Influence of Nature, Policy and Thoughts on Environmental
Ethics in Japan: Maintenance of the Forest andthe Ecosystem in the Edo period						

Shuichi Yamamoto andVictor S. Kuwahara

1. Introduction

J

APAN was referred to from the world as a developing country ofpollution from the 1960–1970s. This reference was due to symbolic
pollution issues such as Minamata and Itai-itai (Ouch-ouch) disease
episodes that had become well known around the world. Most of thesepollution issues were, however, resolved in the late 1970s because ofincreased legal maintenance, although some legal hurdles still remained.
In the early 1970s, public warnings of photochemical smog wereannounced almost daily, and rivers flowing into Tokyo Bay were
polluted to the point of the disappearance of fish. Today, it is extremelyrare for any warnings of photochemical smog announcements, fish havereturned to rivers, and even salmon are expected to return.
The country of Japan can be proud of this extraordinary restoration inspite of once being considered a developing country of pollution. One of
the symbolic cultural origins of the country that can be attributed to thesuccessful restoration to ecological balance can be traced back to thesocial ecosystem, or environmental ethic that flourished during the Edo
period (1603–1868) during the 17th to 19th century which cherishedproductive forests. The manifestation of addressing and managing
pollution during this period in Japan is a wonderful case study for theworld based on history.
The purpose of this report is to explore and extract, using two
examples of forestry and material circulation, how Japan during the Edo
period was able to succeed in overcoming pollution issues based on thenatural climate and geography, policy, thought, and religion.

2. Maintenance of Healthy Forests
According to the 2005 FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization of theUnited Nations) report, forest coverage in Japan was proportionally56

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5768.2% of the country area, and this value was second in the world next
to Finland at 79.3%. However, this fact is not well known. Compared tothe average world forest coverage of 30% coverage area, it isnoteworthy that Japanese forest coverage is more than double.
However, Japan is not at all a world exception, particularly because ofsignificant deforestation periods in the past. Historically, Japan has
experienced two major deforestation periods1. One was during thenational formative period of the 7–8th century. During this time, massive temples were built in the capital modeled after the Chinese Sui andTang period, consequently reducing forest resources. The other time wasfrom the Azuchi-momoyama period (1573–1603) to the first half of theEdo period (until about 1700). During this period, although forest resources were dramatically reduced, consciousness towards forest
resources simultaneously increased. This was due to the sudden increasein demand for wood to build structures such as houses, temples, bridges
and ships, as well as for combustible fuel and daily life sustenanceaccompanying population growth and urbanization. Therefore, forest
coverage during that period was relatively lower than the present.
2-1 Influence of Climate and Biogeography
The country of Japan is latitudinally long extending more than 3,500 km
from 20° to 45° North. Due to the relatively long geography from northto south, the climate zone stretches from subarctic climates of the northto subtropical climates of the south. Mountains over 3,000 m highspread through the volcanic geography like a backbone through theentire country. As a result, there are few plains and grasslands, thetopography is geographically complex, and earthquake activity isextremely high. Further, the country is influenced by oceanic climate,belongs to the monsoon-influenced region of Asia, and embraces four
distinct seasons. Precipitation is relatively high throughout the country
with an average of 1,700 mm/year due to high temperature and humidity
during the summer. In fact, precipitation is more than double that ofother countries belonging to similar middle latitude regions. The culmination of the geography, climate and precipitation allows for high plant
diversity as well as relatively fast regeneration (20–30 years) of forests.
Thus, it is not unusual or unrelated that the Japanese have taken such
good care of nature based on this rich biogeography.
As mentioned before, there are few plains and grassland in Japan, andmost of the plains have been utilized for rice farming since the Yayoi
period (B.C.3–A.D.3 century). Rice field cultivation is limited to plains
because of the requirement of water. Volcanic mountainous areas are58

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unsuitable for rice fields due to steep inclines while forest areas are alsodifficult to cultivate even after deforesting. Interestingly, vital rice
farming and Japanese agriculture can be considered one of the key
factors which helped protect forest areas and other ecosystems. History
suggests that there was a strong coupling between successful andeffective rice farming on limited land, and the conservation of forests inJapan due to limited resources and complex topography.
2-2 Policy of the Edo Shogunate
Conrad Totman (1998)2 and Hiroshi Kito (2002)3 discuss and connect
the policy of the Edo Shogunate to forest maintenance in Japan. For
example, the Edo Shogunate officially announced ‘the agreement ofrivers and mountains for countries (Yama-kawa-okite in Japanese)’ to thechief administrator of the country as a policy that regulates deforestationand the policy to plant new trees. This agreement completely forbid thetaking of trees and plants which helped prevent soil and sand erosion,and recommended planting trees on treeless mountains. Moreover, theShogunate enforced severe regulatory rules that forbid deforestation(Tomeki) and entrance to forest areas (Tomeyama), and limited forest use
by dividing particular forest areas into limited use (Yoriyama) andlimited use periods (Nenkiyama). Thus, Totman (1998)4 notes that Japan
succeeded in switching from plundering-like forestry to sustainable
forestry ahead of the world in the 17–18th centuries.
2-3 Influence of Thought and Religion
Takeshi Umehara (1995)5 suggests Japanese culture has developed twosocial views of environmental conservation and ethics based on philosophical belief and religion since the Jomon period (B.C.140–B.C.3
century). The first ethical view is that human beings are one type ofanimal amongst all living organisms including plants, and that all livingorganisms are equal having the same life. In other words, human beings
are not an exclusive living organism. This concept of the humanexistence is seen in the Shinto religion that is the native faith of Japan.
In the Shinto religion, the divine dwells not only in trees, plants andanimals, but also in non-living entities such as mountains, rivers androcks. The belief was tied to the original Buddhist concept that ‘allliving beings have the Buddha-nature (Shitsuu-bussho),’ and before
long, the concept became the evolution of Japanese Buddhist thought.
As a result, the concept that “mountains, rivers, plants and land canattain enlightenment (Sansen-somoku-kokudo-shikkai-jobutsu)” hadcharacterized Japanese Buddhism.

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Umehara (1995)6 describes one more important concept which wasembraced in Japan where all life and material are considered to be
circulatory, repeating life and death. The life-circulation concept is stillcelebrated today through a religious event where human beings exist as
souls after death, returning annually during the ‘Lantern Festival(Urabon)’ and equinoctial week (Higan). Umehara (1995) suggests thaton the basis of these two ways of thinking, we can better understandhow Buddhism evolved upon entering Japan from China.
Buddhism and Shinto philosophy likely had a measurable impact on
the conservation and preservation ethic of forest land in Japan.
Therefore, let us examine this hypothesis more closely.		
1) ‘Mountains, rivers, plants and land can attain enlightenment’
The concept that ‘mountains, rivers, plants and land can attain enlightenment’ does not derive from Indian Buddhism. This is because plants are
not included as sentient beings in Indian Buddhist philosophy. However,Indian Buddhism never downplays the existence of plants. For example,
Shakyamuni attained enlightenment under a Bodhi (pippala) tree, andthe lotus flower is commonly found throughout Buddhist scriptures.
Plants such as the Bodhi tree and the lotus flower are analogous symbols
of Buddhism, where the Lotus Sutra is said to be ‘the scripture of theright teaching comparable to a lotus flower7.’ Originally, the thought ofthe ‘mountains, rivers, plants and land can attain enlightenment’ appears
to have come from the “Dai-jogen-ron” of Kichizo (549–623) from the
Chinese Sanron Sect8. However, this concept did not gain very muchtraction in China, and is thought to have particularly flourished in Japandue to the rich natural features of the country. As an outcome, thisconcept broadly influenced the literatures, arts, and entertainment during
the Middle Ages in Japan across the frame of Buddhism9.
In Japan today, the beginning of flowering cherry blossom trees in thespring, the beginning of autumn colors or color change of leaves in thefall, and the songs of insects in during autumn are commonly reported
on television. In this way, the transformation of nature through the four
seasons has a significant influence in cultivating environmental sentiment for the Japanese, and manifests the concept of ‘mountains, rivers,
plants and land can attain enlightenment.’ In other words, the richnatural environment and beautiful seasonal transitions in Japan haveenhanced an ‘ecocentric’ culture originally founded on the Shinto belief
that the divine dwell in everything. Further, it is understandable that acountry could develop a strong affinity towards the concept of‘mountains, rivers, plants and land can attain enlightenment’ where all

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grass, plants, sounds of birds and songs of insect become a Buddha.
This is one of the fundamental concepts of Japanese culture which has
had a profound influence on forest conservation and maintenance.
2) Concept of Life-circulation
Japan has four distinct seasons where expansive deciduous broad-leaved
trees express clear natural transitions. All of these trees lose their leaves
in the fall and winter, and are analogously viewed as annually losing lifein the process. In spring, the trees and fields vibrantly bud and blossom
all at once, are exceptionally beautiful, and it is marked as a time togreet a new year of fresh green. In addition, animals and insects thatawake from hibernation in spring appear out of nowhere. The annualtransition from cold, seemingly lifelessness, to vibrant seasonal greenery visually and aesthetically repeats and supports the phenomena oflife-circulation. The seasonality also reinforces the concept for theJapanese to pray for successful reproduction of farms, protecting broadleaf trees to enjoy autumn colors, and grieving the loss of coniferous
forests.
In the “Brahma-net Sutra (Bon-mo-kyo)10,” one of the Buddhist scriptures, there is a description that ‘all the sentient beings in the six worlds(Roku-do) are my parents … all the earth- and water-elements are myprior body, and all fire- and wind-elements are my main body’ where thereincarnation of life in Buddhism includes not only the six sentient
beings but also the non-sentient beings of earth-, water-, fire- and windelements. Therefore, in Buddhism, there is the concept that non-sentient
beings also circulate in addition to the circulation of life asconceptualized in animals and trees in the Shinto religion. What is thecommonality between Buddhism from India and Shinto in Japan? It is
the forest. In other words, the evolution from Buddhism to the Shinto
faith from ancient times find commonality grounded by the forest, andthe blended resemblance has become the undercurrent ecocentrism of
the Japanese people. Since destroying forests analogously suggests thedemise of oneself or human beings, vibrant forests must be preserved inJapan. The ancient Indian King Asoka (reign 273–232 BC) who respected Buddhism and provided good governance proclaimed that all citizens
should plant a minimum of five trees in their lifetime and look after
them, and he referred to the concept as the ‘grove of five trees(panchavati)’. Therefore, the practice of planting trees and conserving
forests in Japan are conducive to the proper practice of Buddhism.

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3 Environmental Ethics of the Edo period
The ecosystem in Edo city (Tokyo at present) is described in detail inmany books, i.e., “White paper of environmental recycling society (inJapanese)12” which the Japanese Ministry of the Environment published(2008), “Just Enough: Lessons in living green from traditional Japan”
by Azby Brown (2009)13 and “Edo is the developed country of environmental issues (in Japanese)” by Hiroshi Kito (2002)14.
3-1 Circulation System during the Edo period
Edo city, surrounded by Edo Bay (Tokyo Bay at present), was comprised of fishing villages, city-center areas, agricultural areas, transitionwoodlands near populated areas (Sato-yama), mature forest area andsome relatively big rivers passing through all of them. Edo city, where
the population was one million or more, was a world eminent big cityfrom those days. The massive city was established based on two large
circulating systems of food resources and enormous waste. One
circulatory system linked the transition-woodland near populated areas
to the agricultural and city area. Maintenance of fertilizer to use in riceand vegetable fields was extremely critical for the agricultural villages.
One type of fertilizer was compost derived from fallen leaves gatheredfrom the transition-woodland near populated areas for agriculturalvillages, but this fertilizer was not enough. The deficit was balanced byutilizing large quantities of human waste emitted from the city, and ash
from firewood used for fuel. Actually, the combined human waste andash were quantitatively superior fertilizers, thus, the material was
frequently transported to agricultural villages around Edo city. Subsequently, the circulated vegetable and rice products were returned to thecity area of Edo again, and recycling was established.
In addition to this effective circulation system, there was a second
major circulatory system that linked the mature forest area, fishingvillages, rivers and Edo Bay. At the time, there were rich mature forest
areas around the Kanto region including the Edo city area. Nutrients
seeped from the mature forests and fertilized fields, and were carried to
Edo Bay by several rivers flowing into the bay. This natural enrichment
enhanced productivity of phyto- and zoo-planktons, fish, seaweeds andshellfish. The supplemented marine products of the bay were harvested
in the fishing villages, and were consumed in Edo city. Also, the internalorgans and bony parts of the fish that did not sell in markets wereaccumulated and carried to the agricultural villages around the region to
be utilized as fertilizers. The second circulation system was established62

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in this way.
The intricate circulation systems during the Edo period were highly
specialized for healthy environmental maintenance, and are consideredideal models for today’s necessary recycling society. The Edo model has
also been paralleled to the idealized 5Rs (repair, reuse, recycle, rental,
reduce) in modern society15. For example, during the Edo period repair
was performed by specialists who fixed tableware, lanterns, umbrellas,pans, knifes, etc.; reuse specialists were also available who creatively
developed new utilities from old barrels, old clothes, footwear, etc.; theconcept of recycle was found in rice production where the chaff, leaf,
and stem were used for compost and ash, as well as rice as food. In
addition, there were merchants who sold human waste and ash; rental
was represented in the form of rental bookstores with approximately
650 stores in Edo city alone16; reduce was expressed in the form of theculmination of repair, reuse, recycle and rental where final discarded
waste was extremely small, subsequently leading towards an extremely
efficient society where resources were conserved.
Moreover, the fertilizer production from human waste was managed
sanitarily within the circulation system of Edo, and people in the
agricultural villages basically lived with self-sufficient lifestyles. Humanwaste that transmitted the epidemics of the plague and cholera in
European cities during early modern times was effectively alleviatedthrough appropriate processing in Japan. Thus, outbreaks of similar
epidemics from human waste were not prevalent. More specifically, aparticular method to convert human waste was utilized and called the‘night-soil reservoir17.’ The night-soil reservoir was very simple comprised of a cover for a dug hole located beside a field with added ricestraw. Today we call this method anaerobic composting that not onlytransforms human waste into nutrient rich fertilizers from microbes, butalso reduces disease-causing germs and parasites through the heatgenerated by chemical reactions. Thus, human waste was managed
sanitarily during the Edo period. The self-sufficient life of the farmer
was also conducted where the main food staple such as rice, vegetables,
miso and soy sauce were homemade, the energy source was obtained byleaves or branches from the transition-woodland near populated areas,
and water was used in the neighborhood from community wells. In this
scenario, almost all basic materials, excluding household articles ofcotton for cloth, metal, porcelain, and salt that were supplied from thesurrounding villages, were readily accessible within self-sustaining
households and communities.

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3-2 Natural Environmental Conditions during the Edo period
The climate during the Edo period was during a period when the planet
was relatively cold (1–2 centigrade lower than the present) commonlyreferred to as the small glacial epoch. Further, active eruption of volcanoes such as Mt. Fuji and Mt. Asama, as well as major earthquakes
occurred in succession during the period. The relatively cold temperatures and natural disasters likely had a large impact on farm products.
The difficult geography of narrow plains and limited resources in Japan,
coupled with the conditions mentioned above must have been particularly severe during the Edo period. Therefore, the aggravation of natural
conditions might have motivated the society to save, regenerate andcirculate resources more effectively.
3-3 Policy for Circulation by the Edo Shogunate
The Edo Shogunate proposed various policies for the development andmanagement of the circulation systems18. Above all, various kinds oftechnologies and methods for garbage disposal are necessary to resolve
potential problems in big cities. In the early Edo days, garbage andwaste was abandoned underground, in empty spaces, in rivers andmoats, but there were obviously problems with odor, mosquitos, andflies. Therefore, the Shogunate proposed a ‘town notice’ that forbid
dumping garbage in vacant lands in 1649, and appointed a specific place
for the garbage disposal in 1655. By 1662, methods and structures(primitive methodologies) that processed and treated garbage was inplace. Later, during the middle Edo period, a three-process garbage
disposal method was established, i.e. collection, transportation, and disposal. In addition, strict prohibition of waste disposal in rivers, whichcorresponds to a measure of modern illegal dumping, was formulated by
1699. Moreover, the Shogunate instructed the establishment of large
septic tanks for human waste in public rest rooms for effectively collecting excrement.
3-4 Thought and Religion during the Edo period
The “White paper of environmental recycling society19” and Brown(2009)20 pointed out the ideology of ‘Mottai-nai’ and ‘knowing satisfaction (contentment)’ as valuable lessons and mental attitudes that enabled
the success of the circulation of resources during the Edo period.
The late, Dr. Wangari Maathai who received the Nobel Peace Prize
has spread the concept of ‘Mottai-nai’ throughout the world by campaigning environmental protection and women’s rights. Originally,

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ecosystem in the edo period‘Mottai-nai’ is derived from a Buddhist concept. Since ‘Mottai’
indicates ‘sacred intrinsic dignity of an entity,’ adding -nai to form
‘Mottai-nai’ expresses the opposite as ‘not (having) sacred intrinsic
dignity of an entity.’ That is, it is a word that attempts to expresses thetrue spiritual value of something (virtue), suggesting that it is wasteful,or sacrilegious to discard something which has intrinsic dignity. Anotherway to explain the term ‘Mottai-nai’ is to imagine that all objects,
material or resources are endowed and deserving of their full potential,and even feeling pity or sorrow for the resource if not making full use of
its potential. Consequently, concepts such as ‘Mottai-nai’ have a powerful impact on the psychology and cognitive understanding of the value
and consumption of resources. Indeed, the “White paper of environmental recycling society21” introduces by reference the clear recognitionof how the samurai attained and lived during the Edo period respecting
the true spirit of ‘Mottai-nai’.
The other important ideological concept practiced during the Edo
period was ‘contentment’ or state of satisfaction. The term often has
religious connotations in various cultures. In Eastern philosophies suchas Taoism and Buddhism a similar concept is commonly found referred
to as ‘knowing satisfaction.’ The “Tao-Te Ching (Roshi)22” of Taoism
describes ‘a person who knows contentment has true wealth.’ The “Last
Teaching Sutra (Butsu-yuikyo-gyo)23” from the Buddhist scriptures describes ‘a person who knows satisfaction is happy, if he is lying down on
the ground’ and ‘a person who does not know satisfaction is poor, if he
has great wealth.’ In other words, ‘knowing satisfaction’ is only possible
when you understand and experience the opposite of not knowing satisfaction. For example, if we have great wealth and access to resources,
we cannot understand the ‘value’ of the wealth. Oppositely, people whohave limited wealth and satisfaction understand the true value ofmatters. Similar expressions and concepts are clearly found fromJapanese Buddhists such as in “The essential collection concerning birth(Ojo-yoshu)24” by Genshin (942–1017), in “The treasury of the eye ofthe true Dharma (Shobo-genzo)25” by Dogen (1200–1253) and in “Howthose initially aspiring to the way can attain Buddhahood through the
Lotus Sutra (Hokke-Shoshin-Jobutsu-Sho)26” by Nichiren (1222–1282).
The concept ‘knowing satisfaction’ also encompasses the virtue of
understanding satisfaction with minimal resources. In other words,‘knowing satisfaction’ also includes the discipline of ‘desiring little andknowing satisfaction with little gain’. The concept of ‘knowing satisfaction’ from limited or reserved portions is critical for saving resources
and living sustainable lifestyles.

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Therefore, the concepts of ‘Mottai-nai’ and ‘knowing satisfaction’
were active guiding principles of daily living for the people during theEdo period, and can be considered to have had a large role in forming
the recycling-conscious society.

4. Conclusion
Buddhism was cultivated in Japan through the Shinto religion which
recognized the rich natural resources of the country. The end result of
the combined climate, biogeography, policy and philosophy allowed
Japan to preserve and cherish forests, and develop an early ecocentricsociety. In addition, the circulation systems of Edo were likely
developed on the basis of insufficient land, limited resources for the
production of food for people in cities, as well as relatively cold climate
conditions and natural disasters. It is conceivable that the concepts of‘Mottai-nai’ and ‘knowing satisfaction’ played an important role during
the difficult period, and derived not only from natural ecosystem conditions but also from Buddhist philosophy. However, it is still difficult toconfirm how philosophical concepts and religion may have influenced
the development of the circulation systems during the Edo period.
Although the Edo period was said to be a time when Confucianism
flourished, it has recently been questioned whether this is true. Rather, itis thought that various philosophical concepts and religions laid theoverall foundation for the hundreds of contending schools of thought.
This is symbolized in the Hotoku philosophy, which was a fusion andcompromise of Shinto, Buddhism and Confucianism, by Sontoku
Ninomiya (1787–1856) who was a significant representative thinker
during the Edo period27. In this sense, it may be appropriate that theconcept of ‘Mottai-nai’ and ‘knowing satisfaction’ are commonly
included not only in Buddhism, but also in the cultures and religions of
the greater Asia-Pacific region, and together with severe natural
conditions, had affected the life and policies of the people during theEdo period.
NOTES
1Conrad Totman, The Green Archipelago; Forestry in Preindustrial Japan, Univ.
California Press, 1989.
2
Ibid.
3
Hiroshi Kito, Kankyo-Senshinkoku-Edo (in Japanese) [Edo is the developed countryof environmental issues], PHP Institute, Tokyo, 2002.
4
Totman, op.cit.
5
Takeshi Umehara, Morinosisou-ga-Jinrui-wo-Sukuu (in Japanese) [Saving Human

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Beings by Thought of Forest], Shogakukan, Tokyo, 1995.
6
Ibid.
7
Hajime Nakamura (ed.), Bukkyo-Shokubutsu-Sansaku (in Japanese) [Strolling ofPlants in Buddhism], Tokyo-Shoseki, Tokyo, 1986.
8
Fumihiko Sueki, Nihon-Shukyo-Shi (in Japanese) [The Religious History of Japan],
Iwanami-Shoten, Tokyo, 2006.
9
Ibid.
10
Bonmo-kyo [Brahma-net Sutra] vol.2, Taisho-daizo-kyo, vol. 24, p.1006.
11
Satish Kumar, You Are Therefore I Am: A Declaration of Dependence, Green Books,
2002, p. 89.
12
The Japanese Ministry of the Environment, Heisei-20-nenban Kankyo-JunkangataShakai-Hakusho (in Japanese) [Annual Report on the Environment and the Sound
Material-Cycle Society in Japan], 2008. http://www.env.go.jp/policy/hakusyo/h20/index.
html
13
Azby Brown, Just Enough: Lessons in Living Green from Traditional Japan,
Kodansha International Ltd., Tokyo, 2009.
14
Kito, op.cit.
15
Kito, op.cit.
16
The Japanese Ministry of the Environment, op.cit., and Brown, op.cit.
17
Ibid.
18
Ibid.
19
The Japanese Ministry of the Environment, op.cit.
20
Brown, op.cit.
21
The Japanese Ministry of the Environment, op.cit.
22
Roshi (in Japanese) [The Book of Lao-zi], Iwanami-Shoten, Tokyo, 2008.
23
Butsu-yuikyo-gyo [Buddha’s Legacy Teachings Sutra], Taisho-daizo-kyo, vol. 12, p.
1111.
24
Genshin, Ojo-yoshu (in Japanese) [The Essentials of Rebirth in the Pure Land],
Iwanami-Shoten, Tokyo, 2003. He described ‘if a person knows satisfaction, he iswealthy even if he is poor. If he is greedy, he is poor even if he has great wealth.’25
Dogen, Shobo-genzo Hachidai-ninkaku 2 [Treasury of the True Dharma Eye: The
Eight Awareness of Great People, vol. 2], Iwanami-Shoten, Tokyo, 1990. He described
the same sentences of Butsu-yuikyo-gyo after ‘the second is knowing satisfaction.’
26
Nichiren, ‘How those initially aspiring to the way can attain Buddhahood throughthe Lotus Sutra’ in The Writings of Nichiren Daishonin, vol. 1, Soka Gakkai, Tokyo,
1999, p. 880. He described ‘A good teacher is a priest who is free from any fault insecular affairs, who never fawns upon others even in the slightest, who desires and issatisfied with little, and who is compassionate.’
27
Sueki, op.cit.