ACCU Nara International Correspondent
The ACCU correspondents periodically send reports on cultural heritage protection activities in which they have been
recently involved. This is a collection of thirteen reports submitted by international correspondents in the Asia-Pacificregion.

The Seventh Regular Report
Contents
Bangladesh
Mst. Naheed Sultana‘Vajralepa’ of the 9th Century (Pala Dynasty) Discovered in Bihar Dhap Temple in Bangladesh

BhutanKarma Wangchuk
Construction of the Largest Sitting Buddha in the World

Cambodia
Srun Tech
Preservation and Enhancement of Cultural Heritage: The Ancient Bridge Community Project

India
Vasant Kumar Swarnkar
Recent Conservation at Tughlaqabad Fort

Indonesia
Mohammad Natsir Ridwan Muslim
Borobudur Temple Conservation after the Eruption of Mount Merapi

Malaysia
A Ghafar Bin Ahmad
Restoration of the St. George’s Church, George Town, Penang, Malaysia

Nepal
Suresh Suras Shrestha
Inventory Preparation of Monuments of Nepal

New Zealand
Matthew Schmidt
Bullendale - Site of New Zealand’s First Industrial Use of Hydroelectric Power: Protection & Preservationof an Internationally Important Cultural Heritage Site

Pakistan
Salman Muhammad
Documentation and Conservation of Wazir Khan Mosque in Lahore

Papua New Guinea
Naomi Faik Simet
Maintaining Cultural Heritage through Yams

Sri Lanka
Sujeeva Kaushalyani Peiris Deraniyagala
Mural Painting Conservation in Sri Lanka with Special Reference to Kandy

ThailandWirayar Chamnanpol
A Study on Historical Buildings on Chareon Krung Road in Bangkok

Uzbekistan
Akmaljon Ulmasov
Little-known Findings of Antefix from Khalchayan (South Uzbekistan)The Seventh Regular Report

Bangladesh
Mst. Naheed Sultana, Custodian
Department of Archaeology, Ministry of Cultural Affairs
The Buddhist archaeological site of Bihar Dhap islocated about six kilometres away to the west of ancient
Pundranagor city or Mahasthangarh in the district ofBogra in Bangladesh. The Chinese pilgrim, Huen-Tsang,reported while traveling in Bengal that he visited a vast
‘shangaram’ (monastery) called Po-Shi-Po and took
part in religious activities. Sir Alexander Cunningham
identified this archaeological site as Po-Shi-Po-Bihara as is
told by the eminent traveler Huen-Tsang in his account.
As a result of Bihar Dhap excavation, relics of an ancient
rectangular sized temple of Gupta Empire measuring29.50 m × 29.00 m has been unveiled. Subsequently in thesecond phase, a comparatively smaller temple measuring12.00 m × 9.70 m was built attaching to and conformity
with that of the first phase. This attached building gave
both the temple a new look and appearance which
included plaster of the exterior walls of the temples witha novelty unknown in this region so far. In the last phaseof construction, the well-wide concreted floor and thefront wall with the height of 2.28 metres were foundalmost intact. All over the exterior parts of the front wall,
use of the thick plaster was visible. On the body of thetemples constructed in the first phase, no such a sort ofplaster was used. Even when the attached smaller temple
to the north of the old one was constructed, no plasterwas used. The bricks used in the front wall of the firstphase temples were made smooth at one end and panelsized ornamental bricks with terracotta plaques were used
for decorating and beautifying the temple. The overlap ofBangladesh̀Vajralepa' of the 9th Century (Pala Dynasty) Discovered in Bihar Dhap Temple
in Bangladesh

the smooth and beautiful front walls by plaster and somepartial overlapping parts of the ornamental works on
the walls lead to assume that the plastering of the walls
were made sometime after the construction of the second
phase. Probably it might have been done for making theconstruction long lasting.
Plaster is a mixture generally used for covering the bodyof the wall and mortar is used as binder to join bricks
together. Sometimes, the same mixture of materials isused for both the work of plaster and mortar. In ancient
times, mud alone largely served the purpose of mortar.
In the construction of brick-made temples, a thin layer of
mud was extensively used between two bricks for joining
them firmly.
In ancient India, whether the temples were built of bricks,
wood or stone, the construction works were done withhigh precision and skills. Bricks and stones would be laid
and attached together very carefully. ‘Sudhashills’ and‘vajralepa’, a sort of sticky cement plasters, were appliedin the then architectural frame works, but very little is
known about how the things were prepared. ‘Vajralepa’is a mixture of some hard sticky substances like conchshell powder or clay mixture with some other ingredientsof a chemical compound.
Before we have a clear idea about the plaster prepared in
combination with clay mixture and brick dust discoveredin the temple of the Bihar Dhap, it is necessary for us

1

Bangladesh

to go into a discussion about vajralepa in other words
plaster as described in two books of ancient India,
namely, Bratho Samhita and Visnudharmottara because atleast four or five processes of preparing ‘vajralepa’ havebeen described respectively in those two books.
According to the description in Visnudharmottara, theprincipal ingredients of plaster are brick dust, clay
mixture, sticky rajan, wax, molasses, and different
vegetable substances. The mixture would be preservedfor one month to become glutinous, hardened and thick.
Then the mixture would be used as plaster in the walls.
If it would be found not perfectly smooth, then again acompound of rajan and oil mingled with clay mixture
would be added for obtaining the desired effect.
There are different kinds of lime plaster mainly madefrom powdered gravel and also of powdered gravel
and conch shells with a proportion of sand to which the2sap of various milky trees (Asvattha, Butea, Frondosa, orKodomba) mango juice or curd, milk, and coconut water,ghee, as well as ripe bananas, pulses and rice grains
would be added.
In fact, the plaster was prepared in various ways in
combination with different ingredients. Sometimes, theglue of the boiled buffalo skin would be collected formaking plaster. When some glutinous materials are mixed
with the plaster, the whole compound is called vajralepa.
Vajralepa is also called ‘diamond plaster’ because of
its high quality, smoothness and longevity. In fact, thisplaster is a kind of vajralepa, which is a compound ofclay mixture, brick dust and many other glutinous thingsof animal or vegetable substances or a combination of
both. As a result, we can conclude that the use of thissort of plaster vajralepa was undoubtedly an innovation
as a new construction material in the architectural arenaof ancient Bengal.

Bhutan
BhutanConstruction of the Largest Sitting Buddha in the World
Karma Wangchuk, Conservation Engineer
Department of Culture, Ministry of Home & Cultural Affairs
After having managed the conservation of Semtokha
Dzong (fortress) from 2005 to 2008 (which I presented
in my first report), I got another lifetime opportunity towork on the construction of 169 feet tall Buddha statue
which I would like to share herewith. Though it is a new
construction of cultural heritage, I have the opportunity
to look forward and learn, compare the conservation
knowledge and experience of Semtokha dzong, one of theoldest heritage structures of the country, which is aroundfour hundred years old with the new construction ofcultural heritage (Buddha statue) that should last anotherfour to five hundred years from now.
Background information
The Buddha Dordenma Project is the construction of a169-foot-tall Shakyamuni Buddha statue (inclusive of lotus)
seated on a 62-foot-tall throne in the Kingdom of Bhutan.
As an extraordinary opportunity to fulfill the missionof Buddha, Buddha Dordenma (meaning Vajra-throned
Buddha) symbolizes peerless virility to bestow blessings,
peace, and happiness on the whole world. Constructed
on an area of 650 acres, it will be known as Buddha Park
after completion of the project.
The Buddha Park once completed will be a social
welfare, non-profit organization based on the principleof Government’s vision of Gross National Happiness andteachings of Lord Buddha. The social service provided by
the organization can be availed by all people of the world
for peace, happiness, spiritualism, enlightenment etc.
The construction of the Buddha statue was prophesied
in a terma of Guru Padmasambhava and later discovered
by Terton Dorje Lingpa. Terma is a sacred treasure kept
by Guru which has been destined to be revealed in the
future time by tertons (treasure discovers) for the benefitsof future generations.
In the year 1954, Terda Lingpa of Tibet addressed a letter
to His Eminence, the late Lam Sonam Zangpo, mentioning
a series of ritual observances and installation of sacredobjects to be undertaken in Bhutan, which would

contribute to peace and well being of the people, regionand stability and security of the nation.
The construction of the largest sitting Buddha has been
approved by the Royal Government of Bhutan in 2006
by providing 650 acres of Government land wherein the
Dordenma statue will be built.
The 169 feet tall Buddha statue is made from alloy of tin(4%), zinc (8%) and copper (88%) and weights around
700 tons including steel frame structures. The statue willaccommodated 100,000 Buddha statues of eight inchesand 25,000 statues of twelve inches, made from copperand gilded in gold.
VisionThe main objective is to create a unique and common
place of worship and practice to fulfill the great wish of
all living beings for peace and happiness and to liberatefrom the world of suffering by building the largest sitting
Buddha in the world. Beside that it will also help in
promoting and safeguarding the Buddha’s teaching by
creating an international Buddhist centre in Bhutan. It will
also be a source of energy and peace, spiritualism, peaceand happiness for all people who visit it.
The proposed 169 feet tall statue will function as an
iconographic gateway to Thimphu, the capital city of
Bhutan, as a major pilgrimage centre for the country andas a centre for meditation and retreat. It will generate
auspicious energy over the nation and to all parts of theworld. In addition to the erection of a massive statue, thiscomplex project includes creation of a large meditation
hall at the base; construction of the access, utilities service,
emergency roads and parking: land development andlandscaping.
Conclusion
As of now, the fabrication and erecting of the main
statue have been completed and it may take few years
to complete the rest of the work before opening to the
public.

3

BhutanSteel frame structures before ﬁxing panels

Steel frame structures before ﬁxing panels

4

Fixing Buddha's hair

Front view

Side view

Side view

Front view

Back view

Cambodia
Srun Teck, Archaeologist, Archaeological Preventive Unit, Department of Conservation of Monuments in the
Angkor Park and Preventive Archaeology, APSARA Authority
INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, most of the organizations and researchers
have focused only on the monument structures, history,arts, local communities’ lifestyles and traditional customs.
They do not pay much attention to the conservation,
restoration and enhancement of ancient infrastructures(bridges and roads). During 2003-2004, National
Road N.6 was redeveloped by Ministry of Public andTransportation, but this develop project did not takeaccount on conservation and archaeology survey of
Spean Preah Tœus (or Kampong Kdei Ancient Bridge).
During development operation, there were many trafficand construction dirt on the bridge body. The two laterite
layers of bridge body were removed and put backwithout any planning of restoration and conservation.
Right now, the ancient bridge is facing the worst
dangerous situation because of rapid population increase.
Among these people, some settled their houses on
the part of ancient bridge and run their own business.
Moreover, the modern foundations of business houses
may destroy the foundation of bridge and archaeologicalremains. Furthermore, the landscape and environment
surrounding the ancient bridge are on the verge ofdestruction from local community developments.
LOCATION
The bridge in question named Spean Preah Tœus locateson the National road N.6 at Kompong Kdei commune,
Chikreng district, Siem Reap province, about 70 km from
Seim Reap town (figure 1). The bridge is the biggest on
this line. In the 1930s, 22 bridges could be seen on thisroad section, but at the present time only 11 bridges still
exist and 2 bridges were destroyed by road construction.
Residents of this area call the bridge “Spean Kompong
Kdey”, also known as “Spean Preah Tœus”, which is notvery different from the name of a pagoda that locatesapproximately 500 meters to the southeast.

Cambodia

Preservation and Enhancement of Cultural Heritage: The Ancient Bridge
Community Projectthrough community tourism development.
1. HISTORY OF THE BRIDGE
1-A. History of the building
We do not know exactly when it was built as thisinfrastructure has undergone repairs and decorations ineach era. If we take into consideration of the latest style,it would have been constructed in the era of the King
Jayavaraman VII (C.E. 1181-1220), but if the two poles
and Naga head are take into consideration, it is said to be
like the style of Bayon.
1-B. Architectural history
The bridge was built of 98% laterite stone and 2%
sandstone. The average dimensions of each block forthe construction are 50 centimeters in width, 150 to 170
meters in length and 40 centimeters in thickness. The
sizes of the bridge are 85 meters in length, 16 meters
in width and 10 meters in hight. The bridge’s body isstanding on 20 pillars and 21 corbelled arches. There are
four wing walls (four retaining walls) used as stabilizer
for the bridge and its foundation (figures 2 and 3).
1-C. History of the intervention
Spean Preah Tœus was intervened two times by Écolefrançaise d’Extrème-Orient (EFEO). The first was in 1925,
and the both Naga’s balustrades were restored. The
second was in 1964, which restored the north body of thebridge (upstream) and both Naga’s balustrades headed by
B. P. GROSLIER, director of Angkor Conservation from1960 to 1973 (figures 4 and 5).
2. ISSUES OF THE ANCIENT BRIDGE
Presently, Kompong Kdei, the ancient bridge situates in
the middle of communities and surrounded by 10 villages
which situated in the compound of 1 square kilometer

The project presents the importance of cultural heritageof Kompong Kdei community to its people and aims
to the cultural heritage preservation and enhancement

Angkor Archaeological Park

Figure 2: Plan in 2009

Group of Rolush temple

Spean Preah Tœus t

Figure 1: Location of the ancient bridge

Figure 3: North-east elevation in 1964, EFEO archives

5Cambodia

surrounding the bridge. Most of settlements of villagers
have settled on the both side of the river bed. Thus thebridge suffers natural impact, development impact, tourist
impact, local-villager impact and traffic impact. The
bridge’s condition has been becoming weak due to:- It has been covered by bio-vegetation.
- Most of the columns are poor condition by water
movement.
- Each drain is blocked by sediment.
- Both wing walls have been destroyed by erosion.
- The bridge’s body is completely buried by newly
accumulated soil.
- Some laterite blocks have been decayed and fallen.
- Both parts of the bridge is settled by people.
From the result of surveying, we found many issues suchas restoration issues, natural issues, structural issues andaccidental issues (figure 6).
2-A. Preservation the ancient bridge
Due to the condition of the weak bridge, we have totake the emergency measures: to bar the heavy vehicles(figures 7 and 8) and to propose a preservation projectsuch as tying reinforcement and restoration of the highly
dangerous points and Naga’s balustrades.
3. ISSUES OF THE CULTURAL HERITAGE OF THE
COMMUNITY
Facing with the growing number of new modernbuildings, traditional structures are also preserved within
the whole community. They are, of course, wooden
structures. Houses are built on stilts, where people live
upstairs and animals (i.e. cow) are kept downstairs withoxcart. Generally, each house is surrounded by small
trees, fruit trees or different kinds of flowers. Threedifferent types of roofs have been identified. The first iscovered by traditional ceramic tiles with brown colors.
The second is covered by the sheet metal. And the third
type is covered by the tree leaves (figures 9 and 10).
3-A. Landscape issues- Disordered settlements or other settlements may
spoil river water and destroy the value of the ancientmonument.
- Modern construction methods are not controlled byconstruction regulation in the cultural zone, which
will deprive the cultural landscape of its ancientauthenticity.
- Some traditional wooden houses are decayed, butowners can not afford the maintenance charge.
3-B. Alignment and height issues
In general, the Khmer traditional wooden houses werebuilt on the alignment with the same height (figure 11).
But the new modern buildings do not respect the existingalignment and height (figures 12, 13, 14 and 15).

Figure 4: Restoration section

Figure 6: Pathology map

6

Figure 5: Restoration work in 1964, EFEO archives

Cambodia

Figure 7: Principle of access closing by sandstone posts

Figure 8: Principle section of sandstone posts

C
E-E
D-D

B

Figure 9: Village map

A

Figure 10: A. Village view

Figure 11: Alignment in the 1960s

Figure 12: Section D-D, Alignment andheight issue

Figure 13: Section E-E, Alignment andheight issue

Figure 14 : B. Village elevation

Figure 15: C. Village elevation

7

Cambodia

3-D. Preservation of the cultural heritage in the community
For the cultural heritage zone, in particular, we haveto insist that it is the most important community to beconserved, and its presentation is very important to the
public. So that, the houses in the cultural heritage zone
should be preserved as follows:
1- To move all houses which are not aligned to theexisting alignment line
2- To change the façade of the house
3- To modify the roof
4- To lower the height of the house
5- To apply dark iron color for the façade
6- To plant vegetation or domestic plants in front of
the house

4-E. Proposal for enhancement and tourist development
In order to preserve, enhance the site and develop lifeof communities by tourist development, Zone I, II and
III need intensive management and protection because
modern mass tourism may cause incalculable destruction
to the cultural heritage. The circuit tourist framework is
the most important for this site. Thus the site should be
set up the Parvis, facilitates for tourists (Parvis is a French
word which contains parking, information center, rest
rooms, souvenir shops, restaurant…). One is about 1 km
to the West of the bridge and the other is about 0.6 km to
the East of the bridge (figure 20). From each Parvis, thevisitors can get a local horse-cart, an oxcart or by walk to
the heritage site.

4. CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT PROJECT:PRESERVATION AND ENHANCEMNTThe site should be zoned in three protected zones (Zone I:
Monumental site, Zone II: Protected Cultural Landscapes
and Zone III: Socio-economic and Cultural Development
Zone) (figure 16). They require intensive management
and protection with strict constructive permission. The
owner gets free consultation for the heritage architectural
management.
4-A. Zone I (~3 ha): Monumental site is an area whichcontains the most significant archaeological site,
traditional settlement with very high architectural values.
Therefore, it deserves the highest level of protection andshould be managed properly.
4-B. Zone II (~4 ha): Protected cultural landscapes are
areas with the characteristics of a landscape that should
be protected on account of its traditional appearance,
land use practices, varied habitats, historic buildings
and man-made features from the past. Protected culturallandscapes are subject to regulations controlling harmful
or disruptive activities.
4-C. Zone III (~12 ha): Socio-economic and culturaldevelopment zone: this region covers the whole
Chikreng District. Guidelines will be provided in order toencourage sustainable development and assessment of its
impact on the environment, with a view to preserving thecultural and natural heritage.
4-D. Proposal of the Khmer traditional wooden houses inprotection zone
In order to preserve the values of Angkorian public
infrastructure and community cultural heritage, theprotected zone should identify the types of Khmer
traditional wooden houses: Pet house, Kantain house,
Rondol house, etc. (figure 17, 18 and 19)

Figure 16: Zone I, II and III

8

Figure 17: Pet house

Figure 18: Rondol house

Figure 19: Kantain house
Drawing of the long term project of BANTHEAYCHMAR SITE, 2007-2008.

Figure 20: Circuit tourist map

IndiaIndia

Recent Conservation at Tughlaqabad Fort
Vasant Kumar Swarnkar, Deputy Superintending Archaeologist
Archaeological Survey of India
Tughlaqabad fort (Lat. 28˚30’ N to 28˚31’ E and Long.
77˚15’ N to 77˚16’), the third city of Delhi, was built by
Ghiyasuʼd-Din Tughlaq, the founder of Tughlaq dynasty,
is situated on Mehrauli-Badarpur road, about 13 km (5.01
miles) from Qutub Minar in New Delhi. The constructionof this massive fort was commenced in the year 1321 CE
and completed in 1323 CE within a period of two years,
which was a great achievement.
The beginning of the Tughlaq dynasty as well as its
ending was marked by tragedy. The dynasty was founded
as a result of utter uncertainty and anarchy after the deathof Alauʼd-Din Khilji, when Tughlaq Ghazi Khan (Ghiyasuʼ
d-Din Tughlaq), ʻthe warden of the marches’ against theMongol inroads had to be requisitioned to restore law
and order. The roots of Indo-Islamic culture and tradition
had gone deep into the Indian soil by then. Between
1320 and 1388 CE, most of the northern and central India
was ruled by three mighty rulers of Tughlaq dynasty who
had successfully established the strongest and the mosteffective state in the history of Delhi Sultanate.
Architecture
Tughlaqabad fort measuring 12.5×4.8 km stands on
rocky outcrop. The center part can be divided into
citadel and the city with its high fortification wall. The
construction was mainly made of random-rubble andhammer-dressed quartzite stone set in lime mortar. The
arches were without any cross-beam support except at
the secondary gate having a vaulted passage extant infront of Ghiyasu’d-Din’s tomb. This feature indicated thatthe cross-beam at springing line started from Ghiyasu’dDin’s tomb onwards and may thus belong to a period
subsequent to the construction of the fort. The art
element in Tughlaq architecture may be visualized in theform of inscribed borders and medallion in spandrels,
often executed on plaster or stucco. The dull look of theplain masonry mass was further relieved by coloured tiles,
which appear to have been introduced in the Tughlaq
period for the first time.
CitadelThe citadel was perched on the highest rocky outcrop
dominating the entire area around and overlooking themain city, palace area and open spaces on the south andeast. Surrounded by high fortification wall with one major
entrance gateway opening into the palace area, except ahigh terraced structure, which is used as a watch tower
and popularly known as Bijay Mandal or Badee Manzil(wonderful mansion) and a baoli, hardly any significant
structural remains were visible. However, an enclosure
with traces of an entrance gateway, a small mosque anda number of roofless structural remains belonging tomuch later late-Mughal period could also be seen. The
only significant structure within the citadel complex wasan underground corridor flanked by series of cells. The

citadel while in use for the pleasure of the Sultan, was
known as Jahan-numa.
Palace Area
The excavations carried out could explain that thestructural remains exposed in the palace area were built
in two distinct structural phases during Tughlaq period.
The complex was connected with another large complex,
which again had high enclosure wall with an entrance
gate on the south. On a portion of the enclosure wall,
evidence of overhead water channel was noticed which
spoke of elaborate water distribution system within thepalace complex.
The complex had a fairly large baoli excavated deep
into the bedrock. To give it a proper shape, masonry
retaining walls and staircases were provided. While
the outer face of the masonry was of ashlar, the core
was of random rubble set in lime mortar. Evidence of a
projected platform built on the northern retaining wallfor drawing water from the baoli may still be seen. Sincestone for the construction of the fort had been quarried
locally, depressions caused may have served as water
reservoirs for use in lean seasons when there was a
shortage of water. Quite interestingly, the gate on thesouthern fortification wall of the citadel was connectedwith Ghiyasu’d-Din Tughlaq’s tomb through a causeway
supported on a series.
The city of Tughlaqabad spread in an area of about 300
acres (121.40 hectares) enclosed with a fortification wall.
The gateway complexes was quite elaborate since groupof four, six or eight circular chambers about 8 m (26.24
ft.) in diameter and about 10 m (32.81 ft.) in depth were
provided to store grains for emergency. These grain silos
are specific to Tughlaqabad fort. The city had well laid
grid-plan of roads which connected the gateways fromone end to the other. The housing blocks were plannedalong the roads. Entry into the citadel was through thecity. The city was also connected with another fort known
as Adilabad fort through a fortified causeway supported
on arches. The open area between Tughlaqabad fort
and Adilabad fort was originally a lake wherein water
was brought in by several channels and rivulets used tobe discharged, which justifiably explains the need forcauseways connecting Tughlaqabad fort with Adilabad
fort and Ghiyasu’d-Din Tughlaq’s tomb.
Fortification
The fortification walls were directly raised over the
rocky outcrop with sides sloping gently to accommodate
masonry up to the base. The walls were as thick as 10 m,
including the outer galleries. The height of the fortificationwall thrown around the city measured 10 m to 15 m
while those around the citadel were about 30 m. There
were large bastions at intervals and gateways at convenient9Indiapoints. Defence was of three tiers, carried all round thewalls and bastions: the lowest tier forming an external
gallery; the next higher tier forming a mural gallery; andthe third forming the walkway behind the battlements on
top of the wall. The internal wall of the mural gallery waslargely damaged. The parapets of the first and third tiers
were pierced with two rows of loopholes. The loop holesof mural galleries were relatively wide. These were 15 cm
wide by 3.20 m high and provided in horizontal registers.
The fortification walls were provided with semi-circularbastions at regular intervals to provide strength to thewall which ran to a length of about 6.5 km (4.03 miles).
The bastions are sometime double storied. The parapet
was heavily battlemented and accommodated sloping
sides perforated by innumerable outlets for archers.
Gateways
The Tughlaqabad fort is said to have as many as fiftytwo gateways, most of which are now in ruins, except a
few on the south. The gateways are steep and rocky. The
gateways are formed by corbels and lintels but some ofthem had arched openings too. Some of these identified
are Delhi Gate, Nimwala Gate, and Dhoban Gate on thewest, Chaklakhana Gate on the north, Bhati Gate, Rawal
Gate, and Bindaoli Gate on the east and Andheri (dark)
Gate and Hatya (Hathiya or elephant) Gate on the south.
Conservation WorkThe visible part of the Tughluqabad Fort, which every
passerby moving on Mehrauli- Badarpur road has beentaken up first for the conservation. Before conservation
scientific excavation was carefully done to expose thehidden part of the Fort. The evidences studied anddocumented in detail by photography then the structuralconservation work has been taken up. The Delhi

Quartzite Stone in lime mortar was originally used forthe construction and veneering of the fort. The fallen
material has been cleared and many of the original stones
were collected at the site itself and they all are used in
the conservation work. The inner part of the bastions
and the wall are made of random rubble masonry so thatthe same has been reconstructed with the same mortar
combination which was used during its construction.
For the conservation work the old photographic
documentation has also been considered since that is the
only source for the old view of the wall and bastions of
the fort. The fortification wall has been strengthened bypointing with lime mortar. During the conservation the
all archaeological norms were followed and all reference
was studied before commencement of work. The original
dressed stones which were found in the cleaning ofdebris at the site are used in the veneering; no new single
stone is used in the outer facing.
The archaeological excavations were carried out in the
habitational area to expose the buried structures. Few
house complexes such as granary, path-ways and a bazaar(market) street were exposed and preserved at the site.
Interestingly, successive lime floors were also encounteredduring the excavation and they were also preserved. All
the structures were cleared and documented properly
then conserved carefully. A damaged step well was also
taken up for the conservation. The walls of the step well
were fallen and damaged and its steps were buried underdebris. Scientific excavation work was undertaken by thearchaeologists and all fallen stones were collected andreused in the conservation. Its steps were restored as per
the original and walls of the well were strengthened by
the pointing.
References
1. Carr Stephen, The Archaeology and Monumental
Remains of Delhi, (Ludhiana and Calcutta, 1876).
2. G. Hearn, The Seven Cities of Delhi (London 1906).
3. H. C. Fanshawe, Delhi Past and Present (London 1902).
4. Percy Brown, Indian Architecture (Islamic Period), 5thEd., (Bombay, 1968).
5. Y. D. Sharma, Delhi and its Neighbourhood, (NewDelhi 2001).
6. Inventory of Monuments and Sites of National
Importance, Vol. 1, Part 3: Delhi Circle, Archaeological
Survey of India, (New Delhi 2004).

Tughalaqabad Fort, General View

Gate, before conservation

10

Gate, after conservation

IndiaBastion, before conservation

Bastion, after conservation

Bastion, before conservation

Bastion, after conservation

Stepped well (Baoli) in damaged condition

Stepped well, during conservation

Bastion, before conservation

Bastion, after conservation

Entrance, in damaged condition

Entrance, after conservation

11

Indonesia
Indonesia

Borobudur Temple Conservation after the Eruption of Mount Merapi
Mohammad Nastsir Ridwan Muslim, Head of Section
Directorate of Archaeological Heritage, Ministry of Culture and Tourism
The eruption of Mount Merapi, which occurred on
26 October 2010 in Yogyakarta, caused not only
casualties, the destruction of public property, damage toinfrastructure facilities and economic and social activities,
as well as the environment, but also caused serious
damage to cultural properties in Yogyakarta Province andCentral Java Province. After the eruption on 26 October
2010, Mount Merapi was still spouting out volcanic
materials. On 4 November 2010, Mount Merapi erupted
again with greater force than the last one. Volcanic ash
materials from the first and subsequent eruptions fellto the west and covered in particular the temples in
Magelang Region with volcanic ash, such as Borobudur,
Pawon and Mendut.

the ash still attached on the surfaces of rocks and crevicesof the stone with a vacuum cleaner. The cleaning finishedwith wet cleaning technique, spraying steam on the stone
surfaces with a steam cleaner (Photos 6-9).

1. Impact of the Eruption
Borobudur Temple, one of the World Cultural Heritage,is located on the west of Mount Merapi with a distance ofapproximately 37 km (Photo 1). Borobudur Temple wascovered in volcanic ash by the eruption. The monitoring
conducted by the Office of Conservation of Borobudur
Heritage revealed that the thickness of the volcanic ash
ranged from 2 - 3 mm. The volcanic ash covered theentire surfaces of the temple and spaces in the cavitiesof the stupa of the temple. The volcanic ash on thehorizontal surfaces of the temple, such as floors, stairs,
and the flat surface of the main stupa were the thickest.
The Office of Conservation of Borobudur Heritage
analyzed the ash and identified the nature and ingredientsof materials that surrounded the temple. The volcanic
ash varied depending on weather changes that occurred
during the eruption of Mount Merapi (Photo 1).

To handle the impact of volcanic eruptions, Office ofConservation of Borobudur Heritage as the responsible
authority for the preservation of Borobudur Temple
consulted with other stakeholders for their corporation.
Currently, visitors (tourists) are allowed only to see
the Borobudur Temple up to the courtyard aroundthe building, since the temple is still in the process ofcleaning and conservation. It is planned that visitors canclimb to the building up to the plateau floor (7th floor) in
mid December 2010 (Photo 14).

The volcanic ash in the eruption that occurred on 26
October 2010 can be identified as follows:- Volcanic ash was granulated so soft and it smelledlike sulfur and rather stinging.
- Volcanic ash was acidic with a pH between 4 and 5.
Meanwhile, the volcanic ash in the eruption that occurred
on 4 November 2010 can be identified as follows:- Abu volcanic sand contained sulfur.
- Volcanic ash was acidic with a pH between 4.52
and 4.78.
Laboratory test results indicated that the acidic nature of
volcanic ash would accelerate stone weathering (Photo11). Moreover, volcanic ash that attached to the stones
would go into the gaps between the stone temples andinterfere with the drainage system of the temple if not
immediately cleaned (Photos 2-5).
2. Step-by-step Treatment
The cleaning of volcanic ash was carried out by dry andwet methods. Dry cleaning technique was applied toremove the volcanic ash from rock surfaces; sweeping
them with a broom stick, broom palm fiber, and a palm
fiber brush. Then, the cleaning continued with vacuuming

12

The cleaning mainly focused on 72 stupas in the
Arupadatu level. The stupas which had open spaces
and housed Buddha statues inside were given highpriority. The cleaning was performed on the floor, wall
fence ledge, and other parts (Photo 4). The volcanic ash
continued falling until 12 November 2010. Concernedthat the cleaned temple would be covered by volcanic
ash again, it was decided to cover up significant parts ofthe temple with plastic wrapping (Photo 10).

3. Community AwarenessAfter the temple was covered by volcanic ash, local
people have been very enthusiastic to help clean up
the volcanic ash from the temple. Volunteers, consistedof Indonesian National Army, followers of Buddhism,
tourism organizations, colleges, and non-governmentalorganizations; and individuals participated in this clean
up activity. The community involvement in cleaning thetemple was coordinated by Office of Conservation of
Borobudur Heritage and limited only to the courtyard
and ground floor (undag) of the temple. Meanwhile, themain cleaning activity of the temple was carried out by
the technical workers from the Office of Conservation of
Borobudur Heritage (photos 12-13).
4. Conclusion
The alert status of Mount Merapi was lowered to be
dormant on 3 December 2010, as is the threat levelof volcanic ash; however the process of cleaning
and conservation of Borobudur Temple is still being
conducted. The hazard map of Indonesia was released inJuly 2010, and showed that the Indonesian territory wasvulnerable to the earthquake, particularly the island of
Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi and Papua. Based on this map,the damage by natural disasters on cultural properties
should be more considered and better managed.
Photographs: Courtesy of Office of Conservation of
Borobudur Heritage

Indonesia

Photo 1. The location of Borobudur Temple and Mount Merapi (source Google map)

Photo 2. Borobudur Temple after the eruption of Mount Merapi,
October 26, 2010

Photo 3. The Buddha statue and stupas after the eruption of Mount
Merapi, October 26, 2010

Photo 4. The ﬂoor covered with volcanic ash

Photo 5. Stupas and gaps in walls covered with volcanic ash

Photo 6. Dry cleaning on the main stupa

Photo 7. Dry cleaning on stupas

13

Indonesia
Photo 8. Wet cleaning on the main stupa

Photo 9. Wet cleaning on the main stupa

Photo 10. The cleaned stupa covered with plastic

Photo 11. Laboratory analysis to identify composition of volcanic ash

Photo 12. Volunteers helped clean up the volcanic ash on the ﬂoor
(undag)

Photo 13. Volunteers helped clean up the volcanic ash on the temple
courtyard

Photo 14. Installation of a prohibition sign to the temple building

14

Malaysia
Malaysia

Restoration of the St. Georgeʼs Church, George Town, Penang, Malaysia
A Ghafar Bin Ahmad, Deputy Commissioner of Heritage
Department of National Heritage, Ministry of Information, Communications and Culture, Malaysia
Introduction
Located in the historic city of George Town, Penang,
Malaysia; St. George’s Church is the oldest Anglican
Church in Southeast Asia, and one of the most extensively
documented in old paintings and archival photographs.
Built in 1816, the church portrays the Georgian
Palladium architecture, a hybrid of Georgian and Grecianarchitectural styles. The church is also known for its
Francis Light Memorial and Mahogany tree situated in its
spacious compound. The church counts as one of themost beautiful heritage landmarks of Penang, attracting
local and foreign tourists. Due to its immense historical,
social and architectural significance, the church waslisted as the National Heritage of Malaysia in 2007 under
the National Heritage Act 2005. In 2010, the church
has received an amount of RM 1,841,027 (USD 526,007)from the Federal Government through the Departmentof National Heritage for the repair and restoration works.
The restoration works took place over a period of eightmonths from the 1st of April until the 11th of November
2010.

Historical Background
The St. George’s Church was built in 1816 using convict
labourers and was completed in 1818 when Colonel
J.A. Bannerman was the Governor of Penang. Designed
by Captain Robert N. Smith of the Bengal Engineers,
the church was constructed at a cost of 60,000 Spanish
dollars. This was a huge sum, considering the British paid
only 10,000 Spanish dollars per annum to the State of
Kedah for occupying its territory, Penang; and also 60,000
Spanish dollars when they bought Singapore a few years
later. Upon completion in December 1818, the church
held its first service on Christmas day under Reverend J.R.
Henderson. The marriage of Janet, daughter of Governor
Bannerman, to William Edwards Philips was held at the
church in 1818, marking the church’s first significant
event. On the 11th of May 1819, the church wasconsecrated by Reverend Thomas Fenshaw Middleton,
the Bishop of Calcutta, India. In 1885, Mahogany trees
were planted in the church compound followed by theerection of the Francis Light Memorial built in 1886 tocommemorate the 100th anniversary of the founding of
Penang by Sir Francis Light.

The St. Georgeʼs Church portrays the Georgian Palladium architecture,a hybrid of the Georgian and Grecian architectural styles

The St. Georgeʼs Church is known for its Francis Light Memorial and
Mahogany tree situated in its spacious compound

The ground ﬂoor plan showing the portico, nave, aisles and altar withthe huge round columns

The upper ﬂoor plan showing the utility room, ﬁling room and balcony

15

Malaysia
16

On the 12th of December 1941, during the World War
II (WWII), six bombs were dropped by the Japanese in
the compound of the St. George’s Church. The pitchedroof and interior of the church were severely damaged.
This had resulted in looters carting off memorial plaques,
furnishings and marble figures from the building. Sometrees including the Mahogany planted in the compound
were burnt down due to the bombings. The one still
remaining today is the survivor from the destruction
wreaked by the WWII. After the fall of the Japanese
Empire, the church services were resumed. The church’s
pulpit, pews and pipe organ had to be replaced during
its restoration in 1948. After nearly 50 years, in 1995 thechurch had undergone extensive re-plastering works.
Unfortunately, a new material Portland cement, instead oflime plaster, was introduced and used inappropriately torender the exterior walls. The use of cement had caused
problems to the building as it did not allow the building
to breath as compared to the lime plaster.

from its main entrance at portico, the church can beaccessed through side entrances which are flanked by
Roman Doric columns and framed with entablature andpediment.
Built in the Georgian and Grecian architectural styles, theSt. George’s Church has high ceiling with big openings
to adapt to the warm and humid climate of Penang. The
church’s most striking feature is the huge Roman Doriccolumns lined below pediment at the portico. Huge
Roman Doric columns are also found inside the church.
These interior columns are of fine quality and unique as
they are bowing at the column shaft. The column shafts
were finished with chunam (quicklime) which had beenpolished with soapstone and calico. The architecturaldesign of the St. George’s Church reflects the St. George’s
Cathedral in Madras (Chennai), India built in 1815. Bothchurches feature high ceiling, huge classical columns
at portico, bell tower, balustrades at parapet walls,
openings, pilasters and cornices at building facades.

Architectural SignificanceThe St. George’s Church was built with clay brick,stone, lime plaster, timber, marble and terrazzo. It has
decorative elements on walls including lime plasterswag, rose and garland motifs on the upper parts of
the walls and portico. Praying hall (nave), aisles, altar,
vestry, instrument room, switch room and children’s
rest room are found at ground floor. Utility room, filingroom and balcony are located at the upper floor. Apart

The St. George’s Church was originally built with flat
terraced roofs including its portico. Due to roof leakagesin the building, in 1864 a pitched roof was constructedabove the nave leaving the portico, apse and aisles withflat terraced roofs. Indian V-shaped tiles were then used
for the pitched roof before they were replaced with
Marseilles tiles in 1907. After the WWII, all flat terraced
roofs, particularly above the apse, aisles and portico were

The condition of the pitched roof, balustrades, bell tower and spire
before restoration

The interior view of the church showing the nave, aisles and altar with
two rows of Roman Doric columns during restoration

Throughout the restoration work, temporary rooﬁng was installed above the existing
pitched roof to ensure that the roof structures were protected from severe rainfalls

The existing Marseilles tiles were brought down to the ground where each tile was inspected,
cleaned and salvaged. The cleaning process involved both dry and wet cleaning techniquesAnother unique feature of the church is the clocks locatedat the spire above the bell tower. The clocks, each facing
north, south, east and west, were shown in watercolour
paintings done by LT. Walford Thomas Bellairs in 1846
(The English Church at Pulo Penang-St. George’s) and
Turnbull Thomson in 1848 (English Church, Pinang).
In late 1880’s the clocks and their hood mould were
removed but one clock facing north remained at thespire. During the WWII bombing at the church, the clock
was destroyed and later removed, leaving the clock faceblank and empty.
Restoration Work
Prior to the restoration of the St. George’s Church, a
dilapidation survey was conducted by conservation
consultants to determine the nature of building problems
and defects. Findings from the dilapidation survey had
confirmed the generally poor condition of the church.
Building diagnoses showed numerous problems including
rising damp, salt contamination, termite infestation,
defect plaster walls and renderings, harmful growth,
peeling paint and roof leakage. The restoration works
concentrated mainly on roof structures, existing Marseilles
tiles, balustrades, rainwater downpipes, walls, columns,
beams, ceilings, staircases, floors, bell tower and spire.
The restoration works also involved removing existing

cement plaster on the external walls, termite treatment,
salt desalination, restoring door panels, repainting; andelectrical and mechanical works, where new ceilingmounted air-conditioning units and lighting fixtures were
installed.

Malaysia

covered with pitched roof using Marseilles tiles. These
pitched roofs remain until today.

Throughout the restoration work, temporary roofing
was installed above the existing pitched roof. This wasto ensure that the roof structures were well protectedfrom severe rainfalls, particularly when Marseilles tiles
were removed and brought down to the ground. Onceat the ground level, each tile was inspected, cleaned andsalvaged. The cleaning process involved both dry andwet cleaning techniques. In the dry cleaning process, alldirt and dust found on the Marseilles tiles were carefully
removed using soft brush and scrapping tools. Anydamaged roof tiles were discarded and replaced withnew or salvaged tiles of similar profile, size and material.
After the dry cleaning, the roof tiles were soaked inclean water for wet cleaning. All cleaned tiles werethen carefully stacked on wooden planks to dry before
applying chemical sealer for anti fungus.
All timber trusses were inspected for any defects or
termite attacks. The Malaysian Timber Industry Board(MTIB) was sought for timber verification and grading.
Any new timber trusses must be of the same species,
grade or group strength to retain the authenticity ofthe building fabric. All timber structures and elements

Crumbled lime plaster had to be removed from the lower part of the walls and at
the base of the columns which were infected with salt attack and rising damp

Salt attack was treated through the salt desalination process using a poultice techniquecalled Cocoon before carrying out the injection of a chemical damp-proof course

The new clock consists of aluminum minute markers, stainless steel Roman numerals; andstainless steel hour and minute hands which were all gilded with 23.5-carat gold leaf

A working replica of 1.27-meter clock was ﬁxed onto the north side of
the spire17

Malaysia

were treated with a preservative to improve the timber’s
resistance to attack by destroying fungi, insects andtermites. New doors were tagged using metal plate withspecial coding system for future references.

The St. George’s Church and the Francis Light Memorial
were later painted in white with light grey at the columnbase of the church portico as well as at the lower part of
the Memorial.

Since the lower part of the walls and columns were
infected with salt attack and rising damp, the restoration
works involved a salt desalination process through thepoultice technique called Cocoon; and the injection of achemical damp-proof course (DPC). The Cocoon method
involved the application of a damp-absorbent material, amixture of pharmaceutical fibre and distilled water thatdried out whilst drawing the salts from the walls andcolumns. After a few weeks, the poultice was removed
from the affected areas, taking salts together with it. The
process was repeated for a second time to reduce thesalt concentration to an acceptable level. On the other
hand, the injection of chemical damp-proof course wasto provide barrier in the walls and columns to prevent
future rising damp. The DPC had to be applied before
the second treatment of Cocoon.

Conclusion
Funded by the Federal Government through the
Department of National Heritage, the restoration of the
St. George’s Church posed many challenges among
consultants and contractor. The tasks of conducting
research on the church’s history and carrying out
dilapidation survey required substantial time andcollaboration during the early stage of the project.
Determining building defects and conservation techniques
involved elaborate discussions and detailed analyses.
The contractor had to engage experienced and skilled
labourers to carry out restoration works which include
documenting the conditions of the church before, during
and after restoration. The restoration of the St. George’s
Church has underlined the importance of communicationand collaboration among all parties including thefederal government, local authorities, architect, building
conservator, engineer, quantity surveyor, building
contractor, building suppliers and the church committee.
The Department of National Heritage has played an
important role in ensuring the St. George’s Church, theNational Heritage, remains in good condition and lasts forthe next decade.

The restoration works also involved the installationof new clock at the spire. Based on evidence fromold paintings and photographs, a working replica of
1.27-meter clock was fixed onto the north side of thespire. With the exception of its clock motor which wasimported from Switzerland, the clock was locally madeusing aluminum plate powder coated to black colour onboth sides and polished on the front side. The aluminum
minute markers, stainless steel Roman numerals (15.5cm); and stainless steel hour (53.5 cm) and minute hands(74.8 cm) were all gilded with 23.5-carat gold leaf. This
electrical master-slave clock is controlled by the Global
Positioning System (GPS) with the accuracy of one
millisecond or equivalent to gain or loose one second in
1,000 years. The church bell is controlled by the clock
system. The clock has given a new image to the church
since it was last removed from the spire after the WWII.

The Francis Light Memorial was erected in 1886 in the church compound tocommemorate the 100th anniversary of the founding of Penang by Sir Francis Light

18

References
Andrea Filmer, “Back to Glorious Past: Dept to Put
Replica of Original Clock on Church Spire”, The Star, 18June 2010, page M3.
Gwynn Jenkins, “Cultural, Architectural, HistoricalSignificance of the Site” in Ooi Bok Kim, Dilapidation
Survey Report of St. George’s Church at Jalan Farquhar,
George Town, Penang, Kuala Lumpur: Jabatan Warisan
Negara, 2010.

View of the church and the Francis Light memorial showing their newcoat of paint and the working replica of clock at the spireNepalNepal

Inventory Preparation of Monuments of Nepal
Suresh Suras Shrestha, Archaeological Officer
Department of Archaeology, Ministry of Culture & State Reconstructing
Background
Nepal is well known for its natural beauty and cultural
heritage as well. There are numerous cultural properties
scattered all over Nepal, which are important heritageof the human genius and are the medium of the humanculture. These properties are the heritage of humanbeings in the universe. These all cultural heritages werecreated in the different periods of time and context that
represented the certain events, period, history, culture
and so on. To keep these properties in their original
condition is the responsibility of all human beings, whichmust be preserved for the next generation.
Among these heritages, some of the monuments werecreated in the era before Christ and later. There was noexact data of these monuments remained or scatteredin all over Nepal. However, since Department ofArchaeology (DoA) was established in 1952, all of thesole authority went under it on cultural heritages of
Nepal. There were only incomplete records or inventories
prepared in different ways by various governmental
and non-governmental agencies. So, DoA has launcheda “Three Years Program” for preparing an inventoryof monuments which were scattered in all over Nepal
and classifying them based on the provision of Ancient
Monument Preservation Act 1956, which is the major
legislation to guide DoA for preservation of cultural
heritage in Nepal.

Inventory Preparation
It is already mentioned that there was no exact official
data of monuments of Nepal. Once, DoA had published
an inventory of all monuments of Nepal as a result ofsurvey report (Preliminary Survey Report) in 1985/86,
which was also not completed and not updated yet.
So, DoA has carried out this three year program for the
preparation of inventory of monuments in Nepal aiming
to collect the complete data and to classify them under
the legislative provisions, which can be useful for the
future preservation and conservation work to keep themin their original authenticity, integrity and value.
The three year program was started in FY 2007/08
and targeted to complete collection or preparationof inventory of all monuments within 18 districts of
Far Western Development Region and Mid Western
Development Region. DoA is only a major and soleauthority of Government of Nepal regarding to thecultural heritage conservation and management with alimited number of experts and staff. So, DoA organizeda training program for the freelancer experts including
with some DoA staff, to prepare inventory from the entire
districts. This type of training program was held two times
during the whole three years program and it developed
35 cultural experts for the inventory preparation of
tangible cultural heritages.

Bhurtika Dewal (22 temples), in the tentative list of UNESCO World Heritage Site,
Dailekh, Mid Western Development Region (16th / 17th century A.D.)

Kakre Vihar (13th ‒ 15th century A.D.)
Surkhet, Mid Western Development Region

Firing Bays in the Fort, Rasuwagadhi(A Medieval Period Fort)

19

NepalAt first, DoA nominated 10 staff (archaeological officers
or who got master’s degree in the related subjects) andinvited applications through advertisement (requirements
were the master’s degree in Nepalese history, culture
and archaeology degree holder and some experiences in
preparing cultural inventory or any other documentation
fields) and selected 25 individuals from out of
department. DoA introduced a course for inventorying
the monuments for 15 days. After the completion of the
training, they had to go in the field at least 45 days forinventorying all of the cultural monuments to submit
detailed reports with recommendation. Then the Ancient
Monument Preservation Surveying and Classification
Committee (formulated as per the national legislation)
classified the listed monuments on the basis of criteria.
The second year of the program in FY 2008/09 prepared
the monuments inventory in 20 districts of Mid Western
Development Region and Western Development Region.
Then in the third and last year in FY 2009/10, all targeted
objectives were recorded on the monuments inventory
in 34 districts of Eastern Development Region and Mid
Development Region. The program did not include
the inventory of three districts of Mid Development
Region which are Kathmandu, Lalitpur and Bhaktapur,
considering that the inventory of these districts was
already prepared by DoA which was most complicatedand time consuming as well.

In this way, DoA finished the inventory of all monuments
in Nepal and classified them through the Committee for
the Survey and Classification of Ancient Monuments,
based on the provision of Ancient Monuments
Preservation Act 1956. The inventory of monuments was
prepared many in number but all did not eligible for theclassification. There was the criteria for classification ofmonuments and the committee decided to classify themas Category 1 or A (monuments which are of national
importance and international as well), Category 2 orB (regionally important) and Category 3 or C (locallyimportant).
Conclusion
Heritages were created in different periods of time andcontext that represent the past events, period, history andculture, which are the heritage of human beings of theuniverse, not only of the local people but of the entire
world. So, any types of heritages or monuments must
be preserved for the next generation. Inventorying suchmonuments is the big and most important step for thepreservation and conservation of them. So, this is thegreat achievement for the conservation and managementof the cultural heritage of Nepal.
Achievements of this program can be pointed out asfollows:
1. Succeeded for identifying and preparing complete
inventory of all scattered monuments and sites in Nepal
and updating previous inventories;
2. Succeeded for classifying the inventoried monumentsof Nepal which is very important for preservation,conservation and management of heritage;
3. Development of cultural experts regarding to the
preparation of inventory
It is the great achievement, however, preparing inventory
and classifying monuments are not over even after the
program finished, which is an ongoing process andeveryone should continue to think and consider it. DoA
must get knowledge from this for the future updating of
the inventory of heritage/monuments.

Bhagawan Chaitya, Listikot, Sindhupalchowk
Mid Devt. Region

Lamjung Durbar (The Palace of 15th - 16th century A.D.), Lamjung,Western Devt. Region

20

Pindeshwor Temple Complex, DharanSunsari, Eastern Devt. Region

New Zealand
Matthew Schmidt, Regional Archaeologist, Otago/Southland
The New Zealand Historic Places Trust
Introduction
The Otago Goldfields of the mid to late 19th century
not only provided significant monetary wealth for New
Zealand but also saw New Zealand become of world
leader in gold mining technology. Innovations in hydraulicsluicing and gold dredge design were exported fromthis remote British Empire colony to the international
market. New Zealand gold miners also embraced newtechnology to make the extraction of gold more efficientand profitable which led to the use of equipment andmachinery which were on the cutting edge of industrial
technology for the day. At Bullendale, this cutting edge
technology was the use of a hydroelectric power station
to power electric motors which drove gold stampers
and mine shaft winding gear. The plant began operationin 1886 and was New Zealand’s first industrial use ofhydroelectric power.
This report describes how the Bullendale site is to beprotected and preserved to ensure that this important
cultural heritage site is conserved for future generations.
Presented below are a brief description of the site and an
explanation of why this site is internationally importantin terms of early hydroelectric power generation schemes
during the 19th century. Next, the two Stages of how the
Bullendale Project Team will protect and preserve thesite is described, first looking at how the recognition andlegal protection of the site will be enhanced, and secondly
at what steps will be taken to preserve the remaininghydroelectric power scheme components and electricmotor.
The Bullendale Project Team consists of the New Zealand
Historic Places Trust, Wakatipu Office of the Departmentof Conservation, Queenstown & District Historical Society
and goldfields archaeologist Peter Petchey.
Location of Bullendale
Figures 1 & 2 show the location of Bullendale in relation to
Queenstown which, during the 19th century, was a smallinland town dependent on the gold mining and pastoral
economy. The rugged, mountainous and dangerous terrainof this Lakes District was sparsely populated in the 19th
century with much of the population being transient
gold miners who came and went with the various gold
strikes which brought them inland. The mainstay of the
population in the later 19th century were those people
involved in large scale gold mining or dredging operations
and those running businesses which these populations
depended on. Bullendale was one of a handful of isolated
mining townships in this area which relied on gold mining
directly and which then ceased to exist when the gold
venture either failed or the gold ran out.
Access to Bullendale was through steep country via packtrack which travelled through native Mountain Beech

New Zealand

Bullendale‒Site of New Zealandʼs First Industrial Use of Hydroelectric Power:
Protection & Preservation of an Internationally Important Cultural Heritage Siteforest and tussock land. One of the important historic
aspects of Bullendale was the exceedingly difficult andarduous terrain which had to be traversed to reach thegold mines and township. All the equipment for the power
scheme, mines and town had to be taken in either by footor pack horse making the establishment of a hydroelectric
power scheme in such an isolated environment in the 19th
century a momentous feat.
Bullendale historic records and archaeological remains
Occupation at Bullendale dates from 1862 to 1907 andtherefore spans the period of gold mining history fromthe first gold rush to this area to the decline of hard-rockgold mining in the Lakes District of Otago. Written historic
records and some key photographs of the township,
Phoenix (Achilles) Battery and hydroelectric power
scheme from the time of when electrical power was firstused in 1886 is available (see Figures 3 to 6). Considering
the isolation of Bullendale, these records illustrate thesignificance of the event for New Zealand industry at thetime. The images of the power scheme (see Figures 18 &19 below) and the Phoenix (Achilles) Battery it powered
have been a crucial tool in interpreting how the electricallydriven mining operation functioned.
Archaeological evidence at Bullendale is extensive andwas the subject of a thorough archaeological survey in1996 by goldfields archaeologist Peter Petchey (2006). The
publication of Petchey’s (2006) survey can be downloadedat www.doc.govt.nz/upload/documents/science-andtechnology/sap237.pdf
The inaccessibility of Bullendale has meant that much of
the archaeological evidence of the mining, settlement andpower scheme is well preserved for an Otago goldfields
site, even though fossicking for easily removed items,
particularly bottles, has had an impact. In addition, theremoval of metal and wooden structures/items from thesite during World War I, for example, due to a shortageof raw materials in Otago at the time, has meant that only
three standing built structures are left at the Bullendale,these being two huts and a bakers oven (Petchey 2006:18).
However, given this lack of standing built heritage, thebuilding terraces from the township can still be seen
as well as exposed timber and stone foundations andartefacts scattered amongst the ruins and in re-generated
forest (Figures 7 to 10).
The mining heritage which survives is wide-spread andconsists of the remnants of the hydroelectric operation,
open mines with rail lines intact, stonework/timberwork
for mining structures, the foundations of battery sites with
their stampers, timber and mortar boxes present, various
water power generation equipment such as pelton
wheels and Whitelaw turbines, cableway remains, a rockcrusher, rock drills etc (Figures 11 to 17). Other evidence

21New Zealandrelates to the main pack track, small access tracks and thetelephone/power line.
Hydroelectric Power Scheme remains
As noted above, it is because of the inaccessibility of
Bullendale that the key components of the originalhydroelectric power system have survived in-situ, thesebeing the two original Anglo-American Brush Corporation
Arc Dynamos and an Anglo-American Brush Corporation
Electric Motor.
At the dynamo site, evidence of where the penstocks came
down the steep rock face can still be seen by the ironsupports still present (Figure 18). The dynamo equipment
is in its original position after being lifted back onto newtimbers in 1986 to preserve the equipment (Figure 19).
The original location was established through a 19th
century photograph of the powerhouse and sketch of
the dynamos, and after excavation of the site in 1985 toconfirm the location of the powerhouse (Petchey 2006:12& 40-42). Other archaeological features present include
one of the pelton wheels to dive the dynamos, flywheels,
the water race leading to the penstocks and the tailrace
leading away from the powerhouse. The ‘Dynamo Hut’
which can be seen at this site today was constructed ca.
1917 from timber and corrugated iron taken from thepowerhouse (Petchey 2006:40).
The dismantled remains of Anglo-American BrushCor po r a t i o n Elec t r i c Mot or, em bossed w i t h t he
manufactures name Anglo-American Brush Corpn. Ld.
Electric Light is located at the New Main Shaft (Figures
6 & 20). Here the motor ran the winding equipment forthe mine shaft. Petchey (2006:42) notes that the cast ironmotor was probably dismantled to remove the valuable
metals inside, but the main body is complete and otherparts lie discarded around the site. More parts are probably
also hidden under the re-generated Beech forest.
During a site visit in November 2010, it could be seen thatthe native Beech trees had grown through the gaps of thedismantled motor, illustrating how long ago the site wasabandoned, and the various parts recorded by Petchey in1996 were still in-situ. The remains of the winding house
winding gear structure the electric motor powered are alsoessentially intact (Figures 21 & 22).
International Significance of Bullendale
The international significance of Bullendale lies in thecompleteness of the remains of the hydroelectric power
scheme and the industry it powered, the in-situ natureof the tangible cultural heritage, and the remoteness ofthe power scheme in world terms in the 19th century.
Although the sites of other early power schemes are
known, Bullendale still has the generation equipment andone of its motors in-situ alongside the other componentsof the hydroelectric power system and the archaeologicalevidence of the mining operation it powered.
Petchey’s (2010:60-61) research on Bullendale considered
what evidence of early19th century hydroelectric
power schemes remained around the world and what
components had survived at such sites. He found thatthe Bullendale scheme is “remarkably early” for such an

22

isolated hydroelectric project in a time where the newelectric generation technology was being establishedin the main population centres in Europe, America andAustralasia. Petchey (2006:61) also notes that although the1885 Cragside installation is more complete and in better
condition, this scheme was in the heart of the British
Empire in the 19th century and represents the history ofindustrialised Britain. Bullendale was remote and on theedge of the Empire and “…represents the movement of
new technology into outlying areas, and is therefore of
considerable value not only as an early power scheme,
but also as a superb archaeological example of technology
transfer from industrialised Britain and Europe out into theworld.” (Petchey 2006:61).
Stage 1: Increased Recognition and Legal Protection of
Bullendale
Although Bullendale is known to be an archaeologicalsite of national and international importance, its level ofrecognition and legal protection does not currently reflect
this.
Historic Reserve Status
Bullendale is located on the Mount Aurum Recreation
Reserve which is land managed by the Department ofConservation (“DoC”) and which is freely accessible by
the public. Being located on DoC land does give the site
protection in that the site is protected and managed by theGovernment on behalf of the New Zealand public rather
than being located on private land where this would be
difficult. However, as the site is part of a larger ‘Recreation
Reserve’, this does not give the site the elevated protection
and management status that it would have if the site wasattributed ‘Historic Reserve’ standing. Historic Reserve
status would increase the ability for the site to attract
funding specifically for highly significant cultural heritage
sites.
NZHPT Registration
The Phoenix Dynamo site and the Bullendale Settlementsite are on the New Zealand Historic Places Trust(“NZHPT”) Register as separate Category II registrations.
This Register recognises important cultural heritage sites
throughout New Zealand. The Registrations for these sites(Reg. No’s. 5601 & 5602 respectively), however, are poorin their description and do not recognise the importanceof the whole settlement, power and mining complex. The
core problem with the Registrations is that the sites are
Registered as separate entities and therefore do not tell thecomplete story of Bullendale. The Bullendale Settlement
registration, for example, does not even including therelated mining sites.
Registration of the hydroelectric power scheme, mining
heritage and township as one entity and elevating the levelof registration to Category I, making Bullendale a place ofnational importance, is required. Although this would notprovide immediate legal protection for Bullendale per se,
proper recognition of cultural heritage sites on a national
level does provide crucial ‘social protection’ throughacknowledgment by a society of what is important to it.
‘Gazettal’ of the 20th century hydroelectric, mining andsettlement heritage as an archaeological siteArchaeological sites are legally protected under Section
10 of the HPA. This means that any person damaging,
modifying or destroying any pre-1900 structures, features,
artefacts etc at Bullendale can be prosecuted. As noted
above, Bullendale was occupied into the early 20th century
with late 20th century attempts at mining also being
undertaken. Historic heritage remains from these 20th
century activities are located in areas where 19th century
activity also took place, but the 20th century mining
heritage is not legally protected. This creates difficulties
in adequately protecting Bullendale from fossicking, forexample. This is because to successfully prosecute a
fossicker caught with artefacts from the site, it would haveto be proven that such artefacts were not from the early
20th century but from the late 19th century. Prosecuting
a person for fossicking damage may also be difficult fora location where both 19th and 20th century activity took
place.
Under Section 9(2) of the Historic Places Act (1993), the
New Zealand Historic Places Trust may declare by noticein the New Zealand Gazette that a post-1900 historic site
receive the same protection as an archaeological site as
defined in Section 2(a) (see above). This process is often
described as Gazetting and would mean no confusion
or debate would arise on whether a person discovered
fossicking at Bullendale was undertaking this activity
illegally or not. Such greater legal protection would be adeterrent to fossickers.
The aim of Stage 1 of the Bullendale Project is therefore
to:・ Change the DoC Reserve status from ‘Recreation’to ‘Historic’ for the whole Bullendale hydroelectric
power, mining and settlement complex.
・ Review the NZHPT separate Phoenix Dynamo andBullendale Settlement sites Registrations to create one
Registration that reflects the international importanceof the site.
・ ‘Gazette’ the 20th century cultural heritage remainsof Bullendale to provide these with the same legal
protection as the pre-1900 archaeological heritage.
The proposed increased recognition and legal protection
can be achieved through DoC ʼ s and NZHPT ʼ s own
respective legislations. As DoC and the NZHPT are part ofthe Bullendale Project Team, Stage 1 of the project shouldbe achievable.
Stage 2: Preservation of the Dynamos, Electric Motor and the
New Main Shaft winding structure
The aim of Stage 2 of the project is to preserve the key
components of the hydroelectric power scheme. Ideally,

the mining features/structures powered by the scheme
would also be preserved or stabilised, but possible
limitations on funding has meant that the most significant
of Bullendale's features are the focus of the current project.
At the Dynamo site, the dynamos, flywheels and pelton
wheels are currently exposed to the natural elements andthe timbers from the 1986 reconstruction are now rotten.
The rotten timbers will be replaced and to further protect
the hydroelectric scheme and increase the longevity of
the new timbers, a protective building or shelter may
be required to be constructed over the power scheme
remains. Originally a building did cover the dynamos,
flywheels and pelton wheels etc. as shown in Figures 18& 19, and so a new building or shelter will not be out ofplace for the site. The new building/shelter, however, may
not be as large as the original building so as not to intrude
on the isolated and abandoned ambience of the site. These
heritage works will be guided by a Conservation andWorks Specification Plan.

New Zealand

Section 2 of the Historic Places Act (1993) (“HPA”) definesarchaeological sites as “any place in New Zealand that:(a) Either –(i) Was associated with human activity that occurred
before 1900; or(ii) Is the site of the wreck of any vessel where thatwreck occurred before 1900; and(b) Is or may be able through in vestigation byarchaeological methods to provide evidence relating to thehistory of New Zealand.”At the New Main Shaft where the electric motor is
located alongside the winding gear structure it powered,archaeological excavation of the electric motor and thearea surrounding it will be required to determine howmuch of the motor is still present. Once this is completed,
whether the motor can be reconstructed will then beable to be determined and, if reconstruction is possible,
how this will occur. It is possible the motor may have to
be temporarily removed off site for reconstructive andpreservation works and then returned. The winding gear
structure will require stabilisation of the stonework andalso possibly the replacement of the rotten support timbers
for the winding drum with the drum then lifted backinto place. Due to the collapse of the support timbers,
the weight of the winding drum now rests directly on
the stonework causing two of the stone walls to bow.
Vegetation may also need to be cut and cleared from thesite to preserve the archaeological remains from further
vegetation intrusion. Clearance of vegetation will also
allow more detailed recording of the site to be made.
These works will be guided by an Archaeological Research
Strategy and a Conservation and Works Specification Plan.
Stage 2 of the Bullendale Project will require the project
team to raise funds to implement the preservation of thesekey components. The completion of Stage 1 will benefit
any applications for funding by ensuring the significanceof the site is understood. Funding options may not be
restricted to applications for funds to Government, local
government, the Lotteries Commission or Community
Trusts, but may also come from other project partners orsponsors who recognise the benefits of being associatedwith a highly significant cultural heritage preservation
project.
References
Petchey, P.G. 2006. Gold and electricity. Archaeologicalsurvey of Bullendale, Otago. Published by Science &Technical Publishing, Department of Conservation, PO
Box 10420, The Terrace, Wellington 6143, New Zealand.

23

New Zealand

Bullendale
Queenstown

DunedinFigure 1. Location of Bullendale near Queenstown in the South Island of New Zealand ((Sourced from Land Information New Zealand. Crown
Copyright Reserved).

Brush Corp. Electric motor
Bullendale

Brush Corp. Dynamos

Queenstown

Figure 2. Location of Bullendale near Queenstown (top). Location of the Phoenix Companyʼs hydroelectric power scheme where the two dynamos
are located today, and the location of the remains of the electric motor which powered the New Main Shaft winding house (bottom) (Sourced fromLand Information New Zealand. Crown Copyright Reserved).

Figure 3. Bullendale probably pre-1907 (source: Petchey 2006:18 andLakes District Museum, Arrowtown ). The Bakery Flat settlement above
the New Main Shaft is circled (see Figure 6).

24

Figure 4. Phoenix (Achilles) Battery ca. 1887 when itʼs stampers were powered by electricity(Source: Petchey 2006:32 & Hocken Library, Dunedin ). Compare with Figure 11. The rockcrusher is the top of the photograph and the remains of the battery house in the foreground.

New ZealandFigure 5. Elevation plan of the Phoenix Battery from 1887 relating indetail how the battery and rock breaker system functioned and was
powered (source: Handbook of New Zealand Mines , 1887).

Figure 6. New Main Shaft ca. 1900 (?). Location of the Anglo-American
Brush Corporation Electric Motor which powered the winding gear
(Source: Petchey 2006:25 & Hocken Library, Dunedin ).

Figure 8. The bread oven on Bakery Flat. The dimensions match those at the
19th century Bendigo Bakery excavated in 2009 (see The 5th International
Correspondent Report by Matthew Schmidt) (Photo: Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 7. Occupation terraces at the Bakery Flat settlement above the
New Main Shaft. Compare with Figures 3 & 6. Building platforms etc.
can still be seen and extensive archaeological remains lie beneath thesurface and in the surrounding Beech forest.
Figure 9. Stonework from a building located on one of the occupation terraces at Bullendale. The building is
now surrounded by Beech forest and artefacts are scattered around the site (Photo; Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 10. Evidence of fossicking at Bullendale (Photo; Matthew Schmidt).

25

New ZealandFigure 12. Archaeologist Peter Petchey standing next to part of aWhitelaw Turbine (Photo: Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 11. The Phoenix (Achilles) Battery site. Compare with Figure 4.
The rock crusher is the top of the photograph and the remains of thebattery house in the foreground (Photo; Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 13. Remains of Southbergʼs Battery showing mortar boxes, timbers
and stampers now overgrown by Beech forest (Photo: Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 14. Author with Cornish rock drill still located next to the mining drive where it would have been used (Photos: Peter Petchey and Matthew
Schmidt).

Figure 15. Ore bucket. These buckets are scattered in the bush and in
Murdochs Creek (Photo: Matthew Schmidt).

26

Figure 16. Cableway winding drum(?) with drum timbers intact (Photo:
Matthew Schmidt).

New ZealandFigure 17. Old mining equipment from the Phoenix (Achilles) Battery is present in the Right Branch of Skippers Creek, in Murdochs Creek and along
their banks.

Figure 18. The hydroelectric power scheme at Dynamo Figure 19. The Dynamos for the hydroelectric power scheme. Top: as drawn and published in the Appendices
Creek photographed in ca. 1900(?). The penstocks can to the Journals of the House of Representatives in 1886; Bottom: as photographed by Matthew Schmidt inbe seen as well as the powerhouse building (Source:
2010.
Petchey 2006:39 & Lakes District Museum, Arrowtown ).

Figure 20. The Anglo-American Brush Corporation Electric Motor at Bullendale. Top: as one of the electric motors looked in 1886 (Source: Petchey 2006:15 & Lakes District Museum, Arrowtown );Bottom: the dismantled motor at the New Main Shaft. The parts are in good condition. Note the native Beech trees which have grown through gaps in the discarded motor parts (Photo: Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 21. The winding gear structure at the New Main Shaft. Gearing has slipped oﬀ therotten support timbers and onto the structural stonework causing the stonework to bow.

Figure 22. Mining equipment from the New Main Shaft is scattered along the terrace theoperation was built on (see Figure 6). (Photo: Matthew Schmidt).

27

Pakistan
Pakistan

Documentation and Conservation of Wazir Khan Mosque in Lahore
Salman Muhammad, Senior Conservation Architect
Aga Khan Cultural Service, Pakistan
INTRODUCTION
The Walled City of Lahore is one of the most important
historic cities in the sub-continent. Although muchaltered by recent development, it still retains considerable
original character. Within the confines of the city are anumber of important monuments, many of which are inurgent need of conservation. In 2007 a programme1 has
been launched by the Government of the Punjab withthe assistance of the World Bank and Aga Khan Trust
for Culture (AKTC) as a strategic partner, to link manyof these monuments along a historic route, the Shahi
Guzargah, or so-called Royal Route, starting from the
Dehli Gate and culminating at the Lahore Fort. One of themost significant monuments along this route is the Wazir
Khan Mosque.
Aga Khan Trust for Culture (AKTC) has proposed an area
development project which includes (1) the conservationof the Wazir Khan Mosque and (2) planning assistancetowards the re-organization of the space in front of themosque (Chowk) following the removal of a limited
number of commercial encroachments within immediateproximity of the monument’s principal façade. It ispart of a local development framework comprising therehabilitation of the surrounding urban fabric and theopen space. The objective is to improve the quality of
the urban environment for both residents and visitors,
relocate unsightly infrastructure underground and returnthe mosque to its original urban setting.
A programme for the conservation of the mosque is being
evolved and will be implemented over several stages. In
the first stage structural and architectural investigations
have been carried out. Geotechnical investigationsof the foundation structure and a detailed electronic
documentation of the building have been carried out
and are being used to analyze the damage and to assess
the quantum of structural interventions and conservation
measures. The structural damage that has occurred
will be rectified by repair and stitching together of themasonry fabric. Careful monitoring of the behaviour ofthe building will be mandated thereafter. Pilot restoration
initiatives on the various kinds of surface decorations will
be carried out first, before expanding these to a larger
scale.
HISTORY AND LOCATION OF THE MOSQUE
The Wazir Khan Mosque was built by Hakim Aliuddin(sometimes also referred to as Ilmuddin) in 1634 (1054
AH). Hakim Aliuddin came from the town of Chiniot on
the banks of the river Chenab, and had been employed
as a court physician by Shahzada Khurram (later Emperor
Shah Jahan). He rendered good service to the prince
during various campaigns, remained one of Shah Jehan’smost trusted aides in the earlier years of his reign and
who appointed subedar of Punjab.
Located on the western side of Wazir Khan Chowk(square) about 260 metres from Delhi Gate (fig. 4), andsurrounded by the thick urban fabric of the Walled City,
the Wazir Khan Mosque is the centre piece of an historicurban ensemble. This ensemble including the Chowk
Wazir Khan and the shops within the mosque complex
and on its the northern side. Historically, as part of
the royal thoroughfare connecting Delhi Gate and theLahore Fort, the Wazir Khan Mosque together with its
square formed a singular and very important element
punctuating the urban fabric of the Walled City.
ARCHITECTURAL LAYOUT OF THE MOSQUE
The structure of the mosque can be divided into threehorizontal planes. Level 0 comprises the shops on
the eastern and northern side. The floor level insidethese shops is now lower than the street level. Level I
occupy the maximum area of the mosque, comprising
all the major spaces in the mosque. Level II defines thespaces which can be accessed from level I via staircases
from different locations. The layout of the mosque isrectangular in plan, measuring 86.17 m x 50.44 m onits extreme limits. The four imposing minars define

1

In June 2006, the World Bank released funding for the current Punjab Municipal Services Improvement including a significant Cultural Heritage Component. This
programme represents an unusual opportunity to apply the best practices of urban regeneration and conservation planning in the context of historic cities in Punjab, startingwith the Lahore Walled City project as a base case. The Aga Khan Trust for Culture will be joining this initiative as a strategic partner.

Fig. 1: Panoramic view, from the top of southwestern minar, covers theentire mosque complex and the neighbourhood from east to west.

28

Fig. 2: A 1970ʼs photograph of Wazir Khan
Mosque.

Fig. 3: A view into the eastern sectionof the mosque from the north side.

Among the architectural elements and decorations of theWazir Khan Mosque which represent influences from thepre-Mughal era and from neighbouring regions like Persia
and Central Asia, one special feature is the formal “bazaar”
which constitutes a key element of the entrance system tothe courtyard of the mosque itself. This bazaar comprises
two rows of shops facing each other and traversing theentire width of the site. The shops forming the two legsof this diminutive bazaar arrangement could with someconjecture be said to be the shops intended free of rent
for calligraphers and bookbinders of the Quran in thewaqf deed included in Abdul Latif Lahori’s book2. It isquite unique that the principal entrance façade of themosque is also the façade of two layers of shops thatform the calligraphers’ bazaar, and not of the enclosure of
the mosque proper. Half way along its length, the linear
axis of this bazaar crosses the axis of the entrance to themosque. This crossing is marked by an octagonal dome.
This is the first example in the subcontinent (and not
widely emulated elsewhere), of a purpose built bazaar inan adaptation of a Central Asian charsu. However, in thisensemble only two bazaars lead off from the dome of thecharsu, the remaining (two or three) bazaars having been
replaced by the entrance system to the mosque3.

ARCHITECTURAL DECORATIONSArtistically, the mosque displays some of the best
examples of Mughal architectural ornamental anddecorative techniques, surpassing others in its delicacy
and comprehensive decorative scheme. Most of the otherShahjahani era monuments - Dai Anga Mosque, Asif
Khan Tomb, Gulabi Bagh entrance in Lahore4 also havea combination of kashikari (glazed tiles work), naqqashi(frescos) and tazakari (faux brickwork) as architecturaldécor but the enormous scale of these decorations in
the Wazir Khan Mosque certainly makes this mosqueconspicuous in its artistic quality.

Pakistanthe corners of the main courtyard. The main prayer
chamber, courtyard, hujras (meditation rooms), vestibuleand bazaar (fig. 5) constitute the main elements of themosque complex.

CONDITION OF THE BUILDING AND ITS FABRIC
The mosque is built with brick masonry and lime
mortar. Detailed inspection reveals that the structure of
the mosque has been suffering from serious damage
due to neglect and lack of maintenance. Most of the
shops at Level 0 on the northern side are rented out
for commercial activities and have been converted into
stores as a result of additions built out into the street tocope with the raised street level. The business of steel
fabrication in the shops on the mosque’s eastern side
is a major threat to the structure of the mosque. The
fabrication of steel products in these shops not only
destroys the overall ambiance of the mosque’s front andcreates noise, pollution and occupation of the public
square for production activity, as many of the steel
products being made have unwieldy dimensions.

2

Latif, op. cit.
Kanhaiya Lal mentions the term “char soo” for this arrangement at the Wazir Khan mosque, in his Tarikh-e-Lahore (1884). Calligraphers’ and bookbinders’4
Not to speak of the masjid Mian Muhammad Salah Komboh and the now destroyed (through rebuilding) Chiniaan Wali Masjid within the Walled City itself.
3

Fig. 4 Left: Plan shows the locations of major thoroughfares and monuments on the Shahi Guzargah.
Fig. 5 Right: Plan of the entire mosque complex with Chowk.

Fig. 6: A photo-mosaic of the eastern elevation of the main prayer chamber. This image is produced withthe help of image rectiﬁcation and is plotted to scale.

Fig. 7: The southern face of thesoutheastern minar shows the detailof kashikari and exposed brick work.
Detailed investigations show the major
damages to the kashikari towards thenorth side.

29

PakistanThe structure at Level I show the majority of damage
is in the form of cracks, subsidence and leaning. The
main prayer chamber at the western side of the mosque
shows this kind of structural damage; the cracks inthe main arches adjacent to the two minarets havea direct relationship with the leaning pattern of theminarets. Although it is not confirmed when these cracks
developed, the major restoration phase in 1971-78 noticed
these cracks.
Generally, the condition of the building fabric of Wazir
Khan Mosque is satisfactory. The credit for this goeslargely to the materials with which the mosque wasconstructed. The lime mortar has the tendency to become
stronger with the passage of time due to progressive
carbonation of the lime, and in the case of the Wazir
Khan Mosque lime is the basic binding material. Limemortar in historic buildings also has relatively low
compressive strength and higher flexibility than otherforms of mortar, and absorbs movement and protects thebricks from the effects of settlement and expansion andcontraction. The fact that the basic construction module isthe small waziri brick also appears to have lent resilienceto the building fabric.
The major components of the building fabric such as
the foundations, walls, roofs (flat and domed), floors,
doors, windows etc. have various degrees of damages.
The thickness of brick wall varies from small rooms to
the domed spaces, depending on the span of the space.
Most of the walls are covered with surface decorations.
The only visible sections of the brick masonry are thewest façade and the masonry on the minarets. Rising
damp in the walls of level 0 shops and level I hujras havedamaged the surface lime plaster and in certain locations
it has eroded the lime mortar constituting the masonrywork.

Fig.8: Detail of fresco workin one of the archways ofthe main prayer chamber

Fig.9: Enlarged and orthocorrected photograph of
Arabic calligraphy.

All the floors in the mosque are made of brick and havea variety of geometrical patterns, particularly in the
courtyard and the main prayer chamber. The existing
condition displays the extent of damage as a result of
settlement in the floor and an intentional act to hide theservices conduit in the floor.
DAMAGE CONDITION, CAUSES AND THREATS
The mosque has never been as exposed to the pressuresof rapid development as it is at present. These pressures
range from environmental factors like the pollution
generated by vehicles, to man-made pressures such as
illegal encroachments in the form of shops and houses.
Most of the present damages in the mosque are caused,significantly, by man-made factors.
The intricate and delicate surface embellishments ofthe mosque are vulnerable to weathering, and prone
to damages caused by environmental and man-madefactors. Most of the past restoration efforts were focusedon the protection and conservation of these surface
decorations. Almost all surface decorations, except the
frescos in the main prayer chamber and entrance portal,are directly exposed to the weather. The presence of
hundreds of pigeons in the mosque exposes the glazed
tile work to the chemical effect of bird droppings, leading
to rapid deterioration of the surface of glazed tiles. Thisissue becomes critical when the rain water mixes with
the nitrate-rich excreta and runs down on the surface
decorations.
ACTION FRAMEWORK
It is evident that in order to draw up a medium to longterm conservation plan for the mosque complex, several
strategic decisions are required to be made that pertain to
the following broad areas of consideration:
1- Problems and issues pertaining to the neighborhood of
the mosque complex;

Fig.10: A rectiﬁed photograph of
kashikari work with a ﬂoral patternon the main prayer chamber

Fig.11: Brick ﬂoor patternin the upper level of thecourtyard

Fig. 12: Longitudinal section of the mosquethrough the northern most section of minars,
hujras, shops at level 0 and main prayer chamber

30

These strategic issues are inter-related and must be
thought of in an integrated way. Actions emanatingfrom any strategies adopted must ensue from them in acoordinated manner.

Fig.13: Northwestern corner of the mosque shows
the level of commercial encroachments whichpose many risks to the building fabric.

REFRENCES
Kanhaiyya Lal Hindi. Tarikh-e-Lahore. Lahore: Victoria
Press, 1884.
Chughatai, Abdullah. The Wazir Khan Mosque, Kitab
Khana-i-Nauras. Lahore, 1975.
Mughal, Rafique. Protected Archaeological Sites andMonuments in Pakistan, 1996.
Latif, Syed Muhammad. Lahore, its History, Architectural
Remains and Antiquities. Lahore: New Imperial Press,
1892.
Andrews, David ed. Metric Survey Specifications for
Cultural Heritage. Kimbley Drive, Swind: English Heritage,
2009.

Fig.14: Major crack in the wall above the northern
most archway of the main prayer chamber facing

Pakistan

2- The problem of encroachments and past lack ofmunicipal control and regulation of a heritage site.
3- Infrastructure issues; the infrastructure conditions, inparticular water supply, rain water drainage and waste
water disposal; Improvement of existing municipal
utility services.
4- Issues of conservation per se of the mosque complex.
Problems and issues pertaining to the conservation
work to be carried out within the limits of the mosque.

Fig.15: Rising damp in the main prayer
chamber has damaged the fresco paint.

Fig.16: Deposits ofsoil and dust on therendered and glazed
surfaces of main
prayer chamber facing
north.

Fig. 17: Eﬄorescenceon the renderedsurface (tazzakari)of the wall in thesouthern sectionof calligrapher sbazaar.

Fig. 18: Exfoliationof glaze from theterracotta body ofthe tile is the mostcommon damage typeon the glazed tiles.

Fig. 19: Fadingof surface render(tazzakari) on thenorthern façade of
hujra walls in the
courtyard.

Fig. 20: Loss of bond
between the tile andthe mortar

Fig. 21: Sandingof mortar in brickmasonry

Fig. 22, 23 & 24 Left: Classiﬁcation of weathering anddamage forms of glazed tiles in one of the panels ofsouth-eastern minar of the mosque. The rectiﬁed anddigitized elevation of the glazed tiles panels provides
accurate and precise information about the damaged
areas.

31

Papua New Guinea
Papua New Guinea

Maintaining Cultural Heritage through Yams
Naomi Faik Simet, Dance Researcher
Institute of Papua New Guinea Studies
Traditional ceremonies in Papua New Guinea (PNG)
provide the platforms for many of the country’s cultural
heritage to be revived, preserved and maintained for
future generations. Main ceremonies practiced in PNG
are ‘rites of passage’ such as mortuary, marriage andinitiations. More spectacular ceremonies include harvest.
Recently a harvest ceremony took place in Waikakum
village in the Abelam area of Maprik in the East Sepik
province. The ceremony featured the harvesting of yams
and was held from 10 to 12 December 2010. A total of
twelve yams were harvested and displayed during theoccasion.
The harvesting and displaying of yams is a common
practice amongst the Abelam people. It is a tradition
performed in the past and continued into the present.
The first part of the ceremony begins with the planting ofyams and the gestation period involved. Certain taboos
are strictly observed during this period. Only older men
with skilled knowledge perform the necessary rituals
that are required for the planting and gestation period.
Traditional knowledge possessed by the elderly men
is an important form of the intangible cultural heritage
component that is significant to the tangible form of theyam. If these rituals are not observed properly then theyams harvested during the ceremony will be of poor
quality and will cause embarrassment to the individual orfamily responsible for growing the yam. It is an occasion
where statements are made publicly to ridicule or praise
one’s efforts in the growing and planting of yams.

32

The Abelam people of Waikukum village expressed
concern over the need to preserve this important partof their heritage and as a result invited the Instituteof Papua New Guinea Studies to record the three-day
festival for posterity purposes. The festival began withan all-night performance of music and dance celebrating
the successful harvest of the yams. There are threemain dances associated with yams which are (1) kangu(longest yam, which is only performed by men), (2) bire(shortest yam, which is performed by men and women)and (3) minjah bul (performed only by knowledgeable
during the yam ceremony). The displaying of yams took
place over the next two days which also culminatedwith a reconciliation ceremony amongst the people of
Waikakum and the neighbouring villages. Large amounts
of food were exchanged to instil peace in the community.
Although the festival was aimed at showcasing the yams,
it also provided the occasion for public statements to
be made emphasising the socio-political relations of thedifferent clan groups.
Yams continue to remain an important cultural iconin this part of PNG where there is immense cultural
diversity. It is only during such occasions like the Yam
festival that certain cultures of the people of PNG is
maintained and preserved.

Papua New Guinea

2010 Yam Festival, Waikakum village, Maprik, East Sepik

33

Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka

Mural Painting Conservation in Sri Lanka with Special Reference to Kandy
Sujeeva Kaushalyani Peiris Deraniyagala, Conservation Supervisor
Central Cultural Fund
Sri Lanka has a rich legacy of painting tradition withevery temple in the island having at least one wall or
ceiling painted with incidents and stories associated withthe life of Lord Buddha. Mural Paintings play an integralrole in transforming the interiors of buildings while theygive inspiration and messages to the devotees in different
ways. Sri Lankan Buddhist paintings developed throughthe centuries and reached its zenith in the 6th to 12th
centuries and then underwent some difficulties anddeclined until Kandyan period, where there occurred a
renaissance.
Mural paintings of Kandyan period has characteristicfeatures and colours that distinct them from earlier
paintings in Anuradhapura, Sigiriya and Polonnaruva.
Kandyan tradition of paintings was developed around thepainted caves of Dambulla, which boasts about more than
20,000 m2 of painted surface. Singularly because of theirmagnificence, the Dambulla Painted Caves were declared
as a world Heritage Site in 1991 and was the largest
painted surface in the Asian region. Lankatilaka Vihara,
Gadaladeniya, Degaldoruwa Raja Maha Vihara, Hindagala
Vihara are among other major works during the period.
Due to various reasons the tradition underwent difficulties
and then again during the early 15th century the paintings
revived with sudden awakening of Buddhism led bymost Venerable Welvitia Sangha Raja Thero, who wasinstrumental in bringing upasampada [ordained monks]
back to the island. Renaissance of this Buddhist art
and traditional painting resulted in transforming wholeinteriors of the temples filling it with vibrant colours thatwere symbolic to the period. That tradition continued
until the 20th century, when maestro George Keyt
introduced Sri Lankan neo classical style.

breaking the scenes. They used various floral patterns
and flowers to signify the end of a scene. During thelatter period, various other factors affected the Kandyan
murals. European invasions and final submission of the
Kandyan Kingdom to the British in the early 19th century
was a major factor that changed the style. During thattime the artists drew depicting European themes, popular
figures – kings and queens, flora and fauna such as thefleur de lis, grapes, roses and horses.
The Central Cultural Fund carried out restoration of

Image House at Sellavalie Vihara after restoration

Kandyan style painting can be identified by their bright
reddish back ground; flat figures portraying the side view
rather than the front and the use of painted strips without

Rare mural at Sellavalie Vihara depicting Lord Buddha in Cobra hood34

A mural at Sellavalie Vihara before restoration

During the exercise at the Sellavalie Raja Maha Vihara, it
was evident that the murals were painted over and again
on several occasions. When cleaning the surface a layer ofolder paintings were surfaced and these were restored.

Sri Lanka

paintings in two Kandyan temples which are in total
contrast in terms of painting style and colours recently.
One is Sellavalie Raja Maha Vihara in Udunuwara, Kandy
and Gallengolla Raja Maha Vihara, Pilimatalawa, Kandy.
The former is having two painted shrines; the older one
is smaller and built using stone slabs according to Hindu
architecture and its paintings belong to the 15th century,
which represent the original Kandyan style. It also has
another shrine built in A.D. 1820 with murals. Gallengolla
is at the other extreme and belong to the waning period of
the Kandyan art. These two temples gives best opportunity
to observe the differences in painting traditions during
the early and latter Kandyan Period, which are varying instyle, pigments and themes. The murals at Sellavalie Raja
Maha Vihara boast about the tradition true to the classic
style of the period while those at the Gallengolla Raja
Maha Vihara murals clearly show the European influence.

The whole exercise was a great experience to the CCF
conservators, in which they had an ideal opportunity
to study variations in art traditions during the Kandyan
Period. This restoration process was highly successful
in terms of research aspects and some revelations wereremarkably coincided with the history of the temples.
Photo credits:
Mr. Dias WagachchiHead, Mural Painitng Conservator
Central Cultural Fund

A restored mural at Sellavalie Vihara

The painted arch at Gallengolla Vihara before and after restoration

A painted door at Gallengolla Vihara

The elaborately painted chamber at Gallengolla Vihara

35

Thailand
ThailandA Study on Historical Buildings on Chareon Krung Road in Bangkok
Wirayar Chamnanpol, Computer Technical Officer
Office of Archaeology, Fine Arts Department, Ministry of Culture
Chareon Krung Road has been one of important historicalroads in Bangkok since early Rattana Kosin period. In
2010 (B.E.2553), Chareon Krung Road celebrated 150th
anniversary and being the oldest Western style road in
Bangkok.
Chareon Krung Road was the first Western style road in
Bangkok built in 1861 (B.E.2404) by the inspiration of His
Majesty the King Rama IV and King Rama V. The designand construction was in the western style. It was used
for transportation in the country reform policy. At the
beginning of Rattana Kosin period in 1782-1850 (B.E.23252393), travelling in canals was the major transport usedin Bangkok. There were a few roads in the central area.
Most public roads had narrow pathway. Some brickroads surrounding the royal palace were built solely forthe royal ceremony occasions. King Rama IV articulated
that foreigners used clean and convenient roads in theircountry. He proclaimed to construct a new road in
Bangkok and called it New Road, which was changed toChareon Krung Road later. He also proclaimed to build
western designed buildings similar to those in Singapore
for princes and princesses along Chareon Krung Road.

Chareon Krung Road and historical buildings havebeen part of Bangkok history especially architecture,city planning and commerce in the early Rattana Kosin
period. The buildings on Chareon Krung Road were built
for commercial and residential purposes. It was the firstcommercial road in Bangkok and the area became thecommercial central district of Bangkok for both Thais andforeigners at that time. And Thai way of live for transport
was changed from canal to road.
Chareon Krung Road construction was also part of theRoyal developing country policies and the King’s vision
on fostering national commerce. Improving the country
to Western style was His Majesty the King’s strategy forthe country to survive the Imperialism and colonization.
The community along Chareon Krung Road is a good
example to illustrate good relationships between Thais
and foreigners in adjusting to live together. The historicalbuildings have outstanding tower style and were built
by bricks. The architecture imitated a classic European
pattern and palace style but the proportion was distorted
from the original. The paths connect to each other asshown in the England City Planning developed by Sir
Stamford Raffles since 1813 (B.E.2356) and similar to
Singapore. The historical buildings on Chareon Krung

Figure 1: Comparative GIS mapping layer location of historical building area on Chareon Krung Road with an old map produced in 1921 (B.E. 2464)

36

The project was run by the Monuments Registration
and IT Group, Office of Archaeology. It aimed to study
historical buildings on Chareon Krung Road and theirevolution by a field survey using GPS to locate thebuildings map the data in map database. The researcher
interviewed people, residential and business owners andlocal community for data description. Literature reviews
from books, thesis, archives and antecedents etc., were
documented to analyze data. GIS overlay mapping
method was used to describe the building value. The
results will be used for planning and developing anappropriate conservation for historical buildings.

Thailand

Road are still the commercial central district in Bangkok
nowadays. Old business such as a pharmacy, a printer, an
Asian shop, a Chinese herbal shop and a Westerner shop,
keeps continuing.

Figure 2: GIS mapping overlay presenting historical building layer in 1921

Figure 3

Figure 4

Figure 5

Figure 6

Figures 3 - 6 Historical buildings on Chareon Krung Road

37

Uzbekistan
Uzbekistan

Little-known Findings of Anteﬁx from Khalchayan (South Uzbekistan)
Akmaljon Ulmasov, Researcher
Fine Arts Scientific Research Institute, Academy of Arts of Uzbekistan
The Study of Khalchayan settlement began in the 1960s
by “The Uzbek Fine Arts Expedition” headed by G.A.
Pugachenkova of Fine Arts Institute of Academy of
Sciences of Uzbekistan. As a result of archaeologicalexcavations, it was found that in the past in place of
these hills there once was the ancient city (1). According
to investigators, the occurrence of early settlementson this territory can date back to the middle of one
millennium BC; the formation of a large city was in
the 4th to 3rd centuries BC; and development of it was
during the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, Saka-Kushan andYuechzhiyskogo time. Life on the mound faded in the
Kushano-Sassanian period (3rd to 4th century AD). But
in the early Middle Ages on the territory of the ancient
settlement, its human habitation was marked.
This original ancient city had a citadel (Karabagtepa)
of a foursquare shape, surrounded by defensive walls
and moats, neighborhoods with intensive planningstructures (Khanaka-tepa), and major architecturalbuildings such as palaces as well as residential buildingsin the gardens and fields, river banks. One of the major
constructions was Khalchayan palace, built in Kushan
period (the first century BC) and used as the “Houseof Reception”. By the assumption of archaeologists, it
became known as the “House of Ancestors”, i.e. Temple(2, p. 27), associated with the dynastic cult. The building(35 m×26 m) consisted of three parts; the central partwas a living room, the front, and treasury and arsenal
areas in its side. The front part consisted of a sixcolumned ayvan (terrace), a hall with sufa (pise-walled
low sitting) and a two-column space. The interior was
decorated with wall paintings and reliefs sculpted friezes.
Originality of Khalchayan buildings is the combination of
the Greco-Roman architectural elements (terracotta roof
tiles and antefixes) with traditional planning structureof the East with details such as, for example, merlons(parapets). The latter were found in the ruins of thepalace and the hills around it during the archaeologicalexcavations (1, p. 136, fig. 80). After completing this fieldwork in 20 - 30 years, several dozens of antefixes wereaccidentally discovered, which were in the museum of
local school 41. They have not yet known to public. In
this article the author first studied and analyzed antefixes
found on Khalchayan.
Antefix is an antique architectural detail in the formof palmetto and acanthus leaves or a shield with theembossed or ornamented with the image of a fantastic
creature. It consists of a flat board, tapered at the top,
and calipter at the back side, a long groove which insection has the shape of a semicircle. Its face is usually
stamped by kalybov (the matrix), and the rear part isfashioned by hand, then connected to the face and fired,because they are called terracotta. Sometimes they are38

made of marble, plaster or stone (mainly limestone).
Originally antefixes were used in ancient temples and,in fact, had several meanings. Firstly, performing a
constructive function, they were placed on the edgesof the roof along the front of the building and served
as drains, closing the seams of flat tiles (solen) fromwater. Secondly, they had decorative value, reviving thelook of buildings, and besides, reproducing images of
mythological creatures such as demons, a kind apotropaicpreserve, protecting the home of deities from evil forces.
Such antefixes were found in the architecture of theEtruscan temples of the 6th and 4th centuries BC (3, pp.
144-151, 196, fig. 84-89, 114). In the territory of Bactria,
similar antefixes were found, for example, in Zindantepa. An anthropomorphic image of them was crowned
with a high crown in the form of antefix, decorated withplant shoots (4, pp. 76, 80, fig. 1e; with. 93, fig. 85). The
antefix with palmetto in combination with sima (horizontal
frieze with alternating ornaments) was also used intemples korinfizirovannyh based on Ionic order styles ofcontinental Greek (e.g., in the temple of Artemis on an
island of Corfu at about 600 BC) (5, with. 61-62, fig. 21).
The genesis and evolution of an antefix are a separate
subject for study. Khalchayanskie antefixes based oncomposite types can be divided into several groups.
The first of these are samples drawn on the panel;
antefixes with curls and bents downwards. One ofthem is almost completely preserved, only ¾ of calipter
has been lost, while others are found in fragments,
retaining only the front part. It is obvious from thefirst antefix that front guard has been molded with thematrix, but it lacks the front lower limb and a holein which water passes. On the shield of the central
vertical streak is almost not noticeable, but differ inside curls (Fig. 1 a). In other broken fragments of thecentral vein with relief borders, curls go vertically to
middle lanes, then sharply down (Fig. 1, b). Similar
antefixes with less rounded curls were among previously
published findings, found on Khalchayan (1, Fig. 80-4).
Fragments of the second group have the opposite
arrangement of curls, as compared with the above, ie
they swirl directed upward, and the vertical veins ofthese boards perform the function of borders, oval frame
surrounds the main image. Curls like “grow” from theborder (Fig. 1 c). One of the fragments differs from theprevious, not only completed a vaulted shape, but also
schematized broad simplistic curls, filling the plane shield,
drawn along the edge of the curb. Here, the central veinpassed very smoothly and clearly. Such a track is foundon fragments found earlier, but the earliest examplesof the central vein are almost absent (1, Fig. 80-7).
The third group consists of antefixes with moreThree samples of the fourth group differ not only fromthe above, but also from each other. At one of thesurviving fragments is shown at the bottom of the zigzag
frieze above it is a broad vertical vein in the form of
spikes on either side of it depicts a spiral curls, andunder them or almond-shaped decoration, framed witha thin border. This ornament is still used in folk arts andcrafts (such as skullcaps, suzane, etc.) and has a symbolic
meaning. Since ancient times it was believed that theywould protect us from evil spirits.

local architecture. Such creative approach of reproduction
proves to be true also a variety of their decoration in a
combination to ancient east elements gives the chance
to assume that merlons and antefixes were applied insyncretic combination here.

Uzbekistancomplex compositions, arranged on a plane, lined witha single or double border. The vertical vein loses its
meaning and its place is occupied by three almondshapes with a separate frame, divided by horizontal“belt” on which the edges of both sides shows curls,
ending with a sharp leaf. Here the leaves are very
sketchy, which makes them not like palmettos. This
design brings them closer to the plant ornament. Oneof the samples stored on a ¾ part and on the other
there was only the upper front part (1, Fig. 80-9).

Thus, the large number found on the territory Khalchayan
antefix suggests that during this period, they were widelyused here in construction. One of their features is asynthesis of different traditions in the ancient architectureof Bactria. Khalchayan antefixes are an original source
for the study of relationships and cultural ties with thetraditions of ancient Bactria art schools nearby and distantin historical and cultural regions.
Literatures1.

Пугаченкова Г.А. Халчаян. К проблеме художественной культуры
Северной Бактрии.

Ташкент, 1966. [Pugachenkova G.A. Khalchayan.

The Problem of the Artistic Culture of Northern Bactria. Tashkent,
1966.]
2.

Пугаченкова Г.А. К изучению памятников Северной Бактрии // ОНУ,1968, 8. [Pugachenkova G.A. To Study the Monuments of Northern

The Khalchayan antefix design is characteristic for
their schematized motifs: palmettos and acanthus
leaves. Despite of differences in their ornaments,
they are the same type of architectural decoration
based on the same functions and semantic meaning.
Their fragmentary condition makes it difficult
to establish the exact size. But with the help ofreconstruction methods, we can estimate the size (20- 25 cm), which is close to the present one (Fig. 2).
Antefix decorated with palmettos and acanthus leaves,
were found not only in Khalchayan, but also onother monuments of the Kushan Bactria, for example,
Dalverzin-tepa, Kul-tepa (South Uzbekistan), as wellas the sites of North Afghanistan, Dilberzhine and AiKhanum. One such artefact was found in the ruins of theadministrative palace building in the third century BC
on Ai-Khanum. Its details are stocky and expanded tothe edges. Unlike Khalchayan, they are not monolithic
silhouette, and curly. Central veins and leaves ending
in curls are back from the base. Researchers of AiKhanum described them as the Greek-Asian hybrid(6, pp. 42; with. 137; with. 641-644, fig. 34-36).

Bactria. ONU, 1968, 8.]3.

Соколов Г.И. Искусство этрусков. М., 1990. [Sokolov, G.I. The Art of
the Etruscans. M., 1990.]

4.

Абдуллаев К. Терракотовый антефикс из Термезского музея// ИБМАИКЦА ЮНЕСКО. Вып.12. М., 1987; Культура и искусство
древнего Узбекистана // Каталог выставки. Кн. 1. М., 1991. [Abdullayev,
K. Terracotta Antefix from Termez Museum. / IB MAIKTSA UNESCO.
Vyp.12. MA, 1987; Culture and Art of Ancient Uzbekistan / Exhibition
Catalogue. Book. 1. M., 1991.]

5.

Всеобщая история архитектуры. Т. II, М., 1973.[General History ofArchitecture. T. II, Moscow, 1973.]

6.

Пугаченкова Г.А. Искусство Бактрии эпохи Кушан. М.,
1979; Её же. К познанию античной и раннесредневековой архитектуры
Северного Афганистана // Древняя Бактрия. Л., 1976; Schlumberger
D., Bernard P. Ai-Khanoum // Bulleten de correspondence hellenique(), LXXXIX, 1965. [Pugachenkova G.A. Art Bactrian Kushan Era.
Moscow, 1979; Its the same. To the Knowledge of Ancient andMedieval Architecture of Northern Afghanistan // Ancient Bactria.
, 1976; Schlumberger D., Bernard P. Ai-Khanoum // Bulleten decorrespondence hellenique (WPC), LXXXIX, 1965.]7.

Пугаченкова Г.А. Новые данные о художественной культуре Бактрии
// Из истории античной культуры Узбекистана. Ташкент, 1973;Дальверзинтепа – кушанский город на юге Узбекистана. Ташкент,

Terracotta antefixes of Dalverzin-tepa differ fromother specimens found there with its larger size andelegantly modeled palmettos. Researchers confirm thatthe design of such antefix palmettos bring it closer toHellenistic models, but not identical to them. In addition,
the complex where that antefix was found belongs
to the second to the beginning of the first century BC
judging by the ceramics and coins (7, pp. 83-84, Fig. 4).
The Greek samples besides constructive functions andmagnificent decorative effect met the requirementsof classical canons of architecture. Probably, Bactrian
masters wasn’t simulated by those classical samples
but considered panorama distance in a combination
to merlon approaching creatively to their applicationin traditional reproduction and also with characteristic
simplicity and restriction from superfluous decoration for

1978. [Pugachenkova G.A. New Data on the Artistic Culture of Bactria// From the History of the Ancient Culture of Uzbekistan. Tashkent,
1973; Dalverzintepa - Kushan Ciity in Southern Uzbekistan. Tashkent,
1978.]
8.

сеобщая история архитектуры. Т. II. М., 1973.
[General History of Architecture. T. II. M., 1973.]

9.

http://www.wikipedia.org

10. http:// www.ancientrome.ru
11. http://www.antiqueo.com

39Uzbekistan
40

Anteﬁx from Ai-Khnoum

Anteﬁx from Zindan-tepa

Fig.1. a. New anteﬁx from Khalchayan

Fig.1. b. New anteﬁx from Khalchayan

Fig.1. c. New anteﬁx from Khalchayan

Fig.1. d. New anteﬁx from Khalchayan

Uzbekistan

Map of Bactria

Palace of Khalchayan, 1st century BC

b

a

c

d

Reconstruction of anteﬁxes

MerlonSolen (Terracotta plate)

Antefix

CalipterReconstruction of anteﬁxes in combination with merlons

41

Published by
Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia-Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU)
Nara Prefectural Government “Horen” Office 1F
757 Horen-cho, Nara 630-8113 Japan
Tel: +81-742-20-5001
Fax: +81-742-20-5701
e-mail: nara@accu.or.jp
URL: http://www.nara.accu.or.jpⓒCultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia-Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU) 2011