Harmony and Coexistence in Islamic Philosophy—The Emanation Theory in al-Fåråb¥’s The Excellent City—

Tatsuya Yamazaki

Introduction

T

ODAY, I will be presenting on al-Fåråb¥’s The Excellent City (alsotranslated On the Perfect State1). Through studying this content, I
would like to consider Islamic philosophy’s approach to the principlesof harmony and coexistence. The outline of my talk is as follows:
1. Short history of al-Fåråb¥ and his works
2. The structure and organization of The Excellent City
3. Allåh as the First Cause
4. Emanative Cosmology
5. Human beings as a rational existent
5.1 The faculty of reason and the Active Intellect
5.2 The characteristics and revelation of the ruler of The Excellent City
6. True felicity
7. Conclusion

1. Short History of al-Fārābı̄ and His WorksAbË Na∑r Mu˙ammad b. Mu˙ammdad b. Tarkhån b. Awasalughal-Fåråb¥ was born around 870 in Was¥j of the Fåråb region in Central
Asia (currently the Republic of Kazakhstan). It is nearly certain that his
father was of Turkish descent, but no works of his in Turkish have been
discovered. It is most probable that he stayed in Baghdad since a very
young age, and learned Aristotelian logic from Nestorian Christians.
From there, he moved to Constantinople, then on to Damascus, then
lived a short time in Egypt, then returned to Damascus, and passed away
at the age of 80-years-old.
He was a prolific writer with his works spanning many different
topics. Some of his most significant works are as follows:
1. Shar˙ al-Fåråb¥ li-Kitåb Aris†Ë†ål¥s f¥ al-‘Ibåra (Commentary and Short

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harmony and coexistence in islamic philosophy

Treatise on Aristotle’s “De interpretation”)
2. Talkh¥s Nawåm¥s Aflå†Ën (Summary of Plato’s “Laws”)
3. Kiåbu al-Jam‘ bayn al-H
. ak¥mayn Aflå†Ën Ilåh¥ wa Aris†Ë†ål¥s (Book on
the Agreement of the Opinions of the Two Sages, the Divine Plato andAristotle)
4. Ih∑å’ al-‘UlËm (Enumeration of the Sciences)
5. Ta˙∑¥l al-Sa ‘åda (The Attainment of Happiness)
6. Kitåb al-H. urËf (Book of Letters)
7. Risåla f¥ al-‘Aql (The Letter Concerning the Intellect)

He has also written on themes such as psychology and music. From
the above, it can be surmised that al-Fåråb¥ follows the lineage ofAristotle in Greece and in the realm of Islamic philosophy, Aristotle isregarded as the first teacher (al-mu˙arrik al-awwal) and al-Fåråb¥ wascalled the second teacher (al-mu‘allim al-thån¥).

2. The Structure and Organization of The Excellent City
The Excellent City, which has been translated into many different
languages and studied by numerous scholars, is one of al-Fåråb¥’s mostrepresentative works. According to one recent study, al-Fåråb¥ is said tohave begun writing this work in Baghdad in 942 (year 330 in the Islamic
calendar), and completed it in Damascus the following year in 9432. At
first glance, considering only the title, one would think that this work is
in reference to only a political theme, however, upon closer examination, the work reveals insights into the natural environment, uranology(astronomy), the theory of creation and annihilation, physiology, as wellas thoughts about the soul. All of these insights are united by ametaphysical framework which places Allåh as the First Cause of allexisting things. In this respect, as R. Walzer (1901–1975: translator/
commentator of this work) points out, this work can be regarded asal-Fåråb¥’s Summa Philosophiae3, or a comprehensive treatise of his
philosophy.
In the beginning of the fifteenth chapter, al-Fåråb¥ explains thathumans are endowed with an inborn nature (fi†ra †ab¥‘ya), given byAllåh. However, this inborn nature cannot be nurtured into full maturity
without assistance, and the cooperation of many people in a large group,i.e. human society, is necessary to complete the task4.
That is the reason why al-Fåråb¥ takes up the topic of an ideal city(mad¥na) and explains why this city is excellent. “The city, then, in
which people aim through association at co-operating for the things byharmony and coexistence in islamic philosophy

61

which felicity in its real and true sense can be attained, is the excellent
city.5” According to al-Fåråb¥, an Excellent City is analogous to ahealthy and complete human body. In other words, just as in a healthy
body, all of the organs work together to make life more complete, andthey work together to maintain a healthy stasis. All the organs of the
body have a unique function and follow a “chain of command” with theheart (qalb) ruling over the brain (dimågh), and the brain ruling the liver(kabid), and so on for all the organs throughout the body.
The fact that this “ranking” system follows a certain law of causality
is a defining characteristic of this philosophy. If we again take theanalogy of the body, the heart is the cause for all other organs to exist,
and also provides the cause for them to obtain their various functions.
Similarly, in an Excellent City, the ruler serves as the cause for the city
to live and serves as the cause for the different parts of the city tofunction in line with his intent. This begs the question of where the ruler
obtains his cause for becoming the ruler. Rephrased in a different way, it
is a question of the ruler’s qualifications, and a question of the basis of
how one gains the qualifications necessary to become a ruler.
The answer to this question lies in the metaphysical realm of alFåråb¥’s thinking. The characteristic that the entire metaphysicalframework is composed of this relationship of causes in a ranking
system gives this system of thought its originality. Furthermore, thisframework naturally sets up the logic for the existence of an ultimate
cause, which has no other causes before it, and is the reason for being of
all other things which exist—a Necessary Existent (al-wåjiib al-wujËd).
This is the First Cause (al-sabab al-awwal), or Allåh. In the next
section, the features of the First Cause will be considered.

3. Allāh as the First CauseAllåh as the First Cause, is referred to as the First (al-awwal), the First
Existent (al-wujËd al-awwal), the First Substance (al-jawhar al-awwal),and simply the One (wå˙id). Al-Fåråb¥ states the following as features:
1. The First Cause is not lacking in any way
2. Its existence is in the most superior form, and pre-exists all others
3. Therefore, this existence can never be destroyed or made void
4. Allåh has no potentiality, meaning Allåh is only Allåh.
5. Therefore, this existence has no beginning (azali), and its essence (dhat)
is the eternal being (då’im al-wujËd)6. It does not hold material cause (causa materialis), formal cause (causa

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formalis), moving cause (causa efficiens), nor final cause (causa finalis)Allåh as the First Cause can be said to be an autonomous, absolute andan inevitable existence upon itself. However, when viewed as theultimate existence in the framework of causality, Allåh becomes thesource from which all things originate in a ranked order, and within thesystem of relationships, takes on meaning relative to those otherexistences.

4. Emanative Cosmology
An Emanative Cosmology, based on the Aristotelian view, is derived
within a metaphysical framework and is used as an analogy to explain
the hierarchy. From the First, emanates the Second, and the Second iscalled the First Intellect6, and becomes the highest creature (created by
the First). When the First Intellect thinks about the First, the SecondIntellect emanates, and comes into being. Then, when the SecondIntellect thinks about himself, the First Heaven comes into being. As thechain of causation continues, when the Second Intellect thinks about theFirst, the Third Intellect is emanated. Then, when the Third Intellectthinks about himself, the Fixed Star comes into being. The processcontinues. The Fourth Intellect emanates the Fifth Intellect and Saturn,
the Fifth Intellect emanates the Sixth Intellect and Jupiter, the Sixth
Intellect emanates the Seventh Intellect and Mars, the Seventh Intellectemanates the Eighth Intellect and the Sun, the Eighth Intellect emanates
the Ninth Intellect and Venus, the Ninth Intellect emanates the TenthIntellect and the Moon Sphere comes into being. The Tenth Intellect iscalled the Active Intellect (‘aql fa‘‘ål). From the First to the Tenth, theSeparate Intellects are eternally emanating, and the creation of the Nine
Heavens completes the Cosmology.
The realm below the Moon Sphere (sublunary) is the phenomenal
world which human beings experience. In the sublunary are the four
elements of fire, air, water and earth along with water vapor, flames androcks as well as metals, plants, non-rational animals and rational beings,
i.e. humans. In contrast to the first ten intellects, which only exist inthought, all of the existences in the sublunary realm are material (mådda
wa hayËlå) and have form (sËra wa hay’a).

5. Human Beings as a Rational Existent
When bringing human beings come into existence, the first faculty that

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63.
comes into being is the nutritive faculty (al-quwwa al-gåd iya). Then, the¯
perceptional faculty (al-quwwa al-˙åssa) comes into being.
With thisperceptional faculty, humans can detect hot and cold, perceive tastes,
smells, sounds, colors and light, anything visible or concrete. Then, thefaculty of desire (al-quwwa an-nuzË‘yya) arises after perceiving, and as
a result, aspires for or abhors those desires. After that, the impressionthat is left in the heart/mind after the object itself is no longer present iscalled the faculty of representation (al-quwwa al-mutahayyila), which˘
can store memory. Then, in turn, the faculty of reason (al-quwwa
an-nå†qa) arises. Due to these faculties, humans are able to think about the
intelligibles, and make determinations of beauty and ugliness, good andbad, eventually allowing us to establish the arts and sciences.
5.1 The Faculty of Reason and the Active Intellect
The faculty of reason originally instilled within human beings cannot
function in actuality without assistance. The intellect functions only
after the objects of reasoning are impressed upon the faculty of reason.
The objects of reasoning are both the actual intellect, as well as theactually intelligible, and these are both considered immaterial
phenomena. Al-Fåråb¥ regarded human intelligence before it functionsin actuality as “a disposition in matter prepared to receive the imprintsof the intelligibles”. This “disposition in matter” is the intellect inpotential (aql bi-al-qËwah)7, i.e. the material intellect (aql al-hayËlån¥),while at the same time, it is the potentially intelligible. In other words,
matter itself, or anything that consists of matter, whether it be in thestate of actuality or in the state of potentiality, cannot be regarded as
intellect.
Moreover, this potential intellect instilled within human beings cannot
be converted by oneself into actual wisdom, or wisdom that works inactuality. For potentiality to become actuality, the presence of the otheris required. Only when an object of reasoning appears within a humanbeing’s faculty of reason does human intelligence become intellect in
actuality. Al-Fåråb¥ regarded “that” as “a thing having some sort ofactuality as intellect, and is detached from all matter, and serves as theessence (dhåtun må).” In other words, since “that” exists in a realm of
non-matter, it is the transcendental existent, and additionally, in relation
to one’s true self, “that” exists as intellect in actuality. This intellect iswhat al-Fåråb¥ calls “the Active Intellect” (‘aql fa‘‘ål).
The term “Active Intellect” is originally derived from the phrase, “theintellect which makes all things (νς τ πντα πιεν)” which istaken from Aristotle’s On the Soul (De anima), volume three, chapter

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five. This phrase from Aristotle’s work is developed into the concept of“The Active Intellect (νς πιητικς, intellectus agens, ‘aql fa‘‘ål),”and the significance of this “intellect in actuality (‘aql bi-alfi‘l)” is thatit contains no potentiality whatsoever, and exists as a constantly working
intellect.
However, the original Aristotelian presentation of the phrase isunclear, inviting various possible interpretations. In the phrase, “thisintellect is separable, impassive and unmixed, since it is essentially an
activity,”8 it is not clear whether the word separable (ωριστς) is
referring to those things outside of the soul or not. Interpretations
diverge among scholars of early Aristotelian thinking. Alexander of
Aphrodisias (ca. 198 to 209) whose works influenced Islamic philosophy, promotes the view that the Active Intellect is a god-like entity
which is separate from the soul, whereas Themistios (ca. 317 to 388)
interprets the Active Intellect as a function within the human soul.
Although al-Fåråb¥ considers the Active Intellect to be a separable
entity, he does not believe it to be divine as Alexander does. As
mentioned earlier, al-Fåråb¥ regarded the Active Intellect to be the TenthIntellect, and that it is in a position to serve as an intermediary step
between Allåh and human beings, because of its status as the lowest
intellect (and therefore, closest to humans). Another Muslim scholar
who interpreted the Active Intellect to be in such a position was Ibn S¥nå(980 to 1038, a.k.a. Avicenna). This point is a common defining featureof Islamic philosophy.
Aristotle uses “light” (φς) as an analogy of the Active Intellect9, andexplains how the presence or absence of light functions to change color
from a potential form to an actual form. However, Aristotle’s explanation is rather vague and lacks specificity. Using a metaphor of the sun
and the sense of sight, al-Fåråb¥ explains the relationship between
intellect that is in potentiality and the Active Intellect. In his example, a
red rose is placed within sight. If the sun has set, and it is night, oursense of sight is not activated as it is dark, and although the red rose
exists, we cannot perceive it. When the sun rises, however, and theworld is bathed in the sun’s light, and our sense of sight is activated—changing from potential to actual ability. The red color of the rose
becomes vibrantly visible—the object of perception.
In the same way, due to the functioning of the Tenth Intellect(separable intellect), the potential intellect (material intellect), is transformed into actual intellect, and the object of reasoning (intelligibles)
also changes from a potential state to an actual state10. Emphasizing thispoint about the relationship between the separable intellect and theharmony and coexistence in islamic philosophy

65material intellect, as in the metaphor of the sun and the sense of sight,al-Fåråb¥ provides the basis for identifying the separable intellect as theActive Intellect, and the material intellect as the Passive Intellect (‘aqlmunfa‘il)11.
5.2 The Characteristics and Revelation of the Ruler of
The Excellent City
According to al-Fåråb¥, the ruler of the Excellent City is one who is not
ruled by any other human being. It is a person who has achieved
completeness—one who has made intellect and the objects of reasoning
into actuality. Put in another way, it can be said that this person has
completely perceived all objects of reasoning by the Passive Intellect,and as a result, both their intellect and objects of reasoning are in
actuality. This also means that the objects of reasoning and the subjectsof reason are one within this person.
Within this person, an actual intellect is conceived. This intellecttranscends the realm of the Passive Intellect, as it is more complete thana Passive Intellect, because it is separable from the material. Al-Fåråb¥names this the Acquired Intellect (‘aql al-mustafåd, intellectus
acquisitus), and this intellect is positioned as an intermediary step
between the Passive Intellect and Active Intellect. Intermediary in thiscase signifies that the Passive Intellect serves as the material andsubstratum of the Acquired Intellect, and that the Acquired Intellectserves as the material and substratum of the Active Intellect.
However, as it has been mentioned previously, all people are
originally endowed with “a disposition in matter prepared to receive theimprints of the intelligibles”. This indicates an ability for the intellect tobecome actual, but in order to reach the state of Active Intellect, it isrequired that two stages be cleared—the first stage is to manifest the
Passive Intellect, and the second stage is to manifest the AcquiredIntellect. The ruler of the Excellent City manifests the Acquired Intellectas material for the Active Intellect, and further, when the two intellects
become one, it is said that he is “the man on whom the Active Intellecthas descended”.
For the Active Intellect to descend, a sequence of emanation isfollowed. First, Allåh emanates to the Active Intellect, then emanates
through the intermediary Acquired Intellect to the Passive Intellect, thenemanates further to the faculty of representation (symbolism). This iswhat al-Fåråb¥ regards as revelation (wa˙y). Emanation from the ActiveIntellect to the Acquired Intellect allows a person to become aphilosopher, in other words, a total man of wisdom (muta‘aqqil), and66

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the emanation from the Active Intellect to the faculty of representation
allows a person to become a prophet (nabiyy).
The soul of the philosopher is in a state of ka-l-mutta˙ida12, or
oneness with the Active Intellect, making him none other than an Imåm.
According to al-Fåråb¥, an Imåm is a person who is a ruler that has noruler above him, and not only is he the foremost ruler of the Excellent
City, he is also the ruler of the Excellent Community (umma), as well as
the leader of the entire realm of humanity as a whole. It is worthy tonote here that the definition of an Imåm is a philosopher13—which
excludes a religious connotation. The concept of an Imåm generally
includes the notion of a “leader”, but al-Fåråb¥ points out that “leader”
here does not simply indicate the person who leads a group in prayer.
He also mentions that a condition to be the ruler of the Excellent City
includes being endowed by inborn nature to have inherent qualities of aruler, but also specifies that being a ruler does not necessitate havingroots in the Quraysh clan, to which Muhamad belonged.
Also according to al-Fåråb¥, revelation is a metaphysical cognition,and is not a mystical or irrational cognition. Through revelation, aphilosopher can directly cognate intellectually, the truth that is imparted
by Allåh. On the other hand, a prophet is only able to indirectly cognate
the truth by Allåh through symbols. This indicates that al-Fåråb¥regarded philosophy to be superior to religion, at least in the area of
cognition theory. This coincides with the previously mentioned ranking
structure of the faculties, where the faculty of reason rules over thefaculty of representation (symbolism).
Perhaps, a more important discussion may be what is the content ofAllåh’s intellect that emanates from the Active Intellect to human
intellect? As it is clear from al-Fåråb¥’s definition of the first conditionof a ruler as one who knows a multitude of approaches for realizing
happiness, the content of Allåh’s intellect is happiness (sa‘åda). This
leads to the last section, which examines the definition of happiness.

6. True Felicity
Plato states, “we have no more need to ask for what end a man wishes tobe happy, when such is his wish: the answer seems to be ultimate.”14 As
this indicates, happiness is one of life’s ultimate goals. Al-Fåråb¥proposed that a philosopher which was at one with the Active Intellect,is perfect at any level of humanness, and is at the supreme state ofhappiness15. The reason man is equipped with the faculty of rational
thought is to know true felicity. In addition, as already stated, the reason

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humans create cities is so that true felicity can be obtained. It thenfollows that fundamentally, all human activity should be directed towardachieving true felicity.
Learning from the theory of happiness put forth by Aristotle in Ethica
Nicomachea, al-Fåråb¥ states, “these being goods not only for their own
sake but goods for the sake of felicity only.”16 In other words, felicity is
not the requirement for acquiring other things. Wealth, health and honor
are goods to acquire felicity, and felicity is not a good to acquire those
things. Therefore, felicity is the good of all good, and Aristotle called
felicity the highest good (τ ριστν).
Al-Fåråb¥ goes on to say that intentions to achieve felicity are actionsof good and derive from virtue (fa∂¥la). Virtue is a good for felicity, but
is not a good unto itself. It was Aristotle who observed the relationshipbetween human actions and felicity, and he believed that the experiences
and customs of the phenomenal world were important stating, “activitiesof the soul derive from virtue (ψυς νργεια γνεται κατ’ρετν).”17 Following in this tradition, al-Fåråb¥ emphasizes theimportance of customs and devotion behind human actions.18
To continue making beautiful actions for good, perfect felicity can beobtained, and the soul can be released from the tethers of matter(physical presence), and become immortal19. When the soul is separated
from matter, in other words, when the soul leaves the body, death takes
place. Death means there is a separation of the soul from the body towhich it happened to be connected. However, if the soul can separate
from matter, there is no longer a need for the body. Then, one canbecome complete, and live as a philosopher. Al-Fåråb¥’s concept offelicity both encompasses the living world as well as the afterlife.
Plato’s Phaedo is apparent in al-Fåråb¥’s view of the soul. In Plato’s
work, a dying Socrates explains that the body is a prison (εργµς) for
the soul, and to detach the soul from the physical form and get it
accustomed to that state is a process of purification (κθαρσις). Then,
finally, he speaks of philosophy being a practice (µελετειν) for death.
Although al-Fåråb¥ uses Aristotle as a model for living and places highimportance on experiences, he ultimately adopts a more Platonic
outlook. Aristotle’s theory of felicity is mainly relevant in thephenomenal world, but when the concept of felicity expands into therealm of the afterlife, Islamic philosophy finds this approachinsufficient.
To al-Fåråb¥, the knowledge of the afterlife is not merely an exercise
in thought. This knowledge is incorporated in the framework of the
Emanative Cosmology of Allåh and has a position within the realm of

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human beings. This awareness frees us from the negative aspects ofanthropocentric thinking. This leads us toward a morality of living
correctly as human beings, and that way of life leads us toward felicity.
Putting his entire being into solving this complex dilemma, al-Fåråb¥found an approach that links the afterlife in a way that transcends ourphenomenal world in a realistic and meaningful way.

7. Conclusion
Izutsu Toshihiko (1914–1993) comments on The Excellent City stating,“in accordance with the strict requirements of philosophy, this programis extremely ambitious as it seeks to reconstruct human society from afundamental level affecting everything from the individual’s life tosocietal life to policies governing society to laws that govern the state.”20
Therefore, it is easy to imagine that contemporaries such as
al-Ash’ar¥m, 873 to 935, would insist on a more traditional approach incontrast to al-Fåråb¥’s heavy reliance on Mu’talaza rationalistic theology(kalåm). The fact that al-Fåråb¥ challenged the status quo makes him
worthy of being called a great scholar.
One of the great debates of the era was one surrounding the role of
the will of Allåh versus the self-determination of man. In the Qur’an, allhuman intents are determined by the will of Allåh as represented by thefollowing passage, “Nothing will befall us except what Allåh hasordained for us. (Chapter 9 Verse 51)” In contrast, the Mu’talaza
rejected the premise of Allåh’s will and proposed that humans can selfdetermine their own fate, but this rejection would not go unnoticed by
the traditionalists. Al-Ash‘ar¥’s theological philosophy was a voice fromwithin the Mu’talaza to support the traditionalists.
It was perhaps because of this background that al-Fåråb¥reconstructed Islamic theology from a philosophical viewpoint. Throughthis process of reconstruction, he was able to come to an understandingof the order of the universe based on harmony—a harmony which
included the coexistence of all humankind and human society.
Furthermore, this reconstruction borrowed from and merged with theframework already created by Plato, Aristotle and the Neoplatonists.
Within the history of European theology, this reconstruction was aseemingly impossible task, however, the fact that al-Fåråb¥ was able to
do so in a manner that melded together so smoothly is anaccomplishment that indicates the sophistication of Islamic philosophy.
To have Allåh as both the source of all things and the pinnacle of allexistence from which all things emanate, al-Fåråb¥ created a context forharmony and coexistence in islamic philosophy

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the order of the entire universe. This is the essential feature of his
metaphysical philosophy.
Notes
Walzer, R., Al-Fåråb¥ on the Perfect State, 1998 Reprinted by arrangement with
Oxford Publishing Limited, Oxford University Press 1985.
2
Rudolph, U., AbË Na∑r al-Fåråb¥, in: Philosophie in der islamischen Welt Bd. 1, 8.–
10 Jahrhundert, Herausgegeben von Ulrich Rudolph unter Mitarbeit von Renate
Würsch, Basel, 2012, S. 397.
3
Walzer, R., Al-Fåråb¥ on the Perfect State, 1998 Reprinted by arrangement with
Oxford Publishing Limited, Oxford University Press 1985, Introduction, p. 1.
4
The thought that the human being needs society by nature reminds us of a passage
in the Plotics of Aristotles: “man is by nature a political animal” (1253a2-3: νθρωπς φσει πλιτικν ν).
5Walzer, p. 231.
6This Intellect corresponds to the Nous of Plotinos, and means the Aristotelian God
namely »a thinking of thinking« ( νησις νσεως) in the twelve book of
Metaphysics.
7
This concept comes originally from a concept: “the intellect which becomes allthings (νς τντα γνεσθαι, De anima lib. 3 cap. 5, 430b15) in the Aristotelianphilosophy. This intellect is called “the possible intellect” (νς δυνµει: intellectus
possibilis: ‘aql munfa‘il).
8
Aristoteles, De anima, lib. 3 cap. 5, 430a17–18: τς  νς ωριστς καπαθς κα µιγς, τ σα ν νργεια.
9Aristoteles, De anima, lib. 3 cap. 5, 430a16–17: ς ις τις, ν τ φς τρπνγρ τινα κα τ φς πιε τ δυνµει ντα ρµατα νεργεα ρµατα.
10Al-Fåråb¥ calls intelligibles which arise at first in the rational faculty »al-ma‘qËlåt
al-Ëlå« (the common first intelligibles), which were translated from τ πρτα νηταwhich means the startpoint of logic thinking namely principal of every science in
Peripatec school. Al-Fåråb¥ gives example so: “the whole is greater than the part”, “thesame thing are all equal to one another.”
11
Walzer, R., Al-Fåråb¥ on the Perfect State, 1998 Reprinted by arrangement with
Oxford Publishing Limited, Oxford University Press 1985, Commentary, p. 403.
12
This state does not mean so-called unio mystica. It is impossible to unite with God,so far as we are not free from material in this life.
13
Walzer identifies the Imåm with the Platonic philosopher-king. Walzer, R.,
Al-Fåråb¥ on the Perfect State, 1998 Reprinted by arrangement with Oxford Publishing
Limited, Oxford University Press 1985, Commentary, p. 441.
14
Platon, Symposium, 205A: κα κτι πρσδε ρσθαι να τ δ λεταιεδαµων εναι  υλµενς , λλ τλς δκε ειν  πκρισις.
15
Walzer, p. 245.
16
Walzer, p. 207.
17
Aristoteles, Ethica Nicomachea, lib. 1 cap.7, 1098a16–17.
18
Walzer, p. 261–263.
19
Walzer, p. 263.
20
Izutsu, T., The Islamic Philosophy (Isramu-Tetsugaku) in: Izutsu Toshihiko Zenshu,
vol. 4, Keio-University, 2014,		p. 401–402.
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Author Biography
TatsuyaYamazaki is a Research Fellow of the Institute of Oriental Philosophy. Ph.D.
His fields of research are Medieval Philosophy and Theology. He is a member ofMeister-Eckhart-Gesellschaft, Japanese Society for Neoplatonic Studies, Society for
Nishida-Philosophy. He is the author of Tetsugaku to Shingaku no Harumonia:
Ekkuharuto-shingaku ga mezashita mono [Harmonia of Theology and Philosophy—
What Eckhart Theology is Aiming for] (2013), “Die Analogie als ethisches Prinzip inder Theologie des Meister Eckhart,” Freiburger Zeitschrift für Philosophie undTheologie Bd. 44 Heft 3, Freiburg in der Schweiz (1997), “The Eastern Orthodox
Theology and Buddhism—Deification and Nirvåˆa,” The Journal of Oriental Studies
vol. 17, Tokyo (2007) , “Leben ohne Warum—Der Ursprung des Lebens in der
Theologie Meister Eckharts,” The Journal of Oriental Studies vol. 18, Tokyo (2008),“Die transzendentale Struktur des göttlichen Seins und die Seligkeit bei Meister
Eckhart,” Wahrheit auf dem Weg: Festschrift für Ludwig Hödl zu seinem
fünfundachzigsten Geburtstag, Beiträge zur Geschichte der Philosophie und Theologie
des Mittelalters NF. Bd. 72, Münster (2009).