Mongolia

32

Munkhtulga Rinchinkhorol
Protection of Cultural Heritage in Urban Areas in Mongolia: The Tonyukuk Complex

Nepal

39

Suresh Suras Shrestha
Post Earthquake Conservation, Reconstruction and Rehabilitation in Nepal: Current Status

New Zealand44

Matthew Schmidt
Heritage on the Move: The preservation of William Gilbert Rees ca. 1864 Meat Shed

Pakistan

50

Tahir Saeed
A Recent Study of the Individual Buddha Stone Sculptures from Gandhara, Pakistan

Philippines

56

Louella Solmerano Revilla
Restoration of the Roman Catholic Manila Metropolitan Cathedral-Basilica

Sri Lanka

62

D.A. Rasika Dissanayaka
Vee bissa and Atuwa: Earthen Structures for Storing Granary in Ancient Sri Lanka

Uzbekistan

66

Akmal Ulmasov
Preliminary Results of Archaeological Researches in the Karatepa Buddhist Center (in 2014-2015)

VanuatuRichard Shing
Identifying Potential Archaeological Sites on a Polynesian Outlier –Preliminary Archaeological Survey on Futuna

70

Bangladesh
Bangladesh

Especial Type of Ancient Pottery — Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) — Obtained from
Mahasthangarh (Ancient Pundranagara) Archaeological Site and Its Chronological Study
Mst. Naheed Sultana, Regional Director
Department of Archaeology, Ministry of Cultural Affairs, People’s Republic of Bangladesh
Introduction: Clay or mud is a very ordinary thing, and issimply a covering of earth. This earth has been used for
different works since 10,000 years ago (Singh 1979:1). For
our existence in the world, in our daily work, in religious,
cultural, and political works and royal orders, clay has
been the greatest and most invaluable material. This isevident from the antiquities unveiled from excavations indifferent parts of the world. “Several thousand years ago
this quality came to be recognized by man and delighted
in making pottery. Thus a beginning of civilization cameinto being” (Singh 1979:13).
Flourishing of NBPW: The NBPW culture started in the
Indian Subcontinent during the Iron Age (1700 BC to 230
BC). At the same time, two other special types of pottery
cultures were also succeeding. The Painted Gray Ware
(PGW) culture and Black and Red Ware (BR) culture
thrived alongside the NBPW culture. The NBPW culture
was prominent at the end of the Vedic era (700 BC) and it
rose to the pinnacle of its glory in the 1st century B.C. At
first, NBPW culture spread out in the great Mahajanapada
or 16 districts of Northern India and subsequently
proliferated throughout the entire Indian subcontinent.
“The NBPW period witnessed the emergence ofurbanization in the Ganga valley and existence of a strong
central administration under the Mauryas, and the rise of
Buddhism and Jainism. All these events were turning
points for the subcontinent” (Rahman 2000:138).
Besides Black Polished Ware, some other varieties of
NBPW have been found, such as grey, red, ochre, silver
and gold colour with slip. And these wares are very
exceptional or extraordinary quality NBPW, and were of
the highest degree of technological excellence in the 6th
century BC.
A number of specimens of NBPW have been discovered in
the ancient archaeological sites in the Indian subcontinent.
“Early discoveries of the NBPW were at Sharnath near
Varanasi (Marshall in ASI-AR 1904-5:59), at Bhita near
Allahabad (Marshall 1909:40), where it was described as
Fine Black Lustrous and Lower Levels of Bhir mound,
Taxilla (Marshall 1951:432), where it was regarded as
Greek Black Ware. (Ghosh 1989:251)”. R.E.M Wheeler andKrishna Deva published a report in 1946, and theychristened these potteries as “Northern Black PolishedWare” (Ghosh 1989:251). They identified that the Ganga
basin is the main centre of NBPW and mentioned thenames of 18 archaeological sites, of which Tamluk,
Bangarh and Chandrakatugarh were the most noteworthy.
The discovered NBP Wares from Mahasthangarh werevessels, large dishes, small dishes, cups, beakers, lippedbasins, shallow dishes, and noteworthy pitchers. Some ofthem were featureless with an in-curved rim, and some
had an externally thickened featureless rim, or an externally1

thickened grooved rim. There was very fine fabric, with agrey and black core and well levigated. Both surfaces werevery smooth, and were black slipped, red slipped andpolished.
NBPW was not made or used in all regions in a certain era
or at the same time. Actually this culture flourished andreached the pinnacle of its glory from the 7th to 1st centuries
BC. For the first time, Northern Black Polished Ware has
been found at Saranath and Bhita archaeological sites,
dating from the Pre-Mauryan period (6th to 4th centuries
BC). The NBPW culture spread continuously from theUpper Ganga to the Lower Ganga and gradually enteredancient Bengal and Bihar. It has been proved that the
NBPW culture was widespread in the Indian subcontinent
from Peshawar to the Swat District in Pakistan,Anuradhepura in Sri Lanka, Chebrolu, (Krishna district inIndia) in the south, Prabhas to Patna in Odisha in the west,
Tildah and Tamluk in Midnapur in the east, Bangarh in the
Dinajpur district, Chandrakatugarh in the 24 Pargana
district, Mahasthangarh (Pundranagara) and Bhasu Biharin the Bogra district, and Wari-Bataswar in the Narshindi
district.
Naming of the site: The literal meaning of the word
Mahasthan is “famous place.” According to some, thisplace should be called Maha Snan or “famous bathing
place.” The old Pundranagara is now buried under
Mahasthangarh. It is the ruins of the oldest provincial
capital city of Bangladesh. It is known from thearchaeological information that the location of this city
emerged as a rich and resourceful place from the 4th
century BC to the 15th century AD. The ruins of this old cityon the west bank of the river Karatoa is a famous featureof today’s Bogra district.
Location: This place is very important in terms of historicaland archaeological value. It is situated on the west bank of
the old ‘Karatoa’ river by the northern side of BograRangpur highway, 16 kilometers from Bogra district town.
This fortified old city is 1524 meters long and 1371 meters
wide, and 6.5 meters above the surrounding plain. The city
was well-protected, being surrounded by a deep trench on
the northern, southern and western sides and with thewide Karatoa river to the east.
Excavation at Mahasthangarh: Archaeological excavations
started at Mahasthangarh fortified city in 1907 led by theDistrict Engineer Mr. Nandi (Gazetteers 1910). In the firsthalf of the 20th century, excavations were carried out
irregularly. But excavations were continuing almost every
year in the second half of the 20th century. Since thebeginning of the 21st century, archaeological excavations
have been continuing at Mahasthangarh fortified city.
At first, specimens of NBP Ware were found at Gobindavita

Bangladesh

Map of Shibganj Upazilla

Map of Bogra District

Site plan of Mahasthangarh (Ancient Pundranagara) Fortified city

excavation very close to the fort city of Mahasthangarh in
1960 (Ahmed 1997), and by Mankalir Kunda in 1965-66(Ahmed 1997). After that, NBPW was discovered at theEastern Rampart area in the city of Mahasthangarh. A
Bangladesh-France joint venture excavation started at theEastern Rampart area into the fortified city in 1993 and thiscontinued until 1999. A systematic research paper was
published (1993-1999) about the unveiled ancient
structures and antiquities from the site. The results of the
excavations are 18 building levels discovered from theunveiled site. A number of NBPW items have been
discovered from the lowest level (Building Level 1). The
lowest depth was excavated at 15.82 m above sea level(1997) (Alam and Salles 2001:83).

to the virgin soil. A total of 50 samples were collected forradiocarbon dating from the different layers excavated byboth teams (Alam and Salles 2001). Level 1: NBPW was
mainly found on Building Levels 1 and 1B (lowest layer)
and these items had been created and used in the late 4th
century BC. Level 2: Mostly NBPW with some Rouletted
Ware and Red Polished Ware were found from Level 2.
Level 3: Again mainly NBP Ware with some rouletted
shards found on Building Level 3. Level 4: Only some
NBPW obtained from Building Level 4. Level 5: Again
mostly NBPW was found on Level 5 along with terracotta
plaques, terracotta animal figurines, small objects, stone
and glass beads, and a rock crystal ring (Alam and Salles
2001:159).

Archaeological excavation started here at 23.80 m above
sea level and deep sounding excavation was conducted up

Among the 18 Building Levels, NBPW was discoveredfrom Building Levels 1 to 5, with their time period being

2

Bangladesh
Excavation at Mahasthangarh in 1993-1999

NBPW from Mahasthangarh excavationlate 4th century BC to 1st century BC. There was no NBPW
found on Building Levels 6 to 18, which date to the 3rd
century BC to 18th century AD. However, besides the NBP
Ware, innumerable precious antiquities and potsherds
were also retrieved from the excavated site.
After that, archaeological excavation was conducted in theMazar area of Mahasthangarh (ancient Pundranagara),
from 2000 to 2011 with an interruption between 2001 to
2003. A few NBPW items were retrieved from the
excavation. It is true that neither team (Bangladeshi and
French) did not conduct a deep sounding excavation inthis area. For this reason, NBPW was not discovered here.
Again, both teams (Bangladeshi and French) have initiated3

archaeological excavations close to the Bairagir Bhita site
(inside the fortified city) since 2014 until now. Both teams
have collected some NBP Ware from here with ancient
brick structures and precious antiquities. The huge
perforated terracotta tiles, Sunga terracotta plaques, andsome beads prove that these NBPW items were used at theearliest occupation level. The same result comes from the
1993-1999 excavations which are well described in the“First interim report of Mahasthangarh” (Alam and Salles
2001).
Besides Mahasthangarh, NBPW specimens have been
discovered in four different parts of Bangladesh: Sitakot
Bihar (Archaeology 6:1969:4) (Buddhist Monastery site) in
the Dinajpur district, Bhat Bhita (Buddhist Monastery site)

Bangladesh

Recent excavation at Mahasthangarh

in the Magura district (excavation 2002-2004), and Bhasu
Bihar site (Buddhist monastery site) near Mahasthangarh
and Wari Bateswar in the Narsindi district. It is mentionedthat the exact time period of discovered NBP Ware of
Sitakot Bihar. “Discovery of Northern Black Polished Wareat the lower level of the western cell may eventually prove
to be significant. After Mahasthan, this is the first site at
which this type of ware generally associated with theMaurya and Sunga periods has been recorded”(Archaeology1969:4). At other sites, namely Bhasu Bihar
and Wari Bateshwar, the NBPW is the same as
Mahasthangarh NBPW.
Conclusion: In continuation of the development of humancivilization, the role of NBPW was immeasurable in the
Indian subcontinent. Although the NBPW culture arose in
the northern part of India, this culture gradually spreadthroughout the entire Indian subcontinent. In continuationof the special type of NBPW Wares have been discoveredfrom the earliest level of the Mahasthangarh (Ancient
Pundranagara) excavation and some other sites in
Bangladesh. This NBPW proves that the Great Mauryan

Emperors ruled over Bengal, and that Pundranagara was arich provincial capital city from the 4th century BC to the15th century AD.
References
1. Gurcharan Singh, Pottery in India, 1979.
2. Shah Sufi Mostafizur Rahman, Archaeological
Investigation in Bogra District (From Early Historic to
Early Mediaeval Period), 2000.
3. A. Ghosh, An Encyclopedia of Indian Archaeology,
1989.
4. J.N.Gupta, District Gazetteers (Eastern Bengal andAssam) Bogra, 1910.
5. Dr. Nazimuddin Ahmed, Mahasthan Maynamati
Paharpur, 1999.
6. Md. Shafiqul Alam and Jean Francois Salles, First
interim Report 1993-1999.
7. Dr. Nazimuddin Ahmed,Mahasthan, 1981.
8. Dr. Nazimudin Ahmed, Mahasthan, An exhibition heldin Bangladesh National Museum Dhaka, 1999.
9. Pakistan Archaeology, Number-3, 1966.
10. Pakistan Archaeology, Number 6, 1969.

4

Bhutan
BhutanRestoration of Wangditse Lhakhang
Phuntsho Wangmo, Engineer
Division for Conservation of Heritage Sites, Department of Culture, Ministry of Home and Cultural Affairs
Background
Wangditse Lhakhang under Thimphu Dzongkhag is one of
the most important heritage sites in Bhutan. It is said tohave been built by the 9th Desi, Druk Rabgye, in the early
18th century. However, the Lhakhnag has suffered several
areas of damage to the masonry walls, which worsened
during the earthquake of September 2011.
Therefore, the renovation of Wangditse Lhakhang started
in July 2011. During the renovation, an archaeologicalsurvey was carried out and it was discovered that there
were some remains of the stone foundation southwest andnorthwest of the current existing external wall. The
existence of a circumambulation room around the main
shrine room was also discovered.
Reconstruction of external walls
As per the findings of the archaeological survey,
construction of external walls on the southwest andnorthwest sides began. The existing southeast external
wall was dismantled to be reconstructed, since the wall
was in poor condition and unstable. Special stones orderedfrom Dawakha quarry under Paro Dzongkhag are being
used for wall construction while granite stones from Sha
Ngawang under Wangduephodrang are being used forcorner stones.
Consolidation of walls
The old walls with cracks were consolidated by stitching
and grouting as per the recommendation of conservation
specialist David Michelmore. The areas where the walls
were to be stitched were cut and cleaned thoroughly by
removing loose mortar. The cut surface was wetted withsprinkled water, and mortar was laid over it. A stainlesssteel wire mesh was then placed above a layer of mortar
and the new wall was constructed over it. The stitching
was carried out at certain intervals. The grouting was
carried out in order to fill up the voids that had developed
inside the wall due to the crack and also to bind the inner
and the outer leaf of the wall using an overhead tank anda 20 mm diameter flexible pipe. The grout was preparedon site by mixing local soil, lime and water in the ratio of
3:1:2.5 (3 parts of sieved soil: 1 part of lime: 2.5 parts ofwater). Holes 30 mm in diameter and 45 mm deep were
drilled into the wall at certain intervals using a core drill.
The grout was then injected into the holes.
Use of unripe green persimmon as a natural wood preservative
It has been challenging when it comes to preserving timbercomponents, which deteriorate much faster than otherhistoric building materials, timber being an organic
material. While carrying out the renovation works, it was
found that most of the timber components were notreusable. Timber inserted into the wall and unexposed tothe air was found to have decayed, thus hampering thestructural stability of the Lhakhang. Timber is also affected5

by relative humidity, causing it to expand and contract.
Therefore, various interventions in historic timber
structures have become necessary in order to preserve
them.
Meanwhile, Her Majesty the Royal Mother advised us to
use unripe green persimmon as a natural woodpreservative, which is called "Kakishibu: Traditional
Persimmon Dye of Japan". It is known that kakishibu haspreservative and adhesive qualities. In Japan, kakishibu isused to reinforce paper, preserve wood and clarify sake.
Following the Royal command, the project team collected
unripe persimmon from Shelgana, Punakha on August 24,
2016. The very next day preparation of persimmon
preservative liquid started following the proper kakishibu
procedure. The persimmons were washed and theircalyxes removed with the help of sharpened timber. Useof a knife was restricted. They were then put into a
traditional mortar made from an oak tree and then pounded
by a pestle which was also made of oak. The crushed
persimmons were then put into a bucket and mixed
thoroughly with distilled water, which was poured in until
it reached the level of the persimmon pulp. Then thebucket was covered with a lid and additional cloth wasused to cover it to make it airtight and prevent dust fromentering. The mixture was thoroughly mixed twice a day.
A week later, the fermented liquid was extracted from the
mixture by filtration through a piece of cloth. The liquid
was then applied to all the timber components.
Conclusion
The restoration of Wangditse Lhakhang is still in progress.
Fabrication of all the timber components has been
completed. Construction of the external walls has reached
the first floor. Overall, 65% of the renovation works has
been completed as of today. The project is planned to becompleted by the end of 2018.

Fig.1 Front facade (East) of the Lhakhang before renovation

BhutanFig.2 Plan showing existing wall, dismantled wall and stone foundation discovered after excavation

Fig.3 Surface being prepared for wall stitchingFig.4 Wire mesh laid over the layer mortar

Fig.5 New wall constructed to stitch cracks on old wallFig.6 Red mark showing the location of drilled holes into which the grout was
injectedFig.7 Decayed timber components which were not exposed to the air

Fig.8 Reusable old timber members

6

Bhutan7

Fig.9 Persimmon being crushed with traditional mortar and pestle made of oak

Fig.10 Crushed persimmon being mixed with distilled water

Fig.11 Applying fermented persimmon liquid to new timber components

Fig.12 The timber components being allowed to dry after application of thepersimmon liquidCambodia
Vitharong Chan, Deputy Director
Department for Safeguarding and Preservation of Monuments, General Department of Cultural Heritage,
Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts
The Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts will implement a risk
mapping and monitoring project of ancient monuments inthe southern region of Cambodia. This project is funded by
the U.S. Ambassadors Fund for Cultural Preservation 2016.
The signing agreement for this project between the Ministry
and the U.S. Embassy in Cambodia was held on September
26, 2016 at Phnom Da, in front of Prasat Asram Moharusi.

The project aims to contribute to the safeguarding oftemples in the southern region. There are more than 2,238
temples in the southern part of Cambodia, but only 64
temples still remain standing. The 24 most important
temples are the following:

No.

Site*

Province

1

Pr. Phnom Cheung Prei (group of monuments)

Kampong Cham

12° 3'46.66"N

104°59'23.43"E2

Wat Tang Kok

Kampong Cham

12° 8'5.54"N

104°56'24.00"E3

Kampong Cham

12° 6'16.61"N

104°56'58.30"E

Kampong Cham

12°10'53.31"N

105°11'39.44"E5

Pr. Kok Khvet
Pr. Preah Theat Tuk Chha (group ofmonuments)
Pr. Han Chey (3 towers)

Kampong Cham

12° 9'43.88"N

105°31'41.64"E6

Pr. Kampong Preah (2 towers)

Kampong Chhnang

12°29'35.12"N

104°28'26.65"E7

Pr. Phnom Ponnareay (2 towers)

Kampong Chhnang

12°24'35.90"N

104°44'24.50"E

8

Pr. Sakhla

Kampong Chhnang

12°25'6.41"N

104°47'41.01"E
104°48'39.46"E

4

Cambodia

Risk Mapping and Monitoring of Ancient Monuments in the Southern Region of Cambodia

Coordinates

9Pr. SreiKampong Chhnang

12°23'57.34"N10

Pr. Thnam Phdei

Kampong Chhnang

12°22'54.65"N

104°48'0.41"E

11

Pr. Kaek Pong

Kampong Speu

11°25'13.46"N

104°23'19.24"E

12

Pr. Phnom Chhngok

Kampot10°38'34.51"N

104°16'9.64"E13

Pr. Phnom Khyang

Kampot10°36'32.65"N

104°31'0.70"E

14

Pr. Phnom Toteong

Kampot10°41'47.80"N

104°31'22.04"E

15

Pr. Wat Tani

Kampot10°46'31.60"N

104°39'47.51"E

16

Pr. Preah Theat Chong Srok

Prei Veng

11°44'55.82"N

105°21'32.29"E17

Pr. Phnom Ta Mao

Takeo

11°18'4.94"N

104°48'5.66"E18

Pr. Phnom Thma Doh

Takeo

11°18'6.15"N

104°47'57.52"E

19

Pr. Phnom Da (2 towers and 7 grottos)

Takeo

10°57'51.88"N

104°59'18.63"E20

Pr. Phnom Bayang (group of monuments)

Takeo

10°38'39.33"N

104°50'20.53"E21

Pr. Cheung Ang

Thbong Khmum

11°52'49.90"N

105°48'23.65"E22

Pr. Preah Samdei

Thbong Khmum

11°52'42.92"N

105°47'7.09"E

23

Pr. Prei Ki

Thbong Khmum

11°51'19.89"N

105°47'24.64"E24

Pr. Banteay Prei Nokor (group of monuments)

Thbong Khmum

11°47'49.03"N

105°44'50.37"E* Pr. = Prasat (temple)

These temples are uniquely noted for their primitive
architecture and man-made caves, and were mostly builtof brick during the late 6th to early 9th centuries CE. Most ofthem were classified as the principal temples for the mostsignificant pre-Angkorian period monuments, which arevery important to the Khmer cultural heritage and forancient architectural studies. The architecture, works of art
and inscriptions of those sites constitute the most significant
and complete early expression of a distinct Khmer culturethat drew upon and adapted Indian architectural concepts
and iconography and their accompanying artistic styles,
which means that the temples exhibit the achievement ofadvances in Khmer architecture in the primitive period.
Additionally, those sites continue to be used for the
purposes for which they were established, namely
architectural extensions and traditional worship, from thepre-Angkorian to post-Angkorian periods.

Aims and activities of the projectThis project will create technical and architectural
documentation in order to help protect the temples fromemergencies. As a result of this project, architectural
drawings will provide a detailed extension of the national
database of Khmer monuments known as CISARK (http://
www.site-archeologique-khmer.org). This project will leadto the sustainability of efforts to safeguard and conserve
the monuments in the future; however, human resource
training activities are also included in the project. The
result of the project will be provided to the Ministry’s longterm conservation framework for the southern region.
The project and related budget will cover 24 months’ worthof activities along with other main activities. The first activity
will involve an architectural survey of the existing featuresof each temple. This survey of architectural data will be the8Cambodia

first step among other working processes. The necessary
data will be surveyed through photography and 3D
Photoscan for example. For some special classified temples,architectural measurements will also be taken such as plans,elevations and sections by a total station measurement
instrument. The documentation will be preserved in a digitalarchive for future research and conservation.
The second one will be carrying out risk mapping. The risk
mapping will begin at the same time as the architectural data
survey. This work is the most important part of the project,
and will apply to each temple at least once. The technicalteam will evaluate the risks of each temple in advance
before starting the data survey and risk mapping. On theother hand, temples with decoration remaining such as basreliefs, paintings and inscriptions will also be paid muchattention. A digital data survey of those decoration parts will
be done. For the inscriptions, rubbing on the inscriptions
will be done and this new documentation will be used as acomparison with any old documents that still exist. These
data will then facilitate the study of art and inscriptions.
The third main activity will be to provide first aid / emergency
conservation. After the first risk assessment, we also have aproject for carrying out emergency work on those basreliefs, paintings and inscriptions which are at high risk. To
conserve these elements of temples including those at highrisk or susceptible to hazards, they will be supported toprevent any further loss and in fact strengthened.
The fourth activity will be risk monitoring. After obtaining
the result of the data survey and evaluation of the risks ofall temples, the plan to observe the progress of those risks
will be conducted by the technical team. The monitoring
will mainly focus on: a. Movement/vibration of the parts indanger, b. Strength of materials, c. Problems in theconstruction technique.

For temples which have a problem with trees andunwanted plants, we will do clearances, but only if it will
not affect the balance of the temples. This project will alsoendeavor to find a better solution for tree clearance fromthe temples. The result of this step will be used for the
next conservation activities. At the end of this project, areport will be prepared and published. A final report will
be drawn up based on the results of the project.
Result and Outreach Plans
We intend to publish the architectural drawings of temples
in a separate volume from the final report as an extensionof the previous documentation. Moreover, these drawings
and selected photos of the state of conservation willcomplement the Khmer Archaeological Sites website(http://www.site-archeologique-khmer.org/) as part of thetechnical development efforts of the Ministry.
Additionally, to afford the public diversity of information
on Khmer architectural studies, we plan to create a
database in the Document Center at the Department of
Safeguarding and Preservation of Monuments of the 3D
Photoscan results for university students and researchers,
as well as conservators. To help with the sustainability of
the conservation project, RUFA students will be selected
for training as surveyors in a six month program. They willbe trained by technical staff from the Department to assist
the technical staff in surveying and measuring the existingarchitecture. Additionally, they will also be introduced to
how to map and monitor the risks to the temple.
Furthermore, the activities under the project will be joinedby people surrounding the site, who will be part of theeffort to increase awareness of how to care for theircommunity’s heritages.

Fig. 1 Location map of the sites and detail (Map: Google Earth 2016)9Cambodia

Fig. 2 Location map of the sites and detail (Map: Google Earth 2016)

Fig. 3 The main tower of Prasat Phnom Cheung Prei

Fig. 4 Stupas of Wat Tang Kok

10

Cambodia
Fig. 5 Prasat Kok Khvet (Photo: LENG Piseth)Fig. 6 The main tower of Prasat Preah Theat Tuk Chha

Fig. 7 A tower of Prasat Han Chey

Fig. 8 Prasat Kampong Preah

Fig. 9 Prasat Phnom Ponnareay

11

Fig. 10 Prasat Sakhla

Cambodia

Fig. 11 Prasat Srei

Fig. 12 Prasat Thnam Phdei

Fig. 13 Prasat Kaek Pong

Fig. 14 Prasat Phnom Chhngok

Fig. 15 Prasat Phnom Khyang

Fig. 16 Prasat Phnom Toteong

12Cambodia
Fig. 17 Prasat Wat Tani

Fig. 19 Prasat Phnom Ta Mao

Fig. 21 Prasat Asram Moharusi, Phnom Da

13

Fig. 18 Prasat Preah Theat Chong Srok

Fig. 20 Prasat Phnom Thma Doh

Fig. 22 Main tower of Prasat Phnom Bayang

Cambodia

Fig. 23 Prasat Cheung Ang

Fig. 24 Prasat Preah Samdei

Fig. 25 Prasat Prei Ki

Fig. 26 Prasat Preah Theat Thom, Banteay Prei Nokor

Fig. 27 The signing ceremony attended by the Minister of Culture and Fine Arts and the U. S.
Ambassador in front of Prasat Asram Moharusi, Phnom Da(Photo: Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts)

14

IndiaIndia

Exterior Restoration of the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya Mumbai, India
Kunkuma Devi Kishore, Architect and Conservation Consultant
Good Earth Office, Bangalore, India
Introduction
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya, formerly
known as the Prince of Wales Museum of Western India,
is one of the premier art and history museums in India. It

is situated on the southern tip of Mumbai close to theiconic Gateway of India and is listed as a Grade I Heritage
Building. It has been awarded the 'UNESCO Asia – Pacific
Heritage Award' for Cultural Heritage Conservation.

A view of the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj
Vastu Sangrahalay Museum from the entrance

A view of the left wing of the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu
Sangrahalay from the garden

A Brief History
The foundation stone of the museum was laid by the Princeof Wales in 1905, and the museum was named Prince ofWales Museum of Western India. The building wascompleted in 1914 but it opened to the public much laterin 1922. Until then it was used by the military as a hospitaland for Children’s Welfare Exhibitions. The architect of thebuilding, George Wittet, was selected after an open
competition in 1909, and is more popularly known for his
design of the Gateway of India. Wittet is widely known for
the Indo-Saracenic style of architecture of which thismuseum is one of the best examples in Mumbai.

the role of Project Leader (execution) for the restoration
project. This article comprises a number of excerpts andphotos taken from the conservation report prepared forthe restoration works undertaken, in addition to theauthor’s descriptions.

The Architectural Style
The Indo-Saracenic style combines native Indo-Islamic andIndian architecture with the Gothic revival and NeoClassical styles favoured inVictorian Britain, and was usedby the British in India in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
The Indian pillared hall, the arched pavilion, and the dome
rising above the huge intersecting arches forming abeautiful geometrical pattern together make the museum
building a typical example of the Indo-Saracenic style.
Small openings in the traditional Indian style known as jalis
for light and wind add to the grandeur of the building. The
dome of this building is designed after the Gol Gumbaz ofBijapur and the finial is copied from the Taj Mahal at Agra.
Today, this museum houses about 50,000 artefacts and has
an outstanding collection comprising sculptures, terracotta
and bronzeware, excavated artefacts from Harappan sites,
Indian miniature paintings, European paintings, porcelain
and ivories from China and Japan, etc. Besides these, themuseum has a separate Natural History section.
The Mysore-based firm Ravi Gundu Rao and Associates
was awarded the contract for execution of the exterior
restoration works. I was fortunate enough to be assigned

15

Assessment of Existing Condition and Implementation of
Restoration Works
A detailed assessment of all the components of the building
exterior was undertaken to analyze the existing conditionand propose repair works to restore and conserve thebuilding. The flat roof area was found to be in fairly goodcondition. The cracks in the existing china mosaic, which
was perhaps a later addition, required resealing along theentire surface area and wall junctions so as to ensure total
water proofing of the roof. The coastal city of Mumbai
receives very high rainfall during the monsoons anddamage due to water is a major concern along all thebuilding components. The central main and the adjacentsmaller domes too required similar treatment to enhancetheir water proofing efficiency. The china mosaic surface
also required a thorough cleaning as lots of dirt and grime
had covered the entire surface over decades. The
inappropriate terrace slopes, where present, were to becorrected so as to ensure smooth runoff of rainwater andprevent stagnation. If not done, stagnant water would
inevitably seep into the roof through the waterproofing
layers and eventually cause damage. All the drain mouths
were required to be protected by SS (stainless steel) meshso as to prevent dry leaves and other dust particles fromchoking the CI (cast iron) rainwater down-take pipes.
The cement chemical membrane coating on the china
mosaic of the main dome was removed by scraping andwater washing with a non ionic detergent, followed byfurther scraping and cleaning with brass fine wire brushes.

IndiaThe discoloured main central dome withdust and grime deposits

The China mosaic dome during the cleaning process

The original shine on the white dome after the non-abrasive andnon-chemical cleaning process

Leaking rainwater pipes and poorly managed storm waterdrainage on the terrace

The process of removal of the membrane was repeateduntil the original shine of the china mosaic was seen,
followed by rubbing dry white cement to bring back theoriginal glaze. The small domes were grouted by drilling
holes through the china mosaic surface of the dome up to
the depth of the inner concrete base and fixing 12 mm
diameter pipe nipples at 1 meter c/c staggered spacing inboth directions with removable putty. Acrylic polymer
grout mixed with white cement was used in a standard
grout pump, with calibrations to avoid rupturing of theshell. The same procedure was followed to grout the flat
terrace area also. All the drain-mouths on the terrace werecleaned, the objects that had led to choking cleared,
broken spouts replaced, and inner slopes corrected andprotected by SS mesh.

Clogged drain-mouths on the terrace surface that had prevented complete
drainage of surface runoff rainwater

Removal of ficus growth and application of chemicals in the crevices to killroots and prevent further growth

The original rainwater drainage system was thoroughly
inspected during monsoons to check for leakages andseepages as well as assess the functioning of the existing
CI down-take pipe sections, and those found to be faulty
or extensively corroded were to be replaced entirely or inpart and along the bends. Faulty down-take pipes werecausing moisture ingress in the masonry walls. The soil
pipes were also to be replaced in part if there were any

16IndiaLeaking water pipes give rise to ficus growth andseepage of water into the masonry surface

New reinforcement along the chajja and shuttering in progressfor repair using acrylic polymer, cement and quartz sanddamage or malfunctions found. New 100 mm diameter CI
rainwater down-take pipe sections and soil pipes were
fixed using MS clamps, screws and fixtures along specified
locations including bends, and the joints were filled withlead. These were painted with primer enamel paint tomatch the stone color. Barbed wire was wound around thepipes and MS clamps were fixed, where missing, along all
the rainwater and soil pipes.

polymer, cement and quartz sand in appropriate proportionof weight were applied in layers to repair the chajja slabs
after suitably shuttering along the edges.

The chajjas (sunshades/eaves/overhang) with brackets,
beams and slabs beneath were found to have deteriorated,
and there was de-laminated plaster along some portions aswell as exposed and/or corroded steel reinforcements.
These needed to be structurally consolidated. The
deteriorated plaster and concrete of the chajjas, beams
and slabs were removed after adequate propping, the steel
reinforcements were cleaned with wire brushes andrusticide, and chemical coating was applied. Acrylic

Discoloured masonry wall surface with dirt grime andsalt deposits on the left and a cleaned clear surface on the right17

Ficus growth was found on the wall surfaces along thedifferent components of the building, indicating defects inpointing and the presence of cracks and crevices incornices and walls, brackets and other ornamental stone
works. It was also proof of inadequate drainage of storm
water. The plant growth was removed by pulling out theroot systems embedded in the masonry, cutting the stems
and roots, and the application of patented chemical
biocide such as ‘Glycol’ so as to prevent any re-growth.
The area was then made good with lime and mortar.
The building is constructed using two types of stone: dark
and hard basalt stone, and soft beige trackite. The stone
surface had discoloured due to dust, dirt, pollution andDiscoloured urns and finials and other decorative elements with dirt grimeand salt deposits on the right and a cleaned and repaired surface on the left

Temporary partitions using 4 mm thick commercial plywood
were fixed to isolate the windows and other interior areasfrom the water misting and other works on the exterior

Cleaning discoloured surfaces usingthe water misting technique
witha calibrated pressure pump and nozzle

Masonry walls with ribbon cement pointing removed,
re-pointing done in lime mortar, and washing using the misting techniqueafter blocking all openings temporarily using plywood boards

façade before commencing the restoration works. The stone
surface of the walls were gently cleaned with the ‘Water
Misting’ technique employing an air water jet using a finenozzle sprinkling system calibrated to spray a fine mist
along the stone surface followed up by gentle brushing with
soft nylon brushes. Chemical thinners and solvents wereused to remove stubborn oil and emulsion stains on thestringer courses, decorative elements and stone surfaces.
Clay poulticing was also adopted where required.

portions of all the walls at some point in time, which not
only ruined the aesthetic value of the building but also
prevented the effective breathing of the masonry walls. All
the hard ribbon cement pointing was removed by raking
out incongruous mortar very carefully so as not to damage
the masonry, and re-pointing was done in lime mortar in a
1:3 ratio to match the original colour using traditional
additive materials like katha. The missing pointing work
along the entire exterior surface of the building masonryand decorative elements was also undertaken in a similarmanner. Specialised tools and masking tape were used toensure clear lines and a high level of workmanship on site.

The original lime mortar pointing on the stone facade had
been replaced by cement-based ribbon pointing on many

Tools used to remove the stubborn cement pointing, rake out incongruous
mortar and carry out re-pointing in lime mortar

The ribbon cement pointing seen on the upper half ofthe corner tower has been added, while the originallime mortar pointing can be seen on the lower halfParts of the ornamental Malad Stone urns like the finials,
carved bases or the domes were either missing or damaged.
Some portions of the masonry walls had small as well as
major cracks and severely distressed stone sections in Kurla
Basalt. New finials, stone bulbs and caps etc in matching
Malad stone were carved by skilled craftsmen and fixed todamaged, missing stone guldastas, chhatris and otherornamental stone work in the urns. They were fixed with
SS dowels and epoxy plugs by making the necessary
grooves, keys and jointing etc with lime mortar andpozzollanic additives such as brick surkhi or white cement.

Where such elements of the ornamental work were foundto be loosely held or lying around on the ground, they
were re-fixed using the same method as above.

India

salt deposits over the decades and required water andchemical cleaning.

The cracks in the cornices and masonry walls were repairedby raking out to form a groove and grouting, using acrylic
polymer embedding 12mm diameter pipes. Wider, bigger or
structural cracks in cornices and masonry walls were stitchedusing two 250 mm long 8 mm diameter SS bars for every
400 mm of crack. A certain type of repair called Dutchman
repair was adopted for severely distressed Kurla basalt stone18

India19

Removal of ribbon cement pointing

Re-pointing in lime mortar after covering the sides with masking tape

The domes and finials of the guldastas were in a damaged condition. The
fallen domes were collected and refixed again

A newly carved guldasta dome and finial fixed besidean original and existing one

pieces of the masonry sections. It involved fixing new piecesof stone by using stainless steel pins threaded at the end
after carefully cutting out the damaged profile.

panelled fanlights that were in poor condition were also
repaired using BTC, and received enamel paint on theexterior surface and French polish on the inner surface.

The windows and doors also required major repair work,
given their exposure to extensive rainfall over the years.
Some of the shutters required complete replacement due tothe dilapidated wooden members while parts of thedecorative molding and details were missing in others. The
clear glass glazing panels were also broken, cracked or
missing in many windows. The painted layers on theexteriors of doors and windows and the polished layers on
the interior side were cracked, peeling off and discolored.
All the pointing along the doors, windows, and ventilators
were distressed and in need of replacement to prevent
further damage due to water seepage through these joints.
The existing paint and polish layers from all the door andwindow frames and shutters on the exterior of the building
were removed by careful scraping using sandpaper. One
coat of primer and three coats of enamel paint were applied
to the exterior surface, and French polish was applied tothe inner surfaces. New window shutters were made andfixed with heavy duty brass hardware and clear glass
glazing, all matching the original design. Where parts of thewindows and doors like moulding, details and frames weredamaged or missing, they were restored by the carpentersretaining as much of the original wooden members as
possible, or replaced with new well-seasoned good-quality
Burma Teak wood (BTC) where required. The glass

The building line was edged with lawns, shrubs and green
trees, which would eventually lead todamage of the building
foundation and seepage through the plinth. The building
did not have proper site drainage to drain the storm watercollected from the roof through rain water pipes. This had
caused rising dampness in the wall through the foundation,
there by leading to serious damage to the interior plaster. An
effective method for storm water management of the main
museum building was proposed. The area along the building
perimeter was excavated up to a width of 1 metre and a
depth of 1.2 metres for the foundation and tuck pointing
provided with cement mortar for the stone masonry.
Grouting was injected through holes in the masonryfoundation by a pressure pump using cement slurry andplasticised expanding admixtures to fill any hollowed out
portions, thus strengthening it. The bed was prepared forthe foundation and after the necessary backfilling, ramming
and watering, soling was done using 80 mm size trap metal
in 15 c. The voids were filled with sand.
The exterior restoration works were followed by a detailed
study of the interior conditions, and interior restoration
works were undertaken.

Indonesia
Indonesia

Cibanten River Expedition
Dewi Puspito Rini, Archaeologist
Heritage Preservation Office of Banten, Ministry of Education and CultureRivers, which we know as the waterways that drain waterfrom upstream to downstream regions, have long played
an important role in human civilization. It has been provenby history that rivers in the past were an integral part of acommunity’s activities that formed its cultural character,which make rivers as an important part of human life.
The oldest such historical evidence is the very well knownrole of the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers to the civilization ofancient Iraq, and the role of the Nile River to ancient
Egyptian civilization. Rivers also led to the rise of theancient Indonesian kingdoms. In Sumatra, for example,
the Musi River contributed to the growth of the kingdoms
in South Sumatra -Sriwijaya and Palembang Sultanate- as
did the Batanghari River to the kingdoms in Jambi. In
Kalimantan, we obtained proof that the great kingdoms inthis region grew on the banks of rivers, which were the
Mahakam and Kapuas Rivers; in Java, the Bengawan Solofor the Hindu Buddhist kingdoms in Central Java and East
Java; and the Brantas River to the kingdoms in East Java,
which were Kediri, Singhasari, and Majapahit. In thewestern part of Java, there were some important towns
whose growth was affected by the presence of the rivers
that connected them to the coastal and inland areas, suchas the Ciliwung River for Sunda Kelapa port city and the
Cibanten River for the central government in Banten
Girang and Banten Lama.

Banten Girang site

canals in Banten Lama were connected with the Cibanten
River. It should be understood that along the Cibanten
River, from Banten Girang to Banten Lama, there is still alot of data that has not been revealed. Of course, there
were many factors involved in the location of governmentsin the past, but they always looked at the river as a starting
point in selecting the location of the central government in
Banten. Based on that historical evidence, in October
2015, the Heritage Preservation Office of Banten held a
Cibanten River Expedition. The Heritage Preservation

In the past, one of the roles of rivers in the Indonesianarchipelago was to act as transportation lines, connecting
the heartland to coastal areas. The heartland in the past
produced a variety of crops that were exported to otherregions. To transport the crops, rivers were the main
choice and the easiest method for sending goods toward
the coastal areas at that time. Also taking into account theneed for water sources for daily use, it is not surprisingthat people in the past lived not far from a river.
As mentioned above, one of the rivers in Banten province,
Indonesia which had such a role in the past was the
Cibanten River. Cultural remains that were discoveredaround the river prove that the Cibanten River played asignificant role in the past. One of the best-known remains
is Banten Girang. This kingdom chose to place theadministrative center of the kingdom on the banks of the
Cibanten. After Banten Girang ceased to exist, theadministrative center was taken over by the Sultanate of
Banten, which also placed the central government not far
from the Cibanten River, located in the coastal areas of
Banten Gulf. In the same way, the center of colonial rulein Banten, which was housed on residency, was also
located at the edge of the Cibanten River.
The connection between Banten Girang as the central
government of the Hindu kingdom and the Sultanate of
Banten in Banten Lama was the Cibanten River. In fact, theCibanten River expedition team down in the river20

Indonesia

Office of Banten invited people from all walks of life toparticipate in the event. The objective of the expedition
was to record the potential of cultural heritage along theflow of the Cibanten River, Banten Province.

Gedung Juang 45 is located on Ki Mas Jong Street,
Serang City. During the Japanese occupation ofIndonesia, this building was used as the headquartersof the Kempeitai.

After they went down into the Cibanten River, theexpedition team obtained some important data. Based onarchaeological evidence found along the stream, the areaaround the Cibanten River has been inhabited by humans
since prehistoric times. In the next period, the role of the
Cibanten River increased in importance and served theSultanate of Banten as an international port. Some cultural
heritage was successfully recorded by the Cibanten River
Expedition, as follows:

4. Banten Residence Building
Banten Residence Building is located on K.H. Syam'unStreet, Serang city. The building, which dates back toaround 1814, initially served as a residence office.

1. Banten Girang Site
Banten Girang site is located in Telaya Kampoong,Sempu village, Serang city. Banten Girang existed
between 932 and 1030 AD. At Banten Girang site, there
is a cave with three rooms, which were used for
meditation. In the mid 1990s, a Dwarapala statue wasfound in the Cibanten River, not far from Banten Girang
site. It shows that Banten Girang still holds many
interesting questions for further study.
2. Kaujon Ancient Mosque
Kaujon Ancient Mosque is located in RM. HS.
Jayadiningrat Street, Kaujon Afternoon Market
Kampoong, Serang Village, Serang city. The constructionof Kaujon Ancient Mosque was influenced by HinduBuddhist decorative art. The lower profile of themosque was adapted from a temple. The terraced roofof the mosque was also adapted from a temple roof.

Banten Residence Building

5. Kenari MosqueThis mosque is located in Kenari Kampoong, Kasemen
subdistrict, Serang city. There is no exact data about theestablishment of Kenari Mosque. Folklore says that
Kenari Mosque was built during the rule of Sultan Abu
Mufachir Abdul Kenari (1596 - 1651 AD). He was thefirst ruler of the Sultanate of Banten, who acquired thetitle "sultan" from Mecca.

Kaujon Ancient Mosque

3. Gedung Juang 45
The gate near Kenari Mosque

6. Kasunyatan Mosque
Kasunyatan Mosque is located on Karangantu Port
Street, Kasunyatan Village, Kasemen subdistrict, Serangcity. There is no exact data on the construction of
Kasunyatan Mosque. However, based on folklore, themosque was founded by the spiritual teacher of Sultan
Maulana Muhammad around the mid-sixteenth century.

Gedung Juang 45

21

Kasunyatan Mosque

7. Kaibon Palace Site
Kaibon Palace site is located in Kroya Kampoong,
Kasunyatan Village, Kasemen subdistrict, Serang city.
This palace was built in 1815, and became the second
palace in the Sultanate of Banten after Surosowan
Palace. Referred to by the name of Kaibon (Motherhood),Indonesia

the palace was built for the mother of the Sultan, Queen
Aisyah. At that time, as the 21st sultan of Banten
kingdom, Sultan Maulana Rafiudin was too young (fiveyears old) to hold the reins of government. So, Queen
Aisyah temporarily acted as a regent until her son was
ready to rule.
The Cibanten River Expedition is trying to remindIndonesians that one of their cultural roots in the past that
may have been forgotten is the culture associated withrivers. The Cibanten River Expedition is trying to gather
information about the Cibanten River from different angles,
as well as to raise public awareness about the preservationof cultural heritage. The Cibanten River has great potential
to be developed, because the area along the flow of theriver still has some remains of the culture which spreadfrom Banten Girang to Banten Lama in the past. Expected
later, the Cibanten River Expedition can encourage andmotivate preservation of the Cibanten River that divides
the city of Serang.

Kaibon Palace site22

Malaysia
Malaysia

Restoration and Relocation of Rumah Bugis Traditional Timber House
from Kuala Selangor to Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
Professor Dr. A Ghafar Bin Ahmad, Professor
School of Housing, Building and Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia
Introduction
Built in the early 1900s, Rumah Bugis (Bugis house), also
known as the Red House, was owned by a Bugis chieftain(penghulu). The traditional timber house was erected anddecorated with features and elements of the Bugis identity.
Nonetheless, with the passage of time after three
generations, the house was left abandoned. The building
deteriorated due to termite infestation, roof leakage andpoor maintenance. Restoration works of the Bugis housestarted on 25 June 2015 with a contract value of RM498,806(USD119,888) secured by the Selangor State government
agency, Perbadanan Adat Melayu dan Warisan Negeri
Selangor (PADAT), who took the initiative to salvage,
restore and relocate the house from Kampung Permatang,
Kuala Selangor to the grounds of the Sultan Alam ShahMuseum in Shah Alam, Selangor, a distance of 73 km. The
project lasted for 10 months and was completed on 27
April 2016. The historical and architectural accounts of theBugis house were narrated by Haji Roslan Zainal, the third
heir to the Bugis house property.
Historical Background
The Bugis house was built by Mat Taib, a trader-cumcarpenter from Makassar (South Sulawesi, Indonesia) who
migrated to the Malay Peninsula during the period of
Dutch colonisation of Indonesia. This timber house wasbuilt during the reign of Raja Lumut, the first Sultan of
Selangor. Timber, which is available in abundance in thetropical Malay Peninsula, was drawn to the construction
site from a nearby village, Kampung Sawah Sempadan at
Tanjong Karang, Selangor using bullock carts. The use ofgood timber and appropriate techniques of timber
treatment can extend a house’s life by about 100 years.
Before the construction of the Bugis house at Kampung
Permatang, Kuala Selangor, an important ritual process,was performed by the owner and local folks to select thebest site and position for the house.
Architectural SignificanceRaised on timber stilts upon granite stones, the Bugis houseis divided into three sections: lowered verandah (serambi
jatuh), main area (rumah ibu) and kitchen (dapur). Thereis a small external staircase leading up to the main entrance
at the front verandah. An interval space (selang) exists
between the main area and the kitchen. The entire building
is relatively small in size with the main area measuring 28
square feet, and with a height of 20 feet from floor to roof.
The verandah, located at the front of the house, has many
openings including louvered casement windows andcarved lattice panels which provide good ventilation. It is acommon space for entertaining guests, villagers’ meetingsand discussions. The women folk and children spend mostof their time in the main area, which also leads to themaster bedroom. The Bugis house has a storage attic which
can be used as a resting space as well as for keeping home
appliances, mats and cooking pots used during weddings

23

and festivities. It is customary for young girls of the hostfamily to keep themselves hidden in the storage attic when
there are guests around in the house. Like most traditionaltimber houses, the Bugis house used thatched attap roofing
material made of palm leaves called nipah (Nypa fruticans).
The slightly curved and pitched roof of the Bugis housefeatures double-layered gable ends (tebar layar) with asmall window opening for both cross and stacked
ventilation. The entire house was constructed without theuse of a single nail. Instead, each building panel was locked
using timber peg frames and wedges. The building andcarpentry work was all done manually without any
machinery. The building frames including trusses, columns
and beams secured the timber wall panels, windows anddoors. Apart from providing good ventilation, the Bugis
house offers natural lighting through carved lattice panels
called kerawang. These intricate lattice panels decorated infloral motif carvings and geometric patterns adorned theupper walls of the house.
Building Defects
The Bugis house, which was left abandoned for a period oftime, deteriorated rapidly due to decayed timber structures,termite infestation, roof leakage and poor maintenance.
The kitchen section fell into a state of disrepair and was
demolished. A new annex was constructed using bricks,
timber and zinc roofing to replace the kitchen section. A
dilapidation survey was conducted prior to restoration
works to identify major defects of the house, causes of thedefects, methods and techniques of restoration as well as
relocation. Decayed timber structures, poor condition of
the palm leaf roofing, decayed windows and broken latticepanels were revealed as some of the common building
defects. An architectural drawing or measured drawing of
the house was drawn accurately to scale for reference
during restoration and relocation.
Restoration Works
During the restoration works scaffolding was erectedaround the Bugis house to support the building structures,
while temporary roofing of steel frames and corrugatedmetal decking was constructed above the house. This wasto ensure that the house was well protected from heavy
rainfall, particularly when the palm leaf roofing wasremoved and brought down to the ground. Two local
carpenters, Mazlan Haji Anuar and his young nephew
Muhammad Shafiq Kamaruddin, were engaged by themain contractor to restore and reconstruct the Bugis house.
The Bugis house was dismantled from roof to bottom
during a period of two weeks. Handling the broken anddecayed timber structures and building elements required
extra caution. Workers on site had to document thebuilding structures and elements in detail in order toreconstruct the house at a new site in Shah Alam, Selangor.
The dismantling process started from the roof to the roof
trusses, walls including lattice panels, windows and doors,Stage 1: Coding, Dismantling and Salvaging
i. Provide special codes for building structures andelements for reference.
ii. Dismantle the entire house and document thedismantling process in detail.
iii. Verify existing timber species and strength group.
iv. Identify timber condition.
v. Salvage any existing timber for reconstruction.
vi. Document the condition of the house through theHistorical Architectural Building Survey (HABS).
vii. Conduct video documentation of work on site.
Stage 2: Treatment, Transport and Relocation
i. Mark or label existing timber structures andelements for reference.
ii. Transport all dismantled building materials fromthe site to a sawmill in Kelang.
iii. Conduct timber treatment including repair,
replacement and replication.
iv. Upgrade timber species and strength group.
v. Pack and store treated old and new timber.
vi. Transport the timber structures and elements from
Kelang to Shah Alam.
vii. Document the treatment, transport and relocation
process.

Stage 3: Remeasuring, Reconstruction and Repainting
i. Identify a new site at museum grounds forreconstruction.
ii. Remeasure and peg the new site based on measured
drawings.
iii. Store building materials on site.
iv. Reconstruct the house in its original form anddesign.
v. Prepare for additional electrical appliances.
vi. Repaint the house with the original type of paintand colour.
vii. Document the reconstruction process in the HABS
and final reports.

Malaysia

floor boards, roof beams, floor beams, and finally, themain columns and stilts. The strut (tupang) system wasused in the dismantling process to avoid building collapse.
All building structures and elements were salvaged andmarked systematically before they were temporarily stored
on site. Preventive measures such as storage above groundsurface and termite treatment were conducted during
temporary storage. Restoration and relocation of the Bugis
house involved three main stages as follows:

Timber Verification and Strength GroupAll dismantled timber structures and elements weretransported to a sawmill at Kampung Padang Jawa, Kelang,Selangor (a distance of 63 km) for the process of timber
selection and classification. Seven samples of existing
timber structures and elements were taken from the Bugis
house and sent to the Malaysian Timber Industry Board(MTIB) in Kuala Lumpur for verification of the timber andstrength group (SG). Results from the MTIB showed thatsix out of the seven timber samples were between SG 4
and SG 6, i.e. moderately strong and very strong (seeTable 1). One timber sample which was used as the maincolumn was found to be extremely strong (SG 1). In termsof the new house structures, all existing columns were
replaced with extremely strong timber (SG 1) of either
Chengal Batu or Balau species. Other timber structuresand elements were a mix between new and old timber,and both were treated against termite infestation. Overall,
65 per cent new timber was used in the reconstruction of
the Bugis house, mainly for the main columns, wall panels,
floor boards and the attic staircase.

Table 1: Timber Verification and Strength Group for the Bugis House
No.

Timber sample

Sample size (mm)Species nameScientific Name

Strength Group (SG)1

Gable end

11 x 72

Light Red Meranti

Shorea spp.

62

Window

16 x 90

Dark Red Meranti

Shorea spp.

53

Wall panel

20 x 90

Dark Red Meranti

Shorea spp.

5

4

Wood carving

12 x 68

Yellow Meranti

Shorea spp.

65

Floor board

20 x 75

Perupok

Laphopetalum spp.

4

6

Column15 x 50

Kapur

Dryobalanops spp.

4

7

Main column

7 x 16Chengal Batu

Shorea maxwelliana

1

Source: Malaysian Timber Industry Board (MTIB), Kuala Lumpur, 2015
Reconstruction
Reconstruction of the Bugis house in the grounds of the
Sultan Alam Shah Museum began with the construction of aconcrete mix foundation floor to create a level surface.
Based on the measured drawings, the original granite stones
were positioned on the foundation floor in the exact layout
as those laid at the old site in Kampung Permatang, Kuala
Selangor. Once all the granite stones were secured in placeon the foundation floor, timber stilts were erected followedby floor beams, columns, beams, roof trusses, wall panelsand other building elements including windows, doors,
carved lattice panels and new staircases. Duringreconstruction of the Bugis house, scaffolding was erected tosupport the building structures and elements, installation of
new roofing materials, and repainting. One of the newelements introduced for the Bugis house is the roofing
material. Palm leaf roofing is not suitable because it requires
regular maintenance and replacement as well as being prone
to natural decay and insect attacks. Asphalt shingles of adark grey colour were used instead as the new roofing
material for the Bugis house. Asphalt shingles arecomparatively more durable, lower maintenance, lessexpensive in terms of up-front costs, and need only simple
installation. They are also flexible to match the original roof
shape and form. The Bugis house was repainted in its
original dark red colour using locally-produced oil-based24

Malaysia

paint (Cap Rumah brand from Kepong, Selangor). The
wood carving fixtures in the house interior were repainted ina shade of gold to revive their original colour. On 21 July
2016, the newly reconstructed Bugis house was officiallyhanded over to PADAT Chairman YB. Datuk Dr. Ahmad
Yusuf Hairi, witnessed by PADAT CEO Faizul Fitri Muslil, the
PADAT conservator, representatives of government agencies,
consultants, contractors, carpenters as well as family
members and relatives associated with the Bugis house.
Conclusion
The restoration and relocation of the Bugis house presents
a good example of a building conservation success story in
Malaysia. To ensure the project’s success, the Selangor State
government agency PADAT worked closely with theconservation team including the consultant quantity
surveyor, building conservator, building contractor andcarpenters to monitor the work progress and resolve any
technical matters through site meetings. At an earlier stage,
attempts to secure a storage space on a neighbouring lot
had failed due to a dispute over the rent to be charged.
Moreover, the approval letter issued by the Shah Alam City
Council to allow reconstruction of the Bugis house wasdelayed due to land conversion matters on site. More delays
were observed in the appointment of a third party for site
preparation and laying the foundation floor. The project
team also faced a number of challenges since most of thebuilding sections included decayed timber and were badly
damaged due to poor maintenance and termite infestation.
The salvaged timber was insufficient to reconstruct theentire house. Outsourcing of new timber with an upgraded
strength group also took considerable time since certain
timber species are more suitable for particular building
structures and elements. Using asphalt shingles as the newroofing material posed another challenge to carpenters androof installers, who needed to maintain the original shape ofthe slightly curved and pitched roofs.
Despite these challenges, the reconstruction of the Bugis
house shows evidence of inheritance, with invaluable
carpentry knowledge and skills being passed down from anolder and more experienced carpenter to a young
apprentice. It is recommended that more trainee carpenters
involve themselves in the traditional methods and techniques
for the conservation and repair of traditional timber houses.
The initiatives undertaken by PADAT in ensuring the

The front elevation of the Bugis house showing its timber stilts, louvered
casement windows and decorated wall panels.

25

protection and restoration of traditional timber houses in
Selangor including the Bugis house are highly commendable.
The restoration and relocation of the Bugis house could not
be completed successfully without the full support, goodcommunication and amicable cooperation of those involvedin the project at all levels. The entire team must be equippedwith the necessary knowledge, materials, and skills, as well
as a positive attitude and outlook to retain and upkeep thelegacy of traditional timber houses. Today, the Bugis housestands proudly in the grounds of the Sultan Alam ShahMuseum, to be valued and appreciated by all generations,and it has become a popular attraction amongst local andforeign tourists in Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia.
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to thank the Selangor State Government,
particularly Perbadanan Adat Melayu dan Warisan Negeri
Selangor (PADAT) and its Chairman, YB. Datuk Dr. Ahmad
Yusuf Hairi, CEO Faizul Fitri Muslil, and Project Officers
Intan Salina Idrus and Mohamad Noor Hisham Ibrahim;
QS Consultant SG Contract Services, Contractor Saharruddin
Construction Sdn. Bhd., Building Conservator Shahruddin
Shabri, Carpenters Mazlan Haji Anuar and Muhammad
Shafiq Kamaruddin; the School of Housing Building and
Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM); and USM LRGS
Local Knowledge Project 3 Team (LRGS/TD/2012/USMUKM/KT/03) for making this project and article possible.
References
Hafizah Iszahanid, “Rumah Bugis 100 Tahun Dipulihara”,
Berita Harian, 26 July 2016, p. 33.
Hasshim Abu Hanifah, “The Red House: A Traditional
Bugis Abode”, Selangor Perspectives, 2006, p. 40-41.
Jabatan Warisan Negara, (2016), Garis Panduan
Pemuliharaan Bangunan Warisan, Kuala Lumpur:
Ministry of Tourism and Culture Malaysia.
Malaysian Timber Industrial Board, http://www.mtib.gov.
my, retrieved on 26 October 2016.
Nor Azihan Md. Ghazali, “Rumah Bugis Jadi Tarikan
Baharu: Struktur Tradisional Berharga RM400,000
Ditempatkan Di Pekarangan Muzium Sultan Alam Shah”,
Sinar Harian, 22 July 2016, p. 38.

The right elevation of the Bugis house showing its external staircase leading
to the entrance door, carved lattice panels, louvered casement windows of
two sizes, double-layered gable end with a small window and a pitch roof.

Malaysia

The left elevation of the Bugis house showing the two floor levels
which are the lowered verandah (serambi jatuh) and main area (rumah ibu).

The front view of the Bugis house in 1999 revealing building defects
such as a missing gable end, broken carved lattice panels anddecayed thatched attap roof made of palm leaves.

View of the Bugis house in 2014 after it was left abandoned and had
deteriorated rapidly due to decayed timber structures, termite infestation,
roof leakage and poor maintenance.

Carved lattice panels (kerawang) decorated in floral motif carvings andgeometric patterns adorned the upper walls of the Bugis house.

Painted in a shade of gold, the intricate floral motif carvings
above the door frame reflect highly-skilled carpentry.

The entire Bugis house was constructed without the use of a single nailbut it was locked using timber peg frames and wedges.

Decayed timber stilt and floor beam due to natural decay and termite
infestation.

During the dismantling stage, scaffolding was erected around the Bugis
house to support the building structures, while temporary roofing wasconstructed above the house to protect the interior from heavy rainfall.

26

Malaysia
Special codes were marked on timber elements before
dismantling and salvaging.

All timber structures including stilts, floor beams and floor joists weremarked and coded for reference.

Dismantling the Bugis house.

Dismantled louvered casement windows were taken down to the groundfor investigation and salvaging.

All dismantled timber structures and elements were transported to a sawmill
for the process of timber selection and classification.

Timber structures and elements were repaired, replaced and replicatedat a sawmill in Kampung Padang Jawa, Kelang, Selangor.

Restoration of casement window panel in progress.

27

All new and old timber structures were treated against termite infestation.

Malaysia

Carpenters handling a newly restored gable end.

Treated timber structures and elements were loaded onto a truck at thesawmill before being transported to the new site.

The Sultan Alam Shah Museum in Shah Alam where the Bugis house
was reconstructed at a new site next to this museum.

Reconstruction of the Bugis house in the grounds of the Sultan Alam ShahMuseum began with the construction of a concrete-mix foundation floor tocreate a level surface.

During reconstruction of the Bugis house, scaffolding was erected to support
the building structures and elements, installation of new roofing materials
and repainting.

Installation of asphalt shingles on the roof.

View of the Bugis house during reconstruction.

Front view of the Bugis house after reconstruction.

28

Malaysia
29

Right elevation of the Bugis house after reconstruction.

Interior view of the verandah after reconstruction.

Newly restored floral motif carvings and geometric patterns on the upper
walls.

Storage attic featuring double-layered gable end,
small opening and pitched roof ceiling after reconstruction.

On 21 July 2016, the newly reconstructed Bugis house was officially handed
over to PADAT Chairman, YB. Datuk Dr. Ahmad Yusuf Hairi, witnessed by
PADAT CEO, Faizul Fitri Muslil and
PADAT conservator Profesor Dr. A Ghafar Ahmad.

View of the Bugis house at night illuminated with floodlighting.

Maldives
Maldives

Cowrie—an Early Global Commodity: An Archaeological Research on the Islamic Period of theMaldive Islands
Shiura Jaufar, Archaeologist
Department of Heritage, Republic of Maldives
Cowrie shells, most importantly Cyprea Moneta, played apivotal role and were a valuable commodity during theearly global trade and exchange that took place around theworld. They were used as a currency in many parts of theworld and were exchanged for various kinds of goods aswell as African slaves. According to several historicalsources, it has often been suggested that the Maldives werethe main exporter of these shells. The use of cowries in the
trade links along the Indian Ocean trade network as well as
the production and importance were mentioned by several
authors from the ninth century onwards; however, this had
never been tested archaeologically. Thus in December
2014, Prof. Anne Haour from the University of East Anglia
received a grant from the Leverhulme Trust to conduct
research in the Maldives as part of a research project
investigating the timescale and nature of the importation of
cowrie shells into West Africa from 1150 to 1900.
This paper will briefly report on the archaeologicalfieldwork undertaken in early 2016 in the Maldives, which
involved test excavations at three sites (Ha. Utheemu, K.
Male’ and M. Veyvah). Broader surveys were also
conducted mainly in Raa Atoll, which will not be discussed
in this paper. The field team consisted of the Principal
Investigator Prof. Anne Haour, Post-Doctoral Researcher
Dr. Annalisa Christie, and the author as the PhD candidate
for the project. The aim of the research was to identify
sites likely to date to the medieval Islamic period.
The first site excavated was the island of Utheemu in Haa
Alifu Atoll. Utheemu is a rather important island in the
country’s history, and reports of the discovery of a cowrie
hoard along with various artefacts (including pottery andglass) apparently indicative of medieval trade had been
received from the island. Five test pits were dug in four
different areas of the island, including two units inside the
Utheemu Palace. The other three units were placed within
the current football field, a mound behind the palace andwithin a field nearby that had been marked as a tourism zone
on the island. Test-pit methods and sizes differed per unit
according to the nature and occurrence of the site within thearea. Of the five units excavated, the palace and the tourism

zone trenches were the most productive. Finds included
several sherds of pottery, glass (including bracelets) andmetal fragments, charcoal, shells (including cowries), faunal
remains (mostly fish bones), coral stone blocks as well as afemale grave in one unit of the palace and one bead.
Male’ was the next site to be excavated—this had been
historically, as well as today, the capital island of theMaldives. The Sultan’s Park where the former palace once
stood was selected for excavations since it is one of the
only remaining open spaces in Male’, being one of theworld’s most densely populated islands with few prospects
for a study of undisturbed remains. This park consists of
the only surviving building of the former palace structures(Usgekolhu) and eight shovel-test pits were establishedwithin the empty area in front of the building. The finds
were similar to Utheemu with the exception of humanbones and beads. There was less pottery than at Utheemu,
but more cowries.
The island of Veyvah in Meemu atoll was the final site for
excavation and was selected due to the presence of anancient coral stone mosque (about 400 years old) on theisland, and also because it offered good prospects for astudy of undisturbed levels. Due to most of the open
spaces being used for habitation, excavations weretargeted within the agricultural fields around the island.
Five units were excavated in different areas, of which
three units provided promising results. The finds from thisisland were also similar to those discovered at Utheemu
and Male’, again with the exception of human bones andless pottery. One bead was also discovered on this island.
To sum up, this is an ongoing project and the findings andresults of the first season are currently being studied. The
second season of fieldwork will take place next year. At
this point, the author would like to thank the project teamat the University of East Anglia, United Kingdom;
Department of Heritage, Maldives National Museum,
Academy of Dhivehi Language, Boduthakurufaanu
Memorial Center and all the atoll and island councils in theMaldives for their continuous support for this project.

30

Maldives
Fig 1: Female grave found in trench 5 in Ha. Utheemu (Jaufar 2016)

Fig 3: Excavations at K. Male’ (Haour 2016)

Fig 4: Pot sherd from the excavations (Jaufar 2016)

Fig 2: Unit 3 in Ha.Utheemu (Haour 2016)

Fig 5: Excavations at M. Veyvah (Haour 2016)

The team: Prof. Anne Haour, Shiura Jaufar and Dr. Annalisa Christie (from left to right)

31

Mongolia
Munkhtulga Rinchinkhorol, Researcher
Institute of History and Archaeology, Mongolian Academy of Sciences
The Tonyukuk complex is situated 40 km to the south-eastof Ulaanbaatar city, the capital of Mongolia, along the border
between Nalaikh district, which is one of the most populated
urban areas near the Tuul River valley, and Erdene soum,
Töv aimag. There is a small settlement, the Ar Janchivlan
Springs Resort, 2.6 km to the south-east of the complex.
In 1897, this complex was discovered by a team from the
Orkhon Expedition of the Imperial Russian GeographicalSociety, which was led by Je.N.Klementz. [Vojtov 1996:13]
From that time onwards, the complex, which is not far
from the Mongolian capital, has been studied by many
researchers and expeditions. In particular, the inscriptionsof its two steles have been translated into many languages
by generations of Turkologists.
In 1902, C.W.Campbell, who was British, came to the
Tonyukuk complex and wrote a brief description. He seems
to have been the first Western traveler to see the Tonyukuk
complex and write about it. [Campbell 1903:516]
To date, various scholars and expeditions have excavatedthe site of the Tonyukuk complex as follows: G.J.Ramstedt
and S.Pälsi (1909), B.Ja.Vladimirtsov and B.Baradin (1925),
N.Ser-Odjav (1957), and Mongolian-Turkish Joint Expeditions(2015-2016). [Pälsi 1982:57, 124-126; Ser-Odjav 1970:29-32;
Enkhtör et al. 2016; Battulga et al. 2016] It should also be
noted that G.Menes and V.Je.Vojtov, who were members of
the Mongolian-Soviet Joint Historic-Cultural Expedition at
the same time, carried out archaeological documentation
work including a plan of the complex and drawings ofhuman-figure stone statues and stone slabs of enclosures of
the complexes, in 1983. [Menes 1983:21-26]
This complex was built in memory of Bilge Tonyukuk, who
was a vizier during the reigns of three Khagans of theSecond Ancient Turkic Empire, in c. 720 AD.
In the middle of a plain surrounded by mountains, which isan example of the best fertile pasture in the region, there isa rectangular earthen platform enclosed by an earthen ditch
and a canal. A building identified as a shrine in memory of
Tonyukuk was erected in the central area of the platform.
Two quadrangular enclosures made of stone slabs and many
human-figure stone statues were also erected on theplatform. To the east of the platform, there are balbals, many
standing stones in a row; the length of this important elementof the complex structure is 1.3 km. In all the above elements,
the Tonyukuk complex shares the same structural features as
Ancient Turkic aristocratic memorial complexes in Mongolia.
There are two other Ancient Turkic monuments near the
Tonyukuk complex. (Fig. 1) One of them is known as
Complex 2 and is located 582 m to the north-east of the
Tonyukuk complex. (Fig. 1 and 28) Complex 3 is located
740 m to the north-west of Complex 2 and 1167 m to the

Mongolia

Protection of Cultural Heritage in Urban Areas in Mongolia: The Tonyukuk Complex

north of the Tonyukuk complex. (Fig. 12) Individuals towhom these two complexes were devoted probably
belonged to Tonyukuk because of the common features of
all three complexes and the short distances between them.
On the plain, where the three above-mentioned complexes
are situated, there are many other monuments. However,the state of protection of only these complexes will beconsidered in this article.
The Tonyukuk complex was partially protected by the statein accordance with an act of the 79th meeting of the Little
State Khural’s Presidium of the Mongolian People’s Republic
in 1941. [Perlee (1942) 2012:16, 18]
In 2002, in accordance with the 71st decision of thegovernment of Mongolia, the protection zone of the
Tonyukuk complex was enlarged to 65.58 km2. Also the
local authorities were ordered to take measures to forbid
activities likely to threaten the conservation, protection, andcompleteness of the monument, including the constructionof buildings inside the protection zone. [Tüükh soyol
2008:79; www.legalinfo.mn/law/details/4767?lawid=4767]
During the last two decades of the 20th century, thepreservation of the Tonyukuk complex was restricted tofencing around only the steles and enclosures. The people
who erected the fences at least twice at the site havedamaged the floor of the complex platform when they dug
postholes directly on the platform. They have also filled thepostholes with bricks, roof-tiles, and stones from the building
and the platform floor of the complex. (Fig. 3) Furthermore,they mixed the cement for the bases of the iron posts withroof-tile pieces of the shrine. (Fig. 4) Traces of all theseactions have been revealed by our excavations in 2015-2016.
Some part of the floor made of bricks which had covered
the platform were uncovered by the excavation of 1957, but
it has never been reburied. Thus, the bricks of the platform
floor have deteriorated due to human-caused factors andnatural impacts over 60 years. (Fig. 5) The last iron fence forthe complex measures 59.7x45.6 m. (Figs. 13 and 16)
A prominent thing that distinguishes the Tonyukuk complex
from the other Ancient Turkic aristocratic complexes in
Mongolia is the inscription on two steles. (Fig. 2) In the textof the inscription, Bilge Tonyukuk’s biography is written in
the Ancient Turkic Runic alphabet. It contains someinteresting information concerning Inner Asian sociopolitical history of the early 7th to late 8th centuries AD,
including the relationship between Tang China and thenorthern nomads, nomadic politics, and “secrets” of the
independence of the Second Ancient Turkic Empire, which
are not mentioned in other sources. The 62-line inscription
is also an important language source for Altaic historicallinguistics because it is one of the earliest written documents

32

of the early medieval Inner Asian nomads themselves.

Mongolia

The human-figure stone statues of the complex are the basic
source materials for reconstructing the society and culture towhich the lord of the complex and his followers belonged.
[Bayar 1997:69] In terms of the number of human-figurestone statues, the Tonyukuk complex is the third largest
complex of that period. (Table) However, a stone statuewith the most unique depiction and a long cylindrical stone,
which might have been a representation of a vessel used forcontaining liquids, perhaps koumiss, have been looted.
Enclosure 1 of the complex is the second largest enclosurein terms of slab size among the other enclosures of Turkic
Year

Number of stone statues

1909

7 (?)

1957

9

1983
2015

Another element indicating the social status of thedeceased is balbals. There are many balbals in the complexof Tonyukuk. (Table) However, it should be mentionedthat most of the standing balbals have been erected using
a non-scientific method and even without the necessary
documentation.
Number of enclosure slabs
Enclosure 1

4 slabs and half of the cover slab

4 slabs and half (?) of the cover slab
3 complete slabs, 2 fragments of a slab and8¼ of the cover slab
7 (2 at the site, 3 in the storehouse near the 3 complete slabs, 2 fragments of a slab andsite and 2 at Mongolian National Museum) ¼ of the cover slab

In 2014, after construction of the 11 km long road located
25 m to the west of the Tonyukuk complex was completed,some local authorities began to give permission for the useof the virgin land adjacent to the heritages. (Fig. 1) Thenthe whole plain where the heritages are situated began to
be demarcated by tires and iron rods. (Figs. 6, 7 and 14)
Ploughed field. To the south and adjacent to the row ofbalbals in the complex there is a rectangular iron fence.
(Figs. 8 and 9) The field inside the trapezoid fence,measuring 440x420x165x84 m was almost entirely ploughed
three years ago but nothing has yet been planted there.
Now there are not only furrows and mounds, but also
garbage that has been dumped inside the fence. (Fig. 10)
Holiday camp. In the spring of 2015, the judges of theConstitutional Court of Mongolia built a holiday camp,
including a house and concrete walls, for their own use.
(Fig. 11) It is located 239 m to the west of Complex 3. (Fig.
12) This immoral action of a superior organization of thestate inevitably affected the people who want to use thevirgin land around the memorial complexes.
Large iron fence. In August 2015, after the camp of theConstitutional Court was built, several men came to a place
648 m to the south-west of the Tonyukuk complex and began
to dig there. (Fig. 13) Having dug post holes, they erected alarge iron fence. (Figs. 14 and 15) In the spring of 2016, theyplanted potatoes inside the southern part of the fence.
Off-road racing. In August 2015, at a place 630 m to thewest of the Tonyukuk complex, virgin soil was dug up by
an excavator to create a place for short course off-road
racing. (Figs. 16 and 17)
Other fenced and ploughed areas. In the spring and summerof 2016, several large fences were erected between thecamp of the Constitutional Court and a point 520 m to thenorth-west of the Tonyukuk complex. Some parts have33

aristocratic complexes. A very unusual component of thisenclosure is a standing stone engraved with rosette
decorations, which is erected in each of its four corners.
When the complex was discovered, there were seven
relatively well-preserved slabs in these two enclosures,
including a cover slab for Enclosure 1. After the 1957
excavation, some of them were looted and damaged. (Table)

Enclosure 2

Number ofbalbals

2 slabs?

2 slabs~400

1 slab286

No slab<280

already been cultivated. (Figs. 18 and 19)
Trenches for bases of block fences. Also in spring 2016, very
long trenches for bases of three extremely large rectangular
block fences and numerous circular hollows for mixing
cement were dug between the Tonyukuk complex andComplex 3. (Figs. 20-27) These trenches are located 80 m to
the north of the Tonyukuk complex and 420 m to the southof Complex 3. Furthermore, the trenches are very close toComplex 2, which is located to the east of them; the distance
between Complex 2 and the eastern line of the trenches isonly 12 m. (Figs. 28 and 29) The area enclosed by thesetrenches is approximately 179200 m2, almost 66 times larger
than the fence around the Tonyukuk complex. (Fig. 1)
Conclusion
The 1300-year-old Tonyukuk complex is one of the many
endangered immoveable historic-cultural heritages inurban areas in Mongolia.
All the facts clearly indicate that a number of stateorganizations, companies, individuals and especially local
administrations in Mongolia break the laws and ignore
various legal documents of the state concerning protectionof the immediate surroundings, natural environments andcultural landscapes of historic-cultural heritage sites.
Unplanned and uncontrolled development projects
encroaching upon immoveable historic-cultural heritage sites
in or near urban areas in Mongolia increasingly lead to thedestruction, demolition and alteration of land-use of the sites
and their legally designated settings and protection zones.
References

Mongolia

Fig. 1: Plan of the immediate surroundings of the complexes

Fig. 3 Brick from the Tonyukuk complex has been used
to fill a modern post-holeFig. 2: Stele of Tonyukuk

Fig. 4: Post-hole cement with roof-tile pieces

34

Mongolia
Fig. 5: Brick floor on a platform of the Tonyukuk complex

Fig. 7: Iron rods used for land demarcation and the Tonyukuk complex. From the south

Fig. 8: Tonyukuk complex, its balbal row and ploughed field adjacent to the balbals

35

Fig. 6: Tires used for land demarcation

Mongolia

Fig. 9: Tonyukuk complex, its balbal row and ploughed field.
From the south-west

Fig. 10: Row of balbals and the north-west corner of the ploughed field

Fig. 11: View of the holiday camp of the Constitutional Court from the Tonyukuk complex

Fig. 12: Complex 3 and the camp of the Constitutional Court. From the east

Fig. 13: Tonyukuk complex, road and large iron fence. From the north-east

Fig. 14: Large iron fence. From the north36

Mongolia
Fig. 15: Large iron fence. From the north-east

Fig. 16: Tonyukuk complex, road and place for short course off-road racing.
From the south-east

Fig. 17: View of the off-road racing placefrom the Tonyukuk complex

Fig. 18: Newly-fenced areas.
From the south-east

Fig. 19: Newly-fenced areas and the camp of the Constitutional Court.
From the south-east

Fig. 20: Trench for base of block fence and the Tonyukuk complex.
From the north-east

37

Fig. 21: Trench for base.
From the southMongolia

Fig. 22: Trenches for base of block fences and the Tonyukuk complex.
From the northFig. 23: Trench for base.
From the south

Fig. 24: Trenches.
From the north-east

Fig. 25: Trenches.
From the south-east

Fig. 26: Trench.
From the north-east

Fig. 27: Trench and Complex 2.
From the north-west

Fig. 28: Complex 2.
From the west

Fig. 29: Complex 2 and trenches for bases of block fences.
From the east

38

NepalNepal

Post Earthquake Conservation, Reconstruction and Rehabilitation in Nepal: Current Status
Dr. Suresh Suras Shrestha, HeadWorld Heritage Conservation Section, Department of Archaeology,Government of Nepal
1. Background
The April 2015 Nepal Earthquake (magnitude 7. 6 on the
Richter scale), which struck on 25th April 2015, badly
affected 14 districts with a huge amount of physicaldestruction as well as human casualties, and impacted 35
districts in total. Another large shock was recorded on 12th
May 2015 and several aftershocks occurred over a period
ofmore than six months. These were continuous andfrequent, and frightened the general population. Things
have been returning to normal after around a year, andpost earthquake reconstruction and rehabilitation activities
havegradually been implemented by the relevant
authorities.
2. Emergency Rescue Operation for Cultural Heritage
It has been the practice worldwide that human beings
should be the first priority for rescue in any kind of disastersituation. Accordingly, several rescue teams from different
agencies—either from the government of Nepal or nongovernment agencies—responded almost immediately,
just an hour after the earthquake. However, it was adevastating situation and no one could think about
heritage, the creation of humankind, which always comes
after human beings. Some of us from the Department ofArchaeology did inspect various sites as far as possible, totry and find and identify collapsed or damaged monuments,
at least immediately within an hour of the earthquake. We
knew that there wouldn’t be anyone else identifying andrescuing heritage instead of human beings in such asituation, as everyone would be focused on finding humancasualties and rescuing them, which is our basic priority as
human beings, but someone should be there to take careof the precious heritage as well, as we are aware that in adisaster there could be measures that we could take which
could save our precious heritage.
Aftershocks continued for more than three months. We
continuously visited the sites and assessed the sites andmonuments affected by the earthquake, which was thepreliminary assessment of the monuments. During thattime, there was another earthquake on 12th May 2015,
which was also dreadful. Most of us were in the field atan
earthquake affected monument site, and that was a terrible
situation, as everyone was forced to leave the site, andmore vulnerable private buildings collapsed. Luckily, we
didn't have any information that monuments had collapsed
due to the second earthquake in the Kathmandu Valley;
however some collapsed or were damaged outside thevalley.
At the beginning, from right after the earthquake, we were
yet to identify the condition of the staff and the situation
they were in, but whenever they themselves got in contact
with us, we decided to send them to the sites to conduct
preliminary assessmentson an ad hoc basis, which could
be done from the second day after the earthquake, as most39of the staff contact us and we could therefore do it
systematically, or at least whatever we could do in thatsituation.
Within a week, however, the preliminary assessments had
been done, and the Department had deployed teams
consisting of an archaeological Officer, an engineer/architect and a photographer as EMERGENCY HERITAGERESCUE TEAMS to the various sites. The teams urgently
worked through the preliminary data, identifying where it
would be possible to ensure the emergency rescue of art
objects, examining the vulnerability of structures, andundertaking other necessary activities right at the sites. The
rescue teams worked jointly with units of the Nepal Armyand Armed Force Police as well as the Nepal Police. The
units were deployed specially for post-disaster activities as
they were skilled through their many years of training for
rescues in disaster and post-disaster situational activities.
All the teams were very closely coordinated by the
Department of Archaeology regarding the whole range ofpost-earthquake activities for cultural heritage during thattime. The main objective of this joint team was to salvage
the art objects and other elements scattered around thecollapsed and damaged structure at the sites; therefore, theteam salvaged all elements and stored them in the proper
place with on site documentation - photographs, listing or
preparing the name and number of objects salvaged, thestoragelocation, and custodian and other required data as
per the Nepalese MUCHULKA (a kind of traditional legal
documentation system for preparing to handover or store
anything). Most of the sites were salvaged by the rescue
teams, but at some sites, especially at Patan and later at
Sankhu, the local communities with Department ofArchaeology representatives had salvaged the items in thisway as they are very much aware of the need to safeguard
heritage. They also stored all elements/objects in theproper place as guided by representatives from the
Department of Archaeology. Kathmandu Valley
Preservation Trust and Patan Museum made their best
effort for this as well.
At the same time, very soon after the earthquake, theDepartment of Archaeology published a public notice inthe national daily newspapers asking for support to secure
any kind of cultural heritage and related elements fromvandalism, theft and any other activities that may harm
cultural heritage, and advising that all such activities would
be punished under national legislation, which madepeople very much aware of the need to protect theircultural property.
Some officials coordinated with the teamsat the sites, whileother government and non-government agencies,
international rescue teams for heritage, teams ofinternational experts, donor agencies and many othergroups coordinated with the office; however, the officeDuring this time, the Department of Archaeology sent a
letter to ICCROM requesting the assistanceof their experts
in salvage efforts and conducting proper scientificdocumentation, but the team was too late to participate in
the initial phase. However, a Joint Mission Team came to
Nepal, consisting of experts from ICCROM-ICOMOSICOM-Smithsonian Institution. The Mission worked for aweek on evacuation, salvage and emergency
documentation, and was the first formal mission for
heritage rescue after a disaster in Nepal including related
staff from the Department, through which an opportunity
was provided to build the capacity of local experts in suchsituations in the future.
The joint rescue team did their work very quickly andcleared the sites as well. Most of the sites were cleared
within two weeks to four weeks, however, it took morethan two months at some sites, but it was very good thatthe sites were secured. Many vulnerable parts weredismantled as per the instructions of the experts, whichwere minimal as they gave support for the protection of
the structures immediately.
In this way, the Department of Archaeology played its rolein the post-earthquake situation in coordination withseveral other agencies.
3. Temporary Protection of Cultural Heritage
The Department of Archaeology has been doing its best,and due to the leadership shown by our enthusiastic staff
in support of and in coordination with national experts
and other government agencies, it was possible for all
heritage sites to come under the Department's control.
Then it was possible to prepare as much documentation as
possible through the preliminary assessments. Due to thecloseness of the rainy season, it was very important toprotect the sites that may have been badly affected by rain
damage. Therefore, tents and other materials for covering
those structures were acquired and more shoring or
supports were provided to protect all of the monuments ateach site. These activities have continued in the year
following the earthquake as well, due to the possibility of
decay and temporary protection on the monuments, which
are much larger and also yet to be studied; however almost
all of the rapid and detailed studies have been done.
The Department of Archaeology formulated NATIONAL
EXPERT TEAMS immediately in that situation, consisting
mostly of structural engineers, architects, archaeologists,
earthquake engineers, legal experts and other necessary
experts. The expert teamsvisited sites as and whennecessary, and are now in the process of making detailed
assessments of all sites. The expert teams are also involvedin providing proper instructions for the stabilization ofvulnerable and remaining structures for their rehabilitation,conservation, or renovation after proper planning.
As per the invitation from the Department, the Joint
Mission Team from ICCROM (as mentioned above) cameand conducted training and worked with the teams of the
Department including the site engineers, architects, andtraditional carpenters who work on shoring/supports.
Masons and some contractors were included as well. It
was also an opportunity for the national experts and thestaff of the Department for capacity building in thisprocess.

Nepalbuilding was also at risk due to secondary quakes andhundreds of aftershocks, so the situation they working inwere awful.

As the Department of Archaeology has limited manpower,
it is not possible to conduct all activities; however, it has
managed to appoint more than 65 engineers (subengineers, engineers and architects) on a contract basis for
preparing all the drawings, designs and cost estimates of
all collapsed, partially damaged and partly collapsed
monuments for their reconstruction, conservation andrenovation.
In this context, the Department of Archaeology made apublic appeal to provide older documents (historical or
prepared before the 2015 earthquake) and/or photographson the collapsed, partially damaged or partly collapsed
monuments, for which drawings and any other reliable
documents are not available in the Department. Due tothis public notice, some sketches and photographs were
provided by different stakeholders and individuals, but
nothing was found formany of the monuments. Therefore,
detailed drawings have been prepared and are still being
prepared by the newly appointed architects and engineers
through either searching the photographs or other reliablesketches and other documents or related materials as wellas preparing cost estimates; however, it is mostly notpossible to provide cost estimatesfor these kinds ofarchaeological structures which are not completely
damaged and/or collapsed.
4. Joint ICOMOS/ICCROM/WHC Reactive Monitoring
Mission – Decision of 40th Session of UNESCO WHC,
TurkeyImmediately after the earthquake in Nepal, the 39th sessionof the UNESCO World Heritage Committee was going to
be held in Bonn, Germany in July 2015. One of the draft
agendas prepared by the UNESCO World Heritage Center
proposed putting Kathmandu Valley World Heritage
property on the List of World Heritage in Danger due tothe significant damage caused by the earthquake. But thiswas not acceptable to the Government of Nepal and it
requested that thisnot be done, by way ofa formal letter aswell as during the session. The committee then decided
before discussing the matterthat the World Heritage Center
send a Joint Reactive Monitoring Mission to assess the site
and to discuss the matter further at the next session.
As per the decision of the World Heritage Committee, aJoint ICOMOS/ICCROM/WHC Reactive Monitoring Mission
observed the site (27th September – 2nd October 2015). Thiswas reported and also discussed during the 40th Session ofWorld Heritage Committee in Istanbul, Turkey. Due to theprogress in the work being done by the Government of
Nepal, which was acknowledged by the report of themission and reports by the Department of Archaeology/
Government of Nepal, the committee decided to send
another mission to Kathmandu Valley. However, theconservation, reconstruction and rehabilitation works are40

Nepalbeing carried out smoothly and it has already been
estimated that all projects will be completed within sevenyears, thus reviving the outstanding universal values of thesite.
5. Long Term Planning
The earthquake very badly damaged the significant
monuments within the Kathmandu Valley World Heritage
Property and other heritage sites as well. There is a lack oforiginal detailed drawings and designs; however, all themonuments should be renovated and reconstructed within
an adequate timeinterval. Therefore, the Department ofArchaeology, the leading and sole authority of theGovernment of Nepal for cultural heritage, has been
preparing a long-term plan. The long-term plan includes
the preparation of detailed drawings and designs depending
on detailed assessments; conservation, renovation andreconstruction planning; amendment of related legislation;
preparation of conservation guidelines; and other related
issues as well. Discussion and interaction programs havebeen conducted internally and externally, in which all the
related experts are included: structural engineers, architects,
legal experts, archaeologists, conservators, earthquake
engineers, disaster risk management experts, local
communities, traditional craftsmen, masons, contractors,
NGOs/INGOs and many other stakeholders.
6. Detailed Study Reports / Archaeological Researches andDocumentation
During the post-earthquake situation, DoA/GoN conductedmany emergency assessments and studies in cooperation
with national as well as international experts; these wereused for the immediate and temporary protection ofmonuments and sites as well. In the meantime; several
studies are still continuing as part of a somewhat endlessprocess. Some of them have been completed and used forthe implementation of conservation, reconstruction andrehabilitation projects. The detailed assessment of sevenmonument zones focusing on the earthquake-damaged
monuments was carried out by the national experts.
Rescue archaeological excavation and post earthquake
archaeological research was carried out in Hanumandhoka,
Patan and Bhaktapur Durbar Square Protected Monument
Zones in cooperation with UNESCO Office in Kathmandu
and technical support from Durham University, UK.
The elements and fragments of cultural heritage that were
salvaged during and immediately after the earthquake
were stored on an ad hoc basis inany place that wasavailable, but they were not stored in a proper way, which
was actually not possible during such a situation. Therefore,
DoA/GoN has been carrying out some significant projects
for the salvaged elements and fragments of monuments
and other cultural heritage from the site. The sorting,identification and documentation of wooden elements ofmonuments within Hanumandhoka Durbar Square PMZ is
one of the significant projects which is still continuing due
to financial support from UNESCO Office in Kathmandu.
National experts, skilled carpenters and architects
havebeen involved in this project, which has been
identifying wooden elements, from which monuments
they come from, and where they belong, including the41evidence; assembling as a complete part, i. e. , window,
door, strut etc. ; and full documentation with arecommendation that either the part would be reusable inthe same (previous) position or not, and if not, what canbe done with that fragment or element. Therefore, thisproject is a very significant kind of research which helps torevive the OUV of most of the monuments that hadcollapsed in the area. In the same way, wooden elements
which were salvaged during the earthquake from Patan
Durbar Square area are being assembled and documented.
Kathmandu Valley Preservation Trust (KVPT), an NGO,
has been supporting the DoA in this regard, as KVPT has
been working on the conservation of cultural heritage atPatan Durbar for around a decade.
All these studies, researches and activities have beensignificantly supporting the ultimate conservation,
reconstruction and rehabilitation of earthquake damaged
cultural heritage.
7. Amendment of Act, Rules and Formulation of Guidelines
The Ancient Monument Preservation Act, 2013 (1956) is
the major legislation for conservation, reconstruction andrehabilitation of cultural heritage in Nepal, and there areseveral other acts, rules and procedures as well. However,at the time of the earthquake, there were no provisions
regardingtheconservation,
reconstruction
andrehabilitation of cultural heritage in a post-earthquake or
any other disaster situation. Therefore, the DoA/GoN has
been preparing for the amendment of related acts, rules
and other procedures to introduce adequate provisions
addressing disasters and other similar contexts, especiallythe amendment of the Ancient Monument Preservation Act
and rules. In the meantime, the DoA/GoN has preparedand executed the Basic Guidelines for the Post-Earthquake
Conservation, Reconstruction and Rehabilitation of Cultural
Heritage, 2072 (2016). It was prepared in cooperation withnational experts, professionals, other governmental
institutions and related stakeholders as well; therefore, it isa very useful set of guidelines which has filled some of thegaps in addressing disasters and cultural heritage.
8. Current status of Conservation, Reconstruction andRehabilitation Projects
The Department of Archaeology has been working hard toreconstruct, renovate/conserve and rehabilitate damaged
cultural heritage since immediately after the 2015
earthquake. As the post-earthquake activities are alreadymentioned above, the conservation, reconstruction andrehabilitation of monuments is one of the great challenges
which is being carried out as part of a long-term plan by
the Government of Nepal, Department of Archaeology.
However, several government and non-governmental
agencies havealso been involved in this process. The DoA
has been carrying out 49 projects on the conservation,
reconstruction and rehabilitation of cultural heritage in FY
2015/16 (2072/73); some of them were one-year projects
which have already been completed, and some are multiyear projects which are still ongoing.
Similarly, the DoA/GoN has been implementing 102
projects; many of them are multi-year projects due to theirtechnical nature and size, comprising archaeological

The conservation and rehabilitation of Kileshwor Temple
at Changunarayan has already been completed, and which
was done as per the MoU between the DoA/GoN and
Heritage and Environmental Conservation Foundation
Nepal; Narayan Temple at Bhaktapur Durbar Square by
Bhaktapur Municipality and Sri Yantra Vatsala Temple at
Bhaktapur Durbar Square, Pati (Rest house) at Pyanggaon,
Lalitpur by the DoA/GoN have also been completed. The
broken stone pillar in front of Bhimsen Temple at Patanand stone pillar of Yog Narendra Malla in front of Patan
Durbar have been reestablished; KVPT has supported
these projects as well.
The projects supported by the Government of Sri Lanka
for the reconstruction of Rato Machhendranath Temple at
Bungamati and Anandakuti Vihara at Swayambhu arealready being implemented and works are in progress.
Many other projects are also in progress, such as Anantapur
Temple at Swaymbhu, Vatsala Temple at Bhaktapur, andothers.

1. Kileshwor Temple, Changu Narayan Damaged by the Earthquake

9. Conclusion
In any kind of disaster situation, no one thinks about
cultural/natural heritage or any other thing except humanbeings and their rescue. The Department of Archaeology
responded immediately after the April 2015 Nepal
earthquake to help save cultural heritage with thecoordination and support of its own dedicated staff,
national and international experts, agencies and individuals
who also showed their concern and responded as quickly
as possible. Humanitarian considerations are very
important in such a situation and in the post-disasterperiod as well; however, cultural heritage, which actuallyis the creation of human beings and representative of
certain periods of history, should also be important.
Realizing this, the DoA/GoN has been working smoothly
in facing several challenges and implementing many
projects as mentioned above for the conservation,
reconstruction and rehabilitation of cultural heritage
damaged by the 2015 earthquake—hopefully completed
within the allotted time frame as well. A high level ofcoordination, cooperation, support and patience is needed,as the conservation, reconstruction and rehabilitation ofcultural heritage, especially monuments, is not as easy as
constructing new buildings, bridges and other modern
structures. It takes a comparatively long time, requires ahuge budget and progress is slow due to its nature,
character and structure.

Nepal

conservation, research-based activities, preparation ofdrawings cost estimates and so on.

2. Kileshor Temple, Changunarayan After Completion

42

Nepal3. Sri Yantra Vatsala Temple, Bhaktapur

4. Reconstruction of Fasidega, Bhaktapur

5. Reconstruction of Fasidega, Bhaktapur

6. Completion of Conservation Work of Bouddha Sutpa After Earthquake 201543

New Zealand
Dr Matthew Schmidt, Regional Archaeologist Otago/Southland
Heritage New Zealand Pouhere Taonga
Introduction
During the late 1850s and early 1860s, the region of Otago
was being broken up by colonial Government surveyors
into massive pastoral runs (farms) (Figure 1). For ca. 600
years prior to this the land in the Central Otago and theLakes Districts was only traversed by Maori journeying
through these areas by foot from the west and east coasts
and Southland. Millions of acres of land were covered innative scrub, forest and wetlands and the colonial
Government was keen on exploiting this land resource forthe new European/Pakeha colony. Although by the early
21st century many pastoral runs had become private farms
or land managed as Public Conservation Land for the
public to enjoy (see Figure 1), today in the South Island
there is still over a million hectares of land which aremanaged as pastoral leases owned by the Crown andmanaged by farmers leasing the land.
William Gilbert Rees was part of a syndicate withbusinessmen Colonel William Lewis Grant & George
Gammie wanting to invest in farming in New Zealand in
the early 1860s. In 1859, Rees and his companion Nicholas
Von Tunzelman ventured into the central South Island in
search of farm land. After 3 weeks of toil through thischallenging wild landscape, they made it to the un-spoilt
land surrounding Lake Wakatipu and explored the wholebasin assessing its potential for farm development.
Returning to Dunedin from their six week arduous journey,
Rees began to purchase pastoral runs around Lake
Wakatipu on behalf of his business partners. He initiallypurchased Run 346 which consisted of most of the east
shore of the lake down to where Queenstown township istoday. He then purchased Run 356 (The ‘Shotover Run’),the Kawarau Falls Run 345 and then Run 331 (the ‘StaircaseRun’) which extended his farm almost down to Kingston at
the bottom of the lake. The total area of leases purchased
was ca. 250,000 acres (Figure 1). Von Tunzelman purchased
a lease on the western side of the lake, Run 350 locatedaround Mt. Nicholas. In 1860, Rees set about establishing
the homestead for his pastoral leases on the shores of Lake
Wakatipu in preparation for a life of farming in thisbeautiful lakes area (Figure 2).
This paper briefly looks at the history of Rees second
farmstead at Kawarau Falls Station which he moved to in
1863, what happened to this farm in later years and how
two remaining buildings from of his Kawarau Falls Station
were preserved as part of a modern development on the
shores of Lake Wakatipu.
Rees, his farm and the goldrush
It is important to understand the story behind Rees arrivaland departure from Lake Wakatipu so as to appreciate
why the remaining two buildings at his Kawarau Falls
Station are so important. When Rees returned to Lake
Wakatipu in 1860, he decided to base his homestead on

New Zealand

Heritage on the Move: The preservation of William Gilbert Rees ca. 1864 Meat Shedthe shores of Lake Wakatipu where modern Queenstown
is today (see Figure 2). This was a good location as there
was easy access to the lake and there was a good amountof room for his homestead (originally wattle and daube),
ancillary buildings and yards. Rees had purchased a boatin Bluff on the Southland coast and brought it up to
Kingston at the southern end of the lake, he named his
boat the Undine. This gave Rees the transport across thelake he needed so he could bring in building supplies andother goods from his suppliers in Southland. He thenbegan cutting down Beech Forest to open up the land. All
was looking good for Rees and he quickly brought in 3000
merino sheep driving them up over the Crown Range anddown into the Wakatipu Basin. He also had with him his
wife Francis and he hired musterers to help him on thelease. But, in 1862, Rees fortunes changed dramatically.
One of his musterers called John Tewa had discovered
gold in the Arrow River in mid-1862 and soon after so did
two of his shearers, Thomas Arthur and Harry Redfern, in
the Shotover River on 15 November 1862. It is believedthat Rees asked them to keep their discoveries quite for as
long as possible as he knew what the consequences wouldbe, this being the loss of his grazing rights to parts or all of
his pastoral leases if his leases were declared a goldfield.
Unfortunately, at the close of 1862, word got out about
gold in the Arrow River and Shotover Rivers and thousandsof miners flooded to Queenstown and its surrounding
rivers and creeks to seek their fortune. The area around
Rees lakefront homestead, woolshed and yards etc. wasdeclared part of the new Wakatipu Goldfield in 1863 andby law, he either had to move or buy the newly createdtown lots his buildings were on in Queenstown. Although
Rees fought in the court for his right to retain full grazing
rights on his pastoral leases, he lost this battle but he andhis business partners did receive compensation of £10,000.
Rees therefore moved his homestead to Kawarau Falls
Station in 1863 and bought property in Queenstown(Figure 2). It was not all bad news however.
With the influx of miners, Rees started to make goodmoney supplying the miners with meat from his land andwith goods brought into the town via his boat service from
Kingston. Rees became the main contact for supplies to
the goldfield early on as he was a 'station' owner. The term
‘station’ during the 1860 and 1870s referred to homesteads
associated with the pastoral leases that were deemed
primary supply contacts for miners and other parties inisolated areas. Rees therefore quickly corned the market asa private supplier and by 1863 he ensured his businessinterests were focused in Queenstown itself away from his
Kawarau Falls homestead. He converted his woolshed in
the town to a hotel, owned various leased properties andit has been suggested he had up to 14 businesses runningin the town by the time he left Queenstown in 1867 (today,
the 19th century Eichardt’s Hotel stands on the spot of Rees

44

New Zealandoriginal hotel). Rees became a very successful businessman
and society man very quickly helping to establish thehospital, government buildings, the Masonic lodge,
acclimatisation society, jockey club etc.
With his move to the Kawarau Falls Station in 1863, Rees
quickly built his new homestead and a number of ancillarybuildings, most of which survived into the late 20th century.
His partnership with Grant and Gammie finished in 1865
and Rees sold the Kawarau Falls lease to the Boyes
Brothers in late 1866. When Rees left Queenstown in 1867,
his contribution to the founding of the town was greatlycelebrated.
Rees Kawarau Falls Station, the Meat Shed & the Dairy
In the figures and photographs below can be seen Rees
Kawarau Falls Station at various times since 1863, as
researched by archaeologists Andrew Winter and Ben
Teele (Figures 3 to 10). In Figure 3 is shown the earliest
pictorial of the Station painted by Sir William Fox in
ca.1864. The ancillary buildings can be clearly seen andalso what are possibly the Meat Shed and Dairy. Figure 4
is a survey plan from 1865 showing the main house at theStation. Ancillary buildings known to be present are notshown in the survey. Figure 5 is a cropped section of an1866 painting by Nicholas Chevalier again possibly
showing the Meat Shed and Dairy alongside the otheroriginal Rees buildings. These early paintings of the Station
appear to support the age of the Meat Shed and Dairy tohave been built between 1863 and 1865 (Teele 2016). Thisage is quite likely as such buildings were a crucial element
for the functioning of a large sheep station.
The first known photograph of the Kawarau falls Station isfrom ca. 1872 (Figure 6). It can be clearly seen from this
cropped version of the original larger image where theMeat Shed and Dairy reside and details of their construction.
In Figure 7 is shown another image of the Station this time
taken in 1874 which illustrates the complex of buildings.
Figure 8 is an aerial photograph of the station taken in1949. The completeness of the 19th century farmstead isstill apparent with the original buildings still having afunction in the running of the property.
It can be seen from Figure 3 to 8, that over the decades
from 1863, when Rees built his first house at Kawarau Falls
Station, until 1949, all the original buildings survived thechanges in ownership of the property and this continued
until 1960 (see Winter’s 2014:7-10 research on the historyof the Rees/Boyes Brothers station). From 1960 onwards,
the farm buildings were gradually demolished as part of acampsite development with Rees homestead torn down in1987 leaving only the Meat Shed and Dairy and the flatarea where the homestead stood and its associated laurel
hedge believed to have been planted in the 1920s. Thischange to the Kawarau Falls Station cultural landscape iseffectively illustrated by a Google Earth image from 2004
(Figure 9) showing the terracing created for the camp site.
The Meat Shed and Dairy only survived the camp site
earthworks as they had a use with the Dairy utilised as asmall cabin and the Meat Shed as a storage facility. By
2009, the camp site terracing had also been destroyed
during site works for new apartments prior to the current

45

owner’s project (Figure 10).
The demolitions over the years meant that the only above
ground tangible evidence left of Rees life in Queenstown
would be these two small schist stone buildings, the Dairy
measuring 3m/4m and the Meat Shed 2.5m/3m (Figures 11
to 17). These buildings are simple in design being made oflime mortared schist stone and having a timber roof structurewith wooden shingles. In later years, both the Meat Shedand Dairy building had corrugated iron placed over theoriginal shingles and as such these are still preserved
beneath this iron. The Meat Shed still has most of its later
brick floor but the Dairy has a 20th century concrete floor.
Both structures therefore have high authenticity (see Winter2014:12-13 for a more detailed description).
Lake’s Edge Developments Ltd bought the abandoned
earlier apartments development in 2014 to undertake theirown residential development project. Extensive earthworks
were still required for this new project but one of the aimsof their development was to preserve both the Meat Shedand Dairy and as such these final tangible pieces of Rees
Kawarau Falls Station. This would be done by creating apublic reserve around the Dairy and then moving the Meat
Shed from its current location 50m to the new reserve.
The Meat Shed Moving Project
Lake’s Edge Developments Ltd engaged Civil Construction
Ltd and Helluva Build Ltd to project manage and undertakethe moving of the shed to its new location. Heritage
Engineer Lou Robinson of Hadley & Robinson Ltd designed
the moving technique (Figure 18) to ensure the building
could be moved in one piece and a heritage architect(Jackie Gillies) and archaeologist (Ben Teele) were
responsible for recording the building and any associatedarchaeology before and after the move. Jonathan Howard(Built heritage specialist) and myself of Heritage New
Zealand reviewed plans and the methodology of the moveand provided input where required. Heritage Engineer Win
Clark, working for Heritage New Zealand, also reviewed
the engineering plans before approval of these was given
by Heritage New Zealand to undertake the move.
The project required the walls of the Meat Shed to besupported by a steel and concrete beam foundation
installed around the base of the walls (Figures 19 & 20).
The building was then braced on the inside and outside
and the walls sandwiched using polystyrene, wood ply
panels and studs (Figures 18 & 21). This resulted in a solid‘box ‘within which the schist stone Meat Shed sat with a
new foundation. The final weight of the structure to be
moved was 59 tons. After some months of preparing thearea around the Meat Shed for the move as well as a roadto its final resting place and the final position, on 1 July
2016 two 100 ton cranes lifted the shed in tandem andplaced it onto a house moving truck (Figures 22 & 24). The
truck then slowly moved the shed away from the originalsite, the cranes moved to the new position, and from there
it was lifted off the truck to its final location (Figures 25 to28). The concrete strip foundation became the shed’s new
permanent foundation. The shed was then left to ‘settle’ fora few weeks before the boxing and bracing were removed.

Conclusions
This project is a good illustration of co-operation between
a private developer, its contractors, heritage specialists anda heritage agency to achieve a positive outcome for ahighly significant heritage site. The ca. 1864 Meat Shed
could not remain in its original position, so rather thandemolishing the structure or dismantling it to rebuild
somewhere else, which would both destroy the fabric andoriginal workmanship of the building, a solution to movethe shed in one piece was found and as such theauthenticity of the building was preserved. In addition, theland the Meat Shed and Dairy sit on are to become a public
reserve so the public can interact with an original piece ofRees history, this would not have been possible if the Meat
Shed had remained marooned on a small piece of land

Figure 1. Current South Island pastoral leases (source: LINZ 2016).

Possible meatshed

amongst the new residential development.
Acknowledgements
Lake’s Edge Developments Ltd, Civil Construction Ltd,
Scott Sutherland, Helluva Build Ltd, Dean Kirk, Lou
Robinson, Jackie Gillies, Andrew Winter, Ben Teele,
Jonathan Howard and Wyn Clark.

New ZealandAfter removal of the boxing and bracing, the shed waschecked for cracks and other issues and initial repairs weremade (Figure 29). Work was also begun on reinstalling theoriginal brick floor (Figures 30). By October 2016, the areaaround the Meat Shed and Dairy was landscaped. Plants
lining the path down to the Meat Shed and Dairy from the
new development were sourced from cuttings of the laurel
hedge which used to grow along the path leading to theold homestead from the lake (Figures 31).

References
Alexander Turnball Library. 1871 Provincial Map of Otago
and Southland. http://ndhadeliver.natlib.govt.nz/delivery/
DeliveryManagerServlet?dps_pid=IE457607
Beattie, James Herries. 1979. The Southern Runs. Southland
Times Co. Ltd.
Teele, Ben. 2016. Archaeological Report for Kawarau Falls
Lake Edge, Queenstown Archaeological Sites: F41/567,
Archaeological Authority: 2015/246. Origin Consultants Ltd.
Winter, Andrew. 2016. Archaeological Assessment:
Proposed subdivision of Kawarau Falls, Lake’s Edge,
Frankton. August 2016. Jackie Gillies & Assoc’s.

Figure 2. Location of Rees first homestead established in Queenstown in1860 and his 1863 Kawarau Falls Station.

Possible dairy

Figure 3. Painting of Rees Kawarau Falls Station by Sir William Fox, c.1864(source: Alexander Turnbull Library. Image sourced and Meat Shed
& Dairy indicated by Ben Teele of Origin Consultants).

Figure 4. 1865 survey map of Rees Kawarau Falls Station (source: LINZ.
Image sourced by Andrew Winter).

46

New ZealandPossible meatshed
Possible dairy

Figure 5. Crop of 1866 painting of Kawarau Falls and Rees Station by
Nicholas Chevalier (source: Te Papa. Image sourced and Meat Shed
& Dairy indicated by Ben Teele of Origin Consultants Ltd).

Meat Shed Stables

Meat Shed

Huts

Stables Dairy
Store

Extension
House

Figure 6. Crop of first known photograph of Rees Kawarau Falls Station
probably from 1872. The Meat Shed & Dairy can be clearly seen.
(source: Te Papa. Image sourced and Meat Shed & Dairy indicatedby Andrew Winter).

Dairy HouseStore

Figure 7. Photograph taken of the Station in 1874 (source: Lakes District
Museum. Meat Shed & Dairy indicated by Matthew Schmidt HNZPT).

Dairy
Meat Shed
Figure 8. Aerial photograph of Kawarau Falls Station taken in 1949. Note thatthe 19th century buildings are still present (source: VC Browne &Son. Photo marked up by Andrew Winter and Matthew Schmidt,
HNZPT).

Figure 9. Google Earth image of the Kawarau Falls Station from 2004 showing
the campsite terracing and the two remaining Rees buildings, theMeat Shed and the Dairy and the laurel hedge.

Dairy
Meat Shed

Figure 10. Google Earth image of the Kawarau Falls Station from 2009
showing the extensive earthworks undertaken by the owner of theproperty at that time.

47

Figure 11. The Meat Shed in 2015 showing its isolation within the residential
development (photo: Ben Teele, Origin Consultants Ltd).

New Zealand

Meat Shed
Dairy

Figure 12. The front of the Meat Shed showing the
Dairy in the background (photo: Andrew
Winter, 2014).

Figure 13. The interior of the Meat Shed showing
the schist walls (parts rendered), timberroof, meat hanging bars and hooks andthe doorway (photo: Ben Teele, Origin
Consultants Ltd, 2015).

Figure 14. The interior of the Meat Shed showing
the brick floor (photo: Ben Teele, Origin
Consultants Ltd, 2015).

Figure 15. The Dairy building showing the entrance
doorway. The schist is hidden by acement render (photo: Matthew Schmidt,
HNZPT, 2016).

Figure 16. The back and side of the Dairy building(photo: Matthew Schmidt, HNZPT, 2016).

Figure 17. The interior of the Dairy building (photo:
Matthew Schmidt, HNZPT, 2016).

Figure 18. The moving technique for the Meat Shed designed by Lou Robinson of Hadley & Robinson Ltd.

Figure 20. Close view of the concrete beam strip
foundation and other bracing prior to themove (photo: Matthew Schmidt, HNZPT,
2016).

Figure 21. The Meat Shed all braced with cranestrops connected to the lifting corbels(photo: Matthew Schmidt, HNZPT, 2016).

Figure 19. The Meat Shed prior to preparation formoving (photo: Ben Teele, Origin
Consultants Ltd, 2016).

Figure 22. The cranes ready to lift the 59 ton Meat
Shed (photo: Matthew Schmidt, HNZPT,
2016).

48

New ZealandFigure 23. The Meat Shed successfully lifted andthe beginning of the slow move over tothe moving truck (photo: Jackie Gillies,
Origin Consultants Ltd, 2016).

Figure 24. The Meat Shed on the house moving
truck on its way to the new location 50m
from its original location (photo: Matthew
Schmidt, HNZPT, 2016).

Figure 25. The Meat Shed being backed into placenext to its new location (photo: Matthew
Schmidt, HNZPT, 2016).

Figure 26. Some of the moving team, from left: Lou
Robinson of Hadley & Robinson, Scott
Sutherland of Civil Construction Ltd,
Matthew Schmidt of Heritage New
Zealand Pouhere Taonga and Jackie
Gillies of Origin Consultants Ltd (photo:
Matthew Schmidt, HNZPT, 2016).

49

Figure 27. The carcase hanging hooks in place(photo: Matthew Schmidt, HNZPT, 2016).

Figure 28. Plan showing the new location of the Meat Shed next to the Dairy in the public reserve (plansupplied by Lake’s Edge Developments Ltd).

Figure 29. Landscaping works underway around theMeat Shed as well as initial repairs to thebuilding. Pictured from left are Scott
Sutherland of Civil Construction Ltd andDean Kirk who undertook the repairs(photo: Matthew Schmidt, HNZPT, 2016).

Figure 30. The brick floor of the Meat Shed being
reinstated (photo: Matthew Schmidt,
HNZPT, 2016).

Figure 31. The entranceway to the new reserve, theMeat Shed is on the right and the Dairy
is on the left. The plantings are cuttingsfrom the laurel hedge which led from thelake to the homestead (photo: Matthew
Schmidt, HNZPT, 2016).

Pakistan
Pakistan

A Recent Study of the Individual Buddha Stone Sculptures from Gandhara, Pakistan
Tahir Saeed, Ph.D. scholar / Deputy Director
Federal Department of Archaeology and Museums, Islamabad, Pakistan
Introduction:
Pakistan, situated in South Asia, is one of the fortunate
countries in the world which has been home to a numberof civilizations. It is gifted with a great number ofarchaeological sites and historical monuments on its soil.
These historic assets are our link with our past and, as thecustodians, it is incumbent upon all of us to preserve themfor posterity. Pakistan is the land that beckoned Alexander
the Great to sail down the river Jhelum, and Pakistan’s
historic assets include the spectacular Gandharancivilization as the seat of Buddhism; the devotional
carvings of the Hindu Shahi temples of the Salt Range andTharparkar; the funerary clusters of Historical Monuments
at Makli, Thatta; Multan and Ucch Sharif, representing
successive Sultanate dynasties; the Sikh architectural
heritage following the Great Mughal’s contribution to theart and culture of this region, and the legacy of the British,
who colonised this land before the independence ofPakistan on 14th August, 1947.
Gandhāra and Buddhism:
The Gandhāra region is situated in the north-western partof the Indian sub-continent, with the steep mountain
ranges of the Karakoram, the Pamirs and the Hindu Kush
bordering it. It comprises present-day Peshāwar Valley,
Bajaur, Buner, and Swāt. Swāt, once called Uddiyana, is
one of the most important regions in the northern part ofPakistan and a centre of great archaeological interest, richin cultural remains of the past. Alexander the Great cameto Swāt, Ora in 327 BCE. Arrian, the historian of Alexander,
distinctly mentioned three flourishing towns in Swāt, oneof them being Ora, modern-day Udegram.
The spread of Buddhism in ancient times followed thepath of the Silk Road. One of the main routes of the GreatSilk Route passed through Karakorum, linking Kashgarwith Kashmir and Gandhāra. Countless people travelledalong this Silk Route over the span of one thousand years.
Their evidence is depicted on the rocky cliffs on thewaysides and on rough boulders, strewn in the upper
valley of the Indus River and its tributaries. Due to its
prime position, the region of Gandhāra served as a gateway
to the Silk Route, giving access to Central Asia and to thecountries of the East and West.

Map 1 Location map of Pakistan

Map 2 Gandhāra region

50

Pakistan

Buddhist Stūpas and Monasteries in Gandhāra:
During the lifetime of Buddha two types of Buddhist
establishments were constructed: viharas and sangharama.
The former were erected for meditation purposes.
However, later on, venerated objects were also kept inside
the viharas for the sake of worship; they were later built as
living quarters for the monks. The concept of stūpa as aworshipping entity was adopted by followers after thedeath of Buddha. Thus stūpa became the third importantcomponent of Buddhist establishments alongside theviharas and sangharama. These were not only built in the
Indian territories, but were also adopted by the patrons of
the Gandhāra Valley. In the Gandhāra region andparticularly in Taxila Valley, many Buddhist shrines fromthe 3rd century BCE to the 5th century CE have been
exposed and uncovered by the spades of archaeologists.

Map 3: Location of the most important archaeological sites in the Gandhāra region, namely: Ali Masjid, Shah-ji-ki Dheri, Shaikhan Dheri, Bala Hisar, Mohmmand
Nari, Takht-i-Bahi, Sehr-i-Bahlol, Chanaka Dheri, Mekha Sanda, Sikri, Jamalgarhi, Shahbazgarhi, Thareli, Palai, Chat Pat, Kashmir Smast, Sanghao,
Loriyan Tangai, Gumbat, Barikot, Andan Dheri, Nimogram, Gumbatuna, Udegram, Panr, Butkara, Shaidu Sharif, Shanisha, Zaro Dheri, Bhamala, Taxila,
Mankiyala, etc.

A large number of Buddhist settlements, stūpas andmonasteries were erected by Buddhists in the present-day
Malakand area, Totakan in Zulamkot Valley, Loriyan
Tangai, Allah Dand Dheri and over the hill of Shahkot.
There are also remains of Dabar Tangai and Guniar at
Thana. Then in the sub-valley of Barikot: the ancient IndoGreek city of Bazira and other noteworthy Buddhist
sanctuaries including Udegram, the Ora of Greek
Historians, Kanjar Kote, Nat Maira, Tokardara, Amluk
Dara, Najigram, Abba Sahib China, Nawagai, Abu Tangai,
Shingardar and rock carvings near the village of Tindodag.
In Swāt Valley, other imposing Buddhist establishments
are at Saidu, Butkara-I, Butkara-III, Loebanr Stūpa, Arab
Khan China, Dangram, Jorjorai, Topdara, Panr, Baligramand Shanasha, including a large number of rock carvings.
Then to the north of Mingora Swāt, an important Buddha
rock image is on a high rock near Jahanabad. Another allembracing Buddhist site is located on the Malamjaba plainsnext to Manglawar.
Gandhāra Art:
Gandhāra Art has been a focus of attention for both eastern
and western scholars since its discovery in the early 19th
century CE. The Indus-Oxus region covers the Indus
Valley and Oxus Valley and the territory between them.
This area compriseda number of ancient states including
Ud. d. iyāna (Malakand Division), and Gandhāra (Peshāwar
Valley), which are now situated in Pakistan and Kapisa(Panjshir-Ghorband Valley) and Bactria in Afghanistan.
The sculptural or regional styles of these states differedslightly and therefore may be referred to as Ud. d. iyāna,
Gandhāra, Kapisa and Bactrian. However, due to large-

51

scale interaction among these states, the regional styles
share some broad characteristics and collectively could becalled the “Indus-Oxus School of Buddhist Art”.
The Patronage of Gandhāra Art and the Artists:
Buddhist artists began very early to represent with chisel
and brush not only figures of Buddha, Bodhisattvas andother Buddhist teachers and saints, but also episodes fromthe last earthly existence of the master, and from the seriesof his former incarnations. The caves, stūpas and temples
are covered with numerous representations of this kind,but only some of these treasures are accessible to us intrustworthy reproductions and of these, only a small
number have been satisfactorily explained.
Subject Matter of Gandhāra Art:
The subject of Gandhāra Art was propagation of Buddhism
with the help of different types of sculptures carved indifferent mediums, such as schist stone, stucco, terracotta,
bronze, metal, iron, wood and artworks or paintings. It is
generally believed that art plays a great role in mostreligions as it serves to educate and to bring the practitioner
close to a religious goal. In Buddhism too the work of art
acted as a focus for meditation, which is a key element topracticing the religion. In Buddhist art, Buddha himself is
one of the most important sculptural subjects.
Anthropomorphic Representation of Buddha:
The Buddha image is distinguishable by appropriate
attributes; one of these, an enlargement or bump on thehead (or “turban”) may have originated in Gandhārafor the practice of gathering the hair into a topknot beneathIbrahimzai, Utmanai, Hamid Garhi, Turangzai, Bala Hisar
and Sheikhan Dheri in Charsada, Takht-i-Bahi, Jamal
Garhi, and Sehr-i-Behlol in Mardan, Aziz Dheri in Swabi,
Butkara-I & II, Saidu Sharif sites in Swāt, Andan Dheri,
Chatpat, in Dir, Munkar Dheri, Shahbazgarhi, Mansehra,
Chanaka Dheri, Mekha Sanda, Thareli, Sirkap, Sirsukh,
Mohra Moradu, and Jaulian in Taxila, along with manyother sites in the Gandhāra region.

In Gandhāra, thousands of Buddha images were carved
after the earliest Buddha image appeared on coins of
Kanishka. The individual images were enshrined forworship in the chapels of the monasteries and sometimes
in the niches of the stūpas. The flat rectangular friezes
were fixed against the bases of the stūpas and as stairriserswith iron nails and hooks. The curved panels were fixed at
the tiered drums of the stūpas, which form a complete
circle after being joined together.

Significance of Sub-Regional Office, Peshawār Collection:
The Sub-Regional Office (SRO) Peshāwar Collection is thestorage of the former Sub- Regional Office of the Federal
Department of Archaeology and Museums, which ispresently under the administrative control of the Directorateof Archaeology & Museums, Government of Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa as a consequence of the 18th constitutional
amendment in 2011. This storage was developed from thecollection of the Archaeological Survey of India, Frontier
Circle during the first half of the 20th century throughout
the colonial period and after the independence of Pakistan.

Subject Matter of the Collection:
The subject matter of the S.R.O Peshāwar Collection ismainly Buddhist cult images which were carved in theGandhāra region during the 2nd to 6th centuries CE by thezealous Buddhist artisans of Gandhāra. The Buddhist
collection comprises: the life of the Buddha depicted inreliefs, individual images of Buddha and Bodhisattva,
architectural elements such as Stūpa pegs, harmika,
brackets, capitals, pilasters, stūpa models, and panels
showing Buddha or Bodhisattva, as well as different scenes
from the life of Buddha.
The Buddhist sculptures were fixed to the bases, drums
and stairs of the Buddhist stūpas, around which worshipers
circumambulated. The individual Buddha images wereused to fill the niches around the stūpas and monasteries.
The “harmika” (solid box in a square) above the dome ofthe stūpa was carved on all sides with stories from
Buddha’s life, which were chiseled on stone tablets andfixed to the stūpas, inside which the “relics” of Buddha
were kept in a casket for worship. Some major
iconographical features of the Buddha image is observed
as follows:i)

The image of Buddha is offered as “motionless”, which
gives a sense of strength.
ii) His image is always drawn on a straight line, whether
seated or in a standing position.
iii) Buddha is always shown as the “focal point” in every
image.
iv) The Buddha image is represented as a “versatile
personality”.
v) When Buddha is seated on a lotus flower, (or lotus
throne), it gives the sense of a circle.
vi) Buddha is depicted always in the “Central Position”.
vii) The composition of Buddha images shows “rhythm”
as they are always very mathematical in their finish.
The S.R.O Peshāwar Collection comprises one of the mostextensive collections of Gandhāra Art in Pakistan, coming
mostly from the Gandhāran sites. Some of the mostimportant sites in the Gandhāra region excavated andworth mentioning are: Shah-ji-ki Dheri, Peshāwar, Palatu
Dheri, Ghaz Dheri, Mamane Dheri, Akhun Dheri,

Pakistana turban and only subsequently taken as a protruding
skullbone, which was worshiped (Ca. 400 CE) at Hadda asa relic. The Buddha’s hair in Gandhāra is usually carved inundulating lines drawn back from the forehead with theoften circled by a band. Another attribute is the, a tuft of hair between the eyebrows, shown on the
sculptures as a small raised circle or a depression where agemstone had marked it.

The collection came from the archaeological excavations
mainly conducted by the Archaeological Survey of India
during the 20th century and later on after the independenceof Pakistan by the Federal Department of Archaeology &Museums at the different sites of Gandhāra such as Munkar
Dheri, Jamal Garhi, Shahbaz Garhi, and Takht-i-Bahi,
including Japanese excavations at Chanaka Dheri, Mekha
Sanda, Thareli, and District Mardan. The antiquities
included those which came through acquisitions, donations
or gifts as well as confiscated material received throughthe Customs authorities, police departments and staff ofthe Federal Department of Archaeology & Museums fromtime to time. The collection comprises 2, 891 registeredantiquities in the Accession Register of S.R.O Peshāwar
mainly pertaining to the Gandhāra region.
The whole collection comprises stone and stucco
sculptures, architectural elements, panels, terracotta
figurines, ivory/bone objects, coins, manuscripts, andethnological material. The S.R.O Peshāwar Collection
contains 130 individual Buddha images in schist stone. As
far as the material of the collection is concerned, the main
medium of these objects is schist, whereas stucco material
is also present. Besides these, there are also antiquities inbronze and terracotta. Of 2, 891 antiquities in the collection,
2, 253 are in schist, 454 in stucco, 109 in bronze, 70 interracotta, and 5 in ivory/bone material.
Material Analysis of Buddha Images in the Collection:
The prime material of the individual Buddha stone images
in the S.R.O Peshawār Collection is schist, which can befurther divided into three types: black schist, grey orgreenish schist and green schist. Out of 130 Buddha
images, four are in black schist, 67 in grey schist and 59 ingreen schist, comprising 3%, 49% and 47%, respectively, ofthe material. During examination of these sculptures, two
Buddha heads in black schist, 32 Buddha heads in grey
schist and 15 Buddha heads in green schist were identified.
Similarly in the collection, out of 81 Buddha images, twowere found in black schist, while 32 in grey and 47 Buddha
images in green schist were identified.

52

Pakistan

During the research study, 32 Buddha images inabhayamudrā were found in the collection, which
included one image in black schist, 10 in grey schist and
21 in green schist. The 28 sculptures of Buddha indhyānamudrā included 15 images in grey schist and 13
images in green schist, with no images of the Buddha inblack schist. The nine Buddha images in dharmacakramudrā
included one image in black schist, three in grey schist andfive in green schist. Similarly, out of 12 images of Buddha’s
bust, fragments, etc. , four images were in grey schist andeight in green schist, with no images in black schist foundin this category of the collection.
Dimensional Size of Buddha Images:
Three types of stone sculptures are predominant in thecollection: relief panels, individual carved images, andstelae. The relief panels were used to face the walls ofstūpas, chapels and monasteries. These were sculptured
with subjects selected from the life of Sakyamuni andpresented in a serried manner. The individual carved
images were designed to be placed against a wall. In the
S.R.O Collection 51 miniature stelae, 10 small stelae, 43
Stelae, and 26 life-sized Buddha images were recorded,
comprising 39%, 8%, 33% and 20%, respectively, of thekind of sculptures.
Chronology of Buddha Images:
The Buddha images mentioned below pertain to four
periods:
The first period, about the 1st century CE, represents theformative period of the Buddhist art of Gandhāra. During
this period, the figure modeling followed the Hellenisticstyle in the rendering of postures and drapery. Buddha
images were produced with the height and physicalappearance of a human being but with the addition of ahalo and. However, the oversize, the wide
open eyes and delicate mustache and stiff drapery folds ofthe robe display Greek artistic influence.
The second period corresponds to Kanishka’s rule, about
the end of the 1st century CE or the beginning of the 2nd
century CE to the mid 2nd century CE. During this time,
Buddha images are rendered with a flat
, a prominentmark, half-closed eyes and delicate moustache. The
Buddha wears a monastic robe covering both his shoulders,akin to the himation of ancient Greece, and the drapery
folds are cut in convex form as in the Greek style.
The third period, from the mid 2nd century CE to the firsthalf of the 3rd century CE, is chiefly during the rules ofHuvishka and Vasudeva. Buddha images during this timeshow them at their height of their perfection. In this period
the images present Buddha as a typical Apollo Greek god,with oval face and well elaborated facial features. The
forehead is somewhat higher, the central hair line ispushed back, the hair brushed backward with wavy locks,
eyebrows fine and curved with thecarved in between,
the canthus are thus deep and the eyes half-closed,suggesting the spiritual state of meditation. The nose ishigh and the bridge of the nose is connected to theforehead in a straight line, the lips are thinner, the cornersof the mouth sink more deeply, and most of these images
are without moustaches. The Buddha is shown in a

53

monastic robe covering both his shoulders with massive
drapery folds. The round halo is depicted in plain.
The fourth period, from the second half of the 4th century
CE to the end of the 5th – 6th centuries CE, took place under
the rule of the Kidara Kushanas. In this period, Buddha
images not only followed the model of the previous three
periods, but also immersed some features from the Gupta
art of India, notably a round face, spirited expressions,thin drapery and a realistic rendering of the body of
Buddha.
Provenance of Buddha Images in the Collection:
The study of Buddhist archaeology in Gandhāra since thebeginning of the 18th century started first with an antiquarian
interest without applying any scientific methods or
excavation techniques. At the beginning of the 20th century,
however, when the subject attracted the attention of thescholarly world, a more systematic and scientific approach
was developed. A large number of Buddhist sites inGandhāra were thoroughly investigated, but it is very
unfortunate that the materials, particularly the schist
sculptures, recovered from these sites were studied
according to their style or analogy rather than theircontextual, stratigraphic and historical background. The
sculptures found during the course of the archaeologicalexcavations are generally associated with the very long
period of the Kushans, who ruled over Gandhāra fromabout the 1st to 3rd centuries CE.
As regards the possible provenance of Buddha images in
the collection, we can declare without any doubt that mostof these images belong to the different sites of Gandharā,
except a small number of Buddha images which we havedeclared as being ascribed to early artistic productions ofSwāt and Buner. For example we have five Buddha heads
from this early period, most probably from the Swāt andBuner areas. Under the present study, however, theprovenance of 11 images is known, having been excavatedfrom the Mohmmand Nari, Thareli, Mekha Sanda andTakht-i-Bahi sites.
The Buddha images from the Mohmmand Nari site
constitute one Buddha head, one Buddha inabhayamudrāposture and one Buddha mage indhyānamudrā. There are five Buddha images reported
from the Thareli site, plus three Buddha heads, one
Buddha in abhayamudrā and one Buddha indhyānamudrā. Another site from where Buddha images
are reported is Mekha Sanda. Two Buddha heads are
mentioned from this site. There is one Buddha head whichis reported from the site of Takht-i-Bahi, District Mardan.
During the comparative analysis of Buddha images under
the present research study, it was found that the Buddha
images from the sites of Mohmmand Nari, Thareli, Mekha
Sanda and Takht-i-Bahi have a very close affinity andresemblance to the Buddha images reported from thedifferent Gandhāran sites such as Butkara-I, Swāt valley,
Sikri, Sheikhan Dheri, Aziz Dheri, Sehre-i-Behlol, Takht-iBahi, Peshāwar Valley and other Gandhāran sites. For
instance, one Buddha head from the Mohmmand Nari site
has a close affinity and resemblance to a Buddha headA Buddha in abhayamudrā is from Mekha Sanda and wellcomparable due its iconographical features and affinity
with a Buddha reported from Sheikhan Dheri, and another
Buddha in abhayamudrā from the Thareli site iscomparable with the same Buddha image from Sheikhan
Dheri. A Buddha image in dhyānamudrā posture from an
unknown site is comparable with a Buddha image from
Aziz Dheri.
The above discussion proves and provides sufficient foodfor thought that the Buddha images of unknown
provenance in the S.R.O Peshāwar Collection are wellcomparable with the Buddha images which have beenreported from the different sites of Gandhāra such as:
Butkara-I, Swāt Valley and Sikri, Sheikhan Dheri, Aziz
Dheri, Sehri-i-Behlol, Takht-i-Bahi, in PeshāwarValley andother sites from the Gandhāra region.

5. Dani, A. H. (1995) Peshawar, City of the Frontier,
Sange-e-Meel Publications, Lahore, Pakistan.
6. Foucher, A (1901) The Beginnings of Buddhist Art,
London.
7. Ingholt, H, and Lyons, I. (1957) Gandhara Art inPakistan, New York, USA.
8. Khan, M. Ashraf. (1993) Gandhara Sculptures in theSwāt Museum, Saidu Sharif, Swāt, Pakistan.
9. Kurita, Isao. (1990) Ancient Buddhist Art Series,
Gandhara Art-II, The World of the Buddha, Japan.
10. Marshall, Sir John (1912-13) Excavation at Taxila,
Annual Report of Archaeological Survey of India.
11. Olivieri, Luca M (2014) The Last Phases of the urbansite at Bir-kot Ghwandai(Barikot), The Buddhist sitesof Gumbat and Amlukdara (Barikot), Sang-e-Meel
Publication, Lahore, Pakistan.
12. Schmidt, Carolyn Woodford (1990) Bodhisattva
Headdresses and Hair Styles in the Buddhist Art of
Gandhāra and Related Regions of Swāt and Afghanistan,
unpublished Ph. D dissertation, The Ohio State
University, U. S. A.

References
1. Ali, Ihsan & Qazi, M. Naeem (2008) Gandharan
Sculptures in the Peshawar Museum, Hazara University,
Mansehra, Pakistan.

13. Swati, Farooq M. & Khan Ashraf, M. (2012) Sculpturesfrom the Buddhist site at Tokardara (Nagigram), Swāt,
Journal of Asian Civilization, Vol. 35, No. 1, Quaid-iAzam University, Islamabad, Pakistan.

2. Banerjee, Gauranga Nath (1920) Hellenism in AncientIndia, Butterworth and Co. Calcutta, India.

14. Tissot, Francine (1991) New Roads and Old Tracks to
China, Pakistan Archaeology No. 26, Department ofArchaeology and Museums, Karachi, Pakistan.

3. Coomaraswamy, A. K. (1927) The Origin of the Buddha
image, The Art Bulletin, College Art Association, Vol. 9,
No. 4.

Pakistanfrom Sikri. Another Buddha head which is reported to befrom the Takht-i-Bahi site has similar iconographic featuresand style comparable with a Buddha image from Sehr-iBehlol and now preserved in Islamabad Museum. A
Buddha head from an unknown site is comparable with a
Buddha head discovered at Butkara-I and now preservedin Swāt Museum. We also have a Buddha head whichcame from Thareli site and is comparable with another
Buddha head from Sehr-i-Behlol, now in Peshāwar
Museum.

15. Zwalf, W (1996) A catalogue of the Gandhara Sculpturesin the British Museum, Vol. 2, British Museum Press, U.
K.

4. Cumming, J (1939) Revealing India’s Past, London.

54

PakistanFig. 1 Buddha head from MekhaSanda

55

Fig. 2 Buddha head from Thareli

Fig. 3 Buddha head from Takht-i-Bahi

Fig. 4 Buddha in abhayamudrā posefrom Mohammad NariFig. 5 Buddha in abhayamudrā pose from Thareli

Fig. 6 Buddha in dhyanamudrā pose from
Mohammed NariFig. 7 Buddha in dhyanamudrā posefrom Thareli

Fig. 8 Buddha in dhyanamudrā pose from Palatu
Dheri, near Charsada.

Philippines
Louella Solmerano Revilla, Head-Conservation Laboratory
San Agustin Museum, Intramuros, Manila
Introduction
The Manila Metropolitan Cathedral-Basilica is located at
Plaza Roma in the Intramuros district of the City of Manila.
This paper will highlight its prominence in the religious lifeof the Filipino people. The Cathedral has stood witness tomany historic events in the country. It evolved from a
simple Parish, into a Cathedral, and was eventually
declared a Basilica. From 1571-1945, it experienced
devastation and damages caused by fire, a series ofcalamities and war, each time rising from its ruins. The
present cathedral remains a magnificent structure since its
last reconstruction in 1958, although sustainability anddurability must entail to ensure that the building will last fora long period of time. The Cathedral must have a soundstructure to endure modest earthquakes, if not all. The
manifestations of damages and deterioration to the building

Philippines

Restoration of the Roman Catholic Manila Metropolitan Cathedral-Basilica

led to retrofitting works from 2013 up to the present (2016),
a preventive measure seriously taken after the result of theearthquake in October 2013 that ravaged historic churches
in the southern part of the Philippines.
The Manila Cathedral is the only church in the Philippines
to be declared a Minor Basilica in 1981 upon the late Holy
Father, Pope John Paul II’s, own motion which earned it
the title of the Basilica of the Immaculate Conception. His
Holiness Pope Francis has called the year, from December
8, 2015 to November 20, 2016, the Jubilee celebration of
Mercy. He encourages compassion and mercy to bepracticed in the daily lives of the faithful. H.E. Cardinal Luis
Antonio Tagle has declared in the Holy Year of Mercy 2016,
five Jubilee churches including the Manila Cathedral as apilgrimage destination.

Interior of the Cathedral, 2016

Exterior of the Cathedral, 2016
Completion of the major restoration works was done in time for the awaited visit of Pope Francis in
the Philippines last January 2015. The Holy Father officiated the mass at the Manila Cathedral and
Luneta attended by millions of people. He also went to Palo, Tacloban and Leyte afterwards to show
his support for the victims of typhoon Yolanda.

Historical Background
Before the church became a Cathedral, it was established
as a Parish Church in 1571. It was constructed upon theinitiation of the Spanish Conquistador Don Miguel López
de Legazpi. The church was made of light material, of nipa
and bamboo. Manila became a Diocese of Mexico in 1578.
On December 21, 1581, it was elevated into a Cathedral
under the title of the Immaculate Conception of theBlessed Virgin Mary. This happened two years after Pope
Gregory established the Diocese of Manila, which wasplaced under the supervision of the Archbishop of Mexico.
It was destroyed by fire in 1583 and reconstructed fromwood, nipa, and bamboo. A typhoon hit Manila anddestroyed the Cathedral again on June 15, 1583.

Pilgrims inside the Cathedral, 2016

In 1591, Bishop Domingo Salazar initiated the building of
the 2nd Cathedral, wherein a sturdier material made ofstone and mortar was used. This was destroyed by a seriesof powerful earthquakes in 1599 and 1600.
Efforts were made to rebuild the 3rd Cathedral during thetime of Archbishop Benavides and Archbishop Mercado
between 1621-1645. An earthquake partially damaged theCathedral in 1621. It was completely destroyed during theDecember 5, 1645 earthquake. The Cathedral services
were transferred to the Misericordia Church.
The building of the 4th Cathedral was started by Archbishop
Poblete in 1654 and completed in 1681. It was damaged bytyphoons and earthquakes and repaired in 1706 by

56

Philippines

Archbishop Camacho. Repairs continued in 1736 underArchbishop Rodriguez. The Cathedral was in a dilapidated
in 1747. It was declared unsafe and demolished in 1751.
The 5th Cathedral was rebuilt on the same site starting in
1751 under Archbishop Pedro de la Santisima Trinidad andwas inaugurated on December 8, 1760. It was designed by
Fray Juan de Uguccioni. Later on it was repaired andrenovated in 1850 by Ojeda. Another earthquake destroyed
the Cathedral on September 16, 1852, leaving only the
façade standing.
The building of the 6th Cathedral started in 1854 and wascompleted in March 31, 1858, designed by Nicolas Valdes.
It was known to be a magnificent structure. It wasdestroyed by the January 3, 1863 earthquake. However,the belltower survived the tremor.
The 7th Cathedral to be built was designed by Don Vicente
Serrano who employed the Romanesque-Byzantine style.
Construction started in 1870 and was completed in 1879.
Three prominent architects worked on the Cathedral,
namely Luciano Oliver, Vicente Serrano Salaverria and
Eduardo Lopez Navarro. It was blessed by Archbishop
Pedro Payo. The church’s external appearance wascharacterized by round arches, thick walls and large
towers. The interior was richly decorated, the arches

1880

Restoration after 1945

The reconstruction of the 8th and present Cathedral started
in May 1954 and was completed in December 1958 under
the direction of Archbishop Rufino Cardinal Santos,
designed by Architect Fernando Ocampo. The stained
glass windows were by Galo Ocampo. The Cathedral
received donations from Japan, Spain, and the UnitedStates among others. Inspired by Serrano’s design, he
added to its previous appearance. He made use of marbled
floors, mosaic panels, arcaded colonnades, lovely columns,
and an Immaculate Conception themed Cathedral. His
Neo-Romanesque design is a combination of Revival,
Renaissance and Modern styles. The present Cathedral is a
product of the old Cathedral’s great design mixed with
Ocampo’s architectural touch. The cathedral adopted the
Neo-Byzantine and Neo-Romanesque styles. The ceilings,
arches, pineapple finials, stained glass depicting the life of
the Virgin Mary, the belltower, large dome, bronze door
portraying the history of the Cathedral, and images ofsaints on the doorways contribute to the harmonious
aesthetic appearance of the structure.

1937

Ruins after WWII

Floor plan by Arch. Ocampo

It was in February 1981 when Pope John Paul II came to
Manila and expressed his desire for the Manila Cathedral
to become a Basilica to H.E. Jaime L. Cardinal Sin, the thenArchbishop of Manila. On April 27, 1981, just a few months
later, the Manila Metropolitan Cathedral was elevated to
the rank of a Minor Basilica of the Immaculate Conception
by virtue of a Papal Bull (decree) issued by Pope John
Paul II as an enduring witness to the faith of millions ofFilipinos and as the venue of many important religious

57

beautifully ornamented. The 1880 earthquake crumbled
the bell tower to the ground. It housed wounded American
soldiers during the Philippine–American War of 1899-1902.
The 7th Cathedral was fully destroyed in 1945 during theLiberation of the Philippines in World War II.

1958 Reconstruction

activities. A historic moment in the Catholic Church
happened when Popes John Paul II & John XXIII werecanonized and declared Saints by Pope Francis with thepresence of Pope Benedict XVI on April 27, 2014 at the
Vatican City. Special church liturgical masses in thePhilippines were celebrated during this period.
Initial assessment of the Manila Cathedral
His Eminence Cardinal Luis Antonio G. Tagle III orderedPhilippines

Plaque placed on the wall of the Cathedral
on April 18, 1965 in recognition of thegenerous donations, for the reconstruction of
the church, from the people of thePhilippines and Japan, the latter through theintervention of H.E. Iwataro Uchiyama,
Governor of the Prefecture of Kanagawa,alongside two other plaques for the USA andSpain.

the closure of the Manila Cathedral Basilica for a certain
period due to concerns over the structural integrity of theBasilica. According to the contractor’s report by SP Castro
Inc., various cracks had appeared in its interior walls,
fragments were falling from adobe walls due to exposure
to the elements over the years, and there were perennial
leaks in different parts of the Cathedral, and sometimes
flooding literally inside the Cathedral during heavy rain
due to clogging of the interior storm drainage system of
the Cathedral. A structural retrofitting consultant was
engaged by the Cathedral to look into the present state of
the structure. The initial findings were alarming as theconclusion points to major retrofitting works which arenecessary to ensure that the Cathedral is structurally safefor the end users.
Summary of the restoration and retrofitting works
1. Planning for retrofitting works: The Manila
Metropolitan Cathedral-Basilica Foundation, Inc.
engaged a structural consultant in 2010 to do athorough investigation and prepare retrofitting plans.
There was likewise a need to look into the electricalsystems of the Cathedral, as usage over the past 50
years had taken its toll on most of its electricalcomponents such as power, the lighting system andaudio/video systems. To gain a holistic view of theretrofitting and enhancement, the scope of thestructural consultant was expanded to include
electrical works, plumbing and drainage works. Dueto lack of as-built plans, the entire structure wasmapped using available sophisticated digitaltechnology to come up with images which werethen converted into floor plans and elevation
drawings. These were further enhanced using oldplans and visual observations becoming the baseupon which the consultants prepared the structural
retrofitting plans.
2. Engagement of a project manager and other design
consultants and specialty suppliers: Once the plans
were completed and ready for execution, MMCBFI(Manila Metropolitan Cathedral Basilica Foundation,Inc.) decided to engage a project manager and after
evaluation of various proposals, SP Castro Inc. wasengaged on January 10, 2013. They immediately
conducted an inventory of the available documents
and information and site inspection to obtain an
overall perspective of the challenges and constraints

regarding the retrofitting and restoration works. To
address other concerns in the restoration, otherconsultants were also recommended.
3. Design review and revalidation of the retrofitting
plans: After a due diligence review and validation of
MCB (Manila Cathedral-Basilica), there were somerevisions and modifications in the structural
retrofitting designs due to actual site condition.
4. Construction phase: A six month timetable tocomplete the restoration works was agreed to beaccomplished from June 2013 to November 2013.
The restoration works of the Manila CathedralBasilica was divided into three phases namely: 4.1)
Engineering Restoration, 4.2) Special Systems
Enhancement, and 4.3) Architectural.
4.1) The Engineering Restoration was further
subdivided into: 4.1.1) Structural Restoration which
involved strengthening the foundation consisting of
main pillars and twin columns supporting the nave,
selected beams of the Cathedral, and columns of thebell tower; 4.2.2.) Electrical systems restoration andupgrade; 4.2.3) Storm drainage system restoration
involving the de-clogging of the vertical cast irondownspouts and replacement of the old and clogged
concrete and drainage pipe; 4.2.4) Water and sanitarylines involving the replacement of corroded
galvanized iron and PVC waterlines with more
durable pipes which are resistant to corrosion; and4.2.5) restoration works of areas affected by theengineering restoration works such as restoration ofchipped concrete or adobe surfaces.
4.2) Special Systems Enhancement consists ofimprovements to the exterior and interior lighting
using LED lights, and also enhancing the architecturalfaçade of the Cathedral by defining its width andbreadth through the play of lights, and exterior accentand uplights along the perimeter of the Cathedral;
audio/video systems(speakers were placed instrategic areas of the church), high definition monitors
and interactive touch screen monitors for the generalpublic to touch to know more about the history of
the church; installation of a CCTV system as part of
security measure; and a bell tower clock system (tocomplement the newly retrofitted bell tower, the old58

Philippinesand defective clock system was finally replaced witha new set). For over 50 years, the old face of the BellTower clock stood as silent witness to the fastchanging environment within the Intramuros area.
The existing cathedral was rebuilt sometime in 1954
and completed in 1958. It has exceeded the usual 50
year lifespan of buildings and its present condition is
no longer compliant with the most recent structural
code in terms of safety factor. This safety factor has
evolved over the years by incorporating the mostrecent structural code influenced by strong
earthquakes experienced in the past to better enhance
the structural integrity and performance of buildings
in such a situation. The structural and non-structural
cracks inside the walls of the Cathedral were rectified
using a different approach.
4.3) Architectural Restoration: Interior restoration
works followed after the completion of structural
retrofitting. This involved the restoration of the floor,
wall and ceiling finishes as close as possible to their
originals. The biggest challenge in the interior
restoration works was the reinstallation of thechipped/dismantled mouldings of the capitals andarches, became necessary to allow for the installationof carbon fiber during the structural retrofitting
works. The intricate decorative design of capitals
and arches were replicated by precast moulding. The
restored parts were finished with manual retouchingby skilled artisans. All pews made of solid narra wererefurbished to complement the retrofitted restored
and interior finishes. The exterior restoration works
cover the replacement of the chipped/dismantled
adobe walls using the same adobe materials. The
adobe wall restoration was only limited to the BellTower, the front façade of the Cathedral and portionsof the side walls at General Luna and Cabildo Streets
where the downspouts were diverted to the newly
constructed storm drainage lines along the exteriorside walls of the chapel naves. External landscaperestoration included the provision of elevatedsidewalks at General Luna St., and the front side of
the Cathedral with stamp-crete finish and steelbollards.
5. Restoration Schedule: The retrofitting and restoration
works were originally envisaged to be completed
within six months. However, the following
unforeseen developments have contributed to theoverall delay of the restoration works because of its
domino effect on the succeeding works: inclusion of
the retrofitting of columns, which was included
when the master retrofitting schedule was being
finalized; the poor condition of the belltower
columns, discovered after the adobe walls weredismantled, which necessitate additional preparatory
works; difficulties encountered in the retrofitting of
beams inside the domed ceiling due to the cramped
space inside the decorative precast mouldings;
delays in the arrival of imported lighting fixtures andaudio/video equipment. The restoration works as
originally envisaged from July to November 2013
were understandably not completed as scheduled:59

the extensive use of scaffolding systems in therestoration works to reach the elevated areas insideand outside the Cathedral, where works are required,
particularly the time taken regarding its erection anddismantling and due consideration being paid to thesafety of workers and installers, the chipping of thick
adobe concrete walls to imbed conduits or gain
access to the ceilings, and the discovery of otherworks which were not considered in the planningstage, but needed to be done. Despite the foregoing
constraints, the historic restoration works of Manila
Cathedral-Basilica were substantially completed by
December 2013 in time for the “soft opening on
December 8, 2014 while the balance of the major
physical works were completed on March 25, 2014
in time for the Grand re-opening on April 9, 2014,
with mass celebrated by H.E. Luis Antonio Cardinal
G. Tagle III. The Cathedral had been closed to the
public since February 7, 2012. There were otherimprovement works that continued from April 2014
to 31 March 2015, such as the repair of copper
roofing, repair of the wooden framing of the dome,
installation of additional air-conditioning systems,
the upgrading of Meralco facilities to cater to theneeds of the Cathedral, restoration of stained glass,installation of exterior lighting along the perimeter ofthe dome, and the addition of carillon bells.
On-going works (September 2016) and future proposed
improvements: Restoration of exterior adobe walls whichhave deteriorated over years of exposure to the elements;
landscape enhancement to complement the NeoRomanesque architectural ambience of the Cathedral;waterproofing of roof deck; conversion of the belfry tower
into a museum; make-up water tank; and the upgrading of
the emergency power back-up to ensure an uninterrupted
power supply.
Acknowledgements:
Manila Metropolitan Cathedral Basilica and Rev. Fr.
Reginald Malicdem-Rector, SP Castro Inc., and theArchdiocesan Archives of Manila.
References:- The Manila Cathedral-Basilica Restoration Project:
Executive Summary of the Final Report. Submitted by
SPCastro, Inc. to His Eminence Cardinal Luis Antonio G.
Tagle, Chairman of the Manila Metropolitan CathedralBasilica Foundation Inc. 23 April 2015. (Source of theSummary of the restoration and retrofitting works)- Documentary about the History of the Manila Cathedral.
Courtesy of the Manila Cathedral-Basilica.
- Philippine Church History: A summary translation. Anales
Ecclesiaticos de Philipinas, 1574-1682, Vol. 1. Publishedby the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Manila and Rev. Fr.
Ruperto C. Santos, 1994.
- Gutierez, Lucio O.P. Archdiocese of Manila. A pilgrimage
in time (1565-1999), Volume 1. Published by the Roman
Catholic Archbishop of Manila 2000
- Santos, Ruperto C. Manila Cathedral: Basilica of the
Immaculate Conception . Published by the Roman
Catholic Archbishop of Manila, 1997.
- Souvenir Program. Solemn inauguration of theHoldings, Produced by the Archdiocesan Archives ofManila, 1993.

Restoration of the Manila Cathedral Basilica (June 2013-December 2014)

Philippines

Metropolitan Cathedral of Manila. December 3-9, 1958.
- Santos, Ruperto C. Archdiocesan Archives of Manila. A
Catalogue of Archival Documents, Testaments &Cathedral during restoration works on August 2013 (photos by SPCastro, Inc.)

Retrofitting and plastering of the belltower

Installation of Carillon Bells, 2014

On-going restoration works: Plastering of exterior adobe walls and waterproofing of roof deck (Photos of the author, September 2016).

60

Philippines
The impressive exterior architecture of the Cathedral
can be viewed at night with its monumental lighting
effects (September, 2016).

The lower pictures show the interior of the Cathedral with its
lighting enhancement.

61

Sri Lanka
D.A.Rasika Dissanayaka, Assistant Director (Promotions)
Department of Archaeology Sri Lanka
Abstract
Many Sri Lankan settlements were agricultural based andthese settlements were located in areas where water was
easily available. Our forebears in ancient Sri Lanka
constructed both medium-sized and colossal irrigation
tanks. Not only that, they also had the ability even to divert
rivers to feed the rice fields, as once upon a time old Lanka
named herself as the great granary of the East. In thosedays, paddies were exported by the Great King
Parakramabahu the 1st.
In this situation, the farmers of ancient Sri Lanka wanted
paddy or other grain storage houses (granaries). Vee bissa
or atuwa were used for this purpose. In terms of
construction, the material used for building these vee bissa
and atuwa are similar although the technology andarchitecture are different. Not only the size of the granaries,
but the use of materials, architectural design and style givean attractive appearance.

Sri Lanka

Vee bissa and Atuwa: Earthen Structures for Storing GraIn in Ancient Sri Lanka

platform for protection against insect attacks, erecting thefarmer's own house premises.
For the construction, four timber logs are placed horizontallyon a minimum of four rock boulders or stone columns.
Timber planks are fixed on it as a floor. The superstructure
consists of woven cane, finished with mud/clay and cow
dung plaster on both sides (Figure 1). Sometimes thesestructures are lime washed. The paddy bins are cylindricalin shape with an independent roof structure. The roof ismade of palm leaves or paddy straw. According to the roof
style, one can enter the bin with the help of the pole byraising the roof or simply by entering the gable side.

This building type has been abandoned for some decades
but it still embodies many heritage values. In this paper I
will demonstrate different types of granaries and theirarchitectural features and technologies.
1. Introduction
Ancient dwelling houses were built with other, subordinate
buildings, activity areas, tools and auxiliary utensils. Paddy
farming was the main livelihood of ancient people so they
were required to store their paddy or other grain for the
next harvest. For this purpose, storage bins called vee
bissa and atuwa were used although their structure andform were different from dwellings.
In constructing these storage bins, special attention was
paid to protecting them from insect attacks and climaticconditions as well.
2. Types and Construction Methods
According to the shape, use and technique, there were
two types of granaries.
i. Vee bissa
ii. Atuwa
Both of these types followed the popular concept ofancient Sri Lankan architecture called tampita (on pillars)
structure, with the floor bed elevated from the ground byusing rock boulders, stone columns or wooden posts.
2.1. Vee bissa
Vee bissa, which were constructed near the house, was the
traditional structure for storage of paddy or other grain
harvest in ancient Sri Lanka. They were constructed withwattle and daub or woven cane, which was plastered withclay/earth, and the roof was thatched with either paddy
straw or iluk grass. It stood on an elevated wooden or rock

Figure 1: Vee bissa at Thotupala Walawwa

2.2. Atuwa
The atuwa, which is another traditional ancient contraption
to store paddy and other grain, was constructed inside oroutside the house.
In some villages, a different style of granary called an
atuwa was constructed. It is also constructed on a platformraised on wooden post above ground level. The
superstructure consists of wattle and daub construction,
timber planks, and sometimes palm leaf walls. As in the62

Sri Lanka

above case, the roof of the atuwa is an independent
structure with a palm leaf or paddy straw roof. Normallythe shape is rectangular (Figure 2a & 2b).

Figure 3: Line drawing of an atuwa by Malinga Amarasinghe. Further Studies
in the Settlement Archaeology of the Sigiriya-Dambulla Region, Colombo:
PGIAR, Myrdal-Runebjer, E. Gunawardane, D. Fernando, S. (1994)
Figure 2a: Atuwa at Lankatilaka Temple, Kandy

ii. Bundles of paddy straw coated with a mixture of clay andcow dung
Bundles of paddy straw are placed on each otherhorizontally in the shape of a circle and fixed together.
When the required height is reached, plaster containing
clay and cow dung is applied to both sides (Figure 4).

Figure 2b: Atuwa at Embekka Devala (Temple)

3. Materials
For the two structures, freely available and easily foundmaterials were used for construction, with the help oftraditional technology. The foundations of these structurescomprise stone boulders, short stone columns or timberposts, with the platform built of wooden planks.
The roof consists of a timber structure including
independent timber posts with palm leaves or paddy straw
thatched on it. In the past, these building materials could
be obtained easily and freely from the surrounding
environment.

Figure 4: Line drawing of a vee bissa by Malinga Amarasinghe. Further
Studies in the Settlement Archaeology of the Sigiriya-Dambulla Region,
Colombo: PGIAR, Myrdal-Runebjer, E. Gunawardane, D. Fernando, S. (1994)

iii. Wooden planks or palm leaves
In some cases walls are made of wooden planks or palm
leaves with a frame of sticks (Figure 5).

Four different construction methods were found tocomplete the body of these granaries.
i. Wattle and daubii. Bundles of paddy straw coated with a mixture ofclay and cow dungiii. Wooden planks or palm leaves
iv. Woven cane
i. Wattle and daubThin sticks are placed and another stick is fixed horizontallyto vertical posts. Two rows of this kind of framework areerected and clay balls are placed in between this frame.
After a few days the walls are plastered using clayey earth
mixed with fine sand on both sides (Figure 3).

63

Figure 5: Atuwa with wooden planks at Pusulpitiya Temple

minimized. This helped to maintain the proper climaticconditions to prevent the grain from becoming rotten. At
the same time, the earthen walls were protected fromdamp due to the generated heat.

Sri Lankaiii. Woven cane
According to the availability and knowledge of technology,
woven cane was used in the construction of granaries.
Clay, mud or cow dung plaster was applied to this surface
externally and internally as desired (Figure 6a & 6b).

The granary confirmed the availability of food as well as
showing a measure of the wealth of the villager. The
number of granaries within a compound showed theprosperity, assets and wealth of the dweller. When it wasa house belonging to a nobleman or temple or king, thegranary was a separate building. Although this building
type has been abandoned for a number of decades, it still
embodies many heritage values.
5. Heritage Values
Granaries like vee bissa and atuwa included in ancientdwellings played a vital role in the day-to-day life of the
inhabitants. Therefore, these granaries contain various
heritage values associated with their construction, materials
used and functions.
Architectural Value
These structures represent the traditional Sinhalesearchitecture of the 18th to 19th centuries. The shape,
construction techniques and material used are examples ofthe most impressive architectural features from that period.
Some of these buildings are still used today.
Historical value
These structures played a vital role in the history of ancient
farmers. Therefore they provide a historical testimony forthe future.
Figure 6a: Vee bissa

Material value
All the walls of these structures have been made out of
mud/clay and wattle and daub which are still in their
original state. In Sri Lanka, wattle and daub technology
was used widely in the ancient period.

Figure 6b: Vee bissa

4. Technology
As a protection measure, the granaries were built in anelevated position for preventing insect attacks. Moreover,this provided the best protection from damp as the atuwa
and vee bissa walls were not connected to the ground.
As another method of preventing insect attack, ash andkohomba (Margosa) [Azadirachta indica] leaves werespread around the wooden post foundations or on the
paddy. The smell of these leaves made white ants flee thearea.
When storing the paddy in the above types of bins theexcessive heat generated inside the bin could be

Figure 7: Abandoned vee bissa

6. Conclusion
The ancient granaries of Sri Lanka may vanish in the near
future because of the state of deterioration andabandonment many of them are in, if conservation

64

Sri Lanka

procedures are not taken. The main natural causes ofdeterioration are dampness, rainwater and the effect ofwind. More than all of these, however, deterioration
caused by abandonment is more critical (Figure 6). The
decayed parts of these structures can be conserved withsuitable materials and some of the natural causes can beovercome by using certain control measures.
Finally, preservation of these endangered heritage
structures needs the understanding and education of thelocal communities.
Bibliography:
Feilden, B.M. (1989), Conservation of Historic Buildings.
London: Butterworth, pp72.
Oliver P. (1998), Encyclopedia of Vernacular Architectureof the World. London: Cambridge, pp. 973 – 980.
Coomaraswamy, A.K. (1979), Mediaeval Sinhalese Art.

65

Pantheon Books, pp. 114.
Manawadu, S. (1993), Vernacular Architecture of Sathkorale
and its Preservation, Wood International ScientificCommittee on Wood, Colombo: ICOMOS, pp. 48 – 60.
Myrdal-Runebjer, E.
Gunawardane, D. Fernando, S.
(1994), Dwelling and Household: Actvity Areas, Tools and
Auxiliary Devices, Further Studies in the Settlement
Archaeology of the Sigiriya-Dambulla Region, Colombo:
PGIAR, pp. 289-314.
Knox, R. (1681), An Historical Relation of the Island
Ceylon, pp. 249-250.
Tissera, C.H.de. Weerakkody, F. (1990), Technology in theConstruction Industry in Sri Lanka. Historical Overview ofsome aspects, Colombo: ICTAD Journal Vol 2 No 1, pp.
8-9.

Uzbekistan
Akmal Ulmasov, Leader specialist
Fine Arts Institute, Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan
Karatepa1 —a Buddhist monument dating from the time of
the Kushan in Old Termez city—is located on the rightbank of the Amu Darya. In 2014, a joint team from the Fine
Art Institute under the Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan
and Rissho University (Japan) started archaeologicalexcavations in Karatepa. The archeological works
continued, and in 20152 and on the results of biennial
excavations unearthed several rooms. They are of different
sizes and spread out almost in one axis in a northerly
direction (Fig. 1).
Room No 54. This room is completely revealed and thelayout is square-shaped (2.80 x 2.90 m). The floor is pise.
The walls are plastered with clay with the addition of straw
and preserved to a height of 2.50 m to 3.05 m. The
thickness of the walls has not yet been revealed. The roomon the perimeter (at the level of 1.14 m from the floor) iscolored red and white above a whitewashed section. In
the background of this whitewash visible horizontal andvertical lines are painted in red and black. This is apparently
ornamental painting that decorated this room (Fig. 2).
There are two arched passageways in the room: one ofthem is in the west wall (height - 2.05 m, width - 0.86 m)
and the other is in the south wall (width - 1.06 m). The
latter passage has not yet been fully excavated. The west
passage has a low (height - 0.05 m) threshold, with coatedplaster. At the end of the wall at 1.00 m from the floor is a
deep semicircular niche (0.40 x 0.40 x 0.38 m). The insideof the niche is painted black. A copper coin was found on
the floor, presumably Kushan-Sassanian.
Room No 55. This is located four meters to the south ofRoom No 54. The layout of the room is rectangular-shaped(6.20 x 2.25 m) and elongated from east to west. The room
was excavated to the floor during the second construction
period. On the surface of the floor of the second building
floor is a thick (0.05 m) layer of ash, probably from fire.
There are human bones at both ends of the floor, but noskulls. Radiocarbon analysis3 of the bones dates them tothe period between the second half of the 6th and the firsthalf of the 7th centuries AD. It can be assumed that theroom on the second stage of the operation was used as a
crypt (Fig. 3).
In this stage, the main passage (width - 0.90 m) in the
middle of the east wall was laid raw. The right side of thepassage has a high semicircular niche (0.37 x 0.35 x 0.22m) and there is another high niche at the end of the south
wall (0.55 x 0.40 x 0.35 m). The end of the north wall has
an archway (width - 0.90 m) from the first construction
period. The arch’s aperture is laid across from the raw(0.32 x 0.32 x 0.12 m). On the southern wall at a distanceabout two meters from the main passage of a major groove,the top was destroyed, apparently because of the skylight.
At a level of 1.90 m above the floor there is a massive

Uzbekistan

Preliminary Results of Archaeological Researches in the Karatepa Buddhist Center (in 2014-2015)

decorative cornice, made of plaster. The cornice isdecorated with a wide shelf, with a rectangular crosssection and heel, and a convex arch at the top. Judging by
the traces on the surface of the fragments of the cornice, it
was painted red.
On the upper surface of the middle south wall arepreserved several remains of sloping bricks. The presenceof bricks laid like this suggests that it was the fifth archedceilings. This technique had been widely used in the
Bactrian construction traditions of the Kushan period. For
example, many of the early opened rooms of Karatepa, as
well as in the neighboring temple-monastery complex,
Fayaztepa, the rooms are the enfilade type and hallways
have arched ceilings4.
Archaeological finds
Excavations of these objects presented numerous diverse
archaeological materials. Most of them are fragments ofvarious ceramic vessels, such as jugs, bowls, cups, plates,“chirag” (oil lamps) and others. Among the ceramic
fragments it is rarely found ornamental vessels, roof tiles andancient Bactrian inscriptions, applied in black ink (Fig. 4).
In the layer of rubble in the uncovered areas many
fragments of stone sculptures were found. One of the stone
fragments shows the head of an elderly man, apparently an
ascetic. The character demonstrated expressive. The statue
is small (8.7 x 6.2 x 7.6 cm) sculpted by scabbing of whitelimestone. Other fragments, a head (10.5 x 11.3 x 12.7 cm),and part of a pair of legs (12 x 9, 4 x 5.05 cm) were probably
a bird of prey - Garuda (Figure 5 a, b).
Architectural details. Among the new discoveries are findsthat occupy a special place in terms of stone architecturaldetail. Like the sculptures, they are made of whitelimestone from the last cultivation. Standing out among
them (12.2 x 9.7 x 22.8 cm) is a miniature column with an
unusual shape. It is decorated with two rows of lush andlarge lotus leaves and one line of leaf shape ornaments.
Above the leaves is a round abacus with three massive
horizontal shelves. At the edge of the upper surface are
two small protrusions (apparently for supporting a wooden
column). Echinus totally sales, abaca and projections partly
departure. The upper bed of the abaca displays deep
gouging (Fig. 6 a).
Typically, these columns were fitted with stone base Attic
profiling. In the rubble, part of such kind of base (5.4 x 15
x 8.2 cm) was found. As usual, the trunk of the column
was wooden, which has not been preserved. Anotherstone fragment makes up part of the profile of theCorinthian capitals (6.7 x 6.0 x 5.4 cm). It is in the form ofstylized acanthus leaves with the central part streaked andthe upper part extended and bent forward in the beam
(Fig. 6b).

66

Uzbekistan

The archaeological excavations in this area are ongoing, so
it is too early to draw conclusions in terms of botharchitecture and the historical and cultural aspects of theroom. Further studies will try to find out many of the issues
associated with this facility in particular, and with the
Buddhist Karatepa center as a whole.
Conservation works
Parallel with the excavations in the author’s report,
conservation work at another monument site has been
carried out. This involves fragments of wall paintings
preserved only in the lower parts (5 cm by 30 cm) of
niches in the yard of complex B at West Hill Karatepa (Fig.
7a-c). The polychrome paintings are poorly preserved
because first, loess plaster was placed on them, andsecond, the niches were located in a semi-open place
where the paintings were exposed to rapid destruction

caused by dust and bright lighting. The opinion was that,
judging by the condition of the paintings, after opening,they were left open and not preserved. On the preserved
parts of these paintings can be seen the lower part ofhuman figures, painted bright red on a black background.
And on this background are freely transferred irregularshaped circles, painted pink, the inside of which depicts alotus flower.
At first, the paintings were cleaned of dust with distilledwater, using a brush. After the surface has been cleaned,
the painting is strengthened with 5% solution of Paraloid
B72 acrylic adhesive on acetone. In some areas, fixing thesynthetic resin with aqueous dispersion solution meant
first applying the brand Betek Lateks, which is resistant toalkaline attack.

Fig. 1. Location map, schematic plan of Karatepa and excavation site.

Fig. 2-3. Plan of Excavation rooms:
A) Section (of the southwest wall) of room No 54
B) Reamer of Room No 55. North Hill of Karatepa.

67

3. Analysis was done by Japanese colleagues. See Karatepe-2015, P. 72-78.
4. Ulmasov A. Architecture of Fayaz-tepa Buddhist Complex.
Journal “Art”, 2-2006. P. 6-8. (www.sanat.orexa.com)

Uzbekistan

References
1. A brief characterization of Karatepa was adduced in aprevious report. See Ulmasov A. “Field conservation
experience in Buddhist site of Karatepa in 2012” // The
Eleventh Regular Report. ACCU Nara, 2013. P. 51-52.
2. Kara-tepe-2015. Rissho University Museum. P. 13.
Tokyo, 2015

Fig. 4. Ceramic objects (some examples) with manuscripts and ornaments.

Fig. 5. Sculptured objects (some examples):A) Status of an old man (Ascet - ?)B) Fragments of the statue Garuda and its leg.

B) Fragment of the Acanthus.

Fig. 6. Architectural objects:
A) Stone capital of a column

68Uzbekistan
Fig. 7 a-c. Conservation of the wall paintings.

69

Vanuatu
Vanuatu

Identifying Potential Archaeological Sites on a Polynesian Outlier –Preliminary Archaeological Survey on Futuna
Richard Shing, Manager
Vanuatu National Heritage Register, Vanuatu Cultural Centre
As part of our continuous survey work for the purposes of
documenting and preserving our cultural sites, theArchaeology Unit / Vanuatu National Heritage Register,with funding from the Australian Research Council,
completed a week of scoping the islands of Futuna from30th June to 7th July for potential areas to conduct further
archaeological excavations and surveys of cultural sites,
and also to follow up on previous archaeological work
conducted on the island by the late Richard Shutler andMary Shutler in 1964. The Southern Vanuatu Archaeological
Survey (2016–2019) is being coordinated by Dr. Stuart
Bedford (Australian National University), Dr. James Flexner(Sydney University) and Dr. Frederic Valentin (Universitéde Paris) and is a four-year project which aims to identify,
survey and conduct archaeological excavations on theislands of Futuna, Aniwa, Tanna and Aneityum.

it a harsh island on which to live compared to otherneighbouring islands. The fact that people have lived on thisrocky island and have adapted to suit the environment
around them gives much cause to conduct further
archaeological research to determine how this has eventuated.
The people living on Futuna have oral traditions that say
they came from the east, and their language and culture issimilar to Samoa and Tonga. There are oral traditions
associated with the arrival of and trading with Tongans.
The back migration of Polynesians to Futuna, and other
Polynesian outliers in Vanuatu, is estimated to haveoccurred around 1,000 BP.
There has been very little archaeological research done on
the island of Futuna. In 1964, Richard and Mary Shutler
visited Futuna, where they excavated some rock sheltersand found some human skeletons, among other artifacts.
These skeletons and artifacts were returned to the Vanuatu
Cultural Centre in 1999 and are currently being sorted inorder for Dr. Frederick Valentin to begin an analysis ofthem. Since then, no archaeological work had been
conducted on the island until the time of our arrival.

View of Futuna from Nokorwai Hill

The timeframe being examined by the project is from theinitial arrival of the Lapita culture, around 3,000 years ago,
to the period of initial European contact in the late 18th
century and early 19th century, and covering everything in
between. It endeavours to research, document and analyse
all aspects of human existence and activity within thegiven timeframe. Additional members of this initialexpedition were Jimmy Kuautonga (Tafea Cultural Centre
official), Richard Shing (Vanuatu Cultural Centrearchaeologist) and Wanda Zinger (student).

Visiting rock shelter excavated by the Shutlers

Community meetings were conducted to make local
communities aware of the importance of archaeology inthe interpretation and preservation of their past, and about
the possibility of further archaeological work that will betaking place in their areas in the next three years. All
communities have showed enthusiasm in working withthe project in the years to come.

On arrival, visits were made to the rock shelters that the
Shutlers had excavated, to register GPS coordinates and to
identify if further investigation was needed. The method
the Shutlers used nearly 60 years ago is somewhat
outdated, so it was decided that other excavations had tobe conducted beside some of the Shutler’s excavations.
Further expeditions over the top of the island and around
it provided more opportunities to identify other sites ofarchaeological interest, and the following sites andactivities of cultural heritage were identified for futurearchaeological investigations:

FutunaFutuna is a small, volcanic island with an uplifted reef and asurface area of 13 km2. It rises sharply from sea level to themountainous flat-topped plateau of Tatafu, 666 metres above
sea level. The steepness of the terrain, the lack of runningwater and safe sea passage on most parts of the island made1. Mission history and cemetery - In 1841 two Samoan
teachers were stationed on Futuna by John Williams
on the request of chief Koitiama, but they weremurdered after people blamed them for introducing
disease. In 1852 Aneityumese evangelists landed on
the island but returned after not being able to make70

Vanuatu

any converts. In 1881 Reverend Joseph Copeland
settled on the island and began converting the people
to Christianity. What remains from these past activities
are the foundations of their buildings and churches
and the cemetery they created. There is potential forfurther excavations to be made around these earlyhouses to find out more about these early missionaries
and also to survey the cemetery to find out the extent
of this burial site. Coordinators of the project havealready amassed many documents and photographsof that period (through journals, letters, collections
and books from missionaries and early Europeans inarchives and universities around the world) andfurther research overseas will be made to find morematerials about the history of Futuna.
2. Rock shelters - Rock shelters surround the island of
Futuna, primarily formed as the island massively
uplifted over thousands of years, creating whatlooks from a distance to be a massive chunk oflimestone jutting out of the ocean. Rock shelters
have always been used as temporary dwellings, andthe rock shelters on Futuna show signs of humanhabitation, such as fireplaces and rudimentary
abodes. The Shutlers excavated some of these rockshelters and human burials were uncovered in ninedifferent places. On Futuna, the bones of the deadwere placed in crevices in the limestone cliffs andsome were still visible during the trip.
There is potential for further surveys to be conductedon these rock shelters and for further excavations to
be conducted adjacent to the Shutler’s excavations
in order to further document the burial methods ofthe period.
3. Stone walls - The island of Futuna is littered withstone walls. Both basalt and limestone rocks areused depending on the availability of the resource
within the vicinity. Stone walls are built to:i. Mark land boundaries – these normally run in a
vertical pattern up a slope.
ii. Prevent soil erosion – these garden terraces
normally run in a horizontal pattern along a slope
to prevent soil runoff and to create a gentler
gradient to cultivate crops.
There is a need to further survey and excavate all

the stone walls on Futuna, and plans are in place
for this activity to take place next year with theavailable funding.
4. Sites associated with oral traditions - The island of
Futuna is rich in folklore and there is a need tofurther document and record these sites that haveoral traditions attached to them.

Mapping of taro garden terraces

5. Sites of early settlement - Two test pits wereexcavated at Sinou, on the north-eastern tip of theisland, where we believe there may be signs ofinitial settlement (i.e., the Lapita people). There was
not much uncovered but further excavations will bemade in the future to see if pottery or Lapita shards
can be found.
The proposed study will be conducted mainly on threemajor periods in the settlement history of the island, allwhich had major impacts on the island. The focus will beon the Lapita period, when people began inhabiting theislands around 3,000 BP; the period of Polynesian backmigrations, around 1,000 to 1,500 BP; and the missionary
period, when early European missionaries beganconverting the islands in the late 18th century.
Bibliography
Humphreys, C. B. 1926. The Southern New Hebrides: An
Ethnological Record. Cambridge: University Press.
Clark, R. 1978. The New Hebrides Outliers: Pacific
Linguistics, Series C. No. 61. Canberra: ANU Press.
Shutler, R. and Shutler, M. E. 1964. A preliminary report ofarchaeological explorations in the southern New Hebrides
1963–1964.
Macfarlane, A. 1977. Annual report of the Geological Survey
for the year 1975. Port Vila. Geological Survey, British
Residency.
Hoffman, A. 2003. A reanalysis of Mary and Richard
Shutler’s pioneering archaeological fieldwork in southernand central Vanuatu 1963/1964. Canberra. Department ofArchaeology and Anthropology.

Stone basalt walls along a track71

Dixon, J. and Kuautonga, T. 2007. Nokonofo Kitea: We keep
on living this way. Adelaide. Crawford House Publishing.