand temples (lhakhangs) andmonasteries and over ten thousand stupas (chortens) scattered in every corner of the kingdom. Besides thesereligious structures, seventy percent of the houses found in Bhutan are of the traditional vernacular style.
The materials employed for construction of such religious structures and houses are rammed mud, stone andtimber. Out of all these materials, timber has been extensively used (mainly due to its availability) for
construction of both religious structures and the traditional houses.
The main organization that is responsible for the protection and promotion of the entire cultural
heritage in Bhutan is the Ministry for Home and Cultural Affairs. But as per the Government’s policy ofdecentralization, the protection and preservation of cultural heritage in the country is also considered to be ashared responsibility between all bodies, institutions, districts (Dzongkhags), villages (Geogs), the local
communities and every individual in the country.
The Division for the Conservation of Architectural Heritage under the Ministry of Home andCultural Affairs is the central division functioning towards the inventory, appraisal, and approval along withthe monitoring of all the historical and cultural monuments and sites in the country. (Note - The detailfunction of my Division is mentioned in the country report presented earlier during this training course).
But, to date the conservation, renovation or reconstruction of a monument or site in a district(Bhutan has twenty districts) is usually carried out when the property owner or the local community withthe assistance of the local government concerned forwards a proposal to restore or preserve the structure to
the Ministry for Home and Cultural Affairs for approval. The Ministry appraises and approves the project
proposal as per the condition of the structure and the necessary needs of the end users. But prior to theimplementation of the project, the Division also looks into having the structure / site documented by thetechnical authorities of the local government. In most cases, the Division provides technical assistance forassessing the conditions of the original structure, as well as for carrying out the documentation and drawing
up of plans for the protection and preservation of the structure.
For almost all of the Ministry approved conservation or renovation projects, the Government
provides the entire budget required to implement the project. But in cases where only minor renovation or
additions to the complex is required, the Government usually provides the property owner / local
community with roofing materials and timber at subsidized rate.
But lately, it has been of great concern to the Government that many of the proposals put forward
by the local communities are either to reconstruct the entire monument or to renovate the structure
extensively. There have been cases where an important historical or cultural religious structure has been
dismantled for reconstruction without any documentation, resulting in the loss of the authentic values of thestructure. The individual or owner concerned might have undertaken such actions of reconstruction with theintention of making the structure stronger and aesthetically better from their perspective. Therefore suchlack of awareness and understanding of the values of the original structure in terms of history, architecture,materials, etc prevails widely among the people in my country.

187Even though the Government gives utmost importance to the preservation and protection of theentire range of architectural heritage, at present no appropriate legislations or guidelines have beenformulated towards the protection of such cultural heritages. Existing structures under various
classifications of important cultural properties has not been identified; this, to some extent, has contributed
towards the common people’s lack of understanding of the importance of preservation and the protection ofcultural heritage.
Furthermore, the lack of manpower in the field of conservation and limited knowledge to carry out
detailed documentations has resulted in a situation where a major number of the country’s culturalproperties are left without any detail documentations or inventory. Therefore when unfortunate incidents ofnatural as well as man made disasters occur and damage these structures, we are left with no evidence of theexistence of such important cultural and historical properties.
Therefore, the current scenario of the conservation of structures that are of cultural importance in
Bhutan is at a very preliminary stage. As per my experience, I feel that at this stage, priority should be given
in educating the public in understanding the value, need and importance of conservation activities,
especially in relation to the historical / cultural monuments and sites located near them. Without sucheducation, we have and will continue to face enormous hurdles in implementing any conservation
procedures in Bhutan.
For the last few years, we have been trying to educate the public including monks (as they have amajor say in many of the conservation or renovation projects concerning religious structures) on theimportance of preservation and protection of the all the cultural properties in the country.
To tackle these kinds of problems, I feel, to a large extent (especially after attending this training),that to understand and learn from the solutions adopted by the Japanese in the field of conservation isnecessary and very useful for any Bhutanese in this field. This is particularly due to the similarities in thekinds of construction materials and techniques between Japan and Bhutan. For example, the traditional
houses of Bhutan are mainly constructed in the wattle and daub (bamboo matt with mud / clay plaster walls)
style, which are very similar to the traditional houses found in Japan. The religious structures in Bhutan are
also built in a similar style adopted in Japan, where in both cases we find huge timber columns along withthe extensive use of timber as structural and decorative elements. The traditional tools and ways in which
they are used (as observed at the Nara Palace and the Toshodai-ji Main Hall reconstruction site) are also
very similar to ones that we employ in Bhutan. The variety of conifer timber used in Japan is very similar tothe ones that have been and are still being used in almost all the restoration and reconstruction sites in
Bhutan. Due to the similarities between Bhutan and Japan when it comes to architectural structures,construction materials and techniques employed, this particular training on wood conservation was very
important to me as well as to any conservationist from my country.
The whole concept or the process of conservation in Bhutan, as mentioned earlier, is in its
preliminary stage. But the fact that Japan has well established methods, techniques and knowledge of timberconservation as well as the protection of cultural property makes it very important for a Bhutanese involvedin conservation activities to learn, understand and make use of such valuable knowledge in Bhutan.

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Thus during this one month in Japan, each and every day has been a new learning experience forme. This training course has provided me with invaluable information and experiences that will be very
useful in my day-to-day work of trying to achieve the best techniques and methods of conserving thecultural heritage structures of my country. Hopefully, I should be able to initiate and implement thenumerous techniques and methods that will be suitable to Bhutan’s situation in the conservation scenario.
The following is a summary of the information and practices that I have had the opportunity tolearn, understand and experience in this training and which are applicable to the current situation ofconservation of structures in my country:
1.

The Japanese’s techniques and methods of conservation, restoration and preservation ofwooden structures of historical and cultural importance.

2.

Policies and laws in relation to the protection of cultural properties.

3.

Various methods of conserving, renovating and reconstructing a structure or an archeologicalsite of historical and cultural importance.

4.

The process in which the conservation as well as the reconstruction of a heritage structure isundertaken with the maximum reuse of original materials (mainly timber) and the technique tocarry out the use of new materials with the old one, with minimum alterations.

5.

Ways of assessing the degree of deterioration of a structure and to look out for details thatwould reflect the stages of renovation undertaken over the years.

6.

Ways of achieving a precise method of documenting the minute details of structures.

7.

Ways of keeping alive the traditional techniques of construction.

8.

The extent to which the vernacular houses could still be used as living architecture withminimum alteration to the interior which are required to meet the current needs and situationof the users.

9.

Ways of involving the local communities to take active part in keeping the structure in its
original form as much as possible.

10. Researching the history and culture associated with an archeological site and the ways ofpresenting it for the understanding of the public.

From such ideal policies and techniques of conservation found in Japan, the one that we (Division
for the Conservation of Architectural Heritage) would like to learn more about and try to adopt are the ways
in which the concerned authorities in Japan educate and bringing about full awareness of the importance ofthe preservation and protection of cultural properties among the people. The extent to which local
involvement has been achieved is very commendable. In Japan the media plays an important role ineducating the public; we would like to educate the Bhutanese public in a similar manner, except at a smallerscale as per the extent of media coverage. I feel that one of the best ways would be to show the Bhutanese,through photos and videos, the effort hat the people of Japan are making to preserve their structures in their
original condition, even though they are a modern nation and can choose to use modern materials andconstruction techniques.

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As mentioned earlier, at present Bhutan has no appropriate legislations or guidelines for theprotection of cultural heritage properties. But as we progress with our conservation activities, we definitely
need to formulate such to avoid the misunderstandings, confusion and disorganization that we have been
facing. Therefore, the Japanese laws and policies, which were shared with us during this training, would be
one of the ideal references for us in drawing up legislations for conservation as well as for the protection ofcultural properties in Bhutan.
The Division for the Conservation of Architectural Heritage will be organizing its annual
conservation workshop, tentatively scheduled in April 2004, for all technical staffs concerned in the field ofconservation in Bhutan. I would like to share all the information and techniques related to the conservationof cultural heritage in general and particularly in terms of wooden structures that I acquired from thistraining, to all the participants of the workshop. If possible, with the help of a few Japanese experts, wewould like to introduce the Japanese method of detail documentations and the various measures required toassess the conditions of timber structures.
There are many other ideas and techniques learnt from this training course that could possibly beapplied to solve the numerous conservation problems currently being faced in Bhutan. There is no doubtthat all the knowledge and experience that I have learnt from this training course will help me tackle
difficult situations and problems more confidently during the process of the planning and implementing any
conservation projects in my country.
This training course has also given me extra zeal to work harder towards the preservation andprotection of cultural heritage of Bhutan, which I believe has given every Bhutanese a rich cultural identitythat they can be proud of.
Lastly, I would like to express my appreciation to the Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation
Office, Asia/Pacific Culture Centre for UNESCO (ACCU) for organizing this training course, which is abrilliant platform to receive valuable information and experiences that will be of tremendous help for ourwork towards the preservation and protection of global cultural heritage.

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Cambodia
Sophorn KIM

One People, one Culture, one Power
Humankind has developed a variety of cultures and here also.
There are many nations in our planet, the Earth.
The earth has fostered magnificent nature.
Cultural and natural heritage raises questions about human existence and universal values
common to all humanities can be found out within.

I. Introduction
In the first instance, I would like to express my profound thanks to the government of Japan and the
Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office, Asia / Pacific Cultural Center for UNESCO (ACCU atNara) which organized this training program. I thank ACCU for inviting me to participate in the training
course. Without this training, all of us could not gather in Japan, which is abound with cultural heritage.
I am very glad to have the opportunity to attend this training course. It is my great honor andpleasure to be here. I highly appreciated this important training course because it allows me to gain new
knowledge and good experiences and visit the various Cultural Heritage Sites in Japan.

II. Difficulties
The kingdom of Cambodia is one of the oldest Southeast Asian countries and one of the richest
countries in terms of cultural heritage. Due to the age of the monuments, traditional houses and colonialhouses are under natural deterioration so restoration and conservation works are necessary, especially in the
Battambang Province where I have been working. We do not have particular laws and regulations for theprotection of cultural property yet. Other challenges in my work include the lack of human resources,
specialist staff, and financial resources to support cultural heritage protection activities. It is also difficult
for us to convince the higher authorities and the public with words that will make them understand the valueof the cultural heritage of our nation. There is also a lack of monitoring and supervision of cultural heritage
protection activities in isolated and distant areas. Besides this, recently, religious groups have demanded andconstructed a new building on an archaeological site. I think there are complicated problems in my work,
we have to find solutions for the development and processing of cultural heritage protection activities.

III. Attractive things of this Training Course
There were many interesting points in this training course, such as the methods and modern
techniques for the conservation of wooden structures, protection from natural disasters, fire prevention, thestudy of living trees in order to understand tree growth, particularly ring growth. Field studies, observation
tours to cultural sites and open air Museums allowed me to see things that I have learned in the lectures. I
have also learned about the water distribution system installed at the districts of traditional houses or at191

temples automatically start in the case of an unexpected fire, and about communication skills needed for
discussions with related people such as owners and so on. The cultural heritage protection laws in Japan are
clear, detailed, respected and practiced. On the other hand, if an owner demolishes his old traditional house,from the local community might object - this is a way to discourage the other owners.

IV.

Benefits from this Training Course
In this brief report I would like to inform you of what I have learned during the training course.

This training program not only gave me an opportunity to exchange views with the participantsfrom different countries, but also to exchange information from local citizens’ groups who are involved in
the protection of cultural and natural properties. The lectures were very important because during that time,
we can gain understanding from pictures, examples, and so on besides documents. During this training
course I have learnt many things about the Japanese culture, history and traditions. The lectures had been
given by Japanese specialists and teachers from different organizations and were held at the ACCU Nara
office, Nara Palace Site, Toshodai-ji temple site, etc…
Theory is a key that allows us to carry out our aim; it allows us to understand the starting point of
our work. So before we start practical work we have to learn the theory about the subject, listen to thelectures of teachers, and then try to put them into practice on site. I have learned the theories about theconservation and restoration of wooden structures, and also, I have learned from the Japanese specialists
about their very good experiences on the conservation and restoration of wooden structures of traditionalbuildings in Japan. Throughout the lectures we also have learned from the other participants. I have gained
good information about the conservation and restoration of traditional buildings and monuments in many
countries from the participants’ presentations. I think that the different kinds of restoration methods forwooden structures in Japan such as using traditional methods and traditional techniques are very goodpractices.

V. Results of this Training Course
When I saw the old wooden structures in Japan, which date back to many hundreds years ago but
are well preserved until the present, I was very surprised. I observed the structures of traditional buildings,
wooden statues, and so on. At first, I couldn’t really understand how these old structures could survive fromancient times until now, but the onsite lectures made everything clear. Traditional tools, techniques,materials, and Japanese daily life with their traditional houses, are all very similar to those in Cambodia. I
will bring back the methods, laws, techniques, etc…that I’ve learned here and try to use them in Cambodia,
particularly in Battambang province where I work.

VI. Conclusion
I would like to inform you here that this training program is very important for me and otherparticipants from different countries. I could gain a lot of understanding from lectures by experts fromdifferent fields, trips to the Cultural Heritage sites of Japan, and from the country report presentations ofparticipants from different countries.

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ChinaZHU Yu-Hua 朱宇華

Some Impressions and Thoughts
As the Training Course on the Conservation of Wooden Structures in Asia and the Pacific 2003 is
nearing its completion, I feel that I have gained a lot from it over the past four weeks. I’ve learnt manythings that I will share with my colleagues on my return to China. Here I would like to talk a about mythoughts of this training course.

Part 1: Impressions
Impressions on the wooden structural buildings of Japan
Before I came to Japan, I have known that many magnificent ancient buildings of Japan are kept ingood condition, some of which are also famous in China, such as the Toshodaiji Temple, Horyuji Temple
etc. Compared with the wooden structures that still exist in China, these temples have a relatively longer
history and display very traditional techniques of construction. I shall never forget my surprise when I first
visited the Todai-ji Temple in Nara Park. I noticed that this huge building was supported only by a simple
structure – it represented a structural technique that have disappeared or had been abandoned in China along time ago. I could hardly believe that this type of building with such simple structures has been saved tothe present without much changes, even in a nation with many earthquakes. During this training course, I
discovered the reasons as I learnt about the methods of conservation in Japan.
As a matter of fact, wooden structures are too fragile to be preserved for a long time, which is dueto the nature of wood. Historically, the structures of Japanese building have evolved in a different way tothose of China. It is clear that while the Japanese had focused on the preservation of original methods ofconstruction, the Chinese tended to constantly develop and change the status quo. As a result of such trends,
most of the ancient buildings existing in Japan at present have many added reinforcements hidden in theroof area, while the appearance of the building and visible parts of the structure is kept to the original. Those
later structural additions have now become an important part of the history of building and can be viewed asreflecting an integral part of Japan’s traditional culture. Such development without giving up tradition is aremarkable feature of the Japanese culture, which can be seen in the evolution of the Japanese wooden
structures.
It is commonly believed that China, Japan and Korea have similar cultures, especially in regards tothe architectural styles of palaces and Buddhist temples. But we should not ignore that the indigenous
building types in Japan are very unique and fascinating, such as the thatched houses in the villages of
Shirakawa-go which we visited during the training course. Those Gassho-Style farm houses have a special
appearance, and reflect the unique traditions and lifestyles of the local people. I was extremely impressed
when I was walking in the village. This kind of building is considered one of the Japanese wooden structure
types, which should be studied and protected together with the famous temples and palaces. This reflectsthat much investigations and studies have been done for the conservation of wooden structures in Japan.

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Impressions on the system of conservation in JapanThe system of conservation of historic monument in Japan integrates national laws, research
institutes, related policies, and staff on conservation and so on, such a type of system has not yet been
established in most counties in Asia. After reading the lecture note ‘History of the protection and the concept
on Cultural Properties in Japan’1, I have come to a clear understanding that the Japanese has undergone along history to develop such an integrated system. The corporation of the public on the conservation ofcultural properties is based on the enactment of related laws and the popularization of the importance of
cultural properties that is a result of the continual effort of the Government. In fact, public cooperation isessential for the establishment of a successful system of conservation. But there is still a long way to go formost of the developing counties in Asia in this direction.
Some of basic ideas about the Japanese system of conservation that I would like to share are as
follows:
1.

The enactment of related laws is the key to protect historic monuments efficiently, which isonly possible with an appreciation of the values of historic buildings and sites.

2.

A good classification system for various historic remains is the basis for their protection. An
important feature in the Japanese conservational system is that they often emphasize theconcept of ‘culture’ in their documents, rather than the international common concept of‘monument’. They give equal consideration to both tangible and intangible cultural heritage.

3.

As mentioned above, the development of the Japanese system of protecting historic heritages
is based on the cultural and spiritual needs of the people, but it is a little difficult for the westor other nations to understand this concept totally. Maybe in a sense the Japanese themselves
can’t definite what exactly is culture, which is a difficulty faced when introducing theirheritage to the World.

Impressions on the methods of conservation in Japan
Everyone believes that the Japanese like to pursue perfection in their conservation work after
visiting their factories or work-sites. The methods for conservation taken by the Japanese involve manydifferent sectors of society and various traditional and modern techniques. It is too expensive for most othercountries to adopt. For example, when we visited the Heijo Palace Site (Nara), the reconstruction of theImperial Audience Hall gave us a strong impression. They built a large shed to cover the entire site, and theHall is then reconstructed inside for several years. It was explained that the reconstruction can be seen as anequal-scale model. Even though it has no historic value, they can gain experience in the process of the
project and get lot of knowledge about the past. These justifications sound reasonable to most people, butthey are still being debated by experts who are engaged in the conservation field.

1

Dr. Saito Hidetoshi, History of the protection and the concept on Cultural Properties in Japan,

194One thing to be mentioned is that the Japanese experts have a good grasp of the internationalguidelines for conservation. They also apply the important knowledge accumulated by the Europeans totheir own practice of conservation. The methods of conservation applied in Japan embody a respect fororiginal materials and traditional crafts. They differentiate strictly the original and repair works without
regard to financial expenses; such a methodology would be admired and respected by any person who has
visited these Japanese buildings. There is in fact a combination of traditional crafts and modern industrial
techniques in the Japanese’s conservation methodologies. For example, they built a large modern workshop
to shelter the whole ancient temple during a restoration project, and investigated all parts of the temple withmany kinds of advanced modern equipments to determine the treatments to apply. However, craftsmen
repair the wooden members with traditional tools … sometimes I wonder how they will reassemble therepaired structure, with the old chain wheel system or with a crane? Is this kind of mixed method on
conservation ideal? In the end, I was aware that I have learned a lot in Japan during this training course,
while at the same time many new questions have been generated in my mind.

Part 2: Thoughts
This was my first experience in traveling abroad; it has also been my first opportunity to meetmany friends from various countries. It was an amazing experience for me to learn about various cultures,
which caused me to think a lot about my own country China, the world, and cultural diversity.
Thoughts on the wooden structures in China
Having talked with the participants from different countries, I recognized for the first time that
China is a very special nation. It has a long history yet is still so young and full of energy. It has a great dealof historical documents, stories, legends but a lack of the real historic monuments. The oldest existing
structure in China dates back to the Tang Dynasty, while most of the existing ancient buildings belong to theperiod of Ming Dynasty and Qing Dynasty. When I studied about the history of Chinese Architecture atuniversity, there was an evident focus on the evolution of the Chinese wooden structure. We have defined all
kinds of architectural styles according to their historic periods, starting from the Han Dynasty up to the Qing
Dynasty. As a matter of fact, Chinese people tend to pay more attention to the historic events associated witha building rather than the historic value of the building itself. In history, many temples were rebuilt
repeatedly because of war, fire, and so on. To rebuild a temple was considered a way of promoting one’s
virtues. Preserving the name of the temple was prioritized, while traditional methods of construction havenever been viewed as important. The evolution of Chinese wooden structures was thus influenced. This
tradition of repairing temples implies the gradual loss of original crafts, therefore, even Chinese experts whowant to see examples of buildings of the Tang Dynasty would come to Japan nowadays.
China has many kinds of wooden structures that include not only the famous temples and palaces
but also the folk architecture. There are many different forms of indigenous architecture in China because ofher regional and climatic diversity. Some of these indigenous buildings probably have not yet been
discovered or researched. The range of wooden structures in China is therefore huge, and has not beensurveyed completely. In other words, studies on the history of Chinese ancient architecture are ongoing. The
wooden structural system has passed a long history of changes and is therefore a complicated and dynamic
area for us to research.

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Thoughts on conservation practices in China
As far as Chinese conservation is concerned, it is a little difficult for me to compare the situation in
China to that in Japan. China is the biggest developing country in the world while Japan has developed intoa modern country for a long time. Even though there are many similarities between the two nations,especially in history, culture and traditional buildings, it is evident that the current situation in China is very
different to that in Japan.
The enterprise of Japanese conservation is depended on the enactment of the national laws and thepromotion of public consciousness for preservation along with economic development, which has alreadygone a long way since the Meiji period in 1868. However, in the past 100 years from 1840~1949, parts ofChina has been under the control of various western colonial powers and been engaged in numerous wars,
including the revolution to overthrow the Qing Dynasty, the Opium War , the second World War, and thefollowing civil war. After a century of conflicts, today’s China still maintains an independent cultural body,which is still developing along with the forces and influences of the modern times. Nobody can predict what
China will be like in the future. When I visited Japan on this course, I really admired the achievements of
the Japanese and thought a lot about China. I think that some parts of the Japanese conservational system
can be applied in the development of Chinese conservation work.
On the other hand, from this training course I also felt the dilemma faced by Japaneseconservationists at present about authenticity. As a matter of fact, the cultural traditions are very similar inmany aspects between China and Japan. It is not difficult for me to understand the Japanese mentality inregards to heritage protection. The Japanese care about the spiritual content of a building as well as thephysical part. They respect the authenticity of the human activities around the building as well as theoriginality of those materials in the building, but sometimes these two parts are in conflict. Let’s take theJapanese shrine as an example, if you accept the religious tradition of rebuilding a new shrine every 20
years, it must mean you have to give up part of the authentic value of the original construction. There arealso many similar puzzles in China. I noticed that the Nara Document in 1994 explained about cultural
diversity and accepted spiritual values in traditions as one kind of authentic value. This is a successful
beginning for advocating the continuation of the traditional spirit of Asian countries. I believe that there
could be a good cooperation between China and Japan on the effort of introducing the Oriental cultural
spirit to the west in the future.

Conclusion:
I am grateful to have this opportunity to learn about Japanese culture and wooden structure. I feel
fortunate to have met many friends from different countries. They have been very kind and friendly to me.
Lastly, many thanks to the ACCU staff for organizing this course. We could image their hard workin the background during this busy month.

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Indonesia
Fitra ARDA

Introduction:
Indonesia is very rich in cultural heritage because she has a long history of several thousand years.
In addition, Indonesia consists of many kinds of tribes. Each tribe has its unique customs that are different
from others. One of those differences can be seen in how they built their custom houses (public buildings)
and dwellings. Each tribe has its own building style, which is unique in shape, size, or interior design.
Since the early 1900’s, a lot of research and investigation into cultural heritage in Indonesia havebeen conducted. Generally, cultural heritage came from various periods, such as the prehistory, classic,colonial, and postcolonial periods. The government of Indonesia has continued to support the protection of
the cultural heritage. Since 1992, the government has been protecting all cultural heritage under The
Republic of Indonesia Law No.5 / 1992 regarding cultural heritage.
As we know, the cultural heritage of Indonesia consists of various forms and materials such as
megalithic buildings, temples, shrines, palaces, traditional houses, mosque, churches, historic buildings, andso on. These buildings use materials like stone, brick, wood, bamboo, and others.
My office, the Office of Protection on Heritage of Banten, West Java, DKI Jakarta, and theLampung providences, manages various cultural heritage, including timber building such as mosques,churches, historic buildings, custom houses, and traditional houses. This year, one of our projects is therestoration of some traditional houses of Pesagi such as those that I have described in my country report.
Receiving an invitation to this training course on the conservation of wooden structure in Asia
Pacific by ACCU is very important to my country, especially to my office. Besides learning about thecultural heritage protection system in Japan, the knowledge and science developed here can be used andapplied in our project for the protection and restoration of cultural heritage, especially in Bantan, Lampungand Pesagi Provinces.

Problems on the protection of cultural heritage:
Generally, the protection of cultural heritage in our country is confronted with the choice between
the protection of cultural heritage and modern development. The lack of experts has caused many cultural
heritages to degrade in their physical conditions. Other than that, destruction has also been caused bydevelopments and modernization. The development of areas for economic purposes has led to changes tomany cultural heritage sites due to new constructions. Supervision and protection under certain
governmental legislation are not sufficient enough to ensure the protection of cultural from destruction anddegradation.
The conservation and protection of cultural heritage such as archaeological and historical buildings,
especially buildings made of wood involve several problems in the approach and technique. Besides that,
there is the lack of experts and the person who is involved in conservation and restoration of cultural

197

heritage often lack sufficient knowledge. My office lacks technical workers, surveyors, and architects withexperience and clear ideas about the conservation and restoration of wooden structures.
In my country, we have difficulties in finding wood material that is the same as the original one,
especially in its species and size. Because trees are being felled at random in forests for the sake of certain
community’s business and trade, there is a scarcity of palm fiber for roofs. It is hard to find because it is
not sold in West Lampung anymore. Moreover, the plants that produce palm fiber don’t grow in the forests
there. It is very difficult to maintain the four values of authenticity, namely material, form and size, design,
and workmanship.
The most serious problem in my country now is the scarcity of traditional carpenters who haveskills in making and restoring traditional buildings. That condition has also been caused by the government
not giving enough attention to the protection of intangible culture, especially traditional techniques orworkmanship. Also people no longer build their houses from wood because it costs a lot of money. Besides,
traditional houses are considered out of trend.

Relevance of this training to Indonesia:
The training program was very important and relevant to me because it provided me wide
knowledge particularly about conservation and the restoration of wooden structures. I have learned about
philosophy of conservation of cultural heritage, and had valuable experiences in practical training as well as
visited many important cultural heritage sites in Japan. Experiences during the training program gave me a
lot of knowledge that I can apply to the many problems in conserving cultural heritage and important
cultural properties in my country.
From this training, I understood the procedures of conserving and restoring wooden structures, suchas survey and research, structural analysis, identifying the species of wooden members,
dendro-chronological investigation, excavation, preparation of working drawings, rubbings, management ofconservation work, and so on.
In this training program, I learned about the relationship between conservation experts andtraditional workers such as carpenters. Also, I understand the importance of using documents from earlier
conservation projects for the protection of cultural properties. Beside that, I was very impressed with theconservation efforts by the Japanese Government. Good management and relationship between the national
government, local government, and the owners in conservation is important in cultural heritage protection. I
observed that this relationship is more developed here and can be applied in my country also. The awarenessof the Japanese people in cultural heritage protection is very impressive. I was also impressed when I visited
the Nara Prefectural Museum of Folklore with Prof. Ueno, because vernacular houses in Japan have many
similarities in construction with traditional houses in my country. This similarity has helped me to find thesolutions for some of the problems in the conservation and restoration of traditional houses in my country.
As we know, Indonesia is located in a tropical region which has high rainfall, causing buildings made ofwood to quickly decay and be destroyed.
Most of the knowledge I have gained here during the training will be applied in my country,
especially to my duty areas. Next year, my office is conducting a restoration project in the Lampung
Province. The building is made of wood and has many similarities with the vernacular houses in Japan. I

198will apply the knowledge in practice to that project. In addition, I will transfer the knowledge to co-workers
in my office.
In my office I have duties in research, planning, investigation, and compiling inventories on cultural
heritage such as archaeological buildings, historical buildings, traditional houses, and others. All theknowledge that I gained during the training course will be used in this work.
Although our country currently lacks funds for the conservation and restoration of cultural heritage,
preservation effort must be continued. The philosophy of conservation of cultural heritage that I learned
from the lectures of Dr. Myklebust and Dr. Wijesuriya will guide me in the future.

Conclusion:
The training course on the conservation of wooden structures in Asia and the Pacific 2003 has beenvery productive for learning about the principles and practices of conservation and protection of cultural
heritage, especially wooden structures. The programme was significant and relevant to the current practices
in my country, especially in my office. During this training, I have learned about the management of cultural
heritage in Japan, the concept of cultural properties and the designation system for their protection, how thepreservation and protection of cultural heritage is done in Japan, the conservation and restoration of culturaland historical buildings in Japan, and the traditional techniques of carpentry work in Japan. All participants
not only gained theoritical knowledge on cultural heritage, but have also gained practical experiences andvisited sites under guidance of many experts in the conservation field.
If I compare the conservation situation in Japan with my country, I think Japan is in a better
position. Due to this, we must learn about the conservation of cultural heritage, especially wooden structuresfrom Japan. I was very interested about the close relationship between the National Government, local
government, and the owner. That condition can also be developed in Indonesia.
Lastly, I wish that in next year’s program, Indonesia will also have a chance to send a participant on
this training course.

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Kazakhstan
Yelena YATSENKO

I work in the State Institute for the Scientific Research and Planning on Monuments of Material
Culture (NIPI PMK). The main kinds of activity of our Institute include the following:

Revelation and registration of architectural and historical monuments, drawing up ofregistration documents (Passports of monuments),Compilation of the Full List (Cadastre) of immovable monuments for Kazakhstan,

Scientific research and elaboration of techniques for various kinds of structure and materials,

Preparing recommendations for the modern utilization of architectural and historicalmonuments and archaeological sites,

Determination of buffer zones for monuments and zones for historic buildings, where new
construction must be limited (Zones of limited construction),Conduct projects for the regeneration of districts of historic buildings,

Plan projects for the restoration, conservation and utilization of architectural monuments andhistorical buildings, and supervise their progress,

Determine management-plans and actions for the protection of the monuments andarchaeological sites,Prepare projects for the planning and provision of facilities for monumental complexes andarchaeological sites.

Experts of our Institute take part in the process of elaborating and correcting the laws in the domainof the protection of cultural properties. They also take part in the commissions for appreciation ofimportance degree of monuments.
The main part of my work in the Institute includes surveying the physical conditions of monuments
and preparing recommendations for urgent works. I also do research on the history of monuments, record
their present conditions and damages and estimate their authentic values. Since 2002 I’ve been working in
the Division for Scientific Research and Conservation of Archaeological Sites in our Institute and havetaken part in the UNESCO/Norwegian Trust Fund project on the Management and Preservation of theTamgaly Petroglyph site. Nowadays my role is to elaborate on the database for the petroglyphs of Central
Asia.
There was an economic crisis between 1992-1996 and an economic depression followed in
1996-2000 in my country, so there are many problems in our work. The main difficulty is the catastrophic
deficiency of qualified specialists and personnel turnover. The lack of specialists in the field of conservation,
restoration and protection of cultural properties is due to 2 main reasons:

200

1.

Absence of a special base for training in the educational system of our country,2.

Low salary. Many young architects would like to work in the Institute, but after working
during some year they are resigning because the level of salary is 2-3 times less than in amodern architectural office. It is a great pity although they could obtain valuable experience inour work.

Participation in this training course was very important for me for many reasons:
1.

There are a good number of wooden monuments of different types in Kazakhstan. Traditionalbuildings feature wooden parts in the South of the country, wooden houses and churches havebeen constructed as a result of Russian architectural influence, and there are excavatedwooden artifacts as well. At the same time there is a complete lack of experience for the
restoration of wooden structures and the conservation of wood. It is extremely important for us
to receive knowledge in this field.

2.

It’s very interesting for me to know about the experience of other countries in the field of
cultural properties protection, especially legislative issues, the structures of organizations thatare responsible for preservation activities and ways of financing such activities.

3.

Such kind of training enables common discussion and the sharing of experience in our
restoration practice. It stimulates participants to carry out further work at the completion of the
training.

4.

I have developed an admiration for the Japanese culture and traditions of Japanese architectureduring my studies at the various institutes. The possibility to see all things by my own eyes
was a special experience for me.

My expectations were fully met. Many things gave me deep impressions. I was especially
impressed by Japan’s policies on the protection of cultural properties. The fact that the development oflegislations for the protection of cultural properties has a history of more than 100 years is an important factby itself. Methodological procedures and a thorough inclusion of all kinds of cultural properties in Japan’s
Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties caused me to have a new, critical look at the legislation of mycountry. In my opinion, the most important thing is of the definition of cultural properties, which include
not only monuments of material culture but also traditions and natural features. For me the presence ofsuch terms as "intangible cultural properties", "Places of Scenic Beauty" in the law is evidence that this Law
has profound humanitarian characteristics.
I knew a little about the Japanese traditional system of restoring wooden buildings, but being able
to see it with my own eyes left me with sharp impressions, especially the very careful treatment of original
materials during the whole process of restoration. We gained an experience of some of this process during
the practical training at Toshodai-ji Temple. In one of the activities, we made proposals for the restoration of
the Bentensha Shrine. All of our restorations were more radical than that of our lecturer, Mr. Kimura.
One more thing that left me with sharp impressions was the thorough and methodological recording of therestoration process in the “Final Report of Restoration Work”. Unfortunately this very important study of a201

restoration / conservation project is often absent or not well made in my country. The methods of recording
are not well developed and often there is no finance allocation for this kind of recording. Meanwhile any
restoration or conservation works cannot be considered as finished without such proper documentation.
Surely I will try to apply the knowledge that I received from this training course in my own work.
Firstly, I will promote the making of obligatory restoration records for all restoration, conservation andutilization projects. I will also share the knowledge and impressions that I gained during the program withmy colleagues, especially in the area of the conservation of excavated wood. Specialists from the Scientific
Research and Experimental Laboratory of our Institute will be very interested in learning the techniques,
which were given in the lecture of Mr. Kohdzuma. The principles of the preservation, restoration andutilization of historic building districts are extremely interesting for us. The general approach to therestoration and various stages of the work may also be good examples for specialists in my country.
Experience of reconstructing monuments (Nara Palace) and historic buildings (Ichijodani) at archaeologicalsites will be a key topic for discussion among our architects and archaeologists. Besides during on-site
lectures I attentively studied the planning within the territory of monuments and complexes, such as theorganization of tourist's routes, provision of information and the planning of facilities for tourists. This wasdone at a high level and very tactfully. In my Institute we are planning a project for the preservation of anarchaeological site Tamgaly near Almaty. About 10,000 petroglyphs dating from the Bronze Age areconcentrated at this site, so it's very important for me to acquaint with the experience of planning forpreserving historic territories.
As for restoration projects, I don't think works of such huge scale as that in Japan are possible now
in my country. But there are many aspects which I will try to propagate, especially the careful attitude fororiginal materials.
The training-course as a whole covered a wide area and all aspects in the conservation of wooden
structures and related problems in cultural properties protection. The practical course and on-site lectures
illustrate the theoretical lectures excellently. There is only one thing I would like to know in addition, andthat is in relation to the monitoring of monuments and archaeological artifacts to which restoration havebeen completed some years ago (10 and more), especially where modern artificial and chemical materials
have been used. Also, I would like to know what do Hinoki cypress, Umbrella pine, and Japanese cedar etc.
look like? Unfortunately I couldn't understand this by photos only.
The organization of the training course in a whole was splendid. The materials and equipments
provided to the participants were more than sufficient. This training course itself can be a model for theorganization of such kind of programs. I highly appreciate the work of the ACCU staff during this training
course, and I am sure that it will have a real impact on the activities of its participants.

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Kyrgyzstan
Arabidin KALANDAROV

Cultural Properties of the Kyrgyz Republic
Knowledge gained from the training program
During this training course, I had an opportunity to view historical wooden structures of Japan andto study modern methods of restoration and conservation activities. I was very much impressed with theHistoric Villages of Shirakawa-go and Gokayama. There, the protected cultural property is composed of aset of three historic villages, Ogimachi, Ainokura and Suganuma, which are located in scattered sites in the
Shirakawa-go and Gokayama areas, and are surrounded by steep mountains of the Chubu Region in central
Japan.
I am also very much impressed by activities in the preservation districts, such as the organization of
associations of local residents that regularly conduct lectures to help promote an understanding of thehistory and culture of the area as well as workshops to study traditional techniques or crafts. I had also agood opportunity to discuss with my other colleagues in the Asia-Pacific region the common problems
involved in cultural heritage conservation.

Application of the gained knowledge in KyrgyzstanThe protection of selected conservation techniques; recording these techniques and training
people to inherit these skills.



Research on new restoration methods using synthetic materialsDisaster prevention measures such as fire prevention, reinforcement of structures against
earthquake, periodical disaster prevention trainings

Dendro-chronological dating method in the field of cultural property protectionOrganization of an administrative structure that involves the active participation of the national
and local governments, independent institutions and professionals, and residents and owners.

Project development and implementation that combines both traditional techniques and hightechnology

I will share my deepened knowledge with my colleagues, cultural property owners, culturalproperty authorities of my country and students of the faculty of Restoration and Conservation of Cultural
Heritage, Kyrgyz State University of Contraction, Transportation and Architecture (KSUCTA).

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Conclusion
In conclusion I can say that this training program was very useful for me and also I believe that for
all participants as well. The experience that I have gained during this training program is in most cases
applicable in my country.

Acknowledgment
The Government of Japan is making a great contribution to the promotion of cultural heritage
protection in the Asia-Pacific region by conducting such kind of training programs for officials in charge ofcultural heritage. In such programs, they may enhance their knowledge on the conservation andrestoration of cultural properties.
I am sincerely grateful to the Government of Japan and ACCU Nara Office for inviting me to Japanand providing me with this training course. I believe that in the future all participants of this training course
will continue to communicate with each other and share their experience for the benefit of promoting
cultural heritage protection in their respective countries.

Conservation plans
prepared during the
Bentensha Workshop at
Toshodaiji Temple, Nara.
By Yuhua ZHU, China.

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Mongolia
Luvsanjalbuu MUNKHZULAll participants might have come here because they would like to learn about the Japaneseconservation and preservation techniques for wooden architecture and to become aware of the application ofhigh technology in current practices.
We found the training course helpful in allowing us to share information about other countries’
traditional and modern conservation systems, and how they use a variety of technologies for theconservation of all types of buildings or constructions wholly and partially in wood.
The training course included classroom and onsite lectures, and onsite practices as well whichacquainted the participants with facts about the conservation of Japanese wooden architecture. It also gave
us a chance to discuss our ideas about the diversity of regional wooden structures as well as the customs,
believes, spiritual development and aesthetic thinking of different people and different nationalities. Even
though the origins of wooden architecture go back to very ancient times in countries in the Asia Pacificregion, their survival and current conservation practices are influenced by different circumstances. In thiscase, we can identify the necessity of establishing conservation standards for cultural properties including
building structures as a top challenge in all countries. The last two training courses on the conservation ofwooden structures in Asia and the Pacific were pioneering instruments, which enabled the participants tounderstand about the current practices of wooden structures in the region. It has been shaping the discussionof all regional studies into the problems involved in the conservation of wooden structures.
Conservation work attempts to involve all related practices or sciences as seen in the practices ofJapanese and other countries. This encourages multilateral co-operation and sharing of information.
In my country, there is a set of laws on the protection of cultural properties and some of them werepassed under the ratification of international legislations including the 1954 Hague Convention, the 1970
UNESCO convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Importation, Exportation andtransfer of Ownership of Cultural Properties and the 1972 convention concerning the Protection of World
Cultural and natural Heritage. But we have no sufficient managerial coordination system to ensure the good
protection of wooden architecture.
For a long time there has been a gap between what is stated in policy papers regarding theprotection and conservation of cultural properties, and their implementation. Many of the papers seem to
be too abstract to be put into actual practice. The two training courses have shown that an effective system
was needed and if it is thoughtfully and conscientiously implemented, there will be good results.
For the effective protection of wooden heritage, we should set up a network of services which
consists of a central administrative unit and national institutions to ensure the effective preservation andpresentation of wooden heritage.

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The network should carry out the following functions:

Contribute to the formation of draft laws and regulations designed to secure particularly theprotection of wooden heritage, studying international legislations, recommendations,principles to develop standards for local situations

Establish and keep up to date a national inventory of designated cultural properties



Promote the development of related institutions (museums, libraries, archives, laboratories,
workshop)

Increase both national and international training for professionals in different fields of woodstudies

It is a good time to make a critical assessment of current practices and encourage those countries
that are now reassessing their work in the conservation of wooden structures to make the effort to adjust
their domestic practices to include international collaboration in a combined effort to hinder the damage anddestruction of cultural properties by man made or natural deterioration.

Conservation plans prepared during the Bentensha Workshop at Toshodaiji Temple, Nara.
By Ramesh THAPALIYA, Nepal.

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NepalRamesh THAPALIYA

The use of timber in Nepal ranges from structural, architectural to decorative purposes. Structuraluse of timber is seen in its use as posts (Tham in circumambulatory of temples, 'dalan' of bahal houses, shop
fronts, as the replacement of the middle wall in the upper floor of houses, particularly the second floor andattics, etc), as beams over posts (ninah), joists in floors and rafters in roof, ties and wall plates (nas) intemples, as inner frames of doors and windows (post and lintel) and struts. It is important to note that thestructural use of timber is really abundant.
The architectural and decorative use of timber is likewise extensive too. Such use is seen in theposts, metha (capital), torana over door, doors and windows, as well as struts. Exposed structural members
are usually carved elaborately. Doors and windows shutters are also of Timber. The doors are either a'single-leaf door' or a 'triple-leaf door' (used in some temples). There are many specialized designs and they
are used in particular contexts and positions. Window designs are yet more extensive than doors, e.g. TikiJhya, Sun-Jhya, Biman-Jhya, Pasuka-Jhya, etc. The doors and windows are built with multiple posts andlintels and carry elaborate motifs.
Common problems in the conservation and preservation of woodwork include rotting, beetle attack,attack of white ants or dry rot. Careless repainting also poses problems of another kind in restoration works.
Such a wide range of wood application in Nepalese architecture makes it the principal concern inour conservation works. The traditional techniques of selecting wood species, its cutting period, method ofseasoning and different kinds of joinery used in the construction are passed down through generations. As
the wood is becoming dearer than ever and is gradually being replaced by new materials like steel andconcrete, the tradition of wood working as an inherited skill is drastically reduced. Wood is the mostvulnerable construction material in our traditional construction. So the study of this field is always importantfor us.
My area of work is primarily concerned with the Kathmandu Valley World Heritage Site. The
capital city of Kathmandu is famous for its wooden temples. Wood is the medium of artistic expression andis the backbone of structural support in our heritages. So I sincerely express my gratefulness to theorganizers of this training course - Conservation of Wooden Structures in Asia and the Pacific 2003 forgiving me this opportunity in increases my knowledge in this field.
The monuments located in the Nepalese World Heritage sites can be categorized mainly into twogroups in terms of ownership; they are either Public monuments or Private houses. The challenges identified
in conserving the private houses are more complicated in comparison to public monuments. As I havecategorized the challenges of conservation in terms of public and private monuments, I will list theusefulness of this training course in this context.

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Approach to the conservation of public monuments –The Nepalese world Heritage sites usually consist of a main Monument surrounded by othermonuments or a group of monuments. Such groups of monuments including the main monument fall in the
category of public monument. The major challenges identified in the conservation of these publicmonuments can be thus discussed under the following sub headings.
Lack of sufficient fund:The conservation of cultural heritage is highly expensive. This is more obvious in case of Japan.
From the lavish construction of protective sheds to the most detailed study of materials and techniques, theexpense of restoration projects in Japan is much higher than that of my country Nepal. As I learned here, thefund made available by the government is always sufficient to carry out conservation work to the highest
standard but in my country’s case, it is different as the budget allocated to conservation works has always
proved to be insufficient in comparison to the number of monuments and the expensive conservationmaterials and craftsmanship. The proportioning of some amount in the government’s annual budget and few
donations from different sources have enabled us to keep the public monuments of world Heritage sites innormal condition. But a much bigger amount of money is needed for us to conserve properly and improvethe condition of such sites. I cannot imagine carrying out the conservation/preservation works with such finedetail documentation and minute research in every aspect from the monument‘s material to the technique of
construction etc. in my country right now. Thus the insufficient investment in conserving cultural heritages
has remained always a major challenge.
Lack of proper documentation:
Advanced architectural conservation is based on experience, architectural heritage recording andinformation management. The basic thing required in conservation is knowledge. Knowledge entails
documentation as a fundamental aspect for preserving cultural heritage. Architectural records andinformation generated from them plays a vital role in the conservation process.
Seeing that the records of construction, maintenance, renovation and reconstruction processes fromthe middle of the nineteenth centaury are still kept here in Japan amazed me. I can easily imagine their value
in present conservation works. Though the method of construction in Japan is different to the South Asian
context, the depth of tested knowledge especially in the field of wooden monument conservation is pricelessand other countries can benefit from this.
A detailed inventory of the monuments of the World Heritage Sites, including private houses, is yet
to be completed in my country. Until and unless such documentation is completed properly it is impossible
to categorize the monuments and treat them in accordance with their category, value and importance, which
is highly necessary in order to formulate plan and programs for conserving the world heritage of any place.
By seeing the Japanese way of collecting information and storing, interpretating and disseminating them, I
am confident that my performance would be better than before and I can help my colleagues also.
Heritage is not only the big and beautiful monuments. It includes all those things that provide us atangible access to our past. In the name of world heritage site and artistically valuable monument I feel that
we are not giving due attention to those various heritages which are scattered throughout the country and are

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related to the different ethnic groups and their ways of life. So my thinking and works in the future willcertainly be directed towards paying due attention to them also.
Lack of public awareness:
Awareness of the people is the single most important factor in the conservation of any form ofcultural heritage. The love and passion for one’s own identity and a pride in one’s history always provided
people the motive to conserve their heritage. As we think that it is our responsibility to transfer our cultural
inheritance to the future generation, the purity of the inheritance should be maintained as far as possible.
Heritage is always for the people rather than the people for heritage. So the management of change andmaintaining a balance between the conservation needs and development needs has always been theprinciple challenge for the conservation professionals. This difficult task would be so much easier if thesociety is educated. Unless effort is made to make the people more aware about the importance, value anddirect and indirect benefits of their cultural heritage, they cannot appreciate the efforts made by somebody
else in conserving the Cultural Heritage or even if they participate themselves. If the support andappreciation of the local is not gained, the conservation of cultural property remains incomplete. Among thechallenges I have to face while working in the conservation field is the ignorance of the values of culturalproperties in the people. Sometimes educated people who are in the position to teach others about the needsof conservation turns a deaf ear when they have to compromise something for the sake of conservation.
They are the most difficult clients to handle.
By learning from the Japanese professors and professionals in this month, I see that even Japan is
not free from this problem. Persistent effort of the conservationists to get people to agree to conservationplans is the only way to solve the problem and there are no easier ways to achieve this goal. By
communicating with the society, building support groups and creating social pressure, we can reach abalance between conservation and modernization. Implementing educating plans such as broadcasting
Information about the cultural heritages on Radio, Television and publishing in newspapers, making anddistributing posters, pamphlets and brochures and including Heritage conservation topics in high schoollevel curriculum, we can try to create a heritage-loving society. We sincerely hope that the positive result of
these activities will be realized slowly in the future and our current difficulties will be changed into positive
support from the people.
Living Cultural traditions:
The combined nature of settlement patterns and their execution in secular & religious buildings
within a cluster shows the close relationship among the palace, temple, stupa, public rest houses and privatehouses in heritage sites of Nepal. This case is more pronounced in the case of the Katmandu Valley World
Heritage Sites. The conservation of any cultural site means to maintain the regular functioning of traditional
activities or intangible cultural practices at the site also. All the Nepalese Cultural monuments enlisted on
the World Heritage list, by their nature, are living heritages. Local people living in the cultural heritage zone
are among the most important elements in conserving such intangible cultural heritage. Therefore, our job isalso to retain people's living patterns and their livelihood within the protected monument Zones. However,traditional values could sometimes create many challenges in conserving the sites. Basic concept in Hindu
philosophy is that the eternal core of the soul survives death and transmigrates to a new life or is released

209

from the bonds of existence. We give importance to the inner spirit rather to the body. Our religious
philosophy teaches us to discard worldly things. So Idols representing spirits and the procedures that lead
towards the spiritual goal gets priority.
In the case of Japan, I observed a somewhat different situation. Many of the monuments are
separately located within a large compound. Their traditional houses are primarily wooden structures
without fixed joints, so the complete removal of members and reusing them after examination andmaintenance is possible. The size of the wooden member is very large in major structural elements andJapan has developed a joining system that works by the mechanics of interlocking surfaces. It was apleasing experience to see the filling of damaged timber parts without losing any part of the sound timber.
My country’s monuments are full of finely carved decorative wood works. The major deteriorationon these members occurs on the neglected part attached to brick walls, but the carved parts are in reusablecondition in most cases. So the technique of repair with dismantlement can be extensively used inconservation works in my country’s monuments.
Lack of co-ordination between different agencies:
Traditionally as well as legally, different governmental and semi-governmental organizations are
responsible for maintaining and conserving the Nepalese cultural heritage. Though many institutions areworking in the same field, the current law does not specify their authority and responsibilities clearly. When
there is a need to take difficult or unpopular actions for heritage protection, one tries to throw the ball into
the other’s court. Another challenge caused by the lack of proper coordination is in controlling modern
constructions and the encroachment of modern urbanization process. To control such activities active
support of the chief district officer (District Administrative Head), the local police force and Municipality
authorities is a must but this sort of activities is not their priority. This tendency has created many difficult
challenges. During this training course, I learned that Japan has a more precise demarcation of concerned
authorities in the field of conservation. We are also planning to propose amendments in the Ancient
Monument Preservation Act in near future. This training experience gave me some valuable insight into this
aspect, which I will certainly put forward in my departments meeting.
Technical and Logistic Support:
Providing technical and logistic support to the local people is necessary for the preservation ofvernacular architecture. The maintenance of and renovation design for vernacular houses is a challenging
job. Balancing the cost and reward is never easy. Enabling the people to enjoy modern facilities in a
traditional setting in Nepal is even harder. An increased number of Architects graduating from universities
these days is a candle in the tunnel for us.
I have seen that conservation architects are selected professionals who have a wide range of
responsibilities here in Japan. In the case of my country, the architectural designer pays no attention to theirdesign after obtaining the initial government approval. Contractors and the owner would then try to change
the design in the construction process, and these changes are often not in agreement with the traditional
values of the building. We should therefore give more authority to architects and they should be made more
responsible.

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Approach to Problems Related To Private Houses –A number of private residences exist within the world heritage sites of Nepal. The local inhabitants
are maintaining their age-old cultural tradition that is also an important aspect to be conserved in the site.
The people who are living inside the protected monument zones are another important element inconserving the cultural values of the sites. Therefore, it is necessary to retain people's accommodations andtheir livelihood within the world Heritage sites. This interdependent relationship has created several
challenges and most of these are related to the construction and reconstruction of private houses. Here I
outline the major activities of the inhabitants that are causing serious threats to conservation activities in
Nepal.
Nature of construction materials and the tradition of reconstruction:
The main construction materials of Nepalese traditional architecture are bricks, timber, terracotta
tiles and stones with mud mortar as a binder in most cases. While old buildings may be damaged,
deteriorated or dilapidated due to the nature of construction materials and loads, there has been a traditional
practice of reconstruction after complete demolition of the building instead of in-situ conservation. The
age-old timber components of traditional buildings are usually rotted and need replacement urgently. If
people are permitted to demolish and reconstruct their dilapidated houses then conservation guidelines are
not followed. But if the permission for demolition is not granted, there will be negative attitudes towards theconservation policy.
Japanese old structures are primarily made of wood and most of the components are exposed to theopen air unlike the load bearing wooden structure within walls in the Nepalese case. They are therefore lessaffected with moisture and there are fewer chances off the wood rotting. It enables the conservators to use
more of the old materials in the process of conservation. The damp proofing system in old Japanese houses
is impressive. This method can tremendously improve the conditions of my country’s monument also.
Improved damp proofing will certainly prolongs the life of wooden members in the structure.
Problem of balancing Owner demand and governmental codes and regulations:
As the perceived need for traditional structures has changed considerably, design professionals areunable to find a solution within the framework of current governmental codes and regulations. It is achallenge for design professionals to produce a set of construction documents that defines the proposedbuilding exactly and from which the building can be constructed within the framework of current
governmental codes and regulations. If design professionals are able to incorporate standard criteria forhuman comfort such as thermal environment, lighting levels, damp proofing etc., the job to implement theapproved design becomes much simpler.
I have seen many examples of improvement of housing condition without altering the traditional
façade of the building in the preservation districts of Japan. They directed me to think about improving theinterior of the traditional Nepali houses. It would have been a great opportunity if I could have more time togo through the details of this process.

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Changes in the usage of houses:
The ground floors of almost all old private Nepali houses have few small windows and it remained
always damp and dark. The ceiling height is also around six feet. Nowadays, almost all the World Heritage
sites are developing as a tourist center and ground floor of the private houses can be changed into profitable
shops. They need bigger sized windows for more light, owners want to increase floor height of their houses
and they try to add different modern commodities, most of which can not be fitted due to the size and shapeof their traditional houses. Thus the intentions of prescribed conservation methods and people's needs could
not go together and it creates confrontations between the house owners and managers of the world heritage
sites.
Japan’s modern commercial centers are not located in historic areas. Though the houses are smaller
in size compared to modern ones, they have no ceiling height problems. I find less variation in the overall
height of traditional buildings. The actual owners do not inhabit many of the buildings in preservation area.
Though this gives the professionals more freedom to work, it also creates the problem for carrying out
regular care, repair and maintenance. The continued search for a better utilization of vernacular houses in
the modern context by Japanese professionals provided me a new direction of thinking which I have toanalyze within the Nepalese context.
Scarce and expensive materials and craftsmanship:
The bricks and terracotta tiles used in old Nepalese houses are special in type and quality. Anotherconstruction material used in the traditional buildings of heritage sites is stone. The stone itself and carvingson it are of high quality. Though the timbers used in old houses are in large quantity and of low quality but
carvings and designs on them are very beautiful. The production of such high quality and beautiful
construction materials is two to three times more expensive than using modern construction materials, andto get these materials and craftsmen in the market is very expensive. The offer of the government to provide
10 % subsidy to the total cost and exempting the tax levied on wood could not provide much incentive.
I observe that the central and local governments in Japan provide around eighty percent subsidy tothe cost of traditional building conservation, yet professionals are still facing a hard time to convince theowner about the conservation of traditional houses in many cases. So anyone can imagine the gravity of
opposition we have to face in Nepal from the society to conserve the traditional environment, especiallyvernacular houses.
In learning about the traditional tile-making techniques and observing the factory site, I was
impressed with the level of commitment the Japanese had to their work and to the way they carry out
investigations through to the end of the project. It had inspired me to do research in the field of traditional
materials.
Socio-economic changes:
The agriculture-based economy of local inhabitant of Katmandu has changed into an industry andcommerce based economy. The commercial value of the private houses of world heritage sites are
increasing day by day and people want to change the unused ground floor of their houses into shops or forother commercial use. Also, changes in the lifestyle of the people have presented pressures to the families

212living in the World Heritage Sites to acquire modern commodities like refrigerators, modern furniture and soon, which can not be moved inside their houses from the small traditional doors. This sort of economic
ability and social pressure for modern commodities have encouraged the local people to change the size anddesign of their original houses. To meet such challenges, a level of compromise is inevitable. The system ofvalue analysis with due consideration of people’s perspective may lead us to the delicate balance we want toachieve. I feel that I am more equipped with such philosophical understanding after this training. Cultural
heritage are for the people and we cannot ignore the human element in Heritage conservation work.

Conclusion
Most of the work was very rewarding throughout the course and there were many opportunities forinteraction with lecturers and with fellow participants. Seeing different approaches that do not conflict withthe fundamentals was impressive. The practical sessions were particularly useful in developing skills andtesting them in real situations. Presentations gave me brief knowledge about heritages in the region andapproaches taken by fellow professionals. Study tours provided the opportunity to see the outcomes firsthand and meet other professionals in the field and discuss about their approaches to the range of problems
they are faced with.
Overall, I had an exposure to the range and depth of cultural heritage in Japan. It is equally
rewarding to compare the different conservation approaches taken in Japan and other countries. The course
provided many opportunities to interact with experts and getting some insight into the philosophy and theprocesses that they take in their work. Gaining an exposure to the many experiences and approaches andenjoying it with experts in the field was a rare opportunity and I enjoyed it very much. I am sure thistraining course will contribute to the protection of wooden heritages in each country and it was a verysatisfactory meeting for all of us. At the end of this program, we have increased our knowledge of our fieldof work, learned directly applicable techniques in our work, gained contacts with experts and have met
wonderful friends working in the same field. And last but not least, I had the opportunity of experiencing
first hand amazing cultural and natural heritage. It has been an experience that I will remember for a
lifetime.

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Philippines
Candido H. CASTRO

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia/Pacific Cultural Center for UNESCO (ACCU) for inviting me to participate in this training course on
the Conservation of Wooden Structures in Asia and the Asia Pacific 2003. During the training course in
Nara, Japan, I had an opportunity to visit many Ancient Cultural Heritages consisting of Wooden Structures.
During this training course, I have also fixed in my memory the conservation techniques and methodologies
applied by the Japanese People for the restoration and conservation of Cultural heritage. The knowledge I
have learned in this training course will be applied to the present work of our office and will bedisseminated to other people to educate them about the conservation of cultural heritage. I hope that the
ACCU will continue to provide such training course to help other countries do better in the conservation ofwooden structures.
The training course was attended by fourteen participants and two observers. The course was run
by Mr. Yasushi Nishimura as the course director and several Japanese exerts in the field of conservation as
speakers and lecturers. The Japanese Government through the ACCU funded this training course.
At present, I am a Senior Restoration Engineer and presently work at the National Historical
Institute NHI, which is the only governmental institution in the Philippines to undertake the promotion ofhistory and other historical activities and also the preservation, conservation, restoration and maintenance ofsignificant historic sites and structures. The NHI supports various activities, including:public education on the processes, values and benefits of preserving our historic sites



dissemination and transfer of technologies to organization and individuals who have interest or
are directly involved in historic preservation activities,community involvement in conservation,

provision of technical assistance on the restoration, preservation and conservation of historic
structures and objects to other agencies, Local Government Units and Non Government
Organization.

The NHI believes that every citizen should be proud of his country and culture, and should be
responsible in helping to preserve and protect our cultural heritage with genuine commitment, involvement
and cooperation.
At present our office is maintaining and operating 30 history museums, among which are National
Shrines, Landmarks, and Monuments including three of the four baroque churches in the Philippines
declared by UNESCO as World Heritage Sites. Every year our office had requested budget allocation fromthe National Government for the maintenance and restoration of these designated structures. The
preservation of these historic sites is undertaken by engineers, architects and conservators who also provide
technical assistance to the various preservation and development projects involving different historic sites
and structures in the country.

214Conservation Measures undertaken by NHI:
The NHI implements heritage conservation laws and liaises with the government andnon-governmental organization. We issue guidelines on restoration and preservation and implement
educational activities. We also make plans and request budget allocation for restoration and conservation
projects.
As a Sr. Restoration Engineer my duties and responsibilities are:1.

Plan scope of work, prepare budgetary cost estimates and specifications for all NHI projects.

2.

Supervise all on-going restoration works undertaken by the NHI.

3.

Check and review all work of lower technical staffs pertaining to the restoration andconservation, particularly in relation to engineering aspects.

4.

Conduct investigations on the structural stability of existing structures.

5.

Prepare progress reports and photo documentation for on going restoration projects.

6.

Prepare structural design and investigation of all NHI projects.

7.

Liaise with Local Government before the implementation of the project.

8.

Survey and documentation of historic structures.

The common problems of conservation and restoration in the Philippines, especially project locatedin remote areas, include the following:

Lack of public awareness and interest on conservation. Some schools have no idea about
conservation policies. The resulting trend therefore, is an endless variety of intervention
techniques being applied which are contrary to the principle of universality.



Lack of resources for both traditional and modern technologies of restoration e.g. skilledartisan and work force for traditional works, funding constraints due to expensive or
unavailable technologies, lack of scientific conservation equipment and facilities, lack of funds
and time for quality technical supervision. Too many cases are in urgent need for attention
but there is a limited budget ceiling to work with, and the implementing government agency
finds difficulty in gaining support from local communities and other government andnon-governmental organizations.

Conservation is not a major priority of the government. Personal interventions by political or
influential figures often conflict with interests of conservationists.

Lack of police power to properly implement the heritage conservation laws.

The Training Course on Conservation of Wooden Structures in Asia and the Pacific 2003 had an
objective of contributing to the promotion of cultural heritage protection of each country in the region.
Theoretical knowledge as well as practical skill through lectures and practical training in the areas ofwooden structure survey techniques and conservation /restoration philosophies and technologies were
included. The course offered an exposure to the conservation challenges and an overview of establishedconservation approaches. The conservation course provided essential knowledge for diagnosing
deterioration in structures and selecting the most appropriate methods of conservation of wooden materials.

215

It has also promoted efficient collaboration and mutual understanding among the different disciplines
working in the field of wood conservation. It has broaden our awareness regarding the conservation ofwood.
Leaning experiences during the course on wooden conservation are the following:

The Japanese Policies on Protection of Cultural Properties, Administrative system, budget andtax system, the law for the cultural properties e.g. tangible, intangible, folk cultural and groupof historic building.

The protection of National designated cultural properties, the designation and protection ofcultural properties in local areas; policies on Museum of art and history.



The Promotion of International Exchange and Cooperation



Information Technologies in the administration of Cultural Affairs.

An introduction to Architecture and historical heritage in Japan regarding legislation, problems,
concerns and also the conservation of modern architecture.



The conservation of Wooden Architectural heritage in Asia-Pacific Region. Dr. Wijesuriya
tackled the important value of timber in wooden Architecture, the causes of deterioration oftimber and the conservation process, principles and procedures for wooden structures. The
concepts and Philosophy of Conservation was also discussed by Mr. Dag Myklebust.



An Introduction to the Conservation Science of Archaeological Relics was discussed andsome important topics was tackled about basic properties of wood, the deterioration ofwaterlogged wooden relics and the preservation of waterlogged wooden relics.

I have learnt at this training course about the protection of cultural property buildings, the history ofconservation and the investigation, designation and registration of all cultural properties. Also, I have learnt
about the different wood species used in traditional Japanese wooden architecture. I have learnt about
Dendrochronology: procedures for determining the age of wood from its annual rings and the study ofliving trees in order to understand tree growth. I have learnt about the Japanese restoration and preservation
methods for Cultural Heritage such as:performing routine household maintenance

holding regular training program for craftsmen to develop their skills as well as theirknowledge of history and culture

providing the owner with the knowledge for routine maintenance and repair and providing
financial support and technical assistance

prompt damage control through maintenance and repair to take measures to prevent thedamage from worsening or spreading.



precautions for natural disasters

opening to the public and regulating the use of cultural properties; promoting the continual use
of a cultural property tends to help maintain the inherent significance of the structure and help
preserve the cultural properties.

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I have learned about the policy on the conservation of historic district, the basic concept for
preservation, the conservation program and the process of conservation done by the local government inJapan.
On October 15 – 17, the participants visited the Takayama Local History Museum (a former sakebrewery that has been converted into a Museum), Takayama-Shi, Sanmachi Preservation District of Groupof Historic Buildings and Takayama Shi, Shimonino-machi and Daishin-machi Area, The Historic Villageof Shirakawa-go and Gokayama , Historic Village at Kanazawa City and Ichijo-dani site and Museum. On
this site lecture I learnt about the identification of cultural property and site, the protection law, the state ofconservation in Japan, the World Heritage value and background of the Gassho-style, Samurai, Merchantand Landowner’s houses.
The most impressive part of this programme was the individual country presentations. Theygave me a global overview of the movable and immovable cultural heritage in various settings and thecurrent conservation problems in field of conservation. I was also impressed with the method ofreconstruction done at the Toshodai-ji Temple and Nara Palace, including:the provision of a temporary shed over the entire site during reconstructionstorages for the dismantled materials

field offices for the technical personnel involved in the reconstruction

the process of conservation e.g. rubbing and sketching works



the traditional carpentry techniques used by the skilled artisan.

I was also impressed with the process of conservation and maintenance work done by the Japanese
Government at different temples e.g. the Horyu-ji temple, Yakushi-ji Temple, various Historic Districts andthe Nara Prefectural Folklore Museum. I have learned about the overall process of wooden structures,
policy making, project planning, management, inspection, diagnosis, wooden carpentry and roofing
materials.
The most interesting parts of this training program:
1.

Site visit at different ancient temples in Japan; I saw the ancient wooden structures from the
8th century still remaining.

2.

The material used for roofing e.g. bark and pampas grass;3.

Site visit at the different museums;

4.

Site visit at the Archeological site in Ichijodani;

5.

The proposal for the renovation of Bentensha shrine, Sketching and measuring the roof
structure of the main hall of Toshodai-ji temple and rubbings of tiles; The Central Government
was provided financial support for the repair and reconstruction of ancient structures but thesestructures was privately owned.

6.

The laboratory facilities and modern equipment for preservation and diagnosis of relics.

7.

Site visit at the roof tile factory.

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I will disseminate all the new techniques I have learned at this training course on wooden
conservation to other people in my country. I hope that ACCU will continue to provide such training course
to help other countries do in better in the conservation of wooden structures. This training programmed onwooden conservation was very well-organized, especially the arrangement of lecturers, lecture room,transportation and accommodation for the participants. The success of this program was highlighted by thegood relationship between the participants and the staff of ACCU who organized this training course.

Shirakawa-Go Village, Gifu.

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Republic of Korea
Young Hun JUNG

During my training course at the ACCU, I could understand the Japanese conservation system for
cultural heritage better than before as well as the Japanese’s efforts to preserve their heritage. This training
course is a great experience for me because I can compare our conservation system with another nation’s
system.
In these days, the natural scenery and traditional buildings in Korea are disappearing year by year
just as in other developing counties. This is due to rapid industrialization and high demand for landdevelopment. Japan has experienced these kinds of problems caused by rapid economical development
earlier than Korea. These are very interesting subjects for me; that is, how can the Japanese control thedemand for development and what is the Japanese’ decision to meet the balance between the demand fordevelopment and the need for conservation.
Actually, designated cultural heritages including traditional villages in Korea are preserved wellunder the cultural properties protection law. But the designation system in Korea is too narrow to covertraditional streets, districts and roads which are important cultural heritage as well. This phenomenon is dueto the Korean government’s policy, which is more focused on a unit rather than a broad area such as street,
district, roads, etc.
Because most traditional streets, districts and roads are not designated in Korea, I was very
interested in the eastern district of Kanazawa city and the Takayama-Shi Sanmachi preservation districts aswell as Shirakawa village, especially in terms of how to preserve and utilize large historic areas. On the site
lectures during my training course, I found that the Japanese are actively utilizing their heritages as stores,
museums, inns, restaurants, etc. It seems that they can easily convert their houses into commercial buildings
if they follow recommendations from the Board of Education. In addition, I heard that there was conflict
between conservation planners and urban planners of the Takayama preservation district, but the culturalproperties protection laws superceded the urban planning laws. It shows a good and positive attitude
towards the preservation of traditional districts which are now disappearing. Developments in certain areas
surrounding traditional districts might bring sever damage to those districts because the values of cultural
heritages include their surrounding.
It is true that we cannot ignore the demands for developments, which might benefit the areasurrounding designated heritage. But I thought there were other methods to solve these problems and I
could find possibilities in the Shirakawa village and Takayama-Shi Sanmachi. The villagers can convert
their houses into commercial buildings such as museums and stores, whereby designated cultural properties
can be conserved. It can be expected there will be more benefit to the villagers due to the active utilizationof their properties.
The conversion of a designated residential building into a commercial building is very rare in Korea.
Also the transfer of ownership from designated building owners, which is caused by difficulties of dwelling,is very rare case in Korea. Due to this, the Japanese classification of designated historic areas as “Judenken”(which means Preservation Districts for Groups of Important Historic Buildings) might be adopted.

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Firstly, we may apply the Japanese Judenken classification to the traditional villages in Korea,
which are already designated. The owners can utilize their houses and buildings as partial inns, stores, small
workshops for traditional goods. In this way, the owners can derive profit from their houses and buildings
Secondly, following Japan’s model, the registration system in Korea should incorporate aclassification for “important district for the protection of traditional houses” that includes traditional districts,
streets, and roads. We may encourage owners to preserve their buildings, streets, and districts by giving
some incentives such as subsidies and tax reduction for commercial gains derived from the utilization ofcultural properties. But this method is insufficient for the preservation of districts and streets because thecurrent registration system does not include such large areas and only deals with individual buildings. For
this reason, we may consider applying the classification of “important district for the protection of
traditional houses” to Korean traditional districts and streets.
I would also like to comment on the ACCU training course. Most lectures are well organized andlecturers were very eager to teach. ACCU provided information about Japanese conservation system andshared ideas about the basic principles of conservation, which are often ignored. In addition, they gave us
on-site lectures. I am sure that this on-site lecture is very helpful to every participant because places such as
Takayama and Shirakawa village are good examples that we can refer to in terms of utilization. I think that
this ACCU training course is a good example of providing further education to conservation experts. This
training program will become a good guide for me in many areas: how we should teach, how we can deliver
our knowledge to conservation experts, what are important principals that we have to consider before
carrying out preservation activities and repair works. I hope that this training course can be broaden in the
future to include stone architectural monuments.
Finally, I have to give special thanks to Mr. Nishimura, Ms Ishii, Ms Amy and to all ACCU staff. I’ll miss you all!

Flow charts produced by theparticipants during a discussion,
explaining the administrative structureof conservation work in their countries.

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Sri Lanka
Jeewana Deepal WIJETHILAKE

The protection of archaeological cultural heritage in Sri Lanka is my main responsibility as I havebeen engaged in the field of architectural conservation as an assistant director of the Architectural
Conservation Division, Department of Archaeology of Sri Lanka. The planning of conservation projects, thesupervision and management of conservation works, maintenance and exhibition of cultural properties in aproper manner are some of the responsibilities related to my work. The Department of Archaeology is thestatutory custodian of cultural properties of Sri Lanka. Architectural conservation projects are being
conducted by the Architectural Conservation Division through the regional offices of our department
As I mentioned in my country report, Sri Lanka has a very rich cultural heritage, which includes alarge number of ancient monuments and sites including a great number of timber structures. It is a great
responsibility to conserve and maintain them in a good condition. Proper management skills, correct
decision-making and correct approaches at the right time etc. are essential to fulfill this task. Having
experiences in this field is very important for achieving good results. So far I have been engaged in different
types of conservation projects in my career to date and that involvement has helped me gain goodexperiences in architectural conservation in my country. It has also been an invaluable opportunity to getfurther experience at an international level by participating in this training course. First of all I would like tothank ACCU for giving me this opportunity.
When we arrived, all the necessary arrangements had been made for the participants of the training
course, and the staff of ACCU gave us tremendous support so that we can get maximum benefit from thecourse. The training course also had been well organized from its inception to completion and covered all
the necessary parts of the theme. It began with an introduction of the cultural heritage protection system ofJapan that gave us a preliminary understanding of how that system is being operated. A step-by-step course
followed covering the themes of the course. Theoretical and practical parts were covered through lectures
by Japanese and foreign experts and on site practical works, study tours, etc in a well organized manner.
Videos and slide shows etc. were also used in the presentations. I appreciated the organization of the course,which is also something that I can use in my future professional tasks.
I had a good opportunity to gain experience and knowledge in a vast area within the field ofarchitectural conservation during the training course. I would like to share them with my colleagues and use
them for the benefit of cultural heritage protection after going back to my country. I would like to mention
some of the things that I have learnt and their application in my country briefly in the following.
From the training course I had an opportunity to increase my knowledge about the theories ofcultural heritage protection in Japan, as well as the modern and traditional techniques which are being used
for conservation. This information was given through lectures by experts in relevant fields, site observations,on site practical training etc. I would like to use this knowledge and experience to upgrade our cultural
heritage protection activities. As an example, through the practical training at Toshodai-ji Temple, welearned about different techniques used for the documentation of the different elements of a building. I thinkthese techniques can be applied to the documentation involved in our conservation projects. The

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organization of these restoration projects also impressed me and I would like to use the knowledge I gainedby applying it in our context.
Proper management of the use of both modern and traditional methods in restoration work withoutharming the traditional quality of a monument is another aspect I was interested in. In this course I was able
to learn about the modern techniques being used in restoration work. As an example, techniques foranalyzing objects and ancient structures are very useful to me as an officer engaged in the conservation field.
I need to understand the availability of such techniques and the applicability of them in conservation work. I
also got a sound knowledge about the traditional carpentry techniques in Japan. The tools being used, how
they are used and the traditional skills of carpenters etc. could be observed very clearly. It was an interesting
thing to study the similarities and differences in the application of such tools and techniques between Japanand my country.
It is very important when we are conserving a monument that we can find out exactly the period of
its construction and the later changes that had been done to it. Correct conservation decisions could be madeby using such data, particularly if the situation is complicated. Techniques used for dating objects, such as
dendrochronology, are very important. The lecture on use of dendrochronology in conservation work gave
us good knowledge about the suitability of using it to reveal the history of a building.
Site observations and study tours gave me the opportunity to observe massive wooden structures
and their complex, marvelous structural patterns, and to study how the wooden members have beenconnected to form these impressive structures. We were able to see different kinds of wooden structures
such as religious, residential, commercial, etc. and observe how their designs differ according to theirlocation and function. The measures which are being taken to conserve and maintain these buildings wereexplained to us at the sites. Also, the traditional and modern techniques being used to protect them fromnatural disasters and fire were observed. It has been a good experience, and it is necessary to identify thesimilar problems in my country and use suitable techniques to over come them.
On the other hand as an architect it has been an invaluable opportunity to visit and observe
Japanese architecture. This knowledge and experience would be very useful in my future professional work.
The documents, which were provided to us, will be very useful in this regard.
I was also very interested in the techniques used for maintaining and exhibiting the cultural heritageof Japan. The systematic techniques which are being used at sites and museums are very attractive. As an
example, the radio explanation system used at the Ichijo-dani site is very interesting. These experiences arevery useful for designing interesting ways of presenting the sites and museums of our country.
In the Sri Lankan context, a main part of our heritage can be called ‘living heritage’ because they
are still being used at present. In this training course I was able to get good knowledge about how Japaneseconservationists deal with living heritage, especially the measures taken to protect them, their approach etc.
This experience can thus be used in our approach to the protection of living cultural heritage in Sri Lanka.
The designation, selection and registration system for cultural properties, and the variety ofmeasures devised by the national government for the preservation and utilization of them are most effective
for the protection of cultural heritage. Such measures include regulations that prohibit alterations to an
existing historic building, and the grant of subsidies for its maintenance and repair.

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I also had a rare opportunity to meet professionals engaged in the same field from different
countries, and to share our experiences in cultural heritage protection in different countries. In this way, we
could strengthen our knowledge about the global situation in this field. I got the chance to understand about
the ways other countries approach the task of protecting cultural properties, and how they solve the relevant
problems through the participants’ country presentations and by talking with them. I felt as though I havepersonally visited all those different countries within this period. I would like to use this knowledge andexperience for the benefit of conservation works after returning to my country. Meeting these professionals
from Japan and other countries was an invaluable and rare opportunity which I gained through myparticipation in this course. We were also given the chance to discuss various issues after every lecture andthus we were able to understand the different techniques and approaches applied to solve various problems.
The explanations of the experts and the experience and knowledge of the participants from different
countries had given me comprehensive knowledge about matters related to conservation.

Conclusion
This training course has been an invaluable opportunity given to us to receive knowledge about thecultural heritage of Japan and Asia Pacific region. Although it was mainly concerned with the conservationof wooden structures, it covered a vast area and other related topics. We benefited from not only the lectures,
but also from the arranged site visits, practical works etc. For the free weekends, we were provided with all
the necessary travel information so that we could to see more things in Japan; this has provided us with atremendous chance to get various experiences in this beautiful country.
All the knowledge and experience I got from this training program will be very important forcarrying out my duties in conservation project planning, in managing and conducting them, and also for myother professional activities as an architect. Information about the way Japanese conservationists approach
their work and their cultural heritage protection system were given to us in a very systematic way. By thiscourse, we were able to enhance our knowledge about the conservation, management and maintenance ofwooden structures.
The problems related to the protection of cultural heritage were discussed throughout the course.
Some of them were similar to those in our country, so the discussions gave me good ideas for strengthening
our ways of solving the problems. In this way, this training course has enhanced the knowledge andexperiences of the participants who are engaged in the field of conservation, and has created an opportunity
for good interaction among them. Therefore it would be appreciated if professionals engaged in the field ofconservation are given more opportunities to participate in training courses like this, to share and enhancetheir knowledge and experiences, and to use them to benefit the field of conservation.

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Thailand
Sudchai PHANSUWAN

Most of the historic buildings and ancient monuments in Thailand were built of brick. Wood was
also used in the roof structure. The roof beams or roof structures are fixed to the brick wall or fixed-jointed.
There are also some wooden monuments. We divide the monument into two-groups. The first group is‘dead monuments’ and the second is ‘living monument’. These monuments have deteriorated due to thepassage of time, adverse environment conditions and human destruction. Some are relatively stable and canbe maintained in their present condition. Due to the influence of modernization, many of the livingmonuments have been repaired and modern functions have been added. Most of the historic buildings are
owned by governmental offices, and have been managed to keep their architectural and artistic values.
In Thailand, there are many historic buildings which differ in their details such as roof form, roof
tile, building proportion, constructional methods and building decorations. The conservation staff consists ofarchitects, landscape architects, civil engineers, arts historians and other related professions when necessary.
In Japan, in the case of living monuments, most wooden structures are similar in style and similar inconstruction methods so that only restoration architects and carpenters are required to handle theconservation of wooden historic buildings.
There are different methods for conserving dead monuments or ruins between Thailand and Japan.
Reconstruction works maybe impossible in Thailand especially for dead monuments or ruins such as the
Nara Palace. In general, we only preserve and maintain cultural properties in their present condition and add
some part of monuments for presentation where necessary, however in this training course, I have gained
knowledge about reconstruction work and the methodology for reconstruction design, including thestructural design procedure. I have learned from this course how we can solve problems arising frommissing information, the conflict between legal compliance and classical construction, as well as structural
reinforcements which can incorporate traditional techniques and modern technology in order to comply
with current construction standards and law. These methods will become guidelines for our country in caseof reconstruction.
I have learned about the cultural heritage protection system, particularly the system of preserving
historic districts and townscape, which is similarly applied in Thailand but in Japan, the system seems to be
more effective than that in our country. From this training course, I have gained knowledge about how we
can preserve the historic districts and townscape. The most interesting lecture of this training course has
been the “Conservation of Wooden Architectural Heritage in the Asia-Pacific Region” by Dr. Wijesuriya
Gamini, especially 10 challenges we must meet to conserve our heritage. This applies to not only wooden
structures but to all historic buildings and cultural heritage. This is Ten Commandment for the conservator.
The interesting point about the practical training at Toshodai-ji Temple is the discussion concerning
issues on restoration work and a workshop which allowed me to experience procedures in restoration workon a historic wooden structure. I also learned about the restoration techniques of joining new materials todamaged part, and methods of fixing wooden pillars onto based stones. These techniques will be useful for
restoration work in our country. The practical training was useful in term of learning about data-collection,
especially wet rubbing and dry rubbing methods. These traditional techniques provided data effectively and224can be applied for many purposes and anywhere. These methods are not expensive, without advanced
technology, and the conservator can touch every part, record the dimensions of historical remains and seethat evidence. The latest equipments are also very important in conservation work as they provide
information and correct data which are necessary to do conservation work properly and accurately. Due tothe shortage of conservation budget, we cannot provide these equipments and technicians for conservation
work in Thailand at present.
The best method for conservation is to protect a historic building from causes of damages, and I
had never thought about conservation in this way. I learnt a lot concerning routine conservation, methods toprotect cultural heritage from various causes of damage and how we can prevent damages. This function
involves not only conservators but the public and community also. From this training course, I have learnt avery clear lesson – that prevention is better than cure.
The study tour and site visits demonstrated the success of conservation work in Japan. The
community and cultural properties can existence harmoniously. This is the result of suitable policies, thecultural heritage protection system and effective conservation practices. They are able to preserve theseplaces in good condition and use them in the modern context. Such success will be an interesting example
for conservation work in our country.
Overall, the knowledge from this training course is useful for conservation work in our country. I
got a lot of knowledge and experiences, and learnt about restoration technique and the success ofconservation work as well as procedures of reconstruction and prevention systems. I believe suchknowledge will be an important instrument for my conservation work.

Sample sketch: detail of a structural
bracket set, Toshodaiji Temple, Nara.
By Ms Chigira (workshop instructor)

225

VietnamAnh Dung NGUYENFirst of all, I would like to express my sincere thanks to the organizer, ACCU Nara Office, forgiving me the opportunity to attend this very important training course.
During this one month of well-arranged stay in Japan provided by ACCU (although it is not longenough), I have learned a lot from all the interesting and useful lectures given to us by various professors,
specialists and experts from ICOMOS, ICROM, ACA, JACAM, NRICPN. We even had the opportunity to
discuss and exchange valuable information with colleagues from various countries in the Asia-Pacificregion. At the same time, I have had the opportunity to see the valuable cultural relics of Japan and directly
participate in the investigation, research, preservation and restoration work at sites (the national andinternational cultural heritages of Japan). Through these, I have had a chance to understand and learn more
about the preservation, restoration, promotion and utilization of the cultural heritage of Japan. This will besummarized in the following:

1. The policy of the preservation and utilization of cultural heritage:
The preservation and protection of cultural heritage in conjunction with economic developments
can only have true meanings in the social context of “openness policy”, i.e. where there is open exchange ofidea between different countries. Japan had implemented this model of cultural heritage preservation for
more than 100 years.
Though Japan has undergone major economic developments, the activities of cultural heritage
preservation and utilization has always been adjusted to meet the requirements of reality. There had been atleast 3 official documents for conducting these activities in Japan: the first one in 1897, the second one in1950, and recently, the “Cultural Policy of Japan” in 1991.
The measures for cultural heritage preservation and utilization in Japan (the administration system,
legal documents, international cooperation) show that in this country, cultural heritage is not viewed merely
as a dead relic from the past, but is treated and used as a part of life.
The effectiveness of this system is demonstrated by the fact that at present, Japan still preserves
many historic wooden structures which had been built at different times (the earliest was in the 7th century).
Some of these cultural heritage have been listed by UNESCO as world cultural heritage, for instance
Horyu-ji, Yakushi-ji, Toshodai-ji Temple and Shirakawa-go Village.

2. Experience and techniques in the preservation, restoration and utilization of cultural
heritage:
Through the lectures during the Training Course as well as on-site lectures and practical training at
heritage sites, I have come to admire what the Japanese have done to protect the cultural heritage in theircountry. The Japanese restoration experts, with the developed economy of their country, have exploited the226intrinsic traditional potentials of cultural properties in combination with modern technology to protect andpromote their cultural heritage.
The preservation, restoration and utilization of cultural heritage in Japan have been implemented
very carefully and systematically. For example, in the restoration of the Main Hall of Toshodai-ji Temple(World heritage), during the restoration process, a modern shelter was built to protect the whole structure,and this has created an ideal space for investigation and research work during the restoration of the Hall.
With many people working diligently for over 10 years (1998-2009), the condition of every part of the Hall
will be assessed and classified (define the date, measure and draw by machine and by hand, take pictures,
record designs… I have also practiced these skills during four days of the program). These parts will then bebrought to workshops near the main structure for preservation or restoration. This is not only a restoration
project, but also a very good chance for training people working in cultural heritage restoration.
In Vietnam, restoration work has been done following similar steps, however, due to constraints ineconomic conditions, some of them have not been implemented thoroughly, for instance: there is a lack ofexperienced restoration experts, survey is not done carefully, there is no equipments for assessing the date ofwooden structures so this is mainly done by the subjective judgment of experts or carpenters, the wooden
structures are not carefully measured, drawn and recorded since the duration of restoration projects often
lasts only 6 to 18 months.
For relics buried underground such as those at the Nara Palace Site, in order to restore the site ofone of the country’s first capitals, Japan has established the National Research Institute for Cultural
Properties in Nara (NRICPN) to do the archeological excavations, make investigations and conduct research.
The design for the reconstruction was based on the collected artifacts, in combination with historic
documents and a study into the architectural styles of Toshodai-ji and Horyu-ji Temple. The restoration
experts have selected the most suitable architecture design and built illusive models in order to implement
the plan.
Vietnam has also discovered many ancient city structures of former Kings that have been buried
underground, and they are very valuable to our history and culture (for example, the Thang Long Fortress of
11th Century, Fortress of the Ho Dynasty – 15th century…). But it is impossible for Vietnam to rebuild
these structures at present due to many factors: economy, lack of historical documents etc. At present, we
can only protect and preserve them for future generations.
An important part of the cultural heritage of Vietnam is the traditional folk houses at different
locations that are valuable from the perspective of history, architecture and art. However, at the moment,
there had only been primary survey, investigation and pilot preservation and restoration of some typicalhouses with financial and technical support from the Japanese government. These houses often have typicalfolk characteristics; on the other hand, they are also the daily living places of the people, so they hare often
been changed following the requirements of changing lifestyles. That is why we need to have a suitablepolicy and solution for preserving not only a house but also many houses in all traditional handicraft
villages, as well as both tangible and intangible cultural heritage.
The preservation and utilization of traditional villages in Japan have been carried out very
effectively and at a large scale (58 areas have been preserved) owing to the policies for cultural heritage
preservation. Japan does not only preserve the historical and architectural values of the houses, but also227

preserve the associated scenery, environment and customs (for example: the Shirakawa-go Village – World
Heritage). Besides that, at present Japan also preserve many ancient streets within developed towns (forexample: Imai-cho Town, Kashihara, Hida-Takayama). The use of modern fire alarm and fire fighting
equipment is carried out very effectively.
We can say that the preservation methods for this kind of cultural heritage is very suitable forVietnam. I hope that with the experiences gained from Japan, in the near future Vietnam will achieve
success in the preservation and promotion of the cultural heritage values of traditional handicraft villages
and ancient streets as well.

3. Conclusion:
This Training Course has created a favorable condition for countries in the Asia-Pacific Region tohave an opportunity to understand about each other’s cultural heritage, as well as the preservation,
restoration and utilization of cultural heritage. Moreover, through this Training Course, we have learned
many techniques in management, preservation and restoration from Japan. These can be applied in thepreservation, restoration and promotion of our own cultural heritage.
As an architect managing projects that deal with the preservation and promotion of cultural heritagein Vietnam, I find that such training courses are highly necessary and useful for all those who are working
on cultural heritage preservation in different countries in the world.
Once again, I would like to express my sincere thanks and best wishes to the ACCU Nara Office,the organizer of this Training Course.

Sample sketch: eave structure,
Toshodaiji Temple, Nara.
By Ms Chigira(workshop instructor)

228

VI
Appendix
1. List of Participants
2. List of Lecturers
3. List of Staff Members, ACCU Nara
4. List of Tutors and Interpreters1. List of Participants
Bangladesh

Mr. CHOWDHURY Zakir
Sub-Assistant Engineer,
Department of Archaeology,
22/1, Block-B, Babar Road, Mohammadpur, Dhaka-1207
Office Phone: (880-2)9113387 / 9114689
Office Fax: (880-2)8112751
E-mail: jtmz@dhaka.net

BhutanMs. DORJI, Nagtsho
Architect,
Division for Conservation of Cultural and Historical
Structures,
National Commission for Cultural Affairs
P.O.-233 Thimphu
Office Phone: (975-2)322694
Office Fax: (975-2)321285
E-mail: nagtsho@hotmail.com

Cambodia

Mr. KIM, Sophorn
Chief of Cultural Heritage Office,Service of Culture and Fine Arts, Battambang Province,
Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts,
St. 1 20Usaphea Village, Svay Po Commune, Battambang
District, Battambang Province
Office Phone: (855)53-730007 Office Fax: NIL
E-mail: kimsophorn@yahoo.co.uk

China

Mr. ZHU, Yuhua
Assistant Researcher,
The Institute of Architectural History and HistoricPreservation, Tsinghua University,
Beijing, 100084
Office Phone: (86)010-62783665
Office Fax: (86)010-62770314
E-mail: zhuyh01@mails.tsinghua.edu.cn

Indonesia

Mr. ARDA, Fitra
Staff of Documentation and Publication Division,
Office of Protection on Heritage of Banten, West Java, DKI
Jakarta, and Lampung Provinces,
The Ministry of Culture and Tourisme
Jalan Letnan, Kp. Kepandaian, Serang, Banten, 42115
Office Phone: (0254)203428
Office Fax: (0254)203428
E-mail: ardha_sambas@yahoo.com

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Kazakhstan

Ms. YATSENKO, Yelena Leonidovna
Senior Architect,
Division for Scientific Research and Conservation ofArchaeological Sites
State Institute for Scientific Research and Planning on
Monuments of Material Culture
21 Tole bi Street, 480100 Almaty
Office Phone: (7-3272)916-111 / 914-386
Office Fax: (7-3272)916-111
E-mail: dlpv@mail.kz

KyrgyzMr. KALANDAROV, Arabidin
Senior Scientist,
Restoration and Rehabilitation of Architectural Heritage,
Institute of Architecture and Design, Kyrgyz State
University of Construction, Transportation and Architecture
Maldybaeva Street 34 ‘b’, 720020, Bishkek
Office Phone: (996-312)54-57-84
Office Fax: (996-312)54-51-36
E-mail: arabidin_k@mail.ru

Mongolia

Ms. MUNKHZUL, Luvsanjalbuu
Culture and World Heritage Site conservation
management Programme Officer,
Mongolian National Commission for UNESCO
Revolution Avenue, Government Building-XI, Room 1107,
Post Office-38, Ulaanbaatar
Office Phone: (976-11)315652
Office Fax: (976-11)322612
E-mail: jepazulaa@yahoo.com

Nepal

Mr. THAPALIYA, Ramesh
Architect,
Department of Archaeology,
Ministry of Culture Tourism and Civil Aviation
Ramsham Path, Kathmandu
Office Phone: (977)1-4250687
Office Fax: (977)1-4262856
E-mail: rthapaliya_333@hotmail.com

Philippines

Mr. CASTRO, Candido
Senior Restoration Engineer,
Historic Preservation Division, National Historic Division
NHI Bldg., T.M.Kalaw Street, Ermita, Manila
Office Phone: (632)523-1039
Office Fax: (632)536-3181
E-mail: rinovero@edsamail.com.ph232

Republic of
Korea

Mr. JUNG, Young-Hun
Deputy Director of Division,Modern Cultural Properties Division,
Cultural Properties Administration
920, Seonsa-ro, Seo-gu, Daejeon, 302-701
Office Phone: (82)42-481-4881
Office Fax: (82)42-481-4899
E-mail: ivyblue@hanmail.net

Sri Lanka

Mr. WIJETHILAKA, Jeewana Deepal
Assistant Director,
Architectural Conservation Division,
Department of Archaeology
Sir Marcus Fernando Mawatha, Colombo 7
Office Phone: (94-1)693216 / 694727
Office Fax: (941)696250
E-mail: arch@diamond.lanka.net

Thailand

Mr. SUDCHAI, Phansuwan
Civil Engineer,
Fine Arts Department, Ministry of Culture
81/1 Sri Ayutthaya Rd. Dusit, Bangkok 10300.
Office Phone: (662)281-7037
Office Fax: (662)281-3947
E-mail: psudchai@hotmail.com

Viet Nam

Mr. NGUYEN, Dung Anh
Architect,
Department of National Cultural Heritage of Viet Nam,
Ministry of Culture and Information
51 Ngo Quyen Str., Hoan Kiem, Ha Noi
Office Phone: (844)9434443 / 9436132
Office Fax: (844)9439929
Office E-mail: nchdvn@hn.vnn.vn

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2. List of Lecturers
Lecturers from Abroad:
Mr. MYKLEBUST Dag
Senior Advisor on International Affairs,
Norwegian Directorate of Cultural Heritage
P.O.Box 8196 Dep N-0034, Oslo, Norway
Office Phone: (+47) 22-94-0400 Office Fax:(+47) 22-94-0404
E-mail: dm@ra.no
Dr. WIJESURIYA Gamini
ICOMOS Expert,
Principal Regional Scientist Department of Conservation
P.O. Box 112, 1st Fl., Royal & Sun Alliance Building, 127 Alexandra Street,
Hamilton, New Zealand
Office Phone: (+64) 7-858-0020 Office Fax:(+64) 7-858-0001
E-mail: gamini.mala@xtra.co.nz

Lecturers from Japan:
Prof. UENO Kunikazu
Professor,
Division of Human Life and Environment,
Nara Women’s University
Kita-uoyanishi-machi, Nara 630-8506
Office Phone: (+81) 742-20-3478 Office Fax:(+81) 742-20-3478
E-mail:Prof. ITOH Takao
Professor,
Wood Research Institute,
Kyoto University
Gokasho, Uji-shi, Kyoto 611-0011
Office Phone: (+81) 774-38-3601 Office Fax: (+81) 774-38-3600
E-mail: titoh@kuwri.kyoto-u.ac.jp
Mr. YAMATO Satoshi
Senior Specialist for Cultural Properties,
Department of Cultural Properties Protection,
Agency for Cultural Affairs, Japan
3-2-2 Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100-8959
Office Phone: (+81) 3-3581-0013 Office Fax: (+81) 3-3591-0278
E-mail: yamato@bunka.go.jp
Mr. MURATA Ken’ichi
Senior Specialist for Cultural Properties,
Department of Cultural Properties Protection,
Agency for Cultural Affairs, Japan
3-2-2 Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100-8959
Office Phone: (+81) 3-3581-4111 Office Fax: (+81) 3-3591-0278
E-mail: muraken@bunka.go.jp234Dr. SAITO Hidetoshi
Director,
Japan Center for International Cooperation in Conservation,
National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Tokyo
13-43 Ueno-koen, Taito-ku, Tokyo 110-8713
Office Phone: (+81) 3-3823-2150 Office Fax: (+81) 3-3823-4867
E-mail: hsaito@tobunken.go.jp
Dr. INABA Nobuko
Section Head,
Project Planning and Coordination Section,
Japan Center for International Cooperation in Conservation,
National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Tokyo
13-43 Ueno-koen, Taito-ku, Tokyo 110-8713
Office Phone: (+81) 3-3823-4085 Office Fax: (+81) 3-3823-4867
E-mail: ninaba@tobunken.go.jp
Dr. SHIMIZU Shin’ichi
Section Head,
Architectural History Research Section,
Cultural Heritage Division,
National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Nara
2-9-1 Nijo-cho, Nara, 630-8577
Office Phone: (+81) 742-30-6812 Office Fax: (+81) 742-30-6811
E-mail: shimshin@nabunken.go.jp
Dr. MITSUTANI Takumi
Section Head,
Paleo Environments Section,
Center for Archaeological Operations,
National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Nara
2-9-1 Nijo-cho, Nara, 630-8577
Office Phone: (+81) 742-30-6845 Office Fax: (+81) 742-30-6856
E-mail: takumi@nabunken.go.jp
Mr. KOHDZUMA Yohsei
Senior Researcher,Conservation Science Section,
Center for Archaeological Operations,
National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Nara
2-9-1 Nijo-cho, Nara, 630-8577
Office Phone: (+81) 742-30-6847 Office Fax: (+81) 742-30-6846
E-mail: kouzumay@nabunken.go.jp
Mr. SHIMIZU Shigeatsu
Researcher,Architectural History Research Section,
Cultural Heritage Division,
National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Nara
2-9-1 Nijo-cho, Nara, 630-8577
Office Phone: (+81) 742-30-6812 Office Fax: (+81) 742-30-6811
E-mail: shimizu@nabunken.go.jp

235

Mr. KIMURA Tsutomu
Advisor,Japanese Association for Conservation of Architectural Monuments
1-28-10 Hongo, Bunnkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033
Office Phone: (+81) 3-5800-3391 Office Fax: (+81) 3-5800-3390
E-mail: t_kimura@bunkenkyo.or.jp
Mr. UEDA Tetsushi , Deputy Director
Mr. TANAKA Izumi, Chief
Mr. MATSUI Masakazu, Chief Engineer
Ms. CHIGIRA Reiko
Ms. NAKABAYASHI Yuki
Toshodai-ji Office of Cultural Properties Preservation,
Nara Prefectural Board of Education
13-46 Gojo-cho, Nara 630-8032
Office Phone: (+81) 742-34-9275 Office Fax: (+81) 742-34-9276

On-site Lecturers:
Mr. TANAKA Akira
Director, Takayama Museum of Local History
75 Kami-ichinomachi, Takayama-shi, Gifu
Office Phone: (+81) 577-32-1205 Office Fax: NIL
Mr. OSAKI Keisuke
Curator, Takayama-shi Municipal Board of Education
2-18 Hanaoka-cho, Takayama-shi, Gifu 506-8555
Office Phone: (+81) 577-32-3333 Office Fax: (+81) 577-35-3172
E-mail: bunkazai@city.takayama.gifu.jp
Mr. MATSUMOTO Keita
The World Heritage Shirakawa-go Gassho Style Preservation Foundation
2495-3 Ogimachi, Shirakawa-mura, Ohno-gun, Gifu 501-5627
Office Phone: (+81) 5769-6-3111 Office Fax: (+81) 5769-6-3113
Mr. YOSHIOKA Yasuhide
Chief Researcher, Fukui Prefectural Archaeological Research Centre
4-10 Awaga-cho, Fukui 910-2152
Office Phone: (+81) 776-41-3644 Office Fax: (+81) 776-41-2494
Mr. KOBAYASHI Akio
Holder of Selected Conservation Techniques designated by Agency for Cultural Affairs, Japan
Kawara-u (Roof tile Factory)
17 Nishi-shinzaike-machi, Nara 630-8248
Office Phone: (+81) 742-26-2901 Office Fax: (+81) 742-26-2903

236

3.

List of staff members, ACCU Nara
（Staff involved in the Training Course）

Mr. USHIKAWA Yoshiyuki, Director
Mr. YOSHIOKA Toshiyasu, Deputy Director
Mr. NISHIMURA Yasushi, Director of Programme Operation Department
Ms. ISHII Kayoko, Chief
Ms. CHAN Amy, Architectural Consultant
Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU)
Nara Prefectural Government “Horen” Office, Ground Floor
757 Horen-cho, Nara 630-8113
Office Phone: +81-742-20-5001 Office Fax: +81-742-20-5701
E-mail: nara@accu.or.jp

4. List of Tutors and Interpreters:
Ms. HONDA Satoko
Japanese Association for the Conservation of Architectural Monuments
1-28-10 Hongo, Bunnkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033
Office Phone: (+81) 3-5800-3391 Office Fax: (+81) 3-5800-3390
E-mail: kikaku@bunkenkyo.or.jp
Ms. NOJIMA Yuuka
Graduate of Arts History, Kyoto University
Ms. SAWADA Chika
Graduate Researcher, Nara Women’s University
Ms. HATA Chiyako (Interpreter)
Training Coordinator, JICE Osaka
Ms. HIGASHIDA Natsuyo (Interpreter)
Training Coordinator, JICE Osaka

237