V o l . 29.

No. 232.

A p ril

1943.

VISCOSITY 'MEASUREMENT AND VISCOSITYINDEX.
By J . C. C r a g g , B.Se., A.I.C., and E. A. E v a n s (Member of Council).
T h e assessment of the viscosity tem perature characteristics of petroleum
products in term s of viscosity index is gaining in popularity. Its recent
appearance in Government specifications alone m akes its estim ation am atter of considerable im portance to the petroleum industry. I t becomes
necessary, therefore, to see clearly how accurately viscosity can be deter­
mined, and w hat effect errors have on the calculated viscosity index. The
recent publication of the fourth edition of “ Standard Methods for Testing
Petroleum and its Products ” contains a recommended m ethod for them easurement of viscosity in absolute units, and a considered statem ent
th a t the apparatus should measure viscosity with an error not exceeding
0-3 per cent. The adoption of this method, with its implied reproducibility,
introduces such a change, th a t a review m ay be of assistance to those whose
acquaintance with it may not be close. To impose a standard of accuracy
is laudable, if it can be attained with reasonable skill and equipment.
The petroleum industry in America has had experience w ith a similar
m ethod,2 and believes th a t it can reasonably m aintain an even greater
precision th an th a t imposed by the In stitu te of Petroleum . I t will beinteresting to observe the agreem ent forthcoming between workers in thiscountry and the U.S.A. when they measure the viscosity and viscosity
index of identical petroleum oils.
Viscosity index 3 is an empirical num ber and is calculated from theequation :where
U — viscosity a t 100° F. of the oil under exam ination ;L = viscosity a t 100° F . of an oil of V.I. = 0(selected Texas Coastal type) ;H = viscosity a t 100° F. of an oil of V.I. = 100(selected Penna type) ;all three oils having the same viscosity a t 210° F . The calculation of vis­
cosity index was originally based upon Saybolt units.4 Consequently
if the accuracy obtainable with the Saybolt viscometer is insufficient, andthis instrum ent is abandoned and replaced by another instrum ent of greater
precision, viscosity index m ust be based either on other units or on con­versions to Saybolt units. The system based on kinem atic units 5 is now
generally accepted as being superior to Saybolt seconds.
Before proceeding, it is convenient to know the numerical deviations inviscosity index created by errors in viscosity determ inations. Table I
shows the possible deviation from the mean in V.I. units for a specified
viscosity error.
i

V

100

CKAGG AND EVANS :T ableI.

Possible deviation from moan in V .I. units for stated viscosity
error.
Viscosity at
210° P.,
eontistokes.

2-0
4-0
6-0
8-0
12-0
20-0

0-25%.

0-5%.

!%•

'

2%.

•

V.I.
0.

V.I.
100.

V.I.
0.

V.I.
100.

V.I.
0.

V .l.
100.

V .l.
0.

V .l.
100.

3
3
2
2
0
1

3
2
1
1
1
1

6
6
4
4
3.
2

5
4
3
2
1
1

12
12
8
7
G
5

9
7
'5
3
3
2

24
23
IG
13
11
10

18
13
9
7
5
4

As th e them e of the paper is founded upon this conception, its meaning
should be made clear by means of a diagram (Fig. 1).

A B AC, X Y , and X Z represent stated viscosity error (x per cent.).
A X represents the viscosity characteristics giving the true or mean V .I.
B Y represents the viscosity characteristics giving the maximum V .I. obtainable withan error of x per cent.
CZ represents the viscosity characteristics giving the minimum V.I. obtainable withan error of x per cent.

In this country Redwood viscosity 6 is accepted in most trading tra n s­
actions. The weaknesses of Redwood viscometers have been discovered,and much tim e and thought have been expended upon improvement.
Finally it was agreed to accept Redwood viscometer No. 1307 as the standard.
The reproducibility obtainable with N.P.L. certified No. 1 Redwood
viscometers is stated by the I.P .6 to be 1 per cent, of the mean value for
efflux times of over 100 seconds a t a tem perature not exceeding 140° F.,
while a t a tem perature of 200° F., and also for viscosities lower than 100

VISCOSITY MEASUREMENT AND VISCOSITY IN D EX .

101

seconds, the viscosity should not differ from the m ean value by more than
one second. This precision is sufficiently good for works control, has beensatisfactory for trading, and is within the requirem ents demanded by
efficient lubrication. Moreover the instrum ent is convenient to manipulate.
Since recognized tables do not exist for the calculation of V.I. from Redwood
seconds, it is necessary to convert to kinem atic units, in order to calculate
V.I.
The conversion of Redwood seconds to kinem atic units was first investi­
gated by Higgins,7 who, in 1913 p u t forward the formula :v = A T * - B /T
where
A = 0-00260
B = 1-715
and
T = Redwood time.
L ater B arr 8 pointed out th a t if Higgins had ignored one abnormal result
he would have deduced a value for A of 0-00255, and so sailed nearer thetru th . Gam er and K e lfy 9 tabulated other proposed values for A and B
and advanced evidence to show th a t a single conversion equation was
inadequate. B arr 10 returned to the subject, and showed th a t a t a tem pera­ture of 70° F. the relationship between Redwood seconds and kinem atic
viscosity could be represented by two equations of the same form, evaluatingv/7' in centistokes per second.
'L — A — —

T

T2

where
A = 0-264, B = 189 when T is less th an 91 seconds ;andA — 0-247, B = 50 when T is greater th an 91 seconds.
Garner, Broom, and Taylor 11 made the very valuable contribution th a t
the relationship a t the usual tem peratures of 70° F., 140° F., and 200° F.
can be expressed by equations of the general type :
v -_

v

L
v A
k, « - AIT">
io X

This type of equation 12 had previously been proposed for conversion of
Saybolt seconds into kinem atic units. In 1936 the I.P.T . published its
Viscosity Nomogram 13 based on these results. I t gave the first authorita­
tive relationship between Redwood seconds and kinem atic viscosity w ith aprobable accuracy of 0-5 per cent.
Using this Nomogram the maximum errors th a t should occur in arrivinga t kinem atic viscosity by means of an N.P.L. certified No. 1 Redwood
instrum ent m ay therefore be ¿ 1 -5 per cent, a t 100° F., and ¿ 2 -5 per cent,at 210° F. when the efflux tim e is.about 50 seconds, b u t if the time is about
100 seconds, the error a t this tem perature would be reduced to dfl-5 percent. For the calculation of viscosity index such errors would cause toomuch deviation. Even assuming th a t the probable error is tw o-thirds of the

102

GRAGG AND E V A N S :maximum error, considerable deviations would still be possible. I t shouldbe acknowledged th a t large errors in V.I. are less likely to occur if the same
N.P.L. certified Redwood instrum ent is used for determining the viscosities
a t both tem peratures.
Prom these considerations it appears th a t the Redwood viscometer does
not give the requisite degree of accuracy for the calculation of V.I., except
perhaps for oils of relatively high viscosity.
An effort was made in 1923 by the B ritish Standards Institution to
replace th e Redwood viscometer by U-tube viscometers, through the
publication of a British S tandard Specification. A second edition was
published in 1929 and a third in 1937,14 so there had been am ple'opportunity
for study and criticism of the design and method. The precision of themethod as a whole is not clearly stated by the standardizing authority,b u t the effect of various errors on the tim e of flow of liquids in individual
viscometers is discussed. An attem p t has been made below to summarize
and assess these errors.
1. Dimensions.—These are such th a t within the degree of accuracy(0-5 per cent.) and above the minimum viscosity for which the instrum ent
is designed, the tim e of flow of a liquid will be proportional to its kinematic
viscosity. Using the approxim ate corrections for kinetic energy provided,no error due to this cause should exceed 0-1 per cent.
2. F illing.—Provided th a t the viscometer is filled to within 0-2 mm. of
the appropriate mark* on the wide tube, no error exceeding 0-5 per cent,should occur. I f liquids which have the same surface tension are compared(such as petroleum products), then the filling error should not cause an errorof more th an ±0-1 per cent.
3. Deviation from the Vertical.—The capillary of the viscometer should
be within 1 degree of the vertical in any plane. The error in tim e of flow
due to a deviation of 1 degree should not exceed ± 0-2 per cent.
4. Temperature Control.—-This should be such th a t three estimationsof the tim e of flow do not differ by more th an 1 per cent. I f the mean ofthese readings is taken, this error should not exceed ¿ 0 -3 per cent. This
does not take into account any inaccuracy in the therm om eter.
5. Tim ing.—The stop-watch should be reliable, reading to one-fifth of asecond; it should be checked frequently, and should be fully wound before
use. No error is indicated by the specifications for timing. F or the typeof stop-watch indicated an error of ¿0-15 per cent, may be consideredreasonable.
6. Calibration.—This is carried out using one or more of three standards :distilled w ater,40 per cent, sucrose solution, and 00 per cent, sucrose solution,
depending on the size of the viscometer to be calibrated. “ Stepping up ” isallowed. The constant obtained is considered to be independent of tem pera­ture, as it increases by less th an 0-1 per cent, between 0° and 100° C. No
indication is given of the probable accuracy of this constant.
From these considerations, and assuming no error in the calibration
constants of the viscometers, it should be possible to measure viscosity
by th is standardized method with a maximum error of ±0-85 per cent.
Even if a probable error of ¿0 -5 5 per cent, is assumed, the effect on theestim ation of V.I. is considerable, as shown in Table I.
Many operators have found th a t differences are encountered when

VISCOSITY MEASUREMENT AND VISCOSITY IN D EX .

103

determining the kinematic viscosity of the same oil in different B.S.S.
viscometers, all of which have been calibrated by the N.P.L. As these
discrepancies occur in purely com parative work, in which m any of the errors
assessed above can be practically eliminated, further thought m ust be given
to the subject. The phenomena are particularly noticeable when determ in­ing viscosity with a No. 2 B.S.S. viscometer which has been calibrated with
40 per cent, sucrose solution and with a No. 3 B.S.S. viscometer calibrated
with 60 per cent, sucrose solution. Steiner,13 working w ith four B.S.S.
viscometers, the constants of which had been determ ined by the N .P.L .,found the variations shown in Table II. H e thus found an overall difference
T ableII.

B.S.S. Viscomoter N o.

Difference,
per cent.

2
3a
3b
3c

+0-52
0-00
+0-24
-0 -2 1of 0-73 per cent. Another worker arrived a t a figure of 0-6 per cent, whenworking with B.S.S. viscometers a t his disposal.
W hen the viscosity of an oil was estim ated by us in a No. 2 and in a No.
3 B.S.S. viscometer simultaneously, a t the same tem perature, a better
correlation was found. These results are shown in Table II I.
T ableB.S.S. Visco­
meter No.

Filling No.

3(d)

1
2

2(b)

III.

Timo of flow,Cseconds.
(by N .P.L.).
195-5
195-4
195-6
195-5
195-4
195-6
avorage
195-5

0-34201406-21406-61406-441407-01406-01406-2
avorage1406-40-04768
Difference» 0-3G per cent.

Viscosity,
centistokes.

66-82

3

67-06

B arr 10 had previously shown th a t the calibration constant of a p ar­
ticular No. 3 tube derived from observations with 60 per cent, sucrose
agreed within 0-3 per cent, w ith the constants deduced by means of (a) oils
whose absolute viscosity had been measured in a capillary tube viscometerof accurately known dimensions, (b) stepping up from No. 1 via No. 2 using
Bingham’s value for water, (c) stepping down from the viscosity of a syrup-

CRAG G AND EVANS :104

glycerol m ixture determ ined by the falling-sphere method. Unfortunately
B arr has not given any comparative figures obtained by the use of 40 per
cent, sucrose.
Steiner 15 has shown also th a t the calibration constant of an individual
viscometer may vary with the tim e of flow, b u t he does not claim th a t thisis common to all B.S-.S. viscometers. F or his standard he selected a No. 3
B.S.S. viscometer whose calibration constant was reliable throughout
its range when compared w ith a viscometer of different design. F or the
information of the authors he compared his standard with their standard
No. 3 B.S.S. viscometer, which was N .P.L. certified, and found th a t in someparts of their range the “ calibration constant ” of the authors’ viscometer
varied by 0-3 per cent. From these investigations the following m ay be
deduced :—1. The use of calibration constants derived from GO per cent, sucrose
solution may result in differences in viscosity of 0-3 per cent.
2. Calibration constants based on 60 per cent, and 40 per cent,sucrose solution respectively sometimes vary by 0-7 per cent.
3. Calibration constants m ay vary within the range of the in stru ­ment.
4. An appreciable discrepancy m ay exist between a No. l'a n d a No.
2 B.S.S. viscometer if the calibrations are made with w ater and40 per cent, sucrose respectively.
In Table IV are the results,16 published in 1938, of the viscosity determ ina­
tions on the same oil by five different laboratories of the highest integrity
T ableN.P.L. .
P.T.R. .
B.S.
E.N.S.P.
B.P.M. .

.

IV.
BritainGermany
U.S.A.
FranceHolland

20-98 cp
20-54
21-00
21-63
20-98

and skill. From the status of these laboratories it is safe to assume th a t theywould select the m ethod in which they had the utm ost faith. The m axi­
mum difference between these results is 5-3 per cent. The inference to be
drawn is th a t there is a definite need for international standardization.
This was actually attem pted by calling a m eeting of th e In tern atio n alStandards Association’s Sub-Committee on the Viscosity of Petroleum
Products in January, 1939, b u t no results were obtained from th a tmeeting, owing to the war. Between the British, American, and D utch
laboratories there is a difference of only 0-09 per cent. W hether these threelaboratories all used B.S.S. viscometers is not recorded in the publishedrecords, b u t the commendable closeness of the results suggests th a t instru­
ments of the same basic type were used. The German laboratory m ay haveused the suspended-level viscometer, and the French the Vogel-Ossag. The
prim ary standard employed as the basisfor the measurements is not recorded,
but had all the laboratories taken values for w ater ranging from 1-0064 to
1-007 centistokes a t 20° C. there would be insufficient variation to accountVISCOSITY MEASUREMENT AND VISCOSITY IN D EX .

105

for the differences shown in th e results. I f these assumptions are correct,
it follows th a t a t least two of the viscometers were subject to errors th a t
had not been correctly assessed.
Consideration may now be given to Table V, which shows some resultson the same seven samples of oil, obtained in 1941 by four reputable
laboratories in the U.S.A. while investigating the relationship between
kinem atic viscosity .and Saybolt Furol viscosity for the A.S.T.M.17
The type of viscometer used is not stated, but it is reasonable to expect
th a t it was of the Fenske or suspended-level variety, since a t th a t tim e
the A.S.T.M. was virtually com m itted to these two types.
T ableV.

Kinematic viscosity at 122° F.
1.

2.

3.

8.

Maximum
difference,
per cent.

662 0
414-5
225-0
145-0
93-8
G4-5
47-7 *

6G0-9
415-7
225-2
145-0
93-9
64-6
47-7

657-4
413-5
224-G
145-0
93-3
64-1
47-0

G54-7
411-7
223-5
143-G
93-4
64-1
47-4

1-11
0-97
0-76
0-97
0-64
0-78
0-63

Sample.

A
B
C
D
E
F
G

B oth the Fenske and the suspended-level viscometers have been very
fully described in the literature. I t is perhaps sufficient to indicate theirmain points of interest, so th a t comparison m ay be m ade with the B.S.S.
•instruments. Suspended-level viscometers obviate any error due to filling,
since the effective head of liquid depends only on the height of the liquidfrom a point in the suspended level, and does not depend a t all on theheight of the liquid in the other limb of the viscometer. Any error due tomisalignment is reduced by placing the suspended level directly under theupper bulb. This type of viscometer avoids any bottom -bulb errors, but,on the other hand, top-bulb errors are not compensated in the lower bulb.
In the suspended-level types with spherical shoulder, differences due tosurface tension in the liquids examined arc eliminated.
W ith the Fenske viscometer a definite volume of liquid between fixed
tem perature lim its is charged to the instrum ent, so th a t the same weight ofliquid is used for viscosity determ inations on th e same sample a t different
tem peratures. This procedure necessitates the use of different calibration
constants for the different operating tem peratures, and has the disadvantage
th a t once the instrum ent is charged, the operator cannot check the volume
of liquid. The error due to misalignment is reduced by placing the upper
bulbs directly over the lower, which is made com paratively large to reduce
errors due to incomplete drainage.
I t is stated in the A.S.T.M. tentative m ethod 2 th a t any viscometer
employed shall be capable of measuring viscosity with an error not greaterthan ±0-2 per cent, within its viscosity range. How, then, can this s ta te ­m ent be correlated with the maximum differences in viscosity shown in
Table V ? The explanation, a t least in part, m ay lie in the m ethod used
for calibrating the viscometers. Except in the case of the suspended-

106

GRAGG AND EVANS :level viscometers with capillaries less th an 0-75 mm. in diameter, thecalibration of which is based on the prim ary standard pure distilled water,
all calibrations are based on oil samples. These oil samples are secondary
standards, and m ay be obtained from the A .P.I. or the Bureau of Standards.
The determ ination of the viscosity of an unknown oil therefore depends
not on a single viscosity m easurem ent, but on three separate and distinct
operations—namely, the determ ination of the viscosity of the secondary
standard by the standardizing authority, the calibration of a viscometerusing the secondary standard, and the determ ination of the viscosity of theunknown oil using this calibrated viscometer. I f it is assumed th a t
standard oil from the same bulk is supplied to two laboratories, it is possible
for their results on a given unknown sample to differ by as much as 0-8 percent., although no error greater than ¿ 0 -2 per cent, has been m ade on any
single viscosity determ ination. Any difference th a t m ay exist between
secondary standards, due to storage or errors in determ ining the viscosity
by the standardizing authority, and any wandering of the calibration
constant of a particular viscometer will, of course, further influence theresults. The average difference of 0-83 per cent, given in Table V m ay besaid to be quite reasonable and very close to the expected probable error.
I t may also be inferred th a t ± 0-2 per cent, is sufficient m argin to covererrors due to tem perature, tem perature control, timing, alignment, andfilling, b u t is insufficient to cover errors due to calibration with which m ust
be associated errors due to kinetic energy, surface tension, and any idio­
syncrasies of a particular viscometer th a t m ay cause the calibration constantto vary with the tim e of flow or tem perature.
These recent A.S.T.M. methods are of im mediate interest, because it isupon them th a t the In stitu te of Petroleum has based its new standard methodfor determining viscosity in kinem atic units.1 The I.P . methods are, in
general, more detailed than the A.S.T.M., and specify the B.S.S. viscometerin addition to the Fenske and supended-level types with spherical shoulder.
The square-shouldered suspended-level viscometer is not allowed. Efforts
have been m ade to minimize some errors. Suitable time-recording devices
are described in detail, and therm om eters graduated to 0-05° P . are specified
as against 0-1° allowed by th e A.S.T.M. In addition, the minimum flow
tim e for calibration and referee .work is set a t 200 seconds, compared with
the A.S.T.M. figure of 150 seconds, while for routine work the lower lim it
is 120 seconds, as opposed to 80 seconds. Suitable constant-tem peraturebaths are described, together with details of the electrical apparatus toemploy, b u t rigid adherence to these details is not called for, possibly
because more advanced methods are available. W ith these advantagesof refinement the I.P . state th a t the apparatus should be capable of measuringviscosity with an error not greater th an ¿ 0 -3 per cent., compared with the
A.S.T.M. figure of ±0-2 per cent.
The possible error due to calibration of all the various types of visco­
meters has not been considered in the I.P . M ethod of Test, hence a few
comments on this im portant aspect are clearly indicated. For suspendedlevel viscometers pure distilled water is the prim ary standard, the viscosity
being taken as :1-0068 centistokes a t 68° F.
0-689 centistokes a t 100° F.

VISCOSITY MEASUREMENT AND VISCOSITY IN D EX .

107

This standard is directly applicable only to No. 1 viscometers of this type.
For B.S.S. viscometers the prim ary standards are pure distilled water,
40 per cent, sucrose solution, and GO per cent, sucrose solution, althoughan observation is made th a t the figures for the 40 per cent, sucrose solution
m ay require revision. F or Fenske viscometers, and also for both the othertypes, the use of secondary oil standards, as issued by the A .P.I. and the
Bureau of Standards, is allowed, in addition to oil samples the viscosityof which have been determ ined by the N.P.L. The calibration constantdeterm ined a t 100° F . is considered valid for all other tem peratures inT ableOil.
A .P.I. B eta 42

VI.

Filling.

B.S.I.
tube No.

Tempera­ture.

Timo offlow,
seconds.

Viscosity,
centistokes.

1

2(b)

210° F.

507-0
507-0
507-0
506-6
507-4
507-0
average
507-0

24-17

1124-01122-01123-0average1123-0384-0

182-2 *
182-0
182-0
181-8
182-0
average
182-0

62-20

2

A .P.I. B eta 42

A .P.I. Alpha 42

3

1
2

3(f)

3(f)

100° F.

100° F.

* Flow time rather low for calibration purposes.

the case of the suspended-level types, whilst factors are given to evaluate
the calibration constant a t various other tem peratures in the case of the
Fenske.
The order of reproducibility th a t can be achieved using B.S.S. viscometers
calibrated by th e N .P.L. with sucrose solution has already been discussed.
Table V gives an indication of the reproducibility th a t m ay be expected whenw orking'w ith viscometers calibrated from A .P.I. or B ureau of Standards
secondary oil standards, while Table V I shows some results obtained by theauthors when measuring the viscosity of secondary oil standards in B.S.S.
viscometers whose calibration constants have been reported by the .N.P.L.
Table V II shows th e recorded A .P.I. figures and the differences from ourown.
The agreem ent using the No. 3 B.S.S. viscometer is quite good, being wellinside the error inherent from its calibration w ith GO per cent, sucrose
solution. The results obtained a t 210° F. using the No. 2 B.S.S. viscometer

CRAGG AND EVANS :108

arc disturbing, t h e y m ay be due to a combination of factors, althoughth e greatest error can probably be associated w ith the published d ata on the
40 per cent, sucrose solution used in the calibration of the No. 2 B.S.S.
viscometer.
I t m ay be said with some confidence th a t the large num ber of standards
now allowed by the I.P . do not give consistent results among themselves,
and a discrepancy of anything up to 1 per cent, in the estim ation of kinem atic
viscosity m ust be expected between two operators when the particular
standard to use had not been clearly specified. In lubrication this is usuallyof minor consequence, b u t when the calculation of V.I. is involved the dis­
crepancies assume greater significance. I t is perhaps fortunate th a t
the accurate determ ination of viscosity index does not require the true
T ableOil.
A .P.I. B eta 42
A .P.I. Bota 42
A .P.I. Alpha 42

VII.

Temperature.

A .P.I. recorded
viscosity figuro,
centistokes.

Difference,
per cent.

210° F.
100° F.
100° F.

23-91
3S4-0
62-33

1-09
nil
0-20

viscosity with a high degree of accuracy. I t is sufficient for the purpose of
V.I. th a t viscometers should measure viscosity accurately against an
arb itrary standard. F or convenience this m ay coincide w ith one of therecognized standards, a t some definite tem perature and for some definite
flow time. I t m ust be borne in mind th a t when the viscosity of a petroleum
product is measured a t two tem peratures to determ ine the V.I., two visco­
meters of differing ranges are usually employed. I t follows th a t the cali­
bration constant of these two instrum ents should be based on the same
standard, whether it be 40 per cent, or 60 per cent, sucrose solution, puredistilled water, or one of the secondary standards. I t is also advisable touse viscometers of the same basic type, and not a combination of different
types of viscometers, some calibrated against one standard and someagainst another. Steiner 15 suggests the procedure of selecting a viscometer
whose calibration constant is probably reliable within the whole range ofthe instrum ent, and regarding this instrum ent as the laboratory standard,a t least for V.I. considerations. Other viscometers with the required
viscosity range are then carefully compared with the selected viscometer
throughout their entire range, and the calibration constants for various
flow times are determined. The calibrating procedure would involve much
precision work. I f this is carefully done the “ constants ” should be reliable
to ±0-1 per cent. W hen these viscometers are used w ith all the other re­finements of the new I.P . method, it should be possible to measure viscosity
against the arbitrary standard w ith a probable error of ±0-25 per cent.,
which is adequate for the calculation of V.I.
The use of charts, or the equations on which they are based, has not been
considered in this paper, as it is obvious th a t they introduce other errors
in to th e calculation of V.I. A part from the usual charting errors, it isVISCOSITY MEASUREMENT AND VISCOSITY IN D EX .

109

realized th a t the very ingenious and useful formula! which have beensuggested are designed to fit experim ental results. Such m ethods, then,
are n o t to be recommended for determ ining viscosity from which V.I. is tobe calculated.
In th e U.S.A. there has been an opportunity to obtain experience with thenewer m ethods for determ ining kinem atic viscosity and their application
to the calculation of V.I. In this country we are on the threshold of
obtaining such experience. U ntil the sellers and the buyers of oils havethoroughly understood the difficulties, there may be m isunderstandings.
I t is prudent, therefore, to abstain from overstating the accuracy of thesem ethods, and to content ourselves with the conviction th a t they are superior
to those which are being dislodged.
References.
I I.P . Serial Designation 71/42 (T).
5 A.S.T.M. Designation : D 445-39 T.
3 I.P . Serial Designation 73/42.
1 Doan and Davis, Chetn. and Met. Eng., 1929, 36, 618.
5 Dean, Bauer, and Borglund, Industr. Engng Chcm., 1940, 32, 102.
6 I.P. Serial Designation 70/42.
7 Petroleum World, 1913, 10, 268, 324.
8 R . and M. o f Aeronautical Rosearcli Committee, No. 906, 1923.
0 Physics, 1933, 4, 97.
10 J . Inst. Pet., 1936, 22, 1.
II J . Inst. Pet., 1936, 22, 11.
12 Industr. Engng Chon., 1935, 27, 977.
13 ,/. Inst. Pet., 1936, 22, 21.
14 B.S.S. No. 188, 1937.
16 Private communication.
16 Second Report on Viscosity and Plasticity, 1938. Prepared by the Committee for
the Study of Viscosity o f the Academy of Sciences at Amsterdam.
17 A.S.T.M. Standards on Petroleum Products and Lubricants, 1941, 2 pp.

C. C. Wakefield cC- Co., Ltd.,
Hayes,
Middlesex.

110.THE INSTITUTE OF PETROLEUM.
A m e e t i n g of the In stitu te of Petroleum was held a t the Junior In stitu tio nof Engineers, 39 Victoria S treet, London, S.W .l, on Friday, 29th January,1913, a t 4 p.m. In the absence of the P r e s i d e n t , the Chair was occupied
by Dr. F . H. Garner.
The following paper was read by Mr. J. C. Cragg :—“ Viscosity M easurement and Viscosity Index.” By J. C. Cragg, B.Sc.,
A.I.C., and E. A. Evans (Member of Council) (see pp. 99-109).
D IS C U S S IO N .
T h e C h a ir m a n s a id t h a t th o p a p o r w a s a v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g o n e a n d s h o u ld s e r v e a s av a lu a b le fo c u s fo r d is c u s s io n o n th e q u e s tio n o f th e a c c u r a c y o f v is c o s ity m e a s u r e m e n ts .

Before the discussion began it would bo interesting to consider tho way in which
the requirements of accuracy were stated in the I.P . standard method, first withregard to scope, and then with regard to the apparatus. The statem ent under thelatter head was as follows : “ The apparatus shall be of the capillary type, and shallbe capable, with proper manipulation, of measuring viscosity with an error not greaterthan 0-3 percent, within tho viscosity range with which it is to be used ” ; i n other words,
tho figure might bo either 0-3 per cent, over or 0-3 per cent, under tho true viscosity,and ho thought that was on tho high side. Tho error in tho procedure was again to be
not more than 0-3 per cent. Therefore, if one happened to have an instrument which
was 0-3 per cent, out, it was possible to have an additional error of 0-3 per cent.,
so that the result obtained could bo 0-6 por cent, too high or 0-6 per cent, too low, amaximum error of 1-2 per cent., as compared with tho A.S.T.M. figure of 0-8 per cent.
However, it was the probable error that should really be considered rather than tho
maximum error, and it could be assumed that the probable error would be about
half the maximum error, so that the viscosity determined according to the I.P. standard
method should bo within 0-3 por cent, of tho true viscosity.
With regard to Table V, Sample A, which had the highest viscosity, had a Saybolt
Furol viscosity of 310, so that it was possible that that oil was not a lubricating oil,but a fuel oil of the Bunker C ty p e ; the deviation in tho kinematic viscosity was twico
the deviation in the Saybolt Furol viscosity, which was rather unusual, so perhaps it
was justifiable to leave Sample A out o f consideration.
Another point was that the Kinematic Viscosity of laboratory No. 8 was low
compared with the other figures. I f these values were omitted, tho accuracy would bevery considerably improved.
Mr. Cragg had referred to the work of tho International Standards Association.
That work had involved tho use of a series of U-tube viscometers calibrated by the
N.P.L., which were circulated.to all the standardizing authorities. The tim es of thosetubes were first determined by the N.P.L. on two o ils ; then the viscometers weresent out to the various countries, with three other oils, and the tim es were run together
with the kinematic viscosities determined by tho standard method in uso in theparticular country concerned. Tho results, unfortunately, had not been completed,owing to the war, but a number of results had been obtained, which Dr. Barr sent to
him last week, and he proposed to put them on the blackboard at a later stage of themeeting.
P r o f e s s o r G a r n e r subsequently wrote :—The point has been made in tho paper that tho accuracy required in viscosity
determination for actual lubricating-oil requirements is much less than that specified
in Standard Methods of Test but the accuracy lim its in viscosity determinations are
determined by specification requirements. It is generally agreed that- the figures^

VISCOSITY MEASUREMENT AND VISCOSITY IN D EX .

DISCUSSION.

Illquoted in specifications should be taken as absolute— that is, that it is not permissible
to include experimental errors and therefore if the viscosity requirements specify figure
A and the experimental error is B, then tho viscosity which actually has to be m et is
A + B or A — B, depending on whether A is a maximum or minimum viscosity.
Where there is no great difficulty from the supply point of view in meeting the viscosity
requirement, very great accuracy is not required in laboratory determinations, and thus
the figure B can be made much larger than is specified in the Institute of Petroleum
Standard Method, still making sure that tho absolute requirement of the specification—
namely, A —is met. On the other hand, in the cose of high-viscosity-indcx oils, itm ay be dosirablo and necessary for tho supplier to have available viscosity methods
and apparatus which enable him to meet tho specification requirements with tho
minimum of error, and for this purpose B should be as low as possible— for example,
as specified in the A.S.T.M. procedure, ± 0 -2 per cent.
Tho second point concerns the accuracy o f the Redwood Viscometer. The Instituteof Petroleum Standardization Sub-committee dealing with the Redwood Viscometersome years ago.spent much time trying to improve tho possible accuracy of the instru­
ment, as, for example, by increasing the accuracy with which the orifice tube is drilled,
and it considered for this purpose the use o f stainless steel. A Redwood instrument
as an absolute viscometer has two fundamental faults : (I), A shortness of the capillary
tube and tho difficulty of manufacture with reasonably fine accuracy ; and (2) tho factthat the jet is not maintained and cannot bo maintained at the temperature of test,
since the bottom plate of the part of tho viscometer bath containing the oil is exposedto the atmospheric temperature.
Thus, as laid down in the Standard Methods of Test, it is not advisable to use times
in the Redwood viscometor for conversion to centistokes, as tho accuracy expected incentistokes by the I.P . method is greater than that which can be obtained with tho
Redwood instrument.
D r . G. B a r r , referring to the early history of the U-tubo viscometers, said thatwhen he first had some viscosities to measure, all that ho could buy in the way ofU-tube viscometers from tho laboratory furnishers was an Ostwald viscometer, andhe had no idea what the capillary would bo, the tim e of flow, or anything else. He
looked at a number of different types and patterns of viscometors that had been got
out, and it appeared that tho type which had now been adopted by the British
Standards Institution offorcd conveniences, in that one did not need a pipette forfilling it and did not have to weigh it when it was filled. He had calibrated a seriesof those tubes, as Mr. Cragg had pointed out, by comparison with an absolute visco­
meter of which the capillaries had been measured fairly carefully, b y comparison with
tho then accepted value for water and by stepping down, assuming Stokes’ law, fromthe viscosity of a certain viscous syrup o f about SO poises. (In those days poises
were used, and not stokes.) When ho had completed the calibration ho had compared
the figure with that given by Bingham for a 60 per cent, solution of sugar of extra­
ordinarily high purity. Ho him self bad not got any of this grade, so ho used A.R.
sugar. He worked out a curve or formula expressing Bingham’s results, and assumed
that he eould calculate the viscosity of an approximately 60 per cent, sugar solution
from the density. That formula was subsequently adopted in tho first B.S.R specifica­tion, and he might remark that, over tho rango in which he had used it, which ho
thought covered m ost o f the range which was given in the specification, and with all
tho different brands or typos of sugar which he had used, he had always obtainedconcordance within about 0-3 per cent. A t that time 0-3 per cent, was consideredextremely good. The only time he got a 60 per cent, sugar solution which did notagree was whon he had some super-pure sugar, which he eventually discovered had arather strong sm ell o f alcohol. As Mr. Cragg had remarked, he did not then check so
exhaustively the viscosity o f a 40 per cent, sugar solution, and he had not done so since.
Having regard to the difficulty of preparing and measuring a solution of 60 per cent,and measuring its viscosity without picking up water, he thought at the tim e that if hecould repeat tho 60 per cent, sugar solution, the 40 per cent, sugar solution must be
right, and he left it at that, and the value based on Bingham’s results was incorporated
as a standard for the calibration o f N o. 2 viscometers in the B .S.I. tubes. Since thenhe had reason to believe that that standard differed by J per cent, or so (sometimes
it was 0 and som etim es it was 1) from the standard obtained with 60 per cent, sugar,

CRAC.G AND EVANS :112

and o f recent years, when asked to calibrate a viscometer or to determine the viscosityof an oil, he had always taken great care to state in his report whether it depended
on a viscosity of GO per cent, or a viscosity of 40 per cent. I t was obvious that for theviscosity index determinations one must have only one of the two. He did notthink it mattered very much which it was, but, since the GO per cent, sugar solution
had to bo used for the higher and it agreed with other determinations, if one used asugar solution at all the 60 per cent, sugar solution was the obvious one to use.
There- was a more disturbing fact, to which Dr. Steiner had directed attention, andwhich had also been brought out in the calibration of the thirty-two viscometers used
for the international calibration to which Dr. Garner had referred—viz., that thecalibration constant could on occasion vary with the time of flow. From the seriesof I.P. viscometers to which he had reforrcd he had selected the extreme examples.
H e had compared an oil which gave 909 seconds in the one that he kept at the Labora­
tory with the flow of that oil in each of the other viscometers, and ho had done the samewith another oil of 113 seconds. The worst of the No. 2 viscometers gave a ratio of
tim e of flow of 0-715 for the oil of 909 seconds, and 0-7130— i.e., differing by 2 in 700—
for the less viscous oil o f 113 seconds. That result wa^ not too bad, especially as tho
No. 2 viscometer was tho one which had been giving m ost trouble. W ith the No. 3
viscometers, however, the ratio changed from 0-881 to 0-88G when the tim e varied
from 1G0 to 480 seconds, so thore was the 4 per cent., or a little more, straightaway.
Ho was not propared to say what that variation could be duo to, but one obvious
suggestion was that, when one had filled to the filling mark and the oil had been sucked
up into tho timing bulb, there was a certain amount of oil left in the lower bulb, thoquantity of which might vary with the viscosity of the oil. That was all very well,
but what one was concerned with was not that quantity of oil, which it was true would
make a difference in tho viscosity, but tho variations in tho quantity of oil between
different viscometers, and, if tho variation of 1 per cent, or so was to be assigned to tho
oil which was left behind in the lower bulb, the quantities of the oil left behind mustvary between different viscometers, and not only in the same viscometer.
Itr Table IV the authors had listed the results of some oil determinations of about
twenty-one centipoises, and said that whether the three laboratories which agreed—
namely, the British, American, and Dutch—used B.S.S. viscometers was not recorded.
In that connection he would say that the Bureau o f Standards alm ost invariably useda Bingham type of viscometer, w ith applied pressure; the British N .P.L . used a
B.S.I. instrument, and ho was not sure what tho Dutch used. He was almost certainthat the German laboratory would not have used a suspended-level viscometer, which
was due to Ubbelohde, because Dr. Erk had a special absolute viscometer o f his own
at the Reichsanstalt, and the oil determinations there were presumably based on thatabsolute viscometer. Ho might say that Dr. Erk’s figures had tended to disagreo withthose of the other countries in other determinations. A pair of U-tubes had been
circulated about 1934 for calibration by different countries, and in that case also theGerman laboratory was different. W ith regard to tho French determinations, theEcole Nalionale used to use a Louis viscometer of an absolute typo, and in the com­
parisons to which ho had just referred there was a very serious discrepancy between
tho French determinations and the remainder.
He had not studied the question of the correct method of assessing possible errors inresults if an error of 0-2 per cent, was made in three different connections. I t was
truo that the error might be the sum of all of them, but he thought that in general, as
Dr. Garner had remarked, the probable error was not really the whole sum.
Dn. N . A:
said that in listening to tho paper he had been constantlyreminded of the story of the student who took the result of a mathematical calculation
to his professor, the figure he had arrived at being 0-525643, and the professor looked at
the figure and said : “ Well, I do not know about the 643, but the 525 is certainly
wrong,”He entirely agreed with what the authors had said in the last paragraph of theirpaper, that there was a tendency' to overdo viscosity' index, particularly in connection
with commercial specifications. He thought it was a kindly warning that the authors
had given, lest one day it might be necessary to meet a specification with a minimum
V.I. of 64 and a maximum V .I. of 65.
There was one point to which he would like to refer in connection with Tablo IV.
In 1938 he had sent an identical sample to the French naval laboratories at Toulon,
n f if o c

o f fVISCOSITY MEASUREMENT AND VISCOSITY IN D E X .— DISCUSSION.

]1 3

Paris, and Rouen, and to laboratories at Antwerp, Berlin, and Strasburg, and also to tho
N.P.L., and tho difference in viscosity was of tho order of 0 or 7 per cent. I t wasinteresting at tho timo to noto that his own laboratories showed a very much smallerdifference between themselves than the three standard laboratories, and also that they
were closer to the N.P.L. than to any of tho Continental laboratories. Their instru­
ments were based on American standard calibration. I t was interesting to see that thefigure which Dr. Barr had obtained at tho N .P .L ., and tho figuro obtained at the
Bureau of Standards had only ^ of I per cent, difference between them. Dr. Barr’s
results really corroborated what he had found, that the English figures were very
different from those of the French and Germans. H e had found exactly the same thing
in the sulphur determination of a lubricating oil.
D r. B r o o m

s a idho

w o u ld

lik efirs t o f a lltoc o n g ra tu la teth ea u th o rs

onth e irth o u g h t- p r o v o k in g p a p e r, w ith m u c h o f w h ic h h e w a s in c o m p le te a g re e m e n t.

When the tendency to uso kinematic viscosity grew up among petroleum teclmologists
they probably thought that by abandoning, or partly abandoning, tho use of tho R ed­
wood viscometer and changing over to kinematic viscosity, they were giving them ­selves a better tool, which was correct; but perhaps they also assumed that theywould obtain better results and do a bettor job of work just because they were using abetter tool, and that, of course, did not follow at all. In genoral, the U-tube type ofviscomoter would give better results, but it must bo recognized that tho same degreeof painstaking work was necessary in order to obtain accurate results; in other words,
it was necessary to observe all tho details about tem peratme, and so on, just as
carefully as with tho Redwood instrument. The point was that, if that was done,
then a better and more correct result was obtained than with the Redwood viscometer.
With regard to tho quostion of sugar solution, ho had tried at differont tim es tocalibrate No. 2 B.S.I. U-tube viscometers with 40 per cent, sugar solution, and ho had
compared the answer with what he obtained when he stepped up from a viscometersuitable for the use of water. He always found a difference in the two methods ofapproximately £ per cent. A t first he thought that that'was probably his fault, that
he had made somo mistake, but after it had happened more than twice he began tothink that tliore might be something wrong w ith the 40 per cent, sugar solution, and hebelieved that had been the experience of several people. Quite apart from the question
whether tho 40 per cent, sugar solution or the GO per cent, sugar solution was right orwrong as a basic standard, ho had always thought.that its use was not a good method
to stipulate in a standard methods book, because the tendency would then be to assumo
that it was a method that could bo applied in alm ost any laboratory and the ri ght answer
obtained. Dr. Barr had referred to the difficulties experienced in working with a sugar
solution, and they were very considerable, because tho solution was hygroscopic, andit was necessary to take fairly elaborate measures to ensuro that the particular specimen
the density of which was being measured remained the same when in the viscometer
and while it was being used. Ho did not think that was a simple sort o f thing for aroutine laboratory to do. It might be that a sugar solution could be used satisfactorily
in laboratories such as those mentioned in Table IV of the paper; for instance, theN.P.L.
In considering the question of accuracy in general, ho had always regarded it as
being composed of three parts. Firstly, the question of tho basic accuracy came downin the end to an absolute measurement made on a pure chemical liquid, a liquid ofdefined and reproducible properties, of which pure water was probably the simplest
example. Unfortunatoly it possessed a viscosity which was far too low for most of the
purposes in question, and, if a suitable hydrocarbon could be found which had a vis­
cosity more approaching that of a lubricating oil and well-defined properties which
could bo checked, that would be a considerable help. Would all tho various instru­
ments which measured absolute viscosity in the various standnhlizing laboratories
give the same answer when measuring the same liquid ? Ho was referring now to theabsolute instrument, not to any instrument calibrated from it. In other words, what
was the viscosity of water ? Was everyone agreed on the viscosity of water at 20° C. ?
I f not, it would not bo possible, as far as ho could see, to obtain agreement between
the various standardizing laboratories. I f there was agreement on that basic standard,
the second question was whether the subsidiary instruments, such as the Ubbelohdo,
the B .S .I., and so on, when they were calibrated or the smallest on oin each range wascalibrated with water, would still give, over the whole range, correct answers when

114

CRAGG AND EVANS :more viscous liquids were used. Was the design of each of those viscometers satis­
factory, so that they would give the same constants over long times of flow and shortones, duo allowance being made for the kinetic energy errors, and so on ? There
was the third error, which he supposed might be described as an operational error,
and that embraced all the experimental details, such as making sure that the tempera­ture was right and that the viscometer was upright in the bath, and all the operational
details of a particular determination. Having regard to these three types of error,
his own opinion was that, at the present time, it would be optimistic to expect anabsoluto error in a viscosity determination of less than ± J of 1 per cent., although theoperational error was much less, probably ± per cent.
W ith regard to the estimation of viscosity index based on viscosity measurements,
he thought that the authors really accepted the viscosity index principle and its uso
generally; ho did not get tho impression that they were opposed to its uso. I t should
be realized, however, that in tho case of tho lighter oils tho viscosity-index system
was certainly not uniform. Consider, for instance, the theoretical highest maximum
viscosity index of ,an oil, when tho viscosity did not vary at all, but was tho sameat 210° F. as at 100° F. Tho viscosity index could bo worked out for oils of different
viscosities, and in the case of the thinner oils the figure was very high, being 366 for an
oil of 2 cs., but as the viscosity of tho oil increased it flattened out at about 150 for an
oil of 50 cs. viscosity. That must be an indication that the viscosity-index scale itself
was not linear; in other words, an error of 5 viscosity units would not mean the sameon any part of tho sealo.
M r . J. C a n t o r , referring to tho question of calibration, said it had been shown thatin order to obtain results of the desired reproducibility, it was essential to have a single
calibrating liquid only. It was necessary to consider which substance had suitable'characteristics so that it should be selected as the sole standard. Considering theexistent standards first, water had certain disadvantages. First of all it was of low
viscosity and it gave an extrem ely short tim e of run when it was used for calibrating
viscometers. For instance, in the case of the No. 1 Ubbelohde the tim es of run
were about 100 seconds at 20° C. and about 68 seconds at 100° F ., which were much too
short. Sugar solutions presented difficulties which had already been mentioned.
First, they wero hygroscopic, and, secondly, it was difficult to measure the density
to five decimal places, which was necessary when sugar solutions were used. Further­more, there was tho doubt with regard to the figures for the 40 per cent, sugar solutions.
In addition, there was an inherent difficulty about all aqueous media if they wereused for calibrating viscometers which were then going to be used for the determinationof oil viscosity. For example, the surface tension of water and of sugar solutions
was of the order of 75 dynes per centimetre, whereas in tho cose of oil it was about
30 dynes per centimetre. That led to considerable errors, for which the A.S.T.M.
attem pts to compensate. In the case of tho calibration of the square-shouldered
Ubbelohde, the A.S.T.M. determines tho constant o f tho instrument with waterand multiplies that constant by 1-0035 in order to get the correct constant for oilviscosity measurements. In the case of tho spherical-shouldered Ubbelohde, theeffect of the surface-tension differences was supposed to be eliminated, but there seemed
to bo some doubt about that. It had been stated by Cannon and Fenske, he believed,that the error in going from water to oil with the usual capillary viscometers was of theorder of 0-3 per cent, to 0-5 per cent., and in general it was obviously difficult to assess
accurately the necessary correction.
Other liquids had been suggested as primary standards; for example, Steiner had
suggested aniline, which had certain advantages. Its surface tension was muchnearer to that of oil, being 44 dynes per centimetre, and it had a kinematic viscosity
o f 4-5 centistokes at 20° C., which gave sufficiently long tim es o f run to diminish
considerably the timing errors. Slight oxidation apparently did not affect tho viscosity
o f anilino much, and it seemed to be a promising material.
H e would like to suggest another material for consideration, namely, eetane, thediesel-engine standard. Cetano (n-hexadecane) had a viscosity of about 4-5 centistokes
at 20° C. or 68° F. It had a melting point of 65° F., and the temperature of 68° F.
might be too closo to that for safety, but the tim es of run would still be sufficiently
long at 77° F. and at 100° F. for the tim ing errors to be small. Its surface tension
was obviously of the correct order. There would be no difficulty in using for themeasurement o f oil viscosity a viscometer which was calibrated with eetane. It“VISCOSITY MEASUREMENT AND VISCOSITY IN D E X .— DISCUSSION.

115

would be necessary, of course, to establish that tho different batches of engine-standard
cotane all had the same viscosity or could bo converted to the samo viscosity bymeans of a simple treatment. A number of official laboratories would have to determine
tho viscosity of cetano with extreme accuracy and to agree upon a figure, and thencetano could be used for tho standardization of tho No. 1 Ubbelolido, tho No. 50
Fenske, and the Nos. 0 and 1 U-tubo viscometers. Tho other viscometers in eachseries could then be calibrated by means of a very careful stopping-'up process. All
the viscometors would then be basod upon a single substance and there should beinterconsistency in calibration constants. Possibly somo other substance might befound to bo more convenient, but cetano appeared to be the only stable hydrocarbon
which was availablo and which had suitable viscosity characteristics.
There was an alternative method of clearing up the calibration difficulty, which
was loss attractive theoretically—namely, to abolish primary standards altogether andto calibrate viscometers with secondary oil standards only. These should be issued
by a single authority, such as tho N .P.L. That single authority would measure
the viscosity of these oil standards with a single master instrument, or with instruments
whoso constants had been obtained on the basis of tho master. All viscometers in
uso would then refer back to that master instrument, leading to interconsistency intheir calibration constants.
Some such scheme as tho above would seem to be necessary to eliminate the existentconfusion in the field of viscometer calibration.
Mr. J. R o m n b y , referring to the question of the possible error in viscosity determina­
tion, said it was mentioned in tho paper that the error due to one degree deviationfrom the vortical should not exceed ± 0 -2 per cent. In tho case of temperature
measurement the temperature m ight be too high or too low, giving a deviation in either
direction, but in tho case of deviation from tho vortical was not tho error in one direction
only? Did it seriously matter, for all tubes, whether the tube leaned over in one
direction or tho other ? Tho error was not a plus or minus figure. I t had been worked
out that tho possible error on the basis of tho B .S.I. tubes was tho sum o f the various
errors, and that was 0-85 per cent. I t was also suggested that tho probable error
wos likely to be about half that, which was fairly reasonable, but it should be re­membered that tho errors due to different points might cancel one another out, andtherefore, on this basis alone, the probable error became half. Having regard to thefact also that tho probablo errors due to each point were them selves likely to be 50
per cent, of the possible errors, ho thought it was reasonable to assumo that the probablo
error was about one-quarter of the possible total error, i.e., ± 0 -2 per cent., which was
in line with the 0-3 per cent, mentioned in the I.P . Standard Methods for Testing.
At the same time it was important to realize that one could not work out possible
errors by calculating theoretical errors duo to the different points. The possible errors
were those which did actually arise. A series of tables was given in tho paper showing
the results obtained by different laboratories, and it must be remembered that thesewore laboratories which wore examining oils under conditions in which they knewthat the results would bo published, so that extreme care must have been taken in thedeterminations, yet the maximum deviations were a good deal larger than would
suggest the accuracy which it was claimed that it should be possible to obtain. There­
fore under present conditions too much reliance should not be placed on viscosity
determinations to within very close limits; Tho effect on the viscosity index had been
mentioned. The viscosity index was undoubtedly a very useful tool, but did thedeviations which resulted from viscosity errors matter very seriously ? He regarded
tho viscosity index as giving a general idea of tho viscosity temperature curve ofan oil, and he did not suppose that two or throe points either way, or even five points,
mattered very much. Dr. Anfilogoff was anxious about tho appearance in specificationsof too narrow lim its and referred to a maximum V .I. of 65 and a minimum V .I. of 64,
but personally ho did not think that anyono would specify a maximum V .I .; itwould be only a minimum. I t was well known that an oil with a V .I. of 70 was a gooddeal better on tho viscosity temperature curve than oils of 35, and the effects of viscosity
errors on viscosity index were probably not very important, outside specification work.
Tho viscosity index was basod originally on viscosities at 210° F. and 100° F,., and hethought it was rather a p ity that tho temperature of 210° F. had been adopted;
it was not a suitable temperature, because it did not allow of wator being used as thebath liquid. Ho thought it would bo very useful if somebody in this country could
KCRAGG AND EVANS

11 6

find tim e to draw up a table from which could be calculated the viscosity index fromviscosities at 200° P. and 100° P. That should be quite feasible; it would involve a
good deal of work, but some public-spirited person might be willing to do it. A t the
moment the temperature <*f 210° F. had to bo used, and he would bo interested to havesuggestions of a suitable bath liquid for that temperature. The I.P . book mentioned
oil, but that would be rather unpleasant when one had to lift the tube out of the bath.
Ethylene glycol hall boon suggested, and he thought that would be a good deal better,but it was almost impossible to obtain it at the present time. He did not know of any
other suitable bath liquid.
It was stated in the paper that the reference oils calibrated by the N .P.L. could be
used as secondary standards, but that they must be re-checked periodically, and ho
would bo glad to have some information about the changes which had been found tooccur in oils in storage in stoppered bottles kept in the dark. H e thought it was
unlikely that m ost laboratories would have their reference standards checked as
frequently as was suggested in the I.P . book, and he would like to know what would
happon if the tim e between checkings was rather longer than the time mentioned in thebook.
It was rather disturbing to learn that the factor for a particular tube might varywith the different tim es o f rim, and he would like to have some information about theidiosyncrasies o f tubes that caused these changes. I f thero was anything that one could
actually look for, it would be a good deal simpler than having to obtain the factors
against the numerous standards that were suggested in the paper.
subsequently wrote :Since commenting at the meeting on the calculation of the probable from a series ofpossible errors, I havo taken the opportunity of looking up this subject and of dis­cussing it with mathematicians more expert than I. It seems that the result depends
on the interpretation of the term “ possible.” I t is hardly' true to say, in the instanceunder discussion, that the possible errors are those which w ill never be exceeded.
I f it is assumed that a possible error is one which will not bo exceeded more than oncein five times, then inference to a table of the Probability Integral shows that theprobable error of a measurement with a possible error of 0-1 is :M b . R o jin e y

0-6745 x 0-1
1-2816The square o f the probable error of a sum of quantities is the sum of the squares of theprobable errors of the separate quantities. Hence, for the series of possible errors
indicated by the authors, the probable error is := ± J { x i U r i } 2 <°'12 + ° ' 12 + °'22 + 0-52 + ° '152) = ± ° '218G p °r centI f the possiblo error is one which is likely to be exceeded only once in ten times, thefactor becomes :—0-67451-6449and the probable error works out at ± 0-1703 per cent.
Even if the possible errors are those which are as likely to be exceeded as not, theprobable error becomes ±0-4153 por cent., which is lower than the ± 0 -5 5 per cent,mentioned in the paper, but it is unlikely that the authors intended this interpretation
to be placed on the term “ possible error.”This would appear to suggest that errors in the calibration constants aro mainly'
responsible for the relatively large differences between the viscosity' figures reported bydifferent laboratories on the% same oils.
M r . J . S. J a c k s o n thought that ample evidence had been given in the paper and in
the discussion to show that the idea that the true viscosity of an oil could bo determinedwithin ± 0 -2 per cent, as an ordinary' routine operation was a pure m yth. I f it was apure my^h, he thought something should bo done about it and the Institute shouldtake the matter up strongly with the A.S.T.M., because their method, whatever itreally' meant, gave the impression that with the apparatus in question that degree of

VISCOSITY MEASUREMENT AND VISCOSITY IN D E X .

DISCUSSION.

117

accuracy could bo obtained in ordinary commercial laboratories. I t had been said
that five points on the viscosity index did not make a great deal o f difference, butthat was not the case if one had to supply an oil of 100 viscosity index and happened to
produce one that was 95 by mistake. On the other hand, if the specification called
for an oil of 100 K .V .I., it was obviously not feasiblo to make one of 105 for safety.
With regard to the question of the No. 2 B.S.I. viscometer, an effort had been mado
to get out of the difficulty by saying that “ it is recognized that the figures for the 40 per
cent, sucrose solution m ay require revision.” Dr. Barr had also admitted that he hadreason to believe that the 40 per cent, sucrose figures might not bo very accurate.
Personally he subm itted that the average man in the average laboratory up and down
England was probably not in a position to appreciate this very unfortunate state ofaffairs, and if ho bought a No. 2 N.P.L. certified B .S.I. viscometer, he would naturally
expect it to enable him to determine accurately the viscosity of an oil. If, however, it
gave him a figure which difforcd by about 1 per cent, from the result obtained with a
No. 3, he might get into serious commercial difficulties. Therefore he would suggestthat the Institute should take the matter up with the B .S.I. or the N .P.L ., and in themeantime it was suggested that all reference to the B .S.I. viscometers should bedeleted from the Institute’s Method Book.
Mr. E. A. E v a n s said that Mr. Jackson had made remarks that he had intended to
make. Tho Chairman had suggested that there was a legal mind behind the paper,and that thoro had been a good deal o i care exercised in the wording of it. Mr.
Marlow, who was known to m any of the members, gave a series of lectures on Law
which he had attended. In those lectures Marlow impressed upon his hearers the greatneed for thinking as the legal mind thought. Presumably it is to collect the facts inlogical sequence, and to assemble them with just sufficient gaps to leave room for anargument. In this paper the authors had purposely left gaps, to invoke argument.
Mr. Jackson had seized upon some o f tho gaps, and had spoken about them. No
one, however, had dared to say definitely whether the Americans were using the» Saybolt instrument as the basis for viscosity index. I t would be useful to have an
authoritative statem ent on this one point, because then we should bo in a better
position to gauge their accuracy of viscosity index. The essence o f this paper was tobring into bold relief that a high degree of accuracy is needed in viscosity determination
when an accuracy of a few points is demanded in tho calculation of viscosity index.
So long as the Saybolt instrument is the preferred instrument in the U.S.A., we neednot be too fussy about controlling the viscosity thermostats to plus or minus 0-025° E.
Lately some embarrassment has been caused by one of the Government Departments
domanding an oil with a particular viscosity index. The embarrassment lay, not in
obtaining the corroct viscosity index, but in deciding how many points above it it
would bo necessary to go to ensure meeting the specification. Clearly the answer lay
exclusively in the accuracy of tho viscometer which should be used. W hen viscosity
index is translated into pence per gallon, and gallons into thousands of gallons, theimportance of viscosity measurement becomes a little more obvious. Tho question
which must be decided sooner or later is whether kinematic viscometers shall bo usedon all occasions when viscosity index is to be calculated. No one seems to be boldenough yet to answer that question; it is one winch m ust be faced if we are expected
to state viscosity index to an accuracy of three points. In making this statem ent he
was not referring to the calibration of a particular instrument, or the measurement of
the viscosity of a particular oil, but to oils which are being mado and sold every day.
We are npt dealing with an academic question, but one of routine.
T h e C h a i r m a n then put on tho blackboard the following table, showing tho figures
he had received from Dr. Barr, to which ho had referred in his opening remarks.

Ubbelohdo.
.
.
.
Fensko .
.
.
.
.
Absolute.
.
.
.
U-tubo (I.P. Standard Method) .
K 2

1.

2.

3.

528-7
527-6
528-5
527-0

17-77
17-76
17-79
17-70

79-00
78-89
79-08
78-77

118

CRAGG AN D

EVANS :The table showed the determination made on threo oils in laboratories in America,
the last one being the figures determined in this country with the U-tubo viscometer.
Ho thought it would be agreed that the accuracy shown in those figures, which were
determined under conditions of extreme care, were very good and supported the
A.S.T.M. figure of 0-2 per cent. It was interesting to note that the figures obtainedin this country were a little low, as in Table TV of the paper, where the H.P.L. figure
was a little low as compared with the figure obtained by the Bureau o f Standards.
All threo types of instruments in the I.P . Standard Methods were represented.
It appeared desirable to review the work done for the International Standards
Association, and he hoped that at a later date it would be possible to present a paper
summarizing all the results. The results wore incomplete in the case of the Continental
countries, because the samples wore circulated only in May or June, 1939, and it wasfor this reason that no summary had y et been prepared.
Mr. R . F . H u r t said that attention had been focused m ainly on the calibrationof the instruments, but that it seemed to him that the oil also should be considered.
Mr. Evans had referred to an oil of Viscosity Index 85, that oil being loaded with
10 per cent, of additive. W hat effect would that additive have on determinationsof kinematic viscosities, and their reproduction by different laboratories ? D is­
crepancies, instead of being due to apparatus, could well bo inherent in the oil actually
under tost.
He had no doubt that all the figures given in the paper had boon determined on
beautifully bright, clear, moisture-free oils, but how m any of the members invariably
dealt with oils in that condition 1 A number were concerned with oils from ships’and shore tanks, or from batches in process of manufacture.. Such oils would containtraces of moisture, perhaps contain an unknown additive, or have been heated insome way immediately prior to test.
The details in the I.P . handbook for the Redwood instrument provided for thequestion o f the thermal history of the oil under consideration. It is laid down thatit should be heated in a stoppered container for 1 hour at 212° F. in a suitable bathmaintained at that temperature. In passing, he wondered how many laboratories,
when doing ordinary Redwood viscosities for works control, followed this procedure,and how m any took a sample, warmed it in a pan (which according to Redwood
dotails is not permissible), and measured the viscosity at once.
In tho older, less accurate Redwood method the advisability of a uniform heat
treatment before test is recognized. This is not tho caso with the newer system.
He felt that with regard to kinematic viscosities, there should ,b° some ruling as to aquick preliminary thermal treatment, and so far this lias not been given.
M r . L a t i t z k y said that his firm had done a fair amount of calibration of viscometers,
and ho felt that they coidd obtain an accuracy to within 0'2 por cent., provided they
could got a definite basic standard. That had been their main trouble. They could
got a viscometer calibrated accurately provided they had an exact and reliable figuro
for their standard. They found that tho temporature-control difficulty was not sovery great, but the difficulty of obtaining suitablo interconsistcnt standards was very
considerable.
M r . L a p i t z k y subsequently wrote to su g g est:(a) Romoval of the B.S.I. viscometers, and possibly tho Fenske viscometer fromthe I.P . Standard Methods. I know that apart from the question of accuracy manylaboratories have experienced difficulties in the use of B .S.I. viscometers, and there is afeeling that these are not really suitable for petroleum work.
(b) The abolition of primary standards, such as water and sugar solutions, the cali­
bration of viscometers to be effected by means of secondary oil standards only. Those
011 standards should be obtainable from one authority only— for example, the N.P.L.—
who null guarantee their viscosity on tho basis of a single master viscometer, thoconstant o f which shall be determined from first principles. This authority might
issue sub-master viscometers, ca! ibratod against the master, to other official laboratories,
who would then be in a position also to issue secondary oil standards; all those second­ary oil standards then being strictly interconsistcnt.
(c) An alternative scheme would be the establishment of cetane, as suggested by Mr.

V IS C O S IT Y M E A S U R E M E N T A N D V IS C O S IT Y I N D E X .— D IS C U S S IO N .

119

Cantor, as a primary standard, provided this material can be obtained in a sufficiently
pure stato and is stable in storage. The higher viscometers in the usual range would
then bo calibrated by a careful stepping-up process.
(d)
In any case supplies of cortified pure cetane and/or o f certified secondary oilstandards should bo availablo from the I.P . The certified values allocated to thesestandards should definitely correlate w ith the oil standards supplied by the A.P.T.
Mn. H . L. W e s t said that ho would like to tako the authors to task on one point.
They referred in their paper to the conversion of Redwood units to kinematic units.
This should not be done; convert kinematic to Redwood, but not Redwood to kine­
matic units. (See “ Standard Methods for Testing Petroleum,” Fourth Edition, 1942;
Appendix, p. 383.)
He agreed with the authors that it was possiblo to obtain considerable variationin the calibration constants with viscosity using B .S.I. tubes. In comparing the same
N.P.L. calibrated B .S.I. tube with three different Ubbelohdo tubes, ho had found that
there was quite a large error, according to the time of flow, in the B .S.I. tube, amounting
to about 0-7 per cent, with an oil of 152 centistokes, although at 351 centistokes the
B.S.I. tube appeared correct. This is illustrated in the figures below.

Ubbelohdo
Viscomotor
No.

Viscosity of
secondarystandard oil(contistokes).

3/20

_____
—

—
3/21

484-0
; —
____ -

Viscosity of oil
according to
N.P.L. B.S.I.
tube(centistokes).

Calibration
constant ofUbbelohdo
tube.

152-3
269-7
351-3

0-92210-92190-9183

_____

1-288
1-234
1-234
1-229

152-3
269-7
351-3

>>

—

3/22

78-99
528-6
484-0
74-02

_ _

—

152-3
269-7
351-3

_____

—

—
—
—

1-002
1-004
1-001
1-002
1-008
1-005
1-001

It will bo seen that the calibration constants of tho Ubbelolide tubes arc constantagainst tho secondary standard oils, whereas against the oils tho viscosity of which
has been determined in the B .S.I. tube, the constants vary appreciably.
Since tho laboratory w ith which he was associated had had as much experience
as anyone in the use o f those more or less accurate methods of determining viscosity,
ho would outline tho proceduro adopted. In tho first place they used tho Ubbelohdo
tube, and made a practice of having one or more tubes in each range carefully cali­brated against secondary standard oils, using these as master tubes for calibrating!
other viscometers for use in tho laboratory. Having satisfied themselves that thomaster tube was as accurate as could be obtained, the other viscometers were calibrated
against tho mastor tube, using a range of oils which were run in tho master tube at thosame timo as in tho tubo boing calibrated. B y that means he thought they obtained
fairly good calibration ; also they made sure that tho calibration did not vary over tho
range by more than ± 0 1 per cent.
W ith regard to the oil used for calibration, it was necessary to be quite sure that tho
flow of the oil was satisfactory— i.e., that it is Newtonian. In commercial work ho did
not think it mattered so much, but for calibration purposes it was a necessity. Thoy
made sure that only highly refined oils were used when calibrating against the mastertube. So far as temperature control was concerned, they controlled tho thermostats
used to within 0 03° F . o f the temperature of the test.

120

CRAGG A N D

EVANS :

H e maintained that the measurement of viscosity, provided a suitable tube wasused, could be carried out w ith quite good results. He had found that people with noexperience whatever who had visited their laboratory, obtained just as good resultswith the apparatus as those who had been doing such work for years. So much sothat he maintained that, if the control was taken out of the hands of the operator, ho
thought an intelligent monkey should be able to measure viscosity. The only possibilityof error was that dirt or. other oxtraneous matter would get into the tube, with the resultthat an incorrect tim e of flow would be given.
He thought it would bo very useful, particularly to the smaller laboratories, if theInstitute could arrange a source of secondary standard oils similar to those availablofrom the U.S.A. through the A .P.I.
D r . G. B a r r , replying to some of the remarks made in the discussion, said it was truethat the ejror due to inclination from the vertical was always in one direction for
instruments o f the Ubbelohde type, but it might bo in either direction for the U-tube
type.
W ith regard to the standardizing of the instruments, Dr. Garner had put on the black­board a collection of four results. Could it be assumed that at any rate three of thelaboratories in question had used the same standardizing oils to calibrate their visco­
meters ? I t was probable that tho determinations did not in all cases profess to bo
absolute determinations, starting from scratch.
T h e C h a i r m a n thought that the Bingham viscometer was the only absoluto visco­

meter used.
D r . B a r r a s k e d w h e t h e r t h e o t h e r v i s c o m e t e r s w e r e m e r e l y c a l i b r a t e d b y o ils
s u p p lie d fro m o u ts id e .
T h e C h a i r m a n said that he thought the first two would be considered dependent
on the third, but the fourth would be a combination o f the first three, the American
standard and the N .P.L . standard.
D r . B a r r said the point he wished to make was that uniformity of standards would
obviously inereoso reproducibility as between one country and another. I t was rather
difficult, he imagined, to interchange oil samples between tho U nited States and thiscountry and to rely on the viscosity of that oil boing constant for tho requisite numberof months or years.
The suggestion to use aniline as a primary substance was an interesting one, because
it might overcome some o f the difficulties which occurred in the stepping up fromwater.
W ith regard to stepping up from the assumed known viscosity of water to the viscosityof an oil by a series of instruments, he might mention that in the investigations to which
he had referred earlier in tho meeting the U-tubos which were used were not British
Standard tubes, because there were none. They were merely tubes which ho madeup with what ho thought would be suitable capillaries and which ho thought would
give similar tim es of flow, and they probably differed in a number of respects from the
British Standard tubes. In that case he had managed to get concordance between
the viscosity in the No. 3 range and the viscosity of water by stepping up, and heynight mention that when he first discovered the discrepancy in the 40 per cent,sugar solution, he thought tho simple and obvious method of getting over it would
be to step up from water, tas ho had dono before. H e therefore did that, with abrand-new set of tubes, but got no confirmation at all. Ho did not know then at
what stage in his stepping up the error had crept in, and he still did not know, because
it seemed to him that, in any series in which stepping up was done, if the calibration
constants could vary as they had been shown to do in some cases, the error was boundto occur. I f the variations were duo to drainage and similar things, surely thosetroubles would be liable to be just as marked in the Ubbelohde, and more marked in the
Fenske than they were in the U-tube.
H e would be very glad if a number of standardizing laboratories would accept one
tube in the oil range as being a standard tube. The absolute viscosity corresponding
with it might be subject to review occasionally. He would assume that he had a No

V IS C O S IT Y M E A S U R E M E N T A N D V IS C O S IT Y I N D E X .— D IS C U S S IO N .

121

2J tube which gave a tim e of flow of 200 seconds with a certain oil, and that otherstandardizing laboratories had a similar tube which would give approximately thesame time of flow. Then the instruments used in different commercial laboratories
could be compared directly in any country with those few standard tubes. He had
always been nervous about standard oils, because he had not information as to how
constant they were, but he had never had any indication that properly annealed glass
tubes at any time changed their calibration constant.
C o l . S. J. M. A u l d wrote : —My feeling for a long time has been that with the viscometers themselves brought tosuch a pitch of perfection that repeatability is consistently high, the difficulty of
reproducibility must be sought elsewhere than in the simple matter of a reading of atim e of flow.
While it is true that tho baths are laid down to be kept at the correct temperatureplus or minus 0'025° I*'., or a total variation of (M)5° F .,.I am open to doubt whether
this is in practice roally accomplished even in laboratories which are well fitted out.
Apart from the delicacy o f the thermostatic control, which itself m ust be good in orderto achieve the accuracy demanded, I am inclined not to believe that different partsof the same bath have the same temperature. Theso effects translated into termsof other people’s size and shape of bath, thermometers, thermostats, etc., m ay makethermomotric measurements much moro diverso than is generally considered.
E ven if the difference is only a total of 0-1° C., I make out the effect can be quite
marked even on an oil of only average Viscosity Index. On one of the following
characteristics :Viscosity at 210° F.
.
.
20-4 centistokes
100° F.
.
. 368
V.1.......................................................... 65
I have had somo approximate calculations made. As a general rule viscosity variation
per 1° C. between, say, 35° and 40° C. is from 5 to 6 per cent., according as the V.I.
moves from 100 to 0. An average figure fpr an oil of the type suggested would bo,say, 0-6 per cent, per 1° C., making a difference of 1 unit in the V .I. This difference
would, of course, be increased as the viscosity decreases, and could reach a maximumof around 6. These rough calculations would appear to confirm the findings in Table Iof the paper.
In connection with the diversity observod between different laboratories, I think
one of our first efforts should be that of finding out what is the accuracy of tho temporature measurement and control. It would look to me that the differences might easily
cover quite a wide range o f observed effects.
The following written communication was sent by M e . A k t h u r W. C o x :—Tho paper revives once more the thought that we are reaching a tim e when we needto consider whether tho viscosity question of such heterogeneous liquids as petroleum
lubricants can be dealt with adequately by one standard practice. There aro two aspectsof the subject.
The first is that o f research. We must continue to investigate the properties of thomaterials with which we deal, in order to secure the m ost efficient and economical
methods o f use. The work must be of a high degreo of accuracy, and requires the useof delicate apparatus under stringent conditions of control. I t will be time-consuming.
Tho second use of viscosity measurement is the practical one of scientific controlof supplies. It is dependent on the research work just referred to, but- does notnecessarily require the same type of apparatus or the same niceness of determination
or expression. The authors of the paper appear to consider that this practical control
work does not requirp the same conditions as research work, for, on page 3 of the pre­print, when referring to I.P . Method 70/42^ they say : “ This precision . . . is within
the requirements demanded by efficient lubrication.” There are others who willagree with this statement.
If, then, it is true that a robust apparatus of simple construction used understandardized conditions can give results which enable one accurately to classify andcontrol lubricants from the point of view- of viscosity, there seems to reason no specify
delicate and fragile apparatus which requires expensive and complicated controls,

122

CRAGG AN D E V A N S :in order to secure a degree of accuracy which is o f no practical value. There mustarise a time when we must recognize that fine differences in viscosity mean nothing froma practical point of view and that, although our methods m ay constantly be improvedin order to obtain extreme accuracy, the valuo of the rosults m ay be only academic.
A further important point emerges from the paper. It appears that the accuracyof the more scientifically controlled methods m ay not be so great as the specificationsof tolerances would indicate. I f this is true there is very good reason for the suggestionof caution in use and interpretation o f such results and in the plea for further investiga­
tion and consideration. The authors appear to have indicated a weakness in our
proposed methods, and I suggest that the problem will be simplified if wo remember that
wo are called upon to consider this question as part of the science of lubrication rather
than the science of viscometry.
Mr. J. C. C r a g g , in replying to tho discussion, said that previous speakers had
answered most of tho points that had been raised.
Tho Chairman had said that the new I.P . standard method did not really say that
tho apparatus would measure viscosity with a maximum error of ± 0 -3 per cent, butthat another possible error o f ± 0 -3 per cent, must be expected. He thought that thisought to bo made quite clear in the method of test, because anyone reading throughthe method was justified in thinking that any of tho viscometers described would
measure viscosity with an error not exceeding ± 0 -3 per cent, if all the refinementsof the method were observed, and the viscometers wore calibrated against any of thecalibration standards allowed.
He could assure Dr. Broom that ho did not welcome the adoption of viscosity index
as a clause in buying specifications, but, as it now seemed to have becomo establishedin some Government specifications, it was very unlikely that it could be dislodged.
With r e g a r d t o t h e r e m a r k s m a d e b y Mr. R o m n e y a n d s o m e o t h o r s p e a k e r s a b o u t
p ro b a b le e rro r , h e w o u ld lik e t o p o in t o u t t h a t w h e n th e a u th o r s re f e r r e d t o p r o b a b lee r r o r t l i o y h a d a r r i v e d a t t h i s q u a n t i t y b y a s s e s s in g t h e m a x i m u m e r r o r a n d h a d t h e n
c a lc u la te d th o p ro b a b le e r r o r b y m e a n s o f a fo rm u la . He q u ite a p p r e c i a te d th e f a c t
t h a t m o s t o f th e e rro rs m ig h t c a n c e l o u t, b u t so m e u n fo r tu n a te p e rs o n m ig h t m a k e
t h e m a l l o n t h e s a m e s id e .

He was very interested in the remarks made by Mr. W est. It had been well sub­stantiated in tho discussion, he thought, that tho calibration standards wore notinterconsistent. I t seemed to him that a high order of repeatability could bo achieved
if duo attention was paid to the purely physical side of viscosity determination, if all
the viscometers in use were calibrated against one standard only, and if the viscometers
were carefully checked to ensure that their calibration constants were true constants.
The general run of B .S.I. viscometers did not appear to give reliable results and very
little had been said about the Fenske. Tho general feeling was, he thought, thatsuspended-level viscometers were likely to bo tho m ost reliable type. It was notpossible to obtain agreement between different laboratories when all tho calibration
standards in question were allowed, unless the various laboratories all decided touse the same standard. A small difference in viscosity might influence tho viscosity
index considerably. I t had been shown that a difference in viscosity of 0-7 to 1 per
cent, could be obtained by the use of different calibration standards. It was fairly
obvious that this state of affairs could have m ost unfortunate consequences.
W ith regard to the storage of secondary oil standards, tho difference in viscosity
on an oil of moderate viscosity was, he believed, about 0-2 per cent, during a year’s
storage under ideal conditions. A conventionally refined oil stored imdcr similar
conditions might show a variation of anything up to 1 per cent.
W ith regard to tho liquid to use in the viscometer bath at 210° F., he could not suggest
anything other than white oil, ethylene glycol, or glycerine and water.
In reply to observations that it would be better to convert kinomatic viscosity to
Redwood viscosity than to convert Redwood viscosity to kinematic viscosity, ho would
say that tho idea of trying to assess the error arising from the calculation o f viscosity
index from measurements by the Redwood method was based on the fact that there
were so m any Redwood viscometers in existence. I t was necessary to look at thematter from the practical point of view, but the authors were well aware that it was
not a practice to be recommended.
He hoped that the various suggestions for arriving at a common calibration standard

V IS C O S IT Y M E A S U R E M E N T A N D V IS C O S IT Y I N D E X .— D IS C U S S IO N .

123

w o u l d b o p u r s u e d , a s i t w a s qV iite c l e a r t h a t u n t i l a l l v i s c o s i t y m e a s u r e m e n t s w e r e b a s e do n o n e s ta n d a r d th e r e w o u ld a lw a y s b e s o m e e le m e n t o f d o u b t e x is tin g a s to th e ir
re p ro d u c ib ility .
D it. A . E . D u n St AN, i n p r o p o s i n g a v o t e o f t h a n k s t o t h e a u t h o r s o f t h e p a p e r , s a i dt h a t h e h a d b e e n c o n c e rn e d w ith th e q u e s tio n o f th e v is c o s ity o f o ils fo r m o re th a n fo r ty
y e a rs , a n d w a s im m e n s e ly in te r e s te d in its d e v e lo p m e n t, th e m e th o d s o f d e te r m in a ­tio n a n d so fo r th , b u t h e p ro p o s e d to m a k e h is c o n tr ib u tio n to th e d is c u s s io n in th efo rm o f a w r itte n c o m m u n ic a tio n a t a la te r d a te .
T h e v o te o f th a n k s w a s a c c o rd e d w ith a c c la m a tio n , a n d th e m e e tin g th e n te r m in a te d .

124

WARTIME CHEMICALS FROM NATURAL GAS.*
Address before American Ijistitute of Chemists, Chemists' Club, New York.
23rd October, 1942.
>

By D r . G u s t a v E g l o f f . f

F o r m any years n atural gas has been used mainly for heating and genera­tion of steam and electrical power. In the last few years, however, thetem po of research and developm ent has increased enormously. A muchhigher field of utilization for natural gas th an as fuel is seen in the conver­sion of the hydrocarbons into superior aviation gasolines, lubricants,
synthetic rubber, explosives, acetylene, anaesthetics, plant-life promoters,
plastics, solvents, and m any other chemical derivatives. A v ast supply ofthese derivatives is available in n atu ral gas produced in this country.
The processes and m ethods for such conversion in some instances are
already in commercial use in the petroleum-refining and other industries.
Other methods have been worked out in the research laboratories, and theprocesses and yields th a t can be achieved are known; b u t it remains
necessary for further research to establish the means to reduce costs to thelevel of commercial practicability. Another wide avenue for future de­velopm ent in the natu ral gasoline and refining industries is thus foreseen.
N atural gas is consumed a t the ra te of over 2-6 trillion cu. ft. per year.
The U.S.A. has proved reserves of 85 trillion cu. ft. and another 85 trillion
as potential reserves. The yearly consumption of natural gas is equivalentin fuel value to 100,000,000 tons of coal or over 500,000,000 barrels of fueloil.
In the Axis countries m ethane gas is a widely used substitute m otor fuel.
As a m atter of fact, there are over 107,000 compressed-gas (methane,
ethane, propane, butanes) propelled m otor vehicles operating in continental
Europe, which conserved about 2,300,000 barrels of gasoline for m ilitaryuse. The compressed gas is sold a t filling stations in exactly the same way
as gasoline in the U.S. The gases are compressed under pressures up to
5000 p.s.i. into steel cylinders attached to the running-board of the car orunder the floor of trucks and buses. Ita ly has a num ber of natural gaswells, and is operating m any buses and trucks and a num ber of locomotives
on m ethane gas. This looks like a desperate measure, since on the average
about 135 lb. of steel are required for each of these high-pressure steelalloy cylinders in order to w ithstand the high pressures. The products offerm entation of sewage are also used as a source of m ethane gas in Germany.
M ethane from coal gas is used for running m otor vehicles of one sort oranother in m any of the European cities. Many coal-hydrogenation units
produce gasoline in addition to m ethane, ethane, propane, and butanes by
th e Bergius and Fischer-Tropsch processes. The la tte r process will be re­* Received 28th December, 1942.
f Director of Research, Universal Oil Products Company, Chicago, Illinois.

EG LO FF :W A R T IM E C H E M IC A L S F R O M N A T U R A L C A S .

125ferred to later in more detail, because it is a potential source of m any pro­ducts. Buses, trucks, tractors, and power shovels, num bering over 25,000
in the U.S., use compressed propane and butane. One truck company hasliquefied butane functioning in a dual role as a refrigerant for fruits andm eats, and as m otor fuel for the truck after the cooling has taken place.
Hydrocarbons present in natu ral gas are m ethane, ethane, propane,butanes, pentanes, hexanes, and heptanes, etc. The first four of these aregases, while from pentane on they are liquids useful as gasoline.
The individual hydrocarbons have a variety of uses in a num ber ofindustries. Propane has been suggested for use as a fuel for breaking inaviation engines on the “ testing block,” since it has a high octane value
and is readily available. Such a procedure would conserve the 100-octane
liquid fuels needed for fighter, bomber, and cargo airplanes in the war
effort. Other uses for propane which have gained wide commercial applica­tion are as refrigerants and solvents hi the refining of lubricating oils.
Paraffin wax, asphaltic substances, naphthenic hydrocarbons, and otherm aterials are elim inated from lubricants when propane is used as thesolvent. Over 50 per cent, of the world’s lubricating oils are improved inquality by th e use of propane.
Two hydrocarbons of great u tility present in natural gas are isobutane
and isopentane. isoButane is the key hydrocarbon in the production ofaviation gasoline by alkylation with olefins. In general, there is notenough isobutane available, hence it has been necessary to isomerize thenorm al butane present in n atural gas to the iso-compound. A num ber ofcommercial installations are in operation and under construction to iso­merize norm al butane to isobutane. Norm al and isopentane are alsopresent in n atu ral gas, and it is highly desirable to fractionate out the isocompound due to its 91 octane rating in contrast to the-normal, which has
an octane num ber of 64. isoPentane is blended with aviation gasoline inpercentages ranging from 10 to 20, depending on the other components inthe final blend.
Olefinic hydrocarbons not contained in natural gas as such, are im portantfor m any reactions, n ot alone for aviation gasoline, b u t for synthetic rubber
and a host of other products. There are several m ethods of producing
olefins from n atu ral gas : one is by high tem perature, and the other bycatalysis. The olefinic hydrocarbons which are now in great dem and are
ethylene, propylene, butylenes, pentylenes, and butadiene. N atural gas,
particularly th e propane-butene fraction, when subjected to high-temperature cracking, produces ethylene, propylene, butylenes, and butadiene.
Normal butane is readily converted into butadiene-in one or two stages bycatalytic means a t high tem perature, w ith yields reported of over 60 per
cent.
A branched-chain paraffin, iso-octane, is of great im portance in the' aviation fuel programme. There are two m ethods whereby this hydro­
carbon is derived, one is by polymerization, in which isobutylene is poly­merized to a dim er in the presence of phosphoric acid as a catalyst, isoOctene is the product, and on the addition of hydrogen, iso-octane results.
iso-Oetane has an octane rating of 95-100. Another m ethod of producing
aviation gasoline is to polymerize the propylene, butylenes, and pentylenes
present in cracked gases to a polymer gasoline under selective conditions

126

F .G L O F F :W A R T IM E C H E M IC A L S F R O M N A T U R A L G A S.

which on hydrogenation yields an aviation gasoline blending product of
90 octane rating.
The polymerization process has been largely replaced by the alkylation
process, in which isobutane is alkylated by butylenes in the presence ofsulphuric or hydrofluoric acid catalysts. The resulting alkylate ranges inoctane value from 91 to 96. The simplest of the olefins is ethylene, which
is used to alkylate isobutane a t tem peratures in the order of 950° F . andpressures up to 5000 lb. This reaction produces neohexane having anoctane rating of 94, an im portant hydrocarbon for aviation gasoline. In
addition to alkylating ethylene and butylenes, propylene and pentylenes
are also being alkylated with isobutane to form additional quantities of.
high-quality aviation gasoline. I t is proposed in some type of operation
to utilize the m ixtures of propylene, butylenes, and pentylenes in thealkylation reaction with isobutane, using hydrofluoric acid as alkylating
catalyst to produce alkylate of 91 octane rating, highly suitable for aviation
gasoline blending stock.
An im portant aviation blending fuel of an entirely different type iscumene, which is produced from the alkylation of propylene and benzene
in the presence of solid phosphoric acid. A num ber of commercial units
are now in operation.
Norm al hexane and heptane are two hydrocarbons which, from a motorfuel standpoint, are practically worthless unless their molecular structureis changed. Normal heptane has a zero octane rating and hexane about
25. These straight-chain paraffin hydrocarbons, hexane and heptane, canbe changed in configuration and also in their properties to improve theiranti-knock properties. Hexane and heptane can also be converted into
benzene and toluene— two im portant hydrocarbons for high explosives.
Benzene is of vital im portance in the production of styrene, which is pro­
duced by the alkylation of benzene w ith ethylene forming ethyl benzene.
Dehydrogenation of this compound yields stjrrene. W hen styrene (25 percent.) and butadiene (75 per cent.) are mixed in the presence of a catalyst
such as peroxide, polymerization takes place to form the synthetic rubber
Buna-S.
The synthetic rubber program me in the U.S. calls for 886,000 tons
as planned in Septem ber 1942, distributed as follows :Typos.
Buna-S .
Butyl
Neoprene

Tons.
705.000
132.000
49,000However, the recom m endations of the Baruch Committee called for an
increase of 220,000 tons to be apportioned as :Typos.
Buna-S .
.
.
.
.
Neoprono.
.
.
.
T h io k o l...........................................

Tons.
140,000
20,00000,000Of th e to tal 886,000 tons of synthetic rubber planned for the U.S.,
705,000 tons will come from butadiene arid styrene. The normal butane
th a t n ill be used for butadiene will represent about 80,000 tons a year,

E G L 0 1 ?F :W A R T IM E C H E M IC A L S F R O M N A T U R A L G A S .

12 7largely derived from n atural gas. One plant has a rated capacity of 06,000
tons, and the other 15,000 tons a year.
More th an 100,000 barrels a day of norm al butane are available fromn atu ral gas. I f this were used ju st for butadiene-making, it would satisfy
th e en tire butadiene requirem ents in our present synthetic rubber pro­gramme. Hence it can be seen th a t the natural-gas industry has more thanenough of the hydrocarbons which can be converted into raw m aterials to
supply the entire synthetic rubber programme. Another im portant sourceof butadiene is through the deliydrogenation of butylene derived from
catalytic cracking. This source will yield a t the ra te of 283,000 tons
annually.
Another ty p e of synthetic rubber is called Thiokol, m ade by chlorination of
ethylene, which is then refluxcd with sodium polysulphide. The synthetic
rubber programme calls for 60,000 tons of Thiokol yearly. Hydrogensulphide is present in varying percentages in natural gas, and is readily
converted into flowers of sulphur. This sulphur m ay react w ith caustic
soda to produce sodium polysulphide. After reacting ethylene with chlor­ine, the dichlorethane is formed which reacts with the polysulphide,
yielding Thiokol. The plans call for the use of Thiokol in re-treading oftyres.
Besides butadiene, styrene, and ethylene, a hydrocarbon of great im ­portance is acetylene, used in the production of the synthetic rubber,neoprene; it is also the base m aterial for nylon, a replacem ent product forsilk. Calcium carbide is produced from coal and lime in electric furnaces
requiring much electrical power. When w ater is added to this compound,
acetylene is formed.
_
N atural gas, or products therefrom, under high-tem perature conditions
readily yield acetylene. Two commercial acetylene units are being in­stalled a t the present time, one of which will produce a t the ra te of 75 tons
per day or 27,000 tons a year. Other units are also under way. The
charging stock m ay be either propane, butane, n atural gasoline, or fractions
from petroleum . I t is believed th a t acetylene can be produced a t a lower
cost from processing natural gas than by th e electrochemical m ethod of
producing calcium carbide. The natural-gas industry has enormousvolumes of propane and other hydrocarbons available to supply the wholeneeds of the U nited N ations for acetylene and its derivatives.
Germany uses acetylene made from calcium carbide, converting it into
butadiene by a four-stage chemical process. Neoprene rubber is madefrom acetylene treated with hydrochloric acid. This type of rubber will
be produced a t the ra te of 49,000 tons a year in the U.S.
The Russians sta rt prim arily with ethyl alcohol from grain to produce
butadiene. Butadiene from etliyl alcohol derived from grain will be oneof the sources in the U.S. synthetic rubber programme. The tonnage ofbutadiene from grain alcohol will be a t the ra te of 242,000 a year, represent­
ing about one-third of the Buna-S type production.
There are several other types of rubber which are in commercial produc­tion, one of which is the type based' on i'sobutylene from dehydrogenationof fsobutane from n atu ral gas or from cracking of oil. fsoButylene is
copolymerized with about 2 per cent, of butadiene or isoprene, resulting
in a product called butyl rubber. In the Government programme, this128

EG LO FF :W A R T IM E C H E M IC A L S F R O M N A T U R A L G A S .

type of rubber will be produced a t the ra te of 132,000 tons a year. B utyl
rubber, as of to-day, is not as good a synthetic rubber for tyre use as the
Buna-S. Tyres m ade of butyl rubber have a mileage life of about 12,000
miles, with-a maximum road speed of 35 miles an hour. This will naturally
be improved upon.
There is an im portant use for synthetic rubber which is fabricated so th a tbillions of m inute air-cells are p re se n t; it is used as a liner in gasoline tanks
in fighting, bombing, and pursuit planes. W hen a bullet goes through thetank, th e rubber causes i t to be self-sealing.
Another type of synthetic rubber is the acrylonitrile-butadiene which canalso be produced from natu ral gas, and is known as B una-N or Perbunan.
One of the necessary m aterials in the compounding of either natural orsynthetic rubber is carbon black, which is m ade from n atu ral gas. Carbon
black is an im portant component in tyres or other rubber goods, whether
it is blended with natural or synthetic rubber, as the properties of rubber,
particularly from the standpoint of the tensile strength and wearing qualities
under service conditions, are greatly improved. During the year 1940
about 369 billion cubic feet of natural gas were converted, largely by thechannel process (air oxidation), into carbon black, with an average of 1-54 lb.
per cubic foot of gas or about 285,000 tons, of which about 85 per cent,was used in tyres. Furnace black appears to be superior for use in synthetic
rubber.
The world’s natural-rubber production for 1941 was about 1,675,000
long tons, of which the U.S. im ported over 800,000 long tons. The U nited
N ations have lost over 95 per cent, of the world’s natural-rubber sources,
and R ussia has lost two of its synthetic rubber plants in the Ukraine.
W ith the trem endously increased dem and for airplanes, tanks, m otor­
trucks, ships, trains, gun mountings, etc., rubber is required in everincreasing quantities by both the fighting forces and the necessary civilian
users for the successful conclusion of W orld W ar II. A medium-size tankrequires 500 lb. of rubber, small pontoon bridges 1000 lb., for Flying
Fortresses, the gasoline tank alone requires 500 lb. of bullet-sealing rubber,while a large bomber uses 1250 lb., gas-masks 0-75 lb., and battleships
between 75,000 and 150,000 lb. Tyres for large excavation trucks usedby the Army have a diam eter of 9-5 feet and weigh over 3500 lbs. There
are m any hundred more products requiring rubber th a t are vital in the war
effort, such as blimps, barrage balloons, rubber boats, rafts, and life-saving
jackets and suits for flyers, hospital rubber needs, etc. Millions of soldierson the fighting fronts require rubber in one form or another.
The synthetic-rubber picture in the U.S., with its 886,000 tons a year a t
p lan t costs of about 8800,000,000, is already well under way. The
Baruch Committee has recommended th a t this tonnage be increased to
1,106,000 tons a year. In addition to being the arsenal for m any other war
products, synthetic rubber will also have to come from the U nited States
to supply our allies’ needs. I t may well be assumed th a t even 1,106,000
tons of synthetic rubber will be too low for the United N ations’ requirements.
The question- arises now : Is the synthetic-rubber product equal to thenatural ? In general, one can say th a t synthetic rubber is a t least equi­valent to the n a tu ra l; the chemist’s goal is not necessarily to synthesize aduplicate of natural rubbeu but it is certain th a t w hatever properties

EG LO FF :W A R T IM E C H E M IC A L S F R O M N A T U R A L G A S .

129rubber has th a t are needed will not only be duplicated, but radically im ­proved and new ones added. Synthetic rubber is superior to natural
ru b b er in gasoline, oil, and chemical resistance. The synthetic product ismore stable to light and air, and has greater wearing properties. Sometrucks using synthetic-rubber tyres have gone over 35,000 miles. Side­
wall tyre strength is greater, meaning greater safety and better road grip.
The la tte r property has been tested out thoroughly on w et and m uddy
roads. Tests on hills with different trucks have shown th a t the syntheticrubber-tyred vehicle goes up a hill with very little side-slipping, whereas thetyres of natural rubber slipped all over the road. On curves, when operat­
ing the ear a t high speeds, the synthetic tyre is safer th an the natural.
W ith th e num ber of research men in the field of synthetic rubber, withexpenditure of millions of dollars yearly, one can feel confident th a t syn­thetic-rubber tyres will evolve 114111 a life of at least 100,000 miles or, ex­pressed in another way, the tyres m ay well outlive the motor-car.
As far as the author is concerned, synthetic rubber in the U.S. is here tostay, and will be a perm anent industry during the next peace period. W ith
th e fall of Singapore our greatest source of natural rubber was cut off.
N atural rubber (December 1941) cost about 22 cents per lb. The priceranged through the years from 3-5 cents to over $1 per lb. I t can be stated
th a t synthetic rubbfcr in mass production will cost less than 15 cents a lb.
Does this m ean th a t n atu ral rubber will not have its uses ? As far as
tyres are concerned, it will not have the dom inating position it has held
heretofore. One m ay be certain th a t, good as synthetic rubber is to-day,
it will be far surpassed by th a t y e t to come. The properties of the rubber
desired will be under close chemical control, based on the high purity of
the components started w ith, catalyst, and precise conditions to yield thefinished product. N atural rubbers vary widely in properties, due to m any
factors. Producers of n atural rubber depend on the life-cycle of the jjubber
tree, climatic and soil conditions, while the chemically produced rubber
will have th e exact properties for which its structure and use were designed.
N atural rubber contains a num ber of unknown components, whereas syn­thetic rubber has one, two, or three components of known characteristics.
N atural gas is an im portant source of high explosives. In some p arts ofthe country it is being cracked into hydrogen, which is combined w ith thenitrogen from the air, producing synthetic ammonia. The ammonia isreadily oxidized w ith air into nitric acid. Combination of the ammonia
and nitric acid produces ammonium nitrate.
In W orld W ar I tli© maximum toluene production was a t the ra te of
15.000.000 gallons a year, and practically all came from coal-carbonization
plants to derive coke for steel-making, with toluene as a by-product. The
toluene production in W orld W ar I I from coal carbonization is a t the rateof over 25,000,000 gallons a year. According to published reports, thedem and for toluene is from 250 to 300,000,000 gallons a year—the difference
between the volume of toluene from coal and the to tal dem and will comefrom petroleum , i.e., ten to twelve tim es as much from petroleum. In
comparing the two wars, the dem and for toluene has increased fromsixteen to tw enty times. On a T.N.T. basis W orld W ar I called for150.000.000 lb., whereas the 'present war calls for 3,000,000,000 lb. a year.
Benzene is readily converted into carbolic acid or phenol through chlorina-

130

EG LO FF :W A R T IM E C H E M IC A L S F R O M N A T U R A L G A S.

tion and hydrolysis. Combine the phenol with nitric acid, and picric acid,a high explosive, is the re s u lt; and when synthetic ammonia reacts withpicric acid, ammonium picrate, another high-grade explosive, is formed.
The ammonium picrate- is relatively stable, but when picric acid is used,
it reacts readily with iron to form iron picrate, a very unstable compoundth a t has a habit of exploding when least expected. T hat is w hat
happened in a num ber of plants in World W ar I.
Many natural gases contain hydrogen sulphide, which, when oxidized
w ith air, is converted into sulphuric acid, necessary in so m any arts, p ar­
ticularly high explosives. A num ber of commercial units are producing
sulphuric acid based on hydrogen sulphide or elem ental sulphur produced
from natural gas as a starting m aterial. So we have sulphuric and nitricacid, both produced from natural gases, raw m aterials necessary for highexplosives needed in this present war, some of which are on a scale over
tw enty tim es th a t of W orld W ar I.
An im portant substance in war is glycerine for the production of tri­
nitroglycerine, th e commonest form of which is dynam ite. The m ainsource of glycerine has been in the splitting of fats to glycerine and fa tty
acids in the soap-making industry. As is well known, a campaign has
been launched by our Government for the conservation of cooking fatsof all kinds. These fats have m any uses, one of them being them anufacture of soap and glycerine. A few years ago a glycerine-making
process was developed by the petroleum industry, starting with propane
or propylene, which are chlorinated and then hydrolyzed to glycerine.
The glycerine is then n itrated to trinitroglycerine.
Nitroparaffins from n atural gas may well develop into one of the newer
and valuable sources of high explosives. M ethane gas, when nitrated,
produces tetranitrom ethane. This compound is the m ost destructive
explosive known to m an. This product is a very high explosive, extrem ely
difficult to handle. About tw enty years ago in a university laboratory in
Switzerland, they were working w ith tetranitrom ethane which is usually areaction product of toluene n itration in small concentrations. Ten gramsof tetranitromethane killed ten individuals, wounded tw enty, and nearlywrecked th e building. U nfortunately, no commercial process has been
worked out to make this product available for use by our arm ed forces.
Fig. 1 shows the im portance of nitro-compounds in the m anufacture of
explosives.
Anaesthetics are vital in a world a t war. One of the prim ary needs ofthe medical profession has been anaesthetics which have no post-operative
dangers due to pneumonia and nausea. Ethylene has been shown to haveproperties superior to those of ether and nitrous oxide. Deep surgicalanaesthesia is readily induced by ethylene, and insensibility to pain comes
rath er quickly. A general feeling of well-being and comfort, with noharmful after-effects, is present when ethylene is used. eycZoPropanc,although known since the year 1882, was still a laboratory curiosity until
the end of 1930, when it was first applied in hum an anagsthesia. I t has
since been rath er widely adopted as being one of the safest anesthetics.
cycZoPropanc, produced from either propane or propylene by a series ofchemical reactions, is less explosive in the hospital th a n either ether or
ethylene.

EG LO FF :W A R T IM E C H E M IC A L S F R O M N A T U R A L G A S.

131

Olefins have been investigated as fruit-ripening agents and for use in
inducing an accelerated plant-grow th. The first gas to be utilised for thispurpose was ethylene, which was first used in an impure form—the fumes
from a kerosine stove were found to be effective in bringing about the
ripening of citrus fruits. Ethylene was the agent responsible for the
ripening.
Nitro Compounds 1^Natural gas■Ammonia

Ammonia nitrate•Nitric acid*

Propellants
Smokeless powder
CorditeDetonators andFuses
Nitro m annitc

I

YHigh Explosives
Trinitrotoluol, T.N.T.
Dinltrotoluol, D.N.T.
Amatol, T.N.T., and ammonium
nitrateExplosive D, picric acid andammonium picrate
Trinifcroanisol
Pentlirite
Nitro-starch
Nitro-sugars
Nitroisobutylglycerine nitrate

Mixed acids(sulphuric and nitric)
Y
Intermediate Roosters
Tetranitro methylanilinc
Trinitro aniline, T.N.A.
llcxanitro-diphcnylaminc

1 F. H . Dottcnveich, Refiner, 1942, 21, £3, 51-0.
F i g . 1.

Ethylene and propylene stim ulate potato growth, and have been foundto shorten the growth season for tom atoes, grapefruit, and oranges. The
German Botanical Society reports th a t up to a 100 per cent, increase in theyield of potatoes can be obtained when the seeds are treated w ith ethylene,gas. “ The tubers of plants grown from seed potatoes which had been
exposed for 24 hours to atmospheres containing 7-5, 15, or 30jper cent, gas
a t 65° F were more numerous, larger, and richer in vitam in C. I t isclaimed th a t this'process is cheaper th an the application of hormones.”
Researches by the Russians on butylene gas showed a stim ulating effecton the m aturing tim e of such trees as the walnut, peach, apple, cherry, plum,
apricot, and pear. In periods when the season is too short to allow the fullm aturing, due to w inter w eather being so prolonged th a t flower-formationand fruit-setting are delayed, butylene m ay be used to hasten the growth
period. The procedure adapted to plant treatm en t consists of enclosing
the trees in ten ts or gas-tight covers for about two weeks before the norm alor desired leafing—i.e., sta rt of the growth cycle. Butylene is passed into
the te n t in about 1 p a rt per 100,000 p arts of air, a t tem peratures between
69° and 100° F. for a period of 1-2 hours.
Another m ethod for ripening fruits is to use pentylencs, hcxylenes, andlieptylenes from cracked gasoline. Addition products of the unsaturatedhydrocarbons derived from cracking, such as ethylene di-iodide, ethylene
butyrohydrin, ethylene acetohydrin, and ethylene formohydrin, are also
used as agents for furthering the ripening of fruit.
The skin of the green fruit absorbs the olefin or olefin derivative, destroy-

132

EG LO FF :W A R T IM E C H E M IC A L S F R O M N A T U R A L G A S.

ing the chlorophyll. The advantage in using liquids as ripening agents isth a t they are absorbed and continue their action after removing the fruitfrom the liquid; after storage under normal conditions, the ripening iscomplete.
Natural-gas hydrocarbons can he used as basic m aterials for the synthesisof plastics after forming oleflnic hydrocarbons. There are three basic
reactions which in various combinations are used to produce plastics fromthe derived hydrocarbons; th ey are oxidation, halogénation (mostly
chlorine is used), and polymerization. Stemming from these reactions, theentire plastics industry has built up new m aterials and replacem ent products
for m any structural m aterials and rubber. Fig. 2 shows some of thederivatives of the unsaturated hydrocarbons from natural gas.1
The m aterials which are outlined in the chart have m any uses besides
plastics, as the interm ediates .shown are a typical cross-section of thechemicals derived from natural gas. The finished plastics, as well as theinterm ediate compounds, find use as paints, varnishes, addition products
for lubricating oils, and moulded m aterials. Their interm ediates are usedas solvents, cleaning agents, and as additives for various types of products.
The coming im portance of plastics cannot be over-emphasized a t thistime, since airplane m anufacturing is calling for more of the plastics foruse in plywood planes. Steel now used in m any places is being replaced,by plastics. In the war industries, where the fabrication of planes takes
place, the m ethylm ethacrylate resins are used as the transparent, nonshatterable- p arts where great visibility is necessary, and this will u n ­doubtedly be used by the autom obile industry after the war. A highdegree of visibility from all over the m otor-car will be worked into the new
design, requiring less supporting framework, and a clear-vision rooftop
w ith sliding window will undoubtedly tak e the place of present designs.
In fact, the m otor-car of the future m ay well be substantially all plastics.
A t th e present tim e any of the components necessary for the m anufactureof plastics of all types can be m ade from n atural gas. One of the im portant
substances for the B akelite type of plastic m anufacture is formaldehyde,
made largely from the m ethanol or wood alcohol by th e catalytic reactionof carbon monoxide and hydrogen a t high pressures. F or a num ber ofyears formaldehyde and m ethanol have been produced from the oxidation
by air of natural gas. This process can be readily expanded to produce all
the formaldehyde necessary in the ever-expanding Bakelite programme.
The phenol or carbolic acid and cresols, etc., are also potentially available
from n atu ral gasoline.
One big field of research and developm ent th a t m erits discussion iscarbon monoxide and hydrogen, or the water-gas reaction to form hydro­
carbons. In the U.S. we have over 2-6 trillion cubic feet of n atural gas
yearly production. This gas contains about 80 per cent, of methane, which
can be converted into carbon monoxide and hydrogen by high tem peraturesin the presence of steam . In Germany the Fischer-Tropseh process has
been developed to produce oil from carbon monoxide and hydrogen a t thera te of about 15,000,000 barrels a year. The hydrocarbons produced arem ethane, ethane, ethylene, propane, propylene, butanes, butylenes,
1 R. L. Wakeman, 'Nat. Petrol. News, 23rd July, 1941, p. R-226.

Y

Polythene (plastics)

y ,. Vinylidene cliloride
E thyl alcohol
Ethylene:> E thyl chloride---- >■ E thyl cellulose>• Styrene
E thyl b enzene —->Buna-S(Rubber)

Polystyrene plastics

Ethylene dichloride —>- Rubbery arom atic condensation products
Ethylene chlorhydrin

TliiokolY

Acrylo nitrite

Vinyl chloride^ 33una-Ny/./Methyl acrylate

Polyvinyl
chlorideplastics

J

Polyinethylacrylate(plastics)

k Copolymers ofvinyl chloride
and vinyl acetate- > Allyl chloride — >• trichlorhydrin — >• glycerine

Propylene -•-isoPropyl alcohol

alkyl resins■>Mctliylmethncrylate

I>- Polym ethylmethacrylato (plastics)

Acetone.;Acetic anhydride "Butylenes- Cellulose acetato plastics

y . ( Polybutylenes) Paratone\V istancx
J Paratac- > 1 Butyl phenol -- Oil-soluble phenolic resins-)>-Buna-N

Butadiene

Buna-S"1y Synthetic rubbers—>■ Butyl rubber J

F io. 2.

134

EGLO FF :W A R T IM E C H E M IC A L S F R O M N A T U R A L G A S.

gasoline, gas oil, and diesel oil to solid paraffin wax. The reaction takes
place in th e presence of a catalyst, which m ay be oxides of nickel, chromium,or cobalt, using tem peratures of 400° P . and pressures of the order of 200 lb.
The gasoline produced by the water-gas reaction is poor in quality with
about a 40-octane rating. The gasoline has to be cracked therm ally or
catalytically into higher-octane fuel. The gasoline fraction boiling up to300° F. contains olefins which polymerize with each other to form lubricat­
ing oil. These lubricating oils are produced commercially in Germany, andsome of them are high grade. The balance of the gasoline fraction—theparaffins, hexanes, heptanes, octanes—m ay be therm ally cracked undercontrolled conditions to m ake more olefins, which in tu rn are converted
into lubricating oil by polymerization. A portion of the synthetic oil is ahigh-grade diesel oil w ith octane num ber of over 100. The diesel-oil
fraction is blended w ith lower-grade diesel oils to improve its quality.
Paraffin wax, which is also derived from the water-gas reaction, is oxidized
with air to make fa tty acids. The fa tty acids are reacted with potassium
or sodium hydroxide, and soap is produced. The last report out of Germany
is th a t one small cake of soap is alloted per inhabitant per m onth, and muchof i t comes from this paraffin wax. In 1938, and previous years also,
conversion of paraffin wax from the water-gas reaction, coal carbonization,and petroleum, was carried out, forming fa tty acids. In addition, thesefa tty acids are combined with synthetic glycerine to make fats for food.
Glycerine and soap are produced (U.S.) from the splitting of fats, b u t theGermans are reversing the process in order to produce edible fats for food.
I t is n o t the type of fats to which we are accustomed, but it is helpful under
the critical food conditions existing in Europe.
An enormous am ount of research is going forward in a study of n atural
gas and gasoline to enhance their im portance in the war effort—throughsolvents, plastics, high explosives, acetylene, synthetic rubber, lubricating
oils, and aviation gasoline. As a m atter of fact, if one starts w ith m ethanegas alone, all the known synthetic products th a t m an has produced inorganic chemistry can be derived, and there are over 500,000 different
ones. A n y synthetic product desired can be produced at a price; the hydro­
carbons are all potentially available to be converted into the manifold
products th a t m an requires in a m odern world.

ABSTRACTS.
PA G E

115 A
119 A

Geology and D evelopm ent
G eophysics
Drilling
Production
Transport and Storage
Cracking ...
H ydrogenation ...
Polym erization and A lkylation
Refining and R efinery P lan t

120 a

126 a
136 a
137 a
138 a
138 a
138 a

PA GE

C hem istry and P h ysics of P etro l­eum
A n alysis and T esting...
...
Motor F uels
...
...
...
Lubricants and Lubrication...
A sphalt and Bitum en...
...
Special Products ...
...
...
D eton ation and E ngines
...

140 a
142 a
142 a
144 a
145 a
146 a
147 a

A U T H O R IN D E X .
The numbers refer to th e A bstract Number.
The origin al papers referred to in th e abstracts m arked w ith an asterisk m ay beborrow ed by M em bers from th e In stitu te Library.
Albright, J. 0., 351
Alcorn, I . W., 368
Alexander, W. A., 368
Anderton, B. A., 393
Anglo-Iranian Oil Co.,
383, 390, 397
Ashworth, D. I., 384
Auld, S. J. M., 392
Ayars, R. N., 337
Banks, G-. B., 398
Barnard, E. R., 392
Barrer, R. M., 388
Barteil, F. E., 367
Barth, E. J ., 392
Benner, F. C., 367
Betts, R. L., 384
Blair, C. M., 388
Blumer, M., 397
Bouillion, L. F., 384
Burk, R. E., 384
Bush, R. D., 336
Byrkit, G. D., 392
Cabeen, W. R., 342
Chaney, P. E., 352
Chenicek, J. A., 390
Christianson, L. F., 385
Cook, A. B., 358
Cook, E. W., 392
Cozzens, F. R., 369, 373
Craft, B. C., 375
Crown, W. J., 338
Dahlgren, E. G., 365

Degnen, W. J., 381
Dennison, E. S., 360
Dodd, C. G., 367
Drennan, H. E., 390
Dryer, C. G., 390
Egloff, G., 383
Ellis, E. G., 392
Farrell, J. L., 390
Ferguson, F. A., 384
Fife, J . G., 397
Geddes, B. W., 392
Gleason, A. H ., 392
Grandone, P., 358
de Groote, H ., 388
Harper, S. H ., 395
Henry, R. W., 384
Hilton, P. E., 356
Hirsch, J. H., 388
Horne, J . W., 385
H unter, A. L., 342
Jones, G. W., 386
Kao, C. L., 389
Kasline, F. E., 335Katz, D. L., 376
Kearby, K. K., 381
Keiser, B., 388
Keith, A., 341
Kennedy, R. E., 386

Langhaar, H. L., 359
Layng, E. T., 383
Legge, D. A., 390
Liberthson, L., 388, 397
Lincoln, B. H., 392
Logan, J. L., 340
Lovell, L. L., 384
Malson, P. E., 384
Marks, E. M., 397
Miller, W. E., 386
Mitchell, R. W., 353
Montgomery, J. V., 384
Morway, A. J., 392
Munday, J. C., 390
Muskat, M., 372
Musselman, J. M., 392
McConnell, E. B., 392
McKeithan, D. R., 366
McMillan, F. M., 390

Rochner, T. G., 392
Rosen, R., 392
Shaw, S. F., 361, 378
Shoemaker, B. H., 392
Silverman, I., 392
Simons, H. F., 357, 370
Simpson, W. K., 390
Smith, E. G., 374
Smith, S. S., 379
Sterrett, E., 346
Stothart, R. A., 345
Sudholz, L. H., 392
Thomas, W. D., Jr., 392
Towle, B. L., 350
Transvaal Chamber ofMines, 391
Turkevich, J., 382
Tyson, C. W., 384

Noel, H. M., 393

Uren, L. C., 355

Oetjen, R. A., 389
Ortynsky, R. L., 393

Vance, H., 374
Veltman, P. L., 381

Plaza, J. B., 350
Power, H. H., 350

Walker, H. A., 392
Walters, W. D., 397
White, S. H., 397
Williams, N., 371
Wilson, G. M., 363, 364

Randall, H. M., 389
Reed, P., 377
Reed, W. W., 384
Rice, F. O., 397
River, W., 384

Ziegenhain, W. T., 394
Zimmer, J . C., 392

Geology and Development.
335. Edison O il-F ield. F . E . K asline. C alifornia Oil Fields, Vol. 26, Ju ly 1940June 1941.— The E dison oil-field is situ ated about 9 m iles south-east of Bakersfield,
Kern County, and has a proved acreage of 1360 acres, divided betw een N orth-w est
Edison area (110 acres), W est E dison area (120 acres), and E dison area (1130 acres).
According to th is report, th e first com pletion for the entire area was in the N orth­w est Edison district in 1928, and up to th e end of 1941 there were ten producing wellsin the same area, tw o of w hich were idle. Production is from th e W icker sand, asandy interval found at th e base of th e F ruitvale shale. T he area is com plicated byfaulting.
In 1931 tw o w ells were drilled in E dison area and 50 brl. per day of 13-7 gra\ ityoil were obtained from one of them . N o further drilling w as done until 1933, whenMonterey Exploration C om pany acquired certain rights. Drilling continued, and byK

116 AA B S T K A U 'l'S .

the end of 1934 there wore ten producing w ells in the area. In 1937 and 1938 fivewells were com pleted and seven unsuccessful ones were abandoned. In 1939 and 1940
there was no new a ctiv ity , b u t in 1941 eight new w ells were com pleted.
W est Edison area w as first proved in 1935, and in January 1939 nine w ells werebeing pum ped at th e daily average rate of 55 brl. of oil and 8 brl. of w ater. In
1940 four new w ells were drilled, and in 1941 five, raising th e to ta l num ber of pro­ducing w ells to eighteen. T hroughout th e field, w ater suitable for irrigation m ay beobtained from sands a t depths betw een 200 and 600 ft.
H . B . M.
336. R esu m e of O il-F ield O perations in 1940. R . D . B ush. C alifornia Oil Fields,Vol. 26, July 1940-June 1941.— I t is reported th a t to ta l production in th e State ofCalifornia for the last six m onths of 1940 am ounted to 112,323,908 brl. of oil and108,615,985 brl. of water. T he to ta l for th e w hole year w as th u s 223,292,063 brl.
of oil, a decrease of 961,730 brl. as compared w ith 1939. N evertheless there was asubstantial increase in production of oil in th e second half as com pared w ith the firsthalf of 1940.
Tables included in the report g ive sum m arized production records of th e five State
districts over six-m onth periods of 1939 and 1940; segregated d ata of production ofclean oil and w ater in various fields for the half-year ended 31st December, 1940;
average daily and closed-in production b y m onths for each field for the year 1940;
and average daily production and disposition of natural gas b y fields m onthly for theyear 1940.
A t the end of 1940, as com puted from A m erican Petroleum In stitu te statistics, there
were 145,566,524 brl. of crude and refined petroleum in storage in Pacific Coastterritory. This represented a decrease of 6,368,724 brl. com pared w ith a decreaseof 5,749,041 brl. in 1939.
6,467,000
brl. of crude and refined oil were shipped to A tlan tic Coast ports during
the year, or 491,000 brl. less th an in 1939.
On 1st February, 1940, prices of crude oil were decreased : h ea v y crude oils were
cu t 15% while higher-gravity oils were cu t proportionately less.
D uring 1940 only one new oil-field, D el Valle in Los A ngeles C ounty, w as discovered,but new productive areas were developed in already know n fields, chiefly at Dominguez,
Rosecrans, and W ilkington in Los A ngeles C ounty and a t Trico Gas, Kern County.
H. B. M.
337. W ebster A rea of M id w ay-S u n set O il-F ield. R . N . A yars. C alifornia Oil Fields,Vol. 26, Ju ly 1940-Ju n e 1941.— T he W ebster area of th e Sunset oil-field of the San

Joaquin V alley is situ ated in low foothills c u t b y num erous erosional valleys. In
1920 R . W . Pack (U .S.G .S. Prof. Paper N o. 116), described tw o producing zones inth e area, bu t since th a t tim e a deeper M iocene producing interval has been located,know n as the “ W ebster ” zone. T his report describes the deeper strata and correlates
P ack ’s findings w ith the further inform ation now available.
Structurally, th e W ebster zone interval is th e upper end of a plunging anticline
w hich ends in an elongated dom e where th e anticline intersects the monoclinal trendof the beds along the w est side of th e v alley. There is ap proxim ately 400 ft. of closureon th e dom e. T he zone is from 1600 to 2100 ft. and has a to ta l thickness of from
200 to 300 ft. In th e upper 150 ft. the sand averages ab ou t 50% of the total thickness,but in th e lower part th e proportion is considerably less. In m ost cases the oilsaturated sand is found in th e first 200 ft. of th e zone. T he oil-sands are not con­tinuous, neither do th ey occur a t th e sam e stratigraphical horizon throughout the area
ow ing to th e lenticular character o f th e form ations.
T otal m axim um proved acreage of th e W ebster zone is reported as 315 acres with
p oten tial locations for sixty-th ree w ells w ith 5-acre spacing; tw en ty-seven commercial
w ells h ave been drilled. W ells below th e m inus 1000 contour in a heavier drilled area
to th e south -east m ake considerable am ounts of w ater, in one case up to 90% . Total
in itia l production from all tw en ty -sev en w ells w as 2964 brl. o f oil, 13-9-15-60 gravity,and 261 brl. of w ater per d ay. In Septem ber 1940 th e to ta l for tw en ty w ells w as 813
brl. of oil and 2234 brl. of w ater per d ay. T hese figures indicate th e sm all amountof w ater produced originally as com pared to the large am ou n t now being produced.
H . B. M.

A BSTRA CTS.

117 A

W . J . Crown. C alifornia Oil Fields, Vol. 26, Ju ly 1940June 1941.— W ilm ington oil-field is situ a ted in the harbour district of the City of
Los A ngeles and has all the ad van tages of a field in th e im m ediate vicin ity of refineries
and a busy harbour. A ccording to th is report, it is of especial interest, in th at it
was th e first large tow n -lot field in w hich th e S tate law w as applied to regulate thespacing of w e lls ; it is one of th e few m ultiple-zone fields discovered in m any y e a r s;of th e Los A ngeles B asin fields, it is second largest in areal e x t e n t ; it contains one of
the largest reserves of oil in th e S t a t e ; gasoline obtained from th e crude oil has
probably th e high est octane rating in th e entire S tate ; and oil-zones are shallow.
Structurally, th e field is classed as an anticlinal fold w ith its main axis trending ina n orth-w esterly-south-easterly direction and cut b y a series of transverse faults which
in som e cases branch ou t in to m inor faults.
Production is obtained from four zones : Tar and Ranger of Pliocene age andTerminal and Ford of M iocene age. Oil in Tar zone, as its name indicates, is heavy,
w ith a gravity range of 13-15° A .P .I. W ith in th e Ranger zone there is a considerable
change in sed im entation and th e w id est gravity range of any zone is found— i.e.,
14-24° A .P .I.
The Term inal zone' is norm al as to sedim entation. In th e upper part, gravity ofthe oil varies b etw een 17° and 26° A .P .I., w hile in th e Lower Term inal zone it ranges
betw een 27° and 31° A .P .I. P roduction in th e Ford zone com es from a 700-ft. intervalof w hich 150 ft. is sand. G ravity of th e oil is betw een 29° and 31°. W ith th e exceptionof those in th e Ford zone, all th e sands are relatively high in porosity and perm eability.
I t is recorded th a t a large part of th e field, chiefly where only the R anger zone isproductive, has n o t y e t been developed, and it is the author’s opinion th a t if and when
all zones are developed b y opening up undrilled portions, ultim ate recovery from allzones w ill be approxim ately 700,000,000 brl.
B y 1st January, 1942, 140,201,679
brl. had been produced, leavin g an estim ated reserve of 559,898,321 brl. H itherto,
the field has averaged 35,050 brl. per acre, and it has accordingly a poten tial ultim ate
recovery figure of 175,000 brl. per acre. I t is further estim ated th a t the future lifeof the field w ill exten d over more th an th irty years, and th a t it w ill play a major partin the Californian oil industry for m any years to com e.
H . B. M.

338. W ilm in g to n O il-F ield .

339.* W ar and W ild cattin g. A non. Petrol. Engr, D ecem ber 1942, 14 (3), 14.— For
the past ten or tw elve years th e U .S .A . petroleum industry has been in a position to
produce a raw m aterial and its finished products in quantities far greater than the
consum ptive dem and, bu t th is condition no longer holds. The expanding need for
petroleum products w ill fu lly test th e a b ility to produce and m anufacture, and a m axi­
mum rate of w ithdraw al from underground oil reserves seem s im m inent. Frequently
the U .S. oil reserve figure has been given as 20,000,000,000 brl., and m any haveaccepted this qu an tity as being available for th e war effort, b u t the quantity w hich issignificant is th a t w hich w ill be available during the n ex t tw o or three years. Thislatter is n ot the sam e as th e figure quoted above.
The decline in discoveries over th e p ast five years, the lack of developm ent inproven and sem i-proven areas, and th e cessation of w ildcatting for new reserves in
tw enty oil-producing S tates show th a t th e U .S . production w ill be approxim ately
1.349.650.000 brls., 1,283,100,000 brl., 1,189,525,000 brl., 1,086,555,000 brl., and995.610.000 brl., in 1943, 1944, 1945, 1946, and 1947 respectively.
A study of th e history of oil production and th e econom ics of various m ethods ofrecovery reveals th a t it w ould tak e forty years to recover 16,360,000,000 brl. of
the estim ated reserve of 20,000,000,000 brl. In the period 1943-7 inclusive only
5,904,000,000 brl. are likely to be available w ith o u t severe w ater contam ination.
The barriers to w ild cattin g m u st be lowered, and th e w ildcatter should be given a
price which w ill encourage speculative undertakings, or else there w ill be a shortageof crude or of th e required ty p es of crude.
G. D. H .
340.* N ovem ber W ild ca ttin g F a ils to P rovide A dequate N ew F ields. J. L. Logan.
Oil W kly, 21.12.42, 108 (3), 14.— In N ovem ber th e num ber o f exploratory tests
completed was only 75% of th e average num ber set b y th e C.P.O. as the m onthly
goal this year. F ew if an y m ajor strikes were m ade, and tw o-thirds of the new
fields and pays were in areas where th e discoveries are generally not large— nam ely,
Illinois, Indiana, K ansas, N orth T exas, and W est Central Texas. In spite of con ­118 Aa b str a c ts.

siderable w ildcatting, no discoveries were m ade in California, Arkansas, Mississippi,
N ew Mexico, E ast Texas, U pper T exas Gulf Coast, L ouisiana Gulf Coast, Michigan,
and K entucky.
E ighteen new fields and eleven new p ays were discovered, a to ta l of only tw entynine instead of the m on th ly average of fifty-tw o hoped for. E ig h t gas-fields werediscovered, wfiile ten were expected. The R obertson field of W est le x a s is one of
the more im portant N ovem ber finds, and produces from th e Perm ian a t 5010—5950 ft.,bu t more developm ent is needed to fix its value. I t is on an anticline located bygeophysics and subsurface geology. Oil w as also found in th e Clear Fork sandy
lim e of the M onahans field, th e new p ay com ing in a t 759 b rl./d a y from 5633 5643
ft. The previous developm ent w as in th e Ellenburger a t 10,345 ft. A deep highg ravity oil-field and new p a y , and a shallow oil-field were found in Jackson Countyon th e Lower Gulf Coast of Texas. In Y oung C ounty tw o n ew M ississippian pays
were opened, and N orth T exas had tw o other new pays and three new fields. A shallow
gas-field and a minor shallow oil-field h ave been found in W est Central Texas. Tensleep oil production has been obtained in th e E lk B asin field of W yom ing, w hich has
given oil from the Frontier sands. T he new Horse Creek field of Laram ie County,
W yom ing, yields oil from the L akota a t 5451-5510 ft.
T ables give the results of w ild cattin g in N ovem ber 1942, b y S ta tes and districts,
and list th e new oil-fields and pays, w ith d ata on depths, form ation, production, typeof structure, date, and m ethod of discovery, etc.
G. D . H.
341.* Are Salt D om es G en etically R elated to Z on es of Crustal M egashearing ? A.
K eith, Oil W kly, 21.12.42, 108 (3), 24.— T he principal zones o f megashearing of the
Gulf Coast area have been m apped, prim arily on in-line evidences of vulcanism in its
m any forms, and on the bulky d ata about the co-a x ia lity of m an y recognized struc­tures, w ith extrapolation across th e num erous intervening m asked areas. I t has been
noted th a t nearly all th e more im portant salt dom es of L ouisiana are w ithin or near
the tw o ea st-w est zones of crustal m ob ility. T hese are tan gen tial to th e Gulf coasts.
In T exas the principal dom es are near the great n egative arc w hich defines the coast­line, and a rectilinear zone w hich transects L ouisiana from the north-east and is tangent
to th e T exas coastline near Corpus Christi. Subm arine salt-dom es h ave been foundbordering a long, deep, nearly rectilinear trough, w hich is in line w ith another mega­
structure.
Minor alignm ents of salt-dom es h a v e been n oted for a long tim e. Seismological
data show th a t th e great zones w ith in w h ich m ost of th e salt-sulphur domes lie havealso been centres of num erous seism ic disturbances.
I t seem s th a t the shaping of th e Gulf has been atten d ed n o t on ly by strong downward
crustal bending, b u t also b y deep near-shore penetration of th e crust. This assumption
gives a reasonable solu tion of a num ber of puzzling salt-dom e problem s, and suggests
th e w hereabouts of th e m ore prom ising areas for future d r i l l i n g ,G. D . H .
342. G eology of N orth -w est W ilm in g to n and Torrance F ields, California. W. R.
Cabeen and A . L. H unter. O il Oas J ., 14.1.43, 41 (36), 70.— T he W ilm ington oil­field is a transversely fau lted anticlinal nose, plunging north-w est. The various
fau lt blocks differ as regards oil gra v ity , g a s/o il ratio, p rod u ctivity, and edge-water
lim its. Shallow production com es from th e Tar zone of Middle R ep etto (Pliocene)age. T he R anger (Pliocene) and Term inal (Miocene) zones are n o t productive through­o u t th e tow n -lot area. T he R anger zone is 240 ft. th ick , and lies im m ediately above
an unconform ity. T he Ford zone is productive only in th e sou th -east part of the
tow n-lot area. I t is 700-800 ft. thick. T he Lower Term inal an d Ford zone possi­
bilities h ave n ot been fully exploited.
T he Main zone production a t Torrance is roughly eq u ivalen t in age to th e upper
T erm inal of N orth-w est W ilm ington, w hile th e D el A m o producing zone is roughly
eq u ivalen t to th e low er-m iddle and upper-lower part of th e Ford zone a t W ilmington.
Torrance is a com plex structural nose plunging sou th -east, and generally agreeing with
an irregular ridge of th e basem ent sch ist. T he north-w esterly rising sch ist ridgechanges direction w hon it nears tho coast and becom es more northerly in trend. The
D el A m o production is generally lim ited to th e sou th -w est flank of th e structure,w hile th e Main zone production is chiefly on th e north-east flank. T he structural
closure decreases w ith distance ab ove th e basem ent, but n ot so rapidly as would be

ABSTRA CTS.

119 A

expected if it were w holly due to th in n in g and differential com paction of the beds
over th e ridge. N ear th e Torrance Harbour C ity area the Torrance nose dies out ina south-easterly direction into th e flank of the W ilm ington structure, whereas theW ilm ington nose dies ou t in a north-w esterly direction into the flank of the Torrance
structure.
The m ovem ent of th e fau lts of th e N orth-w est W ilm ington plunging nose was largely
horizontal, little vertical m ovem en t being apparent.
G. D. H.
343.* D ecem b er W ild cattin g Y ields but One First-C lass F ield. Anon. Oil W kly,
18.1.43, 1 0 8 (7), 18.— D uring D ecem ber 1942, 201 w ildcat w ells were com pleted, lessthan tw o-thirds of thff num ber considered to be th e safe m inim um m onthly average.
The discoveries were m ainly of a secondary or minor im portance, 17-9% of the w ild ­cats being successful. There were nin eteen new oil-fields, three d istillate fields,
four gas-fields, and ten new p a y s in established fields. T he O.P.C. programme isbased on th e drilling of six ty -tw o successful w ildcat w ells per m onth, ten of whichshould prove new gas-fields.
Only one o u t of th e th irty -six discoveries seem s likely to be an im portant field,
although a second is im portant because of its rem oteness from areas of establishedproduction. T he im portant strike w as a t Q uitm an in W ood County, E ast Texas,
7 f ml. sou th-w est of th e yo u n g and im portant Coke field. The discovery well flowed
at the rate of 726 b rl./d ay, w ith a G.O.R. of 316 and a casing pressure of 660 lb ./in .2.
The oil is from th e P alu x y at a d ep th of 6280-6310 ft. The field is on an anticlino
outlined b y geophysics and geology, an d it m ay have further p a y s in the Lower
Trinity.
The E ast Strand field of K ern C ounty, San Joaquin V alley, discovered late in
N ovem ber 1942, is estim ated to h a v e a reserve of a t least 5,000,000 brl. A 125-brl./day
pumper has been opened in Clarke C ounty, M ississippi, and th is field promises to leadto more prospecting w hich m ay ex ten d in to Alabama.
A new shallow field and new zones in three established fields have been opened in
Illinois. A bout 50 brl./d a y were obtained from the discovery w ells of each of the five
new fields of K ansas. Oklahom a had a new oil-field, a new gas-field, and a new pay.
A poor producer w as com pleted in W ise C ounty, N orth Texas.
A table sum m arizes th e results of w ild cattin g in th e various S tates and districts in
December 1942.
G. D . H .
I
344.* N ew O il- and G as-F ield s and N ew P ay H orizons D iscovered in the U nited States.
Anon. Oil W kly, 18.1.43, 1 0 8 (7), 19.— A table gives d ata about th e thirty-six su c­

cessful w ildcats com pleted in D ecem ber, and in som e cases in N ovem ber 1942. The
data include nam e, cou n ty , com pany, w ell location, distance from pipe-line, datespudded, date com pleted, to ta l depth, depth of com pletion, nam e, age and typ e ofproducing form ation, in itia l production, m ode of production, oil gravity, ty p e ofstructure, and m ethod of discovery.
G. D . H .

Geophysics.
345.* R ad ioactivity D eterm in a tio n s Set P rod uction D elim itation s. R- A. Stothart.
Oil W kly, 4.1.43, 108 (5), 19.— T he precise determ ination of radioactivity at the earth’s

surface is n ot now generally considered to be capable of locating possible oil reserves,
because of th e in ability to distin gu ish betw een em anations from oil deposits and fromcertain buried minerals. H ow ever, it now seem s to be possible clearly to define theproductive lim its of a field once a w ell h as found oil and the radioactive characteristicsof the locality h ave been determ ined.
Crude oil has a relatively large cap acity for absorbing radioactive em anations, andthis feature is apparently its sole source of rad ioactivity. I t absorbs 40—50 tim es asmuch radon as does w ater a t tem peratures betw een 20° C. and 50 C.. and so only
hot, highly m ineralized w aters are likely to approach crude oil in radon-absorbing
capacity. N atural gas does n ot absorb radon. A v a riety of rocks which m ight
provide the em anations absorbed b y crudes h ave been exam ined, and also the crudes
from the fields where th e rocks were obtained. T he crudes were found to containseveral tim es more radon em anation th an m ight be expected from a stu d y of the rocks.

120 aA BSTRA CTS.

In finding the lim its of production in an area w ith a producing w ell, 4-ft. holes are
drilled, and a sample of gas is drawn from th e b ottom of th e hole for a determ inationof its degree of radioactivity. On p lottin g a profile of th e in ten sity of em anation, thebest oil production is found in the crestal region of th e profile. T he m ethod has beentested on wedge, fault, and other typ es of oil-fields, and good agreem ent found withthe drilling results. The thinning of oil-sands is also indicated.
The m ethod m ay reduce, if not remove, the need for drilling a series of dry holes
in order to define the lim its of commercial oil production in a field.
G. D . H.

Drilling.

.

346.* R evised Operating P ractices P rolong R ig Service. E . Sterrett. O il Wkly,
9.11.42, 107 (10), 41.— In a long paper, m aintenance h in ts and m ethods are detailed

w ith a view to lengthening th e life of drilling equipm ent. Mud pum ps and lines,
draw-works and their com ponent parts, drill-strings and bits, boilers, and paint on
all th is equipm ent are each discussed separately. Since th e preservation o f th e metal
is dependent on the continuity of th e protective coating, p ain t now stands high in thelist of m aintenance “ to o ls,” and regular painting is incorporated in the work schedule.
E quipm ent w hich is tem porarily idle, such as sand-line equipm ent, is cleaned andpainted at the first opportunity. Cleaning, n ot just w iping off w ith a rag moistenedw ith kerosine, is now required before the p ain t is applied. W here steam is available
on the rig, m ost parts w hich have acquired coatin gs o f dirt and grease are steamcleaned by flushing off all surfaces w ith a jet of steam , loaded w ith w ater or kept as
dry as possible, depending on the equipm ent being cleaned and th e arrangementsfor proper drainage of th e run-off.
If the equipm ent is paraffin-coated, as is often th e case on w ork-over jobs, theaddition of some commercial solvent to th e steam -jet greatly speeds up th e cleaning,
and also leaves the surface in condition for p ain tin g w ith o u t th e n eed of w iping down.
An item of equipm ent, steam -cleaned, w ill dry quickly unless p ock ets retain condensa­
tion, and the painting m ay follow closely behind th e steam hose. Care must be
exercised w ith the use of th e steam -jet to p revent th e force of th e flow forcing grit
and w ater into close clearances in th e join ts of certain equipm ent, packing, and similar
points ; but for the preparation of broad surfaces the je t is fa st and saves much handlabour. Flam e-cleaning of drilling-rig equipm ent is confined to relatively few itemsof the operating class, though it m ay be used on boilers, stacks, steel mud-pits, flumes,
steam- and m ud-lines, w ith ou t injury to the m aterial being prepared for painting. It
is also useful in cleaning the racks m ade of old pipe, b u t should n o t be used on any
galvanized steel, such as derrick substructure and beam s, even th ou gh th e conditionof the galvanized coating is so bad as to require p ain tin g as a m atter of preservation
rather than to preserve appearances. T he procedure of p ainting and m aintaining thecoating is detailed.
H o t enam el coatings, such as those used for protection of pipe-lines, are being usedby som e com panies for m uch o f th e equipm ent form erly considered fully expendable.
The big-inch pipe used as m ud flum es on m any rigs, for instance, is thoroughly cleaned,
and then given a brush coat of enam el inside and ou t. T h is coatin g is h igh ly resistantto th e scouring of th e cu ttin gs carried in th e m ud-stream , and if given proper careduring location shifts, th e flume w ill o u tla st several using bare pipe alone. Other
item s coated w ith h ot enam el are water- and m ud-lines, pum p-skids, and other equip­
m ent w hich m ust lie on the ground throughout th e drilling program m e. The enamelm ay also be used on steam -lines to ad van tage if th e y are to be lagged, b u t otherwiseth e tem perature of the steam inside th e lines is to o high to perm it the coating toretain th e desired hardness.
A . H . N.
347.* R ebu ild in g by M etallizin g for S u rface-W ear E x te n sio n . A non. O il W kly,
9.11.42, 107 (10), 64.— W ear of bearings and other con tactin g parts in oil-field equip­

m ent m ay be segregated into tw o general classes : th a t in w hich th e wear impairs
the structural strength of th e u n its and increases hazards ; and th a t in w hich abrasion
incroases clearances anil encourages leaks w ith o u t reducing th e initial factor of safety
below the point of safe operation. In th e latter class m ay be set m uch of the wear
on such reciprocating parts as pum p plungers, engine pistons, crossheads and guides,

A BSTRA CTS.

121 A

and compressor r o d s ; oscillating parts such as pum ping-unit irons, plug-valves, andcam-follower p in s ; and rotatin g parts such as cam -shafts, crankshafts, sheaves, andfollower rollers. A lm ost w ith o u t excep tion , design of these parts is to a specified
factor of safety, w ith th e lim iting dim ension being taken as the n ex t commercial size
greater th an th a t indicated by evalu ation of th e design formulae.
W here such wear is know n or m ay be dem onstrated to have left unimpaired theinitial design factor of safety, application of additional m etal through metallizing,enables th e low spots to be built again to dim ensions, the desired surface finish again
attained, and th e part th u s restored to service. M etallizing is not to be considered as a
welding operation. N o fusion of m etal betw een th a t of the part under repair and thestream of m olten particles issuing from th e spray-gun is attained. The bond is purely
m echanical, and as such can n ot be considered as adding to the tensional, torsional,
or bending strength of th e part. T he sprayed film is, however, resistant to com ­pression or crushing to th e ex te n t to w hich th e added m etal is itself resistant or, if
hard m etal is being applied over softer core m aterial, to the ex ten t the core is resistant.
The m ethod is described in detail (see A bstract N o. 363 in the Production section
for similar description).
A. H . N.
348.* C hain-D rive M ain ten an ce P ivots on Lubrication. Anon. Oil 1Vkly, 9.11.42,
107 (10), 72.— W hile th e in stallation of a chain is n ot difficult, reasonable care should

be used in its operation and m aintenance. T he greatest handicap to the dependability
and serviceability of roller chains is avoidable abuse. Periodic inspection, goodm aintenance, and, m ost of all, correct lubrication, w ill prevent the necessity for
replacing chains and sprockets prem aturely. To secure m axim um life and efficiency,
the three factors of chain alignm ent, chain adjustm ent, and chain lubrication shouldbe frequently checked to ensure preservation of conditions attained at tim e of
installation.
Shafts m ust be parallel, level, and rigidly m ounted. Sprockets m ust be in linewith each other and securely fastened to th e shafts. Inner faces of inner links should
be exam ined for wear from con tact w ith th e teeth of sprockets improperly adjusted
for all drive factors. T he sides of the sprocket teeth should be exam ined for wear,
this being consequent to m isalignm ent and non-parallelism of shafts, and conditions
thus indicated should be corrected before the m aladjustm ent has caused serious
deterioration of th e drive. L ink-plate outer edges should be exam ined, and any
highly localized brightness should be regarded w ith suspicion as th is, in common
with tigh t joints, m ay be traced to th e running of the chain w ith inadequate clearance,
the links striking again st som e obstruction. Centre distances should be adjusted
occasionally, on such drives as perm it th is aid to prolonging drive life, to take up
slack as it develops.
D etails are given for th e proper use of lubricants and for the correct placing of idlers
to ensure m axim um life of chains. Chain repair is briefly discussed.
A. H . N.
349.* B etter W ire-R op e Care W ill P ay B ig D ividends.
A non. Oil W kly, 9.11.42.
107 (10), 104. — Cleaning wire ropes before lubrication is fully discussed. Since not

only the individual wires, b u t th e strands them selves ten d to open up and m ove withrelation to one another w hen p assing around a sheave, lubricant should be applied
at a bend in the line if a t all possible. I f th e sheave itself is so located as to preventthe application a t th is p oin t of principal bending, th e lubricant should be added justbefore the rope, in norm al travel, w ould pass betw een the flanges. Also, when runninga line for lubrication, th e usual h igh speed should be cut down so as to allow a brief
period for the lubricant to penetrate betw een th e wires and find its w ay to the core.
The lubricant should be acid-free and n o t w ater soluble. I t m ust form a tenacious
film and penetrate readily, as tin y interstices open betw een wires. If any doubt
exists as to the proper lubricant to apply, the specifications available from any wirerope maker should afford an accurate guide.
One function of wire-rope lubrication, w hich is little understood by m any users,
is that of kefeping the hem p core so ft, pliable, and swelled to proper size. A dry core
will shrink, withdraw its support from th e strands, and allow them to crush one another,
as well as to break dow n th e fibres of th e core itself. A well-lubricated core acts as
reservoir for lubricant, feeding a little to the adjacent wires at each flexing over asheave. On the contrary, a core lacking lubricant to fill the pores of the fibre, will

122 aA B STRA CTS.

soak up water during w et w eather, keeping the inner wires m oist and greatly encourag­ing the form ation of rust, w ith eventual w eakening or breaking of th e wires thus
exposed to severe conditions. Different typ es of lubricants are discussed w ith their
special uses. Proper m ethods of spooling and general m aintenance of ropes in use
are indicated.
.
R eplacem ent of sm ooth drums w ith spirally grooved u n its adds greatly to the life
M a line. There is available a spiral grooving w hich m ay be w elded or brazed to asm ooth drum, and no dism antling or change of equipm ent be required. Drums
which have worn m ay be rebuilt b y m etallizing or w elding w hile still in place, andshould be checked after repair to ensure the proper groove depth apd pitch . If con­centric grooves are used, the depth should n ot exceed 10% of th e rope diameter, orsevere crushing w ill be sustained b y the rope a t each crossover. T he spiral groove
should be of sufficient depth to support th e rope through an arc of con tact of 150°,
and clearance betw een adjoining grooves should be such as to insure j \- in . space
betw een adjoining turns of the line on th e drum for all sizes from A to 1J in., andin. for larger sizes. A drum re-worked to include th ese factors m ay cu t the loss
through drum crushing to one tenth of th a t formerly sustained.
A. H . N.
350.* H ydration -P ressu re R elation s in Clays and H ea v in g S h ale. H . H . Power,
B . L. Towle, and J . B. Plaza. Oil Gas •/., 12.11.42, 41 (27), 215. P a p er Presented
before Am erican Petroleum In stitu te.— Some shales are th o u g h t to heave into thebore-hole of drilling wells because of th e inclusion of v aryin g q uantities of clay
materials which swell and expand w hen w etted by w ater from t^he drilling mud. The
expanded shale not only fills the hole a large distance above th e p oin t of entry, but
in som e cases also exerts sufficient pressure to crush th e steel casing. A survey of theliterature indicates th a t little has been w ritten concerning th e sw elling of clay minerals.
Most of the literature on sw elling is confined to descriptions of experim ents performed
with the so-called elastic gels. H ence, op portunity ex ists for research in this field,
w ith due regard for the accom plishm ents to date in allied in vestigation s.
Accordingly, a programme of in vestigation w as in itiated in th e petroleum engineer­ing laboratories of th e U n iversity of T exas in order to determ ine th e hydrationpressure relationships existin g in clay m aterials, such as W yom in g bentonite, whenw etted w ith water. T he conclusions reached from th is work in d icate that certain
clay m aterials are capable of producing pressures of considerable magnitude when
confined during hydration. T he effects o f certain chem icals on pressure increases
or decreases are also show n. I t is also apparent th a t th e nature of th e exchangeablebases present m ay influence th e sw elling-pressure characteristics of th e clay material.
The present work w as intended only as an exten d ed test of th e hydration-pressure
bom b. N o single line of in vestigation has been follow ed rigidly. I t is expected that
future work w ith the bom b w ill m ake possible more thorough investigations, particu­
larly from th e standpoint of pressure reduction b y m eans of added chem icals. From
the data gathered, th e follow ing conclusions h a v e been reached : (1) Materials ofth e ty p e represented b y W yom ing b en ton ite are capable of producing pressures ofconsiderable m agnitude w hen confined during hydration. (2) A lthough th e data on
th is poin t are n ot conclusive, it is th o u g h t th a t th e nature of th e exchangeable basespresent w ill largely determ ine th e sw elling-pressure characteristic of a clay material.
(3) A stu d y of existin g inform ation regarding th e increase of th ick n ess and charge ofth e outer layer of th e m icelle as influenced b y added electrolytes m a y provide a meansfor predicting relative m axim um pressures attain ab le in th e apparatus described.
A dditional experim ental work w ill be of interest concerning such predictions. (4)In th e early sta tes of hydration, th e sw elling process follow s a relationship of th e ty p e :P = K T n.
A. H . N .
351.* A d justab ility and In terch an geab ility F eatu re R ig Su bstru ctu re. J%C. Albright.
Oil W kly, 10.11.42, 107 (11), 45.— T he substructure is m ade of casing and line pipe
all of three identical sections to facilitate interchangeability. T he three identicalsections are m ade w ith pipe, the vertical sections of w hich require reasonably largediam eter pipe in pieces ab ou t 4J ft. long, c u t squarely on one end for w elding into thechannel of the channel iron, w hich can be an y len gth desired. D iagonal braces are

ABSTRA CTS.

123 a

attached a t an angle of 45° to th e channel iron and the vertical riser, to obtain therequired stiffness to resist vibration and strain of supporting heavy machinery inm otion. T his 8-in. riser is equipped w ith a number of l£-in . holes drilled on 5-in.
centres squarely through b oth w alls. To provide equal interchangeability, the firstriser m ade w as used as a p attern for th e rem aining u nits, so th a t the distance from thechannel upw ards to th e first hole w ould be exact. The overall length of the riser is
not so im portant as th e spacing of th e holes, since the upper end comes in contact
w ith no other section, and th a t end can be left w ith threads or cu t plain. Roughedges are elim inated.
H orizontal m em bers on w hich th e skid-fram es of the engines and draw-works areplaced, after th e substructure is com pleted a t th e location, are made of three sectionsof pipe slightly sm aller th a n th e 8-in. vertical risers. Legs welded to the long horizontal
supporting m em bers are placed so th a t th e skid-frames of th e engines and draw-works
rest directly ab ove th e vertical supports w ith th e channel-iron footing on timber mats.
These legs, one on each end of th e horizontal pipe, have drilled holes of the same sizeas those w hich are placed in th e vertical risers, b u t on closer centres, so th a t a relative
fine adjustm ent in h eigh t can be m ade b y m atching certain holes in th e inserted pieces
and th e vertical risers. R ib s w elded to th e outer surface of the insert pipe walls havesufficient thickness to provide a close fit betw een th e inserts and the vertical risers,
so th a t sufficient rigidity is obtained to elim inate side sw ay. R ibs have been found toserve better th an a squeeze-fit pipe, since th e bearing surfaces are smaller, and when the"ribs are greased, inserting and rem oving th e sections should not be difficult. The paper
is illustrated.
A. H . N.
352.* A R eview of R e ce n t A d van ces in D rilling-M ud Control. P. E. Chaney. OH
Wkly, 23.11.42, 107 (12), 25. P a p er Presented before Am erican Petroleum In stitu te.—A general view of th e colloidal chem istry of clays and shales is presented as a theoreticalbackground for th e explan ation of th e various m ud problems, and for the chemicaltreatm ents used in their correction. E ach of th e comm on m ud problems is discussed
separately, and an a ttem p t is m ade to provide a m ethod of diagnosing th e cause oftrouble from changes in th e p h ysical properties of the mud. Follow ing th is diagnosis,
one or more m ethods of treatm en t for correction of the trouble are described, and thetheoretical explanation for th e action of th e corrective treatm ent is presented w hen­ever possible. A table show ing th e com binations of m ud properties, or “ sym ptom s ”
associated w ith each ty p e of trouble, together w ith an outline of the corrective treat­m ent, is presented as an aid in deciding rapidly on the cause of trouble, and in select­
ing the proper treatm en t. T w o of these are reproduced as illustrations. Rock salt
or salt-w ater flow : sym p tom s, (1) rapid increase in salt content of m u d ; (2) first
effect is increased gel rate and visco sity ; after several hours, or perhaps a day,viscosity drops below n o r m a l; (3) w ater loss increases rapidly ; (4) in case of sa lt­
water flow, m ud continues to flow after pum ps have been shut down. Chemicaltrea tm en t: (1) In case of salt-w ater flow, increase m ud w eight as rapidly as possible
until shut off is obtained, b u t w atch closely for loss of m ud to the form ation, and stopweight increase if th is occurs (even though som e flow of w ater continues) u n til mud
loss is stopped b y addition of plastering agents. (2) In extrem e cases, pull up in
casing to condition m ud, as th e danger of stuek drill pipe is serious when salt water
is encountered. (3) Add large q uantities of highly colloidal clay, preferably hydrated
in fresh w ater before addition to th e m ud. (4) Copious additions of Quebracho aresometimes helpful in reducing “ salt-w ater g el.” (5) In severe cases, substituteorganic colloids for clay in m ud.
H eaving-shale troubles are treated as follow s. A. Bentonic heaving shale : sym p ­toms, (1) increase in m ud v isc o sity and gel strength ; (2) reduction in w ater loss andcake thickn ess; (3) tig h t places in hole. Chemical treatm en t: (1) R educe w aterloss to low est possible value. (2) R educe m ud p H to 7-2-7-6 by use of pyrophosphate.
(3) Low p H m uds ten d to have very low gel strength. Do n ot reduce p H low enoug
to prevent suspension of w eigh tin g m aterial and cuttings. (4) Keep mud viscosityand gel strength as low as possible to prevent sw abbing. (5) U se sodium-sqica e
mud in very severe cases. B . Gas-bearing heaving sh a le: sym ptom s, (1) sour-gas
odour at shale shak er; (2) little increase in viscosity unless bentonitic shale is alsopresent; (3) tig h t places in hole. Chemical treatm ent : (1) Reduce water loss ot
mud, (2) Increase m ud w eigh t u n til difficulty is stopped or until loss of mu to orma

124 aA BSTRA CTS.

tion begins. C. Plastic flow heaving sh a le: sym ptom s, (1) large slabs o f shale
circulated out of hole ; (2) shale m ay flow into hole to a height of a hundred or more
feet on removal of drill-pipe ; (3) stuck drill-pipe or tig h t places in holo ; (4) usually• found on highest part of structure. Chemical tr e a tm e n t: Sam e as for “ B .”The paper deals w ith practically all the usual troubles.
A . H . N.
353.* Cleaning P roblem s of the O il-F ields. R- W • M itchell. Oil W k ly, 30.11.42,
107 (13), 24. — The desirable factors to be considered in a cleaner are : I t should besafe to handle and to use from the workers’ view point. I t should also be safe tom etals and m aterials of construction. B oth the cleaner and cleaning m ethod should
be as simple as possible, w ith minim um dependence on technical supervision. Them ethod and material should give speedy results. The cost of cleaning from theoverall point of view should be kept as low as possible. A dequate cleaning routines
alm ost invariably lead to longer service life of equipm ent and apparatus, but theinvestm ent has to pay dividends in order to ju stify itself. H ence final cleaning
results obtained at such high costs th a t the benefits accruing therefrom cannot offset
cleaning expenses are of no real value.
The clinging, greasy, oily dirt of derricks and derrick floors is hard to rem ove effec­
tively and economically. Y et cleaning is necessary, n ot only for ensuring safe operat­
ing conditions, but also to prepare for protective painting w henever required. A newemulsifiable solvent cleaner recommended for th is operation is sold as a concentrate,
m ixed on the job w ith kerosine or safety solvent, one part cleaner to eigh t parts
solvent to m ake the cleaning solution. Derricks and derrick floors are readily cleaned
w ith this solution, w ithout need for steam or an y source of h eat. T he cold mixture
is sprayed on all surfaces to be cleaned, using a portable spraying tan k w ith suitablenozzle. I t is then allowed to soak in for about 15 m in., after w hich all surfaces thus
treated are flushed off w ith cold w ater under pressure. T h is com pletes the cleaning
operation. No scrubbing is necessary in 90% of th e jobs.
Where dirt accum ulations are h eavy and of long standing, th e in itial treatment
w ith the cleaner will remove m ost of the dirt, b u t it m ay be necessary to repeat thetreatm ent, accompanied w ith scoring or scratching of th ick d ep osits during the soaking-in period, to ensure speedier penetration of the cleaner. More than tw o applica­
tions are rarely necessary— and in fact on m ost derricks the single treatm ent is com­pletely satisfactory. T his m ethod of cleaning gives very clean surfaces w ith a m ini­
mum expenditure of tim e and labour, and th ey can be p ainted w hen dry w ith nofurther cleaning treatm ent. In addition to th e convenience and econom y of working
perfectly in cold solution w ith ou t need for heat, steam , or steam -guns, the solution
itself is non-poisonous, non-flamm able a t ordinary tem peratures, and completely
harmless not only to the hum an skin, b u t also to all m etals and other m aterials of
construction.
The cleaning of several im portant parts of an oil-field equipm ent is discussed indetail under separate headings. F in ally th e cleaning of th e worker’s hands is dis­cussed. The m ost effective hand-cloaner is one th a t con tain s a properly balanced
alkaline cleaning m aterial and su itab ly graded and selected pum ice. W hen th e rightdegree of alkalinity is provided, th e pum ice works as an effective scouring agent toremove the embedded dirt particles w^iieh are unaffected b y ordinary soaps. Sandand other harsh abrasives m ust be avoided, and at the sam e tim e too m ild a scouring
agent, such as corn meal, should n ot be used for oil-field hand-w ashing, since suchare n ot strong enough to rem ove th e kinds of dirts encountered. On m any otherindustrial hand-cleaning operations, th e v egetab le-typ e scouring agen t is com pletely
satisfactory.
A . H . N.
354.* S h allow W ells to be D rilled W ith o u t W ater C asin g-Strin gs. A non. O il W kly,
3 0.1 1 .4 2 , 107 (13), 3 6 -3 8 . — Complete operating draw ings, plans, engineering specifica­

tions, and full procedural directions covering m ethods for drilling of w ells w ith acontem plated saving of ab ou t 85% in steel have been released to th e oil-producersof California. The procedure w ill be tried o u t im m ediately on six w ells in th e W ilm ing­
ton field of California, and it is understood th a t tw o large com panies operating inT exas also plan to test it. T he proposal is n ot looked upon as a cure-all, as it willprobably work successfully in on ly a portion of th e drilling operations. I t w ill be

A BSTRA CTS.

125 A

tried on shallow w ells, and it is in th is classification th a t it has probably its best chanceof success. D iagram s exp lain in g th e schem e are given.
The cost of drilling a 3000-ft. w ell in California by th e new procedure is estim ated
not to exceed $12,500, com pared to a cost of $35,000 for a 3000-ft. w ell three years
ago. A year ago, C ontinental D evelop m en t Corporation drilled seven wells in the
W ilm ington field a t a cost of $20,000 each, w hich then appeared to bo a record low
cost for such w ells in th is area.
A. H . N.
355.* D rillin g F luid T ech n ology.
P art 2. L. C. Uren. Petrol. Engr, November
1942, 14 (2), 43.— In th is second part of th e paper the function of the mud as a heatabsorber and lubricant for th e drill-pipe is discussed. The follow ing sections deal
w ith th e p h ysical properties of drilling fluids, density, viscosity and colloidal pro­
perties, hydrogen ionization value (pH ), thixotropic properties, sand and salt content,
and w ith m ud-control laboratories. T hese studies are followed by discussions on theconstituents of m uds and drilling fluids, dealing w ith clays, w eighting materials,
chemical reagents, and special oil-base fluids. T he paper ends w ith a discussion on
possibilities of futuro research. L ittle has y e t been done in exploring the factors th atcontrol th e efficiency of drilling fluid in its function of liftin g drill cuttings. There
would be fewer cases of “ frozen ” drill-pipe if w e had a better im derstanding of theconditions th a t influence th e liftin g cap acity of the circulating fluid. There is little
information of bottom -hole tem peratures in drilling w ells and the influence of rate of
circulation and m ud properties on control of such temperatures. More should belearned of th e drilling-fluid properties th a t prom ote “ gas cu ttin g ,” and better methodsof separating entrained gas from gas-cut m uds should be devised. There is opportunity
for a broad stu d y of oil-base m uds, of m ethods of developing desirable properties indrilling fluids of th is ty p e, and of controlling these properties to m eet changing con­ditions. T he properties of oil-w ater clay m ixtures is an alm ost virgin field.
B etter m ethods of quickly evalu atin g clays for use in drilling fluids should be devised.
Is the rate of hydration a significant index in th is connection ? H ow m ay one deter­mine th e active colloidal con ten t of a clay or drilling fluid ? Of w hat significance isthe size-distribution of clay particles, and can som e simple test for determining th is
be devised ? There is m uch to be learned in the realm of chem ical control of drillingfluid properties. Certain ty p es of gum s and resins produce interesting effects. Morepositive w ays of dealing w ith saline-w ater contam ination of drilling fluids m ust be
developed. M ethods of adapting th e qualities of th e m ud to the peculiarities of theformation in w hich th e drill is working— in “ heaving shale ” , for example— present
definite possibilities. Successful m ethods of selectively rem oving clay sheaths fromoil-wet and w ater-w et form ations w ould be of great value. T ests and instrum ents
should also be standardized.
A. H . N.
356.* M odem T ech niqu e in O il-W ell C em enting. P. E. H ilton. Oil Gas J ., 3.12.42,
41 (30), 57. P aper Presented before A m erican Petroleum In stitu te.— To place a cement

plug opposite an oil-sand so th a t a w ater shut-off job is effected, a tail pipe, made ofdrillable m etal, is run in on th e b ottom of the float or guide-shoe. A float-shoe withor w ithout side ports m ay be used. W hen a float-shoe w ithout side ports is used, all
the cement is discharged through ports in th e b ottom of the tail pipe. In the caseof a float-shoe having side ports, th e cem ent is discharged simultaneously throughthe shoe and the b ottom of th e ta il .pipe. A fter cem ent sets, the shoe is drilled out
with the cem ent plug to a short distance below the shoe for a water shut-off test, theremainder of the plug sealing off th e productive zone during the procedure. W ith asatisfactory cem ent job assured th e rest of th e plug and tail pipe are drilled out. It
is considered good practice to run a casing scraper between the bit and drill-collar to
remove the sheath of cem ent left b y the b it on the casing wall. A clean wall assurespositive grip for slips and a sm ooth surface against w hich th e packing member otesters and sim ilar devises can seal, and prevents cem enting tools, which are norma y
run with close clearances, from h anging up.
.
,
The procedure of running and cem enting a blank liner in one operation inv o \ ethe use of a float-shoe hav in g side ports and left-hand square threads (positioned in
an upper extension of th e v a lv e cage), a square, left-hand threaded sub which screv s
into the left-hand threads in th e shoe, and a circulation or expansion joint, mac e upon the bottom of the running-in string, w hich m ay be either tubing or ri -pipe.

126 aA BSTEA CTS.

Cementing of the liner, w hich is run in on th e b ottom of the string, is performed inth e usual manner, after w hich the running-in string is lowered a few inches, which
telescopes the circulation join t and takes the strain off th e sub. T he running-in
string is then turned to the right, w hich disconnects the left-hand threads, and raised
several feet, so th a t a n y excess cem ent w hich m ay have com e over th e top of theliner can be back-scuttled. I t th en can be rem oved from th e hole, leavin g th e liner
cem ented in place w ith the inside clean and ready for gun perforating.
Cementing liners w ith perforations below and blank above and a liner off bottom
is accomplished b y variants of th is procedure. M ultiple-stage cem enting is also
discussed.
A- H . N.
357.* D rillin g-R ig F u n ction s Logged by A u tom atic In stru m en ts. H . F . Simons.
Oil Gas J ., 10.12.42, 41 (31), 41 -4 3 .— The drilling industry is in a transition stage
from having practically no instrum ents to one of com plete loggin g of all the primaryfunctions. T he objective is to record the inform ation w hich m akes possible the savingof tim e and m oney. T his article describes th e au tom atic logging of thirteen factors
affecting drilling operations. These include th e w eigh t on th e b it, revolutions/m inute,torque on the drill-stem, m ud pressure, rate of penetration, th e level of the mud inthe pit, th e tim e required to circulate th e fluid from th e b ottom of th e hole to thesurface, the oil and gas content of the m ud, th e p H , co n d u ctiv ity , v isco sity , and specificgravity. The trailer housing the u n it also includes equipm ent for other mud tests
and eore-analysis work.
T he arrangement used is unique in th a t standard rig in stru m en ts are connected
into the recording instrum ent. In other words, th e regular w eigh t indicator used at
the rig is n ot replaced, b u t its reading a t specified tim e intervals is recorded. The
sam e is true of the pum p pressure, torque and rotary speed, and th e rate of penetration.
Special instrum ents were developed for th e au tom atic recording of viscosity andspecific gravity of the m ud and the delay tim e (tim e of circulation of the mud-stream).
T he torque is obtained from steam pressure in th e engine m anifold, th e revolutions/m inute of th e rotary from a tachom eter, and pum p pressure is obtained from the mudpum p pressure gauge, b u t a stroke counter is to be added, rate of penetration is re­corded b y th e selsyn m otor m ethod, th e gas percentage in th e m ud is taken from asam ple run into th e trailer, v isco sity of th e m ud from an au tom atic viscosimeter,
specific gravity from an autom atic and continuous w eighing device, and the pH , oil
con tent, and con d u ctivity of th e m ud are obtained from a sm all sam ple stream.
A ll th e data are recorded on tw o M icrom ax instrum ents. T he one instrument
records rate of penetration, w eight, revolu tion s/m in u te, torque, pum p pressure, anddepth of fluid in the p it. T he other instrum ent records th e m ud conditions, including
percentage of gas, parts/m illion o f oil, p H , co n d u ctiv ity , v isco sity , specific gravity,and delay tim e. The in strum ents are driven b y current from a sm all generator directdriven b y a sm all engine. T he travelling chart is th e usual ten d ivisions to the inch,th e vertical scale being tim e, and th e horizontal scale being required u n its for measuring
each particular function. A com plete recording cycle is m ade each 2 m in. by the
instrum ents. T he travelling pen m akes a d ot on th e chart, sh ow in g th e reading ofth e instrum ent for determ ining one value, and th en m oves to another position forrecording a different factor. On arriving a t its new p osition , it is allowed 20 sec. toassum e a stationary p osition . A fter th is tim e delay a mark is m ade, and it moves
to th e proper position for recording th e n ex t factor.
A fter it has recorded all six or seven of th e various functions, it is allowed 40 secs,
in w hich to return to th e original starting-place and repeat th e cycle. T ypical charts
are studied and th e significance of th e te sts is explained.
v
A. H . N.

Production.
358.* C ollectin g and E x a m in in g Su bsurface S am p les of P etro leu m . P . Grandone andA. B. Cook. U .S. D ept, o f the Interior, B ur. M in es Technical P a p er, 629, 1941. The
Bureau of Mines has developed a specialized technique for ob tain in g sam ples of
petroleum under pressure from the b ottom of w ells, and for subsequent laboratory
exam ination of these sam ples. This paper discusses th e various factors w hich affectsubsurface-oil sam ples prior to and during sam pling. I t also em bodies a description

JR A C T S .

127 A

of a self-closing subsurface-oil sam pler designed to trap the liquid phase of the wellfluid as it ex ists a t th e sam pling p oin t in th e -well and to retain the fluid intact until
it can be transferred to other apparatus for laboratory exam ination. Physical pro­
perties of subsurface oil are considered, and laboratory m ethods em ployed for exam in­ing sam ples are described in detail. Specifically it is stated th a t the following data aredesired b y engineers in solvin g th e various problem s w hich arise in the productionof petroleum from natural reservoirs : saturation pressure of the reservoir o i l ; com ­pressibility of th e liquid phase a t reservoir tem p eratu re; total quantity of gas d is­solved in different oils a t different pressures and tem p eratu res; q u an tity of gas
liberated from solution in oils on decrease of pressure ; contraction of liquid resulting
from liberation of gas from solu tion in oils or on reduction in tem p eratu re; density
and specific volum e of th e gas-saturated liq u id s; and pressure-volum e relationshipsof the o il-g a s m ixtures.
A t the tim e of sam pling, au xiliary data relative to the well should be recorded.
These include th e nam e, depth, and thickness of the producing fo rm ation ; sampling
depth ; oil-producing rate ; producing gas/oil ratio ; static and flowing pressures andtem peratures at th e sam pling p o in t ; w ell-head blow ing pressure; separator pressure
and tem perature.
Three definite procedures are available for th e exam ination of subsurface-oil samples.
These a r e : differential gas lib era tio n ; flash-gas lib era tio n ; and determ ination ofpressure-volum e relationship. U su ally d ata obtained b y the flash-liberation pro­cedure are more applicable th an differential-gas liberation data to the physical changes
which take place in th e g a s-o il m ixtu re as it is produced through the flow-string underchanging conditions of pressure and tem perature. D ata from th e differential pro­cedure, how ever, probably represent more closely th e ph ysical changes w hich takeplace in the rsservoir oil rem aining in th e form ation as depletion progresses. D eter­m ination of pressure-volum e relationship on a sam ple of subsurface oil provides datafor com puting th e energy available per u n it w eight of fluid as it undergoes pressure,volum e, and tem perature changes.
H . B. M.
H . L. Langhaar. J .
A ppl. Mech., Jun e 1942, 9 (2), A -55-A -58.— B y m eans of a linearizing approxim ation,
the N avier-Stokes Equations are solved for th e case of steady flow in the transition
length of a straight tu b e. T he fam ily of v elo city profiles is defined b y bessel functions,and the param eter of th is fam ily is tabulated against th e axial co-ordinate in adimensional form. H ence, th e len gth of transition is obtained. The curves give acomparison of the au th or’s calculations of the velocity field w ith those of other in vesti­
gators, and w ith th e experim ental d ata of Nikuradse. The pressure function is derived
from the com puted velo city field b y m eans of th e energy equation, and the pressure
drop in the transition length is defined b y a dim ensionless constant, m , which is com ­puted to be 2-28. A discussion of th is con stan t is given in the conclusions. I t is tobe noted th at in viscom etry th e con stan t used for the kinetic energy correction, m,
is half th is value, due to incorporating in it th e i of th e energy equation K E = $pv2.
A n interesting result is th a t th e inlet len gth — th a t is, w hen the axial velocity ap­
proaches the theoretical value of tw ice th e m ean, actually 1-98 the m ean is 0-23 1\
number of radii is attained , where R is H eynolds number. Nikuradse s data appeal
to confirm these calculations.
A- H . N.
359. Steady F low in th e T ransition L en gth o i a Straight Tube.

360. G raphical S olu tion of F lu id -F riction P rob lem s. E . S. Dennison. J A p p l.
Mech., June 1942, 9 (2), A -82-A -84.— I t is custom ary to present fluid-fnction data m
the form of a diagram to log scale in w hich friction coefficient appears as a functionof Reynolds num ber. Such d ata are w id ely applicable to physical circumstances
other than those w hich pertained to th e original experim ents. The present papei
describes a graphical procedure for u tilizin g data of th is character, w h eie analytica
methods are n ot practicable, and resort is m ade to trial-and-error m ethods. Simi armethods to th a t described m a y be found useful in other fields than th a t of fluidfriction, provided th e experim ental d ata are capable of being represented in nondimensional form.
, .,The paper deals specifically w ith th e case of the fall of spheres in fluids an w 1 1
the ordinary pipe-flow p ro b le m ; but th e m ethod is general to all similar problems.
The value of the m ethod lies in th a t a direct solution is possible for problems w eie le128 aA BSTxiA O ib.

factor sought is included on b oth ordinates, such as th e v elo city or th e diam eter inpipe-flow, where these factors enter b oth the friction factor and the R eynolds number.
B oth th e ’derivation and illustration of the analyses are given .
A. H . N.
361.* Influence of E xtraction M ethods on U ltim a te R ecovery. S. F. Sh aw . Oil
W kly, 2.11.42, 107 (9), 28.— The paper is a com prehensive and balanced review oftheories and facts about ultim ate recovery of petroleum from sands, and should beread in extenso to obtain its full value. Spacing of w ells is discussed a t length withthe conclusion th at, economics being first considered and found favourable, close
spacing would result in greater recovery ultim ately th an w ide spacing. T he statement is supported by m uch data. For instance, th e Turner V alley field, Canada,
w ith a very tigh t reservoir, is one in w hich spacing has been on basis of 4 0 acres/well.
The results to date seem to the writer to indicate th a t th e yield w ill be perhaps 5 0 %of w hat would have been the recovery had th e spacing been on a basis of one well to
10 acres. However, w ith the prevailing price for oil and w ith cost of drilling amount­ing to between $150,000 and $200,000/w ell, it w ould n ot be profitable to drill four
wells to double the recovery th a t appears likely to be obtained from one well. In
this connection it will be interesting to observe th e results obtained later in suchfields as W asson, Slaughter, Magnolia, and other similar lim estone fields which havebeen developed on basis of 40 acres to the well.
The main conclusions of th is long paper are : (1) E conom ies in th e production of
011 require greater consideration than ultim ate recovery. (2) U ltim a te recovery inm any fields is increased b y close spacing and production at m axim um practicablecapacity. I t is possible th at in nearly all oil-fields th is conclusion m ay apply, but, if
correct, it can become evident only in the course of tim e. (3) A cidizing, shooting,and com pleting w ells w ith large casing aid in enabling w ells to be produced at highcapacity. (4) More energy in gas associated w ith th e oil is available for m oving oil
through the sand from a given quantity of gas w hen expanding through a given rangeof lower pressures, th at when expanding through a given range of high pressures.
(5) Secondary-recovery m ethods are very im portant in increasing th e recovery of oil
where primary m ethods have not resulted in high-percentage recovery. Whenprimary methods have resulted in high ultim ate recovery it is a question as to whether
secondary m ethods are econom ically applicable. (6) Secondary m ethods of artificial
water-flooding seem to yield higher ultim ate recovery w hen production is at a highrate. If th is is a correct conclusion, it w ould appear as if natural flood with highcapacity production would yield higher ultim ate recovery th an w hen production is
at a low rate.
The paper is well illustrated w ith tables and a graph, and tw en ty-n in e selectedreferences are appended.
A. H . N.
362.* M any Avoidable P rod uction -E qu ip m en t F ailures D u e to F ield A buse and Neglect.

Anon. Oil W kly, 9.11.42, 107 (10), 46.— The paper details various m ethods for main­taining equipm ent for a long tim e, in particular, stressing proper lubrication. A filmof lubricant of sufficient strength to w ithstand localized con tact pressure m ust be
provided at all points of m oving contact to p revent wear. W hen speeds are high,contacts are usually of short duration and loads are lig h t, requiring th e selection ofa light-bodied lubricating oil. W hen speeds are low, con tact tim e is longer and loads
are heavier, requiring a com paratively heavy-bodied oil for proper lubrication. Whenloads are exceedingly high /u n it of con tact surface, extrem e pressure lubricants are
best suited for minim izing wear. In all cases it is advisable to use only high-grade
lubricants.
Because it is difficult to keep containers clean on a drilling w ell or an oil lease, alloils and greases should be supplied in 4-, 5- or 6-quart sealed containers. This isparticularly advisable in the case of all greases and oils th a t m u st bo used in forcefeed lubricators. Temperature affects the v isco sity and lubricating properties ofmineral oils, necessitating the use of different ty p es of oil in sum m er and w inter. At
atm ospheric tem peratures below 55° F. an oil of lower v isco sity should be used than isordinarily recommendod for atm ospheric tem peratures above 55° F . T he maximum
oil temperature a t which standard lubricating oil should be used for bearing surfaces
is 180° F. Particular care in the selection of lubricating oil is essential in th e use of
the m any machines where the sam e oil is used for various parts, such as bearing,ABSTRACTS.

129 A

slides, and gears. If an oil o f high viscosity and high pour test is used in such amachine a t low atm ospheric operating tem peratures, the oil w ill not flow readily andhearing failures m ay result. M ethods of applying th e lubricants are detailed.
T he paper further deals w ith startin g batteries, enclosures for equipm ent, andm ethods of rebuilding equipm ent or salvaging it.
A. H . N.
363.* M ain ten ance D ep artm en t F eatu res M any New T ools and Efficient Techniques.
G. M. W ilson. O il W k ly, 9.11.42, 107 (10), 51—60.— The activities of this department

come in contact w ith nearly every phase of the producing and drilling divisions of
the com pany, and thou gh there is, of necessity, a certain am ount of overlapping,reconditioning work is performed in a t least five major subdivisions of th at depart­m ent. These are : (1) v a lv e and fittin g shop, where all typ es and sizes of valves,fittings, and rotary chain are overhauled, as w ell as m etal spraying and some small
lathe w ork; (2) instrum ent and m eter shop, where all kinds of gauges, recording
m eters, regulators, drilling instrum ents, etc., are repaired and r eb u ilt; (3) machine
shop, w hich handles th e repair and m aintenance of larger equipm ent, such as pumpcylinder reboring, engines, clutches, and similar heavy eq u ip m en t; (4) tubular-goods
handling section, w hich has developed som e very practical measures in the salvaging
and extension of fife of such m aterials; and (5) system of records w hich facilitatesinter-departm ental “ b u yin g ” and “ selling ” and keeps a running inventory of all
equipm ent th a t com es through th ese departm ents. The various subdivisions aredescribed in detail, th e v a lv e section being given particular attention.
A n interesting section is th e m etal-spray rebuilding section. The operation, briefly,
involves th e forceful spraying of atom ized m olten m etal on to the previously preparedbonding surface of th e object being b u ilt up. Ordinarily, the object— in th is case, agas-engine piston— is chucked in a lathe, and the gun is m ounted on or beside the toolm ount where it can be m ade to travel slow ly back and forth, gradually building up
the surface of th e parent m etal. Of prime im portance— and th e success or failureof the job depends on it— is th e proper preparation of the parent m etal surface. This
involves taking a very coarse, rough cu t on th e surface, using a tool th a t literally tears
the m etal off, leaving a series of rough, jagged ridges, and grooves. Since the bondof m etal spray is a m echanical one, th e jagged surfaces allow the im pinging metal
particles to take a firm grip on th e base m etal. After the surface has been built up
sufficiently oversize, it is ground dow n w ith a power grinder, also m ounted so that thetool-feed w ill carry it back and forth across th e surface.
A steel plug is forced into th e skirt-end of the piston to give strength and “ body ”
to the latter. T his plug should exten d beyond the skirt-end far enough to permit
the lathe jaw s to take a full grip on it and allow sufficient clearance between the face­plate and gun w hen th e latter gets to th a t end. T his extension also keeps the piston
skirt away from th e face-plate so m etal spray will not be so likely to get on to the face­plate or the dogs.
A. H . N .
364.* Sim ple P reven tive M ain ten an ce R u les P rolong Sucker-R od Life. G. M. W ilson.
Oil W kly, 9.11.42, 107 (10), 113.— W hen it is realized th at an average string of sucker-

rods m ay be subjected to loads ranging from 10,000 to 30,000 lb., and suffer as manyas 15,000 to 30,000 reversals of m o tion /24 hr. day, it is apparent that the muchneglected sueker-rod really has a difficult job to perform. W ith a small nick or scratch
already established in one of th e rods, it is easy to see how a full break can soon de­velop when the string is being subjected to a round-the-clock series of alternate
stretching and contracting under stress of th e well load. W hen th is load varies or
becomes more severe due to a gas-lock or pum ping-off conditions causing frequent
pounding in th e strokes, final parting of th e rods a t th is zone of weakness will bematerially hastened.
Wells which are n ot provided w ith derricks offer one of the best opportunities forrods to become dam aged. On such w ells the rods usually have to be laid down on
the ground or som e m akeshift supporting blocks, the latter quite commonly being
only several short pieces laid a t infrequent intervals along the ground. Rods h mg
thus along th e ground, particularly if th e well is down for a prolonged time, are an
invitation to trouble. D irt, abrasives, use of hammers, etc., are added sources oftrouble. The use of racks, projfhr haulage, and of protectors is urged, together wit
the keeping of records. One of th e sim plest and least expensive means of o \ ercommg

130 aA B S 'i x i a o a o .

such problems, w hich arise every day, particularly in th e larger com panies, consistsin the use of a tagging system . E ach crew foreman carries a q u a n tity of tw o-section,
perforated tags, on each section of w hich he jo ts dow n, in places provided for suchdata, the pertinent facts relating to th a t particular rod w hich he is layin g down, andw hich he feels warrants further checking b y th e salvage or warehouse department.
The upper half of the tag is th en rem oved and tied to th e rod before leavin g the well.
The lower half is retained and later turned in a t th e office a t th e tim e he m akes out
his daily work report .
Eor legibility, tags should not be less th an ab ou t 3 in. w ide and 6 in. long, being
perforated in the middle to give tw o cards 3 by 3 in. w hen torn in half. R epresenta­
tive of the instruction headings w hich should be printed on each side of the two
halves include : (1) The serial number (same num ber on each half of tag.) (2) Well
number and lease. (3) Item reported. (4) W here taken if rem oved from w ell premises.
(5) W hy discarded or laid down. (6) Crew forem an’s signature and crew number.
A. H . N.
365.* Co-ordination of Conservation P ractices in the V arious S tates. E. G. Dahlgren,
O ilG a sJ ., 12.11.42,41 (27), 118. P a p er Presented before A m erican Petroleum Institute.
This paper discusses the co-ordinating activities of th e In tersta te Oil Compact
Commission in the conservation of oil and gas in th e various S tates. The work of
the various compact com m ittees is described and th e conservation policies andadm inistrative activities in the various oil producing S tates are summarized.
The legal com m ittee of the In terstate Oil Compact Com m ission has been doingsome outstanding work during the p ast year. A t th e 19th D ecem ber, 1941, meeting of
the Compact Commission in Oklahoma C ity, the legal com m ittee adopted the pro­gramme as follows : (1) A study of the suggested m odel conservation law for the pur­pose of making any necessary am endm ents and corrections. (2) A stu d y of the legal
phases of repressuring and recycling. (3) Preparation and publication of synopses
of all the statutes of the various oil-producing States. (4) A stu d y of the relationshipbetween the Federal Government and the S tates concerning th e legal aspects of oil
and gas conservation. (5) The preparation of a skeleton sta tu te th a t m ight beadvisable in non-producing States or in States w ith sm all production.
The paper deals separately w ith the conservation law s and practices of each State,including those which are only p otential producers.
A. H. N.
366.* P resent A llocation P ractices. D . R . M cK eithan. Oil Gas J ., 12.11.42, 41(27), 154. P aper Presented before A m erican Petroleum In stitu te.— The developmentof allocation m ethods in the various oil-producing S tates is review ed and analyzed ;also a brief description of the adm inistration and m echanism of th e system s employedis presented. Conclusions reached therefrom are : (1) T he oil industry is operated
primarily on a com petitive basis, and th is factor adds to th e com p lexity of the attain ­m ent of m axim um efficiency in conservation, and allocation is extrem ely difficult.
(2) System s of control in the various S tates are geared to m eet local operating con­ditions, as w ell as background and tem peram ent of th e people, in conform ity with
American standards of localized governm ents. (3) T he actu al m echanics of allocation
used in th e various States differ greatly and, further, it appears th a t one basic law
or one rigid formula cannot be applied reasonably to all th e varied conditions.
V ast strides towards general im provem ent h ave been m ade in recent y ea rs; how­ever, there is still room for considerable betterm ent ; and th e “ Standards of Alloca­
tion of Oil Production W ithin Pools and A m ong P o o ls,” as set o u t in th e report of
the American Petroleum In stitu te ’s Special S tu d y C om m ittee on W ell Spacing andAllocation of Production, should be of m aterial assistan ce in further progress.
The paper deals w ith the chief oil-producing S tates individually under separate
sections.
A . H . N.
367.* E valu ation of E ffective D isp lacem en t P ressures for P etroleu m O il-W a ter Silica
System s. F . C. Benner, C. G. D odd, and F . E . B artell. O il Gas J ., 12.11.42, 41 (27),199. P aper Presented before A m erican Petroleum In stitu te.— T he relative w ettab ility ofreservoir rock by crude petroleum oils and b y w ater appears to co n stitu te a more com ­plex problem than has hitherto been generally assum ed. Certain co n stitu en ts of theABSTRACTS.

131 A

oils, even though present in m inute am ounts, m a y greatly influence the degree ofw etting of th e solid b y th e oil. In th is in vestigation , an evaluation of relative w ettingof reservoir rock b y reservoir fluids has been attem p ted by the measurement of con­tact angles form ed b y petroleum oils and w ater on solid silica plates. Displacem ent
pressures calculated from th e contact-angle data were found to be in reasonable agree­m ent w ith displacem ent pressures actually observed w ith the petroleum oils andw ater in packed-silica pow ders.
A stu d y w as m ade of b oth “ a d v a n c in g ” and “ reced in g ” contact angles for aseries of petroleum oils and w ater on silica. „ A dvancing interfacial contact angles
were found to vary over a w ide range for th e different system s studied, in someinstances being less, and in others considerably greater, than 90°. Were the advancing
angle alone to be used as a criterion of w ettin g, it w ould appear th a t in some system s
w ater w ets silica to a greater degree than does oil, but in other system s the converse
is true. I t w as found th a t receding interfacial contact angles of the system s observed
invariably assum ed values of less th an 90°. B y th is criterion, silica appeared to bebetter w etted b y w ater th an b y oil. T he advancing interfacial contact angle isbelieved to be a better indication of th e hydrophilic or hydrophobic nature of thereservoir m aterial containing th e oil th a n is the receding angle.
The “ h ysteresis ” effect w as very pronounced in nearly all the system s studied.
For m ost of th e system s, th e silica appears to have dual w etting characteristics,
inasmuch as th e receding con tact angle is less than 90°; whereas the advancing
contact angle is greater th a n 90°. T he results from th is research indicate th a t spon­taneous displacem ent of oil from th e underlying solid by w ater should occur only inthose cases where b oth the advancing and th e receding angles are less than 90°; thatspontaneous displacem ent of w ater b y oil should occur if both angles are greater than
9 0 ° ; and th a t no spontaneous m ovem ent should occur where the tw o angles are on
opposite sides of 9 0 ° .
I t appears th a t, in th e m ajority of cases, m easurem ent of the contact angles formed
on a silica plate betw een a petroleum oil and w ater w ill serve as a fairly reliable guidefor the determ ination of th e displacem ent tendencies of oil by w ater or of water byoil. The results obtained g ive fairly definite proof th a t crude petroleum oils contain
constituents w hich becom e adsorbed on siliceous surfaces, causing those surfaces toassume hydrophobic properties.
A. H . N.
368.* A R eview of M ultip le-Z one W e ll C om pletions. I. W . Alcorn and W. A. Alexander.
Oil O asJ., 1 2 . 1 1 . 4 2 , 41 (27), 224. P a p er Presented before Am erican Petroleum Institute.

—This paper presents representative d ata on m ultiple-zone com pletions w hich havebeen made in th e several oil-producing regions of the U n ited States. I t is a joint
effort of th e top ical com m ittees on drilling and production practice, and constitutes
a progress report on th e subject. T he desire of th e oil industry to find w ays and meansof conserving steel in its drilling and production activities led to the decision to under­
take this survey. A n an alysis of eig h ty m ultiple-zone com pletions indicates thatan average per-well saving of 105 ton s, or 4% , w as realized in a multiple-zone com ­pletion, in com parison w ith tw o standard-w ell com pletions.
Available inform ation indicates th a t th e in itial com pletion of wells in more than
one zone can be accom plished successfully. R eliable data on the effectiveness ofthe m ethod are a t present lim ited to th e earlier stages of multiple-zone production.
Sufficient representative d ata on th e later life (especially during the artificial-lift
period) of m ultiple-zone w ells are n o t y e t available to perm it drawing any definite
conclusions as to th e u ltim ate over-all practicability of the method. E xisting con­ditions w ith respect to critical m aterials m ay reasonably be expected to result in an
accelerated developm ent of im proved technique and more advanced m ethods ofapplication.
A369.* Conditioning O il-W e lls for Secondary R ecovery. F . R . Cozzens. Oil W kly,
1 6 .1 1 .4 2 ,
107 ( 1 1 ) , 40.— T he paper describes in brief certain treatm ents of w ells.

An oil-and-soap solution form s th e basic treatm ent in Eastern areas, and the process
is put into effect w hen th e w ells can no longer be pum ped at a profit. W hile t ie
pumping equipm ent is still in ta ct, th e reservoir or shot-hole at the bottom of awell is filled nearly to ca p acity w ith live oil into w hich has been stirred soap chips
or granulated soap, in proportion of 5 lb. of soap to each barrel of oil. Six to tenŁ132 aABSTRACTS.

barrels of th is solution are generally needed for each well. T he lead line in thetubing is next connected w ith th e gas-vent in th e casing-head, and th e well iscirculated continuously for a period of 3 6 -4 8 hr., th en pum ped dry. In th e pu m p ­ing out process, the oil-and-soap solution is conducted to a tank, where, after the
residue has settled out, the oil is drawn off, m ixed w ith ab ou t th e sam e am ountof soap as before, then again introduced into th e w ell for another circulation.
After tw o or three interm ittent circulations of th is kind, during w hich a carefulobservation is made as to ty p e of residue pum ped out, th e large m ajority of wells
show an increasing am ount of live oil and gas. T h is is proof th a t th e face of thereservoir has been w ashed clean and old channels opened.
U ses of paraffin solvents, acids, and shooting are briefly discussed.
A. H. N.
370.* Tracer Gas U sed to Check R epressuring P rogress. H . F . Sim ons. Oil G a s ./.,
19.11.42, 41 (28), 36.— The in jection w ells are equipped w ith packers so th a t the

input into each horizon can be controlled. The producing w ells are n ot equipped
w ith packers, and produce through a com m on string of tu b in g. B y injection of the
tracer gas into one of the form ations, th e tim e for m ovem ent of th e gas betw een the
input and producing well can be determined. W hen it is desired to test a well,approxim ately 600 cu. ft. of 70% tracer gas is injected along w ith th e repressure gas.
This am ounts to about 500 p.p.m . of th e tracer in th e injected gas. Gas from theproducing well is then checked u n til evidences of th e tracer begin to appear, buildup, dim inish, and finally disappear. The shortest tim e tak en for th e tracer to show
up in the producing w ell w as only a few m onths in one case, w hich show ed there wasevidently channelling of the form ation. Injection in th is particular case w as dis­continued temporarily.
The am ount of tracer in the produced gas ranges from 3 p.p.m . to 175 p.p.m.
Practically all of the injected tracer is recovered from th e reservoir. T he tracer gas
used on these tests is manufactured in a sm all building, located a t one of the com­pressor plants, at Loude. The tracer gas is generated from carbon dioxide and charcpal.
The plant has a capacity of 600 cu. ft. of 70% pure tracer gas w ith tw o reactors inseries operation/day at atm osphere. I t is bottled at 900-lb. pressure. The procedure
is for the test crew to take three bottles of gas out in th e m orning and three in theevening. These are connected to a bypass a t the injection w ells and th e bottles arethen purged of the tracer gas. The cost of the tracer gas is approxim ately 6 cents/
cubic foot.
A . H . N.
371.* Long-Stroke P um ping U n it U ses M in e-H oist P rinciples. N . W illiam s. Oil
Gas J ., 19.11.42, 41 (28), 50.— In the design of th e u n it, w hich, so far, is lim ited toworking models, application is made of an old m ine-hoisting principle, th a t of variable
leverage as supplied by conoidal drums, to elim inate th e unbalanced condition thatexists at the end of the pum ping stroke. A lth ou gh th e idea and use of conoidal
drums for hoisting are far from new, th is is th e first tim e, it is claim ed, th a t any
attem pt has been made to apply the principle for liftin g fluid from beneath th e earth’s
surface. Variable leverage of a conoidal drum is obtained th rou gh th e changes in
its effective radii. I t is th is th a t gives th e con stan tly changing counterw eight effectin the operation of the new pum ping u n it, and provides th e unbalancing action at thecom pletion of each stroke to start, or help start, th e succeeding stroke w hile th e prime
mover is in process of acceleration. The change in radius w hich controls th e lengthof stroke and speed can be governed b y th e size of th e cable reels, and th e thicknessof the cable w inding thereon, and b y th e steepness of th e conical grooved drum.
Elim ination of the unbalanced condition a t th e end of a stroke m akes practical theuse of a simple prime m over in continuous frequent-reversing service.
Essentially the new u n it includes an au tom atic reversing controller for a prime
m o v er; a speed-reducing m echanism operated by a drive connection from th e prime
m o v er; an operating shaft from the speed reducer ; th e conical drum , secured on theshaft, and on which is wound th e cable or chain operating the pum p-rod, and th e drum,on which is w ound the line operating th e counterw eight. T he arrangem ent of theseelem ents is shown in accom panying drawings. D etails of counterw eight arrange­m ents are given. Pum ping strokes of from 50 to 75 ft. are considered feasible w ith
the unit, the length of the stroke being lim ited only b y th e size of th e drum and theheight in the derrick of th e blocks through w hich th e pum ping and counterw eighta js s t k ACTS.

133 alines travel. W ith strokes of th is len gth there is n ot only a substantial reduction inloss of energy due to rod stretch as contrasted w ith the loss incurred in the usual
stroke lengths of from 2 to 6 ft., b u t also th e less frequent stretching involved in thelong strokes results in m uch reduced rod fatigue.
Other advantages claim ed for th e long-stroke u n it are: (1) E lim ination of gas­
lock by w inding the plunger ou t of th e barrel to release the gas. (2) Elimination ofparaffin from centre of tu b in g b y rod-joints w hich w ill pass all points in the tubing.
(3) Loosening of sanded plungers by a jar in th e rod-line actuated by reversing theprime m over to produce th e jarring action . (4) R eduction in cut oil and less d is­turbance of sand through th e elim ination of short, choppy strokes. (5) The unit canbe equipped to sh u t dow n au tom atically when a well pum ps off or starts to flow.
(6) Slow rate of acceleration of th e stroke reduces peak well w eight.
A. H . N.
in R eservoir T ech n ology. P art 4.
M. M uskat. Petrol. Engr.
November 1942, 14 (2), 65.— W ell spacing is the first item discussed in th is part. It
is argued th a t from a ph ysical view p oin t there is no basis for preferring close to wide
well spacing or vice versa. I t is from th e practical and financial standpoint that
there is a basis for d istin ction . E v en should there be a tendency for the economic
ultimate recovery to increase som ew hat w ith th e well d en sity, th is in itself does notprovide th e answer to th e w ell-spacing problem . For obviously it would be econo­
mically unsound to increase th e w ell d en sity if th e increased production before aban­donment w ould n o t p ay for th e cost of th e additional wells. Indeed, it is only bybalancing th e added value of th e production against th e increased investm ent andoperating costs th a t th e true econom ic optim um w ell spacing m ay be determined.
In particular, w e m u st look for th e m axim um in the difference betw een the curvefor the incom e from th e oil recovered and th e cost of th e developm ent and operation,
each plotted as a function of th e ’w ell spacing. In determ ining each of these, accountmust be taken of th e effect of th e w ell spacing on the life of th e operations and theinterest charges on th e in vestm en t and discount rates for future profits. I t is thus
found th a t th e curve for incom e from oil recovery rises rapidly a t first and thenquickly flattens ou t as th e w ell d en sity increases. On th e other hand, the cost curvem aintains an app roxim ately linear rise th rou gh ou t th e w hole range of practicalspacing variations. T he op tim u m spacing— th a t for m axim um profit— is then theabscissa for m axim um difference b etw een th e curves, or for equal slopes. For physicaland cost constants of such m agn itu d es as are encountered in practice, th is method
leads to optim um spacings for gas-drive fields as are actually indicated by direct
field experience— nam ely, 20 -1 0 0 acres/w ell.
Proration is n ex t discussed. From th e technical standpoint, proration has had
two major effects. F irst, as im plied b y th e definition of th e term , it has forced theoperation of w ells and fields a t lower production rates th an possible by wide open
flow. Second, it has created th e problem s of proration formulae, and allocation of
production, w hich, in turn, h ave stim u lated m uch of the progress already discussed.
These tw o effects are detailed.
A brief study of conservation concludes th e paper.
A. H . N.

372.* Progress

373.* Oil R ecovery by U n d er-P ressu rin g. F . R . Cozzens. Petrol. Engr, November
1932, 14 (2), 72.— Under-pressuring begins after a secondary-rec.overy m ethod has

been in effect for som e tim e. T he m eth od co n stitu tes rem oving the false bottom s ofcertain of the intake wells, and low ering th e air-induction tubing so th at the extrem e
low sections of th e sand w ill receive th e repressuring m edium . To confine the pressure,packers are usually run and set in th e strin g im m ediately below the areas of sandthat have been previously pressured. There is no m ethodical rule regarding thenumber of w ells to be th u s treated, b u t m ost operators use a ratio of one-third theirintake wells, situated at various p o in ts over th e field. W hen the estim ated number
of wells have been deepened and recom pleted, air or gas is forced into them at full
capacity, and as fast as th e sand w ill tak e it. A s pressure builds up, the pressure
on the remaining inp ut w ells in th e upper sand zones is gradually reduced until only
sufficient pressure is m aintained to p u sh th e oil to producing (open) wells. Pressure
to the deepened wells, how ever, is continuous, and a built-up pressure of 300-500 lb.
is necessary for best results.
An air-pressure increases in the base of the sand, the fluid content (oil, water, andM134 aABSTRACTS.

other drainage) expands and rises. The oil, being lighter, is first to enter the produc­
ing sand zones, and is later follow ed by w ater. A good percentage of oil is generally
recovered before w ater becomes troublesom e in the p um ping wells, but even as water
increases in volum e, the operator still benefits. T he rise of w ater in the sand floods
the channelled-out portions and acts as an effective rem edy for th e former bypassingof air. The increasing w ater volum e likew ise has a ten d en cy to release considerable
oil from side margins of the sand, and to float oil from crevices and pockets th a t cannot
be reached by air- or gas-pressure alone. Combined pressure (air or gas and water)from below keeps fluid alw ays w ith in th e scope of producing w ells throughout theentire life of the recovery project.
A. H . N.
374.* T herm o-Siphon H eaters ior O il-Field O perations. H . Vance and E. G. Smith.
Petrol. Engr, November 1942, 14 (2), 103.— The m ost com m on application of the thermo-

siphon heater is in the flow-tank or gun-barrel for th e purpose of breaking down
emulsions. In a gun-barrel installation, where th e oil to be heated is floating on topof a body of hot water, th e area of contact is equal to th e cross-sectional area of thetank containing the tw o liquids. T hus, w e find th a t th e diam eter of the tank is thecontrolling factor, provided th a t th e difference in tem perature betw een th e oil and thewater is the same. In order to increase th e surface of con tact one m ay install in theordinary gun-barrel w hat the w riters have term ed an em ulsion pre-heater, which
consists of coils very similar in design to steam -coils used in h eating oil w ith steam.
The oil from the well passes directly through these coils, w hich are in turn covered
w ith hot w a te r ; then the oil is discharged through an enlarged pipe section into thebody of the oil itself. T his problem of surface con tact is directly responsible for the
low heat transfer possible in a small oil and gas separator.
Complete design data are presented and used in ty p ica l exam ples.
A. H . N.
375.* G un-Perforated W ell Com pletions. B . C. Craft. Petrol. E ngr, November 1942,
14 (2), 112.— The study w as made to determine the optim um num ber of perforations/ft.

of casing as a guide to engineers and operators. Theoretical work, based on Muskat’s
formulae, is presented. E xperim ents show ed th e pressure loss resulting from thesand bridge over rectangular slots to be sm all, if th e slot w id th used is equal to twice
the grain size at the 10 per centile, b u t to increase as th e slot w id th is reduced. Like­
wise, it is believed th at the effect of bridging or filling of th e perforations with sandwould be small. A lthough th e pressure loss, due to openings in th e slots, has beenfound to be small compared w ith th e convergence loss, it w ould be approximately
tw ice as large as when the liner is set in open hole, due to th e orifice effect of the per­forations. If the total equivalent area of th e perforations is tw ice th a t of th e openings
in the liner, th is loss is one-fourth the liner lo s s ; conversely, if th is area is one-half,
the pressure loss will be increased four tim es.
I t is impossible to estim ate how m any of th e gun perforations remain open. It is
standard practice w ith some operators to run a rock-bit or m ill p a st th e perforations
before going in the hole w ith the w ell-setting to p revent b u llets th a t m ay have wedgedin the side of the casing from tearing the screen and to rem ove th e m ud filter-cakeover the perforations. Other perforations m ay be plugged w ith sm all pieces of cement
and shale. Evidence of plugging has been obtained from an exam ination of screensremoved from high ga s-o il ratio w ells. T he screen-pipe either show ed th e effect of,or was cut through entirely by, th e jettin g action of sand particles flowing throughthe lim ited number of open perforations. D ue to th e high pressure losses resulting
from convergence or crowding of th e fluid a t th e perforations, th e pressure loss dueto the orifice effect of th e perforations, th e cost of reworking w ells w hen th e screenpipe has becom e gas cut, and finally, due to th e plugging of a num ber of th e perfora­
tions, it seems safe to conclude th a t th e com bined area of th e gun perforations/ft. ofcasing should be w ithin the range of one and a half to tw ice th a t of th e opening/ft. ofscreen-pipe.
A. H . N.
376.* Prediction of the Shrinkage of Crude O ils. D . L. K a tz. Oil W kly, 30.11.42,
107 (13), 17-22. P aper Presented before A m erican Petroleum In stitu te.— Recent
information on the m ethods of com puting th e d en sity of liquids containing dissolved
gases m akes possible more accurate calculation of phase behaviour under pressure for

ABSTRACTS.

135 acrude-oil-natural-gas system s. T h is report covers several m ethods for predicting
the shrinkage of a reservoir crude oil w hen such field data as reservoir pressure,reservoir tem perature, so lu b ility of gas in th e oil, lease-tank crude-oil gravity, andgravity of th e gas (air equals 1) are given for th e reservoir under consideration. When
all of these item s are know n, th e m ethod is straightforward and reliable ; whereas if
only solubility, crude-oil g ra v ity , reservoir pressure, and reservoir temperature are
known, th e m ethod becom es less reliable. For cases in which only crude-oil gravity,
reservoir tem perature, and reservoir pressure are available, even more approxim ate
m ethods are" presented. A rough m ethod .for prediction of the solubility of gas in
the crude oil from saturation pressure and crude-oil gravity follows the shrinkage
calculations.
The shrinkage calculations do n o t depend on the separation process— i.e., flash ordifferential vaporization of th e gas— because th e properties of th e resulting gas andliquid, as w ell as th e q u a n tity of gas liberated, com pensate for an y changes in theshrinkage value. A m eth od o f com puting th e density of crude oil saturated w ith
natural gas has recently been presented! The m ethod consists of com puting thedensity of th e liquid a t 60° F . and 1 atm osphere of pressure by the use of additive
volum es, and correcting th e d en sity from 60° F . and 1 atm osphere : first, to thepressure desired, and th en to th e desired tem perature. The densities of all constituentsheavier than ethane are tak en as th e norm al density in gram s/m illim etre or pounds/cu.
ft. of the pure con stitu en t a t 60° F. and its vapour pressure. For m ethane and ethane,it w as necessary to devise an apparent d en sity chart w hich gives the density of methaneand of ethane as a function of th e concentration (in w eight per cent) in the liquid, andof the density of th e co n stitu en ts other th an m ethane or ethane. In m ost cases themethod w ill com pute th e d en sity of th e crude oil saturated w ith natural gas to about± 2% ’
The calculation of th e d en sity of a crude oil saturated w ith natural gas requires
the analysis of th e gas w hich is liberated w hen th e crude oil is reduced in pressure,
such as to atm ospheric, together w ith th e d en sity of the remaining crude oil at thelower pressure. The q u a n tity o f gas liberated is added to the final crude oil, and thetotal volum e of th e crude oil saturated w ith th is gas is com puted a t the saturation
temperature and pressure. T h is volum e m inus th a t of th e residual crude oil gives
the shrinkage caused b y vaporization.
'
The paper is w ell illu strated b y tables and exam ples.
A. H . N.
377.* P olicies and R e su lts of W ater-F lo o d in g in K an sas. P. R eed. Oil Gas
3.12.42, 41 (30), 31.— T hose attracted to water-flooding for the first tim e frequently

under-estim ate th e tim e and expense usually consum ed in selecting and acquiring
producing properties suitable for w ater flooding. I t is now w idely recognized th atin order to m ake a profit ou t of flooding at prevailing prices for crude oil, it is necessary
to recover at least 3,000 brl./acre from sand w ith considerably more than 35% satura­tion. In order to do th is w ith th e 330-ft. and 440-ft. spacing patterns comm only
used, operators have been look in g for sand bodies a t depths less than 700 ft. containing
oil of well above 30° A .P .I. Operators have found these conditions m et to a larger
extent in South-eastern K ansas th an in an y other Mid-Continent area. There, theshoestring sands of fairly uniform and m oderate perm eability w ith ou t the presenceof a w ater-table are w ell suited to water-flooding.
In reviewing th e first five years of water-flooding, it is seen th at, following the initial
influx in 1936 and 1937, there w as a stead y expansion in the application of th is tech ­nique. H owever, it w as som ew hat retarded b y difficulties in finding outlets for pro­duction. L ast year and th is year, due to war conditions, there has been a definite
acceleration of th e trend to w ater-flooding. Of the thirty-three projects of which
records are available, on ly nine show ing a su b stan tial increase were producing morethan 100 brl.
The typical successful w ater-flood property produced betw een 7 and 20 brl. from
80—160 acres before flooding. I t has been developed for w ater-flooding according toa systematic plan w hich provides for adequate w ater-treating programme and pro­
gressive extension of w ater-flooding each year to parts of the property which had
hitherto been unaffected b y th e drive. In th is w ay the operating organization canbe held together on a fairly perm anent basis and th e com pany can m aintain production
somewhere near th e sam e levels from year to year. A lthough some operators favour

j 36 A

ABSTRACTS.

producing by flowing throughout the life of the property in order to save the expenseof pumping, the general practice is to pum p during th e early life of a property, andflow during the last stagey when the oil-w ater ratio is greater than 1 to 10. B y sucha progressive programme it is possible to sh ift pum ping equipm ent from flowing wells
to wells in the new ly flooded sections. Furtherm ore, th is plan enables th e company
to profit by its experience so th a t more efficient m ethods m ay be applied as operations
proceed. However, certain operators favour a policy of developing an entire property
as rapidly as possible for w ater-flooding in order th a t oil m ay be recovered in a shortperiod of operation w ith a m inim um of overhead.
D etails and certain features of special interest in various fields are discussed.
A. H . N.
378.* R aising Oil and W ater from O il-W ells. S. F . Shaw. O il Gas J „ 10.12.42, 41(31), 51.— A portion of th is paper is cut by th e Censor from Journals com ing to England.
In the remaining portion the com bination air-lift plunger-pum p m ethod used in oil­fields is discussed. First trials were unsatisfactory, b u t a later m ethod was notentirely so. In th is m ethod the compressed air w as em ployed to drive the pumpengine, and this air w as exhausted in to th e pum p colum n and used to lift the oil by
air-lift from the pump to the surface. The use of com pressed air to operate the pump
was a distinct advantage in th a t it elim inated the need for a 6500-ft. string of suckerrods, but the application of the compressed air to drive th e pum p and also to lift theoil to the surface m et w ith difficulties, in th a t there w as no effective means of con­trolling the supply delivered to the pum p as distinguished from th e supply of air
required to perform the air-lift operations. In fact, no a tten tio n w as paid to the air­lift phase of the lifting operation, and y e t th is w as m ost im portant, since it involved
lifting the oil from the pum p to the surface, a distance of nearly 6500 ft. Improve­m ents could perhaps have been made in th e ty p e of p um ping engine employed, but
the main difficulty lay in the improper and m isunderstood m ethod of applying the
air-lift.
It is believed by the writer th a t th is m ethod of using th e plunger pum p driven bycompressed air in com bination w ith air-lift possesses considerable m erit, and should
Andean im portant application on oil-field lifting operations, particularly in deep wells.
After flowing, pressures in oil-wells decline to a low p o in t, th e consum ption of gas/barrel of oil increases to an excessive p o in t ; also th e q u a n tity o f oil entering the wellis reduced by reason of th e back pressure held again st th e sand face through the useof th is excessive quantity of gas. Therefore, if an increased submergence can be
artificially created for the air-lift and a t th e sam e tim e th e back pressure at the sandface is reduced, there w ill be an increased production of oil, and a smaller quantity ofcompressed air required to lift the oil.
A. H . N;

Transport and Storage.
379.* R esu lts of Corrosion Inhibitor D em onstrated in P rod ucts L ine. S. S. Smith.
Oil Gas J ., 24.9.42, 41 (30), 85.— The successful application of a corrosion inhibitor,
developed by Dr. W achter of Shell D evelopm ent Co., to an 8-in. pipe operated by
Shell Oil Co., is described. The inhibitor is very soluble in w ater, and a solution is
injected continuously by means of a special device in to th e product stream at thepumping station. Concentrations of inhibitor in excess of 0-03% are required in
the free w ater present to preclude corrosion, and th e w ater m u st be maintained
alkaline (pH value in excess of 7-5). To th is end caustic soda w as added to theinjection solution. Care is also taken to m ain tain th e line as w ater-free as possible.
Control of injection m ay be obtained by testin g inhibitor concentration of effluent
water. Operations prior to injection had resulted in appreciable scale form ation andreduction of line capacity. Charts presented show (1) line tem peratures and lineg rad ien t; (2) inhibitor injection rate, inhibitor con ten t of effluent w ater, scale removal,
scraper usage, and line capacity (expressed as “ c ” factor b y th e m odified H azen and
W illiams formula) over a prolonged period of operation w ith inhibitor injection. In
the early stages inhibitor injection rate w as sm all b u t w as later increased appreciably
w ith a resulting im m ediate im provem ent in “ c ” factor and in scale rem oval.
le n ta tiv e conclusions reached from th e accum ulated d ata are :•ABSTRACTS.

137 A(1) A ll effects in a long line are m uch slower than usually anticipated, and only
a long-period collection of “ c ” factors and scale receipts is useful for analysis.
(2) O ver-inhibition is necessary to im prove “ c ” factors and to remove scale.
(3) Effluent inhibitor concentration is th e index of effectiveness of inhibition.
-'(4) A products line can be cleaned and m aintained clean by the use of thisinhibitor, w ith on ly nom inal scraping to m ove scale dislodged from the pipe
into the station s.
(5) There is no danger to the line resulting from m oderate over-inhibition tohasten scale rem oval. N o difficulty has resulted in ordinary operation from theuse of th e inhibitor.
(6) A n old scaled line w ith “ c ” factors under 130 w ill probably improve for ayear under inhibition and w ill atta in approxim ately original factors.
The inhibitor is now in general use on all products pipe-lines operated by Shell
Oil Co.
R . A. E.
380.* M itigation of U nderground Corrosion of P ip e-L ines. A non. Oil O a sJ ., 1.10.42,
41 (21), 37.— Inform ation from a review prepared b y th e Bureau of Standards ispresented. W ell-drained areas should be selected for tank farms and other projects
requiring buried tan ks or containers.
Where choice is possible, righ t of w ay of pipe-lines should be selected so as to avoid
swamps and corrosive soils. W here th is is n ot possible, back-filling the trench w ith
sand or other non-corrosive m aterial, or even w ith lim e, m ay be advisable. Other
precautions recom m ended are careful tam ping of soil around th e lower half of the pipe,
and avoidance of con tact w ith rocks, sticks, or other solid materials. Corrosion
tends to increase w ith th e d ep th a t w hich pipes are laid.
There is little difference in th e rates o f corrosion of comm only used ferrous pipematerials. A verage results of th e B ureau of Standards soil-corrosion tests indicatethat wrought iron corroded sligh tly less, and cast iron slightly more, than Bessemer
steel during the first tw elv e years of exposure, but th e relative m erits differ for different
soil conditions.
Addition of nickel to steel is more effective th an chromium, but corrosion is not
greatly reduced u n til th e percentages o f th ese m aterials become sufficient to affectmaterially th e cost of th e alloy. A n alloy containing 14% Si is very resistant to mostsoils, bu t hard to m achine and b rittle. T he increased cost of the more resistantmaterials m ust be balanced again st cost of leaks to decide w hether their use is ju sti­fiable. For reasons 'enumerated, lead coatings have not been, generally successful
underground.
Some of the more im portant papers on cathodic protection have been summarized
for distribution b y th e B ureau of Standards. U nder som e conditions protection ofpipes by th is m ethod is less exp en sive th an any other m eans of keeping them inservice. Insulated coatin gs greatly reduce required current consum ption, and althoughdata on the life and effectiveness of coatin gs are meagre and conflicting, a reasonableevaluation of th e econom ics of com bined coating and cathodic protection should bepossible.
Insulating joints, correctly installed a t strategic points along a line, m ay be ofmuch value in com bating corrosion, and advice regarding installation is given. U ses
and lim itations of w ooden and cem en t-asb estos pipes are described.
R. A. E.

Cracking.
Patents on Cracking. W . J . D egnen. U .S .P . 2,305,569, 15.12.42.
Appl.
15.4.38. High-boiling hydrocarbons are catalytically cracked by an endothermic
reaction which involves con tactin g vapours of th e hydrocarbons at high temperatureswith a pulverulent cracking ca ta ly st. T he heated particles of the solid catalyst are
dispersed in a heated vapour stream of th e hydrocarbons. The dispersion is passed
upwards through a cracking zone of relatively large cross-sectional area in which thevelocity of the vapour com ponent is sufficiently low to produce a cloud-like accumula­tion of catalyst particles. T he cracked vaporous products are withdrawn from theupper part of the. zone and ca ta ly st particles contam inated w ith carbonaceous m atter
381.

ABSTRACTS.

138 a

are recovered. These particles are continuously passed to a regeneration zone, wherecarbonaceous contam inant is rem oved by com bustion.
P. L. Veltm an. U .S .P . 2,307,434, 5.1.43. A ppl. 7.2.40. In cracking of a hydro­
carbon oil, a stream of vaporized feed oil is introduced a t a tem perature betw een 800°
and 1000° F. into a reaction zone containing a m ass of solid, conversion catalyst in
particle form. H eated feed-oil vapours are passed through th e m ass, w hile an absolutepressure is m aintained in th e ca ta ly st zone w ith in a relatively narrow range extending
both below and above a predeterm ined m ean pressure. T he pressure in th e reaction
zone is subjected to substantially continuous fluctuation w ith in th is range, w ithout
interrupting th e flow of hydrocarbon feed. Pressure is altern ately increased anddecreased, over a range of about 10—15 lb. H ydrocarbon products are finally dis­charged from th e reaction zone.
►
K. K . K earby. U .S .P . 2,307,795, 12.1.43. A ppl. 14.12.38. In th e catalytic
conversion of hydrocarbon oils a ben ton itic clay is u sed as ca ta ly st. T he bentonitic
clay is pretreated in its raw state w ith dilute strong m ineral acid to rem ove 50% of
its original im purities. R egeneration of th e clay is carried out in th e absence of a
substantial am ount of w ater vapour.
H . B. M.

Hydrogenation.
J . Turkevich. U .S .P . 2,307,715, 5.1.43. Appl.
29.8.40. Hydrocarbons are dehydrogenated b y con tactin g th em a t a high tem ­perature w ith a catalyst consisting essentially of an in tim a te m ixture of chromic
sulphide and chromic oxide. T he m ixture is prepared b y h eatin g chromic sulphatein a reducing atm osphere to effect reduction of th e su lp h ate to a m ixture of th e sulphideand oxide.
H . B. M.
382. P aten t on H ydrogenation.

Polymerization and Alkylation.
383. P atents on P olym erization and A lkylation. A nglo-Iranian Oil Co. E.P.
550,477, 11.1.43. Appl. 2.10.40. In a tw o-stage process for th e production of highoctane-number gasoline, or a constituent thereof, from norm ally gaseous hydrocarbons
boiling below 50° C., a hydrocarbon fraction, consisting of one or more alkanes, issubjected to isomerization at a pressure b etw een 1 and 50 atm ospheres and at atem perature betw een 250° and 600° C. Isom erization is carried ou t in the presenceof a catalyst consisting of a m etal oxide and/or a sulphide of Group 6 of the Periodic
Table with the possible addition of m etallic oxides or sulphides of Group 8. The isoalkane produced is subjected, together w ith an alkene, to alk ylation a t moderatepressure and at a tem perature betw een — 50° C. and + 100° C. in th e presence of analkylation catalyst. The alkylation product is distilled to yield liquid hydrocarbons
having more than 6 carbon atom s.
E.
T. Layng. U .S.P . 2,307,689, 5.1.43. A ppl. 29.2.40. Olefinic hydrocarbons
can be converted to higher-boiling hydrocarbons b y con tactin g th em a t'a high tem ­perature w ith a catalytic contact m aterial con sistin g of a plu rality of porous granulesof supporting m aterial im pregnated w ith th e residue form ed b y h eatin g a complexof amm onia and a m etal pyrophosphate capable of reduction to a polym erization
catalyst.
G.
Egloff. U .S.P . 2,307,773, 12.1.43. A ppl. 18.11.40. To con vert paraffinichydrocarbons into higher-m olecular-weight paraffins th e follow ing procedure is adopted.
A paraffin is fluorinated under conditions capable o f producing a reaction mixture
ot alkyl fluoride and hydrogen fluoride. An isoparaftin is added to th e m ixture, whichis then alkylated w ith th e alkyl fluoride in th e presence of hydrogen sulphide.
H . B. M.

Refining and Refinery Plant.
384. P aten ts on R efining and R efinery P la n t. C. W . T y so n . U .S .P . 2,305,046,
15.12.42. Appl. 11.12.40. T reatm ent of a feed m ixture for th e separation of vaporized
oil constituents from unvaporized oil con stitu en ts at tem peratures a t w hich th e un­

ABSTRACTS.

139 A

vaporized constituents w ill farther decom pose. T he feed m ixture is passed into a
cyclone separator a t a tem perature a t w hich no vaporization of the liquid will occur.
The walls of th e separator are cooled by m eans of w ater circulated in a jacket roundthe walls. Vaporized con stitu en ts are w ithdraw n overhead and unvaporized con­stitu en ts are w ithdraw n as b ottom s.
D.
I. A shw orth. U .S .P . 2,305,464, .-15.12.42. Appl. 21.11.39. To rem ove im ­purities from oil w hich contains w ater a flowing stream of th e oil-w ater m ixture isestablished and th en heated to a tem perature designed to coalesce the im purities andrender them readily separable from th e oil. D uring heating the stream is m aintained
under pressure n ot lower th an th a t required to prevent substantial vaporization ofwater. T he stream is cooled to a tem perature below th e flash-point of the oil, andduring th e cooling process su b stan tially th e sam e pressure is m aintained as th a t applied
during heating. A fterw ards pressure is substantially reduced w ithout atom ization
and w ater plus im purities are separated from th e oil.
W. W . R eed. U .S .P . 2,306,843, 29.12.42. Appl. 25.7.41. In a process for thecaustic scrubbing of a petroleum d istillate oil a partly spent aqueous caustic reagent
is introduced into th e vapours of th e d istillate oil, and flows concurrently therewith
to and through condensation. Caustic reagent and condensate oil are separated toform a body of reagent through w hich condensate oil passes upwards and collects.
Spent caustic reagent is rem oved, and collected partly treated condensate oil is passed
upwards through th e interstices of a packing m aterial subm erged in a body of caustic
reagent for final treatm en t. F inished oil is collected and rem oved and fresh caustic
reagent is supplied to th e top of th e caustic reagent body. P artly spent caustic re­agent is rem oved from th e b ottom to supply th e necessary partly spent caustic first
introduced into th e oil vapours.
R. E. Burk. U .S .P . 2,306,933, 29.12.42. Appl. 11.8.39. Sulphur compounds are
removed from petroleum by elim inating hydrogen sulphide and afterwards heating
the petroleum and separating it in to lighter and heavier products. The heavier
portion is conditioned for th e action of m etal carbonyl by subjecting it under mercaptan-forming conditions a t a tem perature of 400° F. to an agent for converting nonmercaptan sulphur into m ercaptans. T he treated m aterial is subjected to the actionof metal carbonyl at a tem perature b etw een 300° and 650° F . Finally all unreacted
metal carbonyl is rem oved.
L. L. Lovell, W . R iver, P. E . Malson, and L. F. Bouillion. U .S.P . 2,306,993,
29.12.42. Appl. 30.6.41. A process for desulphurizing a normally liquid hydrocarbon
distillate containing organic sulphur com pounds. T he d istillate is contacted w ith aliquid slurry of an agen t consisting essen tially of clay in a hydrocarbon carrier oil at
a temperature above th a t required for flash vaporization of th e distillate and belowthat of incipient cracking under th e conditions of the process. The slurry is heatedto a temperature b etw een 585° F. and the incipient cracking tem perature. H 2S isthus liberated, and d istilla te and H 2S can be separated in vapour form from theslurry. The oil has a specific dispersion n ot above 115 and a resin content of lessthan 3%. I t is free from asp h alts and substantially non-volatile at the temperatureof heating. The clay is previously a ctiv a ted by treatm ent w ith an electrolyte-yielding
compound of an inorganic p o ly -o x y acid radical.
R. W. Henry and J . V . M ontgom ery. U .S .P . 2,307,130, 5.1.43. Appl. 25.3.40.
To dewax mineral oils th e w a x y oil is first m ixed w ith a dew axing solvent. The m ix ­ture is chilled to precipitate w ax, and th e w ax-oil-solvent compound is passed to a
separating zone com prising w ashing and refluxing sections at a point intermediate
between these tw o sections. A stream of chilled w ash solvent is passed through thisseparating zone from th e in let en d of th e w ashing section to the outlet end of the
refluxing section. In th e stream of chilled w ash solven t the oil and solvent from theprecipitated w ax-oil-solvent m ixture are selectively dissolved. In to the oil-solvent
mixture at a point adjacent to th e o u tlet of th e refluxing section an inert gas is passed.
The inert gas com pletely dissolves in th e m ixture, and causes additional w ax pre­cipitation as reflux w ax w hich flows by gravity in a direction countercurrent to theflow of the solvent-oil m ixtu re and is w ashed by it. R eflux w ax and precipitated
wax are combined at th e interm ediate point of th e w ashing and refluxing zones.

140 aABSTRACTS.

The combined w axes flow by gravity in a direction countercurrent to the flow of chilledwash solvent, and are washed w ith progressively purer w ash solven t. W ashed waxes
are removed at the chilled solven t inlet end of th e w ashing section. T he solventdewaxed oil-dissolved gas m ixture is rem oved at th e solven t ou tlet end of the refluxing
section.
R . L. B etts. U .S.P. 2,307,873, 12.1.43. Appl. 30.11.40. H igh-quality petroleum
resins having softening points in the range 100°-200° F ., w ith absolute colour below
1000, are segregated from extrem ely high-m elting-point, dark-coloured resins having
softening points above 200 in the follow ing m anner. A petroleum oil containing
natural resins is treated w ith a phenolic solven t to form a raffinate phase and a homo­
geneous solvent-extract phase. Sufficient w ater is added to th e extract phase tobring the ratio of the phenolic com ponent in th e solven t to w ater contained in theextract phase w ithin the approxim ate lim its 90 : 10 to 70 : 30. T he extract phase is
separated from substances w hich are n ot hom ogeneously contained therein, and theextract is freed of solvent. The solvent-free extract is d istilled under sufficientvacuum to prevent substantial decom position. F inally a high -q u ality resin distillate
is separated.
F.
A. Ferguson. U .S.P . 2,308,163, 12.1.43. A ppl. 27.12.39. In a process forconcentrating sulphuric acid containing carbonaceous m aterial, a pool of acid isestablished in a stripping zone, and sulphuric acid and h o t gases are fed concurrently
into this pool, below the surface thereof, and in close p roxim ity to each other. In
this w ay incoming acid contacts the h o ttest gas first, and th u s converts carbonaceousm aterial in the acid into granular form.
H . B. M.

Chemistry and Physics of Petroleum.
L. F . C hristianson and J . W. Home.
U.S. Dept, of the Interior. B ur. M ines Technical P a p er, 638, 1942.— U n til recently
the composition of salts in or associated w ith petroleum has been determined bychemical m ethods, and the information gained in th is w ay has been considered adequate
for normal desalting operations. As pointed ou t in th is report, how ever, th e physicalstate and behaviour of the salts are im portant factors, and it is for th is reason desirable
th at chemical analyses are supplem ented w ith a know ledge o f th e physical form andmode of dispersion of these salts.
The report presents new data relative to the behaviour and ty p e of emulsified brine
droplets and to the natural physical structure and size of salt crystals found in
petroleum. These data were obtained w ith th e aid of a petrographic microscope,and observations were recorded and show n on photom icrographs. For th e purposesof the investigation the physical state of salts of som e of th e oils being produced in the
Mid-Continent area was studied. In itially, chem ical an alyses were m ade to deter­mine the quantities of th e predom inating salts, and also to find th e to ta l quantity ofwater-soluble chlorides in th e oils. Thereafter, photom icrographs were prepared toillustrate the variation in emulsions, the action of ¿em ulsifying agents, and the physicalforms in which the salts crystallize from th e dem ulsified oil.
I t was found th at the salt in th e brine em ulsion w ill u ltim ately precipitate as freeor oil-coated microscopic crystals w hen th e em ulsion film has broken or w hen otherconditions exist which permit th e w ater to evaporate from th e brine. I t w as con­cluded from these observations th a t it is b etter to m ake one com plete dehydration of
the emulsified oil at the tim e of treatm ent than to allow salt crystals opportunity toform from the partly demulsified brine.
Exam ination of various em ulsions show ed characteristic differences due to saltcontent, manner of producing th e oil, size of droplets, and sta b ility . Microscopical
data revealed th a t th e proper chem ical destabilizer gave excellen t results, but an
improper chemical tended to create a very fine “ tig h t ” em ulsion w hich m igh t not
be detected by the usual tests.
Careful study w as made of th e behaviour during refining of th e sa lts in crude oils
having a paraffin-intermediate base. S alts were exam ined and photographed in the
crude oils before and after desalting, and in th e refinery residual oils. Decom positionof the calcium and m agnesium chlorides w as found to be less in th ese oils than has beenreported elsewhere.
H . B. M.
385.* Photom icroscopy of Salt in P etroleum .

ABSTRACTS.

141 A

386. L im its of In flam m ab ility and Ig n itio n Tem perature of E thyl M ercaptan in Air.

G. W . Jones, R . E . K ennedy, and W . E . Miller. U .S . Bur. Mines. Report of Investiga­
tions, N o. 3648, June 1942.— In m any ty p es of fuel gases and dangerous atmospheres
ethyl m ercaptan (CH3CH2SH ) is used as an odorant to give warning of leakages ofsuch gases into places where th ey m igh t cause explosion or health hazards. B y reasonof its pungent sm ell, resem bling th a t of onions, garlic, hydrogen sulphide, etc., ethyl
mercaptan is particularly suitable for th is purpose, and can be detected in very low
concentrations. I t is pointed ou t th a t because of its low boiling point (34-7° C.) andcorrespondingly high vapour pressure at ordinary tem peratures, eth y l mercaptan on
exposure to air gives off enough inflam m able vapour to create a decided explosion
hazard. E xperim ents h ave been conducted to determ ine the lim its of its inflam­
mability in air and its ignition tem perature in b oth air and oxygen. R esults of theseexperim ents are recorded in th is report.
I t was found th a t e th y l m ercaptan becom es inflamm able in dry air when the con­centration reaches 28 0% b y volum e. D uring investigations of the upper lim it of
inflammability “ cool-flam e p ro p a g a tio n ” w as observed. The flames were similar
to those encountered in eth er-air m ixtures in th e upper lim it range. In a completely
dark room, a long, very pale-blue flame w as observed. On the basis of fourteen
tests, in which the concentration of e th y l m ercaptan ranged from 2-70% to 19 00%
by volum e, th e upper lim it of inflam m ability w as established a t 18-2 ± 0-2% ethyl
mercaptan, by volum e, in air.
Minimum ignition tem peratures of e th y l m ercaptan w ere found to be 299° C. in
air and 261° C. in oxygen .
H . B. M.
387. Separation of Gas M ixtures by T herm al D iffusion . Anon. J . P hys. Chem.,
1942, 46 (7), 820.— On th e basis of th e kinetic theory, equations are given whichenable the degree of separation to be calculated for a binary gas m ixture under thermal
diffusion conditions. T hese eq u ation s predict th e effect of : the physical propertiesof the binary m ixture com ponents, th e tem perature gradient, th e pressure, and thedimensions of th e apparatus. To exam ine th e va lid ity of th ese equations a simple
thermal diffusion apparatus has been constructed, and five gas m ixtures containinghydrocarbons have been exam ined under various conditions. From the results ofthese experim ents it is show n th a t th e degree of separation obtained is less than thatpredicted from theoretical considerations, and th a t th e effect of reducing the pressure
is to increase th e separation factor compared w ith a decrease predicted from theoreticalconsiderations.
J- W . H .
of P etroleu m .
M. de Groote. U .S.P.
2,305,067, 15.12.42. A ppl. 25.6.41.— Process for resolving petroleum em ulsions of
the water-in-oil typ e w hich in volves subjecting th e em ulsion to the action of a demulsifying agent consisting of a w ater-soluble ester.
388. P atents on C hem istry and P h y sics

M. de Groote. U .S .P . 2,306,329, 22.12.42. Appl. 27.6.40. To break a petroleum
emulsion of the w ater-in-oil ty p e it is subjected to th e action of a dem ulsifying agent
consisting of com pounds of th e kind selected from th e class having the following
type formulae :N D 2.T.(T.ND)a;.ND2— (T .N .D )x.T .N .D .T .N .D —a: is a whole number less th an 10, b u t including 0 ; T is an oxyhydrocarbon radical
selected from the class consisting of th e keto ty p e, the ether ty p e, and the alcoholty p e ; D is selected from th e class consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, alkylol, hydroxy alkyloxyalkyl, am inoalkyl, hydroxyalkylam ino, RCO, RCO.OX, RCO.OX , RCO.OX ,RCO.OX'", R'CO, R'CO.OX, R 'C O .O X ', R 'C O .O X " and R'CO.OX'" in which RCO
is an acyl radical derived from a higher-m olecular-w eight carboxy acid having notmore than 6 carbon atom s : R'CO is an a cy l radical derived from a lower-molecularweight carboxy acid having n o t more th a n 6 carbon atom s. O X represents a d h a ent
radical obtained by rem oval of a h yd roxyl hydrogen atom from a hydroxy alky loxy a }radical; OX' represents a d ivalen t radical derived by th e removal of an ammo-142 aABSTRACTS.

hydrogen atom from an am inoalkyl ra d ica l; and O X "' represents a radical derived
by removal of a hydroxy hydrogen atom from a hydroxyalkylam ino radical.
J . H . Hirsch. U .S .P . 2,306,606, 29.12.42. A ppl. 21.3.39. In an apparatus fordeterm ining the rate of gas form ation capable of directly reflecting th e ex ten t of crack­ing in a conversion apparatus there are incorporated m eans for w ithdraw ing a sampleof the products of conversion, means for cooling th e w ithdraw n products to condense
the normally liquid hydrocarbons, a separating cham ber in com m unication w ith thecooling member and adapted to separate gases from liquid. A dditionally there are
devices for controlling the am ount of cooled products introduced into th e separating
chamber, for regulating the cooling and m aintaining a con stan t tem perature in theseparating cham ber; for w ithdraw ing liquid therefrom a t constant rate. There is agas outlet from the separating chamber and a device for m easuring th e am ount of gas
flowing in it.
R . M. Barrer. U .S .P . 2,306,610, 29.12.42. A ppl. 31.1.42. In th e separation ofstraight-chain hydrocarbons from m ixtures containing th ese and a t least one substanceselected from the group consisting of branched-chain hydrocarbons and cyclic hydro­
carbons, the m ixture is contacted w ith crystalline zeolites having rigid three-dimen­
sional atom ic networks and having interstitial dim ensions sufficiently large to sorb
the straight-chain hydrocarbons, but sufficiently sm all to exclude other hydrocarbons.
C.
M. Blair. U .S .P . 2,306,775, 29.12.42. A ppl. 17.8.40. P etroleum emulsions ofth e water-in-oil typ e are broken b y subjecting th e em ulsion to th e action of a demulsifier consisting of a chemical com pound selected from th e class consisting ofamines and substituted amm onium com pounds in w hich a d ivalen t radical, obtainedby removal of a hydrogen atom directly linked to th e carbon a tom of an acyl radical,
links a nitrogen atom to the acyl alcoholiform oxygen a tom of a high molar hydroxylated carboxy-acid compound. The hydroxy-acid com pound is derived from anacid the acyl radical of which contains not fewer than eig h t nor more than thirty-two
carbon atom s. The remaining nitrogen valences are satisfied in an y suitable mannerby a member of the class consisting of hydrogen atom s, th e sam e ty p e of radical
previously described, hydrocarbon radicals, hydroxy hydrocarbon radicals, acylatedhydrocarbon radicals, ring structures in w hich th e nitrogen atom is part of the ring,
and anions.
M. de Groote and B. Keiser. U .S.P . 2,307,494, 5.1.43. A ppl. 7.7.41. For break­ing petroleum em ulsions of the water-in-oil ty p e, a dem ulsifier consisting of waterinsoluble oxy-alkylated drastically oxidized castor oil is used.
M. de Groote and B. Keiser. U .S .P . 2,307,495, 5.1.43. A ppl. 7.7.41. For break­ing petroleum emulsions of th e water-in-oil ty p e a dem ulsifying agen t consisting of adrastically oxidized water-insoluble oxy-alk ylated triricinolein is used.
L. Liberthson. U .S .P . 2,307,744, 12.1.43. A ppl. 17.5.41. P reparation of a com­position capable of forming substantially stable, non-foam ing aqueous emulsions of
the oil-in-water type. T he com position consists of a norm ally liquid petroleumhydrocarbon, an aqueous phase em ulsifying agent of th e w ater-soluble soap type,and 0-25-1-0% of chromium oleate calculated on th e em u lsifyin g base.
H . B. M.

Analysis and Testing.
389. The Infra-R ed Prism Spectrograph as a P recision In stru m en t.

R - A . O etjen,

C. L. Kao, and H . M. R andall. Rev. Sci. In str., 1942, 13 (12), 515.— T he magnitudeof the various factors which affect th e accuracy of th e infra-red spectrograph of therecording type has been investigated and th e technique of th e calibration of this
instrum ent by means of the fine structure of C 0 2, N H 3, and H 20 is given . B y theuse of these compounds and a grating instrum ent of comparable resolution fifty absorp­
tion lines betw een 5 p. and 15 p are obtained for m aking th e em pirical calibration.
J . W . H.

Motor Fuels.
A nglo-Iranian Oil Co. E .P . 550,480, 11.1.43. A ppl.
2.4.41. Catalytic isom erization of normal paraffin hydrocarbons h avin g a t least
four carbon atom s in the molecule is effected by con tactin g th e original hydrocarbons

390. P aten ts on M otor F uels.

ABSTRACTS.

143 a

or a f ix t u r e containing normal paraffin hydrocarbons in the presence of hydrogenwith a catalyst consisting of an oxide and/or a sulphide of a m etal of Group 6 of the
Periodic Table. O perating conditions are such th a t th e normal paraffins m ay beisomerized or, alternatively, th e y m ay be converted in part to isoparaffins of lower
molecular w eight than th e isoparaffins resulting from isom erization.
J. C. M unday. U .S .P . 2,305,026, 15.12.42. Appl. 7.12.38. To produce gasoline
from low-boiling olefins and isoparaffins, th e in itial m ixture is subjected to the actionof an alkylation catalyst to produce a hydrocarbon having a wide boiling range.
This product is divided into a h eavy fraction and a light fraction. T he latter fraction
includes only those hydrocarbons w hich boil w ith in th e gasoline range. The heavy
fraction is separately subjected to a further reaction w ith at least one hydrocarbonof the group consisting of isoparaffins and arom atic hydrocarbons. From the reaction
mixture a hydrocarbon fraction is recovered w hich contains alkylated hydrocarbons
boiling w ithin th e gasoline range. A t least part of th ese are combined w ith thepreviously obtained ligh t fraction.
D.
A. Legge. U .S .P . 2,305,220, 15.12.42. Appl. 19.9.39. Hydrocarbon material,
initially unsatisfactory for use as a m otor fuel, is transformed into a high anti-knock
gasoline by contacting th e original m aterial in vapour sta te and at a high temperature
with a catalytic m aterial consisting of an alum inium silicate. Silica and alum ina arepresent in th e catalytic m aterial in the ratio o f 0-8/1 to 1-2/1 by w eight and thematerial is characterized b y its fine p orosity. It has a bulk specific gravity above
1-50 and a Mohs hardness ab ove 2-5.
J. A. Chenicek. U .S .P . 2,305, 673, 22.12.42. Appl. 29.2.40. To prevent deprecia­tion of an olefin-containing hydrocarbon distillate, a gasoline gum inhibitor and ahydroxy alkylene diam ene is added to it.
J. A. Chenicek. U .S .P . 2,305,674, 22.12.42. Appl. 29.2.40. To prevent deprecia­tion of an olefin-containing hydrocarbon d istilla te, a gasoline gum inhibitor and ahydroxy-alkyl su b stitu ted -a lk y len e diam ine is added to it.
J. A. Chenicek. U .S .P . 2j305,675, 22.12.42. Appl. 29.2.40. A gasoline gum
inhibitor and an aryl su b stitu ted -alk ylen e diam ine are added to an olefin-containinghydrocarbon distillate to preven t deterioration.
J. A. Chenicek. U .S .P . 2,305,676, 22.12.42. Appl. 29.2.40. A gasoline gum
inhibitor and a su b stitu ted alkylene diam ene, w herein th e su b stitu en t group is anamino-alkyl group, are added to cracked gasoline to prevent deterioration.
W. K. Sim pson and C. G. D ryer. U .S .P . 2,305,742, 22.12.42. Appl. 25.3.39. In
the treatm ent of gasoline w ith solid adsorbing refining agents, th e life of the adsorbent
agent is prolonged b y treatin g th e gasoline in th e first place w ith a relatively small
amount of a dilute aqueous solu tion of a mineral acid. The quantity of the solution
is insufficient to effect an y su b stan tial refining of th e gasoline. Afterwards the gasoline
is refined by contacting it w ith the solid adsorbent at a tem perature betw een 200°
and 600° F.
F. M. McMillan. U .S .P . 2,306,^53, 22.12.42. Appl. 29.11.41. The following
processes are incorporated in th e production of branched-chain hydrocarbons in theabsence of any sub stan tial hydrocarbon decom position. A substantially paraffinichydrocarbon m ixture containing C4 and C6 hydrocarbons is fractionated in a fractionat­ing zone to separate fractions resp ectively rich in normal butane and normal pentane.
The normal butane fraction is contacted a t a tem perature betw een 100° and 200 C.
with an alum inium halide ca ta ly st in a first isom erizing zone. The pentane fractionin admixture w ith th e effluent from th e first isomerizing zone is contacted at a te m ­perature betw een 40° and 120° C. w ith an alum inium halide catalyst in a second
isomerizing zone. isoB utane and isopentane are separated from the effluence of thesecond isomerizing zone and, in adm ixture w ith a fraction predominating in butylene
and butane, th ey are contacted under alk ylatin g conditions w ith an alkylation catalyst.
In this way isobutane and isopentane are reacted w ith butylene. B utane, isobutane,
and isopentane are separated as a vapour fraction from th e products of alkylation,and this vapour fraction is passed to th e fractionating zone.
H.
E. Drennan and J . L. Farrell. U .S .P . 2,308,063, 12.1.43. Appl. 12.10.39. To
improve the anti-knock qualities of liquid hydrocarbons, th ey are first vaporized andABSTRACTS.

144 a

the vapours are superheated to a tem perature b etw een 600° and 1500° F. Super­heated vapours are passed through a bed of catalytic m aterial of the clay typ e for the
improvement of octane number. T he catalytic m aterial has previously been spentin the treatm ent of hydrocarbons to im prove colour and gum characteristics. The
quantity of catalytic m aterial is so regulated in each stage th a t it is spent at approxi­
m ately the same tim e for the specific im provem ent w hich it im parts to the hydro­
carbon gases.
H . B. M.

Lubricants and Lubrication.
391.* Conservation of Lubricating Oil.

Oil A dvisory C om m ittee. Transvaal Chamberof Mines. J . In st. Pet., D ecem ber 1942, 28 (228), 28 5 -2 9 6 .— A practical summaryof suggestions made towards conserving lubricants on storage and use is presented.
The report deals w ith lubricants for air-compressor cylinders, steam -engine cylinders,locom otives, w ick oilers, b ottle oilers, rock-drills, air m otors, air-operated pumps anddrill sharpeners, greases for plain bearings, ball and roller bearings, cocopan axles
and open gears.
Further, the report treats briefly the problem s m et in compressor crank-cases,
steam-engine crank-cases, steam -turbines, electrically-driven turbo compressors,
hoist hydraulic system s, gear-boxes, gyratory crushers, diesel locom otives, ring-oiled
bearings, motor-transport transformer and sw itch oils, cu ttin g oils and compounds,
and rope dressings for wire ropes.
Reconditioning of oils is outlined.
A. H. N.
392. Patents on Lubricants and Lubrication.

S. J . M. A uld, E . G. E llis, and H. A.
Walker. E .P. 550,429, 7.1.43. Appl. 25.7.41.— In th e m anufacture of lubricating
grease from mineral oil and soaps, th e com ponent m aterials are passed a t suitabletemperatures to separate containers. The con ten ts of th e containers are deliveredin fixed proportions b y separate m echanical devices to a m ixer large enough toaccommodate the individual supplies and to allow reaction an d hom ogenizing to becompleted. It is claimed th a t the process renders unnecessary costly and com­plicated pans and kettles, stirring mechanism , e t c .; reduces h eatin g costs as the greases
are made at low tem perature; and decreases pow er consum ption.
E. R . Barnard. U .S.P . 2,304,874, 15.12.42. A ppl. 26.9.40. A n improved
lubricant is prepared from a narrow-cut solven t-extracted petroleum oil having a
90% distillation under 1 millim etre mercury pressure n o t su b stan tially greater than200° F. above the initial boiling point, and from 1 % to 40% of an isobutyleno polymer
having a Saybolt viscosity a t 210° F. of 185-500 sec. and a flash-point between 350°
and 450° F.
R. R osen and B. W . Geddes. U .S .P . 2,305,034, 15.12.42. A ppl. 20.12.39. An
improved mineral-oil com position is prepared by adm ixing w ith a petroleum-oil
fraction not more than 5% of an organic base h avin g a heterocyclic structure con­taining nitrogen, and not more than 0-1% of sulphur. T he sulphur is present in an
organic compound which is an an tioxid an t for petroleum oils.
B.
H . Lincoln and G. D. B yrkit. U .S .P . 2,305,627, 22.12.42. A ppl. 24.5.39. A
lubricant is prepared by adding a sm all proportion of a tin - and halogen-bearing
reaction product of a stannic halide and a b eta-diketone to an oil of lubricating
viscosity.
E. W. Cook and W . D. Thomas, Jr. U .S .P . 2,306,354, 22.12.42. A ppl. 29.11.41.
Preparation of a lubricant containing a com pound of th e general form ula :ABSTRACTS.

145 a

X x aud X 2 are alkylene radicals containing tw o to four carbon atom s inclusive, n is apositive integer n o t more than tw o, andand R 2 are members of the group oonsistingof alkyl, cj/ofoalkyl, and hydrogen radicals. _A t least one R , and at least one R 2 aremembers of th e group con sistin g of alk yl and cydoalkyl radicals.
E. B . McConnell and J. M. M usselm an. U .S .P . 2,306,971, 29.12.42. Appl. 16.8.39.
A small am ount of th e reaction product obtained by heating molar proportions oftriamylamine and sulphur is added to lubricating oils to improve their quality.
J. C. Zimmer and A . J . M orway. U .S .P . 2,307,183, 5.1.43. Appl. 9.5.39. An
extrem e-pressure lubricant con sists of a mineral lubricating oil, an oil sulphurized
fatty oil, and a soluble reaction product of phosphorus sesquisulphide w ith a halogenated aliphatic hydrocarbon com pound containing at least 5% halogen.
B.
H . Shoem aker. U .S .P . 2,307,307, 5.1.43. A ppl. 12.9.38. Preparation of an
extreme-pressure lubricant containing a lubricating oil and a thioketo polysulphidehaving the general form ula (R XC = S)2Sn. R is a radical selected from the groupconsisting of alkyl, chloralkyl, aryl, and chloraryl ra d ica ls; X is an elem ent selectedfrom the group consisting of o x y g en and su lp h u r; and n is an integer greater than
two. The thioketo, polysulph'ide is used in sm all but sufficient quantities to impartextreme pressure qualities to th e lubricant.
E.
J. B arth. U -S.P . 2,307,615, 5.1.43. Appl. 8.3.41. A liquid lubricating-oil
composition is prepared b y adm ixing w ith a petroleum lubricating oil a small amountof an oil-soluble calcium p h enolate selected from th e group consisting of calcium
orthokeptophenolates and su b stitu ted derivatives thereof having at least one alkyl
group directly attach ed to th e basic ph en ol ring.
A. H . Gleason. U .S .P . 2,307,885, 12.1.43. A ppl. 16.7.40. Preparation of alubricating product consisting of a hydrocarbon lubricating oil blended w ith 0-2-5%of a vinyl phenol polym er in w hich th e hyd roxyl groups are esterified to render thepolymer soluble in th e hydrocarbon oil.
I.
Silverman. U .S .P . 2,308,116, 12.1.43. A ppl. 11.7.40. Preparation of a lubri­cant of relatively low , su b stan tially n on -fu gitive, non-reverting pour point consistingof a w ax-containing petroleum hydrocarbon oil, having norm ally a relatively highpour point due to th e w ax, a m etallic soap pour p oin t depressant, and an oil-soluble
metallic petroleum sulphonate.
T. G. Rochner and L. H . Sudholz. U .S .P . 2,308,427, 12.1.43. Appl. 16.1*0.40.
Sulphurized Vinifera palm oil is added to a m ineral-oil lubricant to confer exhanced
extreme-pressure lubrication qualities. I f desired th e Vinifera palm oil can previously
be reacted w ith phosphorus.
H . B. M.

Asphalt and Bitumen.
393. Patents on A sph alt and B itu m e n . B . A. Anderton. U .S.P . 2,304,773, 15.12.42.
Appl. 16.7.38. A heat-stable b itum inous product, especially suitable for application
by remelting, is obtained in th e follow ing manner. A digesting medium consistingof tar-oil and p itch con stitu en ts is heated w ith b etw een 7% and 25% of a coal of thegroup consisting of bitum inous and sub-bitum inous coal to a tem perature between
20° and 100° above th e digestion tem perature corresponding to a product of maximum
softening point. T he final b itum inous product has a softening point betw een 50
and 90° C., a penetration a t 0° C. of a t least four and a penetration at 25° C. of not
more than five tim es th e p en etration a t 0° C.

H.
M. Noel. U .S .P . 2,305,440, 15.12.42. A ppl. 25.7.40. A hard, unoxidized
bituminous m aterial suitable for use in a storage-battery com pound is prepared fromcracked and vacuum distilled paraffin-free asphaltic-base petroleum crude oil having asusceptibility factor betw een 27 and 35, and a softening p oin t betw een 320° and 420 F.
Material insoluble in carbon disulphide is less than 1-5%. Manufacture entails
cracking a paraffin-free asphaltic-base W est V enezuela crude to a residual bott oms

ABSTRACTS.

146 aoil having a gravity viscosity relationship of 8-9° A .P .I. gravity and Furol viscosityof betw een 1000 and 1400 sec. to betw een 600 and 850 sec. a t 122° F. respectively.
The residual oil is distilled under vacuum to obtain a residue of bitum inous materialof desired viscosity and su scep tib ility factor.
R. L. O rtynsky. U .S.P . 2,308,245, 12.1.43. A ppl. 28.6.41. To produce a Mexicantype paving com position an asphalt of th e follow ing com position is oxidized : Asphaltenes 1-5-5% ; petroleum resins, 55-65% ; and arom atic oil th e balance. The resins
and the oil have specific dispersions above 200 and flash-points above 500° F . The
oxidized asphalt has an asphaltene con ten t of 50-60% and a softening point of at least
360° F . This is fluxed w ith 1 1 -1 -6 parts of petroleum extract per part of oxidizedasphalt. The extract has a Saybolt furol visco sity of 30-200 a t 275° F . and a flash­point of at least 500° F. W ith th e resulting fluxed asphalt is blended an amount of
a hydrocarbon distillate sufficient to produce a blended asphalt havin g a penetrationof 25-200 at 77° F.
H . B. M.

Special Products.
394.* Chem icals ïrom P etroleum — F orm aldehyd e. W . T. Ziegenhain. Oil Gas J„
15.10.42, 41 (23), 34.— Substantial q uantities of form aldehyde are being made bycontrolled oxidation of natural gas, th e largest p lan t being located in th e Mid-Continent.
The principal commercial products obtained are form aldehyde, methanol, andacetaldehyde. Methods of m anufacture and separation of th e three products fromone another are briefly described and properties and applications of formaldehyde are
outlined. Production from natural gas has been on a continuous and expanding basis
since 1928.
R- A. E.
S. H . Harper. C h em .P rod., November/December
1942, 6 (1/2) 5.— A review, w ith bibliography, is given o f recent developm ents in theuse, structure, and determ ination of vegetable insecticides— e.g., nicotine, pyrethrum,
derris and cubé roots, and quassia. The problem of poisoning of honey-bees by leadarsenate sprays is being attacked by the testin g of various essen tial oils as repellents,and of nicotine-bentonite oil-sprays, w hich are claim ed to be as to x ic to pests but less
phytocidal. The export of concentrated extracts of pyrethrum , instead of the flowers,
and cultivation in this country is suggested. Pyrethrum ex tra cts in kerosine arerecoflimended for control of bugs, etc., in air-raid shelters, and m ists of pyrethrumin mineral oil for control of pests in stored food produce. In oil solution there is little
difference betw een th e toxicities o f pyrethrum I and pyrethrum I I , although thelatter is chiefly responsible for knockdown. More a tten tio n is being paid to thechemical and biological standardization of pyrethrum . T he risk of derm atitis whenpyrethrum preparations are used for scabies and louse control is believed to be dueto the presence of a steam volatile essential oil. Pyrethrum is also effective as a re­pellent for midges and m osquitoes. R eduction of th e to x ic concentration of pyrethrumis being attem pted by the use of synergists such as sesam e oil.
The structure and to x icity of th e co n stitu en ts of derris and cubé roots are being
investigated, it being shown th a t rotenone is n o t th e on ly a ctiv e con stitu en t. Previous
constituents extracted b y alkali and found to be in effective are now believed to havebeen present in the optically active form, b u t h ave suffered racem ization by alkali
and become non-toxic. A m ethod of evalu atin g th e to x ic ity from th e sum of therotenone concentrate, |t h of deguelin concentrate and j^gth of th e toxicarol con­centrate has now been worked out. Derris solutions in petroleum oil sprays, con­taining a m utual solvent, are giving b etter control of citrus-red scale in California.
Control of head louse, body louse, and scabies b y rotenone or derris-root creams,
lotions, etc., is reported. Quassia is reported as givin g good control of saw fly.
C. L. G.
395. Progress in P lan t In secticid es.

396. Acid Sludge in the M anufacture of Su perphosphate. A non. Chem. Trade J.,
19.2.43, 112, 166.— Acid sludge from th e H aifa refinery, con tain in g ab ou t 50% H 2S 0 4,

is being supplied to manufacturers of superphosphate for fertilizer production.

AABSTRACTS

147 a

good quality superphosphate can be m ade w ith th is acid tar from Transjordan
phosphate (69-75% tricalcuum p h osp h ate).
C. L. G.
A nglo-Iranian Oil Co. E .P . 550,389, 6.1.43.
Appl. 5.3.41.— T he paten t relates to a ca ta ly tic process for the preparation of 2 : 4dim ethylpentane from 2 : 3-dim ethylpentane or of 2 : 3-dim ethylpentane from 2 : 4dim ethylpentane. T he hydrocarbon w hich is to be converted is contacted w ith con­centrated sulphuric acid as ca ta ly st under conditions o f vigorous stirring of the reaction
m ixture at a tem perature in th e range — 10° C. to 50' C. In addition to th e advantages
to be derived from increased octane num ber b y converting 2 : 4-dim ethylpentane to
the 2 : 3 form, th e reverse conversion is advantageous, for instance, when the 2 : 3
isomer is associated w ith low -oetane-num ber paraffins of nearly related boiling point,
such as m ethylhexanes, from w hich it cannot be separated by fractionation.
397. P aten ts on Special P rod ucts.

J. G. F ife. E .P . 550,776, 25.1.43. A ppl. 3.6.41. In a process for the treatm ent ofsaturated non-eyclic hydrocarbons in th e vapour phase w ith an aluminium halide in
the presence of a hydrogen halide, th e concentration of th e hydrogen halide in thetreating zone is m aintained below th a t causing degradation of the hydrocarbons under
the conditions of treatm en t. A s th e catalyst declines in a ctiv ity th e concentrationof the hydrogen halide in th e treatin g zone is increased. The process has particularapplication to th e vap ou r-phase isom erization of butane w ith the aid of aluminium
chloride.
F.
O. R ice and W . D . W alters. U .S .P . 2,305,635. 22.12.42. Appl. 25.10.40.
Higher-molecular-weight hydrocarbons are converted to lower-m oleeular-weighthydrocarbons b y heating to a conversion tem perature in the presence of a relatively
small am ount of diacetvl.
S. H . W hite. U .S .P . 2,305,752, 22.12.43. A ppl. 2.10.40. A gaseous fuel suitablefor use w ith oxygen in a blow -pipe contains a gas of low calorific value from th e groupconsisting of coal gas, natural gas, and illum inatin g gas, m ixed w ith propane and ether.
Proportions are approxim ately 1 part of propane to 0-375 part of ether. The quantityof propane and ether is sufficient to increase th e calorific value o f th e gas, and in any
event is not m aterially less th an 20% .
S. H. W hite. U .S .P . 2,305,753, 22.12.42. A ppl. 2.10.40. A gaseous fuel suitablefor use w ith oxygen in a blow -pipe contains a mem ber of th e group consisting of pro­pane and butane m ixed in a liquid sta ted w ith not less th an 16% nor more than 21%
by weight of ether. T he fuel is u sed in th e sam e w ay as acetylene or hydrogen inapplication to m etals.
E.
M. Marks. U .S .P . 2,306,218, 22.12.42. A ppl. 27.9.41. Hydrocarbon stock isconverted into other hydrocarbons b y con tactin g it w ith a catalyst consisting ofaluminium oxide and an alkali m eta l borate a t suitable tem perature. The catalyst
contains 5-15% b y w eight of w ater.
L. Liberthson and M. B lum er. U .S .P . 2,307,743, 12.1.43. A ppl. 7.1.41. To
obtain an im proved petroleum sulphonate product a solution of a petroleum sulphonate
stock, derived from th e acid treatm en t of a petroleum lubricating-oil distillate undersulphonating conditions, is con tacted in th e presence of w ater, in a solvent for thesulphonate w ith an alkali m etal chlorite. C onditions are adjusted in regard to quanti­
ties and length of contact to produce a product havin g a Lovibond colour of less than
8R at a p H substantially below 7. A fterw ards a petroleum sulphonate productsubstantially stable d u r i n g storage and su b stan tially non-darkening at elevatedtemperatures is recovered.
H . B. M.

Detonation and Engines.
398. Patent on D eton ation and E n g in es. G. B . B anks. U .S .P . 2,306,372, 29.12.42.
Appl. 26.3.40.— A gasoline knock-recorder com prises a tubular member connected at
one end to a source of variable fluid-pressure supply, primary and secondary trans­
former coils about a portion of th a t m em ber, a core w hich slides in the member and which

148 A

ABSTRACTS.

is normally held substantially w ith in th e m agnetic field of the primary coil. Move­ment of the core in th e direction of th e secondary coil transfers electric energy fromthe primary to the secondary coil. A reduced-diam eter bypass duct is connected tothe tubular member to bypass a q u an tity of fluid pressure to th e end of the coreadjacent to the secondary coil. The m ovem en t of th e core is th u s cushioned in one
direction.
H . B. M.

INSTITUTE NOTES.
A p r i l , 1943.

C A N D ID A TES F O R ADM ISSION.
The following h av e applied for adm ission to the In stitu te. In
accordance w ith th e B y-law s, th e proposals will n o t be consideredu n til th e lapse of a t least one m onth afte r th e publication of this
Journal, during w hich tim e a n y Fellow, M ember, or Associate
Member m ay com m unicate b y le tte r to th e Secretary, for the con­fidential info rm ation of th e Council, a n y particulars he m ay possess
respecting th e qualifications or su itab ility of th e candidate.
The object o f th is inform ation is to assist th e Council in grading
the candidate according to th e class o f m em bership.
The nam es o f c a n d id a te s’ proposers a n d seconders are given inparentheses.
P ercy W illiam L., R esearch Chem ist, W . B. D ick & Co., Ltd.
(A . J . S e a r ; A . C. M ichie.)G o s s lin g ,Harold, C onsulting T ech n ologist. (Dr. A . E . D u n sta n ; C. Dailey.)(Application for transfer from Member to Fellow.)

M o o re ,H a i.la m ,Ltd.

Thomas A ., R esearch C hem ist, Shell Refining and Marketing Co.,
(P. M . G riffith; G. D . H all.)F O R T H C O M IN G M EETIN G S.
M eetings h ave been arran g e d for th e 29th April, 27th May, andthe 24th Ju n e , a n d will be held a t th e R oyal Society of Arts, John
Adam S treet, A delphi, W .C.2, on those days a t 5.0 p.m .
On th e 29th A pril, P rofessor V. C. Illing will give a paper on“ Education and the Petroleum Industry.”
A R T H U R W. EA STLA K E,
A S H L E Y C A R TER ,Joint Honorary Secretaries.

THE

L O V IB O N D

T IN T O M E T E R
For testing the colour of all
Oils
I.P.T. & A.S.T.M. Colour
Standards

THE TINTOMETER LTD., THE COLOUR LABORATORY, SALISBURY

A.S.T.M.

V IS C O S ITY -T E M P E R A TU R E

CHARTSC H A R T A : S a ybolt U n iv e rs a l V is c o s ity (20 by 16 in .)— te m p e ra tu r e range, — 30° F. t o + 450° F.;
vis c o s ity range, 33 to 100,000,000 S a ybolt U n iv e rs a l Seconds.
P ric e 7s. 6d. p e r pad o f 25.
C H A R T B : S a ybolt U n iv e rs a l A b rid g e d (8£ by I I in .)— te m p e ra tu r e range, — 10° F. t o + 350° F.;
vis c o s ity range, 33 t o 100,000 seconds.
P rice 9s. 6d . p e r pad o f 50.
C H A R T C : K in e m a tic V is c o s ity , H ig h Range (20 by 16 in .)— t e m p e ra tu r e range, — 30° F. t o + 450° F.;v is c o s ity range, 2 to 20,000,000 c e n tis to k e s .
P ric e 7s. 6d. p e r pad o f 25.
C H A R T D ; K in e m a tic V is c o s ity , L o w Range (20 by 20 in .)— te m p e ra tu r e range, — 30° F. t o + 450° F.;
vis co sity range, 0.4 t o 100 c e n tis to k e s .
P ric e 7s. 6d. p e r pad o f 25.

O b ta in a b le fromTHE INSTITUTE OF PETRO LEUM
c/o Imperial College of Science and Technology, South Kensington, London, S.W.7

LIST OF ADVERTISERS.
A u d l e y E n g i n e e r i n g C o ., L t d .
B a b c o c k & W il c o x , L t d .
B a i r d & T a t l o c k ( L o n d o n ), L t d .
Ca r d w ell M fg . Co .
A . F . C r a i g & C o ., L t d .
F oster W h e e le r , Lt d .
W . J . F r a s e r & C o., L t d .
...
H a d f ie l d s , L t d .
....................
H e a d , W r i g h t s o n & C o., L t d .
H .M . C o n t i n u o u s P l a n t , L t d .
W . C. H o l m e s & C o., L t d . . . .
H o r t o n M a n u f a c t u r i n g C o ., L t d .
H y d r o n y l S y n d i c a t e , L t d . ...
R o b e r t J e n k i n s & C o ., L t d .
L e g r a n d S u t c l if f a n d G e l l , L t d .
L u m m u s C o ................................................
N a t i o n a l S u p p ly C o r p o r a tio n

T ill
X

iii
xvi
iv
xi
I n s id e b a c k cover

XIV

v ii

N e w m a n , H e n d e r & C o., L t d .
N o r d b e r g M a n u f a c t u r in g C o .
O il W e l l S u p p l y C o .
O x l e y E n g i n e e r i n g C o ., L t d .
J o h n G. S t e i n & C o ., L t d . . . .
L . A . St e in e r...
....................
Stew a r ts a n d L l o y d s, L t d .
T i n t o m e t e r , L t d .................................
T y lo rs, Lt d .

B a c k cover
XV

xii
iv

W h e s s o e F o u n d r y a n d E n g in e e r in g C o
W o r t h i n g t o n -S i m p s o n , L t d .

L td

Kindly mention this Journal when communicating with Advertisers.
ii

ii
iii
vi
V

STEELSERA

NON-CORRODING STEELFOR THE OIL INDUSTRYMANGANESE
STEEL
Trade M ark

The Supreme Material fo r
Sprocket Wheels, Pulleys
and various parts subject
to wear.

fo r Thermowells.

H .R .

HEAT-RESISTINGSTEEL
for Tube Supports
Heat Exchangers,
etc.

EAST H E C L A W O R K S

HADFIELDS LTD S H E F F I E L D .

N o. 2 5 1 5 .

METERS lo r O IL, PETR O L
AND OTH ER PETROLEUM PRODUCTS

Kindly mention this Journal when communicating with Advertisers.

CAPILLARY

TYPE

VISCOMETERS

V IS C O M E T E R T U B E S , C A L IB R A T E DTOR E Q U IR E M E N T S

ORA .S .T .M .

D 4 4 5 -3 9 ,O F I.P. 71 /4 2

EX

STOCK

•

A V A IL A B L E

N .P .L .-C E R T IF IE D

V IS C O M E T E R S•

S E LE C T E D

V IS ­COM ETERS A N D TH ER M O M ETER S
FO R

THE

ACCURATE

M IN A T IO N
D ICES•OFM ASTER

TUBES

DETER­V IS C O S IT YIN ­V IS C O M E T E R

W IT HIN D IV ID U A L L Y

DETERMINEDCORRECTION

FACTOR ••CON­

TEM PERATURE

BATHS

L. A. S T E I N E R

ACCURACY

76 C A V E N D I S H ROAD

M IC R O V IS C O M E T E R S
STANTW IT HAW O R K IN G

O F ± 0 02°F •P R E C IS IO N T IM IN G

LONDON

S.W. 12T E LE P H O N E : TU LSE

H IL L 3579

D E V IC E S ••E N Q U IR IE S

IN V IT E D ••HllfWljniM 'lii || l**!!n ilłll im |l *11u |l I...... .

CONTI NUOUS WASHI NG
o lle yM o ttefficiently

P l a n t s a reandcontinuously

w ashing m illions o f gallons
o f Petroleum p roducts dally.
D esigned fo r

any capacity.

M a y w e su b m it schem es tosuit your needs ?

H O L L E Y (h\m) M O T T
Continuous C ou nter-C urren t P la n t
T e le g ra m s:
T y p h a g ito r, Fen, Lon don.
T ele phone : R o y a l7371/2.

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------W o r ld - W id e Licensees,

FOUR

H.M. CONTINUOUS PLANT L™

LLOYDSAVENUE,LONDON,

Kindly mention this Journal when communicating with Advertisers.

E.C.3.

WORTHINGTON-SIMPSONP U M P S F O R P I P E LINE
andREFINERY SERVICE
W orthington-Simpson have ha d long Experience indesigning and building special pumps to suit this service.
Power driven or Direct A cting Steam Driven Pumps for Crude
O il Gas Oil. H eavy W ax D istillate and Reflux, Residue andBlending duties, for both Atm ospheric and Vacuum operation.
High Efficiency Centrifugal Pumps for highest pressures andtem peratures.
Rotary Gear Pumps with Double H elical Rotors.
Steam Jet Air Ejectors.
De-W axing and H eat E xchange Auxiliaries.

WORTHINGTON-SIMPSON

LTD., NEWARK-ON-TRENTSYMONS “ J W ” TYPE SCREEN

This Screen has been specially designed fo r the handling of rotarym ud; particular a tte ntio n has been given to the vibration mechanism
so that large capacities and accurate separation can be obtained w ith
the m inimum screening area.
Its rugged construction make iteasily transportable.

M ANUFACTURING

COMPANYBROOK HOUSE, PARK LANE, L O N D O N , W .l
T e le p h o n e : M a y fa ir 306 7-3

C ables : “ N o r d b e r g L o n d o n ”

Kindly mention this Journal when communicating with Adiertisers.

SPECIFICATION INCLUDES

Table and hold-dow n ball bearings.
Pinion shaft ro lle r bearings.
One-piece steel base providing oil reservoirs.
Table ring gear o f alloy steel w ith machine-cut teeth, shrunkon table.
Table ring safety guard, &c., &c.
O th e r sizes and types o f ro ta ry tables are available fo r all
purposes.

NATIONALO W E CORIVER PLATE HOUSE LON DON E.C.2.
Kindly mention this Journal when communicating with Advertisers.
v ii

CRAIGOI L R E F I N E R I E S

S all o u r D ep artm en ts

are fu lly em ployedon

w o r k o f national im portance, w e re g re t th a t fo r
th e present w e are o n ly in a position to deal, to a ve ry
lim ite d e x te n t, w ith o u r norm al p ro d u c tio n o f O il
Refining Plant.
W e , h ow eve r, have pleasure in in fo rm in g o u r many
old and valued custom ers th a t o u r technical staff iss till w ith us, and w e are keeping in close touch w itho u r A m erican Associates, TH E W IN K L E R -K O C H

ENGINEERING C O M PAN Y, W IC H IT A ,U.S.A., on all m atters o f rece nt deve lo pm e nt to u c h ­ing th e m ost m odern Processes o f O il Refining.
O n th e te rm in a tio n o f h o stilitie s, w e w ill be in thep osition to deal w ith all problem s o f d eve lo pm e nt andre co n s tru c tio n , on w hich clients desire to consult us.

A. F. CRAIG & CO., LTD.
CALEDONIA ENG IN EERING WORKSPAISLEYSCOTLAND

London O ffice: 727, SALISBURY HOUSE, L O N D O N W A L L , E.C.2
Telephone: Kelvin 4756

Kindly mention this Journal when communicating with Advertisers.

The

B'T’L

COMBINED GOVERNOR AND
FINE ADJUSTMENT VALVE
fo r e x p e r im e n ta l fra ction a tio no r routine range te sts

T his com bined g o v e rn o r and fin e

a d ju s tm e n t valve

p ro vid e s

m ic ro m e te r a d ju s tm e n t on a stabilised gas pressure.

It is in ­valuable fo r ru n n in g fra c tio n a tio n s and e n su rin g re p ro d u c­ib le re su lts fro m ro u tin e ran g e tests.
The g o v e rn o r section ensures a steady gas pressure at 2 \ " W .G .
and th e specially designed fin e a d ju s tm e n t valve w ith p o in te r

and n u m b ered d ial affords e x tre m e ly delicate c o n tro l.

Price £1 : I : 0
D e p t. R 2

BAIRD & TATLOCK
14-17

ST.

CROSS

(London)

STREET,

L O N D O N ,

LTD.
E.C.I

Kindly mention this Journal when communicating with Advertisers.
ix

W e offer
RESEARCH
DEVELOPMENT
PROCESS DESIGNENGINEERINGFABRICATIONCONSTRUCTION
OPERATIONforPETROLEUM REFINERYEQUIPMENT
ranging fromINDIVIDUAL HEAT EXCHANGERStO

J J

COMPLETE REFINERIESFOSTER WHEELER
L td

ALDWYCH HOUSE, LONDON, W.C.2
Telephone: H O LB O R N 2527-8-9
Kindly mention this Journal when communicating with Advertisers.

The ‘ HARRISON’PURGING MACHINE
gives a supply o f In e rt Gas consistent inquality and at low cost fo r the purging of
O il Stills, Tanks, Pipe Lines and Hydrogen
Producers.
Inert Gas from these machines is also ex­tensively used fo r blanketing O il Storage
Tanks and Vacuum Filters in solventde-waxing processes.

SAFER & C H E A P E R T H A N S T E A M

CON NERSVILLE
BLOWERSd e liv e r a p o sitive re lia b le and o il free
supply o f A ir o r Gas e con om ically ande ffic ie n tly .

Absence o f in te rn a l c o n ta c t

ensures long life , lo w m aintenance andc o n tin u o u s o p e ra tio n o v e r long periods.

Illu s tra tio n sh o w s abotch of Blowers
re c e n tly
d is p a tc h e d
to an OH R e fin e ry

HEAD

O FFICE:LONDONT U R N B R IP G E • H U D DERSFIELD

OFFICE :Also at 21 B E N N E T T ’S H ILL , BIR M IN G H A M 2.

119 V I C T O R I A ST. • S.W.I
Teleph on e: M idlan d 6330.

Telegram s “ B ip ro d en g ," Birm ingham .

Kindly mention this Journal when communicating with Advertisers.

xi

(Cl

FO R O IL-FIR E D FU R N A C ES

“ N ETTLE”

FIREBRICK(42/44% A lum ina)

“ T H I S T L E ” FIREBRICK
35/37% (A lum ina)

Kindly mention this Journal when communicating with Advertisers.

W ELD ED VESSELSW ELDED STEEL STORAGE
AND PROCESS VESSELSLARGED IA M E T E R

PIPES, ETC.

Kindly mention this Journal when communicating with Advertisers.
-

x iii

A

a

o

t lt es i...

LUMMUSCRACKING

o m

UNIT
a

jjte s i 1 8

lo r a m ajor oil com pany Lummus recently com pleted a
Lummus Com bination Three-Coil Cracking U n it. . . viscositybreaking, gas oil and heavy naphtha reform ing.» » » Eighteen
days a fte r the unit was put on stream it was com pletely ac­
cepted, having met all guarantees. The initial run was con­tinued to 25 days, when the unit was shut down fo r inspection
purposes. » » » This recently com pleted unit — the ninth con­secutive Lummus Cracking Unit to be accepted during initial
firin g runs o f 25 days or more — is equipped with Lummus
Floor-Fired, Raised Hearth Heaters, with im proved steam
generation feature in the convection section. Provision is
also m ade fo r steam generation from waste heat.

W. H. JO N E S
R ep resen ting :THE LUMMUS COMPANY

70 Barn Hill, Wembley Park, Middlesex

Kindly mention this Journal when communicating with Advertisers.
x iv

to wok#, the MAXIMUM USE ufj ol
MINIMUM OF FUEL , , , ,OXLEY CAN DO IT!
It is d iffic u lt to-day to obtain new plant fo r the storageof o il, p etrol and o th e r fuels, and therefore it is ofgreater im portance than ever to make the fullest
possible use o f existing storage capacity.

W herecorrosion o r damage from o th e r causes has resulted inleakage, this must be rectified w ith o u t delay in o rd e r
th a t the maxim um use may be made o f fuel supplies.
O xley Metal Surgery— a highly specialised system ofarc w elding— can save plant and keep it in commission.
Help the national drive fo r fuel economy by consulting

íji
"n 't

OXLEY
E N G I N E E R I N G C D. LTD.

ME T A LSUÜGERYH U N SLET. LEEDS lO
L o n d o n O f f i c e : W i n c h e s t e r H o u s e . O l d B r o a d S t . , E C . 2. Telephone

London W a ll 3731. ’ C ra m s" A ib e n g p ro . S lo c k . London."(§) W.22
Kindly mention this Journal when communicating with Advertisers.
xv

K indly mention this Journal when communicating with Advertisers.

xvi