Special Series:
Humane Education, A Bridge to Peace (5)Final Installment
Daisaku Ikeda
Gu Mingyuan
Japan: Its Educational Traditions and Modernization
Gu: I would like to express my deepest condolences concerning the
major earthquake and tsunami that struck Eastern Japan (on March 11,2011). I am stunned by the reports of the extent of the devastation, andhope that the region has a quick and complete recovery.
Ikeda: Thank you for your kind words. Every effort is being made in
the rescue, relief, and rebuilding activities, and we of the Soka Gakkai
are also doing everything in our power to support and assist them.
Traditionally, spring is a time of joy when Japanese universities andschools hold their graduation and entrance ceremonies. Despite thetragic circumstances we face at this time, I believe that is why weshould rededicate ourselves to the fostering of young people—in otherwords, the task of education—for they represent the very hope ofsociety.
The Indian poet Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941), who sharedstrong bonds of friendship with the youth of both China and Japan,
wrote: “Youth alone knows how to surmount barriers / Infinite is his
hope, unlimited his powers!”1
To draw forth the limitless potential residing within young people, todevelop it to the fullest, and to bring their infinitude of diverse pos­sibilities into full flower—this is the mission and challenge of every
educator. I also contend that whether future generations shall flourish or
not is contingent on this single task, be it for any organization, institu­
tion, community, or country.
Gu: I agree completely, and that is precisely why I am so committed toour dialogue.
Unlike the Japanese educational system, in China the school year3

4

humane education, a bridge to peace (5)begins in autumn. As a rule, graduation ceremonies are held in early
July, and entrance ceremonies in early September. Both months aretimes of hot weather, but graduates and new, incoming students alike arefilled with a burning enthusiasm hotter than fire. One sees graduates
who received their bachelor or doctoral degrees wearing long robes andposing for pictures everywhere at that time of year.
Newly entering students wearing brand-new uniforms await theirentrance ceremonies under the hot late summer sun. At our university,
the entering class numbers as many as five thousand students—toomany to accommodate in any building or auditorium, so the entrance
ceremony is conducted outdoors every year. I deliver the welcoming
remarks to the incoming students, as the representative of the faculty.
Last year I urged them to make the best possible use of the four precious
years of their university study, as it is the happiest time of their lives.
Unique System Based on Confucian and Buddhist Thought
Gu: We have spoken previously of traditional Chinese education and thechanges and modernization it has undergone. I’d like to ask you now tooffer a brief review of the history of the development of education in
Japan.
Has Confucianism played a role in Japanese history? How has Japan
handled the relationship between tradition and modernization in theprocess of its modernization?
Ikeda: As I am not a scholar of the history of Japanese education, my
explanation will surely be found wanting in various respects, but I willoffer a brief overview of the development of Japanese education in a
way that hopefully answers your query.
The first “university” (daigaku) is believed to have been created inJapan around 670, with the establishment of the Daigaku-ryØ (“Bureauof Education”). In 701, the TaihØ Code, a system of laws and edicts
modeled after the Chinese rituals and legal codes of the Tang dynasty—
known in Japan as the ritsuryØ system—was enacted. It established acentral daigaku and a system of regional provincial schools (kokugaku).
Under that system, education was made available to the aristocracy
and powerful regional clans. At the beginning, the study of the
Confucian classics accounted for the core of the curriculum, and suchworks as the Classic of Filial Piety and the Analects were required texts.
Eventually this expanded into the study of Chinese history and literaryclassics, including poetry, and such texts as the Records of the Grandhumane education, a bridge to peace (5)5Historian of China, the History of the Han, and the History of the Later
Han were adopted. In addition, there were studies in the Way of Yin andYang,2 astronomy, medicine, music, and so forth. Subsequently, themore powerful clans established their own academic facility for nobles(daigaku bessØ), where the youth of that particular clan were educated.
From the late sixth to the eighth centuries, numerous Buddhist scrip­
tures, including the Lotus Sutra and the Flower Garland Sutra, werebrought to Japan from China by the Japanese missions to Sui-dynasty
and Tang-dynasty China. From about this time, the six schools of
Buddhism3 flourished in Nara, the capital of Japan from 710 to 794,
followed by the establishment of two new schools, Tendai Buddhism(“Lotus Sutra school”) and Shingon Buddhism (“True Word school”).
The education of the Buddhist clergy served to raise the prestige ofliteracy not only among the aristocracy and powerful regional clans, butlarger segments of the population, sparking a broader interest in learningand cultural pursuits.
From the early eighth to the early ninth centuries, Japan’s uniquesystems of phonetic writing—hiragana and katakana—based on
Chinese characters were created. This led to an epoch starting in the latetenth century when Japanese literature, much of it written by women,
flourished, making an important contribution to Japan’s indigenous
culture. The aristocracy eagerly applied themselves to composing poetry
in Chinese and Japanese, as well as to the art of music, and the ideal ofJapan’s aristocratic culture, “idealistic characters who excel in intelli­gence and appearance,” was born. Among the other social classes,
education in the handicrafts and technical skills was widely promoted.
The birth of Japanese education, then, can be said to have coincidedwith the introduction of Buddhism and Confucianism to Japan. We of
the Soka Gakkai and the Soka Gakkai International (SGI) observe theessential teachings of the Lotus Sutra, which was brought to Japan from
China. Nichiren, the 13th-century Japanese Buddhist thinker and reform­
er whose teachings we embrace, went so far as to say: “In religious
matters our country of Japan is a disciple of these two countries (China
and KoryÌ).”4 Japanese education thus developed from a cultural legacytransmitted to us from your country.
Gu: Confucian culture is a common fount of education in both China
and Japan. Naturally, it developed differently in our two countries, but it
can be compared to two great rivers emerging from a single source.
Japanese education adopted Confucian writings as core texts from earlyon, but did not follow the Chinese educational model blindly; rather,

6humane education, a bridge to peace (5)Japan was selective in choosing what to adopt and creative in establish­
ing a uniquely Japanese educational system.
For example, the traditional education of the warrior class in Japan isquite different from the Chinese tradition of emphasizing “civil virtues”(wen). That is related to the warrior government that developed in Japan,
isn’t it? It seems to me that the “way of the warrior” (bushidØ) thatemerged in Japan must be related to the form of education promoted
under the warrior government system. Would that assumption be cor­rect?
Ikeda: Yes. Around 1185, Minamoto no Yoritomo (1147–99) estab­lished the Kamakura warrior government. In 1192, the imperial court
bestowed upon Yoritomo the traditional title Seii Tai ShØgun (“bar­barian-quelling great general”).5
This point at the end of the 12th century marked the full-fledged
establishment of military government in Japan, also known as a sho­
gunate. In the world of the warrior class, or buke, that persisted from thelate 12th through the late 16th centuries, courage and heroic spirit wereidealized, and skills in archery and horseback riding were prized. Theseand other martial arts were taught within each clan.
Some of the children of this class were also entrusted to temples andshrines for their education, where they studied the Buddhist scriptures
and Chinese classics. Not all of them entered the Buddhist orders; someserved in the temples as acolytes. Evidently, some children from com­mon, untitled families studied alongside their warrior class counterparts
as well.
According to one record from the Warring States period (the late 15th
to the late 16th centuries), students at temples engaged in writing
practice and mastering of the Japanese syllabary. They studied Buddhist
scriptures—including the Perceiver of the World’s Sounds Sutra, anothername for the “Universal Gateway of the Bodhisattva Perceiver of theWorld’s Sounds” chapter of the Lotus Sutra, and the Heart Sutra (alsoknown as the Heart of Wisdom Sutra)—and the Four Books and FiveClassics,6 as well as such works of Japanese literature as the Collectionof Ten Thousand Leaves and the Tale of Genji. In addition, the warrior
clans created sets of precepts designed to promote clan loyalty andunity, contributing to the establishment of virtues and customs, based on
Confucianism and Buddhism, that members of the warrior class were
expected to observe.
As you mentioned, under the shogunate such virtues as valor andmilitary prowess, austerity and fortitude, filial piety, and loyalty werehumane education, a bridge to peace (5)7emphasized. From the 17th century, with the beginning of the Edo
period (1603–1868), these were promoted as the samurai code known asbushidØ, or the way of the warrior.
As for commoners, as commercial activity flourished in the cities
from Japan’s medieval period on, a distinct culture of the merchant or
townsmen class emerged. To fulfill their ideal that “the art of thetownsmen is accurate calculation,”7 people of the merchant classreceived instruction in the practical skills needed to succeed in business.
Subsequently, in the Edo period, the townsmen or merchant culture
flourished with the continuing growth of commerce and trade.
Architectural, textile, and ceramics techniques also advanced, whilecurrency exchange and transactions of commodity futures began to
evolve, creating a foundation conducive to the introduction of modern
industry brought to Japan from the West in the final years of the Edo
period.
During the relative stability that Japan enjoyed in the Edo period,
various forms of scholarship were also actively pursued, particularly
Confucianism, National Learning, or the study of ancient Japanesethought and culture, and Western Learning (also known as rangaku,or “Dutch Learning”). Confucian Learning focused on the NeoConfucianism of Zhu Xi (1130–1200) of the Song dynasty, while
studies of the Neo-Confucian philosophy of Wang Yangming (1472–1529) and a somewhat more fundamentalist branch of Japanese
Confucian studies called kogaku—which sought a return to the original
texts of Confucianism—also exerted some influence. The main texts
studied were the Four Books and Five Classics, including the Works ofMencius and the Analects.
National Learning took such works as the Records of Ancient Matters,
the Chronicles of Japan, and the Collection of Ten Thousand Leaves as
its core texts, seeking to establish a native Japanese philosophy andworldview.
Eventually the Edo-period shogunate adopted Confucianism as theofficial ideology of the realm, and founded an academy, the ShØheikØ, toteach it. In addition, the individual feudal domains also established theirown schools, which taught not only Confucianism but National Learn­
ing and Western Learning, including medicine and military strategy. By
the end of the Edo period there were some 230 domain schools, some ofwhich evolved under the new educational system introduced in thesubsequent Meiji period (1868–1912), into High Schools—theequivalent of today’s universities.
At the same time, private academies unsegregated by social class8

humane education, a bridge to peace (5)were also founded around the country. Children of both warrior andmerchant families attended private academies in the towns, while inagricultural villages, they were attended by the farmers’ children. They
were quite diverse in their offerings, ranging from providing simple
instruction in reading, writing, and arithmetic with an abacus to
specialized studies in various fields of learning and technical expertise.
In addition, so-called “temple schools” (terakoya)—private elemen­tary schools that taught reading and writing to the children of com­moners—numbered more than 15,000 throughout the country by themid-19th century. Following the adoption of the new educational policyin the Meiji period, more than 20,000 elementary schools were speedily
established in Japan, and some believe that the tradition of popular
education as represented by the temple schools played a pivotal role inthat development.
Institutional Reform Opens Way to Westernization
Gu: Upon entering the modern era, the development of China and Japan
diverged widely.
Both faced intimidation and invasion from Western powers in the 19th
century, and learned from the West, but they took completely different
paths. This must be attributed to their cultural differences, as well as thedifferent roles played by various political figures in both nations.
What is called the Self-Strengthening Movement in China, whichsought to introduce Western technologies to strengthen China throughinstitutional reforms, and the Meiji Restoration in Japan took place atmuch the same time. In Japan, the shogunate was toppled, and throughthe reforms of the Meiji Restoration, Japan wholeheartedly set forth on
the path of Western capitalism. But China’s Self-Strengthening Move­ment ended in failure. Why were the results so different in the twocountries? I believe the cause can be found in the cultural and spiritual
foundations and political orientations of the two countries.
First, Japan began by initiating political reform. It not only learned
from Western science and technology and purchased battleships andcannons, but also introduced Western political systems, establishing abourgeois government under an imperial system, and adopted threeoverarching goals: to enrich the country and strengthen the military; thepromotion of new industries; and civilization and enlightenment. In sodoing, in just a few decades Japan had become the strongest nation in
East Asia and joined the ranks of the world’s great powers.
China’s Self-Strengthening Movement, however, adopted the aim ofhumane education, a bridge to peace (5)9mastering Western scholarship and technology while retaining
traditional political and social systems. It sought to learn fromforeigners to prevail over foreigners based on the Chinese feudality.
China thus focused exclusively on the material and technological as­
pects of Western civilization, overlooking the true essence of Western
Learning. In the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–95), the modern navythat the Chinese had adopted from the West was completely destroyedby the Japanese. Though in terms of armaments the Chinese were far
superior to the Japanese, they were defeated.
Progressive Chinese thinkers of the day such as Tan Sitong (1865–98), Kang Youwei (1858–1927), and Liang Qichao (1873–1929) were
fully aware of this problem, and they tried to instigate the Bairi Weixin,
or “Hundred Days Reform in China” (1898), based on their convictionthat the introduction of Western technologies and machines without
political reform was doomed to fail. The movement was, however,ruthlessly suppressed by the feudal forces of the Qing dynasty (1644–1911), and from that time on, China was forced into becoming a halffeudal state, half-colony.
China’s ruling class realized that some level of reform was necessary
in the face of the harsh reality of the colonial expansionism of theWestern powers. Yet they were also fearful of the loss of China’s feudal
mores and, reluctant to relinquish their hold on their class privileges,
they were unable to accept Western scholarship either on an ideologicalbasis or as an alternative political system, thus dooming any chance forreform to succeed.
Education Subordinate to National Purposes
Ikeda: As you have noted, unfortunately the Hundred Days Reform wasquickly quashed by the conservative forces of the Qing dynasty.
In Japan, after the shogunate and feudal domain system came to anend, the country not only reached out to embrace Western knowledge
and technology, but also tried to reform its educational system along
Western lines.
In terms of educational policies, the modern Japanese educational
system made its debut in 1872. This is the beginning of a national policy
on education, which was then followed by an “education as a means ofenriching and strengthening the nation”—an idea articulated by Arinori
Mori (1847–89)—in which education was assigned a sub­servient role towhat were regarded as national goals. Schools did teach the latest
Western information, but the essence of Japanese education became

10humane education, a bridge to peace (5)increasingly dominated by a dogmatic moralizing rooted in nationalism.
The 1890 Imperial Rescript on Education, for example, states: “Oursubjects ever united in loyalty and filial piety have from generation to
generation illustrated the beauty thereof. This is the glory of the fun­damental character of Our Empire, and herein also lies the source of Our
education.”8 With this nationalism as its pillar, the educational system
was designed to produce loyal and patriotic “subjects.”
The pedagogical theories of German educator Johann Friedrich
Herbart (1776–1841), an ardent advocate of “Internal Freedom,” werealso introduced at this time, but before such ideas could take root inJapan, education was transformed, as represented by the Imperial Re­
script, into a system for indoctrinating loyal subjects of the realm.
Gu: In my estimation, Japan seems to have accepted Western civiliza­tion with an open mind, wholeheartedly embracing Western Learning
while advancing its educational system, striving to better inform its
populace and undertaking numerous educational reforms soon after the
Meiji Restoration. In March 1870, it established new regimes foruniversity, secondary, and primary education modeled after European
systems.
And as you indicated, in 1872, the Meiji government promulgated the
Education System Order, stipulating a thoroughgoing reform of thesystem. Though it met with opposition from proponents of National
Learning and Chinese Studies, the government awarded priority toWestern scholarship, and under the leadership of Minister of Education
Arinori Mori established a modern educational system based on theemperor system.
There is one more point worth considering. The German model ofnationalism fit well with Japan’s policy of enriching the country andstrengthening the military. Hirobumi ItØ (1841–1909), a figure ofeminent influence, had studied in Germany and actively sought tocounter Western individualism and libertarian beliefs with German
nationalistic thought. As you noted, in 1890, the emperor issued the
Rescript on Education and, by stressing the virtues of the emperor andthe loyalty of the people, forged a union between Confucian virtues andthe ethics of modern capitalism. From that point on, Japan took the pathof bellicose and bloody militarism.
Value-Creating Pedagogy Counter to Militaristic Education
Ikeda: As Japan plunged into an era of war, the educational system washumane education, a bridge to peace (5)11exploited by barbaric militarist forces. For example, in 1925, an active
army officer was stationed in every school for boys of the middle schoollevel and above, and military training was instituted in the schools.
Over a decade later, when I was a boy suffering from lung disease, I
almost collapsed in the middle of such harsh military training, being
conducted at school under the hot summer sun—a memory that remains
with me to this day.
As militarism expanded its domination of Japanese education,
Tsunesaburo Makiguchi (1871–1944), educator and first president of the
Soka Gakkai, published, on November 18, 1930, the first volume of The
System of Value-Creating Pedagogy, the groundbreaking work of Soka
(Value-Creating) education. In his preface to it he wrote:
I have come to burn more and more with a fever to do something—
and the sooner the better—about the deplorable state of the nation’s
education. Just the thought that through this effort might possibly
come the difference in saving our million or more students fromentrance difficulties, “examination hell,” unemployment, and othercontemporary neuroses has brought it all into focus for me.9
This was the year that Japan, buffeted by the global depression, enteredwhat is known as the Showa Depression. Cities were filled with the
unemployed, and many committed suicide in the face of financial ruin.
In 1929, a film by YasujirØ Ozu (1903–63) captured the national mood.
It was titled “I Graduated, But . . .”—the unspoken implication beingthat in spite of graduating from university, there were no jobs to be had.
It was in such a time that Mr. Makiguchi introduced Value-Creating
pedagogy, education for the happiness of children, to the world.
Subsequently, of course, Japan was defeated in World War II, andunder the U.S. Occupation, in 1947 the Fundamental Law of Education
was enacted. Replacing the paternalistic educational ideals of theImperial Rescript on Education, it was a declaration of the right of thepeople to education and, instituting the system of six years of el­ementary school followed by three years each of junior and senior highschool, it marked the start of Japan’s postwar educational system, which
promoted democracy, individual rights, the renunciation of war, andother related values.
While Japan’s postwar educational system acted as the driving force
for the nation’s miraculous economic recovery, it also produced numer­
ous problems, such as the extreme competition to gain entrance into
prestigious schools.

12humane education, a bridge to peace (5)The Soka Gakuen (Soka Junior and Senior High Schools) that I
founded opened in April 1968. It was a time when the “student power”
movement was sweeping the globe. In Japan, too, students took to thestreets, opposing the Vietnam War and calling for university reforms. On
September 8 of that same year, at a Soka Gakkai student division gen­eral meeting attended by more than ten thousand students, I publicly
called for the normalization of diplomatic relations between China andJapan and an immediate cessation of hostilities in Vietnam.
In April 1971, Soka University opened with a commitment to soundlearning based on three guiding principles: (1) Be the highest seat oflearning for humanistic education; (2) Be the cradle of a new culture;and (3) Be a citadel of peace for humankind. The spring of 2011 marked
the entrance of the university’s 41st class.
Japanese education today faces a major crossroads as it attempts toaddress the changes of our times. That is a subject that I hope we can dis­cuss further at another time.
Bilateral Exchange amid Education’s Internationalization
Universal Principles for Growth
Gu: Education is an endeavor of fostering people and a process in theirsocialization.
It contributes to the economic growth of a nation and its people; yet,at the same time, the educational process must be governed by the princi­
ples of individual growth—and many of these principles are universally
applicable. As such, there are numerous protocols and principles thatshould be observed as they relate to education’s relationship withsociety, economics, and government, or in terms of techniques andmethodologies required for the promotion of human development.
That is why, though the political systems and levels of economic
development of China and Japan differ, I believe there is much that we
can learn from one another with regards to educational policies, as wellas to the methods and techniques of developing human beings. In
particular, since both countries belong to Eastern zone of Confucian
cultural influences, and as it is likely that we face many common issues,
mutual exchange and research on related themes should be instructive
and important.
For example, when confronted with Western cultural influences, how
can one assimilate the progressive cultural results of the West while
retaining and protecting the best of one’s own culture and tradition? Ihumane education, a bridge to peace (5)13think that Japan has been more successful than China in this regard, andthat we have much to learn from you.
Other common issues include finding ways to ameliorate the pres­sures on students to pass entrance examinations, combat the declining
interest in studying, and respond to the suppression of creativity in our
educational systems. In Japan, yutori education, or a “relaxed education
policy,” had been proposed and adopted for a while. I am aware that
now that some of the drawbacks of that approach have surfaced, thenumber of classroom hours has begun to increase once again, but wehave much to absorb and learn from such experiences and the lessons
drawn from them.
At the same time, since entering the new millennium, China has
engaged in curriculum reform, and I am certain that Japanese educators
could also benefit from studying our experiences and the lessons wehave learned in the process.
Age-old Cultural Benefactor
Ikeda: When reviewing the long history of education in China andJapan, it is noteworthy that education in both countries has always been
influenced by exchange and developed through mutual stimula­tion.
For example, in the fourth to the seventh centuries in Japan, numerous
immigrants from China and the Korean Peninsula arrived in Japan,
where they transmitted such advanced crafts and skills to the Japanese
as armor and weaponry making, textile arts, and agricultural techniques.
During the Sui and Tang dynasties, in the seventh to the ninth
centuries, Japan repeatedly dispatched official delegations to China toengage in a comprehensive study of Chinese civilization, bringing what
they learned back to Japan. Government officials and Buddhist priests
accompanied these official missions, striving to master Chinese culture,
which was clearly more advanced than Japan’s. Ono no Imoko (c. early
6th to late 7th century) is famous for having traveled on one of thesemissions to Sui China, while Kibi no Makibi (695–775) and Abe no
Nakamaro (698–770) visited Tang China.
Kibi no Makibi brought back many Chinese writings, which played amajor role in rooting Chinese culture to Japan. Abe no Nakamaro,
meanwhile, took the Chinese civil service examinations and wasawarded an official post in the Tang government, dying in Chang’an.
Accounts of his lasting friendships with the Chinese poets Li Bai (701–62) and Wang Wei (699–759) are recorded in their highly emotive
poetry. Among the Japanese Buddhist priests who traveled to China, the14humane education, a bridge to peace (5)Great Teacher DengyØ (also known as SaichØ; 767–822) is especially
famous. He studied the Tiantai (or Tendai; 538–97) teachings and upon
his return to Japan founded the Japanese Tendai school.
The official missions to China were not, however, simply a matter ofJapanese traveling to China and then returning home. They also func­
tioned as a conduit allowing individuals from other cultures to travel toJapan. Although only a few Chinese officials visited Japan, there were anumber of Chinese Buddhist priests who had, as had Indian Buddhist
priests such as Bodhisena (704–60). The Chinese priest Jianzhen (688–763, known as Ganjin in Japan) arrived in Japan after numerous troublefraught attempts, bringing many followers and others with him. Jianzhen
not only introduced the Buddhist precepts to Japan, but also brought
over numerous important Buddhist texts, such as the Great Teacher
Tiantai’s Great Concentration and Insight, The Profound Meaning of the
Lotus Sutra, and The Words and Phrases of the Lotus Sutra. In addition,
he introduced other aspects of culture from the glorious heights of theTang dynasty, including sculpture and knowledge of medicinal herbs.
Trade between China and Japan remained active in the Song dynasty(960–1279), and many Chinese artifacts were brought to Japan from the10th through the 13th centuries. Later, the Mongol Empire tried to
invade Japan on two occasions (1274 and 1281), but in the following
Ming dynasty (1368–1644), trade and exchange resumed with renewed
vigor.
The arrival of the Chinese Confucian teacher Zhu Shunshui (1600–82) in Japan in the 17th century—the time of turmoil coinciding withthe late Ming and the early Qing period—was an important historicaldevelopment. He forged strong friendships with the Japanese Confucian
scholar AndØ Seian (1622–1701), a feudal retainer of Yanagawa domain,
and with Tokugawa Mitsukuni (1628–1701), the lord of the Mito
domain. Zhu has been admired as an important teacher of the Confucian
scholars of the Edo period.
Most of the scholars of the Neo-Confucianism of Zhu Xi school, thefundamentalist kogaku branch of Japanese Confucian studies, and thoseof the Mito school (the scholarship and academic traditions that arose in
the Mito domain) were strongly influenced by Zhu Shunshui, whosethought also contributed significantly to the idea of sonnØ jØi—rever­ence for the emperor and the expulsion of foreigners—that emerged two
centuries later and provided part of the impetus for reform at the end of
the Edo period.
Gu: Looking back at Japanese history, exchange between our twohumane education, a bridge to peace (5)15countries began at a very early age. As far back as the Earlier Han (202BCE–8 CE), the Later Han (25–220), and the Three Kingdoms period(220–80), there was regular contact between China and the area that is
now northern Kyushu, an island in southern Japan. According to theHistory of the Later Han Dynasty, tributary envoys from Japan arrived at
the court of Emperor Guangwu of Later Han in the year 57, and theemperor presented Japan with a golden seal. Around the fifth century,
Confucian­ism was transmitted from China to Japan, and soon afterward
Buddhist scriptures arrived in Japan by way of the Korean Peninsula.
From the seventh to the eighth centuries, Japan entered a period of
intense assimilation of Chinese culture, just as the Tang dynasty wasreaching its peak. Japan sent missions to Chang’an and Luoyang morethan ten times, on a very grand scale, each mission including from five
hundred to six hundred members. They studied the core texts ofConfucianism, history, the calendar and astronomy, and mathematics,
and brought these disciplines and other skills back to Japan. The Bud­dhist priest Jianzhen whom you mentioned made numerous attempts to
get to Japan, finally reaching Nara on his sixth effort, at the age of 66.
This history has long been recounted by the peoples of both of ourcountries, and represents a heartwarming chapter in the long annals ofChinese-Japanese friendship. I have visited Kyoto and Nara several
times, and Kyoto in particular gives the impression of being in an
ancient Chinese city. Of course, Japanese architecture has many uniquefeatures, but I was surprised by how similar the buildings in Kyoto areto old Chinese buildings. Looking at the buildings in Kyoto provides
clear testimony to the amicable tradition of exchange between China
and Japan that has existed from ancient times.
Studying the West through Japan
Ikeda: During my first trip to China in 1974, I visited Xian City, themodern city built on the site of Chang’an, and I, too, sensed the originsof the ancient Japanese capitals of Nara and Kyoto there. Japan clearlyowes an incalculable dept of gratitude to China.
Friendships and exchanges among Chinese and Japanese scholars andcultural figures deepened and expanded following the Meiji Restoration.
A large influx of students arrived in Japan from China at the beginningof the 20th century, and many Japanese books were translated into
Chinese. In addition, many Western writings that had been translated
into Japanese were retranslated into Chinese. The Shanghai publisher
Jiaoyu Shijie Chuban She (“Education World Publishing”), founded in16humane education, a bridge to peace (5)1901, translated and published many Japanese textbooks, and in 1902
another publisher, Zuoxin She (“Society for Renewal”), publishedtranslations from Japanese by Chinese students in Japan of Western
research and works, including the theory of evolution by Charles
Darwin.
Japan’s Meiji government actively encouraged Chinese students tocome to Japan to study, and numerous schools for them were es­tab­lished.
In 1896, one of the first Japanese to welcome Chinese students was
JigorØ KanØ (1860–1938), the founder of Judo. KanØ would expand thescale of his educational activities, establishing the Ekiraku Shoin, aschool for Chinese students, three years later, followed by the foundingof the KØbun Gakuin (KØbun Institute), which would emerge as one of
the foremost private schools for Chinese students, in 1902. Lu Xun(1881–1936) studied at the KØbun Gakuin, and the revolutionary,feminist, and writer Qiu Jin (1875–1907) also studied in Japan at thistime.
After the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905), unfortunately, certain
elements of Japanese society grew increasingly intolerant of foreignexchange students, treating them with contempt. It was from this timeon that Japan would fall under the subjugation of militarists.
Gu: You have mentioned the large number of Chinese students studying
in Japan at the start of the 20th century, and in fact China acquired agreat many of its modern educational ideas from Japan. Japan exerted atremendous influence on China in this respect, to the extent that it is fairto say that the former student had become the teacher.
From 1860 to 1890, during the period of China’s Self-Strengthening
Movement, the majority of Chinese students studying abroad were
doing so in Europe and the United States. In the following Guangxu
New Policy10 period starting from 1901, Japan became the preferred des­tination for overseas study, the number of students growing year by year.
In 1896, the Qing government sent thirteen students to Japan. In 1902
the number had grown to 500. In 1903 it was more than 1,300, and from1905 and 1906 it grew to nearly ten thousand. The first national educa­tion system implemented by the Qing government in 1904, the Guimao
Educational System, was based on the Japanese system.
Why did the Qing government send its young people to study inJapan rather than the West? Several reasons can be cited. First, since the
Meiji Restoration, while facing many of the same challenges confront­
ing China, Japan had successfully brought its feudal warrior government

humane education, a bridge to peace (5)17to an end, instituted a bourgeois regime under the emperor system,
rigorously advanced education, and rapidly strengthened the country.
Chinese reformers were eager to emulate the Japanese experience, foster
capable individuals through education, and carry out political reform,
preserving the imperial system on the domestic front while responding
to external threats with strength and confidence.
Second, while the new Japanese educational system had been
introduced from the West, with special reference to the French andGerman educational systems, the Japanese had engaged in two decadesof revision and adaptation and created a distinctly Japanese educational
system. This was perhaps best expressed in the popular Japanese slogan“Japanese spirit with Western Learning”—in other words, learning from
Western culture while preserving the essence of Japanese culture, andskillfully employing both together for the maximum effectiveness. Thisstrongly resembles the slogan adopted by the proponents of the SelfStrengthening Movement, “Chinese essence and Western Learning,” astheir guiding ideology and educational approach. As such, Japan became
their model for East learning from West.
Third, Japan very actively and quickly incorporated Western
scholarship, and already had in its possession many Japanese transla­
tions of Western academic books. Studying Japanese education was
therefore a way of studying Western education and culture, in a mannerthat was quick and easily accessible.
Fourth, as neighbors China and Japan shared similar cultural traits,
and their languages and writing systems exhibited marked similarities.
Studying in Japan was economical in terms of both time and money. A
Qing-government imperial edict of August 2, 1898 recognized the advan­
tages of studying abroad in the East versus studying in the West in termsof geographic proximity and cost. The edict also noted that the similari­ty between the Chinese and Japanese characters facilitated communica­
tion, and that the Japanese had already translated important areas ofWestern scholarship.
But the new Chinese educational system did not in fact fully reflect
the spirit of the reforms that had been implemented in Japan’s education­
al system. As I noted earlier, in learning from the West, China and Japan
took two completely different paths. Japan took that of modern Western
capitalism, while China became a half-feudal state, half-colony.
In education, too, though the two countries ostensibly resembled one
another to a degree, there was a great gap in the spirit with which theytackled the task.

18humane education, a bridge to peace (5)Educational Exchange Leads to Humanity’s Development
Ikeda: You mentioned that post-Meiji era educational reforms in Japan
had an effect on our neighboring country of China. We must neverforget that from ancient times China and Japan, so close both geo­
graphically and culturally, have existed in a relationship of growththrough mutual influence.
In the early 20th century, large numbers of Chinese students madetheir way to Japan to study, and strong bonds of friendship were formed.
Perhaps the friendship between Lu Xun and his anatomy teacher in
Sendai, GenkurØ Fujino (1874–1945), best exemplifies this beautiful
drama of exchange.11
As I mentioned earlier, Mr. Makiguchi taught geography at the KØbun
Gakuin for almost four years, starting in 1904. His stint overlapped withthat of Lu Xun, who was at the KØbun Gakuin through April 1904, for
two months, but it is not known whether they were acquainted. We doknow, however, that Mr. Makiguchi developed a close relationship with
his Chinese students, building a bridge of Chinese-Japanese friendshipat a time when Japan was plunging ahead on a course of intensifying
mili­tary belligerence.
Another example of unforgettable friendships is that formed between
KamejirØ Matsumoto (1866–1945)—who also taught at the KØbun
Gakuin and later founded TØa Higher Preparatory School—and his
student, the young Zhou Enlai (1898–1976), the future premier of thePeople’s Republic of China. When Zhou Enlai’s wife Deng Yingchao(1904–92) visited Japan, she met with members of the Matsumotofamily and expressed her husband’s feelings of gratitude.
The friendship of Sun Wen (1866–1925) with various Japanese isequally noteworthy. TorazØ (TØten) Miyazaki (1871–1922), a Japanesephilosopher, met Sun Wen in Yokohama in 1897, was deeply moved byhis revolutionary spirit, and forever after supported the Chinese revolu­tion.
There are numerous other examples of these kinds of friendships, andsince the normalization of diplomatic relations between Japan and China
in 1972, exchange on the civilian level has continued to grow.
While the number of people traveling back and forth between our two
countries was less than ten thousand a year at the time bilateral ties werenormalized, by 2007 it had climbed to 5.12 million. It is estimated thatsome twenty thousand Japanese are studying in China, and about seven­ty thousand Chinese students are studying here in Japan.
Our two nations have maintained close educational exchange from thehumane education, a bridge to peace (5)19distant past. From a broad perspective, educational exchange is a great
path of development for both nations and humanity as a whole.
Carrying forward Mr. Makiguchi’s beliefs, we have consistently pro­
moted Chinese-Japanese educational exchange, mainly through Soka
University—which was the first Japanese university to accept officially
funded Chinese students from Communist China. In April of 1975, theyear after my first visit to China, I personally became a guarantor, as
founder of Soka University, to the first Chinese students to study at our
institution, and I supported them wholeheartedly during their stay inJapan. One of those initial exchange students is Cheng Yonghua, who in
February 2010 was appointed China’s ambassador extraordinary andplenipotentiary to Japan.
Reestablishing Closed Channels of Exchange
Gu: We have spoken of the extremely close educational exchange
between our two countries, but troubled times lay ahead. Unfortunately,
after the September 18 Incident (also known as the Manchurian Incident
or the Mukden Incident), Japan engaged in a war of aggression against
China. In the 1930s and 1940s, exchange on an equitable basis between
China and Japan was impossible.
After the establishment of the People’s Republic of China, Japan,
bowing to pressure from the United States, did not recognize China, so
there was no exchange on an official level.
But even under those circumstances, there were individuals in Japan
who privately promoted exchange with China—for example, Kinkazu
Saionji (1906–93), Yasushi Inoue (1907–91), KenzØ Matsumura (1883–
1971), and KanzØ Uchiyama (1885–1959) were among those Japanese
who repeatedly visited China, while several leading Chinese figures,such as Guo Moruo (1892–1978), Liao Chengzhi (1908–83), Zhao
Puchu (1907–2000), and Lu Xun’s wife Xu Guangping (1898–1968),
visited Japan.
Ikeda: That’s true. I have known and been friends with many of thosewhom you mentioned. I have fond memories of Liao Chengzhi and
Zhao Puchu, as well as Matsumura, Inoue, Saionji, and Tatsunosuke
Takasaki (1885–1964) on the Japanese side.
Though I never had the honor of meeting Guo Moruo or Xu
Guangping in person, I have often spoken about them and introduced
their accomplishments in speeches to young people. I have a strong
relationship with the University of Science and Technology of China,

20humane education, a bridge to peace (5)which Dr. Guo served as its first president.
Gu: Xu Guangping was invited to and participated in the unveiling of
the Lu Xun Monument in Sendai. At that time Premier Zhou Enlai had
announced a policy of unofficial exchange between China and Japan
centering on trade, in spite of the absence of nor­malized diplomatic
relations, thus opening the way to renewed friend­ship between ourcountries. In June 1952, China and Japan signed a non-governmental
trade accord, and both nations began promoting commercial ties. But it
remained difficult to reestablish educational exchange.
It was in those circumstances that the Soka Gakkai took the lead in
calling for the normalization of diplomatic relations, expending great
efforts in that direction. They bore fruit in 1972, and a new age ofChinese-Japanese relations began.
In 1979, when I was in charge of the International Relations Office at
Beijing Normal University, we hosted a group from the University
Issues Research Center of Hiroshima University (since renamed the
Research Institute for Higher Education). I believe this was the first caseof educational exchange between China and Japan after the Cultural
Revolution.
In July of the following year, as I mentioned earlier, I made my first
visit to Japan at the invitation of Japan Comparative Education Society
President Masunori Hiratsuka (1907–81). During my visit I participatedin the 4th World Congress of Comparative Education Societies held in
Saitama Prefecture. In October of the same year, National Institute for
Educational Research (now known as National Institute for Educational
Policy Research) staff member Hiroshi Yokoyama visited us, marking
the start of frequent educational exchange between our two countries.
I was in charge of international relations during my seven years asvice president of Beijing Normal University. From 1981, we accepted
our first Japanese as foreign exchange students at Beijing Normal
University. Yutaka Ōtsuka, the present president of the Japan
Comparative Education Society, was among the students from Japanattend­ing our university that year. I personally lectured to him on thehistory of the development of higher education in China.
Since then, the number of Japanese exchange students at ouruniversity has grown year by year, while we have also dispatched a large
number of faculty and students for study in Japan. Ties between the
Chinese Society of Education and Japanese Educational Research
Association have been equally close, and we have engaged in various
exchanges and collaborative programs with other schools. If I were tohumane education, a bridge to peace (5)21recount all that in detail, it would amount to a book on the history ofChinese-Japanese educational exchange.
Youth Exchanges Foster Individuals of Peace
Gu: As I said earlier, at the point when there were no official relations
between our countries and educational exchange had ceased, the Soka
Gakkai was one of the first non-governmental organizations to call forthe restoration of full diplomatic relations. The mission of the Soka
Gakkai is to promote compassion in society and contribute to world
peace, and it has engaged in educational reform to help people andchildren suffering in the world amid adversity. I regard this as a very
important purpose.
The essence of education is to foster individuals who desire peace.
I agree from the bottom of my heart with your statement, President
Ikeda, that cultural and educational exchanges are the keys toovercoming hatred and represent the shortest route to building trust andfriendship. Many things are the province of political leaders in thisworld, and we, as educators, must not remain aloof from politics; but
educating the next generation is an even greater responsibility.
For the sake of world peace, we need to teach the next generation
ways in which people will take interest in and understand one another.
How can we do that? First, we must recognize the realities of today’s
world and respect the value systems of different nations and peoples, aswell as their respective cultural traditions, their chosen social systems,
and their cherished interests. The first step to doing this, and it is a very
important first step, is to understand one another. The next step shouldbe learning to trust each other, and then developing and growing
together.
How can we attain this mutual understanding? By engaging in ex­change.
The theme of the 2008 Beijing Olympiad was “One World, One
Dream.” With the support and cooperation of people around the world,
the Olympics were a great success; it was a viable example of inter­national exchange, mutual understanding, and cooperation, while at thesame time further facilitating the mutual interaction and understand­ingof the peoples of the world and contributing to world peace. The Expo
2010 Shanghai China served in the same manner.
The Olympics promote exchange through the medium of athleticcompetition; I happen to believe that educational exchange and inter­action are the most important, because they promote mutual understand­22

humane education, a bridge to peace (5)ing not only among those of today’s adult generation but also among
those who will lead society in the future, extending their influence to themutual understanding of the next generation. Educational exchange isthe most desirable form of exchange, and the areas it covers, including
language, science and technology, educational philosophy, and both con­tent and methodology, are by far the broadest.
Foreign Language Skills Are Now Essential
Ikeda: I am struck by both the fiery passion and the profound spirit offriendship with which you have promoted educational exchange
between our two countries. I would also like to repeat my sincere
gratitude for your deep understanding of the Soka Gakkai. I completely
agree with your statement that educational exchange is the key to world
peace.
Above all else, a common language is crucial for fruitful crosscultural interaction. In that context, I would like to talk about the impor­tance of foreign-language education.
The great German writer Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832)
declared: “A man who has no acquaintance with foreign languages
knows nothing of his own.”12 We are living in an age that is incompara­
bly more international and global than Goethe’s, and it is exponentiallymore important to master not only one’s native tongue but other lan­
guages as well.
One of my greatest personal regrets is that I never learned a foreign
language. In my youth, Japan was obsessed by the war; English wasregarded as an “enemy language,” and studying it was strongly dis­couraged. After the war I was entirely absorbed in restoring my mentor
Josei Toda’s (1900–58) businesses—so much so that I was forced todrop out of the night school I was attending.
In my discussions with the world leaders and intellectuals today, I am
assisted by outstanding interpreters, some of whom are Soka University
graduates. Nevertheless, I often think how wonderful it would be if I
were fluent in a foreign language.
One such case was a time when, during my discourses with the
British historian Arnold J. Toynbee (1889–1975), we found ourselvesalone. He invited me to his gentlemen’s club (the Athenaeum Club), andthough he tried to use the simplest English he could, our conversation
had to be conducted mostly through facial expressions and gestures. I
look back fondly on that memory now, but at the time I felt very
powerfully how much I wish I had studied a foreign language. Partlyhumane education, a bridge to peace (5)23because of my own experiences, I constantly stress the importance ofmastering languages when I speak with students.
The success of language education in China is frequently reported in
the Japanese press as well. What is language education in China like? I
would be grateful if you could share some concrete examples and points
with us.
Actual Use Is Key to Foreign-Language Proficiency
Gu: Being proficient in foreign languages is necessary for comparativeeducation studies, and expertise in several languages enables one toaccess original source materials. Learning foreign languages, however,is quite difficult for us East Asians.
Speaking from my own experience, I spent the majority of myelementary and junior high school years under Japanese rule, so while I
should have mastered Japanese, my revulsion for the Japanese military
led me to skip most of my Japanese classes. I never imagined then thatsome time in the future I would become good friends with people fromJapan. From 1980, I visited Japan on more than twenty occasions, and I
have become painfully aware that my inability to speak Japanese with
my friends there makes it inordinately difficult to communicate andinteract with them.
I studied English in junior high school, but I never became proficientat it. Then I entered university in the Soviet Union, and as I studied
Russian I completely forgot any English I had learned. This has had amajor impact on my later comparative education research. I have deep
regrets that my lack of language skills has prevented me from delving
deeper into my research of comparative education.
Today, in this international age, foreign-language studies have be­come a vital component of our basic curriculum.
For a long time, language instruction in China was very poor. One
reason was that language teachers were not properly qualified; anotherreason was that our teaching methods were obsolescent, with the resultthat foreign-language levels of even junior high graduates were not up to
accepted standards.
As indicated by the phrase we have in Chinese, “Mute English,” manysuch students could read but had no ability to carry on a conversation.
Ever since we entered a period of reform and liberalization in China,
however, the Chinese government has placed special emphasis on
language instruction. This emphasis has been particularly noteworthy inthe last twenty years, with the government calling for the institution of24humane education, a bridge to peace (5)language instruction from the elementary school level; in most schools
today foreign-language classes start from the third grade. In moredeveloped areas, they begin from the first grade, and classroom hours
are increasing annually.
Many schools have native-language speakers on staff, and classes are
conducted in English. At the same time, foreign languages have become
required subjects in entrance examinations for institutes of higher
learning, and individuals who seek to enter graduate school have to passa foreign-language proficiency test. Through a consistent effort to rein­
force language learning, coupled with the upgrading of teacher qualifica­
tions and educational methods, students today have certainly come toshow an improvement in foreign-language abilities.
But, naturally, on the national level, there is a considerable gap
between highly developed areas such as Beijing and Shanghai, in con­trast to western China, which lags considerably behind.
In recent years, with international exchange becoming more frequent,Chinese students have more opportunities than ever to interact with theirforeign peers through such programs as summer and winter language
learning camps, paving the way for a richer environment to learn foreign
languages.
I think that the most important element for learning a foreign
language is to provide environments where students can actually prac­
tice their language skills. If you have no opportunity to use the language
skills you have studied, you tend to quickly forget what you havelearned. In the early 1960s I studied German for two years, but whenclasses were canceled because of the Cultural Revolution, I forgot
everything. That’s why it is important, I think, to provide young people
with as many opportunities as possible to interact with foreign-language
speakers and chances to put the language skills they have learned topractical use.
Ikeda: Thank you for describing the language learning situation in
China; I am surprised to learn that it is remarkably similar to that inJapan. Generally speaking, Japanese students devote many hours injunior and senior high schools to studying English, but in fact, though
they may be able to read it, the majority of them still have poor actual
speaking and listening comprehension skills. To alleviate this problem,
various means for improving language education, including teaching
English from the elementary-school level, are being adopted on a trial
basis. There are also cases in which younger parents, who are intent on
their children acquiring foreign-language skills, send them to specialhumane education, a bridge to peace (5)25schools or hire tutors to provide them with language-learning oppor­
tunities.
Many in Japan express concern that emphasizing foreign-language
learning from an early age will interfere with children mastering theirnative tongue. The fact remains, however, that in our age of accelerating
globalization, the ability to communicate fluently with the rest of theworld has become indispensable. And if we wish to foster capable indi­viduals who can be successful on the world stage, foreign-language
mastery becomes even more of a priority.
As you noted, providing environments in which students can put theirlanguage learning to practical use is extremely important. Japan, inparticular, is an island nation, and most Japanese have few opportunities
to meet and interact with non-Japanese. Many have suggested that asignificant reason that Japanese students’ language skills don’t improvein spite of all the hours they spend on language study is because anenvironment in which to hone and use foreign-language abilities has notbeen prepared properly.
Based on this, many universities are attempting new approaches to the
problem.
At Soka University, the World Language Center was established in
1999 as a place where Japanese students can interact with the univer­sity’s international students in their native languages; by prohibiting theuse of Japanese, the students from Japan are able to practice theirlanguage skills and learn about other cultures at the same time.
Of course, many Soka University students also study abroad, and theuniversity has entered into numerous academic exchange agree­ments
and study abroad programs with institutes outside Japan, particularly in
China. Among them, Soka University has a special Dual Degree Coursewith the Beijing Language and Culture University, whereby students cansimultaneously earn a bachelor’s degree from both institutions. The
program’s two years of overseas study have produced remarkable
improvements in language ability, and its first participants graduated in
the spring of 2011.
Soka University of America (SUA), meanwhile, has a program bywhich all students spend one semester during their junior year abroad, ineither Japan or countries in which either Chinese or Spanish are spoken.
By actually living in a foreign country for some time and interacting
directly with other cultures and peoples, SUA students have the oppor­
tunity to learn “living” lessons in a foreign language rather than merelyclassroom instruction. This program is very popular with the students.
I am also happy to be able to report that several Chinese students who

26humane education, a bridge to peace (5)studied at Soka University have mastered Japanese and are active asaccomplished interpreters. At my meetings with Hu Jintao, president of
the People’s Republic of China, in 2008, and Wen Jiabao, premier of theState Council of the People’s Republic of China, in 2007, both the
Chinese and Japanese interpreters were graduates from Soka University,
making the occasions a heartwarming reunion.
Our times are changing dramatically. Society is experiencing con­tinuous change. We can no longer rely on the educational methods of thepast. In response to students’ needs, we need to offer a new curricu­lum
reflecting new ideas.
Our students have the important mission of creating the future. The
task of developing creative ways to improve their aptitude and enrichthem­selves as human beings falls entirely on our shoulders.
Notes
1Rabindranath Tagore, “Unconquered,” in The Herald of Spring: Poems from Mohuå,translated by Aurobindo Bose (London: John Murray, 1957), p. 33.
2
The Way of Yin and Yang: A traditional Japanese esoteric cosmology mixing naturalscience with occultism. Drawn from Chinese philosophies, it was introduced into Japanin the 6th century and accepted as a practical system of augury.
3
The Dharma Analysis Treasury, Establishment of Truth, Three Treatises, Precepts,
Dharma Characteristics, and Flower Garland schools.
4
The Writings of Nichiren Daishonin, vol. II (Tokyo: Soka Gakkai, 2006), p. 348.
5
The leaders of the warrior government were generally known as the shogun(general) and their governments are often called shogunate in English.
6
The Four Books refers to the Great Learning, the Doctrine of the Mean, Analects,
and the Works of Mencius. The Five Classics includes the Book of Poetry (also known as
the Book of Songs, the Book of Odes), the Book of History, the Book of Rites, the Book of
Changes, and the Spring and Autumn Annals.
7
Ihara Saikaku, The Japanese Family Storehouse: Or the Millionaires’ Gospel
Modernised, translated by G. W. Sargent (Cambridge: University of Cambridge Press,
1959), p. 123.
8
William J. Duiker and Jackson J. Spielvogel, The Essential World History: Sixth
Edition (Boston: Wadsworth, 2010), p. 558.
9
Education for Creative Living: Ideas and Proposals of Tsunesaburo Makiguchi,translated by Alfred Birnbaum; edited by Dayle M. Bethel (Ames, IA: Iowa State
University Press, 1989), p. xi.
10
Following China’s defeat by invading European powers, Empress Dowager Cixi
acknowledged the need for political reform incorporating Western ideas, and initiatedthe new Guangxu government in 1901—based, ironically, on the Hundred Days Reformthat she had previously overthrown in a coup.
11
Lu Xun began studying at the Sendai Medical Academy in 1904, the first foreign
student of the college. There, Lu was mentored by lecturer GenkurØ Fujino, a relation­
ship that the Chinese student came to cherish and would later write an essay in tribute tohis Japanese instructor.

humane education, a bridge to peace (5)2712The Maxims and Reflections of Goethe, translated by Thomas Bailey Saunders(London: Macmillan, 1906), p. 154.

28

humane education, a bridge to peace (5)Daisaku Ikeda
President of the Soka Gakkai International (SGI), a lay Buddhist
organization with more than twelve million members worldwide,
Ikeda was born in Tokyo in 1928. He has founded the Soka (valuecreating) school system, running from kindergarten throughgraduate school at universities in Tokyo and California, U.S.A., an
educational philosophy now practiced in schools around the world.
He is also founder of various cultural and academic institutions,from the Min-On Concert Association and Tokyo Fuji Art Museum
to the Institute of Oriental Philosophy and Toda Institute for Global
Peace and Policy Research. He has engaged in personal “citizen
diplomacy” from the 1960s to facilitate better China-Japan rela­tions, establishing a web of cultural and educational exchange thatnow spans the globe. Based on an abiding faith in dialogue, Ikeda
has met with world leaders and intel­lectuals in the fields of culture,
education, and the arts, exchanging views on a diverse range of
topics. Many of these meetings have led to the publication of
dialogues (http://www.daisakuikeda.org/). He is the recipient of
338 academic honors (as of July 2013) from the world’s univer­sities and institutions of higher education, including Peking Univer­sity, Moscow State University, and the University of Bologna.
Gu Mingyuan
Presently the honorary president of the Chinese Society of
Education and Honorary Dean of the College of Education
Administration (Beijing Normal University), Gu was born in 1929
in Jiangyin, Jiangsu Province. He studied in Beijing and Moscow,
served as a professor, directed the International and Comparative
Education Research Institute, and became vice president of Beijing
Normal University, playing a major role in advancing education in
China. Having served as president of the China Education Associa­
tion for International Exchange and president of the Chinese Com­
parative Education Society as well as vice president of the WorldCouncil of Comparative Education Societies, he is an honored
educator on the global stage as well. China awarded him the title
National Distinguished Teacher in 1991, while Beijing named him
a People’s Teacher in 1999. He was further recognized in Hong
Kong with an honorary doctorate of education in 2001 from theHong Kong Institute of Education, and awarded the Honorary
Professor Medal from Teachers College of Columbia University in2008. He has edited several encyclopedias and professional jour­nals, including Comparative Education Review. Gu is the author of
Education in China and Abroad: Perspectives from a Lifetime in
Comparative Education (published in English) and other works in
his field.