Bangladesh / Bhutan

23

2019

The Twenty-third Regular Report

India / Kazakhstan / Malaysia

Mongolia

38

New Zealand

41

Philippines

49

Sri Lanka

53

Munkhtulga Rinchinkhorol
A Newly Found Ancient Memorial Complex from Mongolia

Matthew Schmidt
Mrs Heron’s Cottage – Conservation of 19th Century Goldfields Home

Louella Solmerano Revilla
The Devastating Effects of Earthquakes and Other Natural Calamities in the Philippines:
A Threat to Heritage Structures

D.A. Rasika Dissanayaka
Ancient Timber Monuments in Sri Lanka: Types and Problems

ACCU Nara International Correspondent
The ACCU correspondents periodically send reports on cultural heritage protection activities in which they have been
recently involved. This is a collection of nine reports submitted by international correspondents in the Asia-Pacific region.

The Twenty-third Regular Report
Contents
Bangladesh

1

Bhutan

8

India

11

Kazakhstan

17

Malaysia23

Mst. Naheed Sultana
Puthia Group of Monuments of Rajshahi in Bangladesh

Karma Tenzin
Ruins of Tsirangtoed Dzongs

Nagaraju Kaja
Heritage Conservation of Sanjeevaraya Temple at Ayyangarkulam, Tamilnadu, India

Gulnaz Kulmaganbetova
Elite Mounds of Kazakhstan of the First Millennium BC

A Ghafar Bin Ahmad
Community Engagement Programmes in the Conservation of Fort Emma, Fort Hose and Fort
Lili, Sarawak, Malaysia

Bangladesh
Bangladesh

Puthia Group of Monuments of Rajshahi in Bangladesh
Mst. Naheed Sultana, Regional Director
Department of Archaeology, Ministry of Cultural Affairs
Location: The Puthia Group of Monuments are situatedabout 220 km from Dhaka, 1 km south from DhakaRajshahi Highway and about 27 km from Rajshahi district
town. Puthia Upazila is a very important place in the
Rajshahi district. The ancient monuments are locatedvery near to Upazila Headquarters and these architectural
structures were built by the Zamindars of Lashkarpur
Pargana. They are located on the Puthia Rajbari Premises
and the place is encircled by a deep and wide moat.

The strong and long lasting Zamindari system was createdduring the reign of Mughal Emperor Akbar in Rajshahi,
Pabna, Bogra, Murshidabad, Nadia, Jasore, Birbhum
and Bardawn. At that time, the Mughal Emperor divided
into some ‘Suba’ and addressed its prime ruler, named‘Subeder’. Shubedar Laskar Khan of Laskarpur Pargana
raised an army against the Mughal Emperor. Mughal
Emperor Akbar suppressed the rebellion of Laskar
Khan and assigned the settlement of Laskarpur Pargana(administrative area) to the grandson of the orthodox
Brahmin Shashadhar Pathok as well as to the son of
Batsacharja, named Pitambar. Pitambar left his ancestral
homeland and established the capital of Laskarpur
Pargana at Puthia. Thus began the auspicious beginningof the Puthia Dynasty, which continued from the reignof Emperor Akbar (1556-1605) to the abolition of theZamindari system in the year 1950, about 394 years. In
the long run, the administrative building Kachari Bari
(revenue collectorate office) Court had to be built tomanage the Zamindari. In addition, they constructedmany temples and a variety of attractive infrastructure
for the extraordinary blessings, and dug ponds for thewelfare of the people.

social order, religious practices and architectural art. As
a result, these architectural evidences are considered tobear living witness to the contemporary history of the
Puthia Zamindari.

The entire estate of the Zamindari was divided among 16
successors. The successors of the Zamindari built a variety
of magnificent architectural structures in a particular area.
During the long period of governance, the magnificent
palaces, highly ornamented temples and other structures
can still be observed today. These archaeologicalmonuments remain for the benefit of researchers, tourists
and visitors alike, and show the cultural mindset of theZamindars and their deep affection for contemporary

1

Two extensive Zamindar houses and 14 remarkabletemples were constructed within the four square
kilometer site at different times. Detailed descriptions of
the architectural structures are given below:(1) Puthia Rajbari: From the Puthia Upazilla (Thana
administration) headquarters and from the DhakaRajshahi highway a little to the south, some fascinating
high-rise buildings can be seen. Puthia Rajbari (Palace)and other structures are surrounded by deep moats on
all sides. The palace was built based on a rectangularplan over 4.31 acres of land with his glory. The southwestern part of the palace comprises a two-storey
building, and other parts of this palace are built basedon a single floor plan. There are two large carports at theeastern and western ends with a large gateway which isnearly 5.18 m high. The inscription of the lower part ofthe palace reads: “THE PALACE CONSTRUCTED IN 1895
A.D. BY RANI HEMANTA KUMARI DEVI IN HONOR OF
HER ILLUSTRIOUS MOTHER-IN-LAW LATE MAHARANISHARAT SUNDARI DEVI. S.M. MUKBUL ALI, ARCHITECT,K. SARKAR. OVERSEER, CALCUTTA.”
The construction method and architectural styles clearlyreflect the Indo-European style. The lofty pillars, floral
decorations, and different colored glass attract people
very easily.

Bangladesh

Puthia Rajbari

Puthia Rajbari 1(2) Bara Govinda Temple: Bara Govinda Temple is situatedin the eastern courtyard of Puthia Rajbari (Palace). Except
for the Govinda temple in the centre, the surrounding
temples have disappeared from this courtyard. The temple
has been established on a 1m high stone platform. Eacharm of the temple is 12.25 m long. Inside the temple on
the first floor, there is a Mandapa (main prayer chamber),which is surrounded by a circumambulatory passage. This
passage is also covered by the enclosure walls. On theroof of the first floor of the temple there is a small squarechamber in each corner with the Mandapa in the centre.
The roof of the Mandapa and the four chambers arecovered by tall cauchala with sakhara (Bangla traditional
hut-shaped roof). It is called the Pancha Rathna temple(Five Jewels temple). There is a special stairway to go
up to the second floor. The temple is decorated withwonderful terracotta plaques and ornamental bricks.
Among the decorations the various myths, such as thestories of Ramayan and Mahavarata, boat luxury, and thelove of Radha-Krishna, are noteworthy. In addition, there
are numerous flowers, contemporary flora/fauna andgeometrical designs.

terracotta plaques feature various characters depictedfrom Ramayan and Mahavarata. Among the terracotta
plaques, Ram, Lakhman, Devi Durga, Sharasvati, Entellus
and Baby Krishna, Radha-Krishna, and the battle ofHanuman forces against the demonic forces of Raban are
noteworthy.

(3) Sota Anhik Temple: The Sota (Small) Anhik temple
is situated on the southern side of Puthia Rajbari(Palace). This is a small sized temple built in the Dochala style, like the hut-shaped houses of Bengal. The
temple measures 7.40 m x 5 m and 5.23 m high with arectangular plan. Facing the temple, there are three semicircular arches on the eastern wall to enter the temple.
The front wall of the temple is decorated with various
terracotta plaques of various shapes and sizes. The small
terracotta plaques are very special and attractive. The

Bara Govinda Mondir 1

Bara Govinda Mondir 2

Bara Govinda Mondir 3

2

Bangladesh
3

Chhoto Anhik Temple 1

Chhoto Anhik Temple 2(4) Sota Shiva Temple: The Sota (Small) Shiva temple islocated a little south of Puthia Rajbari (Palace) and on theeastern side of Puthia-Arani road. The length of each armof the square temple is 4.20 m. The temple faces south
and it has only one arched doorway. The roof structure of
the temple is Chauchala with Sikhara (Bangla traditional
hut-shaped roof). This temple was dedicated to the god
Shiva and Shiva was worshipped here.

(5) Bara Anhik Temple: The temple is locally known as the
Bara Anhik Mandir, meaning large-sized Anhik temple.
Evening worship was held in this temple. The temple islocated on the western side of the Puthia Rajbari and isbuilt on an 85 cm high brick platform. Built according toa rectangular plan, the length of the temple is 14.60 m x
4.50 m. The temple faces east, and there are two smallersquare-sized rooms attached to the main temple. The
roof of the rectangular temple in the centre is built likea traditional Bangla (Do-chala) hut-shaped house. The
roof corners of the temple are folded like a bow. There
are three semi-circular arched gateways on the east-facing
temple. The roofs of the two square rooms on both sides
are built as a Bengal Chauchala hut-shaped roof, andthese two roofs are connected to the roof of the main
temple. The front wall of the temple is highly decorated
with numerous terracotta plaques. The terracotta plaques
are depicted with many mythological gods and goddesses
with flora and fauna. The lower part of the temple isdecorated with Mughal soldiers, their weapons, warships,
dress up, etc. and the upper part of the temple is fullof various legends of Ramayan and Mahavarata, andthe enchanting Brindavan Leela (love story) of RadhaKrishna.

Sota (Small) Shiva Temple(6) Sota (small) Govinda Temple: Sota (small) Govinda
temple is located very close to the Bara (large) Anhik
temple. It is established on a 1.30 m high square brickplatform. The length of each side of this square temple is7.85 m. The roof of the temple is a tall chau-chala withshikhara. Every cornice looks somewhat like a bow. The
pinnacle of the high roof is connected with a finial andthe finial is made of various shapes and sizes of pitchers
as decoration. There are three arched doorways in thefront wall and another two doorways are connected

Bara Anhik Temple 1

Bara Anhik Temple 2

Bangladesh(8) Dol Mancha: Dol Mancha is situated 500 m South from
Dhaka-Rajshahi highway and very close to the Puthia
Rajbari. Dol means swing and Mancha means platform or
stage. That is, the place of swing. So Dol Manch is mainly
dedicated to the love affairs of God Krishna and Radha. It
is also known as Dol Mandir (temple). Dol Mancha isa beautiful large four-storey building. The length of eacharm of square shaped temple is 21.54 m and the upper
three storeys are progressively smaller. There are porches
surrounding the temple on each floor. The temple has
two centered multiple-cusp arched doorways withporches, with 78 doors on the first floor, 37 doors on thesecond floor, 12 doors on the third floor and 4 doors on
the fourth floor. There is a staircase to go up to the fourth
floor from the first floor on the southern side. It is known
from the literature that Raja (Zamindar) Bhubanendra
Narayan Roy built this temple in the early 19th century.

Sota (Small) Govinda Temple

with the verandah of the eastern and western walls. This
temple is also decorated with numerous terracotta plaques.
The terracotta plaques mainly depict different stories
from the Ramayan and Mahavarata, about mythologicalgods and goddesses and the social, religious, economic
situation.
(7) Gopal Temple: The two-storey temple named Gopal
temple is located very close to the Sota Govinda temple
and Bara Anhik temple with the same compound. The
length of this rectangular temple is 12.80 m and its
breadth 7.80 m. On the first floor there are three multiplecusp arched doorways and a long verandah in front of
the temple. There is a staircase on the western side toreach the second floor of the temple. The second floor
layout is comparatively smaller. But the construction
method is the same as for the first floor.

Dol Mancha(9) Bara (Large) Shiva Temple: Among the archaeologicalsites of Puthia, the Bara (Large) Shiva temple is themost outstanding. Maharani Bhubanmayee Devi (whose
surname was given by the British government) built
this temple at a cost of three lakhs (300,000) in today’s

The construction plan of this temple is different fromother temples. Multiple cusp arched doorways and panel
decorations can be seen on the front walls of the temple.

Gopal Temple 1

Bara (Large) Shiva Temple

4

Bangladesh

currency. The temple was built on the southern edgeof a large pond named Shib Sagar. Built according
to a square plan, the temple is established on a 4 mhigh platform, the length of each side being 14.31 m.
This south-facing temple has a wide and long staircase
rising above the platform. On the northern side of thetemple, two sets of stairs go down to a brick ghat. It isthought that both sets of stairs were built for worshipby worshippers and devotees. There are four Rathnas(jewels) on the four corners of the temple and the central
Rathna is established in the centre of the temple. For thisreason, the temple is known as Pancha Rathna Shive
temple. The door posts are built of sandstone and feature
different types of floral ornamentations. A very large
Shiva Lingam has been established in the middle of theGarva Griha or main prayer chamber of the temple.
(10) Jagannath Temple or Rath Temple: The octagonalshaped Jagannath temple is established to the east andis extremely close to Bara Shiva temple. Maha Rani
Bhubanmayee Devy built this temple in 1830. This temple
is constructed of very thin brick with lime mortar andthere are porches around the temple. Each side of thetemple has a semi-circular multiple-cusp arched doorway
and the exterior walls have panel decorations. The
main prayer chamber is established in the middle. The
northern and western sides have two arched doorways.
Sandstone door jambs are used in these doorways, whichfeature flower and leaf ornamentation. The second floor
is built with the same design and shape. Each side hasa multiple-cusp arched doorway. The pinnacle of thetemple is covered by a dome-shaped roof with a finial on
the pinnacle.

is 3.60 m in length. On the southern wall of the temple
there is an arch-shaped entrance. The central
Shikhara Rathna Jewel is established in the centre of
the temple and this is somewhat larger than the others.
Again, the central Rathna (Jewel) is surrounded by the 24
Rathnas (Jewels). This construction method has turned
the temple into a unique beauty. The temple is rich inpanel decorations and there are several beautiful designs
and ornamentations on the cornices.

Keshto Khapar Math(12) Rath Bagicha/Hawa Khana: This archaeological site
is known as Hawa Khana (Resting Place) to the local
people. This charming site is located in the middle ofa large pond in the village called Tarapur, about 3 km
west of Puthia Rajbari. The construction method of thetemple is very much consistent with the Gopal Temple.
The temple is constructed on an almost square brickplatform measuring 17.20 m × 14.75 m. The first floor of
the temple has one multiple-cusp arched doorway on
the western side and the same type doorways on theother three sides. The measurement of the central Garva
Griha (main prayer chamber) is 13.72 m × 13.72 m andagain, there are three arched doorways in the eastern,northern and southern walls and a staircase going to thesecond floor from the southern wall. The arrangementof the second floor (4 m × 4 m) is smaller than the firstfloor. It has a total of five arched doorways with animal
decorations.

Jagannath Temple or Rath Temple(11) Keshto Khapar Math: This temple is located 0.5 km
east from the Puthia Rajbari in Ram Zibanpur village. This
temple is established on a 60 cm high square platform
and the length of each side of this platform is 5.35 m.
Again, the temple is square and each side of the temple

5

Bangladesh

Rath Bagicha or Hawa Khana 1

Rath Bagicha or Hawa Khana 2(13) Krishnapur Govinda Mandir: Krishnapur Govinda
Mandir (temple) is located 1.5 km east of Tarapur Rath
Bagicha (Hawa Khana) in the village of Krishnapur.
Built on a square platform, the length of each side is4.28 m with the width of every wall being about 0.7
m. The temple has a multiple-cusp arched doorway
on the eastern side and one on the southern side. The
eastern wall is the front wall and it has an attractive anddecorative doorway. The front wall is decorated withpanel designs, terracotta plaques and ornamental bricks.
(14) Krishnapur Shiva Temple: Krishnapur Shiva temple islocated 300 m south from Krishnapur Govinda temple.
The front wall of this temple is highly decorated withterracotta plaques, panel decorations, and ornamental
bricks of different shapes and sizes. The main gateway
is a multiple-cusp arched gateway. Krishnapur Govinda
temple and Krishnapur Shiva temple are very similar
in terms of architectural features, construction method,
shape and size, roof design, ornamentation and so on.
(15) Residence of Maha Rani Hemanta Kumari: The
residence of Maha Rani Hemanta Kumari is situatedvery close to and behind Puthia Rajbari. She (the Queen)
constructed this beautiful building as a residence. The
east-facing building is constructed on 0.25 acres of land.
There is a long porch on the front and back sides. The
building has nine rooms both small and large in size. The
central hall is encircled by the other rooms. The front
portion of this building is shaped somewhat like the letter‘E’ and runs north-south.

Krishnapur Govinda Mandir

Krishnapur Shiva Temple

Residence of Maha Rani Hemanta Kumari(16) Ghat of Rani (Queen): In front of the residence ofMaha Rani Hemanta Kumari there is a large-sized brickGhat, which is located on the western side of the Gopal
Shagor Dighi (large pond). This Ghat was surrounded bya high boundary wall and only the women of the Rani
Mahal used it. From the entry point, there is a staircasethat descends into the water. From the first step of thestaircase, 30 steps have been constructed up to thebottom of the pond. It is known that the upper portionof the boundary wall of the Ghat was covered with ironnetting.

Ghat of Rani (Queen)

6

Bangladesh

Conclusion: During the 394-year rule of Lashkarpur
Zamindari, various Zamindars performed leadership andother duties at different times. Both men and women
looked after the zamindari with the utmost ability, andwomen received the title of Maha Rani after being
praised by the British government. The Zamindars of
Lashkarpur Pargana built several magnificent palaces
and temples at different times. The richly ornamented
buildings and temples can be traced back to theeconomic situation and interest of the Zamindars. Now
these artistic buildings are the glory of Bangladesh. The
architectural monuments are now preserved as partof the archaeological heritage of Bangladesh, and theDepartment of Archaeology of Bangladesh has beenpreserving these valuable archaeological sites.
Bibliography
1.Buildings of the British Raj in Bangladesh. Nazimuddin
Ahmed, University Press Limited, November 1986
2.Puthia Rajbangsha, Bimalacharan Maiatrya. B.L. Sri

7

Kishorimohon Day, Parise Art Press, Kolkata.
3.Puthiar Rajbangsha, Itihash o Sthapattya, Kazi Md.
Mostafijur Rahman, Bangla Academy Press, Dhaka,
January 2017.
4.Puthiar Pratnatattik Nidarshan, Shannjoy Kumar Roy(Unpublished)
5.Bangla Pidia
6.Update Survey Report of Rajshahi in Bangla-Rajshahi
Regional office, Dept. of Archaeology, 2015-16(Unpublished)
Acknowledgements
1.Md. Abusaid Inam Tanvirul, Custodian, Departmentof Archaeology, Paharpur Archaeological Museum,
Badalgachhi, Naogaon.
2.Md. Abul Kalam Azad, Photographer, Rajshahi Regional
Office, Department of Archaeology, Bogra.
3.Md. Abdus Salam, Office Assistant cum Computer
Operator, Rajshahi Regional Office, Department ofArchaeology, Bogra.

Karma Tenzin, Senior Architect

BhutanDivision for Conservation of Heritage Sites, Department of Culture, Ministry of Home and Cultural Affairs

Ruinsdzongof Tsirangtoed
DzongsThe Tsirangtoed
ruins in the
Tsirang district are situated on top of a hill overlooking Tsirangtoe Central
SeniorArchitectKarma
Tenzin,School, about 30 km away from Damphu town (see fig.1). It is believed that the fortress belonged to a powerful
Divisionof Heritageof Culture,
Ministrypartiallyof Homecovered
and Cultural
Affairs
local king (Raja)
by fortheConservation
name Sa-Sung
GyalpoSites,or SaDepartment
Sungpa. The
ruins remain
in overgrowth.

BhutanIntroduction

Introduction

The ruins area
area isfenced aandabout 45
acresnamedof theTheruins
Tsirangtoed
ruins inTsirang
districtof areThearea is dzong
now fenced
andtheabout
45 acresthe surrounding
is nowconsidered
heritage
forest,surroundingarea
isconsideredaheritage
forest,named
situated
on
top
of
a
hill
overlooking
Tsirangtoe
CentralPemacholing Heritage Forest. This heritage forest has a footpath and a walking trail from the ruins to a
Pemacholing Heritage Forest. This heritage forest has a
School, about 30 km away from Damphu town (see fig.1).
Goemba(nye)locatedaboutbelonged
30 minutes’
uphill.
The trail
enablesto trail
eco-tourtheruins
woods.
footpath
andvisitors
a walkingfrom theto a Goemba(nye)It is believed thatthe fortressto a walkpowerful
local
king (Raja) by the name Sa-Sung Gyalpo or Sa Sungpa.
The ruins remain partially covered in overgrowth.

located about 30 minutes’ walk uphill. The trail enables
visitors to eco-tour the woods.

Mani Dangrim

Tsirangtoe Central
School campus

Tsirangtoe Lhakhang

Tsirangtoe Dzong
Ruins site

Raja Pani

Fig.1view
Aerialofview
theSource:site. Source:
GoogleEarth
Fig.1 Aerial
the ofsite.
GoogleEarthHistorical Background
Fortresses in Bhutan are locally known as dzongs.
According to the history and the era of the construction,
fortresses in Bhutan can be categorized into three phases
1. Pre-Zhabdrung dzongs 2. Zhabdrung era dzongs 3.
Post-Zhabdrung dzongs. Most of the principal surviving
dzongs that are in use to date are attributed to the great
historical and religious ruler Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyel
1(1594-1651) and his successors. Zhabdrung Ngawang
Namgyel is regarded as the unifier of the country as anation state.
The ruins of Tsirangtoed dzong is the story of the preZhabdrung era, when all regions and valleys were ruled by
local Chieftains. The Sa-Sungpa (land protector) seemingly
enjoyed the ascendency with many courtiers, servants andslaves such as Dzongpons. Sa-Sungpa and his troops weresome of the most acclaimed warriors of those days. It isbelieved that he owned a living divine-bull that became aprotective deity of the dzong and Sa-Sungpa, and it is said
that the duty of hundred guards was sufficed by his single
bull. Thus, for enemies, he appeared to be powerfulnemesis.
Despite his unequaled power, Tsirang functioned as acounty under Wangduephodrang Dzongpon. The taxes
from the region were first said to have been collected at
Tsirangtoed Dzong, and then forwarded further to thehigher power of Wangduephodrang.
Some of the locals say that Sa-Sungpa was once a powerfularmy chieftain of Wangduephodrang Dzongpon, who was
appointed as the Dzongpon’s representative to govern the
Tsirang region. But, during a later period, Sa-Sungpa
became so powerful that the people of Tsirang considered
him as their Raja. The Dzongpon of Wangduephodrangfeared the rising power of Sa-Sungpa and dispatchedtroops, probably from Dagana, to assassinate him. SaSungpa or the then Dzongpon of Tsirang Dzong depended
on his extraordinary bull as a potent protector to face the
force
from
outsideincluding
Daganaand
Wangduephodrang. Lore has it that he enjoyed politicalclout over Tsirang for only a very brief period of time.
While he was engrossed in a victory celebration inside the8BhutanFig.2 Present situation of the Tsirangtoe Dzong ruins

Fig.3 Mani Dangrim

dzong, the outside force ensnared the bull in a deep pit
and destroyed him completely. The Dzongpon was feeble
without his bull. The story of the Dzong and Sa-Sungpa
ended after his enemies burned him alive with the dzong.
The chorten (Mani Dangrim, Fig.3) in the picture is said tobe the exact location where the bull was ensnared anddestroyed. But some locals are of the opinion that the SaSungpa was burned at this site and the Choeten Dangrim
was constructed to mark the site.

The Lhakhag (Fig. 5) is said to have been built to store therelics of Sa-Sung Gyalpo or Tsirang Dzongpon after theirmiserable defeat in the civil war.

The name ‘Tsirang’ is allied with this mythical lore. The
Sa-Sungpa and his courtiers were considered excellent inkeeping records of the taxes collected from the people
under his jurisdiction. None of the leaders of other country/
districts were able to face up to Tsirang Dzongpon at leastin terms of calculation. Thus, they gained a reputation of
excellence in arithmetic (tsi-rub). Tsi-rang is a distortion of
tsi-rub.

General Description
The main complex of the Tsirangtoe dzong ruins is
rectangular, measuring 20.35 meters at the rear façade and44.5 meters at the front with a wall thickness of 1.4 meters.
The layout (Fig. 6) of the complex is similar to the layoutof some of the old traditional farmhouses, with a courtyardin front of the main building flanked by small rooms oneither side of the main residence building. However,deducing from the size and scale of the ruins (comparatively
bigger and larger than traditional farm houses), and its
location (on top of a hill) shows the amount of wealth,power and authority Sa Sungpa had over the Tsirang
region. On the southern side of the main fortress complex,

The water source for the dzong is located some 50 meters
below the dzong, which the community calls ‘Raja Pani’(Fig. 4). The source of the water cannot be determined as
it is covered with thicket and fenced using barbed wire. In
the olden days, villages from the vicinity collected waterfrom this water source for their daily usage. A small
forgotten footpath connects the dzong to the water sourcewith a collapsed part of the choeten is visible just below
the ruin.

Fig.4 Raja Pani source

9

Fig.5 Tsirangtoe Lhakhang (Dechen Lhendrup Lhakhang)BhutanFig.6 Plan of Tsirangtoe ruins

there are the ruins of Lukhang and Choeten, and further
downhill there is a water source called Raja Pani covered
inside a blanket of vegetation.
At present, it is very difficult to determine the exact interiorlayout of the rooms and height of the structure due todebris from the collapsed walls and vegetation overgrowth.
However it’s very obvious from the remnants of thestructure that the ground floor was constructed using stone
masonry and the other floors comprised rammed earth.
The presence of arrow slits (Fig. 7) in the ground floorstone masonry wall indicate the structure was also built for
defense.
Nevertheless, in order to understand the age, detailed
layout of rooms and the functions of the building, scientificexcavation and analysis is deemed necessary.
By Karma Tenzin, Sr. Architect, Archaeology Section,
Division for Conservation of Heritage Sites, Department ofCulture, Ministry of Home and Cultural Affairs.
Glossary
Tsirangtoed= Name of site
Tsirang= Name of a district in Bhutan
Damphu= Name of a town in the Tsirang district
Sa-Sung Gyalpo or Sa-Sungpa= Land Protector

Fig.7 Arrow slits

Goemba(nye)= Sacred site
Dzongpons= Head who ruled from the dzong
Wangduephodrang= Name of a district in Bhutan
Chorten= Stupa
Lukhang= Stupa for serpent spirits
Dagana= Name of a district in Bhutan
Pemacholing= Name of a protected heritage forest in
Bhutan10

IndiaIndia

Heritage Conservation of Sanjeevaraya Temple at Ayyangarkulam, Tamilnadu, India
Nagaraju Kaja, Assistant Professor
Department of Architecture, School of Planning and Architecture, Vijayawada (SPAV)
Abstract
A village retaining its original character is a notable factor,
which is rich in heritage, cultural and also social value.
Ayyangarkulam, a small village in Tamilnadu state, India
is considered as the land of temples, housing various
temples and deities. The existence of these temples brings
historical importance to this place. Ayyangarkulam village
developed around a temple, which was constructedduring the 16th century during the colonization of India.
This temple was built during the rule of king Venkat
Raya-I, the successor and grandson of the famous
king Sri Krishna Deva Raya. Ayyangarkulam was ruledby various kings and marked their presence througharchitecture. Architecture of a place describes its identity,
the ruling king, time period and also reflects theirknowledge of the styles and techniques of construction.
This article tries to assess the architectural style of thefamous ‘Sanjeevaraya Temple’ located in this village tounderstand the influences of Vijayanagar Architecture.
The research tries to analyse the temple complex in termsof its functional, cultural and architectural characters toassess the influence of Vijayanagara Architecture on thistemple. The objective of this article is to understand thearchitectural character of Sanjeevaraya Temple and see
whether it has got the influence of Dravidian Architectural
style or the Vijayanagar style of Architecture prevailing inthat period.

Village deities and temples constructed in the village
have gained importance thanks to the prosperity that hascome back to those places all across Ayyangarkulam. The
Sanjeevarayar temple is one of such temples constructedwithin the outer a part of Ayyangarkulam. Besides,
being jam packed with surprises in terms of fine-skill,
distinctive and standard art, swish fusion of Vijayanagara
vogue of design, it boasts of continuous veneration.
The Ayyangarkulam village displays an astonishingaccomplished level of expertise in the brick, stone,
clay tile and wood buildings within ancient homes andtemples as samples of native design. An enormous temple
with only one sanctum enriching the image of hanuman
may be a distinctive beaux arts feature of the temple.

1. Introduction
Location plays a vital role in constructing a massive iconic
structure involving wealth, resources of the region basedon the geographical pattern, climate, etc. Ayyangarkulam
is located at 12°46'59"N and 79°39'28"E in Kanchipuram
Taluk, Kanchipuram District of Tamil Nadu State, India.
The village is known for its weaving skills which is

2. Historical background of the Temple
This temple has been constructed by Sri Koti
Kannikadhanam Lakshmi Kumara Thathachariar during
the sixteenth century. The history behind this temple
is extraordinarily attention-grabbing. Lakshmi Kumara
Thathachariar was the raja guru of Venkata Raya I, a
Vijayanagara King and also the Chief Minister of the
Vijayanagara empire throughout his life. He hailed fromthe Acharya lineage of Vaishnavite philosophers and had
hereditary relations with Nathamunigal, Sri Alavandhar, Sri
Ramanuja etc. He was philanthropic in nature and got thetitle ‘Karya Durandharar’ by Vijayanagar kings. One night,
Sri Thathachariar was traveling to Kanchipuram with theroyal gifts sent by the king to lord Varadaraja Perumal. As
it became dark, he stopped at a place under a tree where
the temple currently stands. when Thathachariar andFig.1a: A map of the Kanchipuram Mandal

Fig. 1b: A map of the Ayyangarkulam village

Key words: Sanjeevaraya Temple, Influence, Vijayanagara
Architecture

11

known to be started in the 16th century with a settlementof weavers, around the Hanuman temple which wasbuilt by Thathachariyar, the royal priest of king Krishna
devaraya. Farmers and fishermen are also part of thesettlement as the village is adjacent to the Palar river. The
evolution of the settlement is based on the temple mostly.

In this paper, a study of two temples which were built on
the same time period under the same dynasty with thepredecessor and successor rulers.
Case 1: Ayyangarkulam – Sanjeevarayar temple
Case 2: Bala Krishna temple
3. Description of the Temple
The main entrance to the temple is opened solely on
festival days. Entry is from the pool side, and there's atwenty-four columned mandapam on the banks of thepool that result in the temple. This mandapam has about
eighty-five different kinds of hanumans of assorted forms
on the pillars.

and characterized by ornate columned kalyanamandapa(marriage halls); tall rayagopurams (carved monumental
towers at the doorway of the temple) engineered ofwood, brick, and stucco in the Cholas style; and adorned
with large figures of gods and goddesses. This Dravidian
vogue became in style throughout the reign of Krishna
deva Raya and is seen in South Indian temples madeover subsequent two centuries. Vijayanagar temples
are far-famed for his or her sliced pillars, that depict
charging horses, figures from Hindu mythology, andyali (hippographs). A number of the larger temples are
dedicated to a male immortal, with a separate shrine
meant for the worship of his feminine counterpart. Somecelebrated temples illustrative the Vijayanagar vogue
embrace the Virupaksha Temple at Hampi and therefore
the Hazara avatar temple of Deva Raya I

India

his men settled down for an asleep, a group of robbers
had come there to rob the wealth. Suddenly, a gaggleof monkeys appeared out of obscurity, and commenced
offensive on the robbers. The robbers couldn't bear theattack and ran from the place, some of them fell down
unconscious. Thathachariar had seen all the happenings
as if he was in a dream. He felt that the lord Hanuman
himself was spearheaded the attack. He pledged toconstruct a temple for the lord Hanuman in that location
and built the Sanjeeva Raya Hanuman Temple. Sri
Thathachariar additionally designed a colossal pool ofvirtually one hundred fifty acres that was later referred
as “Thatha Samudram”. The place has got its name of
Ayyangarkulam in a later time from this pool constructedby Thathachariar.

3.2 Plan

The temple consists of garbhagriha at the centre, ananti-chamber or Sukhanasi next to them surroundedby pradakshina pat, antarala or ardhamantapa anintermediate place, a mandapam, Mukhamantapa or
Rangamantapa gathering hall and also a pillared halland they all enclosed by high prakara wall with entrance
porch.
The temple also houses the priest head and a kitchen also
called as madapalli. The temple is orientated toward thenorth east and south west direction such that the central
axis corresponds to the pond.

3.1 Architectural Character

Vijayanagar temples are enclosed by sturdy enclosures

Fig. 2: Timeline of the temple development

12IndiaFig. 3a: An aerial view of the temple

LEGEND
1. Garbhagriha
2. Sukhanasi
3. Antarala
4. Pradikshana pat
5. Mandapa
6. Mukha mantapa
7. Parkara
8. Madapalli
9. TankFig. 3b: Plan of the temple

3.3 Garbhagriha

It is located at the centre of the temple and it is dedicatedto only one god which resembles the character of the
Vijayanagara temple style.
3.4 Mandapa

Mandapa near the entrance is used for public gatherings.
All the columns in Mandapa are ornated and this place isalso called as Kalyana mandapa meaning ‘marriage hall’.
These columns are adorned with motifs of the Gods andGoddess motifs also filled with stucco work.

13

Fig. 4: Details of the pillars

3.5 Mukha Mandapa

3.6 Pillars

In this mandapa there are about twenty-four columned
mandapam on the banks of the pool that result in thetemple. This mandapam has about eighty-five different
kinds of hanumans of assorted forms on pillars.

Pillars has varied motifs that are highly ornated which
carries sculptures of hanuman, yali predominately.
Columns are detailed with a yali pattern and also various
human figures which depict the story of the rulers andmythological stories.

IndiaFig. 5: Details of the Vimana

3.7 Vimana

The height of the vimana doesn’t reflect the Dravidian
character which used to be around 100 feet tall, instead
resembles Hampi Vijayanagar character. Where they arecovered with either vaulted or domical structure.
3.8 Stepwell (Natabavi)

Before 600 years ago this step well (natabavi) withan arch, which actually resembles as Thulabaram in
the Vijayanagar dynasty has been constructed by the
Vijayanagara Kingdom. They have an underground wellbeneath this arch. This well is surrounded by a big hallin the underground. An arch to the water element is nota Dravidian style which highly resembles Vijayanagara
style. It has 16 pillared underground halls, with cloisteredverandas. This structure is usually full of water. Thereis a mechanism (yentram) to take out the water whenrequired. Yearly once during Chitra Pournami, Lord
Varadaraja Perumal comes from Kanchipuram and enter
into this well. It is a famous festival in this village. Duringthat time the villagers drain the water in that well.

Fig. 6: Step well and Arch Entrance

3.9 Kalasha

Kalasha reflects the South Indian architecture where it isplaced at the top of the gopuram, which is copper plated.
And that also accounts the odd numbers in count.
4. Comparing with Bala Krishna temple, Hampi
The Architectural characteristics of Sanjeevaraya Temple
have been compared with Balakrishna temple, aprominent temple built by the king Srikrishna Devaraya
during 1513 A.D. This temple is situated on the way
to Virupaksha temple in Humpi, facing east and isdedicated to the lord Vishnu in the form of Bala Krishna.
The temple consists of garbhagriha, an anti-chamber
or Sukhanasi, antarala or ardhamantapa, surroundedby pradakshina pat, a sabha mantapa or navaranga,
Mukhamantapa or Rangamantapa, Amman shrine andthey all enclosed by high prakara wall with entrance.
The temple is analysed on various aspects in terms ofplanning, orientation, architectural detail, spaces and their
purpose.

14

the wall. Mukhamantapa or Rangamantapa, Amman shrine and they are all enclosed by a high prakhara
wall with an entrance.

India

N
4
1

4

2 3

1

2

3

5

6

5

6

7

LEGENDS:LEGENDS：
Garbhagriha
1.1.
Garbhagriha
Sukhanasi
2.2.
Sukhanasi
Antarala
3.3.
Antarala
4.
Pradikshana
4. Pradikshanapat pat5.
Sabha
mandapa
5. Sabha mandapa
Mukhamantapa
6.6.
Mukha
mantapa
7.
Parkara7. Parkara

Fig.7: Plan of the Temple complex

Fig.7: Plan of the Temple complex

stands on four centre pillars set on the elevated floor
in the centre and six pilasters set against the wall.
The temple consists of garbhagriha at the centre, an
4.2 Garbhagriha
These pillars carry the sculptures of Hanuman, garuda,
anti-chamber or Sukhanasi next to them, antarala orDasavarathas
Vishnu, ofMusician,anintermediate
place,
surroundedbykaligamardhana,ardhamantapa
It is located at the centre of the temple and it is dedicatedto only one God
which is a ofcharacterthedancers, yali, etc., on the lower and upper square blocks.
pradakshina pat, a sabha mandapam or navaranga,
Vijayanagar temple style.
The entrance to this mandapa is along the three sides
a square and stands on four centre pillars set on the
East,
North and South. The central ceiling is decorated
elevated
floor
in
the
centreandsixpilasters
setagainst4.3 Sabha Mandapa
with motifs such as lion masks, lotus and stick players on
the wall. Mukhamantapa or Rangamantapa, Amman
A Sabhamandapamor navaranga,a squareand wallstands onthe
fourpillarsthesetceilingon thehas
elevated
floorsquares.
in thetopcentre
layer since
two rotatedshrineand they
are all enclosed
by a highprakharawithan entrance.
centreand six pilasters set against the wall. These pillars carry the sculptures of Hanuman, garuda,
4.1 Plan

4.4 Mukha Mandapa
Dasavarathas of Vishnu, Musician, dancers,
yali, Mandapa
etc., on theand upper
square4.2kaligamardhana,Garbhagriha
The Mukha
on lower
the northand south
standson twopillars
at andthe entrance
at thefrontceilingwith aisflight
It blocks.
is locatedat thecentre toof thisthe temple
andisit alongis dedicatedThe
entrance
mandapa
the three sides
East,
North
South. The
centralof steps flanked by Suruli – yali which are of typicalto only one God which is a character of the Vijayanagar
Vijayanagara motifs. The mandapa has 32 pillars which
temple style.
are tall, slender and graceful which also carries motifs of
4.3 Sabha Mandapa
deities.
A Sabha mandapam or navaranga, a square andFig.8a: Sabha Mandapa

Fig. 9a: Sculptor of a deity

15

Fig.8b: Mukha Mandapa

Fig. 9b: Yali with motifs

Fig. 9c: View of the Mandaps from exterior

Indiacharacteristics of Sanjeevarayar temple are similar tothat of the lord Balakrishna temple in Hampi than the
Dravidian style of Architecture.
6. Conclusions
The study conducted about various factors of architecturewith respect to scale, their ideas, motifs and beliefs which
are notable characters. The heritage describes the cultural
identity of a place. Conserving a temple of this historical
data is important to know the history for the upcoming
generations and it also stands as an iconic element of
the place. And also preserving such spaces is mandatory
which have maximum details and data about our ancestor
life style.

Fig. 10: View of Shikara above the Mandapa entrance

4.5 Pillars

Pillars have varied motifs that are highly ornated carrying
sculptures of Hanuman, yali predominately.
4.6 Shikara

These styles have short shikaras unlike the Dravidian
style which is of 30 ft. They have ornamentation of
motifs, deities and yali and are built by using mud bricks
and stones.

7. References
1. http://www.dharsanam.com/2018/10/ayyangarkulamsri-sanjeevirayar.html
2. http://www.ncert.nic.in/ncerts/l/lehs203.pdf
3. https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/3267/1/Branfoot%20-%20
Vijayanagara%20in%20Karnataka%20chapter.pdf
4. https://gotirupati.com/balakrishna-temple-hampi/
5. http://www.iosrjournals.org/iosrjhss/papers/vol.%20
22%20Issue7/Version-1/H2207014453.pdf

5. Comparative Analysis & Inference
Based on the comparative analysis, the architectural
Balakrishna Temple

Sanjeevarayar Temple

Inference

I. Planning
Consist of Garbhagriha, Sukhanasi,
Antarala, Pradikshana pat, Sabha
mandapa, Mukha mantapa, Parkara

Consist of Garbhagriha, Sukhanasi,
Antarala, Pradikshana pat,Sabha
mandapa,Mukha mantapa,Parkara,
Madapalli and tank

Planning of both temples resembles
same spatial character but varies inscale, size and form. The dravidian
style has the unique allocation of
madapalli and tank in the temple
premises.

Pillared halls with motifs of yali,
hanuman and deities.

Similarity to maximum extent in termsof ornamentation.

Ornated sculptured pillars

Similar in outcome.

II. Mandapa
Pillared halls with motifs of yali,
hanuman and deities.
III. Pillars
Ornated sculptured pillars
IV. Shikara / Vimana
Shorter in height and are built of mud Dravidian architecture style usedbricksto have stone shikaras and they
are tall in structure which has been
entirely controversy and resembled
Vijayanagara style.

Similar in form and shape andconstruction techniques.

Table. 1: Comparative Analysis

16

Kazakhstan
Kazakhstan

Elite Mounds of Kazakhstan of the First Millennium BC
Gulnaz Kulmaganbetova, Research AssistantKazarchaeology LLP
Archaeological research on the territory of Kazakhstan has
proved that by the end of the second millennium BC, eliteburials of an aristocracy appeared on the steppe. Thiswas due to two main factors. The first is the acquisitionof metallurgy by the population and the developmentof Bronze Age culture. The ancient metallurgists of the
Kazakh steppes mastered mining at a high level. Almost
all currently known copper ore deposits were developedin the Bronze Age.
The second factor is the transition of the population to a
productive economy: nomadic cattle breeding. Nomadic
cattle breeding allowed the population to master the
steppe spaces and maintain sufficient numbers oflivestock.
Each of these factors would require a separate study to
discuss in detail. As a result of these effective modes of
economy, the ancient population by the beginning of thefirst millennium BC created the proto-state organizationsof the Saks and Savromats. The high level of development
during this millennium is primarily reflected in the large
number of burial mounds. The landscape of the Kazakh
steppe became decorated with majestic mounds of thisera. In their quantity and monumentality, they have noequal in all previous or subsequent eras.
The elite mounds of this era reflect the process of state
formation among nomads, and the addition of beliefs
based on a cult of the ancestors. It should be noted thatin ancient nomadic society there were no longer any
random nomadic movements. The nomadic paths thatexisted until the twentieth century were established atthat time. No matter what the upheavals, invasions, or
arrivals of new tribes, the nomadic routes were stable,
as the only possible paths dictated by the natural andclimatic conditions of the steppes and mountains.
But while dominated by the nomadic lifestyle as an
ideal, society in ancient and medieval times was notcompletely nomadic. The structure of nomadic society inthe territory of Kazakhstan had its settlements of miners
and metallurgists. Settlements also arose at places where
nomads passed the winter, and grew into fortresses andfortified cities.
Trade roads developed along meridional paths of thenomadic lifeway. The movements of nomadic peoplesof the first millennium BC also defined the territoryof modern Kazakhstan. Boundaries were marked bynecropolises located at the edges of these nomadic paths.
In this regard, the burial mounds of Western Kazakhstan
serve to illustrate: Elite mounds were located on thenorthern edges of the nomadic paths, while the bulk of
ordinary burial grounds were located in the southernparts of those paths.

17

Over the past decades, we have studied hundreds ofelite and ordinary burials of this era. The places wheresettled areas, metallurgy and crafts developed have been
identified, and studies made of the mining of copperand gold. These studies covered two of the regions withthe highest concentrations of elite mounds: Almaty andWest Kazakhstan. These materials have allowed us tomake assumptions and draw a number of conclusions
about the formation of a nomadic economy in the
steppe population, the degree of settlement, and thedevelopment of crafts. Based on these studies, inferences
are made about the level of social organization, theformation of state entities and the genesis of religious
beliefs.
Archaeological excavations to date have been basedon complete excavations of the mounds. This leads
to the total disappearance of each monument. In
this regard, we began to develop new approaches topreserve the monuments. The burial mounds make up
a valuable element of the landscape of our country and
it is necessary to preserve authentic elements of thesemonuments to recreate and utilize them educationally as
heritage of the historical past.
In this report, I introduce materials from the excavation ofa mound in the elite necropolis of Kyryk-Oba II. In 2018,
an expedition from KazArcheology LLP carried out anarchaeological excavation of barrow No. 6 of the KyrykOba II necropolis, located in the West Kazakhstan regionof the Republic of Kazakhstan, as part of the targetedfunding program from the Ministry of Culture andSports of the Republic of Kazakhstan under the project“Monuments of the Great Steppe: Necropolis of Sarmatian
Leaders Kyryk-Oba.”The necropolis, judging from the toponymy, formerly
consisted of 40 mounds of which no more than 10 havesurvived to this day. Some of the mounds were destroyedin Soviet times by the construction of a road, and others
were excavated at different points in time. It is significant
that the largest barrow of this monument group, surviving
at a height of 8 m and a diameter of 70 m, has beenpreserved.
Barrow No. 6 had a round shape in plan. This moundof considerable size had been mostly leveled during thelong-term plowing of the location for crops. In its originalform, the mound was apparently much higher and larger
in diameter. The surviving portion of the earthen moundwas measured at 15 m in diameter and with a height of
only 0.7 m. Due to destructive plowing, the upper layerof the mound has been shifted to the southeastern side.
In the process of excavating barrow No. 6, we laid out
an excavation grid completely covering the surviving

The turf layer of about 20 cm was then stripped off,and cleaning at this level enabled better fixing of theboundaries of the mound. The parameters of the moundincreased, with the diameter extending to 33 m, while thesurviving height remained the same at 0.7 m.
In the second stage of stripping, it was decided to
excavate another 80 cm down to the subsoil, levelingthe entire area of the mound to detect the location of thesepulchral facility. At this level a central sepulchral facility
was found, rectangular in shape and measuring 2.3 by
3.1 m. The boundary was accurately fixed based on the
difference in color between the darker natural soil andthe fill of the sepulchral facility, which was the same as
the light brown, dense clay of the mound. In the processof cleaning at this level, a square feature of 40 by 40 cm
was discerned in the southeast corner of the sepulchral
facility. Upon examination this was found to be the top ofa stepped entrance into the sepulchral pit, consisting of
two steps that measured 40 × 40 × 30 cm, and 40 × 20 ×30 cm. The sepulchral pit was oriented with its long axis
running north–south. This was for an underground burial
made in the central part of the mound.
The next stage of the work was to excavate the sepulchralpit. This was done by digging out the darker contents ofthe burial pit, and as we dug deeper, we clearly traced
the walls of the sepulchral pit. Within the sepulchral pit
we found the remains of ash and fragments of woodflooring. Fragments of human bones were found from adepth of 0.5 m in the southeastern part of the pit. The
bone fragments at this depth were most likely raised up
to this level by rodents that dug holes to the depth of theskeletons below.
As we excavated the entire area of the sepulchral feature,
we discovered a paired burial of a man and a woman.
The remains of the man were labeled individual No. 1,
and those of the woman, as indicated by the presenceof a large number of adornments characteristic ofwomen, were labeled individual No. 2. Both individuals
were interred lying on their backs, the bones resting in
anatomical order with the head to the south, and theirheights were estimated at 1.75 and 1.35 m.
From the southwestern part of the burial, near the
woman’s skull, a pair of curved bronze earrings were
found, made from a plate 0.2 cm thick and 4 cm long. In
the area of the cervical vertebrae of individual No. 2 wasan ornament referred to as grivna. The term grivna isapplied to a piece of jewelry, a hoop or chain worn as anecklace. This grivna was gilded bronze, circular in form,
with a diameter of 30 cm. It was part of a necklace madeof beads of different sizes and colors, as well as shells.
These included eight long beads, represented by one
white and four black items, plus three black fragments,
while other beads of different sizes and colors totaled
55 items. Under the woman’s left shoulder was a bronze
mirror (No. 1) with a handle (mirror diameter 14 cm,
with the handle 7 cm long and 2.5 cm wide), and alsoa piece of bronze jewelry, most likely the detail from adecorative item. The individual’s backbone was in a poor
state of preservation. A chain of small beads totaling 70
items and some shells was preserved at the right hand.
Ceramic vessels were located in the southeast corner ofthe sepulchral pit, consisting of a large vessel (No. 1) anda smaller one (No. 2) in proximity.

Kazakhstan

earthen mound, with an area of 1,023 square meters. We
then made a cut 40 cm deep through the center of themound, oriented along the north-south axis, to assess thestratigraphy in profile. The following strata were revealedon the western wall of the cut: (1) the turf layer at theupper edge of the profile with a thickness of 0.2 m, and(2) the surviving portion of the mound, made of dense
clay of light brown color, which extended downward
for a thickness of up to 0.8 m. Though largely ruined,
the mound was seen to have been entirely made as anearthen mound.

Vessel No. 1 is in the shape of a cauldron, and wasarchaeologically complete. The vessel is globular,
ornamented, and made of black clay. The rim diameteris 18.5 cm, the diameter of the body is 40 cm, and thewall thickness is 0.9 cm. Vessel No. 2 is a spherical pot,ornamented, and made of black clay. The rim diameteris 12.5 cm, the diameter of the body is 15.2 cm, thewall thickness is 0.5 cm, and the height is 7.5 cm. Afterremoving the vessels away from the wall, another bronze
mirror (No. 2) with a handle was found (mirror diameter
13.6 cm, with the handle 3.8 cm long and 1.8 cm wide)in a good state of preservation.
The shell of a turtle, a large shell, and a ceramic fragment
were found to the west of the vessels. In the center ofthe sepulchral pit, on the east side near skeleton No. 1,
another well preserved mirror (No. 3) was found in thepelvic region. The mirror diameter is 15 cm, and it also
had a handle, 4.5 cm long by 2–3 cm wide. Below themirror was discovered the lower jaw of individual No. 1.
A fragment of a stone altar, 9.5 cm long and 9 cm wide,
was found in the northern part of the pit. Bones of asacrificial animal were discovered in the western part ofthe sepulchral pit. In the eastern side, the bones of ananimal and the shell of a turtle located perpendicular
to other turtle shell items, discovered earlier, were also
found. The bottom of the sepulchral pit was measured at
a depth of 1.1 m.
According to a preliminary analysis of the accumulatedarchaeological data, it can be assumed that after preparing
the burial place, the deceased were put on a wooden
floor, which was located at the bottom of the sepulchral
pit as indicated by the remaining traces of the floor. The
fragments of burnt wood and ash found in the sepulchral
pit indicate a ritual of purification by fire.
In the course of our study of this mound we researchedmaterials on the early Iron Age archaeology of theEurasian steppes, along with studying archival materials.
Early aerial photographs were obtained, allowing studyof the monument in a less destroyed state. Carrying out
reconnaissance in the area where the monument was
located made it possible to draw conclusions about thefunction of the Kyryk-Oba I burial mound. It has a heightof more than 18 meters and the surviving maximum

18

diameter is 105 m.

Kazakhstan

Judging by the paleo-ethnographic data, this moundserved as a structure with the function of a dyng or a
kara-oba. In either case, the monument did not simply
fulfill the function of a burial structure. Monuments ofthe dyng type were built in honor of iconic personalities,
and served as places of worship for the spirits of theirancestors.
A detailed study of aerial photographs of the twentiethcentury, before the plowing of the territory, made it
possible to identify extensions in the form of elongated,shaft-like structures adjacent to the main burial mounds
from the south. Further research is needed to reveal their
purpose. The archaeological excavation carried out atbarrow No. 6 has yielded considerable materials, among
which the finds of greatest value are the three mirrors,
the large ceramic vessel, and the bronze products. The
Kyryk-Oba burial ground is not only a unique monumentof the history and culture of our people, it promises toserve in the future as a bright beacon illustrating theancient history of the country of the Great Steppe.

References
Kurmankulov Zh., Ishangali S., Raimkulov B. Studies of
the kurgan detachment No. 2 of the UKAZ in 2001
at the Kyryk-Oba 2 burial ground. Questions ofHistory and Archeology of Western Kazakhstan.
Vol. 1 (2002), pp. 87–92.
Smailov Zh.E., Gutsalov S.Yu., Traister M.Yu. Complexes
with objects of the Achaemenid circle of the KyrykOba-II burial ground, In M.Yu. Traister and L.T.
Yablonsky (eds.), Influences of the Achaemenid
culture in the Southern Urals (V – III centuries BC),
Vol. 2. Moscow: Taus (2012), pp. 29–38.
Smailov Zh.E., Seytkaliev M.K. Archaeological research on
Kyryk-Oba II in 2008. In Report on archaeologicalresearch. Almaty (2009), pp. 178–181.
Yablonsky L.T. Unusual new findings at Filippovka-1
burial mound, souther n Urals. Ar cheology,
Ethnography and Anthropology of Eurasia. Vol. 43,
No. 2 (2015), pp. 97–108.

The view of the sepulchral pit after opening. Aerial photo.

19

Kazakhstan

Bronze earrings

beads of various sizes and colors

shell Kauri

Bronze Mirror No.1

Bronze ware

Bronze mirror No.2

small pasta beads

Elongated Pasta Beads

20

Kazakhstan
21

The view from the east, the sepulchral pit

The View of the ancient burial structures.

Archaeological artifacts, shell, pottery fragments, and armors

Bronze mirror No.1 found under the left shoulder

Bronze mirror No.2

Decoration. “Grivna”

GrivnaA Fragment of the stone altarKazakhstan

Ceramic vessel No.2

MirrorCeramic vessels No.1 and No.2

22

Malaysia
Malaysia

Community Engagement Programmes in the Conservation of Fort Emma, Fort Hose and Fort Lili,
Sarawak, Malaysia
A Ghafar Bin Ahmad, Professor
School of Housing, Building and Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia
Introduction
Located on the island of Borneo, the state of Sarawak is
the largest state in Malaysia. The state was once ruled by
the Brunei Sultanate before the 19th century. Thereafter,
the state was administered by the Brooke Dynasty (or The
White Rajah) from 1841 to 1941, the Japanese Occupationfrom 1942 to 1945, and it was a British Colony from 1946
to 1963. On 16 September 1963, Sarawak, Sabah (North
Borneo), Malaya and Singapore merged to form Malaysia.
Incessant social unrest and political disputes between
Singapore and Malaysia, however, led to Singapore’s
withdrawal to become an independent republic on
9 August 1965. Also known as Land of the Hornbills,
Sarawak is notable for its vast tangible and intangible
cultural heritage, featuring the greatest number of nationalparks, wildlife sanctuaries, diverse tribes, long houses andcolonial forts in Malaysia. Sarawak has more than 15 forts
that were built during the Brooke regime over a period of
100 years. Today, under the (then) Antiquities Ordinance1958 and the Sarawak Cultural Heritage Ordinance 1993,
these colonial forts have been gazetted and conservedby the Sarawak Museum Department (Jabatan Muzium
Sarawak) in lieu of heritage values for future generations.
Under the Eleventh Malaysia Plan (2016-2020), theGovernment of Malaysia, through the Sarawak State
Government and related government agencies including
Sarawak Museum Department and Sarawak Public Works
Department, has allocated an amount of RM25 million(USD5.96 million) to restore five colonial forts in Sarawak
including Fort Emma (located in Kanowit), Fort Hose
(Marudi), Fort Lili (Betong), Fort Brooke (Julau) and Fort
Sylvia (Kapit). Accordingly, under the provisional sumof the project contract, Fort Emma received an allocationof RM45,000 (USD10,732.28), Fort Hose RM35,000(USD8,347.33) and Fort Lili RM20,000 (USD4,769.90)
to conduct community engagement programmes withlocal people including ritual ceremonies (miring, doa
selamat and blessings), workshops, dialogues, site visits,
public awareness and publicity. Community engagement
programmes are a vital component in any heritagebuilding conservation project because they allow the
local communities to garner a deeper understanding of
the significance of their cultural heritage; to encourageand facilitate community insights, views and feedback
about the current project; and to nurture trust and foster
relationships among the various stakeholders. This article
focuses on the community engagement programmes
conducted during the conservation projects of the threecolonial forts of Fort Emma, Fort Lili and Fort Hose inSarawak, Malaysia.
Historical Background of Fort Emma, Fort Hose and Fort
Lili
The original Fort Emma, made of bamboo and with anipah roof, was first built in 1849 in Kanowit, Sarawak
but it was demolished soon after. In 1851, a new fort

23

known as Kubu Kanowit (Fort Kanowit) was constructed
on a hill facing the Rajang River. The strategic location of
the new fort enabled the Brooke administration to patroland secure the river and the surrounding area from thehill top. In the aftermath of a massive fire in 1859, thefort was rebuilt in 1860 with two storeys and renamed
Fort Emma after James Brooke’s elder sister, Emily
Brooke. Fort Emma was once used as an administrative
centre during the Brooke period; however its function
was subsequently changed to the District Office for
Kanowit, Native Court, and Kanowit Broad Band Centre
and Museum. Notably, nine human skulls that have beenin the building for decades remain intact in Fort Emma’s
interior still today. The fort has been restored several
times since then, including a major restoration back in the
1960s and the most recent one in 2018-2020.
Located facing the Baram River in Marudi, Sarawak, Fort
Hose was built in 1889 during the Brooke administration.
Once completed in 1901, the fort was named afterCharles Hose, who was then the British Resident of
the Fourth Division in Sarawak. The fort was built withlocal hardwood called belian or Borneo’s ironwood(Eusideroxylon zwageri). Belian is the heaviest, hardest
and most valuable timber of Sarawak. During its
heyday, Fort Hose was the administration office andthe Resident’s house. Since then, the fort was usedsuccessively by various authorities including the District
Council, Welfare Department, Immigration Department,
Land and Survey Department, Information Department
and Sarawak Museum Department. During the Japanese
occupation of Sarawak in World War II, the fort wasused by the Japanese as a Kempeitai or military police
corps’ headquarters. On 24 August 1994, Fort Hosecaught fire and was razed to the ground. In 1995, thelocal communities contributed belian poles for thereconstruction of the fort. It was rebuilt according to its
original dimensions and design and was officially openedby the former Sarawak Deputy Chief Minister Datuk
Patinggi Tan Sri Dr. Alfred Jabu Anak Numpang.
Fort Lili was built by Charles Brooke in 1858, facing ariver called Layar River. Over the years the river had
dried up due to channel diversions for shipping andwater transportation. Today, Fort Lili sits between the
Betong Jamek Mosque (Masjid Jamek Betong) and
Betong District Council (Majlis Daerah Betong) at Jalan
Datuk Patinggi Udin in Betong, Sarawak. The fort was
originally known as Fort Betong but was later changed toFort Lili, after Charles Brooke’s wife, Margaret Alice Lilide Windt. In 1858, the fort found itself under attack by
the local Ibans led by Rentap and his follower Aji Apai
Limpa from Nanga Padeh, who was fighting against the
Brooke administration. The attack was defeated by theFort Lili administrator, James Brooke Cruickshank, andhis supporter, Panglima Bakir from Saribas. After theThe Fort Design
Architecturally, Fort Emma, Fort Hose and Fort Lili arealmost similar in their design and structure. Common
design features include a rectangular-shaped building
two or three storeys high, high ceilings, a pitched roof
and belian roof shingles. These purpose-built forts have
many windows or openings in the walls for surveillance
and the targeting of enemies along the river. Belian is
widely used in the construction of these forts, mainly forcolumns, walls, floors, roof trusses, staircases and doors.
The ground level of the forts was normally used forstorage of ammunition or a place of residence; whilst theupper levels were used for control or defence purposes
and as the Resident’s administrative office. Anothercommon design feature is the timber lattice found at theupper levels that allows for cross ventilation and naturallighting inside the fort. All forts were painted in whiteand black.
Conservation of the Forts
The conservation works for Fort Emma, Fort Hose andFort Lili began in 2018-2019 with an expected completion
date in July 2020. Specifically, conservation of Fort
Emma began on 28 May 2018 at a contract cost of
RM2,983,192.00 (USD71,1476.38) with a scheduled work
completion date of 22 December 2019. Fort Hose began
its conservation works on 1 January 2019 at a contract
cost of RM2,165,639.80 (USD516,494.26) for a target work

completion date of 1 April 2020. Fort Lili commenced its
conservation works on 2 January 2019 at a contract costof RM3,388,888.00 (USD808,232.84) and completion is
aimed for 1 July 2020. During the conservation works
period, on-site project meetings and technical meetings
have been conducted regularly, chaired by the Managerof the Sarawak Public Works Department Regional Office.
Before conservation works began, a dilapidation survey
was carried out on the forts by local consultant architects
appointed by the Sarawak Public Works Department. The
consultant architects were Arkitek Dchuo for Fort Emma,Arkiskape Sdn. Bhd. for Fort Hose and Arkitek Nurina
Matnor for Fort Lili. The dilapidation survey is very
important to determine and diagnose any building defects
at the forts and to identify their probable causes using
non-destructive equipment. All building defects at theforts were examined thoroughly and recorded diligently
through various media such as digital photography andmeasured drawings. Such detailed documentation not
only presents critical baseline information about current
building conditions but also provides a strong basis
and justification to assess the most appropriate andeffective methods of conservation. Such information is
also very useful to guide consultant quantity surveyors inestimating the total cost of the conservation projects. The
dilapidation survey reports revealed that the three forts
had suffered various degrees of building defects. Eachbuilding defect was indicated clearly on the respective
building plans and elevation drawings in the dilapidation
survey reports with recommendations on proposedbuilding conservation remedies and treatments. Table 1.0
summarises the types of building defects present at thethree forts.

Malaysia

Brooke era, Fort Lili was converted into a police station
and administrative office for the Registration Department.
The fort was left abandoned for several years before
conservation works commenced in 2019.

Table 1: Types of Building Defects at Fort Emma, Fort Hose and Fort Lili (surveyed in 2017-2018)

Fort Emma, Kanowit
1. Concrete floor (damaged)
2. Paint (peeled/faded)
3. Window (damaged/broken)
4. Harmful growth
5. Timber floorboards (rotten)
6. Wall panel (damaged)
7. Door frame (slanted)
8. Staircase (faded/dirty)
9. Tiles (damaged/broken)
10. Crocodile shed (missing
roof/messy)
12. Mermaid statue(damaged/faded)
13. Soil (erosion)
14. Roof (damaged/missing)
15. Electrical wiring (damaged)

Fort Hose, Marudi
1. Roof (damaged/leakage)
2. Wall panels (deformed/faded)
3. Drainage and apron (fungi
growth/damaged)
4. External staircase (harmful
growth/ damaged)
5. Doors (faded)
6. Windows (faded)
7. Structures (damaged/faded)
8. Floors (peeled/faded)
9. Ground slab (damaged)
10. Non-heritage addition
11. External display items(weathered)i. Conservation of Fort Emma (Kanowit)
The conservation of Fort Emma was based on historical
records and evidences of the original design. The
construction cost includes conservation of the belian
structures such as columns, floor bearers and planks.
The external belian wall panels were restored and any

Fort Lili, Betong
1. Harmful growth
2. Fungi growth
3. Bat infestation
4. Toilet (stain)
5. Ironmongeries (corroded)
6. Fractured/breakage
7. Cement floor (damaged)
8. Floor board (damaged)
9. Tiles (damaged/missing)
10. Paint (peeled/faded)
11. Electrical wiring (damaged)
12. Door (damaged/missing)
13. Window (damaged/missing)
14. Timber panel(missing/damaged)
15. Ceiling panel(missing/damaged)
16. Roof (damaged/missing)
17. Sanitary (damaged/missing)
18. Staircase (damaged/missing)damaged panels were replaced with similar timber
species and strength group. The belian wall panels wererearranged in such a manner to minimise the gaps andreduce rain seepage. Any small gaps were sealed up
using timber putty. The first floor bearers and boards
were also restored. Any badly damaged planks were24

Malaysia

replaced with similar timber species, strength groupand sizes. The floor planks were rearranged carefully tominimise the gaps as in the original layout. Likewise, any
remaining gaps were sealed up with putty. The originalcolumns, all of different sizes and shapes (square, roundand multi-faceted) were actually donated by various
longhouses and local communities during the early
construction days. The original belian columns were stillin good condition. Any badly damaged columns were
replaced with belian timber of similar sizes and shapes.
A major change involved the ground floor concrete slabs
and stumps. The existing concrete stumps that support
the ground floor belian columns were severely damaged
and had to be removed. The foundations of the concrete
stumps had to be re-constructed for structural integrity
and afterwards new belian columns were extended to
the new foundations for overall structural stability. The
old concrete slabs were also removed. There was no
structural support but only mass concrete of varying
thicknesses. New concrete slabs with steel reinforcementson the ground floor were constructed to provide a stableand flat surface, after which belian floor boards 20 mm
thick on 50 mm×50 mm belian battens at 600 mm centre
to centre were laid. The roof structures were generally
intact with some of the rafters and battens being restored.
The roofing materials were changed to the original 6 mmthick belian shingles. For rain proofing and insulation,
additional layers of coated metal sheeting, double sided
aluminium insulation, rockwool insulation and waterproof
plywood were added to the roof system. A new toilet for
public use was constructed outside the fort with belianroof shingles and belian external panels to harmonisewith the main building. The existing crocodile shed andits roof structures were relocated 2 meters away to allow
for the construction of a new toilet. The crocodile shedroofing was changed to new belian shingles. As the
new roof has no gutters or downpipes, a rain catchment
system comprising a 1.8-meter-wide drain covered withremovable concrete slabs and pebbles was provided
around the fort to capture rainwater from the roof. This
would reduce any rainwater seepage into the soil. For
disabled access, a gently sloped ramp was built next to
the fort to allow for wheelchair and elderly access. The
front external staircase was widened to cater for more
visitors to the fort. Low metal fencing was provided forthe fort boundary perimeter.
ii. Conservation of Fort Hose (Marudi)
The existing Fort Hose is a replication of the original
building which was burnt down in 1994. A major
component of the conservation work was the belian
shingle roof. Underlay waterproofing material, metal
flashing and roof ridge capping were added during thereconstruction of the entire building in 1997. However, theexisting roof suffered from wear and tear due to leakage.
All belian shingles were replaced with new 6 mm-thickbelian shingles. The new roof was upgraded with a
new waterproofing system including a plywood ceilingunderneath, new roof ridge cappings and valley gutters.
The belian lattices can be found on the upper floor ofFort Hose surrounding the entire main building. All thelattice battens were generally in good condition, andwere sanded and refurbished with a new layer of paint25

on the external side and a shellac finishing coat on theinternal side. The belian wall panels on the external sideof the building were all shrinking and there were alreadysome visible gaps. These wall panels were rearranged inorder to close up the gaps in between wall panels. Everybelian wall panel piece was sanded and refurbished witha new layer of paint on the external side and shellac on
the internal side. The existing belian structures includingcolumns, beams, floor joists, roof rafters and battens weregenerally in good condition. However, a belian column
was found to be sinking and required immediate repair
due to risks related to structural loading and column
stability. The existing belian floorings on the upper level
were in good condition. The flooring surface was sanded
and refurbished with a new finishing shellac coating. The
existing belian doors were taken down for refurbishment
and later reinstalled to their original position with existingironmongery. The existing belian sliding windows weresanded and refurbished with the addition of mosquito
netting on all sliding windows on the upper floor.
Another belian external staircase at the fort entrance
also required extensive repair work due to severe
deterioration. The entire staircase was taken down withproper documentation, particularly to indicate its original
position. This staircase was reconstructed with salvaged
materials with new belian handrails replacing the missing
ones. Originally, the belian shingle roof had no guttersand downpipes. During the conservation works, aconcealed perimeter drain was proposed with multiple
rainwater catchment sumps surrounding the fort. Several
non-heritage related items were added to the building
over the years including toilet and shower compartment
on ground level, office partition on the upper floor anddecorative lights on the perimeter of the roof eaves. All
non-heritage items were removed accordingly in order toreinstate the original design of the fort.
iii. Conservation of Fort Lili (Betong)
Before the conservation works of Fort Lili commenced,
extensive research was conducted by project consultants
to highlight the significance of the Fort in terms of its
historical, architectural and cultural values. The fort had
been re-measured to get its exact dimensions and scale.
For decades, Fort Lili had been converted into many
new uses and functions including State Government
administration building, stockyard for goods, court houseand police station. Such changes in building use hadaltered and modified much of the interior space of thefort, particularly the building elements including windows,
staircases, doors, partition walls and floors. The fort
had been left abandoned for a good many years before
it was restored. Thus, some of the building elements,
materials and structures were in a dilapidated stage.
During the conservation works, the fort underwent major
refurbishment and restoration including dismantlementof the building structures, salvage of building materials,
storage, conservation treatment, and reconstruction.
The old belian roof shingles were removed, treatedand salvaged. To protect the roof in lieu of the missing
belian shingles, plastic canvas sheets were laid over theaffected areas to prevent leakage. New belian shingles
were fixed onto the roof to replace the missing andbroken ones. To overcome the severe rainforest climate

Community Engagement Programmes
The Sarawak Museum Department and Sarawak Public
Works Department had jointly organised a seriesof community engagement programmes during theconservation of Fort Emma, Fort Hose and Fort Lili in
2018-2019. The programmes were aimed at encouraging
local communities, local leaders, District Officers,
government officials, consultants, students and thegeneral public to appreciate heritage buildings and tocelebrate unique local traditions and ethnic cultures. The
community engagement programmes of the forts are
discussed in regard to three aspects as follows:i. Ritual ceremony
A ritual ceremony was conducted at all forts during
the early stage of conservation projects. The ceremony
was led by local leaders according to their own cultural
traditions and religious beliefs. For Fort Emma, theritual ceremony was held on 7 August 2018. The ritual
ceremony, known to the local Iban community as miring,
was performed by the Iban leader Lance Corporal(Retired) Sigai Endawan to appease the gods and spirits
as well as to ask for divine blessings. During the miring,
the nine human skulls (antu pala) previously kept
inside Fort Emma were temporarily relocated inside a
hut newly built within the fort compound to allow theconservation works to resume. Two pigs and a rooster
were slaughtered and their blood was offered as asacrifice to the gods and spirits, along with rice, eggs andother offerings. About 150 people attended the miringfrom 9 am to 1 pm. Among those present were Machan
assemblyman YB Allan Siden Gramong, Kanowit police
chief DSP Daniel Benjamin, Kanowit District Officer
Kathreen Eddi Saga, Sarawak Museum Department
senior curator Dayang Morzanah Awang Haddy, Sarawak

Museum Department project officer Bong Ah Khan,
Sarawak Public Works Department central regional
officers Ade Fairuz Marzuki and Steve Mcllory Petrus,
Penghulu Ugap Seribu, Penghulu Barnabas Angkis, andPenghulu Ugak Sigai, as well as project consultants,
members of local communities, government officials andlocal council officers.

Malaysiaof Sarawak and the problem of roof leakage, a doublelayered roofing system was introduced to Fort Lili. The
roofing system allows the installation of proper insulation
while maintaining the visibility of the underside of the
belian shingles. The salvaged old belian shingles werethen fixed underneath the roof while the new ones wereplaced as a double layer above the roof. The new belian
shingles were then coated for weather protection. All
timber structures of the fort were upgraded to beliantimber. Due to structural instability including sagging of
the ground floor level, the entire fort was dismantled,salvaged, treated and reconstructed at the same location.
The existing old timber jetty outside the fort, which
was used for river transportation, was restored to its
original form. The reconstruction of Fort Lili was basedon sound conservation guidelines and approved work
method statements. Thus, all building elements were remeasured, documented and recorded based on a special
coding system before dismantling and salvaging. Apartfrom conservation works, several new works were carriedout at the fort including new toilet facilities, upgrading
the existing guard house, stone-pebble apron aroundthe fort, a walkway path on the grounds and a gateway
at the new main entrance to the site. To recreate theclosest setting to what it was like in the fort’s glory days,a shallow depression around the jetty was constructed tosignify the old river that used to flow in front of the fort.

A blessing ceremony took place at Fort Hose on 22
February 2019 from 9 am until 1 pm. The blessing
ceremony was performed in accordance with theChristian faith, by virtue of Marudi being inhabitedby predominantly Orang Ulu Christians. A choir fromthe local Borneo Evangelical Mission Church also
performed during the blessing ceremony. The ceremony
was well attended by more than 80 people including
Sarawak Assistant Minister of Local Government Datu
Dr. Penguang Manggil, who also thanked the Sarawak
Museum Department for being in the forefront of theconservation of Fort Hose, an icon of the Baram District.
Other attendees during the blessing ceremony included
Baram Member of Parliament YB Tuan Anyi Ngau, Mulu
assemblyman YB Datuk Gerawat Gala, Telang Usan
assemblyman YB Dennis Ngau, Temenggong Elizabeth
Deng, Penghulu Herbet Lawai, Sarawak Museum
Department officers Dora Jok and Lilianna Ubong Petrus,
Sarawak Public Works Department Northern Region
officers Ir. Wang Say Kwang and Fam Chin Ying, Pemanca
Jamel Sabil, Pemanca Wong Kong Ching, Pemanca
Randie Anak Bundan, project consultants, members of
local communities, government officials and local council
officers.
There were two ritual ceremonies conducted for Fort Lili.
The first ceremony was a Muslim doa selamat held at the
nearby Betong Jamek Mosque on 17 April 2019 led by alocal religious leader, Tuan Imam Hj. Hanapi Yalin after
the Maghrib prayer in the evening. The second ceremony
was the miring held on 18 April 2019 from 9 am until 1
pm, which involved the slaughter of one pig as part ofthe local Iban ritual traditions as an offering to the gods
and spirits along with rice, eggs and other offerings.
More than 200 people attended the miring including
Sarawak Deputy Chief Minister Datuk Amar Douglas
Uggah Embas, Sarawak Minister of Tourism, Arts, Culture,
Youth and Sports Datuk Abdul Karim Rahman Hamzah,
Datuk Patinggi Tan Sri Dr. Alfred Jabu Anak Numpang,
Tan Sri Dato Sri Empiang Jabu, Layar assemblyman
YB Gerald Rental Jabu, Sarawak Museum Department
officers Dayang Morzanah Awang Haddy, Norraha Abdul
Rahim and Awang Abdullah Awang Morshidi; Friday
Anak Lugoh, Temenggong Richard Mulok Anak Entring,
Pemanca Norman Ngumbang Anak Sandin, Penghulu Uyo
Anak Sunang, Penghulu Stanley Ejau Anak Erin, Sarawak
Public Works Department Southern Region officer
Chong Min Chiew, mosque committee members, project
consultants, members of local communities, government
officials and local council officers.
ii. Conservation workshop and site visit
Conservation workshops and site visits were jointly
org anise d by t he Sarawak M use um D e p art men t
and Sarawak Public Works Department during the26

Malaysia

conservation of Fort Emma, Fort Hose and Fort Lili. Eachworkshop was well received and attended by morethan 50 local participants including government officers,
project consultants, professionals and members of thelocal communities. The main objective of organising theworkshops was to share knowledge and experience inthe field of building conservation among the participants,
particularly on the conservation of forts. This knowledge
sharing session allowed the participants to better
understand the significance and development of each
fort, and their prospective usage. Each workshop ran for
two days including talks and site visits. The talks were
presented by various speakers from Sarawak Museum
Department, Sarawak Public Works Department, project
consultants (architecture, civil and structure engineering,mechanical and electrical and quantity survey), theproject conservator and building contractor. Workshop
participants also enjoyed guided tours of the forts and thesurrounding areas while experiencing the conservation
works and techniques demonstrated by the building
contractor and project consultants. Several exhibits anddisplays were set up at the forts for educational purposes.
A mock-up of the roof was constructed at all forts toallow participants to understand how the belian shingles
were fixed onto the roof structures. The conservation
workshop of Fort Emma was conducted on 30-31
January 2019 at Kanowit District Council; followed by theconservation workshop of Fort Lili on 2-3 July 2019 at
Betong District Council; and Fort Hose on 20-21 August
2019 at Dewan Suarah, Marudi. All workshop participantsreceived a certificate of participation authorised by theSarawak Museum Department Acting Director Suria
Bujang as a token of appreciation for their commitment
to the fort conservation works in Sarawak.
iii. Community dialogue
Community dialogue refers to an interactive andinclusive forum that attracts participants from different
sections of local communities. It aims to create an
opportunity and platform for the exchange of ideas,
information and perspectives, clarifying viewpoints, anddeveloping feasible solutions to issues related to thecommunities. During the conservation of Fort Emma,a community dialogue was organised on 18 June 2019from 9 am until 2 pm at the Kanowit District Office.
The dialogue session allowed the local communities ofKanowit to communicate and interact face-to-face withthe government agencies, local council, District Officer,
community leaders and project consultants involved in theFort Emma conservation project. The local communities
of Kanowit took this opportunity to raise their concerns,
share personal experiences and express their perspectives
during the event. The community dialogue commenced
with three talks presented by Sarawak Museum
Department project officer Bong Ah Khan on thehistory and development of Fort Emma; Sarawak Public
Works Department Central Regional manager Cassidy
Anak Morris on the conservation project of Fort Emma;and Kanowit District Officer Kathreen Eddi Saga on
community engagement in the development of Kanowit
District. Leaders from the local Malay, Chinese and Iban
communities were invited to voice their views and sharechronicles about Kanowit and Fort Emma during the27

dialogue session. More than 150 participants including
university students and lecturers attended the community
dialogue. Participants also enjoyed a guided tour of Fort
Emma courtesy of the project consultants and building
contractor. The community dialogue was considered very
successful because it instilled appreciation and awarenessamong participants of the colourful history of the
Kanowit District and the development of Fort Emma. It
also emphasised the roles and responsibilities of the local
communities in safeguarding and managing invaluable
cultural heritage in their hometown. Meanwhile, Fort
Hose and Fort Lili are fully geared towards organising
their own respective community dialogues before theconservation projects come to an end by April or July
2020.
Conclusion
The conservation of Fort Emma, Fort Hose and Fort Lili inthe state of Sarawak, Malaysia has been a success story ofsmart coordination and orchestrated efforts by all parties
involved in the fort conservation projects including
project consultants, building contractors and government
agencies. Moreover, the provisional sums earmarked
for community engagement programmes in the fort
conservation projects have had a substantial impact
and have increased awareness and appreciation among
local communities in Sarawak towards safeguarding
and protecting their intangible and tangible cultural
heritage. Community engagement programmes suchas ritual ceremonies, workshops, site visits, dialogues
and related events have enabled deeper contextual
understanding of community perceptions towards
sense of place, cultural identity, heritage values andheritage tourism. Furthermore, community engagement
programmes have fostered a sense of trust, belonging
and strong relationships among the community members
and their leaders in undertaking heritage endeavours
in the future. Looking ahead, the conservation of Fort
Emma, Fort Hose and Fort Lili should bring about
continuous positive impacts on the socio-economic
development of Kanowit, Marudi and Betong. Forts ofsignificant cultural value should be protected under
the laws and upgraded to become heritage museums
that promote history, culture, arts and the traditions of
the local communities. These heritage museums canbecome important tourist attractions for local economic
regeneration in the respective districts. All efforts anddeterminations as depicted by both the Sarawak Museum
Department and Sarawak Public Works Department (PWD
HQ and PWD Regional Offices) in ensuring the successof the conservation projects of Fort Emma, Fort Hose andFort Lili are most highly praised and applauded. Theirsolid commitment and dedication serves as a model andexample to other government agencies in the country inpromoting and conserving cultural heritage for the benefit
of future generations.
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to thank the Sarawak State
Government, Sarawak Museum Department (JMS),
Sarawak Public Works Department (PWD HQ and PWD
Regional Offices), Suria Bujang, Ipoi Datan, Bong AhKhan, Norraha Abd Rahim, Awang Abdullah Awang

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Kuek Chai Seng, Arkiskape Sdn. Bhd., United Consultants,
Perunding Omega PMC Sdn. Bhd., FCH Quantity
Surveyor Sdn. Bhd., Dr. Hazman Hazumi, Zulkifli Hj.
Ahmad, Ahmad Adzrin Izuddin Ahmad Ismadi, Bario
Development Corporation Sdn. Bhd., Mujan Lah, Victor
Wong Siaw Ning, Ir. Wisil Anak Lichok, Ir. Wang Say
Kwang, Fam Chin Ying, Chang Kueh Chin, Ir. Nor Aini
Rosli, Ar. Nurina Matnor, Arkitek Nurina Matnor, Brendan
Baon Wong, Jabez Ho Chen Kwang, TTP Industries
Sdn. Bhd., Dato’ Sri Henry Sia Pick Siu, Ir. Hj. Zamhuri
Drahman, Zadra Consultant, Alphabeta JP, Kontrak
Infobena Sdn. Bhd.; and the School of Housing Building
and Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia for making thisproject and article possible.

28

Malaysia
Location of Kanowit, Marudi and Betong, Sarawak, Malaysia.

Exterior view of Fort Emma before conservation.

Temporary roofing was installed to protect Fort Emma during conservation.

29

Malaysia

Interior view of Fort Emma during conservation.

The ritual ceremony of Fort Emma, known to the local Iban community as miring, was performed by an Iban leader to appease thegods and spirits as well as to ask for blessings.

In the miring ceremony, nine human skulls or antu pala previously kept inside Fort Emma were
temporarily relocated inside a hut built within the fort compound to allow for conservation works.

30

Malaysia
A conservation workshop for Fort Emma was conducted on 30 - 31 January 2019 at the Kanowit District Council.

Workshop participants visiting Fort Emma during conservation.

31

Malaysia

During the conservation of Fort Emma, a community dialogue was organised on 18 June 2019 at Kanowit District Office to allow local
communities to share their perspectives with the government agencies, local council, District Officer, community leaders and project
consultants.

Local communities visiting Fort Emma after the community dialogue.

Front view of Fort Hose before conservation.

32

Malaysia
The back view of Fort Hose during conservation.

A blessing ceremony took place at Fort Hose on 22 February 2019 with a choir performance by the local Borneo Evangelical
Mission Church.

The conservation workshop of Fort Hose was held on 20 – 21August 2019 at Dewan Suarah, Marudi.

33

Malaysia

Several exhibits and displays were set up inside Fort Hose during the workshop.

Workshop participants visiting Fort Hose during conservation.

Workshop participants visiting Fort Hose while experiencing the conservation works and techniques demonstrated by thebuilding contractor.

34

Malaysia
Fort Lili before conservation.

Interior view of the dilapidated Fort Lili before conservation.

A miring ceremony was conducted at Fort Lili on 18 April 2019, involving the slaughtering of one pig along with rice, eggs
and other offerings.

35

Malaysia

Two ritual ceremonies were conducted for Fort Lili; one of which was the Muslim doa selamat at the nearby Betong Jamek
Mosque on the evening of 17 April 2019 after Maghrib prayer.

During the conservation works, Fort Lili underwent major refurbishment and restoration including the dismantling ofbuilding structures, salvage of building materials, storage, conservation treatment and reconstruction.

During the conservation of Fort Lili, a double-layered roofing system was introduced to allow the installation of proper
insulation while maintaining the visibility of the underside of the belian shingles.

36

Malaysia
Exterior view of Fort Lili during conservation.

The conservation workshop of Fort Lili was conducted on 2-3 July 2019 at Betong District Council.

Workshop participants were briefed by the building contractor on the belian roof mock-up of Fort Lili.

37

Mongolia
Munkhtulga Rinchinkhorol, Researcher
Mongolian Academy of Sciences, Institute of History and Archaeology
On June 8, 2019, G. Burentugs, a specialist in immovable
heritage at the National Center of Cultural Heritage ofMongolia, along with R. Munkhtulga, a researcher at theInstitute of History and Archaeology, Mongolian Academyof Sciences, and B. Ariyajav, a lecturer at the School of
Sciences, National University of Mongolia, carried out thefirst field documentation at a site called Talyn Khöshöö
in Darkhan District, Khentii Province. There is an ancient
Turkic memorial complex with a huge stone statue of ahuman figure at this site. The newly found monument
was soon registered on the List of Cultural Immovable
Heritage of Mongolia as the Talyn Khöshöö memorial
complex.
On June 24, 2019, R. Munkhtulga first reported on
the Talyn Khöshöö monument as the most recently
discovered ancient Turkic aristocratic memorial complex(Munkhtulga 2019: 24). In August 2019, our field research
report was published under the title Talyn Khöshöö
Memorial Complex (Munkhtulga et al. 2019). The abovementioned field research on the Talyn Khöshöö complex
reached some preliminary conclusions as follows.
• The complex contained a quadrangular enclosure
consisting of patterned stone slabs and a stone
statue of a human figure, but did not have otherstructural elements of a typical high-ranking
aristocratic complex such as canals, ditches,buildings, and balbals (stelae). This characteristicfeature shows that the complex can be identified
as the III-Б-a variant in the Soviet and Russianarchaeologist V.Ye. Voitov’s classification. In its
structure, it shares the same characteristics as theDongoin Shiree complex, which was recently foundin Tüvshinshiree District, Sükhbaatar Province,
and the Zaraagiin Züün Övör complex in Sümber
District, Govi-Sümber Province. Its main structure,
however, is more similar to the latter.
• The position and size of the tamgas (identifying
marks) on the sides of the human figure statue, andMongolia

A Newly Found Ancient Memorial Complex from Mongolia

the evidence from the Turkic Runic inscriptions
along with Chinese historical annals, indicate that
the Talyn Khöshöö memorial complex can be dated
to 735–741 AD, late in the period of the Second
Turkic Khaganate. The sociopolitical conditions
and geopolitical situation of the same period also
support this.
• The human figure statue of the Talyn Khöshöö
complex is the second stone statue with an
inscription and tamgas from the ancient Turkic
period in Mongolia. Moreover, with its size
measuring 320 × 42 × 40 cm, it becomes the largest
stone statue of a human figure in Mongolia.
• Based on the stylistic features of the stone statue,
we can only say that the lord of the complex
probably was an aristocrat who had a title ranking
lower than Tudun (an administrative title).
• It can also be suggested, based on the locationand structure of the complex and the shapes ofthe various tamgas on the statue, that the complex
might have been dedicated to an aristocrat of theHelu (賀魯), one the Twelve Turkic Tribes of theSecond Turkic Khaganate.
• The Talyn Khöshöö complex, which has a large
human figure statue with an inscription and various
tamgas, is undoubtedly a unique historic andcultural relic of the ancient Turkic period.
References
Munkhtulga 2019 – Р.Мөнхтулга. Эртний Түрэгийн
язгууртны тахилын онгоны судалгааны зарим
асуудлууд. Доктор (Ph.D)-ын зэрэг горилох нэгэн
сэдэвт зохиол. Уб.
Munkhtulga et al. 2019 – Р.Мөнхтулга, Г.Бүрэнтөгс,Б.Арьяажав. Талын Хөшөөний тахилын онгон. Уб.,
2019

38

Mongolia
Fig. 1: The Talyn Khöshöö memorial complex (from the southwest)

Fig. 2: The Talyn Khöshöö complex (from the northwest)

Figs. 3–5: The stone statue of a human figure at the complex

Fig. 7: Taking a rubbing of the statue(detail)39

Figs. 8, 9: Tamgas on the front side of the statue

Fig. 6: Taking a rubbing of the statue

Fig. 10: Taking a rubbing of the tamgas

Mongolia

Fig. 11: Taking a rubing of the tamgas(detail)Fig. 12: Taking a rubing of the inscription
below the tamgas

Fig. 13: Slab fragments of the stone enclosure

Fig. 14: Slab fragments of the enclosure

Fig. 15: Patterned slab fragments

Fig. 16: Patterned slab fragments

40

New Zealand
New ZealandMrs Heron’s Cottage – Conservation of 19th Century Goldfields Home
Matthew Schmidt, Senior Archaeologist Otago/Southland
Heritage New Zealand Pouhere Taonga
Introduction

Figure 2. Mrs Heron’s Cottage from Lake Roxburgh in 2016 (Photo Jonathan
Howard).

Figure 1. Location of Mrs Heron's Cottage, Lake Roxburgh, Central Otago (Mapcourtesy of Andrea Farminer).

Mrs Heron’s Cottage is an iconic Central Otago goldfields
structure located on Lake Roxburgh (Figure 1). This three
bay schist stone and corrugated iron cottage has a history
associated with 19th and early 20th century gold mining,
functioning as a ‘store’ providing supplies to local miners
and possibly as an occasional accommodation house(Figure 2). The cottage is only accessible by the public by
way of boat from Lake Roxburgh, and so it is probably
due to this isolation, appreciation by regular visitors of
its completeness and history, and the guardianship of thecottage by the Miller family and Contact Energy Ltd thatthe cottage has survived for ca. 150 years. This paper
looks at past and recent works to conserve the cottage
through a partnership project between Heritage New
Zealand and Contact Energy Ltd (“Contact”) which is a
private company whose hydroelectric operations include
the land the cottage lies on. Contact annually budgets forthe management of heritage sites along Lake Roxburgh
and if it were not for this proactive approach, theconservation works on this cottage could not have been
undertaken.

A Brief History of Gold Mining in the Roxburgh Gorge, andHenry and Harriet Heron & Their Cottage
Mrs Heron’s Cottage is located on the shores of Lake
Roxburgh but before this lake was formed throughdamming of the Clutha River Mata-au in 1956, it lay
well above the banks of the river in the steep Roxburgh
Gorge. The filling of the dam saw the loss of hundreds of41archaeological sites mostly related to 19th century gold
mining which were unfortunately not recorded before
the gorge was filled. In Figures 3 and 4 are shown twoviews of Mrs Heron’s Cottage showing the change in thelandscape before and after Lake Roxburgh was formed.
The photograph of Figure 3, only recently found, is theoldest known picture of the cottage and is believed todate from between 1930 and 1939 (picture courtesy of
the New Zealand Herald Glass Plate Collection, Auckland
Libraries, Ref. ID 1370-27-2). In this picture can be seen
the steep Roxburgh Gorge in the background with thecottage well above the river. The Figure 4 photograph
was taken a similar position in May 2019 where Lake
Roxburgh can be seen within meters of the cottage.
The story of the Heron’s and their cottage lies in thehistory of gold mining on the Clutha River Mata-au. In
1862, the gold miners Hartley and Reilly discovered
payable gold on the banks of the river near Cromwellat the confluence of the Clutha and Kawarau Rivers ca.
52km upriver from Mrs Heron’s. The gold was so easy to
scoop off the river sands, Hartley and Reilly very quickly
obtained a fortune in gold. Soon after they suspected
their find had been discovered, they packed up their 1000
oz. of gold and presented to the Chief Gold Receiverback in Dunedin. Not only did they strike it rich, but forannouncing their discovery and divulging its location
they also received a £2000 reward from the Provincial
Government. This saw the start of the 1862 gold rush towhat was to be known as the Dunstan Goldfield which
includes where Mrs Heron’s Cottage is located.
Thousands of gold miners flooded to the Clutha Riverafter hearing of Hartley and Reilly’s discovery. Although
the area was very isolated, calico tent towns suddenly
appeared at Cromwell, Clyde and Alexandra on thebanks of the Clutha filled to the brim with miners, hotels,
merchants, butchers, blacksmiths etc, any trade that could
supply the miners with what they needed. The majority

Large areas where gold was being sought was gorgy anddifficult to access but by foot. The Kawarau, Cromwell
and Roxburgh Gorges, were very steep and rocky areas
but this did not deter the European/Pakeha and Chinese
miners which saw thousands of them make their way
into them to establish their claims and live. All their foodand equipment had to be hiked in. The Roxburgh Gorge
in particular was very difficult to access but on the plus
side the rocky terrain meant miners could convert thenumerous caves into huts and those that had the skills
were not lacking in stone to build small stone cottages.
A description from the Otago Witness newspaper from1875 recounting the isolation of the miners in the gorge
provides a good insight into the hard life of the miners:‘On the Twelves and Fourteen Mile Beaches it wascomputed at one time that 700 miners had congregated,
and, including the distance five miles farther down toCaptain Baldwin’s [at Long Valley], the number may
be safely stated at 1200. How they all obtained food,and where from, and how they were housed, was to thestranger somewhat of a mystery. Every morsel of…“tucker”
required to be packed out to them on horseback, fromplaces miles away, and when the horses could get nofarther, it oftentimes became necessary to convey the storesfor long distances on men’s backs, down precipitous rockybanks, and round rocky precipices, that scarcely presented
foothold for a goat…Almost everyone lived in caves in therocks.’ (Otago Witness, Issue 1222, 1st May 1875, Page 11)
Mrs Heron’s Cottage was located near the Fourteen Mile
Beach gold claim in the Roxburgh Gorge and here in
1864 the Otago Witness newspaper estimated that 1600
miners were present here. Henry and Harriet Heron are
believed to have constructed the original central bayof the stone cottage around 1863 (see Figure 5, PhaseI) convenient to their successful gold mining claim at
Fourteen Mile Beach. They mined and lived in the cottage
from ca. 1863 until around 1875 when they moved to
Roxburgh and purchased and ran the Commercial Hotel.
This long period of mining implies a successful operation
was being run by the Heron’s and it is believed Henry
was also in the business of constructing water races andrepairing mining equipment. With supplying essentials
through using their cottage also as a store, selling fresh
produce from their garden and possibly taking in theoccasional paying guest, the Heron’s appeared to have
had good business at Fourteen Mile Beach. It is quite
likely during their time at Fourteen Mile that they also
built the south bay of the cottage to accommodate theirbusy lives (see Figure 5, Phase II).
Henry ran the Commercial Hotel with Harriet until his
death in 1896 (he was the first President of the Roxburgh
Cricket Club and became Mayor of Roxburgh in 1885)
with Harriet continuing the business until her death in1913 (Figure 6). It is possible that the Heron’s may havesold the cottage before they left Fourteen Mile to Henry’s
mining claim partner John Nott in 1875 as in a newspaper
advertisement of April 1979, Nott is selling a cottage with
furniture and its garden with the description possibly
matching that of the cottage at the time when the Heron’s
owned it. Given this, between 1875 and 1901 the historyof ownership of the cottage is unclear. It is known that
the Miller family bought it in 1901 and the family still has
the sale document (Jack Miller pers comm). Local history
notes that the Murchison brothers used the cottage formining from 1913 onwards and added the corrugatediron north bay room to the structure around this timeor later (Phase III, Figure 5), which does match the ageof the materials used for this structure and artefacts
recently found around it (see below). For the remaining
years the cottage has been used for people hunting andfishing in the area. This continued after the constructionof the Roxburgh Dam was completed in 1956 when theland around the cottage was acquired by the Crown forhydroelectric purposes and then for the same purpose
by Contact. The survival of the cottage owes much to theguardianship of the structure by the Miller family over the
decades since 1901.

New Zealandof miners could only purchase a shovel and gold pan
as their key mining equipment but if you had enoughmoney a pick and cradle was also purchased. Branchesof banks, a gold warden’s office and coach services were
established which connected the towns to Dunedin cityon the coast where most of the gold was taken.

Cottage Construction History and Conservation Works Up
Until 2019
Mrs Heron’s Cottage was constructed in three Phases(Figure 5). The first construction was the centre bay of thecottage (Phase I) made of schist and which may originallyhave had a thatched roof. This is believed to have been
built around 1863 by Henry and Harriet. The next phase(Phase II) was the building of the schist extension whichappears to have been built in the late 19th century but
likely before the Heron’s had left in 1875 (Figure 5). Thisis supported by the recent archaeological finds next tothis side of the cottage which are contemporary with thistime of construction and use (see below). In addition, the1930-1939 photograph in Figure 3 already shows quite
a build-up of material on the south side and back of thecottage implying this bay had been present for many
decades. As noted above, the final phase of construction(Phase III) was certainly in the early 20th century withthis corrugated iron bay probably built by the Murchison
brothers who mined in the gorge at this time.
When Heritage New Zealand and Contact first visitedthe cottage to check its condition in 2008, the cottage
was essentially watertight but clearly required immediate
conservation work (Figures 7 to 12). Weeds had infested
the structure growing over the roof and along the sideand back walls, particularly periwinkle. Trees next to thecottage had very large branches overhanging the structure
presenting a branch fall risk, a tree had fallen partiallyonto the back of the cottage, and small shrubs had
grown close around the front walls. The interior of thecottage was relatively clean and dry probably due to it
being used by various people over the years but it could
be seen the back walls of the cottage were damp fromearth falling down behind the back wall causing moisture
to be drawn into the stonework. The tongue & groove
timber ceilings also were damp and rotten in places due

42New Zealandto the storm water not being able to run away off theroof properly and leaking into the interior. The early 20th
century wooden floors, which replaced the original floors,
were in quite good condition with holes in places but
the Phase III, early 20th century extension wooden floor
was quite rotten. Fortunately, small repairs done on the
cottage over the years had helped preserve the structuresuch as those done by the Lake Roxburgh Boating Clubin the 1980s and the Miller family (Farminer 2014: 18).
It is interesting to note from Figures 3 & 4 that thecorrugated iron roofs on the centre and south bays of thecottage have remained the same from ca. 1930-1939 totoday as evidenced by the line of roofing nails being inexact alignment. A photograph from the late 1960s/early
1970s (Figure 13), though, shows that the six pane timbersash windows of the cottage were intact at this time, anda description from the 1980s indicates that more fixturesand fittings were once present, such as a door in thesouth bay, window shutters, extensive wall paper, andthe Shacklock cola range was more or less intact. Given
this, the structure itself had survived well considering its
age.
The forming of Lake Roxburgh had created an additional
problem for the cottage. As noted above, the cottage
used to be located well above the Clutha River during the
19th century and up until 1956. The land in front of thehome was being eroded away by wave action from thelake which would eventually reach the cottage and cause
it to collapse into the lake if not managed (Figure 14).
Between 2008 and 2014, essential conservation works
were undertaken by Contact based on advice from
Heritage New Zealand to manage immediate risks to thecottage (Figures 15 to 17). Vegetation growing around thecottage was cut and poisoned, and trees with branches
overhanging the cottage were cut back. Over the years
weeds continued to be sprayed. Contact engineers
Chimneys

Corrugated iron roof claddings

Roof framing and joinery

Rainwater fittings
Schist walls

Timber & corrugated iron walls
Timber and weatherboard clad wall43

designed and built a wave wall to stop the erosion of thebank in front of the cottage which was now only ca. 5mfrom the front door. This wave wall was built from large
schist slabs sourced locally and angled on a low gradient
to take the energy out of waves splashing onto the shore.
These works were very successful in putting the cottage
in a ‘holding pattern’ while the next stage of conservation
was planned (Figure 18).
In 2014, Heritage New Zealand contracted built heritage
conservation specialist Andrea Farminer of Origin
Consultants to develop a Conservation Management Planfor the cottage. The plan was funded by Contact. The aimof plan was to maintain and manage the cottage as anauthentic ‘goldfields cottage ruin’, rather than set out torepair and replace any fabric that may have degraded. For
example, although the timber floors had holes in themand some timbers were in a poor condition, authentic
timber would be retained and only the holes patched for
visitor safety. In addition, doors would not be re-installed
but a barrier constructed to ensure visitors could accessthe cottage but sheep could not, given the sheep farmland bounded the cottage. Fencing the property to keepout sheep would also detract from the original landscapesetting of the cottage. The Conservation Management
Plan was completed in 2014 and over the next five years
funds were pooled so as the conservation works could
be undertaken as one complete project. Planning for the
project commenced in 2017 and was undertaken in 2019.

The May/June 2019 Conservation Work on Mrs Heron’s
Cottage
The Farminer (2014) Conservation Management Plan
identified key tasks to be completed to achieve the aimof stabilising, repairing, maintaining and managing thecottage in its present state as an uninhabitable ruin. Thesetasks and hence the works undertaken in May/June 2019are shown below.

• Stabilise chimney tops
• Repoint wall voids• Renew the badly burnt and failed lintel in the central bay and repair
stonework• Re-bed loose stones to the fireplace in the central bay• Clear roofs of all accumulated debris and thoroughly brush down roof slopes• Re-secure wind-damaged roofing sheets• Check and re-secure/renew missing or lifting lead-head nails and roofing
screws• Replace missing barge and cover boards and cover unprotected wall heads• Replace/re-affix loose fascia in the• north bay• Repair roof frames to replace missing or defective elements (further
investigation needed)• Clear out, thoroughly inspect, re-align• and re-affix internal gutters in the south and north bays
• Pack out wall voids with earth mortar and repoint walls to a ‘flush finish’• Apply limewash externally to finish• Consolidate internal plaster• Monitor movement in east gable to central bay and repair/strengthen asnecessary• Repair/replace decayed framing to match existing• Maintain/repair weatherboards and check support for gable framing

Windows & doors
Vegetation
Ground levels

Site• Repair sections of decayed floors• (joists and boards)• Under supervision by an archaeologist, remove debris from floors• Maintain existing openings and the remains of former door and window
openings• Cut back and treat vegetation growing up against the walls and over roof areas• Under supervision by an archaeologist, investigate the banks around thenorth, south and west sides of the cottage and dig these back where there isevidence that they have collapsed against the cottage walls• Seek advice from an experienced arborist and maintain or remove (as advised)
the Gum trees to the north of the cottage

New ZealandFloorsTable 1. Conservation tasks undertaken on Mrs Heron’s Cottage in May/June 2019.

The heritage professionals who undertook the work
included myself, archaeologist Matthew Sole, carpenter
Chris Naylor and stone mason Keith Hinds. Daniel Druce,
Environment Advisor for Contact, managed the funding
for the work and the provision of large on-site equipment.
Jack Miller, a sheep farmer whose land bounded theproperty, helped to excavate the fill which had built up
behind the back wall of the cottage. It was his family
that purchased the cottage back in 1901 and owned it for
many years. In Figures 19 to 34 can be seen the progressof the tasks as they were undertaken and the outcome of
the conservation work revealing more of the original lookof the cottage at the time of Henry and Harriet Heron.
Perhaps the most interesting discoveries from the May/
June 2019 work undertaken was the nature and extent ofschist stone retaining wall behind the cottage, the rubbish
pit on the south side of the south bay extension, and theschist stone paving out the front of the cottage.
Although it was known that there was some retaining
wall stonework behind the cottage, the height and extent
of the wall was not known. When fill was removedby spade, this structure turned out to be 1m high and4m long and was built onto and over very large schist
boulders. It was certainly built at the time the central bayof the cottage was built (Phase I) (Figures 22 to 25). Theline of the wall was interrupted by the chimney of thecottage being built up against the schist retaining wall
(Figure 23). The top course of stones was angled backinto the hillside so water running down the slope was
directed away from the back of the hut to drain out oneither side cottage and away. The drain on the south
side Phase II south bay of the cottage can be seen on
the ground in Figure 3. The upper 50cm of the fill which
hid the wall was a mix of 19th and 20th century rubbish
from material falling down the slope behind the cottage
and down into the void. From this point down to theoriginal ground level, artefacts dating from the late 19th
century were found (Figure 28). Of note was a concentric
circle of thin iron hoops which indicated the presenceof a wooden barrel (Figure 25). Barrels were commonly
located on the front or back corners of 19th century
cottages on the goldfields to catch fresh rain water (Figure
26).
On the back corner of the south side of the cottage wasfound a rubbish pit which was contemporary with thePhase II build of the cottage. This pit contained an arrayof artefacts including a penny ink, remains of a black

gloss tea pot with gold trim (which will be reconstructed)
and beer bottles dating from the late 19th century (Figure29). This supports the proposed age of this extension
dating from ca. 1870s to the 1880s.
A surprising find during the clearance of vegetation fromin front of the cottage was a beautiful area of flat schiststone paving lying outside of the 19th century bays of thecottage (Figure 27). The paving had been laid with someskill and care and would have ensured a dry area forfoot traffic in and out of the cottage. Previous vegetation
clearance and the construction of the wave wall did notreveal this feature of the cottage and no previous researchon the history of the hut had mentioned this stonework.
Conclusions
The conservation work on Mrs Heron’s Cottage has
ensured that this historically significant goldfields cottage
will be preserved in the long term for future generations
to enjoy (Figures 33 & 34). The works also revealed
an unknown history about the cottage and hence has
added to the story of the Heron’s and their time living
at Fourteen Mile Beach in the Roxburgh Gorge. The
next phase of the project will see interpretation panels
erected at the site. This project is a good illustrationof a Government/private company partnership in the
management of local heritage.
Acknowledgements
My thanks to Contact Energy Ltd for providing thefunding for this project and in particular Daniel Druce.
This cottage would not have survived without theguardianship of the cottage by the Miller family since1901. Further thanks to Matthew Sole, Chris Naylor,
Keith Hinds, Jack Miller, Andrea Farminer and Jonathon
Howard.
References
Farminer, A. 2014. Conservation Management Plan for
Mrs Heron’s Cottage, Lake Roxburgh. May 2014, Origin
Consultants, Arrowtown.
New Zealand Archaeological Association Site Record
Form G43/18.
New Zealand Heritage Properties Ltd, 2014. Archaeological
Assessment of Mrs Heron’s Cottage, Lake Roxburgh.
Prepared on behalf of Heritage New Zealand, Dunedin.

44New Zealand45

Figure 3. Mrs Heron's Cottage sometime between 1930 & 1939 showing
the Roxburgh Gorge in the background (Photo courtesy of the New Zealand
Herald Glass Plate Collection, Auckland Libraries Ref. ID 1370-27-2).

Figure 4. Mrs Heron’s Cottage photographed from a similar angle as in Figure
3 in 2019. Note the change in the landscape from steep gorge prior to 1956
to lake after the completion of the Roxburgh Dam (Photo: Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 5. Building Phases of Mrs Heron's Cottage adapted by the author from
Andrea Farminer's 2014 plan.

Figure 6. A portrait of Harriet Heron; date & artist unknown (Image: Teviot
District Museum 047).

Figure 7. Mrs Heron’s Cottage in 2008 (Photo: Daniel Druce).

Figure 8. The cottage completely overgrown along the back with a fallen tree
lying on the cottage (Photo: Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 9. The cottage completely overgrown along the front (Photo: Matthew
Schmidt).

Figure 10. The cottage interior, Centre Bay, was relatively dry with various
debris on the floor (Photo: Matthew Schmidt).

New ZealandFigure 11. The cottage interior, South Bay shown, was relatively dry withvarious debris and holes in the floor. South Bay shown (Photo: Matthew
Schmidt).

Figure 12. The tongue and groove timber ceilings were in a poor condition but
repairable (Photo Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 13. A photograph of Mrs Heron’s Cottage taken during the late 1960s
early 70s. Note the six pane timber sash windows in place in the central andsouth bays and the door in the south bay. (Image: Teviot District Museum 159).

Figure 14. The eroding bank in front of the cottage due to wave action fromthe lake (Photo: Daniel Druce).

Figure 15. The first major vegetation clearance from around the front of thecottage in 2010 (Photo: Daniel Druce).

Figure 16. The first major vegetation clearance from around the back of thecottage in 2010 (Photo: Daniel Druce).

Figure 17. The wave wall to protect the cottage from erosion soon after
completion (Photo: Daniel Druce).

Figure 18. The cottage in 2016 showing the successful wave wall beingcolonised by vegetation creating a habitat for insects and lizards (Photo:
Jonathan Howard).

46

New Zealand47

Figure 19. Front of cottage just before the 2019 conservation works (Photo:
Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 20. The back of the corrugated iron north bay (20th century) andcentral stone bay (ca. 1863) just before the 2019 conservation works (Photo:
Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 21. The back of the centre and south stone bays just before the 2019conservation works (Photo: Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 22. The back of the centre and south stone bays after fill removal in
May 2019 works. Note the dark areas on the stonework indicating the level
the earth fill came upto behind the cottage creating the damp back walls(Photo: Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 23. The back of the central stone bay (ca. 1863) after fill removed in
May 2019 (Photo: Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 24. The back of the north bay 20th century room after fill was removed
May 2019 (Photo Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 25. Metal hoops from a wooden barrel found on original ground level
behind the south bay. It was probably used for collecting fresh rain water(Photo: Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 26. A miner's dwelling mid-19th century from the Otago Goldfields
showing a wooden barrel to store fresh water (Image: Hocken Collections ref
Kawarau Gorge 1241 01 002A).

New ZealandFigure 27. Carpenter Chris Naylor and archaeologist Matt Sole reveal hidden
schist stone pavers during May 2019 conservation works on the front of thecottage (Photo Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 28. Author showing one of a number of 19th century bottles foundduring the May 2019 conservation works. Most artefacts were found in the fill
and a small rubbish pit at the back of the cottage (Photo: Matt Sole).

Figure 29. A 19th century 'Penny Ink' found in the rubbish pit at the backcorner of the South Bay (Photo Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 30. Centre Bay floor cleaned with only minor repairs required (Photo:
Matthew Schmidt)

Figure 31. South Bay room floor repaired and room cleaned (compare to
Figure 11) (Photo: Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 32. Stormwater gutting repaired using original and new elements totake water away from the cottage (Photo Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 33. The back of the cottage showing barge boards and capping
repaired and replaced, and iron roofing mostly left in place as it was watertight (Photo: Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 34. Stonework, carpentry and excavations around the cottage
completed. Note the self-closing doors to stop sheep entering the building.
Visitors enjoying the cottage (Photo: Matthew Schmidt).

48

Philippines
Philippines

The Devastating Effects of Earthquakes and Other Natural Calamities in the Philippines: A Threat
to Heritage Structures
Louella Solmerano Revilla, Conservator and Head/Supervisor
Conservation Laboratory, San Agustin Museum, Intramuros, Manila
On October 15, 2013, a 7.2 magnitude earthquake
affected the whole Central Visayas region in thePhilippines, particularly Bohol and Cebu. Just weeks later,
the super typhoon Haiyan (Yolanda) made landfall in
Guiuan on November 8, 2013, in the Philippine provinceof Eastern Samar. These calamities brought tremendous
damage upon the land and its people. Heritage churches
in the areas were also devastated and some completely
destroyed. The extent of destruction brought by thesecalamities was unimaginable. The period of recovery,
rehabilitation and restoration of the churches lasted from2014 up to 2017 with the help of religious, private andgovernment institutions or agencies. The caretakers ofchurches in the Philippines have become more awareof the need to ensure their building’s structural stability.
Churches other than the ones affected have now
undergone assessments, renovations and stabilization
with the help of experts.
Even if calamities are natural occurrences, no one canever determine a warning sign or foresee when an
earthquake will surely hit. Just this year, on April 22,
2019, a 6.1 magnitude earthquake struck the island of
Luzon. The tremor was slightly felt at the San Agustin
Church (UNESCO World Heritage Site) in Intramuros,
Manila, when small debris in different locations of thebuilding fell. Immediate inspections were undertakenby the authorities and the national agencies concerned.
The building remained intact. One particular side of
the church facing the main street is scheduled to berestored. It is meant be an emergency exit for people
when a sudden earthquake occurs. For safety reasons,the church may require another assessment and survey
to ensure its stability. Damaged in this earthquake were
heritage church structures in Pampanga. The province
was placed under a state of calamity. For some time, theArchdiocesan Committee on Church Heritage-Pampanga
recommended the temporary closure of all heritage
churches in the province.
The list of Pampanga heritage churches that were either
severely or partially affected by the April 22, 2019
earthquake included the following: Holy Rosary Parish,
Angeles City; Nuestra Sra. de Gracia Parish, Mabalacat
City; San Bartolome Apostol Parish, Magalang; San
Agustin Parish Church, Lubao; Sta. Lucia Parish Sasmuan;
Immaculada Concepcion Parish, Guagu; Santiago Apostol
Parish, Betis; San Jose Labrador Parish Floridablanca;
Sta. Catalina de Alexandria Parish, Porac; and Sta. Ritade Cascia Parish, Sta. Rita. Other affected churches were
the following: Metropolitan Cathedral of San Fernando;
Sta. Catalina Alexandria Parish, Arayat; San Guillermo
Parish, Bacolor; San Guillermo Parish, Bacolor; and Sta.
Monica Parish, Mexico Pampanga. Other churches in
Pampanga that were examined were the following: San
Pedro Apostol Parish, Apalit; San Andres Parish, Candaba;

49

San Nicolas de Tolentino Parish, Macabebe; San MiguelArkanghel Parish, Masanntol; Sta. Monica Parish, Minalin;
San Luis Gonzaga Parish, San Luis; Nuestra Sra. del Pilar
Parish, San Simon; and Sto. Tomas Apostol Parish, Sto.
Tomas. Several meetings were held by the ArchdiocesanCommittee on Church Heritage in Pampanga with theparticipation of stakeholders together with the national
agencies to discuss a rehabilitation and restoration plan.
Severely affected churches were prioritized. Some of thechurches were opened for Mass services after the vicinity
and building were declared safe.
A few months later in the Batanes Islands, the local
people were alarmed after several earthquakes andaftershocks were felt on July 27, 2019. Affected wereschool grounds and the Itbayat Church. The firstearthquake at 4:16 AM was a magnitude 5.4, and then at
7:37 AM a magnitude 5.9 earthquake generated intense
ground shaking, while at 9:24 AM a magnitude 5.8
earthquake occurred. The 19th century Santa Maria deMayan Parish Church or Itbayat Church, including schools
and ancestral homes, were affected. The bell tower of the
Itbayat Church fell after the intermittent earthquakes.
Around the country, pre-restoration works applied todamaged churches involve the following processes:
scanning of walls using 3D laser scanning technology;
clearing of unnecessary debris; retrieval and documentationof usable loose stone blocks, objects and elements; storage
and security of retrieved and documented objects;
installation of shoring, braces and scaffolding. To conformwith safety requirements and prevent further collapse of
the structure due to aftershocks and rain, shoring andbracing supports are installed; geological soil and verticalstructure assessments, which includes soil boring andground penetrating radar tests, determine the geologicalintegrity of the area and the soil bearing capacity of thedamaged site. All the findings will influence basic
conservation decisions, such as whether reconstruction
can or cannot take place and what interventions arenecessary in order to strengthen the soil foundation. The
Detailed Engineering Study assesses the structural
condition of the structure, especially its foundation, andhelps determine the pre-requisites of restoration such as
retrofitting. In the characterization of materials, samples ofchurch walls are collected and tested in a laboratory to
determine the properties of the materials, which provides
the basis for arriving at the appropriate combination ofmaterials to be applied in restoring the structure. The
national agencies also have programs to train local people
in conservation and restoration. For every disaster that thecountry encounters, the recovery becomes surmountable
when people plan and work together.

Registry Status/Brief Profile

Presumed ICP (Important Cultural
Property)
Santa Catalina de Alexandria
Built in 1875. Uppermost part of
Church, Porac, Pampanga
the belfry, a latter addition made ofcement.
NHL (1952) (National HistoricalLandmark); ICP (2013)
San Agustin Church,
Present structure built in 1638;
Lubao, Pampanga
damaged during World War II andrestored after the war
Presumed ICP (image). A known
Apung Mamacalulu Shrine,
pilgrimage site since the Philippine
Angeles City, Pampanga
revolution of 1896
Presumed ICP.
Sta. Rita Church, Sta. Rita, Pampanga
Present church structure built in 1868.
Marked Site (2018). Present church
San Nicolas de Tolentino Church,
structure was rebuilt in the 1930s atop
Macabebe, Pampanga
the ruins of the 1864 edifice (burned
by Col. Agapito Bonzon in 1899)
Presumed ICP. Present church
San Fernando Cathedral, City of San structure was rebuilt from the ruins of
Fernando, Pampanga
the 1808 structure (burned upon theorders of Gen. Antonio Luna in 1899)
Santo Rosario Church, Angeles City Marked Site (2017). Present church(Holy Rosary Church)
structure was built in 1877.
Santiago Matamoro Church, Betis,
NCT (2005). Present structure was
Guagua, Pampanga
built in 1770.
Presumed ICP. Present structure
Torre Heliografico, Magalang,originated from the developments in
Pampanga
1878; tower added in 1881.
Presumed ICP. Present structure
San Andres Apostol Church,
originated from developments in 1878;
Candaba, Pampanga
1881 tower.

Cracks on wall at Santa Monica Parish

ReportBelfry damaged, reducing the structurefrom four stories to two.

Philippines

July 27, 2019
Affected Churches

The belfry’s linterna damaged; parts ofthe cupola fell
Sanctuary table of the Santo Entierro(Apung Mamacalulu) damaged due todebrisBelfry sustained cracks
Previously reported with large cracks
and falling parts, scheduled to beinspected on 29 April 2019

Cracks on the ceiling spotted

Cracks seen on the walls
Cracks on the outer walls andCorinthian pillar motifs noticed.
Cracks reported on the sanctuary.

Cracks reported on the sanctuary

Wall cracks at the Holy Rosary Church, Angeles Parish

50

Philippines
Santa Catalina de de Alexandria Parish, PoracCracks and debris -Linterna of the San Agustin

Damage at Hacienda de Dolores, Porac

Damage at Pio Chapel, Porac

Fence cracks at Monasterio de Santa Clara, Betis

51

Philippines

Cracks on columns at St. James de Apostle Parish, Betis, Guagua

Cracks at belfry of Santa Rita de Cascia Parish, Sta. Rita

Itbayat Church: The bell tower fell after a series of earthquakes and aftershocks in July 2019_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Acknowledgements:
Photos, information and documentation from the San Agustin Church and Monastery, Archdiocesan Committee on
Church Heritage-Pampanga, Arch. Louie Valerio and Arch. Reynaldo Lita (National Historical Commission of thePhilippines), and Ms. Racquel de la Cruz Flores (National Museum of the Philippines).

52

Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka

Ancient Timber Monuments in Sri Lanka: Types and Problems
D.A.Rasika Dissanayaka, Civil Engineer/ Assistant Director (Promotions)
Department of Archaeology
Wooden architecture in Sri Lanka goes back over a periodof more than 2,500 years, and accordingly timber is themost popular and frequently encountered building materialof the present as well as the past. A tradition of building
with wood and mud walls has existed since the early
settlers colonized Sri Lanka. While timber was used as logs
in the early period, with advances in woodworking tools
the logs came to be processed into members of different
sizes and shapes as needed.
Traditional timber buildings surviving today are from the
15th–18th centuries. These wooden structures are excellent
in their design, construction, and craftsmanship. Over
thousands of timber buildings are conserved today,
including those built as assembly halls, shrine rooms, andrest halls, etc. These buildings can be seen mostly in andaround Kandy, which was a medieval city.
Types of ancient timber monuments
Four main uses of timber in traditional structures can be
identified.
1. Timber used as the base of a building
2. Timber used for the superstructure
3. Timber used for the roof where the superstructure canbe any material
4. Others
1. Timber used as the base of a building
Buildings were typically constructed on platforms raised
about 30 cm from the ground level. Four logs of timber
were placed transversely on four or more stone pillars
which could be short or tall, or could be boulders. In suchbuildings, the superstructure could be timber or wattle anddaub.

Bingiriya Tampita Vihara (the largest tampita vihara )Wayside resting places (ambalama)
Another interesting wooden structure in ancient Sri Lanka
is the ambalama (resting place for wayfarers), which isconstructed in a manner partly similar to that describedabove for the tampita vihara. These were resting places
built by the side of a highway, under a large tree or on aflat rock in a paddy field, for those who traveled by cart oron foot in ancient Sri Lanka, providing travelers a place tosit and sleep, while facilitating their requirements for waterand cooking as well.
The ambalama is normally square in shape. Four stoneboulders are placed on a platform of rubble or flat rockand huge wooden beams are stretched over them. Thesebeams are used to sleep or as benches to sit. The roof isconstructed atop timber posts, which are fixed on the
beams. Most of the timber parts except the floor beams aredecoratively carved, and the roof is covered with clay tiles
or thatch depending on the wealth of the villagers who
built it. A fine example of such a structure is the ambalama
at Panavitiya.

As examples of the above, temples on pillars (tampita
vihara) and wayside resting places (ambalama) are
discussed in the following subsections.
Temples on pillars (tampita vihara)
This is a very interesting type of wooden construction
created by the ancient craftsmen. They are shrine rooms
constructed on a grid of timber beams placed atop large
boulders or stone pillars, because these stone elements
protect the timber members from damage by insects andthe damp. The height of the stone pillars varies frombuilding to building. The shrine room was enclosed with
mud walls (wattle and daub) and painted with images
from Buddhist stories on both the inner and outer surfaces.
The roof was erected on wooden pillars that were fixed tohorizontal timber beams, and clay tiles were used to coverroof. While about 250 examples of tampita vihara areseen in Sri Lanka, most of them have been conserved by
the Department of Archaeology.

53

Karagahagedara Ambalama

2. Timber used for the superstructure
In this case, two or more rows of timber columns are fixed
on a raised platform to hold the roof. The most accessible
and commonly known examples are the Audience Hall of
the Royal Palace in Kandy, and the Dancing/Drummer’s
Hall of Embekka Devalaya. These are surviving examplesof the general building type called maduwa, which often

Embekka Drumming Hall

3. Timber used for the roof where the superstructure can be
any material
In the above types and in other buildings where thestructure is made of masonry, the roof structure is often
built of wood and clay tiles are laid on it. Examples areseen in a number of shrine rooms.
4. Others
In addition, other elements of these buildings such as
doors, windows, railings, columns and so forth may befashioned of timber and are often carved. Among thesecarvings, various popular motifs are employed as
decorative elements. The only evidence of an ancienttimber bridge is situated in the hill country in the village of
Bogoda. It is made with three large beams, placed acrossa stream and supported in the center, spanning two cliffs
approximately 30 m apart. Timber pillars fixed to thehorizontal beams support the structure of a tiled roof.

coconut palm leaves), is erected over the building toprovide shelter for the structure and also allow conservators
to work without exposure to the sun and rain.
The common types of damage to old timber members canbe categorized as follows.

Sri Lanka

informs specific building names such as Magulmaduwa(Audience Hall), and Beramaduwa (Drumming Hall). As
with the ambalama described above, most of the wooden
elements are carved and display the creativity of ancient
craftsmen.

1. Fungus growth, encouraged by the presence ofmoisture, moderate temperatures and poor ventilation.
2. Insect attacks, most commonly seen in floor and roof
members which are damaged by insects such as
termites and beetles. The termites eat the wood andbeetles bore holes in the timber members.
3. Damage due to burning.
4. Decay due to water.
5. Damage due to the characteristics of timber, such as
the various stresses and strains attending members
used over large spans.
Apart from above, as a developing country in the South
Asian region, Sri Lanka faces additional difficulties incarrying out conservation work with ancient monuments.
There are a number of problems connected specificallywith the preservation of timber buildings.
1. Inefficiency in current procedures for purchasing therequired timber.
2. Financial problems arising from the high cost of timberas a building material.
3. The scarcity of timber varieties identical to those usedin ancient monuments.
4. The scarcity of craftsmen skilled in the conservation ofancient timber structures. There is a lack of training in
traditional and modern techniques required for theconservation of wooden structures.
5. The unavailability in the current market of unusual
sizes of timber members required for conservation.
These items have to be specially ordered andprepared.

Problems in the conservation of timber monuments
Timber is a material subject to many problems of decay.
The above types of structure are threatened by negligence,
deterioration, climatic factors, biological attacks and a lackof maintenance. These heritage structures must bepreserved in a well-planned manner, with conservation
programs being proposed which give priority first to theroof, followed by attention to the superstructure. This isbecause in a country like Sri Lanka, a decayed building isalways endangered by heavy rains, so first of all themonuments must be protected from the rain. In most of
the cases, before starting conservation work a temporary
protective roof, usually thatched with woven cadjan (dried

Lack of funds for conservation
The main problem facing efforts to protect these structures
is a lack of funds for the conservation and maintenance ofthe cultural heritage. Although cultural properties
contribute very much to the country’s economy, suchcontributions are not directly visible. Accordingly fewer
funds are allocated for conservation in comparison toother categories of expenditure in the national budget. A

Bogoda wooden bridge

Mahamankada timber dam

54

Sri Lanka

large number of timber buildings listed as culturalproperties are in a state of decay, and it is the duty of the
Department of Archaeology to protect and preserve themall. But due to insufficient monetary allocations, theDepartment cannot carry out all of the necessaryconservation work.
In this situation, the general public is actually conserving
most of the monuments, as the majority of these heritage
structures are living monuments related to religion.
Sometimes the owners of these buildings intervene toprotect the monuments in improper ways with proceduresthat are detrimental to the character of the original building,carried out by workers inadequately skilled as conservators.
As an example, concrete beams have been introduced
instead of using timber in one of the wooden structures.
Tropical climate conditions
Sri Lanka is a tropical country with monsoonal rains aswell as floods, and therefore regular maintenance in lightof these conditions is necessary.
Influence of large-scale development projects
As a developing country, the heritage landscape is criticallythreatened by large-scale development projects. For
example, hundreds of ancient wooden buildings exist in
the Colombo–Kandy route proposed in a project for theconstruction of an expressway. Such instances ofindiscriminate development are a critical problem in Sri
Lanka.
Public awareness
Public education and awareness in the field of heritage
protection are still in the preliminary stage. It is not enough55

to cover the need to provide information on the protectionof cultural heritage. The efforts of the Department andprofessionals in conducting awareness programs throughpublications and other activities are as yet insufficient.
Conclusion
The Department of Archaeology conserves about 35–40
timber buildings (out of 1,000 wooden heritage structures)annually even under the current financial restrictions. But
this is not sufficient to meet the demands of conservation
being faced by various types of timber monuments. About
40 Technical Officers holding civil engineering diplomas
are engaged in the conservation process under theguidance of the Director General of Archaeology and the
Director (Architectural Conservation). But large numbersof wooden monuments are at risk of destruction due toinsufficient funding, lack of qualified staff, and lack ofawareness. In addition, indiscriminate development, poor
management, and insufficient awareness tend to exacerbate
the problem. However, the Department of Archaeology of
Sri Lanka is making greater efforts to minimize the risk
with its current resources as described above.
References
Coomaraswamy, Ananda K. (1979). Mediaeval Sinhalese
Art (2nd ed.). New York: Pantheon Books.
Siva, Roland (2004). Architectural History: National andInternational Contributions. Ancient Ceylon: Journal of theArchaeological Survey Department of Sri Lanka, No. 22.
ISBN 10: 9559159275.
Wijesuriya, Gamini (1993), Documentation of Timber
Buildings in Sri Lanka. In ICOMOS International Committee
on Wood (Ed.), Wood, (pp. 57–59). Colombo: ICOMOS.

Published by
Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia-Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU)
757 Horen-cho, Nara 630-8113 Japan
Tel : +81-742-20-5001
Fax: +81-742-20-5701
E-mail: nara@accu.or.jp
URL: http://www.nara.accu.or.jp© Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia-Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU) 2019

Mongolia / New ZealandPhilippines / Sri Lanka